Writing Matters Writing Matters - Forest Ridge Elementary School

Writing Matters :
Connecting Instruction and
Assessment Using the 6 Trait ®
Model and Writing Across the
Curriculum
Indiana Teachers of Writing (ITW)
Writing Project
A site of the National Writing Project
Indiana University-Purdue University
Indianapolis
Steve Fox, Ph.D.
Director
Herb Budden, M.A.
Mary Nicolini, M.A.
Co-directors
Table of Contents
Introduction…………………………………………..3
The Stampede……………………………………….4
Planning a Schoolwide Writing Policy…………….5
Creating a Vision…………………………………….6
What about State Tests?.......................................13
Complete Original 6 Traits Rubric ………………..15
Student-Friendly Scoring Guide…………………....20
Abbreviated One Page Rubric……………………...23
Teaching the Traits with Anchor Papers…………..24
Sample Papers…………………………………....…27
More Sample Papers………………………………..33
What about Grading?.............................................34
The e-Writing Profile………………………………...36
A Schoolwide Writing Assessment………………...37
Strategies for teaching the traits……………………39
Writing Across the Curriculum…………………...…42
Modes & Types: Expanding our Notion of
What Counts in Writing………………………….46
Strategies for Using Writing to Learn (WTL)………48
Designing Your Plan…………………………………54
Trait Descriptors……………………………………...55
Workshop Organizer…………………………………57
Hallway Walk………………………………………….58
Rubric, Elaborated 6 point scale……………………59
Beginning Writers Rubric (K-2)……………………..65
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Introduction
Welcome!
This workshop should answer these questions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
WHY is Writing Across the Curriculum so important?
WHAT are the Six Traits, and WHO says these are the ones?
WHY should we use them to teach writing?
HOW can we use them effectively to improve our students’ achievement in writing?
The Six Trait model is used in virtually every state and in many countries around the world. It’s the model used to score
papers in many state assessments, and in countless district assessments, including my own. Instruction based on the six
traits is growing by the day. Classroom instruction materials using assessment as a starting point are changing the way
teachers work with student writers in a most fundamental fashion.
As an active and longtime member of the Indiana Teachers of Writing, I worked with a group of English teachers from around
the state to give input to the IDOE and McGraw-Hill as they were developing a scoring guide for the ISTEP. We had
completed that work, and the ISTEP rubric as it now stands is pretty much what we came up with. It’s a workable, holistic way
of measuring writing performance.
Then, in 1998, I heard a remarkable presentation by Vicki Spandel of the Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory. It was
called “The Six Traits of Writing: Linking Assessment and Instruction.” I discovered in that lecture that other teachers around
the country were doing what we had done, but thanks to the resources of the US Department of Education through the
NWREL, they had done a far more thorough job. They had gone farther than we had by developing more useful ways of
looking at the individual skills of writing. I, and many of my Hoosier colleagues, were immediately convinced of the value of
the 6+1 Traits of Writing approach; it was a way to use a system to talk about writing skills that our students could fully
understand. The results of the approach indicate that students indeed become more confident and skillful in their writing, and
it shows!
Herb Budden
Co-director
Indiana Teachers of Writing (ITW)
Writing Project,
a site of the National Writing Project
IUPUI
425 University Blvd
Indianapolis IN 46202
[email protected]
317-278-2054
The materials in this workshop are taken from a variety of educational resources, including those of the original 6 Traits researchers at
NWREL, Vicki Spandel and Ruth Culham. Other sources are cited; all, including the material created by me for Hamilton Southeastern High
School, are used strictly for classroom purposes and may not be duplicated for any other purpose.
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The Stampede I
You’re standing in the large field minding your own business when you hear rumbling sounds in the
distance. The sounds begin to intensify, and at first you wonder if it is thunder you hear approaching.
Because it’s a beautiful, cloudless day you dismiss the notion. As the rumbling sounds grow louder,
you begin to see a dust cloud rising just over the ridge a few yards in front of you. Instantly, you
become panicked because at that exact moment it dawns on you that the rumbling you’re hearing is the
sound of hundreds of wild bulls stampeding over the ridge. There are hordes of them and they are
bearing down right on top of you. They are clearly faster than you and there is not time to escape.
what should you do? Survival experts recommend only ONE of the following actions:
a.) Lying down and curling up, covering your head with your arms
b.) Running directly at the bulls, screaming loudly and flailing your arms in an attempt to scare them
in another direction
c.) Turning and running like heck in the same direction the bulls are running (even though you
know you can’t outrun them)
d.) Standing completely still; they will see you and run around you
e.) Screaming bad words at your parent(s) for insisting on a back-to-nature vacation in Wyoming
from Worst Case Scenario Survival Handbook (Piven and Borgenicht, 1999, p. 49)
The Stampede II
We are immersed in the dawn of the Information/Knowledge Age. More than ever before in history, the
ability to read and write will determines how far one will go in this world. For the most part, people who
read and write well will compete and prosper; people who read and write poorly will be left behind.
Simply put, there is a literacy stampede approaching and it is bearing down right on top of us. What
should we do?
a.) Go home, curl up on the sofa, watch a lot of TV, and hope the demands of the literacy
stampede will go away
b.) Stare the Information/Knowledge Age in the face, screaming wildly and flail our arms, in an
attempt to make it go away
c.) Elevate our reading and writing abilities to the point we can run with the literacy stampede
d.) Stand completely still. Pray that the literacy stampede will avoid us.
e.) Scream bad words at our parent(s) for conceiving us in the shadow of a literacy stampede
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Planning A School-Wide Writing Policy: Meeting the Writing Challenge to the Nation
A Statement from the National Council of Teachers of English
The Value of a Writing Policy
Recent research provides information on successful features of writing instruction and achievement, and indeed, one feature is
clear: students experienced with writing more than one draft of a paper, and students whose writing was saved in folders or
portfolios, achieved higher average scores than their peers who did not write multiple drafts or save their writing. (1998-2005
NAEP Report Card; see http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/ writing.) Yet despite such findings, recent studies of the status
of writing in the school curriculum also show that too often students are asked to write infrequently and within a narrow range
of genres and for limited purposes. Clearly refining your district or school practices can insure that teachers are incorporating
key writing experiences that contribute to the development of skilled student writers.
Characteristics of Effective Writing Policies
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Allocate time and resources to develop teacher knowledge.
Recognize that students use writing functionally before their efforts are conventionally accurate.
Recognize that all students possess knowledge about written language and build from that knowledge and effort;
Outline a flexible range of experiences and assignments that provide teachers with instructional guidelines and
students with multiple opportunities and purposes for writing.
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Recognize the multiple functions that writing serves, both informal and formal.
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Incorporate technology in supporting student writing and the presentation of learning.
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Recognize that the responsibility for developing writing ability is shared across grade levels and content areas.
Why establish a writing policy?
As the National Commission on Writing asserts in issuing its Writing Challenge to the Nation, accomplished writing and sound
writing instruction can be found today in many schools and institutions. Those schools that consistently have students with
high levels of achievement in writing have systematically implemented productive teaching and learning practices. When a
school commits to creating a culture of writing by subscribing to and supporting sound teaching practices, it offers every
learner the conditions needed to learn to think and write clearly.
What does a school-wide writing policy accomplish?
It provides vision and direction from which subject areas can develop more specific practices.
What are the characteristics of a secondary school-wide writing policy?
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Administrators are committed to writing and lead by example.
All teachers in a school are committed to teaching writing.
Teaching writing is an integral part of all subjects and classes.
Writing practices are based on current and effective research about writing.
Students are given time and multiple opportunities to write.
Teachers consistently evaluate their writing instruction.
Student writing is assessed in multiple ways.
What practices do schools with effective writing policies follow?
Research shows that schools that consistently develop fluent, highly competent writers follow established practices:
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Allocate adequate time and resources to advance student learning by having students write every day, in every
subject.
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Help administrators and teachers understand how to assess writing to enrich student learning.
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Support teachers in gaining a sophisticated understanding of writing processes and in selecting appropriate
strategies to advance every student as a writer.
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Provide insights and strategies to administrators, families, and community members to help them work together to
advance student writing.
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Commit to building a culture of writing over time that will sustain growth and achievement through a student’s
academic career and beyond.
How can you get your school started?
A writing policy will be most effective if it develops and builds on the knowledge that teachers, administrators, and other key
members of your instructional team possess. Get representatives of each of these groups involved from the outset. Here are
some key steps:
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Provide training for all staff.
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Audit your instructional practices, support structures, and assessment procedures.
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Evaluate the basis of your writing practices. Align them with research best practices.
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Allow time and opportunities for writing and responding to what is written
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CREATING A VISION
(from Spandel, Vicki. Creating Writers Through 6-Trait Writing Assessment and Instruction. New York: Addison Wesley
Longman, 2001)
A VISION—NOT A WHOLE NEW CURRICULUM
Easier is good. No teacher anywhere these days is saying, "I don't know what it is—with this skimpy curriculum, I simply
cannot fill the days." Teachers are treading water faster than ever, and the tide continues to rise. Six-trait assessment and
instruction cannot make classes smaller or make testing go away. It can, however, ease writing teachers' stress by showing
them how to help students
• Take charge of their own writing process
• Understand the difference between strong and weak writing—and use that knowledge to write stronger drafts
• Revise and edit their own writing because they can "read" it and know what to do to make it better
All this sounds a little like magic, but really, it's logic. The key has been right before us the whole time; we had only to put it into
the lock. The key is language. Writers' language. And that key unlocks the door to revision.
Consider for a moment the power of language to influence thinking: What medical intern can diagnose or treat patients without
knowing terms like hypoglycemia, myotonia, or toxemia? Would we place much faith in an investment advisor who could not
speak with ease about market risk, return on equity or price to earnings ratios? Similarly, writers must know about leads,
transitions, brevity, clarity, development, detail, fluency, conven-tional correctness, conclusions and so much more—and must
use these terms with ease in discussing their own and others' work. I am not talking about a superficial vocabulary list of the
week approach here, but an in-depth understanding of how to write, how to revise, and how to assess.
Not a Replacement
By the way, trait-based instruction is intended to enhance a process-based approach to writing instruction, not to replace it.
You will not need to give up any of the good instructional things you are now doing, including modeling, use of writer's
workshop, direct intervention through individual or group teaching, integration of literature, sharing in response groups, or
sharing your own writing. Each of these components will be strengthened by your use and your students' use of writers'
vocabulary—six-trait language. Further, because the traits and the criteria that define them at various levels of performance
are already developed, you will not need to invent them yourself. (You could—and that would be a very good use of your
students' time and yours, for you would learn much through the process—but you won't have to.) And so you'll find yourself—
once you've taught the traits to students—saving time.
Paul Diederich (1974) demonstrated the practical value of good criteria when he and some colleagues analyzed how long
teachers were spending grading student essays. Results of his study showed that teachers who marked student essays line
by line spent, on average, a remarkable eight minutes per essay. That means a teacher with 130 students (a much smaller
class load than many have these days) could spend nearly eighteen hours per assignment just responding to students' work.
(As a teacher, you might wish to have this figure handy the next time someone asks, "Why don't teachers assign more
writing?") But here's the interesting part: When teachers abandoned their old ways of grading, stopped functioning as editors
for their students, used consistent criteria that were familiar to student writers, and kept their comments to a minimum (brief
marginal notes on what the student had done well plus one short suggestion), that time dropped to just two minutes per
paper—one-fourth the time they had been spending.
Don't get discouraged when you first begin to use the six traits and find it takes you ten minutes to score one paper. Speed
comes with practice, and if you score one paper per day for a month, your efficiency and knowledge of the traits will astound
and encourage you; you will be able to read and score a double-spaced two-page paper on all six traits in about three
minutes—add one minute for a brief comment/and you're done.
ASSESSING TO LEARN
When we think assessment, we usually think grading. But while assessment feeds our grading system, its most important
function by far is to help us understand those things, like writing, that are too complex to teach through mini lessons and
worksheets. As Lucy Calkins (1994) so eloquently points out in her revised edition of The Art of Teaching Writing, we assess
to learn: "If . . . children can't talk easily about texts, they will have a hard time being critical readers of their own or anyone
else's writing" (p. 326). They will also have a difficult time revising. How can you revise something if you do not know whether
it is any good or not?
Learning to look deep within (for that's what assessment is, after all) is essential not only to students' understanding of their
own writing, but to the very act of writing itself. "We teach [students] how to read books," Donald Graves (1994) points out, "but
not how to read their own writing. Unless we show children to read their own writing, their work will not improve." This, then, in
a nutshell is our vision of success: Students who can read their own writing, and who know what to do to make it stronger.
It's easier to see this link to learning if we take assessment out of the classroom altogether and consider how we use it in
everyday life.
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If you're a World Series fan, you watch the pitchers and the batters closely, and over time, you learn what to look for, don't
you? If you've been a pitcher or batter yourself, you watch with an even keener eye. As you drive down the freeway, you watch
the drivers "performing" all around you, and you figure out what to look for there, too. If asked, you could list the traits of good
driving right now, probably—could you not? In fact, you probably applied those criteria and made some judgments about
others' dri-ving the very last time you were out in traffic. The truth is, we use assessment criteria all the time: in choosing books
to read, clothes to wear, candidates to vote for, or even people to marry. Assessment is the key to understanding almost
anything; to say we can write and revise without learning to assess is like saying a surgeon can operate without first making a
diagnosis. Yes, technically, she can, but...
Knowing What to Assess
In writing, as with anything, the trick lies in figuring out what to assess in order to make the most accurate judgments without
overlooking anything important. If someone had asked me during my first years of "teaching whether I used criteria to assess
my students' work/ I would have said/ "Yes/ certainly. Doesn't every good teacher do that?" The "six traits" had yet to be
written down, and I had never held a rubric in my hand—nor, to my knowledge/ ever even heard the word. Yet/1 was quite
sure that my own criteria for assessing writing existed in my head, and that I applied them consistently and fairly in judging
students' work.
To some extent, I was probably right. I look at my own library/ filled with the works of Sandra Cisneros, Wallace Stegner, Larry
McMurtry, Maya Angelou, Tim O'Brien/ Mark Twain, Carl Sagan—and more recently, Walter Dean Myers/ E. Annie Proulx/
Janet Fitch, Karen Hesse, and Toni Morrison. And it seems to me I have always treasured strong/ independent voice, and a
gift for finding significance in the tiniest of details. Surely I looked for those qualities in my students' writing/ too. Or did I? Did I
recognize detail and voice when I saw them? Did I reward those things with praise—or teach my students to look for those
things in others' work or in their own? Sometimes/ probably Maybe. Possibly. One thing I know for sure/ though: I did not
provide my students with any written description of what I was looking for in their writing. If they had a vision of success, they
made it up themselves through inference.
It had not yet occurred to me as a beginning teacher how powerful sharing criteria with students could be. For one thing, I still
thought (unfortunately) that assessment criteria were for me, the assessor. I didn't know yet that we assessed to learn; I was
still assessing to grade, and so did not see any reason to involve students in the process.
But beyond that, putting expectations in writing, especially writing that makes sense to students (and by the way, criteria that
do not speak to students are all but worthless) is hard—as anyone who has tried it will tell you. It demands that you come face
to face with what you value in writing, and that you understand it, for if you don't, you won't be able to describe it in anything
but the vaguest of terms. Had I tried it, I would probably have discovered what most people discover the first time they attempt
to put their own criteria in writing: that I really did not know precisely what I was looking for from my students, even though I
thought I did. Later, when I worked with a teacher team in putting the original six-trait model together, we discovered language
that described things we'd been trying to teach, struggling to teach all along, only we did not know what to call them—things
like voice and fluency. There they were, like old friends, speaking to us from the page; in the words of Yogi Berra, "It was deja
vu all over again" (Lederer, 1994).
Once we had figured out what we were looking for, the next step was to share it with students, so they would know too. We
would put our scoring guides, our rubrics, right into their hands, from day one. We would say, "Here it is. Here's the goal. Now
we're going to help you achieve it." No more mystery. No more black box. As clear and open book as you can make
assessment: That is what six-trait writing is about. You get the answers first.
GOOD ASSESSMENT: HELPING STUDENTS HIT THE TARGET
It's easy to make the teaching of writing sound simple. It's not simple. Not even if you are a champion in the art of processbased writing. Not even if you write yourself. Not even if your room is awash in six-trait posters and rubrics. The teaching of
writing is extraordinary in its demands—but also in its rewards.
Similarly, good writing assessment (which is an important component of instruction, not a separate activity) does not come
about by accident. It's planned. When we judge the quality of our writing assessment, here are seven critical things we should
be looking for all the time (Stiggins, 1996).
Key 1: Making the Target Visible
Students who have their own rubrics know precisely what criteria will be used to assess their work. Then the target is visible—
and thus much easier to hit. Further, they get immediate feedback on their performance, not from the teacher, but from
themselves. Students who can self-assess do not have to wait for some outside authority to tell them whether their
performance is all right. They "read" their writing, as Donald Graves has suggested, and they know.
- "A student who remains dependent on the teacher's grades for evaluation," declares Peter Elbow (1986), "is defectively
taught in a simple, functional sense. He cannot, strictly speaking, do what he was supposedly taught to do because he cannot
do it alone; without help, he cannot tell whether he did it right" (p. 167). Students who are taught to use criteria know when
they are doing well, without waiting for outside confirmation, and when things go wrong, they know what to do about it.
When we present students with clear criteria, we turn on the lights.
Instead of simply saying "Be specific" or "Include more detail," we define what we mean by "detailed writing":
• Details are carefully, selectively chosen to go beyond common knowledge.
• The reader learns something.
• The writing is visual; the reader can picture what the writer is talking about and feels he/she is right at the scene.
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• The reader's questions are answered.
• The writer's knowledge and experience lend the writing authenticity.
Now let's round out the picture with an example that helps the student understand what we're talking about. With younger
writers, you might use this one from Roald Dahl's classic Matilda:
When she marched—Miss Tnmchbull never walked, she always marched like a storm-trooper with long strides and arms
aswinging—when she marched along a corridor you could actually hear her snorting as she went, and if a group of children
happened to be in her path, she ploughed right on through them like a tank, with small people bouncing off her to left and right.
(1988, 67)
Do you see Miss Trunchbull? Of course. A woman who ploughs through small children like a tank is hard to miss. With older
writers, a good example might be this short excerpt from Rick Bragg's All Over But the Shoutin':
You begged the sky for a single cloud. The sun did not shine down, it bored into you, through your hat and hair and skull, until
you could feel it inside your very brain, till little specks of that sun seemed to break away and dance around, just outside your
eyes,(1997,100) Feel the heat? Examples—whether written by professionals or by students themselves—help make criteria
complete.
Key 2: Ensuring That What We Assess Is Important
We should be very careful what we assess because what we assess is what we will get. I often think of my friend and
colleague Barry Lane (author of After THE END and The Reviser's Toolbox) whose high school teacher com-mented on one
piece of his writing "It's nice to read typewritten work." We have to wonder how much time that teacher had spent pondering
what she really wanted to see from her students. Was it really typewriting, or was that just the obvious trait?
As teachers, we usually mean well. We start out intending to teach knowl-edge of foreign capitals, but wind up assessing
another thing altogether— whether the names of the capitals are written horizontally on the page. Or, we may intend to teach
the importance of content and delivery in public speaking skills, but wind up assessing the length of the speech: Did it run the
full four minutes? This tendency to assess the obvious, the readily observable, happens more often than we might like to think.
In Reflections on Assessment, Kathleen and James Strickland caution that "Many rubrics we use are invalid because we don't
score what's important in the real-world application of the content being assessed. Instead we design rubrics to assess what's
easiest to describe rather than what really matters" (81).
As teachers of writing, we may start out meaning to assess content, voice, fluency, or organization (and even go so far as to
tell students this is what we will be looking for) but wind up basing a grade on neatness, choice of topic, use of a pen rather
than a pencil, perceived effort, length, or close adherence to the assignment. In short, the easy things to spot. One teacher
actually gave an F to a third-grade student who had written a clever, original fairy tale—in purple ink; the teacher did not
consider this color appropriate for a serious writing assignment. We might counter that giving a low grade for such a superficial
reason is not appropriate in serious assessment.
Key 3: Ensuring That the Task Matches the Assessment Method
Possible assessment methods include selected response (multiple choice, true-false, matching, and fill-in); essays (which
show in-depth understand-ing sometimes backed by factual knowledge); performance assessments (in which students actually
do something, such as make a speech, or write a persuasive essay); and direct personal communication with the student
(through conferences, interviews, and questionnaires). No one method is in-herently better than another—and often a
combination of approaches over time yields the most complete picture of what a student knows and can do. Although this book
obviously focuses on one specific kind of performance assessment—six-trait analytical writing assessment—other kinds of
assess-ment work for other purposes.
If we want to know whether students can punctuate copy correctly, for instance, we could give them a short editing task: two
punctuation-free paragraphs to prepare for publication. We could also use a multiple-choice test, but it would not give us as
much information about students' ability to apply rules.
If we wish to know whether students can write a critique of a film or craft a short narrative or prepare a persuasive argument
about a newly proposed law, we must give them opportunities to gather information, to write, and to revise and edit their work.
Since performance assessment does not involve "right" or "wrong" an-swers but degrees of proficiency, it requires definitions
of performance along a continuum ranging from beginning levels through proficient. Use of an analytical scoring guide such as
the one presented later helps ensure consistency among ratings of students' work.
