Networking Networking Guide - Carl von Ossietzky Universität

C 08 „Knowledge Transfer Network in the
Hanse Passage Regions“
Networking Guide
- theory and instruments for good networking and network
management
Oldenburg 2006
1
Contents
Introduction
4
1. Short Introduction into Theory
6
1.2 Social Capital
1.3 Social Capital in Companies
2. Practical Part (Interactionmanagement)
2.1 As-is-analysis
8
10
12
14
2.1.1 Network Analysis
14
2.1.2 Weakness-Strength Analysis
19
2.2 Target Definition
20
2.2.1 Scenario Planning/ Future Workshop
20
2.2.2 Balanced Scorecard
24
2.3 Partner Selection
28
2.4 Bridging:
30
2.4.1 Events
31
Matching-meeting
32
Business Cards Exchange
33
Fairs/ Congresses
34
Lectures/ Further Training/ Workshops
35
“Regulars Table”/ “Workshops”/ Contact Points
36
2.4.2 Direct Contacts
36
Internet Co-operation Fairs
37
Networking-platforms on the Internet
37
Telephone
39
E-Mail
41
SMS/ MMS
41
Communication Tips
42
2.4.3 Contact Databank
45
2.4.4 Maintaining Contacts
47
2
2.5 Professional, strategic Interaction Management
47
2.6 Co-operations and Networks
49
2.6.1 Network Management/ Network Manager
51
2.6.2 Designing a Network
52
Target Definition
53
Developing a “Network Constitution”
53
Developing a Model
54
Act of formation
55
2.6.3 Work Phase
55
Crises and Conflicts
56
Rules of Communication
58
Meta-communication
60
Mediation
60
Moderation
61
2.6.4 Metamorphoses of Networks
2.7 Wrap-up and Evaluation of the entire Process
62
63
3. Best Practice Networks in the KTN Regions
64
References
66
Appendix “Best Practice Networks Questionnaires”
71
3
Introduction
Considering various developments in economic theory and real challenges that have
come along with globalisation involving an increase in competition and business risk,
it has become increasingly clear that interactions between companies and possible
co-operations as well as networks can be of vital importance for their existence in the
market.
Companies, for instance, are forced to generate new developments quickly within a
turbulent economic environment and transfer these into processes, structures and
products, without having all core competences needed (Blecker 1999, p. 1ff.). Small
and medium enterprises (SME), in particular, do generally not have adequate
resources, in order to react quickly and efficiently to changes and so generate
competitive advantages. Inadequate resources can be compensated by interacting
and co-operating within networks.
In other fields, however, such as voluntary work, regional development or further
education, the importance of networking has not only been known for long, but it is
particularly promoted. For example: In the meantime, self-help groups in public health
service have become an essential part of health policy. Today, international
ecological and development aid policy cannot be imagined without the activity of
“non-governmental organisations” (NGOs), being organised in a kind of network.
The same applies to universities, who secure a special support providing a vast
alumninetwork and carry out a specific form of knowledge transfer.
Thus, the relevance of this topic is self-evident. Oftentimes, however, the actors
involved do not have the required “know who” for every-day practice, to view their
contacts as resources and develop them specifically and strategically.
This manual sets out to tackle this problem. It has been developed within the EU
programme “Hanse-Passage”, and here, in the project “Knowledge Transfer
Network”. It specifically addresses SMEs and consulting organisations for SMEs by
putting forward tools and concepts, which help SMEs to manage interactions more
easily from the economic point of view and build up networks more successfully. This
manual also includes tools and instruments which are of general use for successful
networking, therefore also being helpful for organisations, like transfer agencies, or
4
agencies for regional development, associations and institutions. However, the
reader should keep in mind that this manual only provides advice and suggestions
regarding its brevity. Typical for manuals, each individual tool will be only presented
in short. For further information, we recommend consulting the references and
internet sources.
5
1. Short Introduction into Theory
This chapter gives a brief outline of the theoretical economic background being of
particular importance for interactions, co-operations and networks, in order to classify
the later presented tools, e.g. the practice of networking and the best practice
examples, more easily.
Economic sciences basically agree on a uniform conception of man, called
“economic man”. In its most abstract form, this concept has come to be known by the
term “homo oeconomicus” in neoclassical economics. Though this concept has
undergone several changes over the recent hundred years, there is still a common
core to all approaches (cf. Manstetten 2000, p. 20).
This concept is acts on the assumption, that each individual is confronted with at
least two possible ways of reacting in particular situations (cf. Rehkugler/Schindel
1989, p.5).
The individual has the option to carry out the action or not, but he cannot realize all
alternatives at the same time; he is in a situation of “shortage”. Any kind of human
behaviour therefore is one of choosing; any kind of actions are optional in particular
situations. These situations are mainly determined by preferences of the individual as
well as by constraints (cf. Kirchgässner 1991, p. 13).
In accordance with his preferences, the individual normally chooses that alternative
which is most likely to be realised, in other words, the one which promises the
greatest benefit.1 By analysing all information, considering restrictions and
possibilities and comparing these, the individual attempts to ascertain that alternative
which is most profitable.2 Any action, which does not serve to maximise benefit does
not seem feasible.
1
The frequently applied distinction of two versions of the maxim of utility maximisation, a goal that can be
achieved with minimal effort (minimum version of the economic principle) or with a high potential of measures
(maximum version of the economic principle) (cf. Retzman 2000, p. 11), is actually about the same principle in
two versions (cf. Gäfken 1974, p. 103).
2
Further formal assumptions can be added, such as comprehensive information, timeless adaptation to changes,
the impossibility of external effects, preferences do not change and are not interdependent, etc.
6
The self-determined economic individual, however, is confronted with the fact, that
the “world” he lives in, is logically not to comprehend without differentiation. This has
been shown by various contemporary philosophical approaches, for instance, within
the systems theory (Luhmann 1984), logic (Spencer-Brown 1972, Wittgenstein 1971),
but also within interpretationism (Abel 1995).
Thus, something can only exist, if it can be distinguished from another thing. Without
drawing such a distinction, things are not imaginable and specific terms could not be
conceptualized. Without black – there is no white, without up no down, etc.
Referring to the homo oeconomicus the concept of an individual human personality
can only exist if there are others to differ from. As any other term, the “homo
oeconomicus” as a particular type of human individuals can only be used in the
plural. This goes beyond the ontological level of ascribing distinctive features to
individuals. Only if there are wealthy individuals, for instance, you can think of less
wealthy ones by contrast. Logically, these facts of matter can be applied to groups,
companies, or institutions, since they can only be thought of if they differ from others.
Finally, economic agents in general are defined by the total quality of their own
distinction relations and the thereby realised interactions, in the positive as well as in
the negative. “Interaction” in this context can be defined as repeated, reciprocal
distinction. A company, for instance, gains its particular existence through its contacts
(co-operative as well as competitive ones) with suppliers, customers, competitors, but
also with politicians, media, etc. Distinction from and interaction with others must
therefore automatically rank first within the preferences of economic agents in
general. Only then, they gain their specific existence.
According to the theoretical concept of the economically thinking and acting human
being, interacting with others can therefore be viewed as always useful. Besides
other resources the individuals always get something that can be called an identity
benefit. In the further process of interaction, it has to be clarified, whether the benefit
overweighs the costs being caused by interacting such as giving the first recourse in
an exchange situation, or whether it is advisable to break up the interaction and take
up another one instead.
The cost-benefit calculation should consider the fact that resources that are to be
achieved by other economic agents, do not only entail traditional economic goods.
Sociological theories of social exchange (cf. Blau 1964, Homans 1972, Thibaut/
Kelley 1978) hold the view that any form of interaction can be seen as an exchange
7
in a broader sense. Information, social acceptance, identity as well as material
goods, can also be transferred.
“Social behaviour is to be regarded as an exchange of goods; these goods can be
material or immaterial (symbols of acceptance, prestige, etc.). Someone who gives
much to others, will try to get much from them. Someone who gets much from others,
has to give much in return. This process of reciprocal influence is generally settled
down at the balance of exchange goods. Something a person gives, can be
considered as his costs, something that he obtains as his reward.” (Homans 1972, p.
262).
To sum up the result: the basic pre-condition for any further steps – whether in the
form of a single exchange, a co-operation or building-up a social network – is the
willingness of an individual, company or organisation to realise that interacting is
always advantageous. Without this willingness, all considerations on potential longterm relations, co-operations and networks are automatically superfluous.
1.2 Social Capital
Social actors with whom the individual, a group or a company is connected, could
also be called “social capital”, considering the benefit that arises from them. Thus, it
enables him to get access to any kind of resource and to obtain identity, information,
social acceptance, but also material goods (cf. Haug 1997, Euler 2006).
The term “social capital” had been intensively discussed particularly at the end of the
1990s. This discussion was led in connection with a debate on what social and social
coherence means for the individual, society and economy as a whole. Of particular
importance in the course of the discussion were the works of Glen Loury (1977),
James S. Coleman (1988) and other authors from network research. These authors
adopting these approaches regarded “social capital” mainly as a resource for
individuals similar to human capital.
Coleman therefore defines in his work “social structural resources” as capital assets
for the individual and as social capital respectively. These are “inherent in the
relations among two and more persons (…)” (Coleman 1991, p. 392). Its effect
consists of a preferential treatment of actions of individuals.
8
According to Henk Flap, social capital is composed of the number of potentially
helping persons within a network, the strength and dimension of relations as well as
resources which they can revert to (Flap 1995, p. 5).
Glaeser/ Laison/ Sacredote, by contrast, define social capital as “a person´s social
characteristics – including social skills, charisma, and the size of his Rolodex – which
enables him to reap market and non-market returns from interactions with others.”
(2001, p.4).
Pierre Bourdieu (1983), introducing “social capital” as a symbolic form of capital in his
social theory, takes a look at the interactions among economic, cultural as well as
social capital and the problems that possibly emerge from an unequal distribution of
social capital.
Another group of authors, including Francis Fukuyama (1995) and Robert D. Putman
(1993, 1995) in particular, focuses by contrast on the significance of social capital for
the whole society. These authors investigate, to what extent a high willingness to cooperate, the existence of networks, institutions and commonly shared norms can
influence the prosperity and political stability of a whole nation.
As a respond to these works, the World Bank has intensively examined this issue
and has set up a homepage on “social capital”. Furthermore, the bank promotes
special programmes in various developing countries and commissions its own
studies.
http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTSOCIALDEVELOPMENT/EXTTSOCIALC
APITAL/0,,menuPK:401021~pagePK:149018~piPK:149093~theSitePK:401015,00.html
Empirical results within both fields have become fairly complex in the meantime. Over
recent years, “social capital” has become one of the most often discussed and
examined terms in the fields of sociological, political and economic science.
http://www.socialcapitalgateway.org/
The major part of the works conclude, that individuals, networks and group
memberships, with high social capital, by maintaining numerous contacts, are more
disposable as a whole and achieve their goals more easily than individuals with less
social capital. Research, as carried out by Caspi (1998), Freitag (2000), Boxman/
Graaf/ Flap (1991), Rosenbaum (1999), has shown that individuals with high social
capital have access to potential resources, such as information on free vacancies,
but also concrete benefits and assistance. This can be extended to managers, who
9
draw a higher salary, to companies, that are more profitable, but also to founders of a
company who are more likely not to declare their business bankrupt, who are more
innovative and work more efficiently (cf. Jansen 2005 or Witt 2004).
0,25
0,2
0,15
0,1
0,05
none
one
two
three
four or more
0
Percentage of bankrupt start-ups in respective to their support categories (Jansen 2005 p.12)
“Companies that support themselves on their social capital, work out measurably
advantages, learn more quickly, react faster to customer preferences, develop more
ideas, display a higher tempo of innovation and obtain better sales figures, gain
higher profits and stimulate the share value (…). Employees with high social capital
generally draw a higher salary, are promoted more quickly and judged more
positively. Employees with high social capital are normally better informed, work in a
more efficient and creative way and are the better problem solvers. In short: they
create high values.” (Future – the Aventis magazine, internet 2004).
1.3 Social Capital in Companies
Economic agents in every-day life face the problem that they have to be willing to
interact in order to pursue and realise their own preferences on the one hand. These
interactions, however, must be handled in an economically efficient way on the other
hand. Social capital should be therefore viewed as a special form of capital in the
economic total accounts, it should be managed accordingly and kept account of. Or
as Håkansson puts it, “Relationships are one of the most valuable resources that a
company posses.” (1987, p. 10).
With any kind of interaction it has to be clarified if the profit including the identity
benefit outdoes the actual costs in the long run. A company, for instance, with high
10
social capital will probably benefit less from identity benefit than a company with little
social capital. Accordingly, the company will only then maintain the contact for a
longer period of time when the interaction promises further valuable resources. In
theory, business advantages are placed here that arise from co-operative goods and
services, such as higher flexibility, superior knowledge, or cost reductions through
synergy effects.
That means in practice that a company, an institution or an association does not
always benefit from every kind of contact. Thus, it has to be decided on with whom,
how and when to establish a contact and for how long this relation is intended to be
maintained. Furthermore, it should be determined whether a co-operation or an even
more stable unit (joint venture, a new company or organisation) is expected to
emerge from it. Finally, choosing the right partner paves the way for the further
course and the total benefit of the interactions as well as for achieving the objectives
set up by the economic agents.
To sum up the result: “We assume that companies raise the exchange and/ or the
control of exchange processes as their strategic maxim, i.e. the ability to interact.
This ability becomes a strategic factor of success for a successful performance on
the market (…).” (Blecker 2000, p. 3)
11
2. Practical Part (Interactionmanagement)
To develop the own social capital over the long term as profitably as possible, there
are principal procedures, that help structure this process, manage interactions
strategically and set up successful co-operations and networks. In this chapter, these
procedures and tools will be presented in greater detail.
However, it should be taken into account, that not all procedures and tools have to be
applied in such detail. A transfer agency or organisation planning to co-operate with
others in a project, in order to produce a particular product, e.g. a databank or a
series of events, does not necessarily have to define their objectives with the aid of
scenario planning or the balanced scorecard and work out a detailed network
constitution.
