25 Czekalski - Società Italiana di Nefrologia

H ISTOR Y OF N EPHROLOGY
J NEPHROL 2006; 19 (suppl 10): S150-S158
The history of nephrology in Poland
Stanislaw Czekalski 1, Boleslaw Rutkowski 2
Department of Nephrology, Transplantology and Internal Diseases, Poznań University of Medical Sciences, Poznań Poland
2
Department of Nephrology, Transplantology and Internal Diseases, Medical University, Gdańsk - Poland
1
ABSTRACT: Modern nephrology developed in Poland mostly from the internal medicine department chaired in Warsaw by the great internist prof. Witold Orl⁄owski (1874-1966). Three of his pupils Tadeusz Orl⁄owski, Jan Roguski and
Jakub Penson independently established the foundations of clinical nephrology and renal replacement therapy in different parts of Poland. T. Orl⁄owski and his team worked in Warsaw, where despite developing clinical nephrology and
dialysis also performed the first successful renal transplantation in Poland in 1966. Thereafter in 1975 the Institute
of Transplantology in Warsaw was established and for several years was the leading research and education center in
nephrology and transplantology. J. Penson established a sound clinical nephrology program in Gdan´sk, where later
physiological and biochemical aspects of the kidney were studied by his successors – A. Manitius and B. Rutkowski in
collaboration with S. Angielski and his biochemical team. They were instrumental in establishing a successful program
leading to the development of dialysis in Poland during the last twenty years. J. Roguski in Poznan´ continued the research on water- electrolyte balance, metabolic and endocrine disturbances in renal patients and immunology of
glomerular diseases. The first HD treatment was performed in Poznan´ in 1958 by the group of J. Roguski and coworkers chaired by K. Ba˛czyk. Subsequently, several strong academic centers were established throughout Poland. F. Kokot
in Katowice being himself leader of the Polish nephrology for many years created a very active centre well known for
its pioneer publications on water- electrolyte, acid- base and endocrine disorders in different stages of chronic kidney
disease. F. Kokot and his successor A. Wie˛cek are also very active and well recognized on an international scale. In
Wrocl⁄ aw a nephrological center was established by Z. Wiktor and later his coworkers Z. Szewczyk and recently M.
Klinger. Other valuable academic nephrological centers were created in Kraków (Z. Hanicki, W. Sul⁄owicz), Lublin (Z.
Twardowski, A. Ksia˛żek), L/ ódz´ (Z. Orl⁄ owski , W. Chrzanowski), Bydgoszcz (A. Nartowicz, J. Manitius) and later Bial⁄ ystok (M. Myśliwiec), and others.
Simultaneously strong academic units were formed in the military hospitals–L/ódz´ (K. Trznadel, M. Luciak) and Warsaw (Z. Wan´kowicz). The last center was for many years widely known for their studies concerning PD treatment. Pediatric nephrology developed in parallel with adult centers mainly in Warsaw (T. Wyszn´ska, M. Sieniawska, R. Grenda), Wrocl⁄ aw (Z. Morawska, D. Zwoliƒ ska) and Gdan´sk (M. Uszycka-Karcz, A Zurowska). Several Polish nephrologists
were and still are involved in the activity of European and international nephrological societies.
Key words: Nephrology in Poland, Witold Orlowski, Tadeusz Orlowski, Jakub Penson, Jan Roguski
The roots of modern nephrology in Poland, as a subspecialty of internal diseases can be traced to the first
decades of 20th century, in the Department of Internal
Diseases of the Medical Faculty, Warsaw University,
where prof. Witold Orl/owski (1874-1966) (Fig. 1), initiated studies of kidney function and water and electrolyte balance changes in primary kidney diseases
and different internal diseases, particularly in heart
failure (1).
