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Interpersonal Complications and Intertextual Relations:
A Thousand Acres and King Lear
ANNA LINDHÉ
T h e last d e c a d e s o f the 2 0 * century s a w p l e n t y o f p o s t m o d e r n
reflective rewritings o f c a n o n i c a l w o r k s . W r i t e r s
have always
self-
derived
inspiration f r o m p r e v i o u s narratives; b u t in his s t u d y
Rewriting:
Postmodern Narrative
and Cultural Critique in the Age of Cloning ( 2 0 0 1 ) ,
C h r i s t i a n M o r a r u argues that c o n t e m p o r a r y rewritings express a m o r e
p o t e n t n e e d to revise, u n d e r m i n e , a n d radically criticize t h e representation
o f f o u n d a t i o n a l stories o f western culture. M o r a r u d i s t i n g u i s h e s b e t w e e n
t w o rewriting practices: rewriting as s u p p o r t , i.e. ' u n d e r w r i t i n g ' a n d
rewriting as d i s r u p t i o n , i.e. ' c o u n t e r w r i t i n g ' :
According
to
[the neoclassical
philosophy]
rewriting
is
underwriting, support and reduplication of the already-written. [By
contrasr, the postmodern rewriting practices] set up a
counterwriting distance, a "rupture" between themselves and what
they redo - the literary past - as well as between themselves and
various hegemonic forces active at the moment and in the milieu of
"redoing". (Motaru 2 0 0 1 : 9)
Women
writers'
'counterwriting'
of
Shakespeare
has
increased
c o n s i d e r a b l y in recent years. A l l o w i n g s c o p e for investigations i n t o race
a n d ethnicity, The Tempest h a s b e e n a particular target for p o s t - c o l o n i a l
rewritings, whereas King
Lear
h a s c o m e in for a g o o d deal o f a t t e n t i o n
f r o m feminist writers.
J a n e S m i l e y ' s Pulitzer Prize-winning novel, A Thousand
Acres ( 1 9 9 1 ) ,
is a n o p e n r e s p o n s e to King Lear. A c c o r d i n g to t h e writer herself, ' [ t ] h e
o b v i o u s internal s y s t e m o f A Thousand
Acres is King Lear
(Smiley 2 0 0 1 :
1 6 0 ) . In D a v i d C o w a r t ' s t e r m i n o l o g y , King Lear figures as a 'host-text' for
A Thousand Acres, p r o v i d i n g the 'guest-text' w i t h plot, characters, a n d
f o r m ( C o w a r t 1 9 9 3 : 4 ) . C o w a r t describes s u c h an intertextual relation as
s y m b i o t i c . B y a t t a c h i n g itself to King Lear, A Thousand Acres c o n t r i b u t e s
55
Interpersonal Complications and Intertextual Relations
to t h e survival o f King Lear. King Lear, o n its part, figures as 'host' for A
Thousand
Acres, p r o v i d i n g t h e 'guest' w i t h plot, characters, a n d structure.
T h e King Lear-plot
is, however, transposed to the A m e r i c a n M i d w e s t
in the late 1 9 7 0 s , a n d t h e narrative 'perspective' is c h a n g e d to a w o m a n ' s .
T h e a p p r o p r i a t i o n a n d re-positioning o f plot, characters, a n d themes into a
2 0 ' h century setting incorporates a (counterwriting) distance between past
a n d present which invites a critique o f both. S m i l e y thus engages in what
C o w a r t calls a n epistemic d i a l o g u e with the past', o n e which 'forces readers
into a recognition o f the historical or diachronic difference between the
voice o f o n e literary age a n d that o f another' ( C o w a r t 1 9 9 3 : 1).
Importantly,
S m i l e y ' s critique is a i m e d a g a i n s t t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l
r e a d i n g o f King Lear: 'I h a d an intention in A Thousand
Acres that grew
o u t o f s o m e t h i n g less rational, a r e s p o n s e t o t h e play. I w a n t e d t o
c o m m u n i c a t e t h e ways in w h i c h I f o u n d t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l reading o f King
Lear frustrating a n d w r o n g ' ( S m i l e y 1 9 9 9 : 1 6 0 ) . U p until recently, t h e
p r e d o m i n a n t critical r e a d i n g o f G o n e r i l a n d R e g a n c o u l d b e s u m m a r i z e d
in H a r o l d B l o o m ' s a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e t w o as ' u n n a t u r a l h a g s ' a n d
' m o n s t e r s o f t h e d e e p ' ( B l o o m 1 9 9 4 : 6 4 ) . It is true that previous critical
a t t e m p t s have been m a d e t o challenge these i m a g e s , n o t a b l y b y S t e p h e n
R e i d in 1 9 7 0 , b u t it is o n l y in recent years that a c h a n g e s e e m s to have
o c c u r r e d , p o s s i b l y in t h e w a k e o f A Thousand Acres. 2
1
Jane
Smiley
approaches
King
Lear
from
a feminist
perspective
creating a s p a c e f r o m w h i c h G i n n y / G o n e r i l s p e a k s , c o u n t e r a c t i n g t h e
patriarchal i m a g e s o f S h a k e s p e a r e ' s w o m e n a n d g r a n t i n g silenced f e m a l e
character a voice. I n contexts c o n c e r n i n g o p p o s i t i o n or resistance t o m a l e
normativity, voice has c o m e to denote 'power o f expression'
(Gilligan
1
See Srephen Reid. 'In Defence of Goneril and Regan'. The American Imago 27, no. 3
(1970): 226-244.
2
See, for example, Cristina León Alfar. 'King Lear's "Immoral" Daughters and the
Politics of Kingship'. Exemplaria 8, no. 2 (1996): 375-400. In this article she rejects the
notion of Goneril and Regan as innately evil arguing that their actions are 'symptomatic of
the patrilineal structure of power relations in which they live and to which they must
accommodate themselves', 375. See also Cristina León Alfar. 'Looking for Goneril and
Regan' in Privacy, Domesticity, and Women in Early Modern England ed. Corinne S. Abate.
Aldershot: Ashgate, 2003, and Cristina León Alfar. Fantasies of Female Evil The Dynamics
of Gender and Power in Shakespearean
Tragedy. Newark and London: University of
Delaware Press, 2003. In Making Trifles of Terrors: Redistributing
Complicities
in
Shakespeare. Stanford: Sranford University Press, 1997, Harry Berger Jr. suggests that Lear
might be seen as provoking Goneril's behaviour.
56
Anna Lindhé
1993:
xvi).
For
Nancy
A.
Walker,
A
Thousand
Acres
counts
' d i s o b e d i e n t ' narrative in that it 'expose[s] a n d q u e s t i o n [ s ]
as
a
patriarchal
p a t t e r n s that S h a k e s p e a r e a n d his c o n t e m p o r a r i e s t o o k for g r a n t e d ' b y
g i v i n g 'narrative a u t h o r i t y to the female characters' ( W a l k e r 1 9 9 5 : 7 - 8 ) .
B u t , as I will try to illustrate b e l o w , female v o i c e or 'narrative authority'
c a n n o t a l o n e effect c h a n g e s to n a r r o w i m a g e s o f G o n e r i l a n d R e g a n .
T h i s essay a t t e m p t s to s h o w h o w these i m a g e s c a n b e altered b y the
p o s i t i o n i n g o f G i n n y a n d R o s e in a c o m p l i c a t e d p a t t e r n o f interpersonal
relations, o n e w h i c h is d i s t u r b e d b y the d i s r u p t i o n s that c o m e with t h e
transfer o f p o w e r a n d p r o p e r t y f r o m o n e g e n e r a t i o n to another. I n t r i g u e d
b y this p a t t e r n in King
Lear, A Thousand
Acres t h u s e x a m i n e s h o w this
d i s t u r b a n c e affects social a n d interpersonal relationships.
T h e i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e two texts renders p o s s i b l e an oscillation
b e t w e e n different w o r l d s , between p a s t a n d present, b e t w e e n
c o n d i t i o n s o f a n d p o s s i b l e m e a n s o f existence, w h i c h h a s
different
important
c o n s e q u e n c e s for t h e reader's u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f b o t h texts. I m p o r t a n d y ,
t h e m e e t i n g o f a n d t h e oscillation b e t w e e n t h e two texts rule o u t a n y
s i m p l e 'takeover' o n the p a r t o f the c o n t e m p o r a r y novel. F o r a different
Thousand Acres w o u l d require the
Lear a n d is therefore n o t an a t t e m p t to
preferential truth. O n e text is n o t relinquished at t h e e x p e n s e o f the other,
q u i t e the reverse; t h e reader is a b l e to c o n t a i n t w o texts w i t h i n his/her
v i s i o n or m e n t a l picture.
picture o f Goneril
to e m e r g e , A
c o n t i n u o u s p r e s e n c e o f King
King
Lear
is
a
play
that
deals
with
patriarchal
rule
and
the
relationship b e t w e e n father a n d d a u g h t e r s , a n d these factors are often
c o n s i d e r e d to b e t h e m a i n reasons w h y this p l a y h o l d s special fascination
for w o m e n
authors
( S a n d e r s 2 0 0 1 : 5 ) . E v e n s o , King
Lear
harbours
s o m e t h i n g that attracts a n d intrigues m a n y f e m a l e writers a p a r t f r o m t h e
father-daughter relation. M o r e t h a n a n y other S h a k e s p e a r e play, it offers a
b r o a d r a n g e o f interpersonal relationships between p a r e n t a n d child b u t
also between k i n g a n d subject, between h u s b a n d a n d wife, a n d b e t w e e n
siblings o f b o t h sexes. T h e d i s t r i b u t i o n a n d w i e l d i n g o f p o w e r generates
tragic c o n s e q u e n c e s for t h e family; it leads to clashes b e t w e e n g e n e r a t i o n s ,
discord
between
fathers
a n d daughters
a n d fathers
a n d sons,
rivalry
b e t w e e n siblings friction between h u s b a n d a n d wife, a n d e n m i t y b e t w e e n
k i n g a n d subject. P r e s u m e d values o f loyalty, o b e d i e n c e , a n d d u t y are
u p s e t , q u e s t i o n e d , a n d b r o u g h t u n d e r careful scrutiny, n o t o n l y in the
k i n g d o m b u t in t h e family as well. King
Lear
is a p l a y a b o u t ' p o w e r ,
p r o p e r t y a n d inheritance', as J o n a t h a n D o l l i m o r e p o i n t s o u t ( D o l l i m o r e
57
Interpersonal Complications and Intertextual Relations
2 0 0 4 : 1 9 7 ) — or, p e r h a p s even m o r e , a p l a y a b o u t the dislocation
o f power,
p r o p e r t y , a n d inheritance, a n d the e n s u i n g effects a n d disturbances.
