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NIGER in Perspective
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1: GEOGRAPHY......................................................................................................... 1
Introduction.............................................................................................................................. 1
Geographic Divisions and Topographic Features.................................................................... 1
Talak Region .................................................................................................................... 1
High Plateaus .................................................................................................................... 2
Sahel ................................................................................................................................. 2
Niger River Basin ............................................................................................................. 3
Aïr Mountains ................................................................................................................... 3
Ténéré Desert.................................................................................................................... 3
Climate..................................................................................................................................... 4
Bodies of Water ....................................................................................................................... 4
Major Cities ............................................................................................................................. 5
Niamey ............................................................................................................................. 5
Zinder ............................................................................................................................... 5
Maradi............................................................................................................................... 6
Agadez .............................................................................................................................. 6
Tahoua .............................................................................................................................. 6
Arlit................................................................................................................................... 7
Environmental Concerns and Natural Hazards........................................................................ 7
Chapter 1 Assessment .............................................................................................................. 8
CHAPTER 2: HISTORY ................................................................................................................ 9
Introduction.............................................................................................................................. 9
Ancient History........................................................................................................................ 9
Medieval History ................................................................................................................... 10
Kanem-Bornu Empire .................................................................................................... 10
A Tuareg Sultanate ......................................................................................................... 11
Early Modern History ............................................................................................................ 11
Mali Empire .................................................................................................................... 11
Songhai Empire .............................................................................................................. 11
Modern History...................................................................................................................... 12
Sultanate of Damagaram ................................................................................................ 12
French Colonial Era ........................................................................................................ 12
Afrique Occidentale Française (French West Africa) .................................................... 13
Later 20th Century ................................................................................................................. 14
Toward Independence .................................................................................................... 14
Independence .................................................................................................................. 15
Military Rule .................................................................................................................. 15
Return to Civilian Rule................................................................................................... 16
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Return to Military Rule .................................................................................................. 17
Twenty-First Century............................................................................................................. 17
2010 Coup ...................................................................................................................... 18
Recent Events ........................................................................................................................ 19
Chapter 2 Assessment ............................................................................................................ 21
CHAPTER 3: ECONOMY ........................................................................................................... 22
Introduction............................................................................................................................ 22
Agriculture ............................................................................................................................. 22
Industry .................................................................................................................................. 22
Services .................................................................................................................................. 23
Energy .................................................................................................................................... 23
Natural Resources .................................................................................................................. 23
Trade ...................................................................................................................................... 24
Banking and Finance ............................................................................................................. 24
Standard of Living ................................................................................................................. 25
Public vs. Private Sector ........................................................................................................ 25
Future Outlook ....................................................................................................................... 26
CHAPTER 4: SOCIETY .............................................................................................................. 28
Introduction............................................................................................................................ 28
Ethnic and Linguistic Groups ................................................................................................ 28
Djerma Sonrai ................................................................................................................. 28
Gurma ............................................................................................................................. 28
Hausa .............................................................................................................................. 28
Kanouri Manga ............................................................................................................... 28
Peuhl (Fulani) ................................................................................................................. 29
Tagdal (Igdalen) ............................................................................................................. 29
Toubou ............................................................................................................................ 29
Tuareg ............................................................................................................................. 29
Religion.................................................................................................................................. 30
Islam ............................................................................................................................... 30
Christianity ..................................................................................................................... 31
Baha’ism ......................................................................................................................... 31
Indigenous Practices ....................................................................................................... 32
Cuisine and Traditional Dress ............................................................................................... 32
Arts Music ..................................................................................................................... 33
Instruments ..................................................................................................................... 33
Crafts .............................................................................................................................. 34
Sports and Recreation ............................................................................................................ 34
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CHAPTER 5: SECURITY............................................................................................................ 37
Introduction............................................................................................................................ 37
U.S. – Niger Relations ........................................................................................................... 37
Relations with Neighboring Countries .................................................................................. 37
Algeria ............................................................................................................................ 38
Benin............................................................................................................................... 38
Burkina Faso ................................................................................................................... 38
Chad ................................................................................................................................ 39
Libya ............................................................................................................................... 39
Mali................................................................................................................................. 40
Nigeria ............................................................................................................................ 41
Police Force ........................................................................................................................... 41
Nigerien Armed Forces (Forces Armées Nigériennes) ......................................................... 42
Army ............................................................................................................................... 43
Air Force (Armée de l’Air du Niger) ............................................................................. 43
Militant and Terrorist Groups ................................................................................................ 43
Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) .................................................................... 44
Boko Haram.................................................................................................................... 44
National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad – MNLA........................................ 45
Mouvement des Nigériens pour la Justice (Movement of Nigeriens for Justice – MNJ)
........................................................................................................................................ 45
Harakat Ansar al-Din ...................................................................................................... 46
Issues Affecting Stability....................................................................................................... 46
Weapons Smuggling ....................................................................................................... 46
Corruption....................................................................................................................... 46
Refugees ......................................................................................................................... 47
Food and Water Security ....................................................................................................... 47
Outlook .................................................................................................................................. 47
FINAL ASSESSMENT ................................................................................................................ 50
FURTHER READINGS AND MATERIALS.............................................................................. 52
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CHAPTER 1: GEOGRAPHY
Introduction
Nearly twice the size of Texas, Niger is a landlocked republic in
West Africa. Algeria borders Niger to the northwest. Mali and
Burkina Faso are its western neighbors. Benin lies to its
southwest. Nigeria lies along nearly the entire southern border.
Its neighbor to the east is Chad. Finally, Libya borders Niger to
the northeast. The country’s largest city, Niamey, is the
republic’s capital. 1
About two-thirds of the country is desert and mountains, and the
other one-third is savanna. 2 It is one of the hottest and driest countries in the world.
Approximately 11% of the land is arable, and a mere 0.01% grows permanent crops. 3 These
figures represent a rosier picture than the average, because drought has routinely destroyed
agricultural output for much of the latter half of the 20th
century and the 21st century. Niger has suffered significant
food and water shortages. Regional warfare and forced
migrations have greatly exacerbated these crises, as refugees
and displaced persons have sought refuge in Niger from Mali,
and Libya. 4
Geographic Divisions and Topographic Features
A thin belt of land along Niger’s entire southern border is its
most fertile land. It receives far more rain than the rest of the country. Successive swathes of
increasingly hot and arid territory separate the south from the blazing heat of the Sahara Desert,
which makes up the north and northeast of Niger. Likewise,
the terrain progressively shifts from the tropical forests of the
south to undulating steppes and finally to the desolate Sahara
and the craggy Aïr Mountains of the north-central region and
the High Plateaus of the far northeast cornerl. 5
Talak Region
The Talak Region of eastern Niger is a section of the Sahara
1
Central Intelligence Agency, “Niger: Geography,” in The World Factbook, 13 April 2012,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ng.html
2
Bureau of African Affairs, U.S. Department of State, “Background Note: Niger,” 6 February 2012,
http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5474.htm
3
4
OxFam International, “Niger: Underfunding Aid Organizations Risks Lives,” allAfrica, 26 March 2012,
http://allafrica.com/stories/201203261570.html
5
Encyclopӕdia Britannica, “Niger,” 13 August 2011,
https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/414746/Niger/55021/Climate
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Desert. The region covers around 100,000 sq km (40,000 sq mi). It is better watered than much
of the rest of the Sahara, with numerous transient streams that eventually drain into the Niger
River. The region includes the Tamesna and Azawad areas. 6
High Plateaus
The Djado, Mangueni, and Tchigaï high plateaus of the
northeast connect the Ahaggar Mountains of Algeria with the
Tibesti Mountains of Chad. 7, 8 Historically, many Toubou
settled in the Djado Plateau. The area is a source of ethnic
tension, since the Toubou of Niger and Chad have periodically
sought greater autonomy or independence. 9 The Mangueni
Plateau straddles part of the Niger-Libya border. 10 The Tchigaï
Plateau sits astride part of the Niger-Chad border. Like the Aïr
Mountains, these plateaus provide for oases that make the region slightly more habitable than the
surrounding desert. 11, 12
Sahel
A frequently ill-defined zone between the Sahara Desert and the
savannahs that lie further south, the Sahel experiences distinct
seasons, a brief rainy season and a prolonged, extremely dry
season. Its harsh environment offers little advantage for human
habitation compared to the even harsher Sahara. Nomadic
herders depend on the brief rainy season to provide water and
feed for their livestock. When those rains fall short, frequently
the situation for the last several decades, herds are decimated.
Niger’s uranium mines, which have been a major source of
income for the country, are located in this zone, south of Agadez. With the exception of a few
pockets mostly surrounding large towns, the population of the Sahel is primarily Tuareg. 13, 14, 15
6
Jolijn Geels, Niger (Chalfont St. Peter: Bradt Travel Guides, 2006), 157.
Dominique Auzias and Jean-Paul Labourdette, Sahara [French] (Paris: Nouvelles éd. de l'Université, Collection
Petit Futé, 2011), 46.
8
Ministry of Agricultural Development, Republic of Niger, Projet de Promotion de L’Irrigation Privée (PIP2)
(Niamey: Ministry of Agricultural Development, 2001), 23, http://wwwwds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2002/01/17/000094946_01120704165652/Rend
ered/PDF/multi0page.pdf
9
Jolijn Geels, Niger (Chalfont St. Peter: Bradt Travel Guides, 2006), 29–30.
10
Detlef Busche and Barbara Sponholz, “Karsterscheinungen in nichtkarbonatischen Gesteinen der Republik
Niger,” Würzburg Geographische Arbeiten 69 (1988): 9–43, http://opus.bibliothek.uniwuerzburg.de/volltexte/2011/5585/pdf/Sponholz_Karsterscheinungen_Gesteinen.pdf
11
Jan Krause and Brigitta Schütt, “Fluvial Geomorphology and Palaeohydrology of a Small Tributary of the Plateau
de Mangueni, NE Niger,” in Holocene Palaeoenvironmental History of the Central Sahara, edited by Roland
Baumhauer and Jürgen Runge (Leiden, Netherlands: CRC Press/Balkema, 2009), 139.
12
Thierry Tillet, Le Paléolithique du Bassin Tchadien Septentrional (Niger-Chad) [French] (Paris: Editions du
Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 1983), 13.
13
Sharon E. Nicholson, “Sahel, West Africa,” in Encyclopedia of Environmental Biology, Volume 3, edited by
William Aaron Nierenberg, et al. (San Diego: Academic Press, 1995), 261–275,
http://dweb.met.fsu.edu/people/nicholson/papers/sahel95.pdf
7
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Niger River Basin
Covering the western third of the country, the Niger River
Basin stretches along nine countries . It is the only relatively
well-watered area in Niger. Niger lies in the Middle Niger zone
of the water system, meaning that it receives two flood periods.
The first, known as the white flood, follows the end of the rainy
season—usually in September. The second, or black flood,
arrives in December because of the increased flow of waters
from upstream. During the dry season, evaporation lowers the
river’s volume. Although Niger has yet to truly tap the river’s irrigation potential, the Niger
allows traditional Sahelian grains to be grown and represents the country’s only navigable
waterway. 16
Aïr Mountains
In the north-central region of the country, the Aïr Mountains
run along a north-south axis. The range contains the country’s
highest point Mont Idoukal-n-Taghès at 2,022 m (6,634 ft). The
high altitudes of these mountains make them an extended oasis
in the country’s desert north. 17, 18 Niger’s uranium mines are
located in these mountains, at the cross-section with the Sahel.
Tuareg perception that profits from these mines have been split
between the French operators and Niger’s political elite in
Niamey has been a contentious point with the government. The Tuareg believe the revenues
should be shared with those who actually live in the region. 19 The mountains have been a focal
point during various Tuareg rebellions. 20
Ténéré Desert
Named for the Tamashek word for “void,” this section of the Sahara covers an area slightly
smaller than the U.S. state of Texas. It is virtually devoid of plant life or human habitation. On
14
Olivier Walther and Denis Retaille, “Sahara or Sahel? The Fuzzy Geography of Terrorism in West Africa”
(working paper, Centre d'Etudes de Populations, de Pauvreté et de Politiques Socio-Economiques / International
Networks for Studies in Technology, Environment, Alternatives, Development, Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg,
2010), http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1803996
15
Michael Mortimore, “Adapting to Drought in the Sahel: Lessons for Climate Change,” WIREs Climate Change 1
(January/February 2010): 134–143, http://www.drylandsresearch.org.uk/pdfs/WIRES_fulltext.pdf
16
Inger Andersen, et al., The Niger River Basin: A Vision for Sustainable Management (Washington, DC: The
World Bank, 2005), http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWAT/Resources/46021141206643460526/Niger_River_Basin_Vision_Sustainable_Management.pdf
17
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Aïr Massif,” 2012, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/10760/Airmassif
18
Central Intelligence Agency, “Niger: Geography,” in The World Factbook, 31 July 2012,
19
Emma Gregg and Richard Trillo, The Rough Guide to First-Time Africa, 2nd ed. (New York: Rough Guides
Limited, 2011), 340.
20
Spencer C. Tucker, ed., A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East
(Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2010), 2596.
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the fringes live small communities of Kanouri Manga and
Toubou. Tuaregs continue to operate trade routes through the
desert, including gunrunning enterprises. Agadez is the only
major settlement in the region. 21, 22, 23
Climate
The climate of Niger is largely defined by its distinct geography.
It is generally described as hot, dry, and dusty. The rainy season lasts roughly from June to
September. 24 The cold season is November–February. 25 The remainder of the year is categorized
as the dry season. Average temperatures vary drastically from one region and altitude to another.
But temperatures near 45ºC (113ºF) are common in the hottest
summer days in the capital of Niamey. Temperatures in the
northern regions are brutally hot, often well over 38ºC (100ºF),
in the daytime and plummet more than 30ºC (86ºF). 26 Average
rainfall of less than 2.5 cm (1 in) are common in the desert north.
Precipitation in the mountains is often 10 times higher than the
deserts, and in the southern savannahs 56–86 cm (22–34 in) are
common. 27
Bodies of Water
The only large body of water in Niger is the Niger River. The Niger begins in the highlands near
the Atlantic coast of Guinea, flowing eastward through Mali. It proceeds southeast through Niger
for 550 km (342 mi), before turning southward to Nigeria. There, it spills into the Atlantic Ocean
through the Niger Delta. The river produces an annual flood, providing much needed water for
farming. Although the river is full during the rainy season, it is
short-lived in the dry and cool seasons. 28
The only other bodies of water are a handful of fleeting pools,
vanishing rivers, and streams that deliver water to the more arid
portions of the country. In the Ténéré Desert, scarce oases,
wells, and hidden mountain pools are the only sources of
water. 29
21
Anthony Ham, West Africa, 7th ed. (Oakland, CA: Lonely Planet, 2009), 603–605.
23
Michael Finkel, “Thirteen Ways of Looking at a Void,” in The Best American Travel Writing 2002, ed. Frances
Mayes (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin, 2002), 81–96.
24
25
Proquest, “Republic of Niger,” CultureGrams World Edition 2012, 2012.
26
27
Alison Behnke, Niger in Pictures (Minneapolis: Twenty-First Century Books, 2008), 13–14.
28
29
World Heritage Centre, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, “Air and Ténéré
Natural Reserves,” World Heritage List, 2012, http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/573
22
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Major Cities
There are few truly populous cities in Niger. Niamey is the only city with a population over
1 million, and only five other cities have a population over 100,000.
