Changes of the Hailuogou Glacier, Mt. Gongga, China, against the

Transcription

Journal of China University of Geosciences, Vol. 19, No. 3, p. 271–281, June 2008
Printed in China
ISSN 1002-0705
Changes of the Hailuogou Glacier, Mt. Gongga,
China, against the Background of Global Warming
in the Last Several Decades
He Yuanqing (何元庆), Li Zongxing* (李宗省)
State Key Laboratory of Cryosphere Science, Cold and Arid Region Environment and Engineering Research
Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, China
Yang Xiaomei (杨小梅)
College of Geography and Environment Science, Northwest Normal University, Lanzhou 730070, China
Jia Wenxiong (贾文雄), He Xianzhong (和献中), Song Bo (宋波), Zhang Ningning (张宁宁)
State Key Laboratory of Cryosphere Science, Cold and Arid Region Environment and Engineering Research
Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, China
Liu Qiao (刘巧)
Institute of Mountain Hazards and Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences,
Chengdu 610041, China
ABSTRACT: Great change, associated with global warming, has occurred at the Hailuogou (海螺沟)
glacier, Mt. Gongga (贡嘎), China, since the early 20th century. Various data indicate that the glacier
has retreated 1 822 m in the past 106 years, with an annual mean retreat of 17.2 m, and the front
elevation has risen by 300 m since 1823. Comparison of glacier variations and temperature fluctuations
in China and the Northern Hemisphere, over the last 100 years, indicates that glacier retreat stages
occurred during the warm phase, and vice versa. Mass balance records during 1959/60－2003/04 have
shown that the glacier has suffered a constant mass loss of snow and ice. The accumulated mass
balance, -10.83 m water equivalent, indicates an annual mean value of -0.24 m water equivalent. The
correlation between the mass balance and temperature is significant, which also indicates that climate
warming is the crucial cause of glacier loss.
This article is supported by Major Directionality Program
Local hydrological and climatic data
of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (KZCXZ-YW-317),
demonstrate that runoff from the glacier has
Key Project of the National Natural Science Foundation of
been increasing both seasonally and annually.
China (No. 90511007), National Basic Research Program of
The correlation analysis and trend analysis
China
Research
indicate that ice and snow melted water is the
International Partnership Project of the Chinese Academy
main cause of an increase in the runoff. As the
of Sciences (CXTD-Z2005-2), and Project for Outstanding
climate has become warmer, changes in the
Young
glacier surface morphology have obviously
(No.
2007CB411201),
Scientists
of
the
Innovative
National
Natural
Science
Foundation of China (No. 40121101).
occurred. These include a decrease in glacier
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
thickness, enlargement of glacial caves, and
reduction of the size of clefts on the glacier
Manuscript received November 31, 2007.
surface. The ablation period has lengthened and
Manuscript accepted February 10, 2008.
the ablation area has expanded. A variety of
272
He Yuanqing, Li Zongxing, Yang Xiaomei, Jia Wenxiong, He Xianzhong, Song Bo, Zhang Ningning and Liu Qiao
factors thus provide evidence that the Hailuogou glacier has suffered a rapid loss of snow and ice as a
result of climatic warming.
KEY WORDS: change, Hailuogou glacier, Mt. Gongga.
