mamawohkamatotan - Edmonton Journal

MAMAWOHKAMATOTAN
WORKING TOGETHER
SAMSON SAFE COMMUNITY TASK FORCE REPORT
Samson Community Task Force
November, 2008
This report is the property of Samson Cree Nation and any reproduction must have permission of the Samson Cree Nation Chief and Council.
Working Together 2
Dedication
The children of our community deserve to live in a safe
environment & this report is dedicated to them.
Samson Cree Nation Safe Community Task Force
Koren Lightning-Earle, Janet Swampy, Angela Boysis-Bull, Dennis Greene, Wendy Erick, Elizabeth A. Rowan,
Rod Saddleback, Georgina Baptiste, Perry Cardinal and Don Ladouceur
Assistant
Charmaine Soosay
Elder
Theresa Boysis
Graphics designed and created by
Shelli Yellowbird B.Mgt.
Report Written By Technical Team
Charlene Northwest, B.Comm
Sheila Carr-Stewart, Ph.D.
Working Together
3
SYNOPSIS
On April 13, 2008 the violence on Samson Cree Nation hit a climax. A 23 month-old girl was
shot due to the escalating situation of gang violence. The community of Samson Cree Nation was
shocked and overwhelmed. A community meeting was held to address the situation and the
issues that have plagued Samson.
The meeting went on for an entire day and many
recommendations were put forth and a Task Force was created. This report was created by the
Samson Cree Nation Safe Community Task Force and is based upon the 171 recommendations
put forth on the day the community of Samson came together to put a stop to gang violence. The
recommendations put forth in this report are assumed to include the Samson Cree Nation
Members at Pigeon Lake. This report comes from a place of hope and love; this report comes
from the hearts and minds of the members of Samson Cree Nation.1
1
The 171 recommendations were summarized and categorized into 69 recommendations and are available in
Appendix A
Working Together
4
It takes a community….
This Report provides a holistic approach to gang prevention and
intervention. The Report is set within the lived reality for First Nations
people in Canada who face a crisis in housing and living conditions;
increased rates of suicide, diabetes, and tuberculosis; a widening
educational gap with other Canadians; and lack jobs and economic
opportunities.2
Diagram is adapted from Chettleburg, M. (2008) un published presentation
Working Together
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEDICATION ................................................................................................................... 2
SYNOPSIS………………………………………………………………………………..3
IT TAKES A COMMUNITY …………………………………………………………….4
CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................. 7
Samson Cree Nation ........................................................................................................... 7
Oil and a New Era ........................................................................................................... 10
Illegal Drug and Gang ..................................................................................................... 11
Provincial Action ...............................................................................................................12
Maskwacis Community .................................................................................................... 13
Samson Safe Community Task Force……………………………………………………14
CHAPTER TWO .............................................................................................................. 17
Youth gangs ...................................................................................................................... 17
Youth Gang Definition ......................................................................................................17
History of Street Gangs ......................................................................................................18
Aboriginal Gangs ...............................................................................................................21
Indian Posse .............................................................................................................. 21
The Warriors and Native Syndicate .......................................................................... 22
The Lure and Falsified Prestige of Youth Gang Membership ...........................................22
Developmental Strategies and Key Indicators of Gangs ...................................................24
Family Factors .......................................................................................................... 27
Community Factors ................................................................................................... 28
Gang Prevention and Intervention: Protective Approaches ...............................................31
CHAPTER THREE-Education and Employment ............................................................ 36
Reviews & Committees .................................................................................................... 36
Indian Control of Indian Education ......................................................................... 38
Nipisihkopahk Education Authority ......................................................................... 39
First Nations Holistic Lifelong Learning Model ...................................................... 44
Samson First Nation and Education……………………………………………………...45
Recommendations ……………………………………………………………………...48
5
Working Together
CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................................. 57
Demographics .......................................................................................................... 57
Employment………………………………………………………………………..58
First Nations Children ............................................................................................. 60
Child Poverty ........................................................................................................... 61
Children in Care ...................................................................................................... 62
Children and Health ................................................................................................. 63
Family Housing ....................................................................................................... 64
Health and Wellness Issues ..................................................................................... 65
Family Violence ...................................................................................................... 66
Healthy Eating ........................................................................................................ 68
Mortality .................................................................................................................. 70
Crime and Victimization ......................................................................................... 74
Drugs and Alcohol ................................................................................................... 75
Recommendations…………………………………………………………… 76
CHAPTER FIVE .............................................................................................................. 82
GOVERNANCE & STRUCTURE................................................................................... 82
Structure ...................................................................................................................85
Recommendations ....................................................................................................86
CHAPTER SIX ................................................................................................................. 94
CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATION ..................................................................... 94
REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................96
APPENDIX A ..................................................................................................................104
APPENDIX B…………………………………………………………………………..109
6
Working Together
7
CHAPTER 1
“Committed to the future…Inspired by our past”3
Indigenous people have lived and prospered “on this land from time immemorial”
(Cardinal & Hildebrandt, 2000, p. 10) and throughout their history established “vibrant
relationships between the people, their ecosystems, and the other living beings and spirits that
share their lands” (Battiste & Henderson, 2002, p. 42).
The teachings of Elders, as well as
relationships and connections within the community provided knowledge and strength to live a
balanced life and provided a sense of place.
Yet colonialism, disease, marginalization, socio-
economic factors, the Indian Act, and residential schools have challenged Indigenous
communities to the very core of their beliefs. Leroy Little Bear (2000) has referred to the clash
between Aboriginal and Eurocentric philosophy, values, and customs as “jagged worldviews
colliding.”
The challenge in the twenty-first century Little Bear argued is to understand and
address those differences, to move forward, to give focus to a holistic lifestyle.
To not simply
return to the past but rather to seek balance, to re-build relationships, to re-gain a sense of place,
to espouse cultural and spiritual beliefs, and to take hold of the future. The Elders Symposium
held at Samson Cree Nation in April 2007 called for their people to take control, “to realize
where we came from, acknowledge how we got here and then to move forward and take care of
our community, ourselves and our children…the people of Maskwacis are tradition oriented and
the solutions we find lay in our principles, values and philosophy” (Crier, 2007).
The Samson Cree Nation comprises of the Samson Cree community located at
Maskwacis and the Mameo Beach community located at Pigeon Lake. Both communities form
the Samson Cree Nation. For the purposes of this report the two communities are referred to as
3
Samson Cree Nation News, 1(8)
Working Together
Samson Cree Nation.
8
The Samson Cree Nation throughout their history met and traded with
tribal groups across what is today western Canada and south into the United States. Along with
other Cree communities they subsequently became important partners in the lucrative fur trade in
the nineteenth century (Ray, 1998). With the decline of the fur trade, the Cree sought an
alternative economic lifestyle and negotiated Treaty 6 with the Crown representatives. Treaty 6
assured the Cree of benefits to accrue including land, agricultural implements, training, future
prosperity, and a variety of services including education and health. The Treaty Commissioners
assured the Cree their “daily life” – worldview – “would not [be] interfered with” (Morris
1880/1991, p. 193). Yet the “jagged” worlds have collided for the Samson Cree: no where is it
more evident than in the issues within their community today.
The 2006 Canadian Census reported that 1,172,790 people identified themselves as
Aboriginal people of whom 60% or 698,025 self-identified as First Nation.
“Between 1996-
2006, the Aboriginal population in Canada grew by 45%, nearly six times faster than the 8% rate
for the non-Aboriginal population” (TASC, 2008, p. 1).
The majority of First Nations people
live in Ontario and the western provinces: 158,395 First Nations people (23%) lived in Ontario;
129,580 (19%) in British Columbia; 100,645 (14%) in Manitoba; 97,275 (14%) in Alberta; and
91,400 (13%) in Saskatchewan.
Together people in these areas account for 83% of the total
First Nation population in Canada (Statistics Canada, Catalogue no 97-558, p. 38-40).
In
Alberta, the total Aboriginal population (First Nation, Métis) is estimated at 188,365 or 6% of
the total provincial population. Samson Cree Nation, located in central Alberta has a population
of 7,000 people an increase of 2,000 individuals during the last eight years.
Working Together
Table 1-1 Samson Cree Nation population by age group as of June 20084
The graph below demonstrates the growth of the Samson Cree Nation membership from
2000-2008.
Figure 1-1: Samson Cree Nation Population Growth5
4
Compiled from Samson Membership data
9
Working Together 10
OIL AND A NEW ERA
The discovery of oil in Albert in 1947 changed the province from a predominately rural
and agricultural entity to an urban economy dominated by the oil and gas industry.
Revenues
from the latter industry have facilitated a debt free provincial budget and the establishment of the
Alberta Heritage Savings Trust Fund which as of June 2008 totaled $17.1 billion. In 2006, the
Alberta economy outpaced the national economy for the fifth consecutive year.
It is an
economic boom which continues to create jobs. The unemployment rate for Canada in October
2008 was 6.1% (Statistics Canada) with Alberta having the countries lowest unemployment rate
(3.6%).
Job opportunities have attracted an inward migration.
The total Alberta provincial
population has grown significantly over the last decade: the 2006 Census numbered 3,290,350
slightly less than a 10% increase over the 2001 census.
The economic boom in the province has also contributed to “an estimated 10.7% increase
in total personal income” (Alberta, 2008, p. 119).
Such benefits are not, however, distributed
evenly among provincial residents. While Samson Cree Nation has monies held in trust for its
members as a result of drilling on its lands, the provincial economy and job creation has not
benefited Samson First Nations residents to the same degree. Samson Cree Nation members and
Aboriginal people in general are not hired at the same rate as other Canadians.
The
unemployment rate on reserves is more than four times the average Canadian rate: 6% vs. 24%
(TASC2008/02/28). Furthermore, those Aboriginal people who do secure employment are over
represented in certain occupations and under representatives in others.
13% of Aboriginal
people are employed in public administration (including First Nation local administration)
compared to only 5.8% in the total labor force. On the other end of the spectrum, barely 2% of
5
Compiled from Samson Membership data
Working Together 11
Aboriginal people work in professional scientific and technical services, compared to 6.3% of
the total Canadian work force (TASC 2008/02/28).
ILLEGAL DRUGS AND GANG VIOLENCE
The ills of a runaway provincial economy and the subsequent individual disposal income
has “fuelled an appetite for illegal drugs…whether it‟s crack, cocaine or even marijuana” within
Alberta communities and the use of drugs has contributed to “gang and organized crime activity”
within the province (CBC September 25, 2008). The use of drugs is consistent across all social
groupings in the province: a 2004 survey of 2,400 Albertans conducted by the Alberta Alcohol
and Drug Abuse Commission reported that 4.2% of those who reported a high income also
reported using one or more illicit drugs and similarly 5% of those who reported a low income
used one or more illicit drugs. The use of drugs and associated trafficking in such is linked to
increased criminal activity.
In Alberta the escalating violence associated with drug trafficking
and gang violence including drive-by shootings and increased crime rates has led to “numerous
acts of violence over the last number of years” across the province.
“Alberta has the fourth
highest crime rate among Canadian provinces (2006) and [the] rates for violent crimes have been
higher than the national average for the past 10 years” (Alberta, 2007, p. 14).
“Alberta‟s
homicide rate (2.84 per 1000,000 population is the third highest among the provinces” (p. 14).
Such violence has resulted in injury and death of gang members and innocent victims. The two
largest cities in Alberta have become frequent scenes of gang conflict as indicated in the
following media headlines:
Slain gang member was targeted before
[Police] Gang unit investigates southwest shooting
Alberta gangs everywhere, says cops
3 shootings in 14 hours
Working Together 12
Blinded gun victim thanks Canada
Drug vendetta blamed in slaying
Gang units have been established as a part of both the Calgary and Edmonton Police units
as “Alberta gangs get better at their game” (cnews2007/01/04). The Edmonton Police estimated
that about “18 criminal networks and one organized crime group, the Hells Angels are operating
in the Edmonton area.”
In a move to make the community more aware of the situation, the
police released “the names of the 10 „self-named‟ criminal networks they say are operating in
Edmonton area: Alberta Warriors, Crazy Dragons, Crazy Dragon Killers, GTC (Get The Cash),
Indian Posse, North End Jamaicans, Redd Alert, Southside Boys, West End Jamaicans and White
Boy Posse” (cnews2007/01/04).
Additional gangs believed to be operating within the
Maskwacis area include Samson True Soldiers, East Side Players, Boss Hoggs, D Block Crew,
Indian Posse, Alberta Warriors and Get Low Players. Calgary Police Chief Hanson stated that
“the challenges brought on by our rapid [population] growth and the increased sophistication of
organized crime has stretched us to the limit” (cbc2008/08/25).
PROVINCIAL ACTION
The Premier of Alberta in response to escalating criminal activity stated “every Albertan
has a right to feel safe in their community” (cbc2008/02/14). Over the past year, the province
has articulated a number of responses to gangs and organized crime. Such measures included:
Pledge to be tough on crime
Legislation to widen powers of police to enter and shut down gang houses
Special courts to handle drug cases
Additional prosecutors
Increased police budget for hiring additional police
Resources to target repeat offenders
Working Together 13
Additionally, the Alberta government has committed $470 million towards its crime prevention
strategy.
As well the province has allocated $3.7 million for a youth mentoring project to
“foster strong, safe and healthy communities….when young people have positive adult role
models, they have better peer and family relationships, and are less likely to get involved with
drugs and crime”. This collaborative project between 10 Alberta government ministries, three
government-funded organizations, 16 community agencies and two youth representatives will
“explore creative and innovative solutions to engage young people as active responsible citizens”
through mentoring programs, learning supports and programs that encourage young people to
stay in school (Alberta2008/06/30).
MASKWACIS COMMUNITY
Samson First Nation is located one hour drive from Edmonton and two hours from
Calgary.
Although a smaller community, the Nation has witnessed the same gang and crime
effects as the two cities. It is estimated that 13 gangs operate within the Maskwacis community
some of whom have various roles/relationships with Hells Angels.
The formation of gangs in
the community is consistent with research which identified that “Aboriginal youth are more
vulnerable to gang recruitment and organized crime than non-Aboriginal youth…[since] youth at
risk of joining gangs or already involved in gangs tend to be from groups that suffer from the
greatest levels of inequality and social disadvantage” (NCPC).
Thus while Alberta‟s Crime
Reduction and Safe Communities Task Force (2007) stated “one in four Albertans said they were
a victim of some type of crime in the past year and Alberta‟s rates of violence victimization were
the highest in the country” (2007, p. 16), the Task Force noted that:
Aboriginal people are especially vulnerable to violent victimization with rates three times
higher than for non-Aboriginal peoples and rates of homicide seven times higher than
non-Aboriginal people. (p. 16)
Working Together 14
Media headlines regarding crime on the Samson reserve echo those related to urban
areas:
Stop Hobbema violence, mother of wounded tot pleads
Latest gang shooting in Hobbema leaves woman 20 dead
Teen dies in shooting at Hobbema reserve
Gang crisis
With what has been estimated as the highest concentration of gang members per capita in
the country, Maskwacis community has a serious problem. The Samson Cree Nation Chief and
Council expressed its “deep concern about an increase in violence in the Maskwacis Community
and is committed to take immediate and meaningful action to reduce violence on the Samson
Reserve and to make the Samson Cree Nation a safe place for all.”
The Chief and Council
called “upon all Samson members to come together for a common purpose, to pinpoint issues of
concern, to identify resources and to continue to work together to make the Samson community a
safe and healthy environment for Samson children to grow up in and be proud of.” The Chief
and Council, community members and the RCMP are focusing on “taking back their
community” and making Samson Cree Nation a safe and caring environment.
There is no
quick-fix to preventing crime and improving safety, however, the Samson community is uniting
to end the violence – taking responsibility at all levels.
It is about individuals, families, and
communities stepping up and recognizing that many of the factors that contribute to crime are
within their own hands” (Alberta, 2007, p. 5).
SAMSON SAFE COMMUNITY TASK FORCE
On April 16, 2008, the Samson Chief and Council created the Samson Safe Community
Task Force. The Task Force had a wide membership including an Elder, and representatives of
Samson youth, schools, parents, law enforcement, Pigeon Lake and the Samson town site. The
Working Together 15
mandate of the Task Force was to hold meetings regarding identification and analysis of the
occurrence of violence in the Samson and Maskwacis Community including:
a)
Identification of the factors and underlying reasons for high rates of
community violence, gangs and gang activity;
b)
Inventory of current programs and services that address violence in the
community and any deficiencies or inefficiencies of such programs and services;
c)
Recommendations to foster cooperation between Maskwacis Cree, various on
reserve programs and services, law enforcement and other outside agencies;
d)
Recommendations with procedures and priorities for implementing strategies to
achieve a significant reduction in acts of violence within the Samson Community;
e)
Inform and engage Samson members in all aspects of review.
Since the establishment of the Samson Safe Community Task Force, the Task Force has
held meetings on two dozen occasions between April and September 2008.
As well the Task
Force coordinated a series of community wide meetings; met with each department within the
Samson Cree Nation administration; held meetings with the RCMP, various levels of
government including federal departments; and community organizations. At the same time, a
number of initiatives were undertaken by the community as a whole including:
-
Citizens In Action
-
Held community meetings to discuss crime on the reserve
-
Conducted a community wide survey related to community safety.
-
Completed the removal of houses burned or destroyed by gang members
-
Supported Elders meetings
Working Together 16
-
Removed graffiti from buildings
-
Held a Walk against Violence
-
Enacted a curfew bylaw for youth under 18 years of age
-
Increased activity and patrols by the RCMP were undertaken
-
Increased numbers of RCMP personnel at the Hobbema detachment
-
Invited Michael C. Chettleburgh author of Young Thugs Inside the Dangerous
World of Canadian Street Gangs to give a presentation and work with members
of the Maskwacis community.
-
Held an essay context for school children – “How I can make my community a
safer place to live
Working Together 17
CHAPTER 2
YOUTH GANGS
“When you have nothing to live for, you have nothing to die for”6
The incursion of youth gangs into Canadian cities is a relatively new phenomenon. Prior
to the document entitled, Results of the 2002 Canadian Police Survey on Youth Gangs, there had
neither been a quantifiable evaluation citing the number and types of Canadian youth gangs nor a
qualitative description of Canadian gangs and their members (Chettleburgh, 2003).
