CRACTICUS NIGROGULARIS - UWS ResearchDirect

Transcription

TOWARDS A SPECIES SONGBOOK:
ILLUMINATING THE VOCALISATIONS OF THE
AUSTRALIAN PIED BUTCHERBIRD
(CRACTICUS NIGROGULARIS)
Hollis Taylor
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
University of Western Sydney
School of Communication Arts
Sydney, Australia
September 2008
For Jon Rose, my rock/paper/scissors
Acknowledgements
The thesis owes a great deal to many people. First, I wish to acknowledge Vicki
Powys, sound editor of the Australian Wildlife Sound Recording Group. She rallied
the group’s members to share their extant pied butcherbird recordings with me;
Jenny Beasley, Harold Crouch, Sydney Curtis, Stuart Fairbairn, Bill Flentje, Peter
Fullagar, Gloria Glass, Andree Griffin, Helen Horton, Tony Howard, John
Hutchinson, Gayle Johnson, David Lumsdaine, Howard Plowright, Vicki Powys,
Bill Rankin, Andrew Skeoch, Dave Stewart, Bob Tomkins, and Fred Van Gessel
contributed. The thesis is indebted to their recordings, correspondence, and
support. Vicki Powys, Sydney Curtis, and David Lumsdaine were devoted and
thought-provoking correspondents who pushed this work to a higher level.
My heartfelt thanks goes to Professor Michael Atherton, my supervisor and friend.
His enthusiasm, encouragement, vision, generosity, and considered comments have
guided the thesis to its completion. I am also grateful to my co-supervisor, Dr.
Garth Paine. His esprit, knowledge on technical matters, and attention to detail as a
reader were greatly appreciated.
Early discussions with François-Bernard Mâche were crucial to this work, as were
those with Dario Martinelli, Magnus Robb, and René Van Peer. The following
ornithologists offered noteworthy assistance: Alan Gilanders, Andrew Horn, Gayle
Johnson, Gisela Kaplan, Carol Probets, Alan Taylor, and Stephen Yezerinac. Others
who advised include Andrew Bell, Neil Boucher, Roger Dean, Neville Fletcher,
Aleks Kolkowski, Mary O’Kane, Alan Powers, Cate Stevens, Ofer Tchernichovski,
and Joe Wolfe. Thanks to the composers who assisted me in including their works:
Charles Bodman Rae, Emily Doolittle, Mark Hansen, David Lumsdaine, Christine
Mercer (for Henry Tate), and Ron Nagorcka.
On Magnetic Island, Chris Corbet, Andy Frost, Cecily MacAlpine, Charlie McColl,
Delphine Turnbull, and Eric Vanderduys went out of their way to share their
knowledge of the island’s birds. Also thanks to Patrick Centurino, Ranger in
Charge, Magnetic Island National Park. On the mainland in Townsville, Jo
Wienecke, Kevin and Joyce Cameron, and Rosemary Payet supported the project.
The assistance I have received from the library staff at the University of Western
Sydney was of superior quality; I would like to express my personal gratitude in
particular to Cheryl Harris, Susan Robbins, and Tracy Donelly. Thanks to Gordon
Grant for technical support. Thanks for the general support of the University of
Western Sydney and the Research Committee for the School of Communication
Arts for supporting my fieldwork. My appreciation also goes to John Davis and
Judith Foster from the Australian Music Centre and to Robyn Ravlich and Jane
Ulman from ABC Radio National. Jane accompanied me on a fieldtrip to Alice
Springs and was a major boost to the study.
Finally, a round of thanks is not enough for the support Jon Rose provided me
throughout this inquiry; it was sage, unflinching, and incomparable.
Statement of Authentication
The work presented in this thesis is, to the best of my knowledge and belief,
original except as acknowledged in the text. I hereby declare that I have not
submitted this material either in full or in part, for a degree at this or any other
institution.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PART ONE
Dedication
Acknowledgements
Statement of Authentication
Table of Contents
i
List of Figures
iv
List of Tables
ix
Abbreviations
x
Glossary
xi
Abstract
xv
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 2
2.1
Background to Study
Introduction to the study of bird song
2.1.1 The study of bird song by biologists
2.1.2 Limitations to the study of birdsong by biologists
Zoömusicology
Composers’ appropriation of birdsong
Composers’ appropriation of pied butcherbird song
Songbirds
2.5.1 Study species: an overview
2.5.2 Study species: voice
Summary
7
8
8
12
14
18
21
29
29
36
43
Design and Methods
Research Tools
3.1.1 A trained ear
3.1.2 Instrumentation
3.1.3 Collection of extant recordings
3.1.4 Limitations of extant recordings
Fieldwork
3.2.1 Study sites
3.2.2 Recording times
3.2.3 Recording procedures and observational methods
3.2.4 Limitations of fieldwork
Sonographic analysis
3.3.1 Sonogram generation and evaluation
3.3.2 Limitations of sonographic analysis
Notation and data analysis
3.4.1 A brief history of music notation
3.4.2 A history of birdsong notation
3.4.3 Notation and data analysis of pied butcherbird song
3.4.4 Limitations to notation and data analysis
Summary
44
45
45
48
48
50
50
51
55
55
56
57
57
62
62
62
67
80
83
83
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
Chapter 3
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
1
i
Chapter 4
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
Phenomenology of Pied Butcherbird Vocalisations
Introduction
Note Structure
Calls
Calls in Song
Pied butcherbird song mutualisms with human music
Female song and antiphonal song
Mimicry
Summary
85
86
87
91
95
99
114
116
126
Chapter 5
5.1
Long Songs, Repertoire, and Organisational Structure
Diurnal song
5.1.1 A diurnal song on Magnetic Island
5.1.2 Individual phrases of a diurnal song
5.1.3 A diurnal song considered as a whole
5.1.4 A diurnal song compared to other recordings from
the area
Pre-dawn song
5.2.1 A pre-dawn song in Alice Springs
5.2.2 Individual phrases of a pre-dawn song
5.2.3 A pre-dawn song considered as a whole
5.2.4 A pre-dawn song compared to other recordings from
the area
Discussion
127
130
130
131
147
Critical Reflection and Analysis
Aesthetic considerations and inclinations
Compositions for improvisers
Composition for video and toy piano
Compositions for strings
Discussion
Portfolio of compositions (paired with field transcriptions):
Cumberdeen Dam V & T
Lamington Plateau
The bass of Broken Hill
Banana paper
Ormiston Gorge: A canonic manipulation
Gowrie Creek
Black and white miniatures
Pied butcherbird suite
Bird-Esk
181
182
184
189
191
194
Conclusion and Future Directions
Key questions
Specific new contributions
Future directions
Conclusion
289
290
292
294
297
5.2
5.3
Chapter 6
6.1.
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.5
Chapter 7
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
ii
153
162
162
162
167
170
177
196
205
211
215
218
226
228
237
262
PART TWO
The pagination recommences for Part Two.
Appendices:
A
Notation of a diurnal long song from Magnetic Island
B
2
Phrases of a diurnal long song from Magnetic Island
segmented by type
86
Supplementary analysis of a diurnal long song from
Magnetic Island
128
D
Notation of a pre-dawn long song from Alice Springs
153
E
Supplementary analysis of a pre-dawn long song from
Alice Springs
155
F
Notations of sonic geographies of difference
168
G
Chapters 4 and 5 sound source derivations
212
H
Extant recordings with field notes and correspondence
217
I
Samples of supplemental analysis sheet and summary sheet
275
J
Notation method developed by Skeoch
278
K
Bibliography
280
L
Compact disc (CD) recording details
301
M
Digital video disc (DVD) details
303
C
iii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1
Examples of transcribed pied butcherbird song from the
notebooks of Henry Tate, as edited and annotated by
Mercer.
22
Figure 2.2
An excerpt from Tate’s “Morning in the gully” (1924).
23
Figure 2.3
This Lumsdaine excerpt makes use of the pied
butcherbird species call.
24
Figure 2.4
A comparison of a pied butcherbird call in Messiaen’s
score and in his field transcription reveals an exact match
for rhythm and pitch in the top line of the flutes.
25
Figure 2.5
This Dixon excerpt displays a close match in matters of
contour, pitch, and rhythm with a pied butcherbird call.
26
Figure 2.6
An early written description of the pied butcherbird by
Gould (1848).
30
Figure 2.7
An early drawing of the pied butcherbird by Gould
(1848: fol., vol. ii. pl 49), from an undated reproduction.
31
Figure 2.8
Australian Aboriginal names for the pied butcherbird
(Cracticus nigrogularis).
33
Figure 2.9
Australian Aboriginal names for butcherbird (Cracticus).
34
Figure 2.10
A pied butcherbird featured in a warning poster used by
the NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service during
spring nesting season when birds can become aggressive.
35
Figure 3.1
A pied butcherbird at Wogarno Station, WA.
46
Figure 3.2
Example of entries in the bulk discography of extant pied
butcherbird recordings collected in this inquiry.
49
Figure 3.3
Example of the first stage of analysis of personal field
recordings.
51
Figure 3.4
A shorthand system for notating pied butcherbird
phrases developed by Glass.
79
Figure 4.1
Basic note types of the pied butcherbird.
88
Figure 4.2
Pied butcherbird short repeated notes.
89
Figure 4.3
Pied butcherbird notes suggesting mnemonic catchwords
or electronic-sounding signals.
91
iv
Figure 4.4
Pied butcherbird call notes.
92
Figure 4.5
Pied butcherbird species calls from three different birds.
93
Figure 4.6
An adult delivers the species call, followed by a juvenile.
94
Figure 4.7
A group of pied butcherbirds and an Australian magpie
involved in mobbing.
94
Figure 4.8
A group of pied butcherbirds mobbing an Australian
raven.
95
Figure 4.9
Antiphonal song (S1) with species call: two birds.
96
Figure 4.10
Pied butcherbird species call notes (SC) incorporated in
solo song (S2).
96
Figure 4.11
An immature pied butcherbird subsong excerpt.
97
Figure 4.12
Eight variants of the short-long descending second
(SLD2) motif.
98
Figure 4.13
The SLD2 motif, followed by an aggressive “prew” rattle.
98
Figure 4.14
Crescendo/decrescendo.
101
Figure 4.15
Fanfares from seven different pied butcherbirds.
102
Figure 4.16
“The Singing Lesson.”
103
Figure 4.17
Pied butcherbird (PBB) ostinato whilst a grey shrikethrush (GST) rings out its phrase.
104
Figure 4.18
Phrase endings with rhythmic reduction.
105
Figure 4.19
Phrase endings with a drop in pitch.
105
Figure 4.20
Phrase endings with smaller intervals.
105
Figure 4.21
Phrase endings with other suitable differentiations.
106
Figure 4.22
A catchy “hook” from a pied butcherbird.
106
Figure 4.23
Scalar motion in two different pied butcherbird songs.
107
Figure 4.24
Scalar motion in the top staff of a pied butcherbird duo.
107
Figure 4.25
A descending and an ascending pied butcherbird “scale”
from two separate pied butcherbirds, both demonstrating
accelerando.
107
v
Figure 4.26
Shape and balance in four consecutive phrases of pied
butcherbird song, with rests inserted between phrases to
show approximate delivery.
108
Figure 4.27
Line one displays a sense of proportion and balance in
one pied butcherbird song as the human ear might hear
it; line two displays other phrases the bird delivers that
interrupt the proportion with an unexpected leap, a
truncated phrase, and a downward resolution instead of
the more common ascent.
108
Figure 4.28
Line one displays a sense of proportion and balance in a
pied butcherbird song as the human ear might hear it;
line two displays other phrases the bird delivers that
interrupt the proportion with variations in phrase length
and augmentation of motives.
108
Figure 4.29
Pied butcherbird subsong including mimicry and the
species call (SC).
110
Figure 4.30
Three examples of extreme timbre contrast in pied
butcherbird song.
112
Figure 4.31
An example of extreme timbre contrast in pied
butcherbird song.
112
Figure 4.32
Two pied butcherbirds in a duet with dissimilar phrases:
sonogram.
115
Figure 4.33
Two pied butcherbirds in a duet with dissimilar phrases:
notation.
115
Figure 4.34
Two pied butcherbirds in a duet with similar phrases.
116
Figure 4.35
Pied butcherbird masterlist of birds mimicked.
118
Figure 4.36
Pied butcherbird mimicry masterlist of sounds other than 119
birds.
Figure 4.37
Mimicry: a pied butcherbird and the signal of a reversing
truck in the bird’s territory; example of possible mimicry:
a pied butcherbird and the signal of a ringing telephone
audible from outdoors in its territory.
Figure 4.38
Three examples of pied butcherbirds (PBB) incorporating 120
alien species’ motives into their phrases: sonogram.
Figure 4.39
Three examples of pied butcherbirds (PBB) incorporating 121
alien species’ motives into their phrases: notation.
Figure 4.40
Intensive mimicry cycle of a pied butcherbird.
vi
119
123
Figure 4.41
Intensive mimicry of a pied butcherbird continues.
124
Figure 4.42
Intensive mimicry of a pied butcherbird continues to end.
125
Figure 4.43
Extreme warbling notes from a pied butcherbird mimicry 126
cycle.
Figure 5.1
A typical example of phrase A as delivered by the bird,
followed by a simplified version.
132
Figure 5.2
Phrase A terminal decoration, with a retrograde delivery
of the earlier ascending leap from a C#6 to an A6.
132
Figure 5.3
Nine different deliveries of phrase A.
133
Figure 5.4
A typical example of phrase B as delivered by the bird,
134
Figure 5.5
A typical example of phrase C as delivered by the bird,
135
Figure 5.6
A typical example of phrase D as delivered by the bird,
136
Figure 5.7
A typical example of phrase E as delivered by the bird,
139
Figure 5.8
A partial catalogue of phrase E variants, presented in
order of increased complexity in order to allow visual
inspection of potential “chunking” boundaries for
motives.
140
Figure 5.9
Augmentation by way of a trill.
141
Figure 5.10
Phrase F as delivered by the bird.
141
Figure 5.11
The two deliveries of phrase G as delivered by the bird.
142
Figure 5.12
Two typical examples of phrase H as delivered by the
bird, followed by simplified versions.
143
Figure 5.13
The highest note in the entire song, indicated by a box.
144
Figure 5.14
A typical example of phrase I as delivered by the bird,
144
Figure 5.15
A typical example of phrase J as delivered by the bird,
145
Figure 5.16
A typical example of phrase K as delivered by the bird,
146
vii
Figure 5.17
Phrase K contains the lowest notes and the longest note
in the song.
147
Figure 5.18
Four new phrase J variants delivered near the end of the
song.
148
Figure 5.19
Ratio of delivery for phrases.
150
Figure 5.20
Summary of main rattle types by phrase.
151
Figure 5.21
A pied butcherbird pre-dawn song ending with mimicry,
part one.
155
Figure 5.22
A pied butcherbird pre-dawn song ending with mimicry,
part two.
156
Figure 5.23
Three recordings from Magnetic Island displaying
158
extensive use of the descending perfect fifth/tritone motif
seen in Two Tree’s phrase D.
Figure 5.24
A summary of all pied butcherbirds recorded in
Townsville and environs including Magnetic Island.
Figure 5.25
All variants and hybrids of phrase A in a pied butcherbird 163
pre-dawn song.
Figure 5.26
All variants and hybrids of phrase B in a pied butcherbird 164
pre-dawn song.
Figure 5.27
All variants of phrase C in a pied butcherbird pre-dawn
song.
165
Figure 5.28
All variants of phrase D in a pied butcherbird pre-dawn
song.
166
Figure 5.29
All variants of phrase F in a pied butcherbird pre-dawn
song.
167
Figure 5.30
Ratio of delivery for phrases.
169
Figure 5.31
Three phrases from three nearby birds bear similarities
but present no exact matches.
172
Figure 5.32
A comparison of 2006 and 2007 recordings from the
junction of Ross and Stuart Highways.
173
Figure 5.33
A summary of all pied butcherbirds recorded in Alice
Springs and environs.
176
Figure 5.34
A continuum of pied butcherbird song conventions and
preferences.
178
viii
160
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1
Spring 2005 fieldwork study sites.
52
Table 3.2
53
Table 3.3
54
Table 3.4
Autumn 2008 fieldwork study sites.
54
Table 4.1
Mnemonic catchwords.
90
Table 4.2
Pied butcherbird song and mimicry: own phrases and
some mimicry.
122
Table 4.3
intensive mimicry 1.
123
Table 4.4
124
Table 4.5
125
Table 5.1
Construction of phrase D variants (excluding hybrids).
137
Table 5.2
Construction of phrase D variants and hybrids.
138
Table 5.3
Ratio of phrase delivery in a diurnal long song.
150
Table 5.4
Ratio of hybrid phrases in a diurnal long song.
152
Table 5.5
Ratio of phrase delivery in a pre-dawn long song.
169
ix
ABBREVIATIONS
The following abbreviations are used in the text:
12TET
AS
AWSRG
B
BC
BL
CD
CD-ROM
CE
CH
CSIRO
DVD
GPS
HANZAB
HR
Hz
IPI
kHz
M
MD
MIDI
NSW
NP
NT
PBB
QLD
QR
R
SA
SC
sec.
SLD2
T
T/O
TV
VIC
W
WA
WH
Twelve-tone equal temperament
Alice Springs
Australian Wildlife Sound Recording Group
Bubbly sound
Beak clap
Blip or blop sound
Compact disc
Compact disc read-only memory
Common Era
Chip sound
Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation
Digital video disc
Global positioning system
Handbook of Australian, New Zealand & Antarctic birds
Hollow-sounding rattle
Hertz
Inter-phrase interval
Kilohertz
Mimicry
Mini-disc
Musical instrument digital interface
New South Wales
National park
Northern Territory
Pied butcherbird
Queensland
Quasi-rattle
Rattle
South Australia
Species call
Seconds
Short-long descending second motif
Tik or tok sound
Turnoff
Townsville
Victoria
Wow sound
Western Australia
Whoop, woop, or what sound
x
GLOSSARY
amplitude
A measurement of the intensity of sound pressure. Loudness
is the subjective assessment of amplitude.
antiphonal song
An overarching term describing two or more birds
performing in alternation or together.
biomarker
A physical trait that can indicate the condition of a living
organism.
biophony
The voices of living things (Krause, 2002: xii).
breeding song
Song performed in the spring, presumably by the male.
call, call notes
Usually short, simple vocalisations associated with the
general maintenance activities of feeding, flocking,
contacting, migrating, and reacting to predators.
canon
A polyphonic texture created by two or more voices
performing the same or similar material at a temporal,
spatial, or intervallic distance.
complex tone
A sound with broadband energy in multiple frequencies.
conspecific
A living organism belonging to the same species as another.
counterpoint
Two or more simultaneous melodic lines.
continuous singer
A bird that sings more or less non-stop.
contour
The upward and downward pattern of a melody.
countersinging
Two birds singing back and forth at one another.
crystallized song
The culmination of song development (after subsong and
plastic song) when stereotypy is achieved.
dawn chorus
A period of high singing activity for a number of species of
birds just before and at sunrise.
day song, daytime song Equivalent to diurnal song.
discontinuous singer
A bird that sings with an inter-phrase interval that is as
long as or longer than the phrase itself.
diurnal song
A song delivered during the daytime, including the dawn
chorus (although the songs or phrases could differ between
the dawn chorus and the rest of the daytime).
xi
duet
A coordinated vocal performance by two birds of the same
species, whether synchronous, alternating, or overlapping.
eventual variety
A pattern of singing in which a bird repeats a phrase
multiple times before switching to another.
frequency
A physical measurement of the number of cycles per second
of a sound. One vibration per second=1 Hertz (Hz); 1000
Hertz=1 kHz. Pitch is the subjective assessment of
frequency.
fundamental
The lowest frequency at which a sound vibrates.
geophony
Non-creature sounds, such as thunder, rain, and wind
(Krause, 2002: xii).
harmonic
The sound energy produced simultaneously with and above
a complex tone. The first harmonic in a complex tone is the
fundamental.
imitation
Imitation, or mimicry, is the ability to reproduce, to a
varying degree, sounds other than those of the species in
question, including environmental sounds.
immediate variety
A pattern of singing when successive phrases are different.
klangfarbenmelodie
A melody formed and perceived through timbral
transformation, often of a single pitch.
matched
countersinging
When two birds are singing back and forth at one another
and one preferentially sings a phrase from a common
repertoire that best matches what the other is singing.
melisma
Embellishment of one note of a melody by way of
portamentos.
mimicry
Imitation, or mimicry, is the ability to reproduce, to a
varying degree, sounds other than those of the species in
question, including environmental sounds.
mobbing
Harrassment of a potential predator by a group, often by
multiple species, via swooping and harsh calling.
motif
A coherent subsection of a phrase.
octave
Two sounds where one is twice the other, they have an
equivalent quality, and they are assigned the same note
name.
oscine
True songbirds; a suborder of passerines.
xii
ostinato
A simple, repeated, and unchanging pattern in the midst of
other changing sounds.
overlapping
When phrases of birds overlap in time.
passerine
The order of Passeriformes, or perching birds, which
includes oscines and sub-oscines.
phrase
A recognisable and orderly group of notes separated by
pauses, which are generally of the order of several seconds.
pitch
A subjective assessment of frequency.
plastic song
The intermediate stage of song learning, where the notes
are more structured than subsong, yet still unstable and
highly variable.
portamento
Audibly connecting pitches by passing through all
intervening tones, often mistakenly called glissando (which
implies production on an instrument with fixed semitones,
such as the piano or harp).
quiet song
Phrases uttered at a very low volume, used synonymously
with whisper song by some while others make a distinction
that quiet song is directed at an individual and whisper song
is undirected.
rattle
A rapid succession of short and harsh or hollow sounding
notes.
repertoire size
The total number of phrases including variants in a bird’s
vocabulary.
song
A sustained singing performance.
song bout
A clearly defined song delivered in its entirety.
songbirds
Oscines; a suborder of passerines. Also called “true
songbirds.”
song type
A particular category of song.
sonogram, sonagram,
spectrogram
A graphic representation of sound that plots time on the
horizontal x-axis, frequency on the vertical y-axis, and
relative amplitude as a grey-scale.
sotto voce
Singing quietly or in less than full voice.
soundmark
The auditory counterpart of a landmark (Truax, 2001).
xiii
subsong
The first tentative and poorly structured notes of learned
birdsongs; also refers to soft, rambling adult song bearing
little or no resemblance to natural song.
syrinx
A bird’s vocal mechanism, consisting of a valve in each
bronchi just below the junction with the trachea.
timbre
Those parts of a sound other than loudness and pitch, but
can also include them to a degree. It carries information
about its source and the environment through which the
sound has travelled.
transition versatility
The likelihood of successive songs being different.
trill
An alternation of two different, though near, pitches.
unmatched
countersinging
When birds are singing back and forth at one another and
one avoids repeating what the other just sang.
variant
A modification of a phrase.
warbling
A sound that fluctuates widely in pitch.
whisper song
Phrases uttered at a very low volume, used synonymously
with quiet song by some while others make a distinction that
quiet song is directed at an individual and whisper song is
undirected.
x-axis
The horizontal axis in a sonogram representing time.
y-axis
The vertical axis in a sonogram representing frequency.
zoömusicology
The study of the aesthetic use of sounds among nonhuman
animals (Martinelli, 2001: 3).
xiv
ABSTRACT
Is musicality a capacity Homo sapiens shares with birds? The pied butcherbird
(Cracticus nigrogularis) is suggested for a zoömusicological case study on how
birdsong might be like the human animal’s music (whether homologous or
analogous). The thesis includes a critical reflection on an accompanying portfolio of
music compositions (scores paired with field transcriptions and a CD recording)
that are integral to the analysis process.
The study of birdsong by biologists and the appropriation of birdsong by
composers are reviewed, with a primary focus on how composers have used the
song of the pied butcherbird in their works. To date there has been no systematic
study of the vocal behaviour of the study species, and much remains to be
illuminated. While the collection of extant recordings is essential, conducting
fieldwork to secure original recordings and experience pied butcherbird vocal
behaviour firsthand are central to the research.
Portamento as an impediment to “off-the-shelf” musicology in the case of birdsong
analysis is discussed. It is proposed that the employment of different types and
levels of description could facilitate the most fecund survey and analysis. Hardware
and software choices are detailed, along with recording methods and data analysis
techniques.
A survey on how pied butcherbirds use notes, calls, and song is presented, including
sonograms and standard music notation, followed by an elucidation of an extensive
repertoire of procedures found in both human music and pied butcherbird song.
Building on this, repertoire, general principles, and overarching matters of form
and structure are interrogated through the analysis of two long songs, one diurnal
and the other pre-dawn. Many components from their rich and nuanced repertoire
are subject to recasting, some via elaborate strategies. Transcriptions and analyses
from nearby pied butcherbirds at both study sites serve to increase the sample size,
situate the targeted singers, and assist in the determination of whether phrases are
improvised or part of an established convention. Pied butcherbird songs are found
to be dynamic and in a constant state of change.
The creative compositional component informs and becomes the final step in the
analysis process. The portfolio of compositions demonstrates in a practical
application, as the investigation in prior chapters does through a range of other
analytical methods, how the species has been successful in creating and re-creating
a culture with clear and unequivocal links to the experience of human music.
Specific new contributions are itemised in the final chapter, and recommendations
are made for those areas that could be most productive for further research into
pied butcherbird song. It is concluded that pied butcherbirds’ elaborate song culture
overreaches biological necessity, indicating an aesthetic appreciation of sound is
present in the pied butcherbird.
xv
Chapter 1
Introduction
1
Chapter 1
Of course viewing culture as something which originates in a natural function, and
imagining that it turned out to bring a new end beyond pure survival, may look heretical
both to a large majority of biologists and to many musicians as well. … I can only say, as a
composer, that Cracticus nigrogularis, the pied butcherbird, is a kind of colleague (Mâche,
2000: 479).
Introduction
The search for a simple declarative sentence to pin down the moving target of
music in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, along with the quest for a
succinct list of universals in music, grants particular appeal to the human cutoff
point in a definition of music. Despite the word’s polysemous function, music as a
uniquely human activity is a recurring theme in the literature—witness Merriam’s
“Music sound cannot be produced except by people for other people” (1964: 6);
Sessions’ “music is created by human beings” (1950/1974: 11); Kolinski’s “Music
has been created by man” (1967: 1); Harrison’s “non-linguistic sound, when used
(with some degree of intention) by human beings” (1977: 30); Blacking’s “humanly
organized sound” (1995: 10); Bowman’s “a product of human minds” (1998: 69);
Cook’s “humanly generated sounds” (1998: 4); Cross’ “a peculiarly human
phenomenon… quite outside the repertoire of behaviors of other species” (2003:
109-110); and Borgo’s “an emergent property of humans attending to organized
sounds in time” (2007: 65). List frames ethnomusicology as “the study of humanly
produced patterns of sound,” and thus “bird song lies without the province” (1979:
1). Kivy attacks the issue obliquely, invoking the pseudo-linguistic model:
For to say we hear bird songs as if they had syntactical properties is
not to ascribe syntactical properties to them, any more than we are
describing a monster when we say of someone that it is as if he had
eyes in the back of his head. However, as soon as we take being able
to hear bird noises as music to imply that therefore they are music,
we are saying that they literally have syntactic properties; and that is
a conceptual impossibility. A natural object cannot, as a matter of
logic, have syntactic properties, whether it is a bird’s “song” or
anything else (1990: 24-25).
Equating object with an animal is problematical. Are songbirds mere curiosities
within the landscape, interchangeable with a children’s bird whistle or a music box?
More to the point, biologists regularly remark on the coding rules of syntax in
2
animal vocalisations (Richman, 1987: 201; Balaban, 1988: 3657; Bradbury and
Vehrencamp, 1998: 461, 494; Doupe and Kuhl, 1999: 571: Rogers and Kaplan, 2000:
86). Birdsong is not haphazard, “random handfuls of notes” (Hartshorne, 1958:
422)—but neither is it a language. In fact, music is not a language. It has “no
evident, immediate fixed consensual reference” (Stevens, 2004: 433). Mâche, who
coined the word zoömusicology in 1983 (1983/1992: 95-160), warns of the classic
syllogism: “Language distinguishes man, and music is a kind of language, therefore
music is a purely human cultural fact” (ibid.: 73).
Martinelli imagines zoömusicology as the study of the “aesthetic use of sounds
among animals” (2001: 3) and elsewhere as the “aesthetic use of sound
communication among animals” (2002: 7); such is the scope of the birdsong study
herein. For the purpose of this investigation, it is not necessary that birdsong cross
that final hurdle and be classified music. Having avoided the yoke of Merriam’s
“White Knight Concept,” this researcher does nonetheless admit to his “Duty of
Preservation Concept” (1963: 207), music or not. For those inclined towards an
aesthetic appreciation of birdsong as music, including perhaps the birds themselves,
the connection seems obvious. For others, it is a line that cannot be crossed (until
inter alia we have a theory of mind for animals). “It is best to keep an open mind
about the possibility of consciousness in all animals that exhibit versatile behavior
or communicate in ways that suggest they may be expressing thoughts or feelings”
(Griffin, 1992: 4). Since we have no “general theory” of human cognition, it is
understandable that scientists who study animal behaviour avoid this subject. Little
is known, but it would seem anthropomorphic not to entertain the possibility of
animal consciousness.
This proposal celebrates and records the voice of an indigenous “Australian”
normally overlooked. Just as food plants and folk tunes have been winnowed down
and refined by thousands of trial and error experiments, so too has the robust,
flexible, and adaptive song of the pied butcherbird. While musical analysis
traditionally implies ultimate access to and understanding of the creative process in
question, my critical position is that of an outsider—a non-participant in the world
of avian vocalisations, but nevertheless as a musician/composer, perhaps a coconspirator. “To my mind the most universal characteristic of music is its nonuniversality as a means of communication. Whatever it communicates is
3
communicated to the members of the in-group only, whoever they may be” (List,
1971: 399). Would I get in?
Beginning in Chapter 2, several formalities are set in place. The first use of a key
term will be in italics, indicating a definition is placed in the glossary at the
beginning of this document; when relevant, these terms will be amplified later.
Those aspects of pied butcherbird vocal behaviour that have clear or intriguing
overlaps with human musical conventions are highlighted via shaded boxes. All
notes, phrases, songs, and calls presented in notations and/or sonograms are
attributed to their recording source and detailed in Appendix G. The chapters to
come follow this trajectory:
Chapter 2: Background to Study. The field of birdsong study went largely
unclaimed by musicians. When sonographic analysis of birdsong recordings became
possible, biologists apprehended the subject, although not with a trained ear so
much as a trained eye. This chapter focuses on what biologists have learned about
avian vocal behaviour, with emphasis on the process of song acquisition. While the
function of song is routinely dismissed as serving solely for survival utility or
reproductive opportunity, there is a noteworthy undercurrent among scientists that
inventiveness in song surpasses biological necessity. The possibility of the aesthetic
treatment of sound by birds is reviewed, whether under the rubric of zoömusicology
or some other field of research. This is followed by a review of the appropriation of
birdsong by composers, with particular emphasis on the pied butcherbird. The
approach that I propose differs from those few musicians who have transcribed
birdsong in that it encompasses a total involvement and empathy with one species
and meticulous transcription and analysis. The chapter concludes with a literature
review of what is known about the study species, particularly concerning voice and
vocal behaviour.
Chapter 3: Design and Methods. My experiences and intuitions as a practising
musician and composer augment and complement the study of birdsong. Thus, the
research tools include a trained ear as well as technology, both of which are
reviewed here. The next section details the collection methods of extant recordings
of pied butcherbird song. An accounting of fieldwork study sites, recording
procedures, and observational methods follows. My search for software to deliver
4
reliability and validity in the measurement of birdsong under sonographic analysis
is chronicled. Without a ready-made template from similar inquiries, I designed an
analytical toolkit drawing from crossover methods best suited to this
interdisciplinary study. The chapter continues with a brief history of music
notation, with special reference to the history of birdsong notation. In the last
section, my notation and data analysis methods are explained. Limitations to each
aspect of the research design and methods are presented.
Chapter 4: Phenomenology of Pied Butcherbird Vocalisations. Pied butcherbird
sound sequences exhibit structure that can be described in terms of various
components ranging from individual sound units, through motives and phrases, to
the song itself. In this chapter, I strike comparisons between human musical
behaviour and pied butcherbird vocalisations that are particularly relevant to an
understanding of musicality in both species, at least from the perspective of the
human ear. Some examples of musicality are revisited in Chapter 6, where they are
the subject of composition and the analysis inherent in that process. The last
section highlights special cases of pied butcherbird vocal behaviour and ability, such
as female song, antiphonal song, and mimicry.
Chapter 5: Long Songs, Repertoire, and Organisational Structure. While Chapter 4
identifies and elucidates musical materials of pied butcherbird vocalisations in
particular manifestations, Chapter 5 interrogates song repertoire, general
principles, and overarching matters of form and structure. I cast myself as an avian
cartographer, tracing phrases from two long songs—one diurnal, the other predawn—across chill deserts, snake-infested paddocks, and arid islands in the dark of
night in order to deduce principles of design. This chapter is a repository for
quantitative descriptions of song types, song conventions, and rules of song
succession.
Chapter 6: Critical Reflection and Analysis. Numerous components of pied
butcherbird songs lend themselves to reframing within the human animal’s
tradition and are fruitful compositional catalysts in matters of melody, rhythm,
form, and wonder. A portfolio of compositions based on their extraordinary
vocalisations commences as a means of putting birdsong on display, but quickly
extends its reach: composition informs and becomes the final step in the analysis
5
process. These compositions celebrate, as the analysis in prior chapters does, the
success of the species in creating and re-creating a musical culture with compelling
and intriguing links to human music.
Chapter 7: Conclusion and Future Directions. In this final chapter, I review the
questions I have raised, the answers the birds have revealed, and what, with time,
may be accomplished by me and others. Chief among my conclusions is that pied
butcherbirds possess a complex vocal behaviour, which is characterized by plasticity
of vocabulary and numerous overlaps with human concepts of musicality. I have
demonstrated how they attend to sound, create and make choices over it, and vary
these choices (preferring some and altering others, while some solutions are
ignored outright), and that this overreaches biological necessity and indicates an
aesthetic use of sound.
6
Chapter 2
Background to Study
7
Chapter 2
But now it occurred to me that there was another way to approach the evolution of
dinosaur intelligence, and one that would not necessarily lead to the conclusion that the
more intelligent an organism became the more it began to resemble human beings. You
could look at how smart birds have become. True, most birds, chickens for example, appear
to be only as smart as they need to be, and chickens don’t need to be very smart. … But
there’s a simpler explanation. Birds, being descended from dinosaurs, have been evolving
intelligence in an unbroken line for 200 million years. Wouldn’t it make sense if they
thought in different ways from us? … I held out my hand and chickadees gripped my
fingers. My heart hardly dared beat. I did not receive the impression that I was being
mistaken for a tree, that my fingers were being taken for twigs. I felt I was being
reconnoitred, sampled, assayed and, inevitably, found wanting (Grady, 2000: 225-226).
2.1 Introduction to the study of bird song
A bird’s song can function as deed to his territory—an auditory “keep out” sign—or
as a “come hither” to his female counterpart. It can serve as a group password
(Fitch, 2006: 186). In fact, “Why do birds sing?” involves a complex web of many
correct answers (ibid.: 174) and as many unanswered questions (Rothenberg, 2005).
Although not intended for incidental human eavesdroppers, birdsong has inspired
artists of all stripes throughout the centuries, as well as philosophers and just plain
folk; occasionally humans even propose their own imagined translation of a bird’s
song or “mood.” Composers have appropriated the melodic inventions of birds, but
musicians have mostly neglected to pursue serious interrogations into the musical
life of birds. At the point when technology evolves that might assist musicians to
notate the notoriously difficult songs of birds, musicians neglect to take up the
challenge; developments must take place outside the bounds of musicology, and
they do. The advent of the tape recorder, followed by further technological
advances such as digital recording and computer analysis programs, has allowed
biologists to leapfrog over musicians and develop the study of avian acoustics and
its concomitant behaviour. A groundswell of activity followed.
2.1.1 The study of bird song by biologists
Vocal learning is rare. Aside from the human animal,1 evidence for it is confirmed
only in oscine songbirds, parrots, and hummingbirds, while circumstantial evidence
for it exists among some marine mammals and bats (Rendell and Whitehead, 2001;
1
The balance implied in the terms “human animal” and “nonhuman animal” is indebted to Martinelli
(2002).
8
Wilbrecht and Nottebohm, 2003: 135) and possibly elephants (Talbot, 2008: 72).
The predisposition for perception and learning evolved three separate times in birds
(Doupe and Kuhl, 1999: 573).
Whether song in birds and the human animal is homologous (the process deriving
from the genes of a mutual ancestor) or analogous (unrelated genes brought to bear
for a similar result) is a subject better approached by an evolutionary biologist, such
as Fitch, than a musicologist. “It was clear to Darwin,” he posits, “and has remained
unargued ever since, that bird song is analogous, not homologous, to human song
(our common ancestor, a Paleozoic reptile, did not sing), and the same can be said
for whale and seal song” (Fitch, 2006: 183). However, Martinelli contends that a
concept for music exists in nonhuman animals and thus “sound manifestations in
nonhuman animals are homologous to musical manifestations in humans. They are
not simply analogous” (2002: 106-107). Whatever the vote on “same” or “different”
when applied to origin and function, clearly all agree that birdsong is “like” the
human animal’s music in that it involves learning.
The process of song acquisition for songbirds, pioneered in studies by Thorpe and
Marler, follows a trajectory from the first tentative and poorly structured notes
(subsong), to the intermediate stages (called plastic song by biologists because
although the notes are more structured, they are still unstable and highly variable),
to the mature adult stage when stereotypy is achieved (crystallized song) (Thorpe,
1958; Thorpe and Pilcher, 1958; Marler and Peters, 1982b; Hultsch and Todt,
2004). Subsong is “an almost amorphous, soft and rambling twittering bearing little
or no resemblance to natural adult song” (Marler, 1990: 111).2 Plastic song sees
themes over-produced and gradually subjected to attrition in several stages
(Marler, ibid.). “Birdsongs are probably the most complex patterns of motor activity
known from the natural behavior of animals” (Marler, 1981: 88).
No species is equally ready to acquire new songs at any phase of its life; instead,
there are one or more sensitive periods, with most learning accomplished in the
2
Subsong is delivered by adults as well, and in this context it is considered “a non-social solo
performance without intended receivers” (Dabelsteen, McGregor, Lampe, Langmore, and Holland,
1998: 100). Subsong is often used synonymously with quiet song, subdued song, whisper song, low
volume song, chatter song, and twitter song; however, Dabelsteen et al. make the distinction that
quiet song, unlike subsong, is directed at another bird (ibid.: 101).
9
first year of life (Marler, 1990: 109). Memorisation and production are not
simultaneous; the long-term storage of song phrases often precedes their first
rehearsal. In their study of swamp sparrows (Melospiza georgiana), Marler and
Peters find explicit rehearsal of learned songs arrived, on average, 240 days after
the final exposure to the training song (1982a: 479). Some species are open-ended
learners (Nottebohm, 1989: 56; Marler, 1981: 93). Learning allows for variety and
complexity not possible in innate song. Learning is accomplished via cultural
transmission and can be vertical (learning from parents), horizontal (learning from
members of the same generation), and oblique (learning from unrelated birds of
different generations) (Marler and Tamura, 1964; Lynch et al., 1989: 634; Baptista
and Gaunt, 1997: 24-25).
Mimicry, or imitation, is the ability to reproduce, to a varying degree, sounds other
than those of the species in question (Lemaire, 1975: 95), including environmental
sounds. Its function in birds is poorly understood, and no single explanation
appears to suffice (Chisholm, 1946; Marshall, 1950; Baylis, 1982; Kroodsma, 2004:
128-130). Therefore, the definition given is a descriptive rather than a functional
one.
Birdsong is a biomarker, providing information on the health of individuals and the
habitat in general to both humans and other birds. For a female, a male’s song
might indicate the presence of a potential mate, his location, his territory, his
species and individual identity, his readiness to breed and provide for offspring
(Konishi, 1985: 129), and as well as indicate motivational factors (Boughey and
Thompson, 1976: 64). To another male, it may advertise the ownership of territory
and indicate species and individual identity, but also neighbour versus stranger
(Marler, 1961).
When two males are singing back and forth at one another, one may choose to sing
a phrase from their common repertoire that best matches what the other is singing
(matched countersinging), or may avoid repeating what the other just sang (unmatched
countersinging) (Kroodsma, 2005: 12, 250). A bird that regularly repeats a phrase
before moving to another is said to sing with eventual variety; the opposite delivery
style is termed immediate variety (Kroodsma, 2004: 7.86).
10
Birdsong is often presented as a contest between rival males or between the skilled
salesmanship of a male versus the equally well-developed sales resistance of a
female3 (Williams, 1966: 184). This functional definition glosses over the fact that
females sing much more than is usually recognised (Smith, 1991: 248). Females may
sing solo or in duets (Langmore, 1998) and are known to sing to attract mates
(Langmore, 1998, 2000). Their repertoire may be as large or larger than males
(Brown and Farabaugh, 1991: 270-271).
Just over 200 of the world’s approximately 9,000 bird species are known to duet
(Hall, 2002-2003: 53). The function of a duet, like that of female song, remains
puzzling, although various hypotheses have been explored, such as pair bond
maintenance, mutual stimulation, contact, cooperative territorial defense, and mate
guarding (Thorpe 1972; 1973: 73; Grafe, Bitz, and Wink, 2004: 181; Hall 2004;
Rogers, Langmore, and Mulder, 2007). Baptista distinguishes duet singing against
territorial rivals from greeting duets delivered after mate separation (1978: 99).
Duets may affect a pair’s reproductive behaviour (Todt and Hultsch, 1982). Duets
may be alternating, which implies considerable speed and precision in the delivery of
motives (Power, 1966: 314), or overlapping, which understands more flexibility.
Each bird may learn the other’s contribution (Thorpe, 1966: 351).
Call notes are associated with the general maintenance activities of feeding, flocking,
contacting, migrating, and reacting to predators (Thorpe, 1964: 740) and thus occur
neither spontaneously nor regularly but in response to certain stimuli (Konishi,
1985: 126). The repertoires of songbirds normally range between five and ten calls
(Marler, 2004: 31). Some, such as alarm calls and those indicating the discovery of
food, are considered to have a semantic content, functioning similarly to words
(Seyfarth and Cheney, 2003). (The genesis of both music and language are thorny
fields separately and together; the argument for parallels between birdsong and
human speech behaviour are outside the scope of this inquiry. This is not to contend
that birdsong has no parallels with language and its acquisition, but merely to
assert that the parallels between birdsong and the human animal’s music are the
focus herein.)
3
The concepts of female resistance and female selection acknowledge the taste of the consumer as
affecting what the composer produces. Birdsong is more than technique; it is a set of relations.
11
“While the differences between songs and calls are occasionally blurred, most of the
time they are clear and unequivocal,” Marler maintains (2004: 32). Compared to
songs, birdcalls tend to be shorter, simpler, and innate. The word “innate” recalls the
dichotomous thinking of the nature/nurture debate, over which much ink has been
spilled. Ornithologists now rely less on the words “learned” and “innate,” which
imply strict boundaries, and have gradually replaced them with concepts such as an
“inherited tendency” (Thorpe, 1958: 557), “instincts for inventiveness” (Marler,
1994: 614), “learning preferences” (Marler, 1997: 503), “song templates” (ibid.), and
“auditory templates” (Adret, 2004: 306). The antithetical classical debate nature or
nurture has evolved into nature and nurture, complementary activities often now
viewed as a continuum from biology to culture.
Birds do not just sing songs; they also receive and interpret songs. Their hearing is
acute in both low- and high-frequency ranges, their acoustic acuity and temporal
discrimination is similar to human animals, and they are able to discriminate the
songs of other species, even at the level of individuals, with precision (Greenewalt,
1968: 138; Dooling, 1982; Dooling, 1989). Absolute pitch perception, relative pitch
perception, pitch contour, and pitch ratio (interval) have been found in some, but not
all, birds studied. (Few empirical studies have been conducted to date.) For
example, European starlings possess absolute pitch and show a preference for
learning pitch patterns on that basis (Hulse and Page, 1988), while in the case of
black-capped chickadees a melody can be retained with a change of key (Weisman,
Ratcliffe, Johnsrude, and Hurly, 1990).
2.1.2 Limitations to the study of birdsong by biologists
Otto Koehler (1954) in Germany and William Thorpe (1954, 1961) in England
were the first to study birdsong development under controlled laboratory
conditions. Laboratory results can be problematic, unable to reflect accurately what
happens in the wild, and now have begun to be questioned by some biologists.
Kroodsma cautions that “laboratory studies can at most show only what a bird is
capable of doing in an environment never before encountered in the species’
evolutionary history” (1996: 4). Further limitations of laboratory studies are found
in Baptista and Petrinovich (1984, 1986) and Beecher, who observes, “Not only did
the laboratory studies fail to identify critical variables in song learning, but they
12
also showed patterns of learning that differed greatly from those we had observed
in the field” (1996: 61).
The use of wax cylinders and later shellac discs and magnetic tape were new tools
allowing biologists to capture and study birdsong, although reliance on human
transcribers continued. In the first breakthrough, Brand developed a method for
photographing birdsong on motion picture film for microscopic study (Brand, 1935;
Ingraham, 1938). Later, Thorpe pioneered the use of the sound spectrograph,
invented at Bell Telephone Laboratories, in birdsong studies (Thorpe and Lade,
1961). A sound spectrogram (or sonogram) is a graphic representation of sound.
Sonographic analysis by biologists in now the standard, but reliance on the visual
may be problematical. Galison writes about the impact of modern technology on
science, including how “the pictorial (image) tradition” influences science’s bottom
line (1997: xix). Dependence on the sound spectrogram, or sonogram, shifts the
focus of birdsong from ear to eye. (This is echoed in Western classical music with
the score becoming privileged above the sonic experience.) The sonogram does not
represent what the human ear (and likely the bird’s ear) hears. Hold points out “the
gap between objective sound-picture and psychologically-plausible notation” (1970:
163), while suggesting a combination graph/stave notation, which is detailed in
Chapter 3. An image drawn by the human hand implies more extensive
involvement by the ear. Another potential shortcoming of visual analysis is that the
image in the sonogram window can be altered; we adjust it, imagining the act as an
objectification of perception, until we see what we want (Rothenberg, 2005: 90).
Once establishing the basic song learning cycle, biologists went on to refine their
knowledge. Many studies are given over to songs as social signals and what these
signals communicate. Hypotheses concerning the motivation of song focus on
survival utility and reproductive opportunity, failing to explain all contextual bases
in which song occurs. Space does not permit a further examination of this subject,
nor does this writer prefer to cite studies that depend on the deafening of
hatchlings, the separation of mated pairs, the playback of taped conspecific song, and
the “harvesting” of bird brains for neurological research, where songbirds serve as
stand-in humans for researchers. Suffice it to say that much remains to be
discovered and very few species have been studied in depth, so that much of what
13
we think we do know is based on several “white rats” of the bird world (Baptista,
1975: 1).
2.2 Zoömusicology
With a few notable exceptions (Craig, 1943; Sotavalta, 1956; Armstrong, 1973;
Baptista and Keister, 2005), the studies of most ornithologists concern biological
and evolutionary questions (the ontogeny and function of song, for example), rather
than musical ones. Whatever their preoccupations and methodological constraints,
ornithologists are given to comments on the possible aesthetic use of sound by
birds. The song complexity of passerines that appears to transcend biological
requirements is the most frequent area of bewilderment. In a field known for its
concise statements, consider just a few of these comments: “leaves us to puzzle over
the resulting richness and variety” (Catchpole and Slater, 1995: 191); “Sometimes it
is clear that birds indulge in a process of improvisation, first memorizing and
replicating a theme, and then subjecting it to a series of systematic transformations,
as though assuaging an appetite for novelty” (Marler, 1981: 92); “but the far more
complex songs of versatile songsters, the songs of songsters which possess large
individual repertoires, sometime appear to be so variable as to dramatically violate
the requirement of song invariance for species distinctiveness” (Boughey and
Thompson, 1976: 5); and finally, from Thorpe: “In a number of cases among song
birds, particularly those in which songs of unusual richness and variety are known,
we frequently encounter what appears to be musical ‘invention’. This includes (1)
re-arrangement of phrases, both innate and learnt, and (b) the invention of really
‘new’ material” (1966: 354).
Jellis also makes the point that some birdsong far exceeds what is necessary for
survival and reproduction:
This is another feature of long-distance signalling: a change in the
signal reawakens attention. But it is also a musical principle: tension
followed by relaxation, changing rhythms and dynamics, dissonance
and resolution. … But it is fair to ask whether these two principles,
of redundancy and variety, are enough to account for the degree of
elaboration and variation that has been found. It seems unlikely
(1977: 196).
14
Likewise, Klopfer anticipates the increased willingness by scientists to address the
possible presence of aesthetics in nonhuman animals:
If we consider esthetic preferences to mean a liking for objects or
activities because they produce or induce particular neural inputs or
emotional states, independently of overt reenforcers, can we attribute
esthetics to animals other than man? The significance of an
affirmative answer lies, of course, in the support this would lend to
the belief that there is a biological basis to esthetics. And should our
answer be affirmative, that animals can, for instance, have “art,” it
will become important to enquire into the basis therefore: what are
the historical or ultimate reasons for the development of an esthetic
sense: by what mechanisms is the development of the speciescharacteristic preferences assumed? (1970: 399).
Musicians have no such barriers in discussing aesthetics in birdsong, whether under
the rubric of zoömusicology or some other designation. As introduced in Chapter 1,
both Mâche, who coined the term, and Martinelli, whose working definition is used
herein, have written extensively on the subject. Theirs, however, are theoretical and
not empirical accounts. Few studies of the aesthetics of animal sounds exist to
compare and contrast solely within that system. Zoömusicology “is too young to
transcend human music as a point of reference” (Martinelli, 2007: 133). He contends
the field “has very little to do with admiring birdsong and considering it music
simply for that reason. Zoomusicology is rather concerned with thinking that birds
possess their own concept of music” (2002: 98).
While Martinelli is a zoösemiotician who composes, Mâche is a composer first and
foremost; he frames the issue differently, privileging those birds that sing best to
his ear.
Of some 8700 species of bird, around 4000 or 5000 are songbirds. Of
these, 200 or 300 are of special interest to the musician through the
variety of their signals. It may be said en passant that this is a ratio
50-100 times higher than that of professional musicians in relation to
the total population of France (Mâche, 1983/1992: 96).
Mâche, as evidenced in the title Musique au singulier (2001), traces the natural
musical archetypes and kinds of organisation known in the human animal’s music to
various birdsong vocalisations, suggesting that the origins of music have a
fundamental basis in the biology of living things.
15
Doolittle has emerged as another voice in the field. Her thesis investigating the
relationship between human music and animal songs concludes that, while there are
close connections, the relationship is analogous: “Though it is not impossible that
the [common] reptilian ancestor could have been musical, no evidence suggests
this” (2006: 168). She differs from Mâche, contending, “There is no single music,”
but rather “many” (ibid.: 175).
The nature of musical cognition is complex and problematical, with no assumed
simple fit between cultures or individuals (Walser, 2003: 223)—or species. Thus, it
is outside the province of this study to make a case for zoömusicology as an entire
field. Nonetheless, intriguing work is being done in its name, and interdisciplinary
collaborations on birdsong have begun by those able to manoeuvre between the
crumbling twin pillars of scepticism and romanticism.4
I contend that biology and zoömusicology are not mutually exclusive; the field of
zoömusicology could contain anyone who investigates the aesthetic use of sound in
nonhuman animals.5 While the field’s decorum and range are still being formally
set, we find activity dates back for decades. The American biologist Wallace Craig
grapples with the aesthetic in his study of the song of the wood pewee (Myiochanes
virens Linnaeus) as early as 1943:
Our entire study leads to the conclusion that bird songs are true
music, they are esthetic art and we believe that this is the essence of
the concept, because it is the characteristic which is found in all bird
songs and is not found in the other utterances of the bird; also, it is
the characteristic which is found in highest degree in the best singers
and in those songs which are most distinctly songs and not mere
calls (169).
In 1956, Sotavalta combines his training as a zoölogist with his gift of perfect pitch
to notate and analyse the songs of two Sprosser nightingales (Luscinia luscinia) (see
Chapter 3.4.2). Hungarian musicologist Peter Szöke writes on ornitomuzikológia in
4 The first conference dedicated to zoömusicology, Symposium in zoomusicology: The nightingale song
between art and research, was held in Jäärvenpää, Finland, on June 12-13, 2008. Convened by
Martinelli, the conference was attended by scientists and musicians who addressed the song of the
nightingale from a multitude of perspectives.
5 Indeed, the field of zoömusicology finds competing terms and overlapping territories with
“ornithomusicology,” “biomusicology,” “bioacoustics,” “acoustic ecology,” “neuromusicology,” and
“evolutionary musicology,” to list but some. It remains to be seen which terms will find the widest
acceptance, which will be subsumed into others, and which will fade altogether. One thing is clear:
the music of nature has the potential to offer intriguing insights into the nature of music.
16
1963. A decade later, British naturalist Edward A. Armstrong entitles a chapter
“Bird Song as Art and Play” (1973: 231).
Hartshorne compares birdsong to human music, proposes methods for describing
and notating birdsongs, and analyses song structure following six dimensions he
developed: loudness, complexity, continuity, tone, closure, and imitativeness (1973).
His monotony threshold principle concludes that birds have a threshold for
persistent repetition, with repetitious (nonversatile) singers tending to be
discontinuous and continuous singers tending to be versatile (ibid.: 119-136). He
includes an elaborate formula for rating birds worldwide. Halafoff’s survey of
birdsong, published in a respected ornithological journal, also displays a foothold in
both biology and musicology (1968: 21-40). He employs sonograms and music
notation, and he speaks of notes in terms of both frequencies (as he measures
kilocycles per second in the range of various birds) and pitches (“A ‘pedaled triplet’
in the song of the same bird contains two intervals; Ab – E and C – E”) (ibid.: 24).
Philosopher and ethologist Dominique Lestel finds a strong analogy between
birdsong and human music:
Compte tenu du fosse énorme qui sépare la vie de l’homme et celle de
l’oiseau, une telle intelligibilité musicale entre les deux èspeces reste
incontestablement étonnante (2001: 219).
Baptista and Keister explore the similarities of birdsong and human music,
cataloguing the capabilities of birds as vocalists, instrumentalists, and composers
and marvelling that:
As humans, we can never really achieve what the bird accomplishes,
because part of the magic of its song is found in the miracle of the
bird itself (2005: 441).
While passing over the word “zoömusicology,” Rothenberg is another voice in the
field, challenging researchers to be “simultaneously aesthetically daring and
rigorous” (2005: 110). Finally, we cannot depart from the subject without
acknowledging Darwin, who a century earlier credits birds “with strong affections,
acute perception, and a taste for the beautiful” (1871/1981: Vol. II, 108).
17
2.3 Composers’ appropriation of birdsong
While not all musicians would agree that birdsong can be cast as music or that in it
lays the very origins of music, birds have been muses to composers through the
ages, offering up “radical inspiration” (Rothenberg, 2005: 9). Catalogues of such
works abound (such as Giddings, retrieved 12 January 2008; Doolittle, 2006: 4-5
and 2008; Rothenberg, 2005: 188-208; Baptista and Keister, 2005; Urquhart, 2004:
101-129; Rothenberg and Ulvaeus, 2001; Austern, 1998; West and King, 1990;
Jensen, R. d’A., 1985; Mâche, 1983/1992; Schafer, 1977; Hold, 1970: 155); a repeat
of such catalogues is not within the scope of this inquiry.
However, lest I be accused of merely cataloguing the cataloguers, I will make a list.
From my reading, situated as it is, certain composers keep coming up: Janequin and
Handel, Vivaldi and Messiaen, and also “Anonymous”—who penned many folk
tunes based on birdsong, some still notable, others lost. Works come up: the
Pastoral symphony (Symphony no. 6 in F major, Op. 68, by Beethoven, completed in
1808), Oiseaux exotiques by Messiaen (1955-56), and Cantus Arcticus, Rautavaara’s
symphony for orchestra and taped birdsong from inside the Arctic Circle (1972).
Birds come up: the nightingale, canary, cuckoo, starling, mockingbird, skylark, and
lyrebird, for example. Native peoples come up: the Koyukon of Alaska (Nelson,
1983); the Kaluli of Papua New Guinea (Feld, 1990); and the Suya Indians of central
Brazil (Seeger, 1979).
Why do we bother with birdsong? The various accounts detail a range of strategies
employed by composers in the appropriation of birdsong. Some works see more
than one strategy. Imitation is listed, whether direct quotation (with or without
added accompaniment) or by way of poetic inspiration, as are examples of imitation
recast as “improvement” on the bird. Humour—“sonic cartoons” (Feld, 2000: 272)
or vulgarity can be introduced via animal imitations. Some birdsongs are
incorporated into cadenza-like sections (Hold, 1970: 155). For many years, the
Italian national radio station RAI broadcast a birdsong collage by Pierre Schaeffer
and Pierre Henri as its off-air call signal (Giddings, retrieved 12 January 2008).
Some call upon birdsong to bridge the gap between Homo sapiens and other species:
In cultures where people interact intensively with the natural world,
music is often used to communicate with non-human animals,
18
whether for practical, spiritual, playful or other purposes (Doolittle,
2008: 1).
A number of works present an affinity for or an excursion into nature, and birds
provide an obvious point of reference for these simulated voyages. Audio recordings
of birds, when featured in compositions, also betray a programmatic purpose: the
first was probably Respighi’s Pines of Rome (1924), whose score includes a recording
of a nightingale (Doolittle, 2006: 5). That same year, cellist Beatrice Harrison
encouraged nightingales by performing in a Surrey wood in the first live outdoor
radio broadcast, which came to be known as the Cello and Nightingale Sessions.6
Sound is no respecter of space; interspecies collaborations, whether wittingly or not
for either birds or the human animal, have a long tradition and an apparent future.
Occasionally birds turn the table on things, appropriating human music and other
sounds into their vocabulary. (Space does not permit a complete survey, but a
mention seems warranted in light of Chapter 4’s survey of mimicry.) Hartshorne
had predicted, “Bird judgment of human music must indeed be hopelessly
‘subjective’ or, to invent a word, ornithomorphic (1973: 8). However they might judge
it, birds do seem able to replicate the human animal’s music. The earliest published
manual for training of singing birds dates from c. 1700 (Stainer, 1899: 671); one is
still in print, The bird fancyer's delight (Godman, 1955/1717), used to train canaries,
nightingales, starlings, and other birds given to the human animal’s sense of
musicality.
In his article “Experiments and observations on the singing of birds,” the
ornithologist Daines Barrington includes Composition for two piping Bullfinches by
“Mr. Zeidler, who plays the violincello at Covent Garden theatre” (1773-1774: 271).
Barrington finds this “ingenious” composition well suited to birds:
I have before observed, that by attending to a nightingale, as well as
a robin which was educated under him, I always found that the notes
reducible to our intervals of the octave were precisely the same;
which is another proof that birds sing always in the same key. ... As
birds however adhere so stedfastly [sic] to the same precise notes in
the same passages, though they never trouble themselves about what
is called time in music, it follows that a composition may be formed
for two piping bulfinches [sic], in two parts, so as to constitute true
6
Retrieved 9 August 2008, from http://musicandnature.publicradio.org/features/#nightingales.
19
harmony, though either of the birds may happen to being, or stop,
when they please (ibid.: 270-271).
The ornithologist identifies the stages of learning that a young bird passes through
as “chirp,” “call,” and “recording” (ibid.: 250). His experiments include hanging
caged birds of various species together to determine how they might influence one
another, all “intended to determine, whether birds had any innate ideas of the notes,
or song, which is supposed to be peculiar to each species” (ibid.: 259). In a wideranging article, Barrington takes to task composers who “introduce the cuckow
[sic] notes in a sharp third” rather than a flat third (ibid.: 269); describes the
difficulties of birdsong notation as arising from three causes: the rapidity of the
singing, the highness of the pitch, and their use of intervals smaller than a semitone
(ibid.: 266); and announces that human musical intervals are “originally borrowed
from the song of birds” (ibid.: 269). His table of British singing birds of merit rates
mellowness of tone, sprightly notes, plaintive notes, compass (or range), and
execution (ibid.: 282). He concludes that:
The notes of many birds are certainly very pleasing, but can by no
means stand in competition either with the human voice or our worst
musical instruments; not only from want of the striking effects of
harmony in many excellent compositions; but because, even when
compared to our simple melody, expression is wanting*, without
which music is so languid and inanimate. *The nightingale, indeed, is
perhaps an exception to this general observation (ibid.: 288).
One is left to wonder what Barrington would have made of the powers of the
lyrebird. Both species of Australian lyrebirds appropriate human sounds, but the
case of the “superb flute-playing lyrebirds of Dorrigo” is of particular relevance
(Curtis and Taylor, 2008: publication in process). In the 1920s, a juvenile superb
lyrebird (Menura novaehollandiae) in captivity, unable to hear adult lyrebirds,
modeled his singing on the practice routine of a flute student. When released back
into the wild, he continued his flute songs while also picking up songs and mimicry
used by the local population. His flute songs and flute-like timbre were then
culturally transmitted, spreading through the lyrebird population and replacing the
original territorial song. It holds to this day.
The twentieth century finds a change in motivation, with composers seeking to
absorb avian idioms in a wider sense than melody. Birdsongs are thought of as
potential models. With musicians increasingly capable of realising variable rhythms
20
and other complexities of notation, deeper structures are incorporated in the
birdsong-derived music of Messiaen, Mâche, and others.
2.4 Composers’ appropriation of pied butcherbird song
Appropriation of birdsong by Australia’s composers in the Western classic tradition
did not coincide with white settlement. Tate (1873-1926) was the first to encourage
birdsong as an overlooked and nationalistic resource:
The Australian composer, searching for native peculiarities to build a
national music upon, must soon give attention to the very essential
matter of striking and characteristic rhythms. … [our bird calls] are
with us always, and they supply us with an unfailing reservoir of
varied and charming rhythms. The paltry imitation of the calls in
any exact way is too cheap a device to be worth consideration.
Indeed, the actual notes of some of the carols go outside the
resources of any conceivable musical system. The rhythms of many
of the bird calls, however, are so definite and clear that they may be
easily used for the basis of fantastic dances, and so added to the
Australian composer’s store of ideas for transformation and
elaboration. The butcher bird, among his numerous chants, gives us
a grave and gentle measure, not very marked, it is true, by novelty,
but readily combinable with other calls in an artistic ensemble. …
While we are lamenting the absence of dance forms as a source of
national musical inspiration, the birds in their green palaces are
tapping out dainty measures without stint, which, when we have ears
to hear them, we shall reproduce with effect in the internal
pulsations of our Australian music (1923: 20).
Tate again emphasised the pied butcherbird as potential source material several
pages later, this time singling out the butcherbird:
At least two of our birds will suggest worked-out melodies, as
contrasted with the broken morsels of melody known as ‘figures.’
The slow and dreamy prelude of the butcher bird naturally expands
into musical sentences of the meditative type. … These and many
other calls are eminently suitable for imitation, but by any means ‘the
simple expedient of imitating the bird calls,’ but imitation ‘in the
technical sense of the repetition of a motif or phrase,’ one of the most
effective devices known to musicians (ibid.: 22).
21
Many of Tate’s compositions are lost or left in fragments. Eight transcriptions of
pied butcherbird song survive and were edited and annotated from his notebooks by
Mercer.7 Figure 2.1 details Tate’s transcription of pied butcherbird song.
Butcherbird 4: (MFPC: Tate 1909, 2.iii: BB4).
Butcherbird 5: (MFPC: Tate 1910, 2.iii: BB5).
Butcherbird 6: Notated at Ferntree Gully, Victoria for ‘Morning in the Gully’ for Suite Joyous
(MFPC: Tate 1924, 2.iii: BB6).
Butcherbird 7: Motif used in Bush Miniatures (1902–24) (MFPC: Tate 1904, 2.iii: BB7;
Programme 1925, [4]).
Butcherbird 8: Motif used in Dawn: A Symphonic Rhapsody (1922) (MFPC: Tate 1910s, 2.iii:
BB8; Programme 1926, [5]).
Figure 2.1. Examples of transcribed pied butcherbird song from the notebooks of Henry Tate, as
edited and annotated by Mercer.
Figure 2.2 displays an excerpt from his composition “Morning in the gully” (Tate,
ibid.: 66). The left-hand part is a transposed variant of the birdsong from the
transcriptions in Fig. 2.1. These transcriptions show Tate equally at home with (or
puzzled by) the barline in a number of positions.
7
Mercer, a PhD. candidate at the University of Melbourne on the topic of Tate’s music, is married to
Tate’s nephew. Annotation numbers and numerals are Mercer’s, who writes that “MFPC” refers to
where the collection is held (C. Mercer, personal communication, 11 August 2008).
22
Figure 2.2. An excerpt from Tate’s “Morning in the gully” (1924). The arrow indicates a transposed
variant of the pied butcherbird song notated in the original transcriptions.
Mercer explains that Tate uses grace notes to indicate portamentos. She has also
traced pied butcherbird song to Tate’s Bush miniatures and Symphonic rhapsody,
showing Tate took his own advice to seek musical material from native Australian
birdsong. It remains unclear whether this “song” is actually the species call (detailed
in Chapter 4), but since it is stereotyped across several (albeit nearby) sites and
follows its pitch contour, that is my conjecture.
The music of David Lumsdaine (b.1931, Sydney) embodies his experience of the
Australian landscape. He has recorded environmental sound as the basis for
compositional material. “Pied butcherbirds at Spirey Creek” is the first track of a
CD (1996) of composed Australian field recordings. Lumsdaine appraises the song
as follows:
The Pied Butcherbird is a virtuoso of composition and improvisation:
the long solo develops like a mosaic, through the varied repetition of
its phrases. In the course of the song, some elements remain
constant, some elements transform through addition and elimination.
The bird is a virtuoso of decoration: there is an extraordinary
delicacy in the way it articulates the harmonic course of its song with
microtonal inflections, or places its cadences with a bird's equivalent
of tremolandi and flutter-tonguing.
I've made a number of recordings of Pied Butcherbirds, and many of
them are technically better than this set; but, beautiful as they may
be, none of them matches the performance by these particular birds.
Serendipity plays a large part in determining the musical quality of a
soundscape—there are no retakes in the wild (1996, liner notes).
Lumsdaine’s recording was the basis for a London dance concert, Bird song (2004),
by the Siobhan Davies Dance Company. Mandala 4 for string quartet (1991) is
Lumsdaine’s recasting of the recording as an instrumental work and is dedicated “to
23
the Buddha of Spirey Creek” (Hall, 2003: 78). In addition to the song of the pied
butcherbird, Lumsdaine makes use of the species call (discussed in detail in Chapter
4), as seen below (Fig. 2.3).
Figure 2.3. This Lumsdaine excerpt makes use of the pied butcherbird species call.
The call is delivered three times in succession, bars 261-266. “There is no attempt
to imitate the original songs, but their gestures, contours and harmony are the
heart and the taking off point for all the music,” Lumsdaine notes in the score.
Yet another outcome for the field recording of this bird is the book/CD The book of
music & nature (Rothenberg and Ulvaeus, 2001). Rothenberg explains that this
recording stands out from all the hours of nature recordings he listened to:
This is a bird singing, but it sounds like human music. The pied
butcherbird sings a recognizable melody, easily perceivable to human
ears. Then he varies it slightly, returns to the theme, then changes it
again, all with a logic and form that can easily be discerned. … This
bird is a musician. He’s improvising, playing around (ibid.: 231-232).
Melbourne-born Don Harper (1921-1999) was a jazz violinist and conductor of big
bands, as well as a composer of music for film and television. Harper’s Images of
Australia (1991) for string quintet (including double bass) consists of 16 movements,
the second of which is based on the song of the pied butcherbird. Entitled “Butcher
birds,” the subtitle penned on the score reads “at Spirey Creek,” indicating the
thematic provenance to be Lumsdaine’s “Buddha” again. However, the 18sec. of field
recording that begin the work as heard on the CD (Harper, 1997) are from a
different Lumsdaine field recording, one from Lamington Plateau. (Coincidentally,
it serves as the basis for one of the compositions herein, “Lamington Plateau” for
flute, which will be discussed in Chapter 6. I had not heard the Harper piece when I
wrote mine.) No use or development of the bird’s thematic material is apparent in
Harper’s score. That both of these birdsongs receive multiple outcomes speaks not
24
just to the rarity of pied butcherbird recordings but to the way some birds strike
humankind as more musical than others.
Mark Hansen’s (b.1960) CD Australian birdsong improvisations (1997) features eight
“new age” piano musings, two of which are based on pied butcherbird song. A single
phrase is extracted from a birdsong recording and pasted several times in close
succession in a rhythmic framework; as the piano enters, the bird fades.
The Pied Butcherbird recording that I have has two calls of
contrasting moods, which I took and created a sad and reflective
piece, and also an uplifting, bright, and cheery song” (M. Hansen,
personal communication, 10 August 2008).
The recording is consistent with a number of works suitable for yoga classes or
meditation. This type of outcome, suggesting a harmonious oneness with nature, is
a recurrent theme in birdsong appropriation (Navickaite, 2008).
Messiaen’s (1908-1992) use of pied butcherbird song comes in the final work of his
life, Éclairs sur l'au-delà (published in 1998). “Les étoiles et la gloire,” movement
VIII, is the longest of the work and marks the first entrance of the entire orchestra
(and of the double basses). The pied butcherbird entrance (page 19 of the score) is
annotated on the score in typical Messiaen fashion and appears to be an instance of
the transposed species call incorporated into song (described in Chapter 4). The top
line of the flutes matches a Messiaen field transcription in rhythm and pitch.8
A comparison of the score and the field transcription is below (Fig. 2.4).
Figure 2.4. A comparison of a pied butcherbird call in Messiaen’s score and in his field transcription
reveals an exact match for rhythm and pitch in the top line of the flutes.
8
Notebook #23159, page 65, line 11 (lines 10-12 are indicated as pied butcherbird song), held at the
Fonds Messiaen in the Bibliothèque nationale de France. This page, dated 13 June 1988, is from a
fieldtrip with ornithologist Sydney Curtis and is marked “Tamborine Mountain” on the upper righthand corner.
25
The motif D#7 E7 E7 circled in the score is a match with the field transcription, but
also notice the slur in the flutes in bar 1, indicated with an arrow, leading up to the
first note of bar 2. This replicates the pied butcherbird strategy of a “zip” up to the
first note of the species call (discussed in more detail in Chapter 4). Messiaen
probably heard this in the field or in other pied butcherbird recordings.
Composer, performer, and naturalist Ron Nagorcka (b. 1948) spent his childhood
exploring music and the natural world on a sheep farm in Western Victoria.
Artamidae (2004) is his five-movement suite celebrating a family of Australian
songbirds: the grey butcherbird, Australian magpie, black currawong, pied
butcherbird, and grey currawong. He writes:
You will hear in the Artamidae piece that I've used a just intonation
scale, and the electric guitar in particular (a fretless instrument)
imitates the bird with some pretty subtle tonal shifts. This brings me
to my theory that birds sing in JI (they certainly don't stick to 12
tone ET), and a further question then arises. When they don't seem
to be spot on are they singing "out of tune" or is such a concept
ridiculously anthropomorphic? Still, may not "in-tuneness" be
something a female listens for in order to choose a prospective male
for breeding? (I am assuming here that just intervals are the
benchmark of in-tuneness.) (R. Nagorcka, personal communication,
23 September 2005)
Nagorcka’s thoughts on intonation are pursued in Chapter 3.
Composer Hugh Dixon (b.1927, Sydney) has resided in New Zealand since 1940. He
set The blue wrens and the butcher-bird (2004) for soprano voice and piano to a poem
by Wright. The pied butcherbird notes (Fig. 2.5) appear to be an imitation of their
species call, identified in Chapter 4. Contour, pitch, and rhythm are close matches.
Figure 2.5. This Dixon excerpt displays a close match in matters of contour, pitch, and rhythm with
a pied butcherbird call.
26
This two-bar phrase is repeated immediately in the piano for a total of six
iterations. The species call appears to be strongly emblematic of the pied
butcherbird’s voice and stands as a musical identity marker in the minds of those
who have heard the bird. Meanwhile, the lyrics (also published in a volume on
Australian birds [Wright, 2003: 10-11] are a telling summary of the virtues and
vices of the species, as observed from the human vantage point:
Sweet and small the blue wren
whistles to his gentle hen,
“The creek is full, the day is gold,
the tale of love is never told.
Fear not, my love, nor fly away,
for safe, safe in the blackthorn-tree
we shall build our nest today.
Trust to me, oh trust to me.”
Cobwebs they gather and dry grass,
greeting each other as they pass
up to the nest and down again,
the blue wren and the brown wren.
They seek and carry far and near,
down the bank and up the hill,
until that crystal note they hear
that strikes them dumb and holds them still.
Great glorious passion of a voice—
sure all that hear it must rejoice.
But in the thorn-bush silent hide
the nest-builders side by side.
“The blue wren’s nestlings and his wife,
and he himself, that sprig of blue,
I shall kill, and hang them safe—
the blackthorn spears shall run them through.”
Still and still the blue wren
sits beside his cowering hen.
There they wait like stone by stone
until the butcher-bird is gone.
Then soft and sweet the blue wren
twitters to his anxious hen,
“Trust to me, oh trust to me;
I know another blackthorn-tree.”
--Judith Wright
Australian Brett Dean’s (b.1961) Pastoral symphony (2000/rev. 2001) for chamber
orchestra incorporates an accompanying recording. The pied butcherbird is
featured for several bars intermittently. Dean comments:
27
Sure, we all "love" nature, but what we love more are all the
trappings of modern living... certainly more than the desire to stop
and bask in the glory of a single butcherbird, perhaps the most
magical sound found on the whole Australian continent. This piece,
then, is about glorious birdsong, the threat that it faces, the loss, and
the soulless noise that we're left with when they're all gone.9
British-born Charles Bodman Rae (b.1955) resides in Australia. He appropriated
several species of birds in his String quartet no. 2 (2003). The first movement splits
antiphonal birdcalls between the two violins. He also draws upon a pied butcherbird
theme he hears from his garden in the Adelaide foothills.
The original melody was always in C minor: B, D, D / Eb, C / G, D,
D / Eb, C. Clearly, this bird had perfect pitch! You will find various
transformations and transpositions of this bird theme, particularly in
the first and fourth movements where it appears flautando (C.
Bodman Rae, personal communication, 15 May 2008).
The minor thirds are harnessed into the human composer’s personal aesthetic.
Canadian composer Emily Doolittle (b.1972) has an ear for the microtonal
possibilities of pied butcherbird song:
Music for magpies (2003) is a collection of transcriptions of real and
imaginary birdsongs. Pied butcherbird song was what inspired me to
write this piece. I heard that recording, and it was so
musical/composer-like that I wanted to transcribe the song to get
closer to it. The transcriptions of the real bird songs are based on
recordings from Jean C. Roché’s Les grands virtuoses: Les plus beaux
chants d'oiseaux. I ended up quite interested in the musical result, so
then I transcribed the hoopoe lark song. (The pied butcherbird
transcription is quite exact—the hoopoe lark transcription is farther
away from the actual birdsong. The others I wrote with what I
perceive to be a bird-like grammar and language, but not are based
on the song of any particular bird.) The piece was originally intended
for performance on viola da gamba with quarter-tone frets, but can
also be performed on cello or viola (E. Doolittle, personal
communication, 22 June 2008).
Doolittle’s “Pied butcherbird” is the first movement in a five-movement work. The
Roché recording she appreciates also finds its way onto “A zoomusicological essay,”
9
Retrieved 9 August 2008, from http://www.boosey.com/cr/music/Brett-Dean-PastoralSymphony/3968.
28
track two of Kuljuntausta and Martinelli’s CD (2005). In this blend of
Kuljuntausta’s often dense electronic textures with field recordings collected by
Martinelli, Roché’s pied butcherbird enters at 5:30 in for an essentially solo
presentation until 8:00, where the recording is sampled and developed. Several
seconds from the Roché recording also appear as thematic material for the pied
butcherbird stuffed toy.10 This song makes prominent use of the pied butcherbird
wow sound detailed in Chapter 4.
Again, we see a pattern developing where the musicality of certain birds so captures
the human imagination that the song sees multiple outcomes. The pied butcherbird
canon has commenced, and Tate’s vision of composers tapping into Australia’s
birdsong resources is slowly coming into its own.
2.5 Songbirds
The origins of music are much contested, with no shortage of speculation (including
that humans acquired music from songbirds) and no clear answer likely (Wallin,
Merker, and Brown, 2000; Pont, 199811). Intriguingly, Eastern Gondwana
(Australia and Papua New Guinea) is implicated as the birthplace of songbirds in
recent papers citing DNA sequence data (Edwards and Boles, 2002; Ericson,
Christidis, Cooper, Irestedt, Jackson, Johansson, et al., 2002). Songbirds (Order
Passeriformes—the passerines or “perching birds”) constitute about 4,600 of the
world’s approximately 10,000 bird species (Podulka, Rohrbaugh, Jr., and Bonney,
2004: 7.25). Order Passeriformes songbirds display a wide range of vocal abilities in
their two subdivisions, suboscines and oscines (or “true songbirds”) (Johnson, 2003:
2). Oscines are known to be behaviourally flexible (Greenberg, 1987).
2.5.1 Study species: an overview
The pied butcherbird (Cracticus nigrogularis) is a medium-sized oscine belonging to
the Family Artamidae, which also includes various woodswallows, currawongs, the
10
The toy’s label reads, in part: “Wild Republic Birds with real bird calls! … Authentic bird calls
provided by CEBA, Centre Bioacoustique Alpin, recorded in September 1974, near Lamington
National Park, Australia. Typical male song.”
11 The author gratefully acknowledges conversations with the esteemed scholar Graham Pont on the
subject of birdsong contour and other zoömusicological matters.
29
Australian magpie, and other butcherbirds—grey butcherbird (Cracticus torquatus),
black butcherbird (Cracticus quoyi), and black-backed butcherbird (Cracticus mentalis)
(Higgins, Peter, and Cowling, 2006: 8). Figure 2.6 reproduces an early written
description of the species by Gould (1848) as photographed from an undated
reproduction (S. Curtis, personal communication, 10 August 2008).
30
Figure 2.7 details a drawing from the same document (ibid.).
Figure 2.7. An early drawing of the pied butcherbird by Gould (1848: fol., vol. ii. pl 49), from an
undated reproduction.
31
“Butcherbird” derives from their habit of impaling prey, such as smaller birds or
lizards, on twigs and thorns for later consumption from their larder (Serventy and
Whittell, 1976: 449). Alternative English names for pied butcherbirds in include
crow-shrike, break-o’day-boy, jackeroo, organ-bird (Higgins et al., ibid.: 516), blackthroated crow-shrike (Gould, 1865/1972: 180), and black-throated butcherbird
(Serventy and Whittell, 1976: 450). Gould identified a second species, the pied
crow-shrike (Cracticus picatus) (Gould, 1865/1972: 180-182), which has since been
subsumed into the same species classification as Cracticus nigrogularis.
Higgins et al. (2006: 8) present 19 Australian Aboriginal names for the pied
butcherbird (from the more than 200 indigenous Australian languages12) but do not
list language, ethno-linguistic group affiliations, or geographic area for the names.
The catalogues of Aboriginal names for pied butcherbird (Cracticus nigrogularis)
(Fig. 2.8) and the more generic butcherbird (Cracticus) (Fig. 2.9) were augmented
with assistance from other scholars, as indicated. Healey discusses the uneven
reliability inherent in recorders of such wordlists, cautioning that Aboriginal names
are not necessarily equivalent to Linnaean categories (2007). A case in point: in
their survey of the Yanyuwa people, Bradley et al. (2006: 152) find the same name
applied to the pied butcherbird and Australian magpie, with possible relevance to
the black butcherbird as well.
The Koyukon of Alaska named the slate-colored junco with a word that describes
and resembles their call (Nelson, 1983: 118). Some Australian bird names resemble
their calls (currawong, peewit, and koel come to mind). Might an onomatopoeic
basis for a majority of the pied butcherbird entries emerge, suggesting that the
apparently universal species call (discussed in Chapter 4) was the basis for naming?
In northwest New South Wales, “booboorboo” and “buubuurrbu” (Fig. 2.8) bear
vague similarities to “break-o’day-boy” and “jackeroo,” although it is not
documented if the English names are onomatopoeic devices to capture the species
call.
Additionally, McEntee advises that in the two Australian Aboriginal languages he
has studied, nouns are not passive and could change with action (J. McEntee,
12
The Australian Government Culture and Recreation Portal website estimates the Australian
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages to be over 200. Retrieved 1 August 2008, from
http://www.acn.net.au/wsd/1145.htm.
32
personal communication, c. 2003). I am neither acquainted with the pronunciation