INTRODUCTION
Global warming has brought about many severe
environmental problems, including a rise in sea level
and increased natural hazards. The report of IPCC
(2007) indicated that global warming has had an
accelerative tendency since 1910, and the global
annual mean temperature has increased by 0.74 ℃
from 1906 to 2005, and global annual mean
temperature will increase by 1.1–6.4 ℃ in 2100. The
temperature in China has increased by 0.4–0.5 ℃
from 1860 to 2005, and the rise in winter temperature
has been apparent since 1951. Nineteen “green
winters” have been experienced since 1986/87 (Chen
et al., 2006) in China. In response to global warming,
glaciers on the Tibetan plateau have been retreating
since the early 20th century, and the change has begun
to accelerate since 1980s (Ye et al, 2008; Pu and Yao,
2004; Shen, 2004; Yao et al., 2004; He et al., 2003;
Shi, 2001; Shi and Liu, 2000; Shi et al., 2000; Liu and
Kang, 1999; Zhang and Yao, 1998). From the
previous studies of mass balance, equilibrium-line
altitude, accumulation area ratio, and ablation volume
of 300 mountain glaciers from 1961 to 1998,
Dyurgerov (2003) has concluded that since the 1980s,
glacier area and volume have decreased at an
increasing rate and the speed of the water cycle has
increased as a result of global warming. The retreat
extent of worldwide glaciers from 1884 to 1978 has
been proportional to the degree of global warming
(0.66±0.1) K in the same period, and Oerlemans and
Fortuin (1992) and Oerlemans (1994) estimated that
the total area of the world’s mountain glaciers would
decrease by 1/3–2/3 in the 21st century.
Monsoonal temperate glaciers in China are
located in the region of the southeastern part of the
Tibetan plateau, including Mt. Hengduan and Mt.
Daxue, the eastern part of the Himalayas, and the
eastern segments of the Nyainqentanglha range (Fig.
1). This region is characterized by high precipitation
(1 000–3 000 mm) in the glacier-covered area, a low
snowline (4 200–5 200 m), which is 800–1 200 m
lower than that of the polar glaciers on the western
Tibetan plateau, and relatively high temperatures
(equilibrium line mean annual value -6 ℃, summer
value -1–5 ℃). According to the Glacier Inventory of
China, there are 8 607 monsoonal temperate glaciers
in China, covering an area of 13 200 km2, which is
18.6% of the total glacier number and 22.2% of the
total glacier area. Monsoonal temperate glaciers are
the most sensitive indictors to climatic change, with a
shorter lag time in response to climatic change (He et
al., 2003). Here, taking the Hailuogou glacier on Mt.
Gongga as an example, the authors explored the
extensive changes of glacier retreat, mass balance,
runoff, and surface morphology to provide the
evidence of global warming in China’s monsoonal
temperate glacier region.
Figure 1. Simplified map showing the location of
the Hailuogou glacier.
STUDY AREA
The Hailuogou glacier, a typical monsoonal
temperate glacier, is located on the eastern side of Mt.
Gongga, one of the easternmost glacial areas in China
(Fig. 1). It has a total area of about 25 km2, and is
about 13 km long. The regional climate is dominated
by the southwest (India and Bengal monsoons) and
southeast monsoons in the wet season, and by the
westerly and the Qinghai-Tibet monsoon in the dry
Changes of the Hailuogou Glacier, Mt. Gongga, China, against the Background of Global Warming in the Last Several Decades 273
season. The total annual precipitation at the glacier
tongue area (3 000 m) is about 1 960 mm, with a
maximum between June and September, and the
annual mean air temperature is 4 ℃. At the ELA
(equirbrium-line altitude) (4 900 m), the annual mean
air temperature is about -4.4 ℃ and the annual
precipitation is 3 000 mm (Su and Liu, 2001). The
glacier flows eastwards as it descends from 7 556 m to
3 000 m. Four distinct zones can be recognized: the
accumulation zone (from 7 556 m to 4 980 m), a large
icefall zone (from 4 980 m to 3 850 m), a zone of
glacier-arch (from 3 850 m to 3 480 m) and a
debris-covered zone (from 3 480 m to 3 000 m).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Data concerning glacier variations are based on
field surveys in 1936, 1966, 1982, 1989, 1994, and
2006. These references provide the glacier front
location and the retreat distance. In addition, previous
research (Duan et al., 2007; He et al., 2003; Zhang and
Su, 2001; Li and Su, 1996; Heim, 1936), topographic
map of 1982 have also been employed to reconstruct
the variation processes of the Hailuogou and
Hailuogou No. 1 glaciers, which had formerly been
connected to each other, and to inspect the record of
the previous field surveys. The resultant contrast
among various references indicates that the data,
which have reconstructed the glacier front elevation
and variation processes, are reliable. Mass balance
data from 1959 to 2003 have been derived from
meteorological and hydrological data using the
method of Shi et al. (2000). The meteorological data
for 1988–2004 have been collected at the Alpine
Meteorological Station located at 3 000 m a.s.l.. The
hydrological data for 1994–2004 have been collected
at the Glacier Hydrological Station located at 2 920 m
a.s.l., about 1 km downstream of the glacier terminus.
