SAD Kinases Sculpt Axonal Arbors of Sensory Neurons through

Transcription

Please cite this article in press as: Lilley et al., SAD Kinases Sculpt Axonal Arbors of Sensory Neurons through Long- and Short-Term Responses to
Neurotrophin Signals, Neuron (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2013.05.017
Neuron
Article
SAD Kinases Sculpt Axonal Arbors of Sensory
Neurons through Long- and Short-Term
Responses to Neurotrophin Signals
Brendan N. Lilley,1 Y. Albert Pan,1 and Joshua R. Sanes1,*
1Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology and Center for Brain Science, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
*Correspondence: [email protected]
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2013.05.017
SUMMARY
Extrinsic cues activate intrinsic signaling mechanisms to pattern neuronal shape and connectivity.
We showed previously that three cytoplasmic Ser/
Thr kinases, LKB1, SAD-A, and SAD-B, control early
axon-dendrite polarization in forebrain neurons.
Here, we assess their role in other neuronal types.
We found that all three kinases are dispensable for
axon formation outside of the cortex but that SAD
kinases are required for formation of central axonal
arbors by subsets of sensory neurons. The requirement for SAD kinases is most prominent in NT-3
dependent neurons. SAD kinases transduce NT-3
signals in two ways through distinct pathways. First,
sustained NT-3/TrkC signaling increases SAD
protein levels. Second, short-duration NT-3/TrkC
signals transiently activate SADs by inducing
dephosphorylation of C-terminal domains, thereby
allowing activating phosphorylation of the kinase
domain. We propose that SAD kinases integrate
long- and short-duration signals from extrinsic cues
to sculpt axon arbors within the CNS.
INTRODUCTION
One prominent aspect of neuronal morphogenesis is the series
of steps by which axons become progressively more specialized. Initially, one of several short neurites becomes an axon;
the others become dendrites (Barnes and Polleux, 2009). Next,
the axon elongates, often over long distances (O’Donnell et al.,
2009). Once in the target region, the axon branches to form
arbors that allow it to synapse onto numerous postsynaptic
cells (Schmidt and Rathjen, 2010; Gibson and Ma, 2011). The
branches then selectively synapse on appropriate synaptic partners, and form nerve terminals specialized for neurotransmitter
release (Jin and Garner, 2008). Later still, terminal arbors are
sculpted or rearranged leading to the definitive pattern of connectivity (Luo and O’Leary, 2005). Extrinsic factors in the environment through which the axon grows regulate each of these
steps. For many of the steps, guidance and patterning molecules
have been identified (Kolodkin and Tessier-Lavigne, 2011), but
less is known about the intracellular pathways that respond to
and integrate these cues.
We, and others, previously showed that a set of three Ser/Thr
kinases, LKB1, SAD-A, and SAD-B, control polarization and
axon specification in forebrain neurons (Kishi et al., 2005; Barnes
et al., 2007; Shelly et al., 2007). LKB1 is a multifunctional kinase
that regulates cellular energy homeostasis, polarity and cell
proliferation by phosphorylating and activating kinases of the
AMPK subfamily, of which SAD-A and SAD-B (also known
as Brsk2 and Brsk1, respectively) are members (Alessi et al.,
2006). SAD kinases are selectively expressed in the mammalian
nervous system and are orthologs of C. elegans Sad-1, a regulator of vesicle clustering at active zones (Kishi et al., 2005; Inoue
et al., 2006; Crump et al., 2001). Deletion of LKB1 or both SAD-A
and SAD-B causes a loss of polarity in cortical and hippocampal
neurons (Kishi et al., 2005; Barnes et al., 2007; Shelly et al.,
2007).
Here, we asked whether LKB1 and SAD kinases regulate
axonal development in other neurons. Surprisingly, LKB1 and
SAD kinases are not required for early stages of axon formation
in the spinal cord or brainstem. However, SADs but not LKB1 are
required in several types of sensory neurons for a late phase of
central axon specialization: the branching of axons in their terminal fields. The requirement for SAD kinases is dramatic in subtypes such as type Ia proprioceptive sensory neurons (IaPSNs)
that require peripheral signaling from the neurotrophic factor
NT-3, itself known to induce central axon growth (Oakley et al.,
1997; Wright et al., 1997; Patel et al., 2003). In fact, NT-3 and
its receptor TrkC act in part through SADs and control SAD
activity in two distinct ways—they regulate protein levels in
response to sustained NT3 signaling, and they regulate kinase
activation in response to short term fluctuations. Thus, SAD
kinases integrate long- and short-duration signals to sculpt the
terminal arbors of sensory neurons.
RESULTS
LKB1 and SAD Kinases Are Dispensable for Axon
Formation by Many Types of Neurons
LKB1, SAD-A, and SAD-B are required for neuronal polarization
and axon specification in the forebrain (Kishi et al., 2005; Barnes
et al., 2007; Shelly et al., 2007). To begin this study, we asked
whether these kinases play similar roles in subtelencephalic neurons. For analysis of SAD kinases, we used null SAD-A; SAD-B
double mutants, denoted SAD-A/B/, which die shortly after
Neuron 79, 1–15, July 10, 2013 ª2013 Elsevier Inc. 1
Neuron
SAD Kinases Mediate NT-3-Dependent Axon Branching
Figure 1. LKB1 and SAD Kinases Are
Dispensable for Axon Formation by Subcortical Neurons
(A–F) Neurofilament immunohistochemistry of
hindbrain (A and B), spinal cord (C and D),
and retina (E and F) from E18.5 control and
LKB1Nestin-cre animals reveals that LKB1 deletion in
neural progenitors does not affect axon formation
throughout the neuraxis.
(G–L) Immunohistochemistry for NF-H and Isl1/2
in E13.5 control (G, I, and K) or SAD-A/B/ (H, J,
and L) hindbrain (G and H), spinal cord (I and J),
and retina (K and L) shows that SADs are also
dispensable for axon formation in these regions.
Scale bars, 100 mm. See also Figure S1.
birth due to respiratory insufficiency (Kishi et al., 2005). In
contrast, LKB1 null mutants fail to develop past E9.5, before
most neurons form (Jishage et al., 2002); we therefore used a
conditional LKB1 mutant in combination with a Nestin-cre
line that acts in all neural progenitors (Tronche et al., 1999;
LKB1fl/fl; Nestin-cre, denoted LKB1Nestin-cre). LKB1Nestin-cre
mice survived to birth and exhibited cortical defects similar to
those demonstrated previously when LKB1 was deleted selectively from cortical progenitors (Barnes et al., 2007): the cortical
wall was thinned, apoptosis was prevalent in the cortical plate,
segregation of the axonal marker Tau-1 to axons was defective,
and axon tracts in the cortical intermediate zone were markedly
reduced (see Figure S1 available online).
In contrast to cortex, axonal tracts in all other parts of the nervous system examined were present and apparently normal in
neonatal SAD-A/B/ and LKB1Nestin-cre mice. They included
the spinal trigeminal tract, axon bundles within the brainstem
trigeminal complex (BSTC), ascending tracts in the spinal
cord (spinocerebellar, spinothalamic, and dorsal funiculus), the
optic nerve, and motor and sensory nerves in the periphery (Figure 1 and data not shown). Motor axons in SAD-A/B/ and
LKB1Nestin-cre mice formed neuromuscular junctions on muscle
fibers (data not shown), and sensory axons formed specialized
endings on peripheral targets (see below). In addition, we
deleted SAD-A/B and LKB1 from retinal progenitors using
retina-specific cre lines and found that photoreceptors, retinal
bipolar cells and retinal ganglion cells all polarize normally in their
absence (M. Samuel, P.E. Voinescu, B.N.L. and J.R.S. unpublished data). Thus, many types of neurons can form axons in
the absence of LKB1 and SAD-A/B kinases.
