Power Projection from Aircraft Carriers: Naval Aviation in Vietnam

Power Projection from Aircraft Carriers:
Naval Aviation in Vietnam
Adapted from Vietnam: The War in the Air by René Francillon • Oil painting by R.G. Smith
A
mong the many histories of the Vietnam War, none was to have
greater consequences than the infamous Gulf of Tonkin Incident.
This event and the ensuing Congressional Resolution of 10
August 1964 made official the United States’ participation in the conflict.
In part, the resolution read:
Consonant with the Constitution of the United States and the
Charter of the United Nations and in accordance USN
with its obligations under the Southeast Asia
Collective Defense Treaty, the United States
is ... prepared, as the President determines, to
take all necessary steps, including the use of
armed forces, to assist any member or protocol
state … requesting assistance in defense of its
freedom.
By then, U.S. forces (including elements of
Naval Aviation, which had lost the first aircraft
6 June 1964 when a Vought reconnaissance
RF‑8A Crusader flown from USS Kitty Hawk
(CVA‑63) by LT Charles F. Klusmann of VFP‑63
had been shot down over Laos) had already been
fighting in South East Asia for more than two
years. Moreover, ever since the end of April 1961,
when President John F. Kennedy approved a plan
for covert operations against North Vietnam in the
hope of conveying American determination to help
prevent a communist takeover of South Vietnam,
the United States had been masterminding
operations in the North. These operations were
expanded in January 1964 when President Lyndon
B. Johnson, four months after becoming President,
approved OPLAN 34‑A. Calling for a 12‑month program of covert actions,
OPLAN 34‑A notably included the use of U.S. Navy (USN) destroyers to
perform coastal reconnaissance in the Gulf of Tonkin, with one or more
carriers of the U.S. Seventh Fleet steaming close by to provide assistance if
needed, while South Vietnamese gunboats were to shell targets in the North
Vietnamese panhandle.
Above: “Yankee Station” oil painting of USS Enterprise
(CVAN-65) by the late, renowned artist, R.G. Smith.
Right: An A4D-2 Skyhawk landing on USS Ticonderoga
(CVA-14) during an operational readiness inspection,
18 Jan ’63. An A3D-2 Skywarrior and F3H-2 Demon
are parked on the carrier’s after flight deck.
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The Hook, Summer 2016
Public domain
The Tonkin Gulf Yacht Club
further strikes were flown against North Vietnam
During the afternoon of 2 August 1964, North
until February 1965.
Vietnamese patrol torpedo (PT) boats attacked
Three attack carriers, Hancock (CVA‑19), Coral
Maddox (DD‑731) after possibly confusing it with
Sea (CVA‑43) and Ranger were “on‑the‑line”
one of the South Vietnamese gunboats. At that
in the Gulf of Tonkin when embarked carrier air
time the only carrier within close proximity was
wings were ordered 7 February 1965 to launch
Ticonderoga with CVW‑5 comprised of two squad‑
a 100‑aircraft “alpha strike” in retaliation for
rons of F‑8Es (VF‑51 and VF‑53), two squadrons
Viet Cong attacks against U.S. facilities in South
of Douglas A‑4E Skyhawks (VA‑55 and VA‑56)
Vietnam. Impeded by heavy monsoon weather,
and one squadron of Douglas A‑1H/J Skyraiders
this first Flaming Dart mission against the Chanh
(VA‑52), as well as detachments (dets) from VAH‑4
Hoa barracks in the North Vietnamese panhandle
(Douglas A‑3B Skywarriors), VFP‑63 (RF‑8A
proved disappointing and resulted in the loss of
Crusaders), VAW‑11 (E‑1B Trackers) and HU‑1
three carrier‑based aircraft to anti‑aircraft artillery
(Kaman UH‑2A Seasprites). Reacting swiftly, four
(AAA). Two of the pilots were rescued, but LCDR
VF‑53 Crusaders came to the rescue of the U.S.
Bob Shumaker, USN, a VF‑154 Crusader pilot from
destroyer, sinking one of the North Vietnamese PT
Coral Sea became the second POW.
boats with gunfire and Zuni rockets.