systems of these languages nor qualified to comment on the results and merely
collate them here as a record for future research. Jones notes she does find some
basis for onomatopoeic naming (footnote 14).
Aboriginal
name
albuta albuta
alpirtaka
alpwertew-alpwert
angwurrirda
bindigaru
booboorboo6 or
buubuurrbu8
cockaraboota
coolburra
cudgeego
dini wilgu-wilgu
djobboh
goolool
gorradada
gura
gurrwaru
jalburrurru
kakaraputa
karrara
kurpantji
kurparu
lobarloba;
jorlborrman
ngakngak
pititjaku-pititjaku
urbura
urrpara kuka
wakurlajirri
wudwud
wurukuli
yakurlajirri
Source peoples, location, or language
Central Australia6
NW and N SA6
Central Australia6
Anindilyakwa of Groote Eylandt, Gulf
of Carpentaria, NT5; E Arnhem Land, SW Gulf of Carpentaria,
and Groote Eylandt6
NE and lower N regions of SA6
Yuwaalayaay language, NW NSW and central west NSW6; NW
NSW, including Tamworth, Gunnedah, Narrabri, Inverell,
Moree, Collarenebri, Lightning Ridge8
Jigalong2
Wooleen2
Yandanooka2; Gascoyne region, including Shark Bay6
SW NSW6
Top end, including Darwin area, NT6
NW slope and NW plain regions, NSW6
Kimberley division, WA6
Yanyuwa people of Yanyuwa country (970km SE of Darwin,
NT)/Mambaliya clan3
Pilbara region, WA6
Eastern Nullabor plain, WA6
Pilbara region, WA6
Pilbara region, WA6
Wardaman of Flora River region, SW of Katherine, NT5
Great Victoria Desert, SA6
NW and N SA and Central Australia6
Arrernte people of Central Australia, NT4
Tanami Desert, WA6
SE QLD and NE NSW6
Flinders Ranges, Yorke Peninsula, Adelaide Plain, Mount Lofty
Ranges, and Fleurieu Peninsula, SA and NE and lower N, SA6
Tanami Desert, WA6
Citation
source
1, 6
1, 6
6
1, 5, 6
1, 6
6, 8
1, 2
1, 2, 6
1, 2, 6
6
1, 6
1, 6
1, 6
1, 6
1
3
6
1, 6
6
6
5
1, 6, 9
1, 6
1, 6
4
1, 6
1, 6
1, 6
6
Figure 2.8. Australian Aboriginal names for the pied butcherbird (Cracticus nigrogularis). Source 1:
Higgins et al., 2006: 1962; Source 2: Serventy and Whittell, 1976: 450; Source 3: Bradley et al., 2006:
152; Source 4: Cohen, 2006; Source 5: Healey, 2006; Source 6: Peter, 2006: 70-71; Source 7: Sullivan,
1931: 135; Source 8: Jones, 2006; Source 9: Goodfellow, 2005: 129. More complete citations and
other details from Cohen,13 Healey,14 and Jones15 are footnoted.
13 H. Cohen, personal communication, 2 July 2006, citing Rosenfeldt, D. (undated). Eastern and
Central Arrernte picture dictionary. Alice Springs: IAD Press.
14 C. Healey, personal communication, 1 July 2006, citing the following sources: “1. /angwurrirda/
Name used by Anindilyakwa of Groote Eylandt, Gulf of Carpentaria, Northern Territory (This
name is actually included in HANZAB, but not from the following source: Waddy, J. A. (1988).
Classification of plants and animals from a Groote Eylandt Aboriginal point of view (2 vols). Darwin:
Australian National University North Australia Research Unit Monograph; 2. /lobarloba/ and
/jorlborrman/ Name used by Wardaman (Flora River region, SW of Katherine, Northern Territory.
Source: Mrs E Raymond, Julai Blutja, Lily Gin.gina, Michael Raymond, Oliver Raymond, Lindsay
33
Aboriginal
name
a-guruwuduk
jalburrurru
goolool
gooranggool
gulgurun
guluu
gurudugurudu
jadbururu
jurdabuwinda
uyunpuru
wudhwadh
Source peoples, location, or language
E Arnhem Land, SW Gulf of Carpentaria, and Groote Eyland
Yanyuwa of Borroloola/Vanderlin Islands, southern Gulf of
Carpentaria5
NW slope and NW plain regions, NSW7
Kimberley division, WA6
SE QLD and NE NSW6
NW slope and NW plain regions, NSW6; NW NSW, including
Tamworth, Gunnedah, Narrabri, Inverell, Moree, Collarenebri,
Lightning Ridge8
E Arnhem Land, SW Gulf of Carpentaria, and Groote Eylandt6
E Arnhem Land, SW Gulf of Carpentaria, and Groote Eylandt6
Gulf Country, including offshore islands and non-coastal parts of
north-central QLD6
SE Gulf of Carpentaria and Cape York Peninsula, NT6
SE QLD and NE NSW6
Citation
source
6
5
7
6
6
6, 8
6
6
6
6
6
Figure 2.9. Australian Aboriginal names for butcherbird (Cracticus). Source 1: Higgins et al., 2006:
1962; Source 2: Serventy and Whittell, 1976: 450; Source 3: Bradley et al., 2006: 152; Source 4:
Cohen, 2006; Source 5: Healey, 2006; Source 6: Peter, 2006; Source 7: Sullivan, 1931: 135; Source 8:
Jones, 2006. For more complete citations and other details from Cohen,11 Healey,12 and Jones,13 see
footnotes for Figure 2.8.
The study species possesses sharply contrasted black and white plumage and a
black hood and bib (Higgins et al., 2006: 516).16 The blue-grey bill is finely hooked
at the tip. Males and females are generally indistinguishable in the field. Juvenile
plumage is pale brownish grey for the first year. Although dull and ill-defined, the
diagnostic hood and bib appear in dark brown, echoing the adult’s glossy black
patterning.
Raymond, Jessie Brown, Queenie Morgan, Donna Jackson, Nicholas Smith & Glenn Wightman
1999. Wardaman ethnobiology: Aboriginal plant and animal knowledge from the Flora River and south-west
Katherine region, north Australia. Darwin: Centre for Indigenous Natural and Cultural Resource
Management, Occasional Paper No. 2, Northern Territory University and Northern Territory
Botanical Bulletin No. 25, Parks and Wildlife Commission of the Northern Territory; 3.
/jalburrurru/ Name applied by Yanyuwa of Borroloola/Vanderlin Islands, southern Gulf of
Carpentaria to Pied Butcherbird, Black Butcherbird and Australian Magpie. Source: John Bradley,
Miles Holmes, Dinah Norman Marrngawi, Annie Isaac Karrakayn, Jemima Miller Wuwarlu and Ida
Ninganga 2006. Yumbulyumbulmantha ki-awarawu: All kinds of things from country: Yanyuwa
ethnobiological classification. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies Unit Research report series
Vol 6, University of Queensland.”
15 C. Jones, personal communication, 3 July 2006: “I have gleaned the following about words for pied
butcherbird (in languages around north-west NSW; of course the languages differ greatly in
different areas). The word does seem to be onomatopoeic. Just consulted the new dictionary for the
Gamilaraay, Yuwaalaraay, and Yuwaalayaay languages of north-west NSW (this area includes
towns such as Tamworth, Gunnedah, Narrabri, Inverell, Moree, Collarenebri, Lightning Ridge):
Ash, A., Giacon, J., & Lissarrague, A. (eds.) (2003). Gamilaraay, Yuwaalaraay, & Yuwaalayaay
dictionary. Alice Springs: Institute for Aboriginal Development. In the dictionary, there is one word
for ‘butcherbird' (guluu in Yuwaalayaay) and two words for ‘grey butcherbird’ (garriguwin.guwin in
Yuwaalayaay; guwaaydjiidjii in Yuwaalaraay and Yuwaalayaay). There is also a word recorded from
one source specifically for pied butcherbird (Cracticus nigrogularis): buubuurrbu (in Yuwaalayaay).”
16 A more expansive field description, as well as additional details of habitat, distribution, food, social
organisation and behaviour, breeding, and plumage, is to be found in Higgins et al. (2006), upon
which this basic overview is based.
34
The species is non-migratory, and its territory includes much of mainland Australia
to a greater or lesser extent, as well as several coastal islands, with a notable
absence from the southern coast, Tasmania, and the driest desert areas. Pied
butcherbirds display a marked preference for open eucalypt forests, acacia
woodlands, and shrublands. Only occasionally have they been recorded in less open
rainforests and mangroves. They can often be found in modified habitats such as
parks, playgrounds, playing fields, golf courses, gardens, cemeteries, and farmland
(especially when freshly-ploughed (Nielsen, 1961: 193).
Aggressiveness is a trait regularly mentioned with this species, particularly around
the nest (Pizzey, 1980: 404). White reported: “Pied Butcher-Bird.—Several nests
found with three and four eggs. At one the birds savagely attacked me, repeatedly
striking me on the head” (1922: 116). Bourke’s experience was similar: “Three
species of Butcher-bird (Grey, Pied and Black) have, at various times and places,
struck me with sufficient force to draw blood. In each case I was examining a nest
containing young birds” (1958: 94). Curtis was attacked outside a Brisbane
restaurant (S. Curtis, personal communication, 28 March 2008).
Figure 2.10. A pied butcherbird featured in a warning poster used by the New South Wales National
Parks and Wildlife Service during spring nesting season when birds can become aggressive. (Used
with permission from DECC (Department of Environment and Climate Change), undated. PO Box
A290 Sydney South NSW 1232.)
35
Like a stern officer of the watch the shrike makes his rounds, an
overbearing and resented presence. He arrives quietly but spurns
concealment, perching in view, rocking now and then to ease his
balance, ‘like a cop on a New York corner,’ commented an American
guest (Bell, 1956: 90).
He writes about the grey butcherbird, but the observation applies equally to the
pied.
2.5.2 Study species: voice
A “beguiling song… and the habits of a fiend” (Watson: 2007-2008: 18).
Most of what is written about pied butcherbirds refers to their voice, which has
been described in turns as rich, clear, mellow, beautiful, magnificent, glorious,
superb, melodious, delightful, wonderful, musical, a full-throated gipsy melody, a
lasting joy, the dominant note on this property, a rich mellow note, something to
remember, a marvellous musical chuckle or bubbling note, and most beautiful of all
(Carter, 1903: 90; Chisholm, 1937: 711; Cleland, 1932: 133; Crossman, 1909: 89;
Fleay, 1953: 263; Hartshorne, 1953: 118; Higgins et al., 2006: 522; Hindwood and
McGill, 1951: 237; Hyem, 1969: 123; Keast, 1944: 185; McGilp, 1935: 175; Morse,
1922: 36; Pizzey, 1980: 404; Serventy and Whittell, 1976: 450; Sullivan, 1931: 134;
Tarr, 1961: 138; Thomas, 1951: 165; and Thomson, 1935: 77).17
Pollock is particularly enthusiastic:
If the bird of the world were ranked according to their singing
ability as sportsmen are ranked for their sporting skills, then the
Pied Butcher-bird would receive a very high ranking indeed. This
lively, black and white fellow has an extraordinary variety of flutelike calls which he often renders form the top of a tall, dead tree.
Larger than the English Starling, the Organ-bird, as it is often
called, sometimes sings a duet with a mate, one bird’s song
complementing the other’s. They bow and spread their wings as they
sing in charming fashion. … The National Audubon Society and
Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology of the U.S.A. recently produced
an excellent record they called Beautiful Bird Songs of the World. On
17
In the general interest of readability and due to adjectival overlap among a number of accounts
including multiple descriptions proceeding from some writers, this citation does not attempt to link
entries to authors.
36
the record they featured fifty of the songs of birds from all over the
world. The song of the Pied Butcher-bird you hear in this record was
chosen as one of the three Australian representatives. If a vote was
taken on the most accomplished vocalist featured in Beautiful Bird
Songs of the World I think our Pied Butcher-bird would win rather
easily, but then my opinion may be somewhat biased (1979: 7).
The metaphor of a piping flute, a cornet, or an organ is often noted, as indicated by
one of the bird’s alternative names, “organ-bird.” Best…, finest…, most…—the list
of superlatives recommending the voice in the literature is considerable. In his
survey of musicality in Australian songbirds (with the human animal’s standard as
his measuring stick), Hartshorne describes the pied butcherbird as “the true ‘magic
flute’, the perfection of musical tonality coming from a bird” (1953: 118). He
continues, “I doubt any European will have heard anything so richly musical from
birds” (ibid.). Their song impressed Olivier Messiaen, who incorporated pied
butcherbird song into his last work, Éclairs sur l’au-delà (1988-1992):
I listened at length to the Australian birdsongs, and I even tried to
notate them. They are all most interesting, especially the pied
butcherbird and grey butcherbird, who are marvellous. [HT trans.]
J’ai écouté très longuement ces chant d’oiseaux Australiens, et j’ai même
essayé de les noter. Ils sont tous d’un grand intérêt, specialement Pied
Butcherbird et Grey Butcherbird, qui sont marveilleux.18
The Australian ornithologist Ivan Kinny was also in correspondence with
Messiaen. Kinny sent Messiaen some of his own birdsong notations, commending
in particular the musical possibilities of the Australian butcherbirds (Hill and
Simeone, 2005: 365-366):
The bird is carnivorous and gets its name because of its practice of
making a larder, impaling its prey on a thorn or wedging it in the
fork of a tree to eat later. There is a grey variety (cracticus
torquatus) and a black-and-white species (cracticus nigrolatus) [sic],
which are among the finest bird singers. Their calls are very tuneful
and diatonic and the sound is bright and pure, like a flute (ibid.).
Three types of song are detailed in the Handbook of Australian, New Zealand &
Antarctic birds (Higgins et al., 2006: 522): breeding song, day song, and whisper song,
18
Personal communication dated 21 June 1989 from Olivier Messiaen to Australian ornithologist
and lyrebird expert Sydney Curtis.
37
although the differences among them are insufficiently described. Only the male is
thought to sing pre-dawn breeding song (Glass, 1992: 19). Higgins et al. report
Johnson’s observations that “Day Songs usually overlapped with last few minutes of
Breeding Song, and were initiated by another bird, presumably mate of first bird”
(ibid.: 522). “Whisper song” in Higgins et al. becomes “subsong” in the respected
field guide of Graham Pizzey: “accomplished mimicry, as part of quieter subsong”
(1980: 404). This is not merely an equal exchange of nomenclature, as documented
above in section 2.1.1; terminology and categories lack clarity across publications.
Although the HANZAB is a state-of-the-art, multi-volume, and recent document,
certain deficiencies must be noted, particularly since this study refers to it on a
number of occasions. Australian birds are not well studied in general. One sees how
this applies to pied butcherbirds in particular when encountering the first entries
after certain rubrics: “SOCIAL ORGANIZATION: Poorly known;” “SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR:
Poorly known;” “BREEDING: Not well known” (ibid. 521; 521; 523, respectively).
Secondly, this researcher has on file each of the journal articles, books, or reports
cited under the VOICE rubric. As bird observers, the informants are of uneven
ability and the reportage is often anecdotal or in the form of inventories of birds by
geographic area, rather than tested hypotheses. The accounts of mimicry appear to
be particularly vulnerable to errata; this will be taken up in Chapter 4.
Of course, the flavour of the various informants’ reportage is of interest for more
than hard facts concerning pied butcherbirds. Some informants write of birds in
turns admired and then killed or captured for pets (“I heard their beautiful notes…
I shot them both [Carter 1903: 90-91]). Such accounts could merely reflect
acceptable practice at the time and cannot be dismissed offhand as issuing from
untrained informants. Nonetheless, no indication is given of the peer-review process
in the various journals cited, which appear to be of unequal esteem. This is not to
dismiss the value of collating these accounts in one volume, but to signal this
researcher’s reluctance to accept certain pronouncements as fact, such as three
categories of song. Rather than building on a three-song-type premise, this study set
about, in part, to investigate song types. These results are in Chapter 5.
Consensus appears to exist on certain basic parameters. Common song perches for
day song are overhead wires, high television aerials, or the highest branch of a dead
38
tree, while whisper song is reported to occur in a more sheltered position or lower
branch of a tree. Day vocalisations, including during the dawn chorus, are sung by
both sexes, either in solos, duos, or choruses, and may occur in flight (Chisholm,
1937: 711; Lumsdaine, 1996). “The distinctive duet of a mated pair of Pied ButcherBirds is among the sweetest music of bush birds. While performing, the pair
courtesy to each other, and at the same time are answering other songful pairs, so
that the woodland resounds, as it were, with a round of music” (Campbell and
Barnard, 1917: 38). Keast (1944: 185), Frith (1969: 46), and Carter (1903: 90)
reported some vocalisations to be ventriloquial, making the bird particularly
difficult to locate. Carter also noted that pied butcherbirds “are kept occasionally by
the settlers for the beauty of their notes” (ibid.).
Day song is not constant. While prominent in the dawn chorus (Milligan, 1905:
154; Sedgwick, 1947: 377; Serventy and Whittell, 1976: 450), their vocalisations are
heard less afterwards (Miller, 1928: 131). Miller went on to record that they
“reminded one somewhat of a piano-tuner harmonising notes” (ibid.). Mathews
concurred on the sudden drop in vocalisations after the dawn chorus from his
fieldtrip to Napier Broom Bay in Northwest Australia. “This is certainly a King of
Songsters, and as soon as the first dawn appears, his clear notes ring out,” observed
Mathews, (1918: 179); “for the rest of the day he appears to be silent.” Cleland’s
experience in Central Australia was similar:
A beautiful songster that woke us nearly every morning at the first
streak of day, but ceased his song before sunrise and was not seen or
heard by us at all during the rest of the day, turned out in the end,
when at last sleepy eyes located him, to be a Jackaroo, or Pied
Butcher-Bird (1931: 18).
Cleland reported the following year from Central Australia that although heard
occasionally in the early morning, “Thereafter during the day, as was the case last
year, the birds kept quiet, and were only occasionally disturbed and seen for a few
moments amongst the branches of the red gums” (1932: 133). Thus, three
behaviours make these birds potentially difficult to locate: they are often silent; they
spend scant time on the ground; and their song can be ventriloquial.
Morse noted in his cataloguing of birds of the Moree district in the extreme
northwest boundary of New South Wales, “I always think the note of this bird is
39
the most beautiful of all our songsters, but it is heard to advantage only at daybreak
in the spring” (1922: 36). Doyle observed that the pied butcherbird “in these parts
remains silent for at least two months of winter, and used to make me think it had
departed (1953: 333).
Tarr noticed the song morning, evening, and night:
The beautiful, bubbling, flute-like song of the Pied Butcher-bird is
heard at its best in the late evening and early in the morning and
also on moonlit nights. At certain times these birds become very
noisy and utter a great variety of calls (1961: 138).
No location or season is specified for Tarr’s notes. Other observations of nocturnal
song, particularly on moonlit nights, come from Carter (“one of the birds
commenced to utter its rich flute-like notes in the very early hours of the morning,
between two and three o-clock” (ibid.); Morcombe, (1986: 432); Pizzey (1980: 404);
Robinson (1956: 283); Sedgwick (1947: 377; 1951: 266); Serventy (1929: 197); and
Shilling (1948: 72). This nocturnal or very early morning song is apparently
breeding song.
Finally, we come to whisper song. “Whisper,” whether in the voice of the human
animal or the bird, implies a weaker signal, an altered vocal timbre, and perhaps a
modulation of communication strategy. Pied butcherbirds are accomplished mimics
(Cayley, 2000: 131), and their whisper song may or may not include mimicry.
Sedgwick found no mimicry in an individual he encountered during his Northern
Territory survey: “One individual, at a hillside camp at Batchelor, was much given
to singing a ‘whisper song’, and would perch in a tree for long periods softly
warbling with great variety and harmony. I could detect no mimicry in its calls”
(1947: 377).
Whisper song including mimicry has been well documented, including Chisholm,
who noted, “The best time to hear the bird mimicking is on a windy day. Then it
will sit in a tree, or perhaps on a verandah rail, and warble for possibly half an hour
in a whisper-song” (1937: 711). Lord twice-reported this preference for a windy day
in Murphy’s Creek, Queensland, first in this account:
40
The mimicry of the Pied Butcher-bird is given in a whisper song
when the bird is resting. They prefer a windy day for their
performance, when they perch in some suitable place, usually not far
above the ground. The imitative capacity of the Pied Butcher-bird is
remarkable, as they run from one bird call to another with not the
slightest error, but often mingling their own varied calls with those
of the birds imitated (1941: 90).
Later, Lord again reported, “They are accomplished mimics, especially when
perched in a sheltered place on wet or windy days” (1956: 128). This final example
adds a hot afternoon to windy and wet days as potential opportunities to hear pied
butcherbird whisper song:
Mr. White related an experience of mimicry in which he heard a bird
which he successively thought to be a Yellow-throated Miner, a
Ring-neck and a Brown Honeyeater. It proved to be a Black-throated
Butcher-bird indulging in a whisper song on a very hot day
(Sedgwick, 1949: 181).
Cameron observed whisper song without identifying it by name: “Once I saw a
juvenile imitating bird calls. He did parrot and Miner calls and a Magpie’s warble,
as well as call of his own kind, but they were muffled and soft” (1971: 79).
As we have seen, whisper song can or cannot include mimicry. Holes in the
knowledge appear. Is mimicry ever delivered in full voice? Is mimicry a separate
song type? Does mimicry appear in pre-dawn breeding song and/or day song, or
only in whisper song? Mimicry will be explored in more detail in Chapter 4. For
now, we shall undertake a brief overview of mimicry as seen in the literature. The
pied butcherbird is a known mimic of numerous other birds (Lord, 1941: 128, 1956:
90; Chisholm, 1937: 711, 1947, 1950: 233; McDonald, 1940: 299-300; Sedgwick,
1949: 181; Serventy and Whittell, 1976: 450), “probably in both sexes” (Higgins et
al., 2006: 522), and is reputed to have mimicked a human whistling, a lamb bleating,
and a dog barking (Chisholm, 1946: 13). Elsewhere, Chisholm reports, “Mr. Lord
pays a warm tribute to the mimetic powers of the handsome Pied Butcher-bird—he
says he once heard two adults and two young birds mimicking in company the
notes of some twenty species, including the boobook owl and the owlet nightjar”
(1950: 233).
McDonald proves himself an astute listener to mimicry in this account:
41
Butcher-bird Mimicry.—As a mimic I find the Pied Butcher-bird
(Cracticus nigrogularis) an adept, although it is only on rare occasions
that the bird indulges in such pastimes. Quite recently I enjoyed the
privilege of hearing the bird performing on two occasion (two
consecutive days), and I found, as with all, or most, feathered mimics,
the “concert” consisted largely of its own clear calls. Next to its own
songs it chose to imitate the jubilant carolling of the Magpie. During
these performances I noticed that the bird never became excited and
voluble, as do most mimics, neither did it seek an exposed position,
but rather preferred a leafy bough upon which to rest whilst it
“whispered” the calls and melodies of various local birds. The calls of
the Noisy Miner were often repeated, whilst those of the Pale-headed
Rosella, Pied Currawong, Galah, Spiny-cheeked Honeyeater and the
little Owlet-Nightjar followed.
On one occasion the resting bird began the opening chuckle of the
Kookaburra, which appears to be the stumbling-block of many
individual mimics. Another interesting fact is that the harsh scream
of the Owlet-Nightjar is most usually on the “programmes” of nearly
all Australian bird mimics. Perhaps that is because this night-bird’s
cry is so often heard during the still of the bush nights when the daybirds are resting and not necessarily always sleeping.—N. H. E.
McDonald, Charleville, Qld., 131/8/39 (1940: 299-300).
A full list of pied butcherbird mimicry is presented in Chapter 4.
Hyem introduces the possibility of “accent” in the pied butcherbird, which was a
favourite of his, although none lived in his immediate area. In the spring of 1961, a
nest was found in a nearby area where the birds were plentiful. Three eggs were
removed and placed in a grey butcherbird’s nest. Two birds were successfully
reared.
It had been my hope we would have the pleasure of hearing the
beautiful notes of the pied butcher-bird about the place, at least for a
while. But things did not turn out that way. When the young birds
started to call, it was with the voice and notes of their foster parents.
The young male gave an excellent imitation of the grey male’s
rollicking song but it could be distinguished from the foster parent’s
partly by the tone and partly by an extra note put in at the end.
Similarly, the young pied female joined in the choruses with the
female’s part of the “grey’s” song… Perhaps the performance could
be described as ‘speaking grey butcher-bird with a slight pied accent
(Hyem, 1969: 123).
The anecdote underlines that the pied butcherbird voice is a cultural phenomenon
learned from conspecifics and adaptable to circumstance.
42
With my assistance, Powys traces song phrases and variations across years and
territories, concluding that each location studied has a unique repertoire (2007: 912). A totally new repertoire evolved at the Spirey Creek (Warrumbungles National
Park, New South Wales) site within two years (ibid.: 11) and phrases from Green
Lake, Victoria were not at all similar over a 13-year period (ibid.: 10). Ormiston
Gorge, Central Australia saw a total of:
… 5 main phrases that had endured for at least 8 years, with a
balance of 11-12 main phrases (with 30+ variations) that were only
heard in any one year. This seemed to suggest that Pied Butcherbird
songs do change over a number of years (ibid.).
This subject will be taken up in depth in Chapter 5.
The literature on pied butcherbird calls is scanty. It has been reported that they
have species-specific alarm calls for the citing of an owl or a goanna (Cameron,
1970: 22). According to Crossman, their alarm calls (“of a chattering kind”) are not
as harsh as that of the grey butcherbird (1909: 89). However, Frith reported that
the alarm note was “a strident reek” (1976: 574). Pied butcherbird alarm calls are, in
fact, classified as harmonic, that is “calls that contained harmonics with
superimposed noise” (Jurisevic and Sanderson, 1994: 71). Their study measured one
individual’s alarm call as follows: peak frequency: 6.1 kHz, mean frequency: 1.4 kHz,
frequency range: 4.7 kHz, and with a duration of 0.152sec. (ibid.: 70).
2.6 Summary
Much remains to be learned about the function and aesthetics of birdsong, whether
by biologists, musicologists, or zoömusicologists. Composers have begun to
appropriate the song of the pied butcherbird, indicating that the human sense of
musicality overlaps with the musical constructs of the bird. Otherwise, surprisingly,
despite the wide distribution and noted singing ability of this species, no detailed
studies have been undertaken of pied butcherbird song or their behaviour, save one
thesis on communal breeding by Robinson (1994).
43
Chapter 3
Design and Methods
44
Chapter 3
“Viewing nature objectively makes it an object” (Nollman, 1997: 14).
This chapter bookends personal empirical knowledge as an equal partner and
occasional substitute to “objectivity” (Polanyi, 1958). Typically, a design and
methods chapter will display a sense of logic and inevitability from the outset. I did
not impose a pre-conceived design. As described in Chapter 2, the young discipline
of zoömusicology is still a pioneer enterprise, one requiring at least passing
familiarity in a number of areas as well as real expertise in several others. Preexisting models or templates for this research were absent or at minimum
insubstantial. The various tasks at hand were the collection of extant recordings,
the recording of pied butcherbirds in the field, sonographic analysis, and notation.
Chapter 3 chronicles a reconnaissance for the tools, procedures, and methods that
would be put into service in illuminating the musicality of the pied butcherbird.
3.1 Research tools
3.1.1 A trained ear
I entered this study with an acculturated aesthetic. Moving from a fixed position as
a violinist/composer trained in the Western classical music tradition, I spent 35
years transcribing music of the American vernacular, from fiddle tunes to jazz, from
country to blues. Residencies in Budapest, Paris, and the Dominican Republic
allowed me to extend my research to eastern European folk music as well as the
music of the Caribbean, Greece, Turkey, and North Africa. While some of these
styles I actively performed in, more often the purpose of my research was to expand
my “toolkit” as a composer and improviser. My expertise lay in transcription.
I first encountered the pied butcherbird in 2001 at Wogarno Station in the outback
of Western Australia. Their songs, which somehow match their perceptual world,
also matched mine. They captivated me. Shortly thereafter, I determined to compile
their phrases into a composer’s compendium of natural forms for my use and others.
My existing “toolkit” would guide my approach to this new material. A centrepiece
in my consideration was to examine the musicality of their songs (musicality on
45
human terms) and in the process, if not reclaim the field of birdsong study for
musicians, at least to participate in the discussion. (This difference in approach
between biologists and musicologists, as described in Chapter 2, is reminiscent of
the tug-of-war in ethnomusicology between anthropologists and musicologists
[Merriam, 1969].) Of course, the avian voice is more than a commodity awaiting
full realisation by the composer. My instincts suggested I should develop this
composers’ catalogue not to improve on pied butcherbird song, nor to mimic it, but
to immerse myself in their musical landscape and emerge with a substantive
knowledge of the acoustical constructs of another species with which we share this
planet.
Figure 3.1. A pied butcherbird at Wogarno Station, Western Australia. Photograph by Chris Tate,
October 2008, used with permission.
As introduced in Chapter 2, the Australian composer and music critic Henry Tate
had prefigured this birdsong notebook.
The use of bird calls as the basis for evolving new musical scales was
a theme to which [Henry Tate] returned again and again. One of his
most specific proposals was for the cultivation of a scale rationalized
from the calls of the butcher bird, a bird which, despite a perhaps
unprepossessing name, is certainly the equal in musical eloquence
and beauty of such celebrated singing birds as lark and nightingale.
Tate felt that a scale abstracted from the musical language of the
46
butcher bird could have a flattened second, a major third and a minor
sixth. He perceived not only the modal affinities of this scale but also
its relation to the contemporary practice of Bartók—an act of
perception which, in 1922 (the date of the essay in which the
reference occurs), put him approximately thirty years ahead of the
majority of his fellow musicians. Whether or not Tate reproduced
the calls of the butcher bird accurately is open to doubt: he admitted
that the flattened sixth he proposed for this scale was his own notion
of what would be in sympathy with the butcher bird’s flattened
second. But details of this kind are less important than the practice
that might grow from such an observation. Olivier Messiaen’s
extensive cultivation of bird song as a linguistic source for many of
his own compositions has rescued Tate’s theories from all
suggestions of impracticability or oddity and has shown that a
composer of genuine individuality does not lose that individuality in
the pursuit of some apparently arbitrary or naturally occurring
melodic pattern: the precise nature of the stimulus is of much less
account than the fact that it is a stimulus. No Australian Messaien
has yet made bush bird calls the systematic basis of a method of
composition (Covell, 1967: 104-105).
This suggested the task at hand: to notate their song phrases and then proceed to
analyse their underlying principles of organisation, in the process confirming or
correcting Tate’s deflected scale, all leading towards composition based on
substantive analysis.
The danger in any convention rests in its ability not to seem like one. Pitch (and its
concomitant feature, frequency) was by default the most significant quantifiable
characteristic as well as the starting point for insight into musical structure.
(Ethnomusicology and musicology are filled with studies that would collapse
without a pitch reference.) Pied butcherbird song is largely melodic in nature and
often delivered in a slow and regular way, suggesting a straightforward path.
Microtones outside the equal-tempered scale were expected. The ear is generous
and flexible in matters of pitch discrimination (Sethares, 1999: 75; Sundberg, 1999:
171-214; Sundberg, Prame, and Iwarsson, 1996: 291-306; Siegel and Siegel, 1977;
Seashore, 1938/1967). The intention was to limit notation to the pitches available
on the staff, supplemented by arrows placed atop noteheads pointing up or down to
indicate those occasional microtonal pitches that the ear would not smooth out, or
quantize, into something approaching 12TET (twelve-tone equal temperament).
Wolf makes the case that traditional Western staff notation “is not twelve-tone
equal temperament specific” and that just intonation could also appear on the staff
(1996: 15). My ears are trained in 12-TET, and all notations reflect this bias. The
47
goal was to produce readable, non-specialised notation for my monograph: Notes
from the songbook of the pied butcherbird. This longing became formalised as a research
thesis, and the following design commenced.
3.1.2 Instrumentation
For fieldwork, I employ a Sennheiser ME67 shotgun microphone covered with a
Rycote “softie” windshield, a Sony portable high definition minidisc recorder,
binoculars, and a GPS indicator to note location and altitude. Recordings are
monaural. The batteries of my high definition minidisc recorder allow for recording
up to four hours nonstop (the discs will hold up to seven hours); the recorder is
small and light, providing portability and speed of set-up. Since pied butcherbirds
are seldom visible when singing, I may change locations a number of times over the
course of a morning; breakdown and re-setup time needs to be minimal. I purchased
a parabolic reflector/microphone set as well, but the combined weight makes them
a second-choice. The shotgun microphone allows me to pinpoint the bird at a
distance; this is essential if I do not have easy access to the bird or if it moves to a
second more distant song post. Ease and speed of operation are the prime
motivators, since I am not making “art” recordings.
3.1.3 Collection of extant recordings
The objective of obtaining a copy of every extant pied butcherbird field recording
possible required a number of telephone calls, letters, and emails (along with offers
to reimburse copying and shipping costs). When successful, thank-you notes and
follow-up questions were issued. The sources were generous. Ornithology is
perhaps the only science where amateurs contribute serious and respected work.
Contact with Vicki Powys, sound editor of the Australian Wildlife Sound Recording
Group, was a key step in introducing this project to recordists who might have pied
butcherbird song in their archives. Many members of the group did have such field
recordings, usually paired with notes containing a range of details surrounding the
recording. The correspondence that developed with this group of individuals
significantly informed this research, both in establishing optimal fieldwork
procedures and in the subsequent analysis phase.
48
Aside from the AWSRG members, all individuals, groups, and institutions that
might have extant pied butcherbird recordings were contacted, including the
British Library Sound Archive19 and Macaulay Library at Cornell Lab
of Ornithology.20 The Australian National Wildlife Collection Sound Archive held
at CSIRO includes a number of pied butcherbird field recordings on digital audio
tape (DAT) and other tape formats.21 Unfortunately, despite repeated attempts over
a five-year period, these were not made available to this study due to their format;
however, the Ray Swaby collection held there is digitized and was provided to this
study.
Commercially-available recordings were purchased, as was the pied butcherbird
stuffed animal described in Chapter 2. Figure 3.2 shows one example from this bulk
discography. This study’s entire collection of recordings and accompanying field
notes, related correspondence, and commercial CD liner notes are itemised in
Appendix H.
CD ID
006-Curtis2
Track Duration Location
05
03:34
Christmas
Creek flows out
of the SW part
of Lamington
NP. There is a
national fitness
camp/hostel a
few km
downstream
from the park
(about 30 km S
of Beaudesert
QLD).
Date/Time
Recordist Notes
01/10/88
no time recorded
Syd Curtis
“I recorded butcherbirds up
the ridge to the south of the
camp in 1988. I was
attending a meeting of the
Wildlife Preservation Society,
and the recording was again
just causal as I climbed the
ridge early morning to see
what was there. However, it
is an interesting recording,
for at one stage, one bird
moves away and doesn’t
take part in the next song.
Then in the last duet,
because it is further away, its
notes are softer, so you can
tell which notes are sung by
A and which by B. (Don’t
know which is male and
which female, however.)”
Figure 3.2. Example of entries in the bulk discography of extant pied butcherbird recordings
collected in this inquiry (complete discography located in Appendix H).
19
The catalogue of the Wildlife Section of The British Library Sound Archive can be accessed at
http://www.bl.uk/soundarchive.
20 The catalogue of the Macaulay Library at Cornell Lab of Ornithology can be accessed at
http://birds.cornell.edu/MacaulayLibrary/.
21 The Australian National Wildlife Collection Sound Archive can be accessed at
http://www.csiro.au/places/anwc.html.
49
3.1.4 Limitations of the use of extant recordings
Most of the extant recordings were made by recordists astute in matters of bird
behaviour and scientific method. Nevertheless, the recordings were often short
tracks of one to several minutes in duration. One could only speculate on whether
the bird had sung longer but the recordist had missed it or not recorded it for some
other reason. Without a complete song bout, a number of assessments are called into
question. This assumes that a “complete song bout” is in some way important to the
bird and, if so, that it would be assessed by the bird in the same manner as by a
human. For a bird, a “complete song” could encompass an entire day’s or season’s
singing or comprise instead only a single phrase. These parameters are unknown at
present and not testable within the scope of this study. The most one can hope for is
a degree of accuracy in the matters about which measurements are taken, and the
interpretation of these numbers would, in part, await further knowledge of bird
behaviour. In any case, without the recording of a complete song bout, estimating
repertoire size is problematic. The calculation of singing rate (songs per minute) is
hampered, since this could vary over the period of the song bout. Range and highest
and lowest frequency sung are also less reliable numbers without a complete
sample. Another deficiency of the recordings is that few recordists parsed out the
antiphonal song; unless the birds are spread apart in a stereo recording, this task is
difficult to accomplish with certainty after the fact. Nevertheless, these recordings
played a key role in the examination of assorted phrase types by different birds in
various territories over a number of years, as well as occasionally illuminating the
extreme margin of vocal gymnastics and diversities of which the pied butcherbird is
capable. Additionally, certain calls heard only in rare social situations were found on
these extant recordings.
3.2 Fieldwork
I needed to go out to hear—and see—how birds behave in their natural
environment, as well as fill in the deficiencies of and otherwise complement my
collection of extant recordings. Although I did not realise it then, I also needed to
see pied butcherbird “savagery” firsthand. On a sleepy Sunday morning in the
outback town of Hay, I followed a pair of pied butcherbirds on their morning
50
singing route. They outlined their territory over a several-block radius, singing
from this tall tree, that tall building, and then a high TV aerial. They sang well, and
I was pleased to have found them. I had the pure delicate filigree of their phrases
ringing in my head. Next, a pied butcherbird flew into a bush right in front of me,
grabbed a nestling, and gave it a sharp shake. Its parents flew out and wildly circled
the pied butcherbird, who whacked the nestling on the sidewalk and flew off.
Musician… bird… musician/bird… I needed to think about the emotional lives of
birds, about the singing lives of birds, about the contingent lives of birds, and about
anthropomorphism—and I needed to think about these by living them in the
moment.
3.2.1 Study sites
Details of study sites, including GPS location, are catalogued in the accompanying
DVD (under the rubric “Original fieldwork recordings with preliminary analysis”),
along with minute-by-minute analysis of the recording at hand. An example is
below (Fig. 3.3).
Magnetic Island/Townsville 2007
MD2007.1
Track 2007.1.10. Magnetic Island: September 19, 2007; * Florence
Bay 5:45 a.m. from begin, incorporates asc slide of the real bird at
:40-:43, 3:20, 3:33 better, 3:40—Chris listen, 6:22 flies – 6:34
resumes, 8:08 similar to 3:40?, =figbird?—check HANZAB 8:50 new
phr, 9 very asc slide, 9:32-9:59 curras, 11:13 asc slide, 11:25 asc slide
*, 11:44 new phrs, 13:34 new phrs, 15:19-25 asc slide curra, 16:29-34
cur asc sl, 18:15-hear other pbb, 19:53 new phr, 20:44 other pbb,
22:24 other pbb? vf, 22:37 new phr, 23:19 new phr?, 23:31 other
pbb?, 23:35 dur. also kookas present, another pbb end of beach, early
on—clicking—imitation? 2:56 or cicada; sometimes slide is faster
than others—two different imitations?
Figure 3.3. Example of the first stage of analysis of personal field recordings (complete analysis and
its legend on electronic deposit in the DVD).
Fieldwork recording sites are summarised in the four tables below. Table 3.1 details
the first year of fieldwork (2005), designed to familiarize me with the pied
butcherbird and the recording equipment, as well as to identify favorable study sites
for future years. Pre-dawn breeding song, which figures only minimally in the
51
collection obtained from other recordists, was a prime target. Additionally, seeing
two or more of birds sing antiphonal song promised the benefit that individual parts
could to be parsed out.
The 2005 car trip began in Sydney and continued up Australia’s east coast as far as
the Atherton Tablelands near Cairns, and then down a more inland route back to
Sydney. The focus of this trip was Magnetic Island. The only arid island in the
Great Barrier Reef, Magnetic Island is eight kilometres north east of Townsville.22
It is covered with open eucalypt woodland, and hoop pines are common. Local
residents and tourists compete with birds and other animal species, and the island is
seeing increasing development.
Two short fieldtrips were also made in 2005 to Warrumbungle National Park in
north central New South Wales.
Table 3.1 Spring 2005 fieldwork study sites
Brisbane, QLD
Magnetic Island, QLD
Townsville, QLD
Yungaburra, QLD
Atherton Tablelands, QLD
Clairview, QLD
Banana, QLD
Goondiwindi, QLD
Tamborine Mountain, QLD
Lamington National Park, QLD
Warrumbungle National Park, NSW
Table 3.2 details recording sites in the second spring of fieldwork, 2006. In 2005,
pre-dawn breeding song was neither heard nor recorded. Antiphonal song was
observed, recorded, and parsed out. I planned a return to Magnetic Island, the most
productive site in the previous spring. Birds from Townsville23 west towards
Charters Towers along the Flinders Highway were another the target, chosen (as
22
“Magnetic Island: World Heritage,” an undated brochure from the Queensland Government’s
Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service.
23 As Jones and Wieneke report, “the pied butcherbird, detected only in the woodland outside the
city in 1980-81, was not seen in the present study. This species, although abundant on nearby
Magnetic Island, has never been common in the Townsville suburbs and may be declining there”
(2000: 57). Although the species is not common in Townsville, every effort was made to find those
few pied butcherbirds for comparison purposes.
52
the closest mainland birds) for comparison with Magnetic Island’s pied
butcherbirds.
A trip to Newcastle, New South Wales for other purposes allowed for several days’
recording of the pied butcherbirds in residence there on “Butcherbird Hill” at the
suburban Tuxford Park.
I undertook a drive from the Blue Mountains, New South Wales to Alice Springs
and environs in Central Australia, with recording planned each morning along the
way. Again, pre-dawn breeding song and daytime duos/antiphonal song were prime
objectives.
Townsville and environs, QLD
Newcastle, NSW
Dubbo, NSW
Broken Hill, NSW
Uluru, NT
Wattarka, NT
Trephina Gorge, NT
Emily Gap, NT
Alice Springs, NT
Ormiston Gorge, NT
Mildura, VIC
A third year of fieldwork in 2007 (Table 3.3) concentrated on the two most
productive areas of the previous year, Magnetic Island/Townsville/environs and
Alice Springs/environs. I obtained pre-dawn breeding song at both areas the
previous year; the goal for 2007 was to look for signs of individual, geographic, and
annual variation. Recording excerpts from these two study sites were excerpted
over the three-year period for Magnetic Island/Townsville/environs and over the
two-year-period for Alice Springs/environs. These were then ordered by location in
order to trace song phrase commonalities and differences down roads and down
their counterpart lines on a map, seeking overlaps and attempting to “read” the
geography via birdsong.
53
In a similar vein, Feld imagines auditory culture(s) as “sonic geographies of
difference” (2003: 223). Analysis of these differences is reviewed in Chapter 4.
Transcriptions are deposited in Appendix F.
A trip to outback New South Wales for other purposes allowed for recordings at
Mungo National Park, part of the Willandra Lakes World Heritage Area, and
downtown Hay, a town in the western Riverina region of southwestern New South
Wales.
Townsville and environs, QLD
Mungo National Park, NSW
Hay, NSW
Trephina Gorge, NT
Emily Gap, NT
Jesse Gap, NT
Alice Springs, NT
Ormiston Gorge, NT
Ross River Resort, NT
Gemtree, NT
In 2008, I planned a final trip to investigate whether singing activity took place in
the autumn, as suggested by Bell: “Butcher-birds set aside the theory that song is a
vernal ‘Keep Out’ notice; autumn is their finest hour for fluting, warbling and
whistling. The performance is loud, mellow and rich—unstudied, impulsive music”
(1956/1969: 90). No pre-dawn breeding song was expected, but it was hoped that
antiphonal diurnal song, including at the dawn chorus, would be recorded. Table 3.4
itemises the southeast Queensland study sites for fieldwork the autumn of 2008.
Table 3.4 Autumn 2008 fieldwork study sites
Springfield, QLD
Maleny, QLD
Witta, QLD
Biloela, QLD
Banana, QLD
Moura, QLD
Taroom, QLD
Condamine, QLD
Esk, QLD
54
3.2.2 Recording times
Birds were recorded throughout the day whenever they were singing and I was
present (rather than driving), but particularly at the dawn chorus. “Australian birds
follow the documented routine of birds generally, of maximum vocalisation around
sunrise, minimal levels in the middle of the day and an increase towards sunset”
(Keast, 1994: 178). Pied butcherbirds were normally not the first entrants into the
dawn chorus. Pre-dawn breeding song was successfully recorded from 3:45 a.m. to
sunrise, particularly on moonlit nights, as detailed in the fieldwork analysis sheets.
Inclement weather such as heavy wind or rain usually curtailed singing for its
duration. Although they were noted, no evaluation of geographic correlations
including altitude, latitude, and vegetation were undertaken.
3.2.3 Recording procedures and observational methods
When recording, I speak the following information into the microphone, usually at
the beginning of the recording session and for each additional track as needed:
species name, date, time, location, weather and approximate temperature, habitat
description, and distance to bird. On a long recording, I announce the finishing time
at the conclusion of the recording as well. Details concerning the recording
equipment are omitted from the announcement, since they are constant.
Music is embedded in other activities. Thus, I add brief comments throughout as
necessary, particularly on behavioural context, and also on whether the bird is
visible, the number of individual pied butcherbirds present, and the activities of
other birds. If circumstances do not allow for the totality of behavioural
observations to be spoken during the recording, I place observations at the end of
the recording or hand-write them in a notebook in the field. When the song is
antiphonal and the birds are visible, their various movements indicate when their
part commences and ends; these I sing or announce into the recording just as the
birds finish. In the case of two birds singing antiphonally but at a distance from
each other, I hold to one microphone position, rather than attempting to alternate
between the two birds—that is, I record one bird close-up and the other in the
background. This assists in parsing out the duo.
55
Mini-discs are numbered sequentially by year/mini-disc #/track #, respectively
(e.g. MD2005.1.1); track numbers are automatically inserted onto the mini-disc.
When the material is later digitised and divided up onto CDs, these ID numbers
continue as the identifier tag, no matter what track it might be on the CD. This
provides each cut with a unique ID, which also becomes its file name. The minidiscs are digitized on a MacBook Pro computer version 10.4.11 using the software
Audacity 1.2.4b.24 I have taken into consideration several hundred hours of
recordings made by others and me.
3.2.4 Limitations of fieldwork
Since pied butcherbird territory does not extend to where I live, the most obvious
limitation to fieldwork is the financial constraint imposed by the cost of travel. An
unexpected difficulty was the timing of fieldwork. Breeding and nesting occurs
between August and December (Tarr, 1961: 140), but pre-dawn breeding song is
not given throughout these months in a predictable way. My various contacts
suggested that the timing of nesting is more weather- and particularly
precipitation-dependent than date-dependent. If a trip was planned far in advance
and there had been no spring rain in the Alice Springs area, for example, it would
be conceivable that the birds would not be singing.
Next, the human body’s inherent intelligence and how it manifests in the
physicality of performance can be a means towards musical understanding. Le Guin
speaks of “carnal musicality” (1999). Movement could prove an interesting
repository of information concerning pied butcherbird song and song function.
While it is impossible to account for the visible in pre-dawn song, it would be
possible at times to film duets as a means of matching body posture to singing. One
film of five pied butcherbirds singing on a picnic table is in my library, and
additional filming warrants further investigation. Aside from parsing antiphonal
song, visual analysis is beyond the limited province of this current inquiry.
Another limitation is access to potential recording areas. Usually, I require a road
into the site, even with a 4-wheel drive vehicle, but a road implies the presence of
24
Audacity is a free, open source software for recording and sounding edit and is available at
http://audacity.sourceforge.net/.
56
other people and the attendant noise, private property, and safety issues. I conduct
nocturnal and pre-dawn recording in complete darkness (unless there is some
moonlight), avoiding long hikes at such hours when possible. Snakes, spiders, ticks,
dogs, disease-bearing mosquitoes, and the human animal make up my chief safety
concerns. Wild dingoes hunting in the pre-dawn hours, wild camels, and a herd of
27 running cattle have all approached me. I have never, however, been attacked by a
pied butcherbird.
3.3 Sonographic analysis
3.3.1 Sonogram generation and evaluation
Although I possess absolute pitch, I consistently received advice to double-check all
frequencies with computer-based methods, so the results would be “scientifically”
acceptable. I carried out sonographic analysis on a personal computer using the
software Amadeus II, version 3.8.7.25 The sound pitch, or frequency, is plotted on
the vertical axis (y-axis) and time is plotted along the horizontal axis (x-axis). The
loudness, or relative amplitude, of each part of the sound is partially indicated by the
darkness of the marks plotted, and revealed more precisely in an accompanying
waveform, which is consulted as needed. Sonograms are printed using the software
Raven 1.2.26 Amadeus’s vertical frequency axis displays no numbers; however, by
clicking anywhere in the sonogram, a pop-up window appears, showing the
frequency corresponding to the location of the mouse, as well as the note that is
closest to that frequency and the standard reading for that note: e.g. 1313.53 Hz, E6
(1318.51 Hz). Both Amadeus II and RavenPro provide waveforms for study and
analysis as well.
As an adjunct to the project, Dr. Andrew Bell suggested I take frequency
measurements to examine if pied butcherbirds sing in simple integer ratios,
something approaching just intonation:
I am interested in birds' musical abilities. Perhaps, given your thesis
work, you can answer a question I have. Although bird song is
obviously musical, to the best of my knowledge no work had been
25
The software Amadeus is available at http://www.hairersoft.com/ (retrieved 10 April 2008).
The software Raven is specifically designed for the analysis of animal acoustics and is available at
http://www.birds.cornell.edu/brp/raven/Raven.html (retrieved 1 August 2008).
26
57
done on quantifying the accuracy of the musical ratios they employ. I
would like to know how well their musical ratios conform to the
simple integer ratios employed in human music. I think the question
is important in understanding if musical abilities are innate—both in
us and in animals. I suspect that the cochlea may be involved in
determining musical ratios, so I would like to know how universal
musical abilities are throughout the animal kingdom. Do you know
of any work that has been done in accurately analysing the frequency
ratios employed in birdsong?27
The intriguing question seemed within the scope of the thesis, since I intended to
measure frequencies in any case. Methodical quantification was a key strategy in
order that the study be taken seriously by biologists, and thus I commenced a
search for software that would deliver reliability and validity required in such a
precise measurement of birdsong. I spent considerable time investigating how to
best detect “exact” frequency (Taylor, 2006), comparing the software Audacity
1.2.4b, Amadeus II v3.8.7, AudioSculpt, PRAAT, and Raven 1.2. The process
produced inconclusive results. For all software tested, a human element is involved
in clicking in a sonogram window or otherwise choosing the area to be measured.
“Of course, no data are truly raw; all are dependent on editing by the human animal
or his instruments” (Bateson, 1972/1987: xx). Whether by indicating the area of the
most intense signal or requiring me to draw a square around the note in question,
the results produced inconsistent numbers on multiple measurements of the same
material.
The detailed results are not included here for reasons of brevity and because they
became a moot point, as detailed below. However, subsequent meetings with Dr.
Neil Boucher28 (Maleny, QLD, Australia) and Dr. Ofer Tchernichovski29
(Laboratory of Animal Behavior, City University of New York, USA) alerted me to
the fallibility of sonograms. Extra information may be contained in them, while
other information is omitted. Both scientists have created refinements to the
mathematical processing of sonograms specifically for the analysis of birdsong.
27
Dr. Andrew Bell, Research School of Biological Sciences, The Australian National University,
personal communication, 26 January 2006.
28 Dr. Neil Boucher, personal communication, dated 9 May 2008, reads in part: “Pied butcherbirds
amplitude modulate their ‘notes’ in ways that cannot be heard by us and that the software would not
(in its present form) distinguish very well. It may be that their individuality is expressed in this AM
modulation.” He raises the question of whether they imprint their signature on the call, a question
that is not in the scope of this thesis but nevertheless is an intriguing hypothesis that should be
tested in the future.
29 Sound Analysis Pro can be downloaded at
http://ofer.sci.ccny.cuny.edu/html/sound_analysis.html (retrieved 5 August 2008).
58
While their work indicates that sonogram software can be improved, for the
purposes of this analysis I decided to hold to the original software for consistency of
results. Aware that the sonogram is not the full story, in fact that no artefact or
representation of music is ever the whole story, I balanced the limitations of a
sonogram by other approaches. That said, the best possible tools and the best use of
these tools remained paramount.
As indicated above, in the process of surveying software capable of consistently
measuring frequency, another obstacle surfaced making the search for “exact”
frequency less relevant. Although pied butcherbird song seems to consist largely of
discrete pitches, closer examination reveals that rarely to be the case. Portamento is
omnipresent. Sometimes termed a “frequency-modulated tone” or “slur” by
biologists, portamento is also often mistakenly called “glissando” (which implies
production on an instrument with fixed semitones, such as the piano or harp, while
“portamento” does not distinguish the intervening notes in its glide) (Boyden and
Stowell, 2007).
Those cultures whose music relies upon pitch bends, portamentos, microtones, blue
notes, and arabesques of ornament and decoration may find the fixed pitches of
Western art music’s equal-tempered system limiting. While pitch glides and
microtonal strategies could “work” for an audience member from any culture, I
hoped to come across a majority of discrete pitches for more reasons than ease of
melodic notation. Burton encountered similar difficulties in notating Native
American songs with portamento, bemoaning the “vagueness” (1909: 22). Likewise,
Bartók found notation lacking:
The recording of songs on the phonograph is extremely helpful as a
method for the gathering of songs, because sometimes—in our
attempt to accurately transcribe a folk songs—we lack the
appropriate musical signs corresponding to those whimsical gliding
effects from one series of sounds to the next, which are known in
music as glissando, and can be properly interpreted only through
phonographic reproductions (1997: 1).
With few fixed reference points and more often a pitch continuum, the relational
aspects of pitch that ensue after measuring individual notes, from the simplest intertone relationships to the hierarchical relationship among the tones such as
59
intervals, scales, melodic contour,30 tonality, structure—these key components of
the typological research appeared to be slipping away. Upon hitting this roadblock,
that of making “scientific” measurements on the one hand and capturing the essence
of the music on the other, I sought advice from the composer François-Bernard
Mâche. An avid transcriber of birdsong himself, Mâche responded:
You have reason to first trust your ear, then measurements. For
complex sounds, like most of those of birds, our ear generally defines
a subjective pitch that sonograms do not reveal, particularly when
there are portamentos. The exact transcription is unusable for a
musician, and the subjective transcription is unusable for a biologist.
This is one of the ambiguities of our work. I believe that it is best to
first define the goal of the analysis, which will then determine the
type and degree of simplification of the acoustic terrain. What is
pertinent for the musician will not always be so for the acoustician,
and what the ear picks up on is not always present in a sonogram. I
used to make my transcriptions too precise, rendering them nearly
illegible to others. These days, I simplify. [HT trans.]
Vous avez raison de vous fier d'abord à l'oreille, puis aux mesures. Pour les
sons complexes comme la plupart de ceux des oiseaux, notre oreille définit en
général une hauteur subjective, que les sonogrammes ne font pas apparaître,
et en particulier lorsqu'il s'agit de sons glissés. La transcription exacte est
inutilisable pour un musicien, et la transcription subjective est inutilisable
pour le biologiste. C'est là une des ambiguités de notre travail. Je crois qu'il
faut bien définir d'abord le but de l'analyse, en fonction duquel cette analyse
choisira le type et le degré de simplification des réalités acoustiques. Ce qui
est pertinent pour le musicien ne le sera pas toujours pour l'acousticien, et ce
qui est pertinent pour l'oreille n'apparaît pas toujours dans l'imagerie.
Autrefois je faisais des transcriptions trop précises, peu lisibles par les
interprètes. Aujourd'hui je simplifie (F.-B. Mâche, personal
communication, 10 August 2006).
Fearful of breaching the canon of scientific objectivity, my earnestness had allowed
me to slip into the netherworld of an “unmarked category.” I needed to come out
and be a musician, acknowledge my trained ear, and turn it towards pied
butcherbird song, and I also “had to learn to resist the easy solutions my tonal
theory training had given me” (McClary, 2000: x).
30
In a chapter contemplating the influence of birds on the origins of music, Pont (1988: 29-35)
describes a preliminary statistical study of melodic contour preferences and proposes the comparison
of human and avian pitch profiles as tools for the investigation of possible regional co-variation.
60
Science excels in the telling; music suggests. Haraway relates the dangers of the
neutral zone between them collapsing into two ways of knowing that are deaf to
one another:
Nor must we lightly accept the damaging distinction between pure
and applied science, between use and abuse of science, and even
between nature and culture. All are versions of the philosophy of
science that exploits the rupture between subject and object to justify
the double ideology of firm scientific objectivity and mere personal
subjectivity (1991: 2).
As Haraway suggests, facts can be deficient. Science’s instruments, software, and
experiments enumerate and explicate, but machine knowledge is partial. We know
from physics that many aspects can neither be definitively tested nor accounted for;
that does not mean they do not exist. I became determined to confront musical
issues and not technological ones. I had survived the “lure of numeracy” (Gourlay,
1978: 26). I felt sure that a musician, one well trained and with a broad experience
of music, has essential insights to offer biologists.
Game theory tells us that the best approach is to have a mixture or range of
strategies from which to choose, some perhaps more often than others, rather than
a single strategy (Siegfried, 2006). After the first blind alley, seeking out several
concurrent paths of description seemed sensible, with the concern that pursuing
only one way of knowing could not only result in another blind alley but could also
create an imbalance. Multiple ways of knowing were required for the fullest picture
possible. I was now nudging things along, operating on guesswork—hopefully, the
inspired guess. At least one scientist also embraced this modus operandi.
The English, who have developed their government in this direction,
call it “muddling through,” and although a rather silly, stupid
sounding thing, it is the most scientific way of progressing. To
decide upon the answer is not scientific. In order to make progress,
one must leave the door to the unknown ajar (Feynmann, 1999: 115).
Notation was the obvious link to the unknown, but what form it would take
required further reflection.
61
3.3.2 Limitations of sonographic analysis
As discussed in Chapter 2, sonograms can be adjusted to reveal what the researcher
is seeking. We can find ourselves interpreting images and not sounds. These
sonogram limitations and biases (and those of recording equipment) could differ
from the limitations and biases of the bird’s or the analyst’s ear. Krause cautions
about the piecemeal use of spectrograms by tuning out the elaborate acoustic fabric
to focus merely on one part (2002: 21-36). Shafer suggests the flipping of the
soundmark with the ambient sounds around it, in a reversal of figure and ground
(1977: 152). Tuning in to other species and other environmental sounds that pied
butcherbirds might be responding to provided thought-provoking results, as
detailed in later chapters.
3.3 Notation and data analysis
3.3.1 A brief history of music notation
Gardner Read is not the first to challenge the tired axiom, “Music is the
international language”—he dismisses it as “myth perpetuated” (1979: 3). However,
in his manual on modern notation practice, Read does not forego the concept of
“universality.” He argues that “the written symbols of western musical notation are
universally understood wherever western culture has developed”(ibid.). Despite his
Eurocentric view of music and culture, his point has some validity. Western music
notation does cross borders and languages with ease, and, although many tablatures
only work for one instrument, standard Western music notation is a lingua franca
for many musicians who choose to read music. Since the system adopted in this
study is the conventional one of Western culture, no history of other systems, even
those that predate this one (China’s would be an obvious case in point), is
summarised. I conducted a brief look into the origins of Western musical notation
as part of imagining possible notation strategies for this research, and, as such, this
is a compressed and admittedly incomplete chronicle.
Read’s genealogy begins with the pre-Christian Greeks, who worked with four or
more different notation systems based on alphabet letters. By the middle of the
fourth century CE, these had expanded to over 1600 various signs, symbols, and
letters (ibid.: 5). Signs called neumes “gradually replaced alphabet letters in the
62
plainchants of the Christian church” (ibid.: 5). From there a number of other
systems of letters, heavy dots, small curved lines, diamond shapes, and squared-note
forms gradually found their way onto staff lines. Lines were added and taken away;
some lines were coloured. Read describes the movement toward a systemized
method of notation as “leisurely—even erratic” (ibid.: 12).
I imagine that the process moved at the speed the music required of it; the flexible
melody of a plainchant, for example, typically spanned no more than an octave. It is
possible the reverse was true—that composers could not pen complex instrumental
music until a system of notation could realise it, though this would seem to discount
the abilities of human memory. Or perhaps the answer lies somewhere in the
middle, where, as the distance between composer and performer grew, the need for
a more codified notation increased, to the point where composer and performer
were strangers, connected via notation (Sachs, 1948: 365). Interconnectivity is a
recurring theme in this thesis, so my predisposition is to hold with the latter. As
Karkoschka notes,
The technical possibilities of a notation system also influence the act
of composing—the entire musical way of thinking of all musicians—
so that the aural image of a musical work in every epoch is
characteristically related to its visual configuration (1966/1972: 1).
The flow should be multi-directional, so the authority of the notation takes on a
collaborative aspect.
Two significant developments shifted notation towards a codification of practice.
First, the scholar-monk Guido d’Arezzo systematized staff lines and clef signs in
the eleventh century. Next, musical works began to be printed c. 1480, shortly after
the Gutenberg Bible in 1455; Read points out that the invention of the printing
press both expedited the printing of music and slowed to a near halt the evolution
of orthochronic notation, which might have continued to change or improve if not
standardized by the printing press (ibid.: 23). Changes did not completely stop from
that time forward, but that is not in the province of this thesis.
“Notation conserves music… but it conceals as much as it reveals,” observed Cook
(1998: 56). Just as in previous centuries, notation also maintains music, placing
63
subtle and sometimes not-so-subtle limits on what can be written, and thus heard.
It acts as a filter, a bouncer at the door deciding who—or in this case what—gets in
and what stays out. The twentieth century saw new notations come and go in fits
and starts, most of them reflecting the priorities and interests of individual
composers rather than proposals for new universal systems. Karkoschka’s survey of
twentieth-century developments traces the movement away from exact pitch and
rhythm structures towards the independence of material structures best suited to
graphics. Meant to inspire the “aesthetic imagination” (1966/1972: 2), graphic
scores represented a return to the flexible.
Most of what is written about notation comes from specialists, including from the
avant-garde who look upon the subject from a “reforming viewpoint” and
ethnomusicologists (Cole, 1974: 1), but also from birdsong experts.
Ethnomusicologists have struggled with the issue of whether to force the music of
their study areas into this “universal” notation system. I consulted a number of key
articles, including Roberts, 1932; Lomax, 1956; Seeger, 1958; McCollester, 1960;
McLean, 1964. Garfias, 1964; Kolinski, 1964; List, 1964, 1974; Rhoades, 1964;
Jairazbhoy, 1977; Beaudry, 1978; Charron, 1978; Brandily, 1982; Abraham and von
Hornbostel, 1994; Woodfield, 1994; and Lee, 2006. After decades of debate,
consensus is notably lacking. Many researchers split the difference with
modifications to conventional notation or supplements such as text, graphics, and
annotations. Roberts uses standard notation, modifying it where necessary, and
cautions against new inventions that could only appeal to a handful of specialists
(1932). Likewise, McLean employs conventional notation with added symbols for
his analysis of Maori chants (1964). Brandily does not notate small inaccuracies of
intonation, “as they would have rendered the notation unnecessarily dense and are
superfluous for the purpose of this analysis” (1982: 381).
Ethnomusicologist John Blacking chose conventional notational for his analysis of
the musical life of the Venda people and contented himself with pitch values that
were near enough for practical purposes (1970: 4). However, it is his theory rather
than his notation that made a particular impression on me. I can imagine replacing
“Venda music” with “pied butcherbird song” in Blacking’s hypothesis that Venda
music is “systematic and logically organized, but not necessarily like any other
musical system” (ibid.: 1). And again, when he discusses how musical capacities
64
reside in deep structures in the mind and body waiting to be brought out (ibid: 2),
one is reminded of the bird’s “instinct to learn” or “song template” discussed in
Chapter 2.
Charles Seeger, the American pioneer in ethnomusicology, turned his attention
away from manual transcription. He invented the melograph, an instrument capable
of indicating the minutiae of individual performance such as pitch, timing, and
dynamics. His suggestion was “to employ the notation and the graph concurrently”
(1958: 188). However, as Cook points out, “the resulting graphs are so complex that
nobody has ever really figured out what to do with them” (1998: 62). Notation must
omit some things.
Seeger was moderator of the 1964 symposium where four eminent
ethnomusicologists (Garfias, Kolinski, List, and Rhoades) were asked to notate a
Hukwe song with bowed accompaniment. Garfias employs standard notation for the
bowed part but a graphic treatment of the voice. List chooses standard notation for
both parts. Kolinski works in standard notation, although he adds a stave for the
overtones of the bowed part and supplies a number of annotations. Rhoades’ work is
straightforward notation. A cursory glance at the four transcriptions reveals four
separate pieces. While List makes the point that this in no way invalidates any one
or all of the transcriptions, something is missing in the concept of the event. First,
the search for an exact, or at least accurate, notation for an inexact performance is
doomed to failure. “The more refined the scores, the more certainly the essence of
the exotic music escapes through the lines and spaces,” warns Lomax (1956: 48).
Moreover, knowing that transcription must omit some details, but without a keen
familiarity with a style of music, a transcription will always be a hit-and-miss affair.
Prolonged and intimate contact is not interchangeable with copious deskwork. “It
would not be that much of an exaggeration to say that the whole art of performance
lies in the interstices of notation, in those parts of the music that the score cannot
reach” (Cook, 1998: 63). In those interstices lies the nuanced knowledge that is
learned by working with a sizeable corpus of the material, and the more a style is
based on “continuous variability” (Bartók and Lord, 1951: xii), the more familiarity
is required in order to evaluate and notate the music.
65
Ethnomusicological grappling with the notational map pre-dates this 1964
symposium and continues to this day. In addition to the issues of “universality,”
“adaptability,” and “accuracy” summarized by Reid (1977: 416), the cultural baggage
inherent in the choice of notation method enters the literature. Agawu turns the
table on Read, arguing, “The problem of notation is a universal one” (1995: 390) (my
italics). He makes the case that our current system of notation suffers inadequacies
for even Western art music.
Notation has always been prescriptive, and it will continue to be
prescriptive because it involves the translation of actions, the reading
of codes, the deciphering of signs, and ultimately, the subjectivizing
of meaning. Notation therefore relies importantly on the role of a
supplement (ibid.).
Does it show more respect for African music (or pied butcherbird song) to drop it
into standard music notation or to create a wholly new template for it? Agawu
holds with the former, and his supplement to standard Western notation echoes my
inclination.
This argument on essence versus detail could not take place without recordings.
Kunst puts the stakes higher, with the entire field of ethnomusicology in debt:
“Ethnomusicology could never have grown into an independent science if the
gramophone had not been invented” (1974: 12). Recordings provide more than just
a second check on the ear; they provide an opportunity for the collection of a vast
amount of data and potentially for great familiarity with the subject. They also
allow the researcher to content themselves with “homework” rather than
“fieldwork.”
As for the artefact itself, whether in the form of cylinder, disc, or file, the recording
is now perceived from many, some hostile, viewpoints. For those in electronic, pop,
and DJ cultures, the recording tends to be accepted as the music, score,
performance, and representation, arriving in a complete bundle, whereas many
performers of improvised music maintain scepticism about recordings not being
“the real thing”—they are merely a frozen snapshot in time (and thus in terms of a
transitory medium like music, a false representation). For a history such as jazz, the
contradiction is palpable; the record has documented its aural transformations from
its beginnings in a way not possible by the written page.
66
3.4.2 A history of birdsong notation
In Chapter 2, it was noted that musicians have often appropriated birdsong. This
survey examines specialists who primarily devoted themselves to notating birds’
vocalisations and whose purpose was the elevation of birdsong to the status of
music or proto-music and/or the identification of birds by their song. We encounter
a large body of those who invent onomatopoetic mnemonics, many of which were
adopted as the popular names for birds, followed by a roll call of birdsong notaters.
Although he fits none of these categories, we cannot omit the contribution of Jesuit
polymath Athanasius Kircher. He was the first to present complex transcriptions of
birdsongs, c. 1650 (Rothenberg, 2005: 19).
William Gardiner’s monograph The music of nature (1840) is armed with a
substantial subtitle: An attempt to prove that what is passionate and pleasing in the art of
singing, speaking, and performing upon musical instruments, is derived from the sounds of
the animated world. He claims to make a faithful transcription of nature’s voice in the
various birdsong and other animal notations (such as the canter of a horse). The
sounds of cackling hens are traced to compositions by Rossini and Beethoven, while
the nightingale is spotted in a few bars of Handel, all in a convoluted volume that
also surveys leading singers of the time, orchestral instruments, and linguistics. His
short, rudimentary transcriptions of animals seem insignificant when placed beside
the numerous musical examples of the human animal, mostly piano scores. One
comes away, if converted at all, believing that whereas sound derives from the
natural world, it is left to the human animal to make something of it.
Although James Edmund Harting’s The birds of Middlesex (1866) is more a
contribution to natural history than a study focussed on a bird’s song, some of his
field descriptions are accompanied by notation. A whistle facilitates this:
It frequently happens that we become aware of the presence of a bird
long before it is seen, merely by its note. This is more especially the
case with the waders. In order to distinguish birds when at a
distance, we should be well acquainted not only with their flight but
also with their note; and on this account, wherever it has been
practicable, I have reduced the notes to a key by means of a small
whistle.* The musical expression thus obtained I have introduced
into the text, but the reader must not attempt to interpret these
notes by the piano; for by this means he will not obtain the faintest
notion of the sounds which they are intended to convey. The reason
67
of this will be obvious; the pipe of a bird is a wind instrument, the
piano is a stringed one. A flute or flageolet will give the proper sound,
but the most perfect expression will be obtained with a small whistle,
two and a half inches long, and having three perforations, similar to
the whistle used by the Sardinian Picco who performed so
wonderfully in London some years since. By reducing the length of
the tube by a stop or plug, the whistle may, by experiment with the
bird, be adjusted to the exact pitch, and the stop be then fixed. *The
high notes of the smaller birds are so much above the reach of the ear
that it is scarcely possible to take them down (ibid.: viii-ix.)
Most of Harting’s notation is basic, but articulations, metronomic markings, and
portamentos are occasionally included.
Birdsong boosterism motivated a number of bird enthusiasts to write books with
suggestions for new notational systems. Many writers believed birdsong was the
best way to identify birds or interest the public in birds, and so these volumes take
the form of field guides (although the voice and notation remain the primary focus).
In Cheney’s Wood notes wild: Notations of bird music (1892), 42 New England
birdsongs are placed in conventional notation. Some stanzas seem to be field
transcriptions with a number of nuanced variants, while others are monodic
arrangements of the bird’s song (some with lyrics, some with phonetics). Information
accompanying each bird is drawn from popular and scientific sources, and the tone
fluctuates between personal reflections and technical literature, making for a
confusing mix. Cheney considers music to be well within the sphere of animals,
from the least ant to the largest behemoth. However, as with Gardiner, Cheney
privileges the human animal, observing that the bird “found his song just in time to
gladden the ears of God’s last and greatest creation” (1892: 134).
Charles A. Witchell’s The evolution of bird-song with observations on the influence of
heredity and imitation (1896) places him far ahead of his contemporaries in a serious
inquiry into song learning, heredity, variation, mimicry, musicality, and the
evolution of birdcalls and songs, all the while acknowledging that much remains
unknown:
We should not allow our regrettable ignorance of bird-song to lead
us to conclude that because we understand hardly anything about it,
the birds themselves can perceive no more meaning in it (ibid.: 178).
68
The naturalist employs phonetics and simple conventional notation paired with text
detailing nine years’ surveillance of Britain’s wild birds (as well as occasional field
notes from Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada):
My method of noting the music of birds was as follows :--I did not
attempt to write all the music of a rapid singer, but listened for some
phrase sufficiently simple for my purpose, and then carefully wrote it
down. By this method, slow thought it was, I was enabled to obtain
records which, although not perhaps scientifically accurate, were as
true as musical notation would allow (ibid.: 231).
Frequency does not figure in except in a relative manner:
In making my records I have paid no attention to actual pitch—I
believe that this has no scientific value—but all the purpose of my
records is to suggest intervals between notes sung by birds (ibid.:
233).
At one point, he notates “the robin’s lit it it alarm” with a series of variable dots:
There is often an extraordinary extent of diversity in the utterance
of this alarm, and of the accent accorded to the notes. I once
attempted to record this exclamation, as sung by a robin, and wrote
large dots for loud notes, and small dots for soft ones, and left spaces
to indicate the amount of time elapsed between them. Each line
represents one utterance of the alarm and should be read from left to
right (ibid.: 157).
The work is noteworthy for the extensive records kept by the author. Mimicry, an
area he notes that earlier authors neglected, is of particular interest to Witchell. He
itemises resemblances to sounds produced by the elements, insects, quadrupeds, and
other birds, perhaps finding more instances of mimicry in birdsong than actually
exist.
He distances himself from:
... poetical writers who describe such incidents as the lark soaring in
the sky, pouring out his soul in music for the little brown mate
trustfully listening in her nest; but they never remark that the lark
utters a chattered song when he fights (ibid.: 9)
Nonetheless, Witchell occasionally gives himself over to lyricism:
69
The fullness of tone which the nightingale displays interferes with
accuracy of imitation in many instances; and indeed, so wonderful is
the song, that a listener is apt to forget all else than the supreme
impulse and passion of the singer. Perhaps the surroundings of the
bird increase this effect. The murmur of a stream; the soft moonlight
which sometimes bathes the dewy meadows, and sheds white waves
across the road or the woodland track, chequered with shadows of
clustering fresh May leaves—these are suitable features in the realm
of this monarch of song, and increase his effects. Now he prolongs
his repetitions till the wood rings. Now his note seems as soft as a
kiss; now it is a loud shout, perchance a threat (rrrrrr); now a soft
peeuu, peeuu, swelled in an amazing crescendo. Now he imitates the sip
sip sip sisisisisi of the woodwarbler, now the bubbling notes of the
nuthatch. The scientific investigator is abashed by this tempestuous
song, this wild melody, the triumph-song of Nature herself, piercing
beyond the ear, right to the heart of the listener. He is pleading now!
But no, he is declamatory; now weird, now fierce; triumphant; halfmerry: one seems to hear him chuckle, mock, and defy in almost the
same breath (ibid.: 219-220).
Canadian naturalist Ernest Thompson Seton’s Wild animals I have known (1898) was
an immediate success upon publication. He tempers romanticism and sentimentality
common for the day with observation and dispassion; the result is an unpredictable
mix. This collection of short stories makes no pretence as a field guide. However, in
one chapter examples of crow vocalisations in simple notation (each note paired
with “caw” or “ca”) are called upon to illuminate Seton’s belief that:
... the crows, though a little people, are of great wit, a race of birds
with a language and a social system that is wonderfully human in
may of its chief points, and in some is better carried out than our
own (ibid: 50).
Presumed semantic content and behavioural observations accompany each of ten
notations.
F. Schulyer Mathews believes birdsongs can be notated despite their complexities.
In his Field book of wild birds & their music (1921), he employs conventional notation
and adds phonetics when appropriate. The book is presented as a field guide with an
emphasis on skilfully nuanced text describing each bird’s song, but in the end
proves itself to be yet another lacking consistency of tone. Elementary but
respectable analysis of birdsong motives elevate the status of birdsong on the one
hand, while accompaniment is added to some of the more basic songs on the other,
70
in an apparent apologia for their simplicity. Hold finds this accompaniment to be
“engaging … in the style of Edward Macdowell” (1970: 158).
Walter Garstang, Professor of Zoölogy at the University of Leeds, was an avid
listener to birdsong. His volume, Songs of the birds, like Cheney’s, reads as part
personal crusade/part field guide. For his notational system, Garstang describes
how he begins with the timbre of each bird’s voice and assigns human consonants to
the sounds as appropriate; he then casts the syllables into a rhythm in order “to
capture something, if possible, of the joy or of the attendant circumstances which
form the natural setting of his song” (1923: 27). He serves up stanzas of rhyme on
his bird subjects, incorporating his abstract phonetic syllables; both poetry and
phonetics are set to simplified music, giving the endeavor the feel of a children’s
book.
Stanley Morris was another English ornithologist who proposed phonetics in his
Bird song: A manual for field naturalists (1925). Hold criticizes both Garstang and
Morris for failing to indicate rhythms or tempos, which he considers potentially an
essential feature (1970: 155). Hold’s survey looks at the unpublished manuscript
(written between c. 1927-1932) of Gladys Page-Wood, a radical whose “work
represents the last serious attempt to represent timbre in staff notation” before the
advent of sonographic analysis (ibid.: 160). Page-Wood used different colours to
express timbre, such as differing shades of blue for whistled notes; she also
presented the nuances of micro-intervals (ibid.).
Johannes C. Andersen’s Bird-song and New Zealand Song Birds (1926) surveys the
literature to date while adding his own notes gleaned from years of painstaking
observation. He makes regular reference to the music, bird names, and myths of
New Zealand’s Maori people. This exhaustive field guide only lacks drawings of the
birds in question (the 21 black-and-white photographs feature nests and scenic
views; birds are the subject of only two). Andersen’s music notation embraces
articulations, dynamic expressions, slurs, grace notes, portamentos, time signatures,
tempo indications (such as allegro, the number of seconds for a phrase duration, or
the number of quavers per second), expression markings (such as rallentando,
ritardando, and accelerando), and quarter tones, while vocal range, timbre,
syncopation, vibrato, trills, warbles, whistles, intervals, intonation, singing rate, and
71
mnemonics are addressed in the text. His survey includes duets, whisper-song,
mimicry, and calls as well as songs. He itemises variants, methods of variation, and
interchangeable components, and conducts distributional analysis of song parts. He
records clicks from the snapping of wings, body comportment while singing,
whether the vocalisation is issued in flight, and possible motivation for the song.
The relative merits of various species and individuals are contemplated.
While his detailed textual descriptions illuminate and amplify the specific notations,
Andersen occasionally transforms an analysis into a more far-reaching treatise,
such as this interrogation into the song of the bell-bird that develops into a
reflection on aesthetics:
It may be that to the various songs and notes heard is imparted to
the hearer some of the characteristics of the surroundings where they
are heard, whence the strangeness with which the regular beating,
the unusual tempo, the peculiar sound, of the notes in (14) affected
me. On the other hand, it may be that the surroundings affect the
character of the song. This is possibly imputing to the bird an
aesthetic sense of a similar nature to the one experienced by man
himself: nor does there seem to be much unnaturalness in such an
imputation. The bower-building bird of Australia, the dancing birds
of La Plata, display a human love of decoration and rhythmical
motion. The bird of paradise, the Argus pheasant, the peacock,
betray as human a love for the beauty and disposition of colour. The
aesthetic sense, indeed, appears to be wider in range than is usually
allowed; it is natural, and its end in birds and men, be it for use or
gratification, is largely the same.
Phonetics are often presented below the standard notation, with a keen ear towards
pronunciation, as in this elucidation of the song of a hedge sparrow:
The vowel sound of i is short, as in hit, and the e is short as in net; the