Proprioceptive Sensory Neurons Require SAD Kinases
but Not LKB1 to Form Terminal Arbors
Immunohistochemical analysis using an antibody that recognizes both SAD-A and SAD-B proteins showed high levels of
immunoreactivity in axon tracts of the spinal cord and in peripheral nerves at E13.5–E15.5 (Figures 2A–2E). In the peripheral nervous system, SADs were localized in intramuscular axons as well
as in sensory axons innervating the mystacial pad. Suitable anti2 Neuron 79, 1–15, July 10, 2013 ª2013 Elsevier Inc.
bodies for LKB1 localization are not
available, but in situ hybridization has
shown this kinase to be broadly expressed in the developing nervous system (Barnes et al.,
2007). Thus, LKB1 and SADs are expressed in postmitotic neurons throughout the peripheral and central nervous system after
neuronal polarization and axon outgrowth have occurred.
These patterns of expression raise the possibility that LKB1
and SAD kinases regulate later developmental steps in neurons
that do not use them for polarization and axon specification. To
test this idea, we deleted LKB1 and SAD-A/B kinases from specific neuronal types postmitotically, bypassing early effects of
these genes and the perinatal lethality associated with their panneuronal deletion. To manipulate SADs, we constructed a conditional allele of SAD-A that, when crossed to Cre recombinase
expressing lines, results in a protein null (Figures S2A and
S2B). The conditional SAD-A line was crossed with the SAD-B
null allele to create double mutants. We manipulated SAD and
LKB1 function in sensory and motor neurons using the Isl1-cre
line (Srinivas et al., 2001), which is expressed in DRG and trigeminal sensory neurons, dI3 spinal interneurons and most motor
neurons (Figures S2C–S2E) and effectively deletes SAD and
LKB1 kinases from sensory neurons (Figures 2A, 2B, and S2F).
SADIsl1-cre mutants were born at Mendelian ratios, but few
animals survived longer than 24 hr after birth. Mutants were
hypokinetic and typically had little milk in their stomachs when
control littermates had large milk spots (Figures S2F and S2G).
SAD-A/, SAD-B/, SAD-Afl/fl; SAD-B/ and SAD-Afl/+;
SAD-B/; Isl1Cre/+ animals were all viable and fertile, and
exhibited no obvious defects. We first examined the role of
SADs in the development of axonal projections into the spinal
cord by labeling with the tracer DiI. Labeled sensory axons in
mutants and controls entered the cord normally at the dorsal
root entry zone, bifurcated, and ran many segments rostrally
and caudally (data not shown). However, the projections of
Type Ia proprioceptive sensory neurons (IaPSNs) into the ventral
horn were dramatically disrupted in SADIsl1-cre mice. At E15.5,
when this population of axons reaches the ventral spinal cord,
SAD mutant axons had arrested their growth in the medial
spinal cord adjacent to the central canal (Figures 2F and 2H).
Labeling with antibodies to parvalbumin, a marker of IaPSN
axons in spinal cord, confirmed the failure of these axons to
Neuron
Figure 2. Ia Proprioceptive Sensory Neurons Require SADs, but Not LKB1, for
Central Axon Projections
(A–E) Immunohistochemistry reveals SAD-A/B in
DRG at P0 (A), absent in SADIsl1-cre mutants (B); in
spinal cord at E13.5 (C); in intramuscular axons
(D; colabeled with antibodies to neurofilaments
and SytII, D0 ) and in whisker pad at E15.5 (E;
colabeled with TUJ1, E0 ).
(F–I) E15.5 transverse spinal cord sections from
animals labeled with DiI (F and H) or antiParvalbumin (G and I) show loss of ventral horn
projections in SADIsl1-cre mutants compared to
controls.
(J–P) Ventral horn projections remain truncated
in SADIsl1-cre mutants at E18.5 (J and K) and P8
(M and N), whereas deletion of LKB1 has no effect
(L,O, and P).
sensory axons in the spinal cord, but are
required for IaPSNs to form terminal
arbors.
In contrast, deletion of LKB1 using Isl1cre or Nestin-cre had no effect on the
IaPSN projections to the ventral horn (Figures 2J, 2L, 2O, and 2P). LKB1Isl1-cre
mutants survived postnatally and had no
apparent sensory or motor deficit, but
had to be euthanized at 4-6 weeks of
age due to massive gastrointestinal
tumors resulting from LKB1 deletion in
stomach and duodenum (Bardeesy
et al., 2002; B.N.L., unpublished data).
Thus, in contrast to their dependence
on LKB1 for activation in cortex, SAD
kinases do not require LKB1 to promote
axonal arborization in the spinal cord.
reach the ventral horn (Figures 2G and 2I). The defect was a
failure rather than a delay of extension because it persisted
through fetal development (Figures 2J and 2K) and even until
P8 in the small number of SADIsl1-cre mice that survived postnatally (Figures 2M and 2N). A similar phenotype was observed
along the entire rostral-caudal extent of the spinal cord (Figures
S2H–S2M). Thus, SAD kinases are not required for growth of
SAD Kinases Are Required for
Central Projections of NT-3Dependent Sensory Neurons
We next asked whether defects in
SADIsl1-cre spinal cord were confined to
IaPSNs. Close examination of DiI-labeled
spinal cords revealed defects in a
second population of sensory neurons.
In thoracic segments, a set of axons projects across the midline at the lamina III/IV
level. These are central processes of
DRG neurons that innervate Merkel cells
in mechanoreceptors at the dorsal and ventral midline of the
trunk; they terminate in the medial and lateral dorsal horn,
respectively (Smith, 1986). Unilateral labeling of the T12 DRG
in control animals at P0 labeled the two populations, but few
axons crossed the midline in SADIsl1-cre mutants and in only
rare instances did axons reach their proper contralateral target
(Figures 3A and 3B).
Neuron
Figure 3. SAD Kinases Regulate Central,
but Not Peripheral Axon Differentiation in
NT-3-Dependent Sensory Neurons
(A and B) Unilateral labeling of T12 DRG shows
loss of midline crossing projections both medially
and laterally in the dorsal horn of SADIsl1-cre
mutants. Arrows indicates midline.
(C–F) Immunohistochemistry of dorsal horn from
lumbar spinal cord of P0 (C and E) or P8 (D and F)
animals. Loss of SAD kinases in sensory neurons
does not effect central projection of axons labeled
with TrkA (C and E), CGRP (D and F, red) or
VGLUT1 (D and F, green).
(G–H0 0 ) Immunohistochemistry using antibodies
to PV and NF-H (G0 and H0 ) shows that SAD-deficient axons are prominent in the cuneate fascicle
(CF) but fail to grow into the cuneate nucleus
(outlined, CN).
(I and J) Transganglionic DiI labeling of the B2
whisker follicle shows defects in central axon
projections of whisker afferents. DiI labeled axons
on the left are in the spinal trigeminal tract adjacent
to the SpVc, collaterals branch off and grow into
the SpVc and form dense arbors. SADIsl1-cre
mutant axons fail to elaborate axon arbors that
enter into the correct target (outlined); growth
cones tip many of the labeled axons (arrows).
