The Maya - Lane.edu

The Maya
23.1 lntroduction
Our journey throughthe Americasbeginswith an explorationof the Mayan
civilization. This greatcivilizationlasted3,500years,from about2000 s.c.e.to
1500c.e.At its peak,it includedpresent-day
southernMexico and largeportionsof
CentralAmerica.In this chapter,you will learnaboutsomeof the most important
achievements
of the Mayan civilization.
You can still seethe ruins of someamazingstonecitiesbuilt by the Maya.
The ruins of the ancientcity of Tikal (shownon the oppositepage)lie deepin the
jungle.
Guatemalan
Imagine standingat the heartof this city in the year 750 c.e. You are in a large,
openplazasurroundedby eight soaringtemple-pyramids.
They reachinto the sky
like mountains.On the ground.as far as you can see,are structures
on raised
platforms.The structuresare painted
in bright colors.Nearby,in the center of the city, you seelargepalaces
madeof hand-cutlimestoneblocks.
Thesepalacesare the homesof the
ruler, priests,and nobles.Farther
out are the stonehousesof the merchantsand artisans.At the very edge
of the city, you glimpse thousandsof
small.thatched-roof
house-mounds
where the peasantslive.
Tikal was only one of more than
40 Mayan cities.How did the Maya
createsuch greatcities and such an
advancedcivilization?In this chapter,you will tracethe development
of Mayan civilization.Then you will
take a closer look at severalaspects
of Mayan culture, including
class structure, family
life, religious beliefs and
practices, andagricultural
techniques.
The Maya
259
Mesoamerica "Middle
23.2The Development of
Mayan Civilization
America,"
theregionextending
frommodern-day
Mexicothrough
While the RomanEmpirewas decliningin westernEurope,the
Maya were creatingan advancedcivilizationin the Americas.Mayan
CentralAmerica
civilizationreachedits heightbetween300 and 900 c.E.During this
time, Mayan culturespreadover much of Mesoamerica, including
part of present-day
southernMexico, Belize,most of Guatemala,and
parts of Hondurasand El Salvador.
The landscapein which the Maya lived variedgreatly.In the south,
pine fbrestscoveredthe mountainhighlands.In the northernand central
grasslands,
regionswere rainfbrests,
and swamps.Theseareasare
known as the lowlands.Thick jungle coveredthe southernpart of the
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lowlands.This is whereMayan civilizationreachedits highestdevelopment.Todaythis areais calledthe Petenregionof Guatemala.
The Origins of Mayan Civilization
The Maya built their civilizationin part on
ideasthey inheritedfrom a peoplecalled the
Olmec.The Olmec lived in thejungle areas
on the eastcoastof Mexico,Their civilization
reachedits peakbetween1200and 500 e.c.e.
Like early civilizationsin otherpartsof the
world. the Olmec civilizationwas basedon
agriculture.By 2000 B.c.E.,peoplein partsof
Mexico had turned from hunting and gathering
to farming as their main sourceof food. A particularly importantcrop was maize.or corn.
Farmingallowedthe Olmec to create
permanentsettlements.
The Olmec established
farmingvillagesthroughoutthe region.They
also createdtrade routesthat stretchedfor
hundredsof miles.
By 1400B.c.E.,the Olmec had a capitalcity
that boastedpalaces,temples,and monuments.
0neofthemostextraordinary
achievements
ofthe0lmecwastheir
monumental
stoneheads,
believed
to be portraits
oftheirleaders.
More
They were the first Mesoamericansto develop
largereligiousand ceremonialcenters.They
were alsothe first to usea solar(sun)calendar.The Maya would build
on all theseachievements.
Three Periods of Mayan Civilization
covered.
Theystandover8 feet
Mayancivilization
beganto arisein easternand southernMexico around2000 e.c.s.
Historiansdivide the historyof Mayan civilizationinto threemain
periods:Pre-Classic,
Classic,and Post-Classic.
highandweighaboutl0 tons.
Themassive
headsweresculpted
without
theuseof metaltools.
periodlastedfrom about2000 B.c.E.to 300 c.E.