Scientific work in this field was brutally stopped by
Hitler’s Nazi aggression in 1939 and subsequent Soviet occupation of Poland during the years of the Second World War. It must be noted with sympathy and
admiration, that one of the young doctors from the
prof. Witold Orl/owski’s team, Jakub Penson, in the
years of cruel nazi occupation of Warsaw, managed to
continue the studies on prerenal kidney failure caused
by dehydration during the typhus epidemic in the
Warsaw ghetto (2). His pioneering observations were
published in 1946 (Fig. 2) in one of the Polish medical
journals (3). It should be mentioned also that the Polish Secret University in Warszawa continued the education of students at the Medical Faculty throughout
the years of Nazis occupation.
After the end of war in 1945, prof. Witold Orl/owski
and his son, Tadeusz Orl/owski, resumed nephrological research and continued the studies that had begun
already in 1943. The trainees of prof. Witold Orl/owski
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Czekalski and Rutkowski
Fig. 2 - The title page of Pol. Tyg. Lek. containing the papers
of Prof. Jakub Penson.
Fig. 1 - Professor Witold Orl/owski (1874-1966).
have created two other teams of researchers: one by
prof. Jakub Penson (Fig. 3) in Gda ńsk and the other
by prof. Jan Roguski (Fig. 4) in Poznań.
In 1951, “The diseases of the urinary system” were described in Witold Orl/owski’s manual “The Science of
Internal Medicine”, and frequently updated in subsequent editions by prof. Tadeusz Orl/owski as the editor.
In 1951, Tadeusz Orl/owski published a monograph,
“Glomerular and tubular kidney function concerning
water balance in physiology and some circulatory diseases”, describing new observations on the diurnal
changes of glomerular filtration rate (GFR) measured
by the modified method of evaluation, and the
changes of GFR in early stages of heart failure. In the
years 1948-1959 studies on treatment of acute renal
failure (ARF) with very low-protein diet were undertaken and the low protein, potato diet was introduced
by Dr Pol/eć for the treatment of the patients with
chronic renal failure (CRF). Attempts at intestinal
dialysis were started, and in 1953 the first peritoneal
Fig. 3 - Professor Jakub Penson (1899-1971).
dialysis was performed. At the same time, systematic
research on immunosuppressive therapy of primary
glomerular diseases was initiated.
In 1956 the manual of prof. M. Feigin: “Kidney disS151
The history of nephrology in Poland
eases in the clinic of internal diseases” was published.
In 1957 prof. Jan Roguski, from Poznań published a
monograph on the “Pathogenesis and therapy of
oedema” and a series of original works on water and
electrolyte balance in various internal diseases (4).
And, in cooperation with the Departments of Pathophysiology (prof. J. Steffen, prof. J. Knapowski) and
Pathology (prof. W. Salwa), the experimental micropuncture studies on kidney function and on the metabolic evaluation of patients with acute and chronic renal failure were initiated (prof. J. Hasik, prof. A. Wojtczak, prof. K. Bączyk, prof. S. Magas). In 1960 Jakub
Penson published a nephrological textbook: “Kidney
Diseases” (Fig. 5), followed by two later editions in
1969 and 1970.
In Gdańsk, influential teams working on the biochemical, pathophysiological and morphological aspects of
kidney function were established, lead by prof. Stefan
Angielski, prof. J. Rogulski and prof. J. Stolarczyk.
Their main achievements consisted in clarification of
the regulatory mechanisms of kidney function and the
transport processes and metabolic processes in the
nephron.
Nephrology, as an independent medical specialty
emerged in Europe during the second half of the 20th
centur y (5). Around 1950, the Polish Ministr y of
Health appointed a Commission for the Development
of Nephrology with prof. A. Biernacki (president),
prof. T. Orl/owski (secretary) and prof. J. Penson and
prof. J. Roguski among its members. In Warszawa, a
Nephrological Section of Polish Society of Internal
Medicine and the Nephrology Commission of the Polish Academy of Science were created, both with prof.