(K–R) Parvalbumin immunohistochemistry of
E17.5 triceps muscle showing that annulospiral
endings of IaPSNs (K and M) and flame-shaped
Golgi tendon organs of IbPSNs (L and N) differentiate normally in SADIsl1-cre animals. (O and Q)
Immunohistochemistry for TUJ1 (axons) and
TROMA-I (Merkel cells) of P0 skin at the dorsal
midline shows normal formation of Merkel cellneurite complexes in SADIsl1-cre mutants. (P and R)
TUJ1 immunohistochemistry of P0 mystacial
pad shows that whisker follicles (wf) and epidermis (epi) are innervated normally in the
absence of SADs.
Dense labeling of the dorsal horn with DiI prevented analysis of
axonal subpopulations within this region. We therefore labeled
control and SADIsl1-cre spinal cord with antibodies to TrkA, which
4 Neuron 79, 1–15, July 10, 2013 ª2013 Elsevier Inc.
labels terminals of nociceptive sensory
axons in laminae I/IIi/IIo; to CGRP, which
labels a nociceptor subset in lamina IIi;
and to VGLUT1, which labels terminals
of cutaneous mechanoreceptors in
laminae III/IV (Patel et al., 2000; Chung
et al., 1988; Brumovsky et al., 2007). All
three sets of neurons targeted correct
laminae in SADIsl1-cre mutants (Figures
3C–3F). Thus, loss of SAD-A/B affects
only some types of sensory axons.
Do SADs also regulate terminal axon
arborization of sensory neurons in the
brain? We tested this possibility in two
ways. First, we examined the ascending
axonal projections of cervical IaPSNs,
which grow into the brainstem in the cuneate fascicle and then
branch and form arbors in the cuneate nucleus (Weinberg
et al., 1990). In control animals, numerous parvalbumin-positive
Neuron
proprioceptor axons were present in the cuneate fascicle and
nucleus as reported previously (Figures 3G–3G00 ; Solbach and
Celio, 1991). Proprioceptor axons were also abundant in the
cuneate fascicle of SADIsl1-cre mutants, but their numbers were
dramatically reduced in the cuneate nucleus (Figures 3H–3H00 ).
Thus, in brainstem as in spinal cord, IaPSNs axons grow to the
vicinity of their target, but fail to form terminal branches. Second,
we used DiI to label central projections of trigeminal sensory
neurons that innervate whiskers. These axons grow to the brainstem where they arborize in nuclei of the brainstem trigeminal
complex (BSTC) (Erzurumlu et al., 2010). Axons labeled from a
single whisker in controls arborize in circumscribed and stereotyped positions within the BSTC (Figures 3I and S3A). Axons
labeled in whiskers of SADIsl1-cre mice grew through the spinal
trigeminal tract in normal numbers, but had sparse arbors that
failed to reach the correct target region in the BSTC and did
not branch extensively (Figures 3J and S3B). Neurofilament
staining showed no difference in overall structure between
mutant and control BSTC (Figures S3C and S3D). Cumulatively,
these data suggest that SAD kinases are required in subsets of
sensory neurons for terminal axon arbor formation throughout
the CNS.
In SADIsl1-cre mice, SAD kinases are deleted from motor
neurons and some populations of interneurons as well as from
sensory neurons (Figure S2E). Several observations indicate,
however, that loss of SAD kinases from sensory neurons rather
than from other cell types accounts for the defects described
above. First, although Isl1 is expressed in spinal dI3 interneurons, which may help guide IaPSNs to the spinal cord (Ding
et al., 2005), these interneurons were present and migrated to
proper positions in SADIsl1-cre mutants (Figures S3E and S3F).
Second, we removed SAD kinases from motor neurons using
ChAT-cre, which is active before IaPSN axons reach the ventral
horn (Philippidou et al., 2012). SADChAT-cre mutant IaPSN axons
grew normally to the ventral horn (Figures S3G and S3H). Third,
Isl1-cre was not expressed in the brainstem targets of whisker
afferents or IaPSNs as late as P6 (Figures S3I and S3J’). Arborization defects in the brainstem are therefore not complicated
by deletion of SADs from intrinsic neuronal types.
These results suggest that SAD kinases act cell autonomously
in several classes of sensory neuron to regulate formation of
central axonal arbors. NT-3 is expressed in the peripheral targets
of all classes of SAD-dependent sensory neurons identified
(Haeberle et al., 2004; Schecterson and Bothwell, 1992; Fariñas
et al., 1996; Patapoutian et al., 1999), and both IaPSNs and
mechanoreceptive neurons innervating Merkel cells are lost in
NT-3 mutants (Ernfors et al., 1994; Fariñas et al., 1994; Airaksinen et al., 1996). Moreover, defects in IaPSN central projections
described above for SADIsl1-cre mice are similar to those reported
previously for NT-3;Bax double mutants in which IaPSNs are
spared from apoptosis (Patel et al., 2003). We therefore asked
whether SADs interact with the NT-3 signaling pathway.
The Neurotrophic Factor NT-3 Acts through SAD
Kinases to Pattern Central Projections
Loss of SAD kinases could affect NT-3 signaling in any of three
ways. First, SADs might be required for peripheral axons of
NT-3-dependent sensory neurons to reach sources of NT-3.
Second, SADs might be required for retrograde signaling by
NT-3. Third, SADs might mediate effects of NT-3 on axonal
arborization. We tested these alternatives in turn.
We examined peripheral projections of sensory neurons
innervating muscle (proprioceptors), Merkel cells, and whisker
follicles. Parvalbumin-positive proprioceptive axons grew into
forelimb and hindlimb muscles of SADIsl1-cre mutants in a manner
indistinguishable from controls; within muscles, the IaPSN axons
formed characteristic vesicle-rich (synaptotagmin-positive)
annulospiral endings on intrafusal muscle fibers of forelimb and
hindlimb muscles (Figures 3K, 3M, and S3K–S3L00 ). Golgi tendon
organs were also innervated normally in SADIsl1-cre animals
(Figures 3L and 3N). Similarly, in both control and SADIsl1-cre mutants, trunk sensory axons formed normal disc shaped endings
on Merkel cells in the epidermis (Figures 3O and 3Q) and axons
in the deep vibrissal nerve innervated whisker follicles (Figures
3P and 3R). In addition, PV+ DRG neurons acquired a pseudounipolar morphology by E15.5 (Figures S3M and S3N), a cellular
feature that occurs upon peripheral innervation (Matsuda and
Uehara, 1984). Thus, defects in central projections of SADdeficient sensory neurons do not result from failure of peripheral
processes to reach sources of neurotrophic factors.
We then asked whether SADs are required in IaPSNs for retrograde signaling by NT-3 through its receptor, TrkC. Expression
of TrkC was not affected by the loss of SAD kinases (Figures
S4A and S4B00 ). When apoptosis is blocked in the absence of
NT-3/TrkC signaling, the size of parvalbumin-positive neurons
and levels of the transcription factor ER81 are reduced (Patel
et al., 2003). None of these defects were observed in SADIsl1-cre
mice (Figures 4A and 4E and Figures S4C–S4H) indicating that
SAD kinases are not required for retrograde NT-3 signaling or
for the acquisition of morphological or molecular characteristics
induced by NT-3.
To ask whether SADs mediate effects of NT-3 on IaPSNs,
we cultured DRG explants from control and SADIsl1-cre animals
in the presence of NT-3 and measured axon outgrowth.
Under these conditions, only NT-3 dependent neurons survive
(Hory-Lee et al., 1993). Outgrowth of axons from these neurons
was decreased by nearly half in SADIsl1-cre mutant ganglia
relative to controls (Figures 4F, 4G, and 4J). We also cultured
DRG explants in the presence of NGF; under these conditions,
IaPSNs die but NGF-dependent neurons survive. Loss of
SADs had only a modest effect (12%) on axon outgrowth in
these explants (Figures 4H–4J). These findings indicate that
SAD kinases are selectively required for axon growth in response
to NT-3.