In March 1965 the policy of attacking North
A tense situation prevailed for the next two
Vietnam only on a retaliatory basis gave place to
days. Turner Joy (DD‑951} joined Maddox close
sustained power projection bombing, Operation
to the North Vietnamese shore and Constellation
Rolling Thunder. The first USN Rolling Thunder
(CVA‑64) with CVW‑14 embarked, comprised of
strikes were flown 18 March from Hancock with
Lyndon B. Johnson
two squadrons of McDonnell F‑4B Phantom IIs,
CVW‑21 and Coral Sea with CVW‑15. From
U.S. President 1963 –’68
two squadrons of A‑4C Skyhawks, one squadron
then on CTF‑77 played a major role, with two to
of Skyraiders, one squadron of Skywarriors and dets of RF‑8As and
three carriers being kept on‑the‑line throughout the duration of Rolling
UH‑2As) was sent into the Gulf of Tonkin. Following what was reported
Thunder. Bombing missions by A‑3B Skywarriors were initiated
to be a second PT boat attack on Maddox and Turner Joy on the night
by VAH‑2 on 29 March, and the first night armed reconnaissance
of 4 August, President Johnson approved a retaliatory strike against five
missions were undertaken from Midway with CVW‑2 and Coral Sea
PT boat support facilities in North Vietnam. (Ed. Note: Historians have
with CVW‑15 during the night of 15 April. On that date, Naval Aviators
concluded the alleged second PT boat attack did not occur. Rather, it was
also flew their first in‑country missions when enemy positions were
misinterpretation of sensor information, such as radar contact data, sonar
struck. Subsequently, carriers operating in support of the ground battle
echoes, other sensors and communication nets.)
steamed on “Dixie Station” in the South China Sea off the coast of South
As ordered, the two air wings flew 64 attack sorties against North
Vietnam, whereas those taking part in the war against the North operated
Vietnam, 5 August, destroying more than half of the North Vietnamese
from “Yankee Station” in the Gulf of Tonkin.
PT force and setting fires to petroleum, oil and lubricant (POL) targets
and supplies. One Skyhawk was shot down. Its pilot, LTJG Everett
New Aircraft and Weapon Types
Alvarez, USN, became the first prisoner of war (POW). As attack carrier,
Noteworthy events affecting carrier air wing operations during 1965
Ranger (CVA‑61) and an anti‑submarine carrier, Kearsarge (CV‑33),
were the combat debut of the Grumman A‑6A Intruder all‑weather attack
were added to Carrier Task Force Seventy‑Seven (CTF‑77), and as on
aircraft (in July with VA‑75 on board Independence (CVA‑62)),
10 August Congress passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, it appeared
the Grumman E‑2A Hawkeye airborne early warning (AEW)
that the naval war was on. Reason prevailed for a few months and no
aircraft (in November with Det C of VAW‑11 on Kitty Hawk)
USN
VA-196 Main Battery A-6A Intruders dropping Mk 82 500-lb. bombs over
Vietnam. VA-196 was assigned to CVW-14 on board USS Constellation
(CVA-64) for a deployment to Vietnam 29 May ’68–31 Jan ’69.
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USN
Left: USS Kitty Hawk (CVA‑63) and
two destroyers, c. Sep ’62.
Below: Armed with two AIM‑9B
Sidewinder missiles and an AIM‑7
Sparrow, a VF‑21 Freelancers F‑4B
Phantom II off Vietnam, assigned to
CVW‑2 on board Midway (CVA‑41)
during the 6 Mar – 23 Nov ’65
deployment, c. 1965.
Doremus, USN). Three days later
another feat was achieved by
LTs Charlie Hartman, USN, and
Clint Johnson, USN, flying A‑1H
Skyraiders with VA‑25 Fist of the
Fleet. They shared a victory over
a MiG‑17 when·North Vietnam
Air Force pilots made the mistake
of trying to tangle with Skyraiders
at low speed.
and the first combat deployment by nuclear‑powered Enterprise (CVN‑65),
which went on‑the‑line at Dixie Station 2 December and moved to Yankee
Station 15 days later.
Naval Aviation introduced weapons (and weapon upgrades) such
as air‑to‑ground guided missiles — AGM‑45 Shrikes for use during
strikes against radar sites (known as Iron Hand), AGM‑12 Bullpups,
television‑guided AGM‑62 (redesignated in 1966 as Guided Weapon
Mk 1 Mod 0) Walleye I, Guided Weapon Mk 5 Walleye II glide bombs
for precision attacks and Mk 20 Rockeye cluster bomblets for use against
tanks, armored vehicles and area targets.
Air‑to‑air weapon systems and upgrades included various models of
the AIM‑7 Sparrow and AIM‑9 Sidewinder.
First Air‑to‑Air Combat
Carrier fighters conducted first air combat 9 April 1965 when F‑4B
Phantom IIs of VF‑96, flying barrier combat air patrol (BARCAP) from
Ranger, strayed close to China and were engaged near the island of Hainan
by MiG‑17s of the Air Force of the People’s Liberation Army. VF‑96
claimed a probable victory but one of the Phantom IIs failed to return.