Set in I o w a in the M i d w e s t in the late 1 9 7 0 s , A Thousand
Acres tells
t h e story o f a father, Larry (Lear), a n d the effects o f his s h a r i n g his farm
w i t h his three d a u g h t e r s , G i n n y ( G o n e r i l ) , R o s e ( R e g a n ) , a n d C a r o l i n e
( C o r d e l i a ) , a n d their respective h u s b a n d s , T y ( A l b a n y ) , Pete ( C o r n w a l l ) ,
a n d F r a n k ( F r a n c e ) , as seen t h r o u g h t h e eyes o f G i n n y ( G o n e r i l ) . T h e
y o u n g e s t d a u g h t e r , C a r o l i n e , hesitates as to the a d v a n t a g e s o f transferring
t h e f a r m , w h i c h results in her father's e x c l u d i n g her f r o m the p r o j e c t . T h e
transfer o f p r o p e r t y a n d C a r o l i n e ' s reluctance to accept Larry's decision
trigger a n d fuel e n m i t y between d a u g h t e r s a n d fathers, between s p o u s e s , as
well as between siblings; b u t they also h a v e an effect o n the G l o u c e s t e r s u b p l o t that finds its w a y into A Thousand
Acres t h r o u g h H a r o l d C l a r k
a n d his two sons, J e s s ( E d m u n d ) a n d L o r e n ( E d g a r ) , w h o live o n a
n e i g h b o u r i n g farm. T h e d i s p u t e over the C o o k farm a w a k e n s repressed
m e m o r i e s , a n d the u n r e m i t t i n g p h r a s e 'there's m o r e to that t h a n m e e t s the
eye' acquires p o i g n a n c y as w e find o u t that G i n n y a n d R o s e
were
i n c e s t u o u s l y assaulted b y their father ( S m i l e y 1 9 9 1 : 1 3 4 ) .
A Thousand Acres alerts the reader to h o w the transfer o f p r o p e r t y a n d
p o w e r penetrates a n d encroaches u p o n the firmest family relationships a n d
t h e m o s t solid loyalties. T h e transfer o f p r o p e r t y upsets m a r r i a g e s , as well
as e x p o s i n g the tacit a n d already existing rivalry between siblings. T h e
g r o w t h o f sibling rivalry a n d the c o m p l e x relation between s p o u s e s in A
Thousand
Acres heighten the reader's awareness o f G o n e r i l ' s p o s i t i o n in a
c o m p l i c a t e d structure o f relations, o n e in w h i c h she is n o t o n l y a d a u g h t e r ,
b u t also a sister, a n d a wife. A c c o r d i n g l y , this essay will b e g i n b y t a k i n g a
closer l o o k at the reader's role as a significant factor in t h e d y n a m i c s
b e t w e e n the texts.
W h e n J a m e s S c h i f f p o i n t s o u t that G o n e r i l ' s a n d R e g a n ' s voices are
heard
and
that
the
rewriting
provides
'a
motivation
for
and
an
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the two older d a u g h t e r s ' (Schiff: 1 9 9 8 : 3 7 0 ) , he fails,
like s o m a n y other critics apart n o t a b l y f r o m M a r i n a Leslie 3 , to raise
q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e reader's p a r t in the u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the two elder
d a u g h t e r s . Peter C o n r a d p o i n t s o u t that J a n e S m i l e y takes G o n e r i l ' s a n d
R e g a n ' s 'side' b y m a k i n g G i n n y 'her narrator' ( C o n r a d 1 9 9 5 : 1 3 3 ) . M o r e
3
See Marina Leslie. 'Incest, Incorporation and King Lear in Jane Smiley's A
Acres'. College English 60, no. 1 (1998): 31-50.
58
Thousand
Anna Lindhé
i m p o r t a n d y , d o e s S m i l e y ' s p o s i t i o n also result in the reader's s y m p a t h e t i c
r e s p o n s e to G o n e r i l ?
S y m p a t h y for G o n e r i l ( a n d R e g a n ) is difficult to establish w i t h o u t
p r e s u m i n g t h a t t h e reader o f A Thousand
Acres revisits King Lear in s o m e
w a y , however brief, after finishing S m i l e y ' s novel. A s l o n g as the h e / s h e
stays within t h e fictional w o r l d o f A Thousand
Acres, the reader, as J a m e s
A . S c h i f f p o i n t s o u t , ' u n d e r s t a n d ^ ] w h y G i n n y / G o n e r i l has j u s t c a u s e for
s p e a k i n g o f her father in s u c h a m a n n e r , a n d w e are likely to cheer her o n '
( S c h i f f 1 9 9 8 : 3 7 5 ) . It is the m o v e m e n t f r o m A Thousand
Lear
Acres to
King
that is i n s t r u m e n t a l in t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f s y m p a t h y for G o n e r i l .
R e f o r m u l a t i n g King
Lear,
s o as to give w h a t W a l k e r t e r m s
a u t h o r i t y ' to the female characters, calls for s o m e further
'narrative
clarification
(Walker 1995: 7).
T h e change from a traditionally masculine perspective to a feminine o n e
in A Thousand Acres m a k e s it possible for w o m e n to acquire m o r e p r o m i n e n t
positions. T h e reader receives Goneril's version; her inner life a n d feelings are
p u t on display as Smiley provides her with a voice a n d a history. T h i s
alteration c a n n o t suddenly m a k e Goneril ' m o r e sinned against than sinning'
or Lear a 'monster o f the deep'. G r a n t i n g narrative authority to the female
characters does n o t m e a n that w e suddenly just side with Goneril a n d R e g a n ,
or that Goneril b e c o m e s the e p i t o m e o f goodness. Smiley m a k e s it quite
difficult for the reader to identify G i n n y as the counterpart to Goneril as they
are very different characters: o n e is the daughter o f a king, married to a d u k e ,
a b o u t to inherit a third o f the k i n g d o m , a n d as such in a very powerful
position; the other is a farmer's daughter.
S m i l e y also renders it difficult for t h e reader to s y m p a t h i z e w i t h
G i n n y for several reasons. A Thousand
Acres is written f r o m a first-person
m o r e s u b j e c t to
c r i t i q u e a n d s u s p i c i o n t h a n a third-person m o d e o f n a r r a t i o n w o u l d be. It
is true that as a first-person narrator, G i n n y i n h a b i t s a very powerful
p o s i t i o n ; t h e story a n d the other characters are filtered t h r o u g h her
perspective. A t the s a m e t i m e , however, the first-person v o i c e o n l y c l a i m s
' t h e validity o f o n e p e r s o n ' s right to interpret her experiences', as S u s a n
S n i a d e r L a n s e r p o i n t s o u t (Lanser 1 9 9 2 : 1 9 ) . A first-person narrator runs a
greater risk o f b e i n g q u e s t i o n e d a b o u t his/her intentions. I t m i g h t b e
difficult to establish authority, as the novel actually a v o i d s t h e m a s c u l i n e
p o s i t i o n o f a u t h o r i t y w h i c h is, as L a n s e r p o i n t s o u t , traditionally
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a n o m n i s c i e n t narrator ( L a n s e r 1 9 9 2 : 1 9 ) .
perspective, w h i c h
makes
the s p e a k i n g v o i c e m u c h
59
Interpersonal Complications and Intertextual Relations
In addition, in contrast to M a r i n a Leslie's o p i n i o n , w e d o n o t receive a
very 'likeable' or agreeable picture o f G i n n y t h r o u g h o u t (Leslie 1 9 9 8 : 3 5 ) .