Glacier tongue (3 000 m–3 600 m) ablation data for
1990–1996 have been provided by the Ecological
System and Environment Research Station, Chengdu
Institute of Mountain Hazards and Environment,
Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS). Climatic data
for China and the Northern Hemisphere have been
obtained from the previous study (Wang et al., 2002;
Wang and Ye, 1998).
Mass balance data for the Hailuogou basin during
1959/60–1992/93 were calculated from the
meteorological and hydrological data by Xie et al.
(1995) using the glacial hydrological mass balance
method and the data for 1993/94–2003/04 were
reconstructed using the same method (this study). The
hydrological mass balance method was widely used to
reconstruct the mass balance where no continuous
long-term glacier observation existed (Shi et al., 2000).
The
mass
balance
was
calculated
from
Bn=(P−R−E)/K, where Bn is the mass balance (mm);
P is the precipitation (mm); R is the runoff (mm); E is
the evaporation (mm), and K is the ratio of the total
basin area and the glacier-covered area, and the value
in the Hailuogou basin was 2.7.
Data of glacier length are calculated from
L=L1+D
(1)
L=L1–D
(2)
where L is the glacier length (m); L1 is the glacier
length in 1988, recorded by Chinese glacier inventory
(m); D is the length of the glacier front change (m) (if
glacier retreat is before 1988, D is plus, and vice versa;
if glacier advance is after 1988, D is plus, and vice
versa); function (1) was used to calculate the glacier
length before 1988, and function (2) was used for after
1988.
The method of polynomial fitting was used to
analyze the change in the trend of temperature and
mass balance. Trends were analyzed by means of
linear regression of the long-term climatic and glacier
data, and correlation analysis of meteorological,
hydrological, and mass balance data was used to
quantify the relationship between glacier change and
climate.
DISCUSSION AND ANALYSES
Frontal Changes
As shown in Table 1, a steady retreat of the
Hailuogou glacier has been observed since the early
20th century. The variation process of the front
elevation has been reconstructed with the help of the
topographic map and the front elevation data. The
front elevation of the Hailuogou glacier has risen by
300 m since 1823 (Fig. 2). It is obvious that the
elevation rise has accelerated since 1936, because it
has risen by 150 m in the past 113 years from 1823 to
1936, whereas, it has risen by the same height in 70
Figure 2. Sketch map showing the variation of
glacier front since 1823.
years, during 1936–2006. As Fig. 3 indicates, the
glacier was in a relatively stationary or advancing
stage from the early 20th century to the 1930s: the
distance between the glacier front and the youngest
terminal moraines that formed in the Little Ice Age
was only 200 m when Heim (1936) made his
observations in 1930. At that time,the front of
Hailuogou glacier No. 1 joined that of the Hailuogou
glacier (Heim, 1936). A comparison of the 1966
satellite imagery of Mt. Gongga and the elevation of
the Hailuogou glacier front determined by Heim in
1930, indicated that both the Hailuogou glacier and
Hailuogou glacier No. 1 were in recession from the
1930s to the 1960s (Zhang and Su, 2001). During that
period, the Hailuogou glacier retreated more than
1 150 m and the front elevation rose by 30–40 m.
Hailuogou glacier No. 1 retreated 800 m, and the front
of the Hailuogou glacier No. 1 was separated from
that of the Hailuogou glacier since the 1960s.