More successful was a 17 June engagement when two North Vietnamese
MiG‑17s became the first confirmed “kills” of the war, the victors being
four crewmembers of VF‑21 (CDR Lou Page, USN, and LT John C.
Smith Jr., USN, and LT Jack “Dave” Batson Jr., USN, and LCDR Robert
Aircraft Carrier Presence
Construction of new carriers was a long drawn‑out affair. The only new
carriers commissioned during the Vietnam War were America (CVA‑66)
in January 1965 and John F. Kennedy (CVA‑67) in September 1968.
Several of the carriers then in service were reaching the end of their
service life or were due to undergo major refit. This was notably the
case of the Pacific Fleet’s Midway, which, after making a deployment to
Vietnam in 1965, went to the San Francisco Bay Naval Shipyard and was
not recommissioned until January 1970.
To supplement carriers of the Pacific Fleet (the command responsible
for operations in the Western Pacific and the Indian Ocean) Atlantic
Fleet carriers deployed for operations in the Gulf of Tonkin. The first
Atlantic Fleet carrier to make a deployment to the Vietnam War was
Independence (CVA‑62), which arrived on‑the‑line in June 1965 and
returned to homeport in December. Later, five other Atlantic Fleet
attack carriers, America, Forrestal, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Saratoga
and Shangri‑La, made a total of seven deployments to the war zone.
The Atlantic Fleet made a more permanent contribution in 1965 as
Enterprise left Norfolk, Virginia, in October and, after seven months
on‑the‑line, returned to Alameda, California, for permanent assignment
to the Pacific Fleet. The Atlantic Fleet also contributed an anti‑submarine
carrier, Intrepid (CVS‑11), which made three deployments from Norfolk
to the Gulf of Tonkin.
USN
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Left: VA-196 Main Battery A-1H Skyraiders
being prepared for a strike from USS Bon
Homme Richard (CVA-31), c. 1965.
Below: A Douglas KA-3B Skywarrior refuels
a North American RA-5C Vigilante over
USS Ranger (CVA-61), c. 1965.
Carrier Complement
Carrier air wings embarked in most carriers typically consisted of two
fighter (VF) squadrons with F‑8 Crusaders or F‑4 Phantom IIs, two light
attack (VA) squadrons with A‑4 Skyhawks or Vought A‑7 Corsair Ils and
one medium attack (VA) squadron — initially with A‑1 Skyraiders and
later with A‑6 Intruders.
Other missions were performed by dets, in less than squadron strength,
of tankers, electronic countermeasure (ECM) aircraft, reconnaissance
aircraft, AEW aircraft and helicopters. A‑3 Skywarriors of heavy attack
(VAH) dets initially flew a number of bombing missions but were soon
almost exclusively used as tankers or ECM aircraft. In this latter role they
were first replaced by KA‑3Bs and/or EKA‑3Bs of tactical electronics
warfare (VAQ) dets, and then supplemented by KA‑6Ds assigned to the
air wing’s VA squadron flying A‑6 medium attack aircraft.
Additionally, in‑flight refueling capability was provided by A‑4s and
A‑7s of Light Attack Squadrons, which could be fitted with refueling
pods on wing hardpoints.
At first, ECM support was provided
by dets of Carrier Air Early Warning
Squadron Thirteen (VAW‑13) flying
Douglas ECM EA‑1F Skyraiders.
But for most of the war, this role was
undertaken by EKA‑3Bs and Grumman
VAQ EA‑6Bs.
Photo reconnaissance capability
was provided by Light Photographic
Reconnaissance Squadron Sixty‑three
(VFP‑63) dets flying RF‑8A/RF‑8Gs
and by Reconnaissance Attack Squadron (RVAH) dets flying North
American RA‑5C Vigilantes.
Airborne early warning was the task of VAW dets flying Grumman
E‑1B Tracers or E‑2 Hawkeyes. On occasion, Fleet Air Reconnaissance
One (VQ‑1) flying EA‑3Bs and Photographic Reconnaissance Squadron
61 (VAP‑61) flying RA‑3Bs also made short deployments aboard carriers
operating on Yankee Station to provide special skills.
Planeguard duty, combat search and rescue and limited anti‑submarine
warfare capability were provided by dets of Seasprites and Sikorsky
SH‑3 from Helicopter Utility (HU) and after 1965 Helicopter Combat
Support (HC) squadrons.
Nominal aircraft complement reached up to 90 aircraft on board
larger carriers (Forrestal, Saratoga, Ranger, Independence, Kitty Hawk,
Constellation, Enterprise and America), 75 aircraft aboard Midway‑class
carriers (Midway, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Coral Sea) and
70 aircraft on board smaller carriers (Intrepid, Ticonderoga,
Hancock, Bon Homme Richard, Oriskany and Shangri‑La).