Key 4: Sampling Enough to Trust Results
Sampling repeatedly over time instead of hoping one writing sample will "tell all" gives us a more accurate picture and helps
minimize bias. The value of this approach is confirmed by Alan Purves's (1992) ten-year study of primary and secondary
writing within fourteen international school systems, including those in the United States, England, Finland, Wales, Italy, Chile,
Nigeria, and New Zealand. Among this study's many intriguing findings is this conclusion: "To make any assessment of
students' [overall] writing ability, one at least needs multiple samples across the domain" (p. 112). Most of us would agree
without thinking twice, but the "one sample tells all" approach is widely used at district and state levels where funding is scarce
and time short; and at the classroom level, though we know instinctively we need as much information as possible, the reality
of huge class loads makes us ask, "What's reasonable?"
No teacher can reasonably hope to assess dozens of samples of writing per year per student, however much we might wish to
have such thorough information. But on the other hand, a teacher who assessed only one or two samples could not possibly
count on such a small snapshot to tell her whether Mike's writing was strong in voice or whether Emily could plan and conduct
sound research. Somewhere between these hypothetical extremes lies a realistic and valid compromise: a representative
sample of all possibil-ities small enough to manage, yet large enough to yield strong inferences about how well students write.
Probably, because each classroom is different, we'll never come up with a magic formula to tell us precisely how many
samples we need. Yet, there are guidelines to help us. First, we can look at what is being emphasized in the classroom—say
narrative writing or business writing. Then we might say, well, it would be good to have at least two examples of each form of
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writing to assess. More (say three to four), if we wish to show growth over time in one specific form. Smaller assignments
mean less to assess and so, if we wish to look at more than one or two samples per grading period, we should minimize
assignment length in favor of more opportunities to write.
Time must play a factor, too. What is reasonable to demand of student writers and of ourselves as assessors over a 9- or 10week period? Students may write daily, but formal assessment is not likely to occur more than once in two weeks, and even
that is asking a lot of a teacher who has 150+ students to whom he/she must respond.
From four to six samples per grading period will offer us a good minimum (a small body of work) on which to base conclusions
about student performance, and teachers who are able to do more will receive a proportionately more accurate picture of
students' writing skills.
Key 5: Finding Ways to Limit Bias
In performance assessments, many things, including test content and structure, can bias results. Raters' expectations and
cultural preferences are factors, too. Imagine, for instance, an assessment of public speaking skills administered to two very
different groups of children: one culturally predisposed to freely sharing ideas and readily questioning adult authority, the other
predis-posed to exhibiting a quiet demeanor and never challenging an adult speaker. If raters look for a strong, confident
delivery and plenty of eye contact, it is riot difficult to imagine which group will be favored—regardless of the quality of content
in their presentations.
In writing assessment, raters (who most often are teachers but sometimes professional writers or editors) may fail to use
criteria, misinterpret those criteria, place too much emphasis on one factor while disregarding others, or ignore criteria
altogether in favor of some personal basis for making a judgment (e.g., "This student wrote a science fiction piece, and I just
don't like science fiction").
Research cited by Brian Huot (1990) indicates that raters often do not know the reasons behind their responses to a piece of
writing or that they may believe they are responding to such factors as ideas and organization when in truth it is the voice of
the piece or even the rater's own tendency to agree with the writer's point of view that determines the score. Researcher and
writing instructor Paul Diederich (1974) discovered that raters actually scored the very same essays higher when told they had
been written by honors English students. We might also ask ourselves, How often do similar expectations influence our
assessments within the classroom?
A LITTLE SUBJECTIVITY WON'T HURT YOU
We must be cautious about taking the position that subjectivity is somehow inherently wrong, or that it invalidates the
assessment process. There's nothing wrong with subjectivity if it's applied with consistency and intelligence. After all, lots of
things in this world—films, books, restaurants, and performers in the Olympics—are rated subjectively, but we trust those
ratings when they are given by persons with the training, insight, or experience required to make the ratings meaningful. We
wouldn't want writing teachers to judge Olympic skating competition, and we would not ask professional skaters to judge
writing samples.
At the same time, our judgments must be defensible. If I say, "Emily's writing in this piece about quarter horses isn't very good.
It just feels—I don't know—kind of twoish to me," that judgment comes from the sort of intuition-based, crystal ball approach
that has made many teachers suspi-cious of writing assessment—and rightly so. But suppose I say, "Well, Emily spells well
and punctuates correctly, but her paper lacks develop-ment and shifts in focus here . . . and here. Emily's voice shines through
with this humorous anecdote on page 1 but fades on page 3 with these generalizations about the importance of animals in a
person's life." Now my subjectivity is grounded in defensible points that match Emily's text to explicit criteria. Emily (or anyone
else for that matter) has a right to disagree, but at least we have good beginning points for useful discussion.
Further, as Peter Elbow (1986) points out, our subjective reactions can be just what student writers value most. "When we give
our students our frankly acknowledged subjective reactions," says Elbow, "we are treating them with more respect: 'Here are
my reactions; here's the data; you decide what to do with them' " (p. 230).
Key 6: Making Students an Integral Part of the Assessment
Research by Paulette Wasserstein (1995) shows that students learn best when they are challenged, actively engaged, and
asked to be self-reflective: "Hard work does not turn students away, but busywork destroys them" (p. 43). With six-trait
assessment, students are elevated in status; they become part of a writing community in which their opinions about the quality
of writing are frequently, actively sought. It is a good feeling to have your opinion valued. It teaches you to think, and it makes
you feel as if your presence in the class-room might have purpose.
Key 7: Bringing Parents Into the Process, Too
A six-trait, criterion-based assessment model can look suspiciously lenient to parents haunted by memories of the good old
days, when sentences were stretched on racks and the red ink flowed. Too often parents have not had the opportunity—or the
invitation—to question what was truly being assessed in those classrooms of long ago, or to question whether writing
instruction should cover thinking and presentation skills, not just mechanic As teachers, we can show them how six-trait
assessment works by sharing rubrics, and inviting parents into our classrooms to observe and work wit student writers using
writers' language. We can even ask them to write, an to identify the strengths and weaknesses, trait by trait, within their own
writing: an enlightening experience for anyone.
RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY
Degree of consistency (sometimes called reliability) depends on the specificity of the scoring criteria and the quality of the rater
training. When the criteria are highly refined and very explicit, and when the raters are very thoroughly trained and feel
confident in applying those criteria (so confident they could score a paper without even looking at the criteria, but the, look at
the criteria anyway), the likelihood of their scoring consistently rater to rater or paper to paper increases dramatically. This is
9
important not only in large-scale assessment, but in the classroom as well. More so there, in fact because so much more
assessment occurs at the classroom level.
A good assessment of writing is also said to have validity, the closes possible connection with the knowledge or skills we wish
to assess. Four kinds of validity are possible (and you should consider them all as you us< the six-trait model we present in
this text):
Predictive validity: The extent to which performance on the assessment will be a good predictor of performance in a related
context (e.g., in e writing course or a job that requires writing)
Concurrent validity: The extent to which performance on one assessmenl will be a good predictor of performance on another
assessment
Construct validity: The extent to which the assessment measures skills and abilities truly essential to writing competence
Face validity: The extent to which the assessment measures skills and abil-ities that teachers of writing (and employers who
require writing) deem important
FROSTING ON THE CAKE: STUDENT MOTIVATION
Wouldn't it be terrific—as long as we're creating a vision here—if our students could feel engaged, motivated, inspired to write,
and confident enough to take risks? Many students simply do not like to write, are afraid to write, or feel they have nothing
important to say. Perhaps engagement is too much to hope for—or is it?
When we ask students to be critics, to use criteria in assessing the work of others, we show respect for their opinions and their
thinking. And we discover something interesting: Students like being assessors. They like being the ones to say for a change
what works and what doesn't. The result? Not only do writing and revising skills improve, but motivation and enthusiasm go up
as well.
In a recent analysis of this question, Richard Strong and others (Strong, Silver, and Robinson, 1995) suggest three factors
essential to student motivation.
• We must clearly articulate the criteria for success and provide char, immediate and constructive feedback.
• We must show students that the skills they need to be successful are within their grasp by clearly and systematically
modeling those skills.
• We must help students see success as a valuable aspect of their personalities. We do all three with six-trait assessment.
Rubrics define success in student friendly language. The immediate feedback is there if students are taught to understand the
criteria within the rubric and look for features like fluency or a strong lead in their work. As we'll see when we talk about
weaving traits into instruction, modeling is key. We recommend not only sharing strong and weak pieces of writing, but
modeling the writing process itself through the sharing of your own writing and your thinking about that writ-ing. And finally,
analytical scoring offers every student an opportunity for success. Instead of assessing just one big "whole"—writing—we offer
six traits, six chances to do well.
Multiple Chances for Success
This multiple-trait scoring and the performance profile it generates are important because every writer's work is so different.
We're not all crackerjack editors; we do not all have powerhouse voices. But we all do something well. Rocky is a case in
point. Rocky had not experienced much success with writing in his early years of school, and had not enjoyed many positive
comments from teachers. Negative comments and multiple corrections taught Rocky an important lesson: Don't write too
much. Keep it short. Get in and get out; then, they can't hurt you too much.
Then, he had an opportunity to make friends with Harry, the school custodian. From all indications, this was an enormous
boost to Rocky's spirit. In addition, Rocky encountered a teacher who encouraged him to write, to ex-press himself. From this
kernel of success grew the courage to write more than a line or two—to actually express himself on paper and, not
surprisingly, he chose the topic that was important to him at the time: his friend, Harry.
Harry is the one that made me stop fighting help me focus and do my work.
Ever sense I've been friends with Harry I've got all As &? Bs on my report cards. He's brought me to his camp, brought me
fishing, let me sleep over his house I think hes the best friend a kid could have.
He brought me to eat at a restaurant in Wiscasset. He bought me an carereokey isn't that so nice. Harry and I play the gutar
together my gutar is alatrek his I have know idea. Harry plays like the greatest singer there is. I help Harry at lunch time he
let's me help him dump trays.
The day Harry and I stop being friends is the day I die, and that's along time from now.
from Rocky, Grade 4
Rocky's paper contains a number of conventional errors. But this is not what his teacher chose to focus on. She chose to
focus on the details and the voice. Her positive comments let Rocky know that in two important ways, sharing a complete story
and letting the reader in to share his feelings, he had indeed succeeded. "I can write/' was his response. He certainly can. And
we hope he continues.
NOT EXPECTING TOO MUCH
No assessment can answer all our questions, yet we often act as if it could. We expect assessment, especially large-scale
assessment, to magically improve performance, when the reality is that only instruction can do that. If assessment alone were
the key, we would need only to weigh ourselves daily to lose weight. Would that it were so. If you think this sounds silly, ask
yourself what it is we do when our student writers do not perform as we feel they should. That's right. We assess more often,
make our standards more rigorous, heighten our expectations. Well, then, perhaps if we weighed ourselves hourly...
As we look at the results from large-scale writing assessment, we should also keep in mind that while they can be good—even
excellent—indicators of how students as a group (all fourth graders in a district or state, for instance) are performing, they are
10
of limited value in determining either over-all quality of instruction across a group or the nature of individual performance. Only
a pre-post format can determine whether quality instruction is occurring across a given group, since too many factors prior to
one isolated assessment will determine how students perform on that particular test of writing—just as prior events determine
how we cook or drive or speak publicly on a given day.
A pre-post assessment—assuming it is well-conceived, carefully administered, and not overly restrictive in terms of prompt
choice or time restraints—will show a very great deal about growth in writing across a group, and if it is quality of instruction we
wish to look at, we must stop trying to do that with single-assessment indicators and get serious about set-ting up the kind of
pre-post assessment that will provide the information we need. We must look at where students (as a group) begin in their
writing performance (the pre-test)—and then at how far instruction across a given period takes them (growth, as measured by
the post-test). We must be sure that our assessment process matches—at least in a general way—the writing process within
the classroom, that students have opportunity for revision (the heart and soul of good writing), and that the prompts are both
clear and relevant to students' experience.
As for individual performance, a single measure gives us a good guess about overall performance—nothing more. And this is
so even when all the essential components are in place: good prompts, choice of prompts, time to write and revise, time
between writing and revision, sound criteria tested and retested over time, criteria provided to students during the assessment,
access to writing tools such as dictionaries or handbooks during the assess-ment, prior related instruction, outstanding training
for highly qualified raters, review training during the assessment, a knowledgeable and quali-fied scoring director, and
frequent, repeated checks for rater bias (beginning with review of the prompt and all assessment procedures).
We must also be willing to recognize that even under ideal conditions, countless factors other than writing proficiency can
influence individual performance—making our interpretation of results tricky at best. Here are just a handful: a student's
understanding of or personal response to the prompt, his or her attitude toward the teacher administering the test, time allotted
for writing and revision, what may be happening in that child's personal life, attitudes of the raters, quality of the criteria, a good
match between the prompt and the criteria, skill of the raters in interpreting the criteria accurately, time allowed for thorough
assessment, absence of dis-tractions (e.g., noise) during assessment, absence of any bias (racial, ethnic, content, contextual,
experiential, etc.) on the part of raters and prompt writers, and far from least, the general philosophy of the scoring director, or
the person who trains the raters.
This person can literally cause the whole atmosphere of an assessment scoring session to shift—through such things as an
overly heavy or minimal emphasis on conventions, over-attention to word choice, under-valuation of content and detail, or
scoring based on factors that have nothing to do with writing ability per se, such as the child's perceived adherence to the
precise requirements of the prompt. I say perceived because many papers (way too many) judged as "off topic" are in reality
highly individual, even ingenious, responses to a topic that was hopelessly unclear or needed some serious tweaking in the
first place to hold anyone's attention. Prompts are not holy writ. They're invitations to write, nothing more. Often, students who
wander "off topic" are penalized for interpreting a prompt in an individual way or for thinking in an original manner, the very
thing our instruction seeks (or should seek) to promote.
No wonder teachers so often say, when they receive their students' writing samples back from scoring, "These samples do not
reflect my students best writing." They are right. Their students may have been inhibited by mind-numbing topics or perhaps
had to complete all their writing within , fixed time that was ridiculously short. It's highly unlikely they had time to research or
explore a topic in a way that would do it justice, or to talk with other writers about their work. "Revision," while often
encouraged or even required, is usually, in reality, simply recopying to make the piece neater, longer, or both.
Over a very large group of test takers, or over a series of writing performances by a single test taker, factors (other than writing
skill per se) that influence performance tend to balance out because all students have "good' writing days and "bad" writing
days. But it is risky—highly risky—to make major judgments, such as whether a student should go to the next academic level,
on the basis of a single sample.
We must not ask more of our assessments than they can give. They are snapshots and cannot be more. Let us not award
them the status of biographical documentaries.
The Difference 6 Traits Can Make
Six-trait assessment and instruction can make a difference in students' writing performance .not only at the classroom level but
on large-scale measures of writing proficiency. This is so because students who know what writing is all about feel confident,
know how to plan both a draft and a revision of that draft, and are likely to be a little speedier in doing both. These days, speed
seems to be a common criterion for judging writing proficiency—perhaps because we do everything faster now, including
shopping, eating, talking, and driving. How this came about, this reverence for speed, I am not sure, but I do not feel its overall
impact on assessment is a good one. It creates stress, for one thing. But beyond this, writing is not by nature a speedy activity,
but a reflective one. Until we recognize that, our measurements cannot dip beneath the superficial. That being said, though,
it's time for practicality: The tests are here. They are upon us. And we must find ways to help our students survive. We must
teach them to
• Interpret prompts thoughtfully
• Understand differences among modes of writing (e.g., narrative vs. informational), so they know what is being asked of
them
• Assemble their thoughts and respond quickly to the question being asked
• Understand what good writing is (through the six traits), so they will have the best possible shot at creating something
readable
Notice, please: This is not my recipe for high quality writing instruction; it is a recipe for surviving when you're thrown into the
pool at the deep end and someone is watching to see how you do.
11
Someday
When we speak of a "vision of success," we generally mean a vision we share with students so they will know what we mean
by quality writing performance. Just for a moment, though, let's broaden the definition to include our own vision of the
seamless integration of assessment and instruc-tion, especially how that integration might look if student success were the
driving force behind it. Someday—in the world of Ideal Assessment—
1. Criteria will be clear, written in student friendly language, and care-fully aligned with the traits or qualities teachers and
professional writers value in good text.
2. Those criteria will be shared with teachers at all grade levels and taught to students from kindergarten on up—not three or
six weeks prior to testing, but all the time, as an integral part of the curriculum.
3. Criteria will be consistent from grade to grade, class to class, teacher to teacher—and will not be alarmingly different from
what is emphasized on any district, state or national test of writing.
4. Criteria will be shared with parents, too, so they can support a system that teaches their students to think critically about
writing and to re-vise their writing for audience and purpose.
5. Self-assessment will be a major focus of the writing curriculum, mak-ing revision a logical step, not an imposed torture.
6. Students will self-assess during the writing process—not wait for the teacher to assess after the fact when it is too late to do
anything about identified problems in the writing.
7. Grades or scores will almost never be a surprise because students will know without any outside intervention whether their
writing is good.
8. Formal writing assessment will model classroom writing instruction, with time for gathering information, shaping thoughts,
drafting, shar-ing, revising, editing, and proofreading.
9. In the classroom, students will write sometimes on topics of their choosing, but will also learn to interpret and personalize
(as appropriate) assigned topics. In large-scale assessment, students will have choices among prompts and will be
encouraged to come to an assess-ment with a preaccepted prompt of their own choosing, if they prefer.
10. Ability to present coherent ideas in a logical fashion and to address the informational needs of an audience will be valued
above following di-rections, and the concept of "off-topic" will go the way of the Dodo bird.
11. Everyone who participates in the creation of a large-scale assessment or the use of its results will also participate by
submitting an anonymous writing sample to be assessed. I do mean everyone, including teachers, administrators, prompt
writers, and legislators. How can we possibly presume to judge whether an assessment is reliable and valid, or whether our
assessment procedures are sound, unless we undergo the assessment process ourselves and allow our own performance to
come under scrutiny?
12. All large-scale assessment results will be reviewed by an interpret panel comprising classroom teachers, teacher-raters,
administrate curriculum specialists, prompt writers, parents, and the scoring director for the assessment. Together, these
people will discuss how the assessment process worked, whether and how it could be improved, what the results meant, and
how curriculum within the building district or state could better serve student writers.
13. High stakes conclusions—e.g., How well writing teachers or schools are performing—will be based on the careful
assessment of multiple writing samples collected over the duration of the instructional year. (Additional factors, including
teacher observation, will naturally be included in any such evaluation.)
14. Teachers will focus on making students lifelong learners and writers-not just on helping them survive the "writing test."
15. Students will not lie awake the night prior to a writing assessment about to cry when they stare at a sheet of blank paper
or glaze over in bewilderment when they cannot figure out what a poorly worded prompt is asking of them. Instead, they will
walk into any assessment situation any time, any place, with the confidence that only comes from knowing that you write well
enough to meet head on any assessment they can throw at you.
12
ISAT WRITING RUBRIC GR 3 EXPOSITORY
Focus
6
•
•
•
•
5
•
•
•
•
4
•
•
•
•
3
•
•
•
•
•
Sets purpose of composition in
introduction through either a
thematic introduction or specific
preview
Maintains position/logic
throughout
If previewed, each point is
addressed
Effective closing (may be
restatement of points in the
introduction)
Subject/position (or issue) clear,
identified by at least an opening
statement (may be general)
Sufficient Support to maintain
subject (cannot be a giant Focus)
If previewed, each point is
addressed
Maintains position/logic
throughout – separate ideas
Has closing
Subject may be prompt-dependent
(rely upon reader’s familiarity with
the prompt); position (or issue)
may require reader inference;
writer launches into topic without
providing an opening statement
If previewed, may develop fewer
or more points than delineated in
opening (over-promise or overdeliver)
Minor Focus drift or lapse in logic
(not really separate ideas –
repetitious)
May lack closing
Subject/position (or issue) may
lack clarity
Multiple positions without a
unifying umbrella statement
Off-mode response NOT serving
expository purpose
Lacks sufficiency to demonstrate a
developed Focus
Support
•
•
•
•
Organization
Most major points supported with
specific detail; some may be
developed with more detail than
others (not balanced or even)
Some development of depth
Word choice may enhance specificity
Voice is appropriate for topic,
purpose, and audience
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Some Support developed by specific
details (i.e., second-order ideas
beyond major point); some may be
general
Attempt to develop depth
Voice is appropriate for topic,
purpose, and audience
•
•
Most Support may be general
May include list of specifics with
some extensions
Little depth
Little evidence of suitable voice
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Most Support is general or
underdeveloped
Consists of a list of unrelated specifics
without extensions
Lacks sufficiency to demonstrate
developed Support
No evidence of suitable voice
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
2
•
•
•
Subject/position (or issue) is vague
Unrelated ideas or major drift from
Focus
May be insufficient writing to
determine that subject/issue (or
position) can be sustained
•
•
•
Attempt at Support is made
May be confusing, unclear, or
redundant/repetitious
May be insufficient writing to
determine that Support can be
maintained
•
•
•
Integration
Structure is evident
Major points are appropriately
paragraphed
Coherence and cohesion
demonstrated through some
appropriate use of devices such as
transitions, pronouns, causal
linkage, parallel structure, etc.