Does NT-3 signal, in part, by activating SADs? To test this possibility, we cultured wild-type neurons in the presence of NT-3 to
promote selective survival of NT-3-dependent neurons, then
immunoblotted lysates with antibodies to SAD-A, SAD-B, and
to the phosphorylated form of a critical activation loop threonine
(ALT) present in both SAD-A and SAD-B (SAD-A T175; SAD-B
T187); SAD kinases are catalytically active only when phosphorylated at the ALT site (Lizcano et al., 2004; Barnes et al., 2007).
Specificity of the antibodies was demonstrated by absence of
immunoreactivity from SADIsl1-cre DRG lysates (Figure 4K).
SAD-A and SAD-B were readily detectable in DRGs maintained
in NT-3, but their ALT phosphorylated forms were at low levels.
Neuron
Figure 4. SAD Kinases Act Downstream of
NT-3 to Induce Axon Outgrowth
(A–E) Sections of lumbar DRG stained for PV at
E15.5 (A and B) or for ER81 at E13.5 (C and D) and
quantification of PV+ soma size (E, mean ± SEM,
n R 60 cells per genotype). SADs are not required
for transducing signals from peripheral NT-3
sources.
(F–J) Axon outgrowth of DRG explants from
control (F,H) and SADIsl1-cre mutants (G,I)
grown for 2DIV with the indicated neurotrophin shows that SADs are required for
NT-3 induced growth in vitro. Scale bars in
(A), (C), and (F), 100 mm. Quantification (J)
shows large decreases in NT-3-induced axon
outgrowth and modest effects on NGF-induced
growth (mean ± SEM from three experiments;
NT-3: n R 40 ganglia per genotype, p < 0.0001;
NGF: n R 36 ganglia per genotype; p = 0.005,
unpaired t test).
(K) Immunoblot from control and SADIsl1-cre E13.5
lumbar DRGs shows loss of SAD pALT reactivity in
double KO SADIsl1-cre animals. TUJ1 is a loading
control.
(L) E13.5 + 2DIV DRG cultures grown in NT-3 were
starved of NT-3 for 5 hr, then NT-3 was added for
the indicated times before cells lysis.
(M) Growth of Bax/ DRG neurons in the absence
of neurotrophin for 3 days, followed by stimulation
with NT-3 for 15 min induces SAD ALT phosphorylation.
(N) DRG neurons were grown in the presence
of NT-3 for 2DIV then were either grown with
NT-3 (+) or without NT-3 for 18 hr (), or deprived
of NT-3 for 18 hr followed by growth with NT-3
for 24 hr (/ +).
See also Figure S4.
When NT-3 was withdrawn for 4–5 hr, SAD protein levels did
not change detectably. Re-addition of NT-3 at this time led to
significant SAD phosphorylation that was detectable within
5 min and peaked by 15 min before declining by 30 min (Figure 4L). We also tested neurons from Bax/ mice, which do
not require neurotrophins for survival, to confirm the effect of
NT-3 on SAD activation. NT-3 stimulation of Bax/ neurons
that had been grown in the absence of neurotrophin for 3 days
led to rapid SAD ALT phosphorylation (Figure 4M). Thus, NT-3
can activate SADs.
To assess longer-term effects of NT-3 on SAD, we withdrew
the neurotrophin for 16-18 hr in the presence of a caspase inhibitor to prevent apoptosis. In this case, levels of both SAD-A and
SAD-B declined dramatically. Readdition of NT-3 to starved neurons led to recovery of protein levels over the following 24 hr (Figure 4N). Together these results show that NT-3 regulates SAD
activity in two distinct ways: total SAD protein levels over long
durations and SAD activation with rapid kinetics. We therefore
examined the mechanisms underlying long and short term SAD
regulation by NT-3.
NT-3 Regulates SAD Levels Posttranslationally through
the Raf/MEK/ERK Pathway
NT-3 might affect SAD protein levels by regulating transcription,
mRNA processing and stability, translation, or protein stability.
To distinguish among these alternatives, we first measured
SAD mRNA levels using quantitative RT-PCR. Levels of SAD
mRNAs did not differ significantly between NT-3 treated and
starved cultures (Figure 5A). Thus, NT-3 regulates SAD levels
at steps following RNA processing. To assess NT-3-dependent
translational control, we generated a GFP-tagged SAD-A open
reading frame lacking 50 and 30 UTRs, in which most translational
control elements are found. GFP::SAD-A was introduced to
dissociated DRGs using a lentiviral vector. Withdrawal of NT-3
signaling led to similar reductions in endogenous SAD-A and
GFP::SAD-A; levels of control proteins were unaffected over
this period (Figure 5B). We conclude that NT-3 regulation of
SAD protein levels occurs posttranslationally.
We examined the SAD protein sequences to determine
whether they contain motifs that regulate protein stability. Within
the C-terminal domains of SAD-A and SAD-B are highly
Neuron
Figure 5. NT-3 Posttranslationally Regulates SAD Protein Expression via the Raf/MEK/ERK Pathway
(A) qRT-PCR of SAD-A and SAD-B mRNA shows that SAD mRNA levels are the same in NT-3-starved and NT-3-treated cultures (mean ± SEM, three experiments; 1.0 equals levels in NT-3 treated samples).
(B) DRG neurons infected with lentiviral vectors expressing GFP-tagged versions of wild-type (WT) or D-box mutant (DBM) SAD-A were grown with NT-3 for 2DIV
followed by additional NT-3 treatment (+) or starvation () for 18 hr. Quantification of GFP immunoblot signals of () relative to (+) NT-3 (mean ± SEM, n = 3,
p = 0.025) is shown below representative blot.
(C) DRG neurons cultured for 2 DIV with NT-3 were starved for 18 hr (), followed by NT-3 re-addition for 24 hr in the presence of vehicle, MEK1/2 inhibitor
(PD-325901, 10 mM), PI3K inhibitor (LY294002, 50 mM), or mTORC1 inhibitor (rapamycin, 100 nM).
(D) DRG neurons were grown for 2DIV in either NT-3 and were treated or starved as in (B) or were treated with NT-3 and MEK1/2 inhibitor.
(E) DRG neurons infected with B-RAF V600E-expressing lentivirus were cultured as in (B).
(F) Bax-deficient DRG neurons not treated with neurotrophic factors were infected as in (D) and were lysed at 3DIV. All samples were analyzed by immunoblotting
with the indicated antibodies.
(G) Summary of pathway regulating SAD protein levels.
conserved consensus D box motifs (RxxLxxxxN) that target
proteins for ubiquitination by the anaphase promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C) E3 ubiquitin ligase (Puram and Bonni,
2011; Li et al., 2012). Multiple subunits of the APC/C are expressed in E13.5 DRGs (data not shown). We expressed a
GFP-tagged SAD-A mutant in which the D box was mutated
(RxxLxxxxN to AxxAxxxxN) to eliminate binding to APC/C
(GFP::SAD-ADBM). While GFP::SAD-AWT was sensitive to NT-3
deprivation, GFP::SAD-ADBM was significantly stabilized (Figure 5B). These data are consistent with a model in which NT-3
controls SAD protein levels by stabilization.