. The long Pre-Classic
During this time, the Maya farmedthe land and lived in simplehouses
and compounds,or groupsof buildings.
than30suchhe:dshavebeendis-
260 Chapter23
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Gradually,Mayan culture becamemore complex.As the Mayan
populationgrew, settlementsbecamelarger.The Maya beganconstruct-
l r;
ing public buildings for governmentaland religious purposes.About
50 e.c.E.,they beganto adaptthe writing systemof the Olmec and
developtheir own systemof hieroglyphic writing. Mayan civilization
reachedits peak during the Classicperiod, from around300 to 900 c.a.
The achievementsyou will study in this chapterdate from this time.
hieroglyphic writingthatuses
pictures
as symbols
During the ClassicPeriod,the Maya adaptedand developedideas
fut
they had learnedfrom the Olmec. For example,they improved on
Olmec building techniques.Even though the Maya lacked metal tools
and had not discoveredthe wheel, they built enorrnousstonecities that
boastedelaborateand highly decoratedtemple-pyramidsand palaces.
The Maya also built observatoriesfor studyingthe heavens.They
chartedthe movementsof the moon, stars,and planets.They used
ff1
their knowledgeof astronomyand mathematicsto createcomplex and
highly accuratecalendars.
Mayan societyduring the
Classicperiod consistedof many
independentstates.Each statehad
far"ning communitiesand one
or more cities.At its height, the
Mayan Empire includedover
Si
t
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-
MayaEmpire
|
ruortn"tn
lowlands
[L---,,]lSouthern|ow|ands
l--.l Higntanos
40 cities, including Tikal, Copan,
ChichenItza, andPalenque.
Around 900 c.e.,the Classic
civilization collapsed.The Maya
abandonedtheir cities in the
southernlowland area,and the
greatcities fell into ruin in the
jungle. No one knows for certain
PACIFIC
OCEAN
why this happened.At the end of
nl
II
GutJql
M:.rico
this chapter,we will look at some
theoriesthat may explain the
0
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GUATEMALA
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200 miles
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100 200kilometers
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mvsterv.
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To the north, on the YucatanPeninsula,Mayan cities continuedto
prosperduring the Post-Classicperiod.This period lastedfrom about
900 c.E.to 1500c.e. During this time, the Maya continuedtheir warfare
and empire building, but they had fewer greatartistic and cultural
achievements.
Even at the height of their empire,the Maya were not one unified
nati)n. Insteadthey lived in many city-stateswith separategovernments.What united them as Maya was their common culture: their
social system,languages,calendar,religion, and way of life. Let's
take a closerlook at someasDectsof Mavan culture. startinswith
classstructure.
TheMaya 261
Thesocialpyramid
oftheMayan
showstherulerof each
civilization
\{
city-state
at thetopwiththe restof
Mayansociety
belowhim.Eachlayer
pyramid
represents
a different
ofthe
ilfff
groupof people
andtheirlevelof
Noticethat
impoftance
inthesociety.
atthe
therearemanymorepeople
rfifffr
ofthepyramid
thanatthetop.
bottom
#efr
{l
*
23.3 Class Structure
city-states,
During the Classicperiod,the Maya lived 'n independent
like
a pyralike Tikal. Within eachstate,Mayan societywas structured
mid. The ruler of eachcity-statewas at the top of the social pyramid.
social pyramid a socialstructurein theshapeof a pyramid,
The restof Mayan societywas organizedin a seriesof layersbelow him.
withlayersrepresenting
social
rankor status
classes
of different
The highestauthorityin the statewas the halachuinic,
a Mayan word that means"true man." He ruled the statewith the help
The Ruler
of his advisors.He decidedwhen and whereto go to war.
The Mayan ruler was considereda god-king.During religiouscerethat was as tall as a person.When he died,
monies,he wore a headdress
him. Mayan rulerswere
a son or otherclosemale relativesucceeded
almostalwaysmen.but scholarsbelievethat womenhad considerable
probablythroughfamily relationships.
influenQe,
Nobles and Priests The next layer in the socialpyramidwas
madeup of noblesand priests.They were the only membersof Mayan
societywho knew how to readand write.