From the beginning of the 1960s to the mid
1980s, the Hailuogou glaciers were in a relativelystationary or slowly-retreating state, whereas, the
Hailuogou glacier No. 1 maintained a relativelystationary terminus position. The Hailuogou glacier
retreated 200 m with an annual retreat of 11.8 m and
its front had risen by 20 m. Since the 1980s, the
glacier had undergone intensive recession in response
to rapid climatic warming. The Hailuogou glacier
retreated 147.8 m during 1983–1989 and 274 m
between 1990 and 2004. Field investigations in 2006
revealed a further retreat of 50 m. Since 1983, the
elevation of the glacier front had risen by 60 m as it
had retreated to a total of 471 m, with an annual
retreat of 21.4 m (Table 1). The Hailuogou glacier
No. 1 retreated 250–300 m from 1981 to 1990, and is
retreating rapidly at present.
The temperature has increased in a variable
manner in both China and the Northern Hemisphere
(Fig. 4). At least four main phases (two cold and two
warm) are distinguishable. During the first cold phase,
from the end of the 19th century to the 1930s, the
Hailuogou glacier was stationary or advancing. In the
second, from the beginning of the 1970s to the mid
1980s, they were in relatively-stationary state or their
rate of recession was decreasing. In the first warm
phase, from the 1930s to the end of the 1960s, the
Hailuogou glacier retreated more than 1 150 m, with
an annual retreat of 31.1 m, and the altitude of its front
rose 30–40 m, whereas, the Hailuogou glacier No. 1
retreated 800 m with an annual retreat of 21.6 m, and
its front separated from that of the Hailuogou glacier.
During the second warm phase, from the mid 1980s to
present, the glaciers have been retreating quickly in
response to rapid climatic warming: the Hailuogou
glacier retreated 471 m between 1983 and 2006, an
annual mean value of 21.4 m, and the altitude of its
front had risen by 60 m from 1983 to 2006. The
altitude of the front of the Hailuogou glacier No. 1 had
risen by 280 m from 1994 to 2006. In summary, the
glaciers retreated during the warm phase, and vice
versa.
Figure 3. Diagrams showing changes of length of the Hailuogou glacier and Hailuogou glacier No. 1.
276
Figure 4. Diagrams showing the variations of annual mean temperature in China (a) and the Northern
Hemisphere (b) over the past 100 years.
Mass Balance Changes
The Hailuogou glacier has been characterized by
mass loss of snow and ice during the last 45 years.
The accumulated mass balance from 1959/60 to
2003/04 was -10.83 m water equivalent, with an
annual average value of -0.24 m water equivalent. The
fluctuation of mass balance was also distinguishable
(Fig. 5). In the first phase between 1959/60 and
1970/71, the mean annual balance was -0.18 m·a-1. In
the second phase between 1971/72 and 1984/85, it
was 0.11 m·a-1, and in the third phase between
1985/86 and 2003/04, it was -0.54 m·a-1. The
respective accumulated mass balances were -2.15 m,
1.53 m, and -10.21 m water equivalent. It was obvious
that the negative phase was during the warm phase,
and vice versa (Fig. 5). The value in the intensively
negative phase between 1985/86 and 2003/04
accounted for 94.3% of the total accumulative value,
which responded to accelerative climate warming after
the 1980s.
Figure 5. Diagrams showing the relationships between mass balance variation in Hailuogou basin and the
annual mean temperature variation in China (a) and in the Northern Hemisphere (b).
The obvious inverse variation between mass
balance and the temperature in China and the Northern
Hemisphere over the last 45 years indicates that
intensified melting is principally responsible for the
negative mass balance (Fig. 5).
This confirmed that glacier loss was the result of
global warming, and was caused by a higher ablation
rate and longer ablation period in the negative phase.
In addition, as temperatures rose, the ELA also
increased, causing enlargement of the ablation area.
