Polyurethane Spandex

Material Snapshot
Polyurethane
Spandex
Material Scenario
Generic (non-geographic specific) spandex (also known as elastane) undyed woven textile. Spandex is
a polyurethane that is formed into elastic fiber by extrusion through a spinneret and then usually dry
spun into a fiber and then typically core spun into a yarn and blended with fibers such as cotton, nylon,
polyester, rayon, acrylic, etc., although 100% spandex yarns are produced as a specialty product.
The long amorphous segments in spandex create the elastic properties and the short rigid segments
provide the structure when the fiber is stretched and released (Sheshirm, 2014, p. 8).
Common Uses In Apparel And Footwear
Typical uses of spandex are in foundation garments, active wear, sportswear, swimwear, compression
garments, or any clothing where elasticity is desired for comfort and fit (Bralla, 2007, p. 775).
Specifically, spandex can be used in tops, bottoms, socks, swimsuits, underwear, gloves, leggings and
other applications (Sheshirm, 2014, p.28).
Alternative Textiles That May Be Substituted For Material
• Natural rubber latex1 • Synthetic rubber latex2
Life Cycle Description
Functional Unit
1 kilogram of undyed spandex fabric
System Boundary
Cradle to undyed fabric. The data presented within include all steps required to turn the raw material
or initial stock into spandex fabric, which is ready for processing, including transportation and energy
inputs. Capital equipment, space conditioning, support personnel requirements, and miscellaneous
materials comprising <1% by weight of net process inputs are excluded.
1
2
Rouette, 2001, p. 37
Sheshirm, 2014, p.7
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2
Allocation
Substitution approach. Allocation was avoided as the system boundary ends at undyed fabric. Due
to this assumption, some flow values came up as negative because the end of life was not included in
the study.
Unit Process Descriptions
Fiber Production
The processing of spandex begins with forming a prepolymer from a diisocyanate and a polyether/
polyester polyol (e.g. macroglycol), which is further reacted with a diamine (EPA, 2000, p. 2-2). The
diisocyanate is responsible for the rigidity and the macroglycol is responsible for the elasticity. The
ratio of macroglycol to diisocyanate merits different properties in the fiber and is monitored in the
production process. When these two are mixed in a reaction vessel they create the prepolymer.
After this reaction takes place, the product is chain extended through the use of glycol, diamine or
occasionally water (Bralla, 2007, p. 775). For the process to take place a diazabicyclo[2.2.2]octane
catalyst needs to be added with low molecular weight amines (Sheshirm, 2014, p.16). Once the
spandex polymer is created, it needs to be spun into fibers.
Spandex fiber is created through dry spinning, wet spinning, reaction spinning and melt spinning;
however the majority (80-90% of world production) of fiber is created through dry spinning (Rouette,
2001, p. 37; EPA, 2000, pp. 2-5). A solvent is added to the spandex polymer or the polymer is heated
(EPA, 2000, pp. 2-3) then extruded through a spinneret, which then enters a nitrogen filled heating
cabinet or columns (Rouette, 2001, p. 37) to evaporate residual solvent from the individual fibers
(Sheshirm, 2014, p. 23). When the solvent is evaporated from the solution, a chemical reaction causes
the fibers to form. Inside the heating cabinet, the fibers are brought into contact with each other by
false-twist assembly while still slightly viscous creating a filament (Rouette, 2001, p. 37). The filament
is drawn under tension onto take up winders and the resulting fibers typically in the range of 4-20
decitex (3.6-18 denier) (Rouette, 2001, p. 37). The filaments are sometimes treated with a finishing
agent such as magnesium stearate, to reduce the amount of fiber stick and ease processing (Singha,
2012, p. 12; Romanowski, n.d., “Producing the Fibers”).
Yarn Manufacturing
Spandex is often used to create core spun and covered yarns (Senthilkumar et al, 2011, p. 301). In
this process, yarn is produced using normal ring spinning machines with special guiding devices
and feeder rollers (Senthilkumar et al, 2011, p. 301) that wrap a different fiber or fibers over a core.