Varied sentence structure produces
some cohesion
•
•
Fully-developed for grade level
Clear and purposeful Focus; indepth Support; lines of reasoning
identified and developed
coherently and/or cohesively
throughout the composition
Structure is evident
Most major points are
appropriately paragraphed
Coherence and some cohesion
evident (sentence to sentence),
may depend on formulaic structure
Most transitions are appropriate
May have minor digressions
•
•
Developed for grade level
All features are not equally well
developed throughout the pap
Structure is noticeable; reader may
still have to infer it
Some structure within paragraphs
(e.g., some purposeful ordering of
sentences)
Some major points are
appropriately paragraphed
Has some evidence of coherence
(paragraph to paragraph), may
depend on formulaic structure
If present, transitions may be
simplistic or redundant, but not
intrusive
May have minor digressions
Structure is attempted, but the
reader must work hard to infer it
Off-Mode response NOT serving
the Expository purpose
May have major digressions
May have inappropriate or
intrusive transitions
May have little evidence of
appropriate paragraphing
May have little structure within
paragraphs (e.g., lacks purposeful
ordering of sentences)
Lacks sufficiency to demonstrate
developed Organization
Confusing
Structure may be attempted but
with little success (random
presentation of ideas)
May be insufficient writing to
determine that Organization can be
sustained
•
Bare-bones-developed
composition for grade level
Simple, clear, presenting nothing
more than the essentials
Limited depth
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
1
•
•
Subject/position (or issue) absent
Insufficient writing to meet criteria
•
•
Support is absent
Insufficient writing to show that
criteria are met specificity.
•
•
Very confusing; little or no
attempt at structure
Insufficient writing to meet criteria
•
•
Conventions
13
Partially developed
Some (or one) of the features may
not be sufficiently formed, but all
are present
Lacks appropriate expository
structure
Inference is usually required
Attempts to address the
assignment, but only rudiments of
techniques for forming Focus,
Support, and Organization can be
detected
Some confusion and/or
disjointedness
May be insufficient writing to
determine that features can be
maintained
Does not fulfill the assignment;
barely deals with the topic; does
not present most or all of the
features
Insufficient writing to show that
criteria are met
3
•
•
•
•
Strong knowledge of conventions is demonstrated
Standards of punctuation, capitalization. and spelling are consistently followed – may have minor lapses
May have minor errors in usage and sentence formation
A variety of sentence structures is evident
2
•
•
•
Partial knowledge of conventions is evident
Severity and density of errors constitute a noticeable pattern
Little attempt at varying sentence structures
1
•
•
•
Little or no discernable knowledge of conventions
Severity and density of errors is such that meaning is impaired
Sentence structure is simplistic or in error
14
THE COMPLETE 6+1 TRAITS OF WRITING RUBRIC
IDEAS AND CONTENT
(Development)
5
This paper is clear and focused. It holds the reader's attention. Relevant
anecdotes and details enrich the central theme.
A. The topic is narrow and manageable.
B. Relevant, telling, quality details give the reader important information that goes
beyond the obvious or predictable.
C. Reasonably accurate details are present to support the main ideas.
D. The writer seems to be writing from knowledge or experience; the ideas are fresh
and original.
E. The reader’s questions are anticipated and answered.
F. Insight—an understanding of life and a knack for picking out what is significant—is
an indicator of high level performance, though not required.
3
The writer is beginning to define the topic, even though development is
still basic or general.
A. The topic is fairly broad; however, you can see where the writer is headed.
B. Support is attempted, but doesn't go far enough yet in fleshing out the key issues or
story line.
C. Ideas are reasonably clear, though they may not be detailed, personalized, accurate,
or expanded enough to show indepth understanding or a strong sense of purpose.
D. The writer seems to be drawing on knowledge or experience, but has difficulty going
from general observations to specifics.
E. The reader is left with questions. More information is needed to "fill in the blanks."
F. The writer generally stays on the topic but does not develop a clear theme. The
writer has not yet focused the topic past the obvious.
1
As yet, the paper has no clear sense of purpose or central theme. To
extract meaning from the text, the reader must make inferences based on
sketchy or missing details. The writing reflects more than one of these
problems:
A. The writer is still in search of a topic, brainstorming, or has not yet decided what the
main idea of the piece will be.
B. Information is limited or unclear or the length is not adequate for development.
C. The idea is a simple restatement of the topic or an answer to the question with little
or no attention to detail.
D. The writer has not begun to define the topic in a meaningful, personal way.
E. Everything seems as important as everything else; the reader has a hard time
sifting out what is important.
F. The text may be repetitious, or may read like a collection of disconnected, random
thoughts with no discernable point.
ORGANIZATION
5
The organization enhances and showcases the central idea or theme. The
order, structure, or presentation of information is compelling and moves
the reader through the text.
A. An inviting introduction draws the reader in; a satisfying conclusion leaves the
reader with a sense of closure and resolution.
B. Thoughtful transitions clearly show how ideas connect.
C. Details seem to fit where they're placed; sequencing is logical and effective.
D. Pacing is well controlled; the writer knows when to slow down and elaborate, and
when to pick up the pace and move on.
E. The title, if desired, is original and captures the central theme of the piece.
F. Organization flows so smoothly the reader hardly thinks about it; the choice of
structure matches the purpose and audience.
3
The organizational structure is strong enough to move the reader through
the text without too much confusion.
A. The paper has a recognizable introduction and conclusion. The introduction may
15
not create a strong sense of anticipation; the conclusion may not tie-up all loose ends.
B. Transitions often work well; at other times, connections between ideas are fuzzy.
C. Sequencing shows some logic, but not under control enough that it consistently
supports the ideas. In fact, sometimes it is so predictable and rehearsed that the
structure takes attention away from the content.
D. Pacing is fairly well controlled, though the writer sometimes lunges ahead too
quickly or spends too much time on details that do not matter.
E. A title (if desired) is present, although it may be uninspired or an obvious
restatement of the prompt or topic.
F. The organization sometimes supports the main point or storyline; at other times,
the reader feels an urge to slip in a transition or move things around.
1
The writing lacks a clear sense of direction. Ideas, details, or events seem
strung together in a loose or random fashion; there is no identifiable
internal structure. The writing reflects more than one of these problems:
A. There is no real lead to set-up what follows, no real conclusion to wrap things up.
B. Connections between ideas are confusing or not even present.
C. Sequencing needs lots and lots of work.
D. Pacing feels awkward; the writer slows to a crawl when the reader wants to get on
with it, and vice versa.
E. No title is present (if requested) or, if present, does not match well with the content.
F. Problems with organization make it hard for the reader to get a grip on the main
point or story line.
VOICE
5
The writer speaks directly to the reader in a way that is individual,
compelling and engaging. The writer crafts the writing with an awareness
and respect for the audience and the purpose for writing.
A. The tone of the writing adds interest to the message and is appropriate for the
purpose and audience.
B. The reader feels a strong interaction with the writer, sensing the person behind the
words.
C. The writer takes a risk by revealing who he or she is consistently throughout the
piece.
D. Expository or persuasive writing reflects a strong commitment to the topic by
showing why the reader needs to know this and why he or she should care.
E. Narrative writing is honest, personal, and engaging and makes you think about,
and react to, the author’s ideas and point of view.
3
The writer seems sincere but not fully engaged or involved. The result is
pleasant or even personable, but not compelling.
A. The writer seems aware of an audience but discards personal insights in favor of
obvious generalities.
B. The writing communicates in an earnest, pleasing, yet safe manner.
C. Only one or two moments here or there intrigue, delight, or move the reader. These
places may emerge strongly for a line or two, but quickly fade away.
D. Expository or persuasive writing lacks consistent engagement with the topic to
build credibility.
E. Narrative writing is reasonably sincere, but doesn’t reflect unique or individual
perspective on the topic.
1
The writer seems indifferent, uninvolved, or distanced from the topic
and/or the audience. As a result, the paper reflects more than one of the
following problems:
A. The writer is not concerned with the audience. The writer’s style is a complete
mismatch for the intended reader or the writing is so short that little is accomplished
beyond introducing the topic.
B. The writer speaks in a kind of monotone that flattens all potential highs or lows of the
message.
C. The writing is humdrum and “risk-free.”
D. The writing is lifeless or mechanical; depending on the topic, it may be overly
technical or jargonistic.
E. The development of the topic is so limited that no point of view is present—zip,
zero, zilch, nada.
16
WORD CHOICE
5
Words convey the intended message in a precise, interesting, and natural
way. The words are powerful and engaging.
A. Words are specific and accurate. It is easy to understand just what the writer means.
B. Striking words and phrases often catch the reader's eye and linger in the reader's
mind.
C. Language and phrasing is natural, effective, and appropriate for the audience.
D. Lively verbs add energy while specific nouns and modifiers add depth.
E. Choices in language enhance the meaning and clarify understanding.
F. Precision is obvious. The writer has taken care to put just the right word or phrase in
just the right spot.
3
The language is functional, even if it lacks much energy. It is easy to
figure out the writer's meaning on a general level.
A. Words are adequate and correct in a general sense, and they support the meaning
by not getting in the way.
B. Familiar words and phrases communicate but rarely capture the reader's
imagination.
C. Attempts at colorful language show a willingness to stretch and grow but
sometimes reach beyond the audience (thesaurus overload!).
D. Despite a few successes, the writing is marked by passive verbs, everyday nouns,
and mundane modifiers.
E. The words and phrases are functional with only one or two fine moments.
F. The words may be refined in a couple of places, but the language looks more like
the first thing that popped into the writer’s mind.
1
The writer demonstrates a limited vocabulary or has not searched for
words to convey specific meaning.
A. Words are so nonspecific and distracting that only a very limited meaning comes
through.
B. Problems with language leave the reader wondering. Many of the words just don’t
work in this piece.
C. Audience has not been considered. Language is used incorrectly making the
message secondary to the misfires with the words.
D. Limited vocabulary and/or misused parts of speech seriously impair understanding.
E. Words and phrases are so unimaginative and lifeless that they detract from the
meaning.
F. Jargon or clichés distract or mislead. Redundancy may distract the reader.
SENTENCE FLUENCY
5
The writing has an easy flow, rhythm, and cadence. Sentences are well
built, with strong and varied structure that invites expressive oral reading.
A. Sentences are constructed in a way that underscores and enhances the meaning.
B. Sentences vary in length as well as structure. Fragments, if used, add style.
Dialogue, if present, sounds natural.
C. Purposeful and varied sentence beginnings add variety and energy.
D. The use of creative and appropriate connectives between sentences and thoughts
shows how each relates to, and builds upon, the one before it.
E. The writing has cadence; the writer has thought about the sound of the words as well
as the meaning. The first time you read it aloud is a breeze.
3
The text hums along with a steady beat, but tends to be more pleasant or
businesslike than musical, more mechanical than fluid.
A. Although sentences may not seem artfully crafted or musical, they get the job done
in a routine fashion.
B. Sentences are usually constructed correctly; they hang together; they are sound.
C. Sentence beginnings are not ALL alike; some variety is attempted.
D. The reader sometimes has to hunt for clues (e.g., connecting words and phrases like
however, therefore, naturally, after a while, on the other hand, to be specific, for
example, next, first of all, later, but as it turned out, although, etc.) that show how
sentences interrelate.
E. Parts of the text invite expressive oral reading; others may be stiff, awkward,
choppy, or gangly.
1
The reader has to practice quite a bit in order to give this paper a fair
17
interpretive reading. The writing reflects more than one of the following
problems:
A. Sentences are choppy, incomplete, rambling or awkward; they need work.
Phrasing does not sound natural. The patterns may create a sing-song rhythm, or a
chop-chop cadence that lulls the reader to sleep.
B. There is little to no “sentence sense” present. Even if this piece was flawlessly
edited, the sentences would not hang together.
C. Many sentences begin the same way—and may follow the same patterns (e.g.,
subject-verb-object) in a monotonous pattern.
D. Endless connectives (and, and so, but then, because, and then, etc.) or a complete
lack of connectives create a massive jumble of language.
E. The text does not invite expressive oral reading.
CONVENTIONS
5
The writer demonstrates a good grasp of standard writing conventions (e.g.,
spelling, punctuation, capitalization, grammar, usage, paragraphing) and uses
conventions effectively to enhance readability. Errors tend to be so few that just
minor touch-ups would get this piece ready to publish.
A. Spelling is generally correct, even on more difficult words.
B. The punctuation is accurate, even creative, and guides the reader through the text.
C. A thorough understanding and consistent application of capitalization skills are present.
D. Grammar and usage are correct and contribute to clarity and style.
E. Paragraphing tends to be sound and reinforces the organizational structure.
F. The writer may manipulate conventions for stylistic effect—and it works! The piece is very
close to being ready to publish.
3
GRADES 7 AND UP ONLY: The writing is sufficiently complex to allow the writer to show skill in using a wide
range of conventions. For writers at younger ages, the writing shows control over those conventions that are
grade/age appropriate.
The writer shows reasonable control over a limited range of standard writing
conventions. Conventions are sometimes handled well and enhance readability;
at other times, errors are distracting and impair readability.
A. Spelling is usually correct or reasonably phonetic on common words, but more difficult
words are problematic.
B. End punctuation is usually correct; internal punctuation (commas, apostrophes,
semicolons, dashes, colons, parentheses) is sometimes missing/wrong.
C. Most words are capitalized correctly; control over more sophisticated capitalization skills
may be spotty.
D. Problems with grammar or usage are not serious enough to distort meaning but may not
be correct or accurately applied all of the time.
E. Paragraphing is attempted but may run together or begin in the wrong places.
F. Moderate editing (a little of this, a little of that) would be required to polish the text for publication.
1
Errors in spelling, punctuation, capitalization, usage, and grammar and/or
paragraphing repeatedly distract the reader and make the text difficult to read.
The writing reflects more than one of these problems:
A. Spelling errors are frequent, even on common words.
B. Punctuation (including terminal punctuation) is often missing or incorrect.
C. Capitalization is random and only the easiest rules show awareness of correct use.
D. Errors in grammar or usage are very noticeable, frequent, and affect meaning.
E. Paragraphing is missing, irregular, or so frequent (every sentence) that it has no
relationship to the organizational structure of the text.
F. The reader must read once to decode, then again for meaning. Extensive editing (virtually
every line) would be required to polish the text for publication.
PRESENTATION
(optional)
5
The form and presentation of the text enhances the ability for the reader to
understand and connect with the message. It is pleasing to the eye.
A. If handwritten (either cursive or printed), the slant is consistent, letters are clearly formed,
spacing is uniform between words, and the text is easy to read.
B. If word-processed, there is appropriate use of fonts and font sizes which invites the reader into
the text.
18
C. The use of white space on the page (spacing, margins, etc.) allows the intended audience to
easily focus on the text and message without distractions. There is just the right amount of
balance of white space and text on the page. The formatting suits the purpose for writing.
D. The use of a title, side heads, page numbering, bullets, and evidence of correct use of a style
sheet (when appropriate) makes it easy for the reader to access the desired information and text.
These markers allow the hierarchy of information to be clear to the reader.
E. When appropriate to the purpose and audience, there is effective integration of text and
illustrations, charts, graphs, maps, tables, etc. There is clear alignment between the text and
visuals. The visuals support and clarify important information or key points made in the text.
3
The writer’s message is understandable in this format.
A. Handwriting is readable, although there may be discrepancies in letter shape and form, slant,
and spacing that may make some words or passages easier to read than others.
B. Experimentation with fonts and font sizes is successful in some places, but begins to get fussy
and cluttered in others. The effect is not consistent throughout the text.
C. While margins may be present, some text may crowd the edges. Consistent spacing is applied,
although a different choice may make text more accessible (e.g., single, double, or triple spacing).
D. Although some markers are present (titles, numbering, bullets, side heads, etc.), they are not used
to their fullest potential as a guide for the reader to access the greatest meaning from the text.
E. An attempt is made to integrate visuals and the text although the connections may be limited.
1
The reader receives a garbled message due to problems relating to the presentation
of the text.
A. Because the letters are irregularly slanted, formed inconsistently, or incorrectly, and the spacing is
unbalanced or not even present, it is very difficult to read and understand the text.
B. The writer has gone wild with multiple fonts and font sizes. It is a major distraction to the
reader.
C. The spacing is random and confusing to the reader. There may be little or no white space on
the page.
D. Lack of markers (title, page numbering, bullets, side heads, etc.) leave the reader wondering
how one section connects to another and why the text is organized in this manner on the page.
E. The visuals do not support or further illustrate key ideas presented in the text. They may
be misleading, indecipherable, or too complex to be understood.
©Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory
19
STUDENT-FRIENDLY SCORING GUIDE TO THE SIX TRAITS OF WRITING
Ideas and Content
5
It's clear, focused, jam-packed with details, and holds the reader's attention.
My topic is small enough to handle.
•
•
•
•
•
3
Interesting tidbits give the reader important information.
Accurate details support the main idea(s).
You can tell I know a LOT about this topic.
I've thought of readers' questions and answered them.
This paper might even show some insight!
It has its intriguing moments, but the
development is still basic or general.
•
•
•
•
•
•
1
My topic might be a little too big.
It could use more details.
Ideas are clearer in my head than on the paper.
My information seems pretty general rather than specific.
The reader might still have some questions.
I've stayed on the topic, but don't really have a message
I'm just figuring out what I want to say.
•
•
•
I just don't know enough about this topic yet.
It's hard to picture anything.
I'm still thinking on paper—looking for an idea.
Organization
5
Clear and compelling direction makes
reading a BREEZE.
•
•
•
•
My beginning gets you hooked.
Every detail is in the right place.
You won't feel lost.
My paper ends at just the right spot—and it leaves you thinking.
•
•
•
You can follow it pretty well.
I have a beginning.
Most details fit where I put them.
The paper has an ending, but it needs some work.
3
1
•
•
•
Where are we headed? You could get dizzy trying to follow this.
Beginning? Oops...
My ideas seem scrambled, jumbled, confusing— even to me.
It doesn't have a real ending. It just stops.
Voice
5
I've put my personal stamp on this paper!
•
•
•
•
•
I speak right to my readers.
My paper shines with personality and confidence.
Tone and voice are appropriate for my purpose and audience.
Narrative seems honest, personal, and written from the heart.
Expository or persuasive reflects a strong commitment to the topic by showing why the reader should
20
•
•
3
know or care about it.
This will make you think. You'll want to talk about it with others.
What I truly think and feel shows up sometimes.
• My personality pokes through here and there.
• I play it safe and don't risk revealing too much of myself.
• Narrative is sincere, but not passionate. Expository or persuasive might not be too convincing.
• Right on the edge of finding my own voice: strong in places, vague in others.
I
I'm not comfortable letting the real me show through.
• It could be hard to tell who wrote this.
• I kept my feelings in check.
• Safe and careful—that's my paper.
• Audience? What audience?
• No point of view is reflected.
Word Choice
5 I picked just the right words to express my ideas and feelings.
• Every word seems exactly right: specific and accurate.
• The words create pictures that linger in your mind.
• Colorful, fresh and snappy—yet nothing's overdone.
• Striking words and phrases catch your eye.
• Lively verbs, precise nouns, and descriptive modifiers.
• Accurate and precise: that's me!
3 It might not tweak your imagination, but hey—it gets the message across.
• Words are adequate and correct, but not very original.
• My words communicate, but they seldom create pictures in your mind.
• I might have over-utilized my thesaurus...
• I used quite a few passive verbs and everyday nouns, adjectives, and adverbs.
• I didn't revise much for word choice. What you see is pretty much the first thing that popped into my head.
• It's functional, with only a moment or two of sparkle.
1
My reader is likely to ask, "Huh?"
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
I'm a victim of vague wording and fuzzy phrasing.
It's hard to picture what I'm talking about.
Maybe I misused a word or two...
My vocabulary is limited and/or I've misused words.
Some redundant words and phrases might be redundant; too many
clichés.
The words just don't work in this piece.
Sentence Fluency
5 My sentences have flow, rhythm, cadence, and
variety of length. They're a treat to read aloud.
•
•
•
•
My sentence structure helps make the meaning clear.
Sentences vary in length and structure. Some are long and stretchy; others short and snappy.
Purposeful sentence beginnings add variety and energy.
The writing has cadence. It's easy to read aloud.
3 My sentences are clear and readable.
• Even though the sentences are more mechanical than musical, they get the job done.
• Some sentences could be combined; others should be cut in two.
21
•
•
•
Yeah, I got into a rut with those sentence beginnings.
You might not see how sentences interrelate.
When reading aloud, some parts are smooth and natural; other parts are a bit bumpy.
1 I have to admit, it's a challenge to read aloud.
• Sentences are choppy, incomplete, rambling, and/or awkward; they don't sound natural.
• Little or no "sentence sense" here.
• Lots of my sentences start the same way or follow the same pattern.
• Too many connectives (and, and so, but then, because, and then, etc.)—or so few that it's confusing.
• You probably wouldn't want to read this aloud.
Conventions
5 I made so few errors, it would be a snap getting this ready to publish!
• Spelling to knock your socks off.
• Great punctuation guides you through the text.
• Capitals are in the right places.
• You won't be distracted by incorrect grammar or usage.
• Paragraphs are indented (or spaced) and in the right places.
• This piece is VERY close to being ready to publish.
.
3 Some bothersome mistakes show up when I read carefully.
• Spelling's correct on SIMPLE words.
• Yeah, you might stumble over my innovative punctuation.
• Capitals are mostly there.
• I attempted paragraphing, although it may not have been done correctly.
• Grammar's O.K., though not award-winning.
• Moderate editing is still needed to get this piece ready to publish.
1 Read once to decode, then again for meaning.
•
•
•
•
•
Look out four spelling mistakes.
Punctuation errors make the going rough.
I've forgotten some CAPS—otherS aren't needed.
Errors in grammar and usage affect meaning.
This piece needs extensive editing.
22
Abbreviated One Page Rubric
5
4
3
2
1
Total pts
Ideas/
Content
Clear, focused,
and interesting.
Holds the
reader’s attention.
Relevant
detail enriches
the central idea.
Clear and focused,
but not
as interesting
as a top-scoring
paper. Support
could be
stronger.
May have a focus
but lacks
clarity or
changes
midpaper. Details
may not directly
support
the main ideas.
The paper lacks
a central idea or
purpose or
forces the
reader to make
inferences
based on very
sketchy details.
=
Organization
Organization
enhances the
central idea or
theme. The
structure is
compelling,
moving the
reader through
the text.
The organization
is clear but
perhaps formulaic.