However, even in fairly simple co-operation projects, the as-is-state should be
determined, objectives exactly defined, partner selected accordingly and the
responsibilities recorded bindingly within the co-operation or network.
12
Scheme of the most important steps of interaction- and network-management
As-is-analysis
Network-analysis as part of an intellectual capital
report
Target Definition
Partner Selection
Bridging
via events and direct contacts
• Contact databank
• Maintaining contacts
Designing networks and co-operations
• Targetdefinition
• Network Constitution/ distribution of
workpackages
Working process of the network or cooperation
possibly
Metamorphoses of the
network
Wrap up and evaluation of the co-operation
or the network
• Final meeting
• Written evaluation
Evaluation of the entire interaction management
and possibly modifications in the specific phases
13
2.1 As-is-analysis
In the beginning of a process the current situation, in which the actor or the company
is, should be recorded. To serve this purpose, various sources of information can be
consulted, from questioning employees over an analysis of client and vendor base up
to newspaper articles. This analysis should be carried out within the context of a
general balance of knowledge of the company.
(cf. http://www.bmwi.de/BMWi/Navigation/Technologie-undInnovation/Informationsgesellschaft/tagung-wissensbilanz,did=41128.html).
The essential part of such a balance of knowledge for the interaction management is
the analysis of the “know who”. This should be conducted in the form of a
comprehensive network analysis, since the numerous persons, companies,
organisations, agencies, etc., with whom the actor, e.g. a company or an
organisation, is connected with, can be best represented in a network, putting the
actor in the centre.
2.1.1 Network Analysis
Networks can be formally described as a graph consisting of a limited number of
nodes and links in between. In a social network, the nodes represent social actors
(persons, groups, companies, etc.) and the links the relations among the actors.
Network analysis aims at recording and visualising these network components.
The theoretical foundations of network analytical thinking originate from the formal
sociology by Georg Simmel and Leopold von Wiese. Simmel considered sociology as
a kind of geometry of social relations. He defined as contents anything that is
inherent in individuals, such as interests, purposes, motives, inclinations, psychic
moods and changes, so that interactions emerge from them. These contents are
therefore the material of which forms of commercial entities are made and which can
take on different forms. Despite different contents, the same abstract forms in any
14
social group can be identified, such as superordination, subordination, division of
labour, coherence inwards – separation from others.
Kurt Lewin´s topological psychology as well as his field theory (a form of
psychological theory, according to which the behaviour of animals is determined by
the conditions of their environment) have been influenced by Simmel and can be
seen as the ancestor of network analysis.
The social psychologist Jacob Moreno in 1934 developed a method, which he called
“sociometry”. By means of “sociograms”, relations among individuals within small
groups can be represented graphically.
Finally, the idea of analysing social networks could be realised in sociology by turning
away from structure-functionalism of the 1930s and 1940s that had come to be seen
as stiff and static. Here, the so-called Manchester Group of British social
anthropology (Max Gluckmann, John Barnes, Elizabeth Bott, Siegfried F. Nadel, J.
Clyde Mitchell) had been the theoretical forerunners.
In 1954, Barnes applied the newly developed concept of networks analytically for the
first time when he carried out a social anthropological study on the Norwegian village
Bremes. Since then, he is known as the initiator of the term “social network”. He
found that – beyond the stable interactions, within the formal and hierarchical
structure of the territorial and industrial systems – there are further hidden social
structures, consisting of friendship, neighbouring, and kinship relations, that each
individual has in a community.
Apart from Barnes´ work there was another study being of importance for developing
the concept of network: the explorative investigation, carried out by Bott in 1955.
Bott`s study revealed a connection between the structure of family network and the
extent of differentiation regarding gender roles.
Finally, towards the end of the 1960s, Barnes and Mitchell broadened the definition
of the term “network”. In applying the graph theory they developed a specific tool for
analysing social networks.
The American community and industrial sociology is another important branch in
terms of
developing
network
analysis.
Anthropologists,
psychologists,
and
sociologists, working in Harvard, such as Lloyd Warner, Elton Mayo, Harrison C.
White as well as George C. Homans later on, developed amongst other things along
the so-called Hawthorne studies the block model analysis, in which the social
positions of the individuals are represented in a matrix. Today, this analysis is the
15
second pillar of network analysis along with the graph theoretical concepts (cf.
Jansen 2003, p. 37-47).
By means of the network analysis, the as-is-state is to be calculated within the scope
of interaction management. The as-is-state aims at demonstrating the kind of present
relations among the company, institution, association, employer or members as well
as showing what kind of resources are accessible by those.
As for the interaction management, the network analysis should be as
comprehensive as possible, that means it should cover the relations and actors as a
whole (total network).
If you only aim at achieving a specific objective referring to a certain branch or topic,
it can be sufficient to investigate only a part of the social network (partial network),
such as the relations and actors within a particular branch.
“Nodes” and “links” can be represented along a wide range of criteria, such as
16
network characteristics
interaction criteria:
content of transaction:
specification
exchange media:
a) emotion, sympathy
c) information
b)
d)
influence, power
goods, services
characteristics of the connections
reciprocity
On which scale are the relations symmetrically, asymmetrically, notsymmetrically?
roles
Definition of the role relation: How do the participants have to behave in
their relations?
multiplexity
In how many ways are the participants connected with each other (role
proportions, content of interactions)?
intensity
How strong are the connections in some proportions (e.g. in a personal
cost-benefit calculation)?
formal/ informal relation
Are the relations more structured and standardised (formal) or more
informal like in an „old boys network“?
structural morphology
connectivity
Part of participants, who belong to the network.
cluster
Dense regions of the network.
size
How many persons belong to the network?
membership
What are the needed characteristics to become a member of the
network?
accessibility
How many connections to other networks does the network have?
stability
How constant is the network during time
density
How great is the number of the real connections compared with the
number of the potential connections?
attainabilityt
Average number of connections between participants.
hierarchy
Which levels of hierarchy does the network include?
jobs
Which occupational groups does the network include?
questions of centralisation
Is the network more centralised (star structure) or more decentralised
(complete structure)?
key roles (communication roles)
star or central position
Participant with many connections to other participants; within easy
reach for everybody.
liaison
Participant who connects two clusters.
bridge
Participant who belongs to more than one cluster.
gatekeeper
Participant, who controls the flow of information from one section of the
network to an other and controls which information from outside the
network gets into it.
Isolated person
Participant without relations to other network members.
Schenk 1984 S.250
The relations among the actors can be as well graphically represented in a network
analysis, whereby several ideal types can be identified. As for the full structure,
actors can interact and exchange resources between one another. As far as the
17
wheel structure is concerned, this exchange is only possible via a central network
actor.
chain
star
ring
complete structure
some possible network structures
This graphical presentation of the network structure and relations within the network
analysis is within the scope of interaction management and the construction of cooperations and networks insofar of importance, in that the different positions in a net
also involve differences in the access of resources.
The thesis of so-called “weak ties”, developed by Granovetter (1982), asserts that the
bridging function is particularly advantageous in that only weak relations to persons
of other networks exist that enable the access to resources of this net. “Strong ties”,
by contrast, exist in very close relation nets, such as families or mafia. Though you
can expect more from your network partners, you have many duties and only little
freedom vice versa.
The “Structural-Holes-Thesis”, developed by Burt (1992) adopts a similar approach
as the “Weak-Tie-Thesis”. A “structural hole” is a position within a network, which
describes a gap between two networks. There is no real connection between these
networks. The “broker”, by filling this gap, gains access to both of the networks, that
are otherwise not connected. Hence, this position is of great strategic value
concerning the maximisation of utility. This can be in the area of information as well
as of gaining control. The broker has exclusive information on both of the networks,
which is highly profitable for himself. Since there is no-one filling this position, he is in
a monopoly position.
Further information on network analysis:
http://semanticstudios.com/publications/semantics/000006.php
http://www.orgnet.com/sna.html
http://www.methoden-der-ethnographie.de/nwa/nwa.html
http://www.analytictech.com/ucinet/ucinet.htm
18
In America, the network analysis is institutionally embodied in the „International
Network for Social Network Analysis” (INSNA). Once a year, the INSNA organises
the so-called “Sunbelt Social Network Conference“.
http://www.sfu.ca/~insna/
2.1.2 Weakness-Strength Analysis
After establishing the as-is-state and thus representing the network nodes, the
relations among each other and the resources, available to the actors, an analysis of
strength and weakness and their distinctions should follow. Such an analysis is to
reveal the existing option of the person, company or organisation and the lacks or
distinctions compared to others.
The distinguishing criteria can vary and have to be defined by the actor himself.
However, it should be given conscious attention to the fact, that such criteria, which
can be important for the later definition of objectives and selection of partners, are to
be recorded at this point, such as corporate size and culture, the markets as well as
customers and suppliers.
An example for a strength-weakness profile of a company:
19
2.2 Target Definition:
Next, a target vision is to be developed of how the person, the company or the
organisation should be like in a matter of years, which products it wants to offer, how
it should be related to customers, suppliers and competitors and how it wants to be
seen within the market and so on. To achieve this, tools like “scenario planning”,
“future workshops”, as well as tools, built on these, such as the “balanced scorecard”,
can be applied.
2.2.1 Scenario Planning/ Future Workshop
The idea of making future predictions using scenarios can be traced back to Herman
Kahn, who coined this term during strategic, military planning for the USA at the
beginning of the 1950s. Later, the “scenario planning” came to be known to a wider
20
public through the study “The Limits to Growth”, carried out by the Club of Rome (cf.
Thiesen 1999, p. 57).
Using the scenario planning on the basis of various development factors, the future is
described as comprehensive and realistic as possible. This is done by drafting
different future scenarios, starting from the current situation. During modelling the
scenarios, five phases are distinguished:
First, the actual situation is determined by analysing the problem (see above) and
then, questions and topics have to be defined for the later development of scenarios,
hence, in the context of the interaction management the “development of a company
or an organisation”.
Second, within the phase of analysing the influence factors, it is tried to name all
possible future influences on the development of a company by evaluating empiric
data and using different creative techniques, such as brainstorming. Furthermore, the
future business interconnections and integrations have to be revealed, for instance,
by using a chart providing a matrix of net connection:
Influential factors
Traffic policy
Automotive
branch
Social
awareness
environment
Active sum
Traffic policy
X
2
2
2
6
Automotive branch
2
X
1
2
5
Social awareness
1
1
X
2
4
Environment
1
0
1
X
2
Passive sum
4
3
4
6
cf. Thiessen u.a. 1999 S.62
The evaluation of each net connection is done by raising the question “How strongly
does each area, which is marked by its influence factors, exert an influence on the
other area?”
The influence factors can be classified in the following categories:
0 = no influence
1 = weak or indirect influence
2 = strong influence
21
The active sum resembles the influence of an area on other surrounding areas,
whereas the passive sum resembles the influence of other areas on the one in
question.
Within the third phase, the descriptor analysis, various influence factors are
operationalised by quantitative as well as qualitative descriptors.
A quantitative descriptor, for instance, could be called “measures of staffqualification”, a qualitative descriptor, by contrast, could be something like “customer
satisfaction”. If possible, these descriptors should be grouped with measurable
categories, for instance, the “number of qualification measures attended by staff
members”. In addition, the descriptors should not only encompass all factors
established in the influence analysis, but should also try to operationalise them as
unbiased and non-normative as possible, to prevent thinking of certain directions and
developments while drafting the scenarios.
The descriptor analysis is followed by the most important phase: the development of
two extreme scenarios and a trend scenario. Based on the former analyses, detailed
scenarios are now developed, involving concrete prognoses on the development of
each individual descriptor. The final aim is to set up complete scenarios, one referring
to the worst case, the other to the best option that is possible to achieve.
The trend scenario, however, should show, how the future will develop, when both
influencing factors remain constant. It is therefore understood to be the most realistic
scenario.
Best case
scenario
Trend
scenario
Worst case
scenario
time
22
Finally, in the last phase of the scenario planning, consequences and possible
measures can be derived from the scenarios.
http://www.sowi-online.de/methoden/dokumente/szenariotechnik.htm
http://www.triz-journal.com/archives/2002/01/b/index.htm
This final phase can directly lead into a future workshop. While the scenario planning
seeks to predict a possible future development, without exerting an influence on it,
the future workshop serves, above all, to unfold own ideas of active and personal
involvement for the time to come.
The concept of the future workshop was modelled in 1981 by Robert Jungk, an
austrian futurologist and later winner of the alternative Nobel Prize, and his associate
Norbert Müller. It was originally intended to provide humans with an instrument,
which should enable them to learn democratically, how to find solutions and new
ideas for their individual or urging problems of society, beyond existing restrictions
and narrow-mindedness (cf. Thiesen 1999, p. 22 ff.). The “Three Phases of the
Future Workshop” form the actual core.
First, during the critic phase, any comment of each participant, be it that he sees
forthcoming problems, is not content with certain scenarios, etc., should be collected
and written on cards. Afterwards, these cards should be fixed on a display wall and
sorted by category and priority ranking.
Next, within the “fantasy and utopia phase”, ideas and proposals to all questions and
problems mentioned on the cards are to be found. This should be done in the most
creative and freest way possible. Again, new cards should be used to display the
comments made in this phase. No idea, no matter how absurd, may be excluded.
It could also be helpful to use a specially designed creative technique. Highly
interesting concepts of such creative techniques are offered by the Swiss firm
“Brainstore”.(http://www.brainstore.com/).
Finally, during the last phase of the future workshop, the transfer phase, all the
answers are discussed, summarized, evaluated, perhaps some discarded, and
structured. At the end, a quite commonly worded definition including the goals and
visions of the company or organisation in question should be worked out, considering
the scenarios, gained by using the as-is-analysis and the scenario-planning.