Covered yarns wrap a filament or spun yarn over a filament core. Core-spun yarns have a sheath of
fiber over the core (AATCC, 2011, “Filament Yarns and Texturing”). Conventional covered yarns use
spandex as the center core which is wrapped with either a single or double (one in each direction)
filament of one type of non-elastic cover filament yarn in various twist specifications. A core twist
yarn uses multiple non-elastic cover filaments twisted together over the core spandex filament.
Compound yarns use two different filament fibers to cover the core (also one in each direction). Air-jet
intermingled yarns are created by entangling filaments to create the cover over the core. Some types
are suitable for both filament and staple fibers (Maw Chawg, n.d., “Characteristics of Elastic Covered
Yarn”). During any of these processes, factors such as spandex fitness, draw ratio and twist can be
altered to optimize the covering effect (Senthilkumar et al, 2011, p. 301).
Textile Processing
Core-spun and covered spandex yarns as well as 100% spandex yarns can be woven or knitted into
a fabric. Spandex blends require special dyeing techniques to dye the spandex and the blend fibers
appropriately (Singha, 2012, p. 12).
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3
Process Inputs
Energy
The total cradle to gate energy required to produce 1 kg of undyed spandex textile is ~375
MJ (van der Velden, 2014, p. 352). The majority of energy (~190 MJ) is used in the weaving
process, followed by ~ 100 MJ of energy used in the production of the spandex fibers (van
der Velden, 2014, p. 352). This calculation was done assuming a 70 decitex (63 denier)
fiber. A much smaller amount (<20 MJ) is consumed in heat setting, texturing, and the
extruding and spinning processes (van der Velden, 2014, p. 352). It should be noted that
the amount of energy required for weaving of spandex is a function of decitex, which will
vary by producer (van der Velden, 2014, p. 343). Knitting spandex is about 20 times less
energy intensive than weaving and may be considered an energy reduction strategy (van
der Velden, 2014, p. 347).
The energy demand for the long chain polyether polyols is 89.1 MJ, where 35-40 MJ
represents the recoverable energy present in the polymer and 49.1-54.1 MJ represents the
process energy (PlasticsEurope, 2012a, p. 15). The cumulative energy required to create
1 kg of toluene-2,4-diisocyanate (TDI) from cradle to gate is 59.89 MJ; in Europe, this was
sourced from primarily nonrenewable sources (PlasticsEurope, 2012b, p. 18)
Water 3
For production of spandex fibers through dry spinning, no water is directly required as an
input, though insignificant amounts are used in solvents and potentially cooling. In the
production of TDI, an example feedstock for spandex prepolymer, 3.1 kg of water is used
for processing and 15.1 is used for cooling during the processing for a total of 18.2 L/kg
(PlasticsEurope, 2012b, p. 22). The other feedstock to the prepolymer is a polyol such as
polyether polyol. Water requirements for the production of long chain polyether polyols
are 3.6 L/kg consumption and 50.8 L/kg cooling for a total of 54.4 L/kg (PlasticsEurope,
2012a, p. 20). Cradle to gate polymer fiber production of spandex is estimated to have
process water consumption of 95 L/kg spandex, cooling water use of 257 L/kg spandex,
and total use of 347 L/kg spandex (PlasticsEurope, 2005, p. 10). Drying spinning and fabric
production are assumed to be de minimis levels of water consumption.
Chemical
Chemical inputs to spandex are a diisocyanate (TDI or methylene diisocyanate/MDI),
a polyol (macroglycol), diamine, pigments, finishing agents, stabilizers, additives, and
solvents such as N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF) or N.N’-dimethylacetamide (DMAC) and a
catalyst. The volume of use for each chemical input varies by production plant. To reduce
the adhesive qualities of spandex, preparation agents that are 95% silicone and 5%
surfactant are typically added in manufacturing (European Commission, 2003, p. 18). The
presence of silicone oils causes environmental concerns when the substances have to be
removed (European Commission, 2003, p. 18). There are often finishing products applied
to fibers to prevent them from sticking together such as magnesium stearate (Singha,
2012, p. 12). Manufacturing plants may choose to use various additives in their products to
change output quality.
Physical
Physical inputs include organic and inorganic substances, water, and ancillary materials
such as compressed air.
3 Spandex-specific water data were not identified in the literature. Flexible polyurethane foam is used as a proxy for
water consumption.