u is the sound of oo in poor, the o short as in not; the ee indicates the
long sounds as in sweet. Phrase (2) took a little over a second, as did
its variant, phrase (3); these were continued with other variations, for
minutes at a time, the repetitions being separated by intervals of
from one to four seconds. These notes are very high in pitch, and are
all warbled moderately loud, in a bright vivacious manner. There is a
little more variation of pitch, and more light and shade in (4); and
whilst there was little variation in the outline of (5), the strain
contains a definite theme, and it is in perfect common time, warbled
allegro, the octave slur and the vibrato note ending the alternate
bars. There were unusually wide intervals in (6), and a curious
elusiveness in the tempo, caused by a slight pause on the second note
72
of the triplets. The tempo again becomes definite in (7), a phrase
which displays considerable art (ibid.: 46-47).
Aretas Saunders proposes a diagrammatic system of birdsong identification “which
anyone can learn”(1935/1951: front cover). He justifies his system because
fluctuations in matters of pitch and time in birds’ songs make them unsuitable
candidates for conventional music notation (ibid.: 3). His system of lines, dashes,
and squiggles, musical shorthand of sorts, is paired with onomatopoetic phonetics.
His complicated mnemonic devices involve up to four sounds, with accompanying
symbols, for each vowel. It seems to this writer as difficult to learn as music
notation and less precise. The book is presented as a field guide, complete with
requisite notes on all aspects of the birds. One paper (Axtell, 1938) employs
Saunders shorthand to good effect, but it never took hold in a substantive way.
Ornithological journals from the period depict a similar history of struggle with
pitch notation. Stadler and Schmitt (1914) suggest carrying a set of pitch-pipes into
the field in order to fix pitch. Their transcriptions look like standard musical
notation minus the staff. Notes, replete with expression marks and articulations, are
set into a rectangular box. Falconer (1941) notates in the field with Rowan’s system
(see below), while North (1950) dismisses Rowan’s system as imprecise and instead
builds on Saunders’ method. North also advocates carrying a chromatic pitch-pipe
into the field.
By the time we reach Bondeson’s North American bird songs—A world of music, 1977,
sonograms are in regular use by biologists, although not so for the average reader
or musician. This field guide is noteworthy because it describes 290 birds by voice
only, complete with sonograms for each. One sonogram is placed into standard
music notation, the “surprisingly folksong-like micro-melody of the Hermit
Thrush” (ibid. 229) prepared and analysed by Peter Szöke of Hungary, who we will
survey shortly. Bondeson’s terminology is drawn from music (such as accelerando,
phrase, diatonic, interval, glissando, diminuendo, staccato, and vibrato) and applied
to sonograms. This volume is a rare interdisciplinary assemblage of science and
music. However, had all the sonograms been notated, or had an audio CD of the
birdsong accompanied the graphics, the book would have been more serviceable.
73
These early books have counterparts in a number of articles for music journals in
the first half of the twentieth century. Similar-looking transcriptions find their way
onto the page; they are short, normally a measure or two, accompanied by a brief
analysis and anecdotal comments (Andrews, 1930; Smith, 1922; Olds, 1922). Rowan
(1924) suggests a system akin to Saunders’ method, although both his musical
shorthand and phonetics are simplified.
By the mid-twentieth century, efforts to elevate birdsong to the status of music
begin to read less like a crusade and more like a scholarly discourse. In his quest to
promote “the aesthetic excellence of some birds,” Hartshorne calls for “conventional
musical (or similarly precise) notation” (1953: 109). Saunders’ method receives his
approval, but not phonetics alone (such as in Garstang’s system): “Imitative words
or syllables are sometimes helpful, but are always crude, and are most crude when
used for the more musical species” (1953: 110). Hartshorne considers birds
sufficiently musical to be set in musical notation and points the finger at
ornithologists who are insufficiently musical to make the notation. Despite his
enthusiastic praise for the voice of the pied butcherbird, his Saunders-inspired
notation of pied butcherbird song looks flat and uninspired on the page. His later
monograph features staff notation by Frances Edwards (1973: 240-246).
Finnish zoölogist Olavi Sotavalta undertook the analysis of song patterns of two
nightingales in what is a leap forward in the scholarly approach to birdsong
notation. Guided by his perfect pitch, but also systematic habits, he began with
conventional notation but soon moved on to a shorthand “developed by numbering
the different motives” in order to keep up with the birds (1956: 2). His various
notations, graphs, charts, tables, and descriptions are peerless, yet none require the
insider knowledge of a specialized notation system.
Halafoff’s analysis of a lyrebird’s song divides bird sounds into three categories:
tonality items (those of definitive pitch); percussion items (without a definite pitch);
and indefinite sounds (1959: 169). The lyrebird’s song qualifies as essentially tonal
in his analysis and thus is a suitable candidate for the conventional notation system.
His analysis takes in both notation and a supplementary verbal analysis. Of
particular note is his side-by-side comparison of Stravinsky’s Symphonies for wind
instruments (1947) and a portion of lyrebird song, accomplished using analytical
74
terms such as introduction, main theme, exposition, recapitulation, bridge, and
coda. The close resemblance of the two in terms of structure is thought provoking.
Joan Hall-Craggs undertook a classic study of the development of song in the
blackbird, which features conventional transcriptions and sonograms, sometimes
together and other times placed alone (1962). The direct pairing of staff and
sonogram made an impression on this researcher, although Hall-Craggs makes no
attempt to line up the timing of the two.
Hold worked out “a compromise between stave and graph,” working first from
graph to staff, then from the opposite direction, which proved more effective for
timbral elements (1970: 166). He developed three variations of the “Compromise
Notation,” all of which seem highly satisfactory, except that only those trained in it
can use it.
Peter Szőke’s study of the intonation structure of bird vocalisations concluded that
sound spectrography was inadequate for matters of pitch (Szőke and Filip, 1977:
127). He pairs his detailed conventional notations with frequency graphs produced
by a machine designed by his co-author, Filip (ibid.: 129); this process of “sound
microscopy” slows down birdsongs by up to x32. Szőke relies substantially on his
trained ear, as well, which produces “professionally made subjective transcriptions”
(ibid.: 132). Timbre is not addressed.
By the time James (1990) and Hindley (1990) penned their articles, sonograms were
in regular use. Like Hall-Craggs, James pairs sonograms with conventional
notation as he follows a single blackbird phrase. Hindley, however, does not make
use of a sonogram for his lengthy transcription of a nightingale; instead, he relies
on his tape recorder slowed down to x4 (ibid.: 26). He admits to slowing the
woodlark to x8, all in order “to gain a close-up view of the aesthetic nature of bird
song and to make an aural assessment of it by applying the same kind of criteria as
we do to our so-called art-music” (ibid.: 25). Hindley sees himself as a sort of aural
detective, but his transcriptions may not be as accurate as he hopes. Material
slowed down to this extreme could contain sound artefacts not in the original, so
Hindley could be making accurate transcriptions from inaccurate sources. No
matter—Hindley’s supplemental text is written by someone with a connectivity to
75
the fine nuances of the material. Consider this observation: “The timbre of the bird’s
normal ‘voice’ is changed using a technique very similar to the way an organist adds
a mixture [often a fourth], or nazard (a special organ stop) to a diapason, to provide
an ‘edge’, a nasal quality” (ibid.: 30). Reading the words of a musician/composer
with a musicologically trained ear unpack a bird’s song offers essential insights of a
type not to be gleaned from a biologist’s report.
Hindley also participated in a case of “salvage musicology” (Qureshi, 1999: 317).
The New Zealand huia (Heteralocha acutirostris) became extinct c. 1907. With only a
few references—written descriptions and a few whistled imitations, Hindley
reconstructed the call and placed it into a synthesized composition that includes the
actual sonic background of the huia’s territory on New Zealand’s North Island
(1992, liner notes).
While our survey has looked at unknown specialists, French composer Olivier
Messiaen brought birdsong notation into the mainstream, making extensive use of
these transcriptions in his compositions. No musician has notated more birdsong in
more countries over a longer period of time than Messiaen. Begun about 1923 while
on holiday in France, Messiaen’s transcriptions betray the importance of the
immediacy of the act when done in the field, although he also notated from
recordings in subsequent years (Johnson, 1994: 249). His fieldwork and
transcriptions continued into his last years, and “excerpts” were published
posthumously in two immense volumes: Traité de rythme, de couleur, et d'ornithologie
(1949-1992) (Vol. Tome V, 1er Volume - Chants d'Oiseaux d'Europe) and Traité de
rythme, de couleur, et d'ornithologie (1949-1992) (Vol. Tome V, 2e Volume - Chants
d'Oiseaux Extra-Européens) (Messiaen, 1994-2002). Each extends to over 600 pages.
What had begun as a brief mention of bird style, or style-oiseau, in Messiaen’s
monograph The technique of my musical language, where he describes his process as
“transcription, transformation, and interpretation” of birdsong (1944: 34), becomes
in these later volumes a full-blown explication. The treatises are filled with his
birdsong transcriptions, musical examples drawn from his compositions, and
analyses of both. Some birdsongs include mnemonic phonetics.
Whether Messiaen was slavishly meticulous in his birdsong notations has been the
subject of discussion (such as Demuth, 1960: 627-629; Hold, 1971: 113-122; and
76
Nichols, 1972: 233-234). Music notation is by its nature both subjective and
reductive. Messiaen grasped the subjectivity of the microphone as well as the
variability of birdsong within members of the same species. As he explained to
Claude Samuel:
To know the song of the meadowlark, one has to have heard
thousands of meadowlarks for hours, days, months, and years; so,
you see, a phonograph record is an incomplete tool inasmuch as it
only gives us a portion of a song, just as a photograph conveys the
snapshot of a single individual. … Only a composer could manage to
understand it and capture it on paper; in fact, most ornithologists
refrain from describing it and merely say, “Extraordinary song,
impossible to describe” (Samuel, 1994: 89).
He characterised how he dealt with birdsong as “either by trying to outline the
most exact musical portrait possible, or by treating the bird song as malleable
material” (Samuel, ibid.: 94). And later, he added, “Personally, I’m very proud of the
exactitude of my work” (ibid.). At every point that Messiaen attempted to clarify his
authenticity, he seemed to dig a deeper hole for himself, such as in this 1962 preconcert lecture: “My permutations of durations are rigorous, my birdsongs are
entirely free. Rigour is implacable, but so too is freedom” (Hill and Simeone, 2005:
244). Elsewhere, he described his method as follows:
I make one notation on the spot with all the variations, and my wife
makes a tape recording which is less varied than mine, but which
captures everything exactly. Then I make a second notation from the
tape recorder which is more exact but less artistic. … So I always
have my two notations, one exact and one more artistic, and I mix
the two (Hill and Simeone, 2005: 208).
Ping-ponging from words like “outline” to “exact” and back to “portrait,” from
“rigour” to “freedom,” might appear contradictory to some. To me, the concept of a
composite bird is methodologically sound, illogical as it might initially seem. These
days, sonograms provide another method of analysis. While they are useful tools,
they do not replace a trained ear; I imagine that Messiaen would have eschewed
sonograms. In the Western music tradition, unlike the majority of music practices
throughout history, there is an assumption that the score can attain a degree of
perfection not possible in the resulting sonic experience stemming from it.
Messiaen did not worship the score, whether prescriptive or descriptive. He realised
that the musical experience was not wholly notatable. This is not to imply that he
77
haphazardly produced a mere shorthand aide-memoire for compositional material.
His perseverance and dedication are well documented. Hill describes the motivation
for Messiaen’s care as the result of “not science but love” (1994: 9). How did
Messiaen navigate the opposition between rigour and freedom, between exactitude
and portraiture?
I was able to examine ten pages of Messiaen’s Australian birdsong notation, which
arose from his correspondence and eventual ornithological fieldtrip with Curtis
(Curtis and Taylor, 2008: publication in process). Five pages were transcriptions
from a cassette that Curtis sent to Messiaen in 1988, with a working title Pour
Messiaen.31 Space does not permit a thorough presentation of these transcriptions
and our findings, nor is it within the scope of this inquiry to make a definitive
argument for our conclusions herein. What I found made an impression, much as
did the Hindley transcription, and that impression filtered into my methods as I
followed the Messiaen thread. In a conundrum that surely musicians and artists
understand, although Messiaen did not always “get it right,” somehow he always
“got it.”32
Just as his teacher Paul Dukas advised his students “to admire, analyze and notate”
birdsong (Messiaen, 1944: 34), Messiaen passed this example on to his students,
including composer François-Bernard Mâche. Mâche’s distributional graph
notation for the analysis of birdsong is inspired by structural linguistics. He counts
two provisions: 1) to work with a recording featuring a single singer that is made
without interruption and 2) to designate a consistent abbreviation to every sound or
sound-group that appears at least twice (1983/1992: 99). Using this as his starting
point, Mâche makes use of every tool at his disposal; in addition to distributional
analysis, we see sonograms, conventional music notation, and structural analysis
from the smallest sound objects to the largest forms. His notations are not intended
to highlight individual birdsong as much as to be in service to his explication of
zoömusicology.
31
Messiaen biographer Peter Hill directed us to Messiaen’s birdsong notebooks, which are deposited
at the Fonds Messiaen in the Bibliothèque nationale de France. Pages 25-29 of notebook 23159 from
the Messiaen Archives, marked "Australie (Sydney Curtis)," feature notations that Messiaen made
from the cassette Pour Messiaen that Curtis sent him.
32 My analysis is consistent with Fallon’s conclusion that “his music conforms to his models about
two-thirds of the time” (2007: 116).
78
Several of my informants/recordists have developed their own notation methods.
Glass developed personal shorthand for the pied butcherbird songs she records.
Rising and falling dots betray that contour is key to her grasp of their phrases.
These dots are separated by “barlines” to mark the end of phrases and punctuated
by the cassette recorder’s scrolling numbers. She notes the presence of other birds
(“2 birds” to indicate a pied butcherbird duo), other species’ names as they appear
and begin singing (such as “currawong”), the human animal’s interference (such as
“car” or “plane”), and descriptions of pied butcherbird song events (such as
“chuckle,” “squeak,” and “doesn’t finish phrase”). Figure 3.4 details an excerpt where
magpies, another pied butcherbird, a willie wagtail, and a car enter the
counterpoint.
Figure 3.4. A shorthand system for notating pied butcherbird phrases developed by Glass. Circles
(not hers) highlight entrances into the ambient counterpoint.
Skeoch pairs his stereo soundscape notation with a prosaic description.
I draw what I hear on the tape, according to the timing. Each A4
page is ruled into 4 columns, each representing 15mins (there are
small marks indicating minutes) - thus each page documents an hour
of recordings, and two pages documents an entire 120 min DAT
tape. As I listen to the tape playback, I draw the sounds I'm hearing
vertically down the column (as time progresses) and horizontally
(stereo field left to right), with each species drawn in a different
colour (pencil, with colour usually related in some way to the
plumage of the bird) and with heaviness/boldness indicating the
volume or closeness of the call. I have some very subjective ways of
drawing the sound of each birdcall, for instance those with short
79
song phrases such as the Butcherbird I may generally draw as
horizontal marks, whereas other species that may chatter on
continually may end up as more sketchy vertical scribbles. I use
abbreviations as well, such as PBu for Pied Butcherbird.
Every new 'take' is marked by a solid line across the column, and the
time the tape was turned off and then on again (although on my early
recordings I just noted the total time of that take). So what you
should be able to read off the page is a snapshot of what species are
calling at any point on the tape, where they are most prominent, how
they move around the stereo soundscape, plus extraneous noises
such as wind, or me cluttering and bumping around (or even my
tummy rumbling! - sorry about this, its one of the perils of handholding mics early in the morning when one has yet to have
breakfast! - I notate them so I can be warned to remove them later
(A. Skeoch, personal communication, 30 June 2006).
A sample page of Skeoch’s soundscape notation is presented in Appendix J.
3.4.3 Notation and data analysis of pied butcherbird song
Recordings eliminate the need to “preserve for posterity” as a reason to notate
birdsong. Rather, it is for the possibility of a deep musical engagement that I notate
their vocalisations. I employ conventional notation partially because highly
specialised notation discourages all except a mere handful of specialists. In
considering how to extend the graphic potential of notation for this study without
making it overly complicated, and understanding that all descriptions are partial, I
avoid hybrid notations as well. (The notation is called upon to be both descriptive
and prescriptive, with the emphasis on the former; birdsong can be simplified when
employed in composition.) The music staff is paired with a sonogram. “The only
really true notations are the sound-tracks on the record itself,” Bartók suggested
(Bartók and Lord, 1951: 3). However, a recording is not a tangible fact (nor a
firsthand field experience), nor is a sonogram. Technology can help us with things
that we grasp intuitively, and the trained ear is a powerful partner (List, 1974: 375).
Elsewhere, Bartók observed that “having the best material equipment is not
enough: the equivalent intellectual equipment is just as important” (Suchoff, 1976:
10).
In matters of uncertainty, whether pitch or rhythm, I defer to the human ear for the
final decision. Amadeus software allows for playback at varying speeds while
80
maintaining the original pitch. Occasionally I listen at half-speed, but rarely do I
discover anything of merit not already heard at original speed. Rattles and other
quickly iterated decorations are readily heard at their original speed, but I measure
the number of iterations in the sonogram window and not by ear. Notation is
accomplished with the music notation software Finale 2006, later upgraded to 2007
and 200833; its playback feature is often drawn on to confirm the notation in matters
of pitch and rhythm, including metronomic markings. In my internal debate about
whether to attempt to capture the minutiae of the song, at times the same phrase is
notated twice, one more “bare bones” than the other. I want to leave signs of
struggle when encountering nuances that resist notation.
The most challenging notational aspect is portamento. Craig observed: “many bird
songs consist, not of sustained notes, but of slurs. Even in these cases, however, the
song is composed of individuated units. The slur itself is a unit. For it is not just
any slur; it is a perfectly definite slur which is repeated again and again” (1943:
164). Normally, either the beginning or end of the glide is heard as the resultant
pitch; a normal notehead indicates this, while a grace note serves for the other end
of the glide. I make no attempt to measure the duration of the glide, as the speed is
usually continuous, although it could be that for the bird, the steepness of the
portamentos rather than the pitch is of more importance.
Each phrase is set into one bar; thin double bar lines mark out phrases and indicate
a momentary stop in singing. Each measure begins with an approximate
metronomic marking. Time signatures allow all notes to fit without additional full
rest beats at a measure’s end, but then are normally hidden for ease of visual
inspection. A case could be made that the entire song is given in one tempo; the
notation of such a performance would then be rendered unnecessarily complex, and
so that strategy was not chosen.
Transcription is a form of analysis, as the notater employs musical understanding
to interpret birdsong. Notation impacts what is examined and what is potentially
overlooked. Some of those items most difficult or least commonly found in notation
find their way onto supplementary sheets designed especially for a measurement
and classification process (copies of an analysis sheet and a summary sheet are
33
The software Finale is available at http://www.makemusic.com/ (retrieved 1 August 2008).
81
placed in Appendix I). I measure the length, pulse rate, and number of iterations in
a rattle or trill, for example, as well as perform distributional analysis (labeling
phrases with letters for eventual analysis of the way they are delivered and
organised) that might assist in understanding some larger patterns of variability. I
record unusual sounds and timbres, such as “R” for rattle, “QR” for a poorly defined
or quasi-rattle, “CH” for chip, “W” for wow, and “H” for a hollow sound (the
complete legend features on the summary sheet). The start time and duration of
each phrase are noted, as is the inter-phrase interval (or silence). I consider silence
as part of the phrase and will discuss below the measurements for inter-phrase
interval (which I prefer to think of as part of a regular pattern of sound and silence)
that are consistently noted on my supplementary analysis sheets. Silence will be
addressed further in subsequent chapters.
The analysis sheet also contains columns marked “# of Sonic Events,” “# of
Frequencies,” and “1st Interval”—all items initially considered measurable. When
this was found not to be the case, the sheet was not redesigned, and I use those
spaces instead for additional notes tracing a wide variety items, from octave leaps to
the entrance of a new phrase type, from bird behaviour to a possible second bird
singing.
The summary sheet holds calculations such as range, lowest and highest frequency,
total phrases in the sample, phrase utterance rate, the number of different phrases,
and various rattle measurements, plus a check-off for unusual sounds. All analyses
referring to pitches with octave designations, such as D6 or F7, are based on those
used by the software Amadeus II, which conform to the Acoustical Society of
America system.
Virtually imperceptible variations among renditions of the same phrase by the same
individual are treated as repetitions. It is difficult to do otherwise, since variations
in recording technique, environmental conditions, and microphone position almost
certainly introduce more variation into the recordings than exists among the songs
as delivered. Due to the variability of field recordings (dating back as far as forty
years) from multiple recordists and a range of equipment, amplitude (volume)
cannot be reliably assessed. Nonetheless, it is usually possible to determine whether
the sound signal is strong, moderate, or weak. These are noted in the
82
transcriptions, along with accent signs if a note stands out in intensity or attack.
The transcription phase of this research was concurrent with the recording and
collecting phases, each informing the other in an ongoing process.
3.4.4 Limitations to notation and data analysis
There are certain obvious problems with notations and other analytical procedures.
One has to do with the mindset of a conscientious researcher. My analysis consists
of two parts; sometimes they appear to be consecutive steps of the same activity, but
it is clear they can work at cross-purposes. First, I measure the physical properties
of the sound (the results of which I make into a first-draft sonogram or music
notation or both), and second, I manipulate this data in the sonogram or notation or
I return to the raw sound to filter it. In the very act of getting at the truth, I am
aware that artifice and subterfuge are called upon. Increasing the intricacy of detail
does not improve accuracy—finding the balance point between the two is a
challenge for a human, not a machine. In addition, close, “pristine” recordings and
those captured by shotgun microphones capture targeted vocalisations for humans
to listen back to, but if singing functions at a distance, a singer’s conspecifics could
be listening to a different song.
3.5 Summary
The scientific attraction of birds is that they are easier to study than many other
species. Certain parameters are more straightforward to measure, and those are
often chosen for research purposes. However, my interest is not in setting up
experiments but in observing what birds spontaneously produce with a minimum of
intrusion. The notations in the coming chapters show the way one listener has
heard particular pied butcherbird vocalisations and has represented what was heard
in standard Western notation.
I selected an integrated approach: conventional notation in partnership with
sonograms and a supplement designed to accept distributional analysis,
measurements, and behavioural notes, all mediated by a trained ear, albeit an ear
trained in the human animal’s music. Nevertheless, systematic methods inform this
83
research in crucial ways. This research is not situated in the science academy, but it
is constantly leavened by it. My challenge is to strike a balance, but not to merely
pile up additional analytical tools, and to stay open to chance, connection, and
prolonged and careful observation.
84
Chapter 4
Phenomenology of Pied
Butcherbird Vocalisations
85
Chapter 4
“Why does nature extend itself for millennia with patterns of excess, beauty, ritual, game?”
(Rothenberg, 2005: 185).
4.1 Introduction
Pied butcherbirds take interest in sound patterns and display considerable skill in
their production. In this chapter, I identify and investigate the fundamentals of their
musical experience (while general principles and matters of form, structure, and
song repertoire are covered in Chapter 5).34 Cultural conventions in song that
overlap with human areas of activity are given prominence.
Every effort has been made to employ basic terms and simple definitions to
facilitate communication among readers with diverse backgrounds. The
terminology for birdsong is often arbitrary, complicated by the types and levels of
analysis possible with current and ever-changing technology, and does not account
for many borderline cases. There is a notable lack of consensus among biologists.
Shiovitz counted five terms for “phrase,” six for “note,” and in total twenty different
terms employed to describe eight “song” units, while suggesting standard terms to
remedy this Tower of Babel (1975: 133). Nearly two decades later one study
reviewed over 80 definitions of “birdsong,” finding little agreement in its definition
or how to differentiate songs from calls (Spector, 1994), while another called for
unanimity of method as it tallied up 28 song unit identifications (Thompson,
LeDoux, and Moody, 1994). One looks back to the sage advice of Craig decades
prior, that while no ornithologist had framed a satisfactory definition of birdsong,
we all know a song when we hear one (1943: 169). A biologist himself, he went on
to proclaim:
One reason why biologists have never successfully defined bird song
is that it is not a purely biological concept. In order to develop an
adequate concept of bird song, we must make progress not only in
ornithology but also in musical esthetics (ibid.: 172).
For our purposes, pitch is employed to describe what is heard; frequency expresses
what is measured. A note is defined as a discrete sound unit, whether modulated or
34
Some findings described in this chapter have also been published in July 2008 (Taylor, 2008).
86
not, and is represented by a continuous trace on the sonogram. (Harmonic overtones
appearing as stripes above the fundamental are considered as part of the
fundamental.) A phrase is a recognisable and orderly group of notes; phrases are
separated by pauses, which are generally of the order of several seconds. A motif is a
coherent subsection of a phrase. A song is a sustained singing performance. A single
bird’s entire set of phrase types is a song repertoire.
The beginning of all notations and transcriptions indicates whether the bird
delivered the vocalisation one (8va) or two (15va) octaves above the written pitches,
and this designation holds for the duration of that item (continuation lines are
omitted for ease of visual inspection). Metronomic markings are indicated when
appropriate to the subject at hand.
Birds’ production mechanics differ significantly from that of human animals.
Although birds possess a larynx at the top of their trachea, their vocal mechanism is
the syrinx (Fletcher, 1992: 317), consisting of a valve in each bronchi just below the
junction with the trachea. The singing of two unrelated notes is possible
(Greenewalt, 1968: 179; Nottebohm, 1971: 229), although most birds either double
a note with each valve, use one valve for high notes and the other for low notes, or
fail to use one of the valves (Fletcher, 2006: 35). How the syrinx functions is a
complex matter under continuous review; many issues remain unresolved (Gaunt,
1983; Nowicki and Marler, 1988; Catchpole and Slater, 1995: 22; Goller and Larsen,
1997, 2002). Here, then, are some of the sounds that pied butcherbirds can produce
and that interest them and me. Recording sources for all notated examples, whether
in sonogram or notation, are detailed in Appendix G, while complete details on
recording site, duration, date, time, equipment, and recordist, along with all field
notes and correspondence from the recordist, are on deposit in Appendix H.
4.2 Note Structure
Each species of animals has a repertory of sound-types characteristic to it (Marler
and Hamilton, 1966). Figure 4.1 illustrates basic pied butcherbird note types. This
level of analysis is facilitated by a comparison of sonograms (Thorpe and Lade,
1961: 236-244).
87
Figure 4.1. Basic note types of the pied butcherbird: 1. a very short note (less than 0.1sec) within a
narrow frequency span; 2. a very short note covering a wide, but not simultaneous, frequency span;
3. a note with an almost constant frequency; 4. a note with an upward inflection; 5. a note with a
downward inflection; 6. a warbling note; 7. two or more notes joined together by a tail; 8a/8b.
simultaneously produced notes from one bird; and 9. complex, “buzzy,” or “noisy” notes.
These basic note types include: a very short note (less than .1sec) within a narrow
frequency span—extremely short notes sound click-like, whatever their frequency;
a very short note covering a wide, but not simultaneous, frequency span; a note
with an almost constant frequency; a note with an upward inflection; a note with a
downward inflection; a warbling note; two or more notes joined together by a tail;
two simultaneously produced notes known to emit from one bird; 9. complex,
“buzzy,” or “noisy” notes (where the energy is distributed at multiple frequencies).
These basic note types are expanded in several ways. The pied butcherbird builds
signal diversity with a variety of short, repeated notes (Fig. 4.2). Several deserve
detailed description. Example one contains a trill (an alternation of two different,
though near, pitches) (Broughton, 1963: 12). A trill is rare in pied butcherbird song.
The bird was singing concurrently—and the temptation is to say “along with”—a
flute concerto played regularly on the stereo at the recordist’s home and clearly
audible outdoors. Example two is a rattle (a repetitive sequence of short pulses on
the same or similar pitch) and marked on my music notation with “R” above the
note. (When it does not deviate in pitch, it is equivalent to a tremolo.) Example three
is a quasi-rattle (the pulses fail to completely separate to the ear and on the
sonogram) and marked on my music notation with “QR” above the note. Examples
88
12 and 13 see noisy rattles with a wider than normal frequency range. Example 14
is a long rattle, in this case 25 pulses spanning 1.5sec., for a pulse rate of 17 per
second.
Figure 4.2. Pied butcherbird short repeated notes: 1. a trill; 2. a rattle; 3. a quasi-rattle; 4. a note
becoming a rattle; 5. a rattle becoming a note; 6/7. rattles ending with a flourish; 8. a descending
rattle; 9. an ascending rattle; 10. an ascending and descending rattle; 11. two rattle types from one
bird; 12/13. “noisy” rattles; 14. a long rattle.
Some notes call to mind mnemonic catchwords, such as the listing below of blip,
blop, and the like. The times for the examples detailed in Table 4.1 and pictured in
Figure 4.3 could vary while the mnemonic device might still apply. The results are
highly subjective, part acoustics and part psychoacoustics, and perhaps their key
value is to indicate a change in timbre, even if they fail to adequately convey the
sound quality.
89
Table 4.1 Mnemonic catchwords
1. Blip: a relatively short (.1sec), descending (1141 Hz – 1012 Hz) note.
2. Blop: a relatively short (.07sec), descending (1249 Hz – 732 Hz) note (Blop
sounds lower than blip.).
3. Tok: a short (.035sec), hollow sounding note (970 Hz – 710 Hz) (Tok sounds
are either relatively stable in pitch or descend slightly.).
4. Several reiterations of tok (.065sec, 861 Hz) followed by a group of hollow
sounding but higher chook (Australian onomatopoetic vernacular for
“chicken”) (.05sec, 1206 Hz).
5. Chook (.04sec, 1184 Hz).
6. A note of almost constant pitch followed by tok (.03sec, 1249 Hz).
7. Several reiterations of tok (.02 – 04sec, 1141 Hz) resolving to a note of
almost constant pitch.
8. Several reiterations of chook (.04sec, 1120 Hz) followed by a single, higher,
descending chip (.04sec, 1637 – 1314 Hz).
9. The first of four chip35 sounds (.03sec, 2110 – 1615 Hz). These descending
notes tend to be shorter and higher than the blip-blop family; they are not
hollow sounding like tok nor are they of almost constant pitch like chook.).
10. Chip (.03sec, 2239 – 1572 Hz).
11. Chip (.03sec, 2347 – 1960 Hz).
12. Chip (.03sec, 2218 – 1572 Hz).
13. A double chip (.06sec, 2638 – 1421 Hz). Although slower than the other chip
sounds, perhaps because the frequency change is steeper, this pair maintains
a chip sound rather than the slower blip-blop family.
14. The first of three wow sounds (.15sec, 1098 – 1421 – 969 Hz). These short
notes rise and then fall to a lower point than the initial pitch.
15. Wow (.13sec, 1572 – 1820 – 1087 Hz).
16. Wow (.24sec, 1044 – 1151 – 743 Hz).
17. Woop or whoop: a relatively short (.05 – .07sec), ascending note (689 – 1034
Hz) usually repeated and here delivered at eight per second.
18. By the time woop is delivered at 13 per second, it takes on the timbre of an
electronic, rather than an acoustic, signal (.03sec, 775 – 980 Hz).
19. An abrupt, downward, linear frequency sweep (marked “ES” in my notation
for the electronic signal it suggests, and known in computer jargon as
“pitch bend”). The faster the delivery or the steeper the frequency decline,
the more heightened the effect. This example is delivered at twelve per
second on the interval of a minor sixth (.03sec, 1324 – 807 Hz).
20. This example is delivered at a faster rate but covers a narrower frequency
range, a perfect fourth (.04sec, 1604 – 1141 Hz on average).
21. This example travels two octaves (.075sec, 2563 – 657 Hz).
22. This example begins with a note of almost constant frequency that is
interrupted by three descending notes (all from one bird). The second of the
three travels the interval of a major ninth (.06sec, 1905 – 851 Hz).
35
Horn discusses chip notes in tree swallows (Tachycineta bicolor), characterising them as “one or two
series of at least three abrupt, downward, linear frequency sweeps given in rapid succession” (1996:
1086).
90
Figure 4.3. Pied butcherbird notes suggesting mnemonic catchwords or electronic-sounding signals:
1. blip; 2. blop; 3. tok; 4. several reiterations of tok followed by chook; 5. chook; 6. a note of almost
constant pitch followed by a tok; 7. several reiterations of tok resolving to a note of almost constant
pitch; 8. several reiterations of chook followed by a chip; 9 – 12. four different chips; 13. a double chip;
14 – 16. wow; 17/18. woop; 19 – 21. abrupt, downward, linear frequency sweeps (or portamentos); 22.
a note of almost constant frequency interrupted by three extreme portamentos.
Why does the pied butcherbird devote effort in crafting notes that are so
acoustically complex? What advantage might there be to the bird? What might the
relationship be, if any, between complexity and reward? What might be the nature
of the reward? These questions drove me to look deeper at their vocal material in
order to see if the evidence suggests an active sense of aesthetics in the pied
butcherbird. If so, how aesthetics might overlap or contribute to function is beyond
the province of this inquiry.
4.3 Calls
As introduced in Chapter 2, some calls, such as alarm calls and those indicating the
discovery of food, are considered to have a semantic content, functioning similarly
to words. Rogers and Kaplan distinguish between the syntax and the semantics of a
vocalisation: “Syntax refers to the structure of the song or call. Semantics refers to
91
the content or meaning of the message. The two can be intertwined” (2000: 86).
Thus, any vocalisation, with the possible exception of mimicry, conveys the
meaning, “I am a pied butcherbird, and I am here.” The following calls (Fig. 4.4)
carry additional semantic content:
1. A soft call from a bird sitting on a nest.
2. A food begging call from an adult. This bird approached me at an outdoor
restaurant. After eating its fill of begged fish, the bird flew with the leftovers
to a tree above me and wedged the food between the “V” of two branches.
3. A food begging call from a nestling.
4. A scolding call given to a cat. Consisting of short, repeated notes of wide
frequency range, this call would fall under the rubric of agonistic signals
(Bradbury and Vehrencamp, 1998: 359).
5. Two beak claps delivered in quick succession, given as a sign of
aggression to an Australian magpie. Sometimes birds deliver modulated,
non-vocal mechanical sounds (Prum, 1998: 977), which are not technically a
call. A beak clap indicates they are capable of being instrumentalists. The
literature does not recount, nor do present recordings indicate, that this
species makes use of other mechanical sounds, such as wing feather
specialisations or drumming with beaks or tools.
Figure 4.4. Pied butcherbird call notes: 1. a soft call from a bird sitting on a nest; 2. a food begging
call from an adult; 3. a food begging call from a nestling; 4. a scolding call; 5. two beak claps.
92
Note the stripes of harmonics in the first four calls. Pied butcherbirds are known to
emit broad frequency alarm calls that are termed “nasal” (harmonic) rather than
“harsh” (noisy) (Jurisevic and Sanderson, 1994: 71). While no recorded examples of
alarm calls were available for this study, it appears that pied butcherbird calls in
general extend over a wide harmonic range.
A number of other contexts exist where the pied butcherbird could call. In most
cases, the call of choice is presented in Figure 4.5. Various informants identify it as
a flight call, a contact call, a separation call, an advertising call, a dominance call, a
mutual recognition call, a mobbing call, and an “I am a pied butcherbird” call (D.
Lumsdaine, personal communication, 2 July 2005). It is diagnostic for the species,
meaning that one can identify the bird by this, whether or not it has been sighted.
Because there is no common motivational basis for this call, but instead it
accompanies various behaviours, the term “species” call was coined (Taylor, 2005).
Like the other calls, this one is generally stereotyped across the continent in groups
separated in both time and place. Depending on how many notes it is delivered in, it
has been referred to with the mnemonic “8-2-2” (three notes) or “eight twenty-two”
and “por-rk-it-tee” (four notes). Occasionally it is extended to five notes. The notes
often dip and rise and are usually delivered within the F7 (2794 Hz) to G#7 (3322
Hz) range, an octave above the standard singing register.
Figure 4.5. Pied butcherbird species calls from three different birds (top) paired with music notation
(bottom).
Figure 4.6 displays an adult species call, which is immediately followed by a
juvenile issuing the call (from the same recording and with the original spacing
intact). The juvenile’s call pays great attention to the ascending “zip”; the call is
slower and the notes are less defined than in the adult delivery.
93
Figure 4.6. An adult delivers the species call (SC), followed by a juvenile. The juvenile’s call focuses
on the ascending zip, and the notes are poorly defined.
Woodall describes the mobbing of a common ringtail possum by about seven noisy
miners (Manorina melanocephala) and three pied butcherbirds, “all alarm-calling
noisily” (1994: 22-23). Figures 4.7-4.8 similarly find a product of increased volume.
In both examples, long squirty “zips” up to the call notes are prominent. By ear,
some individuals appear to issue zips only. The call notes of this summative vocal
display fall in a broad envelope of approximately 2500-3300 kHz. Both examples
contain beak claps, delivered by the pied butcherbird as a rapid pair.
Figure 4.7. A group of pied butcherbirds and an Australian magpie involved in mobbing. “BC”
denotes two rapid beak claps, visible on the sonogram as thin vertical lines. “PBB” denotes a
particular pied butcherbird that calls an octave lower than his/her conspecifics.
In Figure 4.7 above, several species of birds join together in the mobbing, provoked
by the arrival of a huge, wheeling company of black kites (Milvus migrans). In the
94
next example (Fig. 4.8), other species again join in the cross-species mobbing,
including the Australian magpie and the magpie-lark (although they do not appear
in this excerpt). The subject of the mobbing is an Australian raven.
Figure 4.8. A group of pied butcherbirds mobbing an Australian raven. “BC” denotes two pairs of
beak claps, visible on the sonogram as thin vertical lines. “
4.4 Calls in Song
The differences between calls and songs are often portrayed as clear-cut (Marler,
2004: 32; Hall-Craggs, 1961: 367). However, some find the distinctions not so easily
demarcated (Johnson, 2003: i; Smith, 1991: 250); my research would support this
latter view. Pied butcherbirds lack a species-typical song. In the several hundred
hours of recordings examined from over 250 locations, no song phrases are
repeated in more than the immediate and nearby territories they were found in,
excepting two. Both of these phrase-types appear to be re-workings of the species
call.
When two or more birds are present and singing, the species call might be used like
the interjection “Amen” in an American Southern Baptist church meeting.
Delivered in apparent haphazard fashion, it hovers in a border territory between
call and song. Other times, the species “call” is delivered in antiphonal song where it
seems a coherent part of the musical statement, a call-become-song. In the first
song example (S1), one of the two birds contributes the species call (Fig. 4.9) in a
duet (more investigation of duets will be presented shortly). The birds possess a
repertoire of techniques for varying the motif. Unlike the pitch stability found in
95
the call proper, when delivered as a motif in either antiphonal or solo song, the
frequency of the “call” is no longer stereotyped. Nevertheless, the frequency does
shift upwards significantly for a falsetto effect.
Figure 4.9. Antiphonal song (S1) with species call: two birds. Red lines match the sonogram to the
notation. “R” denotes a rattle.
The second example (S2) details the “call” in solo song (Fig. 4.10).
Figure 4.10. Pied butcherbird species call notes (SC) incorporated in solo song (S2).
The abundant portamentos in the solo song above are not notated in the interest of
simplicity. Note the octave leap from D6 to D7, the additive treatment of the species
call motif, and D7 D7 F7 inversion to F6 F6 D6 (also an octave in distance). While the
species call motif is altered on each of three deliveries, the other song phrase with
which it is paired is repeated exactly the second time, delivered in truncated form
96
the third time, and after the final species call motif, given an end flourish of this
same truncated motif with a doubling of the final note.
An immature bird relies heavily on the species call in its subsong in Figure 4.11.
Figure 4.11. An immature pied butcherbird subsong excerpt. The species call (SC) is delivered on
the conventional pitch and at a number of lower transpositions. The ascending zip often associated
with the beginning of the call is delivered without the call notes. No mimicry is noted.
The species call is commonly subjected to another treatment to build singing
performances. Here, the innate elements of the call are revised down an octave and
the tempo greatly reduced. The motif is articulated short-long or short-short-long
and normally descends by a major or minor second. As with the call, this short-long
descending second motif (SLD2) is normally delivered on stereotypical frequencies
between G6 and F6.
Figure 4.12 explores a handful of these numerous SLD2 variations on a theme.
97
Figure 4.12. Eight variants of the short-long descending second (SLD2) motif. “QR” denotes a quasirattle.
The SLD2 motif most often descends by a half step on the pitches F#6 to F6 (bar
one); bar two sees its more rare inversion (or retrograde). Rhythmical variations are
possible (bar three). Bar four sees the motif descending by a whole step, followed by
a motif reminiscent of the species call in that it jumps a large interval and remains
in that register with a triplet composed of semitones. The motif is occasionally
augmented, such as in bar five, which descends by a whole step, then a half step. A
variation on this augmentation involves deflection (bar six). Bar seven bears strong
similarity to bar six, with the entry point a major second lower. The fully developed
phrase built upon the motif (G6 F6 on beats two and three) outlines a G dominant
seven chord (bar eight). Thus, the musical material of the pied butcherbird species
call regularly undergoes a “neutralisation” that points to both the capacity to
categorise and employ it as a call on the one hand and a musical imagination able to
redeploy it into song on the other (Mâche, 1983/1992: 154). One bird presents the
phrase with an ultra-noisy rattle at the end—an aggressive “prew” sound finds the
pied butcherbird acting momentarily as percussionist (Fig. 4.13).
Figure 4.13. The SLD2 motif, followed by an aggressive “prew” rattle.
Aside from the “prew” rattle, the “8-2-2” species call, and the “reek” alarm call, few
mnemonics are in use for pied butcherbirds, likely because their song phrases lack
stereotypy. Nevertheless, several have been posited: "weedle-ordle-ah-dit-dee" was
98
applied to one phrase a recordist heard (V. Powys, personal communication, 12
March 2007), while “quo-orrr” and “chu-eep” (Serventy and Whittell, 1976: 450)
were pressed into service for certain notes. Glass found one phrase to syllabise
“‘What’ll we do Jack?,’ and was a sort of comic relief” (1992: 20). One final example,
a veritable “period piece,” speaks as much about the writer as the birds:
His notes suggest the vastness of the Australian bush and continent.
At dawn his clear cornet-like notes ring out far above the great
chorus of bird-song. They are various, and some impossible of
translation, but his dawn notes resemble the following:--‘Toll-de-lolfãh’ (the last note long drawn out and of liquid sweetness); then twice
and quickly repeated in a lower key—‘You chatterbox;’ then in a
higher key and with very full, rounded notes, and twice repeated—
‘Sweet after forty.’ So charmed was I with the song and appearance
of these birds that I determined to secure one to take home with me.
Through the kind offices of Mr. Lee Steere, I eventually managed to
get one from one of the station hands, and my captive has furnished
me with many opportunities of study (Milligan 1905: 154-155).
These, then, are the building blocks of sound objects available to the pied
butcherbird for song construction.
4.5 Pied butcherbird song mutualisms with human music
The pied butcherbird's song displays all the features that have provoked analogies
between birdsong and human music. The bird perceives its sound world differently
from us, certainly. Nevertheless, “I, an intruder upon the scene, am sufficiently
similar in physiology to the bird that I am able to enter as an observer into this net”
(Nelson, 1973: 326). This sampler of songs and singing patterns from various
contexts traces how pied butcherbirds draw from a range of conventions present in
their song culture. The account is not an exhaustive one for reasons of space.
Following Sloboda’s lead (1985: 9), my personal knowledge, experiences, and
intuitions as a practising musician have augmented and complemented the findings.
From the perspective of the human ear, common rhythm and temporal devices such
as accelerando, ritardando, rubato, syncopation, triplets and other tuplets,
anacrusis, augmentation, diminution, rhythmic tension, and additive and divisive
rhythms are present in pied butcherbird phrases. Examples are indicated in the
course of analysis. The sense of a regular tempo, from adagio to allegro, and a
99
rhythmic vitality are usually in evidence, and although to my metrical judgment
there is a strong kinaesthetic component, the songs are not metronomically
“impoverished” (Lidov, 1997: 20) or brittle.
Bird songs are rhythmic enough, but they are seldom “measured” in
the way that western music is measured. Music is regarded as
measured when there is throughout a steady recurrence of rhythmic
stress or accent so that the music is divided into regular measures or
bars over a longish period. Very little bird utterance conforms to
that description (Thorpe and Lade, 1961: 231).
“Melody does not of necessity depend upon rhythm; like the songs of many birds, it
can exist without recurrent, strictly gauged patterns of organization” (Sachs, 1962:
111). In pied butcherbird song, patterns of organization regularly present
themselves, but they are rarely strict.
We also find in the pied butcherbird a toolkit of expressions, articulations, and
strategies familiar in the human animal’s music. These are indicated in the course of
analysis. While space does not permit a full listing, the following repertoire of
musical procedures for varying sound is noted. In the absence of detailed
experimental studies, inferring function is problematic. Martinelli argues that since
singing, like speaking, is a communicative strategy, “even aesthetics is a function in
all respects. Not only is aesthetics not in competition with the other functions, but it
often accompanies and enhances them” (2002: 12).
Canon.
The timing of countersinging can be concurrent, alternating, or overlapping. When
type-matching is in place, even if the entrances seem haphazard, a clear canonic
treatment is established. The result is a “performance” canon, not a notated one,
reminiscent of Thelonius Monk and Charlie Rouse breaking into an improvised
canon on a chorus of “Bemsha Swing.”36 While the function of countersinging could
be a vocal contest (a “cutting session” in jazz parlance), a sure ploy for getting
attention (playing on a rest beat), or a competitive advertisement (a commercial
jingle) (Horn and Falls, 1988: 337), the effect is a highly musical one.
36
Thelonius Monk: The Complete Riverside Recordings, 1986, Riverside RCD-022-2, disc 15, track 8.
100
Anthropomorphism forbids speculation on the possibility that creating an aesthetic
experience is part of the function of countersinging, but almost anyone hearing it
would dare to think so. Are pied butcherbird phrases formed with the instinct that
they must work together when more than one singer is broadcasting in the
“acoustic horizon” (Blesser and Salter, 2007: 22)? Is a bird merely minimizing the
competitive background noise through “song asynchrony” or “displacement
patterns,” as the biologist might characterise it (Cody and Brown, 1969: 778-780),
or could these emerging and fading song phrases from the avian song community
have a musical purpose?
Crescendo/decrescendo.
From my campground in the Central Australian outback, I heard a bird in the
distance and decided to investigate the following day. At 3:45 a.m. under a full
moon, I walked to where I thought it might sing and turned on my recorder. Five
minutes later I heard birds quietly warming up nearby, and after another five
minutes a bird flew into position in the tree above me and began to sing. I had
stumbled on the box seat. The point of departure was the truncated version of a
phrase delivered in hushed tones. The material was repeated, recombined, and
elaborated for two hours. Mid-way through, the signal was so powerful it began to
distort; I re-directed the microphone, but still the signal was fortissimo. By the end,
the bird had brought his song phrases back to the original pianissimo, and the
elaborated material was again presented in abridged form (Fig. 4.14). This predawn song is featured in Chapter 5.
Figure 4.14. Crescendo/decrescendo: the first, a middling, and the final phrase from a two-hour predawn song. The waveform on top shows the change in volume in more detail than the greyscale of
the bottom sonogram.
101
Dawn Chorus. “Jazz is like bananas—it must be consumed on the spot,” Sartre
recommends (1948: 48). So too, the dawn chorus. Like the town clock, the dawn
chorus is a soundmark (Truax, 2001) for birds and humans, a counterpoint of events
with a wide range of frequencies, amplitudes, timbres, and sound sources. The
acoustic complexity in these crisscross patterns is the ultimate surround-sound.
Feathered choirs compete intensively for the available broadcasting space and time.
Space is an essential aspect in music (Brant, 1967: 223-242), one that sees further
consideration in the composition portfolio and critical reflections in Chapter 6. The
quality of the experience—the theatrics of the sonic story of the dawn chorus—is
not entirely told by notation or sonograms. Vella speaks of aural depths of field—
the foreground, middleground, and background—and shifting of perception as
sounds unfold (2000: 132). The acoustic tasks facing a bird in the dawn chorus are
considerable. The interconnectedness of natural sounds is evidence of a web of
social relationships. In the midst of competing “biophonies (voices of living things)
and geophonies (non-creature sounds, e.g. thunder, rain, and wind)” (Krause, 2002:
xii), a singing bird must also assess other singers—their direction, distance, species,
and identity—and who’s tuning in? Why increase predatory risk expending an
extravagant amount of energy on song (Smith, 1991: 241)?
Fanfare.
“A flourish of trumpets” (Tarr, 2008), a fanfare serves “to announce new events and
to quieten audiences” (Walser, 2003: 315). With cornet-like tone and bold, swift
delivery, numerous pied butcherbird phrases fit this metaphor. In Figure 4.15, some
portamentos were removed in order to highlight intervallic relationships—
frequent, often rising major thirds and perfect fourths, fifths, and octaves—intervals
that heighten the sense of a fanfare.
Figure 4.15. Fanfares from seven different pied butcherbirds.
102
Iconic themes.
Occasionally pied butcherbird themes and those of humans converge. Hutchinson
reports hearing a phrase recalling the opening bars of Beethoven’s Fifth Symphony
(1808) (Slater, 1983: 278). I have encountered melodic inventions that correspond
to Mendelssohn’s “Wedding March” (1842), Kurt Weill’s “Mack the Knife” (1928),
and Miles Davis’s “Freddie Freeloader” (1959) (the SLD2 motif in bar four of
Figure 4.7 closely corresponds to the Davis theme). Although an iconic human
theme can catch the ear, encountering an equally compelling and previously
unknown theme provides greater satisfaction.
Melisma.
Although they can be vocal gymnasts with a flourish here and an arabesque there,
pied butcherbirds are not prone to extreme elaboration and appoggiatura. One from
this pair is a notable exception, and the experience left a vivid impression with the
recordist:
“The Singing Lesson”: two birds perched side by side on a banksia
singing a solo song; one sings the fully decorated version of the local
dawn solo, the second a more sketchy outline version. A beautiful
study of what structure, tuning and melodic decoration might mean
to pied butcherbirds (D. Lumsdaine, personal communication, 2 July
2005).
This notation (Fig. 4.16) was accomplished both by listening at half-speed and by
taking measurements in the sonogram window, particularly the latter.
Figure 4.16. “The Singing Lesson,” where bird #1 puts forth a few basic notes (lower staff) while
bird #2 unravels a melismatic cadenza (upper staff). “QR” denotes a quasi-rattle.
103
Ostinato.
In the dawn chorus of Figure 4.17, a grey shrike-thrush (GST) (Collurincia
harmonica) predominates, while the pied butcherbird (PBB) holds to a two-note
ostinato. The harmonic implications make for a comfortable pairing. In another
instance (not shown), the pied butcherbird inserts the only clearly tonal element
into the acoustic fabric as it reiterates a two-note motif in an otherwise highfrequency shimmering of cicadas and noisy birdcalls.
Figure 4.17. Pied butcherbird (PBB) ostinato whilst a grey shrike-thrush (GST) rings out its phrase
(music notation of the first 10sec.) Other birds are also singing.
Phrase endings.
Schoenberg sees a phrase as possessing a sense of completeness and yet well
adapted for recombination with other similar components (1967: 3). He suggests
phrase conventions:
The end of the phrase is usually differentiated rhythmically to
provide punctuation. Phrase endings may be marked by a
combination of distinguishing features, such as rhythmic reduction,
melodic relaxation through a drop in pitch, the use of smaller
intervals and fewer notes, or by any other suitable differentiation
(ibid.).
His suggestions are regular occurrences in pied butcherbird song (Fig. 4.18-4.21).
104
Figure 4.18. Phrase endings with rhythmic reduction. “W” denotes a wow sound and “ES” an almost
electronic sound.
Figure 4.19. Phrase endings with a drop in pitch. “CH” denotes a chip sound, “QR” a quasi-rattle, and
“ES” an almost electronic sound.
Figure 4.20. Phrase endings with smaller intervals.
105
Figure 4.21. Phrase endings with other suitable differentiations: bar 1: an accent, large leap, and
two-note chord on the final note; bar 2: an accent and a large leap followed by a steep portamento
creating a chip sound on the final note; bar 3: an accent, an upward leap, and a note of wide harmonic
content on the final note; bar 4: a structural accent in the outline of a G dominant seven chord filled
after a leap; bars 5-7: extended repetition of the final note or motif. “R” denotes a rattle, “QR” a
quasi-rattle, “CH” a chip sound, and “WH” a woop or whoop sound.
Repetition and variation.
Stuck song syndrome—the Ohrwurm, the earworm, the brainworm37—whatever the
terminology, these scraps of sound that stick in our head and endlessly repeat—do
they have a counterpart in the avian world? Are pied butcherbird song phrases
designed to have such an effect? Figure 4.22 illustrates a simple, repetitive theme
that commands attention and is remembered (some portamentos were removed for
ease of visual inspection). This catchy snippet hooked me into including it in a
composition (“Ping-pong,” movement three of Black and white miniatures, presented
in Chapter 6).
Figure 4.22. A catchy “earworm” from a pied butcherbird.
Repetition as it applies to song repertoire and underlying rules of song structure
will be examined in Chapter 5.
Scales.
Scalar passages are not common. When scales arise, they often consist of a
combination of microtones, half and whole steps, and minor thirds; some notes can
37
Levitin (2006: 151) and Sacks (2007: 41-48) discuss this phenomenon in more detail.
106
be repeated before the bird moves on. Often, a “scale” is merely an ascending or
descending rattle. Five examples of scalar motion follow. These rare instances fail
to suggest a sense of tonality or a tonic, and thus no attempt has been made to piece
together scales after the fact to assign them a harmonic identity, such as mixolydian
mode. Three examples are notated (Fig. 4.23-4.24), and the final two are launched
in a sonogram (Fig. 4.25).
Figure 4.23. Scalar motion in two different pied butcherbird phrases.
Figure 4.24. Scalar motion in the top staff of a pied butcherbird duo.
Figure 4.25. A descending and an ascending pied butcherbird “scale” from two separate pied
butcherbirds, both demonstrating accelerando.
Shape and balance.
Hall-Craggs, a trained musician, begins the discussion section in her classic study of
blackbird song with the apology that her sole qualification in the study of birdsong
consists of “being trained to listen to detail” (1962: 294). She goes on to speak of the
107
“shapeliness of melodic line and general formal orderliness” (ibid.: 296). She could
have been speaking of Figure 4.26. Songs that match the pied butcherbird’s
perceptual world regularly match the human’s sense of musicality.
Figure 4.26. Shape and balance in four consecutive phrases of pied butcherbird song, with rests
inserted between phrases to show approximate delivery.
At times, some phrases that seem prime examples of proportion and balance are
delivered “out of order,” and my brain simply re-arranges them and quantizes the
rhythm to conform to my acculturated musical sense. The first line of Figure 4.27
shows how I imagine the bird delivered this song.
Figure 4.27. Line one displays a sense of proportion and balance in a pied butcherbird song as the
human ear might hear it; line two displays other phrases the bird delivers that interrupt the
proportion with an unexpected leap, a truncated phrase, and a downward resolution instead of the
more common ascent. “R” denotes a rattle.
While this realisation is close, the bird is more flexible and less foursquare. For
example, bars 1-3 are delivered intact at one point, and bars 3-4 are delivered intact,
but never the four together (at least in this particular recording). The other phrases
the bird works with (bars 5-7) are regularly inserted, interrupting the proportional
expectations of line one. The next example (Fig. 4.28) is similar; the expectation
after an initial hearing is to sing back line one in the order and rhythm notated.
Figure 4.28. Line one displays a sense of proportion and balance in a pied butcherbird song as the
human ear might hear it; line two displays other phrases the bird delivers that interrupt the
proportion with variations in phrase length and augmentation of motives.
108
The four phrases in line one (Fig. 4.28) are delivered intact twice, but then the bird
begins to transform the material, first repeating the final two notes of line one, and
then exploring other possibilities. Line two shows phrases that interrupt the sense
of proportion and expectation suggested by in line one. While the sense of surprise
created by angularity and disproportion after their avian “classicism” is not what I
would compose, the phrases nonetheless so parallel my sense of musicality that this
song features in the composition portfolio (Lamington Plateau for flute).
Sotto voce.
The quiet, inward rendering of “whispering song” (Lister, 1953: 142), also called
whisper song, recording song, or quiet song, is most common during late mornings
and afternoons. The material can be that of primary song (Sedgwick, 1947: 377) or
mimicry (Chisholm, 1947: 25). Armstrong identifies this as the quietest form of
song and speculates that it may have a variety of functions (1953: 311).
One wonders why a bird would sing so quietly. With no apparent advertising
function, is this subdued song merely a rehearsal (étude)? Could it be habit? Or
could a bird simply like to sing—is it a self-rewarding activity (Morris, 1962: 145)?
Humans are known to sing to themselves when alone.
Figure 4.29 shows a pied butcherbird engaged in subsong including mimicry. The
recordist has not indicated whether this is an adult or an immature bird. Regular
episodes of mimicry and the species call are injected into the bird’s own phrases.
The species call sees two types of treatment. The first two species calls-in-song
motives resemble conventional delivery of the call, while subsequent deliveries are
unusual. These later versions are delivered more rapidly and the notes are brief.
The possibility exists that the bird is combining its own species’ call with the sound
of another species, thus creating a unique hybrid.
109
Figure 4.29. Pied butcherbird subsong including mimicry and the species call (SC).
Stage presence.
Some songsters know how to work the “crowd,” whether avian or human:
It is late afternoon on the border of Western Australia and the
Northern Territory. While stopped, my partner photographs a pied
butcherbird on an overhead wire with quite a repertoire, one who
tilts back his head, opens his bill, and puffs out in song, a born
performer who turns on for the camera. No other birds are apparent.
I grab my paper to notate his call as he delivers a dynamic singing
performance. He had “it” (Taylor, 2007: 51).
Any mention of a stage implies a musicians’ platform. A pied butcherbirds sings
from a song post, whether a tree or some other high object. The post would not be
the bird’s sole concern. Music relates to the site of its production (Blesser and
Salter, 2007), and the pied butcherbird must take into account the acoustic
constraints and potential benefits of the environment. In working with reflection,
dispersion, and refraction of sound, the bird takes on the task of an “aural architect”
(ibid.: 5).
110
Timbre.
Timbre is an important but sometimes overlooked feature in vocal communication
in birds (Williams, Cynx, and Nottebohm, 1989: 379). A collection of many features
or qualities fits under the umbrella of timbre, including pitch and amplitude; while
these can be spoken of separately, they can affect timbre. Timbre carries
information about its source and the environment through which the sound has
travelled (Fales, 2002: 57). Rhoades regretted the lack of a timbre notation system
(1963: 200). For descriptive purposes, the voiceprint in a sonogram now fills the
void, and in it we have a potent visual tool.
The concept of klangfarbenmelodie moves toward an equality of pitch and timbre,
suggesting that a melody might be formed and perceived through timbral
transformation of a single pitch.38 Such a kaleidoscope of colours is realised in the
next examples. In Figure 4.30, Example 1, the phrase begins with a quasi-rattle,
followed by a pure tone, and finishing with a proper rattle that moves back to a
quasi-rattle, all on a single pitch.
The second example finds a bird replacing its beginning sustained tone with
extreme portamento signals recalling the vintage VCS-3 synthesizer.39 These much
shorter notes begin quietly and crescendo slightly, but are in stark dynamic
disparity to the powerful final octave-and-a-half jump down to the beginning pitch.
Although not limited to a single pitch, Example 3 offers extreme timbre
differentiation. Parameters exhibiting strong contrast include note durations,
dynamics, and texture—alternating pure notes and noisy ones, smoothness and
roughness (Malloch, 2004: 54-56). Intensification via powerful attacks and steep but
rapid ascending and descending portamento is in evidence, and again quasielectronic signals come to mind.
38
The term klangfarbenmelodie was coined by Schoenberg in his Harmonielehre (1911) (Rushton,
retrieved 18 July 2007, from http://www.grovemusic.com).
39 The VCS-3 is a portable synthesizer designed in 1969. Retrieved 10 April 2008, from
http://emfinstitute.emf.org/exhibits/vcs3.html.
111
Figure 4.30. Three examples of extreme timbre contrast in pied butcherbird song.
Finally, in a fourth example (Fig. 4.31), each of the bird’s virtuosic song phrases
displays clear, bold quality differentiation, at times imparting a feeling of
impulsiveness. The palette is remarkably wide-ranging for one bird, with strong
fluctuations in multiple parameters.
Figure 4.31. An example of extreme timbre contrast in pied butcherbird song.
Transposition.
Few empirical studies exist as yet into pitch processing in songbirds. Ratcliffe and
Weisman describe four concepts, all of which are found in some but not every bird
species: absolute pitch perception, relative pitch perception, pitch contour, and pitch
ratio (or interval) (1992). I will address these in order.
Do pied butcherbirds possess absolute pitch? One (assumed) bird was recorded
almost daily over a two-and-a-half-week period in 2002, producing five hours of
112
recordings.40 Two phrases with notes of almost constant frequency were chosen for
every take (the recordist would often stop and re-start during pauses by the bird).
Frequencies of notes at the beginning and ending of a take and at several mid-way
points were measured. Results indicate a virtually imperceptible variation among
renditions of the same phrase by the same individual (other measurements on
different individuals produced similar results). Variations in recording technique,
environmental conditions, and the position of the subject would be expected to
introduce more variation than exists among the phrases as delivered. While this
would lead me to believe absolute pitch is the norm, for the purposes of this study I
have omitted this data since I am not working with banded birds.
Converging evidence points to several basic features of music, such as relative pitch
and the importance of the octave, to be determined by innate constraints in humans,
at least in part (McDermott and Hauser, 2005: 29). Might this map onto innate
avian constraints? For example, do pied butcherbirds transpose phrases (indicating
relative pitch)? Yes—the numerous cases of the transposed species call are the
clearest example of this.
Do pied butcherbirds possess octave generalisation? Do they perceive octaves as
same or similar phenomena? The biological basis of the octave “is both prevalent in
musical systems worldwide and perceptually privileged, at least in some cases, in
nonhuman primates” (McDermott and Hauser, 2005: 51). Blackwell and Schlosberg
found octave generalization in the white rat (1943: 418), while Wright, Rivers,
Hulse, Shyan, and Neiworth found it in rhesus monkeys (2000: 291). Octave leaps
abound in pied butcherbird song, both in the song of one bird and at the hand-off
point in a duet, although this is not necessarily a mark of octave generalisation,
which involves the preservation of contour, interval, and chroma (or key). In
another case, a pied butcherbird was singing in the presence of a more powerful
signal from a magpie-lark (Grallina cyanoleuca); the pied butcherbird mimicked the
magpie-lark, transposing his phrase down an octave (possibly to a better range).
One could speculate that the stimulus equivalence for an octave does exist in the
latter example, but not enough data exist for this study to make a case for octave
generalisation at this point.
40
G. Glass, CD numbers 038-042, detailed in Appendix H.
113
Likewise, since no studies have been conducted on pied butcherbird’s discrimination
in response to auditory events, the processing of pitch ratio will not be addressed.
Ventriloquism.
The ability to make sounds appear to come from somewhere other than the emitter
occurs in the alarm calls of some birds as a defense mechanism (Marler, 1955: 7).
Ventriloquism is a known occurrence in the dawn song of pied butcherbirds (Keast,
1944: 185). Its function in song is unknown. Imagine hearing several birds quietly
participating in the dawn chorus, echoing similar themes, then perhaps all shifting
to a new theme; as you close in (you think), like the end of a rainbow, no bird can be
found. The sound has no address. Normally not considered a musical activity,
ventriloquism nevertheless possesses musical connotations and precedents.41
Other parameters overlapping with human music include out of tune, bad tone, and
questionable musicality. While these judgments are subjective, since the
preponderance of these examples come from immature birds, they appear safe
conclusions. A list of other mutualisms must include territorial song, which is akin
to a national anthem, while a male’s song directed towards a potential mate is
nothing short of a serenade. Performed by the composer is a regular event.
The final two sections will complete this pageant of parallelism with an
illumination of two major areas of vocal activity.
4.6 Female song and antiphonal song
Antiphonal song is an overarching term describing two or more pied butcherbirds
performing in alternation or together. As described in Chapter 2, duets include both
alternating and loosely overlapping interchanges. Occasionally, two individuals,
assumed to be a mated pair or potential mates, coordinate their vocalisations in a
synchronous rather than alternating pattern (Mulder, Bishop, Cooper, Dennis, and
Koetsveld, 2003: 25). For pied butcherbirds, alternating is far more common than
synchrony.
41 The offstage choruses in Verdi’s operas Il corsaro (1848) and Il trovatore (1853) come to mind, as
does the remarkable soprano Edith Helena who mimicked the violin with her voice while appearing
onstage playing a stringless violin in pantomime to “Intermezzo” from Cavalleria rusticana (“The
London music halls – The empire.” The Era, 23 January 1904: 23).
114
Female song plays a key role in duets and antiphonal song for pied butcherbirds;
unfortunately, since the sexes are indistinguishable, the female contribution can
only be speculated on. Unison duets are rare, although input from supernumeraries
in trios, quartets, and quintets may see unison or overlapping of the same phrase,
often imparting a sense of collective improvisation. The timing of duets is normally
such that without visual contact, the contributions do not parse easily and must be
noted by the recordist in the field. (When singing, pied butcherbirds often alternate
a standard upright posture with raising the bill high, and then sinking it on the
breast, which assists in part identification.) Such precision calls to mind the
dovetailing of the medieval hocket to create the effect of a single melodic line, as in
the next example (Fig. 4.32 and 4.33).
Figure 4.32. Two pied butcherbirds in a duet with dissimilar phrases: sonogram. “W” indicates the
wow sound and B5 indicates the motif of repeated B notes.
Figure 4.33. Two pied butcherbirds in a duet with dissimilar phrases: notation. “W” indicates the
wow sound. Circles indicate the doubling contribution of a supernumerary.
115
In Figure 4.32, a cursory visual inspection of the sonogram would miss what the ear
picks up: a pair in duet is joined by a supernumerary that contributes to only two of
the motives (circled). The third bird is slightly behind in the wow sound in the first
three bars, and thus the motif appears to be repeated. Likewise, the three B5 notes
appear to be four in the first bar. The ear can hear that the final wow is doubled.
Figure 4.33 presents notation of the same vocal ensemble. Arrows indicate a
microtonal nature to this duet.
The joint performance in Figure 4.34 involves rapid exchanges. There is an octave
transposition of the second motif D6 D6 C6 C6. The basic pitch contour (D6 F6 G#6)
of the first motif is also held in common by both, but with a subtle variation. The
motion is approached chromatically in the bottom staff and by alternating thirds in
the upper, the latter bird preferring to end motives with a steep portamento.
Figure 4.34. Two pied butcherbirds in a duet with similar phrases.
On the morning of this recording, this same pair sang other duets, all containing
distinct material. The musicality of the exchange is the basis for the composition
Pied butcherbird suite. The complete notation of the field transcription prefaces the
suite in Chapter 6. For pied butcherbirds, music is a family affair; like the von
Trapps and the Bachs, everyone contributes to the choral society.
4.7 Mimicry
The evidence indicates that colonial music pointed to the many characteristics of indigenous
music practice: functional music embedded with common narrative and common frames of
reference and a shared sense of purpose; music that was practical, local, in which mimicry
and improvisation were the prime vehicles of expression (Rose, 2007: publication in
process).
In this final section I want to draw on aspects of mimicry that I see as particularly
relevant to an understanding of the sound world of both pied butcherbirds and
humans. Composers borrow from one another, and even from their own previous
116
works; jazz improvisers quote themes from both within and outside jazz; pied
butcherbirds appropriate from conspecifics, other bird species, and unexpected
sources.
Speculation on the function of avian mimicry is tentative at best. While the answers
are beyond the scope of this inquiry, the intriguing questions mimicry provokes are
not: Do birds mimic for the physical pleasure of imitating or the appeal of the
sounds themselves? Perhaps mimicry, particularly in subsong, fulfills some
requirement for the brain, as dreaming might in the human animal (J. Rose,
personal communication, 5 August 2008). I contend that mimicry is the normal
basis of music making, while originality is rare or even illusory. Musicians know
mimicry by a myriad of names: imitation, borrowing, quotation, appropriation,
bricolage, allusion, simulation, modeling, pastiche, parody, and montage. This
subject will be pursued further in Chapter 6. Whatever the label, the mimetic
powers of pied butcherbirds betray their oral absorption of the exterior world.
The literature enumerates 27 bird species apparently taken up with relish by the
pied butcherbird, as well as the barking of a dog, the bleating of a lamb, a person
whistling (Higgins et al., 2006: 522), and the neighing of a horse (Lord, 1945: 119).
The recordings in my library find the pied butcherbird mimicking nine bird species
from this list. The imitations are short, of about 1-2sec. duration, making the
identification challenging or sometimes impossible.
With expert assistance from Australian ornithologists,42 my research adds 12 bird
species to this list, for a total of 39 species, plus six probable new bird species and a
frog, as well as credible mimicry of a human voice, a telephone bell, and the meow
of a cat. Approximately 25% of the apparent mimicry remains unidentified. Such
aural and vocal achievement is august. Most remarkable, one bird mimics an
auditory icon: the signal of a reversing truck is matched in frequency, duration, and
timbre, and incorporated into dawn song. The truck was recorded later that
morning at a construction site adjacent to the bird’s song post. This suggests that
they hear sound as we do. Figures 4.35-4.36 illustrate pied butcherbirds’ ability to
bring together familiar elements from a variety of contexts.
42
Australian ornithologists Chris Corbet, Sydney Curtis, Gayle Johnson, Vicki Powys, Carol
Probets, and Eric Vanderduys assisted in mimicry identification.
117
Species mimicked
Citation source
Australian magpie (Gmnorhina tibicen)
Cameron, 1971: 79; Higgins et al. (citing Shingleton),
2006: 522; Horton, 1989: CD 044.15; McDonald, 1940:
299-300
Chisholm (citing Lord), 1950: 233; McDonald, 1940:
299-300
Sedgwick (citing White), 1949: 181
Taylor
Taylor
Chisholm (citing Thorogood), 1946: 13
Lord, 1945: 119
Chisholm (citing Thorogood), 1946: 13; Lord, 1945: 119
Australian owlet-nightjar (Aegotheles cristatus)
Australian ringneck (Barnardius zonarius)
bar-shouldered dove (Geopelia humeralis)
brown honeyeater (Lichmera indistincta)
bush stone-curlew (Burhinus grallarius)
channelbilled cuckoo (Scythrops novaehollandiae)
common koel, female (Eudynamys scolopacea)
common koel, male or sex unspecified (Eudynamys
scolopacea)
crested hawk? (Pacific baza) (Aviceda subcristata)
crested pigeon? (Ocyphaps lophotes)
eastern rosella (Platycercus eximius)
figbird (Sphecotheres viridis)
forest kingfisher (Todiramphus macleayii)
galah (Eolophus roseicapillus)
grey butcherbird (Cracticus torquatus)
grey shrike-thrush (Colluricincla harmonica)
grey-headed honeyeater? (Lichenostomus keartlandi)
laughing kookaburra (Dacelo novaeguineae)
little eagle? (Hieraaetus morphnoides)
little wattlebird (Anthochaera chrysoptera)
masked lapwing (Vanellus miles)
mistletoebird (Dicaeum hirundinaceum)
noisy friarbird (Philemon corniculatus)
noisy miner (Manorina melanocephala)
noisy pitta (Pitta versicolor)
olive-backed oriole (Oriolus sagittatus)
olive-backed oriole (Oriolus sagittatus)
orange-footed scrubfowl (Megapodius reinwardt)
pale-headed rosella (Platycercus adscitus)
parrot (no species identified)
peaceful dove (Geopelia placida)
pied currawong (Strepera graculina)
rainbow bee-eater (Merops ornatus)
rainbow lorikeet (Trichoglossus haematodus)
red wattlebird (Anthochaera carunculata)
rufous whistler (Pachycephala rufiventris)
satin bowerbird (Ptilonorhynchus violaceus)
southern boobook (Ninox novaeseelandiae)
spangled drongo (Dicrurus bracteatus)
spiny-cheeked honeyeater (Acanthagenys
rufogularis)
spotted pardalote (Pardalotus striatus)
Torresian imperial pigeon? (Ducula mullerii)
wandering whistling-duck? (Dendrocygna arcuata)
white-throated nightjar (Eurostopodus mystacalis)
yellow-bellied sunbird (Nectarinia jugularis)
yellow-faced honeyeater (Lichenostomus chrysops)
yellow-throated miner (Manorina flavigula)
Taylor
Taylor
Higgins et al. (citing Shingleton), 2006: 522
Higgins et al. (citing Shingleton), 2006: 522; Taylor
Taylor
McDonald, 1940: 299-300
Lumsdaine, 2000: CD 048.10
Higgins et al. (citing Shingleton), 2006: 522; Lumsdaine,
1997: CD 049.18
Taylor
McDonald, 1940: 299-300
Taylor
Taylor
Higgins et al. (citing Shingleton), 2006: 522; Lumsdaine,
2000: CD 048.10
Cameron, 1971: 79; McDonald, 1940: 299-300
Horton, 1989: CD 044.6
Taylor
Taylor
McDonald, 1940: 299-300
Cameron, 1971: 79
Chisholm (citing Thorogood), 1946: 13; Horton, 1989:
CD 044.15; Taylor
Horton, 1989: CD 044.15; McDonald, 1940: 299-300;
Taylor
Higgins et al. (citing Shingleton), 2006: 522; Taylor
Taylor
Taylor
Chisholm (citing Lord), 1950: 233; Horton, 1989: CD
044.15
Taylor
McDonald, 1940: 299-300
Taylor
Taylor
Taylor
Taylor
Figure 4.35. Pied butcherbird masterlist of birds mimicked. Sources listed with a CD number refer to
the catalogue of extant recordings in Appendix H; sources cited “Taylor” are summarised in the
DVD under the rubric “Original fieldwork recordings with preliminary analysis”; Taylor sources
with a “?” are probable but not certain.
118
Other sounds mimicked
Citation source
bark of a dog
bleat of a lamb
frog?
human whistling
meow of a cat
ringing telephone?
warning signal of a reversing truck
whinny of a horse
Chisholm, 1946: 13
Chisholm, 1946: 13
Taylor
Chisholm, 1946: 13
Taylor
Taylor
Taylor
Lord, 1945: 119
Figure 4.36. Pied butcherbird mimicry masterlist of sounds other than birds. Sources listed with a
CD number refer to the catalogue of extant recordings in Appendix H; sources cited “Taylor” are
summarised in the DVD under the rubric “Original fieldwork recordings with preliminary analysis”;
Taylor sources with a “?” are probable but not certain.
The sonograms in Figure 4.37 pairs bird/truck and bird/telephone for purposes of
comparison.
Figure 4.37. Mimicry: a pied butcherbird and the signal of a reversing truck in the bird’s territory;
example of possible mimicry: a pied butcherbird and the signal of a ringing telephone audible from
outdoors in its territory.
The individual in the bird/telephone example above is the subject that delivers a
diurnal long song from Magnetic Island, to be pursued in Chapter 5. The telephone
comparison hails from phrase D of the long song.
Occasionally, a motif from an alien species is absorbed into a pied butcherbird
phrase rather than delivered in a mimicry cycle. Figure 4.38 details three such
examples (phrases with motifs reminiscent of a peaceful dove, a noisy friarbird, and
a magpie-lark) in sonogram form.
119
Figure 4.38. Three examples of pied butcherbirds (PBB) incorporating alien species’ motives into
their phrases—sonogram: 1. the peaceful dove signature motif worked into the pied butcherbird
phrase, followed by a recording of an actual peaceful dove from the same location—both delivered at
the same frequency; 2. the noisy friarbird followed by the pied butcherbird phrase incorporating its
signature motif (delivered consecutively in the same recording); 3. the powerful signal of a magpielark intruding on the pied butcherbird, who incorporates two magpie-lark motives (in two
rectangles) an octave lower, suggesting the possibility of octave equivalence.
In the notation of the same phrases (Fig. 4.39), the third example (bar 4) is
particularly vivid for the octave and unison A#s approached by the pied butcherbird
first with a descending portamento, then by an ascending one. The F# major
arpeggio sounds musical to an ear trained in Western European music.
120
Figure 4.39. Three examples of pied butcherbirds (PBB) incorporating alien species’ motives into
their phrases—notation: 1. the peaceful dove’s motif is circled in the pied butcherbird staff; 2. the
noisy friarbird is followed by the pied butcherbird; 3. the octave and unison pitches of the two birds
are circled.
A number of mimicry cycles of various birds were analysed with the assistance of
expert ornithologists. The excerpt below follows the transition from one bird’s own
song into mimicry. Intensive mimicry begins at 5:32 into this excerpt, and
sonographic depiction continues until 9:10, when the mimicry lessens.
Table 4.2 details the excerpt before the sonogram begins. Unidentified but repeated
mimicry motives are identified as “A,” “B,” “C,” and “D.”
121
Table 4.2 Pied butcherbird song and mimicry: own phrases and some mimicry
Time
0:00 - 0:57
0:57 - 0:57.5
Mimicry or own phrases
Own song
A pied currawong calls at
0:57, 1:02.5, and 1:11
followed directly by pied
butcherbird mimicry of it
1:52 - 1:53
Pied currawong
2:07.3 - 2:08. Unknown mimicry (A)
2:47 - 2:48
Unknown
2:49 - 2:50.5 Bar-shouldered dove
2:51.5 - 2:52.5 Unknown
2:52.5 - 2:55.5 (A)
Time
3:03 - 3:04.5
3:17 - 3:18.5
3:22.3 - 3:23.2
3:40.8 - 3:41.8
3:42.8 - 3:43.6
(A)
(A)
Pied currawong
(A)
Starts off as (A) but
transforms into pied
currawong
4:18.8 - 4:19.2 Unknown (single note)
5:03 - 5:03.5 (A)
5:11.5 - 5:13 (A)
5:24.5 - 5:25.8 (A)
At this point intensive mimicry begins, as itemised in Table 4.3 and depicted in
Figure 4.40. The song and mimicry continue in Tables 4.4-4.5 and Figures 4.414.42. As detailed in Appendix H, CD080, the recording begins at 16:45 in the
afternoon and lasts for the duration of one side of a forty-five minute cassette. The
bird is already in song when the recording begins and continues after the recording
ceases. Mimicry ebbs and flows throughout the recording. This excerpt contains
the most intense mimicry. A radio is quietly playing in the background, as the
recordist feels the bird is a more enthusiastic singer with a collaborator, with a
marked preference for a flute player (D. Turnbull, personal communication, 22
November 2006).
122
Figure 4.40. Intensive mimicry cycle of a pied butcherbird.
Table 4.3 Pied butcherbird song and mimicry: own phrases and intensive mimicry 1
Time
5:32 - 5:34.5
Bar-shouldered dove
5:34.5 - 5:35.4 (A)
5:35.4 - 5:36
Unknown
5:36 - 5:37.5
(A)
5:38 - 5:39.5
Bush stone-curlew/own song
5:39.5 - 5:40.2 Rainbow bee-eater
5:40.2 - 5:40.8 Unknown
5:41 - 5:41.7
Unknown (C), similar to car
alarm sound
5:41.7 - 5:44.5 Own song (with elements of
bush stone-curlew)
5:47 - 5:48
Unknown (B)
5:48 - 5:49
Bar-shouldered dove
5:49 - 5:50.4
High-pitched call in
background—not this bird
5:50.4 - 5:50.6 Own song
5:50.6 - 5:51.5 Bar-shouldered dove
5:51.5 - 5:54
(A), has some similarity to
sequence at 5:34.5 - 5:37.5
5:55 - 5:59
Own song
5:59 - 6:00.5
Unknown, perhaps two
different calls
6:00.5 - 6:01.5 Bush stone-curlew
6:01.5 - 6:07
Own song
6:07.5 - 6:08.5 Unknown
6:08.5 - 6:09
Rufous whistler
6:10 - 6:12.5
Own song
Time
6:12.5 - 6:14
Bar-shouldered dove,
changing into unknown
Pied currawong
Own song
Pied currawong
(A)
Mistletoebird
Rainbow bee-eater
Unknown
Yellow-bellied sunbird
Bush stone-curlew with
variation
Bar-shouldered dove
Yellow-bellied sunbird?
Own song
(A)
Rainbow bee-eater
Rufous whistler
Unknown
(A)
Pied currawong/own song,
similarity to 6:14 - 6:16.5
(D)
Own song
(D)
Rainbow bee-eater
6:14 - 6:15
6:15 - 6:15.8
6:15.8 - 6:16.5
6:16.5 - 6:20.4
6:20.5 - 6:21
6:21 - 6:21.5
6:21.5 - 6:23.8
6:23.8 - 6:25
6:25 - 6:27.5
6:28 - 6:30
6:30.5 - 6:31
6:31 - 6:31.5
6:32 - 6:33.5
6:34 - 6:34.5
6:35 - 6:35.4
6:35.5 - 6:36
6:36 - 6:37
6:37.5 - 6:41.5
6:41.5 - 6:42.5
6:42.5 - 6:44
6:44.5 - 6:45.5
6:45.5 - 6:46.5
123
Figure 4.41. Intensive mimicry of a pied butcherbird continues.
Time
6:45.5 - 6:46.5
6:46.5 - 6:49.5
6:49.5 - 6:51
6:51 - 6:51.5
6:51.5 - 6:52.2
6:52.2 - 6:52.5
6:52.5 - 6:53.7
6:53.7 - 6:54
6:54 - 6:56.5