The noblesservedas officials.and oversawthe administrationof
the states.They gatheredtaxes.supplies,and labor for projectslike
the constructionof temples.Noblesled peasantarmiesin timesof war.
During battles,they wore elaboratecostumes,includinggold jewelry
and animalrobesmadefrom the skin of jaguars.
Priestswere importantbecausethey maintainedfavor with the gods.
Like nobles,they inheritedtheir positionfrom their fathers.Priestsled
rituals,offeredsacrifices,and foretoldthe future.They were consulted
to determinethe bestdaysfbr going into battle.In additionto their
and
astronomers,
religiousduties,priestswere often mathematicians,
healers.
262 Chapter23
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Merchants and Artisans
Althoughthe Mayan economywas
basedmostly on farming, trade and crafts were also important.These
bi
functions were carriedout by merchantsand artisans.
The Maya were accomplishedtraders.They traveledby sea,river,
tnd well-constructed
roadsto tradewith othercity-states.
Merchants
in the lowlands imported valuableproductsfrom the highlands.These
productsincluded stonessuch as obsidianandjade; copal, a tree sap
s:
that the Maya usedas incenseduring religiousceremonies;andquetzals,
birds with shiny greenfeathersusedin headdresses.
Mayan artisansmade a wide variety of objects,many of them
designedto pay tribute to the gods.They paintedbooks on papermade
from the bark of fig trees.Artists paintedmurals,or wall paintings,of
Mayan life and important battles.They createdsculpturesfor temples
and decorativedesignson palacewalls.The Maya were alsoskilled
weaversand potters.
Peasants
The peasantswere the backboneof Mayan society.
They worked hard on the land, growing maize,squash,beans,and other
cropsto f'eedthe population.During the growing season.men spent
most of the day in the fields,farmingwith woodenhoes.Women
usuallystayedcloserto home,preparingfbod, weaving,and sewing.
S.
When they were not working on the land, peasantsspenttime building pyramids and temples.In exchangefor their work, they sometimes
attendedroyal weddingsand religiousevents.Peasants
alsoservedas
soldiersduring wars.
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Slaves At the bottomof the socialpyramidwere the slaves.
Slavesperformedmanual labor for their owners.Somewere born
into slavery,but free peoplesometimesbecameslaves.Somechildren
becameslaveswhen their parentssold them for moneyto f'eedthe
restof the family. War prisonersof humbleorigin were madeslaves.
(Thoseof higherrank were sacrificedto the gods.)And somepeople
were madeslavesas a punishmentfor seriouscrimes.
ri
In general,slaveswere not treatedbadly.Sometimesthey actually
had easierlives than peasants,
dependingon whatjob they did and
wheretheir masterslived. But slaveswere not free to comeand go
as they pleased.Often they were sacrificedwhen their mastersdied.
Now that we've lookedat the Mayan classstructure,let's takea
look at what daily life was like for the majority of Maya: the peasants.
performed
in Mayansociety
a
Slaves
variety
of tasksfortheirmasters.
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The Maya
263
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Mayanfamilies
hadmanydailytasks,
23.4 Family Life
including
weaving,
washing
co0king,
In city-stateslike Copan (in presenrdayHonduras),Mayan peasants
clothes,
fishing,
andworking
theland. lived in one-roomhuts built of interwovenpoles coveredwith dried
mud. Severalfamily houseswere often grouped around a courtyard.
A house containing the kitchen was often placed directly behind the
main house.Peasantfamilies worked hard, but ceremoniesand rituals
provided a break from work and a chanceto honor important events.
Duties of Family Members
Life for Mayan peasantfamilies
was not easy.Mayan women rose before dawn to get the fire burning in
the fireplace.With the help of her daughters,a Mayan woman cleaned
the corn that had been boiled and left to soak and soften overnight.
Then she set to work at the grinding stone,pounding corn into meal.