Literature
specifically related to Aboriginal gangs, a classification term used by the Criminal Intelligence
Service Canada (Friesen & O‟Neill, 2008) is even more dearth.
Despite the lack of research
regarding Aboriginal gangs, there is mounting concern within Western Canada about their
alarming growth rate, particularly within the cities of Winnipeg, Regina, Saskatoon, and
Edmonton (Bernhardt, 2006) of Aboriginal youth gangs. Chettleburgh (2008) described this
unfettered growth as a “cultural genocide” attracting poor and disfranchised Aboriginal youth by
the thousands (p. A21).
Chief Lawrence Joseph of the Federation of Saskatchewan Indian
Nations, (as cited in Cherry, 2005), cautioned that if Aboriginal gang issues continue to go
unchallenged, uncared for, and untreated, the problem will only worsen.
YOUTH GANG DEFINITION
Within relevant literature, the term youth gang is often used interchangeably with such
terms as street gang or, simply, gangs. The Montreal Police Services definition of youth gang
explicitly incorporates the anti-social and delinquent behaviors that are distinctive of youth
gangs. It defines a youth gang as:
6
Aboriginal ex-gang member as cited in Grekul & LaBoucane-Benson, 2006.
17
Working Together 18
An organized group of adolescents and/or young adults who rely on group intimidation
and violence, and commit criminal acts in order to gain power and recognition and/or
control certain areas of unlawful activity. (NCPC/2007-YG-1).
Chettleburgh (2003) who authored the Results of the 2002 Canadian Police Survey on Gangs,
identified the following characteristics as fundamental components/descriptors of Canadian
youth gangs:
1. The group commits crimes together.
2. The group hangs out/assembles together.
3. The group has a leader or an established leadership structure.
4. The group displays and wears common colors or other insignia.
5. The group claims a territory.
6. The group has a name.
HISTORY OF STREET GANGS
Street gangs have existed for hundreds of years, within numerous countries throughout
the world. For example, the word thug dates back to India in the year 1200 AD and refers to a
gang of criminals (the Thugz) roaming the country and pillaging towns. During the early 1600s,
the streets of London were terrorized by a succession of organized gangs calling themselves the
Muns, Bugles, and Dead Boys, who broke windows, demolished taverns, and slit the noses of
their victims (Pearson, 1983). Street gangs took root in the United States at the beginning of the
1800s. During that time, the gangs were largely composed of new Irish immigrants struggling
for an existence in districts of New York City (Franzese, Covey, & Menard, 2006).
The
twentieth century saw a rapid growth in street violence and gangs in the United States, by 1920,
Chicago reportedly housed over 1,300 gangs.
Historically, Canada has also experienced the nascent effects of street gang activity. As
early as 1945, Canadian gangs were depicted by the media as a subject of growing social concern
Working Together 19
and the product of an ailing society (Young, 1993). During that time, reports portrayed Asian
gangs in Vancouver and Toronto to be particularly threatening to social cohesion.
In Quebec,
gang-related reports were less focused on Asian gangs; rather, media attention was directed at
Mafia and Jamaican gangs (Gordon, 1998).
Throughout Canada‟s history, drug smuggling,
contraband smuggling, and firearms trafficking remained key factors that ameliorate street gang
activity (Royal Canadian Mounted Police, 2006).
Youth gangs span various ethnic, geographic, demographic, and socioeconomic contexts.
However, according to Chettleburgh (2003, p. 14), the largest ethnic portion of youth gang
members within Canada are African Canadian/Black at 25%.
Comparatively, 22% have
Aboriginal ethnicities and 18% have Caucasian/White ethnicity.
The remaining 36% of gang
members consist of various visual minority groups including East Indian/Pakistani (14%), Asian
(12%), Latino/Hispanic (6%), and Middle East/Arabic (3%).
Although different youth gangs are found in various parts of Canada; within
Saskatchewan, Alberta, and Manitoba, youth gangs are the most culturally homogeneous.
Namely, 96% of gangs in Saskatchewan ethnically are Aboriginal, and 58% of gangs in both
Alberta and Manitoba are of Aboriginal heritage (Chettleburgh, 2003).
Chettleburgh (2003)
explained that on a per capital basis, Saskatchewan has the highest concentration of youth gang
membership, with 1.34 gang members per 1,000 people. Of the 1,315 gang members residing in
Saskatchewan, approximately 40% operate within the cities of Regina, Saskatoon, and Prince
Albert (Criminal Intelligence Service of Saskatchewan, 2005). Ontario, British Columbia, and
Alberta have the next highest per capita concentrations of youth gangs, respectively ranging from
0.29, 0.26, and 0.22 gang members per 1,000 people (Chettleburgh, 2003).
Aboriginal gangs are in a state of genesis, as fifteen years ago problems associated with
organized Aboriginal gangs were a relatively unknown phenomenon.
The inception of
Working Together 20
Aboriginal gangs occurred on the streets of Winnipeg.
In 1988, the Indian Posse formed,
followed by the Manitoba Warriors in 1991. The rival groups clashed in prisons and, in 1994,
protection from these gangs led unaffiliated prison inmates to form a third gang, Native
Syndicate (Friesen & O‟Neill, 2008). Due to violent behaviors while incarcerated, many of the
offenders were relocated to Edmonton‟s maximum security prison.
When later released on
parole, these gang members began to infiltrate the low-income areas of Edmonton, Regina, and
Saskatoon (Dolha, 2003). Thus, due to the geographical locations of federal correction centers,
all three youth gangs migrated westward (Criminal Intelligence Service of Saskatchewan, 2005).
The Royal Canadian Mounted Police (2006) believed that in the future the greatest
proliferation of gangs will be located within the Prairie Provinces. Chettleburgh (2003) agreed
that the Aboriginal gangs, particularly within Alberta and Saskatchewan, will continue to grow
because of the increasing demand for illicit drugs within these oil-rich, affluent provinces.
Statistics support Chettleburgh‟s prophecy, for example, from 1994 to 2004, the number of
Albertans who had admitted to using cannabis or crack/cocaine doubled (Alberta Alcohol and
Drug Abuse Commission, 2005).
Similarly, across Canada, there has been a 67 per cent
increase in cocaine offences since 2002 (Alberta, 2007, p. 16). Fuelled by the demand for illicit
drugs, Alberta gangs are currently increasing in record sizes (Friesen & O‟Neill, 2008).
As explained by Friesen and O‟Neill (2008), Aboriginal gang members are the largest
single ethnic group held in federal prisons, with 536 members serving federal sentences.
Coolican (2003) reported, “Aboriginal gangs were flourishing to such an extent inside the
Saskatoon Correctional Center last year that their proudly worn colors turned the exercise yard
into a „sea of red or a sea of blue‟ [Aboriginal gang colors]” (p. A3).
Over 90% of the
incarcerated Aboriginal gang members are imprisoned in penitentiaries located across the
Prairies.
These imprisoned members primarily represent three dominant gangs: the Indian
Working Together 21
Posse, the Warriors, and the Native Syndicate. All three gangs are believed to be run by councils
of senior leaders who are in jail and communicate with their members on the outside via threeway calling.
Dominant gangs make their money primarily through the trafficking of cocaine
and prostitution-related activities.
ABORIGINAL GANGS
Indian Posse
Indian Posse and Native Syndicate are primarily street gangs, slightly less sophisticated
than the Warriors (Friesen & O‟Neil, 2008). Nonetheless, as explained by Friesen and O‟Neill
(2008), Indian Posse is an extremely violent gang and some of its members have been
responsible for homicides in the city of Winnipeg, the gang‟s base location. Indian Posse also
has chapters in Saskatoon, Edmonton, small Prairie towns, and on reserves.
Although Indian
Posse has established itself within the Prairie Provinces, the gang garners strength from the
connections it has in Eastern and Western Canada: American guns smuggled into areas located
near the Ontario-U.S. and Quebec-U.S. borders are transported westward into the possession of
Indian Posse members.
As well, crack cocaine, Indian Posse‟s primary source of income, is
acquired via Asian gangs, smuggling drugs into Canada through British Columbia‟s ports.
In
turn, Indian Posse‟s connections to reserves and remote northern communities are lucrative
because within these areas, gang members can extortionately inflate drug prices. For example,
within Winnipeg, a rock of crack cocaine sells for $10 to $20; however, within northern
Manitoba a rock of crack cocaine of the same size costs $100.
As is the case for most gangs, there is a demarcated hierarchy within Indian Posse‟s
leadership. For instance, residing within The Pas, Manitoba, there are believed to be 15 to 20
senior leaders each of whom has three or four prospective members working beneath them. As
explained by Friesen and O‟Neill (2008) these potential members are known as strikers.
The
Working Together 22
strikers distribute the drugs and try to outdo one another through acts of mettle and violence,
which earn them membership into the gang.
Once formally initiated into the gang, members
earn higher status by completing missions of increasingly violent actions such as arson, armed
robbery, and homicide (Federation of Saskatchewan Indian Nations, 2003). Formal recognition
into the gang is symbolized by an IP tattoo, followed by a larger tattoo known as an arm band,
which is actually two tattoos (Friesen & O‟Neill, 2008).
The Warriors and Native Syndicate
Described by police as the most sophisticated of the three major Aboriginal gangs, the
Manitoba Warriors, often referred to as The Warriors, model themselves after the Hells Angels.
The Warriors are less likely than other groups to be associated with low-level street violence and
have the least number of inmates serving in correctional institutions.
The leadership is
structured and usually includes the following positions: president, vice-president, higher up,
enforcer, soldier, and striker (Criminal Intelligence Service Saskatchewan, 2005).
A smaller
street gang, called Deuce (a rival gang to the Indian Posse) has close connections with the
Warriors (Dolha, 2003).
Initially formed within federal prisons, the Native Syndicate predominantly resides
within Saskatchewan and parts of Manitoba. These members have an extremely high propensity
for violence and are responsible for the most armed robberies of the three major Aboriginal
gangs. Black and white clothing is color of choice for Native Syndicate (Criminal Intelligence
Service Saskatchewan, 2005). Gang members are marked by tattoos, including an initial tattoo
of NS on the web of the hand between the thumb and index finger.
THE LURE AND FALSIFIED PRESTIGE OF YOURTH GANG MEMBERSHIP
In these days of trendy rap music and fashionable street dress, the lifestyle of gang
members is portrayed not only as acceptable, but as a fascinating and cool way to live.
In
Working Together 23
addition to the music and stylish dress, intriguing portrayals of gangs commonly depicted on
television and within movies send similar falsified messages to youth.
The media
sensationalizes criminal gang activity because by doing so, newspaper sales increase, as do
television and movie ratings (McShane & Williams, 2007; O‟Reilly & Fleming, 2001).
Research suggests gangs benefit from the media hype and publicity shone upon them, thus
increasing the gang‟s numbers, power, and recognition within a community (Bereska, 2008;
Gordon 2001).
Cuthand (2008) described the vast dichotomy between how gang life is often glossily
portrayed with a more realistic account.
In actuality, gang life is difficult, with few rewards.
The lifestyle of a gang member is dominated by omnipresent dangers of violence, robbery,
prostitution, and drug dealing.
When gang members reach their 20s, they often have no
education, no work experience, and an extensive criminal record.
In addition to these
formidable barriers, most gang members are prone to have a drug problem of their own. Gang
life leaves most of its members destitute, burned out, and unemployable - and those are the lucky
ones. Some members will be murdered; others will serve life-terms for their crimes. The dream
of attaining power, wealth, and freedom through gang membership evaporates; it never really
existed in the first place.
A collection of authors describe power, wealth and freedom – though illusionary –
attractors for youth joining gangs.
For a young adolescent, gang membership expedites the
journey from childhood into adulthood, because it is perceived to deliver power and distinction
(Federation of Saskatchewan Indian Nations, 2003).
Many individuals who are at-risk of
joining a gang have inherent entrepreneurial skills; thus, the financial advantage of gang life is
compelling to them. In one night, a gang member can make $2,000 (tax free) selling crack, as
compared to $8 an hour pumping gas (Stolte, 2008). Studies have illuminated numerous other
Working Together 24
reasons of why young people at attracted to gangs. Through gang involvement, youth achieve
status and respect, safety and protection, and family-like social connections (Decker & Curry,
2000; Gordon, 2001).
The lack or misplacement of cultural identity has also been linked to
gang membership (Dukes, Martinez, & Stein 1997; Gordon, 2001).
In summary, when the
fundamental needs of young people are not being met, young individuals sometimes attempt to
satisfy these needs through the subculture of a street gang.
DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES AND KEY INDICATORS OF GANGS
Gang activities range from being loosely structured, neighborhood-based youth groups to
highly organized, extremely violent street gangs.
Research confirms that not all gangs are
involved in organized, violent criminal activity; rather, many gangs are transient and relatively
unstable (Gordon, 1998; Starbuck, Howell, & Lindquest, 2001).
As explained by Criminal
Intelligence Service Saskatchewan (2005), stages of gang activity are incremental.
As such, a
gang‟s developmental stages can be portrayed in the form of a pyramid, with increasing severity
of criminal activity represented within each successive strata of the pyramid (see Figure 1).
While it is difficult to acknowledge the exact point of arrival of a gang into a community, there
are multiple warning signs. As indicated at the top of Figure 1, the most common indications of
the arrival of a gang into a community are recruitment activities and graffiti. During this early
stage, the community is subjected to a number of initiation acts including unmotivated pedestrian
battering, minor assaults, and petty thefts.
As street level robberies and property crimes
increasingly occur, the community becomes more aware of the evolution of the gang and more
knowledgeable about the demarked, conquered territory that belongs to the gang.
Progressively, as gang members learn more pronounced criminal survival skills their
level of unlawful activity escalates.
Gang members acquire firearms to protect themselves, to
defend their illegitimate proceeds, and to assist them in obtaining a steady supply of drugs to
Working Together 25
traffic. In turn, drug trafficking, aggravated assault, and drug rip-offs become common
occurrences within communities controlled by gangs.
Extreme violence is then utilized to
eliminate gang competition and to vie for recognition of advanced gang status. The reputation
of gang members is supported and further strengthened by employing witness intimidation
tactics.
These key depictions of a gang‟s presence provide police with an indication of the
potential capabilities and the relative threat of a gang located within a neighborhood.
Increasing maturity level
of a gang
Recruiting
& graffiti
Property crimes &
street robberies
(Emergence of tattoos
and gang colors and an
increase in minor
assaults within an area
Firearms, home invasions, & drug
rip-offs
(Growing concern over attacks such as
stabbings)
Witness intimidation, prostitutionrelated offences, drug trafficking and
extreme violence
Figure 2-1: Key Indicators of Gang Activity
Gang image and identification are developed, enforced, and enhanced via gang insignia,
regalia, and other indicators such as graffiti, colors, tattoos, and hand signals. The wearing of
Working Together 26
similar clothing and colors increases a gang‟s sense of solidarity and is used to intimidate other
gangs. Examples of a gang‟s unique dress style includes having one pant-leg rolled up, wearing
one glove, wearing a ball cap a certain way, and/or leaving one shoelace untied (Dolha, 2003;
Royal Canadian Mounted Police, 2006).
Dukes, Martinez, and Stein (1997) described the negative self-concept often
characterized by youth who are in greater danger of gang initiation: “Gang members tended to be
persons with identity problems - who did not feel good about themselves, had less confidence in
their academic abilities, had lower feelings of purpose in life, and had weak attachments to their
ethnic group” (p.152).
Not surprisingly, having friends who engage in delinquent behaviours
significantly increases an individual‟s risk of entering a gang (Campbell, 1991; Esbensen,
Peterson, Freng, & Taylor, 2002; Franzese et al, 2006; Gordon, 2001).
In relation to peers,
youth who are more at risk of joining gangs are those who have high levels of unstructured and
unsupervised social time with their friends (Maxson et al., 1998). In addition to the above traits,
early sexual activity is an experience reported by most gang members (Hill, Howell, Hawkins, &
Battin-Pearson, 1999).
A final at-risk factor pertaining to gang membership deals with the incarceration of gang
members. Chettleburgh (2003) indicated that gang-related inmates who are released from prison
and re-enter communities have a significant effect on gang proliferation, particularly within
Alberta, Quebec, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba.
Upon release from custodial sentences, many
former gang members gravitate back to gang life and bolster the power of existing gangs by
accelerating the maturity process of that gang.
Camp and Camp (1985) collected data on 250
gang members after they were released from prison. Camp and Camp‟s research found that
within a short amount of time 80% of these released from prison had re-offended and rearrested
for a variety of violent crimes, including 24 arrests for murder. This information highlights the
Working Together 27
fact that the incarceration of gang members does very little to deter youth from being involved
with gangs.
Conversely, placing gang members in jail often supports gang proliferation and
worsens gang-related problems.
Gangs are predominantly a late-teen-to-early-adulthood, male enterprise.
Chettleburgh
(2003) explained that within Canada, the vast majority of youth gang members are male (94%);
however, within British Columbia, Manitoba and Saskatchewan female gang members are
somewhat more common.
Respectively, within these three provinces, 12%, 10% and 9% of
gang members are female. Throughout Canada, approximately 76% of gang members fall into
the category of being between 16 to 21 years of age, and 24% are 22 years of age or older.
Interestingly, the age of Albertan gang members is the highest in the country – approximately
40% of Alberta gang members fall into the category of being between 16 to 21 years of age, and
57% of gang members are 22 years of age or older.
issues.
These age statistics point to a couple of
First, the legitimacy of the term youth gang is challenged because about half of gang
members within Canada are over the age of 18. Another point reflected within this information
centers around the timing and implementation of prevention programs.
FAMILY FACTORS
Membership within gangs is often prognosticated by a difficult family environment.
Children having siblings who exhibit antisocial behaviours, and children having parents who are
violent in nature are more prone to gang membership (Hill et al., 1999). Franzese et al. (2006)
proposed, “The most important influence on the decisions to join gangs is whether parents,
siblings, and friends are or have been gang members” (p. 205).
Sgt. Olson of RCMP‟s
Integrated Gang Intelligence Unit agreed that antisocial conduct may be groomed by parental
influences. He explained that some young children, from newborn to five-year-olds, are being
dressed by their gang-member parents with gang regalia. These young children are also taught
Working Together 28
to imitate gang hand signs (Bernhardt, 2006; Winnipeg Free Press, 2007). Other studies have
indicated that a specific characteristic linked to gang involvement is lack of parenting skills.