23
http://www.zwnetz.de/pages/willk.html
http://www.mutzconsulting.de/bonbon/zukunftswerkstatt.pdf
http://www.die-bonn.de/esprid/dokumente/doc-2004/apel04_02.pdf
2.2.2 Balanced Scorecard
In the beginning of the 1990s Robert S. Kaplan and David P. Norton developed the
concept of the Balanced Scorecard (BSC). The BSC helps concretise, represent and
control strategies of companies. By deriving concrete strategic objectives from the
vision and the strategy as well as by allocating concrete measures for the obliged
value of these measures, the achievement of the set objectives can be planned and
controlled.
Not only does this concept represent a performance measurement system, that is
mainly oriented towards financial measures. It also seeks to take into account the
total value enhancement of an entity (company, organisation, etc.) That means, also
strategic objectives and visions in areas regarding staff-qualification and motivation of
employees or customer satisfaction are expressed by key data in the BSC. For this
reason, the BSC is rather a leading than a measure tool (Horvath & Partner 2001, p.
9).
The BSC is basically processed as follows:
On the basis of empirical experience, Kaplan and Norton suggest four perspectives,
which are supposed to subordinate strategic objectives. Further perspectives,
however, can be individually added, such as a co-operation perspective.
(see http://www.sfb559.uni-dortmund.de/pdf/m03.pdf?PHPSESSID=16199f3aa1de1dd
2da38a28365018917#search=%22%22netzwerk%20balanced%20scorecard%22%20%22
Financial perspective: This perspective deals with the question “Which objectives can
be derived from the financial prospects of our capital providers?” or “How shall we
appear towards our partners, in order to drive financial success?” This perspective
contains objectives and measures that measure the financial turn-out of the strategy
realization. It records if a long-term economic success can actually be realised.
24
Customer perspective: Here, the central questions are “How shall we appear towards
our customers, in order to realise our vision?” or “What goals are we supposed to set
regarding the structure and requirements of our customers, in order to achieve
financial and other objectives?” It is mainly a matter of positioning and appearance
on the market, customer satisfaction with the company´ s products and services,
which customers are mainly addressed, how to bind customers, etc.
Business process perspective: The following question is at the heart of this
perspective: “What goals are we supposed to set concerning the internal processes,
in order to satisfy our partner and customers and realise our vision?” This perspective
focuses on highlighting and planning processes, which are essentially important of
the corporate strategy.
Learning and growth perspective: This perspective is focused on the question “What
goals are we supposed to set regarding our potentials, in order to cope with present
and future requirements?” It is mainly about how to develop the infrastructure that is
strategically needed. Apart from general information and specific information on
knowledge management systems or technologies, employees and their “know how”
and “know who” form a crucial part of the infrastructure.
25
The BSC is generally developed in seven procedures:
1.) Developing visions and strategies (this has been described already within the
scope of the future workshop)
2.) Fixing the perspectives that are to be taken into account
3.) Deriving concrete objectives from vision and strategy
4.) Designing a cause-and-effect chain between the perspectives and their
objectives (this can become to complex for co-operations or networks and is
not compulsory in these cases)
5.) Fixing measures
6.) Fixing target measures
7.) Planning actions and measures to achieve target measures
26
Finally, the following aspects should be regularly evaluated:
•
if the measures obliged have been achieved
•
if the measures actually measure what they are supposed to do
•
if adequate measures have been applied to achieve the objectives
•
if vision and strategy have possibly to be revised
Further information:
http://www.wiwi.uni-regensburg.de/scherrer/edu/opi/balanced-scorecard.html
http://www.balancedscorecard.org/basics/bsc1.html
http://www.2gc.co.uk/pdf/2GC-PMA02-1f.pdf
27
2.3 Partner Selection:
Building on the weakness-strength analysis and the BSC it is tried to realise the
vision that has been developed within the target definition by choosing and making
particular contacts as well as to achieve the set objectives. At this point, it is
necessary to have a closer look at the following levels:
•
Demand
compatibility:
this
entails
all
aspects
needed
to
define
the
appropriateness of partner specific performance characteristics for covering the
determined shortage. That means: the partner either has got everything that is
needed by the own company to get closer to one or more set objectives, or the
partner offers something similar or none of both.
If the decision turns out to be positive and a contact is to be established, either a
single or a repeated, long-term exchange relation can be built up. The following
aspects are also relevant in this context:
•
Interface compatibility: this particularly includes elements being of vital importance
for a long-term co-operation of the partners, for instance, within a network, such
as
- the strategic fit (correspondence of strategic objectives of companies,
compatibility of co-operation intentions etc.)
- the cultural fit (compatibility of corporate culture and individual company´ s
values and norms, that are lived inwards and outwards, sympathy)
- the organizational fit (structural correspondence of companies, for instance,
regarding the size of company, how the company is organised, distance to
locations, markets and customers accordingly)
- the fit related to information and communication technology (compatibility of
information systems being used regarding hard-and software, communication
standards, etc.)
Sometimes it is useful to break up the judgment on above mentioned items in
essential criteria and desired criteria respectively. That means, it has to be precisely
determined which requirements a potential partner has to meet in any case and
28
which criteria could be desirable or helpful, for instance, when it comes to avoiding
further costs or facilitate future projects (cf. Killich/ Luczak 2003, p. 113).
After that, the concrete expectations (guidelines and measures) regarding the
partners should be defined along the developed target measures. This does not
necessarily have to come about via indexes. However, it should be clear what to
expect from other actors in a defined period of time. The potential partners should be
related to the corresponding set objectives in the balanced scorecard. Only then, it is
possible to control by means of additional as-is-analyses in the further process,
whether a particular aim can be achieved or whether it should be reacted. If there is
no matching partner available whilst defining the objective, the requirements on a
potential partner can be simply recorded under “measures” in the corresponding line.
Whilst choosing the right actors for interacting within a cooperation or network, it
automatically turns out, with whom you are not willing to work with; actors, who either
are not important to achieve the own objectives or who can be viewed as
competitors. These actors should be put down in a “negative” space on the balanced
scorecard.
You keep defining along each individual aim, how the corresponding competitor is
anticipated to develop according to your preferences (instructions) and how to
achieve this by your own performance (measures).
Fixing the positive and negative metrics gives you a detailed picture of the desired
positioning within a network of the persons and companies in question. Thereby, the
company, organization, etc. obtains an individual and unique identity.
Example for an extended balanced scorecard;
Customer perspective
„To achieve
our vision,
how should
we appear to
our
customers?“
Targets
Measures
Objectives
Initiatives Actor 1:
Objectives
Actor 1:
Actor 2.:
Initiatives Objectives
Actor 2:
Initiatives
29
2.4 Bridging:
Potential partners can start the interaction via a first e-mail, letter, telephone call, by
having a conversation or by attending corresponding events. This “beginning” of
interaction, whether the individual addresses someone personally, by a certain
gesture or by handing over a material good, is the key moment.
Since this act of initiation itself, as stated above, is already profitable and opens up
new chances, each actor should be intrinsically motivated to make the first move.
It is particularly important to handle the corresponding communication rules, known
from psychology and education theory, to prevent the interaction from failing right in
the beginning by misunderstandings or non-objective factors, such as agreeable
behaviour or outward appearance. If the first approach has been successful, it is
essential to motivate the interaction partners for a long-term co-operation, since
future interaction or even a co-operation, a joint venture or a network project with
these partners cannot be ruled out.
There are numerous ways of establishing contact. They will be divided up into
events, at which many persons are gathered at the same place and time, and a
direct, bilateral contact, for instance a telephone conversation.
But before going into detail, there are some suggestions beforehand in terms of
“bridging” that should be taken into consideration:
As for any other first approach, it is particularly important to present yourself
appropriately, for instance, by using professionally designed business cards or by
doing short presentations (Power Point, posters, presentation). Like the “Executive
Summary” in business planning, this presentation is intended to provide potential cooperation or network partners with information on the own company, organisation or
ideas, to motivate them and, above all, to highlight the unique characteristics, but it
should not be an advertising presentation. Hence, projects and co-operations which
have already carried out, co-operations, interesting contacts of the own company or
organisation, future ideas and visions as well as exactly defined wishes of cooperation should be in the focus of attention.
Combined use of a short presentation and a business card can be interesting as well.
Digital business cards, for instance, integrate the printed information of a business
30
card with a CD-Rom, available with up to 80 MB disk space for an additional short
presentation.
http://www.software-duplizierung.de/visitenkarten_cd-rom_80x60.html
http://www.cdrombusinesscard.net/
Flyers, by contrast, should be sparingly used, because they carry too much
information for the very first contact, but not enough information on the person or
company for further extensive examination. Unlike business cards, flyers are not
selected, collected and administered.
It should be kept in mind, that all materials, intended for self-presentation, should
facilitate further contact in various ways. Hence, these materials should include the
postal address, telephone and fax number, mail-address, homepage as well as the
mobile phone number.
2.4.1 Events
Major events at which more persons are gathered, intended for establishing a first
contact, a co-operation or a network, can be classified in the following model:
Participant
focused (invitation of a special set of persons like
CEOs from a single branch)
open (everybody who is interested can participate)
e.g.
e.g.
matching meeting, conference
business card exchange, fair
Content
focused (selected topic or target of the event
open (no selected topic, the only purpose is to get in
contact)
e.g.
e.g..
matching meeting, conference, fair
business card exchange, co-operation fair
Time/ Place
regular
irregular
e.g.
e.g.
„regular table“, contact points, fair
matching meeting, business card exchange
31
That means, there is always a particular group of participants meeting up at a
specified time and place for a particular reason. There are various ways of how such
events can come about.
Events can be organised to which the participants are selectively invited according to
a specific purpose and which regularly takes place in the same setting/ location.
Apart from getting to know each other, there is no specific topic to discuss.
Matching-meeting:
Here, the host, for instance an interaction manager or a leader of a transfer agency,
invites persons or representatives of a company, which he already knows from
various contexts and about whose performance offer he is well-informed. The point of
such a meeting is to figure out, whether the participants can achieve common
synergy effects or even initiate a project or network together. Before the meeting
takes place, the host deliberates, based on the available information, which persons
could possibly match. Background of such a meeting could be a common topic, for
instance, “security”. For discussing such a topic, a software producer, an instructor
for guard staff and a producer of ID-cards could be invited and possibly brought
united in a co-operation. There are further options. The companies and persons in
question do not necessarily have something in common, but they might complement
each other.
The course of a meeting: Each participant presents his company or performance in
ten minutes maximum, while keeping in mind that this meeting is not intended for
advertising, but for establishing a first contact. Thus, he presents projects, he has
already carried out, his existing contacts and possibly his potentials and visions that
have not been realised yet, but which are possible.
During the presentation, the other participants make notes on starting points for a
conversation. Afterwards, the participants figure out in a brainstorming, which
common projects, co-operations or connecting links could come into question.
Sometimes, participants have other contacts which can be valuable for other
participants attending the meeting.
Then, during a discussion, the ideas are grouped, selected and allocated to the
partners. It could turn out that a certain project is imaginable, but that the required
partners are not available at this point. Then, a concrete specification is worked out.
The participants decide on whether to make suggestions themselves or whether to
32
instruct an interaction manager to seek further partners. In addition, it is determined
how to carry on, for instance if a further meeting should be arranged to discuss
concrete co-operations, who is supposed to take over the management of the project,
co-operation or network.
The proceedings of matching-evenings are more selective than matching-meetings in
general. Here, particular participants, for instance employer and venture capital
provider, are united to initiate a project. Before a matching-evening takes place, the
organisers carry out questionings by means of questionnaires or interviews and
gather additional information on the participants. Only those meeting the
requirements are invited.
During the evening, the participants introduce themselves with a short presentation
and are given the option to start a conversation that can possibly lead to a cooperation.
Business Cards Exchange:
This concept, originally developed in America, is intended for facilitating the first
approach in a casual atmosphere. People from different branches who are interested
in establishing new contacts meet up. These people, however, are not personally
invited, but it is announced via a mail-distributor, for instance of the promotion of
business development, or via the press, when and where such a business card-party
is taking place.
The course of the event: in the very beginning, each participant gets a name tag and
fills in a questionnaire with detailed information on the company, hobbies, wishes of
contacts, and so on. These individual profiles are sorted along specific categories, for
instance branch, and are displayed on movable walls. Alternatively, this profile can
be determined via the internet and made accessible to other participants in advance.
After the official welcoming, short presentations are held and the participants are free
to present their company. Sometimes, contact games are organised or “contact
agents” help the participants to get into touch with matching partners.
Such a contact game could be a “speed dating” round. The participants sit opposite
each other at a table, have five minutes to get to know each other and switch over to
the next participant, until all participants have talked to each other. If the first contact
is successful, business cards are exchanged. To provide a relaxed atmosphere, you
33
can organise a band playing in the background or offer drinks as well as snacks to
the participants.
www.visitenkartenparty.biz
www.kontaktmachen.de
American example:
http://www.exchangeyourcard.com/events.html
Fairs/ Congresses
Studies have shown that, so far, the vast majority of company co-operations has
been established via personal contacts, friendships and encounters at fairs and
symposia (Müller/ Goldberger 1986, p. 93, Gulati 1998, p. 294).
That means, the traditional network tool, namely the fair or the conference, is still one
of the most important, despite new ways of establishing contacts via the internet. The
main advantage of fairs and conferences is that the audience has been pre-selected
in advance according to branch or topic. Here, a lot of information on a specific
branch or topic can be obtained. And if you look cooperation partners in a particular
field, they are most likely to be met at such a fair. Apart from this contextual level, it is
always possible to talk to the other participants in person.
Fairs and conferences, however, do also have weak points. In most cases, you do
not meet the important decision-maker, but only members of staff who have been
employed to present the corresponding company at such fairs.
A supporting programme, including dinner, trips or visits, is provided for establishing
and maintaining contacts.
The so-called “recruiting-fairs” and cooperation fairs are particularly interesting for
getting into touch. Here, the exhibitors do not simply introduce their company and
establish contacts with customers. They also look for matching employees and
cooperation partners. People visiting such fairs, in turn, do not only obtain information
on innovations, but are also interested in finding new cooperation partners or jobs.