City
Population (2011 est.) 30
Niamey
1,302,910
Zinder
274,530
Maradi
206,414
Agadez
124,324
Tahoua
123,373
Arlit
112,432
Niamey
Nearly five times more populous than any other Nigerien city,
Niamey is the country’s capital. It is situated along the banks of
the Niger River. Droughts, political upheaval (both domestic and
international), and economic opportunities have drawn an ever
increasing number of Nigeriens to the capital, which is the
country’s economic and cultural center. The lack of planned
development to accommodate this influx has created squatters’
camps and other informal settlements, which are plagued with
social and health problems. 31, 32 The city is considered a capital district, placing it on par with the
country’s eight administrative regions. 33
Zinder
Located in south-central Niger, the country’s second most
populous city briefly served as the first capital during the French
colonial era. But authorities relocated to Niamey in 1926 to
escape the oppressive climate and political unrest in and around
Zinder. 34 It is also known as Damagaram, having served as the
capital city for the sultanate of that name. 35 It is only about onefifth the size of Niamey, with a population of just under
30
Thomas Brinkhoff, “Niger,” City Population, 22 February 2012, http://www.citypopulation.de/Niger.html
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Niamey,” 2012, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/413762/Niamey
32
Ousseini Issa, “Niger: ‘The Capital Does Not Only Belong to the Rich’,” Inter Press Service, 18 January 2007,
http://ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=36219
33
Central Intelligence Agency, “Niger: Government,” in The World Factbook, 13 April 2012,
34
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Zinder,” 2012, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/657380/Zinder
35
Jolijn Geels, Niger: The Bradt Travel Guide (Chalfont St Peter: Bradt Travel Guides, 2006), 215.
31
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280,000. 36 Niger’s Soraz oil refinery, a joint venture with China, opened in 2011 just outside
Zinder. 37
Maradi
With an estimated population of just over 206,000, Maradi is the
country’s third most populous city. It is located southwest of
Zinder and along the banks of a seasonal stream with which it
shares its name. Floods obliterated the city in 1945. Residents
rebuilt the city on higher ground. It is an agricultural hub,
specializing in nuts, melons, cotton, livestock, and fertilizers. 38
Its population is predominantly Hausa. Most jobs are in the
informal market or artisanal sectors. The city lacks adequate
power, water, and other resources. 39
Agadez
Although it has a population of just under 125,000, Agadez, the
only major city in the north, is the fourth most populous city in
Niger. 40 It is the most important Tuareg-majority city in the
country and continues to play a significant role in the Tuareg
trans-Sahel trade, lying at the southern base of the Aïr
Mountains. Agadez lies at the epicenter of Niger’s uranium
mining operations. 41, 42
Tahoua
Lying between Niamey and Agadez, Tahoua is an important
trading community. 43 It has a population of just under 124,000. 44
A Chinese company is building a paved road that will connect
Tahoua with the capital, providing residents with better access to
domestic and international markets. 45
36
Abdoulaye Massalatchi and Bate Felix, “Niger Refinery Faces Stocking, Export Problems,” Reuters, 16 March
2012, http://uk.reuters.com/article/2012/03/16/niger-refinery-idUKL5E8EG0SL20120316
38
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Maradi,” 2012, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/363756/Maradi
39
Mary Tiffen, “Profile of Demographic Change in the Kano-Maradi Region, 1960–2000” (working paper,
Drylands Research, Crewkerne, Somerset, UK, 2001),
http://www.drylandsresearch.org.uk/pdfs/WP_Tiffen_Population.pdf
40
41
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Agadez,” 2012, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/8633/Agadez
42
Emma Gregg and Richard Trillo, The Rough Guide to First-Time Africa, 2nd ed. (New York: Rough Guides,
2011), 982–984.
43
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Tahoua,” 2012, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/580445/Tahoua
44
45
Xinhua, China.org.cn, “Niger: La Route Filingué-Tahoua Sera Réalisée par une Entreprise Chinoise,” [French], 7
April 2012, http://french.china.org.cn/business/txt/2012-04/07/content_25083874.htm
37
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Arlit
Arlit is the site of one of Niger’s main uranium extraction operations, which is controlled by the
French company Société des Mines de l’Aïr (SOMAIR). 46 The town was built solely to house
those associated with the mining enterprise. 47 It lies at the western base of the Aïr Mountains, to
the northwest of Agadez, and has a population of approximately 112,000. 48 Because SOMAIR
hires many foreigners, the town has a truly international flavor. This has made it a preferred
target for Tuareg militants and al-Qaeda affiliated terrorists, who have kidnapped foreigners
from the town. 49, 50, 51
Environmental Concerns and Natural Hazards
According to the Central Intelligence Agency, the main
environmental concerns facing Niger affect farming, including
overgrazing of agricultural land by livestock, soil erosion,
deforestation, and desertification. Additionally, poaching and
loss of habitat threaten Niger’s wildlife populations, which
include many big game animals (lions, giraffes, gazelles,
etc.). 52
The one persistent natural hazard in the country is drought. The
increased regularity of droughts has led to one of the world’s most profound food shortages,
which is further exacerbated by the influx of displaced persons fleeing regional conflicts. 53, 54, 55
46
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Niger: Industry,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/414746/Niger/55031/Industry
47
48
49
50
“Niger, France’s Areva Pass Blame for Security “Flaws” Leading to Abductions,” BBC Monitoring, 20 September
2010.
51
Mahmoud Habboush, “Al Qaeda Claims Kidnapping of Frenchmen Found Dead,” Reuters, 13 January 2011,
http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/01/13/us-niger-qaeda-kidnapping-idUSTRE70C57F20110113
52
53
54
Anne Look, “Aid Agencies Sound Alarm on Niger Food Crisis,” Voice of America, 13 March 2012,
http://www.voanews.com/english/news/africa/Aid-Agencies-Sound-Alarm-on-Niger-Food-Crisis-142625226.html
55
Shushan Mebrahtu, UN Children’s Fund, “In Niger, Refugees from Mali Are Assisted with Clean Drinking
Water,” ReliefWeb, 22 March 2012, http://reliefweb.int/node/484886
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Chapter 1 Assessment
1. Much of Niger is a fertile and well-watered oasis in an otherwise arid region.
FALSE
A thin belt of land along Niger’s entire southern border is its most fertile land, receiving
far more rain than the rest of the country. Successive swathes of increasingly hot and arid
territory separate the south from the blazing heat of the desert North.
2. Niger enjoys a mild Mediterranean climate with cool summers and warm winters.
FALSE
The climate of Niger is largely defined by its distinct geography. It is hot, dry, and dusty.
3. Several rivers crisscross Niger, providing much needed relief from the arid climate.
FALSE
The only significant body of water in Niger is the Niger River. The only other bodies of
water are a handful of fleeting pools, vanishing rivers, and streams that deliver water to
the more arid portions of the country.
4. Rampant urbanization has swelled the populations of several Nigerien cities to over a
million.
FALSE
There are few populous cities in Niger. Niamey is the only city with a population over
1 million, and only five other cities have a population over 100,000.
5. Agadez is the only major city in the north and is a cultural center for the Tuareg.
TRUE
Although it has a population of just under 125,000, Agadez, the north’s only major city,
is the fourth most populous city in Niger. It is the most important Tuareg-majority city in
the country and continues to play a significant role in trans-Sahel trade.
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CHAPTER 2: HISTORY
Introduction
Prior to European colonization, Niger was the battleground for
many of Africa’s most powerful empires. The Hausa controlled
southern Niger for centuries before falling to the Songhai, who
pushed northward from their original base near Lake Chad. In
the late-16th century, Moroccan invaders defeated the Songhai.
Although these invaders did not remain, the Songhai Empire
was no longer a viable state. In the years that followed, the
Kanem-Bornu Empire brought the former Songhai lands under
their control. Islamic jihads led by the Peuhl tribes, which had long pressured the Kanem-Bornu
and Songhai empires, eradicated the few remaining Songhai in the late-19th century—just prior
to the arrival of the French. From the 11th century, the Tuareg dominated the deserts of northern
Niger.
At the end of the 19th century, French colonial forces seized the lands that now comprise Niger
from the Peuhl and the Tuareg. But the Tuareg refused to acknowledge French control and took
up arms from 1916–1919 in a failed attempt to reassert their independence. In 1922, Niger
became a French colony. French authorities established their capital at Zinder. But the poor
climate and political instability in the region, motivated them to relocate the capital to Niamey.
The French colonial administrators, who were frustrated by their failure to find exploitable
natural resources in the new colony, largely neglected Niger’s development.
Following various forms of increasing autonomy within the French republic, Niger attained its
independence on 3 August 1960. Since that time, it has struggled to establish a lasting
democratic republic. The Tuareg have repeatedly rebelled against the government in Niamey. On
numerous occasions, the military has removed elected civilian governments from power.
Recently, a military junta, which carried out one such coup in 2010, handed back civilian control
after helping to orchestrate free and far elections in 2011. But the Tuaregs’ continued unrest in
surrounding countries threatens to spill over into the northern deserts of Niger. Likewise, the
succession of coups and revolutions that have swept through many African nations in 2011 and
2012 concern analysts about Niger’s stability.
Ancient History
The Ténéré Desert was once a verdant wetland that sustained
abundant wildlife. At an archaeological site in Gobero, Niger,
scientists have discovered evidence of a culture that flourished
in this once fertile land between 12,000 to 8,000 years ago.
Known as the Kiffian, they were a hunting and gathering
society with a diet rich in protein, heavily derived from a huge
lake that watered the area. Around 6200 B.C.E., radical
changes to the climate induced prolonged drought. Scientists believe the water resources
evaporated during this period, and the Kiffians abandoned the region. Similar cultures
© D LI F LC | 9
disappeared during the next several millennia with the the region’s alternating climate cycles. 56,
57
By the 5th century B.C.E., trade caravans operating from Carthage and Egypt traversed routes
through what is today Niger, dealing primarily in precious metals, ivory, slaves, beads, and salt.
These caravans connected the ancient powers of North Africa with those of West Africa, the Red
Sea, and beyond. 58, 59
Medieval History
Kanem-Bornu Empire
Although some scholars claim that the Sefuwa dynasty can trace its roots
to arrival of Assyrian refugees in the 7th century B.C.E., 60 most believe
that ancestors of the Kanouri Manga ethnic group founded the Kanem
Kingdom along the northeast shore of Lake Chad in the 9th century C.E.
The Kanouri Manga eventually gained control over a large swath of
territory including lands in the modern states of Niger, Chad, Nigeria, and
Mali. In the Kanem Kingdom, more than one-third of the population was
enslaved. The kingdom grew to prosperity by means of its control of
regional trade routes. Infighting within the royal family, invasions from
the east, and the collapse of the domestic economy led to the fall of the
empire in the late-14th century. But after relocating to their seat of power to Bornu, in modern
day Nigeria, the Sefuwas were able to rebuild. From the embers of the Kanem Kingdom, the
Bornu Empire was born. Today, many scholars refer to the two as the Kanem-Bornu Empire.
The empire continued, although declining, until the advent of European colonialism in the region
in the late-19th century. 61, 62
56
Peter Gwin, “Lost Tribes of the Green Sahara,” National Geographic Online, September 2008,
http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2008/09/green-sahara/gwin-text
57
Paul C. Sereno, et al., “Lakeside Cemeteries in the Sahara: 5000 Years of Holocene Population and
Environmental Change,” Plos One, 14 August 2008,
http://www.plosone.org/article/fetchObjectAttachment.action;jsessionid=1D8BFE0B59C5A0FBA6AA63B32E50B
396?uri=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0002995&representation=PDF
58
Richard Miles, Carthage Must Be Destroyed: The Rise and Fall of an Ancient Civilization (New York: Viking
Penguin, 2011), 1803.
59
Craig A. Lockard, Societies, Networks, and Transitions: A Global History: Volume I: To 1500 (Boston: Houghton
Mifflin, 2008), 235.
60
Dierk Lange, “The Founding of Kanem by Assyrian Refugees ca. 600 BCE: Documentary, Linguistic, and
Archaeological Evidence,” Working Papers in African Studies 265 (2011), 3,
http://dierklange.com/pdf/reviews/dierklange_allgemein/FOUNDING_9.5.2011.pdf
61
Paul E. Lovejoy, “Chapter 1: Historical Setting: Early States Before 1500,” in Nigeria: A Country Study, 5th ed.,
ed. Helen C. Metz (Washington, DC: Library of Congress, 1992), 11–12,
62
Joseph Antwi Baafi, “Western Guilt and Third World Development – The Final Verdict: Part 1” (paper, Munich
Personal RePEc Archive, Munich, Germany, 26 January 2011), 11, http://mpra.ub.unimuenchen.de/28422/1/MPRA_paper_28422.pdf
© D LI F LC | 10
A Tuareg Sultanate
Meanwhile, in the 11th century C.E., Tuareg tribes began to
migrate into north and central Niger from points throughout the
Sahara Desert. In the 15th century, they established the
Sultanate of Agadez, centered on the city of the same name and
located at the southern base of the Aïr Mountains. 63
Early Modern History
Mali Empire
The Malinke people settled the city of Kangaba, on the upper
Niger River east of the Futa Djallon massif near modern Mali’s
border with Guinea, from the 9th century. The Malinke became
traders in gold, subject to the Wagadu and Susu kings who ruled
Kangaba until the 13th century. A Malinke of the Keita clan,
Mari Djata, revolted against the Susu king Sumanguru, and
defeated him at the battle of Kirina (near present-day Bamako,
the capital of Mali) in 1235. Djata became known as Sundiata
Keita, the “lion king.” Sundiata and his successors expanded the Mali Empire to include the
northern Saharan salt mines at Taghaza, the southern gold mines of Wangara, the cities of
Timbuktu and Gao, as well as much of what is today western Niger. In the 15th century, loss of
control over these territories marked the decline of the empire and its eventual eclipse by the
Songhai Empire. 64
Songhai Empire
The Songhai people (ancestors of Niger’s Djerma Sonrai ethnic
group) lived at Gao (in modern-day Mali), near the northeastern
bend of the Niger River, from the 9th century. Gao became
capital of their kingdom in the 11th century. The kingdom grew
to include Timbuktu and parts of western Niger, and for a time
was part of the Mali Empire. In the 14th century, the Songhai
rulers founded the Sonni dynasty. A century later, their leader
Sonni Ali Ber brought the Songhai Empire to greatness during
his rule from 1464 to 1492. He tolerated both traditional Songhai
and Islamic religious practices in the empire. His son and successor favored the local traditions.
In 1493, Muhammad Turé overthrew the Sonni ruler and established the Askia dynasty.
Muhammad I Askia consolidated Songhai control over the former Mali Empire and extended his
empire into present-day Nigeria. He also created an Islamic state with the help of a Moroccan
63
African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, Report on the African Commission’s Working Group on
Indigenous Populations/Communities: Mission to the Republic of Niger, 14–24 February 2006 (Somerset, NJ:
Transaction Publishers, 2008), 33–34.
64
Stephen Belcher, “Chapter 5: Sunjata and the Traditions of the Manden,” in Epic Traditions of Africa
(Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999), 89–114.
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Muslim adviser. Internal dynastic struggles continued through the 16th century, until a Moroccan
invasion in 1591 destroyed the empire. 65, 66, 67
Modern History
Sultanate of Damagaram
In the 17th century C.E., Hausa and Kanouri migrants from
Nigeria established the Sultanate of Damagaram, ruling from
the city of Zinder in southern Niger. Although initially a vassal
state of the Kanem-Bornu Empire, Damagaram swiftly
emerged as an independent and expansive power in its own
right, absorbing many of the nearby territories of its former
overlord empire. Although ruled by a Kanouri cultural elite, the
sultanate was a truly multi-ethnic state, with Tuareg, Peuhl,
Hausa, Toubou, and Arab elements in its population. The economy of the sultanate revolved
around revenues generated by the slave trade and by taxing trade caravans. It survived as a
regional power until its ill-fated conflict with French colonial forces in the final years of the 19th
century. 68, 69
French Colonial Era
France had begun its colonization of West Africa in 1624,
establishing coastal trading posts in what is today Senegal.