Research has consistently supported the idea that lack of parent interaction and involvement with
a child is a precursor for that child to engage in youth crime (Decker & Curry, 2000; Gordon,
2001; Hawkins et al., 1998; Wyrick & Howell, 2004). Furthermore, consistently disciplining a
child inappropriately (Winfree, Backstrom, & Mays, 1994), low parental control and monitoring
(Campbell, 1990; Esbensen, Peterson, Freng, & Taylor, 2002; Thornberry, Huizinga, & Loeber,
2004; Wyrick & Howell, 2004), and a weak relationship between parent and child (Campbell,
1990) more likely position a youth to be involved with gangs. Individuals whose parent(s) suffer
from substance addictions, such as drugs or alcohol, are also more at risk to the lure of gang life
(Hill et. al., 1999).
Friesen and O‟Neill (2008) stated that gang members are predominantly male youth who
do not understand what it is like to have a caring father or positive male role model: “Every
young man looks for someone who‟s an image of a dad. If a kid‟s real dad can‟t offer the image
and a teacher can‟t, there‟s a dad waiting in the street” (p. A16). Farrington (1989) reported that
boys 12 years or younger, whose father did not engage in leisure activities with them were more
likely to be violent as a teenager and more likely to be convicted for violent offences as they
grew older. In sum, the absence of positive male role models in a child‟s life increases the risk
of a child/teenager becoming involved with gang activities (Gordon, 2001; Le Blanc & Kaspy,
1998).
COMMUNITY FACTORS
Cuthand (2008) described Aboriginal gangs as a product of poverty and marginalization.
Poverty, lack of education, poor health conditions, and a loss of culture, language, and identity
are stark realities for many Aboriginal communities (Friesen & Friesen, 2005; Public Safety
Working Together 29
Canada, 2007a) and exacerbate the danger of gang development within a community. Negative
school experiences also support gang recruitment.
Learning disabilities, low student
achievement, lack of student interest and commitment to school, and unconstructive labeling by
teachers are predictive indicators of gang involvement (Hill et. al., 1999; Howell, 2000; Huff
1998; Spergel et al., 1994).
A visual synthesis of individual, family, and community at-risk domains and their
corresponding information is presented through Figure 2-2, which is a large circle incorporating
two smaller circles.
The circles illustrate the interdependency of individual, family, and
community characteristics when attempting to identify at-risk youth prone to gang initiation.
Working Together 30
Community Risk Factors
Feelings of disenfranchisement from community & culture
High unemployment
Poverty
Marginalization and discrimination
Lack of education
Poor health conditions
Loss of language and culture
Negative school experiences
Family Risk Factors
Single-parent/broken homes
Parental &/or sibling involvement with gangs
Lack of parental interaction with child
Inappropriate discipline of child
Lack of parental monitoring of child
Poor relationship with child
Parental substance abuse & addictions
Lack of role models for male children
Individual Risk Factors
Antisocial behavior
Prior acts of delinquency & jail time
Antisocial peers
Unstructured time with peers
Low self-esteem
Early sexual activity
Male age 16 and older
Former relationship with gangs
Figure 2-2: Risk
Working Together 31
GANG PREVENTION AND INTERVENTION; PROTECTIVE APPROACHES
Within the literature, suggestions abound as to how to reduce youth criminal activity.
Preventative and alternative remedies range from increasing a police presence in a known gang
territory to decreasing the amount of violent television that a child watches. The answer as to
which approach is most effective is not a clear-cut, either-or response. Since numerous factors
contribute to street gang behaviour and recruitment, numerous preventative and alternative
programs must be considered when trying to alleviate gang problems.
The most effective
approaches are to be determined by the level of crime and the contextual situation being
addressed.
Largely, it is the responsibility of community leaders and the various stakeholders
within a said neighbourhood to decide which types of programs are best suited to their
circumstances.
Dobb (2004) believed it is imperative that the underlying forces supporting
youth gangs must first be understood before deciding how to combat crime within a community.
In the previous section, protective forces dissuasive of gang involvement are once again
categorized into individual, family, and community domains.
Many researchers, law enforcement agents, and other stakeholders interested in gang
reduction are demanding a paradigm shift regarding the approaches used to suppress gang
activity.
This new mindset extends beyond conventional, law-enforcement suppressive tactics
to include preventative programs and policies that foster positive identities for at-risk youth
(Barton, Watkins, & Jarjoura, 1997). Brendtro and Larson (2004) argued that although many atrisk youth endure traumatic experiences, young individuals are resilient and can lead productive
and fulfilling lives provided they are surrounded by supportive leaders who provide intrinsically
sound and meaningful ways to develop personal strength and positive values.
Preventative
programs need to target antisocial behaviour, personal challenges, negative thinking patterns, and
Working Together 32
negative lifestyles by re-establishing positive personal and social characteristics, personal
abilities, a set of goals, and a sense of hope.
Consequently, when youth are provided with
opportunities to develop self-competency in areas such as education, vocational training, culture
knowledge, and social demeanor, they will be more likely to develop and sustain a healthy
lifestyle (Brendtro, Brokenleg, & Van Brockern, 1999).
Research has indicated that a single
approach, in isolation, has been effective in dealing with gang proliferation; rather, a
combination of programming/efforts needs to be applied to gang problems (Howell, 1998).
A sampling of preventive programs targeting the individual, family and community are
provided below in Table 2-2.
Working Together 33
Alternative and Prevention Programs for Gang Involvement
Context
Individual
Name/Type of Program
PALS
School
Program
The Fourth R
After-school programs
Junior Achievement Canada
Aboriginal Apprenticeship
Program
Various early learning programs
such as (a) Aboriginal Head Start in
Urban and Northern Communities,
(b) First Nations and Inuit Child
Care Initiative, (c) First Nations
National Child Benefit
Reinvestment, (d) Brighter Futures,
and (e) Maternal Child Health
Program
Family
FAST Canada
The Incredible Years
Functional Family Therapy
Aboriginal Youth & Family
Well Being and Education
Society
Parental & Community
Engagement Program
Sovereignty
Description
Themes include: (a) education/academic development; (b) life and
social skills/ behavioural development, (c) physical activity and
health development, (d) mentors and positive role models, and (e)
effective parenting and a nurturing social environment.
A grade 9-12 program promotes the neglected R (relationships)
and helps build this Fourth R in school climates. Fourth R
initiatives use best practice approaches to target multiple forms of
violence, including bullying, dating violence, peer violence, and
group violence. Increasing youth relationship skills and targeting
risk behaviour with a harm reduction approach empowers
adolescents to make healthier decisions about relationships,
substance use and sexual behaviour.
www.youthrelationships.ca
Examples include: (a) sport leagues, (b) computer clubs, (c)
tutoring time, (d) arts and crafts programs, (e) cooking clubs, (d)
traditional dance, (d) employment preparation training, (e)
language instruction, (f) music clubs, and (g) community
revitalization programs.
Provides adolescents with leadership, entrepreneurial, and
workforce readiness through the creation of their own business.
Provides trade skills to Aboriginal adolescents and young adults
to assist entry into workforce.
www.tradesecrets.gov.ab.ca
Themes predominantly focus on: (a) culture and language; (b)
education and school readiness; (c) health promotion; (d)
nutrition; (e) social support; and (f) parental involvement.
Focuses upon parent-child bonding via: (a) building a three-way
relationship between parents, children, and school; (b) addressing
personal values, personal accountability, and family management;
(c) empowering parents to become the primary protectors of their
children.
Training is provided for parents, teachers, and children and targets
those children from age four to eight who are highly aggressive,
disobedient, hyperactive, and inattentive.
Targets youth, aged 11 to 18, who are at risk or are presenting
delinquent and violent behaviour, substance use, and various
behaviour disorders.
Organized programs that promote the success of Aboriginal youth
through the provision of positive learning excursions and
experiences lead by Aboriginal volunteers.
First Nations Schools Association (BC) Supports parents and
caregivers in their role as the child‟s first and most influential
teacher; supports community involvement in education;
encouraging a home environment that supports
children to succeed in school.
www.fnsa.ca
Daywalker and company has a proposal to address the breakdown
Working Together 34
Community
Elder teachings and healing
Community dialogue
Community participation
Hobbema Community Cadet
Corps Program
Community services
Partnership with police (e.g.
GREAT)
of the family unit, using a wholistic and comprehensive approach.
[email protected]
Revitalization of traditional ceremonies and teachings. Supply a
sense of culture, pride, and identity to at-risk gang members and
gang members.
Talking circles re: Holistic Lifelong Learning.
www.ccl-cca.ca
Discussion, curfews, and banishment of gang members.
Provides mentors who teach young cadets to concentrate on
positive attitudes, abilities, and achievements, rather than focusing
on negative obstacles that hinder success. The program has a
strong emphasis on Aboriginal culture, language, education,
sports, and a healthy lifestyle.
Providing such services as alcohol and drug treatment,
employment opportunities, and educational opportunities need to
be available to gang members once they have cut formal ties to a
gang. Providing professional development for teachers so they
can better understand how to teacher at-risk students and gang
students.
Through school visits and law enforcement programs directed at
educating the youth about the dangers of gangs.
Table 2-2
While there is not a one single solution to gang proliferation, Chettleburgh (2007)
suggested the following three prong approach be utilized when communities which to embark
upon a holistic approach to addressing issues related to gangs. In one troubled community, an
Elder stated, “We must all work together to heal our people” (As cited in Ellerby & Ellerby,
1998, p. ii).
Figure 2-3: Tri-Component Approach to Dealing with Gangs (adapted from Chettleburgh, 2007, p. 207)
Working Together 35
The Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples (1996) stated “We believe that the Creator
has entrusted us with the sacred responsibility to raise our families…for we realize healthy
families are the foundation of strong and healthy communities” (Vol. 3, para. 27). Children are
valuable treasures.
responsibility.
Raising children in a nurturing, loving environment is everyone‟s
Cuthand (2008) stated, “By far the great majority of our young [Aboriginal]
people are on the right track and making the right choices” (p. A11).
Working Together 36
CHAPTER 3
EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENT
If the legends fall silent, who will teach the children our ways?7
Vine Deloria, Jr. (1994) argued that “from the beginning of contact with European
culture until the present, education has been a major area of conflict and concern” (p. 11).
Spanish, French, and English colonial powers and later Canadian and American governments, all
sought through western education to “change the Indian child.” Residential school policy
adopted in Canada in 1879, was designed to “civilize…Indians…to take away their simple
Indian mythology” and replace such with “a policy known as that of „aggressive civilization”
(Davin Report, 1879). While day schools gradually replaced residential schools (last residential
schools in Alberta closed in the 1980s), the purpose of education changed little. The Indian Act,
1876, forbid First Nations people to practice their own cultural and spiritual beliefs and schools
punished children who spoke their Indigenous language (Miller, 1996; Milloy, 1999).
Furthermore, the Minister of Indian Affairs decided where and when children would go to
school, denying parents this right to choose the appropriate school for their children.
REVIEWS AND COMMITTEES
Following the Second World War, numerous Joint Committees of the Senate and House
of Commons were convened to investigate the educational gap between First Nations students
and Canadian students in general. Submissions to the Committees noted “the educational
opportunities and resources granted to Indian children were not adequate or sufficient”
(McMurtry, 1985, p. 59) and demanded “educational standards…equal to that of the other
(Canadian) citizens” (Special Joint Committee, 1947, Vol. 11, p. 1320). The submission to the
7
Chief Dan George
36
Working Together 37
Joint Committee from the Indian Association of Alberta focused on the poor state of educational
services and argued such was not only “inadequate for the needs of people in a changing world”
(1946, p.803) but the lack of educational services was “partially the cause of post-school
delinquency” (1947, Vol. 1, p.579).
The 1960 Joint Committee noted that securing qualified teachers to work in federal
schools on reserves continued to be an significant issue and that 11% of the teachers that were
hired did not meet provincial teaching qualifications (Joint Committee, 1960, p. 500).
The
following year, the Joint Committee recognized that “many Indians have not had the same
opportunity as non-Indians in obtaining a formal education” (Joint Committee, 1961, p. 610). In
1967, A Survey of the Contemporary Indians of Canada commissioned by the federal
government was released. The Survey noted that Canada‟s provision of educational services for
First Nations children raised many questions and commented that “inadequate aid may be worse
than none at all because it will almost certainly drain off hope and courage” (p. 6). The Survey
highlighted the continuation of the historical and “enormous economic gap between the Indian
and non-Indian communities” (Hawthorne, 1967, p. 24). The Survey provided the basis for the
Statement of the Government of Canada on Indian Policy 1969 or as it came to be known – the
White Paper. In 1969, the Minister of Indian Affairs announced in Parliament that “Indian people
have the right to full and equal participation in the cultural, social, economic and political life of
Canada” (House of Commons Debates, June 25, 1959, p. 10582). The Minister, Jean Chretien,
proposed to accomplish such by abolishing the Indian Act; closing down the Department of
Indian Affairs; terminating old agreements – the Treaties; transferring Indian lands to the people;
and transferring responsibility for services (including education) to the provinces (p. 10582).
Working Together 38
INDIAN CONTROL OF INDIAN EDUCATION
In their Counter Policy to the Chretien Paper, the Chiefs of Alberta reminded the federal
government that “Our education is not a welfare system.
We have free education as a treaty
right because we paid in advance for our education by surrendering our lands…We expect that
the [treaty] promises…will be honored” (pp, 14-15). Working together with the National Indian
Brotherhood, First Nations across Canada authored and submitted their policy paper Indian
Control of Indian Education (1972) to the federal government.
The document called for (1)
control of education to be given back to First Nations communities; (2) schools to “provide the
setting in which our children can develop the fundamental attitudes and values which have an
honored place in Indian tradition and culture;” (3) and education to play a dual role (a) “reinforce
Indian identity;” and (b) “provide the training necessary for making a good living in modern
society” (p. 3). Indian Control of Indian Education argued for radical change. An “improved
education system” should include, the document espoused, appropriate levels of funding;
curriculum and program change - academic, language and cultural programs in schools; as well
as kindergarten, adult, vocational and post secondary programming.
Indian Control of Indian
Education was accepted in principle by the federal government.
Subsequently, Canada
embarked upon a nationwide transfer of the administration of on-reserve schools to First Nations
or their designate such as Tribal Councils and First Nations Educational Authorities.
Working Together 39
NIPISIHKOPAHK EDUCATION AUTHORITY
In the 1980s, Samson Cree Nation entered into negotiations with the Department of
Indian Affairs (INAC) for the transfer of educational services to local administration.
Contributing significantly to the construction of schools, the Samson Cree Nation built, in
cooperation with INAC, a series of schools:
Pigeon Lake Mimiw Sakahikan School
Nipisihkopahk Kindergarten and Primary School
Nipisihkopahk Middle School.
Nipisihkopahk Secondary School
Nipisihkopahk Academy
The on-reserve schools are operated by the Nipisihkopahk Education Authority (NEA) on behalf
of the Samson Cree Nation. The NEA‟s Education Policy Statement is:
The educational system of the Samson Cree Nation will be based on the spirituality of the
Plains Cree society for the cultural component and the Alberta Education guidelines, with
modifications for the academic component. (A-03, NEA Policy Manual)
The NEA‟s foundational objective is “to encourage, promote and provide opportunities for
community members to experience the lifelong education concept from birth to pre-school, K to
12, and on to adult education levels.”
The enrolment of Samson Cree Nation students in off-reserve (provincial) and on-reserve
schools is listed below in Table 3-1.
Working Together 40
Table 3-1 - Samson Cree First Nation: School Enrolment
School Year Off-reserve On-reserve Pigeon Lake Total Enrolment
2001-2002
447
884
67
1398
2002-2003
748
926
59
1733
2003-2004
505
930
59
1494
2004-2005
523
930
59
1512
2005-2006
514
787
65
1366
2006-2007
494
812
62
1368
2007-2008
503
848
62
1413
Through a Contribution Funding Agreement with the Department of Indian Affairs, on behalf of
Canada, the Samson Cree Nation received a basic rate of $5,933 per Full-Time Equivalent
Student (FTE) – 2008-2009 fiscal year funding level.
This funding formula is intend to cover
costs such as
…Teacher and teacher aide salaries and benefits; student supplies, instructional supplies,
administration, curriculum development and library costs. The funding is to support all
school operations except transportation, facility operations and maintenance, and
elements
and other items described separately such as „low cost special education (INAC Contribution
Funding Agreement 2008-2009, p. 5).
The Contribution Funding Agreement identifies that
“funding will be increased or decreased based on the verified September….Nominal Roll count”
a mechanism which significantly affects school planning – budgeting on a yearly basis
significantly inhibits long term educational planning. The Assembly of First Nations argued that
Working Together 41
the funding process for First Nations is outdated – since “1996, the federal government capped
funding increase for Indian Affairs‟ core programs at 2%, which does not keep pace with
inflation” (www.aftn.ca/article.asp?id=764Retrieved10/11/2008).
In 2008, the First Nations
Education Council noted that
First Nations education is funded according to an old federal formula which dates back to
1988 and has not been indexed to the cost of living since 1996.
Consequently, the
schools in the First Nations are not able to offer services and salary conditions
comparable to those offered by other Canadian schools.
(www.muskwaproductions.com)
MULTI-FACETED ISSUES
The issues facing band-managed schools are multi-faceted yet two major themes (1)
educational funding levels inferior to those provided provincial/public schools, and (2) the lack
of a holistic approach to education, are consistent across time (since Confederation) and across
Canada.
Miller (1989) suggested that the promise of western education to First Nations
developed in a chaotic approach with rudimentary efforts “by ill-trained and worse paid
missionaries…in a hodgepodge of schools.…[to] which the government sometimes made small
grants [towards teacher salaries]; and less frequently rarely contributed anything” (p. 175). Lack
of funding for schools on-reserves over the past one hundred years has been well documented
(Barman, Hebert & MacCaskill, 1986). In 2008, Ovide Mercredi reminded Canada that “more
money for education[al]” services for First Nations people is a “license to leave poverty behind”
(Personal communication October 2008).
The Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples or
RCAP (1996) noted “funding is very basic, with little money for Aboriginal curriculum and few
resources….schools‟ ability to include innovative, culture-based curriculum…is restricted (Vol3,
Working Together 42
p. 436-437). In reference to education, RCAP provided numerous recommendations including
the following and urged Canada to:
a) Provide funding commensurate with the responsibilities assumed by
Aboriginal nations and their communities…given the requirements of
institutional and program development, costs of serving small or dispersed
communities, and special needs accruing from past failures of educational
services. (Vol.3 p. 444)
b. Encourages programs that foster the physical, social, intellectual and
spiritual development of children, reducing distinctions between child
care, prevention and education. (Vol. 3, p. 454)
c. Implement comprehensive Aboriginal youth empowerment strategies
with elements elaborated in collaboration with youth, including
(a) cultural education in classroom and informal settings;
(b) acknowledgement of spiritual, ethical and intuitive
dimension of learning
(c) education to support critical analysis of Aboriginal experience;
(d) learning as a means of healing from the effects of trauma, abuse and racism;
(e) academic skills development and support;
(f) sorts and outdoor education;
(g) leadership development. (Vol. 3, pp. 484-485)
While RCAP gained recognition and support across Canada for the quality and
comprehensiveness and its recommendations, for the most part RCAPs recommendations
remained unfulfilled.
Nevertheless, band-operated or band-managed schools became the
schools of choice for First Nations parents and communities.
The number of band-managed
Working Together 43
schools grew from one in 1971 to 494 today.
The movement towards First Nations managed
schools across the country over the past four decades demonstrates “a desire [of First Nations]
…to gain full control of their children‟s education once again” (As cited in Cajete, 1994, p. 12).
This progress, however, Deloria (1994) argued “has been clothed primarily in terms of wresting
institutional control away from non-Indian educators…and does not protend a fundamental
change in the substance of Indian education” (p. 12). Cajete argued it is essential to develop
A contemporary, culturally based, educational process founded upon traditional Tribal
values, orientations, and principles, while simultaneously using the most appropriate
concepts, technologies, and content of modern education. (p. 17).
This holistic approach to education enables the First Nations‟ learners to experience “the various
relationships within Indigenous and western knowledge traditions through their emotional,
mental, spiritual and physical dimensions….the individual‟s well being supports the cultural,
social, political and economic “Collective Well-Being” (www.ccl-cca.ca) and included below in
Figure 3-1.
Working Together 44
FIRST NATIONS HOLISTIC LIFELONG LEARNING MODEL
First Nations Holistic Lifelong Learning Model
Figure 3-1 First Nations Lifelong Learning Model (www.ccl-cca.ca)
The holistic approach to education is an essential part of healthy individuals and
communities and a mechanism to change the current dismal educational statistics for First
Nations people. Canada‟s Auditor General (2004) noted “we remain concerned that a significant
education gap exists between First Nations people living on reserves and the Canadian
population as a whole and that the time estimated to close this gap has increased slightly [from
2000] from about 27 to 28 years (p.1).
In 2008, the Assembly of First Nations (AFN) stated
“about 70% of First Nations‟ students living on-reserve will never complete high school.
Graduation rates for the on-reserve population range from 28.9% to 32.1% annually”
(www.afn.ca/article.asp?id=764Retrieved 10/11/2008).
With reference to Canada‟s Auditor
General‟s 2004 Report, the AFN argued “there has been literally no progress over the last four
Working Together 45
years in closing the gap in high school graduation rates between First Nations and other
Canadians” (ibid).
SAMSON FIRST NATION AND EDUCATION
Parents of Samson Cree students have a choice to send their children to the on-reserve or
provincial schools located close by. The numbers of students attending grade twelve at the onreserve high school has, for the most part, risen annually over the last six years – from 17% in
2001/2002 to 45% in 2006/2007.
The students attending off-reserve schools comprise of
approximately one third of the total study enrolment – while trends show that the number of
Samson students enrolled in provincial schools increases at the senior high school level, the total
number of grade twelve students in provincial schools, however, has decreased over the last three
years. Graduate trends are indicated in the Figure 3-2 and 3-3 below.
Figure 3.2 Graduate Per Centage
First Nations students and Canadian students in general aspire to continue their education
after high school graduation whether at universities, colleges, technical institutes or skills
training facilities. The AFN noted that:
Working Together 46
10,000 First Nations students who are eligible and looking to attend post-secondary
education are on waiting lists because of under-funding and that furthermore the number
of First Nations post-secondary students has been declining in recent years. In 1998-99
participation rates of Registered Indians was at a high of 27,157 but dropped to 25,075 in
2003-03. (http://www.aftn.ca/article.asp?id=764)
Samson Cree Nation through its educational trust supports and honors students who
continue their education beyond high school.
Along with post secondary funding from Indian
Affairs the number of post secondary students from Samson Cree Nation attending, the number
of graduates though fluctuating from year to year, has increased slightly over the last eight years.
Figure 3-3 Samson Cree Nation Graduates
In total between 2000 and 2007 there were 573 members from Samson Cree Nation graduated
from a variety of programs. This number is equivalent to 16% of the current adult population
Working Together 47
(18 years and over). A variety of educational programming is reflected in the graduates‟ course
of studies:
GED
High School Diploma
University College Entrance Preparation Certificate
Technical Trades
College 1 year Certificates
College 2 year Certificates
Undergraduate Degrees
Post Graduate Degrees
This listing is reflective of individuals‟ desires to pursue a variety of programming but also of the
determination of Samson Cree members to return to pursue educational attainment after (1)
dropping out of high school, or (2) despite high school graduation not attaining sufficient grade
averages to meet institutional entrance requirements. The determination of individuals to pursue
their educational goals is offset with those who drop out of school and who with a lack of skills
face limited employment opportunities if any at all. Schools dropouts are most likely “to be
unemployed, turn to crime…and need welfare…and cost [society] billions” (Asimov, 2008, p.
1).
Disconnect from school, family and community for many students places them at-risk.
Chettleburgh (2007) argued that “freed from neglectful fathers, doting mothers and the confines
of the education system” individuals are lured to gangs in search of friendship, a desire to
belong, status, economic gain, and recognition.
Community factors such as school dropout,
high unemployment, poverty, poor health conditions, overcrowded/inadequate homes, and
limited social, sports, or community activities and associated infrastructure – all associated with
Working Together 48
reserve living – are harbingers of at-risk students and youth attraction to gangs and ultimately
gang proliferation.
Research regarding youth gangs consistently identifies a myriad of factors which may
lure at-risk youth into gangs including:
Lack or misplacement of cultural identity
Lack of role models (especially for males)
Low self-esteem
Negative school experiences
Marginalization and discrimination
In-effective or lack of parental relationship
Research informs us that there is no clear-cut, either-or response to reduce youth criminal
activity: Rather a combination of preventative and intervention strategies are called for if
communities are to alleviate gang problems. A multi-dimensional approach identifies a variety
of activities which serve to address the issues from a collective approach.
The following
recommendations are intended to assist in improving the quality of life on the Samson Cree
Nation.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Leadership in effective school organizations is shared, collaborative and empowering.
Effective leadership does not reside solely in one or two people.
It is a team quality and is,
therefore, a reflection of the whole organization and the culture of shared decision making.
Good schools project a consistent philosophy and a sense of mission that are shared by teachers,
pupils, parents/guardians, and administrators. Such schools have a warm, caring and respectful
climate that is conducive to learning; are safe, attractive, well-resourced, and have a well-
Working Together 49
maintained physical environment; reflect community beliefs, norms and expectations; and
emphasize academic achievement.
Nipisihkopahk Education Authority
1.
In concert with school personnel and community members review the mission and
vision statements for NEA and each school. The vision and purpose should be
consistent and clear and shared by all stakeholders.
2.
Recruit a truancy officer to keep children in school.
3.
Review the annual budget allocations to align with mission/vision and priorities.
4.
Provide team building activities for all staff.
5.
Ensure professional development opportunities are available for staff.
6.
Provide resources/support to help write proposals to various levels of
government/organizations for focused funding for school initiatives.
7.
Consider hiring an activities coordinator for the schools.
8.
Provide support to the schools for curriculum development and implementation of
new/refocused programs.
9.
Require off-reserve schools to pay for bussing of students living on Samson Band.
Currently NEA pays for bussing to off-reserve schools.
10.
Work with Alberta Education to ensure the provincial wellness program (2005) is
implemented in and benefits Samson Cree Nation students.
11.
Raise expectations for high school graduation – set targets for numbers of
students graduating.
12.
Review current and explore alternatives to the current school year.
13.
Consider multi-grade “family” grouping for classroom arrangements.
Working Together 50
14.
Establish a program for Grade 3-6 regarding youth awareness – how positive
groups differ from gangs, what gangs do the myths and realities about why youth
join gangs, information on gang structure and lifestyle, positive alternatives to
gang involvement. (Rexdale Youth Community Violence Prevention Alliance for
Grade 6 students)
15.
Invite safe school advocates to present an in-service related to comprehensive and
integrated approaches for helping schools and communities reduce violence and
risk-taking among youth. Of particular note is The Fourth R (Relationships)
program developed at the University of Western Ontario and First Nations in
southern Ontario.
16.
Review various student leadership programs for consideration and
implementation at the Junior and Senior High School Levels.
17.
Review Developmental Assets – external and internal assets - programs for
Junior/Senior high school students. Young people with more assets are less likely
to engage in patterns of high-risk behaviour and are more likely to make positive
choices in life.
18.
Consider implementing a wide ranging gifted children‟s program in the
Schools focused on Art, Reading, Math, etc.
19.
Provide training and support mechanisms for staff and parents for effective
programming for FASD children.
20.
Provide drug and alcohol counseling for students in junior/senior high school.
21.
Invite Elders to conduct talking circles on a regular basis in the school.
Working Together 51
22.
Review Cree language and cultural program for the purpose of widening the
program(s) for students and community members.
a. Focus on Cree oral instruction for all grades.
b. Establish lunchtime/after school activity clubs with a focus on traditional
activities.
c. Hold monthly Cree day: invite members of the community to conduct a
variety of activities: dancing, storytelling, art.
d. Offer Cree language lessons at the school for parents.
e. Invite Elders to offer sessions in the school for parents on traditional practices,
parent and community roles.
23.
Review First Nations Education Steering Committee (ie. British Columbia)
a. First Nations Parent Club.
b. Options for partners with education such as sports group – donated tickets to
sports venues to reward parents who volunteer in the school, whose students
have improved attendance, etc.
24.
Establish a tracking system to enable follow-up on students who leave/transfer
schools.
25.
Review programming options and space requirements for establishing a daycare
for children of high school students.
Working Together 52
26.
Enter into discussions with various cultural/drama/music groups in the
geographical area to facilitate the use of the stage for practice, etc. in exchange for
community to presentations.
27.
Develop an outdoor track and field area, including an area for football, soccer,
lacrosse and other outdoor sports.
28.
Develop a tutoring program within the schools.
29.
Pursue funding to build a playground at the Pigeon Lake Mimiw Sakahikan
School.
30.
Create a school uniform policy.
31.
Hire a recruitment officer to recruit teachers for the schools.
32.
Evaluate current staff and create a program for staff retention.
33.
Develop a Special Ed policy.
34.
In conjunction with Louis Bull, Montana and Ermineskin school Boards,
determine the need for specialists in the field:
a. Physical Therapist
b. Occupational Therapist
c. Speech/Language Pathologist
d. Services for Occupational Therapist/Physical therapist for children in the
Head start programs
e. Mental health workers (including preschool)
Work out an agreement to acquire these specialized services within the
Community for the benefit of all Hobbema children.
35.
Review programming for Head Start program.
Working Together 53
Parents & Community Engagement
Parental involvement in their child‟s education and the student‟s connection to school are the
most significant indicators of success in schools.
1.
Provide opportunities and specific training for parents on topics such as
creating effective home learning environments, home reading and homework
support, healthy lifestyles for families and children, becoming involved in the
education system.
2.
Establish a drop-in activity evening for parents and students.
3.
Healthy Families Project & Kwanlin Dun First Nation‟s Project. A program
which focuses on parents with children aged 0-6 considered at high risk for future
criminal behaviour and victimization. Aim was to reduce the risk factors
associated with anti-social behaviour, such as delinquency and criminal
behaviour, child abuse and neglect, poor parenting skills, exposure to domestic
violence and parental criminality.
4.
Establish bi-weekly parent/child activity evenings at the school, Howard Buffalo
Memorial Center or Bingo Hall.
5.
Increase the availability of drug and alcohol awareness and rehabilitation training
at an easily accessible location. Work with Wellness program and Health Centre.
6.
Review and adapt in appropriate handbook Project Gang Proof developed by
Manitoba RCMP, Winnipeg Police Service and Manitoba Justice for families and
communities who are attempting to prevent youth from becoming involved in
street gangs.
Working Together 54
7.
Provide awareness training of and strategies for FASD which gives focus to
acceptance rather than blame. Address determinates of why women use
substances while pregnant: domestic violence, isolation, poverty, residential
school syndrome.
8.
Review Alberta‟s Community Incentive Fund and projects funded in support of
local efforts to find solutions to family violence and bullying.
9.
Establish a teen parenting support program.
Youth Education & Recovery
1.
Review Breaking the Cycle: Youth Gang Exit and Ambassador
Leadership Program (NCPC) for implementation for Samson youth/young
people. The goals of the program are to (a) enhance public safety by reducing the
number of youth at risk of joining gangs; (b) enhance public safety by increasing
the number of gang involved youth that leave gangs.
2.
Review Positive Tickets program implemented in Richmond and Toronto
which “catches kids doing the right thing…ticket is the gateway to the
relationship.”
3.
Establish a First Nations Youth and Restorative Healing Project – a
culturally-based community based crime prevention strategy program.
This program has been offered in the Battleford, Saskatchewan area in
cooperation with the Federation of Saskatchewan Indian Nations (FSIN) and
National Crime Prevention Centre (NCPC).
Adult Education
High school diploma is generally considered a minimum requirement for most jobs in today‟s
economy.
Working Together 55
1.
Establish literacy clubs.
2.
Provide opportunities for individuals to learn computer skills.
3.
Provide General Educational Development (GED) sessions for interested
individuals in a variety of locales and at varying times during the day/night.
4.
Review opportunities for on-job training programs (ie. Job Shadowing).
5.
Establish community programs (evening or daytime): Sewing, Beading,
Woodworking, Cooking for diabetics, gardening, etc.
6.
Offer leadership training for community members.
7.
Explore the possibility of creating an Outreach centre.
Post Secondary Education
Parental education exerts a strong influence on a child‟s education and not only reduces
the odds of their children dropping out of school but is a determinate of their children continuing
their education at the post secondary level.
Postsecondary education has a strong effect on
opportunities for employment and personal income. Individuals who hold a university degree are
likely to earn three times the annual income of those who did not complete high school.
1.
Review/conduct a community needs assessment in relation to post secondary
program interests of individuals and needs of the community.
2.
Establish individual educational plans for those wishing to pursue career options.
3.
Only provide post-secondary funding for persons choosing to attend institutions
that are accredited by the province of Alberta.
Working Together 56
4.
Enter into discussions with various levels of government and post secondary
institutions for the increased post secondary training in the Maskwacis
community.
Working Together 57
CHAPTER 4
"Like a stone tossed into a pond, our actions ripple into the world,
touching others in our families and communities."8
From traditional times in First Nations cultures, health [has meant] balance and harmony
within and among each of the four aspects of human nature: physical, mental, emotional, and
spiritual (Mussell et al., 1991, p. 19).
This balance is paramount as the people are confronted
with significant issues particularly in the area of health and wellness.
The Assembly of First
Nations (2008), however, argued that First Nations people in Canada
Live in third world conditions
Face a crisis in housing and living conditions
Face increased rates of suicide, diabetes, and tuberculosis
Die earlier than other Canadians (p.1-3).
These issues are fundamental for the people of today – with a significant portion of the
population under twenty-four years of age and for future generations.
DEMOGRAPHICS
The age distribution of First Nations populations living on and off reserve, in
Canada (2006) is shown below.
8
Aboriginal Nurses Association of Canada
57
Working Together 58
Table 4-1
Population and Age
Total
On reserve
number
%
300755
100
102425
34
55835
19
109680
36
18055
6
Age groups
number
%
Total - Age groups 698025
100
0 to 14 years
224790
32
15 to 24 years
124835
18
25 to 54 years
272250
39
55 to 64 years
44175
6
65 years and
over
31975
5
14760
Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Population, 2006
5
Off reserve
Number
%
397265
100
122360
31
69000
17
162570
41
26120
7
17210
4
Samson Cree Nation demographics are similar to these national norms.
Table 4-2
Total
Age Groups
Total - Age
groups
0 to 14 years
15 to 24 years
25 to 54 years
55 to 64 years
65 years & over
Number
%
6816
2595
1720
2172
199
130
100
38
25
32
3
2
Table 4-2: Samson Cree Nation population as of June 2008
EMPLOYMENT
In 2001, the highest proportion of Aboriginal children aged 5 to 14 living in two-parent
families where both parents worked full-time was found among the Métis population (46%),
followed by the Inuit (40%) and North American Indian (38%) populations. These proportions
are below the figure for the total Canadian population (49%), and reflect the high unemployment
Working Together 59
rate in some First Nations communities and in the North. (Report of the Pan-Canadian Education
Indicators Program, 2007)
In Canada the average hourly earnings rose 6% in real terms over the last decade, from
17.68 (2002$) in 1997 to $18.80 in 2007. The strong increases observed in Alberta over the last
decade had a clear impact on the province‟s earnings distribution.
The proportion of jobs
paying less than $10 per hour (in 2002) fell by fully 10 percentage points, dropping to 12% in
2007. Conversely, high-paying jobs became more prevalent, as the proportion of jobs paying at
least $25 per hour rose by 7 points. (Statistics Canada – Catalogue no. 75-001-X, p.13)
According to the First Nations Regional Longitudinal Health Survey, the median personal
income by highest level of education completed is shown in figure 4-1 below.
Source: First Nations Regional Longitudinal Health Survey 2008
Figure 4-1: Median income
The number of jobs is limited within the area and surrounding Samson Cree Nation and
the trend being observed is that more and younger people are seeking employment off-reserve.
As the population continues to grow, the economic base of the nation cannot sustain the growth
necessary for those seeking employment.