At any rate, it is important not only to get thoroughly prepared for a fair (by intensively
reading the exhibition brochure, by planning, which exhibitors you intend to visit
including making appointments in advance, by preparing questions or what results in
conversation you want to achieve, by preparing material such as business cards or
image brochures), but also to post-proceed the fair intensively. The conversations at
34
such fairs should be recorded and the business cards you got should be inserted in
the own contact databank. If agreements have been made, for instance “I am going
to call you next week”, or if any questions remained open, they should be dealt with
very soon, one week after the fair at the latest.
http://www.messe1x1.de/
Lectures/ Further Training/ Workshops
Like fairs, further important tools for establishing new contacts are symposia, further
trainings and presentations. Here, as with trade fairs, you meet a pre-selected
audience according to specific topics and branches. These events include a
contextual part, in which information on topics, products or current occurrences are
communicated, and an informal part, in which personal contacts between participants
can be made.
As for the contextual part, it should be taken account of that the topic is concisely
presented in an exciting style. Though the way of presenting a topic mainly depends
on the speaker or the leader of further training, there are some useful tips that help
structure a presentation:
http://www.lsw.uni-heidelberg.de/users/mcamenzi/vortrag.html
http://www.speechtips.com/
http://www.presentations.com/presentations/delivery/speaking_archive.jsp
In order to make the informal part as successful as possible, it can be helpful to
provide those present with a list of participants including particular data on their
companies.
Such a list and name tags facilitate the first approach to possibly relevant persons. In
addition, a relaxed atmosphere, drinks and snacks as well as a kind of contact
supporter facilitate a successful networking during breaks of the conference, after a
presentation or the supporting programme. Within the supporting programme the
participants should be given the opportunity of doing things together and talking to
each other. Instead of holding further presentations, on the history of the venue for
instance, a tour or a traditional meal should be included in the planning.
35
“Regulars tables”/ Workshops/ Contact Points
In order to create co-operations and networks successfully, a common, interpersonal
basis should be provided. Oftentimes, resources of network partners are not
accessible, until a trustful, long-term relationship has been established. That is why
successful networkers or interaction managers, advisers or leaders of transfer
agencies cannot
be
simply employed
or
replaced.
Apart from
obtaining
comprehensive information on persons, companies and networks, trustful personal
relations permit successful networking. In order to focus on the interpersonal level
and promote the establishment of such trustful long-term relations, it is advisable to
organise regular appointments and events.
Once a week, the persons in question could meet at a network regulars` table in a
casual and relaxed atmosphere. To avoid having only personal conversation, a short
agenda should be worked out, which could involve legal innovations, new
announcements or other relevant information on economic development. Short
presentations could be done as well.
Apart from meeting up at a regulars table, workshops or contact points could be
organised. Here, the persons in question meet up regularly at a specified time and
place. Particular resources, such as literature, software, special machines or
laboratory equipment, are put at the network members´ disposal. Adviser and experts
from certain areas, who are to be announced in advance, are present to answer
questions.
2.4.2 Direct Contacts
Apart from gathering many persons at a specified time and place, where contacts can
be established purposefully or by coincidence, and co-operations can possibly be
initiated, you can get directly into contact with potential co-operation or network
partners. It should be carefully considered in advance, what partner you search for
(as described above (selecting partners)), and who could meet these requirements
accordingly.
36
Internet co-operation fairs
Online co-operation fairs provide assistance with searching for co-operation or
network partners. They particularly support that by providing comprehensive
information on participants, who are logged in already, such as companies in a
particular region. In addition, they offer web-sites on which the own services and
deliver concrete pleas can be offered.
Generally, these co-operation fairs are very specific regarding branch, topic or region.
There are, for instance, specific technology fairs, where technical innovations or
patents are offered or searched for, software fairs, recycling- and material fairs, fairs
on foundations of a new business, or capacities intended for gathering those
companies that either have many machines, free-lancers and other resources or that
have none the like.
http://www.regis-online.de
http://www.kmuinnovation.com/kooperationsboerse.htm
http://www.kooperationsboerse.ihk.de/kdbdiht.asp
http://partners-service.cordis.lu/
There are still co-operation fairs that are not based on the internet, for instance at
transfer agencies or professional associations. Co-operation applications and offers
regularly appear in newsletters.
Networking-platforms on the Internet
Networking-platforms work similarly to the above mentioned co-operation fairs. Here,
the functions that can be used, are completely free in the beginning. After some time,
however, some platforms charge a fee.
The persons using such platforms fill in their own contact profile, including data on
former employers, schools they attended, or services they look for. Among these
contact profiles, particular search functions generate lists of members that meet
particular criteria, for instance, common interests or similar services.
On some platforms, like the openBC, members can be selectively invited to join the
own contact net. After confirming the invitation, the person in question appears within
37
the list of its own, confirmed contacts. This way, contacts can be visualised and
utilized.
In addition, various other services can be consulted, for instance, a notification via email, when new members enrol with distinguishing features, web statistics on the own
profile or specific discussion forums It can be generally said, that persons who attach
a photo to their profile tend to be more frequently contacted than others without a
photo.
At present, www.linkedin.com and www.openbc.com. are probably the most important
network-platforms in the business area.
38
There are various further platforms that have been summarised by Judith Meskill in a
meta list, involving nine sub-categories: business, common interest, dating, face-toface facilitation, friends, MoSoSo (Mobile Social Software), pets, photos as well as
“edge” cases or social networking “plus” sites.
http://socialsoftware.weblogsinc.com/2005/02/14/home-of-the-social-networking-services-meta-list/
Single fairs, high in number on the internet, intended for networking as well, but
within a very specific and private sector, have not been included here. They present,
however, the fastest growing market on the internet, with about 3000 German
speaking fairs.
Apart from these platforms that are specifically set up for networking, contacts can
also be made and maintained by using numerous discussion forums or weblogs.
Similar to network platforms you can insert the own profile and communicate directly
with other users. In contrast to most network platforms, you can make comments in a
window which can be seen and replied by any other user being online.
Using weblogs works similarly, where longer articles and contributions can be
delivered and commented by other users. Unlike the network platforms, users who
are not simultaneously on-line, can exchange data. Therefore, it is comparable to an
open correspondence.
Telephone
Today, establishing and maintaining contact via the telephone or via e-mail is one
kind of networking being most important and widely spread.
In a questioning, the members of the openBC replied the question “How important
are the following ways of communication for maintaining contacts?” with “very
important” or “important”:
36%
clubmeetings
45%
conferences, trade-shows, seminars
61%
internet networking-platforms
94%
telephone
95%
e-mail or messenger
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
39
Establishing the first contact via the telephone involves the difficulty that the voice is
the only communication medium. In contrast to face-to-face communication, gestures
and facial expression are missing. Sympathy, disapproval, irritability, or openness
can hardly be communicated and identified. In addition, the communication can be
broken up more easily due to failures in the technical medium and lack of a personal
relation.
When getting into touch via the telephone, some instructions should be taken into
account. Although these guidelines do not guarantee success, they help avoid
frequently committed mistakes.
Rules for successfully telephoning
preparation of the telephone conversation
•
A calm surrounding supports your concentration
•
Define your aims for the conversation. What do you want to achieve?
•
Consider objections, excuses, arguments etc.
•
Put the important documents for your conversation together and read them again in advance to be up to
date
•
Prepare a pencil and paper
•
Choose the right time for calling (consider breaks like lunch time)
telephone conversation
•
If you call: “good morning/ afternoon, first name, last name, business, reason for calling...“
•
If you get a call: “good morning/ afternoon, business, first name, last name...“
•
Note the name of the caller and repeat it during the conversation
•
Standardise your notes and reduce them to the essential points: name, telephone number, address, time of
calling, reason for calling, further steps
•
Make sure that your notes are correct
•
Speak clearly and precisely
•
Speak with short sentences. Make some breaks
•
To ask means to lead the conversation: avoid monologues by asking questions like (what can I..., ...?,
when are you...?, would it be interesting for you if..?)
•
Try to find out what your conversation partner needs and what could be the benefit of relation:
Can you help him to avoid some costs or gain more profit ? Can you help him to solve some
problems or to avoid trouble? Can he get more prestige or important information through you etc.
•
Define further steps or dates during your conversation and make some offers for these points.
•
Let your conversation partner always finish
•
Note the results of your conversation after the call
40
E-Mail
Establishing contact via e-mail involves the difficulty, that the communication is even
more constrained compared to a telephone conversation. Mood and personality of a
person that is contacted can hardly be recognised. On the other hand, you can spend
more time on working on a text in an adequate style and presenting the concern in
greater detail. An e-mail is a particularly reasonable medium for establishing and
maintaining contacts, especially in terms of transferring “hard” facts, such as
addresses, dates or documents. Since an e-mail can be sent quickly at a low cost, it
has become the main communication medium along with the telephone.
E-mails, however, also have weak points: a high number of companies use mails for
advertising purposes and spread milliards of so-called UBE (unsolicited bulk e-mail)
or spam-mails every day. To differ from such spam-mails, the subject heading should
be individually and concretely adjusted to the concern and person in question.
Since particularly persons with leading positions in companies or organisations
receive a lot of (serious) e-mails every day, you should keep your mails short and
formulate the concern precisely. If your e-mail has not been replied within one week´
s time, it is recommended to ask, possibly via telephone.
SMS/ MMS
SMS (short message service) or MMS (multimedia messaging service) by contrast
are less commonly used as network tools. According to the German net agency
“Bundesnetzagentur” 20.6 milliard SMS and 91 milliard MMS were sent in 2004
(RegTP 2004, p. 43). These media are generally applied to maintain already
established contacts and serve, due to the partially limited number of characters and
the growing costs for additional characters, for communicating short and up-to date
information, like notes on appointments, reminding someone of something or for
spontaneous, emotional announcements.
SMS and MMS are particularly popular among teenagers. A study, commissioned by
the provider “Talkline”, revealed that 98 % of teenagers between the age of 14 and
29 use this medium regularly.
SMS and MMS, considering their rather personal character, can be mainly used as
network tools in the business area in combination with contact data bases. Short
41
personal messages on important events, such as birthdays, or reminders in general
can be sent by SMS and appointments can be arranged within a short time.
“Systematics therefore play an important role in networking. Whenever I get to know
the date of birth of somebody, I immediately record it in my PDA. On the date of his
birthday, I send a SMS or phone that person up. Once, such a SMS even helped me
to get a job (…)”. Dr. Hans-Jürgen Croissant, former press relations officer of
Microsoft Germany in Lutz 2005, p. 83).
Communication Tips
When establishing a contact, no matter whether at events or via telephone, one
should appear open-minded and confident, - but not presumptuous, - friendly and
polite towards your partner. This “openly approaching and addressing the other
person” has to be trained, because many persons are rather reserved and are more
or less reluctant to make the first move. Some network guidelines (Lutz 2005, p. 60 f.,
Scheddin 2005, p. 92 ff., Fey 2005, p. 62 ff., Rudolph 2004, p. 61 ff.), give substantial
advice for the first approaches. However, these tips are only suggestions, which
should be internalised in the course of time, since it is important to leave an authentic
impression on the other person, in order to build up a basis of mutual trust. Simply
“rehearsed” phrases or patterns of behaviour will be noticed very quickly and have a
slightly negative touch.
•
Get an overview of the participants: Do you already know someone or is there a
participant that you wanted to get known to? Do you notice other persons,
standing alone and looking for someone to talk to?
•
Be open-minded, smile and do not hide in the back of the room or behind a table.
When you are in an auditory, do not sit down immediately and leaf through the
programme.
•
Make yourself known to the other persons, join groups, unless they do not want to
be disturbed and have confidential conversations. Ask, for instance, “Excuse me,
may I join you? Are you just talking about…?”
•
Take a chance to initiate the conversation by placing open, non-committed
questions, like “Is this the first time that you are attending such an event?” or
“How did you like the presentation?” Alternatively, you can briefly introduce
42
yourself and pose a question, such as “Hello, I am Mister X of the company Y,
may I ask which company you work for?”
•
At any rate, you should have introduced yourself in person within the first two
minutes.
•
In the very beginning of the conversation, have a small talk on non-committed
issues.
•
Find things you have in common.
•
Only after having established a certain basis of mutual trust, you should address
more profound issues, such as questions regarding corporate policy.
•
Pay the other person your full attention and do not leave the impression of being
absent or indifferent.
•
Listen carefully and let your conversational partner finish. Ask, if needed.
•
Clear up misunderstandings immediately and ask, if you have not understood
something correctly.
•
Make the conversation more relaxed after some time, by paying compliments or
making anecdotes and cheerful remarks.
•
Do not commit the mistake to consider each conversation as a sales conversation
for your own product or service.
•
Do not expect a short-termed material advantage from your conversational
partner. As stated above, apart from identity utility, you will obtain other resources
within the social exchange (information, social acceptance, quality of life, etc.) and
the chance of getting these resources as well as material profit, due to reciprocity,
is growing in the course of a long-term, trustful relation.
It should be always kept in mind that the first impression is the lasting. A group of
researchers around the New Yorker brain researcher Tali Sharot and Mauricio
Delgado (2004) have found, that the first impression on the trustworthiness of
business partners is the crucial factor, even if you have information that is of the
contrary. The publications of Siegfried Frey (1999) and Peter Borkenau as well as
Annette Liebler (1992) show similar results.
That means, not only do you have to pay attention to an adequate appearance (for
instance, you should not attend a new year’s party in trainers), but also to your
posture, facial expression and gesture. Or as the communication scientist Paul
Watzlawick put it in 1971, “You cannot not-communicate!” (Watzlawick 1971, p. 53).
43
That means, also “non-talking” or “non-moving” transports information of a person, for
instance, that he or she is shy, does not feel well or does not want to be disturbed.
With the variety of signals, you send to others – whether consciously or
subconsciously – the danger of misunderstandings simultaneously increases.
According to Schulz von Thun (1981), each message or signal (including the ones
that are sent subconsciously) has four additional aspects:
•
A factual information (on which I give objective information).
•
A self-notification (what I want to get across about myself).
•
An information on relationship (what I think about you and how I am related to
you).
•
An appeal (what I want to achieve on your side).