H e r adulterous affair with J e s s a n d the meticulous preparations to p o i s o n
R o s e c o m e across as rather disturbing. N e i t h e r o f these two events h a p p e n s
in the s p u r o f the m o m e n t : 'I believed that I was g o i n g t o sleep with Jess
C l a r k with as full a certainty' (Smiley 1 9 9 1 : 1 5 5 ) . M o r e o v e r ,
without
considerations for her sisters' children — they w o u l d n o t only b e fatherless
b u t also motherless — a n d with particular crude exactitude, G i n n y executes
her plan: ' T h e perfection o f m y p l a n was the w a y Rose's o w n appetite w o u l d
select her death' (Smiley 1 9 9 1 : 3 3 9 ) . T h e s e are factors that p r o b a b l y m a k e it
harder for the reader to develop a benevolent attitude to her. F u r t h e r m o r e ,
her self-contempt - reminiscent o f Goneril's w o r d s a b o u t her 'hateful life' a n d her general c o n t e m p t for her present life contribute to m a k i n g the
picture o f G i n n y at least in part unfavourable.
I w o u l d s u b m i t that if t h e reader develops a m o r e b e n i g n a t t i t u d e to
G o n e r i l after r e a d i n g A Thousand
Acres, this is b e c a u s e w e witness G i n n y
in d y n a m i c interaction with other characters. W e are a l l o w e d t o see G i n n y
in contexts involving other characters, perceive her in different situations,
a n d envisage her in a variety o f roles - n o t only as a d a u g h t e r , b u t also as a
sister, a n d a wife. W e witness w h a t o c c u r s w h e n different roles c o n v e r g e
a n d clash, as h a p p e n s , for instance to C o r d e l i a in King Lear, in act o n e
scene o n e in w h i c h her role as a d a u g h t e r is set o f f against her n e w role as a
future wife. S h a k e s p e a r e creates s y m p a t h y for L e a r b y p l a c i n g h i m in a
c o n t e x t m a d e u p o f other characters in order for us t o f o r m
another
perspective o f h i m , u n t a i n t e d b y his t r e a t m e n t o f C o r d e l i a a n d K e n t ,
within t h e f r a m e w o r k o f t h e play. A s returning readers o f King Lear, w e
import
our heightened
awareness
o f interpersonal
relationships
into
S h a k e s p e a r e ' s context.
R e t u r n i n g t o King
Lear,
t h e n , is n o t so m u c h a m a t t e r o f t a k i n g
G o n e r i l ' s side; rather, it is a m a t t e r o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g h o w t h e relocation o f
p o w e r in the f o r m o f a p r o p e r t y transfer disturbs relations b e t w e e n p e o p l e ,
creates s u s p i c i o n between siblings a n d m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g s in m a r r i a g e s ,
a n d uncovers t h e flaws within families. O n returning to King
Lear, t h e
reader will t h u s locate G o n e r i l in a larger structure o f interpersonal a n d
social relations, h a v i n g been invited t o u n d e r s t a n d h o w characters m i g h t
behave
when
disappointed,
they
are
unloved
misunderstood,
and
and
let
unseen
down
by
by
their
their
fathers,
siblings
or
and
h u s b a n d s . M a n y critics, feminists i n c l u d e d , h a v e p o s t u l a t e d that G o n e r i l
a n d R e g a n are u n c o m p l i c a t e d w i t h n o d e p t h to their character;
60
but
Anna Lindhé
relations b e t w e e n p e o p l e are nearly always c o m p l e x in S h a k e s p e a r e . V . G .
K i e r n a n h a s rightly p o i n t e d o u t that: '[Shakespeare] w a s c o n c e r n e d w i t h
men
in
combination,
interacting,
b e c o m i n g part o f one another'
entering
(Kiernan
into
1964:
one
another's
48). T o
lives,
understand
G o n e r i l a n d to s y m p a t h i z e w i t h her, w e h a v e to place her in a f r a m e w o r k
o f interpersonal a n d social relations, a n d a p r e v i o u s r e a d i n g o f A
Thousand
Acres helps us d o that. R e t u r n i n g to King Lear, d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t w e
perceive L e a r as evil a n d G o n e r i l as g o o d . It is precisely t h e m o v e m e n t
b e t w e e n the texts that reduces the reader's n e e d or desire to perceive acts
a n d b e h a v i o u r as m o r a l l y reprehensible.
T h e transfer o f p o w e r a n d p r o p e r t y is central in b o t h King Lear a n d A
Thousand Acres. A s a n y reader o f King Lear k n o w s , the d i v i s i o n o f the
k i n g d o m will c o m e to d o m i n a t e t h e original p u r p o s e o f t h e c e r e m o n y : to
select a future h u s b a n d for C o r d e l i a . I n A Thousand Acres, t h e transfer o f
t h e farm c o m e s to o v e r s h a d o w the w e l c o m e - h o m e party for H a r o l d
C l a r k ' s s o n J e s s . W i t h o u t p r e v i o u s n o t i c e a n d w i t h o u t a n y i n t e n t i o n , it
s e e m s , o f d i m i n i s h i n g his p o w e r , L a r r y a n n o u n c e s his p l a n to f o r m a
c o r p o r a t i o n between his three d a u g h t e r s a n d their respective h u s b a n d s .
B o t h t a k e n b y surprise, G i n n y a n d R o s e express their a d m i s s i o n . G i n n y
t h i n k s '[i]t's a g o o d idea', whereas R o s e thinks 'It's a great idea' ( S m i l e y
1 9 9 1 : 1 9 ) . S i m i l a r l y to C o r d e l i a , C a r o l i n e refuses to p l a y t h e role o f t h e
c o m p l y i n g d a u g h t e r . In full career as a lawyer, Larry's y o u n g e s t d a u g h t e r
has established a life for herself a n d her fiance o u t s i d e the p e r i m e t e r s o f the
f a r m . H e r answer 'I d o n ' t k n o w ' w h e n c o n f r o n t e d w i t h Larry's p l a n d o e s
n o t h a v e t h e s a m e t u r b u l e n t effect o n L a r r y as t h e equally e n i g m a t i c
' N o t h i n g ' h a s o n Lear, however. Larry's r e s p o n s e is terser b u t n o n e t h e less
powerful. W i t h t h e assertion, ' y o u d o n ' t w a n t it m y girl, y o u ' r e o u t ' , L a r r y
leaves t h e p a r t y ( S m i l e y 1 9 9 1 : 2 1 ) . T h e transfer o f t h e k i n g d o m / f a r m in
King Lear a n d A Thousand
Acres triggers a struggle between the
g e n e r a t i o n s a n d stages the inherent differences between t h e m .
A Thousand Acres' reiteration o f the division o f the k i n g d o m focuses o n
the tension between p e o p l e a n d o n h o w the characters react to the transfer.
It turns the reader's attention to w h a t h a p p e n s in-between the silences, inbetween characters. In King Lear it is very o b v i o u s w h i c h o f his d a u g h t e r s
Lear prefers. C o r d e l i a is her father's j o y a n d the o n e w h o will b e g r a n t e d 'a
third m o r e o p u l e n t t h a n [her] sisters' if she speaks her love for her father
( 1 . 1 . 8 6 ) . In A Thousand Acres, o n l y Larry's gaze indicates w h o m h e favours:
' H e g l a n c e d at m e , then at C a r o l i n e , a n d l o o k i n g at her all the while, he
said: " W e ' r e g o i n g to f o r m this c o r p o r a t i o n ' " ( S m i l e y 1 9 9 1 : 1 8 - 1 9 ) .
61
Interpersonal Complications and Intertextual Relations
The
transfer-scene
demonstrates
the
different
loyalties
of
the
characters a n d their reactions to the transfer via the w a y they gaze at o n e
another. C a r o l i n e , for e x a m p l e , 'swept the d a r k e n i n g h o r i z o n with her
gaze' ( S m i l e y 1 9 9 1 : 2 1 ) . N o t o n l y does she n o t a p p r o v e o f the transfer;
b e i n g a w a y f r o m the farm for a l o n g p e r i o d o f t i m e has led to a different
c o n c e p t i o n o f family loyalty. S h e d o e s n o t h a r b o u r a d i v i d e d d u t y between
herself a n d her father. T h e r e is thus n o d y n a m i c t e n s i o n between her a n d
the other characters. G i n n y desperately tries to m a k e c o n t a c t with her b y
fixing her eyes at C a r o l i n e : 'In the s u d d e n light o f the p o r c h , there was n o
w a y to signal her to s h u t u p , j u s t s h u t u p ' ( S m i l e y 1 9 9 1 : 2 1 ) .
W h e n Larry a n n o u n c e s his decision to transfer his f a r m , H a r o l d is
s p o t t e d b y G i n n y at a distance s t a n d i n g in the ' d a r k d o o r w a y , g r i n n i n g '
( S m i l e y 1 9 9 1 : 1 9 ) . H a r o l d s e e m s to t h i n k that the transfer o f Larry's
p r o p e r t y is a b a d i d e a for Larry, b u t a g o o d idea for himself. H a r o l d a n d
L a r r y are o l d rivals for l a n d a n d p r o p e r t y to increase their wealth a n d
p o w e r : ' H a r o l d C l a r k a n d m y father used to a r g u e at o u r kitchen table
a b o u t w h o s h o u l d g e t the E r i c s o n l a n d w h e n they finally lost
their
m o r t g a g e ' ( S m i l e y 1 9 9 1 : 4 ) . T h e transfer-scene thus also d e m o n s t r a t e s
h o w the tension between the small w o r l d a n d the large w o r l d is generated.
L a r r y asserts that the reason for the transfer is a g e a n d a wish to prevent
h i g h inheritance taxes: 'if I d i e d t o m o r r o w , y o u ' d h a v e t o p a y
[...]
inheritance taxes' ( S m i l e y 1 9 9 1 : 1 9 ) .