6:56.7 - 6:57.2
6:57.2 - 6:57.7
6:57.7 - 6:58.3
6:58.3 - 6:58.7
6:58.7 - 6:59.5
6:59.5 - 7:01.2
7:01.5 - 7:03
7:03 - 7:04
7:04 - 7:05
7:05.7 - 7:06.5
7:06.5 - 7:09
7:09 - 7:09.5
7:09.8 - 7:10.2
7:10.5 - 7:12.5
7:12.7 - 7:13.3
7:13.5 - 7:15.8
7:15.8 - 7:17.5
7:17.5 - 7:18.6
Time
Rainbow bee-eater
Own song/unknown/bush
stone-curlew elements
Bar-shouldered dove
Mistletoebird
Own song?
(C)
(D)
Rainbow bee-eater
Own song
(B)
Unknown
Similar to 6:07.8
Rufous whistler
Rainbow bee-eater or (A)
Bar-shouldered dove
Unknown
Orange-footed scrubfowl
Rainbow lorikeet
(B)
Own song
Rufous whistler
Unknown
(A)
Figbird (faint)
Unknown
Bar-shouldered dove
Mistletoebird
7:18.7 - 7:19.2
7:19.2 - 7:19.8
7:19.8 - 7:20.4
7:20.4 - 7:21
7:21.5 - 7:22.2
7:22.2 - 7:23
7:23 - 7:24
7:24 - 7:25.5
7:26 - 7:27
7:27 - 7:27.7
7:27.7 - 7:28.4
7:28.4 - 7:29
7:29 - 7:29.5
7:29.5 - 7:30
7:30
7:33 - 7:34
7:34.3 - 7:34.7
7:35 - 7:38
7:38 - 7:39
7:39 - 7:40.6
7:40.6 - 7:43
7:43 - 7:45.5
7:45.5 - 7:47
7:47 - 7:48
7:48 - 7:51.2
7:51.2 - 7:55
7:55 - 7:56.5
124
Unknown
Mistletoebird
Rainbow bee-eater
(A)
Own song?
Bush stone-curlew
Own song
Rainbow lorikeet
Unknown
(C)
Bush stone-curlew variation
Own song
Rainbow bee-eater
(A)
Unknown
Own song
Rufous whistler
Own song
(B)
(A)
Unknown
Orange-footed scrubfowl?
Bar-shouldered dove
Rufous whistler
Own song
Bush stone-curlew
Own song/bar-shouldered
dove elements
Figure 4.42. Intensive mimicry of a pied butcherbird continues to end.
Time
7:56.5 - 7:57.3
7:57.3 - 7:59
7:59 - 8:01
8:01.5 - 8:01.9
8:01.9 - 8:02.3
8:02.3 - 8:04
8:05 - 8:10.5
8:10.5 - 8:11
8:11 - 8:13.7
8:13.7 - 8:16
8:16 - 8:16.8
8:16.8 - 8:17.6
8:17.6 - 8:18.3
8:20 - 8:21
8:21 - 8:22.5
8:25 - 8:31
8:31 - 8:33
8:33 - 8:36.7
8:36.7 - 8:37.8
8:37.8 - 8:38.8
8:38.8 - 8:39.2
8:39.2 - 8:40.5
8:41 - 8:41.7
8:41.7 - 8:44.5
Mimicry/own phrases
Rainbow bee-eater
Peaceful dove
Own song
Rufous whistler
(B)
Unknown (A, D?)
Own song
Mistletoebird
Unknown, possibly several
different calls
Bush stone-curlew
Bar-shouldered dove
Unknown (background?)
(D)
Unknown
Own song
(A)
Own song
Bar-shouldered dove
Own song?
Rufous whistler
(A)
Pied currawong
Own song
Time
8:44.5 - 8:45.4
8:45.4 - 8:45.7
8:45.7 - 8:46.5
8:47 - 8:47.5
8:47.5 - 8:51
8:51 - 8:52.8
8:52.8 - 8:53.7
8:53.7 - 9:02
9:02.4 - 9:02.7
9:02.7 - 9:05
9:05 - 9:06
9:07 - 9:09.7
9:09.7 - 9:11
9:11.5 - 9:15
9:15.5 - 9:16
9:18.5 - 9:19
9:19 - 9:20
9:33 - 9:35.5
9:34.5 - 9:35.5
9:35.5 - 9:44
9:44 - 9:45.7
9:45.7 - 9:50
9:50 - 9:51.5
9:51.5 – 10…
Mimicry/own phrases
Unknown
Rainbow bee-eater
Unknown
(B)
Own song
Pacific baza
Own song
Rufous whistler
(A)
Unknown
Own song?
Bar-shouldered dove
Own song
Unknown, perhaps a real bird
in the background
(B)
(A)
Bar-shouldered dove
Pied currawong in background
Own song
(A)
Own song
(A)
Own song…
The bird mimics a dozen species; other imitations are inconclusive. They could be
improvisations or other birds or sounds unknown to me or the other experts, or
125
they could be poor copies. The “phrase” (or motif) delivery rate at the height of the
excerpt is 34 per minute.
Thus, while sometimes one motif from an alien species might be absorbed into a
pied butcherbird phrase, other times pied butcherbirds string together a pastiche of
imitations in a mimicry cycle. Mimicry cycles are often delivered quietly. A detailed
comparison of pied butcherbird mimicry with non-mimicry song conventions is
placed in Chapter 5. Suffice it to say here that in mimicry supposed norms are
violated: the vocal range extends in both directions, exceeding the assumed
limitations on vocal organs. Other assumed motor constraints in singing ability or
singing affinity are shown to be plastic. For example, simple up-and-down warbles
might be exaggerated (Fig. 4.43). The full-on effect is one of a DJ cut-and-paste
session. Why would a bird transgress its species-specific sounds with these acoustic
abstractions? One assumes this degree of complexity and elaboration would be well
beyond what is necessary for survival and reproduction, suggesting yet again the
presence of aesthetic appreciation (Hartshorne, 1973: 56; Jellis, 1977: 204).
Figure 4.43. Extreme warbling notes from a pied butcherbird mimicry cycle.
4.8 Summary
This chapter has presented a culture-specific musicology developed to illuminate
pied butcherbird calls and songs. Basic features and distinctions of their
vocalisations have been identified. Patterns of repetition and variability at different
scales were discovered. Because of both the unclear functional aspect and often
unexpected vocal results, female song, antiphonal song, and mimicry are
particularly stimulating areas of study. While this section has followed individuals
as they manipulate complex sound forms with particular emphasis to mutualisms
with the human experience of music, Chapter 5 meditates on general principles,
overarching matters of form and structure, and song repertoire.
126
Chapter 5
Long Songs, Repertoire, and
Organisational Structure
127
Chapter 5
Whoever engages in a musical performance, of whatever kind, is saying to themselves and to
anyone who may be taking notice, This is who we are, and that is a serious affirmation
indeed (Small, 1998:212).
Long Songs, Repertoire, and Organisational Structure.
Both intuition and formal thinking direct this inquiry into two long songs, one
diurnal and the other pre-dawn. My predilection in analysis is, as in music, catholic.
The material itself winnows down endless possibilities for stylistic analysis. I make
no claim to arrive without baggage; I come with many bags and choose from among
them which ones to unpack these songs with. I walk round and round the
topography of each song—hearing and living it live, re-hearing it on recording,
notating it, refining the notation, launching it in a sonogram, adjusting the
sonogram, marking my worksheets, re-listening—making the best of the
translational limitations in each medium—and round again. Certain qualities may
be revealed with one strategy, some via another; these multiple steps and
approaches offset each other.
Pied butcherbirds are versatile, discontinuous singers.43 Determining the total
number of different song components in a repertoire is both difficult and arbitrary
(Kroodsma, 1977: 998). In the course of one song performance, a pied butcherbird
normally works with 3-12 phrases; if material is added, deleted, scissioned,
recombined, or otherwise reworked, especially if the recording is over thirty
minutes, one can be hard-pressed to determine what is a permutation from what is a
new phrase. Their acceptance and rejection of ideas (as well as transformation) are
consistent with the ability to compose (Hold, 1971: 114) and not merely the
“manifestation of their behavioural flexibility” (Baptista and Trail, 1992: 245).
Most phrases are 1–2sec. in duration. Sometimes only one note is sung (around
0.2sec.). A phrase of 7.7sec. is the longest coherent phrase in my library (with no
pause and no possibility of another bird also singing). The normal rate of delivery
43
This summary of repertoire, song and phrase duration, rate of delivery, and inter-phrase intervals
is based on a close examination of several hundred hours of pied butcherbird recordings. As
problematicised in Chapter 3, delivery rates could vary, particularly over the length of a long
recording, and many recordings are excerpts. Therefore, these statistics are presented as a reference
point and infer no rule.
128
when vocalising maximally could be 5-10 phrases per minute; a high rate of
delivery would be 11-22 or more. The inter-phrase interval is longer than the
phrase it follows, often twice as long or more. This gap between phrases does not
simply mark a switch in function from singing to listening. Silent periods “between”
phrases are part of the phrase. The phrases become a jumble when played back
contiguously with no space in between them—all sense of proportion evaporates.
Listening to the entire sonic pandemonium (including one’s voice in it) during rest
beats is akin to the art of the human improviser. “Onset-onset interval” (from the
beginning of one sound to the beginning of the next) does not begin to describe the
magic of sound-and-silence, where silence is an active choice and means something.
As discussed in Chapter 4, unlike the species call, there is no single species-wide
song of the pied butcherbird. This chapter interrogates the reach of a phrase’s
territory, stalking and mapping sonic geographies of difference. Very little research
into long birdsongs has been undertaken, and these seemed an ideal vehicle for
looking at repertoire. For the pied butcherbird, a long song would be a minimum
thirty minutes’ duration and up to three hours or more; the recording would be
made without interruption and be composed of the entire vocalisation delivered by
one bird.
A long song is also requisite in a survey of musical conventions, particularly in a
search for formal rules governing sequential order. A systematic investigation of
how strings of phrases might function as organisational or memory strategies poses
the following questions: Might improvisation and invention be applied to certain
phrases or motives while other segments remain unchanged? What are the most
stable parameters/most fluctuating parameters? What kind of potential
permutations are never observed? What length of recording is necessary to hear all
the phrases in a repertoire?
These are some of the modes of inquiry I undertook with two long songs, one song
delivered during a warm winter day on arid Magnetic Island in the Great Barrier
Reef, Queensland, the other delivered pre-dawn in the cold desert spring of Alice
Springs, Central Australia.
129
5.1 Diurnal song
5.1.1 A diurnal song on Magnetic Island
Dateline: 12 June 2005, Nelly Bay, Magnetic Island. The previous day I had
recorded a bird at the corner of Warboys and Yates, one block from the island’s
perimeter road and business district. (S)he variously sang from the top of two tall
trees on a residential street.44 The bigger tree on the right is a melaleuca, also
known as a paper bark; the one on the left is a eucalyptus. My reference name for
the bird is “Two Tree.” The prior day, (s)he was already singing at midday when I
arrived and recorded for an hour and a half before (s)he flew off. Thus, I am familiar
with the song phrases. Today, I arrive earlier. Since I know (s)he might sing a long
song, a potential challenge for batteries, I neglect to turn on the recorder until I
hear singing or at least see the bird. Thus, I miss the first two phrases, which I
quickly sing into the recorder in the interval between phrases. (S)he begins just
before 10:45 a.m., and it is 2:00 p.m. when (s)he flies off and I make this
announcement into the microphone (unedited):
Pied butcherbird. I saw him. No apparent rival when he began. He
looked back and forth whenever he was not singing. He began in the
left tree, which I call the Morning Tree, at 39 minutes he moved to
the right tree and was in the sun. Just before 54 minutes in he moved
back to the left tree, a different perch, and flew around to several
different perches. He had an apparent rival sometime in, before he
first moved to the right tree. When he moved to that tree, he
positioned his back to where I thought the other bird was. It was
very distant. There might have been another bird to my left as well,
that came in later. But definitely a closer bird came in towards the
end and got him started up again. He shared the trees at different
times with rainbow lorikeets, pied currawongs, sulphur-crested
cockatoos… there was a blue-winged kookaburra that flew in about
two meters from me and walked on the ground for awhile but never
made a sound. With both rivals, there was both song matching and
contrasting. The rival had different songs from Two Tree’s.
Probably 85 degrees today [c. 30 Celsius] on Magnetic Island.
As I record, cars drive by, radios go on and off, an airplanes fly over, and a gardener
works in front of me, spraying herbicide onto weeds. The following two days, I
neither hear nor observe this bird singing, after which I depart the island.
44
“In all documented cases where a special song is sung during the breeding season, usually at dawn,
this song has been given by males only” (Johnson, 2003: 312).
130
The decision to notate this three-and-a-quarter-hour song reflects a serious
underestimation of the complexity of the musical material. Various strategies are in
place to manage the sheer volume of information. First, the essential example for
each phrase is chosen using the interpretative tools of a musician. Although ratio of
presentation informs this choice, presenting an example that captures the essence of
the phrase is paramount. The phrases were all delivered; none are artificial
composites. The essential example is not presented as canonical but merely as a
working version. The unwieldiness of portamentos led to the presentation of a
simplified version of most phrases for those readers not having the benefit of
hearing the recording. Variants of some phrases are also presented. The entire
transcription can be accessed in Appendix A. In addition, phrases segregated by
letter type are presented in the order they were delivered in Appendix B.
5.1.2 Individual phrases of a diurnal song
Phrase A.
Characterisation: magisterial.
Total number of phrase variants including rhythmic variations and hybrids45: 39.
Range46 of phrase A: C6 to C7 (one octave).
Key intervals: two strong leaps—an ascending minor sixth and a descending
tritone; otherwise, small intervals, often delivered via portamento.
Contour: arch.
Timbre: quasi-rattle on F6, rapid portamento on the terminal notes F6-C6.
Hybrids: A+B, A+D+A, I+A, and D+A+B.
Variants: On three occasions, beginning decorations are delivered: one borrowed
from phrase I’s rattle, one from phrase D’s whistle, and one from phrase D’s
terminal descending motif (indicating this motif has flexibility of placement).
Figure 5.1 shows a typical delivery of phrase A on line one; line two is simplified for
the benefit of analysis. The two strong leaps—an ascending minor sixth and a
descending tritone—are identified. The longer tones, C6 to C#6, have a counterpart
with the F#6 to F6, retrograde minor seconds transposed up a fourth.
45
All measurements exclude hybrid phrases unless stated otherwise. Hybrid phrases may fuse entire
phrases or subsections of them.
46 Ranges summarise measurements from all variants excluding hybrids unless stated otherwise.
131
Figure 5.1. A typical example of phrase A as delivered by the bird, followed by a simplified version.
“QR” denotes a quasi-rattle.
Figure 5.2 contains an example of phrase A with two terminal decorations, the first
of which descends from A6 to C#6, a retrograde delivery of the earlier ascending
C#6-A6 seen in many variants of phrase A, including the variant below.
Figure 5.2. Phrase A terminal decoration, with a retrograde delivery of the earlier ascending leap
from a C#6 to an A6. “QR” denotes a quasi-rattle.
The phrase accommodates a number of entry and stopping points. Humans combine
items of information in order to remember them as a group (Levitin, 2006: 213).
These function as a single unit in memory. An examination of motif boundaries is
shown in Figure 5.3 to interrogate if and how “chunking” might be relevant in the
avian brain.
The first six phrase variants reveal progressive stopping points. Bar 7 sees a repeat
of the D#6 -D6 -C#6 portamento; bars 8 and 9 show later entry points into the
phrase. If the initial C note is delivered, the C# (via portamento) always follows. All
other notes are potential stopping points until the end. Judging from the entire
performance, an ending can occur on the F# before the quasi-rattle and on the F of
the quasi-rattle; if the bird continues to the next F#, (s)he will continue down to the
C and add the quick F-C (or E-C) portamento decoration.
The initial half-step rise from C6 to C#6 and the subsequent half-step fall from F#6
to F6 are the most stable parameters, and although neither is present in all
132
deliveries of the phrase, this is most often the case. The retrograde of this half-step
motion up a perfect fourth is structurally satisfying. The most fluctuating
parameter is the terminal decoration, which is either balanced by the minor sixth
rise with a descending portamento version of the interval or by the second half of
phrase B.
Figure 5.3. Nine different deliveries of phrase A. This abbreviated catalogue begins with the shortest
and simplest (and not in the order delivered) to allow for a visual inspection of the add-on technique
and potential “chunking” boundaries of motives. The first F#6 is the alignment point. “QR” denotes a
quasi-rattle.
Phrase B.
Characterisation: exuberant.
133
Total number of phrase variants including rhythmic variations and hybrids: 30.
Range of phrase B: B5 to B6 (one octave) in the essential phrase; in the phrase with
the steepest chip sound, B5-G5 (one octave + minor sixth).
Key intervals: minor and major seconds, descending and ascending minor sixths,
and a portamento tritone similar to the final descending perfect fifth/tritone
in phrase D.
Contour: zigzag, often with step-wise motion filling the gap created by a leap.47
Timbre: rapid portamento decoration on many motives, an occasional chip sound
(denoted CH).
Hybrids: B+D, B+F, B+I, A+B, D+B, J+B, B+C+B, B+D+E, and D+A+B.
Variants: Although exuberant in its own right, the volley of prefixes and suffixes
appended to phrase B embraces whistles, rattles, zigzagging portamentos,
and steep descents (including the chip sound).
Figure 5.4 details the essential phrase B and its simplification.
Figure 5.4. A typical example of phrase B as delivered by the bird, followed by a simplified version.
Two ascending major second leaps are gap-filled.
The ascending minor sixth (C#6-A6) seen in phrase A is presented in retrograde (a
descending minor sixth, A6-C#6) in phrase B, with portamento. A similar pitch
profile emerges in both phrases: C6 C#6 A6 F#6 F6, but no final rise to F#6 is
present in phrase B (as if arriving at the F#6 would require downward motion to
the C6). Instead, phrase B ends with an ascent. The rising major second is gap-filled
by the descending minor second and transposed in the essential phrase: A B A# are
followed by E F# F.
47
This is consistent with how human cognition deals with a leap: “To fill in the gap that a leap
creates, motion should proceed in the direction opposite that of the leap, in step-size intervals”
(Snyder, 2000: 148).
134
Phrase C.
Characterisation: kinetic.
Range of phrase C: C6 to A6 (major sixth).
Key intervals: a minor second and ascending and descending perfect fifths.
Contour: largely bowl by eye, but ascent by ear.
Timbre: rapid rattle on D6. The pulse rate of the rattle is 36 per second.
Hybrids: most often fused with phrase E (27 of the 39 include E material)—both as
C+E and E+C; other hybrids are B+C and I+C+B. Phrase E normally
follows phrase C after a slice of silence, as if a rhetorical question were posed
and then time was taken before answering it. The two linked together in
this manner, the first ascending and the second descending, provide a
satisfying sense of balance.
Figure 5.5 details the essential phrase C and its simplification. The motif after the
rattle is always delivered en bloc. Although the phrase ends on an A6, a sense of tonic
accompanies the pitch of D6.
Figure 5.5. A typical example of phrase C as delivered by the bird, followed by a simplified version.
“R” denotes a rattle.
Phrase C is occasionally delivered without the beginning rattle; conversely, the
beginning rattle by itself can be affixed to another phrase as a hybrid.
Phrase D.
Characterisation: theatrical.
Total number of phrase variants including hybrids and rhythmic/rattle variations:
102.
Range of phrase D: D6 to D7 (one octave).
135
Key intervals: a descending major seventh, ascending major sixth, and descending
perfect fifth (occasionally delivered as a descending tritone).
Contour: zigzag, with the gap created by a leap filled motion in the opposite
direction.
Timbre: a bell-like whistle, speculated by one listener to be a sound object copied
from a telephone bell by the bird (V. Powys, personal communication, 25
May 2007), a slow rattle (with a pulse rate of 15 per second) spanning G6C#6 but perceived as D6. The whistle is startling and could be used to regain
a listener’s attention.
Hybrids: D+B, D+E, A+D+A, D+A+B, B+D, B+D+E, K+D, and K+D+E.
Figure 5.6 details the essential phrase D and its simplification.
Figure 5.6. A typical example of phrase D as delivered by the bird, followed by a simplified version.
The jump to B6 in the final motif, which then is resolved with a descending
portamento to an E6, is a particularly satisfying gap-fill. Because of the discrete,
highly segmented nature of its motives, phrase D lends itself to a graph-like
representation. Variants are grouped into families for an examination into phrase
building conventions.
Table 5.1 dissects phrase D variants excluding hybrids. The three key components
are the whistle motif, the rattle motif, and descending portamento motif. New
material not normally included in the phrase could be placed at two points, and the
descending motif could be appended to the new material. Boxed segments indicate,
from left to right: new material not normally included in the phrase; the whistle
motif; the rattle motif; the descending portamento motif; new material; and
descending motif. Numbers indicate total iterations of the motif.
136
Table 5.1 Construction of phrase D variants (excluding hybrids)
New
Descending New
Descending
Material Whistle Rattle Motif
Material Motif
4
1
1
3
2
1
3
2
3
1
1
2
2
1
2
2
2
1
1
2
2
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Since hybrids play an active role in the development of phrase D, a second graphic
analysis (Table 5.2) itemises all 37 variants of phrase D including hybrid phrases.
Prefixes are taken from phrases A, B, and L, while suffixes are from phrases A, B,
and E, plus the combined A+B, and B+B. Several phrases see new material added,
all of a similar nature.
Subtle variations in rhythm and the number of rattle iterations (from 6-10) are not
taken into account for this summation, which folds similar material into groups.
The recombinatory abilities of the bird on this phrase encompass elimination,
repetition, augmentation, cut-and-paste, and manipulation of each part of the motif,
as well as the addition of “new” material. Column 2 refers to bar numbers in the
transcription as a whole, which can be referenced in Appendix A.
137
Table 5.2 Construction of phrase D variants and hybrids
# of
Item Example Hybrid # of
# of
desc.
#
in bar # prefix whistles rattles motif
1.
4
2
1
2.
5
2
2
1
3.
10
2
1
1
4.
12
2
5.
18
1
2
1
6.
26
3
1
1
7.
31
2
2
8.
87
2
1
9.
119
2
1
1
10.
130
2
11.
151
2
12.
161
1
13.
176
B
1
1
14.
259
1
1
15.
300
B
2
1
16.
305
1
1
1
17.
317
4
1
1
18.
334
3
2
1
19.
422
2
20.
449
1
21.
491
1
1
22.
535
1
23.
667
2
24.
784
A
1
25.
888
B
2
1
26.
897
3
2
27.
900
1
28.
1004
1
29.
1009
1
30.
1043
1
31.
1050
B
1
32.
1051
2
33.
1077
1
34.
1079
K
1
35.
1081
1
36.
1084
New
1
37.
1096
K
1
Hybrid suffix(es)
B
E
E
B
B
E
E
New
E
B
B+B
A
E
New
New + E
A+B
New + 1 Desc. Motif
E
Considering all deliveries of phrase D, no motives are more stable than others for
inclusion or variability. Any of the three could be present without the other two,
although the whistle and descending portamento motif are never delivered without
the rattle between them.
138
Phrase E.
Characterisation: playful.
Range of phrase E: A5 to G6 (minor seventh).
Key intervals: a minor and major second, descending minor sixth, ascending minor
third, and tritone.
Contour: bowl overall, with a zigzag pattern on the immediate level.
Timbre: a quasi-rattle on portamento B6-A6; a trill (rare in pied butcherbird
vocalisations) on the notes F#6-G6 replaces the terminal F#6-C6 G6 several
times. Hybrids combined with phrase E have various timbral features that
will be discussed in the section devoted to those phrases.
Hybrids: E+C, E+D, E+J, B+E, C+E, D+E, J+E, and B+D+E.
Figure 5.7 details the essential phrase E and its simplification. Wide-stepped
movement, with intervals larger than seconds, is common. The first three tones,
F#-C G, always appear together and often include the B-A as well. The length of
the phrase is unstable, as seen below in an essay into motif boundaries. These
motives constitute the units of recombination from which many variants are
generated.
Figure 5.7. A typical example of phrase E as delivered by the bird, followed by a simplified version.
“QR” denotes a quasi-rattle.
This is a workhorse phrase ideal for recombinatory treatment, although a purely
statistical analysis such as undertaken for phrase D could not satisfactorily take this
into account. Therefore, some of the numerous variants are arranged in Figure 5.8
to allow for comparisons of motif borders.
139
Figure 5.8. A partial catalogue of phrase E variants, presented in order of increased complexity in
order to allow visual inspection of potential “chunking” boundaries for motives. The alignment point
is boxed. “QR” denotes a quasi-rattle.
140
A notable augmentation occurs in several deliveries of phrase E (Fig. 5.9) by way of
a trill.
Figure 5.9. Augmentation by way of a trill.
Phrase E conventions permit repetition or elision of all motives. These simple,
repeated motives are energized by constant changes in direction and repetition. The
tension generated by repetition with variation creates a delightful tangle. Whether
motif boundaries are determined by rhythmic or melodic grouping is unclear.
Phrase F.
Characterisation: unsettled.
Range of phrase F: D#6 to A#6 (perfect fifth).
Key intervals: minor and major seconds and a perfect fifth.
Contour: lop-sided bowl.
Timbre: portamento on a descending major second, otherwise unremarkable.
This brief phrase (Fig. 5.10) is delivered early in the song, at 3:26, and bar 19 marks
its only entrance. Perhaps the bird was still collecting her/himself (while it seems
possible, I am not qualified to comment on matters concerning the avian brain).
Figure 5.10. Phrase F as delivered by the bird.
141
In the final two notes, we see the retrograde of the descending motif of phrase D.
Also familiar is the half-step motion present in other phrases, but this new phrase
fails to belong to any phrase family in a convincing manner.
Phrase G.
Characterisation: improvisatory.
Range of phrase G: C#6-A6 (minor sixth).
Key intervals: a descending perfect fifth but otherwise small intervals. A phrase
with only one large leap is unusual for this individual.
Contour: spiky.
Timbre: rapid rattle on G#6. The pulse rate of the rattle is 21 per second.
Hybrids: a motif from phrase A is present, but a hybrid sense is not achieved.
Phrase G (Fig. 5.11), like phrase F, comes early in the song (at 3:56/bar 23 and
6:36/bar 41).
Figure 5.11. The two deliveries of phrase G as delivered by the bird. “R” denotes a rattle.
The descending and ascending perfect fifths in the first example indicate this is a
favoured interval in this range. There is a clear resemblance to phrase A that fades
midway. Every gap is filled with motion in the opposite direction except for one
instance in bar two, where the rattle fills the gap after a note’s delay.
Phrase H.
Characterisation: mercurial.
Range of phrase H: A5 to A6 (one octave).
142
Key intervals: minor third and perfect fourth both in ascending and descending
portamento
Contour: zigzag.
Timbre: quasi-rattle on several notes.
Hybrids: most often with E (27 of the 39 include E material) delivered as C+E and
E+C; also B+C, and I+C+B.
There is a sense of arpeggiating an F or F# major chord (intonation differs by a
half-step among variants and does not seem to be a key component of this phrase),
and with the F (or F#) as our central pitch reference, there is a tonic feel to the
phrase. Two essential versions are presented to illustrate how the bird employs the
note beginning the second motif as a pivot point. If the note is a C#, (s)he will
continue up to the E; if the note is a C, this marks a descent.
Figure 5.12. Two typical examples of phrase H as delivered by the bird, followed by simplified
versions. The note beginning the second motif (circled) is an apparent pivot point. C#6 requires
continued ascent, while C6 enables a descent. “QR” denotes a quasi-rattle.
The mundane stepwise motion of the main notes F6 G6 A6 is embellished with
portamento. A balance between predictability and surprise is adeptly struck on the
variants of this phrase. The beginning notes C6-A6 C6-F6-C6 are always delivered
intact except in variant 13. The motif G6-D6 A6 is always intact as well.
Phrase I.
Characterisation: dynamic.
143
Range of phrase I: C#6 to A6 (minor sixth). Phrase I with the chip sound spans
nearly three octaves, A8-C#6. This is the highest note in the entire song,
seen below (Fig. 5.13).
Figure 5.13. The highest note in the entire song, indicated by a box.
Key intervals: a descending perfect fifth and ascending minor third.
Contour: bowl.
Timbre: rapid rattle on G6 (or G#6). The pulse rate of the rattle is 21.5 per second.
Hybrids: A+I, B+I, I+A, and I+A+B.
Figure 5.14 details the essential phrase I and its simplification.
Figure 5.14. A typical example of phrase I as delivered by the bird, followed by a simplified version.
Phrase I is occasionally delivered without the initial rattle; in those cases, a rattle is
placed in the terminal position. This is the most stable phrase; most variants merely
reflect a difference in rattle count (from 11-37 iterations). Steep portamentos are
144
hallmarks of all variants save the final, which is a rattle on the pitch G6 normally
associated with this phrase, followed by two long notes, C6 and C#6.
Phrase J.
Characterisation: kick butt48 and take names.
Range of phrase J: A#5 to A#6 (one octave).
Key intervals: portamentos comprise the entire phrase except for the ascending
tritone leap from E6 to A#7.
Contour: ascent.
Timbre: variously a wow sound, a quasi-rattle, a normal rattle, and a hollowsounding rattle accomplished by three rapid iterations of each “note.” The
pulse rate of the hollow-sounding rattle is 14 tripartite (or 42) iterations
per second. The pulse rate of the standard-sounding rattle is 50 per
second.
Hybrids: J+B, J+E, J+H, and K+J.
Figure 5.15 details the essential phrase J and its simplification.
Figure 5.15.A typical example of phrase J as delivered by the bird, followed by a simplified version.
“HR” denotes a hollow-sounding rattle.
Some variants feature down and then up portamento swings to large intervals—a
perfect fourth, tritone, perfect fifth, and minor sixth—and end higher than where
they began. These swings take on a daring, almost mocking, flavour. The rattle
rises or falls but usually falls at the end, even if it begins with an ascent. A large
48
McClary and Walser (1990: 277-292) take up this colloquialism to grapple with how rock music
directly affects listeners; the avian application is equally pertinent.
145
ascending leap (anywhere from a major sixth to a major seventh) normally follows
the rattle. Initial decorations include the descending motif from phrase D, a drop
then rise, or a wow sound. The bird chooses from several possible terminal
decorations involving rapid portamentos.
Phrase K.
Characterisation: unyielding.
Range of phrase K: F#5 to B6 (octave plus perfect fourth).
Key intervals: a unison, minor second, and ascending minor seventh.
Contour: bowl-like but spiky.
Timbre: an unfocussed, bubbly sound, which extends down to an F5 in some
manifestations (at 698 Hz, the lowest note in the song).
Hybrids: the descending motif of phrase D is appended three times, once as
K+D+E.
Figure 5.16. A typical example of phrase K as delivered by the bird, followed by a simplified version.
“B” denotes a bubby sound.
This phrase first appears in bar 813, 2:09:03 into the song. Other species of birds,
especially the high and squawky rainbow lorikeets (Trichoglossus haematodus), are
nearby and noisy whenever this phrase is delivered, leading to speculation that the
pied butcherbird moves into a lower register to optimise broadcast space. The
opposition of register is striking. The voice-leading from the F6 to the terminal E6
has an inevitability to it. In addition to the lowest notes of the song, this phrase
contains the longest note (at 1.27sec.), the terminal E6 in variant 14.
146
Figure 5.17. Phrase K contains the lowest notes and the longest note in the song.
As they compete and collaborate with one another, these phrases, variants, and
hybrids—in turns triumphant and threatening—form a cabinet of melodic
curiosities. Now, our viewpoint shifts from microscopic, reductionist, and
fragmentary to a collective consideration of the song as a whole.
5.1.3 A diurnal song considered as a whole
It remains unknown whether “song as a whole” is a concept for birds, and if it were
to be, what “whole” would mean.49 Nevertheless, a summary of the history of
aesthetic choices made in this song serves to highlight what the bird has
accomplished in a three-and-a-quarter-hour period.
The bird is a powerful singer, and most phrases are seemingly delivered at
maximum volume, although the lowest notes are less powerful. The singer moves
with each phrase, involving the entire body. Likewise and perhaps related, all
phrases possess vibrancy and movement; they command attention in a performance
that is, like other songbirds such as grey butcherbirds, “visually and vocally
extravagant” (Johnson, 2003: 291). Portamento is present in each phrase type,
although the singing is sufficiently stable to permit conventional notation.
A host of timbral effects are brought to bear, including a trill, quasi-rattle, standard
rattle, hollow-sounding rattle, wow sound, chip sound, bubbly sound, and whistle
reminiscent of a telephone ring. The following measure numbers link to the entire
49
This is not an original observation. The study is indebted to the author, philosopher, and musician
David Rothenberg for this and other thought-provoking questions.
147
score (Appendix A). Five consecutive phrases with rattles (bars 1118-1122) are
placed at the end of the song (only one phrase is delivered after these). The first
four of these rattles are all new Phrase J variants (Fig. 5.18), which feature a
powerful hollow-sounding rattle.
Figure 5.18. Four new phrase J variants delivered near the end of the song, from 3:09:35 to 3:10:33.
The total range encompasses three octaves plus a major third, from F5 to A8,
although most phrases are delivered within the confines of an octave in the midlower range. The widest ascending leaps (not portamentos) are an octave plus a
minor third (phrase K/bar 1002) and an octave plus a minor second (phrase H/bar
330 and phrase J/bar 359); the widest descending leaps are two octaves (phrase
I/bar 164) and a major seventh (phrase D/from whistle to rattle, such as bar 5).
Occasionally, a sense of a tonic (or central reference pitch) is noted.
The 1123 phrases divide into eleven discrete phrases, of which ten are heard more
than once. An unequal and unstable duration of motivic segments adds interest.
Phrase contour ranges from arch to bowl to ascent, but usually betrays zigzag or
spiky elements. Bregman holds that “pitches are very noticeable when they are at
the points at which the pitch movement changes its direction, at the peaks and
148
valleys of the melodic contour, or if they are at the ends of phrases” (1990: 475).
Could it be that these angular phrases are bids to attract attention? As we will see
below, leaps and sharp switchbacks are rife in the song phrases of not just this bird
but also many to come.
The shortest phrase is 0.4sec (a phrase D variant: the descending motif/bar 1077).
The longest phrase is 7.7sec. (a hybrid built from elements of phrases K, D, and
E/bar 1096). To achieve repertoire diversity, all nine major phrases have variants,
some more than others, and all involve recombinations of material to form hybrid
phrases. Invention is applied to all phrases and motives. The last main phrase (K) is
introduced in bar 696, at 1:49:28 into the song.
The rhythmic language of individual phrases fits conventional notation but only
just. Intricacy and accuracy share a capricious friendship. To make the rhythmic
notation more accurate would be to lose sight of the material. On a larger scale,
pacing and slices of silence, the surprises and respites, also fall under the rhythm
rubric. While I consider the silence at phrase-end to be part of the phrase, I
nevertheless did measure the inter-phrase interval. The mean phrase duration is
2.3sec., while the mean inter-phrase interval is 7.9sec. This would see the mean
duration of sound-plus-silence at 10.2sec. The singing rate is 1123 phrases in 192
minutes (including the one minute before the recorder was turned on), or 5.85
phrases per minute.
Phrases are delivered emphatically. Although not all are used with equal frequency
(see Figure 5.19/Table 5.3 for a ratio of phrase delivery), no obvious hierarchy
emerges. The song displays a remarkable balance between predictability and
surprise in the phrases delivered. When this large amount of vocal material is
subjected to distributional analysis and inspected, no obvious phrase ordering can
be detected on a large or small scale. My intuition is that phrase “order” is largely
determined by the desire to create passages of diverse timbre, rhythm, direction,
duration, and melody that will command, hold, and re-command attention.
Transition versatility (the likelihood of successive songs being different) is extremely
high. Environment may shape the choice or delivery of a phrase. Then, external
factors demand that adjustments and refinements take place. Phrase K is a case in
149
point, where the presence of a group of rainbow lorikeets or another singing pied
butcherbird accompanies the only deliveries of this phrase.
Figure 5.19. Ratio of delivery for phrases: 1=A, 2=B, 3=C, 4=D, 5=E, 6=F, 7=G, 8=H, 9=I, 10=J,
11=K, and 12=all hybrid phrases.
Table 5.3 Ratio of phrase delivery in a diurnal long song
Phrase
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
All hybrids
TOTAL
# of
deliveries
159
93
32
155
189
1
2
222
52
99
14
114
1123
Ratio of phrase
delivery
14.16%
8.28%
2.85%
13.80%
16.83%
0.09%
0.18%
19.77%
4.63%
8.82%
1.25%
9.35%
100.00%
150
This brings us to “the vexed problem of inventiveness in song” (Thorpe, 1961: 90).
Within the repertoire of this individual, phrases display extensive motivic variation
and a highly developed sense of form. Motives are subjected to operations such as
contrast, reduction, expansion, transposition, fusion, division, and substitution.
Initial and terminal decorations, particularly rattles or the descending portamento
motif, are common. Figure 5.20 details some of the various rattles the bird is
capable of creating.
Figure 5.20. Summary of main rattle types by phrase. Phrases G and I use the same rattle; phrase J
has two possible rattles, the second of which is a tripartite, hollow-sounding one.
Recombining larger segments of different phrases also produces phrase variants.
Nine percent of all phrases are hybrids. A typical hybrid recombination consists of
two phrases fused together, either in part or in full, and sometimes three phrases
are mixed together. Three phrases are tripartite: B+D+E, I+C+B, and K+D+E.
The E phrase is drawn on a preponderance of the time for the composition of a
hybrid; 75 of the 114 hybrid phrases, or 66%, contain an element of the E phrase.
Table 5.4 summarises the ratio of hybrid phrase deliveries.
151
Table 5.4 Ratio of hybrid phrases in a diurnal long song
Hybrid Phrase
AB
AD
AI
BC
BD
BE
BDE
BI
CE
DA
DB
DE
EA
EC
ED
EJ
HE
HK
ICB
JE
JH
KB
KD
KDE
Total
# of
Deliveries
6
2
2
2
4
2
2
2
37
3
11
27
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
1
1
1
1
114
Percentage of
Hybrid Phrases
5.26%
1.75%
1.75%
1.75%
3.51%
1.75%
1.75%
1.75%
32.46%
2.63%
9.65%
23.68%
0.88%
0.88%
0.88%
0.88%
0.88%
0.88%
0.88%
2.63%
0.88%
0.88%
0.88%
0.88%
100.00%
When the rules underlying the performance are examined, certain potential
permutations occur. No mimicry is noted. No species call is recorded, either
separately or embedded in a song phrase. The bird never presents a hodgepodge of
sounds; while (s)he may be improvising, (s)he has a toolkit of phrases and timbres
that serves as the basis for the song. Gaps formed by leaps are filled most of the
time (no obvious difference in ratio between rising and falling leaps is noted).
Apparently, the bird is familiar the margins of possible variation for each motif—
(s)he never appears to get lost or stops. A larger sample would be needed to
comment conclusively on the order of hybrid phrases, which seems flexible,
although some could be fixed. The tone is always “good” and sounds pied
butcherbird-like. No waning of energy or inventiveness in the third hour (such as a
less powerful signal or a drop in transition versatility) is noted. Dynamism pervades
the entire song bout.
152
5.1.4 A diurnal song compared to other recordings from
the area
In light of this bird’s astounding ability to invent and recombine motives and
phrases, I returned to Magnetic Island in 2006 to record Two Tree, if still living,
and other birds to compare with her/him. In 2006, the birds were scarcely
vocalising during my trip, July 31-August 9. I was able to record one bird at Arthur
Bay that delivered extensive mimicry; the only familiar song phrase was the
descending perfect fifth/tritone motif from phrase D. This phrase is also the only
apparent remnant from 2005 in the repertoire on my trip to Magnetic Island in the
next year (September 15-22, 2007). Birds were recorded at three locations; these
were likely all the same bird, as the song posts were within blocks of each other and
in the Two Tree territory as it was allotted in 2005. My diagnostic for Two Tree
would be the frequency of use and variety of the rattles and the recombinatory
ability as displayed in both variants and hybrids. I do not believe any were the
individual Two Tree. This will be taken up in more detail below.
Due to the limited opportunities to record pied butcherbirds on Magnetic Island,50 I
planned fieldwork on the mainland as well as the island. From Townsville west
along the Flinders Highway towards Charters Towers for a distance of
approximately 64 kilometres, I recorded wherever I could find a suitable site. The
recording target was pre-dawn song, and eight locations produced good
recordings.51
These Queensland locations form the basis for my cartographic delineations. To
illustrate the wide range of pied butcherbird musical predilections and abilities and
their relationship to the vocalisations of Two Tree, consider a few pre-dawn song
excerpts from these eight birds, along with five from Magnetic Island. Space does
not permit an analysis of each of the songs, and length of the recorded excerpts
varies. Rather than offering a thorough analysis of each new bird, this thumbnail
sketch serves to situate Two Tree within their song conventions while searching
50
Estimates of the pied butcherbird population from local ornithological experts Eric Vanderduys
and Chris Corbet (unpublished personal communication) put the entire population at about a dozen,
and my surveys are consistent with this.
51 In this area, once pre-dawn song is completed, pied butcherbirds vocalise minimally. Therefore,
after completing a recording, I quickly left in order to inspect potential recording sites for the
following day while birds might still be slightly active. This limits the amount of information I have
about diurnal vocalisations, if any, at each site.
153
for remnants of his/her vocalisations in nearby conspecifics. Phrases and variants
are notated only once, in the order of their presentation, and placed in Appendix F.
We begin with the most distant bird from Magnetic Island on the Flinders
Highway, the bird on Cardington Road (1. MD2007.2.11). This bird delivers
phrases with wide leaps and portamentos of an octave and more, including the chip
timbre. Six phrase types and five variants are noted in a 4:51 excerpt of 39 phrases.
The descending second motif (SLD2), articulated short-long on an F6 to F#6, is
present in phrase C. This motif does not figure in Two Tree’s repertoire. No rattle
is present, nor are hybrid phrases noted.
Ten kilometres closer to Townsville, the Cameron Road bird (2. MD2007.3.9) also
displays wide portamento leaps. Six phrase types and two variants are noted in a
5:01 excerpt of 64 phrases. A two-note chord is produced by simultaneous singing
from both sides of the syrinx. One rattle is present, but no hybrid phrases are noted.
One kilometre closer yet to Townsville, the Planthill Road bird (3. MD2007.2.1)
chooses wide portamento leaps producing the chip sound. Four phrase types and
four variants are noted in a 3:57 excerpt of 37 phrases. No rattle is noted. No hybrid
phrases are noted.
Two and a half kilometres closer to Townsville, the Wordsworth Road bird (4.
MD2007.4.1) chooses wide portamento leaps. Six phrase types and eleven variants
are noted in a 5:27 excerpt of 49 phrases. The Wordsworth Road bird broadcasts as
powerfully as Two Tree and with more emphasis on timbral colours, including
rattles, quasi-rattles, and wow, chip, and chop sounds. He raps out short, often
metallic motives. One hybrid phrase is noted (phrases D+B2/bar 15). As is typical
with all these recordings, another pied butcherbird can be heard in the distance;
only some of the conspecific’s phrases are similar. Elements of grey butcherbird
song figure into this pied butcherbird’s song (not in the midst of a mimicry cycle) at
one point. Grey butcherbirds are singing in the territory.
The bird completes one section of pre-dawn song with thirty seconds of mimicry in
full voice before flying on to another song post to resume singing (Fig. 5.21).
154
Figure 5.21. A pied butcherbird pre-dawn song ending with mimicry, part one. A foreshadowing of
the mimicry to come occurs at 17sec. before returning to the bird’s own notes (ON). At 20sec., the
song contains only mimicry unless noted as the bird’s own notes (ON). Some notes resembling the
pied butcherbird’s are grey butcherbird mimicry (GBB).
Figure 5.21 above depicts the final four phrases of conventional pre-dawn song
before the mimicry cycle begins. One mimicry motif is inserted before the fourth
phrase, at 17.5sec. The conventional phrases distinguish themselves in a visual
inspection by their obvious temporal segmentation, with inter-phrase intervals of
several seconds, and their darker, squarer note shapes.
The mimicry continues in Figure 5.22.
155
Figure 5.22. A pied butcherbird pre-dawn song ending with mimicry, part two. The bird’s own notes
(ON) are few. Some notes resembling the pied butcherbird’s are grey butcherbird mimicry (GBB).
One kilometre closer to Townsville, the Dingo Park Road bird (5. MD2007.6.12)
presents a song of delicate sonic arabesques. Six phrase types and six variants are
noted in a 5:02 excerpt of 24 phrases. Rattles and rapid portamento leaps are
delivered. The SLD2 motif (on F6 to F#6) is present in phrase C. No hybrid phrases
are noted.
The singer on Chenoweth Road (6. MD2007.6.18), three kilometres closer to
Townsville, works a couple of simple ideas quite effectively. Six phrase types and
eight variants are noted in a 2:05 excerpt of 23 phrases. No rattles are noted, and
portamentos are almost absent. Phrase B (bar 2) displays syncopated variation of
the SLD2 motif (on F6 to F#6). No hybrid phrases are noted. The recording is not
good; since it was raining, the full abilities of this bird remain unknown, a case of
concert cancelled due to weather.
156
The Booth Road bird (7. MD2007.6.1) resides 27 kilometres still closer to
Townsville. A number of recordings were made at this cattle property in 2006 and
2007, yielding exceptional duets as well as this solo pre-dawn song. (One duet from
2006 forms the basis of Pied butcherbird suite in Chapter 6’s composition portfolio.)
Nineteen phrase types and thirteen variants are noted in a 5:30 excerpt of 60
phrases, but these numbers fail to tell the whole story. Two hybrid phrases are
noted (K+D/bar 12 and I+D/bar 14), although two birds could have delivered
them. (The time is 4:40 a.m. and definitely still dark; no birds are visible.)
Two birds are undoubtedly singing in an overlapping duet style intermittently from
bar 34 onwards (this goes against standard theory that duets are reserved for day
song). The species call is present in the song (sounding convincingly as if delivered
by one bird), at what would be considered “original pitch”—F7 G7 F7. Timbral
elaborations include quasi-rattles, rattles, and chip and tok sounds, although in
general the song is rollicking and tuneful. The SLD2 motif (on F6 to F#6) is present
in phrase M/bar 17. An Australian magpie can be heard carolling close-by, and
although occasionally they step on each other’s phrases, usually they place their
phrases in the inter-phrase interval of the other.
In Townsville, 20 kilometres from the Booth Road bird, the James Cook University
bird (8. MD2007.6.25) presents relaxed and rolling phrases delivered with
moderate signal power. Eleven phrase types and six variants are noted in a 2:44
excerpt of 33 phrases. The chip sound spans an octave plus a minor third; the wow is
also present. One chord consists of two simultaneous notes a tritone apart. Rattles
and quasi-rattles are noted. No hybrid phrases are present.
As mentioned above, the Magnetic Island birds from Nelly Bay (9. MD2007.1.1, 10.
MD 2007.1.17, and 11. MD2007.1.12) are believed to be the same bird recorded
from three singing perches but are not the individual Two Tree. A catalogue of all
the main phrases from the 2007 fieldwork is presented in Figure 5.23.
157
Figure 5.23. Three recordings from Magnetic Island display extensive use of the descending perfect
fifth/tritone motif seen in Two Tree’s phrase D. Ovals mark a match; rectangles mark a strong
similarity with a slight variance in rhythm or pitch; arrows indicate a possible transposition of the
motif.
The descending perfect fifth/tritone motif from phrase D (A6 to D6 or thereabouts)
sees frequent use and is circled, along with several intriguing examples of the
descent beginning on the D6 and moving downward to A5. The first recording (9.
MD2007.1.1) catalogues four phrases and two variants in a 3:07 excerpt of 39
phrases. Two phrases incorporate rattles. No hybrid phrases are present.
The second recording (10. MD2007.1.17) contains the same four phrases and no
variants in a 1:39 excerpt of 25 phrases.
158
The third recording (11. MD2007.1.12) sees the same four phrases plus two new
ones, for a total of six phrases and ten variants in a 3:42 excerpt of 47 phrases. This
bird is likely the same as the previous two, although the rattles are more elaborate.
No hybrid phrases are apparent.
The next bird in the comparison (12. MD 2005.5.33) is the bird referred to as Two
Tree, whose song is analysed in detail above. My initial transcription of a 3:42
excerpt of this bird’s song differs in some details from the three-and-a-quarter-hour
transcription. For example, in the excerpt I detail some twelve phrases, whereas in
the long song I find eleven including two minor ones. Lacking sufficient style
familiarity, I did not initially treat minor alterations as tangential information—
some “new” phrases were really hybrids. Groupings emerged as time with the
material increased. The initial sketch is left in place for the interest it might
provoke in how I heard and notated at different stages. Mâche is correct in his
advice to simplify transcriptions, but without extended contact with the style of a
particular bird-composer, there is the danger of simplifying in the wrong direction.
The final bird from Magnetic Island (13. MD2007.1.10) sings from Florence Bay.
Phrase E/bar 11 seen above in Figure 5.23 (or 11. MD2007.1.12) is replicated by
the Florence Bay bird with a twist. Instead of ending the phrase with the
descending perfect fifth motif (heard first in Two Tree’s phrase D and traced to the
other Nelly Bay birds), the Florence Bay bird incorporates mimicry into the phrase.
(S)he sings to the point where the descending motif is positioned by the Nelly Bay
bird, and then replaces the descending portamento with an ascending one sounding
remarkably like its neighbour, the pied currawong (Strepera graculina).
Thus, while one motif from phrase was retained from Two Tree’s repertoire, most
was lost or, if remembered, at least not being delivered at this time. Figure 5.24
summarises the conventions of the above birds.
159
Bird
#
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
Location
Cardington
Road
Cameron
Road
Planthilll
Road
Wordsworth
Road
Dingo Park
Road
Chenoweth
Road
Booth Road
James Cook
University,
TV
Magnetic
Island: Nelly
Bay, Sooning/Yates
Magnetic
Island: Nelly
Bay,
Warboys/
Kelly
Magnetic
Island: Nelly
Bay,
Bottiger/
Mandalay
Magnetic
Island: Nelly
Bay,
Sooning/
Yates
Magnetic
Island:
Florence
Bay
Wide
portamento
leaps
SL
D2
0
X
X
2
0
X
X
X
4
4
0
X
X
X
6
11
1
X
X
X
6
6
0
X
6
8
0
19
13
2
X
11
6
0
X
4
2
2
X
X
X
4
0
X
X
X
6
10
2
X
X
X
12
3
3
X
X
X
6
10
0
X
X
# of
phrs
type
# of
variants
6
5
6
# of
hybrids
Desc
P5/tritone
motif
R
CH
W
D
T B N
M
SC
IS
A
S
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Figure 5.24. A summary of pied butcherbirds recorded in Townsville (TV) and environs, including
Magnetic Island. SLD2=short-long descending motif; desc P5/tritone=phrase D from Two Tree
song; R=rattle; CH=chip sound; W=wow sound; T=tok sound; B=bubbly sound; dbl. note=a twonote chord formed from notes delivered on both sides of the syrinx; M=mimicry; SC IS=species call
in song; and A S=antiphonal song. Complete GPS location descriptions and recording information
can be accessed in Appendix F.
Certain tendencies and trends emerge. Wide portamento leaps are nearly
omnipresent, including with Two Tree (bird #12 in Figure 5.23). No SLD2 is found
on Magnetic Island, while the descending P5/tritone motif is found only on
Magnetic Island. Chop, wow, tok, and a bubbly sound are rarer. Mimicry, the species
call in song, and antiphonal song see only one occasion each in pre-dawn song.
160
Figure 5.23 gives no indication of significant differences between diurnal and predawn song.
No pre-dawn song phrase of any of the above birds closely resembles another,
except for those on Magnetic Island already described. Unless a bird is in the
adjacent territory of another bird, pre-dawn song phrases do not match. (Even then,
not all match.) Even those sites quite near one another, such as from Cameron to
Planthill to Wordsworth to Dingo Park Roads, see no close phrase types. The sole
similarities derive from the species call, whether it appears as a call, a call in song,
or the SLD2 motif in song. Sonic geographies of difference are clearly in operation.
While there are virtually no shared pre-dawn phrases, I have traced similar diurnal
motives at Cardington Road and Booth Hill Road that are not derived from the
species call (an octave leap D6 D7 D6), and at Chenoweth Road and Booth Hill Road
(a triplet, followed by a quarter note: D6D6D6 C6—this appears in the duet in
Figure 4.31). The outcomes are different in the two locations but betray a similar
starting point. Since diurnal song was not my recording focus, my sample is limited
to brief encounters heard while the shift from pre-dawn to daytime occurs. The
common pool of diurnal material could be broader than noted here. Johnson had
similar findings with her inquiry into grey butcherbird vocalisations:
Whereas day vocalizations of neighbouring groups showed only
minor differences, the breeding song repertoire of every male was
markedly different from that of its neighbours and in addition
changed markedly from year to year. There was more difference
between the dawn songs of two adjacent males than between day
vocalizations of groups many kilometres apart (2003: 290).
I suspect that pied butcherbirds deliberately vary their solo song (whether annually
or seasonally is unknown) from that of their conspecifics, but whether they draw
from a common diurnal pool for pre-dawn material is unknown at this time. An
alternative explanation could be that new phrases are formed from old preferences
rather than from old phrases, with a similar outcome.
I am not qualified to address the functional difference that might exist in pre-dawn
versus diurnal song, if any. Nor am I able to speculate on the differences between
Two Tree’s diurnal song and that of other birds—none of the weeks that I have
161
spent recording pied butcherbirds has produced another long song, or even a
middling one, during the day (save the song I recorded of Two Tree the day prior
to this one, which has not yet been analysed).
5.2 Pre-dawn song
5.2.1 A pre-dawn song in Alice Springs
My goal in this section is to transcribe a long pre-dawn song for comparison
purposes with Two Tree. Again, I sought to develop an intuitive familiarity with
the song of this bird (the notated song itemises only new phrases for the sake of
brevity and is deposited in Appendix D with supplementary analysis in Appendix
E). To assist in my aural assessment, as I did with Two Tree, I gathered other predawn songs from this bird’s immediate area.
Dateline: 8 October 2006, Alice Springs, Central Australia. The previous day on my
way to record at another site, I heard a bird where the Ross and Stuart Highways
converge. This morning, I determine to position myself where I think the bird was.
(This bird figures in Chapter 4 under the crescendo/decrescendo rubric.) At 3:45
a.m. under a full moon, I turn on the recorder. Ten minutes later, Macadam (my
working name for this bird) flies into position in the tree above me and sings for
nearly two hours from the one perch. It is a cold desert night; occasionally traffic
passes by, and although several times cars slow, no one stops. One driver shouts
while passing; the bird stops briefly, then resumes. Because it is a major highway
close to town, there is some light even in the pre-dawn. At 32:20 into the recording,
I announce that I can hear two other pied butcherbirds, one closer than the other. I
also note that whenever a certain phrase is sung, it seems two birds are singing.
Sonographic analysis explains this, and we shall deal with that momentarily. Due to
the limited number of variants and hybrids, all phrases and variants are presented.
5.2.2 Individual phrases of a pre-dawn song
Phrase A.
Characterisation: Unlike Two Tree’s phrases, those of Macadam seem relatively
homogenous and ambiguous. They pose neither a question nor an answer.
162
While Two Tree’s phrases are easily categorized (even the hybrids are
clearly segmented), Macadam’s phrases blend together.52
Total number of phrase A variants and hybrids (Fig. 5.25): 9.
Range of phrase A: G5 to G6 (one octave).
Key intervals: small intervals, with an emphasis on the terminal descending leap (an
octave, major seventh, or minor seventh when it occurs).
Contour: bowl, with sharp terminal descent in phrases A2, A5, and B11/A6.
Timbre: quasi-rattle in phrases A5 and A9; a chip sound on B+A hybrids.
Hybrids: B+A.
Figure 5.25. All variants and hybrids of phrase A in a pied butcherbird pre-dawn song. “CH” denotes
a chip sound. “QR” denotes a quasi-rattle.
Like the phrases to come, this one has a capriciously modular quality. Variants A1
and A3 exemplify the essential phrase; they are virtually identical except for a slight
pitch variation. The motif is broken in phrase A5, where descending movement to
the pitch B5 is similar to the upcoming phrase C; the bird begins again mid-phrase
in A5 and completes a proper phrase A this time. The terminal leap down (A2, A5,
B11+A6, and A7) is optional; phrase A7 sees a second terminal decoration in the E6.
Macadam alludes to the articulation of the SLD2 motif in many of the phrase types,
and the pitches, rhythm, and articulation come together in phrase A to form the
SLD2 motif (although ascending for Macadam rather than the more common
descent).
52
“You know how they never really seem to finish their phrases?” someone once quizzed me at
Warrumbungle National Park. While not residing in New South Wales, Macadam could be an
example of this tendency in some pied butcherbirds to sound ambiguous at phrase-end to the human
ear.
163
Phrase B.
Total number of phrase B variants and hybrids (Fig. 5.26): 14.
Range of phrase B: G#5-D6 (one octave + tritone).
Key intervals: perfect fourth, perfect fifth, and tritone leaps.
Contour: due to the angular quality, a number of contours emerge depending on the
variant—arch, bowl, descent, and zigzag.
Timbre: a chip sound and a rattle (either slow and hollow sounding, which is
delivered at a pulse rate of 9 per second, or rapid, which is delivered at a
pulse rate of 38 per second).
Hybrids: B8+A4 and B11+A6.
Figure 5.26. All variants and hybrids of phrase B in a pied butcherbird pre-dawn song. “CH” denotes
a chip sound, “R” denotes a rattle, and “QR” denotes a quasi-rattle.
The longer tones are bell-like. The contour inversion in some variants (such as B1
versus B2) is remarkable, as is the slow hollow-sounding rattle seen in B4 and B14,
which is replaced by a rapid rattle only during traffic noise. Every motif and gesture
is a potential stopping point. The lack of a gap-fill in phrase B6 is rare and
commands attention.
Phrase C.
Total number of phrase C variants (Fig. 5.27): 5.
164
Range of phrase C: G#5 to G6 (major seventh).
Key intervals: small intervals, often with a notable descending or ascending perfect
fourth.
Contour: zigzag.
Timbre: quasi-rattle on longest tones.
Hybrids: none.
Figure 5.27. All variants of phrase C in a pied butcherbird pre-dawn song. “QR” denotes a quasirattle.
No motif boundaries clearly present themselves. Variant C3 ends with a reference
to phrase A in the descending leap. Other elements are reminiscent of other
phrases, but the circled perfect fourth, interestingly presented both descending and
ascending, is the defining aspect of this ephemeral phrase. Variants C3 and C4
contain a chord produced from both sides of the syrinx, allowing the one “voice” to
rise a perfect fourth while the other rises a minor second.53 When delivered, it had a
strangely ventriloquial quality, as if coming from another individual; since multiple
occurrences of this phrase have this chord, it clearly comes from the one bird.
Phrase D.
Total number of phrase D variants (Fig. 5.28): 4.
Range of phrase D: D6 to C#7 (major seventh).
Key intervals: a minor second and an ascending tritone.
Contour: zigzag, often with step-wise motion filling the gap created by a leap.
Timbre: quasi-rattle on longer tones
Hybrids: none.
53
This double note is featured in Figure 4.1, example 8a.
165
Figure 5.28. All variants of phrase D in a pied butcherbird pre-dawn song. “QR” denotes a quasirattle.
The beginning of this phrase refers to the SLD2 motif, delivered on F6 E6, a halfstep lower than normal. Whereas phrase C moves down from the F6 to the C6,
phrase D moves upward from the F6 to the C#7. Otherwise, the step-wise motion of
the two is similar; both rock stepwise back and forth until a leap is made in one
direction or the other. The phrase can initiate on E6 and ascend to F6 or the reverse.
The pitches F6 F6 C#7 are always delivered together, suggesting a motif boundary.
The C7 gap-fill after the C#7 is particularly satisfying.
Phrase E.
A single note is delivered. For reasons of pitch, it could belong to phrases A, C, D,
or F, or it could be its own statement. It marks the broadcast space, perhaps akin to
the human “ummm…”.
Phrase F.
Total number of phrase F variants and hybrids (Fig. 5.29): 7.
Range of phrase B: G5 to C#7 (one octave + tritone).
Key intervals: a descending perfect fifth (or tritone) dominates otherwise small
intervals.
Contour: descent, occasionally two descents.
Timbre: a slow, hollow-sounding rattle and an occasional chip sound.
Hybrids: none.
166
Figure 5.29. All variants of phrase F in a pied butcherbird pre-dawn song.
The chip sound recalls phrase B, as does the slow rattle—although this one is lower
than phrase B’s rattle. Like most of the phrase types, phrase F seems reminiscent of
the others. It begins like A but stalls on the D6 before dropping (usually) to a G5.
Variants F5 and F7 indicate the descent can take place even without the motif
involving the F6 pitches; variants F5 and F7 are also noteworthy for their continual
downward descent involving three large leaps (circled), a rarity for pied
butcherbirds.
5.2.3 A pre-dawn song considered as a whole
There is something in an entire performance. The song begins and ends pianissimo;
a gradual crescendo and subsequent decrescendo frame the song. The bird is a
moderately powerful singer. The total range encompasses G#5 to D7, or one octave
plus a tritone (compared to Two Tree’s two octaves plus a perfect fifth, from F#5 to
C#8). The widest ascending leap is a major seventh (phrase F4/bar 131), compared
with Two Tree’s octave plus a minor third; the widest descending leap is one octave
(phrase B10/bar 141), compared with Two Tree’s two-octave leap. Although we
have a sense of a central reference pitch in F6, the phrases exhibit a microtonal
aspect, or at least not a 12-TET sensibility. These pitch deviations (marked with
upward-pointing arrows) add to the song’s ephemeral quality. The use of rattles is
much diminished in Macadam as compared Two Tree, and other timbral effects are
limited to the chip and narrow portamentos.
The 555 phrases divide into five discrete major phrases and one minor phrase (Two
Tree delivered nine major phrases for a total of 1123). Shifting motivic duration
adds interest. Phrase contour, like Two Tree, is essentially zigzag in nature.
167
The shortest phrase is 0.2sec. (bar 19/phrase E1), compared to Two Tree’s 0:4sec.
The longest phrase is 3.1sec. (bar 48/phrase D2), compared to Two Tree’s
7.7sec.—a telling sign of the recombinatory ability and/or penchant of Two Tree.
Only two hybrid phrases are formed, both variants of A+B. Hybrid phrases make
up just 3% of the total (Fig. 5.30/Table 5.5), compared with 9% for Two Tree. The
last main phrase (F) is introduced in bar 86, at 33:28 into the song (compared to bar
696, at 1:49:28 into the song for Two Tree). The last variant is delivered at 1:47:38
into the song—the penultimate phrase.
The mean phrase duration is 1.7sec. (compared to Two Tree’s 2.3sec.), while the
mean inter-phrase interval is 10.0sec. (compared to Two Tree’s 7.9sec.). This would
see a mean duration of sound-plus-silence at 11.7sec. (compared to Two Tree’s
10.2sec.). The singing rate is 555 phrases/108 minutes, or 5.14 per minute
(compared to Two Tree’s 5.85 per minute). Two Tree is the more active bird, with
a slightly higher rate of delivery and a song duration almost double that of
Macadam (108 minutes versus 192 minutes).
Much of the motion is stepwise, a sort of doodling. Suddenly, our attention is drawn
to the large leaps, more often falling than rising, although both are prevalent.
Similar types of operations serve to vary the phrases of both Two Tree and
Macadam, such as contrast, reduction, expansion, division, and substitution, but in a
manner much diminished here. The components of Two Tree’s phrases and hybrids
are readily apparent, whereas many of the phrases here seem subtly cut from the
same cloth.
The transition versatility here is not that of the Two Tree song, where the
immediate repetition of a phrase was extremely rare. Here, phrase A2 is often
repeated (up to eight iterations) before moving to another phrase. The B4 variant is
also relied upon, and a hierarchy of phrases does emerge due to repetition (Figure
5.30 and Table 5.5 below detail the ratio of phrase deliveries). Again, however, no
apparent organisational or memory strategies are in evidence, and no predictable
phrase ordering can be detected, on a small or large scale.
168
Ratio of Phrase Delivery: Macadam Predawn Long Song 7 6 5 4 1 2 3 3 4 1 5 6 7 2 Figure 5.30. Ratio of delivery for phrases: 1=A, 2=B, 3=C, 4=D, 5=E, 6=F, and 7=BA hybrids.
Table 5.5 Ratio of phrase delivery in a pre-dawn long song
Phrase
A
B
C
D
E
F
BA
Total
# of Deliveries
281
136
40
15
4
60
19
555
Ratio of phrase
delivery
50.63%
24.50%
7.21%
2.70%
0.72%
10.81%
3.42%
100.00%
No mimicry is noted. No species call is recorded, either separately or embedded in a
song phrase, although the species call derivative (SLD2) is present. A species call
was delivered once the recorder was turned off, and it was delivered on the pitches
G7 F#7 F7. Gaps formed by leaps are filled most of the time (no obvious difference
in ratio between rising and falling leaps is noted). The successive leaps in phrases
F5 and F7 and the double note in phrase B4 are exceptional. The tone is consistent.
169
I find no shared phrases between Two Tree and Macadam. It remains unclear
whether the differences between the diurnal song and the pre-dawn song are wholly
indicative of the aesthetics (or health, age, or other environmental factors) of two
singers or if a portion of these disparities reflects separate principles of organisation
and development between diurnal and pre-dawn song. The disparities are largely a
difference of degree and not kind, such as the vastly higher number of hybrid
phrases found in Two Tree and the more multiple iterations of phrases in
Macadam. No significant timbral qualities in either bird make its identification as a
pied butcherbird difficult based on voice alone. Other pre-dawn song from this
immediate area was sought to improve sample reliability.
5.2.4 A pre-dawn song compared to other recordings from
the area
Here, again, although other song conventions are summarised, I take aim at a
specific topic: what is the size of the neighbourhood for a shared phrase-type
repertoire in the Alice Springs area? All bar numbers refer to the transcriptions in
Appendix F, except when a notated comparison is introduced in a figure.
We begin with the most easterly bird on the Ross Highway, the bird at Ross River
Resort (1. MD2007.10.16). This bird delivers phrases with wide leaps, both with
and without portamentos. The song has a relaxed, delicate quality. Six phrase types
and one variant are noted in a 1:16 excerpt of 11 phrases. Most of the phrase types
begin with a short-long articulation, but it is not a match for pitch or interval with
the typical F#6 F6. As we progress through the avian choir, a possibility begins to
emerge: that there is a species preference for a slowly-delivered short/long
articulation, and another species preference for a downward leap of a tritone or
perfect fifth, and that these come together in this motif. The second half of phrase A
suddenly shifts up an octave in register and is reminiscent of the species call. One
bubbling rattle is present, along with a quasi-rattle, a chip sound, and a wow sound.
No hybrid phrases are noted.
Thirteen kilometres west on the Ross Highway brings us to the turnoff to Trephina
Gorge Bluff Campground. Birds were recorded here in 2006 and 2007. In 2007 (2.
170
MD2007.10.5), the first two notes of phrase A/bar 1 are the SLD2 motif. This motif
figures in several phrases (A, D, and E). Five phrase types and five variants are
noted in a 1:12 excerpt of 15 phrases. The notes float across the dark campground; I
am the only human listener. Rattles and quasi-rattles are delivered with finesse. A
chip sound is present in one phrase.
In 2006 at the same Trephina Gorge location (3. MD2006.6.1), a bird delivers one
similar phrase as in 2007 (2007: phrase F/bar 7 and 2006: phrase D/bar 4). It also
employs the SLD2 motif, as did the 2007 bird. This rich, diversified song has twelve
phrase types and eight variants in a 4:27 excerpt of 61 phrases. Rattles, quasirattles, and the wow sound figure more in the phrases of 2006 than 2007. A shift up
an octave is reminiscent of the species call (phrase F/bar 6). Two hybrid phrases are
noted (bars 5 and 15).
Travelling from the Trephina Gorge turnoff 49 kilometres west on the Ross
Highway brings us to Jessie Gap (4. MD2007.10.1). This bird’s E phrase is similar
to the A phrase of Macadam (bar 1, Figure 5.31 below, where a total of three similar
phrases are summarised). The chip sound and downward leap of a fifth are also
reminiscent of Macadam (bar 2, Figure 5.31); this is particularly remarkable in the
Jessie Gap bird where the G#5 D6 leap is transposed up an octave and inverted to
D7 G#6. Bar 3 (Figure 5.31) is a less close match, where the Jessie Gap bird appends
the beginning of bar 1 with a different ending more reminiscent of Macadam’s F
phrase. Another pied butcherbird can be heard in the background singing some
similar and some different phrases. Eight phrase types and four variants are noted
in a 1:48 excerpt of 17 phrases. A shift up an octave is reminiscent of the species call
(phrase B/bar 2 of the transcription). Rattles are delivered on several frequencies,
along with a quasi-rattle and a chip sound. No hybrid phrases are noted.
Emily Gap is seven kilometres further west (5. MD2007.8.33), where a bird delivers
phrases bearing some similarity to those from Jessie Gap, as well as Macadam. The
matches are not exact, and the phrase in bar 3 (Figure 5.31) fails to be a convincing
match and is merely the closest example. Eight phrase types and four variants are
noted in a 2:23 excerpt of 15 phrases. The first two notes of phrase C/bar 8 in the
transcription are a variant the SLD2 motif; this bird delivers F#6 G6, an inversion.
A short, dry rattle features in phrase B before it shifts up an octave, reminiscent of
171
the species call. Again we see elements of Macadam’s phrase A. Chip and wow
sounds are present, along with a quasi-rattle. A number of hybrid phrases are built
on modular components.
Figure 5.31. Phrases from three nearby birds (Ross/Stuart Highway, Emily Gap, and Jessie Gap)
bear similarities but present no exact matches. “CH” denotes a chip sound, “W” a wow sound, “R” a
rattle, and “QR” a quasi-rattle.
The year before in 2006 at Emily Gap (6. MD2006.6.11), the birds were vocalising
less. Six phrase types are noted in a 1:31 excerpt of 6 phrases. Wide leaps are the
only commonality with 2007. One rattle is present.
A further eight kilometres west brings us to the junction of the Ross and Stuart
Highways (7. MD2007.12.35). This 2007 recording commenced where Macadam
had sung in 2006, but this song perch was not in use. The closest singing bird was
across the highway, and this one was recorded. It would likely be in the same
territory as Macadam in the previous year. Five phrase types and two variants are
noted in a 1:05 excerpt of 10 phrases. The first two notes of phrase B/bars 2 and 7
are the SLD2 motif (and in common with Macadam in the previous year). One rattle
is present, along with a quasi-rattle. No hybrid phrases are noted. This could be the
same individual as the previous year. Figure 5.32 details similarities.
172
Figure 5.32. A comparison of 2006 and 2007 recordings from the junction of Ross and Stuart
Highways, Alice Springs, tracking closest phrase matches in consecutive years. “R” denotes a rattle
and “QR” a quasi-rattle.
An excerpt from Macadam in 2006 is included in the cartographic delineations (8.
MD2006.7.7). This 2:45 excerpt sees 25 phrases delivered: eight phrase types and
two variants are originally counted. Later analysis identifies only six phrase types
and two variants; as was the case with the Two Tree analysis, increased familiarity
with the material impacted on the conclusions.
The Alice Springs Telegraph Station (9. MD2007.13.2) is several kilometres away,
just north of town. Here, an extended family of pied butcherbirds actively engage in
song throughout the day. Four phrase types and two variants are noted in a 3:00
excerpt of 23 phrases of pre-dawn solo song. This bird sings the lowest note I have
recorded for a pied butcherbird, a D#5; it sounds like a panpipe. Two phrases have
rattles; a quasi-rattle, a wow, and a whoop (or woop) are also included in the timbral
palette. Despite this bird’s technical accomplishments, scant variety is noted in the
full hour-plus recording. No hybrid phrases are noted. Two other singing pied
butcherbirds can be heard, one with similar phrases, another with completely
different ones.
173
Continuing north 65 kilometres, and then heading east for 70 kilometres on the
Plenty Highway, one arrives at the artesian bore of Gemtree (10. MD2007.10.28).
The terrain is barren and arid. Six phrase types and two variants are noted in a 1:12
excerpt of 15 phrases. Several pied butcherbirds are singing, and all are
ventriloquial.54 Phrases are simple and have a modular quality. Some could have
been formed from two birds overlapping. The first two notes of phrase C/bar 3 are
an inversion of the SLD2 motif. One rattle is present, along with a quasi-rattle.
The birds’ voices all have a hoarse-sounding, dry, and scratchy cast to them—not at
all warm like most pied butcherbirds.
Back in the town of Alice Springs at the Araluen Arts Centre (11. MD2007.11.17), a
bird contends with a considerable amount of traffic noise, even in the pre-dawn
hours. Six phrase types and twelve variants are noted in a 6:15 excerpt of 45
phrases. The first two notes of phrase E/bar 7 are the SLD2 motif. Rattles figure in
two phrase types. All phrases that do not commence with a rattle have a short note
followed by a pause, or one long note, before introducing more complex rhythmic
and melodic activity.
Heading west from Alice Springs on Namatjira Drive for 135 kilometres (12.
MD2007.10.38), we arrive at Ormiston Gorge. Recordings over several years see
most birds delivering variations on the SLD2 motif. In 2007 near the ranger’s
residence, three phrase types and five variants including one hybrid are noted in a
1:00 excerpt of 14 phrases. One rattle is present, along with a quasi-rattle.
In a 2006 recording also near the ranger’s residence (13. MD2006.7.1), a number of
phrases closely compare with the following year. Ten phrase types and six variants
are noted in a 6:40 excerpt of 28 phrases. Several variants of the SLD2 motif are
present, and this is the major overlap in all locations. An octave shift to a motif
bearing resemblance to the species call occurs in phrase B/bar 8. One rattle is
present, along with a quasi-rattle. Of particular note are four repetitions of a single
pitch (an E6) in bar 16, rarely found in pied butcherbird song but present in
Macadam’s B4 and B14 variants.
54
I walk back and forth trying to close in. Since there are only two stands of trees, I cannot be far
from them. I never see the birds nor do I sense for my walking that I have lessened the distance
between them and me.
174
At another Ormiston Gorge location in 2007 (14. MD2006.7.7), a bird delivers
three simple and unchanging phrase types in a 1:02 excerpt of 13 phrases. The first
two notes of phrase A/bar 1 are the SLD2 motif. A rattle and a quasi-rattle are
present. No hybrid phrases are noted.
A kilometre or two away (15. MD2007.11.5), a bird employs five phrase types and
four variants in a 0:59 excerpt of 16 phrases. Although some motives could be
derivatives of the SLD2 motif, none are close enough to make a claim for. One rattle
is present, along with a quasi-rattle, a tik, and a tok. Many of the phrases are
modular, particularly bars 4-9.
A 1998 recording from another recordist (16. CD055.1) was likely made at or close
to the previous Ormiston Gorge site. This exquisite soliloquy, delivered at 2:30 on
a full moon night, has the sense that every note is perfectly chosen. The SLD2 is
expanded to include three notes, the first of which is delivered as a two-note chord
(a minor third). Rattles and quasi-rattles are present. A repeat of four notes again is
reminiscent of Macadam’s variants B4 and B14. The 5:28 excerpt of 26 phrases
includes five phrase types and five variants. All Ormiston Gorge songs tend to be
spacious, almost sleepy; perhaps the birds are listening to their song echoing along
the gorge walls.55 The composition Ormiston Gorge: A canonic manipulation in
Chapter 6 is based on this bird and incorporates the recording.
Further west at Wattarka on Luritja Road (12. MD2006.5.23), three phrase types
and two variants are noted in a 1:39 excerpt of 19 phrases. One rattle is present. No
hybrid phrases are noted. The intervallic structure of this bird closely resembles
that of Macadam, with numerous angular jumps of a perfect fifth, a tritone, or
perfect fourth, although no phrases are matches.
South of Wattarka is Uluru National Park (13. MD2006.5.7), where a bird delivers
three pre-dawn phrases without variety in a 1:32 excerpt of 13 phrases. The first
two notes of phrase B/bar 2 are the SLD2 motif transposed up a third. One quasirattle is present. No hybrid qualities are noted. An Australian magpie is contesting
broadcast space much of the time.
55
Organists must make similar allowances depending on the reverberation time in a cathedral.
175
To summarise (Fig. 5.33), in this group of Alice Springs and environs birds, we find
the SLD2 active in the “trading zone” between groups. We find similarities in
phrases with nearby birds, but no exact matches. We find similarities in phrases in
the same location in consecutive years, but no exact matches. None of the pre-dawn
phrases surveyed has any overlap with the individual Two Tree except the remnant
of the descending motif that figures in other, completely different phrases in
Magnetic Island birdsong in successive years. The group of pre-dawn singers from
the Townsville area have no overlap with the group of pre-dawn singers from the
Alice Springs area, except for those elements associated with the species call,
including the SLD2 motif and the species call motif in song.
Bird
#
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
Location
Ross River
Resort
Trephina Gorge
Bluff CG
Trephina Gorge
Bluff CG
Jessie Gap
Emily Gap
Emily Gap
Stuart/Ross
2007
Stuart/Ross
2006
AS Telegraph
Station
Gemtree
Araluen Arts
Centre, AS
Ormiston
Gorge #1:
Ranger’s Res.
Ormiston
Gorge #1:
Ranger’s Res.
Ormiston
Gorge #2: Big
Tree
Ormiston
Gorge #3:
Floodway
Ormiston
Gorge, likely
near #3
Wattarka
Uluru NP CG
# of
phrs.
type
# of
variants
Wide
porta# of
mento
hybrids leaps
6
1
0
X
5
5
0
X
12
8
2
8
8
6
5
4
4
0
2
0
3
0
0
8
2
4
SL
SLD2 artic
R CH W T
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
1
X
X
X
X
2
0
X
X
X
6
6
2
12
0
0
X
X
X
X
X
X
3
5
1
X
X
10
6
0
X
X
3
0
0
X
X
5
4
0
5
5
0
X
3
3
2
0
0
0
X
X
X
B
Dbl.
SC A
note M IS S
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Figure 5.33. A summary of all pied butcherbirds recorded in Alice Springs (AS) and environs.
Ranger’s Res.=ranger’s residence; SLD2=short-long descending motif; SL artic=short-long
articulation; R=rattle; CH=chip sound; W=wow sound; T=tok sound; B=bubbly sound; dbl. note=a
two-note chord formed from notes delivered on both sides of the syrinx; M=mimicry; SC IS=species
call in song; and A S=antiphonal song. Complete GPS location descriptions can be accessed in
Appendix F.
176
5.3 Discussion
Despite the optimistic scope of the survey, it is essentially exploratory in nature. I
do not pretend to present an exhaustive account of the song of the pied butcherbird;
there is much more to the story than space allows, and my fieldwork and analysis
are ongoing. I mean simply to explore with a broad stroke the musical landscape of
two pied butcherbirds and their nearby conspecifics. My particular curiosity
concerns whether their vocalisations are improvised or part of an established
orthodoxy. Some underlying conventions, while probably not fixed, must direct
pied butcherbird song. A sure diagnostic for the bird is the species call. The second
surest indicative is tone, described in detail in Chapter 2. The Australian magpie,
grey butcherbird, and grey shrike-thrush are the only three species whose voice is
close enough to cause confusion, and this is partially because the pied butcherbird
can mimic them and, at least in the case of the first two, visa versa. The grey
butcherbird’s voice is generally more staccato, higher in frequency, and more frantic
(or less sedate) than a pied butcherbird. The magpie’s carolling is faster, more
warbling, and less focused on discrete pitches than a pied butcherbird. Finally, the
grey shrike-thrush possesses a melodious ringing voice, but it sings more
repetitiously than a pied butcherbird.
Johnson and Crouch, respectively, each noticed changes in timbre and song type in
their studies of pre-dawn song of the grey butcherbird (2003) and the white-plumed
honeyeater (2001), which compounded bird identification in the dark. No
identification difficulties were noted with pre-dawn breeding song of the pied
butcherbird in this study. My diagnostic rule is that, tone and species call aside,
pied butcherbird songs have the sense of a finely wrought phrase delivered from an
ancient oral tradition. Their phrases embrace a concept of elegance. They are
composerly, but with a twist: they often sound as if they are newly minted. They
establish and then play with expectation by way of deviation and denial. Violations
and interruptions occasionally thwart the orderly unfolding of a song. A regular
delivery of symmetrical phrases is suddenly perverted with angular slivers of sound.
Recombinations of known phrases begin to sound like de novo material.
Nevertheless, some stylistic conventions and preferences for pied butcherbird song
are understood and conformed to, whether inherited or learned; these are
summarised in Figure 5.33. One notes that the species call exceeds the standard
frequency range. Mimicry is omitted from this catalogue.
177
Parameter
From…
To…
Phrase
repertoire:
Pacing:
Rhythm:
From 2-3 simple, unvaried phrases
Pitch:
From never sounds correct when played
back via music notation software in
12-TET
From rich and mellow, flute or organlike, and melodious (common)
From a few timbral effects, perhaps a
rattle or a quasi-rattle
From 5 phrases per minute
To up to 20 phrases plus copious
variants
To delivered in exuberant bursts
To seems a reasonable facsimile
when placed into a readable
rhythm and played back via music
notation software
To seems a reasonable facsimile
when played back via music
notation software in 12-TET
Scratchy (rare) but never consisting
of repetitive clicks
To a plethora of rattles, whistles,
and other timbral manouevres
To 22 or more phrases per minute
From a pulse rate of 9 per second
To a pulse rate of 50 per second
From a preponderance of minor and
major seconds
From bowl, arch, and ascent
From D#5 (very low) or more likely
from A5
From steady, fixed pitches
To a preponderance of big leaps
Timbre:
Timbral
effects:
Phrase rate of
delivery:
Rattle rate of
delivery:
Intervals:
Countour:
Range:
Note shapes:
From delivered slowly and deliberately
From never sounds correct when placed
into conventional notation in a
relatively simple rhythmic template
To spiky and angular
To A8 (very high) or more likely D7
To steep portamentos
Figure 5.34. A continuum of pied butcherbird song conventions and preferences.
Mimicry is excluded from Figure 5.34 because it crashes through each and every
parameter. It varies from either diurnal or pre-dawn song more than the latter vary
from each other. And yet, mimicry can occur in pre-dawn song or diurnal song or
subsong—or not. The normal singing range spans an octave plus a perfect fifth,
from A5 to D7; extremes of range stretch this to just over three octaves from D#5 to
A8. The mimicry singing range covers nearly a four-octave span, from B4 to A8.
While normal songs consist of segmented performances, in mimicry often we find
no inter-phrase interval (the rate of delivery goes up to 30 per minute, and in one
example a bird delivers 34 per minute); the bird might sing nearly nonstop for
fifteen minutes or more (moto perpetuo).
In the face of these perplexities, my present goals are modest. First, concerning the
number of song types and how to delineate their boundaries, it is not possible to
reconcile the prevailing paradigm of “three types of song” with the data herein.
Although Johnson is cited as one of two informants for the “three types of song”
conclusion (Higgins et al., 2006: 522), her thesis on grey butcherbird song clearly
indicates other categories present in that species and suggests that, based on her
unpublished observations, the pied butcherbird could be similar (Johnson, 2003:
178
322). She identifies day vocalisations, adult male breeding song, adult subsong,
immature subsong, and quiet song (ibid., 291). No quiet song was noted in the
process of this fieldwork, while the other categories could hold. Group day
vocalisations would be a single category, but whether diurnal and pre-dawn
individual solo song should be categorised separately is unclear. Neither has
absolute purchase on any of the procedures for varying song described in the birds
surveyed. Following pre-dawn singers into their daytime vocalisations would be
essential in future research.
Secondly, although distributional analysis was undertaken, the data is only partially
relevant. The ratio of phrase types offers pertinent information, but no reductive
formula for the ordering of these various phrase types emerges. While there are
obvious memory strategies for intra-phrase order, extra-phrase order presents no
order on visual inspection and is likely subject to significant improvisation and
invention. There could be a strategy that involves a preference for contrast of
successive phrases without necessarily defining which phrase. How structure is
relevant to the bird on a performance-as-a whole basis is inconclusive.
In interrogating pied butcherbird song types, song conventions, and rules of song
succession, I sought numbers, absolutes—a code; I found tendencies, affinities--a
continuum. Their vocalisations are open-ended and dynamic. Ball discusses music
as an “acoustic, cognitive, cultural and aesthetic phenomenon” (2008: 160). Clearly
the acoustic, cultural (learned), and aesthetic attributes are in place in pied
butcherbird song. In analysing motif boundaries, I have shown that pied
butcherbirds have a concept of melodic segmentation. They recognise and
denominate the basic principles of melodic progression, such as repetition, deletion,
augmentation, truncation, scission, substitution, imitation, and silence. It seems
difficult to believe that cognition is lacking, given the numerous quotidian
achievements observed in their shifting sound world.
In dealing with the thorny issue of animal cognition as it applies to aesthetics,
Martinelli argues that we should entertain the most complex and sophisticated
explanations until proven otherwise (2008). As discussed in Chapter 4, function and
aesthetics are not mutually exclusive in any case. While I am not qualified to
comment on animal cognition, I can weigh in on pied butcherbirds’ active musical
179
lives. Their songs seem to go far beyond what would be necessary for a registration
of their continuing occupation of place and a way of passing along genetic code. The
enhancements, whether subtle or bold, simple or complex, melodic or kinetic, while