Appeal
Self-notification
Factual information
Relationship
Accordingly, a sender might have intended his message as factual information (“Look
out, the traffic lights are red.”). The receiver, however, receives this as information on
relationship (“I have noticed, that the traffic lights are red. He obviously thinks that I
am not able to drive a car.”) Whenever the communication level of the sender and the
receiver does not correspond, it leads to misunderstandings. If you are aware of this
fact, you can tackle this problem by meta-communication, i.e. by communicating on
communication. This way, you can clarify, how you wanted a message to be
understood. (“Do not feel criticised. I just wanted to tell you on the factual level, that
the traffic lights are red. If you already have noticed that, everything is fine.”)
44
Bearing this in mind, you can avoid misunderstandings and conflicts at the first
contact and pave the way for further conversations.
Should confidential information be communicated, it is advisable to talk to your
conversational partner and sign a secrecy agreement. With such an agreement, you
make sure that your partner does not turn information against you, in that he copies
an idea or poaches other potential co-operation partners. Your partner, on the other
hand, benefits from the same protection.
2.4.3 Contact Database
Of crucial strategic importance for processing interaction management is building up
and maintaining a contact database. Only when updating a contact database
regularly, you get an overview of the contacts you could activate, for instance, via a
telephone call or by e-mail, and pursue changes in terms of a controlling tool.
Glaeser/ Laibson/ Sacredote have good reason to define social capital as “a person’s
social characteristics – including social skills, charisma, and the size of his Rolodex –
which enables him to reap market and non-market returns from interactions with
others.” (2001, p. 4).
Nowadays, several software tools and PDAs have replaced the Rolodex in most
companies. Which software to apply for building up a contact database is free to the
user. Several software providers offer good solutions that vary in terms of complexity
or additional functions. A software tool, specifically developed by RWTH Aachen for
networks and co-operations, is the virtual platform SENEKA.
http://www.zlw-ima.rwth-aachen.de/forschung/projekte/seneka/virtuelle_p/index.html
This tool has been developed within the framework of a particular project and is
therefore not available on the market. You can, however, use it by logging in.
There are several other software solutions that have not been specifically designed
for networks, but can nevertheless be used for this purpose. These allow the
grouping of contacts along defined criteria, generating distribution lists or reminding
someone of appointments. Others additionally permit statistical evaluation within the
database or administration of documents.
It is up to the individual, whether to apply a highly complex Customer Relation
Management (CRM) System by SAP (mySAP Customer Relation Management),
45
Sage (AC! 7,0 professional) or Microsoft (Microsoft CRM) or a fairly simple software
for address administration.
Overview of CRM solutions:
http://www.softguide.de/software/kundeninformationen-crm.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Customer_relationship_management
You can even apply Excel tables for storing the data. The only thing that is important
is to get a quick overview on the most important contact databases, such as name,
address, telephone number, company, when and where you meet, which activities
you have in common, which correspondence you have had before, which important
contacts the person has access to, when the last contact took place, as well as
further information that are helpful to maintain the contact, such as date of birth,
holidays or hobbies.
If you use software, that is not compatible with the extended Balanced Scorecard,
such as the above mentioned Excel tables, you should additionally point out the
objectives and measures with each actor, defined in the Balanced Scorecard, in one
or two columns.
46
2.4.4 Maintaining Contacts
In contrast to other forms of capital, social capital needs regular investments in terms
of time and effort, to keep up its value. That means, a contact, that has been once
established, cannot be booked on the credit side. You cannot ask a person to do you
a favour, whom you met at an event two years ago and whom you have not
contacted since. Beside customer loyalty, a kind of “contact loyalty” is required as
well.
You should refresh your contacts in certain intervals, for instance, on birthdays or
bank holidays, events that are relevant for you and the other person in some respect.
But you can also reactive your contact without any specific motive.
Scheler (2003) describes a case, in which a wine merchant received a new delivery,
including some bottles of excellent wine, a customer particularly favoured. The wine
merchant sent his customer a bottle of this excellent wine for free.
Reactivating contacts does not require much effort. Making a telephone-call, sending
an e-mail or SMS is often sufficient. The wine merchant, for instance, could have
simply informed his customer via SMS or a phone call about his delivery.
The only important thing about refreshing contacts, is that you show interest in the
other person and make him feel important, by investing time, effort and/ or money.
2.5 Professional, strategic Interaction Management
In terms of the necessity and economic importance of social capital, entrepreneurs,
leaders of organisations as well as individuals are faced with the problem of how to
build up and develop their social capital as efficiently as possible. There are several
options for this.
One option would be building up a comprehensive social net work for you, the
enterprise or organisation, which can be activated if needed. This involves, however,
running costs in terms of binding partners or up-dating information on the
corresponding partner. That means, it is required to maintain contacts by sending
congratulations at birthdays or bank holidays or by simply asking how he or she is
47
(see above). In addition, information on the partner, business data, contacts, projects,
etc. have to be regularly up-dated in the own contact data basis.
The second option is to consult an external adviser with particular contacts he
strategically processes to the customer (entrepreneur, leader of an organisation,
individual person) and puts this data at his disposal (cf. Klanke 1995, Schölermann
2003).
This is similar to the access of knowledge problem: you can either get books for
yourself that are regarded to be important, but create high costs in terms of purchase,
set-up of systematic and maintenance, or you borrow books from a well-equipped
library for a fee. The latter offers the advantage of being advised by qualified staff,
which accelerates the search for corresponding knowledge.
At this point, professional and strategic interaction management comes into play.
Contacts are regarded as resources and it is tried to allocate them to the
corresponding customers as efficiently and adequately as possible. This is based on
the network analysis, the long-term vision of the company and objectives defined in
the balanced scorecard. If there is no such basis, the interaction manager helps the
customer to generate it. The main job of a professional interaction manager is, to
function as a “broker” (he “occupies” the position of the “structural holes”), who has
access to various further networks and persons as well as internal knowledge on
them and activates both to realise the vision and the objectives on behalf of the
customer. In doing so, he has to pay attention not only to establish particular shortterm contacts, but also to strategically develop the meshing of interactions for the
customers over the long term.
Supposing, enterprises A and B, do not seem valuable to a customer as single
contacts. Once A and B are united in a co-operation that offers a new product, the
whole situation could undergo a radical change in that the contact to A and B would
become important to the customer. The professional interaction manager aims at
searching and selecting adequate interaction partners for the customer in terms of
long-term and strategic aspects.
B
A
situation 1
B
A
situation 2
48
It has also to be taken into consideration that the interaction management is freely
scaleable seen from the actor’s position. Interaction management can be applied for
individuals, but also for teams, branches within enterprises, a whole enterprise, for a
region or even a country.
Particularly, with such aggregated units, the above mentioned phenomenon for
nations shows up again: employees, branches and town councils holding numerous
contacts and high social capital are of vital importance for the whole unit in question,
since they increase the whole social capital of an enterprise, a country region, etc.
This puts the social competence to establish and maintain social relations in the
centre as a key qualification. Combined with the employee’s social net, social
competence becomes an important factor regarding the recruitment and selection of
personal of an enterprise or an organisation.
2.6 Co-operations and Networks
During the process of interaction management it might have turned out that particular
contacts with actors, that have been established, have to be strengthened to achieve
the defined objectives or visions. These contacts have then to be transferred into
structural forms. These forms of repeated or long-term interaction can be roughly
distinguished and defined as follows:
Co-operation between independent entities
Co-operation in this context can be seen as a voluntary co-operation between two or
more, legally autonomous entities that are willing to give up their independence to
achieve common goals (cf. Wohlgemuth 2002, p.14).
In order to make such co-operations work and operate efficiently, an integrated cooperation management can be introduced in the companies or associations in
question. It serves to set up and design co-operation structures and relations and
their co-ordination related to tasks and persons regarding the common objectives (cf.
Wohlgemuth 2002, p. 33).
49
If more entities (persons, enterprises, or associations) are willing to co-operate over a
long term, the co-operation can take on different forms:
•
A joint venture that can be intended to work on a continuing basis, but that has
only a few partners, carries out its business via a newly founded, legal unit.
•
A strategic alliance of companies, is often not meant to run on a continuing basis,
but is intended for achieving a concretely defined economic goal, involving only a
few partners. These partners, in general belonging to the same branch, combine
their strength in singular, selected business areas (cf. Backhaus/ Piltz 1990, p. 2).
Such a form of co-operation is often used in the fields of economic promotion,
local authorities, research establishments and companies in a particular region or
branch aim at strengthening their location and improving the economic starting
point for the persons involved.
http://www.strategischepartnerschaften.de/documents/Leitfaden_Strategische_Partnerschaften.pdf
•
A network. Networks in this context are a special type of co-operations between
three or more legal, contextual and – at least before initiating the co-operation –
economically independent entities, that repeatedly and consciously adjust their
functions to develop projects on the basis of temporally and factually unlimited cooperation relations. They only represent a part within the “social network” (see
network analysis), which also involves informal and not intended relations.
These networks can be subdivided further, for instance into inter- and intraorganisational networks. Inter-organisational networks can be additionally
distinguished from enterprise networks aiming at economic success. These
enterprise networks again can be subdivided into strategic and not-strategic
regional networks (Sydow 1992, p. 78 ff.).
Examples of some networks in Germany and Austria:
http://ueberbrueckungsgeld.de/wiki/Die_besten_Netzwerke_Deutschlands
http://ueberbrueckungsgeld.de/wiki/Die_besten_Netzwerke_%C3%96sterreichs
List of EU-networks
http://www.welcomeurope.com/default.asp?id=1520
50
•
A consortium/ work groups that strongly resemble networks. This is about
syndicates that work together under the leadership of a consortium manager or
leader of a working group for a limited time period to finish a particular project.
•
A value creation chain partnership/ Supply Chain. This is about co-operations
between companies from successive stages of a value creation chain. While the
value creation chain partnerships are often closely related to supplier-customerrelations, the Suply Chains generally collect the whole value creation chain, from
winning raw material, via the production and marketing, up to the disposal. They
therefore present huge strategic networks.
2.6.1 Network management/ Network manager
Working within networks makes great demands on the partners in question. In order
to actually realise the advantages of networking, a sustaining and structured
approach is needed. In addition to the interaction management, a corresponding
network management should therefore be established.
“Network management (in a functional sense) describes the co-operation-wide
design and coordination of all relationships between companies in a factual, temporal
and social dimension, which are maintained to achieve the common co-operation
purpose.” (Wohlgemuth 2002, p. 42).
This job can be taken by a network manager, appointed by all participants. The
network manager is normally the initiator of a network, the person who has contacted
other partners before and who has shown others the advantages of a co-operation or
network. In his studies, Iking (2004, p. 4) regards the network manager as one of the
central factors of success within networks.
51
Important person as network promoter
A network vision or measurable goals exists
Compatible interests of the network partners
An active nucleus as starting point for network activities and growth exists
Integration of regional key-players
Political support for network building exists (financial)
Integration of the network (regional, national context)
Network combines decision makers from public authorities/business/science
Spatial definition of networks because of functional not administrative reasons
Thematic groups
Political support for network building exists (contacts)
SWOT Analysis to identify the strength exists
Most of the network partners live close to each other
1: very important
6: unimportant
2.6.2 Designing a network
In the process of interaction management it has already been decided, with whom
one of the above mentioned forms is to set up, choosing between a co-operation or a
network for the partners in question (see partner selection).
First, the network partners in question have to be directly addressed and convinced
of the use of such a network. In addition, it has to be clarified, who has to handle
particular tasks, what objectives are to be pursued, what costs could possibly arise
for each partner and how long the network is intended be in use (Killich/ Luczak
2003, p. 158). If the first talks are successful, it has to be discussed, when and where
the following negotiations shall take place, by when the negotiations shall be finished,
who else shall be involved in the negotiations, who shall provide the infrastructure
(room, technique, drinks) and who shall be in charge of the co-ordination and
organisation of the further discussions.
52
Target Definition
If the preliminary talks lead to set up a network, the network objectives have to be
defined. In contrast to interaction management, the process of defining the targets
can be quite difficult and fairly complex due to a high number of equal actors.
Sometimes, it turns out that the objectives of various actors cannot reach common
ground, so that a uniform target definition is impossible. This is not necessarily a
disadvantage, as long as there are at least some common objectives that provide the
integration of the network.
Due to the mentioned complexity, the process of working out the target definition
should be made transparent to the participants at a very early stage and it should be
clarified how to cope with incompatible goals. This can happen in workshops, in
which the above presented techniques (Scenario-planning/ future workshop) could
be applied.
Objectives that are defined for the total network should be noted on the individual
balanced scorecards. An additional perspective (such as a co-operation perspective)
could
be
implemented
to
the
BSC
(cf.
http://www.sfb559.uni-dortmund.de/pdf/
m03.pdf?PHPSESSID=16199f3aa1de1dd2da38a28365018917#search=%22%22netzwerk%20balanc
ed%20scorecard%22%20%22).
As an alternative, the objectives can be integrated in already existing perspectives,
but then, they have to be attributable to the corresponding actors in the extended
BSC.
Since diverse opinions on objectives and their priority can be anticipated, these
workshops should be led by a moderator or mediator.
Developing a “Network Constitution”
The network constitution should provide a framework that is accepted by all partners
and that defines the principles, rights and duties within the network. This can be done
informally on a basis consensus or network directives, or formally, judicially binding
within a legal frame structure.
The ideal network constitution involves two main components: the organ constitution
and the co-operation constitution.
53
The organ constitution clarifies how the network is to be co-ordinated considering the
institution, management and personnel. It precisely determines the allocation of
tasks, competences and authorities to issue directives and forms of voting as well as
tools and measures that are to be applied for regulation and evaluation of the
process. This part of the network constitution therefore covers the whole performance
of the system.
The co-operation constitution, by contrast, defines general rules of behaviour. These
involve clarifying questions, such as: Who can join or leave the network under which
circumstances in the future? How will the costs, arising from networking, be
distributed? How will you present yourself to the public? Which norms, principles and
communication rules should be applied?