T. Orl/owski as president and prof. A. Siciński as secretary.
These initial three nephrological research teams
working in Warszawa, Gdańsk and Poznań since 1945
were quickly joined by colleagues from the Internal
Diseases Departments in Katowice (prof. F. Kokot),
Wrocl⁄ aw (prof. Z. Wiktor), Kraków (prof. Z. Hanicki),
/ ódz´(prof. Z. Orl/owski, prof. K. Trznadel) and a new
L
team in Warszawa (prof. Z. Wańkowicz).
In 1958, a group of American scientists involved in
nephrology visited Polish nephrological centers, and
created the possibility for the training of Polish colleagues in the USA (T. Orl/owski, A. Manitius, A. Wojtczak, J. Stolarczyk). The visit of French scientists led
by prof. G. Richet and A. Ardaillou permitted the development of fellowships and training for young Polish doctors in France (K. Bączyk, S. Czekalski, W.
Pruszczyński).
In 1961, prof. Z. Kuratowska and associates from
Warszawa demonstrated that erythropoietin is produced by the kidneys (6).
Despite the existence of “iron curtain” between Eastern and Western Europe, Polish nephrologists particiS152
Fig. 4 - Professor Jan
Roguski (1900-1971).
Fig. 5 - The title page
of the first edition of
Jakub Penson’s “Kidney Diseases” published in 1960.
pated in the first International Nephrology Congress
in Evian, 1961 (7, 8), and were among the founders of
the International Society of Nephrology (ISN). Polish
nephrologists were active participants in the 2nd Congress of ISN in Prague at 1963, at the 7th Congress of
International Society of Internal Medicine in Washington and at the 3rd ISN Congress in 1966, were several presentations from Polish centers were made (912). Prof. J. Roguski from Poznań was elected a Council Member of ISN for the years 1960-1969. In subsequent years, prof. T. Orl/owski from Warszawa and
prof. S. Angielski from Gdańsk were elected Council
Members and prof. F. Kokot from Katowice was a
member of the Nominating Committee of ISN.
European Dialysis and Transplant Association (EDTA)
Czekalski and Rutkowski
Fig. 6 - Prof. Tadeusz Orłowski and prof. Jan Nielubowicz –
the leaders of the groups which performed first kidney transplantation in Poland in 1966.
was created in 1964. The following professors were EDTA Council Members: T. Orl/owski (1966-1969), F.
Kokot (1978-81, 1987-90, 1993-96), A. Więcek (19992002). Prof. R. Gellert from Warszawa and prof. B.
Rutkowski from Gdańsk took part in the activities of
EDTA Registry. Polish nephrologists (T. Orl/owski, S.
Angielski, F. Kokot, S. Czekalski, B. Rutkowski, A.
Więcek) are actual or former members of the Editorial
Boards of international nephrological journals like
Kidney International, Nephrology Dialysis and Transplantation, Nephron, Clinical Nephrology).
Active nephrological research teams were established
in several Universities of Medical Sciences in 19501970, and with those already working, were changed,
in 1958, into Departments of Nephrology, with dialysis
(hemodialysis (HD) and peritoneal dialysis (PD) divisions) and later incorporated Transplantation Divisions. It is important to mention that the development
of nephrological centers in Poland was possible not
only due to the initiative of Polish researchers, but also due to contact with and help from many foreign
nephrological centers that offered their support by
“working visits” in Polish centers and by training programs and practice for young doctors that has provided Polish nephrology with constant, vital contact with
world nephrology.
The history and contribution of each Polish center to
nephrology can be mentioned only briefly in this article, mainly as presentation of the research teams and
principal areas of their interest. It is impossible to present and evaluate all the scientific works published in
the international and polish nephrological journals
and books.