USN
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USN via Bill Ray
A VA-196 Main Battery A-1H Skyraider from USS Bon Homme
Richard (CVA-31) pulls off target in South Vietnam, c. 1965 –’66.
Combat Missions and More Combat Missions
After the start of Rolling Thunder carrier after carrier deployed to the
Gulf of Tonkin, and the Navy implemented routine procedures to prepare
the carrier air wings and rotate ships and personnel. Typically, after
working up independently, the squadrons of an air wing were brought
together for a period of intensive training at NAS Fallon, Nevada, prior to
embarking aboard their carrier.
Occasionally, the carrier was routed to Hong Kong for R&R. Every
few days while on‑the‑line, the carriers were underway replenished by
logistic ships, taking on fuel, ordnance, urgent supplies, spares, mail and
personnel. Delivery of some supplies, as well as medical evacuations,
were accomplished by the carrier’s Grumman C‑lA Trader carrier
onboard delivery (COD) aircraft, by Fleet Tactical Support Squadron
Fifty (VRC‑50) Grumman C‑2A Greyhounds and by helicopters.
Joint training continued while the carrier was underway and, unless
the situation demanded that it immediately take up station in the Gulf of
Tonkin, the carrier was first assigned to Dixie Station.
Mission Variety
While operating on Dixie or Yankee Station the air wings flew a
variety of missions.
Attack aircraft flew day and night power projection missions —
large formation alpha strikes, smaller formations or individual offensive
bombing sorties and armed reconnaissance.
Fighter aircraft flew day and night missions such as BARCAPs and
force combat air patrols (FORCECAPs) over or near the task force to
provide cover against potential enemy air attacks. They conducted
MiG combat air patrol (MiGCAP) near MiG bases or target combat air
patrol (TARCAP) over North Vietnam targets to prevent enemy aircraft
from engaging friendly target or target support aircraft until they were
There, new aircrews first gained combat experience during less
demanding in‑country sorties in support of Allied ground forces.
Following this first on‑the‑line period, the carrier and air wing were often
sent to NAS Cubi Point, Republic of Philippines, for a few days of rest
and relaxation (R&R) and to take on supplies prior to returning to either
Dixie Station for combat operations in South Vietnam or Yankee Station
in the Gulf of Tonkin for combat operations against North Vietnam.
USN
A VF-111 Sundowners F-8D Crusader attacks a target in South Vietnam,
c. 1965. The Sundowners were assigned to CVW-2 on board USS
Midway (CVA-41) for a deployment to Vietnam, 6 Mar – 23 Nov ’65.
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USN
Public domain
A VF-41 Black Aces F-4B Phantom II launches from USS Independence (CVA-62) while two VA-86 Sidewinders
and a VA-72 Blue Hawks A-4E Skyhawks await their turn during flight operations off Vietnam, c. 1965.
Southeast Asia, with North and South Vietnam depicted
as they were during the Vietnam War.
over safer territory. Fighters also escorted attack and reconnaissance
aircraft going to and from targets, especially in areas in North Vietnam,
code‑named Route Packages (RPs) IV and VIB along the northern coast
of North Vietnam and RPs II and III in central North Vietnam. (The U.S.
Air Force was normally tasked with the other RPs, i.e., I, north of the
demilitarized zone (DMZ), V, northwest of Hanoi and VIB, inland and
north of Hanoi.)
Support aircraft flew missions such as tanker and ECM missions.
In the case of a downed aircrew, available air wing aircraft flew in
support of rescue combat air patrol (RESCAP) to defend against enemy
opposition, such as capture.
Bombing, On‑again, Off‑again
When Rolling Thunder south of the 20th parallel, was again authorized
by President Johnson in late Januarv 1966 after the Christmas truce,
Hancock with CVW‑21, Kitty Hawk with CVW‑11 and Enterprise with
CVW‑9 were on‑the‑line with TF‑77 and immediately went to work
against lines of communication targets in the panhandle. While little enemy
aircraft or surface‑to‑air missile (SAM) opposition was encountered,
losses to AAA were heavy, notably during attacks against well‑defended
bridges. MiGs and SAMs became major threats when operations were
enlarged in April to include targets in RPs IV and VlB (with the exception
of 10‑nautical mile prohibited zones around Hanoi and Haiphong).
Some Notable Events
June 1966 was a particularly busy month for fighters, as VF‑211
flying F‑8Es from Hancock, shot down three MiG‑17s and claimed
one probable, but lost one of its aircraft in air‑to‑air combat. Four more
enemy aircraft including two An‑2 Colt single‑engine biplane transports
that were caught at night by F‑4Bs of VF‑114 and VF‑213, were claimed
by fighters during the second half of 1966, while a VA‑176 Skyraider
pilot, LTJG William Patton, USN, shot down a MiG­l7.