Furthermore, the co-operation constitution defines the precise procedures on the
working level, such as clarifying the following questions: Who precisely has to fulfil
particular tasks in a given period of time? What for sanctions can be imposed? Who
obtains the usage rights on the products and services? Who assumes liability in
particular cases?
Network Constitution
organ constitution
structure of management
and performance
shared norms and goals
co-operation constitution
general rules of behaviour
procedures on the working
level
Developing a model
The process of developing a model is similar to that of the vision of the company with
a long-term, general target definition for the whole network. Such a model also helps
to bind the partners together, shape identity and create team-spirit, a feeling of
togetherness, among the partners which is particularly important for the whole
performance.
In addition, this model can serve as a marketing tool to present the shared network
identity to the public and to determine the network’s position on the market.
54
Act of formation
The procedure of developing a network constitution, should involve as many network
members as possible. This can be done by organising huge common workshops, in
which, using brainstorming and discussion techniques, a target definition and a
network model are developed, and then a rough outline of the first ideas on a
network constitution. After forming working groups, the following procedures can be
concretised:
At a so-called „Kick-off“-event, the final model and the constitution are discussed and
decided. Finally, the official formation of a network will be announced, at a
conference, a general meeting or in any other appropriate setting.
Without a proper inaugural meeting, you would miss the chance of making the first
move towards a common network identity, because the network would start at some
point between only some individual actors or work groups.
2.6.3 Work phase
After the phase of foundation, the network takes up its work. The individually defined
objectives for each partner have to be in line with the defined working policies.
Working policies which are possible can be distinguished as follows:
•
Exchange of experiences
•
Set-up of communication platforms
•
Network meetings
•
Workshops including all companies
•
Common qualification measures
•
Comprehensive project teams
•
Employing staff for certain tasks
•
Transferring the co-operation into a self-contained legal form
(Howaldt/ Ellerkmann 2005, p. 28)
55
When developing new products or offering services work groups and project teams of
all participating companies are employed. During the course of this process,
particular informal working structures arise. Within the work groups particular roles
and informal hierarchies emerge, such as leaders of opinion and promoters, nominal
members, persons who constrain team-work and who show a rather uninvolved and
isolated attitude towards the process.
In addition, particular processes emerge, which are regarded particularly efficient or
convenient by the persons involved, but which have not been planned or have not
been anticipated in advance. Since this can have a positive or negative effect on
achieving the set objectives, the processes have to be regularly evaluated and, if
necessary, adjusted to the guidelines or vice versa, the guidelines then have to be
adjusted to the newly developed, more efficient processes.
During the working phase, designing group processes and controlling is at the heart
of the network management, in order to regularly evaluate to what extent the
objectives have been met. If they have not, particular measures have to be applied.
Crises and Conflicts
Sydow points out, that conflicts within networks are inevitable due to the diversity of
interests and interdependencies among various actors. Conflicts, however, are not
automatically dysfunctional. If treated adequately, conflicts can even help the network
to run more efficiently and bind the partner closer together (Sydow 1992, p. 260).
Generally, a conflict arises, when two elements are incompatible and oppose each
other. Accordingly, conflicts can be subdivided into conflicts within and between
persons, within and between groups, companies, organisations and conflicts
between associations or states.
Depending on the cause of conflicts, you can distinguish conflicts of interest, of
distribution, of roles, of power and of information.
Distribution conflicts, for instance, emerge, when it is not clear, how the commonly
generated profits should be distributed or when a partner thinks he should receive a
certain amount of profit out of his personal engagement.
According to Flocken, the most common reasons for crises and conflicts within
networks are:
56
1. Central persons leave the network
2. The roles of the organisations involved have shifted
3. Competition between network partners crowds out co-operation
4. Poor services within the network create a negative atmosphere
5. The necessary effort overweighs the utility of a co-operation
6. The expectations of the partners and their engagement are too different
7. The organisations involved send the “wrong” people
In order to act against these conflicts, it is important to notice and discover them in
time. The nine-stage model of conflict escalation, developed by Glasl (1999) can help
to sensitise people to the mechanisms of conflicts:
•
Stage 1: Hardening
Conflicts emerge from tensions, for instance, a casual clash of opposing opinions,
which happens every day. This clash is often not considered the beginning of a
conflict. However, if a conflict emerges from it, different opinions become more
fundamental. The conflict might have deeper roots.
•
Stage 2: Debates and Polemics
From this stage onwards, one party is likely to think of strategies to convince the
counterpart with his arguments. Differences in opinion lead to an argument. You
aim at putting the counterpart under pressure.
•
Stage 3: Actions, not words
The parties increase their pressure on the counterpart, in order to push through
themselves or their interests. Conversations, for instance, are interrupted. There
is no communication and the conflict is increasingly hardening.
•
Stage 4: Images and Coalitions
The conflict deepens, by trying to seek for people of similar interests. Since you
are convinced to be right, you can denounce your opponent. At this stage, the
conflict no longer concentrates on concrete issues, but it is about victory or
defeat.
•
Stage 5: Loss of Face
The counterpart’s identity is to be downgraded by any kind of misrepresentation.
Trust is lost completely. “Loss of face” therefore means loss of moral
trustworthiness.
57
•
Stage 6: Strategies of Threats
Applying certain strategies of threats the conflict parties try to gain total control of
the situation and demonstrate their own power. You threaten someone with a
demand (10 million Euros) that is combined with a sanction (“Otherwise I am
going to blow up the main building!”) and the sanctions potential (show
explosives). At this stage, the proportions decide on the trustworthiness of the
threat.
•
Stage 7: Limited Destructive Blows
At this stage, you try to do harm to your counterpart with any kind of trick. The
counterpart is no longer seen as a human being. From this stage on, survival and
suffering less damage than the counterpart are the main goals.
•
Stage 8: Fragmentation of the Enemy
The attacks aim at completely destroying the counterpart.
•
Stage 9: Together into the Abyss
At the last stage of conflict escalation, the drive to annihilate the enemy is so
strong that even the instinct of self preservation is neglected. The survival of the
very own existence is of no interest, the enemy shall be exterminated at any price
of destruction.
In order to tackle the recognised conflicts, more communication between the conflict
parties is required. It is generally advisable for groups, networks or strategic
alliances, to summon regular meetings (meetings in teams or branches, assembly
gathering), in order to reveal and lessen conflict potential at an early stage by
exchanging information. If conflicts are noticeable, various concepts can be applied,
which have been developed in the fields of psychology and education science to
solve conflicts in groups. Some of these concepts will be briefly explained in the
following:
Rules of Discourse
Within parts of the co-operation constitution, it is advisable to arrange certain rules of
discourse in advance, that help to avoid misunderstandings (see page 44) and clearup arising conflicts quickly and efficiently.
The concept of “Theme-Centred Interaction”, developed by Ruth Cohn (1975) serves
as an example for rules of discourse. This concept is based on the idea that each
58
person (the “I”), the interaction among each other (the “We”) and the common theme
(the “Theme”) are of equal importance. These focal points being related to each other
have to be outbalanced within the particular area. This should be achieved by the
following rules of communication:
•
Be your own chairman, responsible of your own situation and your environment.
Take yourself and your needs seriously. Decide, what you want to say, when you
want to speak or to stay silent, and also accept, that the group members have the
same rights.
•
Disturbance in social interaction needs to be handled with priority. Interrupt the
conversation, if you for some reason cannot participate, if you feel bad, or if you
are distracted or not concentrated.
•
Talk via “I” not “one”. Generalising statements only tend to hide your position or
make it invulnerable. You are, however, responsible for yourself; stand up for your
own opinion.
•
If you have a question, explain why you ask. Questions on information are
necessary, in order to comprehend an issue or to continue the process. These are
easier to understand, when the background for asking is revealed.
•
Conversations aside should be handled with priority. When someone talks to his
neighbour, there is either a disturbance or he may be neglected. In both cases,
important information possibly gets lost. Therefore, these aside-conversations
should be immediately passed on to the whole group.
•
Only one speaker at a time. Since you can only listen attentively to one person,
everyone should speak after one another and let others finish.
•
Abstain from interpretation as long as possible. Instead, say openly how you have
perceived an issue. Do not interpret something, so that a unsustainable statement
emerges from that
•
Feedback is a part of group work. It is important to finish each phase with each
participant communicating news or experiences and how he regards working
within the groups. This allows all participants to control and design the working
process. When you criticise someone or something, make sure that your criticism
is constructive and does not hurt others. A possible feedback instrument is the socalled “flashlight”. Here, everyone is allowed to say his own opinion briefly,
59
without being commented or interrupted by others. Focus on the member talking
can be supported by an item that is passed to him.
•
What you say, is confidential.
Meta-Communication
If conflicts appear in a group or in a network despite of following such rules of
discourse, there are various techniques of intervention that help solve these conflicts,
for instance meta-communication. The communication relation between sender and
receiver (see page 44) is being discussed by either part. They analyse the
communication situation, the interpersonal background behind the communication
and each contribution to the communication processes. You communicate on your
own communication and try to clear up misunderstandings. Since this is also about
communication, again the danger of problems arises. An appropriate training is
therefore necessary.
Mediation
Mediation is another way of solving conflicts. This procedure aims at solving conflicts
by involving an unbiased third party (mediator), who leads the negotiation following a
structured procedure. Such a negotiation intends to achieve a compromise solution
between the parties and does not want to blame anyone. It tries to focus on the
question, how the parties will treat each other in the future (solution- and future
oriented). It is not the mediator, but the parties who decide on what issues they
negotiate and how to solve the conflict. Voluntary participation of the parties is the
crucial pre-condition of mediation. Mediation generally proceeds in five phases,
starting from the phase of generally clarifying the rules of the game, moving to
presenting the positions and fields of conflicts as well as their structuring and
clarifying up to developing of possible ways out and a final common statement on the
further procedure.
http://www.bmev.de/
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediation
http://www.mediate.com/
http://www.nmi-mediation.nl/
http://www.mediationuk.org.uk/
60
Moderation
For solving conflicts within groups, a moderator can offer help, who is not a higher
authority, but rather an assistant to help structure discussions and processes. The
moderator should be motor and steersman at the same time. He presents the issues
dealt with in the upcoming negotiations, makes sure, that the participants stand to the
stipulated rules and agreements, structures the issue in question, leads the group
systematically towards the defined goals, wraps up the result and can bring about
decisions in accordance with the group members. Especially in conflict situations, the
moderator should clarify the following questions:
Specification of problems
•
•
•
•
•
What is the problem?
Why do you (and your interlocutor) think it is a problem or it is no problem?
For which other involved persons is it also a problem/ no problem? Why?
Who would be the first to accept that the problem can’t be solved?
When was the last time that the problem did not occur?
Specification of communication goals
• How could you recognise that you have reached your goal or that the situation has
changed? What would be different?
• If the problem would disappear over night: why and when would you recognise that it is
gone ?
Circular questions
•
•
•
What do you think: how would your interlocutor describe your position and your goals or
the problem?
How can you help me so that me or your interlocutor can become able to help you?
What could your interlocutor do to support you as much as possible without giving up his
own position?
Worst Case-Consequences
•
•
•
•
What would happen if nobody would do anything to change the situation?
What would be the difference between the problem solutions?
If you would like to wreck the whole thing, what would you have to do?
Who could be most important to wreck it?
Basis of conflict solution
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Mutual respect
Search for a common denominator
Writing down the wishes, necessaries and concerns of all participants
Reformulate the problems
Finding results which are acceptable for all participants
Staying flexible and being open minded
Solving the problems together
61
Further tools and practices:
http://www.wegweiser-buergergesellschaft.de/praxishilfen/konfliktloesung/index.php
http://www.crnhq.org/cr_trainers_manual.htm#WinWinApproach
2.6.4 Metamorphoses of Networks
Networks are voluntary, loose and therefore flexible formations. Depending on
whether a partner leaves or another partner is selected, new and more efficient
working forms are developed. New common objectives may be proposed that lead to
changes in terms of the structure and procedures within the network. This flexibility of
networks can – in contrast to joint ventures – easily make it collapse.
On the other hand, this flexibility is the strength of networks. By taking in new
partners or generating new structures, networks are generally immune against the
leaving of individual partners and they can, in addition, react to changes of the
environment very quickly. For good reason, the brain is nowadays seen as a
“neuronal net”. This particular feature of networks, however, must be clear to all
participants and the changes have to be handled in a constructive manner. Within the
scope of controlling, regular evaluations have to check on whether the defined issues
in the network constitution are still up-to date. If not, the further procedures have to
be discussed with all participants and corresponding changes have to be made.
According to Howaldt/ Ellerkmann (2005, p. 31 ff.) the most common changes are:
•
Changes in terms of target definition and key activities
•
Transition of limited to permanent co-operations and therefore often
- The creation of legally binding structures
•
Continuing development in open structures
2.6.5 Termination and evaluation of the Network
As soon as the defined objectives are achieved, or – in the worst case – the
participants have decided on dissolving the network in advance, the network
procedures come to a close. The procedures of the network should be evaluated first.
62
In addition to evaluation workshops, in which the defined objectives are compared
with the results achieved, personal assessments and experiences are discussed,
specific evaluation manuals or specifically trained evaluators can be employed.
The formal termination of the work should be done in an appropriate setting, such as
a general meeting, a conference, a festive evening, a letter of thanks, a final report of
the partners or simply by holding a common closing meeting. On the one hand, such
a formal termination has a certain public effect which can be used as promotion by
the participating companies. On the other hand, the way of parting decides on how
the performance of the network will be perceived and remembered or whether the
partners are able to co-operate on future issues. The following statement wraps it up,
saying “The first impression is important, but the last remains.” (Seifert 1996, p. 70)
2.7 Wrap-up and evaluation of the entire process
Since the co-operation or the network is finally only a medium to realise the vision of
the co-operation and the objectives defined in the interaction management, it has to
be regularly evaluated, to what extent this vision has already been achieved or at
what stage you actually are to pursue your objectives.