Clear and focused,
though
may not be
captivating.
Support
is attempted
but may be limited
or out of
balance with
main ideas.
The reader can
readily follow
what’s being
said, but the
overall organization
may sometimes
be ineffective
or too
obvious.
At times, the
reader has difficulty following
the ideas
because
of lapses
in organization.
=
Voice
The writer
speaks directly
to the reader in
a way that is
individualistic
and
engaged. Clearly
the writer is
involved
and is
writing to be
read.
The reader
senses the person
behind the
words. It is
engaging
but not
as expressive as
a top-scoring
essay.
The writer
seems sincere
but not fully involved
in the
topic. The result
is pleasant,
acceptable,
sometimes
even personable,
but not
compelling.
Voice is
inconsistent.
At times
the writer
seems engaged
in the topic, and
at other times,
not.
Organization is
haphazard and
disjointed. The
writing lacks
direction,
with
ideas, details, or
events strung
together
helterskelter
The writer
seems
indifferent, or
uninvolved,
The writing is
flat, lifeless,
stiff,
or mechanical.
It
may be overly
technical or
jargonistic.
Word
Choice
Words convey
the intended
message in an
interesting,
precise,
and natural
way. The writing
is full and rich,
yet concise.
Writer shows a
competent
command of
diction.Words
are sometimes
carefully chosen.
The language is
quite ordinary,
but it does convey
the message.
Often the
writer settles for
what’s easy,
producing
a “generic”
paper.
For the most
part, word
choice is sufficient to convey
the message,
but at times
choices are
incorrect.
Vocabulary is
limited and so
vague that only
a general
message
comes
through.Writer
gropes for
words to convey
meaning.
=
Sentence
Fluency
Writing has an
easy flow and
rhythm.
Sentences
are well
built, with
strong, varied
structure that
makes for
expressive
oral
reading.
Sentences are
correct and varied
but not
carefully
constructed
to
showcase the
meaning.
Sentences are
mechanical
rather than fluid,
lacking rhythm
or grace. Some
awkward
constructions
force
the reader to
slow down or
reread.
Lapses in correct
sentence
structure are
beginning to
impede the
reader’s
understanding
of the
text.
The paper is difficult to follow
or read aloud.
Sentences tend
to be choppy,
incomplete,
rambling,
irregular,
or just very
awkward.
=
Conventions
Conventions are
used effectively
to enhance
meaning. Errors
are so minor
that the reader
can easily skim
over them.
Competent
command of
language, but
some errors
keep this essay
from being a
top-scoring essay.
Writing convention
errors begin
to impair
readability. Errors
do not
block meaning
but tend to be
distracting.
Errors in writing
convention begin
to impede
meaning
Numerous
errors
in conventions
repeatedly
distract the
reader and
make the text
difficult to read.
=
=
Scoring Key: 5—Exemplary 4--Proficient 3—Developing 2—Emerging 1--Beginning
Total _______/____# of traits
scored = _________
23
TEACHING THE TRAITS WITH ANCHOR PAPERS
One of the fastest, most effective ways for student writers to learn the traits is by hearing, reading, discussing, and scoring
other student work or printed material. This is probably the very way you learned the traits yourself. Of course, you won't try to
teach students in a one-day workshop, the way you and your colleagues probably learned the traits. You may spend two
weeks, or even longer, on one trait—partly because you need more practice time with students, and partly because you may
be interweaving other strategies and other kinds of writing lessons with this one.
It is worth pointing out that many teachers find this strategy so successful, it is the only one they use in teaching the traits.
They may, for instance, have a student writing sample on the overhead when students come into class, then spend just ten
minutes or so scoring and discussing that sample for one or more traits. And except for that one change, the remainder of their
curriculum proceeds as usual. Even with that small change, many teachers notice a marked increase in their students'
understanding of what makes writing work. After a couple of weeks, students begin to get a strong sense of what good writing
is all about, and teachers see that insight reflected in both rough drafts and revisions.
Some Ground Rules
This is a simple strategy, but there are a few tricks to making it work. Here are some important suggestions:
1. Do NOT use sample papers from student writers who are in your class.
You want students to be honest in their reactions to the writing and not be concerned with hurting another person's feelings. If
they know from the beginning that the paper doesn't belong to anyone in their class, it makes it safe to speak up and say
things about weaker papers that they would be reluctant to say to someone they know. After a while, you can talk to them
about how to make constructive suggestions as they work with a peer or a small group with "live" papers. In the beginning,
however, it is important to use anonymous samples.
2. Use samples that are either very strong or noticeably weak on a given trait.
Clear examples make it easier for students who are just learning the trait to see what characteristics are important in defining
that trait. For instance, suppose you want your students to include interesting and important details in their writing. If you
choose a middle-of-the-road paper that intermingles strong details and fuzzy generalizations, students may wind up more
confused than enlightened.
3. Work on just one trait at a time.
A paper that is strong in ideas may well be strong in other areas, too. A paper that is weak in organization may have other
weaknesses. But focusing the discussion on one trait a time will make your teaching easier and faster for beginning raters.
Revisiting the same paper for different traits will be a comfortable and familiar process for students. It will help you reinforce
the concepts of the first trait you examined it for while serving to remind students that writing is all about using all of the traits
to the best of their ability. One logically leads to the next.
4. Read all the samples you use aloud.
Students learn the traits more quickly and more easily when they hear as well as see the text. It's a great way to reinforce the
fluency trait, too. Students need to talk, share ideas, and hear language. Silent reading and reflection does not work here. As
you read the piece aloud, someone in the group may hear something that others overlook. That person becomes, for the
moment, the teacher of the group, guiding everyone down a path that all will find familiar next time.
5. Read and score all papers yourself ahead of time before sharing them with students.
It can be very hard to lead a good discussion on a piece of writing you are seeing and thinking about for the first time. If you
read it in advance, you'll have the opportunity to decide on what key points and features you want your student readers to
notice in particular.
What About Grade Level?
Don't worry about the grade level of the papers. It isn't as important as it may seem. It is fine—often productive—to use thirdgrade papers with middle school students, for instance, or a high school paper with fourth-or fifth graders. The quality of the
paper and your ability to use it to make a point are much more important than the grade level of the author. Length is a factor,
too. Very long papers may be hard to work with compared to those that only run a page or two. For this reason, many teachers
at all levels find it more convenient to use elementary-level papers than papers by older writers. A mix is ideal.
Remember to use clearly strong and clearly weak papers to begin with; they are easier to rate than middle-of-the-road papers.
Also, their obvious strengths or problems help define the traits in the writers' minds. Papers in the mid-point range are, by
definition, a blend of strengths and problems. As students lean about writing, this mix of messages may be confusing—stick
with papers that clearly define performance in a trait at one end of the continuum or another.
Step By Step: Teaching the Traits with Sample Papers
Step 1
24
Decide which trait you will focus on for the lesson. Early on, it's best to do ONE at a time. Later, when students have had more
practice, you can talk about two or more traits at once.
Step 2
For your discussion, choose sample papers that are very STRONG or WEAK in the trait you have chosen. Present papers in
PAIRS (one strong and one weak) as much as possible, so you have a contrast. This makes teaching the trait much easier.
Step 3
Make an overhead of each sample paper you use. You can hand out hard copies, too if you wish, but use an overhead
anyway. Some students need to see the paper as it is being discussed and be able to point to specific examples from the text.
Step 4
Read each paper ALOUD. Papers play very differently to the eye and ear. In addition, reading aloud helps everyone focus on
the paper as a group. If the paper is especially weak in conventions, you may wish to read it aloud before you put it on the
overhead for students to see. Otherwise, they may focus too much on the conventions without attending to other traits.
Step 5
Remind students to focus on ONE trait at a time, and to use the Student Friendly Guide you have provided. Ask them to find,
in the scoring guide, specific language that justified the score they want to give. It is helpful sometimes to have students write
down their scores and a few key phrases from the rubric to justify those scores. This keeps them from making overly general
comments ("Pretty good." "I liked it," or "Not the best.")
Step 6
As you present each paper, give students a minute to talk to a partner before asking for comments from the large group. This
gets more students talking, and confidently using the language of the scoring guide.
Step 7
After they've talked for 1-2 minutes with a partner by reacting to the writing,
ask them to share comments aloud with the whole class.
Step 8
Ask for a show of hands: How many gave this a 5 on ideas? How many gave it a 4? and so on. Then, record the numbers on a
chart like that included at the end of this strategy.
Step 9
Encourage students to be very specific, expansive, and articulate in explaining the reasons behind their scores. If a paper is
"pretty good," they need to explain why; if a piece needs work, ask, "What would you do to revise it?"
Step 10
Students are usually quite close in their assessments IF they have a scoring guide to goby, IF you have discussed the trait,
and IF the sample papers are good, clear examples of strong and weak performances. But if they are not close, put the paper
back on the overhead, ask them to discuss the paper again with their partner (or a different partner, or in small groups), then
re-vote to see if the scores come closer. Usually a little discussion is all that’s needed to come to agreement with the majority.
It’s OK for a few people to disagree! The rule is this: If you disagree with the majority vote, you need to be able to explain
why—in clear, specific, trait language.
RATER BIAS and HOW TO AVOID IT
Following are COMMON sources of rater-bias—any one of which can cause you to score unfairly:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
The positive-negative leniency error: A tendency to be too hard or too easy on everyone—just as a matter of principle.
Appearance: Scoring up because the paper looks neat and presentable, or down because it looks messy. Judge content
first. Good appearance IS important, but it is not part of the 6-trait writing criteria.
Length: Is longer better? No! In fact, length often works against a piece if there's too much "interpretive information."
Papers that are too short, of course, cannot be scored fairly, but the real trick is to balance the need for good detail
with an ability to be succinct.
Fatigue: If you're never tired and bleary-eyed while you're doing this, you're either a machine, or you're sneaking papers
onto someone else's stack. The point is, take an occasional break. You'll score faster (and MUCH more accurately) in
the long run if you get up to stretch or have coffee/Coke/fresh air now and then.
Personality clash: I hate animal stories! I love sports papers! Oh, what a neat kid—he fishes with his dad! All this kid DOES
is watch TV—he needs a couple 2's to wake him up to reality! This is the don't-even-go-there approach to scoring. If
you simply can't (7 hate iguanas, my father hated iguanas, and I'm never changing my mind'), give the paper to
someone else. Think: What if it were your paper? Your child's?
Skimming: You might think you know the first 8 lines, but DO read the whole thing to be sure you're assessing the entire
performance, not just the grand opening.
Self-Scoring: Perceptive, intuitive readers fill in, anticipate, synthesize, and generally pull it all together for the writer. Be
sure you're scoring the writer's work, not your skill in putting the puzzle together.
25
•
Sympathy Score: Her dog died . .. She loves her grandpa so much . . . These situations tug at your heart, and rightly so.
But the hard truth is, there are good and not-so-good pet papers, grandparent papers, etc. Be sure you score the
writing, not the circumstances.
Be Aware of Your Pet Peeves
Big, Loopy writing
Teeny, tiny writing
Shifting tenses inappropriately
Writing in ALL CAPITALS
Tons! Of exclamation!! Points!! Yikes!!! Wow!!!
Messiness
Mixing it's and its
Run-ons
Mixing are and our, or their, there, and they're
"The End" (like I couldn't tell that)
The words and phrases cool, awesome, rod, dude, neat, great, nice, far out, very,
really—or pick your own personal least favorites
•
The easy ending: "Then I woke up and it was all a dream"
•
Cliché adjectives: fluffy clouds, crashing waves
•
Total absence of paragraphs
•
Passionless writing
•
Different than instead to different from
•
Cuz
•
A lot, alot
And watch out for pet peeves about which only you know. What are they? (Yes, you do have them, even if you are a nice
person.)
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
26
SAMPLE
PAPERS
IDEAS/CONTENT
The Mystery of the Diamonds
It was the first day of spring vacation. Jan Hansen and her friend Sam Johnson were sitting on a bench in the middle of a busy
shopping mall in Denver, Colorado. While Sam's mother was shopping, Jan and Sam were watching Sam's baby brother
Andrew. Jan and Sam were playing a memory game. Sam's eyes were closed.
"What color of coat am I wearing?" Jan asked.
"Purple."
"Nope, I'm not wearing a coat. Ha, ha!"
Sam opened his eyes. "It's just not fair. I'll never have as good a memory as you!"
"You just have to keep practicing. You know, practice makes perfect. That's what my mother used to tell me when I thought I
couldn't win at something," Jan said. "Now, you try me."
Sam looked around very hard for something he was sure Jan hadn't noticed. Then he asked, "What does the sign in the card
store window say?"
"That's easy. 'Mother's Day Sunday May 11. Remember your mother and she'll remember you."
"Fine, you win," Sam said with disgust.
Jan still had her eyes closed. "Come on, try again. Go ahead, ask me something else."
"All right," Sam said. "What color socks am I wearing?"
Jan thought a moment. "That's not really fair," she said. "I never saw your socks."
But Jan didn't open her eyes. "You're wearing green pants, a green belt, and green shoes, so I'll bet your socks are green,
too."
"You're just too much, Jan!"
"No, you're just too neat!"
Checkmate!
Checkmate! Darn I lost again. I made the fatal mistake of altering my queen's position and therefore leaving my king
susceptible to his relentless attack.
I have never beaten my grandfather in chess and I probably never will. Despite my losing record, I have a burning love for the
game.
It was probably four or five summers ago that my obsession began. I played my grandfather nearly every day. It started out as
him just teaching me the rules with friendly games. After a few weeks it was more than that, at least to me. I wanted to
dethrone him more than any other thing my young mind could think to want. I challenged him every chance I got.
He always seemed to see my strategy coming, and he was relentless. I think he took pride in beating up on me. He knew both
the rook four and knight two strategies that I had because he had taught them to me. He never let up on me.
I needed to come up with a game plan. I needed to do some research. I left for the library as soon as the idea popped in my
head. I hit the doors running after my mother parked the car. I cannot recall how many hours I spent at the library. It did not
matter. I was looking for the perfect strategy. I thought I had found the perfect plan, so I headed home for my final showdown
in chess.
Afternoon
On Tuesday, December 22, I went about my business going to my classes as usual. After school my friend came and picked
me up to go to his house. After we got to his house we grabbed his fishing stuff and started to go to my house. It was on the
27
way to my house, coming down the street, that we saw a hinder binder. After we got to my house we packed up my fishing
stuff and we were on our way to the afterbay of the Bighorn River.
It was about 8:00 when we got there. We started fishing. We had a kind of cycle where one casts out and lets it float away
before the other. Then when you retrieve it, you go behind the other person.
ORGANIZATION
In my Father's Eyes
"Just let if flow," my father said as he handed me the reel. I clenched it tightly with my tiny fingers as if in fear of dropping it.
The wooden handle was smooth and almost contoured to the shape of my dad's hands. He had fished with the pole when he
was younger and you could tell just by looking at it that it was put to much use. He said it was a special pole and began telling
one of his "when I was your age" stories, which I unintentionally paid no attention to because I was anxious to begin.
I watched as my father effortlessly tied the yellow grasshopper fly on my line in a series of complicated knots with his thick
fingers. The air was fresh and cold and the mountain breeze teased his coal black hair and rustled a few whiskers in his beard.
When he was finished he looked up at me and smiled warmly. "Give it a try," he said encouragingly.
I carefully tip-toed over the jagged boulders and dead tree limbs to the water's edge. It moved fast, so I scanned the area for a
calm spot to cast my fly. The stream was narrow, so I had to be careful not to snag my line in the trees behind me, and it
would be difficult not to over-estimate and cast clear over to the other side of the bank.
I positioned myself between two large rocks and took off my shoes. The mud was cold and squishy, but I liked the feeling. I
gave my line some slack and began the motion. Back and forth, back and forth. I must have watched my father do it a
thousand times, so soft and rhythmic, border-line perfection. The motion of his wrists always seemed to be one with the pole,
personifying it into a beautiful work of art. I longed to have this feeling.
On being Yourself
Shakespeare once said, "To thine own self be true." This saying reflects the idea of being yourself and not changing who you
really are.
In the play Macbeth, which was written by Shakespeare, the character Macbeth displayed how he changed over the course of
the play. He started off an honest man who fought to protect the king, and was somewhat reserved and quiet. But as soon as
the three witches told him their predictions for his future, he became greedy. He thought of nothing but becoming king, and
would not let anything stand in his way.
Macbeth made the wrong choice. This choice led him down the path of greed, murders, lies, betrayal, and fear. he thought that
he was on his way to the top of the world, when in reality he had no self-control whatsoever. His fantasies and wishes blinded
him from
Change
Once upon a time there was a girl named Betty. She had a younger sister named Annette. They were a year apart. Betty was
a Junior in high school and Annette was a sophomore in high school. They both lived with their parents in California. They
were both very beautiful. Betty had very long pretty dark frown hair, and brown eyes, she was tall, but not to tall, she had
medium brown skin, and Annette had light brown hair and light brown eyes, she was tall, to, but like an inch shorter than Betty.
She had light colored skin. They both had their own friends and their own interests. Betty liked to rollerblade alot with her
friends, her and her friends always made plans to go rollerblading that weekend or else to a movie or something.
Her best friend was Jane. Betty was into sports like basketball or volleyball or whatever she wanted to play, and she always
made the team, she was very athletic. Annette and her friends like to shop and flirt with the guys. Annette usually got any guy
she wanted, the guy she liked always asked her out and that would get her friends kind of jealous.
VOICE
My Story
I was finally dead. Released from my past life of torture and pain. And what now? What will become of me now? That is not
important. It is time for me to tell you my story from the beginning to the end. That way you can also feel my pain.
I was born in 1933 in a small Mississippi town, population 5,000, give or take. My mother died at my birth. I never knew who
my father was. When they couldn't hold me at the hospital anymore, I was sent to the county orphanage. The headmistress,
28
Mrs. Frankmore personally came to the hospital to pick me up. People told me she treated me well. The way it was said made
me figure that that wasn't always the case.
When I was a year old, the money for the orphanage dried up. It was bankrupt. I guess other places took most of the kids. I
don't know. I didn't understand cruelty yet because I had Mrs. Frankmore. Judith, that was her first name, took me in with her
when the orphanage went belly-up. Most times she did without and was practically starving so she could feed me. I think she
really loved me. I don't know why.
Working Lessons
All my experiences in life couldn't prepare me for my first job. This was one of the hardest adjustments for me, trying to
combine work, school and the other problems that arise from day to day. My first, and only, job has been at a restaurant.
Some people think fast-food is the lowest job you can have, but this job has taught me some of the most important lessons,
points, and morals, that I've learned in my short life. It's also been a source for me to reaffirm values and morals that I already
had in my life.
During the summer break, I got promoted to a manager. This new position has brought new responsibilities for me, and has
given me a new perspective on seeing things. When I first started, a hatred of management and upper level employees set in.
Personally, I thought they were being bossy and full of themselves. Now, being in their shoes, I have seen the flaws and
wrongs in my previous judgements. Isn't it strange how a small change can create a big difference in how you see things?
The Stepdad
One brisk September morning a lady in her mid thirties by the name of Sue called her lawyer to file a divorce papers on her
husband John,. After Sue got off the phone with her lawyer she went to work. A week past and the papers still did not show up
at her door, so Sue called her lawyer and the lawyer said, "I will send them right away." So a week later the papers showed up
in the mail.
Sue not ready to tell her three children Amanda, Katie, and Eric, she hide them under the bed. Amanda who is nine is the
youngest of the three. then there is Eric who is 14. Then finally there is Katie who is 15. Amanda one day was jumping on her
Mom's bed, fell of the bed and sited a manila folder. In side of it was the divorce papers. Amanda then told the other two kids
about what she found. The kids held it inside of them for a long long time intel one day when Katie was talking to her mom and
it accidentally slipped out, "are you and dad getting a divorce?"
WORD CHOICE
Remember my Dream
Seth came stumbling out of the forest to a clearing where the trees met the paved road. He was frozen with fear at the sight of
the semi-truck stopped in the middle of it and Magi's crippled bike underneath. His brow was drenched in sweat and his
clothes were soiled from the long run through the forest from the cabin. Catching his breath, he slowly walked around the front
of the truck to see Magi lying in the middle of the road. He ran to her, asking her what to do. Magi's trembling voice spoke, "I
wanted to show you everything."
"You will," he answered.
I could no longer fight back the tears, so I let go. I let myself quietly sob and allowed the salty tears to trickle down my flushed
cheeks and into my trembling hand. I thought to myself, "He gave up everything he knew, everything he existed for to be with
her, only for her to die the next day."
I took the tape out of the VCR and looked at myself in the mirror. I felt horrible. I felt the pain of the two lovers as though it
were me in the film. I collapsed to the floor, gripping the marble sink above my head. I hated feeling this way. I absolutely
despise it. I cried for the two strangers and for myself, wondering why it had to end that way and in part, wondering if ever a
man would give something so dear to him to be with me. Then it struck me! That is exactly what I want to do--I have known all
along, but now it is so clear. I want to make people feel sorrow, joy and anger. I want to be an actress.
The Adventure
Glacius awoke from the raggedy blanket he always kept with him. The cold chill of the early morning blew across the high
mountain top. He was not cold however, it was far too refreshing and enchanting to be uncomfortable. As the young man
overlooked the large valley he saw the lush and great forest that spread across the whole area so thick it was like a large
green carpet. You could make out a few large cities which almost poked through the tall canopy..
29
After brewing a small cup of his favorite herbal tea, the young man decided it was time to descend into the unknown and
unseen that lay before him, spread out across the valley below. So with that thought he was off down the narrow trail below,
ready to face any and all danger below without fear, maybe. After several hours of walking on the narrow trail, he came before
a small shack that seemed to have been very quickly erected. You could see by the smoke rising from the chimney so at least
someone was home, weather or not the person inside was friendly was yet to be seen.