The retreat slowed down or glacier front positions
became stationary during the positive phase because
temperatures were low. As Fig. 6 shows, the negative
correlation between mass balance and temperature
was significant, which also indicates that climate
warming was the crucial cause of glacial loss. The
correlation between mass balance and the Northern
Hemisphere temperatures was higher than that in
China. Two reasons could account for this. The
response of mass balance variations to large-scale
climatic changes was greater than the response to
small-scale climatic changes, and moreso, the climatic
Figure 6. Statistical diagrams showing the relationships between mass balance variation and the annual
mean temperature variation of China (a) and the Northern Hemisphere (b).
warming had been greater in the Northern Hemisphere
than in China (Wang and Ye, 1998).
Runoff Changes
The temperature in China, the Northern
Hemisphere, and the Hailuogou basin, has increased
since 1988 (Figs. 7a, 7b, 7c). The annual mean value
in 1997–2004 was 0.27 ℃ higher than that in
1988–1996 in the Hailuogou basin. The temperature
rise has resulted in an obvious increase of glacial
runoff in the Hailuogou basin: the annual mean runoff
in 1997–2004 was 6.88 m3·s-1 higher than in
1994–1996 (Fig. 7d). Instrumental climatic data, ice
core signals, and tree ring indices indicate that the
temperature in China’s monsoonal temperate glacier
region has increased in a variable manner during the
20th century, and the temperature rise has accelerated
since the 1980s (He et al., 2003). Glacier ablation is
heavy (Fig. 7e), and the mean ablation rate in the
glacier tongue has been 7.86 m·a-1 (7.20 m water
equivalent, equal to 3.7 years’ total precipitation in the
area), but the increase of precipitation is very little
from 1988 to 2004 (Fig. 7f), which reflects that the
rise in runoff is the result of the heavy ablation, with
increasing temperature. As a result of the
intensification of warming in the 1980s, in China’s
monsoonal temperate glacier region, a relatively small
temperature increase will lead to a nonlinear increase
of ablation.
The feedings in the Hailuogou basin are
precipitation, groundwater, and melt water.
Groundwater is often considered to be a relatively
stable component, fluctuating only slightly in the
long-term, according to previous study (Li and Su,
1996). In considering whether precipitation or melt
water has been the main contribution to the increase of
runoff in recent years, five facts need to be taken into
account. (1) The mean winter temperature in the
Hailuogou basin has increased by 0.69 ℃ from
1994–1998 to 1999–2004 and the mean winter runoff
in 1999–2004 has been 2.74 m3·s-1 higher than that of
the former period, but the mean winter precipitation
(87.7 mm) accounts for only 4% of the mean annual
precipitation. Thus the increased winter runoff results
from melt water. (2) The statistical relationship
between runoff and the area’s summer temperature
(R=0.90, P<0.000 1) is more significant than that
between the runoff and summer precipitation (R=0.80,
P<0.000 1). (3) The annual mean precipitation has
increased by only 53 mm from 1994–1998 to
1999–2004, with a slower ratio than temperature (Fig.
7f), whereas, the runoff depth has increased by 2 234
mm, showing that the melt water has made a greater
contribution to the runoff increase, rather than an
increase in precipitation. (4) The annual mean ablation
(7.20 m water equivalent) at glacier tongue area is
3.67 times higher than the annual mean precipitation
(1 960 mm). (5) The statistical relationship between
runoff and mass balance in 1994–2004 is an inverse
correlation (R=-0.82, P<0.000 1) (Figs. 7d, 7f),
indicating that increased melt water is the main factor
responsible for increased runoff.
The peak value of runoff occurs in August, two
months later than the June peak of precipitation (Fig.