Working Together 60
Figure 4–1: Samson Cree Nation Employment
FIRST NATION CHILDREN
According to the Statistics Canada (2006) on-reserve population data, children (under
fourteen years) comprise about one-third (34%) of on-reserve First Nations people were aged 14
and under (Catalogue no. 97-558, p.44). Samson Cree Nation demographics are no exception:
over one-third (38%) of the population are 14 and under, over half (63%) of the population are
aged 24 and under.
While most First Nations children lived with relatives, they are twice as
likely to live in a lone-parent family. Just under one-third (31%) of First Nations children aged
14 and under lived with a lone mother, more than twice the proportion of 14% among nonAboriginal children. Similarly, 6 % of First Nations children lived with a lone father, compared
with only 3% of their non-Aboriginal counterparts. (Statistics Canada – Catalogue no. 97-558,
p.44)
Working Together 61
CHILD POVERTY
Scruby (2007) stated that women living in low-income conditions with children face
ongoing challenges of juggling multiple responsibilities: challenges which add tremendous stress
to their lives and the lives of their children. These women and their children face a low quality
life, varying from social exclusion to restricted access to health and support services, housing,
childcare, food, security and education (Scruby, 2007, p. 7).
Children of mothers living in
poverty are poor because their mothers social conditions. Thus poverty can exclude women and
their families from participating in many social activities – activities which contribute to a
positive sense of well-being and quality of life including meaningful employment, sports, leisure
or recreation activities, education or skills upgrading and volunteering or civic participation.
The stresses of living in poverty Reid & Tom (2006) argued was seen to have a negative impact
on the psychological health of women and was linked to negatively influencing the overall health
of the family (Reid & Tom, 2006). Living in rural or remote areas often created further barriers
to accessing health and mental services and feeling dependent on social assistance can further
add to feelings of isolation. Reid and Tom assert that “to have social identity as a poor woman
(and child) on welfare is to live and act under a set of disparaging discourses” (2006, p. 419).
Dominant discourse portrays women on social assistance as being unmotivated, lazy, with poor
self-control, and as a drain on social resources.
Distribution of Household Income for First Nations Children
According to the First Nations Regional Longitudinal Health Survey of 2008, 44% of
First Nations children live in household with less than $20,000.
Working Together 62
Source: First Nations Regional Longitudinal Health Survey 2008
Figure 4-1: Household Income
1 in 6 Canadian children are living below the poverty line, 1 in 4 First Nations children living in
a First Nations community are living below the Poverty Line.
Tarasuk (2003) defines food insecurity “as the limited, inadequate or insecure access of
individuals and households to sufficient, safe, nutritious, personally acceptable food to meet their
dietary requirements for a healthy and productive life.”
The factor of food security is linked
with income and can determine the health of the individual (Power, 2005). Inadequate quantity
and poor nutritional quality of food are linked to physical health problems and psychological
health problems (Power, 2005).
CHILDREN IN CARE
The health of First Nations children is vital to their well being. It is important children
receive love, attention, nurturing and support in order to grow into healthy adults.
Many
children, for a variety of reasons, do not live with their parents but rather reside with others/live
in care.
Children in-care has been an ongoing issue for people in the Maskwacis area: The
Working Together 63
number of children in care has continued to rise over the years and currently there are 421
(Kasokowew, 2008) children presently living in care.
Primary Care Givers for First Nations Children
Source: First Nations Regional Longitudinal Health Survey 2008
Figure 4-2: Primary Care Givers
CHILDREN AND HEALTH
The health of First Nations children is vital to their well being.
Some of the serious
conditions children face includes FASD birth affects, family violence, poverty, and crowded
homes.
The First Nations Regional Longitudinal Heal Survey (2008) documented that First
Nations children have poor health status: children showing high rates of injuries, allergies or
asthma, chronic bronchitis, ear infections, and learning disabilities.
malnutrition are also health issues for children in some communities.
Juvenile diabetes and
Working Together 64
Top 5 Medical Conditions Among First Nations Children
Source: First Nations Regional Longitudinal Health Survey 2008
Figure 4-3 Medical Conditions Among First Nations Children
FAMILY HOUSING
Crowded living conditions are a common reality on reserves.
First Nations people are
five times more likely than non-Aboriginal people to live in crowded homes (crowding is defined
as more than one person per room).
A large percentage of the on-reserve population live in
homes identified as very crowded. One in 10 (11%) live in a dwelling with 1.5 people or more
per room. Crowded living conditions are considerably more common on-reserves located in the
three Prairie Provinces. In Alberta about 31% of on-reserve First Nations people live in a home
with more than one person per room (Statistics Canada – Catalogue no. 97-558, p.45).
Overcrowded homes in need of repair are a significant factor of on-reserve living. First
Nations people are four times more likely than non-Aboriginal people, to live in dwellings
requiring repairs. In 2006, 28% of First Nations people lived in a home in need of major repairs,
Working Together 65
compared with just 7% of the non-Aboriginal population (the need for major repairs was in the
judgment of respondents). Regionally, the proportion of on-reserve First Nations people living
in dwellings in need of major repairs was considerably higher in the three prairie provinces, 52%
in Alberta (Statistics Canada – Catalogue no. 97-558, p.46-47).
HEALTH AND WELLNESS ISSUES
Intergenerational Connection (connecting language and families)
Language is often recognized as the essence of a culture.
The Royal Commission on
Aboriginal Peoples (1996) stated that the revitalization of traditional languages is a key
component in the creation of healthy individuals and communities.
Language is „not only a
means of communication, but a link which connects people with their past and grounds their
social, emotional and spiritual vitality” (Canadian Social Trends, no 51, Statistics Canada,
Catalogue no. 11-008, p.8).
Across Canada there are some 50 or more individual languages
belonging to 11 Aboriginal language families.
These languages reflect distinctive histories,
cultures and identities linked to family, community, the land and traditional knowledge.
For
many First Nation, Inuit and Métis people, these languages are at the very core of their identity.
Aboriginal peoples, though, are confronted with the fact that many of their languages are
disappearing.
Over the past 100 years or more, at least ten once flourishing languages have
become extinct.
The ability to speak an ancestral language is one way of passing knowledge from
generation to another.
While 83% of First Nations seniors aged 75 and over speak an
Aboriginal language, residential schools, government policies, and social factors have impeded
the Indigenous languages transfer.
Declining trends in the intergenerational transmission of
Aboriginal mother tongues are being offset to a degree by the fact that Aboriginal languages are
Working Together 66
also being learned as second languages.
Gaining the ability to speak the language of their
parents or grandparents, enables young Aboriginal people to communicate with older family
members in their traditional language and the process of learning one‟s Aboriginal language may
also contribute to increased self-esteem and well-being (Statistics Canada-Catalogue no. 97-558,
p.48).
Currently, only a minority of the Aboriginal population in Canada is able to speak or
understand an Aboriginal language. According to 2001 Census data, of the 976,300 people who
identified themselves as Aboriginal, 235,000 (or 24%) reported that they were able to conduct a
conversation in an Aboriginal language. Increasing the number of second language speakers is
part of the process of language revitalization, and may go some way towards preventing, or at
least slowing, the rapid erosion and possible extinction of endangered languages and contribute
to cultural continuity (Statistics Canada-Catalogue No. 11-008, p.19).
FAMILY VIOLENCE
The Aboriginal Family Healing Joint Steering Committee (1993) defined family violence
“as the consequence to colonization, forced assimilation, and cultural genocide; the learned
negative cumulative, multi-generational actions, values, beliefs, attitudes and behavioural
patterns practiced by one or more people that weaken or destroy the harmony and well-being of
an Aboriginal individual, family, extended family, community or nationhood” (p.10).
What is Family Violence?
Physical abuse is any physical act intended to harm, injure or inflict pain on another person,
including slapping, punching, burning, kicking, biting, pushing, hair-pulling, choking, shoving
hitting, with an object, threatening with an object such as a knife or gun, and any action that
causes physical harm to another person.
Psychological violence involves the abuse of power and control over another person.
It
includes inducing fear by intimidating, terrorizing or threatening, humiliating, insulting,
degrading, destroying property, isolation a person from friends and family and withholding
emotions of love, or caring.
Working Together 67
Sexual abuse includes all acts of unwanted sexual attention or exploitation, including
inappropriate touching or molesting, exposing a victim to pornographic material, sexual assault
with an object, forced bondage, date rape, gang rape, rape within an intimate relationship and
sexual harassment.
Child sexual abuse is any sexual contact inflicted on a child and includes all acts described
above including sexual abuse.
Incest is any form of sexual contact or attempted sexual contact between relatives, no matter
how distant the relationship.
Financial abuse is any act which involves the deceitful or immoral use of another person‟s
money or belongings (for example, the misappropriation of resources, using another person‟s
money or resources to exert power and control over them, taking pension money or other forms
of family support, forcing parents to provide free child care, denying one‟s family of money for
food or shelter).
Spiritual abuse entails the erosion or breaking down of one‟s cultural or religious belief system.
A study by the Aboriginal Nurses Association of Canada (1991) found that the three
leading factors which sustained family violence were (1) alcohol and substance abuse; (2)
economic problems; and (3) intergenerational abuse (Frank, 1992, p. 17).
Parents are primarily responsible for taking care of and guiding the development of their
children. It takes a community to raise a child: the extended family and community as a whole
shares responsibility with and supports the parents in carrying out their responsibilities.
Examples of community support of parents in carrying out their responsibilities include
helping parents deal with behavioural challenges, teaching parents coping skills, providing
respite care, and facilitating parents‟ access to helpful information. This approach is consistent
with First Nations and Inuit concepts of approaching issues holistically, as families and
communities (McLeod, 1997).
The Framework for the First Nations and Inuit Fetal Alcohol Syndrome/Fetal Alcohol
Effects Initiative gives focus to one of the significant health and wellness issues facing
communities. Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders – totally preventable since FASD results from
Working Together 68
the effects of alcohol during pregnancy- requires “extraordinary health care, social services,
corrections and educational services that represent significant monetary costs to society” (BC
FAS Resources Society, 1998, p. 14).
The economic and social costs associated with FASD
have significant impact on communities across Canada. The rates of FASD/FAE in some First
Nations and Inuit communities are more prevalent than in other areas of Canada.
HEALTHY EATING
Obesity is recognized as a risk factor for a variety of serious health problems such as
Type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular diseases (World Health Organization, 2000). Among 19 to
50 year olds, the soft drink consumption of Aboriginal people significantly exceeded that of nonAboriginal people.
For example, at ages 19 to 30, Aboriginal women averaged 450 grams of
regular soft drinks a day, about 3 times as much as non-Aboriginal women (139 grams).
Aboriginal men consumed significantly more 961 grams vs. 632 grams for nonAboriginal men. In the sandwich category (which includes not only sandwiches per se, but also
pizza, submarines, hamburgers and hot dogs) contributed more fat to the Canadian diet than did
any other single category.
aged 19 to 50.
This type of food was also a popular choice for Aboriginal people
Low educational attainment has been related to obesity for adults overall.
Aboriginal people in lower-income households were more likely to be obese (Statistics Canada,
catalogue 82-003, p.1-10).
Results of the First Nations Regional Longitudinal Health Survey (2008) demonstrated
that almost half of First Nation children are overweight, with an additional 13.8% at risk of
becoming overweight. 73.6% of men and 75.2% of women are considered overweight, obese, or
morbidly obese.
Working Together 69
Men’s Diabetes Rates by Age
First Nations vs. Canada
Source: First Nations Regional Longitudinal Health Survey (2008)
Figure 4-4 Men’s Diabetes Rages by age and comparison
Women’s Diabetes Rates by Age
First Nations vs. Canada
Source: First Nations Regional Longitudinal Health Survey (2008)
Figure 4-5 Women’s Diabetes rates by age and comparison
Working Together 70
MORTALITY
In a study to determine the distribution of health status across groups defined by income,
education, occupation, language and ethnicity.
These studies have mainly investigated
differences by education and occupation, and have consistently shown lower education levels
and lower-status occupational categories (and the economically inactive) to have the highest
mortality rates, and higher education levels and higher status occupational categories (managerial
and professional) to have the lowest mortality rates.
The lowest mortality rates were among were among the university-educated, the
employed those in professional and managerial occupations, and those in the top income
brackets. The highest mortality rates were among people with less than secondary graduation,
those who were employed, or not in the labour force, those in unskilled jobs, and those in the
lowest income brackets (Wilkins, Tjepkema, Mustard, Choiniere, 2008).
Table 4-3
Number of Suicides by Ethnicity Alberta, 1999-2003
Ethnicity
1999 2000 2001 2002
Black
1
2
1
2
Caucasian
383
352
404
389
East Indian
5
2
4
2
Inuit
1
0
0
0
Metis
9
8
4
6
Native
43
35
49
33
Other
11
5
8
4
Southeast Asian
5
5
7
13
Unknown
1
1
0
0
2003
1
395
2
0
4
34
5
6
6
Total
7
1923
15
1
31
194
33
36
8
Data Source: Office of the Chief Medical Examiner (1998-2005). Suicides in Alberta, 1999,
2000, 2001, 2002, 2003.
The numbers of suicides of Métis and Native individuals make up 10% of the number of suicides
however, Aboriginal people make up only 6% of the population.
Working Together 71
Figure 4-7 Samson Cree Nation Mortality Averages 2000-2008
Statistically, the mortality rate within Samson Cree Nation over the past seven years is:
44% Health related
20% Other
19% Self inflicted
17 % Accident
A review of mortality stats for Samson Cree Nation (January 2000 – July 28, 2008) is indicated
below in Figure 4-8.
Working Together 72
Working Together 73
Figure 4-9 below further depicts the deceased rate per year for 2000-2008.
Summary of Findings:
In 2007 “other” deaths accounted for 54%, the highest it‟s been over the past 7 years, this
figure doubled from the previous year (in 2006 it was 23%).
Historical review of ages of deceased members tells us that more than 50% are over 51
years of age.
This rate changes drastically in the year 2005, where persons between the ages of 31 to
50 accounted for 12 deaths in the community, while age group 51 and over accounted for
14 deaths.
In 2006 this trend also continues with 11 persons deceased between the ages of 31 to 50,
the highest number of deaths for this year.
In 2007 the second highest number of deaths occurred in the age range of persons
between ages 18 to 30 at 9 deaths, this is also the year were 54% of deaths were
categorized as “other”.
Working Together 74
In 2008 the community has already experienced a loss of 12 members between the age of
31 to 50, matching the numbers in year 2005 and below the year 2003 (this had the
highest number of deaths for this category).
CRIME AND VICIMIZATION
Youth and Adults in custody and community services
Various groups within Canadian society experience higher rates of violent victimization:
factors such as being young, single, going to school, unemployed, earning a low income, living
in an urban area, and those who engage in 30 or more evening activities a month tend to
contribute to a person‟s increased risk of being a target of a violent crime.
Aboriginal people
experienced rates of violence victimization that are three times higher than the non-Aboriginal
population (Statistics Canada, catalogue no. 89-630-X).
Youth
There were approximately 7,500 Aboriginal youth admitted to either custody of probation
in 2005/2006. Aboriginal youth represented 31% of admissions to sentenced custody, 23% of
admissions to remand and 22% of admissions to probation, yet accounted for 6% of youth in
Canada (Statistics Canada, catalogue no. 85-002-X).
Adults
Aboriginal people continued to have high levels of representation in custody. According
to the 2006 census, Aboriginal people represented 4% of the adult population in Canada, yet they
accounted for 24% of adult admissions to provincial territorial custody, 19% of admissions to
remand and 18% of admissions to federal custody (Statistics Canada, catalogue no. 85-002-XIE).
Crime statistics for the Maskwacis area of provided below in Table 4-2.
Working Together 75
Table 4-2: Hobbema RCMP Detachment Criminal Case Load
Hobbema Detachment Criminal Case load - 5 year comparison
Crime
Homicide
Robbery
Assault
B &E
Theft >
5000
Drugs
2003
3
9
878
322
2004
2
4
899
220
2005
1
8
943
222
2006
2
9
908
258
2007
2
7
739
232
360
133
310
105
315
85
317
79
389
96
Total
Total
300
236
Firearms related complaints for 2006
Firearms related complaints for 2007
Source: Hobbema RCMP Detachment office (2008)
DRUGS AND ALCOHOL
Engaging in drug and alcohol abuse are harmful behaviors, both to the individual and
their families and the community at large.
consequences from ill health to life style.
This harmful behavior usually has major
There are many issues surrounding alcohol and
substance abuse, the Aboriginal Healing Foundation in 2004 identified historic trauma and
intergenerational grief as “The experience of historic trauma and inter-generational grief can best
be described as psychological baggage being passed from parents to children with the trauma and
grief experienced in each individual‟s lifetime. ….. Unresolved historic trauma will continue to
impact individuals, families and communities until the trauma has been addressed mentally,
emotionally, physically and spiritually.” (Aboriginal Healing Foundation, 2004, p.3)
One of the other major concerns is drug related problems including personal and family
unhappiness, dependency, physical and mental health problems premature death, lost
productivity, increased crime, highway crashes, and ever growing costs of law enforcement and
Working Together 76
health care. (Health Canada, 2000) Insufficient rehabilitation programs for those seeking support
is another major concern, accessibility to those programs and lack of community support
programs, including many other variables make it tough to stop substance abuse.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Youth Centre
There are many issues challenging the youth of Samson Cree Nation today. They need a
place to call their own. Throughout many of the meetings held with various departments and
with the High School students it became evident that there was a void. A Youth Centre is
needed that provides a variety of services for the youth. It could be utilized as a Safe House,
drop-in centre and recreation center. It should provide counseling services, for youth that need
someone to talk to, for youth looking to exit gangs and for youth dealing with addictions. It
should be a safe place for youth to go to any time day or night. In the evening it could act as a
crisis centre for youth in emergencies. It should be a place youth can go to congregate and have
fun. It should have a gym with up to date sporting equipment. It should have a computer lab
and a music recording studio. The youth centre should contain an art studio. It should also be a
centre where youth can connect with their culture and have the opportunity to meet with elders
and have a sweat or learn to make traditional foods. Each department that has an impact on the
quality of life for youth should hold office hours at the youth centre on a rotating basis,
departments such as Education, Social Services, Human Resources, and Community Wellness
etc.
It should be a place youth want to go and are excited to go. It should be a place youth
always feel comfortable and at home.