The Boxing Match
I watch the opponet siting in the corner, all six foot one inch, two-hundred pounds glaring at me. As the tenth round bell rings, I
go out to fignt the opponet. I take three steps towards the defender only to get a right smashed against my face. The impact is
like a baseball bat connecting to a baseball as I stumble back into the ropes, spit flies out of my mouth, like a flock of geese
fleeing the water as a shotgun blast enters towards them. Blood pouring down my face like a crimson river over a waterfall.
My face looking like I was battered by an coming train I thought I could beat. Yet all of this destruction to a face which was in
perfect condition only forty minutes ago, has the signiture of my opponet written all over it. The damage was caused by two
equal size arms with mass of incredibly swollen baseballs and speed of a stealth fighter plane. As I bounce off the ropes, the
opponet steps through the punch that I was supposed to land and connects to my left ear.
SENTENCE FLUENCY
Caution-Danger Ahead
It was a nice sumer's day. My family and I were up in the mountains on our way to go camping. Nothing could go wrong, or
could it?
We were driving up a bumpy gravel road. We had to take it slow to prevent sliding. My sister and I were in the back of the car
admiring the beautiful view of the forest. I was so excited to go camping. It was the perfect day, until the incident.
We had driven a few miles and only seen a couple of cars pass us so far. It was pretty calm. Up ahead I noticed that we were
approaching a bend in the road. You could see nothing past it, and so my dad proceeded to drive slower. I remember reading
a magazine and all of a sudden I had a gut feeling to look up. I was in shock as I saw a gray truck speeding towards us. It was
as if it had come out from nowhere. A rush of fear ran through my body. From the moment I saw the car, time felt as though it
was running in slow motion. I knew exactly what was going to happen and yet I could do nothing to stop it. I felt like I was
trapped in a cage with no way to escape.
Heading West
Friday afternoon, for Andy, was beginning to feel longer than Friday morning. The moment had finally come, the moment had
had been waiting for since last year. Today after school, Andy and his father would take off and go to West Yellowstone to
fulfill their favorite past time, snowmobiling. The moment finally came for Andy, a junior in high school, to go home. He rushed
to his car and sped away to get home as fast as he could. When he arrived home, his father already had the truck loaded and
ready to go.
"Ready to go?" Andy's father Kenny asked.
"Ready as I could ever be," Andy replied.
Both Andy and Kenny said their farewells to Andy's mom Darla, who stayed behind to take care of Andy's little sister Amber.
After the goodbyes, Andy and Kenny were on their way to West Yellowstone.
Macbeth
Macbeth: noble, benevolent, and loyal, King Duncan's honored subject. Macbeth's valour and bravery in battle reach the ears
of King Duncan before Macbeth can even reach home.
As Macbeth and Banquo travel home, they meet three witches who propose a plan of the near future: Thane of Glamis he is,
Thane of Cawdor soon to be, and King of Scotland, he will be. Worthy Banquo is not left out of the prophecies, he is told he
will begat kings. Macbeth will be king, yet Banquo will father future kings?
30
CONVENTIONS
Through the sky of hyperspace
Through the view ports of the Star Destroyer Relentless, the molted sky of hyperspace drifted silently by as Captain Teirrier
stared coldly at his bridge crew before him. Not so long ago in the distant past he would have felt forgiveness or at least pity
for the crew of his starship. But not now, not after the destruction of Mount Taintis and every last one of the Grand Admiral
Thrawn's Sparti cloning cylinders. What was not left of the Empire was hardly enough to even take control of a single planet.
Their main shipyards were destroyed and they were running out of military personnel to man their remaining ships. The
Relentless itself was one of the few, but precious Star Destroyers in functional condition. Functional...As he thought it he
almost laughed at his foolish choice of words. Only four of the original ten turbo blasters were operational now, and the
starboard deflector shields were running at critically low energy. To top it off, the hyperdrive was constantly malfunctioning and
the techs working on it apparently had no explanation. All in all the Star Destroyer Relentless was in tough shape.
But none of that mattered now that he was in charge. Captain Teirrier had plans for his precious empire. Big plans.
A lesson on the court
When I was younger about 5 or 6 I remember my first grade P.E teacher telling the class "It's not about who wins or loses, it's
how you play the game" A good philosophy when teaching little kids how to play fair. But after a couple of years of playing
basketball on the blacktop and football in the field, the philosophy becomes a little reworded "How you play the game decides
who wins or loses: and most kids always want to be on the winning side. The play ground produces two types of personalitys
participants and non-participants. the non-participant speaks for itself, the type of kid who doesn't care about sports. The
participant the type of kid who plays everything, not because he or she is good but cause it is fun.
Character change in Macbeth
In the play Macbeth, There are many charecters,and they all change during the story. The two charecters I will talk about are
Macbeth, A thane of glamis who overnight,turned into the king of Scottland. And on a lesser note,Lady Macbether,A woman
who drove Macbeth to do evil deeds for her own personal bennefit..
In the begining Macbeth and King duncan respected each other,And after showing great talent on the batlefield,duncan called
Macbeth a"valient Kingssman!,Noble gentleman.
31
Recommended Scores for Sample Papers
Mystery
Checkmate!
Afternoon
In My
Fathers...
On being
Your..
Change
My Story
Working
Lesson
The Stepdad
Remember
my…
The
Adventure
Boxing
Match
CautionDanger
Heading
West
Macbeth
Through the
sky…
A lesson
on…
Character
change…
IDEAS
•
•
•
ORG
VOICE
WC
SF
CONV
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Acknowledgements to the teachers of Billings MT High School for the free interactive website where these and many other
sample papers may be found. It’s the first site listed below. The others are excellent as well; they worked a/o 7/05.
http://senior.billings.k12.mt.us/6traits/index.htm
This is the first interactive place for students to practice scoring
http://www.kent.k12.wa.us/staff/LindaJancola/6Trait/6-trait.html
This site has some pretty good lesson plans by trait
http://6traits.cyberspaces.net/
has primary anchor papers (for teachers—these are interactive!) and other valuable ideas… excellent for lower grades
32
More Sample Papers
Fox
I don't get along with people to good, and sometimes I am alone for a long time. When I am alone, I like to
walk to forests and places where only me and the animals are. My best friend is God, but when I don't believe he's
around sometime's, my dog stands in. We do every thing together. Hunt fish, walk, eat and sleep together My dog's
name is Fox, 'cause he looks like an Arctic Fox. Fox and I used to live in this house with a pond behind. That pond
was our property. The only thing allowed on it (that we allowed) was docks & fish. If another person or dog would
even look like going near that place, Fox and I would ran them off in a frenzy. There was a lot of rocks around, so
I would build forts and traps for any body even daring to come near. The pond had a bridge that was shaded by
willows, so on a hot day me and Fox would sit on that bridge & soak oar feet well, I would soak my feet Fox just
kinda jumped in.
At night the pond was alive with frogs, so I would invite this kid over, (he was a guy like me) and catch frogs.
After we had a couple each, we would pick the best looking one out of our group and race them. The winner gets
the other guys frog.
In the winter, the pond would freeze over, and I got my iceskates out. The pond was now an ice skating rink.
Fox would chase me as I went round & round the pond.
After about a year I was riding my bike patroling the area around the pond. With Fox at my side, I raced
downhill toward the pond. I tried to stop, but my back tire went into a skid. I went face first into murky, shadowy
waters. When I went down, a minute later I felt something pull on my shirt I grabbed it not knowing what to think,
when I hit the surface, I saw that it was Fox, pulling on my shirt as if he was trying to save me. He was to little to
save me if I was really drowning, but it was the thought that counts, I owe him one.
Another year passed. One day my mom got home from the store, and she bought me a rubber raft I was just a
cheap one, but it was mine. I blew it up with a tire pump, It was just the right size for me & Fox. Out of respect for
Fox, I named it the USS Fox and christened it right in the pond.
On sunny days, I would take the raft out & lay in the sun with Fox on my legs.
One day, when I was asleep in the raft the wind blew pretty hard and blew my raft right into a bunch of sticks
and rocks, the USS Fox was given a sad salute, and then was no more.
Another year passed, and this would be our last year by the pond. I admired and respected that pond more
than I ever did that year Bat at long last all good things mast come to an end, we moved to another town. Fox & I
still visit the pond, but it'll never be like them 3 years when she was mine.
The Redwoods
Last year we went on a vacation and we had a wonderful time. The weather was sunny and warm
and there was lots to do, so we were never bored.
My parents visited friends and took pictures for their friends back home. My brother and I swam and
also hiked in the woods. When we got tired of that we just ate and had a wonderful time.
It was exciting and fun to be together as a family and to do things together. I love my family and
this is a time that I will remember for a long time. I hope we will go back again next year for more fun and
an even better time than we had this year.
33
WHAT ABOUT GRADING?
Translating Analytical Scores into Grades: Assessing Writing Fairly
Basic Assumptions:
1. Scores in the traits are better tools to help improve writing than grades on individual papers. Why? Because grades on
papers are tend to end discussion because they generalize about the totality of writing skills. Trait scores keep thinking open
about specific skills, most often positively.
2. Not all traits need to be scored on all papers. We want to score what is most relevant to the assignments we teach. For
instance, a piece of technical writing may emphasize conventions and word choice more than voice; the reverse may be true
for a personal narrative. Most major papers will have scores in at least 4 of the traits. Rough drafts, because they are practice
for developing skills, are never assessed using the traits.
3. We want to examine growth in writing from several pieces, not just from one—this is much more fair to the student! If we
were to calculate scores into grades from a single assessment in a trait, this would be like basing a whole grading period
grade on one quiz.
4. Scores in the traits are NOT grades. Just as a score on an individual quiz in math class is not necessarily indicative of the
grade a student will receive on a report card, these scores should be considered a small part of a big picture. Students will
know how many total points are possible in each trait during a grading period, and will be able to tell where they stand in terms
of their grade for the class. It’s tempting to make a direct translation of the 1-5 rubric scores into grades, but to do so may lead
to grossly inaccurate assessment.
5. Think of the scores in the individual 6 Traits as a continuum, a range from 1-5 that describes performance. While a 3 may
naturally be assumed to be the mid-level performance, if we convert it directly to a percentage, it’s 60%, or failure!
Therefore, If we used a straight 5=A, 4=B, etc., conversion, students would have to obtain extremely high scores to receive
respectable grades. We have determined the chart below by examining numerous student scores and computing the resulting
percentages. The percentage points we add are NOT “giving” students anything— This is simply making up for the fact that
measurement on a continuum is by nature incompatible with our grading system.
CONVERTING A COLLECTION OF SCORES IN A TRAIT TO A GRADE USING CONVERSION CHARTS
Typical Grade Cut Offs:
A– = 93%
B– = 85%
C– = 74%
D- = 65%
Say your official grade cutoffs are like those above. Convert to percentage the number of points a student obtained in a trait
out of points possible in that trait—do not calculate single scores in a trait! Then, use the chart below to add percentage points
to convert a collection of points in a trait to a grade.
90% and above—add 4%
80% and above—add 10%
70% and above—add 12%
60% and above—add 15%
Example: Student X obtains the following scores in the trait of “Ideas/Content” over a period of time where 4 papers
are scored: 3, 4, 3.5, 4.5
In the Trait of Ideas/Content, total possible points would be 20 (4 papers with a potential of scoring a 5 on each).
Student X’s total points: 15 [3+4+3.5+4.5=15]
15 is 75% of 20. Using the conversion chart above, (75%+12%=87%). Therefore, Student X would obtain a 87%, or
about a “B” on the grading scale given above for this trait.
34
Name:
Assignment:
5
4
3
IDEAS/CONTENT
2
1
TOTAL
=
ORGANIZATION
=
VOICE
=
WORD CHOICE
=
SENTENCE
FLUENCY
=
CONVENTIONS
=
TOTAL ______/____(#
of traits scored)=
Scoring Key: 5—Exemplary 4--Proficient
3—Developing 2—Emerging 1--Beginning
________________
Scores to grades conversion chart:
5.0=
4.9=
4.8=
4.7=
4.6=
4.5=
4.4=
4.3=
4.2=
4.1=
100
99
98
97
96
95
94
93
92
91
4.0=
3.9=
3.8=
3.7=
3.6=
3.5=
3.4=
3.3=
3.2=
3.1=
90
89
88
87
86
85
84
83
82
81
3.0=
2.9=
2.8=
2.7=
2.6=
2.5=
2.4=
2.3=
2.2=
2.1=
35
80
79
78
77
76
75
74
73
72
71
2.0=
1.9=
1.8=
1.7=
1.6=
1.5=
1.4=
1.3=
1.2=
1.1=
70
69
68
67
66
65
64
63
62
61
1.0= 60
The e-Writing Profile
This electronic folder, named the e-Writing Profile, is a student’s virtual writing portfolio.
The e-Writing Profile may require that all student papers deemed worthy by the department and required by state standards,
be stored electronically. Here’s why the e-Writing Profile is better than the old paper/folder system:
•
•
•
Teachers may easily look at them by accessing student H drives
The responsibility for completing them is more on the students than on the teacher
The profile reflects analytical scores in the 6 Traits, not a holistic score or grade
Six Traits of Writing Student e-Writing Profile
Name:
ID#:
Class:
Semester/Year:
Teacher:
Instructions: Fill out the above information according to teacher directions. Your teacher will give you a description of each writing
assignment to replace the words in column one of the first table below. Place the score your assignment received in the appropriate
trait column. Your teacher will tell you what to place in the Standards column. Note: not all assignments received scores in all traits.
Ideas/
Content
Organization
Sentence
Fluency
Voice
Word
Choice
Conventions
Standards
Assignment
4
Assignment
3
Assignment
2
Assignment
1
Instructions: Once you have filled out the above table, follow directions in column one below to obtain your fair grade percentage for
each trait. The highest score in a trait is 5. Therefore, if a trait received a score in that trait on two writing assignments, the total
points possible for that trait would be 10. Remember that a 5 is not an “A,” nor is a 3 score a “C.” In order to give you a fair scoreto-grade translation, you must follow the steps outlined below in column one.
IDEAS/
CONTENT
ORGANIZATION
VOICE
Total points
Possible!
My total
points in this
trait!
My points
divided by
total possible
points !
36
SENTENCE
FLUENCY
WORD
CHOICE
CONVENTIONS
Plus % (see
table)= My
Final % in this
trait!
Add 4%
90+4+1=95%
91+4 =95
92+4 =96
93+4 =97
94+4 =98
95+4 =99
96+4 =100
97+4 =101
98+4 =102
99+4 =103
Add 6%
80+6+1=87%
81+6 =87
82+6 =88
83+6 =89
84+6 =90
85+6 =91
86+6 =92
87+6 =93
88+6 =94
89+6 =95
Add 8%
70+8+1=79%
71+8 =79
72+8 =80
73+8 =81
74+8 =82
75+8 =83
76+8 =84
77+8 =85
78+8 =86
79+8 =87
Add 10%
60+10+1=71%
61+10 =71
62+10 =72
63+10 =73
64+10 =74
65+10 =75
66+10 =76
67+10 =77
68+10 =78
69+10 =79
Add 12%
50+12+1=63
51+12 =63
52+12 =64
53+12 =65
54+12 =66
55+12 =67
56+12 =68
57+12 =69
58+12 =70
59+12 =71
A Schoolwide Writing Assessment (SWA) Sample Results 2004-2005
A typical school conducts a schoolwide writing assessment each year in the fall and spring. The results are used to guide
instruction the following year; the SWA is scored using the 6 Trait model, and is similar in execution to the ISTEP, the AP, the
new SAT, and other large-scale writing assessments.
Sample Schoolwide Writing Assessment 2004-05
GRADE 10
Ideas /
Content
Fall
=5
Spr
=5
Fall
=4
Spr
=4
Fall
=3
Spr
=3
Fall
=2
Spr
=2
Fall
=1
Spr
=1
Org
Voice
Word
Choice
Sentence
Fluency
Conventions
2.59%
4.57%
1.69%
1.64%
6.78%
4.20%
4.85%
4.85%
4.13%
3.31%
6.61%
19.01%
23.29%
30.75%
27.97%
31.36%
29.66%
37.68%
33.18%
33.48%
37.19%
36.36%
37.19%
45.45%
45.66%
44.14%
53.39%
52.54%
44.06%
27.54%
42.42%
42.88%
35.54%
47.93%
42.98%
24.79%
24.05%
17.05%
13.56%
10.17%
10.17%
10.14%
16.52%
15.00%
19.83%
12.40%
12.40%
10.74%
4.41%
3.35%
3.39%
4.24%
9.32%
7.25%
2.73%
3.48%
3.31%
0%
.83%
0%
Notes
Every essay is scored twice by different raters, neither of which is the teacher of record for the student.
The 6+1 Traits of Writing Rubric is based on a 1-5 rubric, 5 being the highest.
The SWA is administered in the fall and spring with the same prompts being delivered each time. All students were scored 2x
in Ideas/Content and Organization. A 20% random sampling of student papers were scored in all 6 Traits.
37
Seven Strategies for Teaching the Traits
The 6+1 Traits® Model is not a curriculum, but a tool for teachers to use to help break down the writing process for students.
Its power lies in the ability to make analytic assessment of writing transparent to students; no longer does the criteria for what
makes good writing need to remain ambiguous. The language of assessment is helpful for teachers and students from Kadult.
Which trait first? It’s really up to you. Many like to begin with the most comprehensive and complex trait, Ideas. Another
would be to begin with one of the most familiar traits, Word Choice. Teachers tend to have lots of activities and ideas of how
to expand vocabulary and help students work with effective words and phrases.
Resist the idea of teaching only one trait per grade level. Writing, like driving, is a holistic experience. All of the traits are used
in every writing experience, just like all the skills of driving are used once the car begins moving. When learning to drive, one
wouldn’t want to spend a year just parallel parking without driving anywhere, just the same way one wouldn’t want to spend a
year working on Conventions without writing a whole piece.
STRATEGY ONE
• Teach students the language they need to
speak and think like writers
• Brainstorm qualities of good writing
• Read, read and read some more!
• Validate students’ opinions by giving them
the Student-Friendly Guide & keep
language of traits posted in room
• Base grades on growth in traits
Additional ideas:
•
Small groups make posters based on rubric language and presenting key features of their assigned trait back to the
large group
•
Create a poem of the traits and do choral readings that review the traits
•
Randomly call out descriptors and ask kids to respond by naming the trait
•
Go around room and ask kids to call off one thing from the rubric that they think is important to make a paper work in
that area—make sure they have rubric in front of them.
STRATEGY TWO
• Read, score and discuss anonymous
student papers
• Use examples from opposite ends of the
spectrum
• Use samples for many genres
•
Additional ideas:
•
Work on one trait at a time. This makes teaching easier and faster for beginning raters. You can revisit the same
paper for different traits.
•
Read the sample papers aloud. As the piece is read aloud, someone in the group may hear something that others
overlook.
•
Read and score all papers yourself ahead of time before sharing with students
•
Grade level doesn’t matter that much. It’s fine—often productive—to use 3rd grade papers with middle school
students, or use a high school paper with 4th graders. The quality of the paper and your ability to use it to make a
point are much more important than grade level of the author.
38
STRATEGY THREE
•
Ideas:
•
•
•
•
Rehearse the process of revision in small
groups
Select an anonymous paper, or one you create, that “needs work”
Brainstorm in groups or as a whole class what kinds of things the author could do to strengthen the piece in one or
more traits.
Write new pieces from the original, share.
Great benefit here is comfort of participants, and proof of value of revision, as all results will be better than original.
STRATEGY FOUR
• READ– Literature you love, yes, but also:
• Think beyond books:
• Discuss which trait(s) are emphasized in
real-world writing, such as:
–
–
–
–
Ideas:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Computer manual
Recipe
Menu
Catalogue
-Junk mail
-Business letter
-Travel brochure
ETC!!!
Rate an office memo for Conventions. Score it, then edit it. Try it for Presentation, too. Redo the piece in small
groups.
Look through junk mail for examples of strong and weak ideas, voice, etc.
Find samples of greeting cards that catch your eye or touch you—as well as some that turn you off. Score them for
word choice and voice—then revise. Create your own greeting cards for made-up occasions like “Most interesting
hair day.”
Check out menus. Which ones are best written? Why?
Review a set of directions for organization. What about voice?
Score a textbook excerpt for ideas, voice, word choice. Are some traits stronger than others?
Browse a manual. Is the voice strong?
Examine newspaper articles. What traits get the most emphasis? Why?
STRATEGY FIVE
• Focused Revision Lessons
– Create a SHORT paragraph that is WEAK in
the trait you want to emphasize in a lesson
– Read your piece aloud on overhead. Have
students score it
– Ask students to help you make a Plan for
Revision—a very specific suggestions for
making it stronger in the focus trait
– Save their suggestions on overhead
– Revise, but don’t make it perfect! Talk it
through!
39
STRATEGY SIX
•
Designing Effective Writing Assignments
RAFTS!
R- Role
A- Audience
F- Format
T- Topic
S- Strong Verb
Example: You are Ulysses (role) on your journey home from Troy after being gone for over ten years. Write a letter (format)
to your wife Penelope (audience) explaining (strong verb) why you won’t make it home (topic) for dinner, AGAIN.
Idea: practice “teasing out” the RAFTS components in ISTEP prompts.
STRATEGY SEVEN
• FOCUS LESSONS
–
–
–
–
–
–
Ideas (Writer’s Notebook, e.g.)
Organization (Para’s out of order, e.g.)
Voice (Books vs. Encyclopedia article, e.g.)
Word Choice (Word Cemeteries e.g.)
Sentence Fluency (Sentence shapes,SAS)
Conventions (Punctuation, e.g.)