In Warszawa, prof. T. Orl/owski’s with his group of col-
laborators established the indications and therapeutic
schemes of the immunosuppressive treatment in primary glomerular diseases and published the results of
their long-term observations of the outcome, as well as
their pioneering studies on kidney biopsy in different
glomerulopathies. In 1959 the second artificial kidney
of Alwall type in Poland started the work for treatment
of the patients with ARF, but it was only in 1962, after
the introduction of models of repetitive vascular access for hemodialysis therapy (dr. Z. Fal⁄ da), that patients with CRF qualified for dialysis treatment. The
team of collaborators of prof. T. Orl/owski was also involved in the preparation for the production of Polish
dialysers of different types and the monitors for dialysis. In 1966 a program of cadaver kidney transplantation was introduced, in collaboration with the surgical
team of prof. Jan Nielubowicz (Fig. 6), prof. Jacek
Szmidt and later prof. Wojciech Rowiński (13). Scientific interest now focused on immunosuppression in
kidney graft recipients and the methods of treatment
of acute and chronic rejection. Several collaborators
of prof. T. Orl/owski became professors of medicine
(A. Sici ń ski, A. Górski, M. Lao, L. Gradowska, L.
Pączek, Z. Gaciong, M. Durlik) and many of them created their own teams for research and clinical practice. In 1975 the Institute of Transplantology was
opened in Warszawa with prof. T. Orl/owski as the director.
All aspects of the organ transplantation (kidney, pancreas, liver) and post-transplant immunosuppression
were studied in the Institute. Research continued by
the successors of prof. T. Orl/owski, as directors of the
Institute (prof. M. Lao, W. Rowiński, M. Durlik) since
1987. The nephrological center of prof. T. Orl/owski in
Warszawa, and later the Institute of Transplantology
became leading research and education center in
nephrology and transplantology.
In 1975 the Department of Internal Medicine and
Nephrology with a dialysis unit was created in Warszawa under the direction of prof. A. Siciński. The main
area of research was end-stage renal failure (ESRF),
calcium-phosphate metabolism, endocrine abnormalities, vasculitis and renal replacement therapy. Among
the active members of this team were prof. K. Ostrowski, R. Gellert, A. Wardyn and J. MatuszkiewiczRowińska, who is the head of the Department at present.
In Warszawa, another nephrological team directed by
prof. Wańkowicz has been active since 1965 and focuses mainly on peritoneal dialysis (introduction of
CAPD in Poland and modern methods of evaluation
of the metabolic and clinical effects of the therapy), in
collaboration with prof. A. Weryński.
In Gdańsk, as mentioned before, prof. J. Penson started to build his own department of nephrology based
mainly on a very good clinical team. Dialysis treatment
S153
The history of nephrology in Poland
started in Gdańsk in 1964 in patients with acute renal
failure and thereafter in 1969 in patients with chronic
renal failure. This kind of treatment was introduced
by prof. A. Manitius who had mastered this method
during his scientific stay at Yale University, USA working together with prof. F. Epstein. A. Manitius (Fig. 7)
became the Head of the Nephrology Department in
1970 and kept this position for 22 years until 1992
(14). During this time he continued clinical studies
mainly on the natural history of urinary tract diseases
and asymptomatic bacteriuria (together with M.
Hebanowski and A. Wielgosz) and polycystic kidney
diseases (together with Z. Chodorowski). But his most
important studies were on the pathophysiological and
biochemical consequences of chronic renal failure, especially with carbohydrate and lipid metabolism disturbances both in uremic patients and in experimental renal failure in rats. These studies were performed
mainly by B. Rutkowski and Z. Zdrojewski in collaboration with the Departments of Clinical Biochemistry
(prof. S. Angielski) and Biochemistry (prof. J. S’ wierczyński) and the academic staff from the native Department. These studies were successfully continued
under the new management in 1992 when B. Rutkowski became Head of the Department after the retirement of A. Manitius. Also, new aspects connected with
clinical epidemiology were introduced, especially during the last fifteen years. The best examples of this
new endeavor are the first papers in the literature
showing situation and thereafter development of renal replacement therapy in Central and Eastern Europe (15-18). It has to be mentioned that both A. Manitius and B. Rutkowski played an important role in the
progress achieved in dialysis therapy in Poland during
the last twenty years. They were active in the development of a special program for the expansion of dialysis ser vices that was supported by the Ministr y of
Health and Parliamentary Health Commission (15). A
four-fold increase of dialysis units and ten-fold increment of dialyzed patients were achieved during these
twenty years in Poland. As a result, at the beginning of
the 21st century the incidence rate of ESRF in our
country is comparable to that of developed Western
countries (18). It is worthwhile mentioning that
Gdańsk research team quite recently described new
uremic toxin- 2PY (19).