Larry's real reason, however, seems to be his desire to t o p H a r o l d
Clark. T h e c o m p e t i t i v e configurations o f the outside world are seen to enter
the private sphere o f the family as H a r o l d a n d Larry vie for the s a m e space.
T h e c o m p e t i t i o n between the two thus reaches its p e a k at the party w h e n
H a r o l d d e m o n s t r a t e s his 'twin exhibits' (Smiley 1 9 9 1 : 18), as G i n n y calls
them, n a m e l y his s o n Jess a n d the new tractor: D a d d y said, " H e l l , I ' m too
o l d for this. Y o u w o u l d n ' t catch m e b u y i n g a new tractor at m y age.
[—]
P e o p l e always act like they're g o i n g to live forever w h e n the price o f land is
u p " - here h e threw a glance at H a r o l d ' (Smiley 1 9 9 1 : 19). Larry's gaze or
'glance', this t i m e at H a r o l d , reveals his concerns. A q u i c k l o o k at H a r o l d
indicates that the ball is n o w in H a r o l d ' s court, just as his m o m e n t a r y l o o k
at C a r o l i n e suggests that he needs her approval o f the transfer. M o t i v e s are
never u n a m b i g u o u s in either A Thousand Acres or King Lear. Nevertheless,
H a r o l d ' s investment encroaches u p o n Larry's m i n d a n d c o m p e l s h i m to
m a k e the rash decision to surpass H a r o l d b y transferring his property to his
three daughters, leading to tragic consequences for his family, as his conflict
62
Anna Lindhé
w i t h H a r o l d is m a d e to i m p i n g e o n the d o m e s t i c sphere, leading to marital
breaches a n d sibling rivalry.
In A Thousand
Acres, L a r r y C o o k , the ' k i n g ' o f his ' u n m o r t g a g e d '
t h o u s a n d acres o f well-cultivated l a n d , is the e p i t o m e o f p o w e r in the
f a r m i n g c o m m u n i t y . Larry is n o t j u s t a n y farmer; h e is also a p u b l i c figure.
A s o n e o f the m o s t p r o s p e r o u s farmers, h e is o n e o f the m o s t revered m e n
i n t h e c o m m u n i t y . After all, he is, as G i n n y remarks, ' o n e o f the b i g g e s t
l a n d o w n e r s ' in Z e b u l o n C o u n t y ( S m i l e y 1 9 9 1 : 1 4 1 ) .
A s k i n g , L e a r is also a p u b l i c figure. In a d d i t i o n , as k i n g , h e is also the
b i g g e s t l a n d o w n e r in t h e country. I n J a c o b e a n E n g l a n d , t h e political
t h e o r y o f k i n g s h i p w a s d e f i n e d 'as the p o s s e s s i o n o f t h e k i n g d o m a n d o f
t h e subjects w h o i n h a b i t it' ( B r a y t o n 2 0 0 3 : 4 0 2 ) . Lear's status as k i n g is
c o n t i n g e n t o n the l a n d , 'the c h a m p a i g n s riched' a n d the 'wide-skirted
m e a d s ' as his property, as well as o n the o b e d i e n c e o f t h o s e w h o i n h a b i t
this l a n d , i n c l u d i n g his family ( 1 . 1 . 6 4 - 6 5 ) . D e s p i t e his d e s p e r a t e a t t e m p t s
to retain 'the n a m e ' a n d 'all t h ' a d d i t i o n to a k i n g ' ; l o s i n g p o s s e s s i o n o f the
k i n g d o m m e a n s l o s i n g his identity as k i n g ( 1 . 1 . 1 3 7 ) . T h e experience o f
p o w e r l e s s n e s s - the loss o f c o n t r o l over his subjects a n d his d a u g h t e r s - that
c o m e s w i t h the loss o f p r o p e r t y is thus destructive to the f a m i l y as well.
L e a r ' s role as a father is affected a n d directed b y his k i n g s h i p a n d the
anxieties that c o m e w i t h this p u b l i c role, or, p e r h a p s even m o r e , the
anxieties that d e v e l o p f r o m t h e l a c k o f this role. It is L e a r ' s political
d e c i s i o n to d i v i d e the k i n g d o m that i m p i n g e s u p o n t h e d o m e s t i c s p h e r e
a n d leads to marital breaches between G o n e r i l a n d A l b a n y a n d t h e d e a d l y
a n t a g o n i s m b e t w e e n G o n e r i l a n d R e g a n . It is in s u c h a c o n t e x t
that
G o n e r i l h a s to b e regarded.
In
King
Lear,
Goneril's
mellifluous
speech
guides
the
r e a d e r ' s / a u d i e n c e ' s r e s p o n s e to her, as well as Lear's. T h e r e is n o d o u b t
t h a t she e m b r a c e s Lear's d e c i s i o n . C r i t i c s o f King Lear often perceive her
a t t i t u d e to the division a n d her flattering s p e e c h as signs o f her h u n g e r for
p o w e r . In contrast, the reader o f A Thousand
Acres realizes that G i n n y ' s
a t t i t u d e to t h e transfer is an a m b i v a l e n t o n e : 'In spite o f that inner clang, I
t r i e d to s o u n d agreeable' ( S m i l e y 1 9 9 1 : 1 9 ) . D e s p i t e the inner c a u t i o n ,
G i n n y s e e m s to s u p p o r t her father's p r o p o s a l u n c o n d i t i o n a l l y . C o g n i z a n t
o f her inner t h o u g h t s , however, the reader u n d e r s t a n d s that o t h e r factors
are b e h i n d G i n n y ' s affirmative reply to Larry's d e c i s i o n .
L a r r y has b e e n a s s i g n e d a n a l m o s t G o d - l i k e p r e s e n c e . I n G i n n y ' s
c h i l d h o o d , her father is the p r o v i d e r o f a centre, the p r o t e c t o r a g a i n s t all
63
Interpersonal Complications and Intertextual Relations
evil o u t s i d e . Reflections o f his G o d - l i k e status in G i n n y ' s eyes p e r m e a t e
her m e m o r i e s o f Larry:
When I wenr to first grade and the other children said that their
fathets were farmers, I simply didn'r believe rhem. I agreed in order
to be polite, but in my heart I knew that those men were
imposters, as farmers and as fathers, too. In my youthful
estimation, Laurence C o o k defined both categories. T o really
believe that others even existed in either category was to break the
First Commandment. (Smiley 1 9 9 1 : 19)
T h e allusion to the First C o m m a n d m e n t indicates Larry's standing, in the
eyes o f G i n n y , as a divine authority. T h i s i m a g e o f the father keeps the
daughters s u b d u e d , which in its turn invests h i m with additional privilege in
t h e c o m m u n i t y . A w e o f h i m is instilled in the daughters b y his preservation
as
mysterious,
transcendence.
omniscient,
and
majestic
almost
Larry is used to b e i n g c o n f i r m e d
point
of
a n d revered b y
to
the
his
daughters as well as b y the other farmers, even b y the minister in the
C h u r c h : 'our minister, gave his yearly s e r m o n a b o u t all worldly riches
having their source in the tilling o f the soil, which was guaranteed to appeal
b o t h to farmers' self-regard a n d to their sense o f injury at the h a n d s o f the
rest o f society' ( S m i l e y 1 9 9 1 : 3 5 ) . T h r o u g h G i n n y ' s descriptions, the reader
is m a d e to u n d e r s t a n d that Larry's status in the c o m m u n i t y a n d in the
family has always been m a r k e d by authority a n d power. W i t h o u t influence
a n d p o w e r over other people's m i n d s a n d behaviour, Larry loses control.
D u r i n g the transfer-scene, it b e c o m e s clear that G i n n y does n o t act
o u t o f selfish reasons b u t o u t o f d r e a d for her father, a sense o f d a u g h t e r l y
d u t y , as well as a c c o r d i n g to different d e m a n d s o f loyalty. G i n n y s u p p o r t s
Larry's d e c i s i o n n o t o n l y b e c a u s e she feels c o m p e l l e d to b a c k u p her
father, b u t also b e c a u s e T y , her h u s b a n d , w a n t s her to. S h e thinks T y
deserves to 'realize s o m e o f his wishes' ( S m i l e y 1 9 9 1 : 2 5 ) . I n d e e d , with
h i m g a z i n g at her, G i n n y realizes w h a t s h e has to d o : ' T y was l o o k i n g at
m e , a n d I c o u l d see in his gaze a veiled tightly c o n t a i n e d delight - h e h a d
b e e n w a n t i n g to increase the h o g o p e r a t i o n for years' ( S m i l e y 1 9 9 1 : 19).
T h e g a z e , a s s o c i a t e d with power, runs t h r o u g h A
Thousand
Acres.
The
reader is thus invited t o a t t e n d to the w a y p e o p l e l o o k at each other a n d
u n d e r s t a n d a n d read the silences, for e x a m p l e A l b a n y ' s in King Lear,
and
as r e t u r n i n g readers o f King Lear w e h a v e b e c o m e alerted to the fact that
there c o u l d b e m o r e than o n e reason for G o n e r i l ' s willingness to take over
a third o f the k i n g d o m . A Thousand
64
Acres helps us realize that G o n e r i l is
Anna Lindhé
a c t i n g in relation to other p e o p l e besides her father; she is n o t o n l y a
d a u g h t e r b u t also a wife.