IDEAS– any activity that allows students to practice prewriting, generating ideas from thought/experience, borrowing ideas
from other writers, keeping writer’s notebooks, knowing the purpose for writing, moving from broad topic to focused theme,
learning to observe carefully, developing thinking skills (comparison, analysis, inference)
ORGANIZATION—Any activity that allows students to practice writing a lead that hooks a reader, sequencing in logical,
interesting ways, identifying the turning point, connecting ideas to a larger theme, linking ideas together for a reader, setting up
a problem, then solving it, crafting a conclusion that ties up loose ends.
VOICE—Any activity that allows students to practice helping writers feel safe and accepted, noting moments of voice in writing
and pictures, valuing and requesting diversity, rewarding risk—even over success, providing opportunities to hear the voices of
others, writing to someone (letters, posters), asking students to writer voice in…or out, looking for voice in advertising, print,
and non-print resources.
WORD CHOICE—Any activity that allows students to practice building vocabulary through reading anything and everything,
brainstorming: how else could you say it? Learning to use resources—traditional and computer, putting “tired words to rest,”
playing with language, dialects formal and informal usage, building power in verbs, practicing precision—more for less.
SENTENCE FLUENCY—Any activity that allows students to practice developing an ear by reading aloud, practicing freewriting to making writing flow, using choral reading to hear phrasing, writing poetry, playing with sentences
CONVENTIONS—Any activity that allows students to practice identifying reasons for editing, understanding the difference
between revision and editing, keeping editing in proportion—ideas come first. Learning and using editing symbols, thinking
like an editor, developing a proofreader’s eye, letting students by their own editors.
40
Top Ten Tips for Teaching the Traits
Remember always that the 6+1 Traits is a TOOL, not a curriculum. Instituting best practice in the teaching of writing may
include the use of such a powerful tool, but it is not the only thing that is necessary. It is essential that your school establish a
coherent writing policy that identifies goals and strategies for achieving those goals. The National Council of Teachers of
English has excellent resources, including the document “Establishing a Writing Policy,” found on their website: www.ncte.org
1. Read Aloud each and every day!
We live in a universe of discourse, and reading aloud to students of ALL ages gives us all better access to that universe. Jim
Trelease’s work establishes the gold standard for reading aloud.
2. 45 minutes of writing, 3x per week
This may seem like a lot, given the pressures of today’s curricula and accountability systems. Writing to learn, as opposed to
writing to show learning in formal essays, counts as writing too, and should be expanded in virtually every subject taught.
Writing to learn activities should account for about ! of all the writing students do, and the research says it shouldn’t even be
graded, just required!
3. Once or twice a week, assess a paper on the overhead
4. Once or twice a month, work in pairs/partners to revise for one trait
5. File ideas for teaching writing by trait
6. Use the language of the scoring guide in teacher comments
One of the most difficult things teachers of writing have to learn is to stop being an editor. Studies show that teacher
corrections have very little effect on a student’s progress as a writer, but the development of a common language for talking
about what makes good writing does have a positive effect.
7. Collect writing in working files that may lead to portfolios
Working folders are just that, and should be looked upon as the evidence of all the work, good and bad, fits and starts, that a
student does over a period of time. They may lead to “showcase” portfolios of polished pieces.
8. Display the traits around the room
9. Parents need to learn the traits, too!
Best source here, although expensive, is “Dear Parent: A Handbook for Parents of Six-Trait Writing Students.” It can be
ordered through the Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory– www.nwrel.org
10. Grade based on growth and achievement in the traits.
The trouble with rubric scores is that it’s a continuum, ranging from “Exemplary” through “Proficient” to “Progressing” work.
When we assign numbers to those levels, we usually range from 5 to 1. A 3 score in a trait might be considered “Proficient”
but mathematically, 3 out of 5 is only 60%, which on virtually every grading scale is an “F.”
There are ways around this problem, explained in depth by both Vicki Spandel and Ruth Culham in their respective books.
(Book titles/descriptions and lots of info about them and their work is best accessed simply by typing their names individually
into a good search engine, like Google.)
41
WRITING ACROSS THE CURRICULUM:
Frequency of Levels
Maxwell, Rhoda. Writing Across the Curriculum in Middle and High Schools (pp. 43-48).
Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1996.
Level l
The fact that writing is used as a tool for learning necessitates that level 1 is the most common type of writing in school. Level l
is a daily occurrence when critical thinking plays a dominant role in a classroom. Level l writing gives students a means of
putting their thoughts on paper without concern over writing conventions. Our minds go so much faster than our ability to write
that we need freedom from restrictions to get our thoughts down. Also, level 1 works when students are muddling through,
concentrating on a problem. The writing may come slowly, but the intensity of thinking requires that one's self-editor stay out of
the way. If we become distracted by a concern over spelling or punctuation, our train of thought is disrupted and we lose focus.
Specific examples of level 1 writing are numerous:
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Notes from assigned reading in the textbook
Lecture notes
Lists
Notes from a small-group discussion
Questions from homework
Brainstorming the beginning of a longer writing
Free writing
Mapping, webbing, first attempts at organizing
Developing questions for use in writing reports
All journal writing
All first drafts
Because much level 1 writing is for organizing thoughts, helping with memory, figuring things out, and keeping track of
information, it is important that students have frequent opportunities to do this level of writing.
Level 2
Next in frequency of use is level 2 writing, which usually is read and often evaluated by a teacher. Classmates may read the
writing without the presence of the author, so the work must stand on its own. Punctuation and other writing conventions now
become important for helping readers understand the writer's intended meaning. Level 2 writing may occur a few times a
week; once a week is not uncommon. If teachers are assigning level 2 writing every day, they should switch to more level 1
assignments because most writing should not be read or evaluated by a teacher. When level 2 is used more frequently than
level l, students are writing to inform a teacher about what they know more than to use writing as part of a thinking process.
Level 2 is for answering questions in a more organized, planned way in order to share writing with a wider audience, whether
that audience be the teacher or classmates, and to exhibit what the writer knows. Although these are important reasons for
writing, the purposes for level 1 are essential to develop thoughtful, clear writing in the student's own voice, important for all
the levels of writing.
Examples of level 2 writing include the following:
"
Exams
"
Drafts
"
Homework assignments
"
Summaries
"
Reaction papers
"
Responses
In the writing process, the drafting stage may begin with level l, but drafting is mainly at level 2 as students write to an
audience beyond themselves.
Level 3
Because of the time involved in producing a level 3 piece of writing and the few times writing is intended for a wide audience,
this level must be reserved for only occasional use. If students have the opportunity to work on a level 3 project every four to
six weeks, this is sufficient time for them to learn how to prepare an error-free paper, using the final steps in the writing
process. If level 3 papers are assigned more often, the amount of writing in the class drops considerably. There simply is not
enough time in the day, week, or year for students to work on level 3 frequently and still have opportunities for other activities.
What gets pushed aside are all the discovery techniques, variety of activities, creative opportunities, critical thinking. What
remains is an outdated style of writing where every piece needs to look as if it were written for publication. Although publishing
is important, it is unrealistic and unfair to expect students to limit all of their writing to this mode. Teachers do not; no one does
in the real world. Misguided thinking still encourages some teachers to believe this is the only type of writing appropriate for
school. The students are the losers in this artificial situation, where fluency is sacrificed for "correctness."
42
However, teaching the value of an error-free piece and the knowledge needed to produce one is also important. At times, it is
essential that we pay as much attention to form as to content, although it is never appropriate to pay more attention to form
than to content. That would be something like decorating a cardboard cake with beautiful designs--beautiful to look at, but
lacking interesting or even palatable texture and substance. Students are more apt to understand the value of polished writing
and to do their best work if the reason for the careful editing is realistic—a job application, letter to the editor, or submission for
publication. But publication does not have to go beyond the school to require students' best work in creating the error-free
copy. At times, level 3 is appropriate even if the work is intended only for the teacher and parent(s). For example, a
culminating activity at the conclusion of a unit might be a carefully thought-out report oral project that represents a great deal
of work on the part of the student. Even though the writing does not go beyond the classroom and is not published for a wider
audience, the amount of effort put into the work calls for a polished final copy and is the ideal place to teach and emphasize
final editing and proofreading skills. Examples of level 3 writings then could include the following:
•
business letters
•
job applications
•
writing for newspapers
•
submissions to a school anthology
•
essays for contests
•
final reports and projects
The description below summarizes the three levels of writing.
Level 1
Style: Informal—in speech, similar to talking with close friends
Audience: Write and, in some cases, teacher and peer group
Function: Thinking through writing, organizing thoughts, generating ideas, developing fluency, helping with memory
Form: journal writing, responses, lists, brainstorming, mapping, first drafts
Evaluation: Content only, often not evaluated at all; mechanics, word usage, organization, spelling and grammar are not
considered
Level 2:
Style: More formal--in speech, similar to talking to an audience outside one's close cir
in speech, similar to talking to close friends and, in some cases, teacher and peer group
Audience: Writer, classmates, teacher, parents; audience may not be known well.
Function: Organizing thoughts coherently, developing ideas, explaining, informing; practical—to get work done.
Form: Exams, homework, multiple drafts, reports, summaries
Evaluation: Evaluated for content and form; common writing conventions expected as
grade and ability level.
Level 3
Style: Formal-- in speech, similar to talking to people not known, like giving a formal speech
Audience: Writer, classmates, teacher, parents, audience outside the classroom, an unknown audience
Function: Learning the value of producing error-free writing, reach a wider audience, learning how to edit and proofread
Form: Letters, reports, poetry, research papers, books, final drafts
Evaluation: Content and form of equal weight; all of the writing skills are expected to be correct; neatness and good
handwriting or error-free typing important.
Expectations and Evaluations
Whenever any writing is assigned, the teacher and students must know the level described in terms of audience and purpose.
In most cases the teacher decides the appropriate level. Once students become familiar with the use of levels, however, they,
too, may choose the appropriate level, as long as their reasons are not in conflict with the obvious purpose. It is the purpose
of the assignment that determines the level. When a teacher is not clear about what he or she wants a particular assignment
to accomplish, neither are the students, and much confusion results over the expectations of the teacher:
. How many details should the writer include?
. What about organization?
. How about punctuation, spelling, and grammar?
. How should the writing look?
43
By determining the level before telling students about the assignment, the teacher knows how he or she will evaluate it. That
information should be shared with the writers. When students know the level, they do not ask if spelling counts. They know it
does not in Level l, that it does for familiar words in Level 2, and that it does for every word in level 3. The same guidelines
apply to every writing convention. For example, organization may or may not exist at level 1, depending on the particular
writing task, but the writer knows that the presence or lack or lack of organization is not part of the evaluation.
In level 2, organization is necessary in order for readers to gain understanding, although some organization may be added
as an afterthought and shown with arrows, insertions, and paragraph markers. This is especially appropriate on an exam,
where the teacher’s purpose for writing is to check students’ knowledge about a subject, not to see if they can write in an
organized fashion when time is limited and stress is likely high.
An argument that some people put forth who believe that all writing should be level 3 is that students must learn how to
write more formal papers. Yes, they should, but in assigning a level 3 piece approximately every four weeks and helping
students learn how to revise, edit and proofread it, the teacher provides enough instruction and practice for students. To do
more than this takes away valuable time from other types of writing and activities.
Length of Written Work by Levels
The fact that something is short does not mean it can be tossed off with little thought. A poem, letter, or explanation written for
publication may take weeks of revising before the author decides he or she is finished.
As much as possible, students should have a say in establishing purpose, although a teacher must help guide students to
realize what purpose is for. Younger students, when asked why they are writing something, often answer, "Because the
teacher told me to." In a broad sense this is true, but teachers have a purpose in making the assignment and need to relay this
to the class so that students always know why they are doing the assignment. How the assignment is carried out, including
length, remains the responsibility of the student.
Writing Levels within Assignments
Many assignments use more than one level of writing. Level 3 always includes levels 1 and 2 because any published writing
must go through the entire writing process. The beginning stages of the writing process are level 1 while the drafting is level 2.
As examples, three unit projects are described next.
Science
The unit is "Adaptation for Survival" Specifically, students are looking at how animals adapt to changing environments. As the
unit progresses, students keep notes on readings, films, and lectures (level 1). Every few days, they read over their own notes
looking for connections and patterns. They jot down questions that come up about areas that are confusing or areas of
particular interest. Students meet in groups to compare their notes and then write a report based on their material to hand in
(level 2). The unit project is to choose one animal and research its adaptation necessary for survival. As students read
additional material for the individual project, they keep notes (level 1), and then write a first draft (level 1). They meet in
response groups, revise (level 2), and gradually the writing takes shape as they continue to revise (level 2). Students meet
with a writing partner for editing and proofreading and then write a final copy (level 3).
sis
English
Students read To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee. As they read, they keep a response journal, writing their thoughts about
the characters; their reactions to the story; and related thoughts from their own lives, other fiction, or real-life stories (level 1).
Students meet in groups to share their responses and thoughts about the novel. Individually, students write a character sketch
of Dill or Boo. The sketch is handed in and evaluated by the teacher (level 2). As students continue reading and responding in
their journals, the teacher reads their journals and writes comments (level 1). Near the end of the book, students write a short
paper on how Scout changes throughout the book. They first write a rough draft and read it in response
to groups (level 1). Students revise the draft and turn it in for evaluation (level 2). Student view the movie based on the novel,
write responses (level 1), and discuss in groups. As a group, they write a short paper comparing the effectiveness of the book
versus the film (level 2). There is no level 3 for this assignment.
If students are not working on a final project, levels 1 and 2 are all that are necessary to engage them as active
learners. Perhaps eventually students will write a level 3 paper comparing this novel to others they read, but level 3 writing is
not required to make sure students read and understand.
44
English as a Second Language
ESL teacher Gail Servoss describes related activities that include all three levels she uses to help her students become fluent
in English
Level 1
Students are given a picture showing a situation and more than one character. They write a dialogue from one character’s
viewpoint. Students read the dialogues aloud, and the others guess whom the student is writing about.
Level 2
Each student receives a picture and writes a scenario or description of it in a limited time period. Students then get into
groups of thee to five and read their stories to each other. The others interrupt the writer with questions concerning details.
Each writer must answer the questions in writing.
Level 3
Students choose a picture from a magazine and write a story from it. Vocabulary is brainstormed individually with the teacher
or with peers. The writing process is followed and the stories are published in a class book.
45
MODES & TYPES: Expanding our Notion of What Counts in Writing
CCCC Annual Convention, NYC, April, 2002
Bridging the Gap: How Articulating Theory May Help
Herb Budden
Indiana Teachers of Writing (ITW) Writing Project
“What We Talk About When We Talk About College Writing”
in Teaching Writing in High School and College: Conversations and Collaborations. Ed. Thomas C. Thompson. Urbana IL:
National Council of Teachers of English, 2002.
Many of us have attempted to translate into our classroom practice ways that will enable our students not only to be successful
in post-secondary school, but also allow them not to feel beaten by their schooling, by what Harvey Daniels refers to as “the
death march to literacy” that so much of what secondary curriculum, instruction and assessment feels like.
In my teaching experience, one key to moving toward a classroom that is based on sound theory is found in Daniels’ and
Steven Zemelman’s book A Community of Writers (1988). Their explanation of Britton’s (1970) concept of the language
continuum has allowed some of us to move away from notions of discrete writing modes and purposes and toward a more
encompassing view of writing instruction that can indeed include the types of writing that students may actually enjoy doing,
the kinds of writing that help move one to lifelong literacy, as well as the sort of writing that fosters the rigor of mind required by
college writing courses emphasizing “analytical thinking.”
The liberating idea of Britton’s is that language is neither strictly “transactional,” i.e., businesslike and filled with intentions to
persuade or inform a specific audience, nor strictly “poetic,” in which the language itself becomes the object of contemplation.
Instead, he suggests that we all have a home base of language—“expressive” language—and that is the comfortable
language we use in our heads in our own way. The others form a continuum emanating out from this home base. But they
are all nevertheless always connected as an organic whole, like the rings in a tree, because transactional language can be
poetic and poetic language can indeed be transactional.
Language Continuum
Expressive
Transactional
Poetic
46
To put this idea into classroom practice in a practical way so that both students and parents understand it, Zemelman
and Daniels suggest a matrix of writing activities that includes all of the above modes of writing matched up with three major
assignment types, depending upon the course goals. The assignment types are: writing-to-learn experiences, teacherdesigned assignments (i.e., traditional), and self-selected writing.
To put this idea into classroom practice in a practical way so that both students and parents understand it, Zemelman
and Daniels suggest a matrix of writing activities that includes all of the above modes of writing matched up with three major
assignment types, depending upon the course goals. The assignment types are: writing-to-learn experiences, teacherdesigned assignments (i.e., traditional), and self-selected writing.
Modes
Types
Poetic
Expressive
Transactional
Write-to-Learn
writer’s journal;
experiments with language
Dual-entry responses to
outside reading
Reflective writing; goal
setting
Teacher-Made
Assignments
poetry writing; sentence
analysis grids
quizzes over text
traditional essays
Self-Selected
(open-ended topics here—
could fall into any mode,
depending upon student’s
concept of purpose)
personal journals
essays, letters
These sorts of assignments, used in conjunction with a strong assessment model such as the 6+1 Traits (www.nwrel.org),
enable students to tap into points all along the language continuum. If students keep a working folder of drafts and revisions
of all work and then are allowed to revise some of each mode and assignment types together with reflective writing
(expressive and/or transactional language), they will have undergone a coherent experience in writing that satisfies on several
levels: students feel motivated to write more because of the self-selected topics; they become aware of the value of writing-tolearn; they feel less stress with the traditional assignments in this context; and finally, they understand the purposes of writing
more fully, and feel more sense of control over their work. It’s when teachers can articulate such things about writing to their
students and colleagues at all levels that the gaps will begin to close.
47
Strategies for Using Writing to Learn (WTL)
WTL activities can happen frequently or infrequently in your class; some can extend over the entire semester; some can be
expanded to include a wide variety of writing tasks in different formats and to different audiences.
1. The Reading Journal
How do reading journals promote learning?
First, students use the left half of the page or the left sheet of an opened notebook for recording what the reading is about.
Teachers can ask for quite a lot of detail in this half of the reading journal so that students get practice in summarizing entire
articles or summarizing particular arguments, identifying main ideas, noting key details, and choosing pertinent quotations,
among other crucial reading skills.
On the right half of the page (or right page of the notebook), students jot down any questions they have or any connections
they can make between readings or between readings and class discussions. At the beginning of the semester, the right half
of the journal is dotted with questions, most of which can be answered quickly at the beginning of a discussion session in
class. By the end of the semester, students will sometimes fill two right-hand columns for every reading. At this point, the
questions are far richer (rarely about content) and the connections point out that students are integrating the readings and
class work on their own.
The structure of the daily writing depends on the students' abilities.
• Lower-level students will need more structure and will move more slowly into analytic and reflective writing on the
right-hand side.
• Higher-level students can sometimes whisk right into reflection with much less attention and structure imposed for
literal information.
The structure also depends on the particular reading/writing tasks, especially if you are building a sequence of tasks leading to
a substantial writing assignment at the end of a unit, for example.
Obviously, teachers can assign specific questions to be addressed in the left-hand section, or assign more general prompts:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
What do you remember?
What did you hear?
What was the "talk" about?
Who is the focus of the reading?
What was the most important idea in the reading? What are the next important ideas?
What particularly striking example do you recall?
Who is the target audience for the selection?
What is the author's intention in this passage?
These prompts will focus on what because they are getting at the basic content (though we must remember that content is
constructed and so even literal information may not appear the same to each reader/writer/speaker).
Regarding interpretive questions:
Students often need more focused questions to begin working on the right-hand side--the evaluative, reflective, or
metacognitive side:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Why are certain details more memorable?
What connections can you make between X and Y?
How did you arrive at this conclusion?
Why is this conclusion significant?
How does this assignment touch you personally?
How does this assignment change your thinking on the idea?
How could you write about your new insight?
What other information might you need to pursue this topic?
How does this reading/writing/discussion/group work build on our earlier discussion of the larger concept of X?
48
2. Annotations
Unlike the summary that attempts an objective rendering of the key points in a reading, an annotation typically asks students
to note key ideas and briefly evaluate strengths and weaknesses in an article. In particular, annotations often ask students to
note the purpose and scope of a reading and to relate the reading to a particular course project.
You can have students annotate (and eventually compare) readings assigned for the class, or you can ask students to
compile annotations to supplement the course readings. Each student's annotations can be distributed to the class in one
handout or through electronic media (Web forum, e mail).
3. Put Aside Notes
These can be used to check for thorough understanding, as well as to check on adequacy of note-taking. All writing from this
strategy is either Level 1 or Level 2.
Class/lecture or chapter notes the students take are collected, not to grade or even read, but simply to “put aside.” A few days
later, the teacher hands the notes back to the students, who write a paragraph or two based solely on their notes. This
strategy is a good check for the students themselves to see if their note-taking is adequate.
The initial notes may simply be checked for completion (Level 1 writing); the paragraphs based on the students’ individual
notes may be informally read aloud or in small groups; if a teacher wishes to move this to a Level 2 writing, the paragraph
summaries may be picked up, and evaluated strictly on ideas/content (accuracy of information).
4. Response Papers
Still another type of writing to learn that builds on assigned readings is the response paper. Unlike the summary, the response
paper specifically asks students to react to assigned readings. Students might write responses that analyze specified features
of a reading (the quality of data, the focus of research reported, the validity of research design, the effectiveness of logical
argument). Or they might write counter-arguments.
To extend these response papers (which can be any length the instructor sets), consider combining them into another
assignment--a position paper or a research-based writing assignment.