Working Together 77
Youth
1. Provide summer options for youth willing to engage in self-discipline. One successful
program called Bold Eagle has successfully helped youth to pursue meaningful
careers, develop self-esteem and personal development.
(www.army.forces.gc.ca/boldeagle)
2. Provide summer sport skill camp activities for younger children.
3. Facilitate senior/youth mentoring opportunities: activities varying from cultural to
sports or other venues.
4. Create more programs that related to art, music and culture.
5. Provide the opportunity for the development of a youth council that can determine
some effective programs for youth to participate in.
6. Establish a recognition program for athletes.
7. Establish a mentoring program that youth may participate in.
8. Create a policy that states no more funerals or wakes to be held at the Howard
Buffalo Memorial Centre as it changes the atmosphere of the center.
9. Actively advertise programs to the youth.
10. Create programs to target a wider and more diverse audience.
11. Create a safe house for the youth. This safe house could be based along the same
principles as Youth Emergency Shelter. (www.yess.org).
Wellness
1. Establish Eat-right Evenings: Monthly community dinners/activities.
2. Provide mentoring/partnership opportunities between teenage mothers and older
community women. Also create this type of program for male parents.
3. Offer workshops on dietary needs for children and adults and elders.
Working Together 78
4. Provide easy access to counseling.
5. Improve the accessibility and communication of information to handle issues of
substance abuse.
6. Establish support groups for men and women.
7. Provide information and opportunities to give focus to family violence.
8. Establish an active-living plan for elders.
9. Develop a recreation program for special needs.
10. Set up a kids help phone line for the Maskwacis area.
11. Set up a suicide hotline for the Maskwacis area.
12. Establish a community garden, work with various departments to ensure community
members gain access to it.
13. Provide opportunities for Elders to participate in Community events.
14. Provide recreational programs for Elders to participate in.
15. Create a wellness centre that is a one stop shop for community members. They can
obtain counseling, income support and food bank services in one area.
16. Provide support groups for parents with children in gangs.
17. Offer a variety of parenting classes to assist with a variety of family issues.
18. Create an information care packages for families, it should contain information about
all wellness services available to Nation members.
Housing
1. Review occupancy of Samson owned housing.
2. Create a screening process for Housing Selection and an application fee.
3. Make home occupants more accountable for any damage caused to their houses or
their property.
Working Together 79
4. Establish a Rules of Occupancy Bylaw for all Home Occupants that has a strict no
drugs or violence statement.
5. Have home occupants submit annual Criminal Record Checks.
6. Perform random inspections on housing to ensure proper occupants.
7. Review feasibility of housing construction outside of Townsite.
8. Review feasibility of building homes to facilitate intergenerational support.
9. Diversify types of homes built. The majority of families within Samson Cree Nation
consist of more than 4 people.
10. Update housing list and establish a yearly survey process to maintain this
information.
11. Set up do-it-yourself and home repair workshops for home occupants to maintain
their residence.
12. Create an incentive program for responsible home occupants.
13. Establish criteria for renovations.
14. Renovations and repairs should be centralized through Maintenance Shop and Trades
Center.
15. Consider implementing user fees for minor housing repairs.
16. Define roles and responsibilities of Housing Department.
17. Establish a proper bid and tender system within the Housing department.
18. Conduct a financial audit.
19. Have 3rd party inspectors to do inspections.
Justice
1. Create a Residency Bylaw to define residents of Samson Cree Nation. Enoch Cree
Nation has created a Residency Bylaw. Westbank First Nation has also created a
Working Together 80
Child and Youth Protection Law. These laws define who is allowed in the
community and if they breach these bylaws they are evicted. They both have
processes for reinstatement. Both of these Bylaws should be researched and adapted
to meet the needs of Samson Cree Nation.
2. Create an Eviction Bylaw based on the new Residency Bylaw.
3. Provide sessions for parents re: youth gang violence.
4. Review opportunities to ensure options for restorative justice programs are available
and implemented.
5. Provide legal and counseling support for youth facing legal action.
6. Set criteria for those requiring legal assistance.
7. Create legal informational sessions for minor legal issues; divorce, custody, support,
fine option and maintenance.
8. Have fine option assist with community service work, ie shovel elders sidewalks,
clean yards, clean up graffiti etc.
9. Establish a 911 Emergency system for Maskwacis community.
Employment:
1.
Consider establishing a recycling center on reserve.
2.
Create a plan to increase the economic base on reserve.
3.
Seek more funding to assist entrepreneur development.
4.
Create a plan to make more building space available to increase the economic
activity on reserve.
5.
Bring into the community more apprenticeship programs for all areas (plumbing,
welding, carpentry, etc.). Work with Nipisihkopahk Secondary School for this
program.
Working Together 81
6.
Apply for grants to upgrade equipment to maintain the number of jobs existing.
7.
Utilizing the fish bowl space (SCN Administration building) develop a gift shop that
sells SCN promotional items and acts an information kiosk for SCN.
8.
Create an employment feasibility study to determine why so many on income support
are not actively pursuing employment.
Working Together 82
CHAPTER 5
GOVERNANCE AND STRUCTURE
When you begin a great work you can’t expect to finish it all at once; therefore, do you and
your brothers press on, and let nothing discourage you til you have entirely finished what you
have begun…I will press on9.
As Samson Cree Nation grapples with how to “take back” its community by ameliorating
drug and alcohol abuse, gangs, crime, and intimidation issues, community discussions bring to
the forefront the looming collision of the “jagged worlds” of culture, traditions, and worldview
as well as sovereignty and self-determination.
Change is not an easy task. Such a goal for First Nations people is marred by the
complexities of legal jurisdictions.
The Indian Act enacted in 1876 “superimposes” on First
Nations people “legal consequences” which affect “everyday life” (Elliott, 1997, p. 9).
Imai
(1999) stated that all decisions affecting their daily life were made for First Nations people by
force of law, a process to which they have had little if any input since “the federal and provincial
governments (the Crown governments) have viewed the Constitution as providing powers to
only two levels of government” – the federal and provincial levels (p. 5).
The federal
government has the authority to make laws in relation to “Indians, and lands reserved for
Indians,” and the “provinces also have authority to impose their laws on First Nations through a
variety of mechanisms” (p.5).
Imai argued the federal and provincial governments did not
recognize that First Nations people had any independent authority to make laws or preserve their
cultures (p. 5).
The powers of the Chief and Council of a First Nation are limited at best:
Section 81 (1) of the Indian Act states the Chief and Council “may make by-laws not
inconsistent with this [Indian] Act or with any regulation made by the Governor in Council or the
9
Teedyuscung, Delaware, ca 1705-1763
82
Working Together 83
Minister” (Imai, 2004, p. 144). The limitations imposed on First Nations through the Indian Act
confines their by-law capability.
As noted by Imai Section 82 (1) requires that copies of by-
laws “shall be forwarded by mail by the Chief or member of the council of the band to the
Minister within four days after it is made” (p. 149).
The control of the Indian Act is further
demonstrated in Section 82 (2):
A by-law made under section 81 comes into force forty days after a copy thereof is
forwarded to the Minister pursuant to subsection (1), unless it is disallowed by the
Minister within that period, but the Minister may declare the by-law to be in force at any
time before the expiration of that period. (p. 149)
Thus while individual First Nations may create by-laws to address a specific community
concerns, if the by-law is not approved by the Minister, the said by-law does not come into
effect.
The Minister has the final decision of accepting or rejecting by-laws.
Many First
Nations who argue that they did not relinquish self-determination when they signed treaty with
the Crown, are stymied by the Indian Act in establishing by-laws for their own community –
they must acquiesce to the Indian Act and ensure by-laws are approved by the Minister.
While the Indian Act did not change with the repatriation of the Canadian Constitution in
1982, the new Constitution, nevertheless, fostered a significant change in principle if not in
practice towards First Nations people.
Section 35 (1) ensured “the existing Aboriginal and
treaty rights of the Aboriginal peoples of Canada is hereby recognized and affirmed,”
recognizing that First Nations people had constitutional rights. The Supreme Court of Canada
stated that
The „promise‟ of s.35…recognized not only the ancient occupation of land by Aboriginal
peoples, but their contribution to the building of Canada and the special commitments
Working Together 84
made to them by successive governments. [And] the protection of these rights…(Imai,
1999, p. 5)
First Nations have argued before the Canadian courts for recognition of rights, principles and
implementation of agreements/contracts/treaties.
They have won important principles in
Canadian courts such as but not limited to: Samson Capital Monies Transfer, Guerin v. The
Queen, 1984; Attorney-General of Quebec v. Sioui et al, 1990; R v. Sparrow, 1990; and
Delgamuukw et al. v. The Queen in the Right of British Columbia.
Using the Canadian legal
system, First Nations are re-exerting their control of and responsibility for their communities and
its resources. Federal policy and the Indian Act, however, have not changed significantly since
the enactment of the Constitution Act, 1982.
Despite the ever present restrictions and control implicit in the Indian Act, Samson Cree
Nation like other First Nations have, however, assumed program responsibility within the
complexities of “the most undefined, uncertain, and fragile rights known to our law” (Elliott,
1997, p. 20).
The legal conundrum affects all aspects of program and community initiatives:
when the province of Alberta issued Keeping Communities Safe Report and Recommendations a “province-wide strategy to tackle crime and keep our communities safe,” it noted
….services on reserves do not compare with those provided in other communities across
the province. It‟s time First Nations Bands and the federal and provincial governments
found better ways of respecting the intent of laws set decades ago – not letting those laws
stand in the way of much-needed and valuable services for First Nations people. (p. 67)
The Report noted further that “a province like Alberta, with its resources, caring attitude and
support for communities, should not and cannot turn a blind eye to the serious problems on
reserves – regardless of who is legally responsible” (p. 68). Recommendation #29 of the Report
stated that Alberta:
Working Together 85
29. Partner with Alberta‟s First Nations and the federal government to jointly develop
pilot projects designed to build safer communities, reduce crime and address the needs of
at-risk community members. (p. 68)
The Report espoused that “this work needs to be initiated from inside these [First Nations]
communities and supported by others outside the community” (p. 67) and through cooperation
between all three levels of government.
STRUCTURE
Over the past four decades, First Nations across Canada have assumed administrative
delivery for various programs which previously were administered by other levels of
government. The Samson Cree negotiated with federal departments such as Indian Affairs and
Health Canada for direct delivery by the Nation of a variety of services.
Annual funding
arrangements with particular federal departments/agencies outline the specific program to be
delivered, program criteria and funding levels.
organization to deliver the programs.
The Nation has established an administrative
Currently, a proposed organizational structure identifies
twelve departments as well as finance reporting to the Band Administrator who in turn reports to
the Chief and Council.
The organization chart reflects the individual programs that are
transferred to the Nation – each department has specific criteria within which to operate and
reports back to Chief and Council and to the respective federal department on how it has
managed the program and allocated the specific funds.
This creates program isolation (each
department deals only with its own mandate and issues) and results in a fractured system –
department personnel, for the most part, work independently rather than collectively with a focus
on the issue and/or particular clients.
Program directors meet on a monthly basis to share information regarding their programs
however, the silo effect and individual program criteria seem to prevent joint strategic planning
Working Together 86
and a holistic approach to programming.
More in-depth inter-department communication,
cooperation and joint action would be instrumental in creating common community approaches
to individual and community issues.
RECOMMENDATIONS
The Samson Cree Nation administers programs on-behalf of various levels of
government as well as programs and initiatives which they fund themselves.
To facilitate on-
going cooperation and focus of the various departments and programs the following suggestions
are offered:
ESTABLISH an intergovernmental, coordination/policy unit to
1. Coordinate and manage specifically focused meetings with representatives of
each department on a regular basis.
2. Organize information sessions with appropriate groups to ensure all available
programs and administrative options are in place to assist Samson Cree Nation
address community issues with:
i. Federal Government
ii. Provincial Government
iii. Non-government organizations
3. Seek out funding opportunities and coordinate and prepare submissions for
specific program initiatives.
4.
Collate and maintain Samson Cree Nation data.
5. Create community programs to instill pride within the community members.
Working Together 87
6. Coordinate small specific inter-department partnerships/committees in the
following suggested areas:
7. Work with the Elders to create a working definition of an Elder from a
cultural perspective.
8. Create an Elder‟s Advisory Council.
9. Work with Departments to implement the recommendations generated from
the SCN Elder‟s Symposium held April 28, 2007, see report written by
Beverly Crier.
EMPLOYMENT:
Establish a working committee consisting of:
Human Resources Department
Education
Social Assistance
Infrastructure
Maskwacis Community College
1. Review existing programs funded through (AHRDA) and opportunities to
partner with education to offer training programs, academic upgrading, and
pre-employment/apprentice training. The high school has excellent facilities
which are presently under utilized.
2. Establish comprehensive training program options for members of Samson
Cree Nation.
3. Pursue employment program funding options through provincial and federal
programs.
Working Together 88
4. Approach businesses in surrounding areas for opportunities for on-the-job
training opportunities.
5. Establish a long-term planning process for construction of homes, roads, and
utilities on the Samson Cree Nation and particularly within the Townsite.
6. Pursue drug testing for all Samson Cree Nation employees.
WELLNESS:
Establish a working committee consisting of:
Wellness
Family support
Elders
Parents Place
Education
Recreation
Maskwacis Health
1,
Review opportunities to blend programming and services.
2.
Consider submitting application to Public Health Agency of
Canada (Health Canada) for project funding related to FASD in
in order to (a) assisting frontline workers, health professional, and
educators to access quality training to assist individuals and families re:
FASD.
3.
Pursue opportunities for funding for Family Violence Prevention,
Public Health Agency of Canada, Health Canada.
4.
Review feasibility and options for funding the establishment of a
Women‟s Shelter and Youth Shelter for Samson members.
5.
Integrate programming in the school re: anger management,
Working Together 89
Addictions.
6.
Review feasibility of housing Parents‟ Place in the school.
7.
Review options for joint planning and programming between Recreation
and Education focused on students and community members.
8.
Pursue opportunities for transportation services for extra- curricular
activities.
9.
Establish a Men‟s Workshop (quarterly) focused on traditional male roles,
information sessions – teepee building, health issues, etc.
10.
Establishing a supporting parents program: child development,
understanding gangs, understanding youth, strengthening families, social
and sports activities and how to build family units.
11.
Pursue funding dollars to establish a safe house.
12.
Complete a study on the recreation facility condition and consider avenues
of renovating and updating this facility.
13.
Pursue development of a rehabilitation centre for the Maskwacis area.
14.
Establish selection criteria for those utilizing wellness services to ensure
no abuse will take place.
YOUTH RECREATION CENTRE: Establish an on-going working committee
Chief & Council
Recreation
Elders
Community members
1.
To seek out funding for the development of a multi-use youth recreation
Working Together 90
Centre.
2.
Establish recreation programs for kids of all ages to participate in
competitive, non competitive sports and recreation.
3.
Within the centre there will also be cultural/traditional room, a gathering
place for sharing Cree cultural traditions.
4.
Establish a meeting place for local programs, such as:
Boys & Girls Club
After-school Clubs
YOUTH INTERVENTION:
Establish an on-going working committee
Legal Support
Wellness
Education
RCMP
Elders
1.
To develop a gang exit strategy for implementation.
2.
Establish a counseling/support/liaison system for youth in trouble
with the law.
3.
Establish a Youth Drop-in Centre which provides counseling,
support from Elders, awareness training – drugs, alcohol, gangs.
4.
Review Youth and Restorative Justice program/projects
implemented by Federation of Saskatchewan Indian Nations (FSIN)
5.
Increase opportunities for cultural activities.
Working Together 91
ADMINISTRATION:
Samson Cree Nation Administration has diverse multi faceted responsibilities.
It
manages a variety of programs both Samson Cree Nation program/initiatives and others
on behalf of various other levels of government. Samson Cree Nation Administration
should:
1.
Review departmental administrative costs which vary
significantly from department to department
i. Are there savings in shared common services?
ii. Review options for the Band Finance organization
administering Educational finances.
2.
Ensure professional and development plan is in place for each
Employee.
3.
Bring together appropriate individuals to consider a Flexible
agreement with FNIB which would allow for priority setting and
flexibility within and between programs.
4.
Invite INAC to do present options for and benefits of selfGovernment.
5.
Consider possibility of recruiting a funding coordinator to seek out grants,
funding, and sponsorship opportunities for the various departments.
6.
LEGAL:
Work with other four nations to establish a 911 system in the community.
Establish an on-going working committee
Legal Support
Protection Services
Infrastructure
Working Together 92
Wellness
RCMP
Education
1.
In consultation with Housing, complete a review of home occupancy of
Samson owned housing.
2.
Prepare by-law governing:
a.
residency in of band members and other persons on
the Samson Cree Nation
b.
3.
trespassing on the Samson Cree Nation
Review options – for a special constables training program for members of
the Samson Cree Nation – related to security, assisting RCMP, etc.
4.
Establish a system/court liaison ensuring specific individuals are
counseled/aware of sentences/bail conditions.
5.
Work with Elders to establish traditional processes for assisting
individuals who are at risk and/or in trouble.
6.
Review opportunities and feasibility of establishing alternative sentencing
measures.
7.
Establish an appeal process for bylaws.
8.
Work with schools to create a monthly workshop for students to attend.
Working Together 93
SECURITY
1. Review existing security status, consider providing training, review of
procedures for securing buildings, schools and businesses.
2. Review positioning of security cameras within the SCN Administration and
within the Samson Mall. Feasibility study of setting up cameras within the
town site.
3. Review Curfew bylaw and address existing gaps.
4. Provide opportunity to train individuals for citizens on patrol (COPS).
5. Provide Special Constable training to support security for SCN.
Working Together 94
CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION
The errant bullet which injured two year old Asia Saddleback as she sat in her home
became, for the Samson Cree Nation, a point of „rallying together to get rid of the rising gang
presence‟ within their community.
It is a task which requires the deep reflection, action, and
sustained focus. Aboriginal gangs though recent phenomena have been a long time in the
making. Grekul, and LaBoucane-Benson (2007) argued that in many cases.
become involved with gangs because they have nothing to live for:
Aboriginal youth
“Lives disrupted by
dysfunctional families, lack of educational and work opportunities, and negative peer
associations are compounded by systemic discrimination and labeling” (p. 2).
Nation has begun the difficult journey of reclaiming their community.