T h e w a y s in w h i c h m o n e y , the transfer o f p r o p e r t y , a n d t h e u n e v e n
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f p o w e r c a n affect interpersonal relationships is illustrated
symbolically
in A
Thousand
Acres
the m o n o p o l y - g a m e
that
G i n n y , T y , R o s e , Pete, a n d J e s s gather a r o u n d in the evenings.
through
The
m o n o p o l y g a m e — emblematic o f capitalism and greed — foments not only
rivalry between siblings a n d between s p o u s e s , b u t also between
Pete
( C o r n w a l l ) a n d J e s s ( E d m u n d ) . P e t e a n d J e s s are a b s o l u t e o p p o n e n t s in
t h e g a m e , a n d t h e a t m o s p h e r e it creates presses in u p o n their private
relationship, p r o m p t i n g a n d s t i m u l a t i n g rivalry between t h e t w o . T r y i n g
to surpass each o t h e r in t h e c o m p a n y o f the others, they relate their
respective a d v e n t u r o u s experiences, o n e tale w o r s e t h a n t h e other. T h i s is
t h u s illustrative o f the t e n s i o n b e t w e e n t h e large w o r l d a n d the small o n e
w h e n power, p r o p e r t y , a n d inheritance enter the d o m e s t i c w o r l d . P l a y i n g
m o n o p o l y , they all c o m p e t e for the s a m e thing: m o r e p r o p e r t y ,
more
money, a n d more power.
The
between
game
also
married
demonstrates
couples
when
symbolically
money
and
what
property
could
eat
happen
into
their
relationship. W h e n R o s e w a n t s G i n n y to sell p r o p e r t y to her, her h u s b a n d
P e t e exclaims: ' D o n ' t sell t h e m to her' with 'the e d g e in his v o i c e ' , as
G i n n y notices, ' n o t q u i t e playful' ( S m i l e y 1 9 9 1 : 8 8 ) . Still, R o s e a n d P e t e
are m o r e s u p p o r t i v e o f each other t h a n G i n n y a n d T y . Pete's a n d R o s e ' s
feelings a b o u t the f a r m a n d their a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s Larry's q u i r k s are m u c h
t h e s a m e . In r e s p o n s e to Larry's spendthrift w a y s a n d irrational b e h a v i o u r ,
J e s s backs u p his wife: 'Pete w a s a n g r y t o o , a n d h e e n c o u r a g e d [Rose] to
dwell o n it [...] R o s e said, " A T h o u s a n d dollars! R i g h t o u t the w i n d o w ' "
(Smiley 1 9 9 1 : 87).
G i n n y ' s a n d T y ' s differing reactions to the transfer a n d
towards
Larry's increasing m a d n e s s separate t h e m f r o m each other a n d alienate
t h e m . T h e property-transfer enters i n t o the m o s t steadfast r e l a t i o n s h i p s
a n d the strongest loyalties, the loyalties t h a t s h o u l d exist between h u s b a n d
a n d wife. After t h e transfer, the relationship between G i n n y a n d T y enters
a n e w p h a s e , as their m a r r i a g e has been t r a n s f o r m e d to i n c o r p o r a t e a n e w
sense o f p a r t n e r s h i p . T h r o u g h their share o f the f a r m - w h i c h m e a n s a
s h a r i n g o f wealth a n d l a n d - b o t h o f t h e m a c q u i r e m o r e p o w e r , a n d t h e y
h a v e different w a y s o f u s i n g that p o w e r . T y ' s interest is o n l y in fulfilling
his d r e a m s a b o u t the farm: to increase the h o g - o p e r a t i o n . A s d a u g h t e r s ,
however, G i n n y a n d R o s e h a v e never b e e n i n c l u d e d in the ' g r a n d history'
65
Interpersonal Complications and Intertextual Relations
o f the farm ( S m i l e y 1 9 9 1 : 3 7 1 ) T h e transfer thus entails a c h a n g e o f
p o s i t i o n a n d perspective f r o m o u t s i d e r to insider, f r o m b e i n g an observer
o f history ( m e n ' s history) to b e i n g p a r t o f that history (however critically).
B y G i n n y ' s e n t r a n c e into this previously closed s p a c e — a space formerly
c o n t r o l l e d b y L a r r y - p o w e r relations inevitably c h a n g e . B e i n g b r o u g h t u p
in a s y s t e m that c o n n e c t s material wealth w i t h p o w e r a n d
authority,
G i n n y uses her n e w p o s i t i o n to challenge T y b u t also to q u e s t i o n Larry's
increasing u n p r e d i c t a b l e behaviour. After a car a c c i d e n t , w h e n Larry is the
m o s t a s h a m e d o f himself, she avails herself o f the o p p o r t u n i t y to a s s u m e a
position o f power:
It was exhilarating, talking to my farher as if he were my child,
more than exhilarating to see him as my child. This laying down
the law was a marvellous way of ralking. It created a whole orderly
future within me, a vita of manageable days clicking past, myself in
the foreground, large and purposeful. (Smiley 1991: 159)
S c h i f f p o i n t s o u t that this scene ' m a r k s a b r e a k t h r o u g h ' for G i n n y a n d
t h a t s h e c o m e s to resemble G o n e r i l at this stage (Schiff 1 9 9 8 : 3 7 5 ) . M o r e
i m p o r t a n t l y , w e are m a d e to u n d e r s t a n d the m e c h a n i s m b e h i n d , a n d the
a l l u r e m e n t of, p o w e r . G i n n y is a w o m a n w h o s e p o w e r over her life a n d
even over her o w n b o d y is severely i m p a i r e d , b y her father's sexual a b u s e ,
b y T y ' s reluctance to let her b e c o m e p r e g n a n t , a n d b y the
farmers'
p o i s o n i n g o f the well-water, which o b s t r u c t s her r e p r o d u c t i v e capacities. It
is
the
sudden
change
from
a position
o f powerlessness
to
one
of
c o m p a r a t i v e p o w e r , a n d the effects this has o n a p e r s o n , that are i m p o r t a n t
t o b r i n g to o u r r e a d i n g o f G o n e r i l . A Thousand
Acres does n o t a s k w h e t h e r
certain actions or b e h a v i o u r are m o r a l l y reprehensible or not. T h e novel
offers a c o n t e x t for u n d e r s t a n d i n g w h y a n d h o w a person can b e c o m e
blinded by power.
T h e b e d a n d b e d - c h a m b e r represent c o n j u g a l duties a n d loyalties, b u t
it is precisely here that the 'small' battle between G i n n y a n d T y is played
o u t . T h e h o m e or the b e d - r o o m is n o longer a retreat f r o m the o u t e r
w o r l d or f r o m external a n d p u b l i c conflicts. A s larger q u e s t i o n s - a b o u t
f a r m m a n a g e m e n t , b u t also a b o u t h o w to h a n d l e Larry's peculiarities a n d
g r o w i n g m a d n e s s — invade the d o m e s t i c sphere, the t e n s i o n
between
G i n n y a n d T y is seen to g r o w . T h e d i s a g r e e m e n t over h o w to h a n d l e
L a r r y is significant: 'At b e d t i m e , T y said, " Y o u w o m e n d o n ' t u n d e r s t a n d
y o u r father at all" [—] I said, " T h e n w e have s o m e t h i n g in c o m m o n with
h i m , b e c a u s e he clearly d o e s n ' t u n d e r s t a n d h i m s e l f . " H e
understands
h i m s e l f fine. H e ' s j u s t secretive, is all" " A n d w h a t are his secrets?'" ( S m i l e y
66
Anna Lindhé
1 9 9 1 : 1 1 0 , 1 1 1 ) . G i n n y h a s never o p e n l y d i s a g r e e d w i t h T y before, b u t
t h e c h a n g e d s i t u a t i o n creates n e w o p p o r t u n i t i e s , a n d it b e c o m e s clear that
t h e transfer o f t h e f a r m p u t s loyalties a n d duties b e t w e e n h u s b a n d a n d
w i f e to t h e test.
T h e different
g o a l s a n d experiences o f G i n n y a n d T y , a n d t h e
misunderstandings
b e t w e e n t h e m , is s o m e t h i n g t h a t t h e reader o f A
Thousand
Acres
b r i n g s t o t h e m a r r i a g e relation b e t w e e n G o n e r i l a n d
A l b a n y in King Lear. H a v i n g b e e n alerted t o t h e w a y s in w h i c h breaches in
a m a r i t a l relation m a y arise, s u c h a reader senses h o w fragile t w o s p o u s e s '
relationship is w h e n e x p o s e d t o external influence a n d conflicts. I n King
Lear, Lear's love test b e c o m e s a test o f loyalty a n d d u t y n o t o n l y between
father a n d d a u g h t e r s , b u t also, in extension, b e t w e e n h u s b a n d a n d wife.