She patted the meal into tortillas (a Spanishword meaning "little
ritual a setof actionsthatis
alwaysperformed
the sameway
as partof a religious
ceremony
breadd") or tamales and cooked them over the fire. These might serve
as the morning meal, or they might be savedfor dinner.On special
days,they might also have hot chocolate,a drink the Maya made from
cacaobeans.
During the day, women and older girls cared for small children and
for the family's few animals,like ducks and turkeys.They swepttheir
homes,and they gathered,spun,and wove cotton into cloth.
Mayan fathers and sons ate their morning meal quickly before
leaving to work the fields. When they weren't busy with the crops,
men and boys hunted and trapped animals. They also helped construct
large buildings such as palacesand temples.In times of war, peasant
men servedas soldiers.
Special Occasions
Although Mayan families worked hard,
they also took time to celebratethe important events in their lives. The
264 Chapter23
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birth of a child was a time of rejoicing.As soon as possibleafter the
birth, the family called in a priest to perform a ceremony much like
baptism.The priest forecastthe baby's future and gave adviceto help
guide the parentsin raising the child.
At three months of age,girls went through anotherceremony.The
number 3 was specialto Mayan women becauseit representedthe three
stonesof the fireplace.In the three-monthceremony,the baby girl was
coming-of-age ceremony
a ceremony
thatcelebrates
the
endof childhood
andacceptance
intotheadultcommunity
introducedto the tools she would use throughouther life. Small items
were placedin the baby's hands,such as tools for spinningand weaving, carrying water and cooking, and soakingand grinding maize.
A similar ceremonywas held for boys at four monthsof age.The
number 4 was specialto Mayan men. It representedthe four sidesof
the plot of land where a boy would spendhis life. The baby boy was
given farmer's tools, such as axesand planting sticks,and the spears,
knives, and traps of a hunter.
Another importantceremonyin every Mayan child's life was the
coming-of-age ceremony. Girls went throughthis ceremonyat the
age of 12, boys at 14. The long ceremonyinvolved confessions,cleansing with water, and reciting the rules of behavior.Finally, the priest cut
Themarriage
ceremony
wasan
important
eventin the lifeof a young
Mayanmanor woman.
a white bead from the boys' hair and removeda
stringof red shellsfrom aroundthe girls' waists.
Boys and girls had worn thesesymbolsof innocencesincethey were quite young.
Marriage Customs
The next big event
for a Mayan youth was marriage.Men usually
married aroundthe age of 20. Girls married when
they were as young as 14.
The bride and groom did not chooseeach
other. Instead,marriageswere negotiatedby the
village atanzahab,or matchmaker.Thesenegotiations were not simple. Familieshad to agreeon
how much food and clothing would be given to
the bride's family. They also had to agreeon the
number of yearsa young man would work for his
new wife's family.
Once the detailsof a marriagewere worked
out, the villagersbuilt a hut for the couplebehind
the home of the bride's parents.When the home
was ready,the bride and groom put on clothing
woven for the occasion.After a priest blessedthe
marriage,the villagerscelebrated.
Clearly,rituals and ceremonieswere an important part of daily life to the Maya. Let's look more
closely at Mayan religiousbeliefs and practices.
The Mava
265
23.5 Religious Beliefs and Practices
sacrifice a giftof an animalfor
slaughter
as a wayto honorgods
Religion was very important to the Maya. The Maya built their cities
around ceremonial and religious centers.Their magnificent templepyramidsrose high abovethe jungle canopy,like mountainsreaching
into the sky. Temple plazasprovided gathering places for people to
attendrituals and ceremonies.
Scholarshave learned about the Mayan religion from studying
present-dayMayan practices,ancientartifacts,and documentswritten
during the Post-Classicperiod. Here are someof the things they have
discovered.
The Mayan religion was polytheistic,
Beliefs and Rituals
which meansit includedmany gods.In fact, the Maya believedin
more than 160 gods.The primary Mayan gods were forces or objects
in nature that affected people's daily lives, like the god of rain, the god
of corn, and the god of death.Many gods had animal characteristics.
The jaguar was especiallyimportantto the Maya.