We next examined the pathway that leads from NT-3 to SAD
protein stabilization. Three canonical signaling pathways are
induced by Trk activation: Raf/MEK/ERK, PI3K/Akt, and PLCg
(Reichardt, 2006). We added inhibitors of these pathways along
with NT-3 following a period of deprivation. Inhibiting MEK1/2
with PD325901 completely blocked SAD protein increase.
LY294002, a PI3K inhibitor, had a modest effect on SAD protein
recovery, but long-term treatment with this compound also inhibited ERK1/2 phosphorylation complicating interpretation (Figure 5C). Due to instability of the available PLCg inhibitors, we
were unable to perform long-term pharmacological inhibition of
this pathway. We also tested rapamycin, an inhibitor of mTOR,
because a recent study reported mTOR-dependent regulation
of SAD translation (Choi et al., 2008). Rapamycin had only a
slight effect on the increase in SAD protein levels stimulated by
NT-3. In addition, blocking MEK1/2 kinases with the specific inhibitor PD-325901 in the presence of NT-3 led to a decline in SAD
levels similar to those seen after NT-3 deprivation; as expected,
ERK1/2 phosphorylation was also suppressed (Figure 5D).
As a further test of the idea that NT-3 regulates SAD protein
levels through the Raf/MEK/ERK pathway, we used lentiviral
Neuron
vectors to express either GFP or constitutively active B-Raf
V600E in dissociated DRG neurons. IaPSNs deficient in the Band C-Raf MAP3Ks, the most upstream components of the
MAPK pathway, arrest their growth in the medial spinal cord
(Zhong et al., 2007), a phenotype similar to that of SADIsl1-cre
mutants. Consistent with this observation, B-Raf V600E
increased ERK1/2 phosphorylation in DRG neurons relative to
GFP expressing controls, and prevented the decline of SAD
protein levels caused by loss of NT-3 signaling (Figure 5E).
Constitutive MAPK activation using B-Raf V600E also increased
SAD-A/B protein levels in BAX/ DRG neurons in the absence
of neurotrophic factors (Figure 5F). We conclude that sustained
NT-3/TrkC signaling via the MAPK pathway is the major mechanism that maintains high SAD-A and -B protein levels in IaPSNs
(Figure 5G). Moreover, the effects of Raf MAP3Ks on axonal
arborization of IaPSNs (Zhong et al., 2007) may be mediated
by SAD kinases.
NT-3 Regulates SAD Kinase Activation by Inactivating a
C-Terminal Inhibitory Domain
How does NT-3 lead to rapid phosphorylation of the ALT site on
SAD kinases and thereby enable their catalytic activity? In light of
the surprising finding that LKB1 is not required for SAD-dependent axon branching in vivo (Figure 2), we sought other kinases
that might be able to respond to NT-3 and in turn activate
SADs. To this end, we used HeLa cells, which do not express
LKB1 or SADs. When SADs are transfected into HeLa cells, the
ALT remains unphosphorylated and the enzymes exhibit no
catalytic activity (Barnes et al., 2007). When LKB1 is expressed
in HeLa cells, it binds to its cofactors STRAD and MO25 and
phosphorylates SADs on the ALT leading to activation (Lizcano
et al., 2004; Barnes et al., 2007). We coexpressed SAD and other
potential activating kinases in HeLa cells and assayed SAD ALT
phosphorylation. The phenotypic similarities between mutants
for Raf kinases SADs noted above suggested Rafs as potential
SAD ALT kinases, but expression of a constitutively active Raf
kinase (B-RAF V600E) did not induce SAD ALT phosphorylation
(Figure S5A). Of several other kinases tested, only TAK1/
MAP3K7, together with its coactivator TAB1 (Shibuya et al.,
1996), robustly phosphorylated SAD-A and SAD-B at the ALT;
it was also active in assays using purified proteins (Figures
S5B and S5C). Moreover, TAK1 is expressed in E13.5 DRG neurons (Figure S5D; Jadrich et al., 2003). However, inactivation of
TAK1 using a floxed conditional allele with Isl1-cre and Nestincre had no effect on central axon projections of IaPSNs (Figures
S5E, S5F, and data not shown). We combined TAK1 and LKB1
conditional alleles to examine whether these two kinases might
act as redundant activators of SAD kinases, but observed no
defects in IaPSN projections in (LKB1; TAK1)Isl1-cre double
mutants (Figure S5G). Thus, neither TAK1 nor LKB1 is required
for central axon arbor formation of IaPSNs.
We cannot rule out the possibility that NT-3 signals through
ALT kinases that we did not test. However, an alternative mechanism was suggested by biochemical studies of SAD proteins.
Immunoblotting revealed highly abundant 85 kDa and much
less abundant 76 kDa forms of SAD-A in brain and sensory
ganglia, both absent from SAD-A/ tissue (Figure 6A). The
active (pALT-positive) SAD-A migrated at 76 kDa (Figure 6A).
SAD-B migrated more heterogeneously in SDS-PAGE than
SAD-A, complicating analysis. We therefore focused on
SAD-A, asking whether the 76 and 85 kDa species were generated by distinct mRNAs or by a posttranslational mechanism.
We expressed SAD-A with or without LKB1 in HeLa cells and
analyzed them by immunoblotting. SAD-A migrated as a doublet
of 85 and 76 kDa in both cases, but in the presence of LKB1, only
the 76 kDa form of SAD-A was ALT phosphorylated (Figure 6B).
We then coexpressed TrkC with SAD-A in the absence of LKB1.
Within 15 min of adding NT-3 to TrkC expressing HeLa cells,
SAD-A protein was largely converted from the 85 kDa to the
76 kDa form, even though it remained completely dephosphorylated at the ALT site and therefore catalytically inactive (Figure 6C
and data not shown). Together, these results suggest that NT-3
can lead to a post-translational modification of SAD-A that renders it activatable by ALT kinases.
To identify the difference between the 76 and 85 kDa forms of
SAD-A, we treated extracts of DRGs and transfected HeLa cells
with enzymes that remove putative modifications. Treatment
with lambda protein phosphatase led to quantitative conversion
of the 85 kDa form of SAD-A protein to the 76 kDa form (Figure 6D), indicating that SADs are phosphorylated at sites that
control their activation state. We then examined a phosphoproteomic database of mouse tissues (Phosphomouse; Huttlin
et al., 2010) to identify potential sites of SAD phosphorylation.
In mouse brain, SAD-A is phosphorylated on 18 sites in its C-terminal domain (CTD): 16 are proline directed, p[S/T]P, and of
these, 12 are present in a striking proline-rich repeated sequence
motif (PXXp[S/T]P) (Figures 6E and S6A). To determine whether
these residues are phosphorylated, we expressed a SAD-A
mutant in which all 18 S/T residues were mutated to nonphosphorylatable alanine (SAD-A18A). Immunoprecipitation of
SAD-A followed by immunoblotting with an antibody that is
specific for phosphorylated Ser and Thr residues followed by
Pro (p[S/T]P) demonstrated that only the 85 kDa form of wildtype SAD-A was phosphorylated at S/TP motifs (Figure 6F).
The SAD-A18A mutant, in contrast, migrated exclusively at
76 kDa (see lysate lanes) and was non-reactive with the p[S/T]
P antibody. Thus, some or all of these 18 residues are phosphorylated in SAD-A, and this phosphorylation is a major contributor
to migration differences in SDS-PAGE.