T h e t e n s i o n b e t w e e n G o n e r i l a n d A l b a n y is seen to b e set in m o t i o n w h e n
G o n e r i l h a s h a d e n o u g h o f Lear's disorderly k n i g h t s . W h e n politics enter
t h e d o m e s t i c s p h e r e , a rift o p e n s between h u s b a n d a n d wife. Private issues
e n t e r i n g t h e p u b l i c s p h e r e c a u s e a b r e a k d o w n o f t h e k i n g d o m , as w e see in
a c t o n e scene o n e ; p u b l i c issues i n v a d i n g t h e d o m e s t i c sphere s e e m t o e n d
in marital fissures. G o n e r i l ' s reaction to Lear's r o w d y e n t o u r a g e is n o t
s u p p o r t e d b y A l b a n y , w h o a d v o c a t e s p a t i e n c e . W h e n L e a r curses G o n e r i l
as his d a u g h t e r , s h e b e g s A l b a n y n o t t o :
afflict yourself ro know more of it,
But let his disposition have that scope
As dotage gives it. (1.4.283-285)"
W h e n G o n e r i l asks A l b a n y for s u p p o r t o n a political level b y t u r n i n g to
his a u t h o r i t y in c o n n e c t i o n with Lear's threat t o ' r e s u m e t h e s h a p e ' as
k i n g , A l b a n y reveals his a m b i v a l e n c e t o G o n e r i l before s h e actually acts
a g a i n s t Lear. It is clear that G o n e r i l d o e s n o t h a v e her h u s b a n d ' s s u p p o r t :
I cannot be so partial, Goneril,
T o the great love I bear you. (1.4.304-305)
D o e s A l b a n y let G o n e r i l d o w n b y n o t p r o v i n g his loyalty t o her? A s her
h u s b a n d , h e owes her certain duties. G o n e r i l ' s '[a] fool u s u r p s m y b e d '
4
The edition used is The Arden Shakespeare,
Nelson and Sons Ltd, 1997.
edited by R.A. Foakes. Surrey: Thomas
67
Interpersonal Complications and Intertextual Relations
( 4 . 2 . 2 8 ) takes o n m o r e t h a n sexual c o n n o t a t i o n s , r e m i n d i n g us o f other
c o n j u g a l duties - b u t A l b a n y refuses to c h o o s e between L e a r a n d G o n e r i l .
A l b a n y ' s loyalties are not, p a c e P a u l W . K h a n , ' d i v i d e d between d a u g h t e r
a n d father' ( K h a n 2 0 0 0 : 4 2 ) , b u t between wife a n d king.
T y proves his disloyalty to his wife o n several o c c a s i o n s . D u r i n g the
s t o r m - s c e n e in w h i c h Larry rages a n d curses G i n n y , T y stands literally
' b e h i n d [Larry]' ' u n m o v i n g , h a n d s in p o c k e t s ' ( S m i l e y 1 9 9 1 : 1 9 4 , 1 9 5 ) .
T y ' s solidarity with Larry prevents h i m f r o m c o m i n g to G i n n y ' s a i d at the
h e i g h t o f the family crisis. T y takes G i n n y ' s n e w a n d m o r e challenging
a p p r o a c h to L a r r y as a n a t t a c k o n himself, as it also u n d e r m i n e s his o w n
s t a t u s a n d p o w e r : ' G i n n y , y o u a n d R o s e are g o i n g a b o u t this all w r o n g '
( S m i l e y 1 9 9 1 : 1 5 3 ) . It is in T y ' s interest to l o o k u p to a n d retain the
reverence for authorities like Larry, to preserve status
quo in o r d e r to
preserve his o w n status a n d p o w e r in the eyes o f t h e c o m m u n i t y .
A r e A l b a n y ' s m o t i v e s for s u p p o r t i n g Lear a n d b e i n g disloyal to his
wife solely e m o t i o n a l or are they p e r h a p s political? It s e e m s c o n t r a d i c t o r y
t o a r g u e for the former since s u c h b o n d s d o n o t s e e m to exist between the
t w o in King
Lear. Is it p o s s i b l e for A l b a n y to s t a n d o u t s i d e the social
Acres hints at the i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f n o t
b e i n g i m p l i c a t e d in society's c o m p e t i t i v e c o n f i g u r a t i o n s , a n d p o i n t s to
w h a t h a p p e n s w h e n the family is c o m p e l l e d to o p e r a t e in a n e w c o n t e x t
a n d a c c o r d i n g to different n o t i o n s o f loyalty.
processes o f society? A Thousand
T h e relationship between G o n e r i l a n d R e g a n is another d i m e n s i o n in
the Shakespearean play that acquires fresh p o i g n a n c y w h e n the reader
returns to King Lear after reading A Thousand Acres. In A Thousand Acres, it
is n o t only G i n n y ' s role as a wife that is f o r e g r o u n d e d b u t perhaps even
m o r e her role as a sister. Psychoanalysts view sibling rivalry as b e g i n n i n g in
infancy a n d b e c o m i n g a n integral part o f siblings' interrelations as they g r o w
u p . S m i l e y alerts the reader to h o w sibling rivalry between the daughters is
created f r o m a very early age, h o w it is nourished a n d fuelled, a n d preserved
t h r o u g h an inherent system o f favouritism. T h e father in A Thousand
Acres
creates a n d then consolidates the differences between the daughters already
in their c h i l d h o o d . T h e y o u n g e s t daughter, C a r o l i n e , is singled o u t as
Larry's favourite a n d this is a sore subject for G i n n y . H e r answer to J e s s '
q u e s t i o n as to w h o is Larry's favourite child is revealing: '"It's always been
C a r o l i n e , I ' m sure'". T h e penetrating question causes G i n n y to wince a n d
s h y away from the subject: 'I smiled the way y o u d o w h e n y o u w a n t
s o m e o n e to stop p r o b i n g a subject, b u t y o u d o n ' t w a n t h i m to k n o w that. I
spoke
68
idly:
"Who's
Harold's
favourite?'"
(Smiley
1991:
134).
Early
Anna Lindhé
experiences o f favouritism help establishing C a r o l i n e as different
from
G i n n y a n d R o s e . T h e father's favouring o f t h e y o u n g e s t d a u g h t e r has given
rise to (seemingly) relendess solidarity a n d loyalty between G i n n y a n d R o s e .
R o s e has been a n integral part o f G i n n y ' s life for as l o n g as she can
r e m e m b e r : ' n o d a y o f m y r e m e m b e r e d life w a s w i t h o u t R o s e ' (Smiley 1 9 9 1 :
5 ) . G i n n y thus establishes herself a n d R o s e in an e c o n o m y o f sameness a n d
C a r o l i n e as different f r o m t h e m . S m i l e y lets the reader notice R o s e ' s a n d
G i n n y ' s special relationship quite early, as o n e w h i c h is in m a r k e d contrast
to all other relations: ' C o m p a r e d t o o u r sisterhood, every other relationship
w a s m a r k e d b y s o m e sort o f absence — before C a r o l i n e , after o u r mother,
before o u r h u s b a n d s , pregnancies, her children, before a n d after a n d apart
f r o m friends a n d n e i g h b o u r s ' (Smiley 1 9 9 1 : 8 ) .
In A Thousand
Acres, C a r o l i n e h a s h a d m o r e f r e e d o m t h a n G i n n y a n d
R o s e ever h a d . A s s u b s t i t u t e m o t h e r s for C a r o l i n e , R o s e a n d G i n n y
s u p p o r t C a r o l i n e in her every e n d e a v o u r a n d g u a r a n t e e that s h e receives a
g o o d e d u c a t i o n . T h e y p a v e t h e w a y for her successful a n d i n d e p e n d e n t
life. R o s e p o i n t s o u t that C a r o l i n e ' d o e s n ' t h a v e to b e careful. S h e ' s g o t a n
i n c o m e . B e i n g his d a u g h t e r is all pretty abstract for her, a n d I ' m sure s h e
w a n t s t o k e e p it that way. [—] S h e always d o e s w h a t s h e h a s t o d o '
( S m i l e y 1 9 9 1 : 6 3 ) . A c c o r d i n g to M a r i n a Leslie, t h e incest is 'offering a
c o n t e x t for [Larry's] very different t r e a t m e n t o f t h e elder d a u g h t e r s a n d
t h e favourite y o u n g e s t child' (Leslie 1 9 9 8 : 3 6 ) . C a r o l i n e ,
presumably
s a v e d f r o m Larry's sexual a b u s e t h a n k s t o G i n n y ' s a n d R o s e ' s p r o t e c t i o n ,
d o e s n o t r e m i n d L a r r y o f his crimes. F a v o u r i t i s m , o n a m i c r o c o s m i c level,
d e v e l o p s b e t w e e n t h e siblings; as a result, G i n n y a n d R o s e h a v e t o vie for
a t t e n t i o n a n d love in a w a y C a r o l i n e never h a d t o d o , a n d this forces t h e
t w o elder sisters into a s y s t e m o f c o m p e t i t i o n .
T h e incest finds n o literal c o r r e s p o n d e n c e in King Lear. 5 A
Thousand
Acres, however, a d d s d i m e n s i o n s t o t h e destructive c o n s e q u e n c e s o f
favouritism for t h e family in King Lear. F a v o u r i t i s m is seen to b e the very
f o u n d a t i o n for m a n y familial relationships in A Thousand Acres. Larry has
always preferred T y to Pete w h o is 'never o n the right side o f D a d d y '
( S m i l e y 1 9 9 1 : 3 2 ) . I n King Lear, A l b a n y has always been ' m o r e affected'
t h a n t h e d u k e o f C o r n w a l l ( 1 . 1 . 1 ) . M o r e o v e r , L o r e n , w h o s t a n d s o u t as a
'nice g u y ' , m e e t s t h e news o f his brother J e s s ' h o m e - c o m i n g with a t o u c h o f
bitterness, e v o k i n g biblical resonances: 'I notice h e waited till w e b u s t e d o u r
b u t t s finishing u p p l a n t i n g before staging his resurrection' ( S m i l e y 1 9 9 1 : 6 ) .