not conforming to all of the rules of human music, nevertheless sound musical to
humans on our own terms. Musicality communicates.
180
Chapter 6
Critical Reflection and Analysis
181
Chapter 6
Literary nationalists have always been indignant with Adam Lindsay Gordon for
referring, inaccurately, to Australia’s ‘bright birds’ as songless; yet it remains one of the
cliché images of Australia that it is a vast, brooding, silent land. Silence is certainly one of
the properties of any large, sparsely populated country and particularly of the remoter
deserts. But much of Australia, including many of its outback areas, is anything but silent.
Birds such as the white-backed magpie or the pied butcher bird are as capable of brilliant
and beautiful melodic flights as their European counterparts, even though it might sound
absurdly like patriotic boosterism run wild to say so (Covell, 1967: 6).
6.1. Aesthetic considerations and inclinations
My compositions are genre-fluid, not for lack of ideological affiliation but precisely
because the border territories between two, or three, traditions are charged with
vitality. Composing is not about taking dictation from the heavens or capturing
some magical essence. For a musical mind, the potential for inspiration is
ubiquitous and not just found in “music.” Music is a way of approaching life as much
as a learned set of skills. Inspiration does come, but more often material must be
sought out. In this respect I see myself as a sonic explorer or archeologist and pied
butcherbird song as a living fossil manifesting millions of years of culture.
My use of pied butcherbird material does not set out to improve on pied
butcherbird song; thus, developmental method inherent in sonata form and other
Western classical music procedures have little pertinence. Rather, the vocalisations
of the pied butcherbird are celebrated more in keeping with their own stylistic
conventions. Space is an essential aspect in music, as it is in the dawn chorus.
Counterpoint is ideally suited to presenting several, even equal, voices in space.
Therefore, the notion of counterpoint as natural state maintains a critical role in
this work, as it does in the avian biosphere, and as it did in the mind and body
(consider the pedals, stops, and multiple keyboards of an organ) of J. S. Bach, for
example. Birds take each other’s stuff, use stuff, chop stuff up, re-stuff, and recycle—a natural continuum. Both species of Australian lyrebirds are arguably the
world’s finest examples of this technique, and as we saw in Chapters 4 and 5, pied
butcherbirds participate actively in mimicry as well. The natural world of bird can
be slotted in both an ancient tradition and a postmodern one.
One way to describe my compositional relationship to the found material is that of
filter. In the contemporary sonic environment of information overload, filtering is
182
akin to survival. I become filter. What I see, hear, think, and feel is cross-examined
at a sensory level and, if accepted, takes its place in my personal musical language.
Mapping one musical language onto another through filtering is a cross-species
practice.
Initially, nothing in the primary thesis hinged on composition being a partner in the
analysis process. In Chapter 4, the numerous overlaps between pied butcherbird and
human musical conventions were surveyed. In Chapter 5, the flexible combinatorial
power of their phrases was dissected. In this chapter, I expected merely to build on
pied butcherbird phrases and conventions to support the composition portfolio.
However, I also continue to interrogate issues of musicality in pursuing the thesis
that a myriad of characteristics of pied butcherbird songs lend themselves to
reframing within the human animal’s tradition. I internalise birdsong through
composition and performance.
Bohlman casts the concept that music could exist in nature at the extreme end of a
continuum, placing at the other end that music strives towards nature (1999: 23).
The difference seems a moot point to both composers and listeners. Whether music
sounds like nature or nature sounds like music (or whether both are extreme
positions and that the only sensible conclusion lies somewhere in the middle, as far
from nature as possible) is a theoretical circle game played by those who perhaps
have not experienced a riveting dawn chorus.
I became convinced that transcription’s raison d’être is to illuminate birdsong, not to
duplicate it. This portfolio of compositions does not strive to recapture or emulate
nature. There is no attempt to create a pastoral character. I am simply uncovering
and underlining compelling aspects of it. Whenever and wherever I encounter
musicality, I am prepared to acknowledge it. Birdsong is authentic, ancient,
original, untainted, exotic, primitivist—it is “other.”56 Fortunately, the
romanticisation of nature or “other” is a superfluous apologia in the case of pied
butcherbird songs. Their melodic, rhythmic, and timbral statements, whether
56
Music is considered an ideal subject for cognitive studies, but will the sample be polluted by global
exposure to Western music? In light of the spreading musical monoculture, researchers are already
ringing the alarm bell concerning whether will we be able to examine innate cognitive dispositions
in the human animal (Huron, 2008: 456).
183
delivered by the bird or appropriated by composers, are sufficiently robust and
remarkable without programme notes to prop them up and exoticise them.
Another theoretical conundrum concerns whether there are “works” out there in
nature waiting to be discovered, which re-stirs the “master composer” debate.
Whilst it would be possible to perform the three-and-a-quarter hour Two Tree
song, thereby focusing on structural issues, that is not attempted in this portfolio (it
could be considered later as a marathon event). Partially since it is unknown what a
“work” might be to a bird, lifting and presenting an avian “work” is problematical.
Neither is improvising with birds my objective.57 Below are some notes on how
birdsong is driving the compositional decisions. All compositions are paired with
original field transcriptions at the end of this chapter for comparison purposes and
linked to the original recording (itemised in the DVD under the rubric “Original
fieldwork recordings with preliminary analysis”).
6.2 Compositions for improvisers
For this set of compositions, I chose a group of instrumentalists who had skill in
both reading and improvising. I imposed a constraint on the group of pieces: that
the works would be for a solo instrument, so that the instrumentalist would have to
“go out” the way a bird goes out into the dawn chorus, as one voice. Of course, birds
seldom sing in a sound vacuum—there is the entire biophony unfolding—the bush
orchestration, if you will. So, on occasion I allowed another instrument, bird, or
cricket to participate. Questions of range and timbre also arise—will a pied
butcherbird phrase sound as compelling two, three, or four octaves below its
normal delivery range? Do we appreciate pied butcherbird vocalisations for their
unique timbre, or could a bassoon bring it off with equal panache?
Writing compositions for improvising musicians opens up another area of
contestation. In the 1960s it appeared that the processes of composing and
57
Powys was able to provoke an interspecies “jam session” with a group of pied butcherbirds: “Many
years ago (probably about 1979), I was camped out at the Olgas [in Central Australia] on a painting
expedition. Three pied butcherbirds were singing intermittent phrases while I was working on a
painting. Each bird followed on from the last, just a few notes each. Every now and then I would
whistle one of the parts and was amazed when the next bird chimed in on cue. The bird that missed
out must have wondered what had happened!” (V. Powys, personal communication, 18 September
2008).
184
improvising could merge with aleatoric works from Cage, conducted improvisations
from Earle Brown, and mystic gatherings by Stockhausen in his text composition
Aus den sieben Tagen (From the seven days) (1968), to name but a few. Influenced
mainly by the commercial success of minimalism over the next decades, these ideas
were dropped as part of the unpopular modernist bag. Recent years have seen a
resurgence of improvisational and compositional combined options with the arrival
of a number of musicians who are comfortable working in both camps.
Another issue in regard to the material and transformation process was a desire to
go beyond the notion of simply “arranging” pied butcherbird song. Three
composers’ arrangements of Bach take the original into uncharted territory:
Bussoni (“Chaconne” for solo violin in D minor, after J. S. Bach, BWV.1004,
arranged in 1892 for piano), Schoenberg (Prelude and fugue in E-flat major “St Anne”
for organ, after J. S. Bach, BWV.552, arranged in 1928 for orchestra), and Webern
(“Fugue [ricercare] in six voices” from The musical offering, after J. S. Bach,
BWV.1079, arranged in 1935 as klangfarbenmelodie for orchestra). The new
“compositions” stand on their own as unique musical experiences, a comparison to
the Urstück unnecessary. Despite the following exegesis, my desire is that my
compositions in any final analysis stand alone as music without programme notes.
6.2.1 Cumberdeen Dam V & T for bassoon, dedicated to
Joanne Cannon (based on CD003.9)
Cannon is an accomplished classical bassoonist skilled in free improvisation. She is
also a specialist in the production of multiphonics, where two or more notes are
sounded at one time. I acquainted myself with bassoon multiphonics through study
of her compositions and improvisations; from these, I chose for insertion into my
composition those extended techniques where I heard a relevant use of the overtone
series. I have relied on her notation and fingerings for all multiphonics.
Cumberdeen Dam V & T is a five-movement solo work that coalesces a number of
genres that I have played in as a practising violinist. There is a conventional theme
and variations, except that the theme comes in the middle movement rather than at
the beginning. The bird upon which the work is based sings in rushed gusts of
185
notes; the effect is anticipatory, like beats two-three of a Viennese waltz or beats
two and four of an up-tempo bluegrass number. The angularity of the essentially
five-bar phrases is appealing. One technique of the birdsong seems particularly
familiar to the human ear: in what is conventional fare in works for solo
instruments, two separate voices are implied by the octave or more spread between
motivic segments and the qualitative difference between the lower and higher
material. Octave displacement above and beyond the original birdsong figures in
the work.
“Notturno” gives a nod to a jazz ballad the way it might be delivered by a
saxophonist. “Capriccio” has an étude-like quality; the middle section (midway in
bar 27) is improvised. A composed part is written for non-improvisers. “Tema”
stays close to the original field transcription. Although the birdsong has interphrase intervals, most of them are swallowed up in “Tema,” allowing just enough
time for the bassoonist to breath. This mimics the rushed feeling imparted by the
bird. “Multifonica” is the breath that was not allowed in the previous movement.
The meditation ends with a sudden fanfare of birdsong, just as at times in the quiet
of pre-dawn or twilight, a pied butcherbird phrase will leap out of nowhere.
“Toccata” is a blues étude. Both “Toccata” and “Capriccio” rely on canonic
techniques such as inversion (both chromatic and diatonic mirror) and retrograde.
The theme is treated, transposed, cut-and-pasted,58 and manipulated. A crucial
consideration is that, despite the cut-up process, the ear can follow the clarity of the
theme at all times, rather than becoming lost in a blur of notes.
6.2.2 Lamington Plateau for flute, dedicated to Jim
Denley (based on CD048.5, CD048.7, and CD048.8)
Denley is one of Australia’s foremost improvisers of new music. He has developed
unconventional playing methods on both saxophone and flute and has improvised
and recorded extensively in the bush and other natural settings. In order to take
58
My cut-and-paste “technique” is a multi-stage process. Various inversion and retrograde
treatments are performed on the thematic materials, both in the original key and also in multiple
transpositions. Then, a helter-skelter cut-and-paste of partial sections is conducted: I “grab” and
relocate these snippets via the music notation program (Finale, in this case). Many get dropped midway into other phrases, rather than just pasted to the beginning or ending of a phrase. Then, the ear
starts to winnow down what it prefers. Many trials are discarded or revised.
186
advantage of his abilities, I wrote “free” sections into the piece (his “freedom” was
somewhat curtailed, since I specified the type of effects I wished) and notated
several extended techniques as well.
An excerpt of this song features in Figure 4.28, under the rubric “Shape and
balance.” As mentioned in Chapter 4, the phrases seem to play with balance—now
predictable, now not. Concepts of musicality, at least for the human animal, involve
repetition and variation, and neither can be too predictable or too chaotic. (Each
style proposes its concept of “too.”) The one-movement work is closely based on the
field transcription, with inter-phrase intervals reduced and some motives deleted.
The pied butcherbird from Lamington Plateau is joined near the end of the
transcription by a crimson rosella (Platycercus elegans), which delivers its bell-like
motives an octave higher than normal pied butcherbird range. I give both parts to
the flute, having him interrupt himself as it were. One of the rosella’s entrances (bar
72) is overdubbed in the studio, as is the cross-fade in bars 122-123. At bar 148, we
discover that the rosella’s motif (D8Bb7 Bb7) is a match, although delivered an
octave lower, for the first three notes of one of the pied butcherbird’s phrases. I
suspect the butcherbird has lifted this motif from the rosella.
The field recording of this bird is a superb-quality recording. I imagined combining
Denley’s recording of his part with the original tape of the bird, and while that
possibility exists for the future, it is not the version herein. Denley elected to record
outside his new bush residence in Mount Irvine, in the Blue Mountains of New
South Wales. Replete with flies and wind, whipbirds, various parrots, and other
birds, the sonic texture is sufficiently dynamic without adding the original bird to
the mix. Denley turns the tables, mimicking the bird.
6.2.3 Works for double bass, dedicated to Mike
Majkowski
Majkowski, like Cannon and Denley, is an active free improviser, one of a number of
exciting young players in the Australian improvising scene. The bass of Broken Hill
(based on MD2006.5.6) is a solo work that sees Majkowski in a directed
improvisation based on a pied butcherbird transcription. The phrases are short and
187
the rhythm straightforward. Except for the range, on the page it looked like a
bassline. Many of the phrases feel like they end on a weak beat, either on beat four
or on the second of a pair of eighth notes, implying a jazz sensibility. In departing
from the thematic material more than the bird, and in insistently repeating some
phrases unlike the bird, the bird’s material is interrogated.
For Banana paper (based on MD2005.8.8), I asked the bassist to place of sheet of
paper on the fingerboard to create a buzzing sound. Majkowski convinced me that
plastic straws could be sliced and placed on the strings to even greater effect. This
birdsong also sees many phrases end on weak beats. The piece relies on pied
butcherbird motives and improvised sounds that were chosen both from
Majkowski’s toolkit and from my imagination, recorded in no particular order, and
then composed in the studio. A double bass with vibrating straws continues to ring
out, encouraging abundant time to pass between phrases; a similar effect pertains as
birdsong reflects along the walls of Ormiston Gorge in the next work.
Ormiston Gorge: A canonic manipulation (based on CD055.1-8) juxtaposes a
transcribed bird (which begins in the bass) with a taped version of the source of the
transcription. The “score” is the field transcription. We hear chirruping crickets and
two (or possibly three) pied butcherbirds in pre-dawn song—one far to the left in
the mix and one far to the right. They are singing largely from the same hymnbook.
The cathedral is the dry riverbed of Ormiston Gorge, where birdsong has been
echoing and reflecting off the gorge walls for millennia. The tape deliberately
begins in a place other than when the transcription begins, to add to the canonic
treatment. Once begun, the timing of both tape and instrumentalist are left
untouched, to see what types of relationships might be provoked naturally without
“cooking” the mix. This belongs to a tradition of improvisers subverting the multitrack studio by recording their part without listening to the tracks laid down by
other musicians, thus providing synchronous material in the virtual space for an
optional mix at a later time. The thematic material is built in part on the SLD2
motif described in Chapters 4 and 5. This is a classic pied butcherbird pre-dawn
song, taking its time to unravel.
188
Gowrie Creek (based on CD0011.1) is based on a group of absolutely simple pied
butcherbird phrases. “Nothing terribly exciting,” wrote the recordist at the time.59
The phrases are brief, usually three or four notes, and oft-repeated, although
occasionally a longer melodic statement is delivered. The bird is not given to
improvisation. Somehow, I could not dismiss these wisps; they are earworms, if you
will, compelling and catchy even in their simplicity. In keeping with this, and as a
test of the motif-building ability of one pied butcherbird, I asked Majkowski to
record them “plain vanilla.” The score is the transcription. A classic bass line
emerged. Afterwards, violin virtuoso and free improviser Jon Rose added a violin
commentary, also keeping his material spare. A very simple musical statement
requires that it be a good one. These short phrases are transparent, with nothing to
hide them.
6.3 Black and white miniatures for video and toy piano
The quest for diverse ways of grappling with absolutely spare motives continues in
this set of three pieces for video and toy piano. Two of the three movements are
based on pied butcherbird themes from the location of the film. Because of the
limitations of range inherent in the toy piano, it seems a fitting instrument to
interrogate and highlight the potential constraints of another small black and white
musical “instrument,” the pied butcherbird.
1. “Pied butcherbird, Magnetic Island” (based on MD2007.1.1 and MD20077.1.12).
In 1770 Captain James Cook sailed past Magnetic Island and named it, believing
the island had a magnetic force interfering with his compass. The only arid island in
the Great Barrier Reef, Magnetic Island boasts 23 bays and beaches. Horseshoe Bay
lies at road’s end, where a half-hour walk down the beach and in towards the
massive granite cliffs and hoop pines in the dark of night put me in place for the
pre-dawn song of this pied butcherbird. Here, the isolated resident has taken to
feeding her pied butcherbirds (either by cutting open a rotting tree, thus supplying
the birds with white ants, or offering a morsel from her kitchen). The birds in
return supply her with song, or at least from her point of view that is how the trade
59
The full comments of recordist Gloria Glass on this bird’s song are on deposit in Appendix H, CD
number 011.
189
works.60 The film was made in her garden, and the motives also come from
Magnetic Island. The treatment of the pied butcherbird material is fragmented,
with spaces, much like its natural delivery.
2. “Distressed piano, Central Australia” (based on MD2006.7.1). The ancient Finke
“River” is often just a dry riverbed connecting a string of waterholes in parched
Central Australia. It cuts through the Glen Helen Gorge in the West MacDonnell
Ranges. The towering red gorge walls provide a striking backdrop to a distressed
piano abandoned to all weathers, where daytime temperatures can exceed 40
degrees Celsius before the desert night turns frigid. No bird was recorded at Glen
Helen; eleven kilometres distant is Ormiston Gorge, where this theme was recorded
on a moonlit night in the spring of 2006 (eight years after the material for Ormiston
Gorge: A canonic manipulation, the piece for double bass described above). The
distressed piano provides an ostinato to the toy piano’s exploration of the theme,
including the SLD2 motif referred to in Chapters 4 and 5.
3. “Ping-pong” (based on MD2006.5.2 and CD003.1). The accompanying recording
features a MIDI file of a glockenspiel, chosen both for its similar timbre to a toy
piano and the microtonal flavour present in both the glockenspiel and the songs of
these two birds. For the live staging of the piece, a toy piano should be utilised, and
the pianist is directed to throw ping-pong balls continually into the audience with
the free hand. This casual theatre outcome can involve more than the number of
ping-pong tosses listed, and only the timing of the first one (which accompanies the
fall of the first onscreen ping-pong ball in the film) is crucial.
The two pied butcherbird songs upon which this is based both possess a tripartite
sense; although the first song consists of two phrases, they are delivered A+A+B.
Thus, the phrases circle round and repeat, like the ping-pong balls in the film.
Subtle angularity in phrase length or phrase numbers continues to be a haunting
part of why pied butcherbird themes seem musical to me.
60
Personal communication from D. Turnbull is on deposit in Appendix H, CD numbers 079-084.
190
6.4 Compositions for strings
The organic unity of a string quartet (two violins, viola, and cello) is historically
compelling for composers, and particularly for a violinist/composer. Two long
works explore this genre.
6.4.1 Pied butcherbird suite for string quartet (based on
MD2006.2.24 and 26)
This four-movement suite was written for string students at the University of
Newcastle. All movements derive from the duet recorded on Booth Road in
Brookhill, near Townsville (presented in Figure 4.33). The duet is based on four
pitches, an F ascending a minor third to an Ab, then falling a tritone to a D and on
down to a C. The four tones form a D minor seven, flat five chord (Dm7 b5). The
tension created by this dominant shape is partially stabilised in the repetition. The
limitation to four notes (at least structurally) is a challenge to both bird and human.
When something this simple connects, it can be powerful.
“Batá fourths: Brookhill” places the theme in a contrapuntal context with reference
to Afro-Cuban rhythms. The traditional Yoruba batá rhythm (Mauleón-Santana,
1999: 130) serves as inspiration. A Latin jazz feel, as found in piano montunos, is
added with the use of fourths based on a dominant thirteenth chord. Rather than
settling for a simple dominant function, the chord sees constant transposition to
add a piquant feel. “Tag” is a canon. “Waltz with tree frogs” was inspired by two
tree frogs whose nocturnal vocalisations subtly shift in and out of sync with each
other. “Butch” relies on an essentially unison effort and is a homage to the often
boldness and brashness of pied butcherbird song delivery. As an option, the suite
can be performed with the field recording in the background.
6.4.2 Bird-Esk for string quartet (based on MD2008.3.30,
MD2008.4.2-5, and MD2008.4.7-9)
Bird-Esk is the major composition in the portfolio. Much of the analysis in this and
preceding chapters has attended to melody at the expense of rhythm. However, pied
191
butcherbird vocalisations often boast a compelling rhythm and raw energy
reminiscent of certain jazz styles. Lively syncopations and phrase endings on weak
beats are common in their sound repertoire. Equating pied butcherbird song with
jazz could be considered by the scientific academy as the ultimate anthropomorphic
finger click; this, however, is how I hear it. Since my previous works for strings
focus on issues of rhythm and bowing, from dance forms and compound meter to
how classical players can appropriate extended techniques from non-traditional
styles of music in order to enhance their rhythmic vitality, swing, and musicality, I
wanted this major work to build on pied butcherbird themes particularly suitable
for rhythmic exploration. I found such material in the pied butcherbirds from Esk,
Queensland.
In the autumn of 2008, dawn chorus and later diurnal participation by the Esk birds
(perhaps eight or ten in number) consisted of overlapping duos, trios, or larger
groups, with participation (to these ears) sometimes loosely timed. I followed the
birds around a several-block radius, recording everything possible. After
transcribing their vocalisations, I made a rule for this composition: I would take
every notated phrase, and I would take each in the order it had been delivered. I
also accepted the original pitches, making adjustment for octaves as the various
string instruments required. There is nothing particularly “scientific” about the
order, and it is not for that reason that I applied this constraint. The next morning,
phrases and their order could well have varied. (While I suspect diurnal phrases
have sequential rules, this remains an intriguing area for future study.) The various
constraints were imposed to maintain as close identification with the morning’s
vocalists as possible. The impulse by which the birds make their sonic interjections
is not for the knowing, but I wanted to engage with the socio-musical interaction to
the degree where I could identify as a musician in the discourse—if I was a
butcherbird, I might make my entry here.
String players are occasionally called upon to perform a passage col legno—literally,
“with wood.” One simply turns over the bow and strikes or bounces on the strings
with wood instead of hair. However, there is a general reluctance by string players
to perform col legno passages, and with good reason, since the stick will inevitably
get minor nicks in it. While this does not impair the bow for future use, it can
192
devalue the bow’s worth. For this reason, I ask the quartet to employ an extended
technique: a drumstick. The sound is louder and more resonant.
A five-page, annotated field transcription of the recordings is paired with the score
to Bird-Esk. Each bar in the transcription, however short or long, is given a letter;
these are assigned in alphabetical order. If the phrase is antiphonal and figures on
two staves, the top staff is given the number 1, even if that bird entered second.
When successive phrases resemble one another very closely, they are given the
same letter but with the suffix “.1” to indicate the first of several similar to come,
“.2” to indicate the second of two, and so on. When letters run out, I commence
with double letters and continue the system (thus “A” is not related to “AA”). Two
staves are often filled, since the song is antiphonal. Usually I was able to parse out
which bird sang what; I noted those few occasions when I felt unsure. (Since this
does not pretend to be a “scientific” parsing out of antiphonal material, the matter is
not pertinent to the discussion in any case.)
Annotations on the score are boxed and do not feature in the musician’s prescriptive
score. Letters/numbers link to the field transcription. In this manner, the reader
can trace the placement and development of each motif. When relevant, a few words
are added with the letters/numbers, such as “J1 transposition,” “M inversion,” and
“CC2 augmentation.” The overwhelming amount of the material derives directly
from my transcription of the Esk pied butcherbirds. They craft their diurnal
motives so they work well against one another, particularly in matters of pitch.
There is scarcely any “original” material. The furthest afield I venture is in bars
159-167, where the interval of a tritone prevalent in some phrases is elaborated
upon. This is the exception. When looking back on this analysis cum composition, I
find the best material comes directly from the birds themselves.
Perhaps as a result of many birds re-working a motif, pied butcherbirds craft
elegant solutions. Fiddle music is another case in point. Hoedowns are archetypal
violin music. Honed for generations by many a hand and ear without wearing out,
adjusting here and there at the edges, they fit the instrument like a glove. With
many hoedowns, one marvels at the turn of phrase. It is perfect, even though that
193
essence of perfection has been turned from one shape subtly into another over
generations.
6.5 Discussion
Can this portfolio be considered original composition in a Western music sense? It
is not à l’oiseau-lyre—mimicry in avian, or human, terms, although transcription has
increased my understanding and empathy for the subject matter. No one listening
to these compositions believes they are hearing an actual bird sing.
Again, a fitting model is the anonymous fiddle tune. A tune is not owned; it is part
of a common creative instinct that has existed for as long as there has been music,
certainly prior to current debates concerning the internet and copyright. In the
conventions and evolution of music, the musician contributes and hands on the
baton.
Where would the Western canon be without pillage from the oral tradition,
whether it be Turkish marching music in Mozart’s rondo “Alla Turca” (the third
movement of Sonata K.331, 1783), plainsong in Beethoven’s Missa Solemnis Op.123
(1823), folksong in Brahms’s Hungarian Dances (1869), or a Shaker tune in
Copeland’s Appalachian Spring (1944)? Who owns the rights to the 12-bar blues and
the consequent pop and rock tunes? When Coltrane improvises on “My favorite
things” for fourteen minutes (1961), who has the greater claim—the saxophonist or
Rogers and Hammerstein? Originality is a misnomer, with most music, including
that of pied butcherbirds, being a product of copy, cut-and-paste, and building on
the past. Only in the last few hundred years of Western music do we move away
from participatory music and conspire with another paradigm—the
commodification of music and its attendant attitudes towards authorship,
ownership, marketing, branded events, copyright, and royalties, all made possible
by the “master composer” channelling prestigious products. Music has become
“aesthetic capital” (Cook, 1998: 30). Of course, I will be copyrighting my
compositions based on pied butcherbird song. In this respect, my work as a
musician lies within the Western tradition.
194
My motivation in tapping this birdsong was purely personal. The acoustical
constructs of this species seemed extraordinary to me. Upon arriving at the
compositional stage, I thought I had left behind empirical aspects of the research. I
emerged from the process with the unexpected realisation that composition is the
final (and compulsory) piece of my analytical toolkit in interrogating the
vocalisations of the pied butcherbird. Moreover, as sonic explorer, sonic filter, and
then composer, if for a moment here and there I had the conceit that I had improved
upon their phrases, I more often had the sense that it was they who had improved
me as a musician.
The remainder of this chapter includes the portfolio of scores composed as part of
this research project. This precedes my concluding comments in Chapter 7.
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
Chapter 7
Conclusion and Future Directions
289
Chapter 7
To treat music as an abstract symbolic code is to accept the suggestions of arbitrariness and
abstractness that come with the word “code.” To work toward deciphering music in this
sense is, as Pierre Bourdieu says, “to forget that the work of art always contains something
ineffable…” (Walser, 1991: 118).
7.1 Key questions
In this final chapter, I review the questions I have raised and addressed, the answers
the birds have revealed, and what with time I yet want to accomplish.
7.1.1 Key questions from Chapter 1
•
Is musicality a capacity Homo sapiens shares with birds?
•
Would a human get into the pied butcherbird sound world?
•
Is music uniquely human activity?
I openly challenged the limits of music, not theoretically but empirically, by
cataloguing the vast and varied acoustical constructs of the pied butcherbird. While
it was not within the province of this inquiry to probe matters of function, it is clear
that these complex sound forms, at least on the surface, overlap human music and
musical behaviour in a myriad of intriguing examples.
•
Why do composers bother with birdsong?
•
Is the study of birdsong best left to biologists or musicologists?
Although this work is grounded in the music academy, I maintained a double entry,
reading widely in both biology and musicology, and requiring that both fields
inform the inquiry. I critiqued both biologists and musicians by indicating how the
vocalisations of the pied butcherbird benefit from a study informed by both fields.
The study points to a zoömusicological approach, one that recognises the aesthetic
content of birdsong (long attractive to composers but problematic for the science
academy) and that builds on tools and theory, however critically, from biology and
musicology.
290
•
Where and how do I find/make pied butcherbird recordings?
•
What are the benefits and limitations of music notation and sonograms?
•
What sort of data analysis will provide new knowledge and not just new
numbers?
Due to the uniqueness of this approach, no research model existed. I developed
methods, procedures, and techniques to solve problems such as how to find extant
recordings of pied butcherbirds; how and where best to record pied butcherbirds;
how to identify a pied butcherbird by voice alone; and how to document recordings
in the field and after-the-fact. The design and use of conventional music notation
with sonographic analysis and summary worksheets struck a balance between
making images and counting numbers.
•
Why does the pied butcherbird devote effort in crafting notes that are so
acoustically complex?
•
Is singing for a bird a self-rewarding activity?
•
Why increase predatory risk expending an extravagant amount of energy
on song?
•
Why would a bird transgress its species-specific sounds with mimicry?
The degree of complexity and elaboration detailed in this chapter indicate that pied
butcherbird vocalisations go well beyond what is necessary for survival and
reproduction, suggesting yet again the presence of aesthetic appreciation. (Key new
knowledge is itemised below in section 7.2.) No answer is proposed for the
conundrum of why such an “original” singer as the pied butcherbird resorts to
mimicry; instead, a series of new questions were posed, suggesting this is an area in
need of further research.
•
How does a diurnal long song differ from a pre-dawn one, if at all?
•
What is the size of the neighbourhood for a shared phrase-type repertoire?
•
What are the underlying conventions of pied butcherbird song?
291
Questions on repertoire diversity and survival of song phrases drove this chapter.
This marks a rare inquiry into avian long songs, and I distilled a considerable
amount of data in the process. The results indicate a low survival rate for song
phrases and an extremely low rate of phrase matching species-wide, particularly in
pre-dawn song.
•
Will a pied butcherbird phrase sound as compelling two, three, or four
octaves below its normal delivery range?
•
Do we largely appreciate pied butcherbird vocalisations for their unique
timbre, or could a human instrumentalist perform their phrases with equal
panache?
•
Is the appropriation of pied butcherbird phrases in composition an end to
itself, or could there be an analysis component inherent in the act?
•
Can this portfolio be considered original composition in a Western music
sense?
The portfolio continues the work begun in Chapters 4 and 5—that of underlining
the musicality, in human terms, of pied butcherbird phrases. Composition is the
final (and compulsory) piece of the analytical toolkit for interrogating their
vocalisations. Originality in music is situated as a fossil of the eccentric genius
composer mindset, with most music, including that of pied butcherbirds, being a
product of copy, cut-and-paste, and/or building on the past.
7.2 Specific new contributions
The Australian Aboriginal names for the pied butcherbird (Cracticus nigrogularis)
and the more generic butcherbird (Cracticus), in Figures 2.8 and 2.9 respectively,
collate names from diverse sources. Whether an onomatopoeic basis for a majority
of the pied butcherbird entries emerges, suggesting that the species call was the
basis for naming, is inconclusive.
Vocal behaviours not previously noted by ornithologists were recorded, and the
following are believed to be new contributions to this area:
292
1. The identification of a species call that is stereotyped across the continent
and a diagnostic for the species.
2. The documentation of the species call placed in song in a novel context,
often with transposition.
3. The mapping of the SLD2 motif throughout Australia and the proposal that
it also has roots in the species call, as well as pointing to a potential specieswide articulation/rhythmic preference for “short-long.”
4. The cataloguing of a multitude of overlapping items between pied
butcherbird vocalisations and human music.
5. The documentation of a rare case of mimicry in pre-dawn song. This was
delivered in full voice.
6. The documentation of a rare case of a duet delivered in the context of a predawn song.
7. The identification of examples of appropriation of other species of birds and
environmental sounds placed into pied butcherbird phrases (rather than into
mimicry cycles).
8. The confirmation of ventriloquism in pied butcherbird song.
9. The detailing of a duet involving similar contributions from both birds,
including one motif transposed up an octave.
10. The collation of a mimicry masterlist (Fig. 4.33-4.34), drawn from a number
of sources and appended by this research, which adds 12 bird species to this
list, plus six probable new bird species and a frog, as well as credible mimicry
of a human voice, a telephone bell, and the meow of a cat.
293
11. The recording of a continuous three-and-one-quarter hour diurnal song by a
bird.
12. The recording of continuous pre-dawn long songs by over 25 birds.
13. The mapping of acoustic geographies of difference in the song of the pied
butcherbird, indicating that phrases are in a constant state of change.
14. The problematising of “three song types” through detailed comparisons of
diurnal and pre-dawn song.
15. The documentation that pied butcherbirds sing actively in the autumn, at
least in southern and central Queensland.
16. The presentation of a continuum of pied butcherbird song variety (Fig. 5.33)
summarising basic stylistic conventions.
17. The outline of the sheer scale of musical invention and melodic variety from
bird to bird.
18. The illumination that composition is not merely a consumer of birdsong but
also a correlate in the analytical process; composition both is and brings new
knowledge.
19. A portfolio of new compositions.
7.3 Future directions
In this last section, I want to gather thoughts on significant issues that have arisen
and highlight several possible directions for future research. Any discussion of the
future implies that there is more to be discovered. Although new knowledge has
been contributed, I have not “cracked the code.” I am grateful not to have found a
key to the pied butcherbird sound world, because this “failure” works to prove the
thesis. That is, it has been shown that their music, while often tied to function like
the human musical experience in some places and times, nevertheless surpasses
294
mere functionality, demonstrating an extraordinary level of complexity and
plasticity of vocabulary.
The nature of a discussion depends on the scope of the questions posed. I could have
framed this study solely in terms one or two long songs. Since this is the first
systematic study of their vocal behaviour, I have chosen instead to explore the
broad phenomenon of pied butcherbird vocalisations across the years and the
country. What follows are areas that warrant further investigation.
The spring is the only time to record pied butcherbird pre-dawn song, but diurnal
song is active in the autumn. Thus, autumn recording could be dedicated to issues
cogent to diurnal song. The birds appear to cycle through a number of phrases. Are
there sequential rules for diurnal song, and if so, do these rules shift through a
period of hours, days, or weeks?
Further studies could shed light on whether duets make use of entirely separate
material or whether motives from solo songs are converted into duets (or vice
versa). The greatest difficulty in the analysis of duets and antiphonal group song is
parsing out the part that each bird has contributed. Filming the birds in question
would diminish this difficulty, as well as shed light on how visual patterns relate to
singing behaviour. Human music owes a debt to dance and visa versa, and a
collective examination of pied butcherbird vocalisations and body comportment
seems crucial in future work.
Various song types (territorial versus courtship interactions, duets versus solo
song) could be studied to see if affective content is carried in one parameter more
than another, such as if rhythm changes while other parameters remain more
constant (C. Scharff, personal communication, 19 August 2008). Related and equally
significant studies would investigate whether motives from pre-dawn songs are
employed in solo diurnal song, or whether a diurnal pool supplies material for predawn solo song.
The sonic geographies of difference project begun in the two main study areas,
Townsville/environs and Alice Springs/environs, could be continued in these
locations, or commenced elsewhere. As rates of seasonal and annual survival of
295
song phrases are tracked, insight might also be shed into how new phrases are
formed and transmitted through location and time as well as the relation between
individual variability and the fixity of species preferences.
Do songs and elements of them contain coded information being passed on by the
species? The calls, of course, have informational content, but are there messages in
songs that could be decoded? Such a topic is vast and provocative:
Obviously, the study of an animal species cannot be exhaustive. Just
as the best singers are at the same time those in whom one finds the
greatest individual variations, one must have access to numerous
hours of recordings of a great number of different individuals,
throughout their entire habitat, in different season and over many
years. It is not surprising that the number of species for which this
kind of work has been done remains minuscule. Generalisations still
depend largely on the familiarity of the describer with the species
described, which presumes a whole life devoted to its study and
observation (Mâche, 1983/1992: 98).
Clearly, a sustained effort is required. While I have discovered musicality in pied
butcherbird songs, the scope of their functionality beyond survival utility or
reproductive opportunity is as yet unknown. For example, Horn has suggested
further study of the species call is warranted to determine if the birds revise the call
based on the context in which it is placed in the song (A. Horn, personal
communication, 11 November 2005). Should they transpose it up when particular
tones precede or follow it, this could represent a contextual modification, which
“would be of great interest to linguists in particular, since it would suggest a level
of syntax routine in humans but (arguably) absent in other animals” (Horn, ibid.).
Additional recordings of diurnal song could shed light on this topic.
If, in this inquiry, greater attention has been paid to certain geographical areas than
others, and to certain vocal behaviours than others, this indicates what I
acknowledge to be the limitations of the inquiry rather than a lack of commitment
and wonder concerning them. Attempting to get a continent-wide grasp on the
enormous complexity of pied butcherbird vocal culture is made even more daunting
since it is constantly changing. Western Australia is home to a large population of
pied butcherbirds and yet my sample size for recordings there is disproportionately
small, making it a potential candidate for fieldwork. Whatever the future locations
296
and modes of inquiry, the exigencies of a large-scale project such as this require
that the data and methods of analysis be consistently, meticulously, and thoroughly
documented. Such has been the objective of this study.
7.4 Conclusion
Part of the essence of being a pied butcherbird is song. They have a keen interest in
sound patterns and take pains to develop skill in their production. Although it can
include mimicry of a sonic event from a human source, their song is not sullied by
commerce. It has survived contamination by the culture industry. As we hurtle
towards a reductive global culture, their vocalisations enjoy authenticity, “the
cultural ideal” (Nettl, 1983: 318). Their songs are sonic heirlooms that look back to
human pre-history and look forward: their melodic inventions are dynamic, in a
state of flux and constant repositioning. Variations are found at all levels of
organisation. Many components from their rich and nuanced repertoire are subject
to recasting, some via elaborate strategies that seemingly overreach biological
necessity. This panoply of recombining, varying, and inventing mechanisms causes
me to believe that aesthetic statements are being delivered and that the birds
appreciate this in their way. “If invention can reveal itself as being as important in
the individuals of other species as in man, it is time to get rid of the image (three
centuries old) of animal-machines” (Mâche, 1983/1997: 157). Pied butcherbirds—
on the continuum from automatons to science experiments to fellow musicians—
where will we place them?
297
TOWARDS A SPECIES SONGBOOK:
ILLUMINATING THE VOCALISATIONS OF THE
AUSTRALIAN PIED BUTCHERBIRD
(CRACTICUS NIGROGULARIS)
Hollis Taylor
PART TWO
APPENDICES
APPENDIX A:
NOTATION OF A DIURNAL LONG SONG FROM
MAGNETIC ISLAND
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
APPENDIX B:
PHRASES OF A DIURNAL LONG SONG FROM
MAGNETIC ISLAND SEGMENTED BY TYPE
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
APPENDIX C:
SUPPLEMENTARY ANALYSIS OF A DIURNAL LONG
SONG FROM MAGNETIC ISLAND
128
SUPPLEMENTARY ANALYSIS OF A DIURNAL LONG
SONG FROM MAGNETIC ISLAND: TWO TREE
Phrase
#
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
Phrase
Letter
A
B
C
D
D
B
C
E
A
D
B
DB
B
D
B
B
E
D
F
E
B
D
G
C
B
D
H
D
B
E
D
B
B
I
A
D
E
D
I
E
G
C
Track/
CD #
Tr.1/45
TR.2/45
Phrase Start Phrase
Time
Duration
00:22.0
00:37.2
00:49.8
01:05.6
01:30.8
01:43.6
01:56.3
02:04.8
02:13.7
02:22.7
02:31.1
02:40.4
02:51.5
03:00.0
03:06.0
03:16.3
03:26.3
03:28.9
03:38.3
03:45.8
03:56.2
04:04.8
04:14.3
04:22.5
04:31.5
04:40.4
04:50.0
04:55.1
05:02.9
05:12.1
00:03.8
00:13.8
00:22.1
00:31.1
00:39.1
00:48.1
00:58.2
01:06.4
01:18.1
01:26.7
129
00:01.5
00:01.7
00:02.5
00:02.0
00:01.5
00:01.2
00:01.7
00:01.7
00:02.0
00:01.7
00:01.1
00:01.9
00:02.2
00:01.1
00:02.3
00:02.4
00:00.8
00:01.6
00:01.1
00:01.8
00:02.2
00:01.4
00:02.2
00:02.1
00:02.1
00:02.0
00:01.1
00:02.0
00:02.2
00:02.1
00:01.8
00:01.7
00:02.0
00:02.0
00:03.0
00:01.9
00:01.7
00:01.7
00:01.9
00:01.4
Inter-Phrase
Interval
Running
Time
00:13.7
00:10.9
00:13.3
00:23.2
00:11.3
00:11.5
00:06.8
00:07.2
00:07.0
00:06.7
00:08.2
00:09.2
00:06.3
00:04.9
00:08.0
00:07.6
00:01.8
00:07.8
00:06.4
00:08.6
00:06.4
00:08.1
00:06.0
00:06.9
00:06.8
00:07.6
00:04.0
00:05.8
00:07.0
00:07.7
00:08.2
00:06.6
00:07.0
00:06.0
00:06.0
00:08.2
00:06.5
00:10.0
00:06.7
00:07.3
0:00:37.2
0:00:49.8
0:01:05.6
0:01:30.8
0:01:43.6
0:01:56.3
0:02:04.8
0:02:13.7
0:02:22.7
0:02:31.1
0:02:40.4
0:02:51.5
0:03:00.0
0:03:06.0
0:03:16.3
0:03:26.3
0:03:28.9
0:03:38.3
0:03:45.8
0:03:56.2
0:04:04.8
0:04:14.3
0:04:22.5
0:04:31.5
0:04:40.4
0:04:50.0
0:04:55.1
0:05:02.9
0:05:12.1
0:05:21.9
0:05:31.9
0:05:40.2
0:05:49.2
0:05:57.2
0:06:06.2
0:06:16.3
0:06:24.5
0:06:36.2
0:06:44.8
0:06:53.5
Phrase
#
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
72.
73.
74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
80.
81.
82.
83.
84.
85.
86.
87.
88.
89.
Phrase
Letter
B
B
D
H
A
D
I
E
D
C
D
B
E
D
H
C
D
B
H
E
D
A
C
H
E
I
E
D
E
DA
D
E
I
H
B
D
B
D
H
A
D
B
H
B
DE
I
H
Track/
CD #
Phrase Start Phrase
Time
Duration
01:35.4
00:01.1
01:42.4
00:02.1
01:50.6
00:02.9
01:59.5
00:02.1
02:08.5
00:01.9
02:16.8
00:02.2
02:27.0
00:01.8
02:35.9
00:03.5
02:46.4
00:02.2
02:56.1
00:02.1
03:03.8
00:02.8
03:15.4
00:02.2
03:29.9
00:05.1
03:40.4
00:02.0
03:49.0
00:02.2
03:56.9
00:01.6
04:04.3
00:02.0
04:13.6
00:02.1
04:23.9
00:02.4
04:31.7
00:02.0
04:38.5
00:02.6
04:48.3
00:02.1
04:56.6
00:01.5
05:06.5
00:05.1
Tr.3/45
00:05.5
00:04.8
00:19.5
00:02.0
00:27.8
00:02.0
00:36.5
00:02.2
00:47.8
00:02.0
00:58.3
00:03.0
01:06.4
00:02.7
01:15.7
00:02.7
01:24.3
00:01.7
01:33.6
00:05.5
01:46.8
00:01.2
01:52.6
00:02.4
02:01.1
00:01.1
02:07.6
00:02.7
02:22.4
00:01.7
02:30.1
00:02.0
02:39.7
00:01.8
02:47.7
00:02.3
02:56.6
00:01.6
03:05.2
00:01.2
03:10.6
00:03.2
03:20.8
00:02.1
03:29.2
00:01.8
130
Inter-Phrase
Interval
00:05.9
00:06.1
00:06.0
00:06.9
00:06.4
00:08.0
00:07.1
00:07.0
00:07.5
00:05.6
00:08.8
00:12.3
00:05.4
00:06.6
00:05.7
00:05.8
00:07.3
00:08.2
00:05.4
00:04.8
00:07.2
00:06.2
00:08.4
00:08.0
00:09.2
00:06.3
00:06.7
00:09.1
00:08.5
00:05.1
00:06.6
00:05.9
00:07.6
00:07.7
00:04.6
00:06.1
00:05.4
00:12.1
00:06.0
00:07.6
00:06.2
00:06.6
00:07.0
00:04.2
00:07.0
00:06.3
00:07.4
Running
Time
0:07:00.5
0:07:08.7
0:07:17.6
0:07:26.6
0:07:34.9
0:07:45.1
0:07:54.0
0:08:04.5
0:08:14.2
0:08:21.9
0:08:33.5
0:08:48.0
0:08:58.5
0:09:07.1
0:09:15.0
0:09:22.4
0:09:31.7
0:09:42.0
0:09:49.8
0:09:56.6
0:10:06.4
0:10:14.7
0:10:24.6
0:10:37.7
0:10:51.7
0:11:00.0
0:11:08.7
0:11:20.0
0:11:30.5
0:11:38.6
0:11:47.9
0:11:56.5
0:12:05.8
0:12:19.0
0:12:24.8
0:12:33.3
0:12:39.8
0:12:54.6
0:13:02.3
0:13:11.9
0:13:19.9
0:13:28.8
0:13:37.4
0:13:42.8
0:13:53.0
0:14:01.4
0:14:10.6
Phrase
#
90.
91.
92.
93.
94.
95.
96.
97.
98.
99.
100.
101.
102.
103.
104.
105.
106.
107.
108.
109.
110.
111.
112.
113.
114.
115.
116.
117.
118.
119.
120.
121.
122.
123.
124.
125.
126.
127.
128.
129.
130.
131.
132.
133.
134.
135.
136.
Phrase Track/CD Phrase Start Phrase
Letter
#
Time
Duration
A
03:38.4
00:01.9
B
03:47.9
00:02.1
B
03:56.6
00:02.2
H
04:04.4
00:02.9
B
04:15.6
00:01.2
H
04:25.8
00:01.8
CE
04:34.0
00:03.8
D
04:44.1
00:02.6
H
04:52.2
00:02.1
B
Tr.4/45
00:01.1
00:02.2
D
00:10.0
00:02.3
E
00:15.1
00:01.7
I
00:25.9
00:01.6
H
00:34.6
00:04.0
CE
00:44.0
00:04.5
I
00:56.0
00:01.7
D
01:04.5
00:02.0
B
01:11.9
00:02.3
I
01:19.7
00:01.7
CE
01:29.0
00:03.7
A
01:37.6
00:03.1
E
01:44.8
00:02.0
J
01:52.0
00:03.6
D
02:01.1
00:02.8
CE
02:11.8
00:03.6
B
02:29.5
00:01.2
IJ
02:35.4
00:01.4
D
02:43.1
00:01.8
I
02:51.4
00:01.8
DE
03:00.3
00:04.2
H
03:10.2
00:01.9
H
03:20.1
00:03.3
B
03:30.9
00:01.4
CE
03:37.8
00:03.5
A
03:47.1
00:02.2
H
03:54.7
00:01.7
D
04:03.8
00:02.6
A
04:14.0
00:02.2
E
04:21.9
00:02.8
E
04:30.0
00:03.1
D
04:40.9
00:00.7
A
04:45.1
00:02.1
I
04:53.0
00:01.8
D
Tr.5/45
00:03.5
00:02.1
H
00:11.4
00:02.2
B
00:20.9
00:01.1
E
00:25.7
00:02.2
131
Inter-Phrase
Interval
00:07.6
00:06.6
00:05.6
00:08.3
00:09.0
00:06.4
00:06.3
00:05.5
00:07.8
00:06.7
00:02.8
00:09.1
00:07.1
00:05.4
00:07.5
00:06.8
00:05.4
00:05.5
00:07.6
00:04.9
00:04.1
00:05.2
00:05.5
00:07.9
00:14.1
00:04.7
00:06.3
00:06.5
00:07.1
00:05.7
00:08.0
00:07.5
00:05.5
00:05.8
00:05.4
00:07.4
00:07.6
00:05.7
00:05.3
00:07.8
00:03.5
00:05.8
00:06.7
00:05.8
00:07.3
00:03.7
00:12.0
Running
Time
0:14:20.1
0:14:28.8
0:14:36.6
0:14:47.8
0:14:58.0
0:15:06.2
0:15:16.3
0:15:24.4
0:15:34.3
0:15:43.2
0:15:48.3
0:15:59.1
0:16:07.8
0:16:17.2
0:16:29.2
0:16:37.7
0:16:45.1
0:16:52.9
0:17:02.2
0:17:10.8
0:17:18.0
0:17:25.2
0:17:34.3
0:17:45.0
0:18:02.7
0:18:08.6
0:18:16.3
0:18:24.6
0:18:33.5
0:18:43.4
0:18:53.3
0:19:04.1
0:19:11.0
0:19:20.3
0:19:27.9
0:19:37.0
0:19:47.2
0:19:55.1
0:20:03.2
0:20:14.1
0:20:18.3
0:20:26.2
0:20:34.7
0:20:42.6
0:20:52.1
0:20:56.9
0:21:11.1
Phrase
#
137.
138.
139.
140.
141.
142.
143.
144.
145.
146.
147.
148.
149.
150.
151.
152.
153.
154.
155.
156.
157.
158.
159.
160.
161.
162.
163.
164.
165.
166.
167.
168.
169.
170.
171.
172.
173.
174.
175.
176.
177.
178.
179.
180.
181.
182.
183.
Phrase
Letter
E
H
D
A
H
D
A
E
H
D
A
H
I
E
DB
E
A
E
B
H
I
D
H
H
DB
E
B
I
A
H
E
E
D
E
H
A
D
H
E
BD
H
H
B
E
H
A
D
Track/
CD #
Phrase Start Phrase
Time
Duration
00:39.9
00:02.1
00:49.8
00:02.1
00:58.4
00:01.9
01:08.5
00:02.0
01:17.6
00:03.3
01:27.8
00:02.7
01:34.5
00:01.9
01:41.9
00:03.6
01:51.6
00:01.8
01:59.3
00:02.5
02:08.2
00:01.9
02:17.7
00:03.7
02:30.9
00:01.7
02:37.7
00:01.9
02:46.0
00:02.3
02:51.3
00:02.1
03:00.4
00:01.9
03:07.2
00:03.7
03:18.8
00:01.4
03:25.8
00:02.5
03:36.0
00:01.8
03:46.9
00:01.8
03:54.6
00:02.3
04:02.9
00:02.9
04:12.9
00:01.8
04:17.6
00:02.4
04:26.4
00:02.3
04:34.9
00:03.5
04:43.2
00:01.9
04:50.9
00:02.9
05:02.3
00:02.4
05:11.3
00:04.0
05:21.7
00:02.0
Tr.6/45
00:05.0
00:05.0
00:15.8
00:01.7
00:24.1
00:01.7
00:30.6
00:01.9
00:38.5
00:03.2
00:48.9
00:02.1
00:58.6
00:02.4
01:09.4
00:03.0
01:17.6
00:02.3
01:29.6
00:01.2
01:34.3
00:02.0
01:43.7
00:02.5
01:54.6
00:01.9
02:07.6
00:01.8
132
Inter-Phrase
Interval
00:07.8
00:06.5
00:08.2
00:07.1
00:06.9
00:04.0
00:05.5
00:06.1
00:05.9
00:06.4
00:07.6
00:09.5
00:05.1
00:06.4
00:03.0
00:07.0
00:04.9
00:07.9
00:05.6
00:07.7
00:09.1
00:05.9
00:06.0
00:07.1
00:02.9
00:06.4
00:06.2
00:04.8
00:05.8
00:08.5
00:06.6
00:06.4
00:05.8
00:05.8
00:06.6
00:04.8
00:06.0
00:07.2
00:07.6
00:08.4
00:05.2
00:09.7
00:03.5
00:07.4
00:08.4
00:11.1
00:05.6
Running
Time
0:21:21.0
0:21:29.6
0:21:39.7
0:21:48.8
0:21:59.0
0:22:05.7
0:22:13.1
0:22:22.8
0:22:30.5
0:22:39.4
0:22:48.9
0:23:02.1
0:23:08.9
0:23:17.2
0:23:22.5
0:23:31.6
0:23:38.4
0:23:50.0
0:23:57.0
0:24:07.2
0:24:18.1
0:24:25.8
0:24:34.1
0:24:44.1
0:24:48.8
0:24:57.6
0:25:06.1
0:25:14.4
0:25:22.1
0:25:33.5
0:25:42.5
0:25:52.9
0:26:00.7
0:26:11.5
0:26:19.8
0:26:26.3
0:26:34.2
0:26:44.6
0:26:54.3
0:27:05.1
0:27:13.3
0:27:25.3
0:27:30.0
0:27:39.4
0:27:50.3
0:28:03.3
0:28:10.7
Phrase
#
184.
185.
186.
187.
188.
189.
190.
191.
192.
193.
194.
195.
196.
197.
198.
199.
200.
201.
202.
203.
204.
205.
206.
207.
208.
209.
210.
211.
212.
213.
214.
215.
216.
217.
218.
219.
220.
221.
222.
223.
224.
225.
226.
227.
228.
229.
230.
Phrase
Letter
H
J
B
HE
E
J
A
H
E
E
H
A
I
E
E
B
H
I
E
E
EC
H
H
D
E
H
J
H
H
H
E
B
CE
I
A
H
C
J
H
A
D
H
I
E
B
E
A
Track/
CD #
Phrase Start Phrase
Time
Duration
02:15.0
00:02.1
02:25.4
00:01.9
02:33.1
00:01.2
02:40.0
00:03.3
02:57.0
00:02.3
03:06.1
00:01.6
03:14.0
00:02.0
03:21.1
00:02.5
03:30.1
00:02.4
03:39.7
00:04.5
03:49.6
00:03.2
03:59.0
00:02.1
04:07.0
00:02.2
04:14.9
00:01.9
04:23.2
00:02.1
Tr.7/45
00:03.5
00:01.3
00:09.0
00:02.2
00:18.5
00:01.8
00:23.9
00:02.5
00:34.7
00:02.3
00:43.3
00:03.3
00:52.4
00:02.9
01:03.2
00:01.9
01:10.5
00:02.3
01:14.4
00:03.4
01:25.5
00:02.4
01:37.3
00:01.9
01:43.7
00:01.5
01:52.1
00:01.4
01:59.2
00:01.6
02:05.8
00:04.3
02:20.6
00:02.7
02:28.9
00:03.9
02:40.5
00:01.8
02:48.6
00:01.9
02:56.5
00:01.1
03:03.5
00:01.3
03:10.3
00:01.7
03:18.5
00:01.9
03:27.4
00:01.9
03:34.1
00:01.9
03:42.6
00:01.3
03:50.7
00:00.8
03:57.8
00:02.3
04:21.4
00:02.2
04:32.6
00:02.3
04:44.3
00:01.9
133
Inter-Phrase
Interval
00:08.3
00:05.8
00:05.7
00:13.7
00:06.8
00:06.3
00:05.1
00:06.5
00:07.2
00:05.4
00:06.2
00:05.9
00:05.7
00:06.4
00:07.0
00:04.2
00:07.3
00:03.6
00:08.3
00:06.3
00:05.8
00:07.9
00:05.4
00:01.6
00:07.7
00:09.4
00:04.5
00:06.9
00:05.7
00:05.0
00:10.5
00:05.6
00:07.7
00:06.3
00:06.0
00:05.9
00:05.5
00:06.5
00:07.0
00:04.8
00:06.6
00:06.8
00:06.3
00:21.3
00:09.0
00:09.4
00:05.7
Running
Time
0:28:21.1
0:28:28.8
0:28:35.7
0:28:52.7
0:29:01.8
0:29:09.7
0:29:16.8
0:29:25.8
0:29:35.4
0:29:45.3
0:29:54.7
0:30:02.7
0:30:10.6
0:30:18.9
0:30:28.0
0:30:33.5
0:30:43.0
0:30:48.4
0:30:59.2
0:31:07.8
0:31:16.9
0:31:27.7
0:31:35.0
0:31:38.9
0:31:50.0
0:32:01.8
0:32:08.2
0:32:16.6
0:32:23.7
0:32:30.3
0:32:45.1
0:32:53.4
0:33:05.0
0:33:13.1
0:33:21.0
0:33:28.0
0:33:34.8
0:33:43.0
0:33:51.9
0:33:58.6
0:34:07.1
0:34:15.2
0:34:22.3
0:34:45.9
0:34:57.1
0:35:08.8
0:35:16.4
Phrase
#
231.
232.
233.
234.
235.
236.
237.
238.
239.
240.
241.
242.
243.
244.
245.
246.
247.
248.
249.
250.
251.
252.
253.
254.
255.
256.
257.
258.
259.
260.
261.
262.
263.
264.
265.
266.
267.
268.
269.
270.
271.
272.
273.
274.
275.
276.
277.
Phrase
Letter
H
D
A
H
I
H
E
A
E
E
H
J
H
D
A
A
BE
H
A
E
H
A
H
E
D
E
A
H
DE
E
H
E
H
E
D
A
I
A
H
D
I
B
H
E
D
E
H
Track/
CD #
Tr.8/45
Phrase
Start Time
04:51.9
05:00.1
05:09.6
05:17.4
05:27.5
05:35.4
05:44.8
05:57.2
06:05.5
06:12.6
06:22.1
06:30.7
06:39.5
06:46.4
06:56.0
07:17.8
07:25.2
07:37.5
07:45.0
07:54.4
08:02.6
08:10.7
08:18.8
08:29.1
08:36.7
08:42.5
08:51.3
08:59.0
09:07.5
09:17.4
09:27.6
09:36.5
09:54.8
10:00.7
10:10.2
10:16.1
10:23.6
00:04.9
00:14.2
00:23.2
00:31.6
00:41.6
00:48.4
00:57.2
01:07.2
01:16.6
01:24.9
134
Phrase
Duration
00:02.1
00:02.0
00:02.0
00:03.2
00:01.7
00:03.3
00:02.4
00:02.8
00:02.3
00:02.5
00:02.3
00:02.9
00:02.2
00:02.1
00:01.8
00:02.1
00:06.2
00:02.4
00:01.9
00:01.8
00:01.1
00:02.1
00:03.2
00:02.1
00:03.1
00:02.4
00:01.9
00:02.4
00:03.8
00:02.3
00:02.1
00:02.1
00:01.1
00:03.2
00:02.0
00:01.8
00:01.9
00:02.1
00:03.1
00:01.9
00:02.6
00:01.2
00:02.2
00:03.0
00:01.7
00:01.9
00:02.1
Inter-Phrase
Interval
00:06.1
00:07.5
00:05.8
00:06.9
00:06.2
00:06.1
00:10.0
00:05.5
00:04.8
00:07.0
00:06.3
00:05.9
00:04.7
00:07.5
00:20.0
00:05.3
00:06.1
00:05.1
00:07.5
00:06.4
00:07.0
00:06.0
00:07.1
00:05.5
00:02.7
00:06.4
00:05.8
00:06.1
00:06.1
00:07.9
00:06.8
00:16.2
00:04.8
00:06.3
00:03.9
00:05.7
00:06.7
00:07.2
00:05.9
00:06.5
00:07.4
00:05.6
00:06.6
00:07.0
00:07.7
00:06.4
00:05.7
Running
Time
0:35:24.6
0:35:34.1
0:35:41.9
0:35:52.0
0:35:59.9
0:36:09.3
0:36:21.7
0:36:30.0
0:36:37.1
0:36:46.6
0:36:55.2
0:37:04.0
0:37:10.9
0:37:20.5
0:37:42.3
0:37:49.7
0:38:02.0
0:38:09.5
0:38:18.9
0:38:27.1
0:38:35.2
0:38:43.3
0:38:53.6
0:39:01.2
0:39:07.0
0:39:15.8
0:39:23.5
0:39:32.0
0:39:41.9
0:39:52.1
0:40:01.0
0:40:19.3
0:40:25.2
0:40:34.7
0:40:40.6
0:40:48.1
0:40:56.7
0:41:06.0
0:41:15.0
0:41:23.4
0:41:33.4
0:41:40.2
0:41:49.0
0:41:59.0
0:42:08.4
0:42:16.7
0:42:24.5
Phrase
#
278.
279.
280.
281.
282.
283.
284.
285.
286.
287.
288.
289.
290.
291.
292.
293.
294.
295.
296.
297.
298.
299.
300.
301.
302.
303.
304.
305.
306.
307.
308.
309.
310.
311.
312.
313.
314.
315.
316.
317.
318.
319.
320.
321.
322.
323.
324.
Phrase
Letter
A
E
E
H
A
E
H
B
E
E
H
DE
DE
H
A
E
CE
D
H
A
EJ
H
BDE
J
J
B
CE
E
H
E
J
A
D
E
B
B
H
A
A
D
H
J
H
A
H
D
CE
Track/
CD #
Phrase Start Phrase
Time
Duration
01:32.7
00:02.3
01:39.7
00:02.0
01:46.8
00:02.1
01:54.6
00:02.1
02:03.7
00:01.9
02:10.8
00:02.7
02:19.2
00:01.1
02:24.9
00:01.2
02:31.6
00:02.0
02:39.9
00:01.7
02:49.1
00:01.1
02:57.7
00:04.2
03:13.2
00:05.0
03:23.2
00:02.1
03:31.7
00:01.9
03:39.9
00:01.3
03:48.6
00:04.3
03:57.8
00:01.9
04:05.1
00:03.2
04:16.3
00:01.8
04:23.1
00:04.6
04:33.7
00:02.3
04:44.2
00:05.6
04:55.2
00:02.2
05:03.8
00:01.6
05:13.7
00:02.2
05:22.3
00:02.8
05:32.6
00:01.6
05:41.3
00:02.0
05:51.2
00:02.4
06:00.2
00:01.2
06:09.2
00:01.8
06:16.7
00:02.3
06:25.0
00:01.8
06:31.8
00:01.0
06:39.1
00:02.4
07:03.4
00:02.1
07:15.7
00:01.8
07:33.8
00:01.8
07:42.9
00:02.5
07:52.4
00:02.4
08:02.7
00:01.5
08:12.1
00:03.1
08:31.1
00:03.0
08:39.4
00:02.0
08:48.8
00:02.1
08:57.3
00:03.7
135
Inter-Phrase
Interval
00:04.7
00:05.1
00:05.7
00:07.0
00:05.2
00:05.7
00:04.6
00:05.5
00:06.3
00:07.5
00:07.5
00:11.3
00:05.0
00:06.4
00:06.3
00:07.4
00:04.9
00:05.4
00:08.0
00:05.0
00:06.0
00:08.2
00:05.4
00:06.4
00:08.3
00:06.4
00:07.5
00:07.1
00:07.9
00:06.6
00:07.8
00:05.7
00:06.0
00:05.0
00:06.3
00:21.9
00:10.2
00:16.3
00:07.3
00:07.0
00:07.9
00:07.9
00:15.9
00:05.3
00:07.4
00:06.4
00:07.6
Running
Time
0:42:31.5
0:42:38.6
0:42:46.4
0:42:55.5
0:43:02.6
0:43:11.0
0:43:16.7
0:43:23.4
0:43:31.7
0:43:40.9
0:43:49.5
0:44:05.0
0:44:15.0
0:44:23.5
0:44:31.7
0:44:40.4
0:44:49.6
0:44:56.9
0:45:08.1
0:45:14.9
0:45:25.5
0:45:36.0
0:45:47.0
0:45:55.6
0:46:05.5
0:46:14.1
0:46:24.4
0:46:33.1
0:46:43.0
0:46:52.0
0:47:01.0
0:47:08.5
0:47:16.8
0:47:23.6
0:47:30.9
0:47:55.2
0:48:07.5
0:48:25.6
0:48:34.7
0:48:44.2
0:48:54.5
0:49:03.9
0:49:22.9
0:49:31.2
0:49:40.6
0:49:49.1
0:50:00.4
Phrase
#
325.
326.
327.
328.
329.
330.
331.
332.
333.
334.
335.
336.
337.
338.
339.
340.
341.
342.
343.
344.
345.
346.
347.
348.
349.
350.
351.
352.
353.
354.
355.
356.
357.
358.
359.
360.
361.
362.
363.
364.
365.
366.
367.
368.
369.
370.
371.
Phrase
Letter
B
A
H
B
D
JH
J
H
J
H
A
J
CE
D
H
B
H
E
A
I
D
H
E
H
A
D
E
E
H
A
H
B
CE
D
J
J
J
B
J
A
B
J
H
D
A
H
D
Track/
CD #
Phrase Start Phrase
Time
Duration
09:08.6
00:02.0
09:17.9
00:01.9
09:27.1
00:02.4
09:36.9
00:01.1
Tr.9/45
00:01.2
00:02.9
00:10.9
00:02.1
00:19.9
00:01.6
00:28.1
00:02.2
00:36.3
00:02.1
00:54.9
00:01.5
01:03.4
00:01.9
01:12.8
00:02.4
01:22.1
00:03.3
01:31.2
00:02.2
01:39.1
00:02.4
01:48.4
00:02.0
01:57.5
00:02.0
02:07.7
00:01.9
02:16.1
00:02.1
02:25.5
00:01.7
02:34.1
00:02.7
02:42.8
00:02.3
02:53.8
00:02.4
03:02.1
00:03.2
03:16.7
00:02.0
03:24.9
00:01.9
03:33.0
00:02.8
03:43.1
00:02.6
03:52.5
00:02.9
04:02.3
00:01.9
04:12.0
00:02.1
04:19.4
00:01.1
04:30.6
00:03.5
04:41.0
00:02.7
04:51.7
00:02.1
05:04.9
00:02.4
05:12.2
00:02.6
Tr.10/45
00:10.1
00:02.2
00:18.3
00:01.6
00:25.6
00:01.9
00:35.8
00:02.2
00:44.6
00:02.2
00:53.7
00:02.3
01:04.4
00:02.2
01:13.4
00:01.8
01:21.5
00:01.8
01:29.1
00:02.0
136
Inter-Phrase
Interval
00:07.3
00:07.3
00:07.4
00:05.7
00:06.8
00:06.9
00:06.6
00:06.0
00:16.5
00:07.0
00:07.5
00:06.9
00:05.8
00:05.7
00:06.9
00:07.1
00:08.2
00:06.5
00:07.3
00:06.9
00:06.0
00:08.7
00:05.9
00:11.4
00:06.2
00:06.2
00:07.3
00:06.8
00:06.9
00:07.8
00:05.3
00:10.1
00:06.9
00:08.0
00:11.1
00:04.9
00:10.9
00:06.0
00:05.7
00:08.3
00:06.6
00:06.9
00:08.4
00:06.8
00:06.3
00:05.8
00:08.5
Running
Time
0:50:09.7
0:50:18.9
0:50:28.7
0:50:35.5
0:50:45.2
0:50:54.2
0:51:02.4
0:51:10.6
0:51:29.2
0:51:37.7
0:51:47.1
0:51:56.4
0:52:05.5
0:52:13.4
0:52:22.7
0:52:31.8
0:52:42.0
0:52:50.4
0:52:59.8
0:53:08.4
0:53:17.1
0:53:28.1
0:53:36.4
0:53:51.0
0:53:59.2
0:54:07.3
0:54:17.4
0:54:26.8
0:54:36.6
0:54:46.3
0:54:53.7
0:55:04.9
0:55:15.3
0:55:26.0
0:55:39.2
0:55:46.5
0:56:00.0
0:56:08.2
0:56:15.5
0:56:25.7
0:56:34.5
0:56:43.6
0:56:54.3
0:57:03.3
0:57:11.4
0:57:19.0
0:57:29.5
Phrase
#
372.
373.
374.
375.
376.
377.
378.
379.
380.
381.
382.
383.
384.
385.
386.
387.
388.
389.
390.
391.
392.
393.
394.
395.
396.
397.
398.
399.
400.
401.
402.
403.
404.
405.
406.
407.
408.
409.
410.
411.
412.
413.
414.
415.
416.
417.
418.
Phrase
Letter
E
D
B
E
A
H
D
H
B
H
D
J
H
J
D
A
D
B
A
H
J
D
B
D
E
D
H
D
A
D
H
E
EC
A
E
A
H
D
J
E
I
H
A
H
D
A
D
Track/
CD #
Phrase Start Phrase
Time
Duration
01:39.6
00:02.3
01:47.8
00:02.7
01:56.9
00:01.1
02:03.7
00:02.3
02:12.7
00:01.8
02:22.9
00:02.1
02:31.1
00:02.0
02:40.7
00:02.0
02:51.1
00:01.2
02:57.0
00:02.1
03:04.7
00:02.4
03:12.3
00:02.1
03:28.5
00:03.2
03:37.2
00:01.8
03:48.7
00:03.8
03:57.5
00:01.8
04:06.0
00:01.8
04:22.6
00:01.1
04:30.5
00:01.9
04:41.9
00:01.8
04:49.2
00:01.6
05:02.2
00:03.1
05:12.2
00:01.2
05:19.4
00:03.2
05:35.0
00:03.5
05:45.6
00:02.7
05:56.0
00:02.1
06:03.0
00:01.9
06:29.2
00:01.9
06:37.8
00:02.2
06:50.6
00:03.2
07:01.7
00:02.0
07:13.1
00:04.1
07:24.8
00:01.9
07:33.6
00:01.9
07:46.6
00:01.9
07:54.1
00:02.1
08:04.4
00:01.9
08:12.3
00:01.8
08:21.9
00:01.9
08:31.9
00:01.8
08:44.0
00:02.3
08:53.8
00:01.9
09:05.1
00:02.7
09:13.0
00:02.6
Tr.11/45
00:02.9
00:01.9
00:11.4
00:02.1
137
Inter-Phrase
Interval
00:05.9
00:06.4
00:05.7
00:06.7
00:08.4
00:06.1
00:07.6
00:08.4
00:04.7
00:05.6
00:05.2
00:14.1
00:05.5
00:09.7
00:05.0
00:06.7
00:14.8
00:06.8
00:09.5
00:05.5
00:11.4
00:06.9
00:06.0
00:12.4
00:07.1
00:07.7
00:04.9
00:24.3
00:06.7
00:10.6
00:07.9
00:09.4
00:07.6
00:06.9
00:11.1
00:05.6
00:08.2
00:06.0
00:07.8
00:08.1
00:10.3
00:07.5
00:09.4
00:05.2
00:07.5
00:06.6
00:06.9
Running
Time
0:57:37.7
0:57:46.8
0:57:53.6
0:58:02.6
0:58:12.8
0:58:21.0
0:58:30.6
0:58:41.0
0:58:46.9
0:58:54.6
0:59:02.2
0:59:18.4
0:59:27.1
0:59:38.6
0:59:47.4
0:59:55.9
1:00:12.5
1:00:20.4
1:00:31.8
1:00:39.1
1:00:52.1
1:01:02.1
1:01:09.3
1:01:24.9
1:01:35.5
1:01:45.9
1:01:52.9
1:02:19.1
1:02:27.7
1:02:40.5
1:02:51.6
1:03:03.0
1:03:14.7
1:03:23.5
1:03:36.5
1:03:44.0
1:03:54.3
1:04:02.2
1:04:11.8
1:04:21.8
1:04:33.9
1:04:43.7
1:04:55.0
1:05:02.9
1:05:13.0
1:05:21.5
1:05:30.5
Phrase
#
419.
420.
421.
422.
423.
424.
425.
426.
427.
428.
429.
430.
431.
432.
433.
434.
435.
436.
437.
438.
439.
440.
441.
442.
443.
444.
445.
446.
447.
448.
449.
450.
451.
452.
453.
454.
455.
456.
457.
458.
459.
460.
461.
462.
463.
464.
465.
Phrase
Letter
I
A
C
D
H
E
C
A
D
H
D
B
J
A
H
D
B
E
D
A
D
C
B
H
D
E
A
J
B
H
DE
A
D
H
A
D
H
J
E
B
H
E
A
D
H
J
B
Track/
CD #
Phrase Start Phrase
Time
Duration
00:20.4
00:01.8
00:28.4
00:01.9
00:37.1
00:01.3
00:44.2
00:01.8
00:53.4
00:03.2
01:04.9
00:02.0
01:13.0
00:03.8
01:24.5
00:01.9
01:31.9
00:03.0
01:48.0
00:02.4
01:59.3
00:01.8
02:07.9
00:01.1
02:14.3
00:01.8
02:22.2
00:01.8
02:29.8
00:03.1
02:42.3
00:02.0
02:53.7
00:00.8
02:57.3
00:02.0
03:08.1
00:02.7
03:16.5
00:02.1
03:24.9
00:02.8
03:33.9
00:03.9
03:45.5
00:01.1
03:53.9
00:03.4
04:05.9
00:00.7
04:09.8
00:02.4
04:31.6
00:01.9
04:40.2
00:02.5
04:56.2
00:01.2
05:03.0
00:02.1
05:13.8
00:02.7
05:22.0
00:01.9
05:31.1
00:02.1
05:40.7
00:03.2
05:51.5
00:02.0
06:07.0
00:01.8
Tr.1/46
00:05.8
00:01.8
00:13.5
00:01.7
00:20.9
00:02.4
00:31.4
00:01.1
00:38.7
00:01.8
00:46.4
00:02.0
00:54.3
00:01.9
01:03.2
00:01.9
01:11.5
00:01.1
01:18.0
00:01.8
01:31.4
00:01.3
138
Inter-Phrase
Interval
00:06.2
00:06.8
00:05.8
00:07.4
00:08.3
00:06.1
00:07.7
00:05.5
00:13.1
00:08.9
00:06.8
00:05.3
00:06.1
00:05.8
00:09.4
00:09.4
00:02.8
00:08.8
00:05.7
00:06.3
00:06.2
00:07.7
00:07.3
00:08.6
00:03.2
00:19.4
00:06.7
00:13.5
00:05.6
00:08.7
00:05.5
00:07.2
00:07.5
00:07.6
00:13.5
00:11.7
00:05.9
00:05.7
00:08.1
00:06.2
00:05.9
00:05.9
00:07.0
00:06.4
00:05.4
00:11.6
00:05.5
Running
Time
1:05:38.5
1:05:47.2
1:05:54.3
1:06:03.5
1:06:15.0
1:06:23.1
1:06:34.6
1:06:42.0
1:06:58.1
1:07:09.4
1:07:18.0
1:07:24.4
1:07:32.3
1:07:39.9
1:07:52.4
1:08:03.8
1:08:07.4
1:08:18.2
1:08:26.6
1:08:35.0
1:08:44.0
1:08:55.6
1:09:04.0
1:09:16.0
1:09:19.9
1:09:41.7
1:09:50.3
1:10:06.3
1:10:13.1
1:10:23.9
1:10:32.1
1:10:41.2
1:10:50.8
1:11:01.6
1:11:17.1
1:11:30.6
1:11:38.3
1:11:45.7
1:11:56.2
1:12:03.5
1:12:11.2
1:12:19.1
1:12:28.0
1:12:36.3
1:12:42.8
1:12:56.2
1:13:03.0
Phrase
#
466.
467.
468.
469.
470.
471.
472.
473.
474.
475.
476.
477.
478.
479.
480.
481.
482.
483.
484.
485.
486.
487.
488.
489.
490.
491.
492.
493.
494.
495.
496.
497.
498.
499.
500.
501.
502.
503.
504.
505.
506.
507.
508.
509.
510.
511.
512.
Phrase
Letter
E
A
E
H
E
J
E
A
I
E
A
DB
H
J
E
A
E
H
D
E
A
E
H
E
A
D
H
A
C
E
J
E
J
A
H
B
E
A
J
A
D
B
H
C
AI
A
E
Track/
CD #
Phrase Start Phrase
Time
Duration
01:38.2
00:03.2
01:49.8
00:01.9
01:58.1
00:03.3
02:08.0
00:02.2
02:16.0
00:02.4
02:37.9
00:01.8
02:48.0
00:02.5
02:56.4
00:02.0
03:06.9
00:01.8
03:13.8
00:03.2
03:23.8
00:01.9
03:32.3
00:01.8
03:40.1
00:01.8
03:47.0
00:01.4
03:54.3
00:02.5
04:05.1
00:01.8
04:13.3
00:02.0
04:21.3
00:01.9
04:29.9
00:02.0
04:36.7
00:03.1
Tr.2/46
00:10.5
00:01.1
00:15.4
00:02.3
00:24.1
00:02.8
00:33.1
00:02.0
00:41.7
00:02.0
00:50.7
00:01.0
00:57.4
00:01.5
01:04.5
00:02.0
01:15.4
00:01.4
01:23.6
00:01.8
01:30.7
00:01.9
01:37.7
00:02.0
01:46.8
00:02.0
01:58.1
00:01.9
02:05.8
00:02.5
02:15.5
00:02.3
02:22.9
00:01.8
02:31.8
00:01.9
02:41.0
00:01.5
02:51.4
00:02.1
03:02.6
00:01.2
03:10.8
00:01.2
03:18.2
00:02.2
03:33.3
00:01.4
03:41.8
00:01.6
03:49.6
00:01.9
03:58.5
00:02.3
139
Inter-Phrase
Interval
00:08.4
00:06.4
00:06.6
00:05.8
00:19.5
00:08.3
00:05.9
00:08.5
00:05.1
00:06.8
00:06.6
00:06.0
00:05.1
00:05.9
00:08.3
00:06.4
00:06.0
00:06.7
00:04.8
00:12.4
00:03.8
00:06.4
00:06.2
00:06.6
00:07.0
00:05.7
00:05.6
00:08.9
00:06.8
00:05.3
00:05.1
00:07.1
00:09.3
00:05.8
00:07.2
00:05.1
00:07.1
00:07.3
00:08.9
00:09.1
00:07.0
00:06.2
00:12.9
00:07.1
00:06.2
00:07.0
00:08.2
Running
Time
1:13:14.6
1:13:22.9
1:13:32.8
1:13:40.8
1:14:02.7
1:14:12.8
1:14:21.2
1:14:31.7
1:14:38.6
1:14:48.6
1:14:57.1
1:15:04.9
1:15:11.8
1:15:19.1
1:15:29.9
1:15:38.1
1:15:46.1
1:15:54.7
1:16:01.5
1:16:17.0
1:16:21.9
1:16:30.6
1:16:39.6
1:16:48.2
1:16:57.2
1:17:03.9
1:17:11.0
1:17:21.9
1:17:30.1
1:17:37.2
1:17:44.2
1:17:53.3
1:18:04.6
1:18:12.3
1:18:22.0
1:18:29.4
1:18:38.3
1:18:47.5
1:18:57.9
1:19:09.1
1:19:17.3
1:19:24.7
1:19:39.8
1:19:48.3
1:19:56.1
1:20:05.0
1:20:15.5
Phrase
#
513.
514.
515.
516.
517.
518.
519.
520.
521.
522.
523.
524.
525.
526.
527.
528.
529.
530.
531.
532.
533.
534.
535.
536.
537.
538.
539.
540.
541.
542.
543.
544.
545.
546.
547.
548.
549.
550.
551.
552.
553.
554.
555.
556.
557.
558.
559.
Phrase
Letter
A
H
A
H
D
A
H
E
E
I
C
DE
H
D
E
H
E
A
H
D
A
J
D
E
E
H
A
D
H
J
CE
D
E
H
A
I
E
E
E
A
B
C
H
H
B
E
A
Track/
CD #
Phrase Start Phrase
Time
Duration
04:09.0
00:01.9
04:16.7
00:03.4
04:27.3
00:01.9
04:36.6
00:02.7
04:45.0
00:02.0
04:54.4
00:02.0
05:04.1
00:01.9
05:13.9
00:02.5
05:19.0
00:02.6
05:30.3
00:01.9
05:41.2
00:01.5
Tr.3/46
00:07.0
00:04.9
00:19.1
00:03.2
00:29.1
00:02.9
00:37.8
00:02.0
00:52.7
00:02.0
01:00.9
00:01.7
01:08.6
00:01.8
01:16.5
00:02.5
01:26.9
00:02.2
01:35.2
00:01.9
01:44.3
00:01.4
01:51.7
00:01.7
01:58.7
00:02.4
02:06.8
00:01.3
02:17.1
00:03.1
02:28.1
00:02.2
02:46.0
00:02.1
02:54.2
00:02.1
03:02.7
00:01.6
03:10.5
00:03.8
03:21.4
00:02.0
03:27.9
00:03.1
03:37.4
00:02.1
03:48.2
00:00.7
03:51.6
00:01.9
03:59.3
00:01.7
04:06.5
00:02.1
04:16.1
00:02.3
04:29.5
00:02.2
04:37.3
00:01.4
04:43.0
00:01.4
04:51.6
00:01.7
04:59.6
00:01.4
05:09.1
00:01.8
05:30.5
00:01.5
05:53.7
00:01.9
140
Inter-Phrase
Interval
00:05.8
00:07.2
00:07.4
00:05.7
00:07.4
00:07.7
00:07.9
00:02.6
00:08.7
00:09.0
00:09.3
00:07.2
00:06.8
00:05.8
00:12.9
00:06.2
00:06.0
00:06.1
00:07.9
00:06.1
00:07.2
00:06.0
00:05.3
00:05.7
00:09.0
00:07.9
00:15.7
00:06.1
00:06.4
00:06.2
00:07.1
00:04.5
00:06.4
00:08.7
00:02.7
00:05.8
00:05.5
00:07.5
00:11.1
00:05.6
00:04.3
00:07.2
00:06.3
00:08.1
00:19.6
00:21.7
00:07.6
Running
Time
1:20:23.2
1:20:33.8
1:20:43.1
1:20:51.5
1:21:00.9
1:21:10.6
1:21:20.4
1:21:25.5
1:21:36.8
1:21:47.7
1:21:58.5
1:22:10.6
1:22:20.6
1:22:29.3
1:22:44.2
1:22:52.4
1:23:00.1
1:23:08.0
1:23:18.4
1:23:26.7
1:23:35.8
1:23:43.2
1:23:50.2
1:23:58.3
1:24:08.6
1:24:19.6
1:24:37.5
1:24:45.7
1:24:54.2
1:25:02.0
1:25:12.9
1:25:19.4
1:25:28.9
1:25:39.7
1:25:43.1
1:25:50.8
1:25:58.0
1:26:07.6
1:26:21.0
1:26:28.8
1:26:34.5
1:26:43.1
1:26:51.1
1:27:00.6
1:27:22.0
1:27:45.2
1:27:54.7
Phrase
#
560.
561.
562.
563.
564.
565.
566.
567.
568.
569.
570.
571.
572.
573.
574.
575.
576.
577.
578.
579.
580.
581.
582.
583.
584.
585.
586.
587.
588.
589.
590.
591.
592.
593.
594.
595.
596.
597.
598.
599.
600.
601.
602.
603.
604.
605.
606.
Phrase
Letter
I
D
H
E
DE
H
E
H
D
E
I
H
E
A
E
C
E
A
DB
E
H
E
I
E
A
H
DE
A
H
E
A
CE
D
H
E
B
H
D
J
D
A
I
DE
H
CE
H
C
Track/ Phrase Start Phrase
CD #
Time
Duration
Tr.4/46
00:02.5
00:01.8
00:09.8
00:02.2
00:20.3
00:02.2
00:30.8
00:02.0
00:39.7
00:03.6
00:49.3
00:01.8
01:04.3
00:03.9
01:15.2
00:02.1
01:21.9
00:01.9
01:29.0
00:05.2
01:40.7
00:01.9
01:49.5
00:02.7
01:58.3
00:02.3
02:06.8
00:01.9
02:14.9
00:02.5
02:28.9
00:01.4
02:34.2
00:02.0
02:45.9
00:01.9
02:54.2
00:02.1
03:03.5
00:02.3
03:11.4
00:02.4
03:20.7
00:02.0
03:29.8
00:02.0
03:37.6
00:03.8
03:46.0
00:03.8
03:55.6
00:01.7
04:04.9
00:03.9
04:16.4
00:01.9
04:23.7
00:03.3
04:32.0
00:02.9
04:41.4
00:01.9
04:51.3
00:03.4
04:59.9
00:02.8
05:09.5
00:02.0
05:17.2
00:02.2
05:24.9
00:01.8
05:32.5
00:01.3
05:42.4
00:00.9
05:49.0
00:01.5
06:00.7
00:01.9
06:09.8
00:03.0
06:19.2
00:01.9
Tr.5/46
00:04.3
00:06.1
00:17.3
00:02.5
00:27.3
00:03.8
00:38.7
00:01.4
00:48.8
00:01.4
141
Inter-Phrase
Interval
00:05.5
00:08.3
00:08.3
00:06.9
00:06.0
00:13.2
00:07.0
00:04.6
00:05.2
00:06.5
00:06.9
00:06.1
00:06.2
00:06.2
00:11.5
00:03.9
00:09.7
00:06.4
00:07.2
00:05.6
00:06.9
00:07.1
00:05.8
00:04.6
00:05.8
00:07.6
00:07.6
00:05.4
00:05.0
00:06.5
00:08.0
00:05.2
00:06.8
00:05.7
00:05.5
00:05.8
00:08.6
00:05.7
00:10.2
00:07.2
00:06.4
00:05.4
00:06.9
00:07.5
00:07.6
00:08.7
00:23.6
Running
Time
1:28:02.0
1:28:12.5
1:28:23.0
1:28:31.9
1:28:41.5
1:28:56.5
1:29:07.4
1:29:14.1
1:29:21.2
1:29:32.9
1:29:41.7
1:29:50.5
1:29:59.0
1:30:07.1
1:30:21.1
1:30:26.4
1:30:38.1
1:30:46.4
1:30:55.7
1:31:03.6
1:31:12.9
1:31:22.0
1:31:29.8
1:31:38.2
1:31:47.8
1:31:57.1
1:32:08.6
1:32:15.9
1:32:24.2
1:32:33.6
1:32:43.5
1:32:52.1
1:33:01.7
1:33:09.4
1:33:17.1
1:33:24.7
1:33:34.6
1:33:41.2
1:33:52.9
1:34:02.0
1:34:11.4
1:34:18.7
1:34:31.7
1:34:41.7
1:34:53.1
1:35:03.2
1:35:28.2
Phrase
#
607.
608.
609.
610.
611.
612.
613.
614.
615.
616.
617.
618.
619.
620.
621.
622.
623.
624.
625.
626.
627.
628.
629.
630.
631.
632.
633.
634.
635.
636.
637.
638.
639.
640.
641.
642.
643.
644.
645.
646.
647.
648.
649.
650.
651.
652.
653.
Phrase
Letter
DB
B
D
H
E
J
H
DB
A
H
E
I
E
D
H
B
E
C
DE
J
H
B
H
E
I
DE
A
H
H
D
CE
A
H
B
A
E
DE
H
B
J
H
D
E
C
A
H
D
Track/
CD #
Phrase Start Phrase
Time
Duration
01:13.8
00:01.3
01:21.4
00:01.1
01:33.3
00:01.8
01:40.2
00:03.1
01:48.3
00:02.4
01:57.1
00:01.7
02:05.1
00:02.2
02:13.9
00:01.7
02:21.7
00:01.8
02:29.3
00:02.4
02:39.0
00:02.5
02:48.7
00:01.4
02:55.5
00:02.8
03:05.3
00:01.9
03:14.1
00:02.4
03:24.1
00:01.2
03:29.9
00:02.5
03:38.9
00:03.2
03:49.1
00:06.5
04:02.6
00:01.7
04:11.5
00:03.4
04:22.1
00:01.9
04:30.3
00:02.1
04:38.6
00:02.1
04:47.4
00:02.1
04:56.1
00:03.6
05:06.3
00:01.8
05:15.5
00:03.2
05:26.2
00:02.1
05:35.1
00:01.6
Tr.6/46
00:08.7
00:04.6
00:20.6
00:01.9
00:28.4
00:02.7
00:38.1
00:01.1
00:43.5
00:01.8
00:51.1
00:02.4
01:00.5
00:03.1
01:09.1
00:03.3
01:21.6
00:01.2
01:27.4
00:01.7
01:34.3
00:01.8
01:43.9
00:01.8
01:51.9
00:02.3
02:00.7
00:02.0
02:19.6
00:01.9
02:27.5
00:02.1
02:36.1
00:01.9
142
Inter-Phrase
Interval
00:06.3
00:10.8
00:05.1
00:05.0
00:06.4
00:06.3
00:06.6
00:06.1
00:05.8
00:07.3
00:07.2
00:05.4
00:07.0
00:06.9
00:07.6
00:04.6
00:06.5
00:07.0
00:07.0
00:07.2
00:07.2
00:06.3
00:06.2
00:06.7
00:06.6
00:06.6
00:07.4
00:07.5
00:06.8
00:22.1
00:07.3
00:05.9
00:07.0
00:04.3
00:05.8
00:07.0
00:05.5
00:09.2
00:04.6
00:05.2
00:07.8
00:06.2
00:06.5
00:16.9
00:06.0
00:06.5
00:04.1
Running
Time
1:35:35.8
1:35:47.7
1:35:54.6
1:36:02.7
1:36:11.5
1:36:19.5
1:36:28.3
1:36:36.1
1:36:43.7
1:36:53.4
1:37:03.1
1:37:09.9
1:37:19.7
1:37:28.5
1:37:38.5
1:37:44.3
1:37:53.3
1:38:03.5
1:38:17.0
1:38:25.9
1:38:36.5
1:38:44.7
1:38:53.0
1:39:01.8
1:39:10.5
1:39:20.7
1:39:29.9
1:39:40.6
1:39:49.5
1:40:13.2
1:40:25.1
1:40:32.9
1:40:42.6
1:40:48.0
1:40:55.6
1:41:05.0
1:41:13.6
1:41:26.1
1:41:31.9
1:41:38.8
1:41:48.4
1:41:56.4
1:42:05.2
1:42:24.1
1:42:32.0
1:42:40.6
1:42:46.6
Phrase
#
654.
655.
656.
657.
658.
659.
660.
661.
662.
663.
664.
665.
666.
667.
668.
669.
670.
671.
672.
673.
674.
675.
676.
677.
678.
679.
680.
681.
682.
683.
684.
685.
686.
687.
688.
689.
690.
691.
692.
693.
694.
695.
696.
697.
698.
699.
700.
Phrase
Letter
BJ
J
H
E
D
H
J
H
C
A
H
E
A
DB
H
E
A
I
H
D
E
D
E
B
CE
DE
J
A
H
A
ICB
DE
H
J
H
CE
A
H
J
D
A
A
L
E
H
J
E
Track/
CD #
Phrase Start Phrase
Time
Duration
02:42.1
00:03.7
02:52.5
00:01.6
03:00.0
00:02.4
03:08.4
00:02.4
03:21.3
00:02.3
03:29.1
00:02.0
03:37.0
00:01.9
03:49.5
00:02.1
03:57.0
00:01.6
04:06.1
00:01.8
04:12.3
00:03.1
04:21.4
00:02.3
04:32.4
00:02.5
04:41.0
00:02.6
04:49.5
00:01.3
04:55.4
00:03.3
05:03.8
00:02.2
05:13.9
00:01.9
05:22.4
00:03.1
05:35.5
00:01.9
05:45.2
00:01.8
05:54.6
00:01.9
06:03.7
00:02.6
Tr.7/46
00:04.9
00:01.1
00:24.1
00:04.0
00:29.8
00:06.1
00:53.1
00:01.6
01:02.1
00:01.8
01:10.6
00:02.3
01:22.7
00:01.9
01:34.7
00:02.3
01:42.9
00:03.4
01:52.7
00:01.0
02:00.2
00:01.1
02:08.6
00:02.1
02:19.8
00:03.4
02:30.1
00:01.8
02:38.0
00:02.1
02:46.3
00:01.5
02:55.7
00:01.9
03:03.9
00:01.8
Tr.8/46
00:05.2
00:02.9
00:13.8
00:02.6
00:22.3
00:02.6
00:31.5
00:02.5
00:43.0
00:01.5
00:51.9
00:02.9
143
Inter-Phrase
Interval
00:06.7
00:05.9
00:06.0
00:10.5
00:05.5
00:05.9
00:10.6
00:05.4
00:07.5
00:04.4
00:06.0
00:08.7
00:06.1
00:05.9
00:04.6
00:05.1
00:07.9
00:06.6
00:10.0
00:07.8
00:07.6
00:07.2
00:07.6
00:18.1
00:01.7
00:17.2
00:07.4
00:06.7
00:09.8
00:10.1
00:05.9
00:06.4
00:06.5
00:07.3
00:09.1
00:06.9
00:06.1
00:06.2
00:07.9
00:06.3
00:09.2
00:05.7
00:05.9
00:06.6
00:09.0
00:07.4
00:06.5
Running
Time
1:42:57.0
1:43:04.5
1:43:12.9
1:43:25.8
1:43:33.6
1:43:41.5
1:43:54.0
1:44:01.5
1:44:10.6
1:44:16.8
1:44:25.9
1:44:36.9
1:44:45.5
1:44:54.0
1:44:59.9
1:45:08.3
1:45:18.4
1:45:26.9
1:45:40.0
1:45:49.7
1:45:59.1
1:46:08.2
1:46:18.4
1:46:37.6
1:46:43.3
1:47:06.6
1:47:15.6
1:47:24.1
1:47:36.2
1:47:48.2
1:47:56.4
1:48:06.2
1:48:13.7
1:48:22.1
1:48:33.3
1:48:43.6
1:48:51.5
1:48:59.8
1:49:09.2
1:49:17.4
1:49:28.4
1:49:37.0
1:49:45.5
1:49:54.7
1:50:06.2
1:50:15.1
1:50:24.5
Phrase
#
701.
702.
703.
704.
705.
706.
707.
708.
709.
710.
711.
712.
713.
714.
715.
716.
717.
718.
719.
720.
721.
722.
723.
724.
725.
726.
727.
728.
729.
730.
731.
732.
733.
734.
735.
736.
737.
738.
739.
740.
741.
742.
743.
744.
745.
746.
747.
Phrase
Letter
A
CE
H
B
CE
I
D
A
H
E
E
E
E
D
J
A
E
JE
D
H
J
J
H
A
J
CE
A
D
J
E
A
C
D
H
D
I
H
A
E
E
E
E
D
H
A
CE
D
Track/
CD #
Phrase Start Phrase
Time
Duration
01:01.3
00:02.2
01:09.3
00:03.1
01:19.1
00:01.4
01:27.5
00:01.2
01:35.0
00:03.8
01:48.4
00:02.0
02:00.1
00:02.7
02:11.4
00:01.9
02:20.2
00:03.3
02:29.8
00:02.0
02:38.5
00:01.7
02:49.8
00:02.3
03:00.0
00:02.0
03:08.5
00:03.2
03:18.7
00:01.4
03:25.7
00:01.8
03:33.9
00:03.2
03:45.8
00:04.4
03:57.3
00:03.0
04:07.5
00:01.8
04:14.7
00:01.8
04:21.8
00:02.0
04:29.7
00:02.5
04:38.9
00:02.4
04:47.9
00:02.5
04:56.4
00:05.2
05:07.2
00:01.7
05:17.9
00:02.6
05:26.4
00:02.4
Tr.9/46
05:36.0
00:02.1
00:09.0
00:01.8
00:19.1
00:04.7
00:29.3
00:01.9
00:36.8
00:03.0
00:46.8
00:02.6
00:57.1
00:02.1
01:04.8
00:02.1
01:13.1
00:01.8
01:21.7
00:02.4
01:37.2
00:02.4
01:46.2
00:02.4
01:55.1
00:02.1
02:02.9
00:02.5
02:11.0
00:02.3
02:19.7
00:02.8
02:29.0
00:03.3
02:39.1
00:01.8
144
Inter-Phrase
Interval
00:05.8
00:06.7
00:07.0
00:06.3
00:09.6
00:09.7
00:08.6
00:06.9
00:06.3
00:06.7
00:09.6
00:07.9
00:06.5
00:07.0
00:05.6
00:06.4
00:08.7
00:07.1
00:07.2
00:05.4
00:05.3
00:05.9
00:06.7
00:06.6
00:06.0
00:05.6
00:09.0
00:05.9
00:14.1
00:05.0
00:08.3
00:05.5
00:05.6
00:07.0
00:07.7
00:05.6
00:06.2
00:06.8
00:13.1
00:06.6
00:06.5
00:05.7
00:05.6
00:06.4
00:06.5
00:06.8
00:06.0
Running
Time
1:50:32.5
1:50:42.3
1:50:50.7
1:50:58.2
1:51:11.6
1:51:23.3
1:51:34.6
1:51:43.4
1:51:53.0
1:52:01.7
1:52:13.0
1:52:23.2
1:52:31.7
1:52:41.9
1:52:48.9
1:52:57.1
1:53:09.0
1:53:20.5
1:53:30.7
1:53:37.9
1:53:45.0
1:53:52.9
1:54:02.1
1:54:11.1
1:54:19.6
1:54:30.4
1:54:41.1
1:54:49.6
1:55:06.1
1:55:13.2
1:55:23.3
1:55:33.5
1:55:41.0
1:55:51.0
1:56:01.3
1:56:09.0
1:56:17.3
1:56:25.9
1:56:41.4
1:56:50.4
1:56:59.3
1:57:07.1
1:57:15.2
1:57:23.9
1:57:33.2
1:57:43.3
1:57:51.1
Phrase
#
748.
749.
750.
751.
752.
753.
754.
755.
756.
757.
758.
759.
760.
761.
762.
763.
764.
765.
766.
767.
768.
769.
770.
771.
772.
773.
774.
775.
776.
777.
778.
779.
780.
781.
782.
783.
784.
785.
786.
787.
788.
789.
790.
791.
792.
793.
794.
Phrase
Letter
E
A
J
E
H
E
H
D
E
CE
A
D
H
J
E
D
CE
A
D
E
D
H
B
H
H
A
H
J
I
CE
A
J
I
J
H
A
AD
AB
H
E
D
E
A
I
E
H
A
Track/
CD #
Phrase Start Phrase
Time
Duration
02:46.9
00:02.0
02:56.6
00:01.9
03:05.7
00:01.8
03:13.8
00:03.0
03:29.6
00:01.3
03:43.9
00:01.8
03:51.8
00:01.9
04:01.5
00:01.8
04:09.1
00:02.0
04:19.9
00:03.2
04:30.3
00:01.8
04:41.2
00:00.7
04:48.0
00:02.4
04:57.6
00:01.7
05:07.8
00:02.5
05:16.8
00:02.2
05:30.9
00:04.8
05:46.1
00:01.8
05:55.1
00:01.8
06:02.8
00:02.5
06:13.7
00:02.3
06:29.0
00:02.3
06:37.3
00:02.4
06:47.2
00:03.2
06:57.3
00:03.3
07:08.7
00:01.8
07:16.5
00:02.0
07:24.4
00:01.5
07:39.5
00:01.8
07:48.4
00:04.6
08:01.4
00:01.9
08:09.4
00:01.8
08:17.4
00:02.5
08:26.6
00:02.6
08:36.1
00:03.6
08:48.0
00:02.1
08:59.7
00:02.5
09:09.0
00:03.0
09:19.7
00:01.8
09:28.2
00:03.2
09:38.3
00:02.1
09:46.6
00:02.5
09:55.9
00:02.1
10:04.9
00:01.9
10:13.5
00:02.0
10:22.1
00:02.1
10:35.9
00:01.9
145
Inter-Phrase
Interval
00:07.7
00:07.2
00:06.3
00:12.8
00:13.0
00:06.1
00:07.8
00:05.8
00:08.8
00:07.2
00:09.1
00:06.1
00:07.2
00:08.5
00:06.5
00:11.9
00:10.4
00:07.2
00:05.9
00:08.4
00:13.0
00:06.0
00:07.5
00:06.9
00:08.1
00:06.0
00:05.9
00:13.6
00:07.1
00:08.4
00:06.1
00:06.2
00:06.7
00:06.9
00:08.3
00:09.6
00:06.8
00:07.7
00:06.7
00:06.9
00:06.2
00:06.8
00:06.9
00:06.7
00:06.6
00:11.7
00:07.0
Running
Time
1:58:00.8
1:58:09.9
1:58:18.0
1:58:33.8
1:58:48.1
1:58:56.0
1:59:05.7
1:59:13.3
1:59:24.1
1:59:34.5
1:59:45.4
1:59:52.2
2:00:01.8
2:00:12.0
2:00:21.0
2:00:35.1
2:00:50.3
2:00:59.3
2:01:07.0
2:01:17.9
2:01:33.2
2:01:41.5
2:01:51.4
2:02:01.5
2:02:12.9
2:02:20.7
2:02:28.6
2:02:43.7
2:02:52.6
2:03:05.6
2:03:13.6
2:03:21.6
2:03:30.8
2:03:40.3
2:03:52.2
2:04:03.9
2:04:13.2
2:04:23.9
2:04:32.4
2:04:42.5
2:04:50.8
2:05:00.1
2:05:09.1
2:05:17.7
2:05:26.3
2:05:40.1
2:05:49.0
Phrase
#
795.
796.
797.
798.
799.
800.
801.
802.
803.
804.
805.
806.
807.
808.
809.
810.
811.
812.
813.
814.
815.
816.
817.
818.
819.
820.
821.
822.
823.
824.
825.
826.
827.
828.
829.
830.
831.
832.
833.
834.
835.
836.
837.
838.
839.
840.
841.
Phrase
Letter
C
D
J
E
A
J
E
A
E
H
J
J
A
J
D
C
D
E
L
E
A
B
B
E
H
J
D
H
J
H
J
CE
AB
I
E
AB
D
E
DB
CE
J
A
D
H
J
B
D
Track/ Phrase Start Phrase
CD #
Time
Duration
Tr.10/46
00:03.4
00:03.9
00:17.2
00:02.2
00:25.9
00:01.6
00:33.5
00:02.3
00:42.4
00:02.1
00:50.7
00:02.1
00:58.6
00:02.0
01:12.3
00:02.8
01:21.1
00:02.0
01:31.7
00:01.7
01:41.1
00:01.6
01:50.5
00:02.2
02:01.0
00:01.9
02:09.9
00:02.9
02:19.2
00:02.7
02:36.6
00:01.4
02:47.1
00:02.7
02:57.2
00:02.1
03:17.5
00:01.9
03:29.0
00:02.4
03:38.8
00:01.8
03:50.1
00:01.8
03:59.9
00:02.2
04:08.4
00:02.3
04:21.8
00:01.8
04:28.7
00:02.2
04:40.4
00:02.3
04:49.4
00:03.3
05:01.1
00:01.5
Tr.11/46
00:06.4
00:02.2
00:16.2
00:01.6
00:27.0
00:05.3
00:41.1
00:02.8
00:51.0
00:01.8
01:02.9
00:02.0
01:11.1
00:03.0
01:21.6
00:01.9
01:29.3
00:02.1
01:37.8
00:01.6
01:50.6
00:03.7
02:01.1
00:01.5
02:10.7
00:02.0
02:22.7
00:01.6
02:31.2
00:02.4
02:40.3
00:01.8
02:50.1
00:01.1
02:58.6
00:01.7
146
Inter-Phrase
Interval
00:09.9
00:06.5
00:06.0
00:06.6
00:06.2
00:05.8
00:11.7
00:06.0
00:08.6
00:07.7
00:07.8
00:08.3
00:07.0
00:06.4
00:14.7
00:09.1
00:07.4
00:18.2
00:09.6
00:07.4
00:09.5
00:08.0
00:06.3
00:11.1
00:05.1
00:09.5
00:06.7
00:08.4
00:09.8
00:07.6
00:09.2
00:08.8
00:07.1
00:10.1
00:06.2
00:07.5
00:05.8
00:06.4
00:11.2
00:06.8
00:08.1
00:10.0
00:06.9
00:06.7
00:08.0
00:07.4
00:08.7
Running
Time
2:06:02.8
2:06:11.5
2:06:19.1
2:06:28.0
2:06:36.3
2:06:44.2
2:06:57.9
2:07:06.7
2:07:17.3
2:07:26.7
2:07:36.1
2:07:46.6
2:07:55.5
2:08:04.8
2:08:22.2
2:08:32.7
2:08:42.8
2:09:03.1
2:09:14.6
2:09:24.4
2:09:35.7
2:09:45.5
2:09:54.0
2:10:07.4
2:10:14.3
2:10:26.0
2:10:35.0
2:10:46.7
2:10:58.0
2:11:07.8
2:11:18.6
2:11:32.7
2:11:42.6
2:11:54.5
2:12:02.7
2:12:13.2
2:12:20.9
2:12:29.4
2:12:42.2
2:12:52.7
2:13:02.3
2:13:14.3
2:13:22.8
2:13:31.9
2:13:41.7
2:13:50.2
2:14:00.6
Phrase
#
842.
843.
844.
845.
846.
847.
848.
849.
850.
851.
852.
853.
854.
855.
856.
857.
858.
859.
860.
861.
862.
863.
864.
865.
866.
867.
868.
869.
870.
871.
872.
873.
874.
875.
876.
877.
878.
879.
880.
881.
882.
883.
884.
885.
886.
887.
888.
Phrase
Letter
E
A
E
H
B
E
CE
A
D
J
H
E
I
A
D
C
B
E
H
CE
D
AB
H
A
J
D
A
D
A
B
H
E
I
J
E
E
D
E
A
DB
I
E
E
H
CE
DB
BD
Track/
CD #
Phrase Start Phrase
Time
Duration
03:09.0
00:02.4
03:21.0
00:01.8
03:29.3
00:02.5
03:37.5
00:02.1
03:46.7
00:01.1
03:55.2
00:02.5
04:05.3
00:04.0
04:15.1
00:02.0
04:23.8
00:02.6
04:34.1
00:01.5
04:41.8
00:02.8
04:50.8
00:02.1
05:04.9
00:01.8
05:16.3
00:01.8
05:24.9
00:03.0
Tr.1/47
00:01.9
00:01.4
00:10.5
00:02.0
00:22.2
00:02.3
00:31.9
00:03.2
00:44.0
00:03.2
00:57.1
00:02.7
01:10.8
00:03.2
01:21.0
00:02.5
01:31.8
00:01.8
01:41.2
00:02.4
03:09.4
00:01.9
03:18.9
00:03.0
03:29.4
00:02.0
03:39.8
00:03.0
03:50.2
00:01.8
03:59.8
00:01.9
Tr.2/47
00:11.2
00:02.5
00:21.5
00:01.8
00:30.9
00:01.6
00:41.5
00:02.4
00:51.2
00:02.4
01:01.5
00:02.7
01:11.5
00:02.0
01:19.8
00:02.9
01:29.7
00:02.7
01:41.7
00:01.9
01:54.0
00:01.3
02:02.3
00:02.0
02:14.2
00:02.6
02:26.3
00:03.7
02:39.8
00:01.8
02:47.7
00:04.1
147
Inter-Phrase
Interval
00:09.6
00:06.5
00:05.7
00:07.1
00:07.4
00:07.6
00:05.8
00:06.7
00:07.7
00:06.2
00:06.2
00:12.0
00:09.6
00:06.8
00:10.4
00:07.2
00:09.7
00:07.4
00:08.9
00:09.9
00:11.0
00:07.0
00:08.3
00:07.6
01:25.8
00:07.6
00:07.5
00:08.4
00:07.4
00:07.8
00:16.2
00:07.8
00:07.6
00:09.0
00:07.3
00:07.9
00:07.3
00:06.3
00:07.0
00:09.3
00:10.4
00:07.0
00:09.9
00:09.5
00:09.8
00:06.1
00:07.5
Running
Time
2:14:12.6
2:14:20.9
2:14:29.1
2:14:38.3
2:14:46.8
2:14:56.9
2:15:06.7
2:15:15.4
2:15:25.7
2:15:33.4
2:15:42.4
2:15:56.5
2:16:07.9
2:16:16.5
2:16:29.9
2:16:38.5
2:16:50.2
2:16:59.9
2:17:12.0
2:17:25.1
2:17:38.8
2:17:49.0
2:17:59.8
2:18:09.2
2:19:37.4
2:19:46.9
2:19:57.4
2:20:07.8
2:20:18.2
2:20:27.8
2:20:45.9
2:20:56.2
2:21:05.6
2:21:16.2
2:21:25.9
2:21:36.2
2:21:46.2
2:21:54.5
2:22:04.4
2:22:16.4
2:22:28.7
2:22:37.0
2:22:48.9
2:23:01.0
2:23:14.5
2:23:22.4
2:23:34.0
Phrase
#
889.
890.
891.
892.
893.
894.
895.
896.
897.
898.
899.
900.
901.
902.
903.
904.
905.
906.
907.
908.
909.
910.
911.
912.
913.
914.
915.
916.
917.
918.
919.
920.
921.
922.
923.
924.
925.
926.
927.
928.
929.
930.
931.
932.
933.
934.
935.
Phrase
Letter
H
J
CE
A
D
I
H
D
D
E
A
ED
A
H
E
I
D
B
J
J
H
JE
A
D
E
I
C
B
I
CE
E
A
I
C
L
D
A
E
D
B
H
J
H
CE
DE
A
H
Track/
CD #
Phrase Start Phrase
Time
Duration
02:59.3
00:02.7
03:11.9
00:02.1
03:29.5
00:03.2
03:39.0
00:01.9
03:48.3
00:00.8
03:59.2
00:01.7
04:10.2
00:02.5
04:18.2
00:01.7
04:28.2
00:02.6
04:37.1
00:02.7
04:46.7
00:01.8
04:57.6
00:03.7
05:10.9
00:02.9
05:24.8
00:02.9
05:35.1
00:02.4
05:47.1
00:01.9
Tr.3/47
00:06.1
00:02.5
00:32.7
00:02.0
00:40.6
00:01.9
00:49.9
00:02.1
00:59.1
00:02.4
01:10.0
00:04.9
01:21.6
00:01.8
01:31.0
00:02.7
01:41.0
00:02.0
01:51.0
00:01.8
02:09.2
00:01.4
02:17.1
00:02.3
02:26.3
00:01.8
02:35.3
00:03.7
02:49.1
00:02.0
02:57.7
00:01.8
03:08.2
00:01.7
03:24.7
00:01.6
03:34.4
00:01.5
03:40.9
00:02.9
03:50.7
00:02.9
03:59.6
00:03.0
04:12.0
00:02.6
04:23.9
00:02.4
04:34.2
00:02.5
04:49.8
00:01.9
04:59.2
00:02.8
05:10.7
00:04.0
05:25.4
00:03.4
Tr.4/47
00:08.7
00:01.8
00:18.4
00:02.6
148
Inter-Phrase
Interval
00:09.9
00:15.5
00:06.3
00:07.4
00:10.1
00:09.3
00:05.5
00:08.3
00:06.3
00:06.9
00:09.1
00:09.6
00:11.0
00:07.4
00:09.6
00:08.6
00:24.1
00:05.9
00:07.4
00:07.1
00:08.5
00:06.7
00:07.6
00:07.3
00:08.0
00:16.4
00:06.5
00:06.9
00:07.2
00:10.1
00:06.6
00:08.7
00:14.9
00:08.1
00:05.0
00:06.9
00:06.0
00:09.4
00:09.3
00:07.9
00:13.1
00:07.5
00:08.7
00:10.7
00:12.2
00:07.9
00:09.1
Running
Time
2:23:46.6
2:24:04.2
2:24:13.7
2:24:23.0
2:24:33.9
2:24:44.9
2:24:52.9
2:25:02.9
2:25:11.8
2:25:21.4
2:25:32.3
2:25:45.6
2:25:59.5
2:26:09.8
2:26:21.8
2:26:32.3
2:26:58.9
2:27:06.8
2:27:16.1
2:27:25.3
2:27:36.2
2:27:47.8
2:27:57.2
2:28:07.2
2:28:17.2
2:28:35.4
2:28:43.3
2:28:52.5
2:29:01.5
2:29:15.3
2:29:23.9
2:29:34.4
2:29:50.9
2:30:00.6
2:30:07.1
2:30:16.9
2:30:25.8
2:30:38.2
2:30:50.1
2:31:00.4
2:31:16.0
2:31:25.4
2:31:36.9
2:31:51.6
2:32:07.2
2:32:16.9
2:32:28.6
Phrase
#
936.
937.
938.
939.
940.
941.
942.
943.
944.
945.
946.
947.
948.
949.
950.
951.
952.
953.
954.
955.
956.
957.
958.
959.
960.
961.
962.
963.
964.
965.
966.
967.
968.
969.
970.
971.
972.
973.
974.
975.
976.
977.
978.
979.
980.
981.
982.
Phrase
Letter
H
H
B
A
D
E
DB
A
H
J
I
B
A
H
O
H
A
CE
D
E
I
B
J
J
J
J
J
CE
A
C
JE
A
H
B
E
D
B
A
H
C
E
H
B
H
J
A
J
Track/
CD #
Phrase Start Phrase
Time
Duration
00:30.1
00:02.2
00:39.2
00:01.8
00:50.0
00:02.1
00:58.9
00:01.8
01:08.4
00:02.7
01:18.9
00:03.3
01:30.0
00:01.7
01:43.4
00:02.9
01:54.8
00:02.2
02:07.7
00:02.3
02:17.5
00:02.3
02:26.9
00:01.4
02:34.6
00:01.8
02:44.6
00:02.2
02:56.5
00:03.1
03:06.4
00:02.2
03:18.9
00:01.8
03:30.7
00:03.9
03:45.3
00:02.7
03:56.2
00:02.5
04:06.0
00:01.8
04:19.5
00:01.3
04:27.6
00:02.0
04:43.4
00:02.3
04:54.2
00:02.1
05:04.3
00:00.9
05:18.8
00:02.1
05:29.9
00:04.4
05:44.3
00:01.9
06:01.8
00:01.5
06:20.7
00:03.9
06:40.7
00:01.9
06:52.5
00:02.1
07:03.8
00:00.7
07:09.8
00:02.4
07:19.9
00:02.7
07:32.8
00:01.1
07:49.1
00:01.8
08:01.3
00:01.9
08:17.7
00:01.5
08:27.7
00:02.4
08:37.1
00:01.9
08:47.0
00:02.1
08:55.6
00:02.3
Tr.5/47
00:04.3
00:02.6
00:14.4
00:02.9
00:26.9
00:02.0
149
Inter-Phrase
Interval
00:06.9
00:09.0
00:06.8
00:07.7
00:07.8
00:07.8
00:11.7
00:08.5
00:10.7
00:07.5
00:07.1
00:06.3
00:08.2
00:09.7
00:06.8
00:10.3
00:10.0
00:10.7
00:08.2
00:07.3
00:11.7
00:06.8
00:13.8
00:08.5
00:08.0
00:13.6
00:09.0
00:10.0
00:15.6
00:17.4
00:16.1
00:09.9
00:09.2
00:05.3
00:07.7
00:10.2
00:15.2
00:10.4
00:14.5
00:08.5
00:07.0
00:08.0
00:06.5
00:07.6
00:07.5
00:09.6
00:42.5
Running
Time
2:32:37.7
2:32:48.5
2:32:57.4
2:33:06.9
2:33:17.4
2:33:28.5
2:33:41.9
2:33:53.3
2:34:06.2
2:34:16.0
2:34:25.4
2:34:33.1
2:34:43.1
2:34:55.0
2:35:04.9
2:35:17.4
2:35:29.2
2:35:43.8
2:35:54.7
2:36:04.5
2:36:18.0
2:36:26.1
2:36:41.9
2:36:52.7
2:37:02.8
2:37:17.3
2:37:28.4
2:37:42.8
2:38:00.3
2:38:19.2
2:38:39.2
2:38:51.0
2:39:02.3
2:39:08.3
2:39:18.4
2:39:31.3
2:39:47.6
2:39:59.8
2:40:16.2
2:40:26.2
2:40:35.6
2:40:45.5
2:40:54.1
2:41:04.0
2:41:14.1
2:41:26.6
2:42:11.1
Phrase
#
983.
984.
985.
986.
987.
988.
989.
990.
991.
992.
993.
994.
995.
996.
997.
998.
999.
1000.
1001.
1002.
1003.
1004.
1005.
1006.
1007.
1008.
1009.
1010.
1011.
1012.
1013.
1014.
1015.
1016.
1017.
1018.
1019.
1020.
1021.
1022.
1023.
1024.
1025.
1026.
1027.
1028.
1029.
Phrase
Letter
A
D
H
E
A
L
E
DE
H
H
J
E
A
H
I
J
E
D
A
L
E
D
D
A
H
H
DE
A
DE
H
J
J
J
H
J
DE
B
H
L
E
E
E
L
E
EA
H
A
Track/
CD #
Phrase Start Phrase
Time
Duration
01:11.4
00:02.8
01:26.2
00:03.2
01:40.6
00:02.8
01:53.0
00:02.9
02:05.2
00:01.9
02:14.8
00:02.4
02:27.0
00:02.4
02:35.5
00:02.7
02:45.6
00:02.8
03:00.6
00:02.1
03:11.2
00:02.7
03:23.9
00:02.4
03:32.4
00:01.9
03:43.5
00:02.4
04:04.9
00:01.8
04:14.0
00:02.2
04:30.6
00:03.0
04:42.1
00:03.0
04:53.7
00:01.9
05:04.3
00:02.7
05:14.5
00:02.4
05:29.5
00:01.9
Tr.6/47
00:14.4
00:01.4
00:22.0
00:01.8
00:31.1
00:02.4
00:42.8
00:02.2
00:54.9
00:04.5
01:11.0
00:01.8
01:21.4
00:03.9
01:35.6
00:02.4
01:45.8
00:01.9
01:58.6
00:02.3
02:11.8
00:01.8
02:21.1
00:02.4
02:33.3
00:02.3
02:43.4
00:03.3
02:57.7
00:01.8
03:06.6
00:03.2
03:15.8
00:03.2
03:26.8
00:02.0
Tr.7/47
00:30.3
00:02.4
00:41.6
00:02.1
00:51.6
00:02.5
00:59.5
00:03.3
01:11.7
00:04.7
01:30.4
00:01.9
01:46.0
00:01.9
150
Inter-Phrase
Interval
00:12.0
00:11.2
00:09.6
00:09.3
00:07.7
00:09.8
00:06.1
00:07.4
00:12.2
00:08.5
00:10.0
00:06.1
00:09.2
00:19.0
00:07.3
00:14.4
00:08.5
00:08.6
00:08.7
00:07.5
00:12.6
00:16.3
00:06.2
00:07.3
00:09.3
00:09.9
00:11.6
00:08.6
00:10.3
00:07.8
00:10.9
00:10.9
00:07.5
00:09.8
00:07.8
00:11.0
00:07.1
00:06.0
00:07.8
00:33.5
00:08.9
00:07.9
00:05.4
00:08.9
00:14.0
00:13.7
00:17.5
Running
Time
2:42:25.9
2:42:40.3
2:42:52.7
2:43:04.9
2:43:14.5
2:43:26.7
2:43:35.2
2:43:45.3
2:44:00.3
2:44:10.9
2:44:23.6
2:44:32.1
2:44:43.2
2:45:04.6
2:45:13.7
2:45:30.3
2:45:41.8
2:45:53.4
2:46:04.0
2:46:14.2
2:46:29.2
2:46:47.4
2:46:55.0
2:47:04.1
2:47:15.8
2:47:27.9
2:47:44.0
2:47:54.4
2:48:08.6