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Land-use Intensity
Land use is limited to extraction, processing and manufacturing facilities. Although not
currently commercially marketed, spandex could be made with bio-based polyols, similar
to other polyurethanes that are commercially available and thereby have a greater land
use impact than fully synthetic versions due to agricultural activities to produce the biobased raw materials.
Process Outputs
Co-products & By-products
During the production of olefins used in polyether polyols, fuel gas and off gas are
produced as co-products that are often used in another PU production processes as fuel
(Franklin Associates, 2011, p. 12-1). The heat that is a co-product of polyol production is
allocated in many LCAs as recoverable energy (Franklin Associates, 2011, p. 12-2). During
the processing of TDI, hydrogen chloride (HCl) is produced as a by-product; production
processes are typically designed such that the HCl is generated as a readily marketable
product (PlasticsEurope, 2012b, p. 3).
Solid Waste
The production of 1 kg TDI results in 3.18E-02 kg of solid waste (PlasticsEurope, 2012b,
p. 23). The production of 1 kg of polyether polyol produces 3.98E-03 kg of solid
waste, 3.56E-03 of which goes to the incinerator, and 4.19E-19 of which goes to landfill
(PlasticsEurope, 2012a, p. 22). Total cradle to gate solid waste for production of 1 kg
of spandex is 0.3 kg/kg (PlasticsEurope, 2005, p. 14) The reaction of polyols and TDI is
relatively efficient in creating the polyurethane intermediate for the formation of spandex
fiber. During the dry spinning process there are small amounts of polytetrahydrofuran
waste from the glycolysis processes (Outa, 2013, p. 2013).
Hazardous Waste/Toxicity
During the production of spandex fibers that utilize toluene diisocyanate, hazardous
emissions of toluene are released from fiber spinning lines, storage vessels, and process
vents (EPA, 2000, p. 1-1). TDI is a significant respiratory hazard and causes skin irritation on
contact. Due to its density, vaporization is common which can result in respiratory pathway
exposures (Defonseka, 2013, p. 145). Good manufacturing practice with TDI requires
covering equipment and storage with an inert gas to eliminate atmospheric moisture
contamination (Defonseka, 2013, p. 147). Production of polyols uses amines and volatile
blowing agents that are hazardous (Defonseka, 2013, p. 146). Use of DMF and DMAC as
solvents for spandex fiber formation results in hazardous waste, as it is toxic (Yin et al,
2014, p. 17).
Wastewater
The total aggregated quantity of biological and chemical oxygen demand (BOD/COD)
and total organic carbon (TOC) is 0.9 g for production of 1 kg of polyether polyols and
0.3 g for TDI. Eutrophication potential for the production of 1 kg of polyether polyols is
0.84 g PO43- eq. and for 1 kg of TDI it is 0.87 g PO43- eq. (PlasticsEurope, 2012a, pp. 22,
24; PlasticsEurope, 2012b, pp. 23, 25). Overall data for spandex was not identified in the
literature.
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Emissions
The emissions from the creation of 1 kg of pure undyed spandex textile amount to 17.5 kg
CO2 equivalent (van der Velden 2014 p. 351). The majority of these emissions come from
the weaving process, which is a function of decitex (van der Velden 2014 p. 351). In this
calculation a 70 decitex yarn (63 denier) was assumed. The production of the polymer
emits just less than 5 kg CO2 equivalent, and < 1 kg CO2 equivalent is consumed from
extruder spinning, texturing and heat setting (van der Velden 2014 p. 351). The production
of 1 kg of polyether polyols produces 2.65 kg of CO2 and much smaller emissions of CO,
SO2, NOx and particulate matter (PlasticsEurope, 2012a, p. 12). Polyether polyols generate
6.19 g SO2eq. and TDI generates 3.87 g SO2eq. as acidification potential during their
production (PlasticsEurope, 2012, p. 23; PlasticsEurope, 2012b, p. 24).
Table 1. Inputs And Emissions For 1 Kg Spandex Fabric
Indicator
1 KG Spandex
Energy (MJ) i
~ 375
Water (L)
~ 95
ii
Waste (kg)
0.3
iii
GHG emissions (kg CO2)
i
17.5
Note: A literature search did not identify data for water and waste associated with spandex production;
flexible polyurethane foam data are reported as a proxy for spandex. The data for energy and GHG
emissions are for cradle to gate spandex textile (undyed woven textile).