5
Critics have, however, exposed Lear's figurative incestuous desire for Cordelia.
69
Interpersonal Complications and Intertextual Relations
I n the Gloucester s u b p l o t in King Lear favouritism, b o t h o n a socio-political
(legitimacy) a n d o n a personal level, sets the tragedy in m o t i o n . Gloucester
favours E d g a r , or at least the systems o f p r i m o g e n i t u r e a n d legitimacy favour
E d g a r . E d m u n d thus regards his brother E d g a r as a rival for p o w e r a n d
property: 'Legitimate E d g a r , I m u s t have your land' ( 1 . 2 . 1 6 ) .
A s m a n y critics are well aware a n d A Thousand
Acres r e m i n d s the
reader, the rivalry between the sisters in S h a k e s p e a r e ' s play is noticeable
already f r o m act o n e scene o n e . L e a r sets the e x a m p l e for h o w inheritance
is to be allocated b y d i s r e g a r d i n g t h e rights o f p r i m o g e n i t u r e . G o n e r i l is
t h e eldest o f the sisters, a n d a c c o r d i n g to the rights o f p r i m o g e n i t u r e she
s h o u l d b e t h e o n e to inherit the k i n g d o m . 6 I n d e e d , K e n t a n d G l o u c e s t e r
are b o t h puzzled b y the fact that c o n t r o l o f the k i n g d o m is not p u t in the
h a n d s o f the D u k e o f A l b a n y , the eldest d a u g h t e r ' s h u s b a n d . D e m a n d i n g
that
his
three
daughters
measure
their
love
for
him
and
inviting
c o m p a r i s o n between their protestations, Lear u n d e r s c o r e s rivalry between
t h e sisters a n d fosters j e a l o u s y between t h e m . T h e love-test i m p a i r s the
loyalty between G o n e r i l a n d R e g a n , as is evident in R e g a n ' s e n d e a v o u r to
t o p her sister's speech a n d declaration o f love. R e g a n first states that she is
m a d e o f that s a m e 'mettle' as her sister, b u t then g o e s o n to say that
G o n e r i l c o m e s ' t o o short' in her expression o f love for Lear. W h e r e a s
G o n e r i l stays within a p a r a d i g m characterized b y ' d u e ' d i s t a n c e between
father
and
important
daughter,
Regan
ramifications
disrupts
this
convention,
o n the relationship
between
and
that
the two
has
sisters.
R e g a n ' s p r o t e s t a t i o n o f a d e e p e r a n d m o r e t h o r o u g h love t h a n G o n e r i l ' s
c o m e s across as an a t t e m p t to u n d e r m i n e G o n e r i l ' s privileges as the firstb o r n . R e g a n has h e n c e o v e r s t e p p e d her 'rights' b o t h o n a political a n d o n
a personal level. R e g a n ' s speech m a k e s it m o r e difficult for G o n e r i l to
assert her authority as the elder sibling. T h i s upsets the established p o w e r
balance
between
the two
sisters.
Hence,
an
already existent
schism
materializes between G o n e r i l a n d R e g a n d u r i n g their speeches o f love at
t h e b e g i n n i n g o f act o n e scene o n e , w h i c h w e are m a d e aware o f t h r o u g h
S m i l e y ' s w a y o f establishing vital differences
b e t w e e n t h e sisters
and
e x p l a i n i n g h o w a n d w h y rivalry emerges.
6
In Shakespeare's Festive Tragedy: The Ritual Foundation
of Genre. London and New
York: Routledge, 1995, Naomi Conn Liebler writes that 'Lear violates his royal obligation
to protect the realm, and also the custom of primogeniture in promising the "third more
opulent" portion of the land to his youngest, not his eldest, daughter' (199).
70
Anna Lindhé
M u t u a l trust is already s u b v e r t e d as a result o f L e a r ' s favouritism, a n d
m u t u a l d i s t r u s t will b e reinforced b y L e a r ' s efforts t o trigger a d i v i s i o n
b e t w e e n t h e t w o sisters. Lear's threat t o leave G o n e r i l ' s a b o d e to g o t o live
w i t h R e g a n further u n d e r m i n e s the loyalty between t h e sisters. T a k i n g u p
t h e a b o d e w i t h R e g a n w o u l d b e a threat t o G o n e r i l , n o t o n l y political:
Lear. Degenerate bastard, I'll not trouble thee:
Yet have I left a daughter.
Goneril: You strike my people, and your disordered rabble
Make servants o f their betters. (1.4. 2 4 5 - 4 8 )
7
It is p e r h a p s w o r t h m e n t i o n i n g that critics h a v e a r g u e d that after t h e
b a n i s h m e n t o f C o r d e l i a a n d K e n t , t h e sisters are seen t o p l o t t o g e t h e r
a g a i n s t their father. 8 T h i s is, however, G o n e r i l ' s w a y o f asserting her
a u t h o r i t y over R e g a n . G o n e r i l is trying to recover her p o w e r over her sister
a n d find o u t w h e r e R e g a n really stands. D i s c u s s i n g this s c e n e in relation t o
s i b l i n g rivalry c o u l d also explain w h y the sisters never actually i m p l e m e n t
their p l a n 'i'the heat'. C r i t i c s h a v e f o u n d it p u z z l i n g that n o t h i n g c o m e s o f
their m e e t i n g . Clearly, t h e n , t h e relationship b e t w e e n G o n e r i l a n d R e g a n
is o n e o f t h e aspects o f S h a k e s p e a r e ' s t r a g e d y that take o n n e w m e a n i n g
w h e n t h e reader returns to King Lear after a r e a d i n g oiA
Thousand
Acres.
T h e c o m p e t i t i v e c o n f i g u r a t i o n s o f t h e o u t s i d e w o r l d w e r e seen t o
m o t i v a t e Larry's d e c i s i o n to h a n d over his f a r m t o his d a u g h t e r s , a n d this
m a k e - u p o f s o c i e t y influences t h e relationship b e t w e e n G i n n y a n d R o s e .
T h e c o m p e t i t i o n b e t w e e n farmers a n d t h e r e p e a t e d c o m p a r i s o n s b e t w e e n
Larry's f a r m a n d other a d j a c e n t f a r m s create a s y s t e m o f rivalry o n a larger
scale w i t h selfishness, g r e e d , rights o f p o s s e s s i o n , a n d desire t o o w n as t h e
7
In 'The Image of the Family in King Lear. In On King Lear, edited by Lawrence
Danson. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981, Thomas McFarland has pointed out
that in this scene Lear 'manipula[tes][...] the dynamics of family favoritism' (97).
8
In James A. SchifPs 'Contemporary Retellings: A Thousand Acres as the Latest Lear'.
Critique: Studies in Contemporary Fiction 39, no. 4 (1998): 367-81, we read the following:
'[Goneril] responds to her father's gift of land not with delight or gratitude, but with
malice and paranoia, remarking to Regan that they must conspire together to "do
something" to Lear so as to disempower him in his increasing madness' (7). But Goneril
and Regan are not trying to conspire. They are anxious about their father's banishment of
Kent and Cordelia, understandably enough, and Goneril wants to find out which side
Regan is on as well as assert her power.
71
Interpersonal Complications and Interrextual Relations
o u t c o m e . A s a child, G i n n y w a s ' i n d o c t r i n a t e d ' w i t h s u c h a c o n c e p t i o n o f
t h e w o r l d as the 'right o r d e r o f things':
I recognized the justice o f Harold Clark's opinion that the Ericson
land was on his side of the road, but even so, I thought it should be
us. For one thing, Dinah Ericson's bedroom had a window seat in
the closet that I coveted. For anorher, I thought it appropriate and
desirable that the great circle of the flar earrh spreading out from
the T intersecrion of County Road 686 and Cabot Street Road be
ours. (Smiley 1991:4)
T h i s system o f rivalry is h e n c e established in t h e m i n d s o f G i n n y a n d R o s e
very early o n , a n d it is s t i m u l a t e d t h r o u g h o u t their a d u l t life. F r o m early
childhood,
they h a v e been
u s e d to c o m p e t i n g
for t h e s a m e
object,
influenced b y t h e c o m p e t i t i v e c o n s t i t u t i o n o f society.
A n y external e l e m e n t that c o m e s into G i n n y ' s a n d R o s e ' s w o r l d
h e n c e feeds the fire a n d sustains t h e rivalry. G i n n y sees R o s e as a rival for
R o s e ' s o w n children. O w i n g to nitrates (used b y t h e farmer t o fertilize the
l a n d ) , that p o i s o n e d t h e well-water, G i n n y c a n n o t b e c o m e p r e g n a n t , a n d
t h e sight o f R o s e a n d her t w o d a u g h t e r s affects her 'like p o i s o n ' . A g a i n ,
rivalry is p r o m p t e d a n d G i n n y ' s desire to o w n t h e children takes over:
'they were nearly m y o w n d a u g h t e r s ' ( S m i l e y 1 9 9 1 : 8 ) . G i n n y tries to
c o n v i n c e t h e reader that t h e j e a l o u s y s h e o n c e felt t o w a r d s R o s e is set
a s i d e : 'the sight o f t h o s e t w o b a b i e s , w h o m I h a d loved a n d cared for with
real interest a n d satisfaction, affected m e like p o i s o n [...] I w a s s o j e a l o u s ,
a n d s o freshly j e a l o u s every t i m e I saw t h e m , that I c o u l d h a r d l y s p e a k '
( S m i l e y 1 9 9 1 : 8 ) . A rhetoric o f rivalry p e r m e a t e s G i n n y ' s w a y o f s p e a k i n g
in her efforts to c o n v i n c e herself that she h a s g o t over her jealousy.