2:48:18.8
2:48:31.6
2:48:44.8
2:48:54.1
2:49:06.3
2:49:16.4
2:49:30.7
2:49:39.6
2:49:48.8
2:49:59.8
2:50:35.3
2:50:46.6
2:50:56.6
2:51:04.5
2:51:16.7
2:51:35.4
2:51:51.0
2:52:10.4
Phrase
#
1030.
1031.
1032.
1033.
1034.
1035.
1036.
1037.
1038.
1039.
1040.
1041.
1042.
1043.
1044.
1045.
1046.
1047.
1048.
1049.
1050.
1051.
1052.
1053.
1054.
1055.
1056.
1057.
1058.
1059.
1060.
1061.
1062.
1063.
1064.
1065.
1066.
1067.
1068.
1069.
1070.
1071.
1072.
1073.
1074.
1075.
1076.
Phrase
Letter
H
B
H
J
J
E
I
B
B
BD
E
E
B
DA
L
H
J
H
D
H
L
D
J
A
D
L
H
A
DE
DE
LD
D
A
DE
DE
A
H
B
H
J
J
J
J
CB
H
L
DE
Track/
CD #
Phrase Start Phrase
Time
Duration
02:05.4
00:02.1
02:14.5
00:02.1
02:22.8
00:02.4
02:33.0
00:01.7
02:40.0
00:03.0
02:56.8
00:02.4
03:05.6
00:02.0
03:15.9
00:02.1
03:25.5
00:02.3
03:40.7
00:01.9
03:55.0
00:01.4
04:05.2
00:02.3
04:18.5
00:02.1
04:28.0
00:02.9
04:41.2
00:02.2
04:47.1
00:00.9
04:57.2
00:01.8
Tr.8/47
00:05.3
00:02.2
00:14.6
00:01.7
00:24.8
00:01.8
00:35.5
00:01.3
00:43.7
00:01.2
00:50.3
00:02.4
00:58.3
00:02.6
01:09.3
00:02.1
01:21.3
00:01.3
01:33.8
00:03.0
01:45.1
00:01.8
01:54.1
00:03.8
02:08.7
00:02.9
02:18.6
00:02.0
02:29.2
00:02.5
02:39.9
00:01.8
02:51.9
00:03.0
03:10.5
00:04.6
03:25.4
00:02.2
03:32.4
00:02.6
03:42.9
00:02.0
03:59.1
00:02.5
04:09.0
00:05.2
04:23.5
00:02.1
04:35.6
00:01.6
04:49.0
00:02.7
05:00.9
00:03.0
05:13.3
00:05.2
05:32.1
00:01.1
05:40.6
00:03.2
151
Inter-Phrase
Interval
00:07.0
00:06.2
00:07.8
00:05.3
00:13.8
00:06.4
00:08.3
00:07.5
00:12.9
00:12.4
00:08.8
00:11.0
00:07.4
00:10.3
00:03.7
00:09.2
00:06.4
00:07.1
00:08.5
00:08.9
00:06.9
00:05.4
00:05.6
00:08.4
00:09.9
00:11.2
00:08.3
00:07.2
00:10.8
00:07.0
00:08.6
00:08.2
00:10.2
00:15.6
00:10.3
00:04.8
00:07.9
00:14.2
00:07.4
00:09.3
00:10.0
00:11.8
00:09.2
00:09.4
00:13.6
00:07.4
00:08.5
Running
Time
2:52:19.5
2:52:27.8
2:52:38.0
2:52:45.0
2:53:01.8
2:53:10.6
2:53:20.9
2:53:30.5
2:53:45.7
2:54:00.0
2:54:10.2
2:54:23.5
2:54:33.0
2:54:46.2
2:54:52.1
2:55:02.2
2:55:10.4
2:55:19.7
2:55:29.9
2:55:40.6
2:55:48.8
2:55:55.4
2:56:03.4
2:56:14.4
2:56:26.4
2:56:38.9
2:56:50.2
2:56:59.2
2:57:13.8
2:57:23.7
2:57:34.3
2:57:45.0
2:57:57.0
2:58:15.6
2:58:30.5
2:58:37.5
2:58:48.0
2:59:04.2
2:59:14.1
2:59:28.6
2:59:40.7
2:59:54.1
3:00:06.0
3:00:18.4
3:00:37.2
3:00:45.7
3:00:57.4
Phrase
#
1077.
1078.
1079.
1080.
1081.
1082.
1083.
1084.
1085.
1086.
1087.
1088.
1089.
1090.
1091.
1092.
1093.
1094.
1095.
1096.
1097.
1098.
1099.
1100.
1101.
1102.
1103.
1104.
1105.
1106.
1107.
1108.
1109.
1110.
1111.
1112.
1113.
1114.
1115.
1116.
1117.
1118.
1119.
1120.
1121.
1122.
1123.
Phrase
Letter
D
DE
L
D
D
D
D
D
H
A
J
J
E
H
B
D
E
D
H
LDE
A
H
DF
AB
H
KB
C
B
H
E
J
B
E
H
L
E
A
H
E
D
H
J
J
J
J
C
B
Mean
Track/
CD #
Phrase Start Phrase
Time
Duration
05:52.3
00:00.4
05:59.8
00:03.2
06:11.7
00:03.5
Tr.9/47
00:01.0
00:01.7
00:14.0
00:02.3
00:25.2
00:01.0
00:32.5
00:02.3
00:40.7
00:02.3
00:49.3
00:02.3
01:12.1
00:01.9
01:21.6
00:02.8
01:34.9
00:02.6
01:47.2
00:02.0
01:58.3
00:02.4
02:13.2
00:02.1
02:50.7
00:01.9
03:02.5
00:02.5
03:15.6
00:02.8
03:36.0
00:02.1
03:43.3
00:07.7
04:00.4
00:01.8
04:10.3
00:02.6
Tr.10/47
00:02.7
00:02.6
00:15.9
00:02.9
00:26.6
00:02.4
00:46.3
00:02.9
00:57.3
00:01.5
01:06.3
00:02.1
01:15.1
00:03.0
01:26.2
00:02.1
01:35.6
00:02.0
01:49.3
00:02.3
01:59.6
00:02.9
02:11.0
00:02.1
02:23.7
00:02.1
02:33.4
00:02.4
02:43.0
00:02.0
02:50.2
00:02.2
03:00.3
00:02.1
03:07.1
00:03.0
03:21.4
00:02.4
03:49.9
00:01.9
04:00.5
00:01.8
04:10:9
00:02.7
04:24.4
00:02.0
Tr.11/47
00:09.1
00:01.5
00:44.5
00:02.1
00:02.3
152
Inter-Phrase
Interval
00:07.1
00:08.7
00:05.4
00:11.3
00:08.9
00:06.3
00:05.9
00:06.3
00:20.5
00:07.6
00:10.5
00:09.7
00:09.1
00:12.5
00:35.4
00:09.9
00:10.6
00:17.6
00:05.2
00:09.4
00:08.1
00:10.6
00:10.6
00:07.8
00:17.3
00:08.1
00:07.5
00:06.7
00:08.1
00:07.3
00:11.7
00:08.0
00:08.5
00:10.6
00:07.6
00:07.2
00:05.2
00:07.9
00:04.7
00:11.3
00:26.1
00:08.7
00:08.6
00:10.8
00:11.4
00:33.9
00:00.0
00:07.9
Running
Time
3:01:04.9
3:01:16.8
3:01:25.7
3:01:38.7
3:01:49.9
3:01:57.2
3:02:05.4
3:02:14.0
3:02:36.8
3:02:46.3
3:02:59.6
3:03:11.9
3:03:23.0
3:03:37.9
3:04:15.4
3:04:27.2
3:04:40.3
3:05:00.7
3:05:08.0
3:05:25.1
3:05:35.0
3:05:48.2
3:06:01.4
3:06:12.1
3:06:31.8
3:06:42.8
3:06:51.8
3:07:00.6
3:07:11.7
3:07:21.1
3:07:34.8
3:07:45.1
3:07:56.5
3:08:09.2
3:08:18.9
3:08:28.5
3:08:35.7
3:08:45.8
3:08:52.6
3:09:06.9
3:09:35.4
3:09:46.0
3:09:56.4
3:10:09.9
3:10:23.4
3:10:58.7
3:11:00.8
APPENDIX D:
NOTATION OF A PRE-DAWN LONG SONG FROM
ALICE SPRINGS
153
154
155
APPENDIX E:
SUPPLEMENTARY ANALYSIS OF A PRE-DAWN LONG
SONG FROM ALICE SPRINGS
156
SUPPLEMENTARY ANALYSIS OF A PRE-DAWN LONG
SONG FROM ALICE SPRINGS: MACADAM
Phrase Phrase
Number Letter
1.
A1
2.
A2
3.
B1
4.
A3
5.
A1
6.
A2
7.
C1
8.
A2
9.
B2
10.
A1
11.
B3
12.
A1
13.
A2
14.
A1
15.
D1
16.
A2
17.
A2
18.
E1
19.
B4
20.
A2
21.
A1
22.
A2
23.
E1
24.
A1
25.
A2
26.
A2
27.
E1
28.
A2
29.
A2
30.
A2
31.
B4
32.
B4
33.
A2
34.
A2
35.
C2
36.
A2
37.
B5
38.
A2
39.
B4
40.
A2
41.
B4
42.
A2
43.
A2
44.
A2
45.
A2
46.
A2
47.
A2
Track/
CD #
Tr.1/77
Tr.2/77
Phrase Start
Time
10:45.1
11:10.2
11:19.4
11:31.4
12:08.5
12:36.8
12:51.8
13:27.9
13:41.4
13:54.9
15:08.7
16:07.9
16:18.8
17:26.7
17:48.4
18:09.1
18:26.0
18:37.0
18:51.1
19:08.5
19:18.7
19:30.6
19:54.3
20:42.1
23:32.6
23:47.9
24:01.1
24:14.0
24:52.8
25:09.3
25:36.3
26:09.1
26:29.3
28:42.7
29:44.9
00:13.5
00:47.7
00:56.1
01:11.3
01:23.0
01:36.6
01:53.3
02:16.8
02:40.6
03:11.7
03:31.4
03:49.2
157
Phrase
Duration
00:01.1
00:01.6
00:00.9
00:01.1
00:01.1
00:01.6
00:01.2
00:01.6
00:01.5
00:01.1
00:01.0
00:01.1
00:01.6
00:01.1
00:01.9
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:00.2
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.1
00:01.6
00:00.2
00:01.1
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:00.2
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.8
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:02.2
00:01.6
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.6
Inter-Phrase
Interval
00:24.0
00:07.6
00:11.1
00:36.0
00:27.2
00:13.4
00:34.9
00:11.9
00:12.0
01:12.7
00:58.2
00:09.8
01:06.3
00:20.6
00:18.8
00:15.3
00:09.4
00:13.9
00:15.6
00:08.6
00:10.8
00:22.1
00:47.6
02:49.4
00:13.7
00:11.6
00:12.7
00:37.2
00:14.9
00:25.4
00:31.0
00:07.7
02:11.8
01:00.6
00:17.5
00:32.6
00:06.6
00:13.6
00:09.9
00:12.0
00:14.9
00:21.9
00:22.2
00:29.5
00:18.1
00:16.2
00:10.9
Running
Time
0:11:10.2
0:11:19.4
0:11:31.4
0:12:08.5
0:12:36.8
0:12:51.8
0:13:27.9
0:13:41.4
0:13:54.9
0:15:08.7
0:16:07.9
0:16:18.8
0:17:26.7
0:17:48.4
0:18:09.1
0:18:26.0
0:18:37.0
0:18:51.1
0:19:08.5
0:19:18.7
0:19:30.6
0:19:54.3
0:20:42.1
0:23:32.6
0:23:47.9
0:24:01.1
0:24:14.0
0:24:52.8
0:25:09.3
0:25:36.3
0:26:09.1
0:26:18.6
0:28:32.0
0:29:34.2
0:29:53.9
0:30:28.1
0:30:36.5
0:30:51.7
0:31:03.4
0:31:17.0
0:31:33.7
0:31:57.2
0:32:21.0
0:32:52.1
0:33:11.8
0:33:29.6
0:33:42.1
Phrase Phrase
Number Letter
48.
D2
49.
A2
50.
A2
51.
A2
52.
A2
53.
C2
54.
A2
55.
A2
56.
B4
57.
A2
58.
A2
59.
A2
60.
A2
61.
A2
62.
D3
63.
B4
64.
A2
65.
A2
66.
A2
67.
A2
68.
A2
69.
B5
70.
A2
71.
A2
72.
A2
73.
B4
74.
A2
75.
A2
76.
A2
77.
A2
78.
B4
79.
A2
80.
A2
81.
A2
82.
B6
83.
A2
84.
A2
85.
F1
86.
F2
87.
A2
88.
A2
89.
E1
90.
B4
91.
A2
92.
C2
93.
A2
94.
A2
95.
B4
96.
A2
97.
A2
98.
A2
99.
A2
Track/
CD #
Phrase Start
Time
04:01.7
04:21.4
04:43.5
04:53.4
05:04.9
05:18.5
05:35.6
05:48.7
05:58.4
06:11.8
06:20.0
06:34.0
06:47.0
06:56.0
07:09.3
07:21.8
07:40.9
08:28.0
09:19.5
09:33.0
09:51.9
10:01.7
10:21.7
10:33.4
10:53.5
11:13.7
11:26.6
11:46.9
12:00.0
12:11.0
12:27.0
12:46.0
13:09.0
13:23.2
13:32.2
13:44.6
13:57.5
14:19.2
14:42.7
15:50.4
16:18.2
16:47.9
16:57.7
17:16.0
17:29.6
17:39.4
17:54.9
18:08.0
18:27.5
18:55.5
19:07.1
19:44.8
158
Phrase
Duration
00:03.1
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:02.2
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.5
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.9
00:01.7
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:00.2
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:02.2
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.6
Inter-Phrase
Interval
00:16.6
00:20.5
00:08.3
00:09.9
00:12.0
00:14.9
00:11.5
00:08.1
00:11.6
00:06.6
00:12.4
00:11.4
00:07.4
00:11.7
00:11.0
00:17.3
00:45.5
00:49.9
00:02.5
00:17.3
00:08.2
00:18.2
00:10.1
00:18.5
00:18.6
00:11.1
00:18.7
00:11.5
00:09.4
00:14.4
00:17.2
00:21.4
00:12.6
00:07.4
00:10.8
00:11.3
00:20.1
00:21.6
01:06.0
00:26.2
00:28.1
00:09.6
00:16.5
00:12.0
00:07.6
00:13.9
00:11.5
00:17.7
00:26.4
00:10.0
00:06.7
00:41.1
Running
Time
0:34:01.8
0:34:23.9
0:34:33.8
0:34:45.3
0:34:58.9
0:35:16.0
0:35:29.1
0:35:38.8
0:35:52.2
0:36:00.4
0:36:14.4
0:36:27.4
0:36:36.4
0:36:49.7
0:37:02.2
0:37:21.3
0:38:08.4
0:38:59.9
0:39:04.0
0:39:22.9
0:39:32.7
0:39:52.7
0:40:04.4
0:40:24.5
0:40:44.7
0:40:57.6
0:41:17.9
0:41:31.0
0:41:42.0
0:41:58.0
0:42:17.0
0:42:40.0
0:42:54.2
0:43:03.2
0:43:15.6
0:43:28.5
0:43:50.2
0:44:13.7
0:45:21.4
0:45:49.2
0:46:18.9
0:46:28.7
0:46:47.0
0:47:00.6
0:47:10.4
0:47:25.9
0:47:39.0
0:47:58.5
0:48:26.5
0:48:38.1
0:48:46.4
0:49:29.1
Phrase Phrase
Number Letter
100.
A2
101.
A2
102.
A2
103.
B5
104.
A2
105.
A2
106.
B4
107.
D3
108.
A2
109.
A2
110.
F3
111.
A2
112.
B4
113.
A2
114.
B4
115.
A2
116.
A2
117.
A2
118.
A2
119.
A2
120.
A2
121.
A2
122.
A2
123.
B7
124.
A2
125.
B4
126.
A2
127.
A2
128.
A2
129.
A2
130.
F4
131.
B4
132.
A2
133.
BA1
134.
A2
135.
B9
136.
A2
137.
A2
138.
A2
139.
D4
140.
B10
141.
A2
142.
A2
143.
A2
144.
A2
145.
B4
146.
A2
147.
F2
148.
BA1
149.
A2
150.
A2
151.
C2
Track/
CD #
Tr.1/78
Phrase Start
Time
20:27.5
21:27.9
22:00.6
22:13.3
21:46.7
22:26.0
22:34.7
22:43.9
22:57.1
23:08.0
23:18.6
23:30.4
23:49.4
24:00.0
24:13.0
24:23.0
24:36.0
25:02.3
25:20.4
25:32.0
25:39.5
25:51.5
26:03.0
26:22.3
26:35.3
26:51.4
27:22.1
27:33.0
27:45.5
27:56.5
28:11.7
28:23.2
28:36.0
28:44.6
28:58.2
29:13.2
29:27.1
29:38.0
29:46.0
29:57.6
00:06.1
00:14.7
00:27.0
00:39.5
01:11.6
01:54.4
02:04.5
02:16.0
02:26.8
02:36.2
02:46.0
02:54.0
159
Phrase
Duration
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.8
00:01.5
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.1
00:01.6
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:02.2
00:01.6
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.9
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:02.2
00:01.6
00:02.3
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:02.1
00:02.2
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.7
00:02.2
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:02.2
Inter-Phrase
Interval
00:58.8
00:17.2
00:11.1
00:10.9
00:12.3
00:07.1
00:07.4
00:11.7
00:09.3
00:09.0
00:10.7
00:17.4
00:08.8
00:11.4
00:08.2
00:11.4
00:24.7
00:16.5
00:10.0
00:05.9
00:10.4
00:09.9
00:17.7
00:10.8
00:14.5
00:28.9
00:09.3
00:10.9
00:09.4
00:13.6
00:09.6
00:11.0
00:03.2
00:11.4
00:13.4
00:11.6
00:09.3
00:06.4
00:10.0
00:11.2
00:06.4
00:10.7
00:10.9
00:30.5
00:41.2
00:08.3
00:09.9
00:09.1
00:07.2
00:08.2
00:06.4
00:06.1
Running
Time
0:50:29.5
0:50:48.3
0:51:14.9
0:51:27.6
0:51:14.9
0:51:36.3
0:51:45.5
0:51:58.7
0:52:09.6
0:52:20.2
0:52:32.0
0:52:51.0
0:53:01.6
0:53:14.6
0:53:24.6
0:53:37.6
0:54:03.9
0:54:22.0
0:54:33.6
0:54:41.1
0:54:53.1
0:55:04.6
0:55:23.9
0:55:36.9
0:55:53.0
0:56:23.7
0:56:34.6
0:56:47.1
0:56:58.1
0:57:13.3
0:57:24.8
0:57:37.6
0:57:42.4
0:57:56.0
0:58:11.0
0:58:24.9
0:58:35.8
0:58:43.8
0:58:55.4
0:59:08.7
0:59:17.3
0:59:29.6
0:59:42.1
1:00:14.2
1:00:57.0
1:01:07.1
1:01:18.6
1:01:29.4
1:01:38.8
1:01:48.6
1:01:56.6
1:02:04.9
Phrase Phrase
Number Letter
152.
B4
153.
C3
154.
A2
155.
A2
156.
B4
157.
A2
158.
A2
159.
A2
160.
F3
161.
A2
162.
A2
163.
B4
164.
A2
165.
A2
166.
A2
167.
C3
168.
B4
169.
A2
170.
F5
171.
A2
172.
B4
173.
F6
174.
A2
175.
BA1
176.
B4
177.
A2
178.
C2
179.
A2
180.
A2
181.
A2
182.
B4
183.
A2
184.
B9
185.
A2
186.
C2
187.
BA1
188.
A2
189.
A2
190.
B4
191.
A2
192.
A2
193.
B7
194.
A2
195.
B4
196.
A2
197.
B4
198.
A2
199.
B5
200.
C2
201.
F4
202.
B4
203.
A2
Track/ Phrase Start
CD # Time
03:02.3
03:15.0
03:24.7
03:39.2
03:47.0
04:15.5
04:28.6
04:40.5
04:57.1
05:07.7
05:23.0
05:33.4
05:46.2
06:10.4
06:23.6
06:38.0
06:45.6
06:54.0
07:00.4
07:09.3
07:19.5
07:32.5
07:37.5
07:47.5
07:59.0
08:09.0
08:26.1
08:33.1
08:42.5
08:49.0
09:01.0
09:13.0
09:22.0
09:31.0
09:41.0
09:49.4
09:58.5
10:06.0
10:13.0
10:19.0
10:27.0
10:35.0
10:43.6
10:51.0
11:00.0
11:09.5
11:17.0
11:25.0
11:34.4
11:44.2
11:51.3
11:59.0
160
Phrase
Duration
00:01.8
00:02.1
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.1
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:02.1
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:02.6
00:01.6
00:01.8
00:01.2
00:01.6
00:02.2
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:02.2
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:02.3
00:01.6
00:02.2
00:02.2
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:02.2
00:01.6
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.8
00:02.2
00:01.9
00:01.8
00:01.6
Inter-Phrase
Interval
00:10.9
00:07.6
00:12.9
00:06.2
00:26.7
00:11.5
00:10.3
00:15.0
00:09.5
00:13.7
00:08.8
00:11.0
00:22.6
00:11.6
00:12.8
00:05.5
00:06.6
00:03.6
00:06.3
00:08.6
00:11.2
00:03.8
00:08.4
00:09.3
00:08.2
00:15.5
00:04.8
00:07.8
00:04.9
00:10.4
00:10.2
00:07.4
00:06.7
00:08.4
00:06.2
00:06.9
00:05.9
00:05.4
00:04.2
00:06.4
00:06.4
00:06.4
00:05.8
00:07.2
00:07.9
00:05.7
00:03.5
00:07.6
00:07.6
00:05.2
00:05.9
00:06.9
Running
Time
1:02:17.6
1:02:27.3
1:02:41.8
1:02:49.6
1:03:18.1
1:03:31.2
1:03:43.1
1:03:59.7
1:04:10.3
1:04:25.6
1:04:36.0
1:04:48.8
1:05:13.0
1:05:26.2
1:05:40.6
1:05:48.2
1:05:56.6
1:06:01.8
1:06:10.7
1:06:20.9
1:06:33.9
1:06:38.9
1:06:48.9
1:07:00.4
1:07:10.4
1:07:27.5
1:07:34.5
1:07:43.9
1:07:50.4
1:08:02.4
1:08:14.4
1:08:23.4
1:08:32.4
1:08:42.4
1:08:50.8
1:08:59.9
1:09:07.4
1:09:14.4
1:09:20.4
1:09:28.4
1:09:36.4
1:09:45.0
1:09:52.4
1:10:01.4
1:10:10.9
1:10:18.4
1:10:23.5
1:10:32.9
1:10:42.7
1:10:49.8
1:10:57.5
1:11:06.0
Phrase Phrase
Number Letter
204.
A2
205.
B4
206.
A2
207.
F2
208.
B4
209.
A2
210.
C2
211.
B4
212.
BA1
213.
B4
214.
A2
215.
F2
216.
B9
217.
A2
218.
A2
219.
A2
220.
B4
221.
A2
222.
A5
223.
A2
224.
A2
225.
B4
226.
A2
227.
BA1
228.
B4
229.
A2
230.
F2
231.
F2
232.
A2
233.
B7
234.
A2
235.
A2
236.
B4
237.
A2
238.
B4
239.
C2
240.
B4
241.
A2
242.
BA1
243.
B4
244.
F1
245.
B4
246.
A2
247.
F2
248.
B4
249.
A2
250.
B4
251.
B7
252.
A2
253.
B4
254.
F2
255.
F1
Track/ Phrase Start
CD # Time
12:07.5
12:15.4
12:23.5
12:35.0
12:42.0
12:50.2
13:00.0
13:08.0
13:18.0
13:30.0
13:37.0
13:47.0
13:54.0
14:01.0
14:10.5
14:18.0
14:27.0
14:36.0
14:43.9
14:55.9
15:06.0
15:14.0
15:22.0
15:31.0
15:39.4
15:52.0
16:00.0
16:15.0
16:24.0
16:32.8
16:38.9
16:46.0
16:55.0
17:05.0
17:14.0
17:24.0
17:32.3
17:42.0
17:51.2
18:00.0
18:10.0
18:17.7
18:26.0
18:34.0
18:44.0
18:51.0
19:02.0
19:09.0
19:16.8
19:24.0
19:31.0
19:40.0
161
Phrase
Duration
00:01.6
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.7
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:02.2
00:01.8
00:02.2
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.7
00:02.3
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:02.6
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:02.2
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.7
00:01.7
00:01.6
00:02.2
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.8
00:02.3
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:02.2
00:01.8
00:01.9
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.7
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.8
00:02.2
00:01.6
00:01.8
00:01.7
00:01.9
Inter-Phrase
Interval
00:06.3
00:06.3
00:09.9
00:05.3
00:06.4
00:08.2
00:05.8
00:08.2
00:09.8
00:05.2
00:08.4
00:05.3
00:04.7
00:07.9
00:05.9
00:07.4
00:07.2
00:06.3
00:09.4
00:08.5
00:06.4
00:06.2
00:07.4
00:06.2
00:10.8
00:06.4
00:13.3
00:07.3
00:07.2
00:03.9
00:05.5
00:07.4
00:08.2
00:07.4
00:08.2
00:06.0
00:07.9
00:07.6
00:06.6
00:08.2
00:05.8
00:06.5
00:06.4
00:08.3
00:05.2
00:09.4
00:05.2
00:05.6
00:05.6
00:05.2
00:07.3
00:06.1
Running
Time
1:11:13.9
1:11:22.0
1:11:33.5
1:11:40.5
1:11:48.7
1:12:16.5
1:12:06.5
1:12:16.5
1:12:28.5
1:12:35.5
1:12:45.5
1:12:52.5
1:12:59.5
1:13:09.0
1:13:16.5
1:13:25.5
1:13:34.5
1:13:42.4
1:13:54.4
1:14:04.5
1:14:12.5
1:14:20.5
1:14:29.5
1:14:37.9
1:14:50.5
1:14:58.5
1:15:13.5
1:15:22.5
1:15:31.3
1:15:37.4
1:15:44.5
1:15:53.5
1:16:03.5
1:16:12.5
1:16:22.5
1:16:30.8
1:16:40.5
1:16:49.7
1:16:58.5
1:17:08.5
1:17:16.2
1:17:24.5
1:17:32.5
1:17:42.5
1:17:49.5
1:18:00.5
1:18:07.5
1:18:15.3
1:18:22.5
1:18:29.5
1:18:38.5
1:18:46.5
Phrase Phrase
Number Letter
256.
A2
257.
BA2
258.
F2
259.
A2
260.
B4
261.
A2
262.
A2
263.
C3
264.
C2
265.
BA1
266.
B4
267.
A2
268.
A2
269.
B4
270.
B4
271.
A2
272.
B4
273.
A2
274.
B4
275.
F7
276.
A2
277.
C2
278.
A2
279.
A2
280.
A2
281.
A2
282.
B4
283.
F2
284.
A2
285.
C2
286.
B9
287.
B4
288.
A2
289.
B4
290.
A2
291.
A2
292.
D4
293.
A2
294.
B4
295.
A2
296.
B4
297.
C3
298.
A2
299.
C2
300.
B4
301.
BA1
302.
A2
303.
A2
304.
A2
305.
B4
306.
F1
307.
A2
Track/ Phrase Start
CD # Time
19:48.0
19:54.6
20:03.2
20:12.4
20:19.7
20:26.8
20:37.0
20:44.0
20:54.0
21:01.8
21:12.0
21:19.0
21:28.0
22:00.0
22:06.5
22:14.0
22:21.0
22:29.3
22:36.0
22:43.2
23:03.5
23:11.0
23:18.0
23:26.0
23:34.0
23:40.0
23:48.0
23:56.0
24:03.4
24:10.1
24:18.1
24:30.0
24:38.0
24:48.0
24:56.0
25:04.0
25:14.0
25:22.0
25:30.0
25:40.7
25:48.7
25:55.3
26:05.9
26:14.7
26:22.0
26:32.0
26:40.8
26:49.0
26:58.0
27:07.7
27:16.2
27:24.7
162
Phrase
Duration
00:01.6
00:02.6
00:01.7
00:01.6
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:02.1
00:02.2
00:02.2
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.8
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.8
00:02.6
00:01.6
00:02.2
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.8
00:01.7
00:01.6
00:02.2
00:01.9
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.9
00:01.6
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.8
00:01.8
00:02.1
00:02.2
00:01.8
00:02.2
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.8
00:01.9
00:01.6
Inter-Phrase
Interval
00:05.0
00:06.0
00:07.5
00:05.7
00:05.3
00:08.6
00:05.4
00:07.9
00:05.6
00:08.0
00:05.2
00:01.8
00:30.4
00:04.7
00:05.7
00:05.4
00:06.5
00:05.1
00:05.4
00:17.7
00:05.9
00:04.8
00:06.4
00:06.4
00:04.4
00:06.4
00:06.2
00:05.7
00:05.1
00:05.8
00:10.0
00:06.2
00:08.4
00:06.2
00:06.4
00:08.4
00:06.1
00:06.4
00:08.9
00:06.4
00:04.8
00:08.8
00:06.7
00:05.1
00:08.2
00:06.6
00:06.6
00:07.4
00:08.1
00:06.7
00:06.6
00:06.4
Running
Time
1:18:53.1
1:19:01.7
1:19:10.9
1:19:18.2
1:19:25.3
1:19:35.5
1:19:42.5
1:19:52.5
1:20:00.3
1:20:10.5
1:20:17.5
1:20:20.9
1:20:52.9
1:20:59.4
1:21:06.9
1:21:13.9
1:21:22.2
1:21:28.9
1:21:36.1
1:21:56.4
1:22:03.9
1:22:10.9
1:22:18.9
1:22:26.9
1:22:32.9
1:22:40.9
1:22:48.9
1:22:56.3
1:23:03.0
1:23:11.0
1:23:22.9
1:23:30.9
1:23:40.9
1:23:48.9
1:23:56.9
1:24:06.9
1:24:14.9
1:24:22.9
1:24:33.6
1:24:41.6
1:24:48.2
1:24:58.8
1:25:07.6
1:25:14.9
1:25:24.9
1:25:33.7
1:25:41.9
1:25:50.9
1:26:00.6
1:26:09.1
1:26:17.6
1:26:25.6
Phrase Phrase
Number Letter
308.
D4
309.
C2
310.
BA1
311.
C2
312.
A2
313.
F2
314.
B4
315.
A2
316.
B4
317.
A2
318.
C2
319.
B4
320.
A2
321.
B4
322.
A7
323.
A2
324.
A2
325.
F4
326.
B4
327.
F1
328.
B4
329.
F2
330.
A2
331.
F4
332.
F2
333.
B9
334.
A2
335.
F2
336.
B4
337.
A2
338.
A2
339.
A2
340.
C2
341.
A2
342.
BA1
343.
B4
344.
A2
345.
A2
346.
B4
347.
A2
348.
A2
349.
F2
350.
A2
351.
A2
352.
F2
353.
B4
354.
A2
355.
A2
356.
B4
357.
A2
358.
A2
359.
F2
Track/ Phrase Start
CD # Time
27:32.7
27:43.0
27:51.3
27:59.3
28:07.1
28:18.2
28:29.6
28:38.0
28:47.0
28:57.4
29:05.5
29:14.5
29:30.0
29:40.0
29:46.5
29:55.4
Tr.2/78
00:05.2
00:12.6
00:21.3
00:30.7
00:40.6
00:50.0
00:58.4
01:05.1
01:14.1
01:22.6
01:30.2
01:38.0
01:46.4
01:56.7
02:06.7
02:16.4
02:26.0
02:34.3
02:42.7
02:57.0
03:04.8
03:14.6
03:23.6
03:32.1
03:40.2
03:46.7
03:55.1
04:02.0
04:08.4
04:15.6
04:24.1
04:32.1
04:40.9
04:48.9
04:56.7
05:04.5
163
Phrase
Duration
00:01.9
00:02.2
00:02.2
00:02.2
00:01.6
00:01.7
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:02.2
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.8
00:02.4
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.9
00:01.8
00:01.9
00:01.8
00:01.7
00:01.6
00:01.9
00:01.7
00:02.3
00:01.6
00:01.7
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:02.2
00:01.6
00:02.2
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.7
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.7
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.7
Inter-Phrase
Interval
00:08.4
00:06.1
00:05.8
00:05.6
00:09.5
00:09.7
00:06.6
00:07.4
00:08.6
00:06.5
00:06.8
00:13.7
00:08.4
00:04.7
00:06.5
00:09.7
00:05.8
00:06.8
00:07.6
00:08.0
00:04.6
00:06.7
00:05.1
00:07.1
00:06.8
00:05.3
00:06.2
00:06.7
00:08.5
00:08.4
00:08.1
00:08.0
00:06.1
00:06.8
00:12.1
00:06.0
00:08.2
00:07.4
00:06.7
00:06.5
00:04.9
00:06.7
00:05.3
00:04.8
00:05.5
00:06.7
00:06.4
00:07.2
00:06.2
00:06.2
00:06.2
00:07.6
Running
Time
1:26:35.9
1:26:44.2
1:26:52.2
1:27:00.0
1:27:11.1
1:27:22.5
1:27:30.9
1:27:39.9
1:27:50.3
1:27:58.4
1:28:07.4
1:28:22.9
1:28:32.9
1:28:39.4
1:28:48.3
1:28:59.6
1:29:07.0
1:29:15.7
1:29:25.1
1:29:35.0
1:29:41.4
1:29:49.8
1:29:56.5
1:30:05.5
1:30:14.0
1:30:21.6
1:30:29.4
1:30:37.8
1:30:48.1
1:30:58.1
1:31:07.8
1:31:17.4
1:31:25.7
1:31:34.1
1:31:48.4
1:31:56.2
1:32:06.0
1:32:15.0
1:32:23.5
1:32:31.6
1:32:38.1
1:32:46.5
1:32:53.4
1:32:59.8
1:33:07.0
1:33:15.5
1:33:23.5
1:33:32.3
1:33:40.3
1:33:48.1
1:33:55.9
1:34:05.2
Phrase Phrase
Number Letter
360.
B4
361.
A2
362.
F2
363.
A2
364.
B4
365.
A2
366.
F4
367.
B4
368.
A2
369.
F2
370.
D4
371.
C3
372.
B4
373.
F1
374.
BA2
375.
B4
376.
C3
377.
F2
378.
B4
379.
A2
380.
A2
381.
B4
382.
F2
383.
C3
384.
B4
385.
F2
386.
A2
387.
F2
388.
F1
389.
B4
390.
A2
391.
F4
392.
A2
393.
F2
394.
B4
395.
A2
396.
B9
397.
A2
398.
BA1
399.
F2
400.
B4
401.
A2
402.
A2
403.
B9
404.
A2
405.
BA2
406.
F6
407.
F2
408.
D4
409.
A2
410.
B12
411.
A2
Track/ Phrase Start
CD # Time
05:13.8
05:19.7
05:26.2
05:36.8
05:43.7
05:52.6
06:04.7
06:13.3
06:18.6
06:27.3
06:35.2
06:43.4
06:50.8
06:57.0
07:04.4
07:13.3
07:21.0
07:29.7
07:38.2
07:45.3
07:52.0
07:58.3
08:04.6
08:11.4
08:18.5
08:24.7
08:31.0
08:36.9
08:43.7
08:50.1
08:58.1
09:05.0
09:13.0
09:20.4
09:26.8
09:35.3
09:41.0
09:48.0
09:56.8
10:03.0
10:10.0
10:17.2
10:23.7
10:30.0
10:37.7
10:45.2
10:54.5
11:01.6
11:10.0
11:17.8
11:25.6
11:27.5
164
Phrase
Duration
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.7
00:01.6
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.9
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.7
00:01.9
00:02.2
00:01.8
00:01.7
00:02.2
00:01.8
00:02.1
00:01.7
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.8
00:01.7
00:02.1
00:01.8
00:01.7
00:01.6
00:01.7
00:01.9
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.9
00:01.6
00:01.7
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:02.1
00:01.6
00:02.2
00:01.7
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:02.1
00:01.6
00:02.2
00:01.2
00:01.7
00:01.9
00:01.6
00:00.7
00:01.6
Inter-Phrase
Interval
00:04.1
00:00.8
00:08.9
00:05.3
00:07.1
00:10.5
00:06.7
00:03.5
00:07.1
00:06.2
00:06.3
00:05.2
00:04.4
00:05.7
00:06.7
00:05.9
00:06.6
00:06.8
00:05.3
00:05.1
00:04.7
00:04.5
00:05.1
00:05.0
00:04.4
00:04.6
00:04.3
00:05.1
00:04.5
00:06.2
00:05.3
00:06.1
00:05.8
00:04.7
00:06.7
00:04.1
00:04.9
00:07.2
00:04.0
00:05.3
00:05.4
00:04.9
00:04.7
00:05.6
00:05.9
00:07.1
00:05.9
00:06.7
00:05.9
00:06.2
00:01.2
00:06.9
Running
Time
1:34:11.1
1:34:13.5
1:34:24.1
1:34:31.0
1:34:39.9
1:34:52.0
1:35:00.6
1:35:05.9
1:35:14.6
1:35:22.5
1:35:30.7
1:35:38.1
1:35:44.3
1:35:51.7
1:36:00.6
1:36:08.3
1:36:17.0
1:36:25.5
1:36:32.6
1:36:39.3
1:36:45.6
1:36:51.9
1:36:58.7
1:37:05.8
1:37:12.0
1:37:18.3
1:37:24.2
1:37:31.0
1:37:37.4
1:37:45.4
1:37:52.3
1:38:00.3
1:38:07.7
1:38:14.1
1:38:22.6
1:38:28.3
1:38:35.3
1:38:44.1
1:38:50.3
1:38:57.3
1:39:04.5
1:39:11.0
1:39:17.3
1:39:25.0
1:39:32.5
1:39:41.8
1:39:48.9
1:39:57.3
1:40:05.1
1:40:12.9
1:40:14.8
1:40:23.3
Phrase Phrase
Number Letter
412.
B4
413.
F2
414.
A2
415.
A2
416.
A2
417.
C3
418.
F1
419.
B4
420.
F6
421.
B4
422.
F2
423.
B9
424.
F2
425.
B9
426.
A2
427.
A2
428.
A2
429.
D4
430.
BA1
431.
B4
432.
F1
433.
A2
434.
B4
435.
A2
436.
F1
437.
B4
438.
A2
439.
A8
440.
C3
441.
B4
442.
A2
443.
A2
444.
B4
445.
A2
446.
C2
447.
F4
448.
D4
449.
B4
450.
A2
451.
BA1
452.
B4
453.
BA1
454.
B4
455.
F1
456.
C3
457.
A9
458.
A2
459.
B4
460.
F4
461.
F2
462.
A2
463.
B4
Track/ Phrase Start
CD # Time
11:36.0
11:42.0
11:49.6
11:56.2
12:02.6
12:10.3
12:17.9
12:24.1
12:30.1
12:37.1
12:45.0
12:52.0
12:59.3
13:05.0
13:11.7
13:20.7
13:26.1
13:31.9
13:38.5
13:47.8
13:54.5
14:03.0
14:09.0
14:14.5
14:18.9
14:26.0
14:32.1
14:38.3
14:44.0
14:52.5
14:58.7
15:05.0
15:13.1
15:19.0
15:24.9
15:32.1
15:39.9
15:46.7
15:55.0
16:01.9
16:09.6
16:17.0
16:25.0
16:33.5
16:41.2
16:47.9
16:55.3
17:00.2
17:07.4
17:14.0
17:20.4
17:26.5
165
Phrase
Duration
00:01.8
00:01.7
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:02.1
00:01.9
00:01.8
00:01.2
00:01.8
00:01.7
00:01.9
00:01.7
00:01.9
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.9
00:02.2
00:01.8
00:01.9
00:01.6
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.9
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:02.1
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:02.2
00:01.9
00:01.9
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:02.2
00:01.8
00:02.2
00:01.8
00:01.9
00:02.1
00:01.7
00:01.6
00:01.8
00:01.9
00:01.7
00:01.6
00:01.8
Inter-Phrase
Interval
00:04.2
00:05.9
00:05.0
00:04.8
00:04.6
00:05.5
00:04.3
00:04.2
00:05.8
00:06.1
00:05.3
00:05.4
00:04.0
00:04.8
00:07.4
00:03.8
00:04.2
00:04.7
00:07.1
00:04.9
00:06.6
00:04.4
00:03.7
00:02.8
00:05.2
00:04.3
00:04.6
00:04.1
00:06.4
00:04.4
00:04.7
00:06.5
00:04.1
00:04.3
00:05.0
00:05.9
00:04.9
00:06.5
00:05.3
00:05.5
00:05.6
00:05.8
00:04.0
00:05.8
00:04.6
00:05.7
00:03.3
00:05.4
00:04.7
00:04.7
00:04.5
00:06.1
Running
Time
1:40:29.3
1:40:36.9
1:40:43.5
1:40:49.9
1:40:56.1
1:41:03.7
1:41:09.9
1:41:15.9
1:41:22.9
1:41:30.8
1:41:37.8
1:41:45.1
1:41:50.8
1:41:57.5
1:42:06.5
1:42:11.9
1:42:17.7
1:42:24.3
1:42:33.6
1:42:40.3
1:42:48.8
1:42:54.8
1:43:00.3
1:43:04.7
1:43:11.8
1:43:17.9
1:43:24.1
1:43:29.8
1:43:38.3
1:43:44.5
1:43:50.8
1:43:58.9
1:44:04.8
1:44:10.7
1:44:17.9
1:44:25.7
1:44:32.5
1:44:40.8
1:44:47.7
1:44:55.4
1:45:02.8
1:45:10.8
1:45:16.6
1:45:24.3
1:45:31.0
1:45:38.4
1:45:43.3
1:45:50.5
1:45:57.1
1:46:03.5
1:46:09.6
1:46:17.5
Phrase Phrase
Number Letter
464.
A2
465.
B4
466.
A2
467.
A2
468.
A2
469.
B4
470.
A2
471.
B4
472.
F1
473.
B9
474.
A2
475.
F1
476.
B4
477.
F4
478.
D4
479.
A2
480.
B4
481.
B4
482.
A2
483.
A1
484.
C2
485.
A2
486.
A2
487.
A1
488.
A2
489.
A2
490.
B4
491.
A2
492.
A2
493.
B4
494.
A2
495.
C2
496.
B4
497.
A2
498.
A2
499.
D3
500.
F2
501.
A2
502.
A1
503.
B4
504.
A2
505.
A1
506.
B4
507.
A2
508.
A2
509.
B5
510.
A1
511.
A1
512.
B4
513.
C3
514.
B4
515.
A2
Track/ Phrase Start
CD # Time
17:34.4
17:40.2
17:46.1
17:55.0
18:03.0
18:07.6
18:13.0
18:19.0
18:23.7
18:29.3
18:35.7
18:41.7
18:47.5
18:54.4
19:01.1
19:08.8
19:16.5
19:23.7
19:34.0
19:44.7
19:53.2
20:03.2
20:14.1
20:55.4
21:08.6
21:17.1
21:25.6
21:31.1
21:37.7
21:44.8
21:50.7
21:56.8
22:04.0
22:11.6
22:17.2
22:23.1
22:28.2
22:36.5
22:42.8
22:48.3
22:57.2
23:07.8
23:10.8
23:16.5
23:24.7
23:31.3
23:38.0
23:44.9
23:51.4
23:58.6
24:04.8
24:10.1
166
Phrase
Duration
00:01.6
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.8
00:01.9
00:01.9
00:01.6
00:01.9
00:01.8
00:01.9
00:01.9
00:01.6
00:01.8
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.1
00:02.2
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:02.3
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:02.2
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.5
00:01.7
00:01.6
00:01.1
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.1
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.8
00:01.1
00:01.1
00:01.8
00:02.1
00:01.8
00:01.6
Inter-Phrase
Interval
00:04.2
00:04.1
00:07.3
00:06.4
00:03.0
00:03.6
00:04.4
00:02.9
00:03.7
00:04.5
00:04.4
00:03.9
00:05.1
00:04.8
00:05.8
00:06.1
00:05.4
00:08.5
00:09.1
00:07.4
00:07.8
00:03.9
00:39.7
00:10.9
00:06.9
00:06.9
00:03.7
00:05.0
00:05.5
00:04.1
00:04.5
00:05.0
00:05.8
00:04.0
00:04.3
00:03.6
00:06.6
00:04.7
00:04.4
00:07.1
00:09.0
00:01.9
00:03.9
00:06.6
00:05.0
00:04.9
00:05.8
00:05.4
00:05.4
00:04.1
00:03.5
00:03.7
Running
Time
1:46:23.3
1:46:29.2
1:46:38.1
1:46:46.1
1:46:50.7
1:46:56.1
1:47:02.1
1:47:06.8
1:47:12.4
1:47:18.8
1:47:24.8
1:47:30.6
1:47:37.5
1:47:44.2
1:47:51.9
1:47:59.6
1:48:06.8
1:48:17.1
1:48:27.8
1:48:36.3
1:48:46.3
1:48:51.8
1:49:33.1
1:49:46.3
1:49:54.8
1:50:03.3
1:50:08.8
1:50:15.4
1:50:22.5
1:50:28.4
1:50:34.5
1:50:41.7
1:50:49.3
1:50:54.9
1:51:00.8
1:51:05.9
1:51:14.2
1:51:20.5
1:51:26.0
1:51:34.9
1:51:45.5
1:51:48.5
1:51:54.2
1:52:02.4
1:52:09.0
1:52:15.7
1:52:22.6
1:52:29.1
1:52:36.3
1:52:42.5
1:52:47.8
1:52:53.1
Phrase Phrase
Number Letter
516.
BA1
517.
A2
518.
C2
519.
B5
520.
C3
521.
A2
522.
B13
523.
A2
524.
C2
525.
A2
526.
A2
527.
D3
528.
A1
529.
A1
530.
A2
531.
C2
532.
B4
533.
C4
534.
A2
535.
A9
536.
A2
537.
C2
538.
B4
539.
A2
540.
D3
541.
A2
542.
A2
543.
B9
544.
A2
545.
A2
546.
A1
547.
A2
548.
C2
549.
B4
550.
A2
551.
A1
552.
A1
553.
C5
554.
B14
555.
A1
Mean
Track/ Phrase Start
CD # Time
24:15.4
24:22.3
24:28.3
24:36.1
24:43.1
24:50.7
24:57.2
25:04.0
25:13.4
25:19.4
25:32.0
25:41.7
25:47.4
26:00.7
26:09.8
26:19.4
26:26.0
26:33.3
26:40.7
26:47.8
26:55.3
27:03.1
27:09.9
27:18.2
27:25.5
27:32.4
27:40.0
27:49.0
27:56.9
28:05.5
28:17.7
28:38.5
28:49.0
28:56.8
29:04.0
29:10.0
29:24.4
29:40.9
29:51.4
30:13.5
167
Phrase
Duration
00:02.7
00:01.6
00:02.2
00:01.8
00:02.1
00:01.6
00:02.0
00:01.6
00:02.2
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.5
00:01.1
00:01.1
00:01.6
00:02.2
00:01.8
00:01.5
00:01.6
00:01.7
00:01.6
00:02.2
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.5
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:02.3
00:01.6
00:01.6
00:01.1
00:01.6
00:02.2
00:01.8
00:01.6
00:01.1
00:01.1
00:01.3
00:01.9
00:01.1
00:01.7
Inter-Phrase
Interval
00:04.2
00:04.4
00:05.6
00:05.2
00:05.5
00:04.9
00:04.8
00:02.3
00:03.8
00:11.0
00:08.1
00:04.2
00:12.2
00:08.0
00:08.0
00:04.4
00:05.5
00:05.9
00:05.5
00:05.8
00:06.2
00:04.6
00:06.5
00:05.7
00:05.4
00:06.0
00:07.4
00:05.6
00:07.0
00:10.6
00:19.7
00:08.9
00:05.6
00:05.4
00:04.4
00:13.3
00:15.4
00:09.2
00:20.2
00:00.0
00:10.0
Running
Time
1:53:00.0
1:53:06.0
1:53:13.8
1:53:20.8
1:53:28.4
1:53:34.9
1:53:41.7
1:53:45.6
1:53:51.6
1:54:04.2
1:54:13.9
1:54:19.6
1:54:32.9
1:54:42.0
1:54:51.6
1:54:58.2
1:55:05.5
1:55:12.9
1:55:20.0
1:55:27.5
1:55:35.3
1:55:42.1
1:55:50.4
1:55:57.7
1:56:04.6
1:56:12.2
1:56:21.2
1:56:29.1
1:56:37.7
1:56:49.9
1:57:10.7
1:57:21.2
1:57:29.0
1:57:36.2
1:57:42.2
1:57:56.6
1:58:13.1
1:58:23.6
1:58:45.7
1:58:46.8
APPENDIX F:
NOTATIONS OF SONIC GEOGRAPHIES OF
DIFFERENCE
168
Pied butcherbird song from Magnetic Island, Townsville, and environs, spring
2005, 2006, 2007; Hollis Taylor, recordist.
Mini-disc ID
# and
duration
MD2007.2.11
1. 4:37
MD2007.3.9
2. 5:01
MD2007.2.1
3. 3:57
MD2007.4.1
4. 5:27
MD2007.6.12
5. 5:02
MD2007.6.18
6. 2:05
MD2007.6.1
7. 5:30
MD2007.6.25
8. 2:44
MD2005.5.33
9. 3:42
MD2007.1.1
10. 3:07
MD2007.1.12
11. 3:48
MD2007.1.10
12. 6:01
Location,
GPS
Cardington
Road, Flinders
Hwy.
19 48 48.8; 146
48 59.3; 103m
Cameron Road,
Flinders Hwy.
19 43 29.9; 146
51 04.4; 100m
Planthilll Road,
Flinders Hwy.
19 42 51.3; 146
51 15.6; 103m
Wordsworth
Road, Flinders
Hwy.
19 42 09.6; 146
52 02.3; 102m
Dingo Park
Road, Flinders
Hwy.
19 41 09.2; 146
50 45.8; 83m
Chenoweth
Road, Flinders
Hwy.
19 38 28.4; 146
51 17.6; 62m
Booth Road,
Flinders Hwy.
19 24 50.8; 146
50 56.5; 65m
James Cook
University, TV
19 19 45.6; 146
45 21.6; 38m
Magnetic Island:
Nelly Bay,
Sooning/Yates
27 28 49; 152
58 48; 34m
Magnetic Island:
Nelly Bay,
Sooning/Yates
27 28 49; 152
58 48; 34m
Magnetic Island:
Nelly Bay, Bottiger/Mandalay
Magnetic Island:
Florence Bay
Date,
begin.
time
Distance
to next
location
25/10/07
04:51
10km to
T/O
From 29:00 – 33:40.
27/09/07
04:22
1km to
T/O
From 11:20 – 16:10.
24/09/07
04:55
2.5km to
T/O
From 14:30 – 20:30.
28/10/07
04:10
.5km to
T/O (50km
to TV)
From 52:10 – 56: and
65:50 – 66:54 (ends with
mimicry).
01/10/07
04:15
(50km to
TV)
From 20 – 21:20.
Kangaroo crossing back
and forth in front of me.
02/10/07
05:15
27km to
Booth
Road,
47km to
TV
20km to
TV
Pieced together from first
few minutes; rain and
wind increased.
30/09/07
04:40
Notes including excerpt
timing
From 32:22 – 37:50.
03/10/07
06:15
Already singing when I
arrived.
12/06/05
10:45
From beginning – 3:50.
NOT pre-dawn—daytime
seemingly pre-dawn. 3.33hour song.
16/09/07
05:45
From 9:45 – 12:53.
20/09/07
05:33
From 4:45 – 8:33.
Apparently same bird as
MD2007.1.1.
From 8:08 – 13:35 plus
extra phrases added to
end: four from 19:40, two
from 22:37, and the two
final from 23:08.
19/09/07
05:45
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
Pied butcherbird song from Alice Springs and environs, spring 2006 and
2007, Hollis Taylor, recordist; spring 1998, Andrew Skeoch, recordist.
Mini-disc ID
MD2007.10.16
# and
duration
1. 1:16
MD2007.10.5
2. 1:12
MD2006.6.1
3. 4:27
MD2007.10.1A
4. 1:48
MD2007.8.33B
5. 2:23
MD2006.6.11
6. 1:31
MD2007.12.35
7. 1:05
MD2006.7.7
8. 2:45
MD2007.13.2
9. 3:00
MD2007.10.28
10.
1:12
MD2007.11.17
11.
6:15
MD2007.10.38
12.
1:00
Location,
GPS
Ross River
Resort
23 35 43.4; 134
29 14.3; 493m
Trephina Gorge
Bluff
Campground
23 31 25.0; 134
23 43.9; 545m
Trephina Gorge
Bluff
Campground
23 32 01.1; 134
22 51.8; 525m
Jessie Gap
23 44 51.6; 134
00 51.3; 536m
Emily Gap
23 44 38.6; 133
56 47.2; 552m
Emily Gap
23 44 34; 133
57 09
G’day Mate CP,
S of Alice
Springs
Stuart/Ross
Hwys.
23 44 14.2; 133
52 03.6; 564m
G’day Mate CP,
S of Alice
Springs
Stuart/Ross
Hwys.
23 44 18.1; 133
51 57.2; 556m
Alice Springs
Telegraph
Station
23 40 24.8; 133
53 12.4; 584m
Gemtree CP,
Plenty Hwy. N
of AS
22 57 56.9; 134
14 23.6; 630m
Araluen Arts
Centre, Alice
Springs
23 42 02.6; 133
51 46.9; 582m
Ormiston Gorge
#1: Ranger’s
Res.
23 38 03.8; 132
43 52.6; 659m
Date,
begin.
time
09/11/
07
04:35
Distance
to next
location
13km to
T/O, +4km
to CG
08/11/
07
04:50
49km
02/10/
06
05:30
timing
Generator noise.
Timings not exact (cut out or
pasted over footsteps).
arrived. From 8:20 – 12:45.
07/11/
07
04:03
06/11/
07
03:45
7km
03/10/
06
05:05
16/11/
07
04:40
8km
08/10/
06
03:45
10km
Part of two-hour song. Cut
and pieced together main
phrases. Timings no longer
correct or order.
17/11/
07
04:20
65km N,
70km E
From 12:15-15:10.
10/11/
07
04:35
As above
back to
AS
From 33:57-34:10.
14/11/
07
04:35
135km to
T/O
Excerpt taken from 23-29:20.
Traffic filtered partially.
11/11/
07
05:00
(7km in
from T/O)
From 9:20 – 10:20. Windy,
filtered.
186
Excerpt taken from within
25:20 – 29:45.
arrived. Song split onto two
CDs. This is from second
half, excerpt from 14:10 –
25:06 (better signal).
Same singers as above but
from park, not road. From
7:12 – 8:43.
Excerpt taken from within
14:45 – 19:55.
Mini-disc ID
MD2006.7.1
# and
duration
13. 6:40
MD2007.11.1
14. 1:02
MD2007.11.5
15. 0:59
Andrew
Skeoch,
recordist.
16. 5:39
MD2006.5.23
17. 1:39
MD2006.5.7
18. 1:32
Location,
GPS
Ormiston Gorge
#1: Ranger’s
Res.
23 37 47.4; 132
43 39.1; 658m
Ormiston Gorge
#2: Big Tree
23 38 07.3; 132
43 54.7; 656m
Ormiston Gorge
#3: Floodway
23 39 32.6; 132
43 35.6; 646m
Ormiston
Gorge, likely
near #3
Wattarka
(King’s Canyon)
on Luritja Road
/Wattarka T/O
24 17 08.2; 131
34 02.0; 608m
Uluru NP CG
24 14 15.0; 130
59 23.5; 498m
Date,
begin.
time
06/10/
06
05:18
Distance
to next
location
11/11/
07
05:00
Middle of
3 locations
arrived. Windy. From 4:50 –
5:50.
13/11/
07
04:50
Closest to
T/O
37:00 – 38:00.
??/10/
98
c.
02:30
130km
30/09/
06
05:23
130km
Full moon. Only Tr. 1 of 8 is
in audio excerpts. Duration of
Tracks 1-8, respectively:
5:39, 2:07, 7:52, 4:19, 19:46,
5:29, 3:43, and 25:47.
Windy. From 23:20 – 25:00.
28/09/
06
04:38
187
timing
From 5:50 – 12:30.
Windy. From 7:05 – 9:00.
Distances shortened
between.
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
APPENDIX G:
CHAPTERS 4 AND 5 SOUND SOURCE DERIVATIONS
212
CHAPTERS 4 AND 5 SOUND SOURCES
Figure
4.1
4.1
#
1
2
Recording Source
CD051.1@5:08
MD2006.7.7@1:06:50
4.1
4.1
4.1
4.1
4.1
4.1
3
4
5
6
7
8a
CD001.1@0:05
CD056.2@1:11
CD050.8@0:07
CD059.10@0:35
CD056.8@:09
MD2006.7.7@1:06:33
4.1
8b
CD050.5@1:47
4.1
4.1
4.1
4.1
4.1
4.1
4.2
4.2
4.2
4.2
4.2
4.2
4.2
4.2
4.2
4.2
4.2
4.2
4.2
4.2
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
9a
9b
9c
9d
9e
9f
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
CD037.1@6:35
CD048.2@0:08
CD056.8@0:48
CD059.13@0:59
CD059.13@0:59
CD050.5@1:23
CD080.1@4:03
CD050.8@0:20
CD048.3@1:52
CD092.8@1:54
CD049.9@0:17
CD054.7@4:44
CD059.16@0:07
CD059.3@0:04
CD090.16@0:54
CD007.3@0:06
CD90.10@0:30
CD090.41@0:14
CD049.4@2:15
CD054.8@0:43
CD048.5@0:10
CD006.5@0:13
CD004.1@1:46
CD026.1@15:02
CD12.1@1:99
CD049.1@8:10
CD059.20@0:24
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
CD050.2@8:28
CD77.3@5:52
CD77.3@6:45
CD038.1@13:10
CD77.2@29:12
CD091.20@0:11
CD059.20@0:12
MD2006.6.1@0:46
CD010.1@8:27
CD009.1@0:40
CD092.6@0:33
CD037.2@0:31
Description
a very short note within a narrow frequency span
a very short note covering a wide, but not
simultaneous, frequency span
a note with an almost constant frequency
a note with an upward inflection
a note with a downward inflection
a warbling note
two or more notes joined together by a tail
simultaneously produced notes known to emit from
one bird
simultaneously produced notes known to emit from
one bird
complex, “buzzy,” or “noisy” notes
a trill
a rattle
a quasi-rattle
a note becoming a rattle
rattle becoming a note
rattles ending with a flourish
rattles ending with a flourish
a descending rattle
an ascending rattle
an ascending and descending rattle
two rattle types from one bird
“noisy” rattles
“noisy” rattles
a long rattle
blip
blop
tok
several reiterations of tok followed by chook
chook
a note of almost constant pitch followed by a tok
several reiterations of tok resolving to a note of
almost constant pitch
several reiterations of chook followed by a chip
chip
chip
chip
chip
a double chip
wow
wow
wow
woop
woop
abrupt, downward, linear frequency sweeps
(portamentos)
213
Figure
4.3
#
20
Recording Source
CD048.5@1:44
4.3
21
CD056.2@1:29
4.3
22
CD006.3@1:07
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.6
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
1
CD037.03D@0:57
MD2005.08.29@0:12
CD037.03D@1:05
MD2006.1.42@0:10
CD059.8@0:09
CD051.3@3:15
CD049.9@4:53
CD012.1@2:26
CD090.42@0:30
4.7
1
MD2007.12.43@13:36
4.8
1
MD2006.4.30@0:11
4.9
4.10
4.11
4.12
1
1
1
1
CD006.3@0:24
CD059.9@0:10
CD094.3@4:36
CD059.16@0:25
4.12
2
CD059.1@0:54
4.12
3
CD011.1@3:42
4.12
4
CD037.1@17:44
4.12
5
CD055.1@0:44
4.12
6
CD050.5@0:07
4.12
7
CD056.8@3:26
4.12
8
CD059.9@0:07
4.13
1
CD050.5@0:08
4.14
1
4.15
4.15
4.15
4.15
4.15
4.15
4.15
4.16
4.17
4.18
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
1
1
MD2006.7.7@10:45,
1:48:27, and 1:58:45
MD2008.1.22@15:58
CD048.5@0:05
CD003.9@0:01
MD2008.2.12@2:40
CD002.1@0:01
MD2008.2.29@5:50
MD2007.6.1@34:05
CD048.4@0:03
CD048.22@0:23
CD012.1@11:33
4.18
2
CD026.1@0:37
4.18
3
MD2007.6.1@35:01
Description
(portamentos)
(portamentos)
a note of almost constant frequency interrupted by
three extreme (portamentos)
a soft call from a bird sitting on a nest
a food begging call from an adult
a food begging call from a nestling
a scolding call
two beak claps
species call
species call
species call
an adult delivers the species call, followed by a
juvenile
a group of pied butcherbirds and an Australian
magpie involved in mobbing
a group of pied butcherbirds mobbing an
Australian raven.
antiphonal song with species call: two birds
species call notes incorporated in solo song
an immature pied butcherbird subsong excerpt
eight variants of the short-long descending second
(SLD2) motif
(SLD2) motif
(SLD2) motif
(SLD2) motif
(SLD2) motif
(SLD2) motif
(SLD2) motif
(SLD2) motif
the SLD2 motif, followed by an aggressive “prew”
rattle
crescendo/decrescendo
fanfares from seven different pied butcherbirds
“The Singing Lesson”
pied butcherbird ostinato
phrase endings with rhythm reduction at measure’s
end
end
end
214
Figure
4.18
#
4
Recording Source
MD2007.6.25@0:37
4.18
5
CD037.2at0:31
4.19
4.19
4.19
4.19
4.19
4.19
4.19
4.19
4.19
4.19
4.20
4.20
4.20
4.20
4.20
4.20
4.21
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
CD004.1@1:29
CD003.9@0:10
CD038.1@0:58
CD030.1@2:27
MD2007.10.1@26:22
CD004.1@0:22
CD043.1@0:46
CD032.1@3:48
MD2006.7.7@51:15
MD2005.8.8@5:40
CD003.3@0:10
CD003.3@0:15
CD048.5@0:05
CD032.1@1:16
MD2007.6.1@34:11
CD043.1@0:01
CD037.2@0:27
4.21
2
CD043.1@0:27
4.21
3
CD043.1@0:22
4.21
4
CD038.1@1:08
4.21
5
MD2006.7.7@43:50
4.21
6
MD2006.7.7@18:51
4.21
7
CD037.2@0:14
4.22
4.23
1
1
MD2006.5.2@0:30
CD080.1@15:15
4.23
2
CD003.3@4:14
4.24
4.25
4.25
4.26
1
1
2
1
CD006.5@1:20
CD080.1@18:38
CD094.3@1:06
MD2006.9.3@0:02
4.27
1
CD007.4@1:50
4.28
1
CD048.5@0:01
4.29
1
CD074.1@0:08
Description
end
end
phrase endings with a drop in the final pitch
phrase endings with smaller intervals
phrase endings with other suitable differentiations:
an accent, large leap, and two-note chord on the
final note
an accent and a large leap followed by a steep
portamento creating a chip sound on the final note
an accent, an upward leap, and a note of wide
harmonic content on the final note
a structural accent in the outline of a G dominant
seven chord filled after a leap
extended repetition of the final note or motif
a catchy “hook” from a pied butcherbird
scalar motion in two different pied butcherbird
phrases
scalar motion in two different pied butcherbird
phrases
scalar motion in top staff of a pied butcherbird duo
a descending “scale” demonstrating accelerando
an ascending “scale” demonstrating accelerando
shape and balance in four consecutive phrases of
pied butcherbird song, with rests inserted between
phrases to show approximate delivery
a sense of proportion and balance in a pied
butcherbird song as the human ear might hear it,
followed by other phrases the bird delivers that
interrupt the proportion
a sense of proportion and balance in a pied
butcherbird song as the human ear might hear it,
followed by other phrases the bird delivers that
interrupt the proportion
subsong including mimicry and the species call
215
Figure
4.30
#
1
Recording Source
CD052.6@5:57
4.30
2
CD090.8@1:30
4.30
3
CD050.2@7:43
4.31
1
CD056.2@1:29
4.32
1
CD006.4@0:01
4.33
1
CD006.4@0:01
4.34
1
MD2006.3.11@0:27
4.37
1
MD2006.4.20@1:12;
MD2006.4.58@1:35
4.37
2
4.38
1
MD2005.5.33@0:37;
V. Powys, mp3,
personal
communication, 1
August 2007
CD009C@8:17
4.38
2
CD0048.12@1:14
4.3839
3
CD041.1@11:04
4.4042
4.43
1
CD080.1@8:49
1
CD080.1@22:18
4.43
2
CD080.1@20:40
5.9
5.13
1
1
MD2005.5.33@17:45
MD2005.5.33@25:06
5.17
1
MD2005.5.33@3:01:17
5.21
5.22
1
1
MD2007.4.1@65:50
MD2007.4.1@65:50
Description
example of extreme timbre contrast in pied
butcherbird song
butcherbird song
butcherbird song
butcherbird song
two pied butcherbirds in a duet with dissimilar
phrases: notation
two pied butcherbirds in a duet with dissimilar
phrases: sonogram
two pied butcherbirds in a duet with similar
phrases
mimicry: comparison of a pied butcherbird and the
signal of a reversing truck in the bird’s territory
example of possible mimicry: comparison of a pied
butcherbird and the signal of a ringing telephone
audible from outdoors in its territory
three examples of pied butcherbirds (PBB)
incorporating alien species’ motives into their
phrases—sonogram: the peaceful dove signature
motif
phrases—sonogram: the noisy friarbird
phrases—sonogram: the magpie-lark
pied butcherbird mimicry
extreme warbling notes from a pied butcherbird
mimicry cycle
extreme warbling notes from a pied butcherbird
mimicry cycle
augmentation by way of a trill
the highest note in the entire Two Tree song,
indicated by a box
phrase K contains the lowest notes and the longest
note in the song
pre-dawn song ending with mimicry, part one
pre-dawn song ending with mimicry, part two
216
APPENDIX H:
EXTANT RECORDINGS WITH FIELD NOTES AND
CORRESPONDENCE
217
PIED BUTCHERBIRD RECORDINGS/FILMS BY OTHER RECORDISTS
CD ID
Track
Duration Location
Date
Time
Recordist
Notes
001-ABC
002-ABC
50
01
03:50
03:24
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
002-ABC
02
00:25
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
002-ABC
03
01:22
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
002-ABC
04
05:43
Mining Rd,
Pilbara, 60 km
S of Karratha
WA
26/07/97
Bryce
Grunden
002-ABC
05
00:37
Tom Price Rd,
Pilbara, 60 km
S of Karratha
WA
29/07/97
Bryce
Grunden
003-Beasley
01
09:30
Green Lake,
NW VIC
24/10/97
04:00
Jenny
Beasley:
Park
House,
Woodcote
Lane,
Belbrought
on, West
Midlands
UK DY9
OAU
003-Beasley
02
02:03
12/11/99
16:00
Jenny
Beasley
003-Beasley
03
09:14
24/09/01
05:30
Jenny
Beasley
“DA-P1. Before most people got
up but some traffic.”
003-Beasley
04
06:17
06/10/01
05:00
Jenny
Beasley
“DA-P1. Just coming light.”
003-Beasley
05
08:00
Mournpall
campsite,
Hattah-Kulkyne
Reserve,
Hattah VIC
Campsite in
Georgetown
QLD
Jaxut campsite,
state forest N of
Eungella QLD
Jaxut QLD
This is Ulman 057.
“Close perspective general
communication of male & female
pbb. Some other bird species
calling bg. Hissy mono recording,
probably originally recorded on
¼” tape. WILD Accession No:
12904. “
communication of one pbb. Some
other bird species bg. Hissy
mono recording, probably
originally recorded on ¼” tape.
WILD Accession No: 12905.”
communication of one pbb. Some
other bird species bg. Crackly
mono recording, probably
originally recorded on ¼” tape.
“Close & distant perspective
intermittent calls of pbb. Slightly
hissy mono recording (recording
originally on DAT). Close calls at
:00, :36, :53, 1:13, 02:30, 03:30,
03:58, 05:33, 05:40; new take at
01:01.”
“Medium perspective pbb call
with other species of birds mg &
bg. MS stereo recording
(originally recorded on DAT).
“DA-P1, coincident 406 pair on
tripod. Possums. Still morning.”
June 18, 2007: “How interesting
that you should have two
identical Pied Butcherbird
recordings. We went to Green
Lake on Bill Flentje's
recommendation, and the bird
was recorded on the campsite, so
I am sure they would have been
the same individual. I hadn't
realised we had gone there quite
so soon after visiting Bill, but it is
not far away. At the time of
recording we did not realise it
was a Pied BB – just shows how
little we knew back then.”
“Juvenile singing, DA-P1. Sunny,
some wind.”
06/10/01
“DA-P1.”
003-Beasley
06
06:00
Willie Retreat,
Macquarie
17/10/01
04:40
Jenny
Beasley
Jenny
Beasley
218
“DA-P1. Pump from the house
may be audible. “
CD ID
Track
Duration Location
Marshes NSW
Willie Retreat,
Macquarie
Marshes NSW
Willie Retreat,
Macquarie
Marshes NSW
Woods near
Cumberdeen
Dam, Pililga
Forest NSW
Ellery Creek
Big Hole, West
MacDonnell
Ranges NT
Sundown NP
QLD/NSW
border
Sundown NP
QLD/NSW
border
30 km E of
Alice Springs
NT
Date
Time
Recordist
Notes
17/10/01
a bit later
Jenny
Beasley
“DA-P1.”
17/10/01
09:45
Jenny
Beasley
“DA-P1. On the marshes, pbb
plus habitat.”
22/10/01
04:30
Jenny
Beasley
“DA-P1. Still, clear morning.”
06/08/03
06:30
Jenny
Beasley
“DA-P1 and 406x2, ORTF. Just a
phrase, near campsite and a
road.”
03/11/01
05:45
Jenny
Beasley
“Minidisc with Sony 959 mic and
FEL preamp.”
04/11/01
05:30
Jenny
Beasley
“Minidisc with Sony 959 mic and
FEL preamp.”
??/07/88
04:00
Harold and
Audrey
(deceased)
Crouch:
Unit 19/71,
Glouster
Avenue,
Belair SA
5052
(08) 8278
1500
Audrey: “The butcherbirds rank
among the world’s most talented
songsters. Perhaps the most
beautiful of all, the pbb.”
Harold: “One morning in July
1988 my wife Audrey and I were
camped in a dry creek bed in
central Australia about 30 km e.
of Alice Springs. We were
awakened about 4 a.m. by a
beautiful bird song. I fumbled
around in the dark to get my
recorder going without disturbing
the bird. It was quite an
achievement! Finally I was able
to make this recording. The long
periods of silence (up to 5”)
between the bird’s song allow the
listener to get on with some of the
mundane chores to which we are
all subjected. Sometimes I find it
even helps me go to sleep. Hope
you enjoy it as much as we did.
There was no wind, it was pitch
dark, and I had no idea of the
time. Identification was confirmed
by the bird’s presence on a
nearby tree next morning.”
“Tascam DA-P1 digital tape
recorder; Telinga PRO 5 Classic
mono omni-directional mic with
Telinga parabolic reflector. I
adjust the gain to bring out some
of the distant butcherbird calls,
and filtered out most of the
aircraft noise that intrudes in one
part.” HT: Grey bb. Extracted.
Nothing useful.
Edited. Same as above. HT: A
few pbb contact calls, the final
one at 4:40 the most audible;
2:15 very distant pbb song.
Unedited. Same as above.
003-Beasley
07
04:44
003-Beasley
08
03:39
003-Beasley
09
05:17
003-Beasley
10
00:40
003-Beasley
11
01:20
003-Beasley
12
01:46
004-Crouch1
01
41:19
005-Curtis1
01
03:40
Toolburra, near
Warwick airstrip
QLD
09/09/01
05:24
Syd Curtis:
69 Miles
Street,
Hawthorne
QLD 4171
005-Curtis1
02
19:55
Toolburra, near
Warwick airstrip
QLD
09/09/01
05:24
Syd Curtis
005-Curtis1
03
19:54
Toolburra, near
09/09/01
Syd Curtis
219
CD ID
Track
Duration Location
Date
Time
Recordist
Notes
Syd Curtis
“Grey fantail.”
21/06/68
Syd Curtis
“On 06/21/68, I made my first
serious attempt at bird
recording—an Albert’s lyrebird,
the same individual I later studies
in depth. And in the picnic ground
a pair of pbb’s was giving fine
antiphonal duets. Because I
bought the reels of tape myself,
not the Department, and the
butcherbirds were just peripheral
to my main interest, I was
(unwisely) economizing in my use
of tape. Instead of letting the
record run, I was trying to record
just the duets. This seemed
possible, because the bird that
initiated each duet (I like to think
it was the male), always bowed to
his partner before singing the first
note. I may still have missed an
early note on some occasions.
So you don’t get a proper
recording, but you do get the
melody.”
“Same location as track 2, and I
fear I was still economizing on
tape-usage. Pity, for there are
some interesting duets. The
butcherbirds is the last item on
the tape, so for sure it was made
at the picnic area on my way out
after the early morning lyrebird
session.”
“Eight years later, and just 2 km
S of where Tracks 2 and 3 were
recorded. Again, my main interest
was a lyrebird, and this was just a
casual recording on my way back
out of the park. Not very good.”
“I recorded butcherbirds up the
ridge to the south of the camp in
1988. I was attending a meeting
of the Wildlife Preservation
Society, and the recording was
again just causal as I climbed the
ridge early morning to see what
was there. However, it is an
interesting recording, for at one
stage, one bird moves away and
doesn’t take part in the next
song. Then in the last duet,
because it is further away, its
notes are softer, so you can tell
which notes are sung by A and
which by B. (Don’t know which is
male and which female,
however.)”
“These are all parts of the same
Warwick airstrip
QLD
Tibrogargan
L.A.,
Beerburrum S.
Forest QLD
Knoll NP
(Tamborine
Mountain) QLD
05:24
006-Curtis2
01
00:46
006-Curtis2
02
01:14
006-Curtis2
03
01:26
Knoll NP
(Tamborine
Mountain) QLD
15/05/69
Syd Curtis
006-Curtis2
04
00:45
Witches’ Falls
NP (Tamborine
Mountain) QLD
04/07/77
Syd Curtis
006-Curtis2
05
03:34
Christmas
Creek flows out
of the SW part
of Lamington
NP. There is a
national fitness
camp/hostel a
few km
downstream
from the park
(about 30 km S
of Beaudesert
QLD).
01/10/88
Syd Curtis
006-Curtis2
06
00:57
Witches Falls
??/??/03
Syd Curtis
220
CD ID
Track
Duration Location
Date
Time
Recordist
NP (Tamborine
Mountain) QLD
006-Curtis2
07
00:21
Witches Falls
NP (Tamborine
Mountain) QLD
??/??/03
Syd Curtis
006-Curtis2
08
00:33
Witches Falls
NP (Tamborine
Mountain) QLD
??/??/03
Syd Curtis
006-Curtis2
09
00:40
??/??/03
Syd Curtis
006-Curtis2
10
00:37
Witches Falls
NP (Tamborine
Mountain) QLD
Witches Falls
NP (Tamborine
Mountain) QLD
??/??/03
Syd Curtis
006-Curtis2
11
07:44
Christmas
Creek QLD
02/10/88
Syd Curtis
006-Curtis2
12
01:42
Meunga near
Cardwell QLD
Syd Curtis
221
Notes
recording. I was on a steep
learning curve with a new mic—a
Rode NT4 stereo. (This is the
only stereo recording.) I hadn’t
appreciated how sensitive it is to
any air movement at all, even
with the foam cap on it. Some of
the recording was spoilt. I split it
up to exclude the affected parts
when I sent it to Vicki, and it’s
easier for me just to copy as is,
rather than start again. The
pleasant, if monotonous threenote call at the beginning is a
brown pigeon—now called brown
cuckoo-dove (terrible name)
Macropygia amboinensis. An
Albert’s lyrebird is heard
occasionally in the distance, e.g.
at 0:18-19. This was where
Messiaen was listening to one in
’88, and given that we know
‘George’ at O’Reilly’s is 30 years
old, it could even be the same
individual. The loud song 0:44-47
is a pied currawong Strepera
graculina.”
“I don’t know what species the
small parrots are 0:9-11, etc.—
little or musk lorikeets
Glossopsitta probably.”
“Here I had turned the mic
towards the butcherbirds, and
they are now central, whereas
they were in left-field in tracks 6
and 7.”
“The butcherbirds have moved
further away. Rainbow lorikeets
Trichoglossus haematodus fly
past 0:13-17.”
“I thought you might be interested
to hear other species of
butcherbird, and this gives you a
sample of the grey. The first part
of the recording is very poor, and
you may care to go straight to
05:15 where the butcherbirds are
in the foreground, instead of
being just part of a somewhat
distant mixture of species. Or
better still, start at 06:30 for a
reasonable recording of what I’m
confident are grey butcherbirds.
(If the pied is a flute, I reckon the
grey is a clarinet.) The five-note
melody at 01:24 is something I
sometimes hear from the local
butcherbirds when they visit our
garden.” HT: in timbre folder.
“Just to give you another species,
black butcherbird (quoyi), here’s
CD ID
Track
Duration Location
Date
Time
Recordist
006-Curtis2
13
00:57
Syd Curtis
006-Curtis2
14
01:42
Syd Curtis
006-Curtis2
15
01:24
Syd Curtis
006-Curtis2
006-Curtis2
007Fairbairn1
16
17
01
00:13
06:13
01:08
007Fairbairn1
007Fairbairn1
02
01:36
03
00:21
Syd Curtis
Syd Curtis
Stuart
Fairbairn:
145 Darling
Point Road,
Darling
Point NSW
2027
Stuart
Fairbairn
Stuart
Fairbairn
007Fairbairn1
04
01:06
008-
01
02:46
Capertee
Valley NSW
??/03/05
Capertee
Valley NSW
Birds Australia
Bird
Observatory,
Broome WA
West Wyalong
NSW
??/03/05
??/04/90
??/??/93
West Wyalong
Stuart
Fairbairn
Stuart
222
Notes
a brief recording from near
Cardwell. It was then the private
property of Arthur and Margaret
Thorsborne, but later they
donated the land to be added to
the Edmund Kennedy NP. Arthur
died some years ago; Margaret
still lives there. The Slater Field
Guide says of this species, ‘Voice
melodious and flute-like; less
sustained than other
butcherbirds.’ Judging by this (my
only experience of the species)
very much less sustained. And
again, I reckon more clarinet than
flute. It’s interesting that the
yellow oriole frequenting the
same area has much the same
voice quality. I’ve added two
oriole calls at the end of the track
for ease of identification, but
there’s oriole at the beginning too
where I included some of the
recording leading up to the
butcherbird. The somewhat
plaintive whistled tune at the
beginning (immediately after the
first oriole call) is a grey whistler
Pachycepala simplex. It was a
particular favourite of Arthur’s.
The more cheerful song, 0:14-16,
leading into grey whistler, is a
little shrike-thrush Colluricinla
megarhyncha. (Track 17, the
grey shrike-thrush, is a particular
favourite of mine.)” HT: in timbre
folder.
“Albert’s lyrebird gronking song
rhythms.”
“Albert’s lyrebird variations on an
original air for unaccompanied
syrinx.”
“The Dorrigo ‘flute-playing’
lyrebird.”
“Grey fantail again.”
“Grey shrike-thrush.”
“There were four birds in the
group, I guess a family party. I
have enclosed two sonagrams of
their calls.”
Same as Track 1.
“Dawn chorus. The mosquitoes
were bad! The singer was on the
very top of a pine tree. The
recording was made at first light.”
“Purr or rattle. The rattle comes
CD ID
Track
Duration Location
Fairbairn2
Date
Time
NSW
Recordist
Notes
Fairbairn
after the main call instead of in
front as in the Capertee Valley
calls.”
* “This recording is not a
continuous copy as frequent
pauses in the song were omitted.
The time of day was not
recorded. Occasional duetting
was noticed.”
* “Referring to my equipment
used for the recordings, its all
very old now but was top quality
available at the time, and which I
often still use. For the No.1 and
No.3 recordings I used a JVC
Portable Cassette Deck K.D.1635
Mark 111 recorder purchased in
1980, and for the No.2. and No.4
recordings the Sony Cassette
TC152SD recorder purchased in
1975 was used. In all four
recordings, the microphone used
was the Sennheiser MKE 88
(termed a shotgun type because
of its shape and length) and
between the microphone and the
recorder, I connect a simple
microphone pre-amplifier to
increase the sound as
appropriate. It is a Rapar MP200
microphone acquired 20-4-1976.”
* “Further to the mention of pbb
antiphonal singing, I notice that in
the B.O.C.A Field Guide to
Australian Birdsong Cassette 12,
there is an eleven second
recording which Norman
Robinson claims is antiphonal. I
thought that antiphonal song was
when the male makes a call and
the female immediately answers
with a different call, such as the
whipbird and a magpie lark call.
Am I wrong?”
009-Flentje
01A
20:28
(01A –
D):
02:38
“Green Lake
Reserve VIC is
11 km due S. of
Sea Lake town
on the main
road to Birchip,
and you turn in
to the west at
the sign on the
road. Since the
few years of
drought the
lake may be
empty and
could have
affected the
bird-life. When
the time comes
in spring, a
possible
reliable contact
for the
whereabouts of
a pbb further
north in Victoria
could be the
Rev. C. F.
Coleborn of 91
Moffats Road,
Burkes Bridge
VIC. Phone:
0354567700.
He's an expert
bird observer
and knows the
bird life around
the Cohuna
area of the
Murray River.”
24/10/82
Bill Flentje:
15 Pilcher
Street,
Bendigo
VIC 3550
009-Flentje
01B
04:11
Green Lake
Reserve
locality, S of
Sea Lake VIC
25/10/82
Bill Flentje
009-Flentje
01C
07:25
Green Lake
Reserve
locality, S of
Sea Lake VIC
07/10/84
05:30
Bill Flentje
223
“This was the day after the
previous recording for
comparison to see if there was
any change in the performance.
Other birds, white-plumed
honeyeaters, striped
honeyeaters, galahs, peaceful
dove, and crested pigeon,
caused interference. Again there
were continual pauses, which I
reduced on the copy; otherwise
the performance lasted a little
longer than the time on the tape.
Some duetting noticeable.”
“From 05:30 dawn, the recording
and the copy are a continuous
recording of the actual
performance. Other birds calling
CD ID
Track
Duration Location
009-Flentje
01D
010-Curtis3
01
13:36
010-Curtis3
02
03:10
010-Curtis3
03
03:50
Date
Time
Recordist
Green Lake
Reserve
locality, S of
Sea Lake VIC
18/10/97
05:15
Bill Flentje
Tall hoop pine
at 90 Virginia
Avenue at the
junction of
Aaron Avenue,
Hawthorne
(Brisbane)
QLD; later
power lines
about 70m E on
Virginia Avenue
Gum tree near
the junction of
Pashen
Street/Riding
Road (a major
access route—
much traffic
even on a
Sunday
morning),
Hawthorne
QLD—the two
sites are 800m
apart
Tall hoop pine
at 90 Virginia
Avenue/junctio
n Aaron
Avenue,
Hawthorne
(Brisbane)
QLD; later
power lines
about 70m E on
Virginia Avenue
07/08/05
06:2006:40
Syd Curtis
31/07/05
06:30
Syd Curtis
07/08/05
06:2006:40
Syd Curtis
224
Notes
were again white-plumed
honeyeaters, striped
honeyeaters, spiny-cheeked
honeyeaters, little friarbird,
seagull. Some distant duetting.”
“Recording was made at the
same location at Green Lake and
beginning at 05:15 a.m., thirteen
years after the previous
recording. (Impossible to say
whether it was the same birds
performing.) Again, the
performance and the recording
and the copy are continuous.
Some duets with the other
partner some distance away on
the nest are evident. Other birds
are not conspicuous. The
performance lasts about 05:40.
Some phrases used in the 1984
(Tr. 01C) performance are
absent. I haven’t been aware of
any antiphonal calling of pbb’s.”
“I have no way of knowing if it
was the same pair of birds.”
“Three birds calling. Telinga Pro5 ‘Classic’ mono mic and
reflector; Tascam DA-Pa DAT
recorder. There is a passive bass
filter in the mic. The recording
was made with filtered and
unfiltered to separate channels.
(The bass filter of the handle of
the Telinga does not work.) Raw
recording; Track 3 is edited
version.”
“Pair of pbb’s. Birds flew, and I
couldn’t find them again. Tascam
and Telinga; filtered track copied
to make mono file.”
“Three birds calling. Telinga Pro5 ‘Classic’ mono mic and
reflector; Tascam DA-Pa DAT
recorder. There is a passive bass
filter in the mic. The recording
was made with filtered and
unfiltered to separate channels.
(The bass filter of the handle of
the Telinga does not work.)
Edited version. The recording
from the filtered channel was
copied to a mono Peak AIFF file
in a Mac G3, and non-pbb
sections deleted as follows:
CD ID
Track
Duration Location
Date
Time
Recordist
Notes
00:00-03:33; 04:28-05:00; 05:0805:58; 07:07-08:25; 08:35-09:45;
10:00-11:03; 12:06 to end. Two
seconds silence inserted to mark
deletions. Waves VST telephone
filter applied; bands 5-10
disabled; 1-5 lined and 1 set to
500Hz. Recording from power
lines commences at 02:47 in
edited copy. One note badly
clipped in first song.”
Gloria Glass notes:
* “29 May 2006: Dear Hollis, I believed each year that it was just one bird that year that was
singing the song. I also wondered whether it was the same bird from year to year, that ‘he’ was
the alpha male in the area with rights to sing what I considered the alpha male’s pre-dawn spring
song. One year, near the end, perhaps 2-3 years ago, ‘he’ had what I considered a usurper who
was copying and shadowing his song, perhaps another who was hoping to take over when the
alpha male dropped dead. There was certainly a mimicking of the song, which you would be able
to find, and the second bird was further away from our house. All this is just supposition, of
course, on my part. I think in my Sunbird article I gave times that the bird sang. If I didn’t, I can
certainly state that the song usually continued for about 30 minutes and always ended before
‘dawn’ had arrived. I have made my own reckoning of ‘dawn’ as when there is enough light to
read by outside the house in the open air. I think I tried to find a definition of dawn, but whatever it
was, it was as imprecise as mine.”
* “1 November 2005: Dear Hollis, I didn’t answer your previous question about pbb’s’ best call
times. Really, I’m not good at times and seasons! I did put a bit in my 1996 booklet Traveller’s
Guide to Rosalie Shire: ‘If you see one of these birds first bowing its head, then lifting its hooked
bill as if making a Shakespearian oration, then bowing again – stop to listen, for it is singing, and
its flute-like calls are a delight.’ I’ve tried to note the time of day that I hear our birds at their best,
since you asked. Maybe midday so far, but they don’t seem to call a lot lately. I do remember 3045 minute concerts in mid-summer, but that includes much mimicking of other birds too. My predawn bird is still calling occasionally, now three plus two notes, then repeated and repeated, but
still too far away for recording.”
* “13 August 2005: Dear Hollis, Yes, I’ve written out a lot on the first two cassettes. That was
when I though a musician friend of mine was going to write the ‘music’ notes for me. He didn’t.
Maybe he couldn’t as he later let slip that he didn’t have perfect pitch. (You will have a laugh,
because I am no musician.) Anyway, I see (i.e. heard) that I have put voice-over as an
introduction for a few, but some have nothing at all. Perhaps you should take notes of what I say,
plus what is written on the cassette covers etc. I thought the timing important. That the calls were
usually for 20-30 minutes and finished just before ‘dawn’ which I decided as when there was
enough light to read by. How did ‘he’ know when it was 30 minutes before dawn to start calling?”
* “July 20, 2005: Dear Hollis, I’ve got out two pbb tapes from 1999. These may be the latest, as I
think ‘my’ bird has gone, maybe died. (No, I found some for 2001 also.) I guess I sort of want to
listen to them when I get really old, something lovely to listen to in my nursing home! These last
ones are not as good as I remember the earlier ones. There was one year, maybe more, where
the bird had half a dozen phrases that he put together in random order. These two I’m sending
have other birdcalls on them. Do you know the calls of the spiny-cheeked and striped
honeyeaters? There are also magpies, many superb fairy-wrens & willies, crows, etc, plus many
cars going along the road, and a few dog calls and – calves! We used to have a breeding herd
until we got too old. 1999 – I thought they were sold before that, but here are some calves
calling!”
* 1. Did you record from the same house/place every year? “8 June 2007: Yes, from the same
house at what is now 9 Magpie Lane, Gowrie Junction 4352, 10 km NW of Toowoomba [as
Crows fly], though from two different places in the house. The early tapes were recorded from the
southern side and the later ones from the western side. I would have the tape recorder set up by
my bed and just reach out and press the Play button when the singing started before dawn. Then
I’d hope our dogs would continue to sleep on as well as the others [two women] in the house. The
singing bird was generally 5 to 20 metres distant, except in I think the last recordings when the
distance was much greater.”
* 2. Would you have had significantly different recording positions to take in another territory? “8
June 2007: I never considered recording anywhere else due to the problems of finding another
singing bird, getting into position in the cold of early Spring without disturbing him [I always
thought ‘him’] and general laziness/having to get ready for the farming day, etc.
* 3. What was the basic address of the recording? *8 June 2007: As above. I ‘board’ with a
225
CD ID
Track
011GG99.1A
01
012GG99.1B
01
013GG99.2A/B
01
013GG99.2A/B
02
014GG99.3A
01
015GG99.4A
01
Duration Location
Date
Time
Recordist
Notes
mother and daughter farming family, since 1986, and we actively operated a breeding herd of
Murray Greys along with growing lucerne and other fodder crops. It did not make a lot of money,
and eventually the daughter took more and more work at the local university, did an MPhil, then a
PhD, tutored, lectured, wrote textbooks, developed new courses, and eventually became head of
research in one section. She retired just last year. With Diana working at the uni, they eventually
sold the herd and gradually we converted the lucerne paddocks to forestry plots. These are now
10+ years old and jokingly we hope to get our gold-plated coffins from them! Otherwise they may
perhaps be sold for poles or millable timber in 30 years! I’m now 74 years old and getting to be a
bit of a crock, and Diana’s mother’s 93 and now has dementia, so we’re a fine old lot! What might
be significant is the locality. The house is on a hundred-acre somewhat wooded block [and now
unstocked, ‘Land for Wildlife’] sloping up behind the house and over the hill and down to a road
on the other side. The 50 acres of lucerne-forestry blocks are across the road and lead down to
Gowrie Creek. The changes in the last 20 years are two-way: more houses on one-acre blocks,
so more people, cars, dogs etc, but also more trees which have been planted on the formerly
bare paddocks. I still record 40-50 species of birds each week as I have done over the period.
The Pied BBs are still here but, as I’ve told you, no one does a pre-dawn Spring call any more.
Just recently, there has begun a burst in development with many more houses being built, though
still on one-acre blocks generally. And we still have the creek flowing [from Toowoomba’s effluent]
and housing not allowed along the creek blocks except for one per title deed. We have perhaps
seven species of mammals, wallabies the most visible.”
HT: The following Gloria Glass CDs, mostly of poor quality, are also backed up on three DVDs.
47:20
9 Magpie Lane, 18/08/99
Gloria
19991A “Wednesday, 18th
Gowrie
06:10
Glass: 9
August, 1999, I started about
Junction QLD
begins
Magpie
6:10 a.m. after the pbb had been
4352
Lane,
going for quite some time. [At
Gowrie
9:00 in:] ‘That’s the end of that
Junction
not very good one the first
QLD 4352
morning.
07 4630
01A: August 18, 1999
7381
01B: “August 19, 1999 5:40 a.m.
to well after 06:00, but I cut off
the end because he seemed to
have lost the plot.”
01C: “August 21, 1999, he
started about 05:25, it’s now
05:32, nothing terribly exciting.
[End announce:} “06:02, tape ran
out, it’s light enough to see
outside, even to write.”
47:49
9 Magpie Lane, ??/08/99
Gloria
19991B 01A: “It seems just
Gowrie
Glass
magpies this morning. I think the
Junction QLD
butcherbirds are a bit far away.”
4352
HT: Magpies, then pbb’s but too
distant to bother with.
01B [08:09 in]: August 26, about
05:45, he’s been going for a few
minutes now. [10:24 in] “He’s
moved to the other side of the
house, so I’ll try again.”
31:42
Gloria
19992A “Second tape from 1999.
Gowrie
Glass
Junction QLD
4352
15:26
Gloria
19992B HT: fair quality, tape
Gowrie
Glass
noise.
Junction QLD
4352
36:19
Gloria
19993A
Gowrie
Glass
Junction QLD
4352
68:29
Gloria
19994A
Gowrie
Glass
Junction QLD
226
CD ID
Track
Duration Location
016GG99.4B
01
56:07
017GG99.5A/B
01
31:17
017GG99.5A/B
02
31:19
018GG99.6A
01
46:49
019GG99.6B
01
46:59
020GG99.7A
01
46:52
021GG99.7B
01
46:59
022GG99.8A
01
46:44
023GG99.8B
01
46:44
024GG99.9A
01
46:33
025GG99.9B
01
46:36
4352
9 Magpie Lane,
Gowrie
Junction QLD
4352
9 Magpie Lane,
Gowrie
Junction QLD
4352
9 Magpie Lane,
Gowrie
Junction QLD
4352
9 Magpie Lane,
Gowrie
Junction QLD
4352
9 Magpie Lane,
Gowrie
Junction QLD
4352
9 Magpie Lane,
Gowrie
Junction QLD
4352
9 Magpie Lane,
Gowrie
Junction QLD
4352
9 Magpie Lane,
Gowrie
Junction QLD
4352
9 Magpie Lane,
Gowrie
Junction QLD
4352
9 Magpie Lane,
Gowrie
Junction QLD
4352
9 Magpie Lane,
Gowrie
Junction QLD
Date
Time
Recordist
Notes
10/09/99
Gloria
Glass
19994B
??/09/99
Gloria
Glass
19995A
To
23/09/99
Gloria
Glass
19995B
24/09/99 1/10/99
Gloria
Glass
19996A
To
01/10/99
Gloria
Glass
From
03/10/99
Gloria
Glass
19996B “With juvenile usurper
and dominant singer on 30/9/99
and maybe other days. This 1999
song has about 6 phrases, sung
in different order, the main one of
two notes, the second note a
semitone lower than the first.
Quite different call from in
previous years. Bird began this
spring song mid-August 1999."
19997A
To
09/19/99
“Some
other
early
morning
calls”
10/10/99
Gloria
Glass
19997B “08/10/99 (447-519 on
CS), two birds for part of that;
09/10/99, two birds near the end”
Gloria
Glass
19998A
10/10/99
–
16/10/99
Gloria
Glass
17/10/99
–
23/10/99
Gloria
Glass
19998B “12/10/99 began 04:36
am, stopped 05:05, sun reached
house 05:45. 13/10/99 similar.
14/10 two phrases 05:20 but that
was all (raining from 03:30).
15/10 04:49 hesitant start, then
better; 04:55 second bird comes
in; 05:08 tape turned off: birds
calling at some distance; official
sunrise 05:17. 16/10 04:40 about
5:00 of singing, but tape ran out,
second bird came in at 04:54.”
“On 18/10/99 bird called from
about 04:30 to about 05:00.
Sunrise about 05:20.”
17/10/99
–
23/10/99
Gloria
Glass
227
“Last on tape 23/10/99 (called
04:35 – 04:55, but tape ran out,
and bird calling too, but doesn’t
CD ID
Track
Duration Location
Date
Time
Recordist
4352
Notes
reach some high notes, or else
doesn’t finish phrases.”
“4 August 2005: I’m sending off
another batch of tapes. There are
eight altogether.
* 1992 TWO TAPES The first
one seems to have been a music
tape that I’d had from my
husband, as there are some
songs on the end. I guess I just
recorded over the top of the
music! On both sides there is
music at the end. Sorry. The
second tape was better. But in all
of them there are motor vehicle
noises from time to time too.
“Slow start. Side A recorded on
Marantz machine, magpie and
wrens, pbb very good, two
phrases, then faint magpies.”
“1992 Side B more pbb,
kookaburra.”
“1991 you will probably find
disappointing. There are a lot of
other calls on the tape too,
including cows! But at least I did
type out what was on it. There
seems to be nothing on Side B.”
“Grey bb, pbb, and willy wagtail;
Toowomba; special pre-dawn
spring call.”
026GG92.1A
01
30:28
9 Magpie Lane,
Gowrie
Junction QLD
4352
From
06/09/92
Gloria
Glass
027GG92.1B/91
01
14:23
9 Magpie Lane,
Gowrie
Junction QLD
4352
From
06/09/92
Gloria
Glass
027GG92.1B/91
02
09:18
??/??/91
Gloria
Glass
028GG92.2A/B
01
29:19
??/??/92
Gloria
Glass
“Spring pbb. Side A has some
good calls, two phrases at least;
magpies.”
028GG92.2A/B
02
31:24
??/??/92
Gloria
Glass
“Side B ok at beginning, then
distant. Good superb fairy wren;
more another day later.”
029GG94.A/B
01
18:40
9 Magpie Lane,
Gowrie
Junction QLD
4352
9 Magpie Lane,
Gowrie
Junction QLD
4352
9 Magpie Lane,
Gowrie
Junction QLD
4352
9 Magpie Lane,
Gowrie
Junction QLD
4352
31/08/94
Gloria
Glass
“1994 TWO TAPES The August
one has more PBB calls and I
see I had a shot at trying to
indicate the notes. The
September one seems to have
mostly other birds with just a few
pbb calls. (Again, the September
tape seems to have been preloved, as at the end you get a
bonus of Glor’s conversation with
Fred Mathieson. That was in
1994 when I was editing his life
story. Because it was difficult to
have a conversation with him, I
always ran the tape recorder so I
had a record of what he said and
could write it in after he left. Little
did I know that that was the first
of my historical works, and now 4
books and 1 CD later … well, I’m
getting into my dotage now.)”
228
CD ID
Track
Duration Location
Date
Time
Recordist
Notes
“Side A 31/08/94 05:30-05:45
five-note (high high) medium (low
low) interspersed with H H L M H;
then flew to distant tree and
continued. Brown honeyeater in
background at end.”
“01/09/94, also ‘Beethoven’ calls.
Side B 1/9/94 nearly thirty
minutes 05:30 – 06:00. Pbb
begins after five minutes or so,
good for about ten minutes.
Brown honeyeater in background.
Another bird with ‘Beethoven’
calls; first bird is still calling in
background.”
“1998 THREE TAPES Tape 1 is
running too fast in my ordinary
bedroom tape player. But when I
put it in the Marantz that I
recorded it in, I found the speed
OK, so I hope you can use it.
Tape 2 also seemed too fast in
my bedroom player, but I see I
have written on it that there is
some good stuff. No.3 tape is
running in the player now and it
seems OK.”
“August 20, 21, 22, and 23.” HT:
August 20 ends at 10’47.3. At
11’31.6, GG announces, “It’s
August 21, cloudy, windy, and a
little bit of rain.”
“August 1998.”
029GG94.A/B
02
26:52
9 Magpie Lane,
Gowrie
Junction QLD
4352
01/09/94
Gloria
Glass
030GG98.1A
01
62:22
9 Magpie Lane,
Gowrie
Junction QLD
4352
20/08/98
–
23/08/98
Gloria
Glass
031GG98.1B
01
62:22
??/??/98
Gloria
Glass
032GG98.2A
01
60:24
09/29/98
–
01/10/98
Gloria
Glass
“Good three days.”
033GG98.2B
01
62:21
02/10/98
–
13/10/98
Gloria
Glass
“Very good last day.”
034GG98.3A1
01
69:45
15/10/98
–
19/10/98
Gloria
Glass
“Whole CS covers 15/10/98 –
12/11/98.”
035GG98.3A2
01
25:36
15/10/98
–
19/10/98
Gloria
Glass
036GG98.3B
01
72:46
??/??/98
Gloria
Glass
“12/11/98. Last call ordinary.”
037GG01/G/FG
01
44:07
??/09/01
Gloria
Glass
“September dawn song.”
037-
02
01:12
9 Magpie Lane,
Gowrie
Junction QLD
4352
9 Magpie Lane,
Gowrie
Junction QLD
4352
9 Magpie Lane,
Gowrie
Junction QLD
4352
9 Magpie Lane,
Gowrie
Junction QLD
4352
9 Magpie Lane,
Gowrie
Junction QLD
4352
9 Magpie Lane,
Gowrie
Junction QLD
4352
9 Magpie Lane,
Gowrie
Junction QLD
4352
"The kindness
Unknown
Len Gillard:
From Bird Calls of Eastern
229
CD ID
Track
Duration Location
GG01/G/FG
037GG01/G/FG
Date
Time
and hospitality
of many
friends,
especially the
Allinghams of
Kangaroo Hills,
in making my
wife and myself
welcome on
their properties
where many of
these
recordings
were made, is
sincerely
appreciated."
03
Maclean NSW
??/08/72
Lightning Ridge
NSW
Wattemore
Creek WA
Swan Vale
NSW
??/04/81
9 Magpie Lane,
Gowrie
Junction QLD
4352
02/10/02
:11
03B
:31
03C
:12
03D
:08
01
Notes
P.O. Box
108
Prospect
TAS 7250
Australia by Len Gillard
(cassette), 1988, Gillard Bird
Cassettes.
01:19
(03A –
D)
03A
038-GG02.1
Recordist
61:28
Norman
Robinson
Simon
Bennett
HT: From A Field Guide to
Australian Birdsong, Cassette 12:
Crimson Chat to Torresian Crow,
1999, Bird Observers Club of
Australia, P.O. Boxes 185,
Nunawading VIC 3131.
“Male and female antiphonal
song.”
Rex
Buckingha
m
John
Courtney
“Short spaced song phrases; two
birds present, intervals between
calls reduced to a quarter.”
“Soft calls from a bird sitting on
its nest.”
??/08/87
??/10/67
230
Gloria
Glass
“Food-begging calls of nestling.”
“Calls began, as in every other
year, in August. Only in October
did he come close enough to the
house, but even then was
generally not very close.”
“21 September 2005: I’ve found
another four tapes. These are
from 2002. I think there are some
calls that are different from those
in other years. Also, this morning
(Sunday), I was awakened at
5.22 am by a pbb calling: a totally
new song, just of four quick notes
followed by one note higher by a
third or a fourth, then a pause
and repeat. He kept it up until
5.32 or so, then moved away a
bit, though I could still hear him
faintly. I’ve now unearthed the
tape recorder and got it ready to
record him tomorrow morning. It
was while doing that that I found
these other 2002 tapes. PS It’s
now Monday and, although I
could hear the pbb calling the
2005 message, he wasn’t close
enough for me to record him.
Same for Tuesday.”
“This side and another ten
CD ID
Track
Duration Location
039-GG02.2
01
62:03
040GG02.3A
01
45:54
041GG02.3B
01
43:27
042-GG02.4
01
47:13
043-Griffin
9 Magpie Lane,
Gowrie
Junction QLD
4352
9 Magpie Lane,
Gowrie
Junction QLD
4352
9 Magpie Lane,
Gowrie
Junction QLD
4352
Date
Time
Recordist
Notes
??/10/02
–
06/10/02
Gloria
Glass
minutes on the one day.”
“Pre-dawn spring song; B to
06/10, half of 06/10 on next tape.”
06/10/02 ?
Gloria
Glass
“Second half of 06/10 pre-dawn
spring call.”
16/10/02
& 17/10
04:35 –
04:55
daily
??/10/02
Gloria
Glass
“B side.”
9 Magpie Lane,
Gloria
“End of CS: twenty minutes of
Gowrie
Glass
21/10, 04:22 - 04:57, just light
Junction QLD
enough then for me to read; B
4352
pre-dawn spring calls October.”
Notes from Andrée Griffin:
“2.7.05 Dear Hollis, Herewith my reel of pied butcherbird calls. I have separated the recordings with
coloured tape to make it easier to sort them out. I hope they will be some help. Please return them when
you have finished with them. Sincerely, Andrée Griffin”
Notes from Syd Curtis:
“Track 1 is as it went into the computer. Mostly very soft – even with the gain set to maximum with Peak
when copying, but it may be the best if you intend to manipulate it with a computer yourself. I then did
two things: first, I went through and increased the gain for each recording. Details below. Saved the
result, which is Track 3 on the CD. Secondly, I applied the Waves ‘Telephone’ filter straight through to
reduce the low frequency noise. It is Track 2. I haven’t listened to it, but it should give you a clearer idea
of what you’ve got, and then you can work on Track 1 as you wish. For the record, I set the Telephone
filter with bands 6-10 disabled; 1-5 linked and 1 set at 557hz – effectively a bass cut removing
frequencies below 550.”
01A
11:14
Kakadu NP,
18/09/81
Andrée
HT: 12 cassette tracks without
(01A –
Nourlangie
05:00 –
Griffin:
CD marks. “Predawn calls.”
L)
Rock area, NT
05:30
4 Smith
SC on CD time and gain in dB:
Crescent,
00:00 - 01:43
15
Paluma
QLD 4816
01B
Between
16/12/87
Andrée
“Dawn calls.”
Southern Cross 05:50
Griffin
and Coolgardie
01:51 – 02:32
12
WA
01C
No. 8 Tailuigs
15/06/77
Andrée
“Short calls by two birds flying
Dam, Mt. Isa
18:30
Griffin
over.”
QLD
02:39 – 02:53
12
01D
Croyden N
18/04/76
Andrée
QLD
07:30 Griffin
02:57 – 04:06
10
08:00
01E
Gilbert River N
18/04/76
Andrée
QLD
13:30
Griffin
04:11 – 05:24
8
01F
Gilbert River N
QLD
30/04/70
06:45
Andrée
Griffin
05:30 – 06:15
4
01G
Fanning River
N QLD
(between
Townsville and
Charters
Towers)
Bowen N QLD
24/05/73
08:30
Andrée
Griffin
“Short.”
06:20 – 06:32
15
08/05/73
Andrée
“Early morning calls.”
01H
231
CD ID
Track
Duration Location
01I
Kallimina Falls,
Hamersley NP
WA
Jerona (a
property
between
Townsville &
Ayr) QLD
Townsville
Town Common
QLD
Townsville
Town Common
QLD
01J
01K
01L
Date
Time
Recordist
Notes
06:30
Griffin
28/09/73
05:30
Andrée
Griffin
16/10/71
05:05;
05:30/6:0
0
Andrée
Griffin
06:38 – 07:18
20
“Three calls in gorge.”
07:23 – 07:38
14
07:43 – 07:59
3
21/02/70
06:30
Andrée
Griffin
08:04 – 09:42
4
12/04/70
08:00
Andrée
Griffin
“Duet with magpie and peaceful
dove and brolgas and ?others.”
09:48 – 09:56
12
Extra:
10:00 – 11:14
8
HT: same tracks on 01, edited by
Syd Curtis.
HT: same tracks on 01, edited by
Syd Curtis.
“Pbb’s are playful birds; I’ve seen
the young ones play tug-of-war
with a stick. Their song is
measured and stately as
opposed to the grey bb whose
song is rollicking. The story goes
that a pbb had copied a
postman’s whistle; several
generations alter a young bird
had a whistle in its repertoire,
although the whistle no longer
was used and he had never
heard it. When it’s raining, they
practice subsong. A pbb could
have as much as a 25-hectare
range.”
“Subsong and some mimicking.”
043-Griffin
02
11:07
043-Griffin
03
11:05
044-Horton
01
00:07
Mount Isa QLD
??/04/84
044-Horton
02
01:14
SE QLD coast
??/??/84
044-Horton
03
00:22
??/09/84
044-Horton
04
01:04
Kennilworth,
100 km from
Brisbane QLD
Kimberley WA
044-Horton
05
01:14
044-Horton
06
00:24
044-Horton
07
00:42
044-Horton
08
04:46
Diura, Brisbane
(Mt. Nebo
Road, Jolly’s
Lookout) QLD
Diura, Brisbane
(Mt. Nebo
Road, Jolly’s
Lookout) QLD
Diura, Brisbane
(Mt. Nebo
Road, Jolly’s
Lookout) QLD
Diura, Brisbane
(Mt. Nebo
Andrée
Griffin
Andrée
Griffin
Helen
Horton:
246
Kirralee
Crescent,
Upper
Kedron
QLD 4055
07 3351
8510
Helen
Horton
Helen
Horton
“Good.”
??/07/85
Midmorning
??/10/85
Helen
Horton
“Good.”
Helen
Horton
“Duet, good. One does one part
only; other does only other.”
??/10/89
Helen
Horton
“Mimicking noisy pitta.”
??/??/91
Helen
Horton
“Male courting and displaying to
female.”
??/??/89
Helen
Horton
“Includes duet; long and good.”
232
CD ID
Track
Duration Location
044-Horton
09
02:20
044-Horton
10
02:11
044-Horton
11
00:53
044-Horton
12
02:23
044-Horton
13
01:12
044-Horton
14
00:08
044-Horton
15
01:48
044-Horton
16
00:43
044-Horton
17
03:26
044-Horton
18
01:20
044-Horton
19
00:48
045Hutchinson1
Road, Jolly’s
Lookout) QLD
Diura, Brisbane
(Mt. Nebo
Road, Jolly’s
Lookout) QLD
Diura, Brisbane
(Mt. Nebo
Road, Jolly’s
Lookout) QLD
Diura, Brisbane
(Mt. Nebo
Road, Jolly’s
Lookout) QLD
Milroy SW QLD
Diura, Brisbane
(Mt. Nebo
Road, Jolly’s
Lookout) QLD
Diura, Brisbane
(Mt. Nebo
Road, Jolly’s
Lookout) QLD
Diura, Brisbane
(Mt. Nebo
Road, Jolly’s
Lookout) QLD
Diura, Brisbane
(Mt. Nebo
Road, Jolly’s
Lookout) QLD
Upper Kedron,
Brisbane QLD
Upper Kedron,
Brisbane QLD
Date
Time
Recordist
Notes
??/09/96
Dawn
Helen
Horton
“Many birds background (spinycheeked honeyeater, etc.”
??/??/00
Helen
Horton
??/08/00
Helen
Horton
“Family group feeding and
working out dominance. The
young ones still in the family
group stopped and cowered and
moved back as he asserted his
authority; he did it over and over
while the others were couched
down.”
“Subsong in rain.”
??/09/00
Dawn
??/??/99
Helen
Horton
Helen
Horton
“Brolgas; good.”
??/??/99
Helen
Horton
“Dominance call – single bird—
male or female? Fluffed itself up.”
??/10/00
Helen
Horton
“Mimicking boobook, magpie,
peaceful dove, currawong, etc.”
??/01/01
Helen
Horton
“Mimicking.”
??/08 (or
09)/03
Pre-dawn
??/08(or
10)/03
Pre-dawn
??/08 (or
09)/03
Helen
Horton
“Kookaburra at end.” HT: At the
house I visited.
Helen
Horton
“Pre-dawn.”
“Subsong in rain.”
Upper Kedron,
Helen
“Extract of 17.”
Brisbane QLD
Horton
Notes from John Hutchinson:
“2 October 05, Dear Hollis, Thank you for your compliments of Save That Song. The Contact Call to me
is a call made by birds on the move and changing position, typically a situation applicable to a group
while feeding. They remain in the same general area but cannot see each other. Examples are the New
Holland and white-plumed honeyeater. A call which may be called an Advertising Call is made when a
bird announces its whereabouts, not when it is on the move but when stationary, i.e. when perching.
This is a three-note call in the case of the pbb, and is demonstrated on my DVD. A three-note call isi
also given when leaving a perch and flying to another. Again, this is an Advertising Call in that it
announces an activity, but it is not intended for keeping contact. The pbb calls are so loud and farreaching that they give direction and distance information rather than close contact information. The
calls, of course, give additional information and probably a lot of it. I am leaving tomorrow on a trip as far
as Brisbane (my sister-in-law June, 07 3269 7792). I suggest you ring me 04 0290 2330, and if I am not
in a receiving area you could leave a message, and I could post a DVD when I reach a post office.
Wishing you continued progress with your pbb studies. Sincerely, John”
12
02:24
Roebuck
13/07/86
John N.
From Australian Bird Calls—
Plains, Broome, 06:23
Hutchinson Series 5: Dawn Chorus: Dawn
W. Kimberley
: 7 Lorna
Choruses around Australia by
233
CD ID
Track
Duration Location
Date
Time
WA
Recordist
Notes
Street,
Dunsborou
gh WA
6281
John N. Hutchinson (CD and
cassette).
“60°F, 16°C. Nil wind. Altocumulus cloud. Cadjiput thickets
interspersed with open grassed
areas. Permanently moist and
green. Undisturbed, natural
habitat. Sub-tropical. Brown
honeyeater, reed warbler, pbb,
willy wagtail.”
“64°F, 18°C. Nil wind. Stratocumulus cloud. Heathland with
scattered trees and shrubs.
Hakeas, gums, banksias,
flowering blackboys. Crow,
pheasant coucal, willy wagtail,
pbb, scaly-breasted lorikeet,
brown honeyeater.”
“58°F, 14°C. Slight wind. Light
fog. Noosa sandplain. Heavy
dew. Birds called from distant
treeline across heathland.
Ground parrot stronghold.”
From Bird Song: The Australian
Bush in Sound and Motion by
John N. Hutchinson (DVD), 2005.
045Hutchinson1
21
02:28
Cooloola NP
QLD
30/09/81
06:45
John N.
Hutchinson
045Hutchinson1
22
01:39
Cooloola NP
QLD
26/09/81
05:00
John N.
Hutchinson
046Hutchinson2
DVD
Unknown
Unknown
John N.
(no
Hutchinson
menu
)
Mutawinji recorded by David Lumsdaine, 1996, Tall Poppies (TP 091) 1. “Pied Butcherbirds of Spirey
Creek”
* “My soundscapes are studies in rhythm, harmony and texture in the sounds of the natural world. To
use Lévi-Strauss's convenient distinction, their essential stuff is raw as opposed to the cooked stuff
which we usually call music. But to speak of anything as "a piece of music" is to indulge in a convenient
fiction. Music is not a score on a library shelf, it's not the sound produced by a piano or an orchestra or a
computer. Music is an activity, a particularly creative way of listening. The words "composer",
"performer", ‘audience’ enable us to distinguish different roles or perspectives within the context of this
activity, but they must never distract us from the essentially creative contribution of each participant. For
me, composing is usually the notation on paper of a listening which goes on ‘inside’ my head. By
contrast, these soundscapes are recordings of a very active listening which, we may say, has gone on
‘outside’ my head. In the making and editing of these recordings I'm organising my listening; that's to
say, I'm composing it. The techniques I've used for recording the material in these soundscapes differ
somewhat to those used in making specimen recordings of individual species. Rather than recording
foreground solos, I have tried to capture solos and groups of solos in the context of their community,
and to explore the perspectives of the sound stage from the closest to the most distant events.
* “In composing the soundscapes I’ve tried to create the least distortion, in time and space, of the
original events in order to retain the integrity of each locality. I’ve also tried to retain a sense of the
rhythm of the original scene. Temporal condensation of the material has been made as tactfully as
possible, the longest sequences representing those periods of the greatest sonic activity.
Inconspicuous edits are used for minor condensation of the material, but hard edits are used to mark
changes of perspective and larger changes of time. (There is no mixing of events recorded at different
times in order to make a passage 'more interesting.') Most importantly: for environmental and musical
reasons, I try to create a minimal disturbance in the field. Still, however much tact and cunning I may
use, I'm inescapably a participant in the field of action I'm observing. Equally, I can't avoid shaping what
I hear. The microphones were directed by one pair of ears, and no other pair of ears would have heard
these sounds in the same way.
* “East and West Spirey Creeks rise high in the south-east of the Warrumbungle mountains and meet
to create an open valley. This valley is the home of the Pied Butcherbirds who were recorded between
the 15th and 17th of September, 1983.
* “Pied Butcherbirds live in family groups. Both sexes sing and their music is fundamental to
communication and bonding between members of the group. The most consistent clues to recognising
the voice of a Pied Butcherbird are the quality of the voice and the style, or character, of its singing. The
members of any group will have a number of calls which they share with other Pied Butcherbirds, but
047Lumdsdaine
1
234
CD ID
047Lumdsdaine
1
048Lumdsdaine
2
048Lumdsdaine
2
Track
Duration Location
Date
Time
Recordist
Notes
the musical content of the songs varies from one area to another, even between neighbouring
territories. Essentially, their territory seems to be defined by the family songs which they learn from their
parents and siblings, that is, by means of a musical tradition which each generation may take over and
use in its own way.
* “The Pied Butcherbird music most commonly heard consists of short antiphonal duos and trios which
are sung throughout the day. The much longer, and more developed song‹usually a solo‹may be heard
at night and at dawn in the breeding season. Because the Pied Butcherbird's song is delivered slowly,
and well within the human audio spectrum, it is easy for us to follow it both in detail and broad outline. It
is also easy for us to appreciate its harmony.
* “The Pied Butcherbird is a virtuoso of composition and improvisation: the long solo develops like a
mosaic, through the varied repetition of its phrases. In the course of the song, some elements remain
constant, some elements transform through addition and elimination. The bird is a virtuoso of
decoration: there is an extraordinary delicacy in the way it articulates the harmonic course of its song
with microtonal inflections, or places its cadences with a bird's equivalent of tremolandi and fluttertonguing. I've made a number of recordings of Pied Butcherbirds, and many of them are technically