Samson Cree
A multi-dimensional
approach has been initiated:
1
The Chief & Council struck a Task Force to provide the overall focus direction to
combat the recruitment and growth of gangs within their midst.
2
The community worked with the RCMP to increase police presence, establish
curfews, and implement a program to turn in unregistered guns.
3
Citizens in Action formed to re-establish Samson Cree Nation as a safe place to
live, develop, and be proud of themselves and their community.
4
The Nations administrative units initiated closer ties with each other to address
individual and community needs.
5
School children participated in educational activities such as writing essays on
keeping their community safe.
Working Together 95
Community members began talking about the issue within their community and together
implemented steps to create a safer community.
To counteract the recruitment of youth into gangs and the proliferation of gang activity
within the midst of the Samson Cree Nation community, however, requires major prolonged
investment of time and resources by community members and various levels of government.
Causal factors for gang membership are not recent events but rather long standing factors:
residential school syndrome, lack of quality and equitable educational , opportunities, limited
employment opportunities, overcrowded and poor housing facilities, significant healthy issues,
poverty, and lack of self determination in everyday decision-making. While these factors cannot
be ameliorated overnight, simultaneous action of (1) preventive programs which focus on youthat-risk and (2) intervention programming for individuals already committed to criminal/gang
lifestyle is necessitated.
The Task Force Report has embraced the holistic approach to
addressing issues through:
1. Lifelong educational programming for all community members.
2. Targeted employment training and job opportunities.
3. Community healing.
4. Parental training and support.
5. Healthy lifestyle focus.
6. Working together across Samson Cree Nation administrative units, and between all
three levels of government.
The Report is part of the continuum: future work includes detailed work plans, on-going
community dialogue and action, and long term commitment to prevention and intervention
program strategies.
True success will affect the quality of life for all Samson Cree Nation
membership, let’s work together to make this happen.
Working Together 96
REFERENCES
Aboriginal Futures. (n.d.). Alberta Aboriginal Apprenticeship Program. Retrieved July
9, 2008, from
http://www.aboriginalfutures.com/alberta.html
Aboriginal Nurses Association of Canada. Retrieved October 7, 2008, from
www.healthcanada.ca/fas
Aboriginal Youth & Family Well Being and Education Society. (n.d.). About us.
Retrieved July 19, 2008, from
http://www.aboriginalyouth.ca/AboutUs.aspx
Alberta (2004). First Nations, Metis and Inuit Education Policy Framework. The
Author.
Alberta. (2007). Keeping Communities Safe Report and Recommendations. Edmonton,
AB. The Author.
Alberta. (2008). Budget 2008 The Right Plan for Today & Tomorrow.
http://www..finance.alberta.ca/business/budget/index.html. Retrieved 9/29/2008.
Alberta Alcohol and Drug Abuse Commission. (2005). Illicit drug use in Alberta.
Edmonton, ON: Author.
Alexander, J. Barton, C., Gordon, D. Grotpeter, J., Hansson, K., Harrison, R. et al.
(1998). Functional Family Therapy: Blueprints for violence prevention, Book
Three. Boulder, CO: Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence, Institute of
Behavior Science, University of Colorado.
Assembly of First Nations. Fact Sheet. http://www.afn.ca/article.asp?id=764. Retrieved
10/26/2008.
Assembly of First Nations. (1989). Report of the national inquiry into First Nations
child care. Ottawa, ON: Author.
Assembly of First Nations. (2008). First Nations Regional Longitudinal Health Survey (RHS):
Process and Results. Ottawa, ON: Author:
Asimov, N. (2008). High school dropouts cost state billions. http://www.sfgate.com/cgibin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2008/MNQFV919C.DTL. Retrieved 10/26/2008.
Barman, J., Hebert, Y., & McCaskill, D. (Eds.). (1986). Indian Education in Canada,
Vol 1. Vancouver, BC: UBC Press.
Barton, W., Watkins, M., Jarjoura, R. (1997). Youths and communities: Toward
comprehensive strategies for youth development. Social Work, 42(5), 483-493.
Battiste, M. & Henderson, J. Y. (2000). Protecting Indigenous Knowledge and Heritage
A Global Challenge. Saskatoon, SK: Purich Publishing Ltd.
Bereska, T. M. (2008). Deviance, conformity, & social control in Canada (2nd ed.).
Toronto, ON: Prentice Hill.
Bernhardt, D. (2006). Street gangs recruit in schools, educators warmed. The
StarPhoenix, p. A3.
Bowker, L., & Klein, M. W. (1983). The etiology of female juvenile delinquency and
gang membership: A test of psychological and social structural explanations.
Adolescence, 18(6), 739-751.
Brendtro, L., Brokenleg, M., & Van Brokern, S. (1998). Reclaiming youth at risk: Our
hope for our future. Bloomington, IN: National Education Service.
Brendtro, L., & Larson, S. (2004). The resilience code: Finding greatness in youth.
Reclaiming Children and Youth, 12(4), 194-200.
Working Together 97
Cajete, G. (1994). Look to the Mountain An Ecology of Indigenous Education. Skyland,
NC: Kivaki Press.
Caledon Institute of Social Policy. (2002). Families and School Together Canada.
Retrieved July 18, 2008, from
http://www.familyservicecanada.org/_files/fast/fast_caledon_e.pdf
Camp, G. M., & Camp, C. G. (1985). Prison gangs: Their extent, nature, and impact on
prisons. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Campbell, A. (1990). Female participation in gangs. In C. R. Huff (Ed.), Gangs in
America (pp. 163-182). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Campbell, A. (1991). Girl in the gang (2nd Ed.). Cambridge, MA: Basil Blackwell.
Canadian Council on Learning. Redefining how success is measured in First Nations,
Inuit and Metis Learning.
Http://www.cclcca.ca/CCL/Reports/RedefiningSuccessin.Retrieved9/27/2008.
Cardinal, H. & Hildebrandt, W. (2000). Treaty Elders in Saskatchewan. Calgary, AB:
University of Calgary Press.
Cherry, T. (2005, March 16). FSIN says it tried to warn police about gang activity.
Leader Post, p. A1.
Chettleburgh, M. (2003). Results of the 2002 Canadian policy survey on youth gangs.
Ottawa, ON: Public Safety Canada.
Chettleburgh, M. (2007). Youth thugs: Inside the dangerous world of Canadian street
gangs. Toronto, ON: Harper Collins.
Chettleburgh, M. (2008, June 7). The gangs to fear. National Post, p. A21.
Chettleburgh, M. (2008). Hobbema Community Forum on Gangs. Unpublished
presentation.
Colours today, fad tomorrow. (2007, August 1). The Ottawa Citizen, p. C4.
Coolican, L. (2003, February 26). Jail awash in gangs, drugs, inquest told. The
StarPhoenix, p. A3.
Council of Ministers of Education. (2002). Best practices in increasing Aboriginal
postsecondary enrolment rates. Victoria, BC: Author.
Craig, W., Vitaro, F., Gagnon, C., & Tremblay, R. (2002). The road to gang
membership: Characteristics of male gang and non-gang members from ages 10 to
14. Social Development, 11(1), 53-68.
Crier, B. (2007). SCN Elders’ Symposium & Recommendations on Resolving the Gang
Issue in the Maskwacis. Unpublished document.
Criminal Intelligence Service Saskatchewan. (2005). 2005 Intelligence trends:
Aboriginal-based gangs in Saskatchewan. CISS, 1(1), 1-8.
Cuthand, D. (2008, May 2). Act together to rid community of gang menace. The
StarPhoenix, p. A11.
Decker, S., & Curry, G. (2000). Addressing key features of gang membership:
Measuring the involvement of young members. Journal of Criminal Justice, 28(6),
478-482
Delaney, T. (2006). American street gangs. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice
Hall.
Deloria, V. (1994). Forward. In G. Cajete. Look to the Mountain An Ecology of
Indigenous Education. Skyland, NC: Kivaki Press.
Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development, Basic Departmental Data1992, cited in the Final Report of the Canadian Panel on Violence Against Women,
Working Together 98
Changing the Landscape: Ending Violence Achieving Equality, Ottawa (1993), p.
149
Dobb, A. (2004). Preventing violent offending in youth. In B. Kidd & J. Phillips (Eds.),
From enforcement to prevention to civic engagement: Research on community
safety (pp. 81-93). Toronto, ON: University of Toronto, Centre of Criminology.
Dolha, L. (2003). Aboriginal gangs in Prairie Provinces in “crisis proportions.” First
Nations Drum, Fall Issue, pp. 1-3.
Donner L. (2002). Women, Income and Health in Manitoba: An Overview and Ideas for
Action. Winnipeg: Women‟s Health Clinic.
Dukes, R., Martinez, R., Stein, J. (1997). Precursors and consequences of membership in
youth gangs. Youth & Society, 29(2), 139-166.
Ellerby, L. A., & Ellerby, J. H. (1998). Understanding and evaluating the role of Elders
and traditional healing in sex offender treatment for Aboriginal offenders. Ottawa,
ON: Aboriginal Corrections Policy Unit.
Elliott, D. W. (1997). Law and Aboriginal Peoples in Canada. 3rd Edition. North York,
ON: Captus Press Inc.
Esbensen, F. (2000, September). Preventing adolescent gang involvement. Juvenile
Justice Bulletin, Washington, DC: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency
Prevention Care. Retrieved July 21, 2008, from
http://www.ncjrs.gov/html/ojjdp/2000_9_2/contents.html
Esbensen, F., Peterson, D., Freng, A., & Taylor, T. J. (2002). Initiation of drug use,
drug sales, and violent offending among a sample of gang and nongang youth. In C.
R. Huff (Ed.), Gangs in America III (pp. 37-50). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Farrington, D. P. (1989). Early predictors of adolescent aggression and adult violence.
Violence and Victims, 4(2), 79-100.
Federation of Saskatchewan Indian Nations. (2003). Alter-natives to non-violence
report: Aboriginal youth gangs exploration: A community development process.
Saskatoon, SK: Author.
First Nations Education Steering Committee. Publications.
http://www.fnesc.ca/publications/index.php. Retrieved10/14/2008.
First Nations Regional Longitudinal Health Survey. (2008). Retrieved November 4,
2008, from www.rhs-ers.ca
Frank, S. (1992) Family Violence in Aboriginal Communities: A First Nations Report
(p. 6) (Queen‟s Printer, Ministry of Women‟ Equality Taskforce on Family
Violence)
Franzese, R. J., Covey, H. C., & Menard, S. (2006). Youth gangs (3rd ed.). Springfield,
IL: Charles C. Thomas.
Fred, R. (2000). Foreword to “Resistance and Renewal.” In R. M. Mann (Ed.), Juvenile
crime and delinquency: A turn of the century reader (pp. 293-302). Toronto, ON:
Canadian Scholastic Press.
Friesen, J., & Friesen, V. L. (2005). First Nations in the twenty-first century:
Contemporary educational frontiers. Calgary, AB: Detselig Enterprises Ltd.
Friesen, J., & O‟Neill, K. (2008, May 9). Armed posses spreading violence across the
Prairie communities. The Globe and Mail, p. A16.
Gatti, U., Tremblay, R. E., Vitaro, F., & McDuff, P. (2005). Youth gangs, delinquency
and drug use: A test of the selection, facilitation, and enhancement hypotheses.
Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46(11), 1178-1190.
Working Together 99
Gordon, R. M. (1998). Street gangs and criminal business organisations: A Canadian
perspective. In K Hazlehurst & C. Hazelhurst (Eds.), Gangs and youth subcultures:
International explorations (pp. 165-187). London, UK: Transaction.
Gordon, R. M. (2001). Criminal business organizations, street gangs and „wanna-be‟
groups. In T. Fleming, P. O‟Reilly, & B. Clark (Eds.), Youth injustice: A Canadian
perspective (2nd ed., pp. 101-123). Toronto, ON: Canadian Scholar Press.
Green, K., (2005). Family Violence in Aboriginal Communities: An Aboriginal
Perspective. Retrieved October 21, 2008, from http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/ncfvcnivf/familyviolence/html/fvabor_e.html
Grekul, J., & LaBoucane-Benson, P. (2006). An investigation into the formation and
recruitment processes of Aboriginal gangs in Western Canada. Ottawa, ON: Public
Safety Canada.
Grekul, J., & LaBoucane-Benson, P. (2008). Aboriginal gangs and their (dis)placement:
Contextualizing recruitment, membership, and status. Canadian Journal of
Criminology and Criminal Justice, 50(1), 59-82.
Hawkins, J. D., Herrenkohl, T., Farrington, D. P., Brewer, D., Catalano, R. F., &
Harachi, T.W. (1998). A review of predictors of youth violence. In R. Loeber & D.
P. Farrington (Eds.), Serious and violent juvenile offenders: Risk factors and
successful intervention (pp. 106-146). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Hawthorne, H. B. (Ed.). (1967). A survey of the contemporary Indians of Canada.
Ottawa: Indian Affairs Branch.
Health Canada. (2005). First Nations, Inuit, and Aboriginal health: Alcohol, drugs &
solvent. Retrieved July 7, 2008, from:
http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fniah-spnia/substan/ads/index-eng.php
Health Canada. (2001). It Takes a Community Framework for the First Nations and Inuit
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome and Fetal Alcohol Effects Initiative. The Author.
Health Canada. (2000). A Statistical Profile on the Health of First Nations in Canada for
the Year 2000 report. Retrieved October 21, 2008 from http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fniahspnia/pubs/aborig-autoch/stats_profil-eng.php
Hill, K. G., Howell, J. C., Hawkins, D., & Battin-Pearson, C. (1999). Childhood risk
factors for adolescent gang membership: Results from the Seattle social
development project. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 36(3), 300322.
Hill, K. G., Lui, C., & Hawkins, J. D. (2001, December). Early precursors of gang
membership: A study of Seattle youth. Juvenile Justice Bulletin, U. S. Department
of Justice. Retrieved July 8, 2008, from
http://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ojjdp/190106.pdf
Hirschi, T. (1969). Causes of delinquency. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Hobbema Community Cadet Corp. (2008). Retrieved July 8, 2008, from
http://www.hobbemacadets.net/whoweare.htm
Hofferth, S. L., & Jankuniene, Z. (2001). Life after school. Educational Leadership,
58(7), 19-23.
Holmes, D. (2006). Redressing the balance: Canadian university programs in support of
Aboriginal students. Ottawa: Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada.
House of Commons Debates, 1872-1969. Ottawa: Queen‟s Printer.
Howell, J. C. (1998). Promising programs for youth gang violence prevention and
intervention. In R. Loeber & D. P. Farrington (Eds.), Serious & violent juvenile
Working Together100
offenders: Risk factors and successful interventions (pp. 284-312). Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage.
Howell, J. C. (2000). Youth gangs programs and strategies. Washington, DC: Office of
Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.
Howell, J. C. (2003). Diffusing research into practice using the comprehensive strategy
for serious, violent, and chronic juvenile offenders. Youth Violence and Juvenile
Justice, 1(3), 219-245.
Huff, C. (1998). Comparing the criminal behavior of youth gangs and at-risk youths.
Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice Research in Brief.
Hughes, L. (2007, Spring). The dance will lead. Prairies North: Saskatchewan’s
Magazine for Good Prairie Living, pp. 54-63.
The Incredible Years. (2008). About the Incredible Years Program. Retrieved July 18,
2008, from
http://www.incredibleyears.com/
Imai, S. (2004). The 2004 Annotated Indian Act and Aboriginal Constitutional
Provisions. Toronto, ON: Thomson Carswell.
Imai, S. (1999). Aboriginal Law Handbook. Toronto, ON: Carswell
Johal, A. (2007, December 13). Health: Native youth suicides in Canada reach crisis
rates. Resource Center for the Rights of Indigenous People. Retrieved July 5,
2008, from
http://www.galdu.org/web/index.php?odas=2430&giella1=eng
Joint Committee of the Senate and House of Commons on Indian Affairs. (1960).
Minutes ofProceedings and Evidence. Vol 1, No. 1-14. Ottawa: Queen‟s Printer.
Junior Achievement. (2008). Retrieved July 19, 2008, from
http://www.jacan.org/
Kontos, L., & Brotheron, D. C. (Eds.). (2008). Encyclopedia of gangs. Westpoint, CT:
Greenwood Press.
Lahey, B., Gordon, R., Loeber, R., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., & Farrington, D. (1999).
Boys who join gangs: A prospective study of predictors of first gang entry. Journal
of Abnormal Child Psychology, 27(4), 261-376.
Le Blanc, M., & Kaspy, N. (1998). Trajectories of delinquency and problem behavior:
Comparison of synchronous and nonsynchronous paths on social and personal
control characteristics of adolescents. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 14(2),
181-214.
Lee, S. (2001). Academic effects of after-school programs. Champaign, IL: ERIC
Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Childhood Education. (ERIC Document
Reproduction Service No. ED458010)
Libin, K. (2008, January 19). Real warriors hold a job. National Post, p. A1.
Little Bear, L. (2000). Jagged Worldviews Colliding. In M. Battiste. (Ed.) Reclaiming
Indigenous Voice and Vision pp. 77-85. Vancouver, BC: UBC Press.
Loleit, S. (2007, February 27). AYEP links Aboriginal students to business community.
The StarPhoenix, p. B4.
Louis, B.B. (2008). Report Emerging from the KCWS Staff & Board Workshop on
Impacts of Gang Violence on the Safety of Children in Care. Unpublished
document.
Maracle, S & Craig, B. (1993) For Generations To Come: The Time is Now: A Strategy
for Aboriginal Family Healing (p. 10), Ontario: The Aboriginal Family Healing
Working Together101
Joint Steering Committee
Maxson, C., Whitlock, M., & Klein, M. (1998). Vulnerability to street gang
membership: Implications for practice. Social Justice Review, 72(1), 70-79.
Mellor, B.A.H., MacRae, L., Pauls, M. & Hornick, J.P. (2005). Youth Gangs in Canada:
A Preliminary Review of Programs and Services. Calgary, AB: Canadian Research
Institutefor Law and the Family.
McShane, M. D., & Williams, F. P. III. (2007). Myths and realities: How and what the
public knows about crime and delinquency. In M. D. McShane & F. P. Williams,
III (Eds.), Youth violence and delinquency: Monsters and myths (pp. 1-10). Westport, CT:
Preager. Mercredi, O. W. (2000). Aboriginal gangs: A report to the
Correctional Service of Canada on Aboriginal youth gang members in federal
corrections system. Ottawa, ON: Correctional Service Canada.