However, the French did not begin to push into the interior of
Africa until much later, turning their attention instead to the
Americas and Asia. Then in the mid-19th century, the French
and British renewed their interests in colonizing Africa. The
French invaded Algeria in 1830. They established a
protectorate in Tunisia in 1881, and over the remainder of the
65
Olivier Walther, “Sons of the Soil and Conquerors: The Historical Construction of the Dendi Border Region
(West Africa)” (working paper, Afrilux Research Unit and Department of Geography, Centre for Population,
Poverty and Public Policy Studies (CEPS/INSTEAD), Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg, 6 February 2011), 6–8,
http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1803991
66
Elias N. Saad, Social History of Timbuktu: The Role of Muslim Scholars and Notables 1400–1900 (New York:
Cambridge University Press, 1983).
67
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Muḥammad I Askia,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/396293/Muhammad-I-Askia
68
Eric J. Arnould, “Evaluating Regional Economic Development: Results of a Marketing Systems Analysis in
Zinder Province, Niger Republic,” Journal of Developing Areas 19, no. 2 (January 1985): 209–244.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/4191344.pdf
69
F.W. Sowers and Manzo Issoufou, “Precolonial Agroforestry and Its Implications for the Present: The Case of the
Sultanate of Damagaram, Niger,” in Faidherbia Albida in the West African Semi-Arid Tropics: Proceedings of a
Workshop” 22–26 April 1991, Niamey, Niger, ed. R.J. Vandenbeldt (Patancheru, Andhra Pradesh, India :
International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-arid Tropics, 1992), 171–176,
http://jatropha.pro/PDF%20bestanden/RA00220.pdf#page=181
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19th century, they gradually gained control over much of North, Central, and West Africa,
including Benin, Chad, Côte d’Ivoire, Guinea, Mali, Mauritania, and Niger. 70, 71
Although the various Nigerien peoples resisted, the French forces, augmented with Senegalese
sharpshooting units, ruthlessly crushed all opposition. The infamous Voulet–Chanoine
expedition of 1898–1899, operating in tandem with other French commands sweeping in from
Algeria and French Congo, drove through West Africa from French bases in Senegal. The
mission was a complete fiasco, although ultimately successful in its mission. The two leaders of
the expedition, for whom it was named, were psychopathic killers, who had previously
demonstrated their bloodthirstiness in earlier encounters in West Africa. Thus, it was hardly
surprising that they left a trail of carnage, rape, and mayhem in their current expedition. Before
the French administrators were able to regain control of the expedition from the increasingly
rebellious Voulet and Chanoine, the depraved officers had committed one of the bloodiest
massacres in the history of French colonialism. In the Nigerien village of Birni-N’Konni, on 8
May 1899, expeditionary forces slaughtered thousands of innocent civilians. A shootout
between two French forces, leading to the deaths of Voulet, Chanoine, and the commander of the
opposing force, ended it. Afterwards, the expedition continued, taking control of the city of
Zinder and marking the end of the independent Sultanate of Damagaram. Combined with the
gains of the other French operations under way in the region, this brought most of modern-day
Niger under French control. 72, 73
Afrique Occidentale Française (French West Africa)
Initially, the French added Niger, as part of its Senegambia and
Niger colony, to its federation of colonial territories known as
Afrique Occidentale Française (French West Africa) in 1902.
Two years later, as part of a reorganization of its expanding
African holdings, France created the Upper Senegal and Niger
colony, which remained a part of the French West Africa
federation. Not until 1922, when the Tuareg were finally
subjugated, did Niger become a separate colony within this
federation. 74, 75
The lieutenant-governor in Zinder, then after 1926 in Niamey, reported to the governor-general
of the federation in Dakar, Senegal, who in turn received orders from the Minister of Colonies in
Paris. The French divided Niger, like its other colonies, into administrative units (cercles) that
70
Marcel Chailley, Les Grandes Missions Francaises en Afrique Occidentale [French] (Dakar: Institut Francais
D’Afrique Noire, 1953).
71
Martin A. Klein, Slavery and Colonial Rule in French West Africa (New York: Cambridge University Press,
1998).
72
Marcel Chailley, Les Grandes Missions Francaises en Afrique Occidentale [French] (Dakar: Institut Francais
D’Afrique Noire, 1953).
73
Bertrand Taithe, The Killer Trail: A Colonial Scandal in the Heart of Africa (New York: Oxford University Press,
2009).
74
Jean Suret-Canale, French Colonialism in Tropical Africa, 1900–1945 (New York: Pica Press, 1971), 88.
75
A.D. Roberts, ed., “Chapter 7: French Black Africa,” in The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 7: c. 1905–
c.1940 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 360.
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were administered by commandants. These cercles were further divided into smaller, more local
units. Unlike their British contemporaries, French administrators largely ignored traditional
power structures, with the exception of those among the Tuareg, the ethnic group the French
granted preferential treatment. Rather than trying to assimilate the populations of their colonies,
the French simply sought to assert control over them and their resources. 76
French administrators were callous in their efforts to maximize their economic grip on the West
African colonies. Although they had helped to abolish official slavery in the region, they
instituted the use of forced labor (corvée), a legalistic subtlety that amounted near slavery, to
accomplish the same goals that slavery had once afforded the region’s rulers. Disappointed by
the seeming lack of natural resources they sought to exploit for the greater benefit of the
republic, the French largely ignored the Niger colony. 77, 78
Later 20th Century
Toward Independence
Following World War II, the European powers began to
reevaluate their relationships with their overseas colonies.
Although the British actively encouraged independence for their
colonies, the French, whose collective psyche had been badly
bruised by the German occupation, were loath to go that far. But
they did move to afford their colonies greater internal
governance. In 1946, the new French constitution provided
French citizenship to their colonial subjects. It further provided
for greater involvement in local governance and representation in the French parliament. 79
A decade later, as France struggled to maintain its grip on its colonies, the French government
implemented the Overseas Reform Act, which provided colonies with even greater selfgovernment. 80
In 1957 at Azelik, French colonial officials discovered the first of what would prove to be
Niger’s many uranium deposits. In the midst of the U.S.-Soviet Cold War, this precious
commodity promised the long-sought wealth that had previously eluded Nigeriens and their
French rulers. 81, 82
76
Michael Crowder, “History of French West Africa until Independence,” in Africa South of the Sahara, 1991, 20th
ed. (London: Europa Publications, 1990), 77–79.
77
Alice L. Conklin, “Chapter 7: Civilization through Coercion,” in A Mission to Civilize: The Republican Idea of
Empire in France and West Africa, 1895–1930 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997), 212–245.
78
Adeline Masquelier, Women and Islamic Revival in a West African Town (Bloomington: Indiana University Press,
2009), 37.
79
80
Transaction Publishers, 2008), 24.
81
Philippe Taquet, L’empreinte des Dinosaures: Carnets de Piste d’un Chercheur D’Os [French] (Paris: Editions
Odile Jacob, 1994),18.
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In 1958, with the institution of yet another new French constitution, France provided its colonies
with the opportunity to choose independence or membership in the French Community, an
association of French colonies similar to the British Commonwealth. In what many observers
believed to be a rigged election, Niger opted to continue its relationship with France. Yet a mere
two years later, on 3 August 1960, Niger declared its independence. The Nigerien parliament
elected Hamani Diori the country’s first president. 83, 84
Independence
Diori, who maintained a close relationship with France, remained
in power for 14 years. He presided over a single-party system
that quickly became steeped in corruption. Compounding the
country’s problems, from 1968–1974 severe drought devastated
Niger. After discovering that government officials were hoarding
food aid while many average Nigeriens were starving, Lt.
Colonel Seyni Kountché led a military coup that toppled the
Diori regime on 15 April 1974. 85, 86, 87
Military Rule
Kountché ruled Niger for the next 13 years. During his tenure,
Niger became a charter member of the Economic Community of
West African States (ECOWAS) in 1975. The ECOWAS aims to
advance economic integration, pool resources, and promote
stability throughout West Africa. Kountché died in office in 1987
and was succeeded by his cousin and chief of staff, Brigadier
General Ali Saibou. 88, 89
Saibou attempted to promote greater individual freedoms and the
drafting of a new constitution. But his reforms emboldened his opponents, who demanded even
82
Marian Radetzki, “Economic Development and the Timing of Mineral Exploitation,” in Mineral Wealth and
Economic Development, ed. John E. Tilton (Washington, DC: Resources for the Future, The Johns Hopkins
University Press, 1992), 47.
83
Transaction Publishers, 2008), 24.
84
Paul Stoller, The Power of the Between: An Anthropological Odyssey (Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
2009), 83.
85
Gabrielle Hecht, Being Nuclear: Africans and the Global Uranium Trade (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2012), 124.
86
Paul Stoller, The Power of the Between: An Anthropological Odyssey (Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
2009), 83–84.
87
Associated Press, “Niger Leader Dies; Cousin Takes Power : Kountche Became Ruler of West African Nation in
1974 Coup,” Los Angeles Times, 11 November 1987, http://articles.latimes.com/1987-11-11/news/mn13579_1_west-african-nation
88
Associated Press, “Niger Leader Dies; Cousin Takes Power : Kountche Became Ruler of West African Nation in
1974 Coup,” Los Angeles Times, 11 November 1987, http://articles.latimes.com/1987-11-11/news/mn13579_1_west-african-nation
89
Joseph Mensah, “Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS),” in Encyclopedia of the Developing
World, Volume 1: A-E, ed. Thomas M. Leonard (New York: Routledge, 2006), 533–536.
© D LI F LC | 15
greater concessions from the military government. Rather than suppressing these expressions,
Saibou adopted a proactive agenda, allowing for the formation of new political parties and the
open expression of opposition views. 90, 91 But amid these reforms in 1990, the Tuaregs of Niger
and Mali launched a rebellion on multiple fronts that rocked both countries to their cores.
The Tuareg rebels believed that the wealth Niger was deriving from natural resources extracted
in the areas where the Tuareg lived was not being evenly distributed. Others fought for an
independent Tuareg nation. Their inability to present a unified front was likely the saving grace
for Niger’s territorial integrity, because the military was able to play one faction against
another. 92, 93 In the middle of this rebellion, the Toubou also took up arms against the
government. 94
Return to Civilian Rule
In July 1991, a National Conference was convened to establish
a transitional government, draft a new constitution, and hold
democratic elections. André Salifou, a history professor at the
University of Niamey, was selected as the President of the
National Conference. 95 In November 1991, the transitional
government assumed control from the military junta. In April
1993, with the institution of the new constitution, a newly
elected government completed the return to civilian rule. 96
In April 1995, after five years of war, the government signed a peace accord with Tuareg and
Toubou rebels. The agreement largely returned the security situation to its previous state. It did,
however, grant rebels the opportunity to join the army and provide others with resources
necessary to readjust to civilian life. 97
This accord was the capstone achievement of an otherwise wholly ineffectual coalition
government. For three years, internal bickering and partisan politics had created an ever
increasing stalemate.
90
Elizabeth Heath, “Niger,” in Encyclopedia of Africa, Volume 1, eds. Kwame Anthony Appiah and Henry Louis
Gates, Jr. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 230–236.
91
92
Edward Lawson, “Niger,” in Encyclopedia of Human Rights, 2nd ed. (Washington, DC: Taylor & Francis, 1996),
1091–1092.
93
Stefan Simanowitz, “Blue Men and Yellowcake: The Struggle of the Tuaregs of Mali and Niger,” Contemporary
Review 291.1692 (2009): 70–74.
94
Jane’s Information Group, “Non-State Armed Groups: Niger,” Jane’s Sentinel Security Assessment – West Africa,
22 January 2007.
95
Pearl T. Robinson, “The National Conference Phenomenon in Francophone Africa,” Comparative Studies in
Society and History 36, no. 3 (July 1994): 575–610, http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/179297.pdf
96
Pierre Englebert, “Niger: Recent History,” in Africa South of the Sahara 2004, 33rd ed., ed. Katharine Murison
(London: Europa Publications, 2003), 793.
97
Jane’s Information Group, “Non-State Armed Groups: Niger,” Jane’s Sentinel Security Assessment – West Africa,
22 January 2007.
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Return to Military Rule
Seizing upon the situation, Colonel Ibrahim Baré Maïnassara led a
military coup toppling civilian government and banning all political
parties in January 1996. Hoping to legitimize his coup, Maïnassara
swiftly set about drafting a new constitution and holding sham elections.
But these measures failed to provide the desired legitimacy, and the
international community enacted sanctions against the military regime.
Maïnassara desperately clung to power, lashing out at opposition
leaders, journalists, and civil libertarians. In April 1999, Major Daouda
Malam Wanké led a countercoup that toppled Maïnassara’s regime. In
the midst of the coup, presidential bodyguards assassinated
Maïnassara. 98, 99
Wanké immediately moved to return authority to a civilian government, overseeing elections just
three months after the coup. In those elections, Nigeriens approved a hastily drafted new
constitution. In the fall, they elected as president Mamadou Tandja, a retired army officer who
had previously served as a member of the military junta that came to power in 1974. 100, 101
Twenty-First Century
Tandja sought to woo international investors and to enact
austerity measures aimed at improving Niger’s financial
situation during his first term. But such measures proved
unpopular with certain segments of the Nigerien population.
Student demonstrations rocked the capital in 2001, and an army
insurrection in Diffa briefly flared in 2002. But Tandja
managed to swiftly deal with these situations. In 2004, Tandja
resoundingly won reelection. 102, 103
In July 2005, the United Nations called attention to the severity
of food shortages in Niger, brought on by recurring droughts and locust swarms. Yet the Tandja
administration continuously downplayed the issue, despite millions facing severe
malnutrition. 104, 105
98
Alan Bryden and Boubacar N’Diaye, eds., “Chapter 8: Niger,” in Security Sector Governance in Francophone
West Africa: Realities and Opportunities (Berlin: Lit Verlag, 2011), 177–178.
99
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Ibrahim Baré Maïnassara,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/358644/Ibrahim-Bare-Mainassara
100
Mark Doyle, “Military Rule Ends in Niger,” BBC News, 22 December 1999,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/574825.stm
101
102
“Troops Put Down Niger Mutiny,” BBC News, 9 August 2002, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/2183345.stm
103
Freedom House [firm], Freedom in the World 2004: The Annual Survey of Political Rights and Civil Liberties
(Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2004), 414.