Throughout the year the air wings divided their offensive activities
between sustained operations against truck traffic along the Ho Chi Minh
Trail and a systematic campaign to destroy the petroleum system in the
North. Carrier‑based aircraft also flew the first mining missions 26 March
when A‑6As from VA‑35 planted mines in the mouths of the Song Ca
and Song Giang rivers to interdict barge traffic. In addition, in an action
reminiscent of the Gulf of Tonkin Incident, on 1 July 1966 aircraft from
Hancock and Constellation sank three North Vietnamese PT boats that
had attempted to attack two USN destroyers.
The Hook, Summer 2016
Of a totally different nature, the good and bad fortunes of Oriskany
count among the most significant events of 1966. On 16 September after
three periods on‑the‑line, Oriskany put her helicopters to good use by
rescuing 44 British sailors from a merchant ship that was breaking up
in heavy seas southeast of Hong Kong. This good deed, however, did
not bring luck to Oriskany. Forty days later she lost an equal number of
Sailors when fire broke out in a flare locker. Oriskany was pulled off the
line. After temporary repairs at Subic Bay, Republic of the Philippines,
she sailed back to her homeport. Seven months later she again departed
from San Diego for her third wartime deployment to the Gulf of Tonkin.
For the men of the Tonkin Gulf Yacht Club, 1967 was for the most
part a repeat of the previous year. On 29 July, the fifth day of her first
on‑line period, however, Forrestal was less fortunate than Oriskany, and
was taken out of the war. As aircraft were being readied for the second
launch of the day, a Zuni rocket was accidentally fired and hit an A‑4’s
fuel tank. Flames engulfed the carrier’s fantail and spread
below decks, touching off bombs and ammunition. In the
ensuing inferno 134 officers and enlisted men were killed,
USN
Destroyer USS Rupertus (DD-851) in what RADM Harvey P. Lanham, ComCarDiv
Two, called an act of “magnificent seamanship” maneuvers his ship to within 20
feet of Forrestal (CVA-59) so fire hoses could be effectively used on the worst fire
of a U.S. aircraft carrier, off the coast of Vietnam, 29 Jul ’67.
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months of 1968, Rolling Thunder operations over the North continued to be
the primary activity of carrier aviators; however, in April President Johnson
once again limited offensive operations against North Vietnam to missions
below the 19th parallel. Consequently, during 1968 CTF‑77 lost fewer
aircraft than in 1967 — three to MiGs, seven to SAMs and 51 to AAA.
Completing her third war deployment in July 1968, Enterprise, the
Navy’s first nuclear carrier then spent less than six months on the West
Coast prior to departing once again for the Gulf of Tonkin. It was while
she was sailing west that Enterprise became the third carrier to suffer
a major accident when, during an Operational Readiness Inspection on
14 January 1969, Zuni rockets under the wing of a Phantom II overheated
due to the close proximity of a jet starting unit. Fire quickly spread across
the aft end of the flight deck and before it could be controlled 28 men were
killed and 343 injured. Fifteen aircraft were destroyed and total damage
was estimated at 56 million dollars.
Repaired in six weeks at the Pearl Harbor shipyard, Enterprise finally
reached Yankee Station 30 March 1969.
Then-LT Michael Estocin, USN, was the only recipient of the Medal of Honor
awarded to a carrier pilot for combat during the Vietnam War.
21 aircraft were destroyed and 43 others damaged, but the ship’s armored
deck limited below‑deck damage. Nevertheless, having lost more than
half of CVW‑17’s complement, Forrestal was out of action. She went
back to Norfolk and did not return to the Western Pacific.
For other carriers operating in the Gulf of Tonkin, operational highlights
during 1967 included strikes against North Vietnamese airfields (the first
of which was flown 24 April by aircraft from Kitty Hawk (CVW‑11), the
award to CDR Michael J. Estocin, USN, the only Medal of Honor (MoH)
awarded to a carrier pilot for combat during the Vietnam War (another
aviator, CAPT James B. Stockdale, USN, was awarded the MoH for
action on behalf of fellow POWs), the combat debut of the A‑7A Corsair
II (in December with CVW‑2, VA‑147 on board Ranger), and 16 victories
against enemy fighters (one of which was scored by LCDR T.R. Swartz,
USN, who shot down a MiG‑17 with a Zuni rocket while flying a VA‑76
A‑4C). CTF‑77, however, had suffered heavy combat losses during the
year, with five aircraft being shot down by MiGs, 30 being brought down
by SAMs and 99 falling to AAA and small arms fire.