better than this set; but, beautiful as they may be, none of them matches the performance by these
particular birds. Serendipity plays a large part in determining the musical quality of a soundscape; there
are no retakes in the wild.
* “In composing the original Spirey Creek soundscape, I placed the Pied Butcherbirds at its centre; their
songs were my pathway into the valley, but the music really begins when we hear the whole valley
singing with them.”
01
21:30
Spirey Creek,
??/09/83
David
See above.
Warrumbungles
Lumsdaine:
NP NSW
5 Holly
Terrace,
York,
North
Yorkshire
YO10 4DS
UK
“2 Jul 2005, Dear Hollis, I have so often wished that I could have spent more time doing proper
fieldwork, but we only have one life and it tends to be rather full. I'm glad you're going to work with
ornithologists, because although the musician's observations are specially informed, they only really bite
when grounded in informed observation. Time and again, I have felt that a Pied Butcherbird's thinking in
sound is very close to my own and that, far from indulging in the pathetic fallacy, this insight is real. But
it needs so much observation to bear this out!
* “For fun, I'm appending an mp3 recording from Trephina Gorge (East MacDonnells) last July, made
just as the sun strikes the western ridge where a lone dingo sang briefly at this time several mornings in
succession. Of course it's just as much about the Pied Butcherbirds as the dingo. Are they reacting to its
song? Are they commenting on it? Their calls before the dingo enters are quite different to the calls after
- and their total silence during the dingo song- just as remarkable: Comment? Transformation? Is it all in
the musician's imagination? (This recording is a straight cut.)
* “You're lucky to be going recording under the wing of Jane Ulman. It seems a long time since I saw
her. Please remember me to her and give her my greetings. I don't have any particular tips re the
Warrumbungles. We were last there in September 2000, and I noted that the Spirey Creek song had
changed considerably from that song, though it had been still recognisably similar in 1995. The PBb
territories are usually (from my observation of the songs) quite big, but in the past there were at least 5
territories easily accessible.
* “In my library there is quite a collection of PBb song from NSW, Queensland, NT and SA; if at some
point it would be useful to you to have copies, let me know. I'm only too happy to assist some serious
work. Best wishes, David Lumsdaine”
01
00:47
Byron Bay
09/09/86
David
“This is cut no 1 of the same bird
NSW, village
05:15
Lumsdaine singing from 3 different
(inc. gardens),
Fine
songposts (2 trees, 1 telegraph
coastal heath &
pole) on the edge of the township
shrubs
itself. Good examples of the
verse form in the dawn solo
song.”
02
01:16
Byron Bay
09/09/86
David
NSW, village
05:25
Lumsdaine singing from 3 different
(inc. gardens),
Fine
songposts.”
235
CD ID
Track
Duration Location
coastal heath &
shrubs
Byron Bay
NSW, village
(inc. gardens),
coastal heath &
shrubs
Date
Time
Recordist
Notes
09/09/86
05:35
Fine
David
Lumsdaine
singing from 3 different
songposts. It’s the longest cut of
the three but isn’t quite as good
as the other two – it’s further
away, and closer to the noise of
the sea.”
“The Singing Lesson – 2 birds
perched side by side on a
banksias singing a solo song;
one sings the fully decorated
version of the local dawn solo,
the second a more sketchy
outline version. There are two
cuts, the second closer and
following straight on from the first.
Continuous sound of surf and
wind, otherwise excellent. I’ve
given this cut A-because of its
unique content. A beautiful study
of what structure, tuning and
melodic decoration might mean
to PBBs. Date & time are a
guess, but a good one (it left
such a vivid memory).”
“Singing in tall eucalypt at edge
of clearing. Good specimen of
formal dawn song. Interrupted by
an attacking currawong, which
drives the pbb off. Formal song
not resumed, but antiphonals
were prominent in the rest of the
dawn chorus – probably four
birds in group.”
“In the open hillside again. A wide
variety of antiphonal calls from
the group heard and recorded
earlier this same day. Original
recording lasted about 20
minutes; I’ve done a lot of
cutting.”
048Lumdsdaine
2
03
02:24
048Lumdsdaine
2
04
08:44
Pebbly Beach,
Station Creek
NSW, coastal
heath, shingle
beach
23/09/83?
09:00?
Fine,
windy
David
Lumsdaine
048Lumdsdaine
2
05
05:01
Lamington
Plateau NP
QLD, broadleaved
evergreen
mesophytic
temperate
forest
10/09/86
05:25
Fine
David
Lumsdaine
048Lumdsdaine
2
06
03:33
11/09/86
06:45
Fine
David
Lumsdaine
048Lumdsdaine
2
07
01:51
11/09/86
07:30
Fine
David
Lumsdaine
“A series of solo calls, mostly
segments of the dawn song
(heard earlier) and occasional
distant answering calls. Sounds
like a young bird practicing.”
048Lumdsdaine
2
08
01:52
11/09/86
09:00
Fine
David
Lumsdaine
“Another long sequence of
isolated fragments from the dawn
song. It’s very beautiful for the
(apparent) interaction with other
songs, notably currawong and
best, best of all, crimson rosella
piping.”
048-
09
04:21
Lamington
Plateau NP
QLD, broadleaved
evergreen
mesophytic
temperate
forest
Lamington
Plateau NP
QLD, broadleaved
evergreen
mesophytic
temperate
forest
Lamington
Plateau NP
QLD, broadleaved
evergreen
mesophytic
temperate
forest
Taree NSW,
21/09/87
David
“4 pbb’s in tall eucalypts along
236
CD ID
Track
Duration Location
Lumdsdaine
2
Date
Time
Recordist
Notes
improved
pasture,
scattered trees
10:30
Fine
Lumsdaine
Warrumbungles
NP, Camp
Blackman
NSW, eucalypt,
casuarina mix,
freshwater
stream/creek
Warrumbungles
NP, Camp
Blackman
NSW, eucalypt,
casuarina mix,
freshwater
stream/creek
21/10/00
06:47
Fine
David
Lumsdaine
24/10/00
04:58
Overcast,
stormy
David
Lumsdaine
Warrumbungles
NP, Camp
Blackman
NSW, eucalypt,
casuarina mix,
freshwater
stream/creek
Warrumbungles
NP, Spirey
Creek NSW
26/10/00
04:47
Fine,
windy
David
Lumsdaine
roadside, on road from Taree to
Barrington Tops, 4 consecutive
cuts from the one location edited
together. At 3’53 in there is a tiny
song from a nearby bird which I
can’t identify.”
“This is really a lovely, lazy
habitat recording; there’s an
extraordinary number of species
in one small area. The songs get
a bit confused except for pbb’s
singing in unison. White-winged
triller conspicuous behind.”
“This is the pbb who had some
grey butcherbird elements in his
song. Terrible background, but
use anyway for interest. He also
mimics the little friarbird. We only
heard this song first thing in the
morning. Grey butcherbirds can
be heard at the very end of the
track. Singing in tall river oak.”
“Same bird (as stormy morning)
with elements of grey butcherbird
in its song. Little friarbird gets in
the way somewhat. This song is
more reminiscent of Byron Bay
than Warrumbungles.”
20/09/83
05:30
Fine &
clear
David
Lumsdaine
David
Lumsdaine
048Lumdsdaine
2
10
03:06
048Lumdsdaine
2
11
01:08
048Lumdsdaine
2
12
02:53
048Lumdsdaine
2
13
02:41
048Lumdsdaine
2
14
01:58
Warrumbungles
NP, Spirey
Creek NSW
048Lumdsdaine
2
048Lumdsdaine
2
15
00:25
16
03:28
Warrumbungles
NP, Spirey
Creek NSW
Warrumbungles
NP, Spirey
Creek NSW
20/09/83
06:00
Fine &
clear
28/08/85
06:45
Fine
28/08/85
06:46
Fine
048Lumdsdaine
2
17
05:42
Warrumbungles
NP, Spirey
Creek NSW
28/08/85
07:00
Fine
David
Lumsdaine
048Lumdsdaine
2
18
01:43
Warrumbungles
NP, Spirey
Creek NSW
29/08/85
07:30
Fine
David
Lumsdaine
048Lumdsdaine
2
048Lumdsdaine
2
19
02:35
01:42
30/08/85
06:00
Fine
30/08/85
06:32
Fine
David
Lumsdaine
20
Warrumbungles
NP, Spirey
Creek NSW
Warrumbungles
NP, Spirey
Creek NSW
237
David
Lumsdaine
David
Lumsdaine
David
Lumsdaine
“A colourful and well-balanced
collection of many species,
particularly pbb’s, noisy friarbird,
white-plumed honeyeaters, willy
wagtail, fairy wrens, etc. Roos
feeding.”
“A continuation from the previous
session. The pbb duet is well
foregrounded in a beautifully
balanced setting.”
“Main paddock group. One set of
solo calls, then straight on to next
track.”
“Main paddock group. Duets and
trios. Noisy background, but
essential for the record on this
group.”
“Main paddock group. Duets and
trios then mostly 1 bird.
Background less noisy. Fine
magpie imitations, see 2’24 &
4’59.”
“Main paddock group. Trios and
quartets. Magpie singing in
centre. Creek noise, but captures
everything.”
quartets. Same position as
previous day.”
quartets. Less creek noise in this
position.”
CD ID
Track
Duration Location
048Lumdsdaine
2
048Lumdsdaine
2
21
00:16
22
01:17
048Lumdsdaine
2
23
048Lumdsdaine
2
Date
Time
Recordist
Notes
Warrumbungles
NP, Burbey
Canyon NSW
Warrumbungles
NP,
Wambelong
Canyon
16/12/86
18:25
Fine
17/12/86
06:15
Fine, still
David
Lumsdaine
“Just three ‘I am a butcherbird’
calls. No other songs or calls.”
David
Lumsdaine
02:05
Warrumbungles
NP,
Wambelong
Canyon
17/12/86
06:30
Fine, still
David
Lumsdaine
24
01:09
048Lumdsdaine
2
25
01:21
Laurie’s Creek,
Mowbray
Station QLD,
eucalypt,
casuarina mix,
dry river bed
with standing
pools
Ten Mile Bore,
Currawinya NP
QLD
“Could equally be labeled habitat
or grey shrike-thrush: the pbb
simply reiterates a two-note
ostinato throughout, but it has
nice harmonic implications.”
“Same bird as previous,
intermittently joined by another in
a curious fractured series of
exchanges. Only one bird
visible.”
“Recorded while waiting for grey
goshawk, pbb then mistletoebird.”
19/10/00
05:12
Fine
David
Lumsdaine
048Lumdsdaine
2
26
02:40
Ten Mile Bore,
Currawinya NP
QLD
19/10/00
05:18
Fine
David
Lumsdaine
048Lumdsdaine
2
27
07:51
01/10/84
05:20
Fine
David
Lumsdaine
048Lumdsdaine
2
28
02:02
07/10/84
06:15
Fine
David
Lumsdaine
“Just single notes from the same
pbb territory which finished the
formal song earlier this morning.
A very pleasant habitat
recording.”
049Lumdsdaine
3
01
09:20
Kinchega 1st
Camp by
Darling River
NSW, river red
gums, black
box, dry plain,
slow-flowing
river
Kinchega 1st
Camp by
Darling River
NSW, river red
gums, black
box, dry plain,
slow-flowing
river
Kinchega 2nd
Camp by
Darling River
NSW
08/10/84
05:15
Fine
David
Lumsdaine
049Lumdsdaine
3
02
11:17
Kinchega 2nd
Camp by
Darling River
NSW
08/10/84
05:25
Fine
David
Lumsdaine
“Good long dawn solo; other
pbb’s can be heard in distance.
Singing from isolated cyprus
about 400m from river. Bright
moonlight. On CD divided into
two parts, where the pbb moves
for the first time.”
“Good long dawn solo; other
pbb’s can be heard in distance.
Singing from isolated cyprus
about 400m from river. Bright
moonlight. On CD divided into
David
Lumsdaine
238
“Little friarbird singing close to
pbb with strange fretful (worried?)
call. Pbb takes no notice but
continues exchanges with other
pbb’s in vicinity of the bore. Is
there a mix-up between two
groups? One bird is very close to
me.”
“Same bird as previous track,
flies closer to another member of
the group. Grey shrike-thrush in
background.”
“Pbb is singing in midground
surrounded by everybody else in
the dawn chorus. The party of
ravens drowns the pbb at times.
But it’s a good sample of the
formal dawn song and a very
lively riverside scene.”
CD ID
Track
Duration Location
049Lumdsdaine
3
03
02:07
049Lumdsdaine
3
04
02:23
049Lumdsdaine
3
05
049Lumdsdaine
3
Date
Time
Recordist
Notes
two parts, where the pbb moves
for the first time. At 8:30 into the
2nd track the pbb moves further
off again.”
“Pbb antiphons in dawn chorus,
follows on from 1.54 white –
rumped miners; magpie lark also
to fore.”
Kinchega, nr
Woolshed
NSW, river red
gums, black
box, dry plain,
pool, billabong
Kinchega, nr
Woolshed NSW
11/10/84
05:35
Fine
David
Lumsdaine
08/11/89
05:00
Fine
David
Lumsdaine
00:30
Kinchega, nr
Woolshed NSW
08/11/89
05:01
Fine
David
Lumsdaine
06
01:03
Kinchega, nr
Woolshed NSW
08/11/89
06:01
Fine
David
Lumsdaine
049Lumdsdaine
3
07
02:36
09/11/89
05:38
Fine, wind
rising
David
Lumsdaine
049Lumdsdaine
3
08
02:10
Kinchega, Lake
Emu NSW,
river red gums,
black box, dry
plain, pool,
billabong
Kinchega, Lake
Emu NSW
David
Lumsdaine
“Two adults and three young on
bough of red gum (same territory
as previous track).”
049Lumdsdaine
3
09
02:26
Kinchega, Lake
Emu NSW
David
Lumsdaine
049Lumdsdaine
3
10
00:12
Kinchega, Lake
Emu NSW
“Three young on bough of red
gum (same territory as tracks 27
& 29). Quiet conversation from
young, loud calls from adults.
Blue bonnets arrive and call.”
gum (same territory as previous
tracks 27 & 29). One squirty call
from youngster.”
049Lumdsdaine
3
11
00:35
Kinchega, Lake
Emu NSW
09/11/89
07:27
Fine, wind
beginning
to gust
09/11/89
07:27
Fine,
gusting
wind
09/11/89
08:12
Fine,
gusting
wind
09/11/89
08:13
Fine,
gusting
wind
049Lumdsdaine
3
12
00:40
Kinchega, Lake
Emu NSW
09/11/89
08:15
Fine,
gusting
wind
David
Lumsdaine
239
David
Lumsdaine
David
Lumsdaine
“Overflow below the Woolshed.
One bird lazily singing formal
song in dawn chorus (it’s coming
to the end – hear next track). A
second pbb can be heard singing
in the distance.”
“Duet material from previous bird
and another near the outflow.
The second has a very different
voice timbre to usual – is it a
youngster?”
“A solitary and apparently
lethargic bird perched in a tree
making a long series of single
note calls, two of which are
included at the beginning of this
track; then, in response to a
mimicking whistle from me (cut!),
varies his tune.”
“Calls from two adults. Very
lethargic.”
tracks 27 & 29). Three young
making calls apparently based on
ringneck piping? Hear
succeeding tracks.”
make a great variety of quiet
conversational calls.”
Date
Time
CD ID
Track
Duration Location
Recordist
Notes
049Lumdsdaine
3
13
01:13
Kinchega, Lake
Emu NSW
09/11/89
08:18
Fine,
gusting
wind
David
Lumsdaine
049Lumdsdaine
3
14
05:17
Kinchega, Lake
Emu NSW
11/11/89
06:09
Fine & still
David
Lumsdaine
049Lumdsdaine
3
15
02:07
Sturt NP, Mt
Wood Station
NSW,
farmstead/stati
on &
surroundings,
small dam(s)
with reeds, etc.
24/10/84
05:00
David
Lumsdaine
049Lumdsdaine
3
16
08:34
21/11/97
04:46
Fine, still
David
Lumsdaine
049Lumdsdaine
3
17
02:56
Leichardt River
QLD, dry
savanna,
scattered trees,
slow-flowing
river
Leichardt River
QLD
make a great variety of quiet
conversational calls. Two
ringnecks fly in”
“6 of 6. Just back from the
margin, 1 close, 1 mid-ground
and 1 more distant pbb engage in
conversation. Beautiful examples
of the soft laughing call. The
‘hawk’ call is accompanied by a
very formal bobbing or bowing of
the close bird, perched on a
bough of black box. A beautiful
atmosphere from the lake behind.
Around 4’ in the close bird moves
a little way further off. Lovely
congruence of magpie and pbb
modes at end.”
“Good close recording from bird
singing beyond Shearer’s Shed.
Very repetitive. Note the ‘flawed’
note which begins the third
sequence, and the varying canon
with a second bird in the
background. Same bird continues
in next track, but set further back
in soundstage.”
“Mainly two pbb’s, one midground, the other distant. Halfway
through, the mics are turned to
focus on the closer bird.”
21/11/97
05:02
Fine, still
David
Lumsdaine
049Lumdsdaine
3
18
05:15
Leichardt River
QLD
21/11/97
05:17
Fine, still
David
Lumsdaine
049Lumdsdaine
3
19
04:24
Leichardt River
QLD
21/11/97
05:31
Fine, still
David
Lumsdaine
240
“Closer now to the distant bird of
previous cuts. There’s a third pbb
involved now. Good ‘rounds’
between the birds. The songs
and territories are so close that I
wonder if these aren’t ‘cousins’ or
satellite territories. After comment
(excised on editing), cut 71 is
closer again. Good ‘wok’ calls.”
“Solo from same bird as previous
cut. At 1:35:40 on field tape, 4’24
on CD track, the bird suddenly
changes its song – mimics grey
shrike-thrush? – and dives to the
ground to pick up some item of
food. Flies back to perch and is
silent awhile (eating). Finished
with fine fanfare (‘I am a pbb’)
and flies off.”
“Solo from the third neighbour.
Good variations on the local song
material, but quite a distinct style.
The bird comes to the natural end
of his song and, after a few
moments, flies off. Brolga flies
over calling in background soon
CD ID
Track
Duration Location
049Lumdsdaine
3
20
05:33
050Lumdsdaine
4
01
01;50
050Lumdsdaine
4
02
050Lumdsdaine
4
Date
Time
Recordist
Notes
after begging of cut.”
“A very beautiful formal song,
jacky winter and blue-winged
kookaburras behind.”
The plain, Lawn
Hill NP QLD,
dry savanna,
scattered trees
Trephina Gorge
NT, eucalypt,
casuarina mix,
dry river bed
with pools
24/11/97
05:10
Fine, still
David
Lumsdaine
28/07/04
07:11
Fine
David
Lumsdaine
15:19
King’s Creek
Station NT,
eucalypt,
casuarina mix
03/09/00
05:15
Fine
David
Lumsdaine
03
05:18
Newhaven NT,
spinifex,
saltbush,
acacia scrub
10/08/04
07:00
Fine
David
Lumsdaine
050Lumdsdaine
4
04
02:49
08/08/92
08:20
Fine
David
Lumsdaine
050Lumdsdaine
4
05
03:39
11/08/92
08:12
Fine
David
Lumsdaine
“Family antiphons? Close to
same area, so probably same
family as recorded on 08/08/92.
Some grader behind. Excellent
clear examples of ‘prew’ call at
opening.”
050Lumdsdaine
4
06
01:43
Florence
Creek,
Litchfield NP
NT, partly
deciduous
tropical forest,
dry river bed
with pools,
residual flow
Florence Falls,
Litchfield NP
NT, partly
deciduous
tropical forest,
freshwater
stream/creek
Warrumbungles
NP, Spirey
Creek NSW
20/09/83
05:00
Fine and
clear
David
Lumsdaine
“The next three tracks are out of
longitudinal order. It was only
while making this collection that I
discovered the famous
butcherbird of Spirey Creek,
1983, was missing from the
general library. He is now
restored.”
“1 of 3. Pbb is singing his regular
dawn song from isolated tall
cedar in paddock, not far from
creek, recorded at a distance of
ca 50m, giving a good context to
the song. For some reason, this
has been put late into the general
library (14/10/05).”
241
“A small party of pbb’s in the
eucalypts nearby appear to
respond to the calls of a distant
dingo, calling from the crest of
the gorge as it is lit by the firs
rays of the sun. The pbb’s
transfomraiton of the dingo’s howl
is, of course, all my imagination,
and/but I like it!”
“Singing in tree in middle of
camp. Sounds of feet and noise
of generator. There’s one figure
which sounds as though a single
note is interpolated by a second
bird. I checked all round the
singing bird and there was no
second singer.”
“First fifteen minutes of dawn
chorus (in two segments) an hour
before sunrise; prominent are the
pbb’s, spiny-cheeked, brown,
white-plumed and singing
honeyeaters; later come the
yellow-throated miners.”
“Family antiphons. Little friarbird
and rainbow lorikeets, not to
mention spangled drongo. Open
woodland between Buley
Rockhole and Florence Falls.
Some noise from roadworks at
Florence Falls.”
Date
Time
CD ID
Track
Duration Location
Recordist
Notes
050Lumdsdaine
4
07
03:06
Warrumbungles
NP, Spirey
Creek NSW
20/09/83
05:05
Fine and
clear
David
Lumsdaine
050Lumdsdaine
4
08
02:33
Warrumbungles
NP, Spirey
Creek NSW
20/09/83
05:10
Fine and
clear
David
Lumsdaine
051Plowright
01
05:57
08/08/03
08:13
051Plowright
02
00:53
09/08/02
08:00
Howard
Plowright:
17 Chester
Street,
Surrey Hills
VIC 3127
Howard
Plowright
051Plowright
03
05:53
18/09/04
05:30
Howard
Plowright
052-Powys1
01
01:25
20/07/93
07:53
Warm
Vicki
Powys:
Rocklands,
Glen Davis
Road,
Capertee
Valley
NSW 2846
052-Powys1
02
02:07
28/07/93
08:50
Hot,
humid
Vicki
Powys
“Duet: two birds perched in trees
(+ M-L; SC&LFBS; BSD; HEs;
PBB). Background sounds:
Magpie-lark; Silver-crowned and
Little Friarbirds; Bar-shouldered
Doves; honeyeaters.”
052-Powys1
03
01:35
Ned’s Corner,
Trust for
Nature,
Mmildura VIC,
near
homestead
The Hummock,
Bundaberg
QLD
Cougal CG
near Border
Ranges NSW
Lawn Hill NP,
Gulf of
Carpentaria
QLD, natural
freshwater
lakes and
gorge fringed
with tropical
vegetation,
sparse
woodland and
spinifex ridges
beyond - birds
call from stony
ridge treeperches
Near 8-Mile
Creek, nrth
Hells Gate, Gulf
of Carpenteria
QLD, fw creek,
tropical
vegetation,
woodland
Roper River,
Elsey NP NT,
tropical
freshwater river
fringed with
tropical
vegetation,
woodland
ca 30m. I have cut out a pan from
this sequence which I though a
nice touch 25 years go, but
dislike now. Can be heard in
original soundscape. Put late in
the general library 14/10/05.”
ca 20m. The most famous of all
pbb recordings, but only put late
into the general library 14/10/05.”
“Also grey bb.”
05/08/93
07:07
Hot,
humid
Vicki
Powys
(+ donkeys; apostlebirds;
BS&PD; HEs). Edit: one brief
cut.”
242
“Close, good calls, some wind.”
“Beautiful clear calls although
very low amplitude at first.
Windy.”
“All recordings made with Sony
TCD.D10 PRO DAT and Sony
ECM-MS5 one-point stereo
microphone.”
“Duet: two birds perched in trees,
flutey ‘weedle-ordle-ah-dit-dee’;
trills (+ ’kerwow’ LFB; BHE).”
BLSA description: “Beautiful,
melancholy, flute-like piping
notes, including two-note
phrases, and variations on a
phrase "weedle-ordle-ah-dit-dee";
low trills. Often in duet.”
CD ID
Track
Duration Location
beyond, birds
call from tall
eucalypts at
campground
Roper River,
Elsey NP NT
Date
Time
Recordist
Notes
05/08/93
07:07
Hot,
humid
08/08/93
06:54
Hot,
humid
Vicki
Powys
“Duet: 2 birds perched in trees, tnote calls & fuller calls (+BSD,
lorikeet, babblers)”
Vicki
Powys
(+ BHE; SCC; people; magpielark, lorkeets; finches). Edit: one
brief cut.”
03/09/93
05:23
Cool
Vicki
Powys
“One bird calling in full moonlight,
varied phrases (RufSnglk;
HBCuck; BlackDuck).”
28/05/04
Vicki
Powys
“Recorded with Sony WMD6C
cassette recorder and Sony ECM
MS5 one-point stereo mic.
Several pbb’s, people, cars,
pushbike, ocean, birds perched in
trees and on power poles.”
HT: This CD focuses on the
species call.
“Gurgling calls in far distance.
DAT & ME67.”
“Whistled notes in far distance.
DAT & ME67.”
“Intermittent flutey notes a bit off
mic. DAT & ME67.”
“Probably duets in far distance.
DAT & ME67.”
“A pair calling in distance, several
duet phrases. DAT & ME67.”
“’Eight-two-two’ call given twice.
DAT & ME67.”
“After recent rain, and soon
interrupted by overhead scenic
flights. Microcassette. Several
cuts.”
“The previous day Ayers Rock
was spectacular with waterfalls
after at least an inch of rain.
Microcassette. Several cuts.
Hollis, the MP3 I previously
emailed to you of a contact call
from King’s Canyon was actually
a contact call from the Olgas and
is heard again on this track. Sorry
for the mislabeling. You might like
052-Powys1
04
01:45
052-Powys1
05
00:50
052-Powys1
06
06:35
053-Powys2
01
03:10
054-Powys3
01
01:39
Capertee
Valley NSW
20/10/97
05:13
Vicki
Powys
054-Powys3
02
00:58
054-Powys3
03
01:20
054-Powys3
04
02:38
054-Powys3
05
01:04
054-Powys3
06
00:24
054-Powys3
07
06:05
Capertee
Valley NSW
Capertee
Valley NSW
Capertee
Valley NSW
Capertee
Valley NSW
Capertee
Valley NSW
King’s Canyon
NT
20/10/97
05:25
28/09/00
08:46
22/10/01
05:00
23/03/02
08:18
23/03/02
08:59
23/06/87
Around
dawn
Vicki
Powys
Vicki
Powys
Vicki
Powys
Vicki
Powys
Vicki
Powys
Vicki
Powys
054-Powys3
08
03:19
The Olgas NT
21/06/87
Afternoon
Vicki
Powys
Katherine
Gorge NP NT,
tall eucalypts at
CG, freshwater
river, tropical
vegetation
Palm Valley,
Finke Gorge
NP NT, desert,
sparse trees,
near
campground,
sandstone
outcrops and
cliffs, recent
rain - bird
called from
part-way up
stony ridge
Miami
beachfront,
Gold Coast
QLD
243
CD ID
054-Powys3
055-Skeoch1
Track
09
Duration Location
14:38
Ormiston
Pound NT
Date
Time
25/08/86
Early –
midmorning
Recordist
Vicki
Powys
Notes
to correct the label on the MP3
file.”
“Slow, lazy, melodious notes from
1 or 2 pbb’s, very clear, I must
have been close. There's a few
brief breaks in the sequence.
There was running water in the
gorge so it must have been
another wet winter.
Microcassette. Quite a few cuts.”
Notes from Andrew Skeoch:
“Dear Hollis, I have prepared 2 discs of Pied Butcherbird calls for you. These are the best recordings of
them I have from over the years, and come from a range of locations, mostly inland and NT. I am
including a few photocopied pages of my 'notation' of these recordings, I hope it may be of some
assistance in navigating your way around the recordings.
* “I'll explain my notation; its my own system, very personal and idiosyncratic, but I hope you'll be able
to decipher it easily enough – I draw what I hear on the tape, according to the timing. Each A4 page is
ruled into 4 columns, each representing 15mins (there are small marks indicating minutes) - thus each
page documents an hour of recordings, and two pages documents an entire 120 min DAT tape.
* “As I listen to the tape playback, I draw the sounds I'm hearing vertically down the column (as time
progresses) and horizontally (stereo field left to right), with each species drawn in a different colour
(pencil, with colour usually related in some way to the plumage of the bird) and with heaviness/boldness
indicating the volume or closeness of the call. I have some very subjective ways of drawing the sound of
each birdcall, for instance those with short song phrases such as the Butcherbird I may generally draw
as horizontal marks, whereas other species that may chatter on continually may end up as more
sketchy vertical scribbles. I use abbreviations as well, such as PBu for Pied Butcherbird.
* “Every new 'take' is marked by a solid line across the column, and the time the tape was turned off
and then on again (although on my early recordings I just noted the total time of that take). So what you
should be able to read off the page is a snapshot of what species are calling at any point on the tape,
where they are most prominent, how they move around the stereo soundscape, plus extraneous noises
such as wind, or me cluttering and bumping around (or even my tummy rumbling! - sorry about this, its
one of the perils of hand-holding mics early in the morning when one has yet to have breakfast! - I
notate them so I can be warned to remove them later, but in your case you are being blessed with a raw
dump of the tape, occasional rumbles.
* “Although my originals are colour, I am just sending you some b/w copies, which considering the
sparse nature of these recording will probably give you all the info you need. For the long sequences
recorded at Ormiston Gorge, I became fascinated with the principle calling bird's repertoire of musical
phrases, and made some notation of these, numbering the different phrases as they emerged into the
soliloquy. I have also added track numbers as they relate to the 2 CDRs I'm sending you. I have only
included the pages for the Ormiston and Sundown sequences, as the other recordings are shorter and
easier to follow, the notation wouldn't really add much to them.”
01
05:39
Ormiston
??/10/98
Andrew
“This sequence (tracks 1 – 4)
Gorge NT
Begins
Skeoch:
begins around
around
P.O. Box
2.30am, under a full moon.
02:30
188,
Outback birds are very vocal
Castlemain during the night around full
e
moon.”
VIC 3450
055-Skeoch1
02
02:06
055-Skeoch1
03
07:51
055-Skeoch1
04
04:18
055-Skeoch1
05
19:46
055-Skeoch1
06
05:28
Ormiston
Gorge NT
Ormiston
Gorge NT
Ormiston
Gorge NT
Ormiston
Gorge NT
??/10/98
Ormiston
Gorge NT
Andrew
Skeoch
Andrew
Skeoch
Andrew
Skeoch
Andrew
Skeoch
Andrew
Skeoch
244
“Same location, but the following
morning. This sequence (tracks 5
– 8) goes on into the dawn
chorus.”
CD ID
Track
Duration Location
055-Skeoch1
07
03:42
055-Skeoch1
08
25:47
056-Skeoch2
01
09:20
056-Skeoch2
02
04:49
056-Skeoch2
03
16:04
056-Skeoch2
04
06:18
056-Skeoch2
05
01:06
056-Skeoch2
06
03:02
056-Skeoch2
07
07:17
056-Skeoch2
08
04:14
056-Skeoch2
09
04:23
056-Skeoch2
10
06:54
056-Skeoch2
11
01:08
056-Skeoch2
12
06:00
057-Ulman1
01
45:49
058-Fletcher
01
06:36
059-FVG
01
059-FVG
059-FVG
Date
Time
Ormiston
Gorge NT
Ormiston
Gorge NT
Ormiston
Gorge NT
Recordist
Notes
Andrew
Skeoch
Andrew
Skeoch
Andrew
Skeoch
“The concluding section of the
above sequence.”
Darwin,
southern
suburbs NT
Sundown NP,
SE QLD
??/09/98
Andrew
Skeoch
“With geckoes, traffic, a peacock
and dog in background).”
??/06/95
Dawn +
Andrew
Skeoch
“These sequences (tracks 3 – 7)
come from a clear but cold sunny
morning, beginning at dawn and
continuing on until around
8.30am, in open country/dry
woodland, hence a diverse range
of birdlife around.”
Sundown NP,
SE QLD
Sundown NP,
SE QLD
Sundown NP,
SE QLD
Sundown NP,
SE QLD
Todd River, E
of Alice Springs
NT
Todd River, E
of Alice Springs
NT
John Hayes
Rockhole,
eastern
Macdonnell
Ranges,
Uluru NP NT
??/06/95
Dawn +
??/06/95
Dawn +
??/06/95
Dawn +
??/06/95
Dawn +
??/07/98
Pre-dawn
darkness
??/07/98
Pre-dawn
darkness
??/08/98
Andrew
Skeoch
Andrew
Skeoch
Andrew
Skeoch
Andrew
Skeoch
Andrew
Skeoch
??/10/98
Midmorning
Andrew
Skeoch
Uluru NP NT
(against base
of rock).
Mary Creek, far
N QLD, near
Mount Carbine
WA
??/10/98
Late
afternoon
22/10/94
Around
05:00
Unknown
Andrew
Skeoch
01:14
Murray River
NP
??/10/97
02
01:38
01/10/98
03
01:25
Mount Magnet
WA
Quilpie QLD
18/08/01
245
Andrew
Skeoch
Andrew
Skeoch
Phillip and
Jane
Ulman
Kerry
Fletcher
Fred van
Gessel:
64 Dorothy
Avenue,
Woy Woy
NSW 2256
Fred van
Gessel
Fred van
“I was hoping to get a longer
sequence, you can hear me walk
away from tripod mounted mics,
but tourists came walking around
the corner after a minute or so,
chatting away at the top of their
voices.”
“A really interesting sequence of
subsong, pity the wind was
blowing half a gale!”
“Pre-dawn pbb with rooster.”
HT: From her ABC radio work
Desert Mischief.
“There is a marked geographical
variation in their song (dialects). I
have also filtered most of these
calls. The ‘A’ or ‘B’ after the date
is another call, sometimes of the
same bird but not always, at a
different time on the same day.”
CD ID
Track
Duration Location
Date
Time
059-FVG
04
01:24
Quilpie QLD
059-FVG
05
00:22
059-FVG
06
00:19
Mariamvale
QLD
Wollembi NSW
059-FVG
07
01:19
Sarina QLD
07/11/99
059-FVG
08
00:15
Kakadu NT
??/12/83
059-FVG
09
01:15
Warwick QLD
059-FVG
10
01:45
059-FVG
11
01:42
Gibb River
Road WA
Edith Falls NT
15/09/79
Dawn
31/08/98
Dawn
11/09/92
059-FVG
12
00:25
Manilya WA
12/09/98
059-FVG
13
02:06
Daly River NT
24/06/84
059-FVG
14
01:07
Daly River NT
24A/06/84
059-FVG
15
00:58
02/10/90
059-FVG
16
01:14
Widden Valley
NSW
Karinja NP WA
059-FVG
17
00:36
Karinja NP WA
059-FVG
18
00:25
059-FVG
19
00:30
059-FVG
20
00:34
Broome Bird
Observatory
WA
Warrumbungles
NSW
Smiths Lake
NSW
060CSIRO.428
01
18:43
02
03
02
03
01
15:43
16:07
12:26
16:52
16:19
02
03
04
01
15:53
14:00
00:46
16:04
16:07
12:48
064-Hansen
02
03
01
064-Hansen
05
065-
Soun
062CSIRO.430
063CSIRO.431
00:25
18A/089/0
1
27/11/99
04/06/88
04/09/03
05:45
04/09/03
05:45
01/09/03
11/09/00
07/03/03
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
246
Recordist
Gessel
Fred van
Gessel
Fred van
Gessel
Fred van
Gessel
Fred van
Gessel
Fred van
Gessel
Fred van
Gessel
Fred van
Gessel
Fred van
Gessel
Fred van
Gessel
Fred van
Gessel
Fred van
Gessel
Fred van
Gessel
Fred van
Gessel
Fred van
Gessel
Fred van
Gessel
Notes
“Two birds.”
“Alarm call.”
“Two birds.”
“Duet and alarm.”
“Duet.”
“Duet.”
“Duet.”
“Single bird.”
“Unfiltered.”
“Duet.”
Fred van
Gessel
Fred van
Gessel
“Single bird.”
Andrew
Skeoch
and Sara
Koschak
Andrew
Skeoch
and Sara
Koschak
Unknown
From Australian Birdsong
Improvisations by Mark Hansen
(CD), 1997, Plateau Road
Records.
From Australian Birdsong
Improvisations by Mark Hansen
(CD), 1997, Plateau Road
Records.
ABC Archives and Library
Duration Location
Date
Time
CD ID
Track
ABC.ALS
066-Rankin1
d file
MP3
00:54
Litchfield NP
NT
??/08/90
Bill Rankin:
225 Pacey
Road,
Upper
Brookfield
QLD 4069
067-Rankin2
MP3
01:06
??/08/90
Bill Rankin
068-Rankin3
MP3
00:57
Litchfield NP
NT
Warrumbungles
NP NSW
30/10/85
Bill Rankin
069-Rankin4
MP3
01:15
Draper QLD
18/08/05
Approx.
10:00
Bill Rankin
070Powys.MP3.
1
MP3
00:03
The Olgas NT
c.
??/06/86
Vicki
Powys
247
Recordist
Notes
Services
“15 September 2005: Dear Hollis,
Here are a couple of calls
recorded in August 1990 on the
road to Litchfield NP NT. From
memory I think there were some
young birds in the group
recorded.”
HT: As above.
“Sorry I can’t be more precise
with the Warrumbungles creek
location—didn't make very
precise notes in those days—but
from memory the campground
looked out over a large paddock
which had an isolated hill with
some trees on top. I remember
because this is where the birds
first called from. By the time I had
walked to the hill they would stop
calling. I did this for about 3
mornings before I finally got a
recording. I suppose it's all
changed by now. I haven't been
back since. You mentioned that
you might go to the
Warrumbungles to record. This
might be good for checking how
the song compares today as to
20 years ago. I recorded this on
30/10/1985 in one of the camping
grounds in the National Park
(near a small creek if I remember
correctly). I have had to clean up
the recording a bit as it was
recorded with a cassette recorder
and a cheap microphone in one
of my first parabolas. There was
a lot of tape hiss and a bit of wind
to take out. I took out a bit of
space between the first couple of
calls and the following few (to
reduce the file size to send to
you).”
“I have attached an Mp3 (890Kb)
of my local pair of pbb’s duetting
on the powerlines. I had to cut
out some low frequency traffic
noise below 400Hz.
Interesting little chirp like a
sparrow each time the second
bird joins in (not certain if male or
female sings first).”
“29 August 2005: I've been
delving into my archives. It was
back in 1986 that I first started
annotating my tape transcriptions
with '822' for that specific call,
hence I could find it just now from
my notes. Here's three more
CD ID
Track
Duration Location
Date
Time
Recordist
072Powys.MP3.
3
MP3
00:03
Near Gosses
Bluff NT
08/09/93
Vicki
Powys
073Powys.MP3.
4
MP3
00:02
Capertee
Valley NSW
??/??/02
Vicki
Powys
074-Pollack1
Pollock/Brereton CD for Hollis
1.
Pollock’s Bird and Animal calls (edited version)
2.
Prof. Brereton: Rosella Communication (ed. version)
3.
Oriole subsong (Beerburrum State Forest, Qld.)
4.
Pollock’s Bird and Animal calls as copied
5.
Prof. Brereton: Rosella Communication as copied
Notes
short clips of pbb’s, two are of the
'822' call, the 3rd is of the rising
harsh 'zip'-like call.
* 1st call is very faint but is what
I call the classic Central
Australian 'eight-twenty-two' call
with no preceeding 'zip', recorded
at The Olgas c. June 1986 on
microcassette.”
* “3rd call is that rising harsh 'zip'
call same as John Hutchinson
recorded at Broome. Recorded
near Gosses Bluff, Central
Australia, September 8, 1993 on
DAT. The pbb seemed to be
taking delight in scaring the
daylights out of flocks of budgies
that were in the process of setting
up nesting colonies. That zip call
would send a cloud of budgies
into flight. The zip call might
therefore be an
aggression/territorial call?”
* “The term 'diagnostic' is in
common usage and not my own
term. It refers to a sound that
can definitely identify a particular
species of wildlife, whether or not
the species has been sighted.
Useful for bird/frog surveys etc.
The pbb '822' call that I have is
from Capertee Valley, recorded
2002, I'll MP3 it to you as a short
clip in separate email.”
* “Around Australia the number
of syllables seems to vary
according to location – John
Hutchinsons's Broome pbb added
extra syllables with 'eeeeeeighttwenty-to-two', the Capertee bird
merely said 'eight-two-two', while
the birds I think from Central
Australia say 'eeeeeeeighttwenty-two'. I'll keep looking to
see if I can find more examples
on my field tapes of that
particular call.”
14:14
13:56
01:00
14:19
13:25
“14 March 2006: Dear Hollis, Harold Pollock made wildlife films and also gramophone records (45 RPM
discs) of Australian bird and animal sounds. One such is his Bird and Animal Calls of Australia
(Jacaranda Press, 1968). This starts with Butcherbirds – first Pied then Grey. I have copied from
turntable to computer with only moderate success. Some turntable rumble is audible, and I have some
doubts about the speed. I think the result runs too fast and therefore, when editing the result to remove
clicks, etc., I also slowed the recording. Likewise with the ABC “Insight” program talk on Rosella
248
CD ID
Track
Duration Location
Date
Time
Recordist
Notes
Communication by Professor Le Gay Brereton, University of New England, the copy I made from my old
Uher tape seemed to be fast, and I slowed it to 90%. On the CD, I give you these edited versions of
them, but add at the end, the copies as I made them at first. See whether you agree with me on the
speed question.
* “Completing what I shortened in an email, Harold says in the book: ‘If I were asked to name the most
melodious song-bird I have heard anywhere in the world, I would immediately choose the handsome
Pied Butcherbird. Larger than the English starling, the Organ-bird as it is often called, has a wonderful
range of flute-like notes which it often renders while perched on the topmost branches of a dead tree.
These black-throated fellows often sing in pairs, one bird's song complementing the other's in an
engaging manner. They bow and spread their wings as they call in charming fashion. Perhaps their
song is heard at its best in spring and autumn. They are found almost throughout Australia.’ The bird
which gives the first three stanzas on the recording was recorded at daybreak, on a misty day, in
beautiful Numinbah Valley, south-eastern Queensland. The other calls, also rendered by a single bird,
were recorded at about 5 a.m. on the golf course at Murwillumbah, northern New South Wales. This
bird in my opinion is a maestro. In all my years of wandering in the Australian outback, I have never
heard such a fine and varied butcher-bird song. Experienced bird men who have listened to the record
agree with my opinion.’"
* “At 00:31.5 there are few notes of what I reckon to be Crimson Rosella plus some I don’t recognise.
No other Rosella and I wonder if it is mimicry. Do Pied Bbs mimic? Pollock does not comment. And at
00:35 some magpie warbling continues into Bb. More mimicry? And it gets worse/better. I’ll be
interested to hear what you make of it. A number of species of birds at times indulge in what has
sometimes been called “sub-song”, where they just warble on, apparently without its having any
particular significance, and mimicry is sometimes included. I hadn’t noticed Bbs doing this, but then I
hadn’t taken much notice of them ‘pre-Hollis’. So I wonder if Harold was in fact recording Bb subsong,
which would account for the greater variety of sounds. It is unfortunate that he does not give the date or
even time of the year for his recordings.”
* “On 12 December, 1973, I recorded an Oriole doing what I regarded as sub-song. It was so
misguided as to include Bb (threat?) calls ... and was chased vigorously by a real Bb with snapping
beak. This was in Beerburrum (north of Brisbane) exotic pine plantations. I’ll put the Oriole on CD after
the first versions of the other two. Grey rather than Pied Bb mimicry, I fear. At 00:38/39, and 52/53 in
track 3.”
* “Harold’s Currawongs (at 02:52) are giving what I grew up knowing as their rain corroboree. Curtis
family lore had it that when they gathered in a flock and sang en masse like this, it meant that rain was
coming. As a child, of course, I never bothered to check to see whether rain did follow. But once when
I was recording lyrebirds (what else!) in Mt Warning N. P., I recorded such a chorus at the caravan park.
Next day it rained and kept raining so much that the creek came up over the bridge and I had to stay a
couple of extra days before I could get out.”
* “04:49 – Emu. Since you are considering musical aspects of bird-song, and one wouldn’t regard
emus as “musical”, but maybe one should – a little Emu anecdote. Prior to 1975, Qld national parks
were administered by the Dept of Forestry. I headed a small NP Section in the ‘60s, and in a report
someone had written about the drumming noise an Emu makes. No computers in those days. One
wrote drafts in long-hand to be typed up by our Section’s typist. And in this case her fingers made the
same sort of mistake I’m continually making where one finger gets ahead of another, so what we got –
and cheerfully chanted about the office – was, ‘an eum makes a rataplan.’Do you agree, listening to
Harold’s recording, that ‘an eum makes a rataplan’?”
* “At 07:42 we start on Side 2 of the record – mammal sounds. Non-musical and unattractive. I leave
them there in case they are of curiosity value.”
* “It seems agreed that Pollock is deceased, probably about 10 years ago, but no-one came up with
information about any relatives. The best advice I got was from Peter Fullagar: Harold Pollock died
some years ago. His recordings (all of them as far as I can tell) were left in the care of Rex Buckingham
and have now passed to the ANWC with Rex's bequest, where they have been incorporated within the
Wildlife Sounds Library. Harold often 'camped' in his caravan with the Buckinghams when not in the field
and as a consequence he stored his recordings with those in Rex's sound library. Harold's collection still
requires proper cataloguing because he had no data sheets, as such, and simply wrote bits of
information on his tape reel boxes. Rex had started to catalogue these tapes but had made little
progress before he also died. I expect Lila Buckingham might be able to recall when Harold died, but
that would be the end of the line as far as I am aware. Lila's address last time I was in touch was:
102/155 Warrigal Road, Burwood, VICTORIA 3125. Tel: (03) 98 314 202.”
Bird and Animal Calls of Australia by Harold J. Pollock (Jacaranda Press, 1979).
Side 1 Pied Butcherbird, Grey Butcherbird, Grey Thrush, Black-backed Magpie, Bell-miner, Eastern
Whipbird, Rufous Song-lark, Black-backed Gull, Emu, Emu chick, Cassowary, Bush Curlew, Laughing
249
CD ID
074-Pollack1
074-Pollack1
074-Pollack1
074-Pollack1
074-Pollack1
075-GG
076Kovaricek
076Kovaricek
076Kovaricek
076Kovaricek
076Kovaricek
076Kovaricek
077-Baylis
Track
Duration Location
Date
Time
Recordist
Notes
Kookaburra, Brolga.
Side 2 Male Koala calling, Female Koala calling, Koalas fighting, Baby Koala about 6 months old,
Koalas courting, Squirrel Glider (Petaurus norfolcensis), Tasmanian Devils, Fruit-bats or Flying Foxes
(on South Molle Island), Dingoes.
Wonder birds of Australia and their calls by Harold J. Pollock (Jacaranda Press, 1979).
Side 1 Birds with musical voices: Pied Butcher-bird, Australian Magpie, Grey Shrike-thrush, Bell Miner.
Birds with bell-like voices: Bell Miner, Crested Bell-bird, Birds that whistle: Whistling Kite, Rufous
Whistler, Crimson Rosella. Birds that trumpet: Black Swan, Brolga. Birds that mimic other birds: Superb
Lyrebird.
Side 2 Satin Bowerbird. Bird that meows like a cat: Green Catbird. Birds with strange voices; Eastern
Whipbird, Gang-gang Cockatoo, Noisy Friar-bird. Birds with loud voices: Varied Honeyeater, Southern
Logrunner. Bird with tiny voice: Scarlet Honeyeater. Birds that grunt: Australian Cassowary, Emu,
Australian Pelican. Bird with a spine-chilling voice: Bush Stone-curlew. Birds that yodel: Grey-crowned
Babbler, Black Butcherbird. Bird that ascends the scale: Pallid Cuckoo. Bird that descends the scale:
White-throated Warbler. Bird that laughs: Laughing Kookaburra. Birds that call in the night: Boobook
Owl, White-tailed Nightjar.
01
14:16
First three
Pre-1980
Harold J.
See above.
(pbb
stanzas:
First three Pollock
00:01 –
Numinbah
stanzas at
01:17)
Valley SE QLD; daybreak
then, a single
on a misty
bird on the golf
day; then
course at
approx.
Murwillumbah
05:00
N NSW.
02
13:56
See above. See above. No pbb.
03
01:00
Harold J.
See above. Oriole subsong
Pollock
mimicry of a pbb.
04
14:19
Unknown
Pre-1980
Harold J.
See above. Edited version of
(pbb
Approx.
Pollock
Track 01.
00:01 –
05:00
01:22)
05
13:25
See above. See above. No pbb.
01
05:01
Gowrie
Unknown
Gloria
02
32:47
Junction QLD
Glass
Track 2 very faint, not useable.
01
13:13
Hugh River NT
12/03/00
Jaroslav
Around Alice Springs.
06:15
Kovaricek:
KOVA
Production
s
15
McBeath
Drive
SKYE 5072
jarokova@
yahoo.com
02
08:58
Emily Gap NT
23/07/00
Jaroslav
06:45
Kovaricek
03
10:26
Emily Gap NT
03/12/00
Jaroslav
morning
Kovaricek
04
10:33
Finke River at
16/09/00
Jaroslav
Glen Helen NT
05:50
Kovaricek
05
05:11
Glen Helen
16/09/00
Jaroslav
river
06:20
Kovaricek
06
13:51
Undoolya Road 23/06/00
Jaroslav
07:00
Kovaricek
01
10:28
Great Wall of
03/09/00
Tony Baylis This song started pre-dawn and
China near
04:54
Utopia
continued through dawn; bird was
Hall’s Creek
Road
singing from low shrub on
WA
Brooweena hillside. Bird was not observed
QLD 4620
during recording; I saw it as it
250
CD ID
Track
Duration Location
077-Baylis
02
12:45
Great Wall of
China near
Hall’s Creek
WA
Utopia
Environment
Reserve QLD
077-Baylis
03
11:18
077-Ulman
04
15:20
077-Ulman
05
03:07
077-Ulman
06
06:11
077-Ulman
07
07:20
Alice Springs
Telegraph
Station NT
077-Ulman
08
00:34
Alice Springs
Telegraph
Station NT
078-Ulman
01
55:19
078-Ulman
02
03:00
079TurnbullCS
01
46:48
080TurnbullCS
01
46:31
081TurnbullCS
01
46:52
Alice Springs
Telegraph
Station NT
Alice Springs
Telegraph
Station NT
Horseshoe
Bay, Magnetic
Island QLD
Horseshoe
Bay, Magnetic
Island QLD
Horseshoe
Bay, Magnetic
Island QLD
Jim’s Place,
south of Alice
Springs NT
Emily Gap,
Alice Springs
NT
Alice Springs
Telegraph
Station NT
Date
Time
03/09/00
continuation of
Tr.1
01/09/05
08:39
Recordist
Tony Baylis
Jane
Ulman
Two birds observed in mango
tree in garden. One bird singing
initially, then the two birds
duetting. Recording made on
Nagra ARES-BB with Sennheiser
MKH816 or MKH 40 mic, range c.
18 metres. Raw copy.
Singing dingo with pbb phrases
on piano.
03/10/06
07:30
Jane
Ulman
Pbb’s and native bees, just after
Hollis switched her recorder off.
07/10/06
pre-dawn
around
05:30
07/10/06
pre-dawn
around
06:30
07/10/06
pre-dawn
around
06:30
07/10/06
around
07:00
07/10/06
around
07:00
17/11/06
Jane
Ulman
Alice magpie and pbb distant.
Jane
Ulman
Closer.
Jane
Ulman
Closer.
Del
Turnbull
From cassette #1. Mimicry.
18/11/06
Del
Turnbull
From cassette #2. Very good
mimicry.
22/11/06
Del
Turnbull
From cassette #3. “30 November
2006, Dear Hollis, I’m sending
you three back, with no. 4 I’m
getting clue-ee!! 1 and 2 are
recorded on one side have not
run them so take your choice.
(No. 3 I messed up as I tried both
sides.) The male and female both
sing; the male is very bold and
talks to me 6 inches from my
face—the female is timid—they
are both becoming less vocal and
feel they are getting ready to
migrate, at the moment shedding
their plumage and really
appreciating washing in the bird
251
Tony Baylis
Notes
flew away (two birds present).
Made on Sony MD MZ-R50 with
Sennheiser MKH816 mic, range
c. 40 metres. Some EQ applied.
Continuation of Tr.1 after moving
mic a few metres. Some EQ
applied.
Jane
Ulman
Jane
Ulman
CD ID
Track
Duration Location
082TurnbullCS
01
22:23
082TurnbullCS
02
47:59
083TurnbullCS
01
46:32
084TurnbullCS
01
31:15
084TurnbullCS
02
19:14
085JohnsonCS
01
42:23
086JohnsonCS
01
36:38
Date
Time
Recordist
Notes
bath. They both tolerate the cat
and dog and they reciprocate.”
From cassette #4.
Horseshoe
Bay, Magnetic
Island QLD
Horseshoe
Bay, Magnetic
Island QLD
Horseshoe
Bay, Magnetic
Island QLD
30/11/06
Del
Turnbull
08/12/06
12/12/06
Del
Turnbull
From cassette #5.
12/12/06
13/12/06
Del
Turnbull
Horseshoe
Bay, Magnetic
Island QLD
Horseshoe
Bay, Magnetic
Island QLD
Indooroopillly,
QLD
19/12/06
Del
Turnbull
From cassette #6. “13 December
2006, Dear Hollis, Whilst running
this one through on the side it is
on, there’s the most amazing
song. He just adores Jayne
Rutter and sings his little heart
out.”
From cassette #7.
20/12/06
Del
Turnbull
From cassette #8.
23/10/95
Gayle
Johnson
Carey Street,
Bardon, QLD
1/9/98
Gayle
Johnson
From cassette #25. “Pied
Butcherbird Dawn Song
23.10.05. Times spoken on tape,
starts when quite dark. Best bit of
recording up to when tape width
is 4 mm. Bout continuous with
various interruptions, change of
position, minor interaction with
other birds, until clear dawn song
at approximately 11-12 mm.
Dawn song continues
intermittently after good day song
starts. Recording occupies most
of tape but much repetition of
dawn song and best bits early on.
Indooroopilly - don't know the
name of the street but it was near
Central Avenue on the east side
of the railway line. Could find you
the name of the street if you
wanted a more precise location.
One bird only.”
From cassette # 44. “Dawn Song.
The pied butcherbird starts when
the width of wound on tape is 4
mm. Day song starts when there
is approximately 7 mm. Day song
and dawn song overlap for a
while. A fairly long bout of dawn
song (presumed male only, sung
before other pied butcherbirds up
and about), interrupted at one
stage by day song (I presume a
female.). Bird later change
position and continued dawn
song. Bout finished when tape
width is 1-2 mm. The bird singing
was Leworthy Lew. Carey St is
near Leworthy St. I probably
called the tape Carey St because
252
CD ID
Track
Duration Location
Date
Time
Recordist
087JohnsonCS
01
29:36
Lake
Broadwater,
QLD
151, 41 E/27,
30 S
2/10/98
06:55
Gayle
Johnson
088JohnsonCS
01
43:06
Boundary
Road,
Rainworth
Gulley QLD
12/8/96
Gayle
Johnson
089JohnsonCS
01
52:47
Boundary
Road,
Rainworth
Gulley
QLD
30/10/96
Gayle
Johnson
253
Notes
I did some other recordings
there.”
From cassette #50: “These three
cassettes include two new birds
and one old bird, same
year/different day as compared
with the last two I sent you. All
told now you should have birds:
Indooroopilly, Boundary Bob at
Rainworth, Leworthy Lew at
Bardon, and Country Cousin from
Lake Broadwater.”
“Pbb dawn song at Lakeview;
then gbb song at Lakeview and
Camp Wilga; then a flock of
corellas. Lakeview is the property
that was owned by Jack and May
Bennie. Lake Broadwater is
about 20 km west of Dalby. I
have the latitude & longitude in
my thesis.”
From cassette #31: “Magpie
dawn song. Pbb dawn song. The
best bits are near the beginning
of this section. It then dithers on
and off till tape is 1 cm. wound
on. Then magpie dawn again.
Then a lot of me talking. Then
gbb day song. Boundary Road.
Rainworth. I recorded the same
bird on two different dates in
1996. i assumed it was the same
bird because only one male sings
early dawn breeding song in a
given territory during the breeding
season. So if I had this right I
would have included recordings
of Boundary Bob in the first lot of
CDs I sent to you and also in the
second lot. Rainworth is a small
suburb next door to Bardon.
Officialdom would like to
subsume Rainworth & make it all
Bardon, which is already a large
suburb but there is local
resistance. Rainworth Gulley is a
location near Boundary Road
where I recorded Grey
Butcherbirds. It has nothing to do
with Pied Butcherbirds.”
From cassette #36: “Mostly me
talking, then gbb til tape wound 6
mm. Then pbb dawn song “A
song for all time. Simpson
Road/Leworthy St/Mestor Avenue
area, then blank for awhile (mic
off?), then starts again, goes for
awhile then another blank (mic
off), then more talking. Tape now
½ through. Then no more on this
side. 4 Nov 96: Drongo with
CD ID
Track
Duration Location
090PowysCD
01
02:57
090PowysCD
02
00:52
090PowysCD
090PowysCD
03
00:16
04
04:54
090PowysCD
090PowysCD
090PowysCD
090PowysCD
05
00:09
06
01:05
07
00:12
08
01:46
090PowysCD
090PowysCD
090PowysCD
09
00:08
10
02:00
090PowysCD
090PowysCD
11
00:11
12
00:18
090PowysCD
090PowysCD
13
00:11
14
01:08
090PowysCD
090PowysCD
090PowysCD
15
00:10
16
01:18
17
01:16
090PowysCD
18
02:02
090PowysCD
090PowysCD
19
00:14
20
01:29
10
Rockview,
Capertee
Valley NSW,
woodland
Darwin NT,
suburban
Date
Time
Recordist
03/05
Stuart
Fairbairn
09/98
Andrew
Skeoch
Notes
Boundary Bob in the background.
Same songs as on 12/8/96 (same
pbb). Very little pbb, mostly gbb.
Pbb only at beginning of tape;
rather incidental recordings.”
Sequence of song phrases
Announce.
Brisbane,
Menindee,
Kimberely, Mt.
Isa
Helen
Horton
Announce.
SA, mallee
Doug Holly
Announce.
Roper River
NT, tropical
vegetation
05/08/93
Vicki
Powys
Announce.
Broome WA
23/03/99
Broome WA &
West Wyalong
NSW
Broome:
05/90;
WW:
10/98
David
Stewart
Stuart
Fairbairn
“Individual and duet.”
Announce.
Broome WA &
West Wyalong
NSW
Stuart
Fairbairn
Announce.
Broome WA &
West Wyalong
NSW
Stuart
Fairbairn
Announce.
Palmerston,
Darwin NT
Capertee
Valley NSW,
dry woodland
Mournpall L.,
Hattah-Kulkye
NP, VIC, near
Murray River
12/09/89
pre-dawn
12/11/99
16:00
David
Stewart
Vicki
Powys
From CD Favourites.
Jenny
Beasley
Juvenile pbb.
Warbling song.
Announce.
Green Lake
near Big Desert
VIC
24/10/97
04:00
254
Jenny
Beasley
Date
Time
CD ID
Track
Duration Location
090PowysCD
090PowysCD
090PowysCD
090PowysCD
21
00:19
Near
22
00:27
Near Alton QLD
23
00:06
24
00:23
090PowysCD
090PowysCD
25
00:42
26
00:19
090PowysCD
090PowysCD
27
01:10
28
02:46
090PowysCD
090PowysCD
090PowysCD
29
01:10
30
01:05
31
01:56
090PowysCD
32
00:14
090PowysCD
090PowysCD
090PowysCD
090PowysCD
090PowysCD
090PowysCD
33
00:16
34
00:43
Mt. Magnet WA
01/10/98
35
00:35
08/98
36
00:37
37
00:33
38
00:29
090PowysCD
090PowysCD
39
00:32
40
00:36
090PowysCD
090PowysCD
090PowysCD
090PowysCD
090PowysCD
090PowysCD
41
00:23
42
00:48
Harding River
WA
Gibb River
Road WA
Gibb River
Road WA
Broome Bird
Observatory
WA
Murray River
NP SA
Main Well
Gammon
Range SA
3rd Bore, Plenty
Highway NT
Edith Falls NT
43
01:03
Quilpie QLD
18/08/01
44
00:28
27/11/99
45
00:49
Miriam Vale
QLD
Mt. Walsh QLD
46
00:29
Sarina QLD
07/11/99
Recordist
Notes
Announce.
03/09/69
Syd Curtis
Duet.
Announce.
Beerwah SF
near Brisbane
QLD
1970s
Syd Curtis
Announce.
Beerwah SF
near Brisbane
QLD
1970s
Syd Curtis
Announce.
Moorestone
Station near
Camooweal
QLD
Charleville
QLD, woodland
Windmill Creek,
Cape York QLD
Wogarno Hill,
Wogarno
Station WA,
outback
09/82
pre-dawn
Cyril
Hembrow
Melodious song phrases.
09/98
dawn
10/98
dawn
15/10/98
dawn
Doug Holly
Doug Holly
Jenny
Beasley
Pre-dawn calls, also insects
(katydids?).
Fred van
Gessel
Short extract to show the
aggression call that Jenny’s
bowerbird mimicked.
Announce.
09/98
31/08/98
dawn
01/09/03
10/97
14/08/06
04/07/04
11/09/92
03/97
255
Fred van
Gessel
Fred van
Gessel
Fred van
Gessel
Fred van
Gessel
Fred van
Gessel
Fred van
Gessel
Fred van
Gessel
Fred van
Gessel
Fred van
Gessel
Fred van
Gessel
Fred van
Gessel
Fred van
Gessel
Fred van
Gessel
Two birds caling.
Duet.
One bird calling.
Antiphonal calls.
Two birds.
CD ID
Track
Duration Location
Date
Time
090PowysCD
090PowysCD
090PowysCD
47
00:56
04/04/94
48
00:50
49
00:38
090PowysCD
091-MISC
50
00:28
01
03:19
Picaninny Ck,
Bungle Bungles
NP WA
10/08/87
dawn
Vicki
Powys
091-MISC
02
05:13
Keep River NP
WA
06/08/87
a.m.
Vicki
Powys
091-MISC
03
01:01
Keep River NP
WA
06/08/87
a.m.
Vicki
Powys
091-MISC
04
00:12
Palm Valley NT
??/07/87
Vicki
Powys
091-MISC
05
00:19
Palm Valley NT
21/08/90
Vicki
Powys
091-MISC
06
04:10
Koolpin Gorge,
Kakadu NP NT
20/07/90
Vicki
Powys
091-MISC
07
03:20
Todd River E of
Alice Springs
NT
08/08/95
predawn
around
05:00
Andrew
Skeoch
091-MISC
08
04:30
Widden Valley
NSW
Old Bar, Taree
NSW
Smiths Lake
NSW
21/03/07
25/02/07
07:22
Recordist
Fred van
Gessel
Fred van
Gessel
Fred van
Gessel
Notes
Male and female calling.
Voice announce only.
Andrew
Skeoch
256
“Habitat: stoney creek bed, arid,
sparse vegetation. Temp: mild.
Micro-cassette. Intermittent
phrases, two-note calls, in
distance, voice intro, three
consecutive sequences.”
“Habitat: arid, sandstone and
woodland. Temp: mild. Microcassette. Four consecutive
sequences: intermittent calls
including two-note calls.”
“Habitat: arid, sandstone and
woodland. Temp: mild. Microcassette. One phrase only.”
“Habitat: arid, sandstone, shrubs
and trees. Temp: mild. Microcassette. One phrase only.”
“Habitat: arid, sandstone, shrubs
and trees. Temp: mild.
WMD6C2XELT. One phrase from
two birds.”
“Habitat: fw stream, tropical
woodland. Temp: hot.
WMD6C2XELT. Song phrases
from one or two birds,
honeyeaters in background.”
“Favourite Australian Birdsong,
Tr. 11.”
“A Morning in the Australian
Bush, Tr. 8: Pied Butcherbirds
The sublime song of the Pied
Butcherbird (0:06, 0:30, 0:47...)
carries across an open area in
the forest. From nearby exposed
perches, a male and female sing
in antiphonal duet, creating what
seems to be a single pure fluted
melody. It may seem that there is
only one bird singing,, but if you
listen closely you can hear them
both, and perhaps picture them
with their heads thrown back,
bobbing and stretching as they
call (try 1:32 or 3:40; notice the
second note, lower and more
mellow than the others, which is
contributed by the partner,
probably the female. By
comparison; at 1:22, the male
sings his melody alone). Another
CD ID
091-MISC
Track
09
Duration Location
06:15
Main waterhole
at entrance to
Ormiston
Gorge, Western
Macdonnell
Ranges NT
Date
Time
04/10/98
03:00
257
Recordist
Andrew
Skeoch
Notes
pair of Butcherbirds may be
heard in the distance (1:46, 1:56
& 2:15). Also to be heard are a
Kangaroo 'grunting' (or perhaps
'belching' - who knows?) (0:49), a
White-faced Heron calling as it
flies lazily overhead (3:59), and a
flock of Little Lorikeets (1:38,
1:53) as they shoot out from the
crown of a eucalypt where they
have been feasting on gum
blossoms. In the distance are a
variety of other birds, including
Jacky Winters (..1:16..1:47..), a
Restless Flycatcher "Chewie,
chewie, chewie.." (..2:32, 2:38..),
a Striped Honeyeater (bubbly
"Wirrawee..") (2:40, 3:09),
Fuscous Honeyeaters "T,t,t,t,t"
(3:26.., 4:19), and Willie
Wagtails. A Turquoise Parrot
may be heard occasionally (3:42,
3:50, 3:57, 4:08, 4:11, 4:14)
before...”
“Spirit of the Outback, Track 1:
Ormiston Gorge, full moon, 3
a.m. Our recording opens at one
of the most spectacular locations
in central Australia, and features
the purest calls of any Australian
songbird. The location is
Ormiston Gorge, a huge valley
carved through the ancient
Macdonnell Ranges, west of
Alice Springs. It acts like a
cathedral, reflecting and echoing
sounds off sheer rock walls. At
the bottom of the chasm are
permanent waterholes, with huge
River Red Gums growing next to
the water's edge. Crickets chirrup
softly from dense grasses around
the waterhole, and what may be
a katydid can be heard later
(4.27, 4.37, 5.40). A Sheathtailed Bat flies quickly through
the tree canopy overhead, you
may just be able to hear its sharp
'chipping' (around 0.15-0.37),
which may be echo-location, or
possibly vocalisation. Green Tree
Frogs (2.03-2.30) shelter in rock
underhangs near the water, and
call intermittently. It is the early
hours of the morning, and a full
moon casts a silvery light with
deep shadows. A Pied
Butcherbird is roosting in a tree
opposite the waterhole. It's calls
(0.40 on) are a succession of
musical phrases, which are
CD ID
091-MISC
Track
10
Duration Location
04:36
Near Luritja
Road (Kings
Canyon to
Uluru) NT
Date
Time
??/10/98
Late
afternoon
258
Recordist
Andrew
Skeoch
Notes
repeated and restated at
intervals, forming a repertoire of
over a dozen melodic fragments
and variations. There are many
bird species that are known to
call throughout much of the night,
especially at full moon. Often,
their calls are lazier and more
languid than at dawn or during
the daytime. Here the
Butcherbirds call intermittently,
unhurried, their calls echoing up
and down the gorge. On the
water float a pair of Australasian
Grebes (1.52, 1.56, 2.02...and
softly at 5.05), and from overhead
comes the rasp of a Barn Owl as
it flies up the gorge (2.43 & 3.00).
Black-fronted Dotterels are
often found on the banks of
permanent water bodies in
central Australia, and seem to
have a habit of giving a song
flight in the pre-dawn hours. Here
a pair of them take to the wing,
and you can hear them flying
from one end of the waterhole to
the other and back (3.24, 4.50...).
Hooded Robins are often fairly
silent throughout the day, but at
this time of the morning they are
very definitely vocal; their calls
heralding the very beginning of
the dawn chorus (3.33, 3.48,
4.01...).”
Mulga afternoon. It is late
afternoon, and we return to the
open plains of Mulga woodland
country. A Pink Cockatoo flies
past, giving a cry that can be
heard over large distances (0.0102, 0.08, 0.12 0.15. 0.21).
Magpie-larks are well known
throughout Australia, and here
they are nesting in a Ironwood
tree, flying in to and from their
mud-built nest. Their territorial
calls are penetrating (0.17-19,
0.28-30, 0.36-40, 1.33), but they
also have some lovely, and lessoften heard, fluting calls (0.5053). Also to be heard are a tiny
Weebill, Australia's smallest bird
(0.08, 0.16), a single begging call
from a juvenile Pied Butcherbird
(0.24), and a Spiney-cheeked
Honeyeater in the background
(0.13-16, 0.43-50, 1.06-09, 1.181.22, 1.36-40, 1.51-53). The
Ground Cuckoo-shrike is
CD ID
Track
Duration Location
Date
Time
Recordist
091-MISC
11
06:03
Main waterhole
at entrance to
Ormiston
Gorge, Western
Macdonnell
RangesNT
??/10/98
Night
Andrew
Skeoch
091-MISC
12
00:59
Buckingbong
State Forest,
19/09/06
07:36
Andrew
Skeoch
259
Notes
somewhat rare in central
Australia but immediately
recognised by the whistles and
cackles of its electrifying call
(0.59 - 1.37, 1.42, 1.49, 1.54,
2.03). White-winged Trillers are
more common, and found
wherever there are scattered
trees. As well as its 'trilling' call
(2.15, 2.18, 2.25, 2,29, ...), you
can also hear something quite
unusual; a kind of hissing,
produced in this case by a female
bird with its bill open (1.56, 2.42,
2.50). As well as being an
extraordinary vocalisation, the
sound is very quiet, almost
inaudible. This raises an
interesting question; if another
bird couldn't hear it, then what is
the purpose of this call? There
are several other calls to be
enjoyed here; the evocative
'creaking' of a Torresian Crow
(1.58, 2.08, 2.11...), along with its
call (3.23, 3.29...), a Ringneck
Parrot flying past (2.20-25) and
then calling in the background, an
Australian Magpie (2.56, 3.08...I
love the whip at the end of this
call; 3.19!), and a Grey
Butcherbird (3.45-51). Brown
Songlarks and Budgerigars are
in the distance.”
Ormiston Gorge, the following
night We return to Ormiston
Gorge for the last track, recorded
the evening after the first. Now
the Pied Butcherbird is roosting
in a different place, this time a
few hundred metres up the
gorge. We can hear other
Butcherbirds even further away,
calling distantly on the night air
(0.04, 0.11, 0.17...). Several
Black-tailed Rock Wallabies are
feeding quietly on moist
vegetation near the waterhole,
and every now and then one can
be heard dislodging rocks as they
move around (1.32, 1.37, 3.29,
4.02, 4.26, 5.09) - you can even
hear one snorting (4.29). The pair
of Australasian Grebes (2.07...,
and splashing 2.39 & 3.01) are
still on the water, and the Blackfronted Dotterels give a distant
songflight (1.51-2.05, 3.33-3.41).”
“You can hear me walking away
from the mic set-up at the
CD ID
Track
Duration Location
Date
Time
Recordist
southern NSW
091-MISC
091-MISC
13
14
00:20
00:11
091-MISC
15
11:11
Wogarno Hill
WA
09-10/05
Uluru NP NT
??/10/98
260
Syd Curtis
Jenny
Beasley
Andrew
Skeoch
Notes
beginning of the take.”
No pbb. Lyrebird rhythm section.
“This one was at Wogarno Hill in
September/
October 2005, two phrases, from
Jenny's track on the Audiowings
CD. The pbb repeated the 2nd
phrase over and over without
much variation, and I just love it! ,
I wonder if the attached clip is the
same jazzy call you heard.”
“The Experience of Uluru, Track
1: Dawn across Uluru. The first
flush of dawn is lightening the
Eastern Sky near Uluru. The
desert appears amost flat to the
horizon; the low sandhills
providing almost no topographical
relief. Uluru itself glows dully with
the approaching dawn. The half
light reveals a landscape of red
sand, spinifex grasses and
stunted bushes. Yet this
seemingly inhospitable country is
home to an extraordinary
abundance of birdlife. Across the
sandhills, the desert is
awakening; coming alive with
birdsong. As our recording
begins, much of what you hear
comes from the varied calls of
Crimson Chats. These tiny and
spectacularly coloured birds are
one of the most common in this
arid country. Mostly their calls
comprise of high twitters and little
whistles (0.00 throughout), but
they also have a very sweet
multi-syllable song (1.16, 1.23,
1.29, 1.41...). Quite often the
outback landscape is filled with
their soft little calls, although you
may not be aware of them
because they are so delicate as
to be almost subliminal. You can
hear them at various times
throughout this track. Variegated
Fairy-wrens are also common,
and equally spectacularly
coloured, little birds. They
announce their territory with a
silvery ripple or trilling reel (1.26,
1.46, 2.02...). Only the dominant
male in each family group has the
full irridescant blue plumage, the
females being quite dapper and
drab. We call them 'flying mice';
anyone who knows how a group
of Fairy-wrens will flutter low from
one bush to another with plump
little bodies and long tails trailing,
CD ID
Track
Duration Location
Date
Time
Recordist
Notes
will understand why! Later you
can hear their scratchy contact
calls (between 5.30-6.30). A pair
of White-fronted Honeyeaters
call from two bushes nearby.
They are nomadic birds and feed
on the desert grevillias which
bloom here. They have a
spectacular dawn song,
comprising whips!, chips!,
wheezy, metallic trills, and
sounds that defy description, but
would humble an electronic
synthesizer, or perhaps 'R2D2'
on high voltage! (3.02 on to about
3.50, when forground bird flies to
a bush further away, and then it
and another bird can be heard 'in
duet'). And they are loud - up
close they make your ears ring.
They also have an evocative little
'dup', contact call (several around
2.56 - 3.00 as first bird flies in)
which are heard here
interspersed within their song.
White-browed Babblers have
the most amusing calls; they
grizzle and 'mieow' at each other
as they move around (4.53, 5.08,
5.16, ... 5.42, 5.57, 6.18, ...),
occasionally getting quite worked
up. They are always found in
family groups of a dozen or less
birds, and their vocal antics act to
keep the group together as they
forage among low bushes. In the
outback are also found Greycrowned Babblers (hear them on
'Spirit of the Outback'), which
mostly frequent rocky gorge or
watercourse country; the Whitebrowed's being more often open
country birds. The sun is
beginning to rise above the
horizon. Circling incessantly in
the air above are dozens of
Masked Woodswallows, giving
their pleasant raspy 'chap!'s and
sparrow-like calls on the wing
(from around 7.30 to the end of
the track, but omnipresent around
8.00-8.50). They form gregarious
and noisy flocks, and alternate
between aerial feeding, and
perching in groups, often on the
branches of a dead mulga bush.
They are also known as Blue
Martins, as they have a lovely
blue-grey plummage, and their
aerial behaviour resembles that
of Martins or Swallows. Pied
261
CD ID
091-MISC
Track
16
Duration Location
04:48
Kantju Gorge,
Uluru NP NT
Date
Time
10/10/98
17:00
262
Recordist
Andrew
Skeoch
Notes
Honeyeaters are also nomadic
blossum feeders, and in our
experience, are often found
together with closely related
Black Honeyeaters. Pied
Honeyeaters have a soft and
toneful little call; a succesion of
'morse code' like whistles (most
prominently 9.34, 9.40, 9.45,
9.48, 9.52...). These are given
from an exposed perch almost
incessantly during the breeding
season. Every few minutes the
male embarks on a spectacular
songflight, fluttering upwards and
calling loudly, hovering around a
hundred feet up in the air, before
folding his wings and plummeting
head first (still calling), to dive
into another bush at the last
minute. There are many other
species to be heard in the
background of this track; a Willy
Wagtail (repetatively at
beginning 0.15, 0.20, 0.24, 0.28,
0.33...), Spiney-cheeked
Honeyeaters (dawn song a soft,
quick series of whistles notes,
descending slightly; in
background 0.26-0.30, 0.35-0.38,
0.42-0.46, 0.50-0.54 ...), Crested
Bellbirds (1.39...heard better on
next track), a Pied Butcherbird
(tuneful melody way off in
distance, from 2.19 - about 6.00),
a Weebill (very subliminally 5.32,
5.40), Budgerigars; small flocks
flying past (you can just hear their
wing noise, 6.42-50) and a single
bird taking off and flying after
them (6.49-53), a White-winged
Triller (repeated calls, noticably
in middle distance 7.52-7.57,
8.09-8.16, ...), and lastly a Brown
Songlark giving his twangy
songflight (flying past from 9.069.30 and in bg 9.55-10.14,
overhead 9.11-9.24).”
“The Experience of Uluru, Track
7: Kantju Gorge is indeed one of
the sheltered cutbacks at the
base of Uluru. The PiBu was
recorded at around 5pm in the
afternoon, 10th October 1995.
Kantju afternoon As late
afternoon comes to the rock,
Uluru gradually deepens in
colour, and by sunset lights up
the most vivid fiery red. Close up
to the rock, and the sheltered
area of Kuntju Gorge is a good
CD ID
Track
Duration Location
091-MISC
17
01:37
091-MISC
091-MISC
18
19
00:27
00:36
091-MISC
20
01:17
Darwin NT
091-MISC
21
00:56
Broome Bird
Observatory
WA.
Date
Time
Recordist
Fred van
Gessel
Stuart
Fairbairn
Dave
Stewart
Dave
Stewart
263
Notes
place to experience this, the
colours dominate the senses. In
many ways we think this is a
more spectacular way of
experiencing the sunset at Uluru
than from a distance. Crickets
chirrup from the long grasses
around the waterhole, and
Yellow-throated Miners can be
heard noisily and gregariously in
the background (throughout, but
approaching by around 2.24 2.39, with group calls around
3.11-3.14, 3.22-3.30, ...4.034.13). A Little Woodswallow
circles high above (0.11, 0.15,
0.19, 0.21, 0.23, 0.27, 0.31 ...),
following the contours of the rock
wall. Black-faced Cuckooshrikes are commonly seen
around the base of the rock, and
have a pleasant trilling song.
Here a pair of them can be heard,
one perched close by (0.40, 0.46,
0.51, ...1.30, 1.33, 1.39, ... 2.05
...) and the other further away,
before they both fly off (2.21).
The song of a Pied Butcherbird
echoes warmly off the sheer
walls of Kantju Gorge (3.00, 3.09,
3.17, ...). Pied Butcherbirds have
the most serene and etherial of
all Australian birdsong, and in the
outback, you hear their purest
dialect. Either in the vast open
spaces of the plains, or echoing
within narrow gorges and ravines,
they are spectacular, and a
feature of any inland experience.
The opening and closing tracks of
our 'Spirit of the Outback' album
feature them recorded in the vast
acoustic of Ormiston Gorge. You
can also hear a juvenile bird
softly in the foreground (2.38,
2.48, 2.57, 3.01).”
Australian Bird Call Series, Birds
of the Greater Sydney Region, A
Regional Field Guide, Volume 5,
CD3, Fred Van Gessel, Tr43
PBB.
ABC online guide.
Audio Wings #16 Nov 06.
Goshawk and PBB.
“Australian Birdcall Favorites, Tr.
13 PBB.”
“Bird Calls of the Broome Region,
Tr. 76: PBB Song (song
individual) and song (pair
duetting).”
Date
Time
Recordist
Notes
1/10/90
Dave
Stewart
Bill Rankin
“Australian Bush Sounds, Tr 33,
Dawn songster, PBB.”
“By the way I figured out that the
"wheezing" is actually a Bluewinged Kookaburra, but it must
have been hidden in a tree
behind the Butcherbirds because
I didn't see it at the time and no
mention of it in the notes. It
actually calls over the top of the
Butcherbirds which is what
confused me into thinking it was
a Butcherbird.I knew I had heard
that sound before!“
“The Litchfield have the wheezy
call which I thought was a Bluewinged Kookaburra? Now that I
listen to it again the ending two
notes couldn't be a Blue-winged
Kookaburra, but I wasn't sure that
it was all one bird or a couple of
different birds as I couldn't see
any of them other than the
Butcherbirds. Bill.”
“So that call on top of the
Butcherbirds in the Litchfield
track is a Helmeted Friarbird?”
“Recording 9002: Road into
Litchfield NP 01/10/1990. This
recording has pops from
recording with Dolby switched on!
(well I didn't know any better in
those days.)”
“Recording 8507 Warrumbungles
National Park 27/10/1985. (I
have a single notation of
"Pincham" which I think was the
name of the camping area.”
“Recording 8509 As above (note
that I have not edited any of
these and the quality of these
early ones is only fair) You may
have to boost the levels a bit on
these two.”
VP: "31-10-1985, 6.30 am",
distant calls only and different
phrases to next track, too short
and not useful to me.”
VP: “It has the same song
phrases as Bill sent you
previously, but this track is less
than half a minute long.”
“Recording 2512 at Draper in
Queensland 03/07/2005 about a
day after we arrived in Qld.”
VP: “Draper (voice id on this
track), 2 birds calling with plenty
of 822 calls, good quality and
should be useful to you.”
“Recording 2513 as above (these
are daytime calls, not pre dawn
CD ID
Track
Duration Location
091-MISC
22
01:16
092-Rankin
01
10:22
Palmerston NT
(near Darwin)
Litchfield NP
092-Rankin
02
00:23
Warrumbungles
Bill Rankin
092-Rankin
03
00:58
Warrumbungles
Bill Rankin
092-Rankin
04
01:42
Warrumbungles
092-Rankin
05
00:24
Warrumbungles
092-Rankin
06
14:29
Draper QLD
092-Rankin
07
01:31
Draper QLD
31/10/85
Bill Rankin
Bill Rankin
03/07/05
Bill Rankin
Bill Rankin
264
CD ID
Track
Duration Location
Date
Time
092-Rankin
08
06:11
Brookfield
19/11/05
092-Rankin
09
06:10
Brookfield
093-Beasley
01
17:29
Wogarno
Station,
WA
15/10/05
04:30,
dawn just
breaking
094-Russell
& Friends
01
34:36
Vajradhara
Gonpa NSW
Summer
20062007
094-Russell
& Friends
02
03:08
Vajradhara
Gonpa NSW
Summer
20062007
094-Russell
& Friends
03
08:41
Vajradhara
Gonpa NSW
Summer
20062007
094-Russell
& Friends
04
03:16
Vajradhara
Gonpa NSW
Summer
20062007
Recordist
Bill Rankin
Bill Rankin
265
Jenny
Beasley
Notes
stuff).”
“Recording T101 Brookfield
19/11/2005 recorded the day I
received my new Sound Devices
Recorder, and I must have had a
filter switched in or some wrong
setting because this sounds
muffled. I would not normally let
this recording out but as you say
in the name of science.”
“Recording T3-1 Brookfield
27/08/2006 daytime calls (finally
getting my act together!).”
“11 July 2007 Hi, Hollis, Glad you
received the CD OK. I don't know
what makes the background
sounds, but would welcome an
ID. Vicki has asked for this on the
latest Audiowings CD, so
perhaps we will get an answer.
My impression would be an
insect or amphibian. The time
was 0430 am on 15th October
2005, dawn just breaking. We
had camped by the hill
overnight.”
“27 July 2007 Hello Hollis, I hope
this finds you well, and making
good progress with your thesis.
We (my wife and I) were recently
given a CD of birdsong recorded
at a Buddhist retreat in 'the
semitropical hills of northeastern
NSW'. On it is a seven-minute
track of “Rodney, the Pied
Butcherbird singing in a tree in
the evening, followed by his son,
Rupert, still learning to sing”. The
recording is pretty good, although
not done with a great
microphone, perhaps. I can hear
some elements in Rupert's song
that are similar to those in the
Grey BB song. Best wishes,
Alan”
“Vajradhara Gonpa is located on
a 200-acre nature preserve in the
semitropical hills of northeastern
NSW.
“’Dawn birds’. Kookaburras, the
lone Koel, Myna Birds, Whip
Birds, Butcher Birds, Russell (the
boss Crow) with Sheryl (his wife)
feeding the kids.”
“’Currawong Chorus’. A chorus of
about eight Currawongs singing
all of their songs at the same
time.”
“’Rodney, the Pied Butcher Bird’.
Singing in a tree in the evening.
Followed by his son, Rupert, still
CD ID
Track
Duration Location
Date
Time
094-Russell
& Friends
05
02:52
Vajradhara
Gonpa NSW
095-Fullagar
01
1:01:56
Broome WA
Summer
20062007
11/10/92
095-Fullagar
02
01:12
Mitchell QLD
??/08/67
096Audiowings
#17
096Audiowings
#17
096Audiowings
#17
096Audiowings
#17
096Audiowings
#17
096Audiowings
#17
096Audiowings
#17
096Audiowings
#17
096Audiowings
#17
096-
06
01:56
WA
08
00:14
10
00:43
11
Recordist
Peter
Fullagar
Peter
Fullagar
Jenny
Beasley
Notes
learning to sing.”
“’Russell’s Love Talk’. Russell
opens his heart in a moment of
intimacy.”
“5 August 2007 Dear Hollis, Pied
Butcherbird CD posted
yesterday! Only two cuts but one
is a long sequence of the
morning song of an individual. It
is not absolutely all the song as I
was moving in to the bird
occasionally. Time stamp seems
to indicate that there was an
interval of about 2 hours from
start to finish of this recording
session. However, the start was
not really a start because the bird
had been singing intermittently all
night. The breaks will not be
obvious. DAT recorders are
troublesome on this point when
the pause button is used. You
should be able to hear the
change sometimes. The other
recording is, by comparison, very
poor. Not much use I suspect but
it was from another locality.
These are all I have on Pied
Butcherbird. Obviously, I have
not really tried to record them!
Peter”
Pied butcherbird.
Fred Van
Gessel
Pied butcherbird aggression call.
Mount Magnet
WA
Fred Van
Gessel
Pied butcherbird.
00:35
Harding River
WA
Fred Van
Gessel
Pied butcherbird.
12
00:37
Gibb River
Road WA
Fred Van
Gessel
Pied butcherbird.
13
00:33
Gibb River
Road WA
Fred Van
Gessel
Pied butcherbird.
14
00:29
Broome WA
Fred Van
Gessel
Pied butcherbird.
15
00:33
Murray River
NP SA
Fred Van
Gessel
Pied butcherbird.
16
00:36
Gammon
Range SA
Fred Van
Gessel
Pied butcherbird.
17
00:23
Plenty Highway
Fred Van
Pied butcherbird.
266
CD ID
Audiowings
#17
096Audiowings
#17
096Audiowings
#17
096Audiowings
#17
096Audiowings
#17
096Audiowings
#17
096Audiowings
#17
096Audiowings
#17
096Audiowings
#17
097-Glass
Track
Duration Location
Date
Time
Recordist
NT
Gessel
Notes
18
00:48
Edith Falls NT
Fred Van
Gessel
Pied butcherbird.
19
01:03
Quilpie QLD
Fred Van
Gessel
Pied butcherbird.
20
00:28
Miriam Vale
QLD
Fred Van
Gessel
Pied butcherbird.
21
00:50
Mt. Walsh QLD
Fred Van
Gessel
Pied butcherbird.
22
00:30
Sarina QLD
Fred Van
Gessel
Pied butcherbird.
23
00:56
Widden Valley
NSW
Fred Van
Gessel
Pied butcherbird.
24
00:50
Taree NSW
Fred Van
Gessel
Pied butcherbird.
25
00:38
Smiths Lake
NSW
Fred Van
Gessel
Pied butcherbird.
01
39:28
Gowrie
Junction QLD
22/09/07
and
23/09/07
pre-dawn
Gloria
Glass
097-Glass
O2
12:43
Gowrie
Junction QLD
29/09/07
pre-dawn
Gloria
Glass
098-Curtis
01
02:12
Alton QLD
(240km W
Brisbane and a
little S)
03/09/69
Syd Curtis
“Forgive the shaky start and the
FAINT part for 5-10 minutes. I
then went closer, through our
fence into neighbour’s, who we
don’t know! Then crossed their
place to stand near a post for
better calls. The pbb was in the
next property. Continues with
RUFOUS songlark (not Brown as
I said) and others. Next recording
is wholly in our property? High on
the hill and then lower. At about
2/3 through tape, I’m walking
back in half-light and letting the
recorder run. Then I left the
recorder on a shed roof to run out
while I went down to the house
for breakfast. Channel-bills and
pbb usual calls. Nothing on other
side of tape.”
“Pre-dawn calls. Near house.
Only short, one day, turned out to
be near our house after I’d
walked up the hill and down and
back to near the house? Sorry
about the brown bird shouting in
our ears. I didn’t even hear them
when taping. Second side blank.”
Pied Butcherbirds. “10 December
2007 Dear Hollis, I found this
short recording of pbb that I’d
completely forgotten I had. I think
you won’t have any from this part
of Queensland. you might find
Alton on a map, about 240 miles
267
CD ID
098-Curtis
Track
02
Duration Location
02:48
Date
Time
Alton QLD
(240km W
Brisbane and a
little S)
Recordist
Syd Curtis
268
Notes
west of Brisbane and a little south
in latitude. On the banks of the
Moonie River – a tributary of the
Murray which reaches the sea
near Adelaide. Alton is shown on
my 40 mile/inch map of
Queensland. An important town,
to be shown on a map of the
whole of Queensland, one might
think. Not so. Nature, we are told,
abhors a vacuum. And
cartographers abhor empty
spaces. There’s nothing much to
show on a map in a couple of
hundred miles between Dalby
and St. George: a flat landscape
with just the Moonie River
wandering across it. Alton
apparently was designated as a
village and so helps fill a blank
space on the map, but no one
chose to live there. Leastways
not in 1969 when I visited, and I’d
be surprised it if has changed
since. Just a single unoccupied
house - local government owned,
I think, or possibly Country
Women’s Association. I have
forgotten which. But there was a
large population – of frogs! Alton
is situated beside a billabong of
the Moonie- a bedn of the river
that has been cut off and is only
connected to the river in flood
time. My work in national parks
administration had taken me to
that part of the State, and Alton
was a convenient and pleasant
camping spot. There must have
been recent heavy rain and the
frogs were going well. I spent a
couple of happy hours that night
with spotlight and recorder. And
the Butcherbird, I see from my
notes, was in the same general
area. On Portion 10, Parish of
Alton to be precise;’ Wednesday,
September 3, 1969. Probably a
duet, but I didn’t write any notes
about it. (It wasn’t a recording
trip; I simply took the recorder
along for the fun of it.) And if
cartographers abhor empty
space, I tend to feel largely empty
CDs are a waste. So I give you
the frogs as well as the
Butcherbird.”
“Frogs at Alton. One comment is
necessary: the prominent voice in
a short section shortly before the
end of this track (from 2:23 to
CD ID
Track
Duration Location
098-Curtis
03
03:22
Tamborine
Mountain
098-Curtis
04
01:07
Tamborine
Mountain
Date
Time
23/12/71
Recordist
Syd Curtis
Syd Curtis
269
Notes
2:35) is a “frogmouth” – a
nocturnal bird (genus Podaragus)
which flew into a tree near me. I
couldn’t resist recording it then; I
can’t resist leaving a bit of it in,
now.”
“Treefrog. Southern Orange-eyed
Treefrog to give its full name,
Litoria chloris. This brings back
memories of childhood for me.
We lived on Tamborine Mountain
in a house about ten yards from a
patch of rainforest. My mother
was a keen naturalist with a
special fondness for birds. She
had a bird-bath at the edge of the
rainforest – a circular concrete
trough about four feet in diameter
and a few inches deep. After
heavy rain, these frogs would
congregate at the bird-bath, view
mat. They have powerful voices
and tended to keep going all
night. Sometimes this got to be
just too much for my parents, and
they would catch the frogs and
release them well away from our
home, reckoning that by the time
they made it back, if they did,
they would have lost the urge to
sing. No recording gear back in
the 1930s of course.”
“Territorial frog. For a few years
starting in 1969 I was doing some
serious research on a lyrebird on
Tamborine Mountain. Automatic
recording gear that took a tensecond sample of sound every 6
minutes, 6 a.m. to 6 p.m. each
day. (When it worked!) Had to
change the tape every two
weeks. Often I drove from
Brisbane to arrive before daylight
to hear the lyrebird start the day.
On this occasion I was well
ahead of the lyrebird and frogs
were calling down the creek.
They were spaced out along the
bank. I made myself comfortable,
recorder on the ground, and
recorded a bit. Then played it
back. Clearly I was too close.
Infringing on that frog’s territory.
He changed his call to what I
assume was a challenge to the
intruder, then actually hopped up
onto the recorder. The first
glimmer of light was starting to
appear; I headed for the lyrebird’s
territory. Great Barred Frog,
Mixophyes iteratus, just for the
CD ID
Track
Duration Location
Date
Time
Recordist
098-Curtis
05
01:19
Tamborine
Mountain
Syd Curtis
099Plowright
0100-Powys
01
03:28
01
04:20
Bungle Bungles
WA campsite
Capertee
Valley NSW
??/07/07
06:10
14/02/08
09:44
Howard
Plowright
Vicki
Powys
0100-Powys
02
05:32
Capertee
Valley NSW
25/03/08
11:32
Vicki
Powys
0101-Ulman
01
19:54
Ruby Gap, near
Arltunga, and
Jervois, Central
Australia
FILMS:
0102-Acera
Two DVDs
01
02
17:04
27:37
Lawrence, 29
kms
North of
Grafton,
northern NSW
??/??/08
Santi and
Linda
Acera
270
Notes
record.”
“’Toc.’ We nearly always have
one of these resident in the
waterlily tub in our garden. Very
well-behaved: never wanders
away from the tub and remains
discreetly out of sight. Very
important, for Anne has a
genuine medical phobia about
frogs, and if visible, he would
have to go! And the simple,
staccato ‘toc’ call is so un-froglike, as not to be objectionable, it
seems. But the ones on this track
were on Tamborine Mountain
where they are joined by various
birds to make a pleasant chorus.
First, just a single frog to
demonstrate the explosive nature
of those ‘toc’ calls’ next,
somewhat in the background,
with a Tusked Frog, Adelotis
brevis, more prominent with its
pleasant, almost musical, ‘r-ook’
call; then with birds, a cicada and
the Tusked Frog making a
pleasant chorus; and finally what
they sound like when really
massed around a small lagoon in
the rainforest.”
“Mild to warm; stereo mics
Sennheiser ME64 x 2 in ORTF
configuration, with Sony TCD
D10 DAT, and volume boosted
later in Peak. Slow and lazy
phrases, possibly two birds for
each occasion, I could not get
really close. Noisy friarbird gets in
the way sometimes in track 2, but
there are some reasonable
phrases towards the end of tr. 2,
and some gurgles at the
beginning. In tr. 1 they are pretty
much in the distance.”
Foggy, sun breaking through
after rain overnigiht, mono gun
mic Sennheiser ME67 with Sony
TCD D10 DAT, and volume
boosted later in Peak.
GPS Ruby Gap:
23.28.863;134.58.179;
GPS Jervois:
22.57.??; 136.08.??.
11 March 2008. Watching it
again, I realised that the butcher
birds, when they compose their
musical verses, not always is with
the friend/s beside them.
CD ID
Track
Duration Location
Date
Time
Recordist
Notes
Sometimes it is with some other
bird that you can hear quite far
away. I have always been
interested in the relationship
audience-performer (in trying to
find ways for the audience feeling
more fulfilled by the performing
act. So many times, by involving
them as creators of the act). And
that is what comes to me when I
hear these other butcher birds in
the distance that don't appear in
the performing area but are part
of the orchestra - the audience
popping in, everyone seated on
the edge of their seats ready to
prompt their musical verse. I bet
you are going to make some
beautiful melodies. Warm
regards, Santi
13 March 2008. Hi Hollis, This is
Linda, partner of Santi who filmed
the butcher birds. It is amazing,
isn't it? So glad you enjoyed it.
Like everything beautiful there's a
poignancy to the story. To the left
of the table the birds sit on,
hidden behind the bit of shed
wall, was a poor little injured
young adult butcherbird in a big
cage. I am a licensed wildlife
carer, and some idiot had been
feeding wild birds in his garden
then left a rat trap in the same
area with food in it. This poor bird
had been caught, at his lower
back. I could tell you more about
that but to cut it short, the vet
said to give him a chance, which I
did, for a couple of weeks, during
which he steadily deteriorated
physically and became sadder
and sadder (no song at all) and I
had to euthanase him, as he
couldn't be successfully released,
and clearly hated being in
captivity (also illegal to keep a
wild bird in captivity). But that film
was made almost immediately
after he arrived, and I think
they're welcoming him (they will
accept an unknown young one,
but not a new fully adult bird).
They came two dusks in a row,
and after that only one came, and
obsessively hung around all day
trying to attack ours through the
cage, no singing, then later
through a closed window. What
was really sad was ours didn't
271
CD ID
Track
Duration Location
Date
Time
Recordist
Notes
even try to get away or fight back
- just stayed within range (until
we realised and prevented it).
Apparently butcher birds will
mesmerise other birds or ill ones
of their own, and will kill them if
they can, sometimes through
cage bars if there's enough
space. So the quartet happened
just at that short window of time
between his first arrival, and the
others realising he was ill. If you
listen carefully you can hear his
poor little plaintive cry under the
other birds, much softer but
audible. Hope that's interesting
Hollis. All the very best, Linda
9 April 2008. It is very interesting
what you mention about the birds
imitating the pitch of the sounds
in the background. We have a
couple of wind chimes in the
shed and one of these Japanese
wind bells. I can't watch the
movie now unless I get into
YouTube, but the sound that is
normally more audible is the one
of the Japanese bell. What an ear
you got! It was filmed in a small
town named Lawrence, 29 kms
North of Grafton, Northern NSW.
Cheerio, Santi
21 June 2008. Hi Hollis, Yes, it is
pretty haunting. The serenading
group came the first day the
injured one had arrived in the
morning, but not until the end of
the day. Same on second day. It
was almost overwhelming in its
intensity. After that, only one
young male which kept watch
and systematically intimidated
'ours' in quite a scary way, so that
I had to create a physical
separation. I can only think that
happened because after the
wonderful welcome, the mob had
realised there was no hope for
him. We hear lots of gorgeous
butcher bird song but nothing like
that normally. The sound you
think might be a dove I think may
be the injured one. Have you
been able to detect its little
plaintive cry? Rythmic, single
pitch and with a gentle tone like a
dove, very soft; nothing like the
others' song. I can tell, maybe
you can too, that it's responding
272
CD ID
Track
Duration Location
Date
Time
Recordist
Notes
to the other butcher birds. It is
much softer but clearly audible at
times. Very melancholic. We
have a couple of dove species
around here but I don't think they
are heard in the footage. I see a
young butcher bird from the
window where I work, who comes
each day to a corner of the roof
and pokes around in an open
pipe end, adjacent to some
telephone cables. Yesterday I
saw it come along with a dead
mouse, sit on the cables a bit,
then put the mouse into the pipe,
leave it there and fly away! A kind
of storage space? It would be
good to watch the footage
together one day but logistically
hard. Linda
0103-Bauer
One DVD
01
05:24
Fairholme
College,
??/??/08
273
Rusell
Bauer,
22 June 2008. Yes, almost too
poignant. I think the film was
made over the two days. Santi
isn't sure either - our memories of
exactly what time of day differ a
bit. If we'd known how important it
would be to someone we would
obviously have been more
meticulous noting times etc. What
I am positive about (as I kept
notes) is that they came two days
in a row then no more. Amazing
you dreaming about it. You are
right, the vigilante bird (as with
the injured one) had a paler
browner head and paler plumage
all over; and I don't know if it was
a male or a female, just had a
strong feeling it was a male by its
behaviour. Not very scientific,
and rather sexist of me apologies. The vigilante kept
trying to attack our one through
the bars of the cage, going for the
eyes, and the poor little thing
seemed to become mesmerised
and didn't move out of range.
That's when I intervened, but
didn't want to deprive our one of
a view to the exterior. Vigilante
then sat outside the window, as
close as possible, all day long. A
bit like being in jail and having a
hitman watching your every move
so that the prospect of liberation
becomes tainted. Trying not to
anthropomorphise, or make you
upset, Linda
“During the first two minutes you
have to endure my poor attempts
CD ID
Track