104
United Nations, “As Niger Faces Severe Food Shortages, UN and Partners Appeal for Aid,” UN News Centre, 10
February 2010, http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=33731
105
Adam Nossiter, “Famine Persists in Niger, but Denial Is Past,” The New York Times, 3 May 2010,
http://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/04/world/africa/04niger.html
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In early 2007, a new Tuareg rebel group emerged, demanding greater autonomy and economic
resources for northern Niger. The Mouvement des Nigeriens pour la Justice (Movement of
Nigeriens for Justice – MNJ) launched attacks against military positions in the north. Soon, a
new full-fledged Tuareg rebellion was underway in Niger and Mali. The war was devastating to
the already fragile Nigerien economy and served to further exacerbate the humanitarian crisis
facing the country. 106 During the rebellion, it became apparent that some Tuareg rebels are
working alongside the al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) terrorist group. The United
States and its allies assisted Niger and Mali in their fight against these groups. 107
In April 2009, the MNJ signed a peace accord with the Nigerien government. The agreement,
negotiated by Libyan President Muammar Qadhafi, ended hostilities and provided amnesty for
combatants. The agreement would be the Tandja administration’s chief accomplishment. 108, 109
2010 Coup
Barred from seeking a third presidential term, Tandja unexpectedly
suspended the constitution, dismissed parliament, and assumed
emergency powers in May 2009. 110 International observers,
governments, and regional organizations decried the power grab. 111 The
ECOWAS imposed stiff sanctions, refusing to deal with Nigerien
diplomats, and threatening suspension of Niger’s membership. 112
Through a sham referendum, in direct violation of a ruling by the
Constitutional Court, Tandja enacted a new constitution.113 But his
hopes for clinging to power were dashed on 18 February 2010, when
military forces under the command of Majors Adamou Harouna and
Salou Djibo, both of whom had participated in the 1999 coup that had
restored democracy, toppled the Tandja regime. The new junta, operating under the name
Conseil Supreme de Restauration de la Democratie (CSRD) (Supreme Council for the
Restoration of Democracy), claimed to have carried out the coup in support of “democracy and
good governance.” Djibo emerged as the leader of the junta. 114, 115, 116
106
Frédéric Deycard, “Chapter 2: Political Cultures and Tuareg Mobilizations: Rebels of Niger, from Kaocen to the
Mouvement des Nigériens pour la Justice,” in Understanding Collective Political Violence, ed. Yvan Guichaoua
(New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011), 46–64.
107
Stratfor, “The Tuaregs – from African Nomads to Smugglers and Mercenaries,” defenseWeb, 6 February 2012,
http://www.defenceweb.co.za/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=23232&catid=74&Itemid=30
108
Associated Press, “Tuareg Rebels Agree to Join Peace Process in Niger, Official Says,” The Guardian, 10 April
2009, http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2009/apr/10/niger-tuareg-rebels-peace
109
John Pike, “Tuareg – Mali – 2006–2009,” GlobalSecurity.org, 5 April 2012,
http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/tuareg-mali-2006.htm
110
“Emergency Powers for Niger Leader,” BBC News, 26 June 2009, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8121974.stm
111
Jeremy I. Levitt, Illegal Peace in Africa: An Inquiry into the Legality of Power Sharing with Warlords, Rebels,
and Junta (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 235–236.
112
Mark Leon Goldberg, “In Praise of ECOWAS,” UN Dispatch, 30 March 2012, http://www.undispatch.com/inpraise-of-ecowas
113
Adam Nossiter, “President Claims More Power in Niger’s Disputed Referendum,” The New York Times, 7
August 2009, http://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/08/world/africa/08niger.html
114
Alex Perry, “A Coup in Niger Adds to West Africa's Instability,” Time, 19 February 2010,
http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1966681,00.html
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Two days after the coup, the opposition party Coordination des Forces Démocratiques pour la
République (CFDR) (Coordination of Democratic Forces for the Republic) staged a massive rally
in Niamey in support of the coup and offered to assist the junta in restoring democracy to
Niger. 117 Although the coup was well-received in-country, the support the junta may have
expected from the international community was not forthcoming. In fact, the African Union and
ECOWAS both suspended Niger in protest of the coup. 118
In May 2010, the CSRD announced a transition timetable to achieve civilian rule by early 2011.
They also called for democratic elections in which the military would be barred from
participation. 119, 120, 121
Recent Events
In late-October 2010, Nigeriens overwhelmingly approved a new
constitution drafted by the junta that greatly limited the powers of the
presidency. 122 On 31 January 2011, parliamentary and presidential
elections restored civilian rule. The Nigerien Party for Democracy and
Socialism (Parti Nigerien pour la Democratie et le Socialisme-Tarayya)
won the most seats in the National Assembly, and, in a presidential runoff
election in March, Issoufou Mahamadou, Tandja’s longtime rival,
emerged as the country’s new president. 123
In fall 2011, Tuaregs who had fought for toppled Libyan leader
Muammar Qadhafi during the Libyan civil war started to return to their
home nations, bringing significant weapons stockpiles. On 5 September 2011, a large convoy of
Qadhafi loyalists, led by former Tuareg rebel leader Rissa ag Boula (now an advisor to the
115
David Smith, “Niger President Held Captive by Soldiers in Apparent Coup Attempt,” The Guardian (UK), 18
February 2010, http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/feb/18/niger-president-coup
116
Reuters, “Le Président Nigérien, Mamadou Tandja, Arrêté par l’Armée,” Le Point (France), 18 February 2012,
http://www.lepoint.fr/actualites-monde/2010-02-18/le-president-nigerien-mamadou-tandja-arrete-par-larmee/924/0/425404
117
Abdoulaye Massalatchi, “Niger Opposition Urges Junta to Hold Elections,” Reuters, 20 February 2010,
http://www.reuters.com/article/2010/02/20/us-niger-idUSTRE61J1IB20100220
118
Andrew C. Miller, “Debunking the Myth of the ‘Good’ Coup d’État in Africa,” African Studies Quarterly 12, no.
2 (Winter 2011): 45–70, 63, http://www.africa.ufl.edu/asq/v12/v12i2a3.pdf
119
“Niger Junta Plans Polls Before Coup Anniversary,” BBC News, 6 May 2010,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8665070.stm
120
Abdoulaye Massalatchi, “Niger Sets Presidential Election for January 2011,” Reuters, 4 July 2010,
http://www.reuters.com/article/2010/07/04/us-niger-election-date-idUSTRE6631N120100704
121
Hannah Gibson, “African Election Review – January 2011,” Consultancy Africa Intelligence, 17 January 2011,
http://www.consultancyafrica.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=654
122
Ricci Shryock, “Initial Results Show Approval of Niger’s New Constitution,” Voice of America, 1 November
2010, http://www.voanews.com/english/news/Initial-Results-Show-Approval-of-Nigers-New-Constitution106518428.html
123
Central Intelligence Agency, “Niger,” in The World Factbook, 23 February 2012,
© D LI F LC | 19
Nigerien president), entered the central Niger town of Agadez, sparking concerns of a possible
new Tuareg uprising. 124, 125
In November 2011, Niger officially emerged as an oil producer with the opening of a refinery
jointly operated by the state and a Chinese company. 126 Tapping into the crude from the nearby
and newly-opened Agadem oil field, the Soraz refinery is expected to not only provide adequate
fuel for domestic use, but also a significant surplus for export—a much needed revenue stream
for one of the world’s poorest nations. 127
In February 2012, from the confines of house arrest in Niamey, Saadi Qadhafi, son of Libya’s
slain dictator, urged rebellion against his country’s new rulers, vowing to return to his homeland.
The statement drew renewed attention to the fact that Niger had granted refugee status to a
number of members of Qadhafi’s family and inner circle. This has served to heighten tensions
between Niger and Libya. 128, 129, 130, 131
In neighboring Mali, a new Tuareg rebellion swept the country in early 2012, leading to the
declaration of an independent Tuareg nation of Azawad. Although there are strong indications of
internal fighting among the various Tuareg factions and foreign Islamist fighters in northern
Mali, the government of Niger is concerned that some fighters in Mali are Nigerien and may
spread their rebellion into Niger. 132 Given that each of the Tuareg rebellions in modern history
that have begun in one of the two countries has always spilled over to the other, this is a wellfounded concern.
124
Celeste Hicks, “Africa: Tuareg Rebellion Could Spark Regional Violence in Mali, Niger and Southern Algeria,”
allAfrica, 15 March 2012, http://allafrica.com/stories/201203151079.html
125
Martin Vogl, “Ghadaffi Regime Convoy Crosses into Niger,” Jane’s Defence Weekly, 6 September 2011.
126
Abdoulaye Massalaatchi and Mark John, “Niger Wants Audit on Chinese JV Oil Refinery,” Reuters, 24
November 2011, http://af.reuters.com/article/nigerNews/idAFL5E7MO3JY20111124
127
Auwalu Umar, “Nigeria: Niger Republic Opens New Refinery – Very Close to the Country’s Border,” allAfrica,
29 November 2011, http://allafrica.com/stories/201111290451.html
128
David Smith, “Niger Grants Asylum to Saadi Gaddafi,” The Guardian (UK), 11 November 2011,
http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/nov/11/saadi-gaddafi-asylum-niger
129
Khaled Mahmoud, “We Can Kidnap Gaddafi from Niger – Libyan Official,” Asharq Alawsat (UK), 16 February
2012, http://www.asharq-e.com/news.asp?section=1&id=28503
130
Abdoulaye Massalatchi, “Top Gaddafi Official Gets Niger Gov’t Role – Sources,” Reuters, 8 March 2012,
http://af.reuters.com/article/nigerNews/idAFL5E8E87CI20120308?sp=true
131
“Niger Rescinds Gaddafi Official’s Diplomatic Passport,” Reuters, 16 March 2012,
http://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFJOE82F00Q20120316
132
Open Source Center, Directorate of National Intelligence, “National Concerns Prompting Action on Northern
Mali,” Analysis, 16 April 2012.
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1. Egyptians and Carthaginians were the first to use the arid northern lands of Niger.
FALSE
At an archaeological site in Gobero, Niger, scientists have discovered evidence of a
culture that flourished in this once fertile land between 12,000 to 8,000 years ago. Known
as the Kiffian, they were a hunting and gathering society with a diet rich in protein.
2. Several medieval kingdoms ruled over various parts of what is today Niger.
TRUE
The Kanem-Bornu Empire and the Sultanate of Agadez were but two such kingdoms.
3. French colonial history in Niger began rather brutally.
TRUE
Invading in 1898, French forces, augmented with Senegalese sharpshooting units,
ruthlessly crushed all opposition. The Voulet-Chanoine expeditionary force slaughtered
thousands in just one attack on the village of Birni-N’Konni—one of many villages hit.
4. When first given the opportunity, Niger embraced independence from France.
FALSE
In 1958, France provided its colonies with the opportunity to choose independence or
membership in the French Community. In what many observers believed to be a rigged
election, Niger opted to continue its relationship with France.
5. Following independence, Niger has seesawed between civilian and military rule.
TRUE
Repeated coups have toppled civilian governments, although many have done so in order
to remove a corrupt civilian regime.
© D LI F LC | 21
CHAPTER 3: ECONOMY
Introduction
Domestic and regional instability, combined with an
unpredictable climate, have created a highly volatile economy.
Recurrent Tuareg rebellions and military coups have plagued
Niger since independence, and threats persist today. Prolonged
droughts have devastated Niger’s agricultural production, and
the country has faced severe food shortages for nearly a decade.
Expenditures far exceed revenues. In 2011, the government
spent an estimated USD 1.42 billion, while bringing in only USD 1.26 billion in revenue. That
left a USD 16 million budget deficit. 133 Niger has long relied on foreign aid to prop up its
economy. Major contributors include France, the United States, the European Union(EU), China,
Japan, Canada, North African countries, and Saudi Arabia. Additional aid is provided by the
International Monetary Fund (IMF), The World Bank, United Nations agencies, and countless
non-government organizations (NGOs). 134
Analysts are hopeful that an improved ability to tap the country’s natural resources, including
Niger’s emergence as an oil exporting country and increased uranium production capabilities,
will improve the country’s economic woes. But much of these resources are located in lands
inhabited by the Tuareg. If the Tuareg rebellion in Mali spread to Niger, as all such conflicts
have, it would undermine economic gains.
Agriculture
Although the agricultural sector accounts for only 39% of
GDP, the majority of the workforce is employed in farming,
which is estimated at between 80–90%. Produce includes
livestock, rice, cassava, black-eyed peas, cereal crops, and
cotton. 135 The agricultural sector is especially vulnerable to the
current climate trends and political unrest in the region.
Industry
The industrial sector accounts for a mere 16% of GDP and 6% of
labor. But that is expected to change with an anticipated
expansion of uranium mining and new revenues generated by oil
production. The main components of the industrial sector are
133
Central Intelligence Agency, “Niger: Economy,” in The World Factbook, 31 July 2012,
134
http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5474.htm#econ
135
Central Intelligence Agency, “Niger: Economy,” in The World Factbook, 13 April 2012,
© D LI F LC | 22
uranium and gold mining (which account for more than 40% of Niger’s export revenues), 136
cement, brick, soap, textiles, food processing, chemicals, and slaughterhouses. 137
Services
The services sector accounts for 45% of GDP, the largest in the
Nigerien economy, but employs the smallest percentage of the
workforce (4%). 138 Much of this sector involves re-exporting
trade goods and collecting transit fees from international trade
passing through the country. 139
Energy
Niger imports 100% of its electricity. But a Russian construction firm under Nigerien
government contract is currently constructing a major hydroelectric dam on the Niger River near
the village of Kandadji. The government expects the dam to be fully operational in late-2015. 140
Besides providing much needed energy, the dam is expected to
play a significant role in providing irrigation, flood
management, and water sanitation. 141 Energy has long been a
serious problem. Most Nigeriens still live without access to
electricity. 142
Prior to the opening of the oil refinery near Zinder in 2011,
Niger imported all of its oil as well. However, analysts expect
that the new facility will produce far more oil than required for domestic consumption.
Natural Resources
China is working with the Nigerien government to develop oil production and refining, and
uranium extraction in and around the cities of Agadez and Zinder. 143 But a lack of storage
facilities has led to repetitive shutdowns in production. 144
136
Jane’s Information Group, “Economy: Niger,” Jane’s Sentinel Security Assessment – West Africa, 7 March 2012.
138
139
140
Djibril Saidou, “Niger Criticizes Russian Company Over Delays on Hydropower Dam,” Bloomberg, 2 March
2012, http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-03-02/niger-criticizes-russian-company-over-delays-on-hydropowerdam.html
141
PennWell Corporation [firm], “African Bank Funds Niger’s 125–MW Kandadji Dam, Ecosystems,”
HydroWorld.com, 6 November 2008, http://www.hydroworld.com/index/display/articledisplay/8562108397/articles/hrhrw/News/African_bank_funds_Nigers_125-MW_Kandadji_Dam_ecosystems.html
142
Jane’s Information Group, “Natural Resources: Niger,” Jane’s Sentinel Security Assessment – West Africa, 7
March 2012.
143
Xinhua News Agency, “Niger/Chine : Une Exemplaire Coopération ‘Gagnant-Gagnant’ (SYNTHESE),”
[French], 4 January 2012, http://french.news.cn/afrique/2012-01/04/c_131340936.htm
144
“Niger Refinery Faces Stocking, Export Problems,” Reuters, 16 March 2012,
http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/03/16/niger-refinery-idUSL5E8EG0SL20120316
137
© D LI F LC | 23
In February 2012, Niger and Chad concluded a memorandum of understanding that would
connect Nigerien and Chadian oil pipelines. Crude would then be pumped to the Cameroonian
port of Kribi for export. 145
Niger jointly operates its uranium mines, located near the
northern Tuareg-majority cities of Agadez and Arlit, with
various international partners including the French companies
Société des Mines de l’Aïr (SOMAIR) and AREVA, Chinese
companies ZXJOY Invest and Trendfield Energy and
Resources, and Australian, Canadian, and South African
interests. 146, 147
Likewise, Niger’s gold mining operations, located along the
western border with Burkina Faso, are a joint venture between the government and a Canadian
company, SEMAFO. 148
Trade
For the 2011 fiscal year, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)
estimated Niger’s exports at USD 1.124 billion and USD 1.04
billion in 2010. Main export items were uranium ore, livestock,
black-eyed peas, onions. Chief export partners were the United
States (49%), Nigeria (29%), Russia (10%) and Ghana (4%). In
2011, the CIA estimated Niger’s imports at USD 1.952 billion
and USD 1.821 billion in 2010. These were chiefly foodstuffs,
machinery, vehicles and parts, petroleum, and cereals. The
country’s primary import partners were China (10%), France (16%), French Polynesia (9%),
Nigeria (9%), , Belgium (7%), India (5%), and Togo (4%). Niger realized a USD 828 million
trade deficit in 2011 and a USD 781 million trade deficit for 2010. 149
Banking and Finance
Niger is a member of the West African Economic and Monetary Union (UEMOA). Its currency
is the West African CFA franc, which is pegged to a fixed exchange rate with the euro. As of
August 2012 there were CFA 656 : EUR 1. At the same time, its exchange rate with the U.S.
dollar stood at CFA 531 : USD 1. 150, 151 As the regulatory body for the CFA franc, the Central
145
Bate Felix, “Niger to Ship Crude through Chad-Cameroon Pipeline,” Reuters, 1 March 2012,
http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/03/01/niger-chad-pipeline-idUSL5E8E127N20120301
146
World Nuclear Association [firm], “Uranium in Niger,” April 2012, http://www.worldnuclear.org/info/inf110.html
147
148
http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5474.htm#econ
149
150
Xe.com, “Currency Converter Widget,” Universal Currency Converter, August 2012, http://www.xe.com/ucc/
151
© D LI F LC | 24
Bank of West African States (BCEAO), operating from Dakar, Senegal, wields considerable
control over monetary policy in Niger and other member states. 152
The Nigerien government has focused on closing the existing
budgetary and trade deficits that have long plagued the country’s
economy. Financing operations that develop natural resources
has been a prime concern and appears to be beginning to pay
some dividends towards accomplishing those goals. 153, 154
Standard of Living
According to the World Bank’s in 2007, 60% of the Nigerien
population lives below the poverty line. 155 The literacy rate in
Niger is an abysmal 29%. Most Nigeriens receive only 5 years
of schooling. Infectious diseases and malnutrition are rampant.