We performed two experiments to test the idea that SAD
CTD phosphorylation negatively affects the ability of upstream
kinases to phosphorylate the ALT site and thereby activate
SAD kinase. First we immunoprecipitated SAD-AWT and SADA18A from HeLa cells, in which the ALT site remains unphosphorylated (see above), then added exogenous, purified LKB1
and ATP. SAD-AWT was present in both phospho-CTD (85 kDa)
and dephospho-CTD (76 kDa) forms. Exogenous LKB1 phosphorylated only the 76 kDa form. SAD-A18A was present in only
the 76 kDa form, and this was significantly phosphorylated by
LKB1 (Figure 6G). Second, we expressed either SAD-AWT or
SAD-A18A, along with tau (a known SAD substrate, Kishi et al.,
2005; Barnes et al., 2007) in 293T cells, which have high levels
of LKB1. SAD-A18A accumulated to several fold lower levels
than SAD-AWT after transfection (see Discussion) but exhibited
dramatically higher levels of SAD pALT phosphorylation and tau
kinase activity (Figure 6H). Thus, phosphorylation of the SAD
Neuron
Figure 6. Inhibitory Phosphorylation in SAD C-Terminal Domains Blocks Kinase Activation
(A) Immunoblots from P0 cortices of animals of the indicated SAD genotype shows that SADs migrate heterogeneously in SDS-PAGE and that the predominant
SAD-A pALT species migrates at 76 kDa.
(B) Two color immunoblot of lysates from HeLa cells transfected with LKB1 and SAD-A shows that SAD-A is present in 85 and 76 kDa forms, but only the 76 kDa
form is ALT phosphorylated.
(C) Serum starved HeLa cells transfected with SAD-A without or with TrkC were treated with 50 ng/ml NT-3 for the indicated times followed by cell lysis and
immunoblotting. SAD-A shifts from a predominantly 85 kDa form to the 76 kDa form upon NT-3 treatment only in TrkC+ cells.
(D) Treatment of lysates of DRG cultures or HeLa cell transfectants with l protein phosphatase shows that phosphorylation accounts for the difference in
molecular weight.
(E) Domain structure of SAD-A and Phosphomouse display of identified sites of phosphorylation in mouse brain (yellow lines).
(F) Analysis of lysates and anti-HA (SAD-A) immunoprecipitates from HeLa cells expressing WT or 18A SAD-A shows that WT, but not 18A is reactive with antip[S/T]P. The anti-p[S/T]P signal in lysate lanes is from non-SAD-A species.
(G) Immunoprecipitation of SAD-A followed by kinase assay with purified LKB1/STRAD/MO25. Only dephospho-CTD SAD-A is ALT phosphorylated.
(H) Coexpression of Tau and SAD-A WT or 18A in 293T cells followed by immunoblotting. SAD-A18A shows increased kinase activity toward Tau (S262) and
increased pALT reactivity.
(I) Model for how SAD-A CTD phosphorylation inhibits ALT phosphorylation and activity.
See also Figures S5 and S6.
CTD precludes SAD kinase activation (Figure 6I). The fact that
SADs are predominantly in the phospho-CTD form in neurons
suggests that they are largely inactive under basal conditions.
Regulatory Mechanisms Controlling SAD-A CTD
Phosphorylation
To assess mechanisms that regulate phosphorylation of the
CTD, we sought CTD kinase(s). Because phosphorylation sites
in the CTD are adjacent to proline residues, we treated SADexpressing HeLa cells with inhibitors of three groups of proline-directed kinases known to play roles in neural development:
MEK1/2, GSK3b and cyclin dependent kinases (CDKs) (Newbern
et al., 2011; Hur and Zhou, 2010; Su and Tsai, 2011). Only the
CDK inhibitor, roscovitine, led to net dephosphorylation of
SAD-A as indicated by a shift toward the 76 kDa form (Figure 7A
and data not shown). We also treated cultured DRG neurons with
Neuron
Figure 7. Multiple Pathways Regulate the Phosphorylation State of the SAD-A CTD
(A) Treatment of SAD-AWT expressing HeLa cells or DRG neurons with 10 mM Roscovitine for 30 min causes SAD-A to shift mobility to the dephospho-CTD form.
(B) Coexpression of SAD-A (WT or 18A) with CDK5 (WT or Kinase dead: D145N) and p35 in 293T cells followed by immunoblotting. Active CDK5 causes CTD
phosphorylation, mobility shift and loss of pALT reactivity of SAD-AWT; SAD-A18A is not affected.
(C) Immunoprecipitation for SAD-A followed by immunoblotting shows that NT-3 treatment of TrkC/SAD-A-expressing HeLa cells causes dephosphorylation of
CTD [S/T]P sites.
(D) Treatment of TrkC/SAD-A expressing HeLa cells with MEK1/2 or PLCg inhibitors partially blocks SAD-A CTD dephosphorylation in response to NT-3.
(E) Inhibition of NT-3 induced SAD ALT phosphorylation in DRG neurons by blocking of PLCg (U73122), but not MEK1/2 (U0126). Ca2+ ionophore A23187 induces
SAD ALT phosphorylation independently of NT-3.
(F) Treatment of serum starved HeLa cells with calcium ionophore A23187 (5 mM) for 5 min induces SAD-A CTD dephosphorylation independently of MEK1/2
activity.
(G) Model for NT-3 dependent regulation of SADs.
See also Figure S6.
roscovitine and found a similar although less pronounced shift in
SAD-A mobility (Figure 7A). These results suggest that CDKs are
physiological regulators of CTD phosphorylation.
To test this idea directly, we coexpressed either wild-type
or catalytically inactive CDK5 with the p35 coactivator and
SAD-AWT or SAD-A18A. Expression of active but not inactive
CDK5 caused SAD-AWT protein to migrate exclusively at
85 kDa, while migration of SAD-A18A was only slightly affected
(Figure 7B). Moreover, whereas expression of active CDK5
completely eliminated ALT phosphorylation of SAD-AWT, ALT
phosphorylation of SAD-A18A was largely resistant to CDK5mediated inhibition (Figure 7B). The fact that the SAD-A18A
mutant is not completely refractory to the inhibitory effects of
CDK5 suggests that there may be other residues involved in
mediating SAD-A inhibition. Thus, CDK5 can phosphorylate
SAD-A in the CTD, preventing activating phosphorylation at the
ALT. These results reveal a mechanism in which activation of
SAD kinase by canonical activation loop phosphorylation is
inhibited by phosphorylation of distal sites in the CTD.
To ask which phosphorylation sites in the SAD-A CTDs are
important for inhibition of SAD activation, we divided them into
two groups and mutated each separately: the 13 sites in the
PXX[S/T]P motifs N-terminal to the D box (aa 428–468, mutant
called SAD-A13A) or the 5 sites (4 of which are [S/T]P) C-terminal
to the D box (aa 490–513, mutant called SAD-A5A; Figure S6A),
We expressed the mutants in 293T cells with CDK5 and examined the effects on SAD ALT phosphorylation. CDK5 activation
suppressed SAD ALT phosphorylation of both the SAD-A13A
and SAD-A5A mutants (Figure S6B). We conclude that no single
phosphorylation event in the CTD regulates SAD activity, but
rather phosphorylation of residues throughout the SAD CTD is
sufficient to block SAD ALT phosphorylation.
What signaling pathway does NT-3 use to regulate phosphorylation of the SAD CTD? We analyzed SAD-A immunoprecipitates from untreated and NT-3 treated cells using the
anti-p[S/T]P antibody. Consistent with results presented above
(Figure 6C), SAD-A protein from untreated cells was strongly
phosphorylated at [S/T]P sites, whereas SAD-A protein from
Neuron
Figure 8. Increasing SAD Activation Induces DRG Axon Branching In Vitro
(A–D) Representative images of neurons expressing empty vector control or the indicated SAD-A cDNA constructs. Scale bar equals 100 mm.