Inthisreproduction
of a Mayan
priestis
painting,
a richlydressed
beingservedbyslaves
duringa
ceremony.
Mayanreligious
The Maya believedthat the gods had createdthe world and could
influenceor even destroyit. The samegod that sentlife-giving rain
could also ruin the crops with hailstones.So, it was extremelyimportant to honorthe gods.
According to Mayan beliefs,only priestscould explain signs and
lead peoplethroughrituals aimed at pleasingthe gods.Priestsperformed sacrifices and conducted
ceremonies.They consulted
sacredbooks,read omens,interpretedsigns,and predictedthe
future. No decisionwas made
without seekingthe gods' advice.
No action was taken without first
honoring the gods.
The Maya honoredtheir gods
with offerings such as plants,
food, flowers, feathers,jade, and
shells.The Maya believedthat
blood gave the gods strength,so
they also made blood offerings by
sacrificing animals and, sometimes, humans.The peoplewho
were sacrificedwere usually
orphans,slaves,and noblescaptured during war.
In the ancient city of Chichen
Itza, on the YucatanPeninsula,
humans were sacrificed by being
$ l,.*
thrown into a sacredwell whosewater level was 60 feet below the
ground.Any victims who survivedthe fall were pulled from the water
and askedwhat messagethey had brought back from the gods.
5i
Human sacrificeplayed a role in an ancientMayan gamecalled
pok-a-tok. Every Mayan city had at leastone ball court wherethe
game was played.Scholarsbelievethat there were two teamsof nobles.
Playerstried to hit a solid rubber ball through a stonering by using
pok-a-tok a Mayanballgame
thathadreligious
significance
their leather-padded
elbows, wrists, and hips. Peoplefrom all levels of
Mayan society watchedand placedbets on the outcomeof the game.
Slaves,land, and homescould be won and lost during a game.
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Surviving art from the ball courts showsmembersof the losing team
being sacrificedand the captainof the defeatedteam being beheaded.
The Sacred Galendar The Maya usedtheir knowledgeof
mathematicsand astronomyto developa complex calendarsystem.
Two main calendarswere usedfor
religious and other purposes.The
first was a daily calendar,based
on the solar (sun) year.It divided
the year into 18 months of 20
dayseach,plus 5 "unlucky" days.
This totaled365 days.as in our
calendar.
The secondcalendarwas the
sacredor ritual calendar.It was
called the tzolkin, or Sacred
Round.The SacredRound was
basedon 13 monthsof 20 days
each,making 260 days in all.
It had two cycles that worked
togetherto identify a particular
day. One cycle was made up of
the numbers 1 to 13. The other cycle was a set of 20 day names.Each
of the day namesrepresenteda particulargod. Every 260 days,a given
combinationof numbersand day names,such as 1 Ik, would occur.
Only priestscould "read" the hidden meaningof the SacredRound.
Priestsusedthe sacredcalendarto determinethe bestdays to plant,
hunt, cure, do battle, and perform religiousceremonies.To this day,
Thisistheballcourtat theancient
ltza.Notice
Mayancityof Chichen
theheightof thestoneringsembeddedin thewalls.
there are calendarpriestsin southernMexico who use the 260-day
calendarin this way.
Like Mayan art and architecture,the calendarsystemreflectsa
highly advancedcivilization.This civilizationwas madepossibleby
the ability of the Maya to createa stablefood supply.Next you'll learn
about the agriculturaltechniquesthe Maya usedto ensurethat they had
sufficient food.
The Maya
267
23.6 Agricu ltural Techniques
The Maya were creative, skillful farmers. They used their knowledge
ofcalendars and seasonalchangeto help them becomeeven better at
growing food. But Mayan farmers faced many challenges.In the end,
crop failure may have played a key role in the collapseof the Classic
Mayan civilization.
Ghallenges Facing Mayan
Farmers The primary Mayan food was
maize, or corn. Other typical Mayan crops
were beans,squash,and chili peppers.
Fortunately,beansand squash,when eaten
with corn, supply people with a naturally
healthful and balanceddiet.
One of the most difficult challenges
the Maya faced was how to grow enough
food to feed their growing population.