References
i van der Velden 2014 p. 351-352
ii PlasticsEurope, 2005, p. 10
iii PlasticsEurope, 2005, p. 14
Performance And Processing
Functional Attributes And Performance
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Very high elasticity 4
Almost white in color 5
Good resistance to oils and cosmetics 6
Easily dyed 7
Abrasion resistant 8
Heat settable 9
No needle cutting damage when sewing 10
Yellow burn by nitrogen 11
Low UV resistance 12
Sensitive to heat 13
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Rouette, 2001, p. 37
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Sheshirm, 2014, p.26
Ibid.
Ibid.
Hu. et al, 2008, p. 282
Ibid.
Singha 2012 p. 14
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Table 2. Mechanical Attributes Of Spandex Fibers
Melting temp (oC) ii
250
Tenacity (g/d) iii
1.07 - 1.27
Tensile strain (%)
Unavailable
Tensile strength (N) iii
299 - 384 based on denier
Young’s modulus (cn/tex) v
1.1
Water retention (%) ii
0.3
Intrinsic viscosity (dL/g) iv
0.75 - 2.5
Breaking elongation (%)
500%
iv
Molecular weight (g/mol)
Breaking strength (g/den)
Unavailable
ii
0.7
Note: In typical use, spandex is a relatively small percentage of a fabric blend; the resulting blended textiles would
have variable mechanical property values.
References
i Singha 2012 p. 13
ii Senthilkumar et al, 2011, p. 301,
iii Quadir et al, 2014, p. 24; 25
iv Seneker & Lawrey, 1996
v Dang et al, 2008
Mechanical Attributes
Spandex fibers are highly elastic, with breaking elongation of 200-700% that return to their original
form once the tension has been removed (Fourne, 1999, p. 128; Rouette, 2001, p. 37). Polyurethane
spandex is comprised of 85% (by weight) polyurethane (Frauendorf et al. 1991, description section).
Spandex is lightweight, soft, durable, and has a better retract ability than natural rubber latex. Textiles
made with spandex are resistant to deterioration from body oil, perspiration, lotion and detergents
(Sheshirm, 2014, p.26). Despite the fact that spandex is abrasion resistant, it is less durable that one
of its common substitutes, natural rubber latex (Sheshirm, 2014, p.7). Most textiles require a small
percentage of spandex (2-10%) to provide the desired stretch characteristics (Senthilkumar et al, 2011,
p. 302).
Processing Characteristics
Spandex textiles are easily dyed (Sheshirm, 2014, p.8). During production manufacturers monitor each
process. Most producers analyze the diisocyanate to ensure that the pH viscosity and the specific
gravity are consistent with their standards. Changing types or prepolymer can result in varying
elasticity and other characteristics (Sheshirm, 2014, p.25). Varying characteristics of the fibers can
result in fiber diameters with a denier of 10-2,500. When sewing textiles containing spandex, there
is little damage from needle cutting (Sheshirm, 2014, p.26). Heat setting should be done early in the
process to reduce the yellowing or dyeing of the fibers (Senthilkumar et al, 2011, p. 302).
Aesthetics
Spandex is lightweight, smooth, soft and supple (Sheshirm, 2014, p.26). Using the material in a
product helps to create a tight fit on the body and limit bagging and sagging of garments.
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7
Potential Social And Ethical Concerns
During the processing of spandex, there are silicate oil solvents used as preparation agents
(European Commission, 2003, p. 402). These cannot be fully removed with water washing and can
potentially be released in dry cleaning and in end of life for spandex (European Commission, 2003,
p. 402). The production of polyether polyol results in atmospheric emissions of carbon dioxide,
methane and nitrous oxide, all of which are potent greenhouse gasses (Franklin Associates, 2011, p.
12-8). Production of TDI can emit toxic fumes that can be harmful to workers in the manufacturing
plant. Workers may also be exposed to toxic solvents such as DMF or DMAC in production and later
processing. Fossil fuels are used in transportation of these products and are common as a fuel source
for production. These fuels emit greenhouse gasses, which intensify global climate change.