The physician to patient ratio is one of the worst in the
world. 156
Public vs. Private Sector
In the early 21st century, Niger began to privatize its utilities
and telecommunications monopolies. 157 Today, three-way
partnerships between the national government, local
communities, and private contractors have been commonplace
in the development of utilities in Niger. 158 Yet the government,
along with international partners, retains control over the
country’s lucrative uranium and petroleum industries. 159, 160, 161
152
David Fielding, Kevin Lee, and Kalvinder Shields, “Does One Size Fit All? Modelling Macroeconomic Linkages
in the West African Economic and Monetary Union,” Economic Change and Restructuring 45, no. 1–2 (2012): 45–
70.
153
ECOWAS Monetary Cooperation Programme, West African Monetary Agency (WAMA), Macroeconomic
Convergence Report: 2007 Niger (Freetown, Sierra Leone: WAMA, June 2008), http://www.amaowama.org/fr/Publications/rapport_convergence/convergence%20etat/convergence%20niger%20en.pdf
154
Adboulaye Massalatchi, “Niger Sees 2012 Oil Revenues at $164m,” Independent Online BusinessReport (South
Africa), 5 December 2011, http://www.iol.co.za/business/markets/commodities/niger-sees-2012-oil-revenues-at164m-1.1192511
155
The World Bank, “Data: Niger,” 2012, http://data.worldbank.org/country/niger
156
Central Intelligence Agency, “Niger: People and Society,” in The World Factbook, 31 July 2012,
157
International Business Publications, USA [firm], Niger: Foreign Policy and Government Guide, Volume 1:
Strategic Information and Developments (Washington, DC: International Business Publications, USA, 2011), 34–
35.
158
The World Bank, “Encouraging Public-Private Partnerships,” Water (blog), 2012,
http://water.worldbank.org/node/83788
159
World Nuclear Association [firm], “Uranium in Niger,” April 2012, http://www.worldnuclear.org/info/inf110.html
160
161
Adboulaye Massalatchi, “Niger Sees 2012 Oil Revenues at $164m,” Independent Online BusinessReport (South
Africa), 5 December 2011, http://www.iol.co.za/business/markets/commodities/niger-sees-2012-oil-revenues-at164m-1.1192511
© D LI F LC | 25
In Niger, all land belongs to the government; however, legislation grants individuals long-term
use of land on which trees are planted. Thus, many clever inhabitants of the Sahel were able to
gain ownership of properties by planting trees, earning lifetime of the trees they planted. The
government, pleased with the added productivity this created on previously marginal lands,
recognized the practice as legitimate. 162
Future Outlook
The Nigerien government is working with the International
Monetary Fund to promote economic stability in the country by
strengthening the economy’s resistance to the hazards of the
climate and domestic and external instabilities. Analysts are
projecting a rosy outlook for Niger’s 2012 fiscal year. GDP is
expected to increase between 9–13%, based largely on the
development of natural resources extraction and infrastructural
development. 163 But continued food shortages and prospects of
another Tuareg rebellion or military coup may dampen such growth.
162
Wade Channell, “Land Tenure and Environmental Degradation,” USAID, n.d.,
http://egateg.usaidallnet.gov/sites/default/files/Land%20tenure%20and%20environmental%20degradation.pdf
163
The Economist Online, “The IMF Approves a New Three-Year ECF Programme,” Economist Intelligence Unit, 1
May 2012,
http://country.eiu.com/article.aspx?articleid=189019403&Country=Niger&topic=Economy&subtopic=Current+poli
cy&subsubtopic=Economic+policy%3a+The+IMF+approves+a+new+three-year+ECF+programme
© D LI F LC | 26
1. As a rural nation, the agricultural sector accounts for the majority of Niger’s GDP.
FALSE
Although the agricultural sector accounts for only 39% of GDP, the majority of the
workforce is employed in farming, an estimated 80–90%.
2. Niger is self-reliant in electricity production.
FALSE
Niger imports 100% of its electricity. However, a Russian construction firm under
Nigerien government contract is currently constructing a major hydroelectric dam on the
Niger River, which should be fully operational in late 2015. Most Nigeriens have no
access to electricity.
3. Foreign governments and companies are active in developing Niger’s natural resources.
TRUE
Chinese, Canadian, South African, and other foreign-owned and private companies are
active in developing Niger’s uranium, gold, oil, and other resource extraction industries.
4. Niger has a substantial trade deficit.
TRUE
Niger realized a USD 828 million trade deficit in 2011 and a USD 781 million trade
deficit for 2010.
5. Niger’s monetary policy is largely determined by an international monetary union.
TRUE
Niger is a member of the West African Economic and Monetary Union (UEMOA). Its
currency is the West African CFA franc, which is pegged to a fixed exchange rate with
the euro. As of August 2012, the exchange rate stood at CFA 655 : EUR 1.
© D LI F LC | 27
CHAPTER 4: SOCIETY
Introduction
Although many ethnic groups speaking several different
languages call Niger home, they have shared a common history
since the French colonial era of the late 19th century. Most are
also bound together by their shared belief in Islam, although
there are small communities of Christian, Baha’i, and
indigenous believers as well.
Ethnic and Linguistic Groups
Djerma Sonrai
Descended from elite cavalrymen of the Songhai Empire, the Djerma
Sonrai still highly value their horses and cattle. They are Niger’s second
largest ethnic group and represent the majority of the population in the
southwest of the country. 164, 165
Gurma
Also known as the Gourmantche, these people are more commonly
found in Burkina Faso, but reside in the southwest corner of Niger.
They are sedentary cattle herders and farmers. 166, 167
Hausa
Hausa people are the largest regional ethnic group, representing
the majority in both Niger and Nigeria. Their society remains
largely feudal. They live along most of the southern border and
in the country’s major cities. 168
Kanouri Manga
The Kanouri Manga are descendants of the once powerful
164
John A. Shoup, “Songhay,” in Ethnic Groups of Africa and the Middle East: An Encyclopedia, ed. John A. Shoup
(Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2011), 265–266.
165
166
167
Valentina Mazzucato and David Niemeijer, “Chapter 3: Population Growth and the Environment in Africa: Local
Informal Institutions, the Missing Link,” in The Earthscan Reader in Environment, Development & Rural
Livelihoods, eds. Samantha Jones and Grace Carswell (Sterling, VA: Earthscan, 2004), 84–85.
168
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Hausa,” 2012, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/257081/Hausa
© D LI F LC | 28
Kanem-Bornu Empire. Their society is highly stratified, with a political-religious elite at the top.
They predominantly live along the south and southeast borders. 169
Peuhl (Fulani)
Once a predominantly nomadic people, many Peuhl have become
sedentary. But they continue to prize cattle ownership as a sign
of wealth. They were largely responsible for converting other
Nigeriens to Islam, through a series of jihads in the 19th
century. 170, 171
Tagdal (Igdalen)
A pastoralist people of mixed Songhai-Berber ancestry, the
Tagdal have settled predominantly in the area of Agadez, surrounded by the Tuareg, with whom
they are closely related. 172, 173
Toubou
Living chiefly as nomads and farmers, the Toubou have been a
source of ethnic tension in Niger and Chad, because they have
expressed a desire for a separate nation. They live to the east of
largely uninhabited desert regions of northern Niger. 174, 175
Tuareg
Pastoralist-nomads who live throughout West Africa and the
Sahel, the Tuareg have rebelled in many countries, including
Niger, seeking an independent Tuareg state. They comprise only
9% of the population. They live throughout much of central and
northern Niger, and they have historically controlled much of the
overland trade in the region. 176, 177
169
Nancy McCarthy, et al., Managing Resources in Erratic Environments: An Analysis of Pastoralist Systems in
Ethiopia, Niger, and Burkina Faso (Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute, 2004), 40.
171
Walter E.A. van Beek, “Purity and Statecraft: The Fulani Jihād and its Empire,” The Quest for Purity: Dynamics
of Puritan Movements (The Hague: Mouton de Gruyter, 1988), 149–182.
172
Robert Nicolaï, “Parentés Linguistiques et Interprétation des Faits: Théorie à la Limite et Limite de la
Théorie,” [French] (lecture, Institut Universitaire de France-Université de Nice / Max Planck Institute for
Evolutionary Anthropology, October 2005), 13, http://webs.unice.fr/ChaireIUFNicolai/TextesRN/Theorie_limite.pdf
173
Michael J. Rueck and Niels Christiansen, Northern Songhay Languages in Mali and Niger: A Sociological
Survey (Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics, 1999), http://www.sil.org/silesr/1999/008/nsonghay.html#2.2.1
174
Temoust, Reuters, “Toubous Open New Front in Niger’s Sahara Conflict,” 8 April 2008,
http://www.temoust.org/toubous-open-new-front-in-niger-s,4886
175
Uppsala Conflict Data Program (Uppsala University), “Niger,” UCDP Conflict Encyclopedia, 2012,
http://www.ucdp.uu.se/gpdatabase/gpcountry.php?id=118&regionSelect=1-Northern_Africa
176
Stephen Emerson, “Desert Insurgency: Lessons from the Third Tuareg Rebellion,” Small Wars & Insurgencies
22, no. 4 (2011): 669–687, http://grendelreport.posterous.com/sahel-desert-insurgency-lessons-from-the-thir
170
© D LI F LC | 29
Religion
Islam is the most prevalent religion in Niger. Around 80% of the
population is Muslim.178 Most are Sunnis, with a majority associated
with the Tijaniya Sufi order. There are small Wahhabi and Shi’a
communities as well. 179 The remaining 20% of the population is
composed of Christians, Baha’is, and indigenous practitioners.
Interfaith relations have been largely peaceful. But Sunnis have
sometimes burned Wahhabi and Christian places of worship. Some
analysts are concerned this may indicate the emergence of Islamist
intolerance in the country.
All religious organizations must register with the Ministry of the
Interior. The government scrutinizes the background of the religious organizations’ leaders
before granting approval. The government must also approve the construction of religious
buildings. The Ministry of Religious Affairs facilitates an interfaith discourse regarding relevant
government policies and legislation. 180
Islam
Islam is a monotheistic religion, meaning that its followers
believe in a single deity. The Muslim community, or umma,
calls this deity Allah. The Arabic term islam means “to submit”
or “to surrender.” Therefore, a Muslim is one who submits to
the will of Allah. 181 Muslims believe that Allah revealed his
message to the Prophet Muhammad, a merchant who lived in
Arabia from 570 to 632 C.E. They consider Muhammad to be
the last in a long line of prophets including Abraham, Moses,
and Jesus. Allah’s message, as relayed by Muhammad, is delivered in the Quran, the sacred text
of Islam. Additional doctrinal guides include the Hadith, a collection of the sayings of
Muhammad, and the Sunna, which describes the practices of Islam by way of Muhammad’s
example. 182, 183
The essential beliefs and rites of the Muslim faith are embodied in the five pillars of Islam. The
first and central pillar is the faithful recitation of the shahada, or Islamic creed (literally
177
Lawel Chekou Koré, La Rébellion Touareg au Niger: Raisons de Persistance et Tentatives de Solution (Paris:
L’Harmattan, 2010).
178
179
Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State, “International Religious Freedom
Report 2010: Niger,” 17 November 2010, http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2010/148711.htm
180
181
Frederick Mathewson Deny, An Introduction to Islam, 2nd ed. (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company,
1994), 177.
182
Gordon D. Newby, A Concise Encyclopedia of Islam (Oxford, UK: Oneworld, 2004).
183
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Islam,” 2012, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/295507/Islam
© D LI F LC | 30
“witness” or “attestation”): “There is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is Allah’s messenger.”
The remaining pillars include performing ritual prayers five times per day; giving alms to the
poor and needy; fasting during the holy month of Ramadan; and undertaking a pilgrimage to the
Islamic holy city of Mecca. 184 Muslims believe that Allah will judge them for their actions on
earth. This judgment determines whether the follower’s afterlife is spent in either heaven or
hell. 185
The majority of Nigerien Muslims are Sunni, many strongly influenced by Sufism. Some are
Wahhabi. About 5% of the Muslim population is Shi’ite. 186
Christianity
Christianity grew out of the teachings of Jesus, who followers
believe was the son of god and the savior of humankind. Its holy
texts are the Old Testament and the New Testament, in which the
New Testament fulfills the prophecy of the Old Testament. Many
Christians believe the New Testament is the final and complete
revelation from their deity to humanity. They further believe that
Jesus died on a cross to save humanity from its sins. On other
doctrines and theology, different branches of the faith diverge,
often quite drastically. 187, 188
European missionaries introduced Christianity to the region during the colonial era. Making up a
small portion of the overall population and centered primarily in the cities of Maradi,
Dogondoutchi, and Niamey, Nigerien Christians belong to a variety of Protestant and Catholic
denominations. 189
Baha’ism
Baha’ism emerged from the Shi’a branch of Islam in the mid-19th
century. In 1844, Mirza Ali Muhammad, a native of Shiraz, Iran, claimed
that he was the herald sent to proclaim the coming of a messianic figure
who would establish a new epoch of peace and righteousness. Although
initially embraced by Islamic clerics who viewed his message as
consistent with traditional Shi’ite teachings regarding the Twelfth Imam,
the Bab— as Ali Muhammad was now referred— quickly diverged from
such orthodoxy. The Bab revealed a new holy book intended to ‘replace’
184
Frederick Mathewson Denny, An Introduction to Islam, 2nd ed. (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company,
1994), 118–136.
185
Michael Anthony Sells, Approaching the Qur’an: The Early Revelations (Ashland, OR: White Cloud Press,
2005), 35–40.
186
187
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Christianity,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/115240/Christianity
188
John Stephen Bowden, ed., Encyclopedia of Christianity (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005).