T h e rivalry over J e s s s h o u l d thus b e discussed with reference t o
c o m p e t i t i o n in t h e larger world. E v e n if J e s s triggers
the 'outbreak o f
rivalry' between G i n n y a n d R o s e ; 9 it is t h e transfer o f p r o p e r t y
exposes
( a n d activates) t h e tacit a n d already existing rivalry
that
between
siblings in b o t h A
Thousand Acres a n d King Lear. W h e n J e s s in A
Thousand Acres c o m e s into t h e p i c t u r e there is thus m o r e at stake t h a n
merely sexual jealousy. T h e y are u n c o n s c i o u s l y c o m p e t i n g for t h e s a m e
object. H a n d s o m e , charismatic, a n d attractive, G i n n y a n d R o s e n o t i c e J e s s
at t h e s a m e t i m e , b u t i m p o r t a n t l y , G i n n y also notices that R o s e h a s
5
In 'Goneril's Version: A Thousand Acres and King Lear'. South Dakota Review 33, no. 2
(1995): 105-15, Tim Keppel suggests that 'Jess is the catalyst for Ginny's awakening, both
physical and psychological' (113).
72
Anna Lindhé
detected him.
Ginny
imitates R o s e ' s
desire in a typically
Girardian
fashion: ' R o s e n o t i c e d h i m [Jess], t o o , right w h e n I d i d ' ( S m i l e y 1 9 9 1 :
1 0 ) . R e n e G i r a r d h a s p r e s e n t e d a m o d e l b a s e d o n triangular desire that is
interesting in this context. H e suggests that w e b a s e o u r desire o n a n o t h e r
p e r s o n ' s desire, a p e r s o n w h o m w e a d m i r e . G i n n y d o e s n o t c h o o s e the
o b j e c t o f her desire herself; it is a 'third p e r s o n ' , i.e. R o s e , that 'indicates to
t h e narrator t h e o b j e c t [she] will b e g i n d e s i r i n g passionately' ( G i r a r d 1 9 6 5 :
3 0 ) . H o w e v e r , J e s s d o e s a w a k e n G i n n y to sexual awareness, a n d her
s u b s e q u e n t k n o w l e d g e that R o s e has a n affair w i t h h i m s e e m s n o t s o m u c h
t o l e a d to sexual j e a l o u s y as foster an awareness o n G i n n y ' s p a r t t h a t s h e is
in fact a different p e r s o n f r o m R o s e :
M y deepesr-held habit was assuming that differences between Rose
and me were just on the surface [...] that somehow we were each
other's real selves [...] But after all, she wasn't me: Her body wasn't
mine. (Smiley 1 9 9 1 : 332)
W h e n J e s s s w a p s G i n n y for R o s e , G i n n y ' s sole p u r p o s e in life will f r o m
t h e n o n w a r d s b e t o r e m o v e R o s e b y whatever m e a n s . U l t i m a t e l y
it
b e c o m e s an e n d in itself, q u i t e apart f r o m a n y c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a b o u t Jess.
G i n n y c a n n o t c o n t r o l t h e story a n y m o r e ; t h e desire to p o i s o n R o s e takes
over. B e i n g b r o u g h t u p in a s y s t e m t h a t feeds a n d sustains c o m p e t i t i o n
b e t w e e n p e o p l e , they are forced into rivalry over s o m e t h i n g they t h i n k
rightfully b e l o n g s to b o t h o f t h e m , n a m e l y J e s s (as p r o p e r t y ) . T h e y o n l y
r e c o g n i z e the justice o f their o w n n e e d s a n d their o w n rights. T h e d e a d l y
a n t a g o n i s m b e t w e e n t h e t w o sisters actually m a k e s G i n n y ' s
attempted
p o i s o n i n g o f R o s e , to w h i c h s o m e critics h a v e o b j e c t e d , s e e m believable.
T h u s S m i l e y rewrites a n d e m p h a s i z e s the d i s t i n c t i o n between G i n n y
a n d R o s e , w h i c h also has a b e a r i n g o n o u r r e a d i n g o f King Lear.
Many
critics explain the rivalry b e t w e e n G o n e r i l a n d R e g a n w i t h reference to
sexual j e a l o u s y over E d m u n d , a l t h o u g h feminists have p r e s e n t e d a m o r e
n u a n c e d p i c t u r e o f the t w o sisters. 1 0 G o n e r i l ' s a n d R e g a n ' s 'lust'
for
E d m u n d is n o t exclusively sexual; it is also b a s e d o n a s y s t e m o f rivalry
m a d e p a l p a b l e t h r o u g h L e a r ' s love-test. It m i g h t b e E d m u n d t h a t triggers
10
In 'Horns of Dilemma: Jealousy, Gender, and Spectatorship in English Renaissance
Drama', Katharine Eisaman Maus points out that '[e]ven Goneril and Regan, whose
competition over a man reaches a murderous pitch, seem driven more by sibling rivalry,
noticeable even in the first scene, as they strive to outdo one another in praise of their
father - man by specifically sexual jealousy as the heroes experience it' (Maus 1987:564).
Goneril, however, does not try to outdo Regan.
73
Interpersonal Complications and Intertextual Relations
t h e rivalry b e t w e e n G o n e r i l a n d R e g a n , b u t rivalry has certainly been
lurking b e n e a t h the surface all a l o n g . T h e t w o sisters h a v e to c o m p e t e for
love, a t t e n t i o n , l a n d , a n d power, b e i n g forced to vie for the s a m e space,
politically as well as personally - s o m e t h i n g C o r d e l i a never h a d to d o o n
t h e p e r s o n a l level, a n d a r g u a b l y refuses to d o o n a political level w h e n she
says ' n o t h i n g ' .
W h e r e a s G i n n y d o e s not s u c c e e d in p o i s o n i n g her sister a n d actually
survives herself, G o n e r i l succeeds in e x t e r m i n a t i n g b o t h herself a n d her
sister. W h a t was o n c e s o i m p o r t a n t to G o n e r i l in King
Lear, the battle
between the k i n g d o m s o f E n g l a n d a n d F r a n c e , yields to her desire to avoid
experiencing, at a n y cost, her sister's alliance - sexual as well as political with E d m u n d :
I had rather lose the battle than that sister
Should loosen him and me. (5.1.18-19)
T h e deadly rivalry between G o n e r i l a n d R e g a n is n o longer over E d m u n d .
T h e c o m p e t i t i v e configurations o f the political w o r l d h a v e so
deeply
infringed o n the relation between the siblings that n o t h i n g stands in their
w a y w h e n they w i s h to destroy each other. T o w a r d s t h e e n d o f King
Lear,
E d m u n d h i m s e l f is n o longer i m p o r t a n t to G o n e r i l ; it is m o r e i m p o r t a n t
t o her that R e g a n d o e s n o t get h i m — j u s t as p o s s e s s i n g J e s s h a d c e a s e d to
m a t t e r t o G i n n y in A Thousand Acres o n c e she d e c i d e d to try to kill R o s e .
W h e n w e r e a d King Lear a g a i n s t A Thousand
Acres, t h e play's as well
as the novel's d e e p l y p r o b l e m a t i c a l p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h relations between
women,
particularly
the
dynamics
between
Goneril/Ginny
and
R e g a n / R o s e , is f o r e g r o u n d e d . S o is the c o m p l e x i t y o f m a r r i a g e seen in the
relationships b e t w e e n G o n e r i l / G i n n y a n d A l b a n y / T y . A Thousand
Acres
alerts the reader to other characters' influence o n G o n e r i l ' s , b u t also
R e g a n ' s , b e h a v i o u r a n d actions, h e l p i n g us see h o w that influence affects
t h e relationship between the sisters. T h e reader c o m e s to realize that
Goneril
and
Regan
are p a r t o f a larger n e t w o r k o f interpersonal
Thousand Acres thus s h o w s the reader h o w w o m e n ' s
p o s i t i o n in patriarchy is i n f o r m e d b y constraints r o o t e d in their roles as
m o t h e r s , d a u g h t e r s , siblings, a n d wives. W h e n w e return to King Lear, it is
w i t h a s h a r p e n e d awareness o f the c o m p l e x i t y o f family relationships.
relationships. A
T h e p i c t u r e o f the family as a site o f d y n a m i c interaction in King
Lear
is c o n s e q u e n d y intensified a n d b r o u g h t to the fore t h r o u g h the interaction
74
Anna Lindhé
b e t w e e n the t w o texts. T h e novel also draws a t t e n t i o n to the t e n s i o n
between the d o m e s t i c a n d the p u b l i c . T h e stress o n family relationships
a n d the ways in w h i c h t h o s e relationships are seen to b e i n f o r m e d b y the
c o m p e t i t i v e c o n f i g u r a t i o n s o f the o u t s i d e w o r l d e m p h a s i z e the t e n s i o n
b e t w e e n the m i c r o c o s m i c a n d the m a c r o c o s m i c in King
Lund
Lear.
University
75
Interpersonal Complications and Intertextual Relations
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