Have the objectives, put down in the balanced scorecard, been achieved? Has a
competitor not reacted as assumed to the own measures or has a partner not
performed as expected? Have some fundamental changes emerged, that completely
change the initial situation for the vision (scenario planning), for instance, through
new, unexpected laws? Do you have to reconsider therefore the whole positioning
(positive as well as negative) within the network? By regularly evaluating and
checking to what extent the visions and objectives have been achieved, the as-is
analyses have to be adjusted and balanced with the vision and the target definition in
particular intervals.
Balancing the as-is and as-to-be state forms the basis for any further decisions. You
can finally come to the decision to seek for new or additional co-operation partners or
to revise and rephrase the vision and target objectives.
63
3. Best Practice Networks in the KTN regions
After showing all the instruments in theory we finally ask: what is the real network
situation in the KTN regions and how much of these instruments are really used by
the networks? To find out a little bit more about these things we sent out a
questionnaire to all KTN partners and asked them to tell us something about their
“best practice networks”.
The results are quite interesting for further steps of developing a Knowledge Transfer
Network. To sum it up: there seems to be a remarkable difference between the old
and the new EU members concerning the tradition of networking. Kurzeme region for
example was only able to name one network for the whole region and according to
the partner from Kurzeme, to work in networks is something totally new for the region
and probably the whole nation. This observation would fit to some empirical studies
which shows that a crucial problem for nations in transition is to change the former
“grey” or informal networks into positive social capital or institutions. These informal
networks also existed under dictatorship in the soviet union and were necessary to
keep the public and economic life going because the official plans often failed. But
when the dictatorship ended the official organisation crumbled, institutions weakened
and the only thing that was able to fill this gap were the informal networks. But these
“grey” networks can become harmful for market economy. For example Rose said in
his study of Russia (1999: 151): that Russia today continues to suffer from a „missing
middle“ of organisations linking informal grass root networks and modern
organisations. Rather, the gap is filled by antimodern enterprises run by former
officials or by Mafia organisations (see also Raiser et al. 2001). So Paldam/
Svendsen (2000: 17) conclude their study with the main question for the further
transition process: „How fast is the building process for (positive) social capital going
to be?“ Maybe the KTN and the networking guide can help to change this situation a
little bit in the future.
The KTN partners from the old EU member states on the other hand have shown in
their questionnaires that networking is quite usual for their daily work and for
innovation policy in their nations. Most of the times there are so many networks in the
regions that only some of them could be mentioned as best practice. Although there
64
were sometimes some coincidental events that helped to start the networks in most
cases the reason to build up a network was a special problem or need of SMEs in the
region. The IRC network (Yorkshire and the Humber) even made an intensive market
analysis to identify special market failures before the network was started.
But the difference, as we stressed above, to the networks mentioned by the partners
from the new EU member states is that the promotors of the networks in the regions
from the old EU member states often knew each other from former co-operations and
projects and that they used this “know who” to build up a new network in a
transparent and official way which was able to solve a problem or to satisfy the needs
of their clients. Their networks usually offer advice, material goods and services and
are so important that they are sometimes also a part of the official innovation policy
for example in the Netherlands. Still these networks do not use all the instruments
that were shown above. Even though a kind of network manager is employed by
almost every network, there are special network events and also an evaluation is
undertaken regularly, something like a network constitution was only developed by
the IRC network (Yorkshire and the Humber). After all the IRC network also seems to
be the best practice example that follows the above suggested way of network
management best.
Therefore, to sum it up, if the partners in the KTN project want to use the results from
“Hanse Visits” as a starting point for an analysis of the partners “know who”, identify
needs and problems, define common targets and finally start to build up a network
then, according to the questionnaires, the IRC network could be a model for the
concrete shape of the KTN. A network constitution should then be a first stepping
stone on this way to a “Hanse Passage Knowledge Transfer Network”. In the “Shared
strategic approach on the role of knowledge transfer network” (workpackage 3) a first
draft of such a network constitution is given under the point “The innovation
professionals initiative“.
65
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71
Appendix
“Best Practice Networks Questionnaires”
72
Yorkshire and the Humber Region
C08 – „Knowledge Transfer Network“
Homework for WP 4
Social network theory views social relationships in terms of nodes and ties. Nodes
are the individual actors within the networks, and ties are the relationships between
the actors. There can be many kinds of ties between the nodes. In its most simple
form, a social network is a map of all of the relevant ties between the nodes being
studied. The network can also be used to determine the social capital of individual
actors. That also means: social networks are no institutionalised groups, associations
or organisations. They are a voluntary form of co-operation between independent
protagonists like individuals or SME.
•
Is there a network in your region that you would call in general a best
practice network and if so, why? (if there is one network for which you can
answer all the following questions please do so, if there are networks for
which you can answer only single questions please do that)
There are several examples of Best Practice in the region, including the Virtual
Enterprise Network, the Yorkshire Science and Technology Network and the IRC
network. For the purpose of this questionnaire, the IRC will be used as the main
example of Best Practice. Beta Technology Ltd is a partner in IRC North, and is the
IRC responsible for the Yorkshire & Humber region.
The IRC network is a trans-national network driving innovation and competitiveness
by connecting knowledge, technologies and people. The IRC network is considered
to be a best practice network as it regularly undertakes monitoring and evaluation of
the network’s system to ensure good practices are promoted and incorporated into
the individual IRCs working practices. It has developed a ‘Quality Charter’ detailing
the networks mission, values, codes of conduct and guidelines to which the individual
IRCs are encouraged to voluntarily sign up to. In addition to this, IRC North has
adopted the use of performance indicators to assist performance management; they
aim to add value to each clients IRC experience; and provide a prompt, efficient
service. Beta Technology Ltd has extensive Europe wide contacts and is accredited
to the ISO 9001 Quality Management System.
73
•
What was the reason for the partners to create a network?
The first Innovation Relay Centres were established in 1995 with the support of the
European Commission. The aim was to create a pan-European platform to stimulate
trans-national technology transfer and promote innovation services. Rapid
development of regional economies’ innovative potential is a key component of the
European Union’s strategy for growth and employment. Too often, new technologies
are too slow to reach the companies which could exploit them in the marketplace.
The developer of a technology and its potential users may be based in different
countries, and have no way of finding out about one another. For two companies, this
represents a missed opportunity for improved competitiveness. For the regions in
which they are based, it represents a real brake on economic and employment
growth.
The IRC Network was established by the European Commission in 1995 to address
this market failure by connecting knowledge, technologies and people. The network’s
pan-European brokerage service now spans 33 countries, including all 25 EU
member States. It provides SMEs and other companies with expert local assistance,
helping them to benefit from international technology partners.
•
Has there been one or two partners who worked as network promoters and
convinced the others to create a network?
Yes, the European Commission (EC) acted as Network promoters in the early days
and created the network by issuing a call for proposals and subsequently issuing
tenders for the contracts to become an IRC.
•
What is the content of the network?
The IRCs are innovation support service providers mainly hosted by public
organisations such as university technology centres, chambers of commerce,
regional development agencies or national innovation agencies. Most IRCs are set
up as consortia. Each centre is staffed by personnel who have extensive knowledge
of the technological and economic profile of the companies and regions they serve.
74
•
What kind of resources do the partners transfer to each other in the network
(only information or also material goods and services)?
The resources transferred in the network can be knowledge, advice, equipment,
technology or skills.
•
How did the network partners find each other?
The European Commission created the network through a call for proposals and the
subsequent issue of tenders.
•
Did the ‘networking’ start coincidentally or has there been a special search
for network partners by one of the partners and if so, does a special
concept for this search exist? For example did they make a network
analysis, did they make a definition of the network goals and then started
searching for those partners able to help them to reach these goals?
The IRC Network was established by the EC in 1995 following a market analysis. The
Market analysis identified defined areas of Market failure, namely Europe’s ability to
connect knowledge, technology and people. The EC created the network through a
specific call for proposals and the subsequent issue of tenders.
•
If you have got special networking events in your region please describe
them and try to estimate how many co-operations have been initiated
because of these events?
The IRC network occasionally puts on events in collaboration with other
organisations. It is hard to quantify how many collaborations have occurred as a
result of the events, however, the success of the IRC network depends on how well it
can raise and promote its profile. Therefore events can be a good method of initiating
collaborations.
•
Do you know if some networks in your region employ a network manager?
Please describe what he/she is doing.
75
Most of the individual IRC’s have a network manager, the network managers have
the responsibility of coordinating the network activities, network promotion and
budget management.
•
Does the network have a network constitution that defines the rules, rights
and duties in the network?
Yes, the IRC network has a Quality Charter. The Charter defines the following
aspects of the Network:
•
The Mission
sums up the background, purposes and benefits of the network:
who we are and what we do
•
The Values
are the beliefs of the network in which we have an emotional
investment
•
The Codes of Conduct
are expected standards of behaviour to protect the
network'
s reputation
•
The Guidelines
support the practical implementation of the Codes of Conduct,
see also Operational Manual
•
Do they evaluate their networks regularly and how are they doing it (for
example, do they use a special network evaluation tool)?
The IRC network has developed a variety of evaluation methods, including
benchmarking. The IRC Benchmarking is intended to ‘be the continuous and
systematic search and implementation of best practices leading to superior
performance, an orientation mark for process improvement’
(http://www.ircnet.lu/src/goodpractice/gpd/main.cfm).
•
How do the network partners estimate the benefit of their network and of
networks in general?
The IRCs can now help companies in different regions and countries to promote and
acquire technologies from other regions and countries including Europe, USA, Japan,
China and Russia. Hundreds of success stories involving real transnational
technology transfer would not have happened were it not for the IRC Network.
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•
Does the economic policy in your region have a special strategy to further
networks? Please describe it.
The Yorkshire and the Humber Regional Economic Strategy doesn’t have a special
strategy to further networks, but it does support the continued and enhanced use of
networks by:
The region will utilise entrepreneurs’ networks, business clubs and other fora to
spread entrepreneurial skills. It will utilise ICT to facilitate business start-ups and
ensure a flexible, modular foundation course in business practice is available to
business entrepreneurs to sharpen their business and management skills. A regional
“Mentor Bank” will be tailored to specialist interests, sectors and social groups.
The Region will build on the successful ‘Britain’s Biggest Break’ campaign and new
opportunities for investment in the regional tourism economy will be focused on
marketing, business networks, customer care, and a proactive inward investment
approach to fill gaps in the region’s tourism offer. The approach will be integrated and
sustainable, building links across sectors and localities, and enhancing the quality
environments on which much tourism is based.
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Friesland
C08 – „Knowledge Transfer Network“
Homework for WP 4
Social network theory views social relationships in terms of nodes and ties. Nodes
are the individual actors within the networks, and ties are the relationships between
the actors. There can be many kinds of ties between the nodes. In its most simple
form, a social network is a map of all of the relevant ties between the nodes being
studied. The network can also be used to determine the social capital of individual
actors. That also means: social networks are no institutionalised groups, associations
or organisations. They are a voluntary form of co-operation between independent
protagonists like individuals or SME.
•
Is there a network in your region that you would call in general a best
practice network and if so, why? (if there is one network for which you can
answer all the following questions please do so, if there are networks for
which you can answer only single questions please do that)
Yes, we like to take BDF – Business Development Friesland (BIC status) as starting
point for regional networking, with NBF (project) as best networking practice. See
http://www.bdfriesland.nl/bdf.php?lang=en&id=1
>>
http://www.bdfriesland.nl/bdfns.php?lang=en&id=79&spage=3&ssub=78
•
What was the reason for the partners to create a network ?
The first three years of a starting entrepreneur are crucial for the surviving changes of
an organisation. Several research works have proven that the basic for a successful
organisation is the professional support. The project New Business Friesland
supports starting knowledge intensive entrepreneurs with advices and actions.
•
And has there been one or two partners who worked as network promoters
and convinced the others to create a network?
Yes. BDF & ICT Center Friesland.
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•
What is the content of the network?
Project members will be coached 1 to 1 by the project management. Next to that the
members can use a special subsidy up to a maximum of 10.000 Euro (40% of the
consultancy costs) that can be spent on the following types of professional
consultancy:
Legal advice
Business planning
Financial advice
Strategic advice
Logistical advice
Promotion and Marketing advice
•
What kind of resources do the partners transfer to each other in the network
(only information or also material goods and services) ?
Information & services:
Legal advice
Business planning
Financial advice
Strategic advice
Logistical advice
Promotion and Marketing advice
•
How did the network partners found each other (for example a conference, a
tradeshow, via internet portal etc.)?
Contacts generated by & from the promoters (BDF & ICT Center Friesland) and
partners:
The project New Businesses Friesland is supported by the following partners:
SNN (Northern-Netherlands Subsidy support organisation): www.snnonline.nl (Dutch)
City of Leeuwarden: www.leeuwarden.nl (Dutch)
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ICT Center Friesland: www.ictcenter.nl (Dutch)
Provinsje Fryslân: www.fryslan.nl
This project is partly financed by the European Union, European fund for regional
development and cooperation Noord-Nederland, EZ/Kompas.
•
Did the „networking“ start coincidental or has there been a special search
for network partners by one of the partners and if so, does a special
concept for this search exist? For example did they make a network
analysis, did they make a definition of the network goals and then started
searching for those partners who are able to help them to reach these goals
etc. ?
Although there are always coincidental events, this NBF network started as projectbased management & special search:
The project is intended for companies that are:
Existing no longer than 3 years;
Situated in the Province of Friesland;
Registered at the Chamber of Commerce;
Expecting structural growth for the next years;
Characterized as knowledge intensive/ innovative
•
If you have got special networking events in your region please describe
them and try to estimate how many co-operation have been initiated
because of these events.
Events are supportive: get-togethers, trade fairs, etc. Get-togethers organised by the
project promoters & partners, trade-faires by Chamber of commerce, WTC etc. See
http://www.bcd.nl/site/3390/default.aspx
•
(Dutch) for recent one.
Do you know if some networks in your region employ a network manager?
Please describe what he/ she is doing.
The NBF network will be run as a project by BDF staff.
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•
Does the networks have a network constitution that defines the rules, rights
and duties in the network?