Miller, W. B. (1982). Crime by youth gangs and groups in the United States.
Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and
Delinquency Prevention.
Morris, A. (1880/1991). The Treaties of Canada and the Indians of Manitoba and the
North-West Territories. Calgary, AB: Fifth House Ltd.
NCPC. (2007). Youth Gangs in Canada: What Do We Know. 2007-YG-1. Ottawa, ON:
Public \Safety Canada.
National Indian Brotherhood. (1972). Indian Control of Indian Education. Author.
Native Council of Canada. (1990). Native child care: The circle of care. Ottawa: ON:
Author. Native Counselling of Services of Alberta. Programs.
Http://www.ncsa.ca/Retrieved9/22/2008.
Native Counselling Services of Alberta. (2007). An Investigation into the Formation and
Recruitment Processes of Aboriginal Gangs.
www.ps-sp.gc.ca
Norris, M.J. (1998). Canada‟s Aboriginal Languages. Canadian Social Trends,
O‟Reilly, P, & Fleming, T. (2001). The state versus squeegee kids. In T. Fleming, P. O‟Reilly, &
B. Clark (Eds.), Youth injustice: A Canadian perspective (2nd ed., pp. 183201). Toronto, ON: Canadian Scholar Press.
The Ottawa Citizen. (2007, August 1). Colours today, fad tomorrow. p. C4.
Pallito, M. E. (1998). Sweet mothers and gang bangers: Managing crime in a Black
middle-class neighborhood. Social Forces, 76(3), 747-774.
Papachristos, A. V. (2005). Gang world. Foreign Policy, March/April(147), 48-55.
Pearson, G. (1983). Hooligan: A history of respectable fears. London, UK: Macmillan.
Posner, J. K., & Vandell, D. L. (1999). After-school activities and the development of
low-income urban children: A longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology,
35(3), 868-879.
Power, E. (2005). Individual and Household Food Insecurity in Canada: Position of
Dietitians of Canada. From Dietitians of Canada website:
http://www.dietitians.ca/news/highlights_positions.asp.
Preston, J. P. (2008). Enhancing Aboriginal child wellness: The potential of early
learning programs. First Nations Perspectives: The Journal of Manitoba First
Nations, 1(1), 98-120.
Preston, J. P. (in press). The urgency of postsecondary education for Aboriginal peoples.
Manuscript submitted for publication.
Public Safety Canada. (2007a). Youth gang in Canada: What do we know? Ottawa, ON:
Working Together102
Author.
Public Safety Canada. (2007b). Youth gang involvement: What are the risk factors?
Ottawa, ON: Author.
Ray, J. R. (1998). Indians in the Fur Trade. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press.
Reid, C. & Tom, A. (2006). Poor Women‟s discourses of legitimacy, poverty, and
health. Gender & Society, 20, 402-421.
Royal Canadian Mounted Police. (2006). 2006 Canada/US Organized Crime
Assessment. Retrieved July 11, 2008, from
http://www.rcmp-grc.gc.ca/organizedcrime/octa_e.htm
Royal Commission on Aboriginal People. (1996). Report of the Royal Commission on
Aboriginal Peoples, Volume 3: Gathering strength. Ottawa, ON: Minister of
Supply and Services Canada.
Royal Commission on Aboriginal People. (1996). Report of the Royal Commission on
Aboriginal Peoples, Volume 5 (p. 163). Ottawa, ON: Government of Canaada
Saccone, J. (2005, April 23). Graffiti mars city neighbourhood. The StarPhoenix, p.
A12.
Samson Cree Nation. (2008). Samson Cree Nation News. Vol 1 (10). Hobbema, AB:
Samson Cree Nation.
Samson Cree Nation. (2005). Samson Capital Trust Moneys Transfer Newsletter.
Hobbema, AB: Samson Cree Nation.
Schneider, S. (2007). More support for PALS Program at Saint Mary‟s. Saint Mary’s
Times, 37(1), 1-2.
Sexton, T., & Alexander, J. (2000, December). Functional Family Therapy. Juvenile
Justice Bulletin, Washington, DC: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency
Prevention Care. Retrieved July 18, 2008, from
http://www.ncjrs.gov/html/ojjdp/jjbul2000_12_4/contents.html
Shelden, R., Tracy, S., & Brown, W. (2001). Youth gangs in American society. Belmont,
CA: Wadsworth Press.
Short, J. F., Jr., & Hughes, L. A. (Eds.). (2006). Studying youth gangs. Lanham, MD:
Altamira Press.
Spergel, I. A. (1995). The youth gang problem: A community approach. New York:
Oxford University Press.
Spergel, I. A., Curry, D. Chance, R., Kane, C., Ross, R., Alexander, A. et al. (1994).
Gang suppression and intervention: Problem and response. Washington, DC:
Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.
Starbuck, D., Howell, J. C., & Lindquist, D. J. (2001, December). Hybrid and other
modern gangs. Juvenile Justice Bulletin. Retrieved July 15, 2008, from
http://www.ncjrs.gov/html/ojjdp/jjbul2001_12_1/contents.html
Statistics Canada. (2008a, January 15). Aboriginal peoples in Canada in 2006: Inuit,
Métis, and First Nations, 2006 Census. The Daily. Retrieved July 7, 2008, from
http://www.statcan.ca/Daily/English/080115/d080115a.htm
Statistics Canada. (2008b). Canada's changing labour force, 2006 census: The provinces
and territories; Aboriginal peoples in the workforce. Government of Canada.
Retrieved July 2, 2008, from
http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/analysis/labour/ov-cclf-26.cfm
Statistics Canada. (2008c). Labour force characteristics, seasonally adjusted by
province (monthly). Retrieved July 2, 2008, from
Working Together103
http://www40.statcan.ca/l01/cst01/lfss01a.htm
Statistics Canada (2008). Obesity and the eating habits of the Aboriginal population.
Retrieved October 30, 2008, from http://
Stolte, E. (2008, March 25). Boom fuelling gang growth: Report; drug dealers heading
west to cash in on economy. Edmonton Journal, p. B3.
TASC (2008). Aboriginal Peoples and the Workforce. www.councils.org
Thomas, C. R., Holzer, C. E., III, & Wall, J. A. (2003). Serious delinquency and gang
membership. Adolescent Psychiatry, 27(1), 29-58.
Thornberry, T. P. (1998). Membership in youth gangs and involvement in serious
violent offending. In R. Loeber & D. P. Farrington (Eds.), Serious and violent
juvenile offenders: Risk factors and successful intervention (pp. 147-166),
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Thornberry, T., Huizinga, D., & Loeber, R. (2004). The causes and correlates studies:
Findings and implications. The Journal of the Office of Juvenile Justice and
Delinquency Prevention, 9(1), 3-19.
U.S. Department of Justice. (2007). Homicide trends in the U.S. Bureau of Justice
Statistics. Retrieved July 4, 2008, from
http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/homicide/city.htm
Warick, J. (2003, August 22). Aboriginal gangs an “epidemic.” The StarPhoenix, p. A1.
Washington State Institute for Public Policy. (1998). Watching the bottom line: Costeffective interventions for reducing crime in Washington. Washington, DC:
Author.
Washington State Institute for Public Policy. (2004). Benefits and cost prevention of
early intervention programs for youth. Olympia, WA: Author. Retrieved July 21,
2008, from
http://www.wsipp.wa.gov/rptfiles/04-07-3901.pdf
Watt, J. (2003). Adequate and affordable housing: A child health issue. From
http://www.child-youth-health.net.
Webster-Stratton, C. (2000, June). The Incredible Years training series. Juvenile Justice
Bulletin, Washington, DC: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention
Care. Retrieved July 18, 2008, from
http://www.ncjrs.gov/html/ojjdp/2000_6_3/contents.html
Winfree, L. T., Backstrom, T., & Mays, G. L. (1994). Social learning theory, selfreported delinquency, and youth gangs: A new twist on a general theory of crime
and delinquency. Youth and Society, 26(2), 147-177.
Winnipeg Free Press. (2007, October 21). Girls and gangs. p. A1.
Wisconsin Center of Education Research. (2007). Families And Schools Together
Project (FAST): Building relationships. Retrieved July 18, 2008, from
http://www.wcer.wisc.edu/projects/projects.php?project_num=64
Wyrick, P. A., & Howell, J. C. (2004). Strategic risk-based response to youth gangs.
Juvenile Justice Journal , 9(1), 20-29.
Young, M. (1993). The history of Vancouver youth gangs: 1900-1985. Unpublished
master‟s thesis, Simon Fraser University, Vancouver, BC.
Working Together104
APPENDIX A
Samson Cree Nation - Community Meeting for Gang Prevention - Strategies/Suggestions
Suggestion
Issue
Justice Initiatives
Possible Program/Department
Involvement
1
Create Curfew
Legal Support
2
Radio Programming - Only play
clean music
Administrative
Hawk Radio
3
Involve Elders in all Samson Cree
Nation Programs
Administrative
Administration
4
Unite all 4-nations on Anti-Gang
Strategy
Administrative
Task Force, Chief and Council,
Legal Support
5
Redesign the skate park to be safer
Administrative
Youth and Sports Development
6
Have Random Drug Testing put
into Employment Policy
Administrative
Administration, Personnel
7
Get more street lights by obtaining
corporate sponsors
Administrative
Administration, Public Works
8
More funding towards recreation
programs, youth, playground,
security
Administrative
Administration
9
Utilize our facilities to their fullest
potential
Administrative
Administration
10
Have people pay for their own utility
bills.
Administrative
Administration, Chief and Council
11
Have Metal Detectors in Schools
and other facilities
Administrative
Administration and Nipisihkopahk
Education Authority
12
Create Safeguards for the daycare
Administrative
Administration, Personnel, Daycare
Working Together105
13
Enact Tribal Law Meeting Minutes
from 2007 - parent patrols
Administrative
Legal Support, Chief and Council
14
Evict people from houses that are
known for Drug Activity
Authority over
Housing
Legal Support, Bylaw
15
Create Bylaws for Housing,
Evictions and Waiting Lists
Authority over
Housing
Housing, Legal Support
16
Cut off the Power on Drug Houses
Authority over
Housing
Housing
17
Community Clean Up
Community Pride
Maintenance, Youth and Sports
Development, Public Works
18
Enhance Community Involvement
Community Pride
Youth and Sports Development
19
Create Paint Teams to battle graffiti
Community Pride
Maintenance, Public Works
20
Create a fencing program
Community Pride
Public Works
21
Create Parents Group for Daycare
and Schools
Community Pride
Daycare, Nipisihkopahk Education
Authority
22
Crime Stoppers Program
Crime Prevention
RCMP, Legal Support
23
Create Programs to foster/enhance
Cree Culture
Culture
Archives, Wellness, Youth and
Sports Development
24
Have Cree Language Classes
Culture
Archives, Recreation
25
Teach Traditional Use of Guns
Culture
HBMC, Elders Program
26
Youth Camps
27
Develop a Dropout Prevention
Program
Education
Nipisihkopahk Education Authority
28
Create safer Bussing for children
Education
Nipisihkopahk Education Authority
Culture/Recreation
Youth and Sports Development,
Legal Support, Elders Program
Working Together106
29
Create an Adult Education Center
Education
Nipisihkopahk Education Authority,
Income Support
30
Implement History into our
education programs
Education
Nipisihkopahk Education Authority
31
Work on Tuition Agreements with
INAC to get more funding
Education
Nipisihkopahk Education Authority
32
Create more employment
33
Do not expand the townsite
Housing
Housing
34
Have homeowners pay for their
own repairs
Housing
Public Works, Housing
35
Create Safe Playgrounds in
Townsite
36
Seized Drug Money should be
deposited into youth programs
Justice Initiatives
Legal Support
37
Turn Pesakastew into a healing
Centre for Community
Justice Initiatives
Legal Support
38
Legal Alternatives with justice
system
Justice Initiatives
Legal Support
39
Have our own Tribal Police/Security
with ppl who know the community
Justice Initiatives
Legal Support, Security
40
Create a Safe House in the
townsite and have an emergency
contact number
Justice Initiatives
Legal Support, Security
41
Have a safe place where people
can turn in their weapons
Justice Initiatives
Legal Support, RCMP
42
Mandatory Program for Gang
Members
Justice Initiatives
Legal Support, RCMP
43
Hold Parents accountable for
children's actions
Justice Initiatives
Legal Support, Hobbema Parents
Place, RCMP
44
Work with CNR to get ride of train
whistle blasts
Justice Initiatives/
Administrative
Legal Support, Chief and Council
Employment
Infrastructure
Personnel, Human Resources
Youth and Sports Development and
Public Works
Working Together107
45
Stop Drug Dealers at 4 Nations
Borders and conduct Road Blocks
Justice Initiatives/
Security
Legal Support, Security, RCMP
46
Revive Cree TV
Media
47
Create an info channel on TV
Media
48
Parent Role Model Program
Mentoring
Every Dept.
49
Tough Love Program
Parenting
Healthy Families, Hobbema Parents
Place, Kasohkowew
50
Save a Child - Save a Teen
Program
Parenting
Nipisihkopahk Education Authority
and Youth and Sports Development
51
Boot Camp Program
Parenting
Youth and Sports Development,
Legal Support
52
Parenting Programs for Young
Parents
Parenting
Healthy Families, Hobbema Parents
Place, Kasohkowew
53
"Nipisihkopahk" Approach to Child
Discipline/Rearing
54
Have a Soup Kitchen for Kids
55
Build Positive
Media/stories/relations
56
Create more programs for the Arts
Recreation
Nipisihkopahk Education Authority
and Youth and Sports Development
57
Reduce HBMC membership fee
Recreation
Youth and sports Development
58
Utilize the Jonas Applegarth
Theatre and have Movie Nights
Recreation/
Education
Nipisihkopahk Education Authority
59
Banish Drug Dealers
Sovereignty
Administration, Legal Support
60
Create a Dry Reserve
Sovereignty
Legal Support, Chief and Council
Parenting/ Culture
Poverty
Public Relations
Hobbema Parents Place
Income Support, Food Bank
Administration
Working Together108
61
Create Programs to Deal with
Addictions
Wellness
Wellness
Nipisihkopahk Education Authority
and Youth and Sports Development
and Legal Support
62
Create Programs to foster/enhance
youth identity
Youth
63
Allow youth to speak to leadership
in an open forum
Youth
64
After school programs
Youth
Nipisihkopahk Education Authority
and Youth and Sports Development
65
Create Programs so drug dealers
don't use young kids as runners
Youth
Nipisihkopahk Education Authority
and Youth and Sports Development
66
Create Suicide Prevention
Programs
Youth
Wellness
67
Create More Recreation Programs
Youth
Youth and Sports Development
68
Create Transportation for Youth to
Town so they can work in town
Youth
Transportation
69
Create more prevention and
intervention programs
All departments
Working Together109
APPENDIX B
SAMSON SAFE COMMUNITY TASK FORCE
TERMS OF REFERENCE
WHEREAS the Samson Chief and Council has expressed its deep concern about an increase in violence
in the Maskwachees Community and is committed to take immediate and meaningful action to reduce
violence on the Samson Reserve and to make the Samson Cree Nation a safe place for all;
WHEREAS the Samson Chief and Council has called upon all Samson members to come together for a
common purpose, to pinpoint issues of concern, to identify resources and to continue to work together to
make the Samson Community a safe and healthy environment for Samson children to grow up in and be
proud of;
WHEREAS on April 16, 2008 the Samson Chief and Council resolved that it was in the best interests of
the Samson Cree Nation to create a Samson Safe Community Task Force to review various issues relating
to violence within the Samson and Maskwachees Communities including gangs and gang activity with
the intent of making recommendations and finding resolutions for reducing violence in general and gang
activity specifically;
THEREFORE the Samson Safe Community Task Force is hereby charged to perform its duties and
functions in accordance with the following Terms of Reference:
1. The Samson Safe Community Task Force is hereby charged to perform regarding
identification and analysis of the occurrence of violence in the Samson and Maskwachees
Community including:
a) identification of the factors and underlying reasons for high rates of community
violence, gangs and gang activity;
b) inventory of current programs and services that address violence in community and
any deficiencies and inefficiencies of such programs and services;
c) recommendations to foster cooperation between Maskwachees Cree, various on
reserve programs and services, law enforcement and other outside agencies;
d) recommendations with procedures and priorities for implementing strategies to
achieve a significant reduction in acts of violence within the Samson community;
e) inform and engage Samson membership in all aspects of review.
2. In the exercise of its mandate, the Samson Safe Community Task Force shall:
a) communicate with and take information from Samson and Maskwachees community
members, Samson personnel, departments and community organizations for the
purpose of generating recommendations, reform proposals and setting priorities for
action;
Working Together110
b) communicate with and take information from federal and provincial government
departments and officials including law enforcement for the purpose of obtaining
facts and statistics identification of financial and human resources, generating
recommendations and reform proposals;
c) to view Samson Cree Nation as an integral part of the Maskwachees Cree
Community and to seek the input, information and recommendation of the
Ermineskin, Louis Bull and Montanan Nations to the best extend possible;
d) hold meetings at times and places that it considers desirable and necessary within
budget constraints;
e) analyze previous and existing initiatives, programs and services in relation to youth,
gang suppression and prevention and community violence prevention and reduction;
f) examine generally, gang history and prevalence in Maskwachees Community and
underlying reasons for gang activity within the Samson Cree Nation;
g) identify efficient, effective and financially responsible recommendations and reforms
which would improve safety of Samson and Maskwachees community members,
reduce violence and gang activity, better reflect the values and inherent strength of
the Maskwachees Cree and promote positive inter-community and inter-disciplinary
cooperation, leading to reduced violence, reduced offending, reduced victimization
and Safe Samson and Maskwachees Communities;
h) determine and provide solutions and recommendations for Samson Townsite through
consultation with members residing in or near Townsite;
i)
examine Cree cultural issues including the accommodation of Cree language,
spirituality, family values, ceremonies and their role within reforms and
recommendations.
3. The Samson Safe Community Task Force shall provide their final report to Samson Chief and
Council no later than September 1, 2008.
4. The Samson Safe Community Task Force will recommend short and long-term prioritized
recommendations and strategies and identify ways to oversee the implementation of these
recommendations.