5. Synthesis Papers
A more complex response to assigned readings is the synthesis paper. Rather than summarizing or responding to a single
reading assignment, the synthesis paper asks students to work with several readings and to draw commonalities out of those
readings. Particularly when individual readings over-simplify a topic or perspectives on a question in your course, the synthesis
paper guarantees that students grapple with the complexity of issues and ideas.
Like other writing-to-learn tasks, the synthesis paper can be shorter and less formal, or you can assign it at or near the end of
a sequence leading to a more formal paper.
6. The Discussion Starter
Sometimes students feel baffled by a reading assignment and express that frustration in class, but they often understand more
about the reading than they believe they do. When this situation arises, having students write about the reading can be
especially valuable, both for clarifying what students do and don't understand and for focusing students' attention on key points
in the reading.
If you know a particular reading assignment is likely to give students trouble, you might plan questions in advance. But even if
students' frustration catches you by surprise, you can easily ask questions about the key issues or points in the article.
Moreover, asking students to answer the same questions again at the end of the class, after you've had a chance to discuss
the reading, will help you see what students still don't understand.
49
7. Focusing a Discussion
When a discussion seems to be taking off in several directions, dominated by just a few students, or emotionally charged, stop
the discussion and ask students to write either what they saw as the main threads of the discussion or where the discussion
might most profitably go. After writing for a few minutes, students will often be better able to identify and stay on productive
tracks of discussion. Or, after asking a few students to read their writing aloud, the teacher can decide how best to redirect the
discussion.
8. The Learning Log
The learning log serves many of the functions of an ongoing laboratory notebook. During most class sessions, students write
for about five minutes, often summarizing the class lecture material, noting the key points of a lab session, raising unanswered
questions from a preceding class. Sometimes, students write for just one or two minutes both at the beginning and end of a
class session. At the beginning, they might summarize the key points from the preceding class (so that the teacher doesn't
have to remind them about the previous day's class). At the end of class students might write briefly about a question such as:
•
•
•
•
•
What one idea that we talked about today most interested you and why?
What was the clearest point we made today? What was the foggiest point?
What do you still not understand about the concept we've been discussing?
If you had to restate the concept in your own terms, how would you do that?
How does today's discussion build on yesterday's?
Such questions can provide continuity from class to class, but they can also give teachers a quick glimpse into how well the
class materials are getting across. Some teachers pick up the complete learning logs every other week to skim through them,
and others pick up a single response, particularly after introducing a key concept. These occasional snapshots of students’
comprehension help teachers quickly gauge just how well students understand the material. Teachers can then tailor the
following class to clarify and elaborate most helpfully for students.
Many teachers assign several of the WTL activities described in this section to be completed for the learning log.
9. Analyzing the Process
Sometimes students are baffled by the explanations teachers give of how things happen because teachers move too quickly
or easily through the process analysis. A quick run-through of an equation is often just not enough for students struggling to
learn new material.
A more useful approach to process analysis--from the learners' point of view--is to trace in writing the steps required to
complete the process or to capture the thinking that leads from one step to the next. Students can either write while or after
they complete each problem. Particularly when students get stuck in the middle of a problem, writing down why they
completed the steps they did will usually help someone else (a classmate, tutor, or teacher) see why the student experienced
a glitch in problem-solving. Similarly, teachers can look over the process analyses to see if students have misapplied
fundamental principles or if they are making simple mistakes. In effect, students can concentrate on problem-solving rather
than on minor details, and they can move from simple procedures followed by rote into a deeper understanding of why they
are solving problems appropriately.
10. The Problem Statement
Teachers usually set up the problems and ask students to provide solutions. Two alternatives to this standard procedure will
give students practice with both framing and solving problems:
• After you introduce a new concept in your course, ask students to write out a theoretical or practical problem that the
concept might help to solve. Students can exchange these problems and write out solutions, thus ensuring that they
understand the concept clearly and fully.
• Ask students to write out problem statements before they come to your office hours for conference. (Or you might
suggest that they use e mail to send you these problem statements in lieu of a face-to-face conference.) Students
are likely to frame such a problem more concretely than they might otherwise do in preparing for a conference, and
the resulting conference (or e-mail exchange) is likely to be more productive for both student and teacher.
50
Another version of this exercise is to have students write a problem statement that is passed on to another student whose job
it is to answer it. Such peer answers are especially useful in large classes.
11. Solving Real Problems
Ask individuals or groups to analyze a real problem--gleaned from industry reports, scientific journals, personal experience,
management practices, law, etc. Students must write about the problem and a solution they could implement.
12. Pre-Test Warm-ups
Another extension of the problem statement WTL activity is to ask students to generate problems for an upcoming test.
Students might work collaboratively either to generate problems or to draft solutions. By asking each student or group of
students to generate problems, students will cover the course material more fully than they might otherwise do in studying.
Moreover, if you assure students that at least some of the test material will draw on the problems students generate, they are
more likely to take both the problems and solutions more seriously. Furthermore, if students don't understand the material,
they will surely find out as they write questions for the exams!
Another alternative for pre-test warm up writing is to give out sample test questions in advance of the exam. Students
can work individually or in groups to write out responses. Again, because they know some of the test material will
come from the WTL activity, students are likely to prepare more carefully.
13. Using Cases
Because cases provide students with a complete writing context, they can be exceptionally useful for student writers.
A simple use of the case is to set up a single scenario which notes the audience, purpose, and focus of a brief writing task. For
example, a business student might encounter this scenario:
Assume that you've just been hired in a local office of a large asset management firm. Your first client has traded stocks
conservatively for several years and now wants to try options trading. What basic principles of options trading do you need to
be sure your client understands?
A teacher could assign this scenario and ask for a variety of writing tasks in response to it:
•
•
•
•
Outline the principles in three minutes at the start of class to review the reading from last night.
Write an e-mail message to your manager to brief her on your plans for educating your client.
As a final exam response, explain both the principles of options trading and your ethical obligations to your client.
Generate a working list of principles in a group of four students and then find a dozen sources from the library to
annotate for their usefulness to the new employee. Compile the most useful annotations from your group to
distribute to the entire class.
A more elaborate case can include both more details for the student writer, as well as a wider range of roles to write from. A
full case can call for multiple kinds of writing, drawing on the full range of informal and formal writing outlined in this guide. It
can also emphasize the kinds of questions (and writing) most common in the discipline, and full-scale cases work well with
both individual and collaborative writing assignments.
Finally, case histories are useful in many disciplines and writing contexts. This use of a case generally focuses on a post hoc
analysis, either of what happened in the case or what could have happened with different interventions. Again, case histories
can lead to a range of writing assignments, though they tend to restrict the roles students might play as writers within the case
context.
14. Letters
Students can write to explain professional concepts, positions, or policies in letters of application or letters to politicians.
Students can also write business letters of introduction and research gathering, introducing their projects and plans for
approval. Another version of an introductory letter could have students try to persuade an interested party (e.g. a foundation,
the NSA, etc.) to provide funding or approval for their research. Or have them write a letter after completing a project which
tries to persuade someone interested in the project to accept their recommendations.
51
15. What Counts as a Fact?
Select two or more treatments of the same issue, problem, or research. For example, you might bring in an article on a new
diet drug from USA Today, The Wall Street Journal, and the Journal of Dietetics. Ask students to write about what constitutes
proof or facts in each article and explain why the articles draw on different kinds of evidence, as well as the amount of
evidence that supports stated conclusions.
Alternatively, ask students to look at a range of publications within a discipline--trade journals, press releases, scientific
reports, first-person narratives, and so on. Have them ask the same kinds of questions about evidence and the range of
choices writers make as they develop and support arguments in your field.
16. The Believing Game and the Doubting Game
First espoused by Peter Elbow, this writing activity simply calls for students to write briefly
• first, in support of an idea, concept, methodology, thesis;
• second, in opposition to it.
As students complete this writing activity based on a course reading or controversy in the field, they become more adept at
understanding the complexity of issues and arguments.
17. Analysis of Events
Although this heading may suggest that only historians can assign this WTL task, in fact an analysis of events can be useful in
most fields. This task can take two shapes:
Post hoc analysis: After an event is reported in the general news media or in your disciplinary media, ask students to reflect on
• what happened
• why it happened
• what it means to your field
Various engineering disciplines, for instance, could analyze the Pathfinder mission to Mars by focusing on appropriate
elements of the actual event.
What-if analysis: Take an actual event and ask students to write about how the outcome might differ if one crucial condition
were changed. For example, what if Dolly, the famous cloned sheep, had been successfully produced on the first try?
Students in science disciplines can speculate about scientific elements of this event; students in agriculture courses can focus
on the immediate impacts in food production; students in ethics courses could examine the balance of world-wide patterns of
food production v. individual identity; students in political science could focus on government funding issues; and so on.
18. Academic Log
(adapted from Nonfiction Craft Lessons by Ralph Fletcher, Portland: Stenhouse Publishing, 2001)
This is an especially useful tool to help students organize research material as well as a way to be sure that their own
language and voice is utilized.
Students create a binder with the following divisions: 1. An ongoing list of questions 2. Notes organized around individual
questions (usually one question per page) 3. Free Writes—these are early attempts at transforming notes into longer chunks
of text. Students should follow every session of note taking with ten minutes of freewriting on what they learned that day about
the topic (No notes allowed while freewriting!) This helps them bring in their own voices to the material. It also points out
where their knowledge is fuzzy, helping them organize the next day’s research. 4. Bibliography or ongoing list of resources
used 5. Glossary—for content specific words students are learning in the course of research.
This important tool can be assessed at Level 1 simply by checking on progress and date-stamping the work as it is due by
deadline. Orally, a Level 1 assessment might be simply to ask students to “tell us what you are learning,” and have them read
from their logs. Note: initial questions can be generated by use of a “group conference.” (See below). Level 2 assessment
might be accomplished by having students hand in, periodically, the pages from the Free Writes sections. These should be
checked on ideas/content (accuracy of info and clarity of expression).
52
19. Project Notebooks
On a more abstract & complex plane than an academic log, a project notebook, like a scientist’s log, can be used to capture
work in progress during a project. Scientists and engineers use project notebooks to record data as they collect it, to
brainstorm explanations of data, to record details of experimental apparatus, and to make progress notes. The project
notebook can be formal or informal, recorded on paper or on the computer.
Project Notebooks for WTL (Level 1 & 2) Activities:
For example, in a senior-level engineering design course, students make the following kinds of general write-to-learn entries:
Process Analysis - As students collect information, build models, and test hypotheses, they record the process they
go through in as much detail as possible.
Problem-solving - When students encounter problems, they write about the problem, possible solutions, and
attempted solutions.
Descriptions - Students record key points from class sessions or conversations with advisors, peers, teachers. Any
questions that come up can be recorded in these entries.
Literature review - When students read printed material on their project topic, they summarize the material fully.
Pre-conference - Before students meet with advisors or teachers, they organize the questions and issues they plan to
discuss in the conference.
Writing problems or questions
•
•
•
•
•
•
Project Notebooks that Combine Levels 1, 2 and 3:
In addition, the project notebook can be used to collect specific writing-to-learn tasks that lead to a final senior project that
might include the following components:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Audience exercise - describe senior project to freshman in engineering, project advisor, liberal arts graduate.
Audience exercise - describe target audience for project and explain how audience will affect the paper.
Draft research question.
Draft literature review.
Draft work plan for remainder of semester.
Draft intro for final paper.
20. The Writing Journal
This variation of the journal or daybook is unlike the learning log or reading journal because it is much more self-directed
(although teachers can assign specific journal tasks). Click on the items below to read about more about the writing journal:
Why Keep a Writing Journal?
•
•
•
•
Writing more frequently helps students capture ideas--images, sensory details, connections between ideas,
comparisons/analogies, etc.
Writing, reading, and critical thinking are intimately related: we tend to know best the material we write about.
Writing more frequently helps students think like writers. (Think about the last time you tried to learn a new physical
skill--skating, skiing, swimming--and how much more comfortable you got as you simply put yourself repeatedly into
the physical environment for that activity.)
What can go into a writing journal?
Anything can go into a writing journal because it is, quite simply, a collection of everything someone wants to write down.
Especially pertinent for students, though, are responses to and questions about readings. Also, encourage students to think of
a broad range of questions about what they read--questions about content, style, structure, audience, and so on.
Also students can use journals for other kinds of writing:
•
•
jump starters - snatches of conversation, radio/TV bits, billboards, songs, pictures--jot down anything that strikes you
as an interesting image or idea
experiments--try writing about the same idea to several different audiences (Ranger Rick, National Wildlife) or in
different genres; try out different analogies to explain a concept
53
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
record of observations--physical or mental
problem statement and problem solving
dialogues
process analysis
letters
interviews (including conferences with teachers and discussions with peers)
scenarios or cases (especially good for audience analysis)
reflections on writing process--questions/problems/successes
Parts adapted from the Colorado State University website (http://wac.colostate.edu)
DESIGNING YOUR PLAN
Nothing will make the reality of a good writing program come to fruition more efficiently than a well-written plan. The following
sets of inquiry questions should help you with this important endeavor.
•What is your rationale for your writing plan? (Why is it important, why you believe it will it work, and what research can back it
up?)
•What are your goals, both short and long term? (What is the vision that guides the plan…that is, how do you envision what a
good writing program will look like in your school? )
•How are you going to implement it? (Who, what, where, how is it going to work ? What sort of timeline is necessary?)
•What resources are needed for it to work? (Personnel needs, time needs, training needs, professional library needs?)
•How will you know if the plan is working? (What monitoring system and data will you use to prove that the plan has met its
immediate and longer-term goals? What sorts of intervention processes and procedures will you have for those students who
don’t meet immediate standards? How will this information be collected, who will be responsible for it, and to whom and how
will the results be disseminated? In what ways will you be able to expand notions of what reveals growth in writing beyond
standardized testing data?
The points above may stand for an outline with each becoming a heading named:
Rationale
Goals & Objectives
Implementation
Required Resources
Assessment & Evaluation
A finished product of these components, when well developed and written, will constitute a viable proposal that you can use to
qualify for funding from governmental and non-governmental sources.
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DESCRIPTORS FOR EACH TRAIT
IDEAS AND CO NTENT
DEFINITION:
IDEAS AND CONTENT is what the writer has to say, a message. The ideas should be fresh and original. The ideas should
also come from the writer's experience. The paper should be interesting and hold the reader's attention all the way through.
The paper should contain supporting details that enrich the main idea. The main ideas should stand out from the supporting
details. The writer should show how people respond to life and to each other.
DESCRIPTORS FOR IDEAS AND CONTENT
A writer should do the following:
•
Narrow the topic to something specific
•
Use fresh and original ideas
•
Write from experience
•
Show insight in the writing
•
Make the main idea stand out
•
Use supporting details
•
Stay in control of the topic
•
Develop the topic in an entertaining
way
ORGAN IZAT ION
DEFINITION:
ORGANIZATION is the structure of the paper. The order should be logical and effective so that the reader hardly thinks about
it. The information should be delivered at just the right moment. There should be an inviting lead that "hooks" the reader. The
body should build to an important point by using supporting details that fit where they are placed. The conclusion should tie
everything together. The ideas should be linked together with smooth transitions.
DESCRIPTORS FOR ORGANIZATION
A writer should do the following:
•
Use an inviting lead that "hooks" the reader
•
Place supporting details so that they fit
•
Use logical and effective structure, order,
and sequence
•
Use smooth transitions to help the ideas
flow together
•
Use a conclusion that ties everything
together & gives the reader a sense of
resolution
•
Use organization that enhances the central
idea
VOICE
DEFINITION:
VOICE shows the writer's personality. The writing has a sound different from everyone else's. It contains feelings and
emotions so that it does not sound like an encyclopedia article. The reader should be able to sense the sincerity and honesty
of the writer. The writer should be writing from the heart. The language should bring the topic to life for the reader. The voice
should be appropriate for the topic, purpose, and audience of the paper.
DESCRIPTORS FOR VOICE
A writer should do the following:
•
Write honestly and from the heart
•
Share his/her personal insights, not
obvious generalities
•
Use language that brings the topic to life
for the reader
•
Care about what he/she has written
•
Write to be read
•
Use more expression than what is in an
encyclopedia article
•
Give the reader a sense of the person
behind the words
55
WORD CHO ICE
DEFINITION:
With good WORD CHOICE, the writer creates a mental picture for the reader by using words that are specific and accurate.
The writer uses strong action verbs whenever possible to show the reader what is happening rather than tell the reader. The
adjectives are as descriptive as possible. The nouns are specific, not general. Striking words and phrases catch the reader's
eye, but the language is natural and not overdone. Slang and clichés are used sparingly, if at all.
DESCRIPTORS FOR WORD CHOICE
A writer should do the following:
•
Use words that create a mental picture
for the reader
•
Use powerful action verbs
•
Use adjectives that are as descriptive as
possible
•
Use specific, not general, nouns
•
Use language that is natural and not
overdone
•
Use slang, and clichés sparingly
•
Be concise & use words correctly
•
Avoid repetition
SENTENCE FLUEN CY
DEFINITION:
SENTENCE FLUENCY is the readability of the paper. The sentences should flow smoothly from one to the next. The writing
should sound natural--the way someone might talk. The sentences should have different beginnings, lengths, and structures.
The paper should be written in complete sentences, not fragments. Any fragments that are used should add to the quality of
the message. Also, the paper should not be one long sentence containing no punctuation.
DESCRIPTORS FOR SENTENCE FLUENCY
A writer should do the following:
•
Give the writing an easy flow and
rhythm
•
Invite expressive oral reading of the text
•
Use complete sentences--any fragments
must add to the meaning of the text
•
Use different sentence lengths
•
Use different sentence beginnings
•
Use different sentence structures
•
Use writing that sounds natural
WRIT ING CO NVENT IONS
DEFINITION:
CONVENTIONS include spelling, punctuation, capitalization, grammar, and paragraphing. The writer should use conventions
to enhance the readability of the paper. Spelling should be correct on all words. Punctuation should be smooth and guide the
reader through the paper. Capitalization should be used correctly. Paragraphing should reinforce organization. The writer may
manipulate conventions for effect.
DESCRIPTORS FOR CONVENTIONS
A writer should do the following:
•
Reinforce the organization with good
paragraphing
•
Use grammar that contributes to clarity/style
•
Guide the reader through the paper with
correct punctuation
•
Use correct spelling, even on difficult words
•
Use capitalization correctly
•
Provide a long enough piece of writing to
show a wide range of skills
•
Make sure any errors are intentional for
stylistic effect
56
6 Traits of Writing Workshop Organizer
General Instructions: Each group should work together to come as close as possible to consensus on
the tasks. Your group will be working on each trait one at a time; you will use one of these organizer
sheets for each trait. You may start on any trait and move in any order. Have one member record
your responses.
Step One:
Go over the Definition/Descriptor sheet for the trait. It’s helpful to have someone read it
aloud while others follow along. Discuss; when finished, leave the sheet out for group members to
examine.
Trait examined:_____________________________
Characteristics of the trait your group noted (what words, ideas on the descriptor sheet stands out for
you?)
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
Step Two:
Examine the picture books and determine which one(s) might be good examples to
model the characteristics of the specified writing trait. Please cite examples from the text you’ve
chosen:
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
Step Three: Examine the sample student papers found on pages ______ in your printed booklet.
NOTE: these are arranged by trait—please examine only the FIRST and THIRD example under each
trait. Using either the “student-friendly” rubric on p. 18, or the full rubric found on p. 13, score the
papers for the trait you are examining on this sheet. It is helpful to score the papers first
INDIVIDUALLY, then discuss and come to consensus as a group.
Student Sample Essay #1—Title:________________________________
Score by consensus:_________
Please explain why you rated the writing sample as you did:
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
Student Sample Essay #3—Title:________________________________
Score by consensus:_________
Please explain why you rated the writing sample as you did:
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
57
HALLWAY WALK
If visitors walked into your classroom(s) when students were writing, they would see the teacher(s):
Check as many as applicable
NORTH
1._____ Dictating sentences for the students to write.
2._____ Critiquing/circling all errors on students’ papers for students to correct.
3._____ Having students produce an essay (or similar large piece or writing) frequently, i.e. each week.
4._____ Teaching grammar (e.g., parts of speech, sentence structure) using workbook pages.
5._____ Scheduling regular days for the steps in the writing process (i.e. Monday = Brainstorming
Day; Tuesday = Rough Draft Day; Friday = Editing Day, etc.).
6._____ Having students turn in all writings for a grade/score.
EAST
1._____ Displaying “published” (final revisions) of student work.
2._____ Conferencing with individual students about their draft writing.
3._____ Supporting peer conferencing among students (grades 2 and higher).
4._____ Reviewing revision and/or editing strategies with students
5._____ Showing students how to use a rubric to consider possible refinements to a piece of writing.
6._____ Leading students in a collaborative writing activity or working in cooperative groups to create a
piece of shared writing.
SOUTH
1._____ Supervising students re-copying corrections marked by the teacher on rough drafts.
2._____ Requiring students make as many corrections as necessary to obtain perfect papers.
3._____ Displaying perfect “A” papers in hallways, classrooms, etc..
4._____ Exclusively assigning topics/subjects/genres.
5._____ Having students regularly “practice” writing for standardized tests by writing to sample
prompts year-round.
6._____ Requiring students to write to a teacher-supplied daily prompt in their journals.
WEST
1._____ Giving students choices about the topic/subtopics to respond to a writing assignment.
2._____ Having students respond with their reactions or feelings to literature read.
3._____ Modeling how to write in a particular type of writing, e.g., haiku, persuasive writing.
4._____ Supporting students in a letter-writing activity prior to mailing or delivering the letters.
5._____ Teaching students how to make notes and write research drafts or content area reports.
6._____ Providing a writing center that has many “real-life” writing materials, e.g., forms, applications,
memo pads.