Duration Location
Date
Time
Toowoomba
QLD
PBB stuffed
toy
01
00:03
Lamington NP
??/09/74
274
Recordist
Notes
Office
Q1122,
USQ Toowoomba,
Darling
Heights
QLD 4350
Jean C.
Roché?
at trying to encourage the bird to
whistle a duet with me. From
around 2:00 onwards there’s
some nice video of the bird being
attracted by the sound of another
bird in a tree about 40 metres
away.”
The toy’s label reads, in part:
“Wild Republic Birds with real bird
calls! … Authentic bird calls
provided by CEBA, Centre
Bioacoustique Alpin, recorded in
September 1974, near Lamington
National Park, Australia. Typical
male song.”
APPENDIX I:
SAMPLES OF SUPPLEMENTAL ANALYSIS SHEET AND
SUMMARY SHEET
275
276
277
APPENDIX J:
NOTATION METHOD DEVELOPED BY SKEOCH
278
279
APPENDIX K:
BIBLIOGRAPHY
280
Abraham, O., & Hornbostel, E. M., von. (1994). Suggested methods for the
transcription of exotic music. Ethnomusicology, 38(3), 425-456.
Adret, P. (2004). In search of the song template. In H. P. Zeigler & P. Marler (Eds.),
Behavioral neurobiology of birdsong (pp. 303-324). New York City: Annals of
the New York Academy of Sciences.
Agawu, K. (1995). The invention of 'African rhythm'. Music Anthropologies and Music
Histories, 48(3), 380-395.
Andersen, J. C. (1926). Bird-song and New Zealand song birds. Auckland: Whitcombe
& Tombs Limited.
Andrews, E. R. G. (1930). Bird songs. The Musical Times, 71(1047), 446.
Armstrong, E. A. (1953). Secondary song. British Birds, 46, 311.
Armstrong, E. A. (1973). A study of bird song (Second Enlarged Edition). New York:
Dover Publications.
Austern, L. P. (1998). Nature, culture, myth, and the musician in early modern
England. Journal of the American Musicological Society, 51(1), 1-47.
Axtell, H. H. (1938). The song of Kirtland's warbler. The Auk, 55, 481-491.
Balaban, E. (1988). Bird song syntax: Learned intraspecific variation is meaningful.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 85(10), 3657-3660.
Ball, P. (2008). Facing the music. Nature, 453, 160-162.
Baptista, L. F. (1975). Song dialects and demes in sedentary populations of the
white-crowned sparrow (Zonotrichi leucophrys nuttalli). University of California
Publications in Zoology, 105, 1-52.
Baptista, L. F. (1978). Territorial, courtship and duet songs of the Cuban grassquit
(Tiaris canora). Journal of Ornithology, 119, 91-101.
Baptista, L. F., & Gaunt, S. L. (1997). Social interaction and vocal development in
birds. In C. T. Snowdon & M. Hausberger (Eds.), Social influences on vocal
development (pp. 23-40). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Baptista, L. F., & Trail, P. W. (1992). The role of song in the evolution of passerine
diversity. Systematic Biology, 41(2), 242-247.
Baptista, L., & Keister, R. A. (2005). Why birdsong is sometimes like music.
Perspectives in Biology and Medicine, 48(3), 426-443.
Baptista, L., & Petrinovich, L. (1984). Social interaction, sensitive phases and the
song template hypothesis in the white-crowned sparrow. Animal Behaviour,
32(1), 172-181.
Baptista, L., & Petrinovich, L. (1986). Song development in the white-crowned
sparrow: Social factors and sex differences. Animal Behaviour, 34(5), 13591371.
281
Barrington, D. (1773-1774). Experiments and observations on the singing of birds.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 63, 249-291.
Bartók, B. (1997). Béla Bartók studies in ethnomusicology. Lincoln: University of
Nebraska Press.
Bartók, B., & Lord, A. B. (1951). Serbo-Croatian folk songs. New York: Columbia
University Press.
Bateson, G. (1972/1987). Steps to an ecology of mind: Collected essays in anthropology,
psychiatry, evolution, and epistemology. Northvale: Jason Aronson.
Baylis, J. R. (1982). Avian vocal mimicry: Its function and evolution. In D. E.
Kroodsma, E. H. Miller & H. Ouellet (Eds.), Acoustic communication in birds
(Vol. 2, pp. 51-83). New York: Academic Press.
Beaudry, N. (1978). Toward transcription and analysis of Inuit throat-games:
Macro-structure. Ethnomusicology, 22(2), 261-273.
Beecher, M. D. (1996). Birdsong learning in the laboratory and field. In D. E.
Kroodsma & E. H. Miller (Eds.), Ecology and evolution of acoustic
communication in birds (pp. 61-78). Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
Bell, A. (1956). Common Australian birds (Revised Edition, 1969 ed.). Melbourne:
Oxford University Press.
Blacking, J. (1970). Tonal organization in the music of two Venda initiation schools.
Ethnomusicology, 14(1), 1-56.
Blacking, J. (1995). How musical is man? Seattle: University of Washington Press.
Blackwell, H. R., & Schlosberg, H. (1943). Octave generalization, pitch
discrimination, and loudness thresholds in the white rat. Journal of
Experimental Psychology, 33(5), 407-419.
Blesser, B., & Salter, L.-R. (2007). Spaces speak, are you listening? Cambridge,
Massachusetts: The MIT Press.
Bodman Rae, C. (2003). String quartet no 2. Adelaide: Composer.
Bohlman, P. V. (1999). Ontologies of music. In N. Cook & M. Everist (Eds.),
Rethinking music (pp. 17-34). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Bondesen, P. (1977). North American bird songs - a world of music. Klampenborg,
Denmark: Scandinavian Science Press.
Borgo, D. (2007). Sync or swarm: Improvising music in a complex age. New York:
Continuum.
Boughey, M. J., & Thompson, N. S. (1976). Species specificity and individual
variation in the songs of the brown thrasher (Toxostoma rufum) and catbird
(Cumetella carolinensis). Behaviour, 57(1-2), 64-90.
Bourke, P. A. (1958). Birds and the health of man. Emu, 58, 94-96.
282
Bowman, W. D. (1998). Philosophical perspectives on music. New York: Oxford
University Press.
Boyden, D. D. and Stowell, R.: Glissando. In Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy.
Retrieved 17 July 2007, from http://www.grovemusic.com.
Bradbury, J. W., & Vehrencamp, S. L. (1998). Principles of animal communication.
Sunderland, Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates.
Bradley, J., Holmes, M., Marrngawi, D. H., Karrakayn, A. I., Wuwarlu, J. M., &
Ninganga, I. (2006). Yumbulyumbulmantha ki-Awarawu, all kinds of things from
country: Yanyuwa ethnobiological classification. Brisbane: The University of
Queensland, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies Unit.
Brand, A. R. (1935). A method for the intensive study of bird song. The Auk, 52, 4052.
Brandily, M. (1982). Songs to birds among the Teda of Chad. Ethnomusicology, 26(3),
371-390.
Brant, H. (1967). Space as an essential aspect of musical composition. In E.
Schwartz & B. Childs (Eds.), Contemporary composers on contemporary music
(pp. 221-242). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Bregman, A. S. (1990). Auditory scene analysis: The perceptual organization of sound.
Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.
Broughton, W. B. (1963). Method in bio-acoustic terminology. In R.-G. Busnel
(Ed.), Acoustic behaviour of animals (pp. 3-24). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Brown, E. D., & Farabaugh, S. M. (1991). Song sharing in a group-living songbird,
the Australian magpie, Gymnorhina tibicen. Part III. Sex specificity and
individual specificity of vocal parts in communal chorus and duet songs.
Behaviour, 118(3-4), 244-274.
Burton, F. R. (1909). American primitive music. New York: Moffat, Yard and
Company.
Cameron, A. (1971). Pied butcher-bird. Sunbird: Journal of the Queensland
Ornithological Society, 2, 78-79.
Cameron, A. C. (1970). The vocabulary of the noisy miner, Myzantha melanocephala.
Sunbird: Journal of the Queensland Ornithological Society, 1, 17-24.
Campbell, A. J., & Barnard, H. G. (1917). Birds of the Rockingham Bay district,
north Queensland. Emu, 17(1), 2-38.
Carter, T. (1903). Birds occurring in the region of the North-West Cape. Emu, 3,
89-96.
Catchpole, C. K., & Slater, P. J. B. (1995). Bird song: Biological themes and variations.
Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.
Cayley, N. W. (2000). What bird is that? Dingley, VIC: R Editions.
283
Charron, C. (1978). Toward transcription and analysis of Inuit throat-games:
Micro-structure. Ethnomusicology, 22(2), 245-259.
Cheney, S. P. (1892). Wood notes wild: Notations of bird music. Boston: Lee and
Shepard.
Chisholm, A. H. (1937). The problem of vocal mimicry. The Ibis, 1(4), 703-721.
Chisholm, A. H. (1946). Nature's linguists: A study of the riddle of vocal mimicry.
Melbourne: Brown, Prior, Anderson.
Chisholm, A. H. (1947). More about vocal mimics. Victorian Naturalist, 64, 25-26.
Chisholm, A. H. (1950). Further notes on vocal mimicry. Emu, 49, 232-234.
Cleland, J. B. (1931). Notes on the birds of Central Australia, between Alice Springs
and Macdonald Downs. South Australian Ornithologist, 11, 13-21.
Cleland, J. B. (1932). Notes on Central Australian birds--Alice Springs to Cockatoo
Creek. South Australian Ornithologist, 11(5), 126-135.
Cody, M. L., & Brown, J. H. (1969). Song asynchrony in neighbouring bird species.
Nature, 272, 778-780.
Cole, H. (1974). Sounds and signs: Aspects of musical notation. London: Oxford
University Press.
Cook, N. (1998). Music: A very short introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Covell, R. (1967). Australia's music. Melbourne: Sun Books.
Craig, W. (1943). The song of the wood pewee Myiochanes virens linnaeus: A study of bird
music (Vol. 334). Albany, New York: The University of the State of New
York.
Cross, I. (1993). The Chinese music box. Interface, 22(2), 165-172.
Crossman, A. F. (1909). Birds seen at Cumminin Station, Western Australia. Emu,
IX(1 October 1909), 84-90.
Crouch, H. W. (2001). The pre-dawn call of the white-plumed honeyeater
Lichenostomus penicillatus. South Australian Ornithologist, 33(8), 155-163.
Curtis, H. S., & Taylor, H. (2008). Olivier Messiaen and the Albert's lyrebird: From
Tamborine Mountain to Éclairs sur l'au-delà. Paper presented at the
International Conference of Messiaen Studies, The University of Southern
Queensland.
Dabelsteen, T., McGregor, P. K., Lampe, H. M., Langmore, N. E., & Holland, J.
(1998). Quiet song in song birds: An overlooked phenomenon. Bioacoustics, 9,
89-105.
284
Darwin, C. (1871). The descent of man, and selection in relation to sex Vol. I and II
(Reprint of the 1871 ed. published by J. Murray, London, 1981 ed.).
Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Davies, S. (2004). Bird Song. In Siobhan Davies Dance Company, Royal Opera House,
Covent Garden (dance concert). London: 21 March 2004.
Dean, B. (2000/rev. 2001). Pastoral symphony. For chamber orchestra. London:
Boosey & Hawkes.
Demuth, N. (1960). Messiaen's early birds. The Musical Times, 101(1412), 627-629.
Dixon, H. (2004). The blue wrens and the butcher-bird. For soprano voice and
piano. Wollongong: Wirripang.
Dooling, R. J. (1982). Auditory perception in birds. In D. E. Kroodsma, E. H. Miller
& H. Ouellet (Eds.), Acoustic communication in birds: Song learning and its
consequences, vol. 2 (pp. 95-130). New York: Academic Pres.
Dooling, R. J. (1989). Perception of complex, species-specific vocalizations by birds
and humans. In R. J. Dooling & S. H. Hulse (Eds.), The comparative psychology
of audition: Perceiving complex sounds (pp. 423-444). Hillsdale: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates.
Doolittle, E. L. (2003). Music for magpies. For viola da gamba with quarter-tone
frets, cello, or viola. Princeton: Composer.
Doolittle, E. L. (2006). Other species' counterpoint: An investigation of the relationship
between human music and animal songs. Unpublished PhD. dissertation,
Princeton University, Princeton.
Doolittle, E. (2008). Crickets in the concert hall: A history of animals in Western
music, Transcultural Music Review (Vol. 12, pp. 1-19). Retrieved 5 August
2008, from http://www.sibetrans.com/trans/trans12/art09.htm.
Doupe, A. J., & Kuhl, P. K. (1999). Birdsong and human speech: Common themes
and mechanisms. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 22, 567-631.
Doyle, H. A. (1953). Rufous song-lark's singing. Emu, 53, 332-333.
Edwards, S. V., & Boles, W. E. (2002). Out of Gondwana: The origin of passerine
birds. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 17(8), 347-349.
Ericson, P. G. P., Christidis, L., Cooper, A., Irestedt, M., Jackson, J., Johansson, U.
S., et al. (2002). A Gondwanan origin of passerine birds supported by DNA
sequences of the endemic New Zealand wrens. Proceedings of the Royal Society
of London, Series B: Biological Sciences, 269, 235-241.
Falconer, D. S. (1941). Observations on the singing of the chaffinch. British Birds,
35(5), 98-104.
Fales, C. (2002). The paradox of timbre. Ethnomusicology, 46(1), 56-95.
285
Fallon, R. (2007). The record of realism in Messiaen’s bird style. In C. Dingle & N.
Simeone (Eds.), Olivier Messiaen: Music, art, and literature (pp. 115-136).
Aldershot: Ashgate.
Feld, S. (1990). Sound and sentiment: Birds, weeping, poetics, and song in Kaluli
expression (Second ed.). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Feld, S. (2000). The poetics and politics of Pygmy pop. In G. Born & D.
Hesmondhalgh (Eds.), Western music and its others: Difference, representation,
and appropriation in music (pp. 254-279). Berkeley: University of California
Press.
Feld, S. (2003). A rainforest acoustemology. In M. Bull & L. Back (Eds.), The
auditory culture reader (pp. 223-239). Oxford: Berg.
Feynmann, R. P. (1999). The pleasure of finding things out. London: Allen Lane.
Fitch, W. T. (2006). The biology and evolution of music: A comparative
perspective. Cognition, 100(1), 173-215.
Fleay, D. (1953). Polygamy in the pied butcher-bird. Emu, 53, 262-263.
Fletcher, N. H. (1992). Acoustic systems in biology. New York: Oxford University
Press.
Fletcher, N. H. (2006). Birdsong science. Australian Science, 27(9), 35-37.
Frith, H. J. (Ed.). (1969). Birds in the Australian high country. Sydney: A.H. & A.W.
Reed.
Frith, H. J. (Ed.). (1976). Complete book of Australian birds. Sydney: Reader's Digest.
Galison, P. (1997). Image and logic: A material culture of microphysics. Chicago: The
University of Chicago Press.
Gardiner, W. (1840). The music of nature. London: Longman, Orme, Brown, Green,
and Longmans.
Garfias, R. (1964). Transcription I. Ethnomusicology, 8(3), 233-240.
Garstang, W. (1922/1923). Song of the birds (Revised and Enlarged, 1923 ed.).
London: John Lane the Bodley Head.
Gaunt, A. S. (1983). An hypothesis concerning the relationship of syringeal
structure to vocal abilities. The Auk, 100, 853-862.
Giddings, D. (undated). Birdsong and music. Retrieved 12 January 2008, from
http://www.colander.org/gallimaufry/Birdsong.html.
Glass, G. (1992). The dawn call of the pied butcherbird near Toowoomba. Sunbird:
Journal of the Queensland Ornithological Society, 22, 19-20.
Godman, S. (Ed.). (1955/1717). The bird fancyer's delight. Mainz: Schott.
286
Goller, F., & Larsen, O. N. (1997). A new mechanism of sound generation in
songbirds. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 94(26),
14878-14791.
Goller, F., & Larsen, O. N. (2002). New perspectives on mechanisms of sound
generation in songbirds. Journal of Comparative Physiology A, 188, 841-850.
Goodfellow, D. L., & Stott, M. (2005). Birds of Australia's top end. Sydney: Reed New
Holland.
Gould, J. (1848). Birds of Australia. London: Author.
Gould, J. (1865/1972). Handbook to the birds of Australia. Melbourne: Lansdowne
Press.
Gourlay, K. A. (1978). Towards a reassessment of the ethnomusicologist's role in
research. Ethnomusicology, 22(1), 1-35.
Grady, W. (2000). The bone musuem. New York: Four Walls Eight Windows.
Grafe, T. J., Bitz, J. H., & Wink, M. (2004). Song repertoire and duetting behaviour
of the tropical boubou, Laniarius aethiopicus. Animal Behaviour, 68(1), 181191.
Greenberg, R. (1987). Seasonal foraging specialization in the worm-eating warbler.
Condor, 89, 158-168.
Greenewalt, C. H. (1968). Bird song: Acoustics and physiology (Book and LP). City of
Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press.
Griffin, D. R. (1992). Animal minds (Paperback 1994 ed.). Chicago: The University
of Chicago Press.
Halafoff, K. C. (1959). Musical analysis of the lyrebird's song. Victorian Naturalist,
75, 169-178.
Halafoff, K. C. (1968). A survey of birds' music. Emu, 68(1), 21-40.
Hall-Craggs, J. (1962). The development of song in the blackbird. Ibis, 104(3), 277300.
Hall, M. (2002-2003). Duetting larks. Nature Australia, 27(7), 52-59.
Hall, M. (2003). Between two worlds: The music of David Lumsdaine. East Sussex: Arc
Publications.
Hall, M. L. (2004). A review of hypotheses for the functions of avian duetting.
Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 55(5), 415-430.
Hansen, M. (1997). Australian birdsong improvisations (CD). Australia: Plateau Road
Records.
Haraway, D. J. (1991). Simians, cyborgs, and women: The reinvention of nature. London:
Free Association Books.
287
Harper, D. (1992). Images of Australia. For string quintet (Score, Q 785.715/HAR
4). Sydney: Australian Music Centre.
Harper, D. (1997). Butcher birds. On Images of Australia (CD 456 675-2). Sydney:
ABC.
Harrison, F. (1977). Universals in music: Towards a methodology of comparative
research. The World of Music: Quarterly Journal of the International Institute for
Comparative Music Studies and Documentation, 19(1/2), 30-36.
Hartshorne, C. (1953). Musical values in Australian songbirds. Emu, 53, 109-128.
Hartshorne, C. (1958). The relation of bird song to music. Ibis, 100, 421-445.
Hartshorne, C. (1973). Born to sing: An interpretation and world survey of bird song.
Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press.
Harting, J. E. (1866). The birds of Middlesex. London: John Van Voorst.
Healey, C. (2007). Book review. Journal of Ethnobiology, 27(1), 133-135.
Higgins, P. J., Peter, J. M., & Cowling, S. J. (Eds.). (2006). Handbook of Australian,
New Zealand & Antarctic birds (Vol. 7A). Melbourne: Oxford University
Press.
Hill, P. (Ed.). (1994). The Messiaen companion. Portland, OR: Amadeus Press.
Hill, P., & Simeone, N. (2005). Messiaen. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Hindley, D. (1990). The music of birdsong. Wildlife Sound, 6(4), 25-33.
Hindley, D. (1992). In memory of the huia, d. c. 1907. On Lifesong: Amazing sounds of
threatened birds (Cassette MAN2). Cambridge, U.K.: Mankind Music.
Hindwoood, K. A., & McGill, A. R. (1951). The Derra Derra 1950 camp-out of the
R.A.O.U. Emu, 50(4), 217-239.
Hold, T. (1970). The notation of bird-song: A review and recommendation. Ibis,
112(2), 111-172.
Hold, T. (1971). Messiaen's birds. Music & Letters, 52(2), 113-122.
Horn, A. G. (1996). Dawn song repertoires of tree swallows (Tachycineta bicolor).
Canadian Journal of Zoology, 74(6), 1084-1091.
Horn, A. G., & Falls, J. B. (1988). Repertoires and countersinging in western
meadowlarks (Sturnella neglecta). Ethology, 77, 337-343.
Hulse, S. H., & Page, S. C. (1988). Toward a comparative psychology of music
perception. Music Perception, 5(4), 427-452.
Hultsch, H., & Todt, D. (2004). Learning to sing. In P. Marler & H. Slabbekoorn
(Eds.), Nature's music: The science of birdsong (pp. 80-107). Amsterdam:
Elsevier Academic Press.
288
Huron, D. (2008). Lost in music. Nature, 453, 456-457.
Hyem, E. L. (1969). Butcher bird notes. Wildlife in Australia, 6(1), 123.
Ingraham, S. E. (1938). Instinctive music. The Auk, 55, 614-628.
Jairazbhoy, N. A. (1977). The "objective" and subjective view in music
transcription. Ethnomusicology, 21(2), 263-273.
James, B. (1990). The Rhos blackbirds - 1980-89. Wildlife Sound, 6, 42-45.
Jellis, R. (1977). Bird sounds and their meaning. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University
Press.
Jensen, R. d. A. (1985). Birdsong and the imitation of birdsong in the music of the
Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Current Musicology, 40, 50-65.
Johnson, G. (2003). Vocalisations in the grey butcherbird Cracticus torquatus with
emphasis on structure in male breeding song: Implications for the function and
evolution of song from a study of a southern hemisphere species. Unpublished PhD.
dissertation, Griffith University, Nathan, Queensland.
Johnson, R. S. (1994). Birdsong. In R. G. Pauly (Ed.), The Messiaen companion (pp.
249-265). Portland: Amadeus Press.
Jones, D. N., & Wieneke, J. (2000). The suburban bird community of Townsville
revisited: Changes over 16 years. Corella, 24(4), 53-60.
Jurisevic, M. A., & Sanderson, K. J. (1994). Alarm vocalisations in Australian birds:
Convergent characteristics and phylogenetic differences. Emu, 94, 69-77.
Karkoschka, E. (1966). Notation in new music: A critical guide to interpretation and
realisation (R. Koenig, Trans. 1972 ed.). London: Universal.
Keast, A. (1994). Temporal vocalisation patterns in members of a eucalypt forest
bird community: The effects of weather on song production. Emu, 94, 172180.
Keast, J. A. (1944). A winter list from the Tweed River district, NSW, with remarks
on some nomadic species. Emu, 43, 177-187.
Kivy, P. (1990). Music alone: Philosophical reflections on the purely musical experience.
Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
Klopfer, P. H. (1970). Sensory physiology and esthetics. American Scientist, 58, 399403.
Koehler, O. (1954). Der Vogelsang als Vorstufe von Musik and Sprache. Journal of
Ornithology, 93, 3-20.
Kolinski, M. (1964). Transcription II. Ethnomusicology, 8(3), 241-251.
Kolinski, M. (1967). Recent trends in ethnomusicology. Ethnomusicology, 11(1), 1-24.
289
Konishi, M. (1985). Birdsong: From behavior to neuron. Annual Review of
Neuroscience, 8, 125-170.
Krause, B. (2002). Wild soundscapes: Discovering the voice of the natural world (First
ed.). Berkeley: Wilderness Press.
Kroodsma, D. E. (1977). Correlates of song organization among north american
wrens. The American Naturalist, 111(981), 995-1008.
Kroodsma, D. E. (1996). Ecology of passerine song development. In D. E.
Kroodsma, D. E. (2004). The diversity and plasticity of birdsong. In P. Marler & H.
Slabbekoorn (Eds.), Nature's music: The science of birdsong (pp. 108-131).
Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Kroodsma, D. E. (2004). Vocal behavior. In S. Podulka, Rohrbaugh, Jr., R.W. & R.
Bonney (Eds.), Handbook of bird biology (pp. 7.1-7.98). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of
Ornithology.
Kroodsma, D. E. (2005). The singing life of birds: The art and science of listening to
birdsong (Book and CD ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Kuljuntausta, P., & Martinelli, D. (2005). A zoomusicological essay. On Zoosphere
(CD). http://www.aureobel.com/zoosphere: Composers.
Kunst, J. (1974). Ethnomusicology (Third ed.). The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff.
Langmore, N. E. (1998). Functions of duet and solo songs of female birds. Trends in
Ecology & Evolution, 13(4), 136-140.
Langmore, N. E. (2000). Why female birds sing. In Y. Espmark, T. Amundsen & G.
Rosenqvist (Eds.), Animal signals: Signalling and signal design in animal
communication (pp. 317-327). Trondheim, Norway: Tapir Academic Press.
Le Guin, E. (1999). Cello-and-bow thinking: Boccherini's cello sonata in Eb major,
Fuori Catalogo, Echo. Retrieved 26 May 2008, from
www.echo.ucla.edu/volume1-issue1/leguin/leguin-article.html.
Lee, I. (2006). The need for a new notational system for Korean traditional music:
Focusing on gagok. Asian Musicology, 8, 71-94.
Lestel, D. (2001). Les origines animales de la culture. Paris: Flammarion.
Lemaire, F. (1975). Dialectal variations in the imitative song of the marsh warbler
(Acrocephalus palustris) in western and eastern Belgium. Le Gerfaut, 65, 95106.
Levitin, D. J. (2006). This is your brain on music: The science of a human obsession. New
York: Dutton.
290
Lidov, D. (1997). Our time with the Druids: What (and how) we can recuperate
from our obsession with segmental hierarchies and other 'tree structures'.
Contemporary Music Review, 16(4), 1-28.
List, G. (1964). Transcription III. Ethnomusicology, 8(3), 252-265.
List, G. (1971). On the non-universality of musical perspectives. Ethnomusicology,
15(3), 399-402.
List, G. (1974). The reliability of transcription. Ethnomusicology, 18(3), 353-377.
List, G. (1979). Ethnomusicology: A discipline defined. Ethnomusicology, 23(1), 1-4.
Lister, M. D. (1953). Secondary song: A tentative classification. British Birds, 46(8),
139-143.
Lomax, A. (1956). Folk song style: Notes on a systematic approach to the study of
folk song. Journal of the International Folk Music Council, 8, 48-50.
Lord, E. A. R. (1941). Bird mimicry. Emu, 41, 90-91.
Lord, E. A. R. (1945). Cracticus nigrogularis (black-throated butcher bird) as mimic.
Queensland Naturalist, XII(6), 118-119.
Lord, E. A. R. (1956). The birds of the Murphy's Creek district, Southern
Queensland. Emu, 56, 100-128.
Lumsdaine, D. (1991). Mandala 4. For string quartet. York: University of York
Music Press.
Lumsdaine, D. (1996). Pied butcherbirds of Spirey Creek. On Mutawinji (CD and
accompanying booklet). Glebe, NSW: Tall Poppies Records.
Lynch, A., Plunkett, G. M., Baker, A. J., & Jenkins, P. F. (1989). A model of cultural
evolution of chaffinch song derived with the meme concept. The American
Naturalist, 133(5), 634-653.
Mâche, F.-B. (1983/1992). Music, myth and nature (S. Delaney, Trans. Vol. 6).
Switzerland: Harwood Academic Publishers.
Mâche, F.-B. (2000). The necessity of and problems with a universal musicology. In
N. L. Wallin, B. Merker & S. Brown (Eds.), The origins of music (pp. 473479). Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press.
Mâche, F.-B. (2001). Musique au singulier. Paris: Éditions Odile Jacob.
Malloch, S. (2004). An exploration of timbre analysis: The game of sound in two
performances of Jeux vénitiens. Musicae Scientiae, VIII(1), 53-81.
Marler, P. (1955). Characteristics of some animal calls. Nature, 176(4470), 6-8.
Marler, P. (1961). The logical analysis of animal communication. Journal of
Theoretical Biology, 1, 295-317.
291
Marler, P. (1981). Birdsong: The acquisition of a learned motor skill. Trends in
Neurosciences, 4, 88-94.
Marler, P. (1990). Song learning: The interface between behaviour and
neuroethology. Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences, 329(1253), 109114.
Marler, P. (1994). The instinct to learn. In P. Bloom (Ed.), Language acquisition: Core
readings (pp. 591-617). Cambridge MA: The MIT Press.
Marler, P. (1997). Three models of song learning: Evidence from behavior. Journal
of Neurobiology, 33, 501-516.
Marler, P. (2004). Bird calls: Their potential for behavioral neurobiology. In H. P.
Zeigler & P. Marler (Eds.), Behavioral neurobiology of birdsong (pp. 31-44).
New York: The New York Academy of Sciences.
Marler, P., & Hamilton III, W. J. (1966). Mechanisms of animal behavior. New York:
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Marler, P., & Peters, S. (1982a). Long-term storage of learned birdsongs prior to
production. Animal Behaviour, 30(2), 479-482.
Marler, P., & Peters, S. (1982b). Structural changes in song ontogeny in the swamp
sparrow Melospiza georgiana. The Auk, 99, 446-458.
Marler, P., & Tamura, M. (1964). Culturally transmitted patterns of vocal behavior
in sparrows. Science, 146(3650), 1483-1486.
Marshall, A. J. (1950). The function of vocal mimicry in birds. Emu, 50, 5-16.
Martinelli, D. (2001). Symptomatology of a semiotic research: Methodologies and
problems in zoömusicology. Sign Systems Studies, 29(1), 1-12.
Martinelli, D. (2002). How musical is a whale? Towards a theory of zoömusicology.
Hakapaino: International Semiotics Institute.
Martinelli, D. (2007). Zoosemiotics: Proposals for a handbook. Imatra: International
Semiotics Institute.
Martinelli, D. (2008). Zoomusicology and the analysis of nightingale songs,
Symposium in Zoomusicology: The nightingale song between art and research.
Jäärvenpää, Finland.
Mathews, F. S. (1921/1967). Field book of wild birds & their music (Dover 1967 ed.).
New York: Dover Publications.
Mathews, G. M. (1918). Birds of the North and North-West of Australia. South
Australian Ornithologist, 3.
Mauleón-Santana, R. (1999). 101 montunos. Petaluma: Sher Music Co.
McClary, S. (2000). Conventional wisdom: The content of musical form. Berkeley:
University of California Press.
292
McClary, S., & Walser, R. (1990). Start making sense! Musicology wrestles with
rock. In S. Frith & A. Goodwin (Eds.), On record: Rock, pop, and the written
word (pp. 277-292). New York: Routledge.
McCollester, R. (1960). A transcription technique used by Zygmunt Estreicher.
McDermott, J., & Hauser, M. (2005). The origins of music: Innateness, uniqueness,
and evolution. Music Perception, 23(1), 29-59.
McDonald, N. H. E. (1940). Butcher-bird mimicry. Emu, 39, 299-300.
McGilp, J. N. (1935). Birds of the Musgrave Ranges. Emu, 34, 163-176.
McLean, M. (1964). A preliminary analysis of 87 Maori chants. Ethnomusicology,
8(1), 41-48.
Merriam, A. P. (1963). Purposes of ethnomusicology, an anthropological view.
Ethnomusicology, 7(3, Tenth Anniversary Issue), 206-213.
Merriam, A. P. (1964). The anthropology of music. Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern
University Press.
Merriam, A. P. (1969). Ethnomusicology revisited. Ethnomusicology, 13(2), 213-229.
Messiaen, O. (1944). The technique of my musical language. Paris: Alphonse Leduc.
Messiaen, O. (1994-2002). Traité de rythme, de couleur, et d'ornithologie (1949-1992)
(Vol. Tome V, 1er Volume - Chants d'Oiseaux d'Europe). Paris: Éditions
Musicales Alphonse Leduc.
(Vol. Tome V, 2e Volume - Chants d'Oiseaux Extra-Européens). Paris:
Éditions Musicales Alphonse Leduc.
Messiaen, O. (1998). Éclairs sur l'au-delà. For full orchestra. Paris: Éditions
Miller, B. E. (1928). Some birds of Mount Tambourine, South Queensland. Emu, 23,
131-133.
Milligan, A. W. (1905). Notes on a trip to the Yandanooka district, Western
Australia. Emu, 4(4), 151-157.
Morcombe, M. (1986). The great Australian birdfinder. Sydney: Lansdowne Press.
Morris, D. (1962). The biology of art. London: Methuen & Co.
Morris, S. (1925). Bird song: A manual for field naturalists. London: Witherby.
Morse, F. C. (1922). Birds of the Moree district. Emu, 22, 24-36.
293
Mulder, R. A., Bishop, H., Cooper, M., Dennis, S., & Koetsveld, M. (2003). Alternate
functions for duet and solo songs in magpie-larks, Grallina cyanoleuca.
Australian Journal of Zoology, 51, 25-30.
Nagorcka, R. (2004). Artamidae (CD). Tasmania: ABC Classic FM.
Navickaite, L. (2008). Centuries of nightingale-inspired music, Symposium in
Zoomusicology: The nightingale song between art and research. Jäärvenpää,
Finland.
Nelson, R. K. (1983). Make prayers to the raven: A Koyukon view of the northern forest.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Nettl, B. (1983). The study of ethnomusicology: Twenty-nine issues and concepts. Urbana:
University of Illinois Press.
Nichols, R. (1972). Messiaen's birds. Music & Letters, 53(2), 233-234.
Nielsen, L. (1962). Distribution of the pied butcher-bird. Australian Bird Watcher, 1,
193.
Nollman, J. (1997). Fowl play: Creating interspecies music. Orion, 16(2), 12-15.
North, M. E. W. (1950). Transcribing bird-song. Ibis, 92, 99-114.
Nottebohm, F. (1971). Neural lateralization of vocal control in a passerine bird. The
Journal of Experimental Zoology, 177, 229-262.
Nottebohm, F. (1989). From bird song to neurogenesis. Scientific American, 260(2),
56-61.
Nowicki, S., & Marler, P. (1988). How do birds sing? Music Perception, 5(4), 391-426.
Olds, W. B. (1922). Bird-music. The Musical Quarterly, 8(2), 242-255.
Peter, J. M. (2006). Some indigenous names of Australian birds (Birds Australia Report
No. 20 No. 20). Hawthorn East: Birds Australia.
Pizzey, G. (1980). A field guide to the birds of Australia. Sydney: Collins.
Podulka, S., Rohrbaugh, Jr., R. W., & Bonney, R. (Eds.). (2004). Handbook of bird
biology. Ithaca, New York: Cornell Lab of Ornithology.
Polanyi, M. (1958). Personal knowledge: Towards a post-critical philosophy. London:
Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Pollock, H. J. (1979). Wonder birds of Australia and their calls. Milton, QLD: The
Jacaranda Press.
Pont, G. (1988). The origin of music: New light on an old hypothesis. In J. MongeNájera (Ed.), Music origins and biomusicology: Music seen by philosophy and
science (pp. 29-35). San José, Costa Rica: Universidad Estatal a Distancia.
294
Power, D. M. (1966). Antiphonal duetting and evidence for auditory reaction time
in the orange-chinned parakeet. The Auk, 83, 314-319.
Powys, V. (2007). Variation in the song of the pied butcherbird. AudioWings, 10(2),
9-12.
Prum, R. O. (1998). Sexual selection and the evolution of mechanical sound
production in manakins (aves: Pipridae). Animal Behaviour, 55(4), 977-994.
Qureshi, R. B. (1999). Other musicologies: Exploring issues and confronting
practice in India. In N. Cook & M. Everist (Eds.), Rethinking music (pp. 311335). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Ratcliffe, L., & Weisman, R. (1992). Pitch processing strategies in birds: A
comparision of laboratory and field studies. In P. K. McGregor (Ed.),
Playback and studies of animal communication (pp. 211-223). New York:
Plenum Press.
Rautavaara, E. (1972). Cantus Arcticus, op. 61 (Concerto for birds and orchestra). For
orchestra and taped birds. Naxos 8.554147.
Read, G. (1969/1979). Music notation: A manual of modern practice. New York:
Taplinger Publishing Company.
Reid, J. (1977). Transcription in a new mode. Ethnomusicology, 21(3), 415-433.
Rendell, L., & Whitehead, H. (2001). Culture in whales and dolphins. Behavioral and
Brain Sciences, 24(2), 309-382.
Rhoades, W. (1963). Musicology and musical performance (comments on Hood,
"Musical significance"). Ethnomusicology, 7(3, Tenth Anniversary Issue), 198200.
Rhoades, W. (1964). Transcription IV. Ethnomusicology, 8(3), 265-272.
Richman, B. (1987). Rhythm and melody in gelada vocal exchanges. Primates, 28(2),
199-223.
Roberts, H. H. (1932). Melodic composition and scale foundations in primitive
music. American Anthropologist, New Series, 34(1), 79-107.
Robinson, A. (1956). The annual reproductory cycle of the magpie, Gymnorhina
dorsalis Campbell, in south-western Australia. Emu, 56(4), 233-335.
Robinson, A. (1994). Helpers-at-the-nest in pied butcherbirds, Cracticus nigrogularis.
Unpublished PhD. dissertation, Griffith University, Nathan.
Roché, J. C. (2007). Les grands virtuoses: Les plus beaux chants d'oiseaux (CD). France:
Fremeaux & Associés.
Rogers, A. C., Langmore, N. E., & Mulder, R. A. (2007). Function of pair duets in
the eastern whipbird: Cooperative defense or sexual conflict? Behavioral
Ecology, 18(1), 182-188.
295
Rogers, L. J., & Kaplan, G. (2000). Songs, roars, and rituals: Communication in birds,
mammals, and other animals. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University
Press.
Rose, J. (2007). Listening to history: Some proposals for reclaiming the practice of
music. Sydney: The 2007 Peggy Glanville-Hicks Address.
Rothenberg, D. (2001). Dawn solo from pied butcherbirds of Spirey Creek. On The
disc of music and nature. In D. Rothenberg & M. Ulvaeus (Eds.), The book of
music & nature. Middletown, Connecticut: Wesleyan University Press.
Rothenberg, D. (2001). The disc of music and nature. In D. Rothenberg & M.
Ulvaeus (Eds.), The book of music & nature (pp. 231-247). Middletown,
Connecticut: Wesleyan University Press.
Rothenberg, D. (2005). Why birds sing: A journey into the mystery of bird song. New
York: Basic Books.
Rothenberg, D., & Ulvaeus, M. (Eds.). (2001). The book of music & nature.
Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press.
Rowan, W. (1924). A practical method of recording bird-calls. British Birds, 18(1),
14-18.
Rushton, J.: Klangfarbenmelodie. In Grove Music Online, ed. ed. L. Macy. Retrieved
18 July 2007, from http://www.grovemusic.com.
Sachs, C. (1948). Some remarks about old notation. The Musical Quarterly, 34(3),
365-370.
Sacks, O. (2007). Musicophilia: Tales of music and the brain. New York: Alfred A.
Knopf.
Samuel, C. (1994). Olivier Messiaen: Music and color (E. T. Glasow, Trans.). Portland:
Amadeus Press.
Sartre, J.-P. (1947). I discovered jazz in America. Saturday Review of Literature, 29
November 1947, 48-49.
Saunders, A. A. (1935/1951). A guide to bird songs: Descriptions and diagrams of the
songs and singing habits of land birds and selected species of shore birds. Garden
City, New York: Doubleday & Company.
Schafer, R. M. (1977). The tuning of the world. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
Schoenberg, A. (1967). Fundamentals of musical composition. London: Faber and
Faber Limited.
Seashore, C. E. (1938/1967). Psychology of music (1967 ed.). New York: Dover.
Sedgwick, E. H. (1947). Northern Territory bird notes. Emu, 46, 349-378.
Sedgwick, E. H. (1949). Proceedings of the Annual Congress of the R.A.O.U., Perth,
1948. Emu, 48, 177-211.
296
Sedgwick, E. H. (1951). Nocturnal bird song. Emu, 50, 266.
Seeger, A. (1979). What can we learn when they sing? Vocal genres of the Suya
Indians of central Brazil. Ethnomusicology, 23(3), 373-394.
Seeger, C. (1958). Prescriptive and descriptive music-writing. The Musical Quarterly,
44(2), 184-195.
Serventy, D. L. (1929). Ornithological notes on the Irwin Valley, Western
Australia. Emu, XXVIII(1 January 1929), 192-197.
Serventy, D. L., & Whittell, H. M. (1976). Birds of Western Australia (Fifth ed.).
Perth: University of Western Australia Press.
Sessions, R. (1950). The musical experience of composer, performer, listener. Princeton:
Princeton University Press.
Sethares, W. A. (1999). Tuning, timbre, spectrum, scale (Second ed.). London:
Springer-Verlag.
Seton, E. T. (1898/1991). Wild animals I have known. Toronto: McClelland &
Stewart.
Seyfarth, R. M., & Cheney, D. L. (2003). Signalers and receivers in animal
communication. Annual Review of Psychology, 54, 145-173.
Shilling, D. (1948). The birds of Upper Liveringa Station, Western Australia. Emu,
48, 64-72.
Shiovitz, K. A. (1975). The process of species-specific song recognition by the
indigo bunting, Passerina cyanea, and its relationship to the organization of
avian acoustical behavior. Behaviour, 55, 128-179.
Siegel, J. A., & Siegel, W. (1977). Categorical perception of tonal intervals:
Musicians can't tell sharp from flat. Perception & Psychophysics, 21(5), 399-407.
Siegfried, T. (2006). A beautiful math: John Nash, game theory, and the modern quest for
a code of nature. Washington, D.C.: Joseph Henry Press.
Sloboda, J. A. (1985). The musical mind: The cognitive psychology of music (Vol. 5).
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Small, C. (1998). Musicking. Hanover: Wesleyan University Press.
Smith, A. B. (1922). The blackbird's song. The Musical Times, 63(953), 480-481.
Smith, W. J. (1991). Singing is based on two markedly different kinds of signaling.
Journal of Theoretical Biology, 152, 241-253.
Snyder, B. (2000). Music and memory. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.
Sotavalta, O. (1956). Analysis of the song patterns of two sprosser nightingales,
Luscinia luscinia. Annals of the Finnish Zoological Society "Vanamo", 17(4), 1-31.
297
Spector, D. A. (1994). Definition in biology: The case of 'bird song'. Journal of
Stadler, A., & Schmitt, C. (1914). The study of bird-notes. British Birds, 8(1), 2-8.
Stainer, J. F. R. (1899). Singing birds. The Musical Times and Singing Class Circular,
40(680), 671-672.
Stevens, C. (2004). Cross-cultural studies of musical pitch and time. Acoustical
Science & Technology, 26(6), 433-438.
Suchoff, B. (1976). Béla Bartók essays. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
Sullivan, C. (1931). Notes from North-Western New South Wales. Emu, 31, 124135.
Sundberg, J. (1999). The perception of singing. In D. Deutsch (Ed.), The psychology
of music (pp. 171-214). San Diego: Academic Press.
Sundberg, J., Prame, E., & Iwarsson, J. (1996). Replicability and accuracy in pitch
patterns in professional singers. In P. J. Davis & N. H. Fletcher (Eds.), Vocal
fold physiology: Controlling complexity and chaos (pp. 291-306). San Diego:
Singular Publishing Group.
Szőke, P. (1963). Ornitomuzikológia. Magyar Tudomany, 9, 592-607.
Szőke, P., & Filip, M. (1977). The study of intonation structure of bird
vocalizations: An inadequate application of sound spectrography. Opuscula
Zoologica Budapest, XIV(1-2), 127-154.
Talbot, M. (2008, 12 May 2008). Birdbrain. The New Yorker, 64-75.
Tarr, E. H. (2008). Fanfare. In Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy. Retrieved 5 August
2008, from http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.
Tarr, H. E. (1961). Notes on the pied butcher-bird. Australian Bird Watcher, 1, 139140.
Tate, H. (1923). Australian musical possibilities. Melbourne: Edward Vidler.
Taylor, H. (2005). A call of the pied butcherbird. AudioWings, 8(2), 4-8.
Taylor, H. (2006). Frequency measurements on a phrase of the pied butcherbird.
AudioWings, 9(2), 15-18.
Taylor, H. (2007). Post impressions: A travel book for tragic intellectuals. Portland:
Author.
Taylor, H. (2008). Decoding the song of the pied butcherbird: An initial survey,
Transcultural Music Review (Vol. 12, pp. 1-30). Retrieved 5 August 2008,
from http://www.sibetrans.com/trans/trans12/art13.htm.
Thomas, H. (1951). Notes on the pied butcher-bird. Emu, 51, 165-168.
298
Thompson, N. S., LeDoux, K., & Moody, K. (1994). A system for describing bird
song units. Bioacoustics, 5, 267-279.
Thomson, D. F. (1935). Birds of Cape York Peninsula. Melbourne: Government
Printer.
Thorpe, W. H. (1954). The process of song-learning in the chaffinch as studied by
means of the sound spectrograph. Nature, 173, 465-469.
Thorpe, W. H. (1958). Further studies on the process of song learning in the
chaffinch (Fringilla coelebs gengleri). Nature, 182, 554-557.
Thorpe, W. H. (1961). Bird-song: The biology of vocal communication and expression in
birds. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge at the University Press.
Thorpe, W. H. (1964). Singing. In A. Landsborough Thomson (Ed.), A new
dictionary of birds (pp. 739-750). London: Nelson.
Thorpe, W. H. (1966). Ritualization in ontogeny. II Ritualization in the individual
development of bird song. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of
London. Series B, Biological Sciences, 251(772), 351-358.
Thorpe, W. H. (1972). Duetting and antiphonal song in birds: Its extent and significance
(Vol. Supplement XVIII). Leiden: E. J. Brill.
Thorpe, W. H. (1973). Duet-singing birds. Scientific American, 229(2), 70-79.
Thorpe, W. H., & Lade, B. I. (1961). The songs of some families of the
passeriformes. I. Introduction: The analysis of bird songs and their
expression in graphic notation. Ibis, 103a, 231-245.
Thorpe, W. H., & Pilcher, P. M. (1958). The nature and characteristics of sub-song.
British Birds, 51(12), 509-514.
Todt, D., & Hultsch, H. (1982). Impairment of vocal signal exchange in the
monogamous duet-singer Cossypha heuglini (turdidae): Effects on pairbond
maintenance. Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie, 60, 265-274.
Truax, B. (Ed.). (1999). Handbook for acoustic ecology (CD-ROM edition). Canada:
Cambridge Street Publishing.
Urquhart, T. (2004). For the beauty of the earth: Birding, opera, and other journeys.
Washington, D.C.: Shoemaker & Hoard.
Vella, R. (2000). Musical environments: A manual for listening, improvising and
composing (Book and CD ed.). Strawberry Hills, Australia: Currency Press.
Wallin, N. L., Merker, B., & Brown, S. (Eds.). (2000). The origins of music.
Walser, R. (1991). The body in the music: Epistemology and musical semiotics.
College Music Symposium, 31, 117-125.
299
Walser, R. (2003). Popular music analysis: Ten apothegms and four instances. In A.
Moore, F. (Ed.), Analyzing popular music (pp. 16-38). Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Watson, D. (2007-2008). Society of birds. The Monthly, 18-21.
Weisman, R., Ratcliffe, L., Johnsrude, I., & Hurly, T. A. (1990). Absolute and
relative pitch production in the song of the black-capped chickadee. The
Condor, 92, 118-124.
West, M. J., & King, A. P. (1990). Mozart's starling. American Scientist, 78, 106-114.
White, H. L. (1922). A collecting trip to Cape York Peninsula. Emu, 22, 99-118.
Wilbrecht, L., & Nottebohm, F. (2003). Vocal learning in birds and humans. Mental
Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews, 9, 135-148.
Williams, G. C. (1966). Adaptation and natural selection: A critique of some current
evolutionary thought. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Williams, H., Cynx, J., & Nottebohm, F. (1989). Timbre control in zebra finch
(Taeniopygia guttata) song syllables. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 103(4),
366-380.
Witchell, C. A. (1896). The evolution of bird-song with observations on the influence of
heredity and imitation. London: Adam and Charles Black.
Wolf, D. J. (1996). More about notation. 1/1: The Journal of the Just Intonation
Network, 9(3), 15.
Woodall, P. F. (1994). Birds mobbing possums. Sunbird: Journal of the Queensland
Ornithological Society, 24(1), 22-24.
Woodfield, I. (1994). Collecting Indian songs in late 18th-century Lucknow:
Problems of transcription. British Journal of Ethnomusicology, 3, 73-88.
Wright, A. A., Rivers, J. J., Hulse, S. H., Shyan, M., & Neiworth, J. J. (2000). Music
perception and octave generalization in rhesus monkeys. Journal of
Experimental Psychology: General, 129(3), 291-307.
Wright, J. (2003). Birds. Canberra: National Library of Australia.
300
APPENDIX L:
COMPACT DISC RECORDING DETAILS
301
Recording track titles and details
Tracks 1-5
Cumberdeen Dam V & T
Notturno (1:48)
Cappricio (2:55)
Tema (1:21)
Multifonica (1:59)
Toccata (2:25)
Joanne Cannon, bassoon.
Track 6
Lamington Plateau (8:23)
Jim Denley, flute.
Track 7
The bass of Broken Hill (4:27)
Mike Majkowski, bass.
Track 8
Banana paper (6:21)
Mike Majkowski, bass.
Track 9
Ormiston Gorge: A canonic manipulation (8:45)
Mike Majkowski, bass; Andrew Skeoch, soundscape recordist.
Track 10
Gowrie Creek (4:30)
Mike Majkowski, bass; Jon Rose, violin.
Tracks 11-14
Pied butcherbird suite
1. Batá fourths: Brookhill (2:03)
2. Tag (1:26)
3. Waltz with tree frogs (3:43)
4. Butch (1:37)
James Cuddeford and Hollis Taylor, violin; Errki Veltheim,
viola; Daniel Yeadon, cello.
Track 15
Bird-Esk (14:25)
James Cuddeford and Hollis Taylor, violin; Errki Veltheim,
viola; Daniel Yeadon, cello.
The CD is pocketed in the back cover.
302
APPENDIX M:
DIGITAL VIDEO DISC (DVD) DETAILS
303
DVD details
Quicktime files:
Black and white miniatures, for toy piano and video
1. Pied butcherbird, Magnetic Island (2:08)
2. Distressed piano, Central Australia (1:54)
3. Ping-pong (1:36)
Word files:
Original fieldwork recordings with preliminary analysis:
1. 2005 Fieldwork Preliminary Analysis
The DVD is pocketed in the back cover.
304
APPENDIX K:
BIBLIOGRAPHY
280
Abraham, O., & Hornbostel, E. M., von. (1994). Suggested methods for the
transcription of exotic music. Ethnomusicology, 38(3), 425-456.
Adret, P. (2004). In search of the song template. In H. P. Zeigler & P. Marler (Eds.),
Behavioral neurobiology of birdsong (pp. 303-324). New York City: Annals of
the New York Academy of Sciences.
Agawu, K. (1995). The invention of 'African rhythm'. Music Anthropologies and Music
Histories, 48(3), 380-395.
Andersen, J. C. (1926). Bird-song and New Zealand song birds. Auckland: Whitcombe
& Tombs Limited.
Andrews, E. R. G. (1930). Bird songs. The Musical Times, 71(1047), 446.
Armstrong, E. A. (1953). Secondary song. British Birds, 46, 311.
Armstrong, E. A. (1973). A study of bird song (Second Enlarged Edition). New York:
Dover Publications.
Austern, L. P. (1998). Nature, culture, myth, and the musician in early modern
England. Journal of the American Musicological Society, 51(1), 1-47.
Axtell, H. H. (1938). The song of Kirtland's warbler. The Auk, 55, 481-491.
Balaban, E. (1988). Bird song syntax: Learned intraspecific variation is meaningful.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 85(10), 3657-3660.
Ball, P. (2008). Facing the music. Nature, 453, 160-162.
Baptista, L. F. (1975). Song dialects and demes in sedentary populations of the
white-crowned sparrow (Zonotrichi leucophrys nuttalli). University of California
Publications in Zoology, 105, 1-52.
Baptista, L. F. (1978). Territorial, courtship and duet songs of the Cuban grassquit
(Tiaris canora). Journal of Ornithology, 119, 91-101.
Baptista, L. F., & Gaunt, S. L. (1997). Social interaction and vocal development in
birds. In C. T. Snowdon & M. Hausberger (Eds.), Social influences on vocal
development (pp. 23-40). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Baptista, L. F., & Trail, P. W. (1992). The role of song in the evolution of passerine
diversity. Systematic Biology, 41(2), 242-247.
Baptista, L., & Keister, R. A. (2005). Why birdsong is sometimes like music.
Perspectives in Biology and Medicine, 48(3), 426-443.
Baptista, L., & Petrinovich, L. (1984). Social interaction, sensitive phases and the
song template hypothesis in the white-crowned sparrow. Animal Behaviour,
32(1), 172-181.
Baptista, L., & Petrinovich, L. (1986). Song development in the white-crowned
sparrow: Social factors and sex differences. Animal Behaviour, 34(5), 13591371.
281
Barrington, D. (1773-1774). Experiments and observations on the singing of birds.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 63, 249-291.
Bartók, B. (1997). Béla Bartók studies in ethnomusicology. Lincoln: University of
Nebraska Press.
Bartók, B., & Lord, A. B. (1951). Serbo-Croatian folk songs. New York: Columbia
University Press.
Bateson, G. (1972/1987). Steps to an ecology of mind: Collected essays in anthropology,
psychiatry, evolution, and epistemology. Northvale: Jason Aronson.
Baylis, J. R. (1982). Avian vocal mimicry: Its function and evolution. In D. E.
Kroodsma, E. H. Miller & H. Ouellet (Eds.), Acoustic communication in birds
(Vol. 2, pp. 51-83). New York: Academic Press.
Beaudry, N. (1978). Toward transcription and analysis of Inuit throat-games:
Macro-structure. Ethnomusicology, 22(2), 261-273.
Beecher, M. D. (1996). Birdsong learning in the laboratory and field. In D. E.
Bell, A. (1956). Common Australian birds (Revised Edition, 1969 ed.). Melbourne:
Oxford University Press.
Blacking, J. (1970). Tonal organization in the music of two Venda initiation schools.
Blacking, J. (1995). How musical is man? Seattle: University of Washington Press.
Blackwell, H. R., & Schlosberg, H. (1943). Octave generalization, pitch
discrimination, and loudness thresholds in the white rat. Journal of
Experimental Psychology, 33(5), 407-419.
Blesser, B., & Salter, L.-R. (2007). Spaces speak, are you listening? Cambridge,
Massachusetts: The MIT Press.
Bodman Rae, C. (2003). String quartet no 2. Adelaide: Composer.
Bohlman, P. V. (1999). Ontologies of music. In N. Cook & M. Everist (Eds.),
Rethinking music (pp. 17-34). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Bondesen, P. (1977). North American bird songs - a world of music. Klampenborg,
Denmark: Scandinavian Science Press.
Borgo, D. (2007). Sync or swarm: Improvising music in a complex age. New York:
Continuum.
Boughey, M. J., & Thompson, N. S. (1976). Species specificity and individual
variation in the songs of the brown thrasher (Toxostoma rufum) and catbird
(Cumetella carolinensis). Behaviour, 57(1-2), 64-90.
Bourke, P. A. (1958). Birds and the health of man. Emu, 58, 94-96.
282
Bowman, W. D. (1998). Philosophical perspectives on music. New York: Oxford
University Press.
Boyden, D. D. and Stowell, R.: Glissando. In Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy.
Retrieved 17 July 2007, from http://www.grovemusic.com.
Bradbury, J. W., & Vehrencamp, S. L. (1998). Principles of animal communication.
Sunderland, Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates.
Bradley, J., Holmes, M., Marrngawi, D. H., Karrakayn, A. I., Wuwarlu, J. M., &
Ninganga, I. (2006). Yumbulyumbulmantha ki-Awarawu, all kinds of things from
country: Yanyuwa ethnobiological classification. Brisbane: The University of
Queensland, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies Unit.
Brand, A. R. (1935). A method for the intensive study of bird song. The Auk, 52, 4052.
Brandily, M. (1982). Songs to birds among the Teda of Chad. Ethnomusicology, 26(3),
371-390.
Brant, H. (1967). Space as an essential aspect of musical composition. In E.
Schwartz & B. Childs (Eds.), Contemporary composers on contemporary music
(pp. 221-242). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Bregman, A. S. (1990). Auditory scene analysis: The perceptual organization of sound.
Broughton, W. B. (1963). Method in bio-acoustic terminology. In R.-G. Busnel
(Ed.), Acoustic behaviour of animals (pp. 3-24). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Brown, E. D., & Farabaugh, S. M. (1991). Song sharing in a group-living songbird,
the Australian magpie, Gymnorhina tibicen. Part III. Sex specificity and
individual specificity of vocal parts in communal chorus and duet songs.
Behaviour, 118(3-4), 244-274.
Burton, F. R. (1909). American primitive music. New York: Moffat, Yard and
Company.
Cameron, A. (1971). Pied butcher-bird. Sunbird: Journal of the Queensland
Ornithological Society, 2, 78-79.
Cameron, A. C. (1970). The vocabulary of the noisy miner, Myzantha melanocephala.
Sunbird: Journal of the Queensland Ornithological Society, 1, 17-24.
Campbell, A. J., & Barnard, H. G. (1917). Birds of the Rockingham Bay district,
north Queensland. Emu, 17(1), 2-38.
Carter, T. (1903). Birds occurring in the region of the North-West Cape. Emu, 3,
89-96.
Catchpole, C. K., & Slater, P. J. B. (1995). Bird song: Biological themes and variations.
Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.
Cayley, N. W. (2000). What bird is that? Dingley, VIC: R Editions.
283
Charron, C. (1978). Toward transcription and analysis of Inuit throat-games:
Micro-structure. Ethnomusicology, 22(2), 245-259.
Cheney, S. P. (1892). Wood notes wild: Notations of bird music. Boston: Lee and
Shepard.
Chisholm, A. H. (1937). The problem of vocal mimicry. The Ibis, 1(4), 703-721.
Chisholm, A. H. (1946). Nature's linguists: A study of the riddle of vocal mimicry.
Melbourne: Brown, Prior, Anderson.
Chisholm, A. H. (1947). More about vocal mimics. Victorian Naturalist, 64, 25-26.
Chisholm, A. H. (1950). Further notes on vocal mimicry. Emu, 49, 232-234.
Cleland, J. B. (1931). Notes on the birds of Central Australia, between Alice Springs
and Macdonald Downs. South Australian Ornithologist, 11, 13-21.
Cleland, J. B. (1932). Notes on Central Australian birds--Alice Springs to Cockatoo
Creek. South Australian Ornithologist, 11(5), 126-135.
Cody, M. L., & Brown, J. H. (1969). Song asynchrony in neighbouring bird species.
Nature, 272, 778-780.
Cole, H. (1974). Sounds and signs: Aspects of musical notation. London: Oxford
University Press.
Cook, N. (1998). Music: A very short introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Covell, R. (1967). Australia's music. Melbourne: Sun Books.
Craig, W. (1943). The song of the wood pewee Myiochanes virens linnaeus: A study of bird
music (Vol. 334). Albany, New York: The University of the State of New
York.
Cross, I. (1993). The Chinese music box. Interface, 22(2), 165-172.
Crossman, A. F. (1909). Birds seen at Cumminin Station, Western Australia. Emu,
IX(1 October 1909), 84-90.
Crouch, H. W. (2001). The pre-dawn call of the white-plumed honeyeater
Lichenostomus penicillatus. South Australian Ornithologist, 33(8), 155-163.
Curtis, H. S., & Taylor, H. (2008). Olivier Messiaen and the Albert's lyrebird: From
Tamborine Mountain to Éclairs sur l'au-delà. Paper presented at the
International Conference of Messiaen Studies, The University of Southern
Queensland.
Dabelsteen, T., McGregor, P. K., Lampe, H. M., Langmore, N. E., & Holland, J.
(1998). Quiet song in song birds: An overlooked phenomenon. Bioacoustics, 9,
89-105.
284
Darwin, C. (1871). The descent of man, and selection in relation to sex Vol. I and II
(Reprint of the 1871 ed. published by J. Murray, London, 1981 ed.).
Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Davies, S. (2004). Bird Song. In Siobhan Davies Dance Company, Royal Opera House,
Covent Garden (dance concert). London: 21 March 2004.
Dean, B. (2000/rev. 2001). Pastoral symphony. For chamber orchestra. London:
Boosey & Hawkes.
Demuth, N. (1960). Messiaen's early birds. The Musical Times, 101(1412), 627-629.
Dixon, H. (2004). The blue wrens and the butcher-bird. For soprano voice and
piano. Wollongong: Wirripang.
Dooling, R. J. (1982). Auditory perception in birds. In D. E. Kroodsma, E. H. Miller
& H. Ouellet (Eds.), Acoustic communication in birds: Song learning and its
consequences, vol. 2 (pp. 95-130). New York: Academic Pres.
Dooling, R. J. (1989). Perception of complex, species-specific vocalizations by birds
and humans. In R. J. Dooling & S. H. Hulse (Eds.), The comparative psychology
of audition: Perceiving complex sounds (pp. 423-444). Hillsdale: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates.
Doolittle, E. L. (2003). Music for magpies. For viola da gamba with quarter-tone
frets, cello, or viola. Princeton: Composer.
Doolittle, E. L. (2006). Other species' counterpoint: An investigation of the relationship
between human music and animal songs. Unpublished PhD. dissertation,
Princeton University, Princeton.
Doolittle, E. (2008). Crickets in the concert hall: A history of animals in Western
music, Transcultural Music Review (Vol. 12, pp. 1-19). Retrieved 5 August
2008, from http://www.sibetrans.com/trans/trans12/art09.htm.
Doupe, A. J., & Kuhl, P. K. (1999). Birdsong and human speech: Common themes
and mechanisms. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 22, 567-631.
Doyle, H. A. (1953). Rufous song-lark's singing. Emu, 53, 332-333.
Edwards, S. V., & Boles, W. E. (2002). Out of Gondwana: The origin of passerine
birds. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 17(8), 347-349.
Ericson, P. G. P., Christidis, L., Cooper, A., Irestedt, M., Jackson, J., Johansson, U.
S., et al. (2002). A Gondwanan origin of passerine birds supported by DNA
sequences of the endemic New Zealand wrens. Proceedings of the Royal Society
of London, Series B: Biological Sciences, 269, 235-241.
Falconer, D. S. (1941). Observations on the singing of the chaffinch. British Birds,
35(5), 98-104.
Fales, C. (2002). The paradox of timbre. Ethnomusicology, 46(1), 56-95.
285
Fallon, R. (2007). The record of realism in Messiaen’s bird style. In C. Dingle & N.
Simeone (Eds.), Olivier Messiaen: Music, art, and literature (pp. 115-136).
Aldershot: Ashgate.
Feld, S. (1990). Sound and sentiment: Birds, weeping, poetics, and song in Kaluli
expression (Second ed.). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Feld, S. (2000). The poetics and politics of Pygmy pop. In G. Born & D.
Hesmondhalgh (Eds.), Western music and its others: Difference, representation,
and appropriation in music (pp. 254-279). Berkeley: University of California
Press.
Feld, S. (2003). A rainforest acoustemology. In M. Bull & L. Back (Eds.), The
auditory culture reader (pp. 223-239). Oxford: Berg.
Feynmann, R. P. (1999). The pleasure of finding things out. London: Allen Lane.
Fitch, W. T. (2006). The biology and evolution of music: A comparative
perspective. Cognition, 100(1), 173-215.
Fleay, D. (1953). Polygamy in the pied butcher-bird. Emu, 53, 262-263.
Fletcher, N. H. (1992). Acoustic systems in biology. New York: Oxford University
Press.
Fletcher, N. H. (2006). Birdsong science. Australian Science, 27(9), 35-37.
Frith, H. J. (Ed.). (1969). Birds in the Australian high country. Sydney: A.H. & A.W.
Reed.
Frith, H. J. (Ed.). (1976). Complete book of Australian birds. Sydney: Reader's Digest.
Galison, P. (1997). Image and logic: A material culture of microphysics. Chicago: The
University of Chicago Press.
Gardiner, W. (1840). The music of nature. London: Longman, Orme, Brown, Green,
and Longmans.
Garfias, R. (1964). Transcription I. Ethnomusicology, 8(3), 233-240.
Garstang, W. (1922/1923). Song of the birds (Revised and Enlarged, 1923 ed.).
London: John Lane the Bodley Head.
Gaunt, A. S. (1983). An hypothesis concerning the relationship of syringeal
structure to vocal abilities. The Auk, 100, 853-862.
Giddings, D. (undated). Birdsong and music. Retrieved 12 January 2008, from
http://www.colander.org/gallimaufry/Birdsong.html.
Glass, G. (1992). The dawn call of the pied butcherbird near Toowoomba. Sunbird:
Journal of the Queensland Ornithological Society, 22, 19-20.
Godman, S. (Ed.). (1955/1717). The bird fancyer's delight. Mainz: Schott.
286
Goller, F., & Larsen, O. N. (1997). A new mechanism of sound generation in
songbirds. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 94(26),
14878-14791.
Goller, F., & Larsen, O. N. (2002). New perspectives on mechanisms of sound
generation in songbirds. Journal of Comparative Physiology A, 188, 841-850.
Goodfellow, D. L., & Stott, M. (2005). Birds of Australia's top end. Sydney: Reed New
Holland.
Gould, J. (1848). Birds of Australia. London: Author.
Gould, J. (1865/1972). Handbook to the birds of Australia. Melbourne: Lansdowne
Press.
Gourlay, K. A. (1978). Towards a reassessment of the ethnomusicologist's role in
research. Ethnomusicology, 22(1), 1-35.
Grady, W. (2000). The bone musuem. New York: Four Walls Eight Windows.
Grafe, T. J., Bitz, J. H., & Wink, M. (2004). Song repertoire and duetting behaviour
of the tropical boubou, Laniarius aethiopicus. Animal Behaviour, 68(1), 181191.
Greenberg, R. (1987). Seasonal foraging specialization in the worm-eating warbler.
Condor, 89, 158-168.
Greenewalt, C. H. (1968). Bird song: Acoustics and physiology (Book and LP). City of
Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press.
Griffin, D. R. (1992). Animal minds (Paperback 1994 ed.). Chicago: The University
of Chicago Press.
Halafoff, K. C. (1959). Musical analysis of the lyrebird's song. Victorian Naturalist,
75, 169-178.
Halafoff, K. C. (1968). A survey of birds' music. Emu, 68(1), 21-40.
Hall-Craggs, J. (1962). The development of song in the blackbird. Ibis, 104(3), 277300.
Hall, M. (2002-2003). Duetting larks. Nature Australia, 27(7), 52-59.
Hall, M. (2003). Between two worlds: The music of David Lumsdaine. East Sussex: Arc
Publications.
Hall, M. L. (2004). A review of hypotheses for the functions of avian duetting.
Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 55(5), 415-430.
Hansen, M. (1997). Australian birdsong improvisations (CD). Australia: Plateau Road
Records.
Haraway, D. J. (1991). Simians, cyborgs, and women: The reinvention of nature. London:
Free Association Books.
287
Harper, D. (1992). Images of Australia. For string quintet (Score, Q 785.715/HAR
4). Sydney: Australian Music Centre.
Harper, D. (1997). Butcher birds. On Images of Australia (CD 456 675-2). Sydney:
ABC.
Harrison, F. (1977). Universals in music: Towards a methodology of comparative
research. The World of Music: Quarterly Journal of the International Institute for
Comparative Music Studies and Documentation, 19(1/2), 30-36.
Hartshorne, C. (1953). Musical values in Australian songbirds. Emu, 53, 109-128.
Hartshorne, C. (1958). The relation of bird song to music. Ibis, 100, 421-445.
Hartshorne, C. (1973). Born to sing: An interpretation and world survey of bird song.
Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press.
Harting, J. E. (1866). The birds of Middlesex. London: John Van Voorst.
Healey, C. (2007). Book review. Journal of Ethnobiology, 27(1), 133-135.
Higgins, P. J., Peter, J. M., & Cowling, S. J. (Eds.). (2006). Handbook of Australian,
New Zealand & Antarctic birds (Vol. 7A). Melbourne: Oxford University
Press.
Hill, P. (Ed.). (1994). The Messiaen companion. Portland, OR: Amadeus Press.
Hill, P., & Simeone, N. (2005). Messiaen. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Hindley, D. (1990). The music of birdsong. Wildlife Sound, 6(4), 25-33.
Hindley, D. (1992). In memory of the huia, d. c. 1907. On Lifesong: Amazing sounds of
threatened birds (Cassette MAN2). Cambridge, U.K.: Mankind Music.
Hindwoood, K. A., & McGill, A. R. (1951). The Derra Derra 1950 camp-out of the
R.A.O.U. Emu, 50(4), 217-239.
Hold, T. (1970). The notation of bird-song: A review and recommendation. Ibis,
112(2), 111-172.
Hold, T. (1971). Messiaen's birds. Music & Letters, 52(2), 113-122.
Horn, A. G. (1996). Dawn song repertoires of tree swallows (Tachycineta bicolor).
Canadian Journal of Zoology, 74(6), 1084-1091.
Horn, A. G., & Falls, J. B. (1988). Repertoires and countersinging in western
meadowlarks (Sturnella neglecta). Ethology, 77, 337-343.
Hulse, S. H., & Page, S. C. (1988). Toward a comparative psychology of music
perception. Music Perception, 5(4), 427-452.
Hultsch, H., & Todt, D. (2004). Learning to sing. In P. Marler & H. Slabbekoorn
(Eds.), Nature's music: The science of birdsong (pp. 80-107). Amsterdam:
Elsevier Academic Press.
288
Huron, D. (2008). Lost in music. Nature, 453, 456-457.
Hyem, E. L. (1969). Butcher bird notes. Wildlife in Australia, 6(1), 123.
Ingraham, S. E. (1938). Instinctive music. The Auk, 55, 614-628.
Jairazbhoy, N. A. (1977). The "objective" and subjective view in music
transcription. Ethnomusicology, 21(2), 263-273.
James, B. (1990). The Rhos blackbirds - 1980-89. Wildlife Sound, 6, 42-45.
Jellis, R. (1977). Bird sounds and their meaning. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University
Press.
Jensen, R. d. A. (1985). Birdsong and the imitation of birdsong in the music of the
Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Current Musicology, 40, 50-65.
Johnson, G. (2003). Vocalisations in the grey butcherbird Cracticus torquatus with
emphasis on structure in male breeding song: Implications for the function and
evolution of song from a study of a southern hemisphere species. Unpublished PhD.
dissertation, Griffith University, Nathan, Queensland.
Johnson, R. S. (1994). Birdsong. In R. G. Pauly (Ed.), The Messiaen companion (pp.
249-265). Portland: Amadeus Press.
Jones, D. N., & Wieneke, J. (2000). The suburban bird community of Townsville
revisited: Changes over 16 years. Corella, 24(4), 53-60.
Jurisevic, M. A., & Sanderson, K. J. (1994). Alarm vocalisations in Australian birds:
Convergent characteristics and phylogenetic differences. Emu, 94, 69-77.
Karkoschka, E. (1966). Notation in new music: A critical guide to interpretation and
realisation (R. Koenig, Trans. 1972 ed.). London: Universal.
Keast, A. (1994). Temporal vocalisation patterns in members of a eucalypt forest
bird community: The effects of weather on song production. Emu, 94, 172180.
Keast, J. A. (1944). A winter list from the Tweed River district, NSW, with remarks
on some nomadic species. Emu, 43, 177-187.
Kivy, P. (1990). Music alone: Philosophical reflections on the purely musical experience.
Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
Klopfer, P. H. (1970). Sensory physiology and esthetics. American Scientist, 58, 399403.
Koehler, O. (1954). Der Vogelsang als Vorstufe von Musik and Sprache. Journal of
Ornithology, 93, 3-20.
Kolinski, M. (1964). Transcription II. Ethnomusicology, 8(3), 241-251.
Kolinski, M. (1967). Recent trends in ethnomusicology. Ethnomusicology, 11(1), 1-24.
289
Konishi, M. (1985). Birdsong: From behavior to neuron. Annual Review of
Neuroscience, 8, 125-170.
Krause, B. (2002). Wild soundscapes: Discovering the voice of the natural world (First
ed.). Berkeley: Wilderness Press.
Kroodsma, D. E. (1977). Correlates of song organization among north american
wrens. The American Naturalist, 111(981), 995-1008.
Kroodsma, D. E. (1996). Ecology of passerine song development. In D. E.
Kroodsma, D. E. (2004). The diversity and plasticity of birdsong. In P. Marler & H.
Slabbekoorn (Eds.), Nature's music: The science of birdsong (pp. 108-131).
Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Kroodsma, D. E. (2004). Vocal behavior. In S. Podulka, Rohrbaugh, Jr., R.W. & R.
Bonney (Eds.), Handbook of bird biology (pp. 7.1-7.98). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of
Ornithology.
Kroodsma, D. E. (2005). The singing life of birds: The art and science of listening to
birdsong (Book and CD ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Kuljuntausta, P., & Martinelli, D. (2005). A zoomusicological essay. On Zoosphere
(CD). http://www.aureobel.com/zoosphere: Composers.
Kunst, J. (1974). Ethnomusicology (Third ed.). The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff.
Langmore, N. E. (1998). Functions of duet and solo songs of female birds. Trends in
Ecology & Evolution, 13(4), 136-140.
Langmore, N. E. (2000). Why female birds sing. In Y. Espmark, T. Amundsen & G.
Rosenqvist (Eds.), Animal signals: Signalling and signal design in animal
communication (pp. 317-327). Trondheim, Norway: Tapir Academic Press.
Le Guin, E. (1999). Cello-and-bow thinking: Boccherini's cello sonata in Eb major,
Fuori Catalogo, Echo. Retrieved 26 May 2008, from
www.echo.ucla.edu/volume1-issue1/leguin/leguin-article.html.
Lee, I. (2006). The need for a new notational system for Korean traditional music:
Focusing on gagok. Asian Musicology, 8, 71-94.
Lestel, D. (2001). Les origines animales de la culture. Paris: Flammarion.
Lemaire, F. (1975). Dialectal variations in the imitative song of the marsh warbler
(Acrocephalus palustris) in western and eastern Belgium. Le Gerfaut, 65, 95106.
Levitin, D. J. (2006). This is your brain on music: The science of a human obsession. New
York: Dutton.
290
Lidov, D. (1997). Our time with the Druids: What (and how) we can recuperate
from our obsession with segmental hierarchies and other 'tree structures'.
Contemporary Music Review, 16(4), 1-28.
List, G. (1964). Transcription III. Ethnomusicology, 8(3), 252-265.
List, G. (1971). On the non-universality of musical perspectives. Ethnomusicology,
15(3), 399-402.
List, G. (1974). The reliability of transcription. Ethnomusicology, 18(3), 353-377.
List, G. (1979). Ethnomusicology: A discipline defined. Ethnomusicology, 23(1), 1-4.
Lister, M. D. (1953). Secondary song: A tentative classification. British Birds, 46(8),
139-143.
Lomax, A. (1956). Folk song style: Notes on a systematic approach to the study of
folk song. Journal of the International Folk Music Council, 8, 48-50.
Lord, E. A. R. (1941). Bird mimicry. Emu, 41, 90-91.
Lord, E. A. R. (1945). Cracticus nigrogularis (black-throated butcher bird) as mimic.
Queensland Naturalist, XII(6), 118-119.
Lord, E. A. R. (1956). The birds of the Murphy's Creek district, Southern
Queensland. Emu, 56, 100-128.
Lumsdaine, D. (1991). Mandala 4. For string quartet. York: University of York
Music Press.
Lumsdaine, D. (1996). Pied butcherbirds of Spirey Creek. On Mutawinji (CD and
accompanying booklet). Glebe, NSW: Tall Poppies Records.
Lynch, A., Plunkett, G. M., Baker, A. J., & Jenkins, P. F. (1989). A model of cultural
evolution of chaffinch song derived with the meme concept. The American
Naturalist, 133(5), 634-653.
Mâche, F.-B. (1983/1992). Music, myth and nature (S. Delaney, Trans. Vol. 6).
Switzerland: Harwood Academic Publishers.
Mâche, F.-B. (2000). The necessity of and problems with a universal musicology. In
N. L. Wallin, B. Merker & S. Brown (Eds.), The origins of music (pp. 473479). Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press.
Mâche, F.-B. (2001). Musique au singulier. Paris: Éditions Odile Jacob.
Malloch, S. (2004). An exploration of timbre analysis: The game of sound in two
performances of Jeux vénitiens. Musicae Scientiae, VIII(1), 53-81.
Marler, P. (1955). Characteristics of some animal calls. Nature, 176(4470), 6-8.
Marler, P. (1961). The logical analysis of animal communication. Journal of
291
Marler, P. (1981). Birdsong: The acquisition of a learned motor skill. Trends in
Neurosciences, 4, 88-94.
Marler, P. (1990). Song learning: The interface between behaviour and
neuroethology. Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences, 329(1253), 109114.
Marler, P. (1994). The instinct to learn. In P. Bloom (Ed.), Language acquisition: Core
readings (pp. 591-617). Cambridge MA: The MIT Press.
Marler, P. (1997). Three models of song learning: Evidence from behavior. Journal
of Neurobiology, 33, 501-516.
Marler, P. (2004). Bird calls: Their potential for behavioral neurobiology. In H. P.
Zeigler & P. Marler (Eds.), Behavioral neurobiology of birdsong (pp. 31-44).
New York: The New York Academy of Sciences.
Marler, P., & Hamilton III, W. J. (1966). Mechanisms of animal behavior. New York:
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Marler, P., & Peters, S. (1982a). Long-term storage of learned birdsongs prior to
production. Animal Behaviour, 30(2), 479-482.
Marler, P., & Peters, S. (1982b). Structural changes in song ontogeny in the swamp
sparrow Melospiza georgiana. The Auk, 99, 446-458.
Marler, P., & Tamura, M. (1964). Culturally transmitted patterns of vocal behavior
in sparrows. Science, 146(3650), 1483-1486.
Marshall, A. J. (1950). The function of vocal mimicry in birds. Emu, 50, 5-16.
Martinelli, D. (2001). Symptomatology of a semiotic research: Methodologies and
problems in zoömusicology. Sign Systems Studies, 29(1), 1-12.
Martinelli, D. (2002). How musical is a whale? Towards a theory of zoömusicology.
Hakapaino: International Semiotics Institute.
Martinelli, D. (2007). Zoosemiotics: Proposals for a handbook. Imatra: International
Semiotics Institute.
Martinelli, D. (2008). Zoomusicology and the analysis of nightingale songs,
Symposium in Zoomusicology: The nightingale song between art and research.
Jäärvenpää, Finland.
Mathews, F. S. (1921/1967). Field book of wild birds & their music (Dover 1967 ed.).
New York: Dover Publications.
Mathews, G. M. (1918). Birds of the North and North-West of Australia. South
Australian Ornithologist, 3.
Mauleón-Santana, R. (1999). 101 montunos. Petaluma: Sher Music Co.
McClary, S. (2000). Conventional wisdom: The content of musical form. Berkeley:
University of California Press.
292
McClary, S., & Walser, R. (1990). Start making sense! Musicology wrestles with
rock. In S. Frith & A. Goodwin (Eds.), On record: Rock, pop, and the written
word (pp. 277-292). New York: Routledge.
McCollester, R. (1960). A transcription technique used by Zygmunt Estreicher.
McDermott, J., & Hauser, M. (2005). The origins of music: Innateness, uniqueness,
and evolution. Music Perception, 23(1), 29-59.
McDonald, N. H. E. (1940). Butcher-bird mimicry. Emu, 39, 299-300.
McGilp, J. N. (1935). Birds of the Musgrave Ranges. Emu, 34, 163-176.
McLean, M. (1964). A preliminary analysis of 87 Maori chants. Ethnomusicology,
8(1), 41-48.
Merriam, A. P. (1963). Purposes of ethnomusicology, an anthropological view.
Ethnomusicology, 7(3, Tenth Anniversary Issue), 206-213.
Merriam, A. P. (1964). The anthropology of music. Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern
University Press.
Merriam, A. P. (1969). Ethnomusicology revisited. Ethnomusicology, 13(2), 213-229.
Messiaen, O. (1944). The technique of my musical language. Paris: Alphonse Leduc.
(Vol. Tome V, 1er Volume - Chants d'Oiseaux d'Europe). Paris: Éditions
(Vol. Tome V, 2e Volume - Chants d'Oiseaux Extra-Européens). Paris:
Éditions Musicales Alphonse Leduc.
Messiaen, O. (1998). Éclairs sur l'au-delà. For full orchestra. Paris: Éditions
Miller, B. E. (1928). Some birds of Mount Tambourine, South Queensland. Emu, 23,
131-133.
Milligan, A. W. (1905). Notes on a trip to the Yandanooka district, Western
Australia. Emu, 4(4), 151-157.
Morcombe, M. (1986). The great Australian birdfinder. Sydney: Lansdowne Press.
Morris, D. (1962). The biology of art. London: Methuen & Co.
Morris, S. (1925). Bird song: A manual for field naturalists. London: Witherby.
Morse, F. C. (1922). Birds of the Moree district. Emu, 22, 24-36.
293
Mulder, R. A., Bishop, H., Cooper, M., Dennis, S., & Koetsveld, M. (2003). Alternate
functions for duet and solo songs in magpie-larks, Grallina cyanoleuca.
Australian Journal of Zoology, 51, 25-30.
Nagorcka, R. (2004). Artamidae (CD). Tasmania: ABC Classic FM.
Navickaite, L. (2008). Centuries of nightingale-inspired music, Symposium in
Zoomusicology: The nightingale song between art and research. Jäärvenpää,
Finland.
Nelson, R. K. (1983). Make prayers to the raven: A Koyukon view of the northern forest.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Nettl, B. (1983). The study of ethnomusicology: Twenty-nine issues and concepts. Urbana:
University of Illinois Press.
Nichols, R. (1972). Messiaen's birds. Music & Letters, 53(2), 233-234.
Nielsen, L. (1962). Distribution of the pied butcher-bird. Australian Bird Watcher, 1,
193.
Nollman, J. (1997). Fowl play: Creating interspecies music. Orion, 16(2), 12-15.
North, M. E. W. (1950). Transcribing bird-song. Ibis, 92, 99-114.
Nottebohm, F. (1971). Neural lateralization of vocal control in a passerine bird. The
Journal of Experimental Zoology, 177, 229-262.
Nottebohm, F. (1989). From bird song to neurogenesis. Scientific American, 260(2),
56-61.
Nowicki, S., & Marler, P. (1988). How do birds sing? Music Perception, 5(4), 391-426.
Olds, W. B. (1922). Bird-music. The Musical Quarterly, 8(2), 242-255.
Peter, J. M. (2006). Some indigenous names of Australian birds (Birds Australia Report
No. 20 No. 20). Hawthorn East: Birds Australia.
Pizzey, G. (1980). A field guide to the birds of Australia. Sydney: Collins.
Podulka, S., Rohrbaugh, Jr., R. W., & Bonney, R. (Eds.). (2004). Handbook of bird
biology. Ithaca, New York: Cornell Lab of Ornithology.
Polanyi, M. (1958). Personal knowledge: Towards a post-critical philosophy. London:
Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Pollock, H. J. (1979). Wonder birds of Australia and their calls. Milton, QLD: The
Jacaranda Press.
Pont, G. (1988). The origin of music: New light on an old hypothesis. In J. MongeNájera (Ed.), Music origins and biomusicology: Music seen by philosophy and
science (pp. 29-35). San José, Costa Rica: Universidad Estatal a Distancia.
294
Power, D. M. (1966). Antiphonal duetting and evidence for auditory reaction time
in the orange-chinned parakeet. The Auk, 83, 314-319.
Powys, V. (2007). Variation in the song of the pied butcherbird. AudioWings, 10(2),
9-12.
Prum, R. O. (1998). Sexual selection and the evolution of mechanical sound
production in manakins (aves: Pipridae). Animal Behaviour, 55(4), 977-994.
Qureshi, R. B. (1999). Other musicologies: Exploring issues and confronting
practice in India. In N. Cook & M. Everist (Eds.), Rethinking music (pp. 311335). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Ratcliffe, L., & Weisman, R. (1992). Pitch processing strategies in birds: A
comparision of laboratory and field studies. In P. K. McGregor (Ed.),
Playback and studies of animal communication (pp. 211-223). New York:
Plenum Press.
Rautavaara, E. (1972). Cantus Arcticus, op. 61 (Concerto for birds and orchestra). For
orchestra and taped birds. Naxos 8.554147.
Read, G. (1969/1979). Music notation: A manual of modern practice. New York:
Taplinger Publishing Company.
Reid, J. (1977). Transcription in a new mode. Ethnomusicology, 21(3), 415-433.
Rendell, L., & Whitehead, H. (2001). Culture in whales and dolphins. Behavioral and
Brain Sciences, 24(2), 309-382.
Rhoades, W. (1963). Musicology and musical performance (comments on Hood,
"Musical significance"). Ethnomusicology, 7(3, Tenth Anniversary Issue), 198200.
Rhoades, W. (1964). Transcription IV. Ethnomusicology, 8(3), 265-272.
Richman, B. (1987). Rhythm and melody in gelada vocal exchanges. Primates, 28(2),
199-223.
Roberts, H. H. (1932). Melodic composition and scale foundations in primitive
music. American Anthropologist, New Series, 34(1), 79-107.
Robinson, A. (1956). The annual reproductory cycle of the magpie, Gymnorhina
dorsalis Campbell, in south-western Australia. Emu, 56(4), 233-335.
Robinson, A. (1994). Helpers-at-the-nest in pied butcherbirds, Cracticus nigrogularis.
Unpublished PhD. dissertation, Griffith University, Nathan.
Roché, J. C. (2007). Les grands virtuoses: Les plus beaux chants d'oiseaux (CD). France:
Fremeaux & Associés.
Rogers, A. C., Langmore, N. E., & Mulder, R. A. (2007). Function of pair duets in
the eastern whipbird: Cooperative defense or sexual conflict? Behavioral
Ecology, 18(1), 182-188.
295
Rogers, L. J., & Kaplan, G. (2000). Songs, roars, and rituals: Communication in birds,
mammals, and other animals. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University
Press.
Rose, J. (2007). Listening to history: Some proposals for reclaiming the practice of
music. Sydney: The 2007 Peggy Glanville-Hicks Address.
Rothenberg, D. (2001). Dawn solo from pied butcherbirds of Spirey Creek. On The
disc of music and nature. In D. Rothenberg & M. Ulvaeus (Eds.), The book of
music & nature. Middletown, Connecticut: Wesleyan University Press.
Rothenberg, D. (2001). The disc of music and nature. In D. Rothenberg & M.
Ulvaeus (Eds.), The book of music & nature (pp. 231-247). Middletown,
Connecticut: Wesleyan University Press.
Rothenberg, D. (2005). Why birds sing: A journey into the mystery of bird song. New
York: Basic Books.
Rothenberg, D., & Ulvaeus, M. (Eds.). (2001). The book of music & nature.
Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press.
Rowan, W. (1924). A practical method of recording bird-calls. British Birds, 18(1),
14-18.
Rushton, J.: Klangfarbenmelodie. In Grove Music Online, ed. ed. L. Macy. Retrieved
18 July 2007, from http://www.grovemusic.com.
Sachs, C. (1948). Some remarks about old notation. The Musical Quarterly, 34(3),
365-370.
Sacks, O. (2007). Musicophilia: Tales of music and the brain. New York: Alfred A.
Knopf.
Samuel, C. (1994). Olivier Messiaen: Music and color (E. T. Glasow, Trans.). Portland:
Amadeus Press.
Sartre, J.-P. (1947). I discovered jazz in America. Saturday Review of Literature, 29
November 1947, 48-49.
Saunders, A. A. (1935/1951). A guide to bird songs: Descriptions and diagrams of the
songs and singing habits of land birds and selected species of shore birds. Garden
City, New York: Doubleday & Company.
Schafer, R. M. (1977). The tuning of the world. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
Schoenberg, A. (1967). Fundamentals of musical composition. London: Faber and
Faber Limited.
Seashore, C. E. (1938/1967). Psychology of music (1967 ed.). New York: Dover.
Sedgwick, E. H. (1947). Northern Territory bird notes. Emu, 46, 349-378.
Sedgwick, E. H. (1949). Proceedings of the Annual Congress of the R.A.O.U., Perth,
1948. Emu, 48, 177-211.
296
Sedgwick, E. H. (1951). Nocturnal bird song. Emu, 50, 266.
Seeger, A. (1979). What can we learn when they sing? Vocal genres of the Suya
Indians of central Brazil. Ethnomusicology, 23(3), 373-394.
Seeger, C. (1958). Prescriptive and descriptive music-writing. The Musical Quarterly,
44(2), 184-195.
Serventy, D. L. (1929). Ornithological notes on the Irwin Valley, Western
Australia. Emu, XXVIII(1 January 1929), 192-197.
Serventy, D. L., & Whittell, H. M. (1976). Birds of Western Australia (Fifth ed.).
Perth: University of Western Australia Press.
Sessions, R. (1950). The musical experience of composer, performer, listener. Princeton:
Princeton University Press.
Sethares, W. A. (1999). Tuning, timbre, spectrum, scale (Second ed.). London:
Springer-Verlag.
Seton, E. T. (1898/1991). Wild animals I have known. Toronto: McClelland &
Stewart.
Seyfarth, R. M., & Cheney, D. L. (2003). Signalers and receivers in animal
communication. Annual Review of Psychology, 54, 145-173.
Shilling, D. (1948). The birds of Upper Liveringa Station, Western Australia. Emu,
48, 64-72.
Shiovitz, K. A. (1975). The process of species-specific song recognition by the
indigo bunting, Passerina cyanea, and its relationship to the organization of
avian acoustical behavior. Behaviour, 55, 128-179.
Siegel, J. A., & Siegel, W. (1977). Categorical perception of tonal intervals:
Musicians can't tell sharp from flat. Perception & Psychophysics, 21(5), 399-407.
Siegfried, T. (2006). A beautiful math: John Nash, game theory, and the modern quest for
a code of nature. Washington, D.C.: Joseph Henry Press.
Sloboda, J. A. (1985). The musical mind: The cognitive psychology of music (Vol. 5).
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Small, C. (1998). Musicking. Hanover: Wesleyan University Press.
Smith, A. B. (1922). The blackbird's song. The Musical Times, 63(953), 480-481.
Smith, W. J. (1991). Singing is based on two markedly different kinds of signaling.
Journal of Theoretical Biology, 152, 241-253.
Snyder, B. (2000). Music and memory. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.
Sotavalta, O. (1956). Analysis of the song patterns of two sprosser nightingales,
Luscinia luscinia. Annals of the Finnish Zoological Society "Vanamo", 17(4), 1-31.
297
Spector, D. A. (1994). Definition in biology: The case of 'bird song'. Journal of
Stadler, A., & Schmitt, C. (1914). The study of bird-notes. British Birds, 8(1), 2-8.
Stainer, J. F. R. (1899). Singing birds. The Musical Times and Singing Class Circular,
40(680), 671-672.
Stevens, C. (2004). Cross-cultural studies of musical pitch and time. Acoustical
Science & Technology, 26(6), 433-438.
Suchoff, B. (1976). Béla Bartók essays. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
Sullivan, C. (1931). Notes from North-Western New South Wales. Emu, 31, 124135.
Sundberg, J. (1999). The perception of singing. In D. Deutsch (Ed.), The psychology
of music (pp. 171-214). San Diego: Academic Press.
Sundberg, J., Prame, E., & Iwarsson, J. (1996). Replicability and accuracy in pitch
patterns in professional singers. In P. J. Davis & N. H. Fletcher (Eds.), Vocal
fold physiology: Controlling complexity and chaos (pp. 291-306). San Diego:
Singular Publishing Group.
Szőke, P. (1963). Ornitomuzikológia. Magyar Tudomany, 9, 592-607.
Szőke, P., & Filip, M. (1977). The study of intonation structure of bird
vocalizations: An inadequate application of sound spectrography. Opuscula
Zoologica Budapest, XIV(1-2), 127-154.
Talbot, M. (2008, 12 May 2008). Birdbrain. The New Yorker, 64-75.
Tarr, E. H. (2008). Fanfare. In Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy. Retrieved 5 August
2008, from http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.
Tarr, H. E. (1961). Notes on the pied butcher-bird. Australian Bird Watcher, 1, 139140.
Tate, H. (1923). Australian musical possibilities. Melbourne: Edward Vidler.
Taylor, H. (2005). A call of the pied butcherbird. AudioWings, 8(2), 4-8.
Taylor, H. (2006). Frequency measurements on a phrase of the pied butcherbird.
AudioWings, 9(2), 15-18.
Taylor, H. (2007). Post impressions: A travel book for tragic intellectuals. Portland:
Author.
Taylor, H. (2008). Decoding the song of the pied butcherbird: An initial survey,
Transcultural Music Review (Vol. 12, pp. 1-30). Retrieved 5 August 2008,
from http://www.sibetrans.com/trans/trans12/art13.htm.
Thomas, H. (1951). Notes on the pied butcher-bird. Emu, 51, 165-168.
298
Thompson, N. S., LeDoux, K., & Moody, K. (1994). A system for describing bird
song units. Bioacoustics, 5, 267-279.
Thomson, D. F. (1935). Birds of Cape York Peninsula. Melbourne: Government
Printer.
Thorpe, W. H. (1954). The process of song-learning in the chaffinch as studied by
means of the sound spectrograph. Nature, 173, 465-469.
Thorpe, W. H. (1958). Further studies on the process of song learning in the
chaffinch (Fringilla coelebs gengleri). Nature, 182, 554-557.
Thorpe, W. H. (1961). Bird-song: The biology of vocal communication and expression in
birds. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge at the University Press.
Thorpe, W. H. (1964). Singing. In A. Landsborough Thomson (Ed.), A new
dictionary of birds (pp. 739-750). London: Nelson.
Thorpe, W. H. (1966). Ritualization in ontogeny. II Ritualization in the individual
development of bird song. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of
London. Series B, Biological Sciences, 251(772), 351-358.
Thorpe, W. H. (1972). Duetting and antiphonal song in birds: Its extent and significance
(Vol. Supplement XVIII). Leiden: E. J. Brill.
Thorpe, W. H. (1973). Duet-singing birds. Scientific American, 229(2), 70-79.
Thorpe, W. H., & Lade, B. I. (1961). The songs of some families of the
passeriformes. I. Introduction: The analysis of bird songs and their
expression in graphic notation. Ibis, 103a, 231-245.
Thorpe, W. H., & Pilcher, P. M. (1958). The nature and characteristics of sub-song.
British Birds, 51(12), 509-514.
Todt, D., & Hultsch, H. (1982). Impairment of vocal signal exchange in the
monogamous duet-singer Cossypha heuglini (turdidae): Effects on pairbond
maintenance. Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie, 60, 265-274.
Truax, B. (Ed.). (1999). Handbook for acoustic ecology (CD-ROM edition). Canada:
Cambridge Street Publishing.
Urquhart, T. (2004). For the beauty of the earth: Birding, opera, and other journeys.
Washington, D.C.: Shoemaker & Hoard.
Vella, R. (2000). Musical environments: A manual for listening, improvising and
composing (Book and CD ed.). Strawberry Hills, Australia: Currency Press.
Wallin, N. L., Merker, B., & Brown, S. (Eds.). (2000). The origins of music.
Walser, R. (1991). The body in the music: Epistemology and musical semiotics.
College Music Symposium, 31, 117-125.
299
Walser, R. (2003). Popular music analysis: Ten apothegms and four instances. In A.
Moore, F. (Ed.), Analyzing popular music (pp. 16-38). Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Watson, D. (2007-2008). Society of birds. The Monthly, 18-21.
Weisman, R., Ratcliffe, L., Johnsrude, I., & Hurly, T. A. (1990). Absolute and
relative pitch production in the song of the black-capped chickadee. The
Condor, 92, 118-124.
West, M. J., & King, A. P. (1990). Mozart's starling. American Scientist, 78, 106-114.
White, H. L. (1922). A collecting trip to Cape York Peninsula. Emu, 22, 99-118.
Wilbrecht, L., & Nottebohm, F. (2003). Vocal learning in birds and humans. Mental
Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews, 9, 135-148.
Williams, G. C. (1966). Adaptation and natural selection: A critique of some current
evolutionary thought. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Williams, H., Cynx, J., & Nottebohm, F. (1989). Timbre control in zebra finch
(Taeniopygia guttata) song syllables. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 103(4),
366-380.
Witchell, C. A. (1896). The evolution of bird-song with observations on the influence of
heredity and imitation. London: Adam and Charles Black.
Wolf, D. J. (1996). More about notation. 1/1: The Journal of the Just Intonation
Network, 9(3), 15.
Woodall, P. F. (1994). Birds mobbing possums. Sunbird: Journal of the Queensland
Ornithological Society, 24(1), 22-24.
Woodfield, I. (1994). Collecting Indian songs in late 18th-century Lucknow:
Problems of transcription. British Journal of Ethnomusicology, 3, 73-88.
Wright, A. A., Rivers, J. J., Hulse, S. H., Shyan, M., & Neiworth, J. J. (2000). Music
perception and octave generalization in rhesus monkeys. Journal of
Experimental Psychology: General, 129(3), 291-307.
Wright, J. (2003). Birds. Canberra: National Library of Australia.
300

CRACTICUS NIGROGULARIS - UWS ResearchDirect

Transcription

Similar documents

The Pied Pacific Parrotlet - Feathered Companions Aviary

CANDID McKINLEY

ROLE:!!JERRY!LEE!LEWIS!

Flecky, Coalface and Blackfaced Budgerigars

disney game for web

teachers - guncha bhan and madhavi

Garden bird guide - Landcare Research

NCC Music Awards: Big Finale For Summer Camp 2015

LA CHANSON DU MOIS

Liner Notes Only - Dartmouth College