Farming was not easyin the regions
where they lived. Their land included
denseforests,little surfacewater (such
as lakes or streams),and poor soil.
The Maya respondedto this challenge
by developing different agricultural techniquesfor the variousenvironmentsin
which they lived. In the mountainous
plantsandtrees highlands,they built terraces,or earth steps,into the hills to create
Cutting
andburning
is an easywayto clearlandforfarm- more flat land for planting.In the swampylowlands,the Maya coning,andtheashfromthefirehelps
structedraised-earthplatforms surroundedby canals that drained off
fertilize
thisslashcrops.However,
extra water. This technique helped them to grow more food without
and-burn
technique
usesupthesoil
qui ckly
andcanbedangerous,
as
getoutof control.
firessometimes
having to increasethe amountof land they used.
A different techniquewas usedin the denselyforestedlowland
areas.In city-stateslike Palenque(in present-dayMexico), the Maya
usedslash-and-burn agriculture. First they clearedthe land by
cutting and burning plants and trees.Then they plantedtheir crops.
Unfortunately, this kind of farming wears out the soil. Lowland soil
was not very rich to begin with, so land that was planted for 2 to 4
yearshad to be left to rest for 2 to 10 years.Slash-and-burnfarmers
had to have a lot of land, sinceeachyear someareaswere planted
while otherswere recovering.
slash-and-burn agriculture
a farming
technique
in whichvegetationis cut awayandburnedto
clearlandfor growing
crops
268 Chapter23
The Mayan agriculturalsystemworked as long as settlementswere
spreadout and not too large.As populationsincreased,the Maya had
trouble raising enoughfood to feed everyone.In the constantquestfor
land, they drainedswampsand clearedhillsides.They also usedhousehold gardensin the cities to increasethe amountof land availablefor
growing food.
The End of the Glassic Period
FJ
Creativeagriculturaltechniqueswere not enoughto savethe ClassicMayan civilization. For
about 600 years,the greatcities of the southernlowlands thrived.
Then, in the spaceof 50 to 100 years,the civilization that supported
thesecentersfell apart.By 900 c.E.,the Maya had abandonedtheir
cities to the jungle.
The collapseof the ClassicMayan civilization is one of the great
mysteriesof Mesoamericanhistory.Many theorieshave beenproposedto explain what happened.Somehistoriansbelievethat the
populationsof the cities grew fasterthan the Mayan farming systems
could sustainthem. Scholarshave also proposedthat long periodsof
drought,or dry weathel causedmassivecrop failure.
Another possiblecauseof the
Maya's downfall was uncontrolled
warfare.In the centuriesafter 300 c.s.,
the skirmishesthat were common
among city-statesescalatedinto fullfledged wars. A final possibility is that
invadersfrom centralMexico helpedto
destroythe Mayan city-states.
Perhapsa combinationof factors
brought an end to the Classicperiod.
What we do know is that the great
The Maya migrated
cities disappeared.
away from the old Mayan heartland
and returnedto village life. Stoneby
stone,the jungle reclaimedthe great
pyramids and plazas.
Although the greatMayan cities are
ruins today,Mayan culture lives on. About 2 million Maya still live
in the southernMexican stateof Chiapas.Millions more are spread
throughoutthe YucatanPeninsulaand the cities and rural farm communitiesof Belize. Guatemala.Honduras.and El Salvador.
Thewallsof Mayantombswere
painted
withscenesof important
eventsanddailylife.Thistomb
painting
is of warriors
in battle.
23.7 Ghapter Summary
In this chapter,you readaboutthe rise of the Mayancivilization.'*
This greatcivilizationwasdevelopedin threemain periods:PreClassic,Classic,andPost-Classic.
The Maya'sgreatestculturalachievements
cameduringthe
Classicperiod.In studyingthis period,you exploredthe Maya's
complexsocialstructureandtheir family life, religion,andfarming
techniques.
In the next chapter,you will learnaboutthe nextgreat
civilizationthat arosein Mesoamerica:
theAztecEmpire.
The Maya
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