58
Ideas and Content
Communicating knowledge of the topic,
Including relevant examples, facts, anecdotes and details
6
5
4
The writing is exceptionally clear, focused and
Interesting. It holds the reader’s attention
throughout. Main ideas stand out and are
developed by strong Support and rich details
suitable to audience and purpose. The writing has
• clarity, focus, and control.
• main idea(s) that stand out.
• supporting, relevant, carefully selected details;
The writing is clear, focused and interesting. It holds
the reader’s attention. Main ideas stand out and are
developed by supporting details that fit the audience
and purpose. The writing has
• clarity, focus, and control.
• main idea(s) that stand out.
• supporting, relevant, carefully selected details; when
The writing is clear and focused. The reader can easily
Understand the mail ideas. Support is present, although
it may be limited or rather general. The writing has
• an easily identifiable purpose.
• clean main idea(s).
• supporting details that are relevant but may be overly
•
•
when appropriate, use the resources provides
strong, accurate, credible support.
a thorough, balanced, in-depth explanation or
exploration of the topic; the writing makes
connections and shares insights.
content and selected details that are well-suited to
audience and purpose.
•
•
appropriate, use of resources provides strong,
accurate, credible support.
a thorough, balanced explanation or exploration of the
topic; the writing makes connections and shares
insights.
content and selected details that are well-suited to
audience and purpose.
•
•
general or limited in places; when appropriate, resources
are used to provide accurate support.
a topic that is explored/explained, although
developmental details may occasionally be out of
balance with the main idea(s); some connections and
insights may be present.
content and selected details that are relevant, but not
always well-chosen for audience and purpose.
3
2
1
The reader can understand the main ideas, but they
may be overly broad or simplistic. Supporting
detail is often limited, overly general, or sometimes
strays off the topic. The writing has
• an easily identifiable purpose and main idea(s).
• predictable or overly-obvious main ideas or plot;
Main ideas and purpose are somewhat unclear or
development is attempted but minimal. The paper
has
• an unclear purpose that requires the reader to guess
The writing lacks a central idea or purpose. The
writing has
• ideas that are extremely limited or unclear.
•
•
•
conclusions or main points seem to be the kind
we’ve heard many times before.
support is attempted, but details are limited in
scope or quantity, out of balance with too much or
too little for particular points, somewhat off topic,
predictable, or overly general.
details that may not be based on credible resources;
they may be based on clichés, stereotypes, or
questionable sources of information.
difficulties when moving from general observations
to specifics.
•
•
the main ideas.
minimal development; insufficient details.
irrelevant details that are off topic and clutter the
paper.
extensive repetition of detail.
Organization
minimal or non-existent development; the paper is too
short to demonstrate the development of an idea.
Structuring information in logical sequence, making connections
and transitions among ideas, sentences and paragraphs
6
5
4
The organization helps to communicate the central
idea(s) and its development. The order and
structure are compelling and move the reader
through the text easily. The writing has
• effective or creative sequencing; the organizational
The organization helps to communicate the central
idea(s) and its development. The order and structure
are strong and move the reader through the text. The
writing has
• effective sequencing; the organizational structure fits
Organization is clear and consistent. Order and
structure are present, but may be too obvious. The
writing has
• clear sequencing.
• an organization that may be predictable.
• a developed beginning that may not be particularly
•
•
•
structure fits the topic, and the writing is easy to
follow.
a strong, inviting beginning that draws the reader in
and a strong, satisfying sense of resolution or
closure.
smooth, effective transitions among all elements
(sentences, paragraphs, ideas).
details that fit where placed.
•
•
•
the topic, and the writing is easy to follow.
an inviting beginning that draws the reader in and a
satisfying sense of resolution or closing.
smooth, effective transitions among all elements
(sentences, paragraphs, ideas).
details that fit where placed.
•
•
•
inviting; a developed conclusion that may lack subtlety.
a body that is easy to follow with details that fit where
placed.
transitions that may be stilted or predictable.
an organization which helps the reader, despite some
weaknesses.
3
2
1
An attempt at organization has been made, but it is
inconsistent, ineffective or too obvious. The writing
has
• attempts at sequencing, but the order or the
The writing lacks a clear organizational structure.
The writing is either difficult to follow and the reader
has to reread substantial portions, or the piece is
simply too short to demonstrate organizational skills.
The writing has
• some attempts at sequencing, but the order of the
The writing doesn’t hold together. Even after
rereading, the reader remains confused. The writing
has
• a lack of effective sequencing.
• a failure to provide beginning an/or ending.
• a lack of transitions.
• problems with pacing; the reader feels either bogged
•
•
•
•
•
relationship among ideas is sometimes unclear.
a beginning and an ending which are probably
there, but which are either undeveloped (too short)
or too obvious (e.g., “My topic is…”; “These are
all the reasons that…”).
overuse of the same few transitional devices (e.g.,
“and,” “then,” “but,” “so,” “or,” “for,” “yet,”
numbering).
a structure that is too tight, almost like a formula.
placement of details that is sometimes confusing.
an organization that helps the reader in some
places, but breaks down in others.
•
•
•
relationship among ideas is frequently unclear.
a missing or extremely undeveloped beginning, body,
or ending.
a lack of transitions, or when present, ineffective or
overused transitions.
details that seem to be randomly placed, leaving the
reader frequently confused.
Voice
60
down in trivia or rushed along too rapidly.
Expressing ideas in an engaging and credible way for audience and purpose
6
5
4
The writer has chosen a voice appropriate for the
topic, purpose, and audience. The writer seems
deeply committed to the topic, and there is an
exceptional sense of “writing to read.” The writing
is expressive, engaging, or sincere. The writing has
• an effective level of closeness to or distance from
The writer has chosen a voice appropriate for the
topic, purpose, and audience. The writer seems
committed to the topic. The writing is expressive,
engaging, or sincere. The writing has
• an effective level of closeness to or distance from the
A voice is present. The writer demonstrates
commitment to the topic. In places, the writing is
expressive, engaging, or sincere. The writing has
• an inconsistent level of closeness to or distance from the
•
•
the audience (e.g., a narrative should have a strong
personal voice, while an expository piece may have
a more academic voice; nevertheless, both should
be engaging, lively, or interesting. Technical
writing may require greater distance.)
an exceptionally strong sense of audience; the
writer seems to be aware of the reader and of how
to communicate the message most effectively.
a sense that the topic has come to life; when
appropriate, the writing may show originality,
liveliness, honesty, conviction, excitement, humor,
or suspense.
•
•
•
audience (e.g., a narrative should have a strong
personal voice, while an expository piece may have a
more academic voice; nevertheless, both should be
engaging, lively, or interesting. Technical writing
may require greater distance.)
a strong sense of audience.
a sense that the topic has come to life; when
appropriate, the writing shows originality, liveliness,
honesty, conviction, excitement, humor, or suspense.
•
audience.
a sense of audience; the writer seems to be aware of the
reader but has not consistently employed an appropriate
voice.
liveliness, sincerity, or humor, however, at times the
writer may be either inappropriately casual or personal,
or inappropriately formal and stiff.
3
2
1
The writer’s commitment to the topic seems limited.
The writer may use a voice that is either
inappropriately personal or inappropriately
impersonal. The writing has
• no apparent matching of voice to topic, purpose,
The writing provides little sense of involvement or
commitment. There is no evidence that the writer has
chosen a suitable voice. The writing has
• a lack of audience awareness; there is little sense of
The writing seems to lack a sense of involvement or
commitment. The writing has
• no engagement of the writer; the writing is flat, lifeless,
•
•
•
and audience.
a limited sense of audience.
an occasional sense of the writer behind the words;
however, the voice may shift or disappear a line of
two later.
limited ability to shift to a more objective voice
when necessary.
•
•
“writing to read.”
little or no hint o the writer behind the words. There
is rarely a sense of interaction between the reader and
writer.
a voice that is likely to be overly formal and personal.
Word Choice
61
•
•
stiff, or mechanical.
a lack of audience awareness.
no hint of the writer behind the words, with little sense
of interaction between writer and reader; the writing
does not involve or engage the reader when it should.
Selecting functional, precise and descriptive words appropriate for audience and purpose
6
5
4
Words convey the intended message in an exceptionally
interesting, precise, and natural way. The writer employs
a rich, broad range or words which have been carefully
chosen and thoughtfully placed for impact. The writing
has
• accurate strong, specific words; powerful words
energize the writing.
• fresh, original expressions; slang, if used, seems
purposeful and is effective.
• vocabulary that is striking and varied, but that is
natural and not overdone.
• ordinary words used in an unusual way.
• words that evoke strong images, figurative
language may be used.
Words communicate the intended message in an interesting,
precise, and natural way. The writer uses a broad range of
words that have been carefully chosen and thoughtfully
places. The writing has
• accurate, specific words; word choices seem to give
energy to the writing.
• fresh, vivid expression; slang, if used, seems
purposeful and is effective.
• vocabulary that may be striking and varied, but that is
natural and not overdone.
• ordinary words used in an unusual way.
• words that evoke clear images; figurative language
may be used.
Words effectively convey the intended message. The writer
employs a variety of words that are functional. The writing
has
• words that work but do not add energy to the writing.
• expression that is functional; however, slang is not
particularly effective.
• attempts at expressive language that may occasionally
seem overdone.
• overuse or inappropriate use of technical language or
jargon, considering audience and purpose.
• rare experiments with language; however, the writing
may have some fine moments and generally avoids
clichés.
3
2
1
Language is ordinary, lacking interest, precision, and
variety. The writer does not use a variety of words,
producing a sort of “generic” paper filled with familiar
words and phrases. Word choices may be
inappropriately technical. The writing has
• words that work, but that rarely capture the reader’s
interest.
• expression that seems ordinary and general; slang,
if used, is not purposeful or effective.
• words that are accurate for the most part, although
misused words may sometimes appear.
• attempts at colorful language that are overdone.
• reliance on clichés and overused expressions.
• overuse or inappropriate use of technical jargon,
considering audience and purpose.
Language is dull or misused, detracting from the meaning
and impact. The writing has
• words that are colorless, flat or imprecise.
• repetition or overwhelming reliance on word
expressions that repeatedly detract from the message.
• images that are fuzzy or absent altogether.
The writing shows a limited vocabulary, or is so filled with
misuses of words that the meaning is unclear. Only the most
general kind of message is communicated because of vague or
general language. The writing has
• general, vague words that fail to communicate.
• an extremely limited range of words.
• words that simply do not fit; they seem imprecise,
inadequate, or just plain wrong.
Sentence Fluency
Developing flow and rhythm of sentences
62
6
5
4
The writing has an effective flow and rhythm.
Sentences show a high degree of craftsmanship,
with consistently strong and varied structure.
Expressive oral reading is easy and enjoyable. The
writing has
• a natural, fluent sound; it glides along with one
The writing has an easy flow and rhythm. Sentences
are carefully crafted, with strong and varied
structure. Expressive oral reading is easy. The
writing has
• a natural, fluent sound; it glides along with one
The writing flows; however, connections between
phrases or sentences may be mechanical. Sentence
patterns are somewhat varied, contributing to ease in
oral reading. The writing has
• a natural sound; the reader can move easily through the
•
•
•
•
•
•
sentence flowing effortlessly into the next.
extensive variation in sentence structure, length,
and beginnings that add interest to the text.
sentence structure that helps meaning by drawing
attention to key ideas.
varied sentence patterns that create an effective
combination of power and grace.
strong control over sentence structure; fragments, if
used at all, work well.
control of style; dialogue, if used, sounds natural.
•
•
•
sentence flowing into the next.
variation in sentence structure, length, and beginnings
that add interest to the text.
sentence structure that helps meaning.
control over sentence structure; fragments, if used at
all, work well.
control of style; dialogue, if used, sounds natural.
•
•
•
piece, although it may lack rhythm and grace.
some repeated patterns of sentence structure, length, and
beginnings that detract somewhat from overall impact.
strong control over simple sentence structures, but
variable control over more complex sentences;
fragments, if present, are usually effective.
occasional lapses in control of style; dialogue, if used,
sounds natural for the most part, but may at times sound
stilted or unnatural.
3
2
1
The writing tends to be mechanical rather than
fluid. Occasional awkward constructions force the
reader to slow down or reread. The writing has
• some passages that invite fluid oral reading, but
The writing tends to be either choppy or rambling.
Awkward constructions often force the reader to slow
down or reread. The writing has
• significant portions of the text that are difficult to
The writing is difficult to follow or to read aloud.
Sentences tend to be choppy, incomplete, rambling, or
just very awkward. The writing has
• text that does not invite, and may not even permit,
•
•
•
•
others that are choppy.
some variety in sentence structure, length, and
beginnings, although the writer falls into repetitive
sentence patterns.
good control over simple sentence structures, but
little control over more complex sentences;
fragments, if present, may not be effective.
sentences which, although functional, lack energy.
lapses in control of style; dialogue, if used may
sound stilted or unnatural.
•
•
•
follow or read aloud.
sentence patterns that are overly repetitive (e.g.,
subject-verb or subject-verb-object).
sentence structure that helps meaning.
a significant number of awkward, choppy, or
rambling constructions.
63
•
•
•
smooth oral reading.
confusing word order that often makes the meaning
unclear.
sentence structure that frequently makes meaning
unclear.
sentences that are fragmented, confusing, choppy, or
rambling.
Conventions
Demonstrating knowledge of spelling, grammar, punctuation, capitalization, usage, paragraphing
6
5
4
WorThe writing demonstrates strong control of standard
conventions and uses them effectively to enhance
communication. Errors are so few and so minor that the
reader can easily skim right over them. The writing has
The writing demonstrates strong control of standard
writing conventions which effectively contribute to clear
communication. Errors are so few and so minor that they do
not interfere with readability. The writing has
The writing demonstrates control of standard writing
conventions. Minor errors, while perhaps noticeable, do not
impede readability. The writing has
•
•
•
•
•
•
strong control of conventions; unusual usage
of conventions may occur for stylistic effect.
strong, effective use of punctuation that
guides the reader through the text.
correct spelling, even of more difficult words.
paragraph breads that reinforce the
organizational structure.
skill in using a wide range of conventions in a
sufficiently long and complex piece.
little or not need for editing.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
correct grammar and usage.
sound paragraphing.
effective use of punctuation.
correct spelling, even of difficult words.
few capitalization errors.
skill in using a wide range of conventions in a
sufficiently long and complex piece.
little need for editing.
•
•
•
•
•
•
control over conventions used, although a wide
range is not demonstrated.
correct end-of sentence punctuation; internal
punctuation may sometimes be incorrect.
spelling that is usually correct, especially on
common words.
basically sound paragraph breaks that reinforce the
organizational structure.
correct capitalization; errors, if any, are minor.
occasional lapses in correct grammar and usage;
problems are not severe enough to distort meaning
or confuse the reader.
moderate need for editing.
3
2
1
The writing shows limited control of standard
conventions. Errors begin to interfere with readability.
The writing has
• errors in grammar, usage, and capitalization that do
not block meaning but do distract the reader.
• paragraphs that sometimes run together or begin at
ineffective points.
• end-of-sentence punctuation that is usually correct,
but internal punctuation that contains frequent
errors.
• spelling errors that distract the reader, misspelling
or common words sometimes occurs.
• some control over basic conventions, but the text is
too simple or too short to reveal mastery.
• significant need for editing.
The writing demonstrates little control of standard
writing conventions. Frequently, significant errors
impede readability.The writing has
• little control over basic conventions.
• many end-of-sentence punctuation errors; internal
Numerous errors in conventions repeatedly distract the
reader and make the writing difficult to read. The
writing has
• very limited skill in using conventions.
• punctuation (including ends of sentences) that tends to
•
•
•
•
•
punctuation contains frequent errors.
spelling errors that frequently distract the reader;
misspelling of common words often occurs.
paragraphs that often run together or begin in
ineffective places.
capitalization that is inconsistent or often incorrect.
errors in grammar and usage that interfere with
readability and meaning.
substantial need for editing.
BEGINNINNG WRITERS RUBRIC (GRADES K-2)
64
•
•
•
•
be omitted, haphazard, or incorrect.
frequent spelling errors that significantly interfere with
readability.
paragraphing that may be irregular or absent.
capitalization that appears to be random.
a need for extensive editing.
1 Experimenting
2 Emerging
3 Developing
4 Capable
5 Experienced
Ideas
!
!
!
Ideas
!
Ideas
!
Ideas
!
Ideas
!
!
!
uses scribbles
dictates labels or story
shapes that look like
letters
line forms that imitate
text
writes letters randomly
!
!
!
some recognizable
words
labels pictures
uses drawings that
show detail
pictures are supported
by some words
!
!
!
attempts a story to
make a point
illustration supports
writing
meaning of the general
idea
some ideas clear but
some are fuzzy
Organization
!
attempts to write left to
right
!
attempts to write topdown
!
no sense of beginning
and ending yet
!
experiments with
spacing
Organization
!
consistently writes left
to right
!
consistently uses topdown
!
experiments with
beginnings
!
begins to group like
words/pictures
Organization
!
a title is present
!
limited transitions
present
!
beginning but no
ending except “The
End”
!
attempts sequencing
Voice
!
Voice
!
Voice
!
!
!
!
communicates feelings
with color, shape, line
in drawing
work is similar to
everyone else’s
ambiguous response to
task
awaraeness of
audience not present
!
!
!
!
hints of voice present in
words and phrases
looks different fom most
others
energy/mood is present
treatment of topic
predictable
audience is fuzzy—
could be anybody,
anywhere
!
!
!
!
expresses some
predictable feelings
moments of individual
sparkle, but then hides
repetition of familiar
ideas reduces energy
awareness that the
writing will be read by
someone else
reader has limited
connection to writer
65
!
!
!
writing tells story or
makes point
illustration if present
enhances the writing
idea is on topic
details are present but
not developed (lists)
Organization
!
appropriate title is
present
!
attempts transitions
from sentence to
sentence
!
beginning works well
and attempts an ending
!
logical sequencing
!
key ideas begin to
surface
Voice
!
writing is individual and
expressive
!
individual perspective
becomes evident
!
personal treatment of a
standard topic
!
writes to convey a story
or idea to the reader
!
attempts non-standard
point of view
presents a
fresh/original idea
!
topic is narrowed and
focused
!
develops one clear,
main idea
!
uses interesting,
important details for
support
!
writer understands topic
well
Organization
!
an original title present
!
transitions connect
main ideas
!
the opening attracts
!
an effective ending is
tried
!
easy to follow
!
important ideas stand
out
Voice
!
!
!
!
!
uses text to elicit a
variety of emotions
takes some risks to say
more than what is
expected
point of view is evident
writes with clear sense
of audience
cares deeply about
topic
1 Experimenting
Word Choice
!
writes letters in strings
!
imitates word patterns
!
pictures stand for words
and phrases
!
copies environmental print
2 Emerging
Word Choice
!
recognizable words
!
environmental words used
correctly
!
attempts phrases
!
functional language
3 Developing
Word Choice
!
general or ordinary words
!
attempts new words but
they don’t always fit in
!
settles for the word or
phrase that “will do”
!
big words used only to
impress readers
!
relies on slang, clichés or
repetition
4 Capable
Word Choice
!
!
!
!
uses favorite words
correctly
experiments with new and
different words with some
success
tries to choose words for
specificity
attempts to use
descriptive words to
create images
5 Experienced
Word Choice
!
everyday words
used well
!
precise, accurate,
fresh, original words
!
creates vivid images
in a natural way
!
avoids repetition,
clichés, or vague
language
!
attempts figurative
language
Sentence Fluency
!
mimics letters and words
across the page
!
words stand alone
!
patterns for sentences not
in evidence
!
sentence sense not yet
present
Sentence Fluency
!
strings words together into
phrases
!
attempts simple
sentences
!
short, repetitive sentence
patterns
!
dialogue present but not
understandable
Sentence Fluency
!
uses simple sentences
!
sentences tent to begin
the same
!
experiments with other
sentence patterns
!
reader may have to
reread to follow the
meaning
!
dialogue present but
needs interpretation
Sentence Fluency
!
simple and compound
sentences present and
effective
!
attempts complex
sentences
!
not all sentences begin
the same
!
sections of writing have
rhythm and flow
Sentence Fluency
!
consistently uses
sentence variety
!
sentence structure is
correct and creative
!
variety of sentence
beginnings
!
natural rhythm,
cadence and flow
!
sentences have
texture that clarify
the important idea
Conventions
!
writes letter strings (prephonetic: dmRxzz)
!
attempts to create
standard letters
!
writes word strings
!
attempts spacing of
words, letters, symbols, or
pictures
!
student interpretation
needed to understand
text/pictures
Conventions
!
attempts semi-phonetic
spelling (MTR,UM,KD,
etc)
!
uses mixed upper and
lower case letters
!
uses spaces between
letters and words
!
random punctuation
!
nonstandard grammar is
common
Conventions
!
uses phonetic spelling
(MOSTR, HUMN, KLOSD,
etc) on personal words
!
spelling of high frequency
still spotty
!
uses capitals at the
beginning of sentences
!
usually uses end
punctuation correctly
!
experiments with other
punctuation
!
long paper may be written
as one paragraph
!
attempts standard
grammar
Conventions
!
Transitional spelling on
less frequent words
(MONSTUR, HUMUN,
CLOSSED, etc)
!
spelling of high frequency
words usually correct
!
capitals at beginning of
sentences and variable
use on proper nouns
!
end punctuation is correct,
and other punctuation is
attempted, such as
commas
!
paragraphing variable but
present
!
noun/pronoun agreement,
verb tenses, subject/verb
agreement
Conventions
!
high frequency
words are spelled
correctly and very
close on other words
!
capitals used for
obvious proper
nouns as well as
sentence beginnings
!
basic punctuation is
used correctly and/or
creatively
!
indents consistently
to show paragraphs
!
shows control over
standard grammar
66