189
© D LI F LC | 31
the Quran and raised 18 of his most trusted followers as disciples— whom he charged with
spreading the new faith. The Shi’a clerics turned against him, and government forces martyred
the Bab and his disciples. 190
In 1863, Mirza Hussein Ali, an ardent follower of the Bab, proclaimed that he was the messiah of
whom the Bab had spoken. He took the name Baha’u’llah, and from his exile in Baghdad
published three books, which became the foundation of Baha’i theology. 191
The central tenets of the faith uphold the unity of god, recognize the unity of his prophets,
believe that divine revelation is a continuous and ongoing process, and teach the principle of the
oneness of humanity. Baha’is believe that all the world’s religions are in complete harmony at
their roots, with separate teachings displaying different facets of the same truth. Consistent with
this theology, Baha’ism embraces Abraham, Moses, Jesus, Mohammad, Zoroaster, Krishna,
Gautama Buddha, and other teachers from other faiths as messengers from god. 192
Numbering a few thousand, Niger’s Baha’is live chiefly in Niamey and along the border with
Burkina Faso. 193
Indigenous Practices
Spirit-possession plays a major role in the religious life of those who
ascribe to traditional indigenous practices and among those who follow
more folk-style practices of the Abrahamic faiths. Bori is the name used
to describe these traditional practices. Adherents believe that ritual
practitioners are able to channel spiritual power to influence rainfall,
assist in healing, or otherwise intervene in the mundane affairs of
Nigerien communities. 194
Cuisine and Traditional Dress
The major food crops of Niger are primarily millet, legumes, and nuts. Nigeriens frequently
make pastes from grains, flavoring them with spicy sauces and adding vegetables and
occasionally meat when available. Dairy is an important element of Nigerien cuisine as well,
especially cheeses made of camel, cow, and goat milk. Meat is less frequently served, but is not
altogether uncommon. But as a predominantly Muslim nation, pork is taboo. 195, 196
Encyclopædia Britannica, “Bahāʾī Faith,” 2012, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/48930/Bahai-faith
Peter Smith, “Chapter 2: Bahá’u’lláh and the Emergence of the Baha’i Faith,” An Introduction to the Baha’i
Faith (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 16–42.
192
Peter Smith, “Chapter 2: Bahá’u’lláh and the Emergence of the Baha’i Faith,” An Introduction to the Baha’i
Faith (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 106–107.
193
194
Adeline Marie Masquelier, Prayer Has Spoiled Everything: Possession, Power, and Identity in an Islamic Town
of Niger (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2001).
195
Susan J. Rasmussen, “Niger,” in Countries and Their Cultures: Volume 3: Laos to Rwanda, eds. Melvin Ember
and Carol R. Ember (New York: Macmillan Reference, 2001), 1615.
196
Virginia Claire Breedlove, “Nigeriens,” in Worldmark Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life: Volume 1:
Africa, 2nd edition, ed. Timothy L. Gall (Farmington Hills, MI: Gale, 2009), 428.
190
191
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Traditional attire varies considerably among the many ethnic groups in Niger. Among most
southern groups, including the Hausa, Djerma Sonrai, and
Kanouri Manga, women dress in vibrantly colored, loose cotton
designs. But those living in the desert regions favor darker
colors and clothing that offers greater protection from the sun.
Among the Tuareg, men veil their faces and don indigo turbans
and flowing robes. 197
Arts
Music
Throughout much of West Africa including Niger, griots, hereditary professional folk singers ply
their trade. They continue the oral traditions of passing on lore, praising leaders, and serving as
local diplomats. 198
Music is also used as political commentary. A prime example
of this is the music of the Tuareg artist Omar Moctar, better
known as Bombino. He has become an international sensation,
frequenting blues festivals around the world, fusing traditional
Tuareg and contemporary Western music. His songs promote
peace in a region often torn by ethnic violence. 199
Instruments
The many Nigerien ethnic groups follow their own musical
traditions and use culture-specific instruments. Among these
instruments, one finds the ganga, a medium-sized, doublefaced, single snare drum used by the Hausa. The same group
uses the kalangu, a small hour-glass tension drum, and the
algaita, a double-reed, three- or four-holed instrument made up
of a brass mouth pipe and wooden tube, the latter is covered in
leather. 200, 201
197
198
Stephen Belcher, “Chapter 1: Elements of Epic Traditions,” in Epic Traditions of Africa (Bloomington: Indiana
University Press, 1999), 1–26.
199
Andrew Dansby, “Bombino Finds his Oasis in Tuareg Music,” The Houston Chronicle, 20 April 2012,
http://www.chron.com/life/article/Bombino-finds-his-oasis-in-Tuareg-music-3497584.php
200
Roger Blench, “The Morphology and Distribution of Sub-Saharan Musical Instruments of North African, Middle
Eastern, and Asian Origin,” in Musica Asiatica 4, ed. Laurence Picken (New York: Cambridge University Press,
1984): 155–191.
201
Susan J. Rasmussen, “Niger,” in Countries and Their Cultures: Volume 3: Laos to Rwanda, eds. Melvin Ember
and Carol R. Ember (New York: Macmillan Reference, 2001), 1615.
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The Tuareg play the anzad, a single-stringed, bowed lute. Its body is composed of a large, dried
gourd covered with a thin layer of brightly decorated leather. Its single string is made of animal
hair, as is the bowstring. The Tuareg also play the tende, a drum similar to the Hausa’s ganga. 202
The Peuhl play a traverse flute known as the tambin. It is made from a conical vine, with three
finger holes. 203 Among the peoples along the border with Chad, the biram, a five-stringed harplike instrument originally found among the Boudouma nomads, represents a unique
instrument. 204
Crafts
Among Niger’s peoples, the Djerma Sonrai are known for their
intricate pottery. 205, 206 The Hausa are renowned for their luru
blankets, which are made of thick cotton strips. They are white
with colored stripes and ornamental patterns. 207 The Hausa and
the Tuareg are both known for their elaborate leatherwork. 208
The Hausa use traditional methods to dye leather, including
vibrant green, black, red, and yellow. 209 The Tuareg are masters
of metalsmithing, creating fine jewelry, folk amulets, and other
fine pieces in precious metals and products in base metals for daily use. 210, 211
Sports and Recreation
Traditional wrestling, which expresses the culture with its poems and traditions, is the most
popular sport in Niger. 212, 213 Nigeriens have traditionally done well at the ECOWAS Traditional
Wrestling Championship. The Nigerien team won gold in the 2012 championship competition in
Niamey. 214
202
Susan J. Rasmussen, Spirit Possession and Personhood among the Kel Ewey Tuareg (New York: Cambridge
University Press, 1995), 124.
203
“Fula Flute,” National Geographic Music, 2012,
http://worldmusic.nationalgeographic.com/view/page.basic/artist/content.artist/fula_flute_21552/en_US
204
Dominic Bascombe, “Keeping Traditional African Music Alive,” World Music (blog), 27 February 2010,
http://dominic-bascombe.suite101.com/keeping-traditional-african-music-alive-a207517
205
Jonathan Bloom and Sheila Blair, eds., The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture: Volume 2:
Delhi to Mosque (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 52.
206
Jolijn Geels, Niger (Chalfont St. Peter: Bradt Travel Guides, 2006), 80, 115.
207
Judith Perani and Norma H. Wolff, Cloth, Dress and Art Patronage in Africa (New York: Berg, 1999), 158.
208
Judith Perani and Norma H. Wolff, Cloth, Dress and Art Patronage in Africa (New York: Berg, 1999), 116–119.
209
Pat Oyelọla, Nigerian Crafts (London: Macmillan, 1981), 45.
210
Susan Rasmussen, “Chapter 7: Betrayal or Affirmation? Transformations in Witchcraft Technologies of Power,
Danger and Agency among the Tuareg of Niger,” in Magical Interpretations, Material Realities: Modernity,
Witchcraft and the Occult in Postcolonial Africa, eds. Henrietta L. Moore and Todd Sanders (New York: Routledge,
2001), 136–138.
211
Kenneth Slavin and Julie Slavin, The Tuareg (London: Gentry Books, 1973), 30.
212
Jolijn Geels, Niger (Chalfont St. Peter: Bradt Travel Guides, 2006), 80, 77.
213
Anthony Ham, West Africa (Oakland, CA: Lonely Planet, 2009), 577.
214
Baboucarr Camara, “West Africa: Wrestler Wins Silver in Niger,” allAfrica, 25 April 2012,
http://allafrica.com/stories/201204250398.html
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Among the Tuareg and other peoples of the desert north, camel racing is a preferred sport. 215
The Peuhl have a unique martial contest known as sorro. Two
male contenders take turns striking one another across the chest
with sticks. The contestants strive to demonstrate an ability to
ignore the resulting pain, refusing to wince, grimace, or cry.
Traditionally, this has been a a coming-of-age ritual in Peuhl
communities. 216
215
Anthony Ham, West Africa (Oakland, CA: Lonely Planet, 2009), 577.
216
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1. The Tuareg are the largest ethnic group in Niger, which explains their desire for an
independent state.
FALSE
The Tuareg are only 9% of the Nigerien population.
2. Most Nigeriens follow Baha’ism, making the country the world’s only Baha’i majority
nation.
FALSE
Although there is a small Baha’i community in Niger, the majority of Nigeriens are
Muslim.
3. Nigerien cuisine relies heavily on meat dishes.
FALSE
Meat is served infrequently, especially in years of drought. Most Nigerien meals consist
of cereal grain-based pastes, vegetables, and sauces.
4. Nigerien society is egalitarian, and women are highly respected.
FALSE
Only 15% of Nigerien women are literate. They are not afforded equal rights. Sexual
abuse, female infanticide, forced early marriage and prostitution, and rape plague
Nigerien society.
5. Traditional wrestling is the most popular sport in Niger.
TRUE
Traditional wrestling, which expresses the culture using poems and other traditions, is the
most popular sport in Niger. The Nigerien team won gold in the 2012 championship
competition.
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CHAPTER 5: SECURITY
Introduction
Niger has seven neighboring countries, which pose daunting challenges
for Niger’s foreign-policy decision makers. Many of these neighbors
share ethnic communities with Niger, and any turmoil that develops in
these communities is prone to spill over across the border. This has
certainly been the case with the numerous Tuareg rebellions that have
rocked West Africa.
To create greater stability, the countries of West Africa have banded
together in numerous regional organizations focusing on economic,
political, and military cooperation (e.g., ECOWAS, Bourse Regionale des
Valeurs Mobilieres, etc.). But as recent events in Mali have illustrated,
these regional bodies are limited in their ability to address such concerns.
The Nigerien military and police forces are small and ill-equipped. They pose little concern for
international terrorist organizations such as al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) or Boko
Haram, which are pushing into the region. Therefore, the U.S. is spearheading efforts to
facilitate greater military cooperation and improve counterterrorism training for the Nigerien
military and their counterparts throughout the region.
U.S. – Niger Relations
The Trans-Sahara Counterterrorism Partnership (TSCTP) is a
U.S. Department of State program created to tackle current and
future expansion of terrorist and extremist operations in West
and North Africa. Under the auspices of Operation Enduring
Freedom, Trans-Sahara (OEF-TS), the U.S. Africa Command
(AFRICOM) trains, equips, assists and advises partner nations,
including Niger, through intelligence sharing, systems
interpolation, training exercises, and logistics services in
support of TSCTP. 217, 218 In Niger, the focus of this assistance is in dealing with al-Qaeda in the
Islamic Maghreb and Boko Haram. 219
Relations with Neighboring Countries
The Bourse Regionale des Valeurs Mobilieres (BRVM) serves as a regional stock exchange
tying together the economies of Niger and other West African nations. 220
217
U.S. Africa Command (AFRICOM), “The Trans-Sahara Counterterrorism Partnership,” n.d.,
http://www.africom.mil/tsctp.asp
218
John Pike, “Trans Sahara Counterterrorism Partnership (TSCTP),” GlobalSecurity.org, 26 March 2012,
http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/ops/tscti.htm
219
Jane’s Information Group, “Boko Haram Moves Closer to AQIM,” Jane’s Islamic Affairs Analyst, 22 March
2012.
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Niger is also a member of the Economic Community of West African
States (ECOWAS). ECOWAS is a regional organization promoting
economic cooperation, political stability, and regional security issues
throughout much of West Africa. 221
Algeria
Algeria helped negotiate the 1995 peace agreement between the
Nigerien government and the Tuareg rebels. Relations between the two
countries have been amicable sincethen. But intermittent insurgencies,
weapons trafficking, and illicit activities along the shared border have
been a major strain on bilateral relations. Regional security cooperation has increased over the
past decade. Both countries are concerned with the operation of Islamist terrorist organizations
and Tuareg separatists. These concerns have been heightened since the fall of the Qadhafi regime
in Libya and an influx of heavy weaponry and highly trained fighters has poured into the area. 222
Algeria stands to benefit from the Trans-Saharan Gas Pipeline (NIGAL), a planned natural gas
pipeline crossing Niger to Algeria for transit to European markets. 223
Benin
Relations between Niger and Benin have been mixed . As a
landlocked country, Niger relies heavily on the Beninese port
of Cotonou, where it maintains a port authority and customs
office. But the two countries were long at odds over possession
of some islands located in the Niger River, including Lété
Island. Although the International Court of Justice resolved this
matter in 2005, awarding Lété Island and 15 other islands to
Niger and the remaining 9 to Benin, border issues linger
because the demarcation of the Benin-Niger-Nigeria tri-border
area remains unresolved. 224, 225
Burkina Faso
Long-standing border disputes between Niger and Burkina
Faso have created some animosity between the two neighbors.
Sporadic communal violence erupts in disputed communities,
and has only been exacerbated by the recurring influx of
refugees fleeing the Tuareg rebellions in the region. (Burkina Faso also has a large Tuareg
220
Bourse Regionale des Valeurs Mobilieres, “BRVM,” 2009, http://www.brvm.org/
Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), “ECOWAS,” 8 April 2012, http://www.ecowas.int/
222
Jane’s Information Group, “External Affairs: Niger,” Jane’s Sentinel Security Assessment, 7 March 2012.
223
Ali Emami Meibodi and Syed Shabber Ali, “Oil and Natural Gas Pipelines to Europe” (presentation,
International Conference on Applied Economics 2010, Athens, Greece, 26–28 August 2010), 518,
http://kastoria.teikoz.gr/icoae2/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/articles/2011/10/057.pdf
224
225
Central Intelligence Agency, “Niger: Transnational Issues,” in The World Factbook, 10 May 2012,
221
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population, and although these Tuaregs did not join in the previous rebellions in Mali and Niger,
there were some disruptions related to those conflicts.) The border disputes were referred to the
International Court of Justice in 2010, and hearings are slated for October 2012. 226, 227
With a shared history as French colonies, the two countries were close trading partners. Yet in
recent years, Niger has turned to its other neighbors, especially Nigeria, Benin, and Chad for
trade, which has further weakened bilateral ties with Burkina Faso. 228
Chad
Bilateral relations between Niger and Chad are chiefly defined
by problems with rebellious Toubou ethnic communities,
which inhabit a shared border region. Each country has accused
the other of aiding Toubou militants on the opposite side of the
border. They have also accused each other of harboring
political dissidents.229
Niger has long hosted Mahamid Arabs who fled droughts and
civil war in Chad during the late-20th century. Most settled in the Nigerien city of Diffa. In 2006,
Niger moved to expel these refugees; however, the international community pressured Niamey to
back down. 230 Chad, in the midst of a civil war, was not willing to accept the return of the
refugees, because the country was dealing with uprisings among its other Arab populations and
wanted to avoid worsening the situation. 231
Neither Niger nor Chad has ratified the Lake Chad Commission’s delimitation treaty establishing
the Niger-Chad border. 232
In early 2012, Niger and Chad reached an agreement to ship crude oil from Niger’s Agadem
oilfield through a Chad-Cameroon pipeline. The agreement, which stands to benefit both
countries greatly, may serve as the catalyst for closer bilateral relations. 233
Libya
Members of Muammar Qadhafi’s family and inner circle fled Libya seeking refuge in Niger.