Equipped with EA‑lFs and embarked in Ticonderoga, VAW‑33 Det 14
made the last Skyraider deployment with 66 days on‑the‑line from January
to July 1968 during the last phases of Rolling Thunder. For the first three
At that time, no bombing operations against the North were allowed
and as U.S. participation in ground operations in the South were being
decreased, carrier‑based aircraft mainly took part in the Commando Hunt
interdiction campaign against enemy infiltration routes in Laos.
In April and May 1969 they also operated on “Defender Station”
in the Sea of Japan, as three attack carriers (Enterprise, Ranger and
Ticonderoga) were temporarily transferred to TF‑71 to take part in a show
of force after North Korea shot down an EC‑121 reconnaissance aircraft.
Following this interlude, carriers on Yankee Station again concentrated
their activities on interdiction missions over Laos and on unarmed
reconnaissance sorties over the North, with protective reaction strikes
occasionally being flown in retaliation for North Vietnamese interference
with the recce activities. The heaviest retaliatory operations took place
between 26 and 29 December 1971 when aircraft from Constellation and
Coral Sea flew 423 sorties as part of Operation Proud Deep.
From Dixie Station carrier‑based aircraft continued to provide air
support to Allied ground forces in the South but, as more U.S. troops
were pulled out of South Vietnam, even these activities slowly decreased
after the summer of 1969 (with a single carrier operating on Yankee
Station for the first time during January 1971). They reached a low in
January 1972 when only eight sorties were flown over South Vietnam.
No all‑new aircraft made combat debuts during these years, but
improved models of existing types were first deployed aboard America
USN
RVAH-7 Peacemakers of the Fleet RA-5C Vigilantes
over USS Enterprise (CVAN-65), c. 1965.
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USN via Tom Doll
Left: VF‑211 Fighting Checkmates led
all F‑8 squadrons with 10 MiG kills in
Vietnam; sister squadron VF‑24 Red
Checkertails tallyed another five.
Below: VF‑114 Aardvarks F‑4J
Phantom IIs, c. 1973. VF-114 made
a total of five combat deployments to
Vietnam, scoring five MiG kills.
in April 1970 when she sailed from Norfolk. These were the A‑7Es
Corsair IIs of VA‑146 and VA‑147, and the KA‑6Ds (tanker versions of
the Intruder) and A‑6Cs (Intruders fitted with electro­optical sensors for
night interdiction operations) of VA‑165.
Meanwhile, improved tactics, new technology and new designs were
developed, and stepped‑up training took place throughout the war to
correct deficiencies as they became known.
Crusaders and Phantom IIs
In the naval fighter community the kills scored by LCDR Swartz and
earlier by other attack pilots flying Skyraiders, were a mere diversion.
The fighter community was the domain of the F‑8 Crusader (with its
primary armament of four 20mm cannon and two to four infrared‑guided
Sidewinder missiles) and the newer F‑4 Phantom II (with its armament
consisting of a mix of Sidewinders and radar­-guided Sparrow missiles).
Nearly all F‑8 squadrons transitioned to the F‑4 during the war. F‑8s
were fewer in number and generally operated from the smaller carriers.
They spent only three‑fourths the number of days on‑the‑line as did the
F‑4s, which operated from the larger carriers. Still, the older Crusaders
scored their share of air‑to‑air victories —a total of 18.
Except for a VF-142 Ghostriders 28 March 1970 F‑4J crew downing
a MiG‑21, no victories were scored by either F‑8s or F‑4s between
September 1968 and the spring of 1972.
When the air war again heated up in the spring of 1972, the F‑4s went
on to score all remaining victories. The tally of victories for fighters at the
end of the war was 56 kills.
Topgun
Although in fighter‑versus‑fighter combat naval aircrews had gained
the upper hand over the enemy, and had achieved a kill‑to‑loss ratio of
5‑to‑l, the overall kill‑to‑loss ratio (less than 3‑to‑1) was not satisfactory.
Accordingly, having determined that the training of fighter pilots lacked
sufficient emphasis on air combat maneuvering, the Navy established
Topgun, a specialized advanced course for fighter aircrew. Lack of air
combat during the midwar period, from late 1969 to early 1972, did
not yield immediate results from this program, but renewed offensive
operations in 1972, conclusively demonstrated the value of Topgun.
During the last year of the war, Navy pilots achieved an impressive
12.5‑to‑1 kill ratio against enemy fighters and succeeded in preventing
all but one loss of attack aircraft to MiGs.