Project rules.
•
Do they evaluate their networks regularly and how are they doing it (for
example: do they use a special network evaluation tool) ?
Yes, project evaluation & quality management tools.
•
How do the network partners estimate the benefit of their network and of
networks in general?
Positive. See project website:
“Enthusiastic participants of New Business Friesland
An interim evaluation pointed out that the participants of the project New Business
Friesland have many benefits of the project. Bright Spark develops and produces
innovative products in the water treatment segment. The first products of Bright
Spark are already launched on the market, entrepreneur Maurice Tax used the
support of the project New Business Friesland in the following growing period.
Maurice Tax; “a consequence of this is that Bright Spark is going thru a big growth”.
Also the network activities of New Business Friesland are showing their success:
“new cooperation’s have been developed out of the contacts I have achieved with
this project”.
Also entrepreneur Douwe Faber, Ekwadraat is making successful use of the facilities
offered by the project New Business Friesland. “it is really useful to have the support
of a professional third party, the plans of E-Kwadraat are improved and faster
realised because of the help of the New Business Friesland project, for example in
the PR and marketing elements”. ”
•
Does the economic policy in your region have a special strategy to further
networks? Please describe it.
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Yes, as part of the regional innovation policy, fostered by ERDF Innovative Action
and similar (also Interreg III Northsea Programme).
See RIPF programme (Dutch). Related to cooperation of 3 Northern provinces under
SNN. - The Northern Netherlands Assembly: Drenthe, Fryslân and Groningen (English)
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Groningen and Drenthe
C08 – „Knowledge Transfer Network“
Homework for WP 4
Social network theory views social relationships in terms of nodes and ties. Nodes
are the individual actors within the networks, and ties are the relationships between
the actors. There can be many kinds of ties between the nodes. In its most simple
form, a social network is a map of all of the relevant ties between the nodes being
studied. The network can also be used to determine the social capital of individual
actors. That also means: social networks are no institutionalised groups, associations
or organisations. They are a voluntary form of co-operation between independent
protagonists like individuals or SME.
•
Is there a network in your region that you would call in general a best
practice network and if so, why? (if there is one network for which you can
answer all the following questions please do so, if there are networks for
which you can answer only single questions please do that)
We would like to distinguish two different best practice networks:
a. TCNN (Technology Centre North Netherlands,
b. TxU (Supplying and Outsourcing),
•
What was the reason for the partners to create a network?
a. To intensify the relations between SME’s and the institutions for higher education
and research by changing the scope from supply-driven to demand-driven
utilisation of knowledge,
b. To intensify the relations between SME’s and the big companies in order to
stimulate SME’s to supply in the needs of the bigger companies.
•
And has there been one or two partners who worked as network promoters
and convinced the others to create a network?
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Both networks are the result of a historical development and were built on existing
initiatives.
a. the formal initiator of TCNN was SNN (the organization in which the three
northern provinces work together and which grants the money from regional,
national and European funds),
b. the initiator of TxU was the NOM (the Northern Development Company)
•
What is the content of the network?
a. Knowledge transfer,
b. Building value chains.
•
What kind of resources do the partners transfer to each other in the network
(only information or also material goods and services)?
a. Information, knowledge and creativity in solutions for business and production
problems,
b. Information, services and material goods.
•
How did the network partners found each other (for example a conference, a
tradeshow, via internet portal etc.)?
Both networks were started by the above mentioned promoters. The networks were
enlarged by the present leaders Mr. Arno Gielen and Mr. Folkert van der Meulen
respectively.
•
Did the “networking“ start coincidental or has there been a special search
for network partners by one of the partners and if so, does a special
concept for this search exist? For example did they make a network
analysis, did they make a definition of the network goals and then started
searching for those partners who are able to help them to reach these goals
etc.?
Both networks started with an idea for cooperation between the already mentioned
partners and developed themselves in a rather natural way.
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•
If you have got special networking events in your region please describe
them and try to estimate how many co-operations have been initiated
because of these events.
New Year Gatherings (especially the one of the Chambers of Commerce),
Company contact days North Netherlands in October: a fair in Groningen where
SME’s meet each other (also in Drenthe and Friesland),
SME-event organised yearly by MKB Noord,
•
Do you know if some networks in your region employ a network manager?
Please describe what he/ she is doing.
Yes
•
Do the networks have a network constitution that defines the rules, rights
and duties in the network?
No
•
Do they evaluate their networks regularly and how are they doing it (for
example: do they use a special network evaluation tool)?
Yes,
a. TCNN is assessed every two years by Avacon by evaluating every single project.
Companies are interviewed about the results of the project (cost reduction rise in
turnover, profits, employment), the quality of the staff, students, the quality of
cooperation etc.
b. TxU has been assessed by the University of Groningen: info van Drecht
•
How do the network partners estimate the benefit of their network and of
networks in general?
Partners are rather satisfied (see also the assessments). Moreover partners keep
coming back for further projects
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•
Does the economic policy in your region have a special strategy to further
networks? Please describe it.
Yes, the Dutch “polder” spirit leads to cooperation on every level, including networks
building.
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Kurzeme Region
C08 – „Knowledge Transfer Network”
Homework for WP4
•
Is there a network in your region that you would call in general a best
practice network and if so, why? (if there is one network for which you can
answer all the following questions please do so, if there are networks for
which you can answer only single questions please do that)
Yes, there is. And because it is the only one could call – official. The other networks
are more of an “everyday communication” character between different actors, like the
communication in the ICT field, or between the higher education establishments.
•
What was the reason for the partners to create a network?
The exchange of information, experience, knowledge and the latest news related with
tourism (worldwide necessary news, legislation changes etc.). A kind of network
existed already several years before the “official one”, but as time went by there
arose the necessity to make it more coordinated and “official”.
•
And have there been one or two partners who worked as network promoters
and convinced the others to create a network?
There has been the cooperation between particular actors, but the network was
created with the official foundation of Kurzeme Tourism Association.
•
What is the content of the network?
TOURISM in general
•
What kind of resources do the partners transfer to each other in the network
(only information or also material goods and services) ?
Information, brochures, maps.
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•
How did the network partners find each other (for example a conference, a
tradeshow, via internet portal etc.)?
It was their own initiative and necessity to work together – personal contacts,
conferences, and tradeshows, looking for and finding information on the internet.
•
Did the „networking“ start coincidental or has there been a special search
for network partners by one of the partners and if so, does a special
concept for this search exist? For example did they make a network
analysis, did they make a definition of the network goals and then started
searching for those partners who are able to help them to reach these goals
etc.?
The networking arose from the simple necessity of people from one branch to
exchange the information
•
If you have got special networking events in your region please describe
them and try to estimate how many co-operations have been initiated
because of these events.
There is an annual Kurzeme Tourism Conference, which is being organised already
since 6 years. The aim of this conference is to further the cooperation between public
bodies, municipalities and Kurzeme tourism entrepreneurs in the field of tourism.
The second part of the question is not answerable as it is not possible to evaluate,
how many cooperation has been initiated because of this event.
Apart from the official meetings of the KTA board, they contact each other in the
everyday life.
•
Do you know if some networks in your region employ a network manager?
Please describe what he/ she is doing.
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The Kurzeme Tourism Association (KTA) was founded in July, 2001; the network is
managed by the KTA board (6 members from the whole statistical region∗ are being
voted – one from each district), but the Association encloses members of all the
Kurzeme region districts (nr. of members - 76, including the municipalities of
Kurzeme); meetings are held once per month and decisions are made over voting.
The Association organises the printing of informative tourism brochures, organises
international conferences and seminars, experience exchanges for tourism
entrepreneurs, Tourism information centre employees, as well as for members of the
KTA board in the Netherlands, Germany, Estonia and Lithuania; and they develop
international tourism cooperation projects. The annual Kurzeme Tourism Conference
is also being organised by the KTA.
•
Do the networks have a network constitution that defines the rules, rights
and duties in the network?
Their Statutes.
•
Do they evaluate their networks regularly and how are they doing it (for
example: do they use a special network evaluation tool)?
The evaluation takes place during the annual Kurzeme Tourism Conference.
•
How do the network partners estimate the benefit of their network and of
networks in general?
Positive.
•
Does the economic policy in your region have a special strategy to further
networks? Please describe it.
No, there is no special economic policy.
∗
Kurzeme statistical region includes 6 districts: Kuld ga, Ventspils, Talsi, Tukums, Saldus, Liep ja.
Kurzeme planning region includes 5 districts: Kuld ga, Ventspils, Talsi, Saldus, Liep ja
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Uni-Transfer Hannover
C08 – „Knowledge Transfer Network“
Homework for WP 4
Social network theory views social relationships in terms of nodes and ties. Nodes
are the individual actors within the networks, and ties are the relationships between
the actors. There can be many kinds of ties between the nodes. In its most simple
form, a social network is a map of all of the relevant ties between the nodes being
studied. The network can also be used to determine the social capital of individual
actors. That also means: social networks are no institutionalised groups, associations
or organisations. They are a voluntary form of co-operation between independent
protagonists like individuals or SME.
•
Is there a network in your region that you would call in general a best
practice network and if so, why? (if there is one network for which you can
answer all the following questions please do so, if there are networks for
which you can answer only single questions please do that)
Technology transfer network Homogeneous structure of partners, reliable
information, regular meetings, no competition. (if there is one network for which you
can answer all the following questions please do so, if there are networks for which
you can answer only single questions please do that).
•
What was the reason for the partners to create a network?
Similar tasks, similar structures, Get to know each other, exchange experience, joint
actions
•
And has there been one or two partners who worked as network promoters
and convinced the others to create a network?
I think so yes. May be one of the partners initiated the first meeting, may be the MWK
did.
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•
What is the content of the network?
Meetings with biannual reports about the activities. Joint internet-portal. Joint
activities, share information, share access to public R&D
•
What kind of resources do the partners transfer to each other in the network
(only information or also material goods and services)?
Information, internet platform (www.forschung-in-Niedersachen.de)
•
How did the network partners find each other (for example a conference, a
tradeshow, via internet portal etc.)?
They were contacted by one central person
•
Did the „networking“ start coincidental or has there been a special search
for network partners by one of the partners and if so, does a special
concept for this search exist? For example did they make a network
analysis, did they make a definition of the network goals and then started
searching for those partners who are able to help them to reach these goals
etc.?
Finding them was very easy because they dealt with the same subject in the same
region.
•
If you have got special networking events in your region please describe
them and try to estimate how many co-operations have been initiated
because of these events.
There are no networking events in our region, there are regular meetings to adjust
the activities
•
Do you know if some networks in your region employ a network manager?
Please describe what he/ she is doing.
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There are several networks having employed a manger. (e.g. PhotonicNet)
•
Does the network have a network constitution that defines the rules, rights
and duties in the network?
No. It’s a living network. Duties arise while working.
•
Do they evaluate their networks regularly and how are they doing it (for
example: do they use a special network evaluation tool)?
No, there is no regular evaluation.
•
How do the network partners estimate the benefit of their network and of
networks in general?
The network-partners estimate the benefit rather high because they know what the
others are doing, they get information and have access to public R&D.
•
Does the economic policy in your region have a special strategy to further
networks? Please describe it.
There is a strategy for further networks. Some networks follow a policy strategy. If
there is a technology to be established, a network can be established as well.
(PhotonicNet for optical technologies) Other Networks arise where they are needed.
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Wroclaw
C08 – „Knowledge Transfer Network“
Homework for WP 4
Social network theory views social relationships in terms of nodes and ties. Nodes
are the individual actors within the networks, and ties are the relationships between
the actors. There can be many kinds of ties between the nodes. In its most simple
form, a social network is a map of all of the relevant ties between the nodes being
studied. The network can also be used to determine the social capital of individual
actors. That also means: social networks are no institutionalised groups, associations
or organisations. They are a voluntary form of co-operation between independent
protagonists like individuals or SME.
•
Is there a network in your region that you would call in general a best
practice network and if so, why? (if there is one network for which you can
answer all the following questions please do so, if there are networks for
which you can answer only single questions please do that)
In January we started with a new program “Regional Innovation System
Development”.
For this project we set up a network of 10 local partners: universities, local
development agencies, center for technology transfer and other technology parks in
the region.
•
What was the reason for the partners to create a network ?
The reason for that is to make the potential of Wroclaw universities available to
businesses.
•
And has there been one or two partners who worked as network promoters
and convinced the others to create a network?
Wrocław University of Technology
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•
What is the content of the network?
The universities prepared R&D offers and our task is to implement them to local
SMEs. Local companies may also take use of a database of technology offers. All
prepared so far technology offers are available on web site: http://www.dolnyslaskinnowacje.pl
The network is co-financed from EU funds
•
What kind of resources do the partners transfer to each other in the network
(only information or also material goods and services)?
Information
Strategic advice
Marketing advice
Legal advice
•
How did the network partners found each other (for example a conference, a
tradeshow, via internet portal etc.)?
Personal contacts between managers of the organizations
•
Did the „networking“ start coincidental or has there been a special search
for network partners by one of the partners and if so, does a special
concept for this search exist? For example did they make a network
analysis, did they make a definition of the network goals and then started
searching for those partners who are able to help them to reach these goals
etc.?
The networking started coincidental.
•
If you have got special networking events in your region please describe
them and try to estimate how many co-operation have been initiated
because of these events.
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•
Do you know if some networks in your region employ a network manager?
Please describe what he/ she is doing.
•
Does the networks have a network constitution that defines the rules, rights
and duties in the network?
It is included in the documentation of the project.
•
Do they evaluate their networks regularly and how are they doing it (for
example: do they use a special network evaluation tool) ?
•
How do the network partners estimate the benefit of their network and of
networks in general?
The project has just started but there are only positive estimations so far.
•
Does the economic policy in your region have a special strategy to further
networks? Please describe it.
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Dr. Mark Euler
Transferstelle d i a l o g
Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg
D-26111 Oldenburg
Tel:++49 (0)441 798-2821
Fax:++49 (0)441 798-3002
E-Mail: [email protected]
http://www.dialog.uni-oldenburg.de
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