Although granting him asylum, the Nigerien government placed Saadi Qadhafi, the late226
International Court of Justice, “Frontier Dispute (Burkina Faso/Niger)” (press release, The Hague, 22 March
2012), http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/files/149/16955.pdf
227
228
229
230
Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State, “2007 Country Reports on Human
Rights Practices: Niger,” 11 March 2008, http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/2007/100497.htm
231
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Chad: History: Civil War,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/104144/Chad/54944/Civil-war
232
233
Abdoulaye Massalatchi and Bate Felix, “Niger to Ship Crude Through Chad-Cameroon Pipeline,” Reuters, 1
March 2012, http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/03/01/niger-chad-pipeline-idUSL5E8E127N20120301
© D LI F LC | 39
dictator’s third son, under house arrest; however, they refuse to extradite him. 234 This has
severely strained relations between the two neighbors; especially after Saadi called for a
counterrevolutionary uprising in Libya in February 2012. Following that call, Abdullah Naker,
the leader of Libya’s Tripoli Revolutionist Council (TRC) threatened to kidnap Saadi from Niger
to bring him to justice in Libya. 235 In March 2012, the Nigerien government briefly appointed
Bashir Saleh Bashir, Qadhafi’s former investment fund manager and close aide, to an advisory
position before withdrawing the appointment in the face of international protest. 236, 237
Mali
Niger and Mali had a shared colonial history under French rule.
The populations of both countries contain many of the same
ethnic groups: Tuareg, Peuhl, and Songhai. As such, the ethnic
tensions between these groups tend to spill across the shared
border, especially in the case of the Tuareg rebellions of the
late-20th century and 21st century. The Tuaregs of Mali and
Niger have traditionally ignored the international border and
their rebellions in one country frequently spill over to the
other. 238
Although both countries have teamed with the United States to fight al-Qaeda in the Islamic
Maghreb and other Islamist organizations operating in the Sahel and Sahara, neither country has
sufficient control over the affected regions of their nation to be effective in combating these
threats. 239, 240
Niger has staunchly refused to acknowledge the legitimacy of the 2012 coup in Mali. 241
234
David Smith, “Niger Grants Asylum to Saadi Gaddafi,” The Guardian (UK), 11 November 2011,
http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/nov/11/saadi-gaddafi-asylum-niger
235
Khaled Mahmoud, “We Can Kidnap Gaddafi from Niger – Libyan Official,” Asharq Alawsat (UK), 16 February
2012, http://www.asharq-e.com/news.asp?section=1&id=28503
236
Abdoulaye Massalatchi, “Top Gaddafi Official Gets Niger Gov’t Role – Sources,” Reuters, 8 March 2012,
http://af.reuters.com/article/nigerNews/idAFL5E8E87CI20120308?sp=true
237
“Niger Rescinds Gaddafi Official’s Diplomatic Passport,” Reuters, 16 March 2012,
http://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFJOE82F00Q20120316
238
Stefan Simanowitz, “Blue Men and Yellowcake: The Struggle of the Tuaregs in Mali and Niger,” Contemporary
Review (Spring 2009), http://www.newint.org/features/special/2009/03/26/bluemen-and-yellowcake/
239
Research and Information Support Center, Overseas Security Advisory Council, U.S. Department of State,
“Northern Mali: A Rebel Melting Pot,” 13 April 2012,
https://www.osac.gov/Pages/ContentReportDetails.aspx?cid=12389
240
Nathalie Prevost, “Analysis: Tuareg Uprising in Mali Threatens Neighbor Niger,” Chicago Tribune, 3 May 2012,
http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2012-05-03/news/sns-rt-us-niger-tuaregbre8420am-20120503_1_tuareg-uprisingtuareg-fighters-rebel
241
“Le Niger Condamne le Putsch au Mali,” [French], Niger Express, 2012,
http://www.nigerexpress.info/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=779:le-niger-condamne-le-putschau-mali&catid=177:niger&Itemid=618
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Nigeria
The populations of Niger and Nigeria share many of the same ethnic groups: Hausa, Kanouri,
and Peuhl (Fulani). The borders were drawn in colonial times with little concern for the interests
of these groups. Thus, the location of Benin-Niger-Nigeria tri-border area is unresolved. Nor has
Niger ratified the Lake Chad Commission’s treaty establishing the Niger-Nigeria border. 242
Nigeria is one of Niger’s main trading partners, particularly
with informal cross-border trade in agricultural produce and
livestock. 243 But there is more malicious trade, too.. Nigerien
women and children are recruited from Niger and transported
to Nigeria for domestic servitude and sex trafficking. Niger
serves as a transit point for drugs being trafficked from Nigeria
to European markets. 244
The Nigeria-based terrorist organization Boko Haram has
recently begun to extend its operations to Niger. Niger’s government has expressed concern that
the group is working with al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb, which would place Niger squarely
between these two terrorist organizations’ theaters of operation, posing a serious security risk. 245
Police Force
The Nigerien civilian police force is woefully inadequate in
terms of personnel and equipment. Although the country has a
population of more than 17 million, the police force has only
2,570 personnel, translating to around 1 police officer for every
6,600 citizens. Moreover, Nigerien police are unarmed; barely
a threat against the heavily armed thugs trafficking in drugs,
weapons, and people that plague Nigerien society. 246, 247, 248
The National Gendarmerie fulfills a paramilitary role in
242
243
“Niger Trade, Exports and Imports,” EconomyWatch, 9 April 2010,
http://www.economywatch.com/world_economy/niger/export-import.html
244
Central Intelligence Agency, “Niger,” in The World Factbook, 10 May 2012,
245
Jane’s Information Group, “Niger’s Foreign Minister Claims Boko Haram Receives Explosives Training from
Al-Qaeda Group,” Country Risk Daily Report, 25 January 2012.
246
Central Intelligence Agency, “Niger: People and Society,” in The World Factbook, 10 May 2012,
247
Jane’s Information Group, “Security and Foreign Forces: Niger,” Jane’s Sentinel Security Assessment – West
Africa, 7 March 2012.
248
Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State, “2010 Country Report on Human
Rights Practices: Niger,” 8 April 2011, 5, http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/160137.pdf
© D LI F LC | 41
Nigerien law enforcement. Operating in areas outside the urban purview of the police force, the
gendarmerie has responsibilities for border security, rural policing, and military support
operations. Estimates place its strength at only 1,300 personnel. 249, 250
The Republican Guard, with detachments in Agadez, Maradi, Niamey, and Zinder, is the
paramilitary organization tasked with internal security. It operates closely with the National
Gendarmerie. Estimates place its strength around 2,500 personnel. 251
Nigerien Armed Forces (Forces Armées Nigériennes)
The Armed Forces consist solely of the Army and the Air
Force, because the landlocked nation has no navy. Military
reforms of the late-1990s integrated former Tuareg and Toubou
rebels into military ranks.
Formed in April 2010, the Committee of Joint Chiefs (Comité
d’Etat Major Opérationnel Conjoint–CEMOC) is a regional
organization based in Tamanrasset, Algeria aimed at
orchestrating a unified approach to addressing the problem of terrorism in the Sahel. The
CEMOC has fallen short of its intended goal. Niger, Algeria, Mali, and Mauritania are all
member states. 252, 253 In February 2012, CEMOC extended an invitation to Nigeria to join the
organization. 254
As a member of ECOWAS, Nigerien troops often serve under the auspices of that organization’s
peacekeeping and monitoring force, Economic Community of West African States Monitoring
Group (ECOMOG). 255 In March 2012, ECOWAS named General Salou Djibo, Niger’s former
Interim President following the 2010 coup, as the head of its Observation Mission to oversee the
presidential elections in Guinea-Bissau. 256
249
250
Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State, “2010 Country Report on Human
Rights Practices: Niger,” 8 April 2011, 5, http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/160137.pdf
251
252
Stephanie Barbier, “Mali Kidnappings Highlight Poor Regional Cooperation,” Agence France-Presse, 27
November 2011,
http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5j_WFnmjZ25pc4HP_GdoIdC765YjQ?docId=CNG.267ee7
c6df139dfd8639153103085a00.1b1
253
Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism, U.S. Department of State, Country Reports on Terrorism, 2010
(Washington, DC: U.S. Department of State, 2011), 21, http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/170479.pdf
254
Olawale Rasheed and Taiwo Adisa, “Boko Haram: Sahel Joint Military Command Invites Nigeria as Suspects
Demand Full Protection, Pledge Cooperation with Security Agents,” Nigerian Tribune, 26 February 2012,
http://www.tribune.com.ng/sun/front-page-articles/6515-boko-haram-sahel-joint-military-command-invites-nigeriaas-suspects-demand-full-protection-pledge-cooperation-with-security-agents
255
John Pike, “Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS),” GlobalSecurity.org, 9 July 2011,
http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/int/ecowas.htm
256
Sarjo Camara Singhateh, “Guinea Bissau: ECOWAS to Send 80 Member Delegation to Observe Election,”
allAfrica, 14 March 2012, http://allafrica.com/stories/201203150330.html
© D LI F LC | 42
In March 2012, the European Union (EU) approved a Common Security and Defence Policy
Advisory, Assistance and Training mission to the region. The mission, which is to deploy in the
summer of 2012, is to enhance the counterterrorism capabilities and organized crime fighting
abilities of Nigerien police force and military. 257
In January 2012, President Mahamadou promoted nine officers of the Army and paramilitary
police to the rank of general, including key personnel associated with the 2010 coup. 258
Army
The Nigerien Army consists of roughly 6,000 personnel, who serve in 8
motorized infantry companies, 4 armored reconnaissance squadrons, 1
engineer company, 2 airborne companies, 1 air defense company, and
various auxiliary units. 259 The U.S., under the auspices of the TSCTP,
trained a 150-man rapid reaction company focused on cutting terrorists’
supply routes in the Sahel. Army bases are located in Agadez, Arlit,
Diffa, Dirkou, Dosso, Iferouane, N’Guigmi, N’Gourti, Niamey, Tahoua,
and Zinder. Nigerien personnel have frequently served on UN, African
Union, and ECOWAS operations, including current duty in the
Democratic Republic of the Congo, Liberia, and Côte d’Ivoire. The
army is poorly equipped. Its armor component has only reconnaissance
vehicles and armored personnel carriers. 260
Air Force (Armée de l’Air du Niger)
Only 300 personnel strong, the Nigerien Air Force operates
mainly in support of the army, providing transport and airlift
services. A Light Aviation Squadron conducts aerial
reconnaissance. Bases are located at Niamey, Agadez, Dirkou,
Iferouane, Maradi, Tahoua, and Zinder. But only the Niamey,
Agadez, and Niamey bases have permanently stationed
personnel. 261
Militant and Terrorist Groups
The Al-Qaeda group (AQIM) and the Islamist group Boko Haram are known to operate in Niger
and along its borders. Besides the internal and regional security concerns created by this
situation, attacks in neighboring states are having an adverse effect on the Nigerien economy,
257
Council of the European Union, “Press Release: 3157th Council Meeting: Foreign Affairs,” 22–23 March 2012,
11, http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_data/docs/pressdata/EN/foraff/129252.pdf
258
K.I, “Promotions au Sein des Forces de défense et de Sécurité : Neuf (9) Nouveaux Généraux dans l’Armée et la
Gendarmerie,” [French], Groupe Tamtam Info, 24 January 2012,
http://www.tamtaminfo.com/index.php/politique/7377-promotions-au-sein-des-forces-de-defense-et-de-securite-neuf-9-nouveaux-generaux-dans-larmee-et-la-gendarmerie
259
Jane’s Information Group, “Army: Niger,” Jane’s Sentinel Security Assessment – West Africa, 9 June 2011.
260
John Pike, “Trans Sahara Counterterrorism Partnership (TSCTP),” GlobalSecurity.org, 26 March 2012,
http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/ops/tscti.htm
261
Jane’s Information Group, “Air Force: Niger,” Jane’s Sentinel Security Assessment – West Africa, 16 May 2012.
© D LI F LC | 43
especially in border communities that depend on informal cross-border trading. Trade activity
has been stifled by border closings in the aftermath of terrorist attacks. 262
Making the situation worse, Nigeria forcibly expelled
thousands of Nigeriens and Chadians suspected of supporting
Boko Haram. If such accusations are true, this move would f
further spread the terrorist organization outside of Nigeria,
posing a significant security threat to Niger. 263
In addition, there are a number of Tuareg militant groups and a
host of Islamist groups operating in the region. These
organizations swing between cooperation and rivalry depending on prevailing circumstances.
Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM)
Analysts believe AQIM has collected hundreds of millions of
USD through kidnapping and ransom operations. The group
has employed a strategy to merge with local Tuareg militant
groups. It has thrived in the sparsely populated Sahel, which is
largely autonomous from the central governments of West
Africa. It operates terrorist training camps in Mali’s Kidal
region and is a major player in the Tuareg rebellion in Mali,
vying for control of much of the country’s north with other
militant organizations. 264, 265 AQIM is believed to be
bankrolling and training other terrorist organizations, such as Nigeria’s Boko Haram. This bodes
ill for regional security. 266
Boko Haram
Boko Haram emerged from the remnants of a religious uprising in Nigeria. But it has grown
well beyond its original area of operation. Boko Haram has trained with al-Shabaab in Somalia
and AQIM in Mali. In the summer of 2011, Nigerien authorities arrested 7 Boko Haram
operatives with contact information for known AQIM affiliates on their persons. 267 With the aid
262
Olawale Rasheed, “Boko Haram: Border Closure Cripples Niger’s Economy,” The Nigerian Tribune, 26
February 2012, http://tribune.com.ng/sun/news/6527-boko-haram-border-closure-cripples-nigers-economy
263
Agence France-Presse, “Fleeing Nigeria Violence, Nigeriens Head Home,” Google News, 29 February 2012,
http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gVtN35RuD-IT7AW4iWEDLiAVsZw?docId=CNG.5a0c3d2edec72ec6feea355fbe39a16a.621
264
Research and Information Support Center, Overseas Security Advisory Council, Bureau of Diplomatic Services,
U.S. Department of State, “AQIM in the Sahel,” 18 January 2012,
265
David Lewis, “Qaeda Leader Tells Fighters to Support Mali Rebels,” Chicago Tribune, 24 May 2012,
http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/sns-rt-us-mali-qaedabre84n1bi-20120524,0,6312152.story
266
Fidet Mansour, “Sahel States to Examine AQIM-Boko Haram Link,” Magharebia, 17 November 2011,
http://www.magharebia.com/cocoon/awi/xhtml1/en_GB/features/awi/features/2011/11/17/feature-01
267
Adam Nossiter, “In Nigeria, a Deadly Group’s Rage Has Local Roots,” The New York Times, 25 February 2012,
http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/26/world/africa/in-northern-nigeria-boko-haram-stirs-fear-andsympathy.html?pagewanted=all
© D LI F LC | 44
of AQIM, Boko Haram has demonstrated an increasingly sophisticated use of tactical
proficiency. 268, 269, 270 Boko Haram has played an active role in the 2012 Tuareg rebellion in
Mali. As a result, Niger is squarely within Boko Haram’s field of operations. 271
National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad – MNLA
This Tuareg separatist group, led by Bidal ag Cherif, operates in
Mali. However, the government of Niger is concerned that some
members of the MNLA in rebel-controlled territory in Mali are
Nigerien and may spread rebellion into Niger. 272 The MNLA
announced an independent state in the Tuareg-controlled territory
in Mali in spring 2012, naming it Azawad. Many of the MNLA’s
top commanders formerly served in the Libyan military during
Qadhafi’s rule and the Libyan civil war. The MNLA is a rival of
the AQIM. 273 Although it has limited its operations to Mali, as one of the stronger forces in Mali,
MNLA has great potential to spread across the border to Niger.