(E and F) Quantification of neurite length and branch points in cultured neurons. Differences among means in (E) did not reach statistical significance (p > 0.01
using one-way ANOVA with Tukey’s multiple comparisons test; graph shows mean ± SEM; vector: n = 76; WT: n = 87; T175A: n = 101; 18A: n = 93), whereas the
difference in branch numbers (F) between SAD-A18A and all others were highly significant (mean ± SEM, p < 0.0001, one-way ANOVA with Tukey’s multiple
comparisons test).
(G) Model for how NT-3 signaling controls SAD kinase activity by regulating SAD levels and the fraction of SAD that is ALT phosphorylated.
NT-3 treated cells lacked [S/T]P phosphorylation (Figure 7C).
Thus, NT-3/TrkC signaling induces net SAD-A CTD dephosphorylation. Inhibitors of MEK1/2 or PLCg decreased NT-3 dependent SAD-A CTD dephosphorylation in TrkC+ HeLa cells
(Figure 7D), indicating that both of these pathways are capable
of regulating SAD-A CTD dephsophorylation in response to
NT-3. In DRG neurons, inhibition of PLCg blocked SAD ALT
phosphorylation, but inhibition of MEK1/2 did not (Figure 7E),
suggesting that neural regulation of CTD phosphorylation is
mediated primarily by the PLCg pathway. PLCg activation
generates diacylglycerol (PKC agonist) and IP3, which leads to
release of Ca2+ from intracellular stores. Indeed, elevating intracellular Ca2+ levels using A23187 was sufficient to induce complete SAD-A CTD dephosphorylation in HeLa cells (Figures 7F
and S6C) and induced SAD ALT phosphorylation in DRG neurons (Figure 7E). Thus, NT-3 induces SAD ALT phosphorylation
in neurons largely through the PLCg/Ca2+ pathway.
Role of CTD Phosphorylation in SAD-Dependent Axon
Branching
Finally, we tested whether eliminating the inhibitory effects
of SAD-A CTD phosphorylation could affect axonal development in neurons. We cultured sensory neurons at low
density in 5 ng/ml NT-3, which leads to modest levels of
axon branching (Lentz et al., 1999). Expression of wild-type
(SAD-AWT) or catalytically inactive (SAD-AT175A) kinase affected
neither total axon outgrowth nor the number of branches
relative to vector control (Figures 8E and 8F), consistent with
the observation that most SAD-A in neurons is in a CTDphosphorylated, inactive form (see above). In contrast, expression of SAD-A18A led to significant increase in branching
with no effect on total outgrowth (Figures 8E and 8F).
We conclude that augmenting SAD-A activation by preventing inhibitory phosphorylation is sufficient to increase axon
branching.
Neuron
DISCUSSION
We have found that SAD-A and SAD-B kinases, previously implicated in axon specification and polarization of forebrain neurons
(Kishi et al., 2005; Barnes et al., 2007) are also required for formation of terminal axonal arbors of sensory neurons, demonstrating
that SAD kinases regulate multiple aspects of axonal morphogenesis. We also show that neurotrophin signals regulate SAD
kinase activity over multiple time scales (summarized in Figure 8G), suggesting mechanisms by which extrinsic factors
could converge on SAD kinases to sculpt axonal morphology.
NT-3-Dependent Neurons Require SAD Kinases to Form
Central Axonal Arbors
Surprisingly, although SAD kinases are required for polarization
of forebrain neurons (Kishi et al., 2005; Barnes et al., 2007),
they are dispensable for polarization of all subtelencephalic populations tested. In contrast, SAD kinases are required for a late
stage of axonal development: the formation of central axonal
arbors by subsets of sensory neurons in spinal cord and brainstem. The effect is a highly specific one: SADs are dispensable
not only for polarization of these neurons but also for growth of
their peripheral axons, initial extension of a central process,
bifurcation at the dorsal root entry zone, and collateral formation
in the spinal cord and brain. Instead, SADs are required only after
axons have reached their target areas, and form highly branched
terminal arbors to contact postsynaptic cells.
The requirement for SADs is also highly specific in another
respect. Whereas several NT-3-dependent subsets of sensory
neurons require SADs for axonal arborization, other subsets,
including those that require the related neurotrophin, NGF, are
largely SAD independent. What might account for the differential
requirements for SADs? Several lines of evidence suggest that
cellular responses to distinct neurotrophins vary widely and are
specific to the Trk receptor expressed. For instance, treatment
of DRG neurons with NGF, BDNF, or NT-3 leads to distinct
axon morphologies in culture (Lentz et al., 1999; Ozdinler et al.,
2004). More dramatically, substituting TrkC for TrkA in DRG neurons changes the molecular and anatomical properties of cutaneous sensory neurons to those of proprioceptors (Moqrich
et al., 2004). SADs may be a component of a TrkC-specific
signaling pathway. Alternatively, other signal transduction components may play redundant or compensatory roles in NT-3independent neurons. The observations that outgrowth from
NGF-dependent, TrkA-expressing neurons is slightly decreased
in SAD mutants (Figure 4C) and that NGF can stimulate SAD-A
ALT phosphorylation (data not shown) support this possibility.
SAD Kinases Mediate Effects of NT-3 on Axon Branching
Why is axonal branching by NT-3-dependent neurons perturbed
in SAD mutants? Knowing that peripheral depots of NT-3 are
required for branching, we asked whether SADs might be
required for sensory axons to reach these depots or for NT-3
signaling to reach the nucleus and alter gene expression. In
fact, SADs were dispensable for both of these developmental
steps. In the absence of NT-3, substantial IaPSN axon growth
occurs in vivo, but the terminal phase of arbor formation in the
spinal cord does not occur (Patel et al., 2003), much as we
observe in SADIsl1-cre mutants. We propose that SAD kinases
act as effectors of NT-3 signals during axon growth and arbor
formation in the CNS, but are not required for NT-3 independent
growth modes. Multiple lines of evidence support this hypothesis: NT-3-dependent outgrowth in culture is dramatically attenuated in SAD kinase mutant neurons, NT-3 stimulates SAD
activity, and increased SAD activity enhances axonal branching.
We then asked how NT-3 signals to SADs and found that it does
so by two distinct mechanisms that act over different durations
but to a common end. Application of NT-3 to sensory neurons increases SAD protein levels over a period of hours and the fraction
of SAD that is phosphorylated at a critical activation site (ALT)
within minutes. Moreover, as discussed below, distinct molecular
pathways link NT-3 to these two effects (summarized in Figure 8G). We propose that this combination of mechanisms allows
SAD kinases to integrate short- and long-term signals from
distinct sources to provide fine control of arbor formation. For
example, peripheral sources of NT-3 might provide tonic increase
in SAD levels that enables branching during an appropriate developmental window, whereas NT-3 from sources within the ventral
horn, such as motor neurons (Schecterson and Bothwell, 1992;
Wright et al., 1997; Genç et al., 2004; Usui et al., 2012) could
regulate SAD activity with fine temporal and spatial precision, to
precisely sculpt the arbors. Alternatively, other factors in the
target region that either promote or inhibit axon growth and
branch formation (Wang et al., 1999; Krylova et al., 2002; Messersmith et al., 1995; Gibson and Ma, 2011) might affect SAD
activity, allowing the kinases to integrate multiple signals.
Regulation of SAD Activation by Inhibitory CTD
Phosphorylation
We used sensory neurons and heterologous cells to map the
pathways by which NT-3 increases SAD levels and SAD activity.