The group of prof. J. Roguski in Poznań (profs. A. Wojtczak, K. Bączyk, M. Krzymański, S. Czekalski) continued research on water-electrolyte balance, metabolic
and endocrine disturbances in ESRF (the dietetic and
metabolic ward was created and directed by prof. J.
Hasik), immunology in glomerular diseases and the
role of different cytokines, chronic renal disease progression, cardio-vascular complications, diabetic
nephropathy, hypertension, genetics and RRT (Fig. 8a
and b).
S154
Fig. 7 - Prof. Andrzej Manitius together with his successor
Boleslaw Rutkowski.
The first hemodialysis in Poland was performed on a
patient with ARF in 1958, using Alwall artificial kidney
(K. Ba̧czyk, R. Czarnecki, among the others) and the
program of treatment of CRF patients with hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis was introduced shortly
thereafter (20). Prof. K. Ba̧czyk was president of the
Polish Nephrological Society (1986-1989). A Department of Nephrology (director: prof. A. Wojtczak) and
a Dialysis Centre (director: prof. K. Bączyk) were created in 1970, and were soon united with prof. K.
Bączyk as the director (21). Later this unit was transformed into Department of Nephrology, Transplantology and Internal Diseases with prof. S. Czekalski as
the head since 1997. Dr. M. Krzymański, I. Pietrzak and
A. Grzegorzewska became professors of nephrology.
Prof. F. Kokot (Fig. 9) created a very active nephrological Centre in Katowice, which is particularly well
known for its multiple pioneer publications on waterelectrolyte, acid-base and endocrine disorders in CRF,
ARF, CKD, RRT and internal diseases. The unique research method of water immersion was introduced in
this Center. Other areas of scientific interest included:
renal anemia, the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone sys-
Czekalski and Rutkowski
Fig. 8a - Professor
Kazimierz Bà czyk
from Poznaƒ .
Fig. 8b - Professor Andrzej Wojtczak.
Fig. 9 - Professor
Franciszek Kokot from
Katowice.
tem and calcium-phosphate metabolism. Many collaborators of prof. F. Kokot became professors of medicine (J. Kuska, W. Grzeszczak, J. Duława, A. Więcek, E.
Żukowska-Szczechowska, M. Nowicki) and some of
them created their own research teams. The Department of Nephrology was created in 1975 and became
a leading scientific and education Center in Poland.
Fig. 10 - Professor Zygmunt Hanicki and prof. W∏
adys∏
aw
Su∏
owicz from Kraków.
Prof. F. Kokot is the editor of several medical books
that have shaped and influenced generations of Polish
students and doctors and was the President of Polish
Nephrological Society (founded at his initiative in
1979) in the years 1989-1998 (22). Prof. A. Więcek is
the head of the Department at present.
The Department of Nephrology in Wrocl⁄ aw was created in 1958, as the first specialized nephrological department in Poland and also the first University Department of nephrology in Europe, directed by prof.
Wiktor (1911-1970), followed by prof. Z. Szewczyk and
prof. M. Klinger at present. The main areas of scientific interest cover the problems of immunological
mechanisms, immunosuppresion and the role of cytokines in glomerular diseases, hemodynamic disturbances, new methods of treatment, RRT with special
attention to the adequacy of dialysis, and clinical
transplantology as the main issues at present. Prof. Z.
Wiktor was the editor of the manual “Kidney diseases”,
which appeared at about the same time as the manual
of prof. M. Fejgin. Prof. M. Klinger is one of the initiators of an organization of Polish-Czech-German Symposia on Nephrology.
In Kraków, prof. Z. Hanicki organized a hemodialysis
center in 1962, which was the third one in Poland.