Mouvement des Nigériens pour la Justice (Movement of Nigeriens for
Justice – MNJ)
Founded at the beginning of Niger’s 2007–2009 Tuareg rebellion, the
MNJ seeks greater minority rights and redistribution of wealth. Tuaregs
make up the bulk of MNJ personnel; however, some Toubou and Peuhl
are found among its ranks as well. Although the MNJ agreed to an
informal peace with the Niger, it has continued a low intensity
insurgency in the Aïr Mountains, which could serve as a springboard for
a broader conflict. Attacks have focused on Nigerien military positions,
mining operations, and utility companies. Analysts believe the group funds its operations through
drug trafficking and other illicit trade. 274, 275
268
U.S. Department of State, “Boko Haram Strikes in Abuja,” 28 June 2011,
269
U.S. Department of State, “Nigeria: Christmas Day Bombings,” 3 January 2012,
270
J. Peter Pham, “Boko Haram’s Evolving Threat,” Africa Security Brief 20 (April 2012), 6,
http://africacenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/AfricaBriefFinal_20.pdf
271
William Lloyd-George, “Mali: Armed Groups in North Raping Women,” Eurasia Review, 28 April 2012,
http://www.eurasiareview.com/28042012-mali-armed-groups-in-north-raping-women/
272
Open Source Center, Directorate of National Intelligence, “National Concerns Prompting Action on Northern
Mali,” Analysis, 16 April 2012.
273
Jane’s Information Group, “Groups: Africa: Active: Mali: Mouvement National pour la Liberation de l’Azawad
(MNLA),” Jane’s World Insurgency and Terrorism, 4 May 2012.
274
Jane’s Information Group, “Groups: Africa: Active: Mali: Mouvement des Nigériens pour la Justice (MNJ),”
Jane’s World Insurgency and Terrorism, 29 December 2011.
275
May Welsh, “Niger’s Nomad Army,” Al Jazeera, 14 July 2008,
http://www.aljazeera.com/focus/unrestsahara/2008/07/200871473245417773.html
© D LI F LC | 45
Harakat Ansar al-Din
Led by Iyad ag Ghaly, a top commander among the Tuareg
mercenaries who served Libya’s Muammar Qadhafi, Harakat
Ansar al-Din is affiliated with AQIM. 276 Harakat Ansar al-Din
has control over the Malian city of Timbuktu and recently
installed Yahya Abou al-Hammam (an alias for Jemal
Oukacha) as governor over the Timbuktu region in rebelcontrolled territory. Al-Hammam is an Algerian national and a
spiritual leader of AQIM. 277 Harakat Ansar al-Din does not
espouse a separatist ideology, which presents the prospect of conflict with other groups involved
in the rebellion, most notably the MNLA. The MNLA declared rebel-controlled territory as the
new country of Azawad. 278 Although Harakat Ansar al-Din has confined its operations to Mali,
the potential to spread to Niger is considerable.
Issues Affecting Stability
Weapons Smuggling
The Nigerien government has expressed concerns regarding the
smuggling of weapons from Libya since the inception of that
country’s civil war,which toppled Muammar Qadhafi. The
army has fought skirmishes with AQIM operatives who were
armed with sophisticated weaponry plundered from Libyan
stockpiles. 279 To make matters worse, Tuaregs who served as
mercenaries for the Qadhafi-regime have been returning to
Niger and neighboring countries with impressive arsenals. With
the revived Tuareg rebellion in Mali, the Nigerien government
fears Niger’s Tuaregs will follow suit, emboldened by their new found weapons capabilities. 280
Corruption
On 3 January 2012, flames consumed the Ministry of Justice building in Niamey. Government
officials blamed the fire on unnamed forces aiming to derail the new government’s efforts to
crack down on government corruption. 281, 282
276
Serge Daniel and Coumba Sylla, “Diplomats Kidnapped as Mali Slides Deeper into Chaos,” Agence FrancePresse, 5 April 2012, http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5hdVnhAuHHFAz3J3FWqeU_fxO6Tw?docId=CNG.2d0f52415baa033b522a779bdc3c3601.51
277
Bakari Gueye, “AQIM Leader Named Timbuktu Governor,” Magharebia, 16 April 2012,
http://www.magharebia.com/cocoon/awi/xhtml1/en_GB/features/awi/features/2012/04/16/feature-02
278
Agence France-Presse, “Les Islamistes d’Ansar Dine en Position de Force dans le Nord du Mali,” [French],
Maliweb.net, 16 April 2012, http://www.maliweb.net/news/la-situation-politique-et-securitaire-aunord/2012/04/16/article,60772.html
279
Damien McElroy, “Libyan Conflict Thrusts Niger into Unwelcome Spotlight,” The Telegraph (UK), 18
September 2011, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/niger/8771182/Libyan-conflictthrusts-Niger-into-unwelcome-spotlight.html
280
Devon Maylie and Drew Hinshaw, “Alarm Over Smuggled Libyan Arms,” Wall Street Journal Online, 12
November 2012, http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052970203537304577031892657376080.html
© D LI F LC | 46
Refugees
Fleeing the violence of the Malian Civil War from 1990–1996,
hundreds of thousands of Malians have become refugees in
neighboring countries, including Niger. The International
Organization for Migration built the Abala Refugee Camp,
located 85 km (53 mi) from the Mali-Niger border to the
northeast of the Nigerien capital of Niamey. The camp is built
to house 10,000 refugees, but there were an estimated 28,000
refugees in Niger when it opened. Most of the refugees are
Songhai tribesmen, related to Niger’s Zarma Sonrai ethnic group. 283, 284 With the announcement
by the Tuareg rebels in Mali that they had established an independent Tuareg state of Azawad as
of 6 April 2012, the refugee crisis is expected to continue. 285
Food and Water Security
The influx of Malian refugees has greatly exacerbated the food
and water crisis Niger. Years of profound drought in the Sahel
from 2005–6, then in 2009–2010 had already left Niger’s
population woefully undernourished and without access to
adequate potable water. Although international aid agencies
and governments have taken steps to address the situation, the
advent of the refugee crisis may derail such efforts. Nongovernment aid agencies indicate that donors have been
unwilling to fund their efforts to alleviate the crises. 286, 287
Outlook
The security situation in Niger is tenuous at best. The Tuareg rebellion in Mali, which has
declared an independent ethnic state, provides an example of what might happen in Niger. In the
past, such rebellions have spread from original state , be it Mali or Niger, to the other. That threat
persists in the current Tuareg conflict too. That threat is all the more serious because highly
281
Agence France-Presse, “Niger’s Justice Ministry Burnt,” ThisDay Live, 4 January 2012,
http://www.thisdaylive.com/articles/nigers-justice-ministry-burnt/106428/
282
Reuters, “Fire Consumes Niger’s Anti-Corruption Files,” The Jerusalem Post, 3 January 2012,
http://www.jpost.com/Headlines/Article.aspx?id=252060
283
William Lloyd-George, “Mali Refugees: ‘It is painful to see my people begging for handouts,’” The Guardian
(UK), 29 March 2012, http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2012/mar/29/mali-refugees-painful-people-begging
284
Abibatou Wane, “Afrique et le Moyen-Orient,” [French], International Organization for Migration, 20 March
2012, http://www.iom.int/jahia/Jahia/media/press-briefing-notes/pbnAF/cache/offonce/lang/fr?entryId=31585
285
Nick Meo, “Triumphant Tuareg Rebels Fall Out Over al-Qaeda’s Jihad in Mali,” The Telegraph (UK), 7 April
2012, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/mali/9191760/Triumphant-Tuareg-rebelsfall-out-over-al-Qaedas-jihad-in-Mali.html
286
“Responding to the Sahel Food Crisis,” Voice of America, 8 April 2012,
http://www.voanews.com/policy/editorials/africa/Responding-To-The-Sahel-Food-Crisis-146690895.html
287
Ginny Stein, “Looming Niger Famine Fails to Attract Aid,” Australian Broadcasting Corporation, 15 May 2012,
http://www.abc.net.au/news/2012-05-14/looming-niger-famine-fails-to-attract-aid/4009242/?site=brisbane
© D LI F LC | 47
trained fighters returning to Niger from Libya’s civil war—fighters bringing sophisticated
weaponry from Qadhafi’s former regime.
Niger has a history of military coups that have toppled civilian
rule; the most recent having only given up control in 2011.
Many coups have rocked the region in recent years, most
recently in Mali and Guinea-Bissau. Although the international
community has been swift to react against these coups and the
militaries have been quick to provide assurances they intend to
return control to civilian rule, the juntas have been slow in
doing so. Such situations might embolden elements within the
Nigerien military that wish to seize power.
The return of drought to Niger has created a serious food shortage, which is exacerbated by the
number of refugees fleeing regional conflicts for Niger’s safe haven. Aid agencies have warned
that donors have not been forthcoming with the aid necessary to stave off potential catastrophes
resulting from these situations.
All this paints a bleak outlook for Niger’s political stability and security. With its limited
financial and economic resources, the Nigerien government is ill equipped to resolve these
problems, if they present themselves.
© D LI F LC | 48
1. Due to Niger’s lack of strategic importance, the U.S. has largely ignored its security
concerns.
FALSE
The Trans-Sahara Counterterrorism Partnership (TSCTP) is a U.S. Department of State
program created to tackle current and future expansion of terrorist and extremist
operations in West and North Africa. Nigerien forces benefit greatly from this program.
2. Niger has border disputes with many of its neighbors.
TRUE
Niger has border disputes with most of its neighbors. These demarcation issues are
exacerbated by occasional communal violence in the disputed communities.
3. Niger has granted political asylum to former Libyan dictator Muammar Qadhafi’s family
and associates.
TRUE
Members of Muammar Qadhafi’s family and inner circle fled Libya seeking refuge in
Niger. Among those granted asylum were Qadhafi’s son, Saadi, and Bashir Saleh Bashir,
Qadhafi’s former investment fund manager.
4. The Nigerien civilian police force is woefully inadequate in terms of personnel and
equipment.
TRUE
Although the country has a population of more than 17 million, the police force has only
2,570 personnel, or 1 police officer for roughly 6,600 citizens. Nigerien police are
unarmed; hardly a threat to heavily armed thugs engaged in illegal regional trafficking.
5. Niger maintains a sizeable and well-equipped military.
FALSE
Combined, the Army and Air Force have less than 7,000 personnel. Land and air vehicles
are either reconnaissance or transport varieties.
© D LI F LC | 49
FINAL ASSESSMENT
1. Industrial population is a major environmental concern in Niger.
TRUE / FALSE
2. Flash flooding is a persistent natural hazard in Niger.
TRUE / FALSE
3. The Sahel is located between the Sahara Desert and the savannahs of Niger’s south.
TRUE / FALSE
4. Niger’s long coastline affords it easy access to overseas markets.
TRUE / FALSE
5. Niamey, the capital of Niger, faces profound problems in dealing with urbanization.
TRUE / FALSE
6. The Tuareg have long been assimilated into the political institutions of Niger.
TRUE / FALSE
7. Early modern kingdoms, including the Mali and Songhai Empires, united much of Niger and
Mali.
TRUE / FALSE
8. Under French rule, Niger was one of several colonies in the French West Africa federation.
TRUE / FALSE
9. Hamani Diori, the 1st President of Niger, was noted for his war on corruption.
TRUE / FALSE
10. Nigerien leaders have shown little concern regarding the 2012 Tuareg rebellion in Mali.
TRUE / FALSE
11. Despite its low literacy rate, Niger has a high standard of living.
TRUE / FALSE
12. The Nigerien government owns all the country’s land and most of its natural resources.
TRUE / FALSE
13. Many analysts have projected a bright outlook for Niger’s short-term economic growth.
TRUE / FALSE
14. The industrial sector is the largest contributor to Niger’s GDP.
TRUE / FALSE
© D LI F LC | 50
15. Despite the important roles the military has played throughout Niger’s independence, military
spending is low.
TRUE / FALSE
16. The Toubou are among the strongest supporters of the Nigerien central government.
TRUE / FALSE
17. Most Nigerien Muslims adhere to the Shi’a branch of Islam.
TRUE / FALSE
18. Folk singers continue to play an important role in Nigerien society.
TRUE / FALSE
19. Tuareg metalsmiths are known for producing fine jewelry.
TRUE / FALSE
20. Sorro is a popular game among the Peuhl, played on horseback and similar to polo.
TRUE / FALSE
21. The Tuareg rebellion in Mali is likely to spread to Niger.
TRUE / FALSE
22. Besides the growing Tuareg rebellion in Mali, Niger faces a number of issues that threaten its
stability.
TRUE / FALSE
23. Nigerien forces have a long history of serving in international peacekeeping operations.
TRUE / FALSE
24. The Mouvement des Nigeriens pour la Justice (MNJ) continues to fight the Nigerien government.
TRUE / FALSE
25. The influx of refugees fleeing the violence in Mali poses a serious threat to Niger’s security.
TRUE / FALSE
© D LI F LC | 51
FURTHER READINGS AND MATERIALS
DVDs
Agadez: The Music and the Rebellion. DVD. Directed by Ron Wyman. Cambridge, MA: Zero
Gravity Films, 2010.
The Nomads of Niger. Treks in a Wild World series. DVD. Directed by Holly Morris. Wheeling,
IL: Film Ideas, 2009.
Books
Cold-Ravnkilde, Signe Marie. Struggling for Water and Pastures in Niger: Natural Resource
Conflict and Cooperation in the Pastoral Areas of the Diffa Region. Saarbrucken: VDM
Verlag, 2009.
Fischer, Anja and Ines Kohl. Tuareg Society within a Globalized World: Saharan Life in
Transition. London: I.B. Tauris, 2010.
Körling, Gabriella. In Search of the State: An Ethnography of Public Service Provision in Urban
Niger. Uppsala: Uppsala University Press, 2011.
Koslow, Philip. Kanem-Borno: 1,000 Years of Splendor. New York: Chelsea House, 1995.
McKissack, Patricia and Fredrick McKissack. The Royal Kingdoms of Ghana, Mali, and
Songhay: Life in Medieval Africa. New York: Holt, 1994.
Miles, William F.S. Hausaland Divided: Colonialism and Independence in Nigeria and Niger.
Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1994.
Articles, Papers, and Reports
Bagayoko, Niagalé. Security Systems in Francophone Africa. Brighton, UK: Institute of
Development Studies, University of Sussex, 2010.
http://www.ids.ac.uk/files/dmfile/RR64.pdf
Emerson, Stephen. “Desert Insurgency: Lessons from the Third Tuareg Rebellion.” Small Wars
& Insurgencies 22, no. 4 (2011): 669–687. http://grendelreport.posterous.com/saheldesert-insurgency-lessons-from-the-thir
Graham, Franklin Charles. “What the Nigerien Coup D’Etat Means to the World.” Review of
African Political Economy 37, no. 126 (2010): 527–532.
Hecht, Gabrielle. “An Elemental Force: Uranium Production in Africa, and What It Means to Be
Nuclear.” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 68, no. 2 (March/April 2012): 22–33.
Larémont, Ricardo René. “Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb: Terrorism and Counterterrorism in
© D LI F LC | 52
the Sahel.” African Security 4, no. 4 (2011): 242–268.
Roussellier, Jacques. “Terrorism in North Africa and the Sahel: Al-Qa’ida’s Franchise or
Freelance?” Policy brief, no. 34, Middle East Institute, Washington, DC, 2011.
http://www.mei.edu/sites/default/files/publications/Roussellier_0.pdf
© D LI F LC | 53

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