Availability Of Material
China has the largest capacity for production of spandex. Currently, Hyosung Corp. has the largest
market share of spandex fiber with facilities in Korea, China (Jiaxing, Zuhai, and Guangdong), Turkey,
Vietnam and Brazil. Invista is another major producer of spandex materials under the product name
Lycra (DuPont sold its Lycra business and trademarks to Invista in 2004) (Sheshirm, 2014, p.9; EPA,
2000, p. 3-6).
Cost Of Textile
Price of spandex on the market depends on the denier, which can range from 10 – 5,000 (EPA, 2000,
p. 3-5). Generally the price decreases as denier increases (EPA, 2000, p. 3-5). In 1998, a 10 denier
fiber cost $30.00-$35.00 per pound where as a 420 denier fiber cost $7.65 - $8.60 per pound (EPA,
2000, p. 3-5). Currently, the price range of spandex fiber is about $8-10 per kg (Sonnenschein, 2014,
p. 324).
Questions To Ask When Sourcing This Material
Q: What type of diisocyanate was used in the pre polymer?
Q: Are there any fillers or additives applied to the prepolymer?
Q: Have the spandex fibers been heat set?
Q: Will the manufacturer take-back post-consumer and/or post-industrial waste textile for recycling
purposes?
Q: What percentage of the material is spandex?
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8
Figure 1. TDI Production
Crude Oil Production
Natural Gas Production
Distillation, Desalting &
Hydrotreating
Ammonia Production
Toluene Production
Nitric Acid Production
TDI Production
Dinitrotoluene Production
Soda Ash Mining/
Processing
Carbon Monoxide
Production
Phosgene Production
Sulfuric Acid
Production
Sodium Hydroxide
Production
Salt Mining
Energy
Transportation
Water
Chlorine Production
GHG Emissions
HCl
Solid Waste
Wastewater
Process Flow
Inputs
Outputs
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9
Figure 2. Polyol Production
Crude Oil Production
Natural Gas Production
Distillation, Desalting &
Hydrotreating
Natural Gas Processing
Oxygen
Production
Olefins Production
Propylene Oxide Production
Chlorine, Caustic
Soda & Caustic
Potash Production
Ethylene Oxide Production
Polyol Production
Glycerine Production
Salt Mining
Methanol Processing
Palm Kernel Oil
Refining, Bleaching
& Deodorizing
Palm Kernel Processing
Palm Kernel Production
Fresh Fruit Batch Harvesting
Energy
Transportation
Water
Process Flow
GHG Emissions
Fuel Gas
Off Gas
Heat
Solid Waste
Wastewater
Inputs
Outputs
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10
Figure 3. PU Spandex Production
Energy
Transportation
Water
Diisocyanate
Production
Polyol (Macro Glycol)
Production
Greenhouse
Gas
Emissions
Diamine Production *
Prepolymer Production
A Catalyst
Spandex Polymer Production
A Solvent
Dry Spinning *
TDI Emissions
Fiber False Twist *
Magnesium Stearate
Finishing
Transportation
Yarn Core Spinning *
Fuel-related
Emissions
Transportation
Weaving/ Knitting Of Textile *
Fuel-related
Emissions
1 kg Undyed Spandex
Textile
Process Flow
Inputs
Outputs
* Processes marked with an
asterisk can be completed using
other processes and would result
in a different process flow diagram.
Processes included in this diagram
were either common, or explained in
relevant literature.
© 2016
11
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© 2016
Developed by:
Proudly sponsored by:
VF Corporation
Prepared in collaboration with:
Brown and Wilmanns Environmental, LLC
This guide is one of 29 Material Snapshots produced by Textile Exchange
in 2015 with financial support from VF Corporation and in collaboration
with Brown and Wilmanns Environmental, LLC. They are an extension of
the original series released by TE in 2014.
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only. While every effort has been made to ensure that the information
provided is accurate, it does not constitute legal or other professional
advice. Textile Exchange cannot be held responsible for the contents
of this snapshot or any subsequent loss resulting from the use of the
information contained herein.
As a continual work in progress, this snapshot will be reviewed on a
regular basis. We invite readers to provide feedback and suggestions for
improvement, particularly with regards to data where new and improved
sources are likely to emerge over time.
For more information please email [email protected] or
visit: http://textileexchange.org/publications/#material-snapshots
Version 1 - January 2016
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