Nephrological research works at this center have concentrated on hematological and immunological problems in kidney diseases, uremic toxicity, hemodialysis
and peritoneal dialysis therapy. The Department of
Nephrology was created in 1969 and since 1989 has
been directed by prof. W. Sułowicz (Fig. 10). Currently the main areas of scientific activity are the adequacy
of hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis, the malnutrition-inflamatation-atheroscelerosis syndrome and gastro-intestinal complications in ESRF and HCV-infections. Prof. W. Sułowicz has been the editor of the
journal: Polish Nephrology and Dialysis Therapy since
1997 and is very active in the organization of the
Donau Symposia on Nephrology. In 1997 a new
S155
The history of nephrology in Poland
Fig. 11 - New, modern Nephrological center in Kraków, opened in 1997.
nephrological center was opened (Fig. 11). It is the
biggest and most modern center in Poland and was included in the group of European Teaching Centers in
2003.
In 1992, the second Nephrological Department with
dialysis center started a work in the Rydygier’s Provincional Hospital in Kraków, with prof. O. Smoleński as
the director. The scientific work focus is on the dialysis
therapy, particularly CAPD and rehabilitation of dialysis patients.
/ ódz´ was created
The Department of Nephrology in L
in 1970 with prof. Z. Orl/owski as the director. Research work in the Department includes prerenal
azotemia, primary glomerular diseases, the role of
atrial natriuretic peptide and vasopressin in water balance, interstitial kidney diseases, lipid disturbances, viral infections, RRT and plasmapheresis. Prof. W.
Chrzanowski was the director of the Department from
1995-2004 and prof. M. Nowicki is the director of the
department at present (Fig. 12). In parallel, since
1970 another Nephrological Department has operat/ ódz´ with prof. K. Trznadel as the director, foled in L
lowed by prof. M. Luciak. The main focus of the research has been: uremic toxicity, endothelial dysfunction, ESRF and hemodialysis therapy.
In Lublin, the Department of Nephrology with Dialysis
Center was created in 1971 with dr Perlińska-Schnajder
as the head, followed by dr. Anna Gutka (with prof. A.
Wojtczak as scientific consultant), prof. Z. Twardowski
form 1976 to 1981 and prof. A. Książ ek since then.
Their research focuses on urinary tract infections, autonomic nervous system function in kidney diseases
and hypertension, dialysis treatment with pioneer
works on the adequacy of CAPD (initiation of PET evaluation), coagulation and immunological disturbances,
erythropoietin treatment, renin-angiotensin system,
water and electrolyte balance, cardiovascular risk factors, genetic studies. Prof. L. Janicka and prof. M. Buraczyńska among other work in the Department. Prof.
A. Książ ek has been the editor of the journal: Nephrology and Hypertension since 2001.
S156
Fig. 12 - Professor Zbigniew Or∏
owski, prof. Witold Chrzanowski and prof. Micha∏Nowicki from ¸ ódè .
Fig. 13 - Professor Stefan Angielski with team of coworkers
and group of overseas guests in Gdańsk.
A Department of Nephrology was created in Białystok
in 1980 with prof. M. Mys‘liwiec as the director and
prof. Jolanta Małyszko and prof. A. Popławski among
the collaborators. Their main areas of research are:
haemostatic disturbances, endothelial function in kidney diseases, renal osteodystrophy and recently kidney
transplantation. Prof. M. Mys‘liwiec is the President of
Polish Nephrological Society at present.
In Bydgoszcz, nephrological research was initiated by
prof. E. Nartowicz and continued by prof. J. Manitius.
The dialysis unit performed its first hemodialysis in
1973. The Department of Nephrology was created in
1998 with prof. J. Manitius as the director and the
main areas of interest are: cardiovascular complications and metabolic disturbances in chronic kidney
diseases, hypertension and RRT.