NT-3 activates the receptor tyrosine kinase TrkC, which then
stimulates three pathways in which Raf/MEK/ERK, PLCg/Ca2+,
and PI3K, are key intermediates (Reichardt, 2006). TrkC activation enhances the stability of SADs predominantly through the
Raf/MEK/ERK pathway, engagement of which may prevent
ubiquitination of SADs by the APC/C complex, which targets
them for proteasomal degradation (Puram and Bonni, 2011; Li
et al., 2012). In contrast, TrkC activation of the PLCg/Ca2+ is predominantly responsible for enhancing SAD ALT phosphorylation
and thus its catalytic activity.
Kinases in the AMPK family, including SADs, are catalytically
active only when phosphorylated at the ALT site (Lizcano et al.,
2004). The best studied and seemingly most important ALT
kinase is LKB1, which is required for activation of AMPK in
many tissues and of SADs in cortex; indeed, cortical phenotypes
of SAD-A/B and LKB1 mutants are nearly indistinguishable
(Barnes et al., 2007). It was therefore surprising that deletion of
LKB1 had no detectable effect on branching of sensory neurons.
Instead, we found a unique regulatory mechanism: NT-3 controls
ALT phosphorylation indirectly by regulating phosphorylation of
the CTD. The CTD is unusual in bearing a large number of closely
spaced serine or threonine sites, phosphorylation of which inhibits activating phosphorylation in the catalytic domain. NT-3
signaling controls SAD kinase activation, in part, through regulating the phosphorylation state of the SAD CTD, possibly by
Neuron
activating phosphatases, inhibiting CTD kinases or a combination of the two.
CDK5 is one relevant inhibitor of SAD kinase activity. Evidence
from C. elegans is consistent with this hypothesis: Sad-1 gain of
function in worms causes vesicle mislocalization to dendrites
that is similar to loss of function mutations in Cdk-5 or the
related CDK, PCTAIRE1 (Crump et al., 2001; Ou et al., 2010).
Mammalian CDK5 plays a large number of roles in neural
development (Su and Tsai, 2011), and it will be of interest to
determine whether some CDK5 functions may be mediated by
SAD regulation and whether other neurally expressed CDKs
(e.g., PCTAIRE1) also contribute to SAD inhibition. An added
complexity is that SAD-A has been reported capable of phosphorylating PCTAIRE1 (Chen et al., 2012).
Our studies leave open the identity of the SAD ALT kinase
important for sensory axon branching. Possible candidates are
members of the STE20 family of kinases (including TAK1/
MAP3K7) that can biochemically activate AMPK family members
(Figure S5; Timm et al., 2003; Momcilovic et al., 2006). CAMKKb
was also reported to be a SAD ALT kinase (Fujimoto et al., 2008),
but we, and others, have not observed such an activity (Bright
et al., 2008; B.N.L., unpublished data). We favor the idea that
multiple, redundant kinases perform SAD ALT phosphorylation
in DRG neurons, but their ability to access the SAD ALT is dependent upon SAD CTD dephosphorylation. In this scenario, ALT
phosphorylation is regulated not by limited availability of an
ALT kinase but by CTD-dependent accessibility of the ALT site.
In addition to regulating the activation state of SAD kinases,
phosphorylation of the CTD may also play a role in stabilizing
the protein: removing the 18 sites of CTD phosphorylation
around the D box consistently decreased protein levels in cell
lines and in neurons (Figure 6 and data not shown). Phosphorylation of the SAD CTD around the D box could stabilize the protein by inhibiting interaction with the APC/C, a mechanism similar
to that described for the control of securin ubiqutination during
anaphase (Holt et al., 2008). Dephosphorylation of the CTD in
response to NT-3 could then result in targeting of SADs for
degradation, thus extinguishing signals from SADs in the activated, dephospho-CTD form (Figure 8G).
SAD Kinases as Multifunctional Regulators of Axonal
Development In Vivo
In the telencephalon, LKB1 and SADs control early axondendrite polarization and axon formation (Kishi et al., 2005;
Barnes et al., 2007; Shelly et al., 2007). Here, we have shown
that SADs affect axonal arborization in some sensory neurons.
Initial studies of the C. elegans SAD ortholog, SAD-1, demonstrated a role for this kinase in presynaptic differentiation (Crump
et al., 2001), and we found recently that SADs are required for
maturation of multiple synaptic types in mouse central and
peripheral nervous systems (B.N.L. and J.R.S., unpublished
data). Finally, Inoue et al. (2006) have reported that SADs modulate presynaptic function in adults. Together, these studies
establish SAD kinases as essential regulators of multiple phases
of axonal development and function.
A major outstanding question is how SAD kinases activate
programs that influence multiple processes of axonal development. While we cannot rule out possible kinase-independent
roles of SAD kinases, at least in C. elegans, kinase activity is
essential for SAD function in vivo (Crump et al., 2001; Kim
et al., 2008), suggesting that substrate phosphorylation is the
key functional output. However, only a few SAD substrates
have been identified so far, including the microtubule-associated
proteins Tau, the cell cycle regulators Wee1 and Cdc25, gammatubulin and the nerve terminal component RIM (Barnes et al.,
2007; Inoue et al., 2006; Lu et al., 2004; Müller et al., 2010;
Alvarado-Kristensson et al., 2009). Determining how SAD
kinases shape neuronal form and connectivity will require examination of how these kinases process upstream signals in distinct
developmental contexts and how downstream phosphorylation
modifies the activity of yet-to-be-identified substrates.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
A full description of experimental procedures, mouse strains, and reagents
used in this study is presented in Supplemental Experimental Procedures.
Animals
Animals were used in accordance with NIH guidelines and protocols approved
by Institutional Animal Use and Care Committee at Harvard University. The
SAD-A conditional line was generated by standard methods.
Histology
Immunohistochemistry and DiI labeling was performed on fixed tissue using
reagents and methods presented in detail in Supplemental Experimental
Procedures.
Cell Culture
Culture and transfection of HeLa and 293T cells was performed as described
(Barnes et al., 2007). Explant and dissociated cultures of embryonic dorsal root
ganglia neurons were prepared using methods similar to those described in
Lentz et al. (1999). The Amaxa mouse neuron nucleofector kit and Amaxa
Series 2 Nucleofector (Lonza) was used to introduce plasmid DNA into dissociated DRG cells.
Biochemical Analysis
Cell and tissue lysis, SDS-PAGE, and immunoblotting were performed essentially as described in Barnes et al. (2007). Immunoprecipitations from nondenaturing lysates were performed using anti-HA agarose (Roche). Kinase assays
using substrate proteins isolated by immunoprecipitation or purified from bacteria were performed as described (Kim et al., 2008).
SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION
Supplemental Information includes six figures and Supplemental Experimental
Procedures and can be found with this article online at http://dx.doi.org/10.
1016/j.neuron.2013.05.017.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank Marian Carlson, Susan Dymecki, Tom Jessell, Louis Reichardt,
Michael Schneider, William Sellers, Li-Huei Tsai, Sander van den Heuvel,
and Hans Widlund for mouse strains, antibodies, and plasmids used in this
study; Debbie Pelusi for excellent technical assistance; Arjun Krishnaswamy
and members of the Sanes lab for helpful suggestions. This work was supported by grants from the NIH (R01 NS029169 and R21 NS076880). B.N.L.
was supported by a fellowship from the Damon Runyon Cancer Research
Foundation (DRG-1914-06).
Accepted: May 8, 2013
Published: June 20, 2013
Neuron
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SAD Kinases Sculpt Axonal Arbors of Sensory Neurons through

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