Helicopter Operations
Albeit conducted on a smaller scale than those of the Air Force, Navy
helicopter rescue operations were of great value to U.S. aircrews flying
over North Vietnam, particularly to those who sought safety by flying their
crippled aircraft toward or over the Gulf of Tonkin. To rescue
aircrew the Navy initially relied on destroyers operating close
to the North Vietnamese coast, on carrier-­based plane‑guard
Harry Gann
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Page 33
USN
Linebacker I and II
On 10 May Freedom Train gave place to Linebacker I as
restrictions on sustained operations above the 20th parallel
were lifted. Air combat reached peak intensity on that day and
Navy aircrews claimed eight confirmed victories, including
the only triple‑kill of the war scored by LT Randall H.
Cunningham, USN, and radar intercept officer LTJG William
P. Driscoll, USN. Unfortunately the two men of VF‑96, who
had just become the only Navy aces of the war, had their
F‑4J damaged by a nearby SAM explosion while returning
to Constellation. They ejected “feet wet” (i.e., over water of
the relative safety of the Gulf of Tonkin) and were quickly
rescued by Marine helicopters. Carrier­-based fighters scored
nine more confirmed victories during Linebacker I.
USN
CDR Bob Vermilya, ENS Bill Runyo, AWC Tom Grisha and ADR2 Jerry
Dunford performed a daring rescue of RF-8C pilot LCDR Tommy Tucker of
VFP-63 under heavy enemy fire in Haiphong Harbor. Tucker’s Crusader off the
USS Oriskany (CVA-34) was hit by 37mm ground fire as he was attempting to
photograph a foreign tanker in the harbor, 31 Aug ’66.
helicopters from HC‑1 and HC‑ 2 and from Helicopter Anti‑submarine
Squadrons operating from various ships of TF‑77. However, as
operations over North Vietnam increased in intensity, the Navy began
supplementing its standard plane‑guard helicopters with specialized
small detachments from HC‑7. Operating armed versions of the UH‑2C
and Sikorsky SH‑3A/SH‑3G Sea Kings until the final withdrawal of
American forces, the Navy rescue helicopters flew sorties not only over
the Gulf of Tonkin but also into North Vietnam. LTJG Clyde E. Lassen,
USN, was awarded the MoH for recovering two downed aviators at
night 19 June 1968. The effectiveness of these operations can be gauged
by the fact that HC‑7 Det 10 alone conducted 48 rescues during 1972,
while during that year HC‑1 rescued a total of 36 people including some
Sailors who had fallen overboard.
VA-195 Dambusters A-7E Corsair II CAG bird over Vietnam assigned to CVW-11 on
USS Kitty Hawk (CVA-63).
USN
Freedom Train and Freedom Porch
Following the North Vietnamese spring offensive on 30 March
1972, carrier-­based aircraft stepped up operations in the South (with
680 sorties being flown during the first week of April as opposed to
an average of 66 weekly sorties during the previous three months) and
then supplemented U.S. Air Force aircraft in Freedom Train missions
over the North. First undertaken 5 April when Hancock, Coral Sea
and Kitty Hawk were on‑the‑line, these heavy raids had the following
objectives:
•destruction of North Vietnamese aggression‑supporting
resources;
•harassment and disruption of enemy military operations and;
•reduction and impediment of movements of men and materials in
the panhandle.
Initially strikes were limited to targets below the 19th parallel, but
by the end of April the northern limit had been moved to 20 deg. 25
min. north latitude. In addition, special strikes were authorized on
various occasions (notably 16 April when, as part of Freedom Porch,
57 sorties were flown by carrier­based aircraft in support of B‑52 raids
in the Haiphong area). Enemy opposition was intense and four MiGs
were destroyed 6 May by aircrews of VF‑51, VF‑111 and VF‑114.
Haiphong Mined
Even more significant than strikes against land targets, militarily
as well as diplomatically, was Operation Pocket Money, the mining
campaign against the principal North Vietnamese ports announced by
President Nixon 9 May 1972. Simultaneously with this announcement,
in which three days were given for foreign vessels to leave North
Vietnamese waters, aircraft from Coral Sea (CVW‑15) seeded 36
mines with 72‑hour arming delays in the outer approaches of Haiphong.
During the next eight months more than 11,000 mines were planted,
effectively blockading maritime transport to and from North Vietnam.
Page 34
VA-195 Dambusers A-7E Corsair II pilot LT Mike A. “Baby” Ruth off Kitty Hawk
bombs the Hai Duong railway and highway bridge in North Vietnam on the first day of
Operation Linebacker, 10 May’72.
The Hook, Summer 2016
Carrier operations reached their peak during May 1972 when 3,949 and
3,290 sorties were flown, respectively, against the North and over the South.