In Szczecin, the nephrological team of dr. J. Lapis and
dr. K. Dziewanowski was reinforced in collaboration
with prof. S. Czekalski, who was the chief of the De-
Czekalski and Rutkowski
partment of Endocrinology, Hypertension and Metabolic Diseases of the University of Medical Sciences in
Szczecin from 1978 to 1997. Their research focused
on endocrine abnormalities in CKD and CRF and on
the renal effects of atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP).
The Department of Nephrology at the University of
Medical Sciences was created at 1998 with prof. K.
Ciechanowski as the director. The research works concentrate on metabolic disturbances in kidney diseases
and ESRF, dialysis therapy and kidney transplantation.
At present, there are 11 Nephrological Departments
in all Universities of Medical Sciences in Poland and
several other nephrological clinical centers, all of
them with established achievements in nephrological
research and active international cooperation.
In parallel with the development of clinical nephrological centers for adults, there was growing and increased activity in pediatric nephrology in Poland.
Prof. T. Wyszyńska, M. Sieniawska, T. Krzeska were
among the member-founders of the International Pediatric Nephrology Association (IPNA) at 1967. Polish
Pediatric Nephrology Association was founded at 1994
with prof. T. Wyszyńska as the president, followed by
prof. M. Sieniawska, prof. R. Grenda and prof. M.
Zwolińska at present. The fourteen Pediatric Nephrological centers operating currently in Poland cover all
aspects of pediatric nephrology with all forms of RRT.
The leading scientific and educational center is the
Department of Nephrology in the Children’s Memorial Health Institute in Warszawa with prof. R. Grenda
as the director.
Several Polish research centers working on biochemical and pathophysiological aspects of kidney function
have achieved international recognition. The team
from Gdańsk with prof. S. Angielski (Fig. 13) as the
leader for many years, and his collaborators: prof. J.
Rogulski, A. Hoppe, J. Stępiński, A. Rybczyńska, W.
Łysiak-Szydłowska concentrated their scientific interest on the mechanisms of regulation of kidney function, metabolic processes in the kidney and the transport mechanisms in the nephrons.
REFERENCES
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2.
3.
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Rutkowski B. Jakub Penson and his studies on acute renal failure during typhus epidemics in Warsaw Ghetto. J Nephrol
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Penson J. Clinical features of typhus epidemic in 1940 and
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The team from Pozna ń established by prof. J.
Knapowski, followed by prof. A. Bręborowicz with collaboration of prof. J. Witowski focused on the mechanisms of transport across the membranes and experimental peritoneal dialysis. In Warszawa, the team of
prof. J. Sadowski was involved in several pioneer experimental works on renal and body fluid physiology.
Constantly growing contribution of Polish centers to
European nephrology may be approximately reflected
by the comparison of the number of abstracts submitted and accepted for presentation at the EDTA-ERA
Congresses. At the EDTA-ERA Congress in Athens
(1995) there were 88 Polish abstracts submitted and
41 accepted for presentation (47 %). At the Congress
in Lisbon (2004) the number of submitted abstracts
had increased to 154 with 109 accepted for presentation (71 %).
The strong impact of the Polish contribution to
achievements in nephrology was possible thanks to
the involvement and efforts of the pioneers of this specialty in Poland – professors: T. Orl/owski, J. Penson, J.
Roguski, Z. Wiktor, S. Angielski, F. Kokot, J. Knapowski, Z. Hanicki and many others, and thanks to all the
creative support from many generous, illustrious personalities in nephrology from Europe and USA. The
younger generation of Polish nephrologists owes
them all considerable appreciation and gratitude.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors express sincere thanks to the professors: T. Or łowski, M. Lao, M. Durlik, R. Grenda, K. B ączyk, F. Kokot, M. Klinger, W. Sułowicz, W. Chrzanowski, A. Książek, M. Myśliwiec, J.
Manitius and dr. R. Czarnecki. for providing valuable materials.
Address for correspondence:
Prof. Boleslaw Rutkowski
Debinski 7
80211 Gdańsk, Poland
[email protected]
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The history of nephrology in Poland
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