The largest number of carriers on‑the‑line was recorded 23–31 May when
Hancock, Midway, Coral Sea, Saratoga, Kitty Hawk and Constellation
operated in the Gulf of Tonkin. After the North Vietnam Army spring
offensive was halted, the number of sorties over the South decreased sig‑
nificantly, while sorties over the North dropped only slightly in June and
July prior to reaching a new high of 4,819 in August. Altogether during
Linebacker I, the Navy flew 23,652 missions against North Vietnam with
nearly one‑third of the armed reconnaissance sorties being flown at night.
Tactical air sorties above the 20th parallel were once more ended
23 October 1972, and the level of operations fell sharply as peace was
thought to be “around the corner.”
When this hope did not materialize, Linebacker II was initiated
18 December with the Navy contributing Oriskany, Midway, Saratoga,
Ranger, America and Enterprise air wing support to the war’s final
effort, Linebacker II. Hanoi was finally forced to adopt a more pliable
attitude at the Paris talks. Full‑scale operations ended 29 December, but
skirmishes continued for four more weeks (Navy flyers claimed the last
MiG of the war 12 January). The last Naval Aviation aircrewmen shot
down 27 January 1973 included CDR Harley H. Hall, USN, commanding
officer of VF‑143 and LCDR Phillip, A. Kientzler, USN, radar intercept
officer, flying an F‑4J from Enterprise. CDR Hall was killed in action.
LCDR Kientzler was captured and became a POW. The Vietnam War
cease‑fire was declared 27 January 1973.
Almost the End
The war was not quite over for the Tonkin Gulf Yacht Club. Ranger
with CVW‑2, Midway with CVW‑5, America with CVW‑8, Enterprise
with CVW‑14 and Oriskany with CVW‑19, operating from a position
off the coast of South Vietnam, flew strikes against targets in southern
Laos until 11 February and combat support missions over Cambodia until
27 February. Moreover, during various on‑the‑line periods between 27
February and 27 July 1973, Oriskany, Coral Sea, Ranger, Constellation,
Enterprise and America provided logistical support during Operation
Endsweep, the clearing of mines from North Vietnamese harbors, which
was undertaken as part of the Paris Peace Accord and provided air cover
for these operations. At last on 15 August 1973, all war‑related activities
stopped in accordance with the Congress‑mandated end of U.S. combat
operations in South East Asia.
Carriers were to be involved three more times in the area before the
long war could finally be left behind. On 12 April 1975 they provided air
cover and served as bases for Marine helicopters taking part in Eagle Pull,
the evacuation of U.S. personnel and some foreign nationals from Phnom
Penh. One week later they provided similar services during Frequent
Wind, the evacuation of Saigon. Power projection missions ended.
Final Tally
Altogether 17 attack carriers (10 from the Pacific Fleet and seven from
the Atlantic Fleet) made a total of 73 combat deployments and spent
8,248 days on‑the‑line during the nine years between the Gulf of Tonkin
Incident and the Congress-mandated end of U.S. combat involvement in
South East Asia. With a total of eight, Hancock (CVA‑19) set the record
for the number of combat deployments. Coral Sea (CVA‑43) spent the
most days on‑the‑line (873 in seven deployments) and also held the
record for the longest deployment (331 days between December 1964
and November 1965). Most days on‑the‑line during a single deployment
was achieved by Midway (CVA‑41), which spent 208 days on‑the‑line
between April 1972 and February 1973. Attack carrier fighters had
scored 56 confirmed and four probable kills, while attack aircraft added
three air‑to‑air victories to the total tally. Top honors went to squadrons
embarked in Constellation (CVA‑64) with 15 kills.
In 12 years of the war the Navy lost 530 fixed‑wing aircraft (most of
them carrier‑based) and 13 helicopters to hostile action. Navy operational
losses during the war totaled 299 fixed­wing aircraft and 35 helicopters.
Human losses were even more grievous — 317 aircrews were lost in
action, while death from all causes took the lives of 2,430 naval personnel.
In early 1973, North Vietnam and the Viet Cong released
144 Naval Aviation aircrewmen who had been taken POW;
however, 77 others remained unaccounted for.
USN
Vietnam Service Medal
Republic of Vietnam Medal
with 1960s device
CVW‑14 aircraft on board
USS Constellation (CVA‑64)
during a Vietnam War deploy‑
ment 29 Apr – 4 Dec ’67. In
the foreground: an RVAH‑12
Speartips RA‑5C Vigilante, a
VA‑146 Blue Diamonds A‑4C
Skyhawk, a VAP‑61 World
Recorders RA‑3B Skywarrior,
a VA‑55 Warhorses A‑4C
Skyhawk and a VA‑196 Main
Battery A‑6A Intruder.
The Hook, Summer 2016
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