7h). The runoff depth value in October is 162 mm
higher than that in April, although precipitation in
278
1.6
1.2
0.8
0.4
0.0
0.40
0.20
0.00
1988
1991
1994 1997
Year
2000
2003
1988
(c)
1994
1997
Year
2000
2003
(d)
18
5.0
16
Runoff (m 3/s)
Temperature (℃)
1991
20
5.5
4.5
4.0
14
12
10
3.5
8
3.0
6
1988
1991
1994 1997
Year
2000
1994
2003
9.0
2 300
(e)
Precipitation (mm)
Annual ablation (m)
(b)
0.60
Temperature (℃)
Temperature (℃)
(a)
8.5
8.0
7.5
7.0
1997
2000
Year
2003
(f)
2 200
2 100
2 000
1 900
1 800
1 700
6.5
1 600
1988
1991
1994
1997
Year
Precipitation
350
2000
Runoff depth
-4 000
-6 000
-8 000
(h)
700
250
600
200
500
150
400
300
100
200
50
-10 000
19901991
19931994
19961997
Year
19992000
20022003
900
800
300
-2 000 (g)
2003
Runoff depth (mm)
0
Precipitation (mm)
Accumulative mass balance (mm)
1990- 1991- 1992- 1993- 1994- 19951991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Year
100
0
0
1
2
3
4
5
6 7 8
Month
9 10 11 12
Figure 7. Diagrams showing the mean annual temperature in China since 1988 (a), mean annual
temperature in the Northern Hemisphere since 1988 (b), mean annual temperature at the Hailuogou
meteorological station (3 000 m) since 1988 (c), mean annual runoff from the Hailuogou basin (d), ablation
of the tongue of the Hailuogou glacier (e), variation of precipitation in the Hailuuogou basin since 1988 (f),
variation of accumulative mass balance 1990/1991–2002/2003 (g), and seasonal variations of precipitation
and runoff at the Hailuogou basin (h).
(a)
(b)
1993.8
12 m
1996
2004.4
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
Figure 8. Photographs showing changes in surface level of the Hailuogou glacier tongue (provided by
Zhang Wenjing, 2004) (a), a “glacier-hole” in the large icefall of the Hailuogou glacier (b), a large cleft in
the tongue of the Hailuogou glacier (2006) (c), glacier arches evolving into clefts at the Hailuogou glacier
(2006) (d), surface runoff in the Hailuogou glacier tongue area (e), and englacial water channels in the
Hailuogou glacier tongue area (f).
October and April is equal. The runoff depth is higher
than the corresponding monthly precipitation
throughout the year. The Hailuogou basin is small,
with a good deal of bare rock, in a mountainous region,
and the hydrological station is located at the front of
the glacier. The cause of hysteresis between runoff
and precipitation is the ice-snow melted water rather
than precipitation, as ice and snow can maintain
runoff after a long period of ablation. Thus, it is the
variation of the ice-snow melt water that is responsible
for the seasonal variation of runoff in the Hailuogou
basin, and it is also clear that the ice-snow melt water
is the main source of water issuing from the
Hailuogou basin.
Surface Morphology Changes
The thickness of the glacier tongue had decreased
by 12 m from 1993 to 2004, owing to intensified
ablation (Fig. 8a), reconfirming the intensive ablation.
High ablation in 2006 resulted in the development of
280
five “glacier-holes” in the icefall (Fig. 8b). According
to the local people, there were some “glacier-holes”
before 2006, one “glacier-hole” formed in 1993, three
in 2000, and four in 2004. This was in accordance
with the rise in the glacier’s equilibrium-line elevation
and the increase in the ablation rate. The ablation
period would become longer and ablation rate would
increase with the rise of the ELA in the icefall events,
hence, ice would fall in summer and formulate
“glacier-holes”. In 2006, there was a large crevasse,
300 m long and 20 m wide, in the center of the glacier
tongue (Fig. 8c). This was caused by intense ablation
at the glacier surface and a substantial outflow of
englacial meltwater, and englacial water channels
were widely distributed according to a previous study
(Lü and Zhong, 1996). Small glacier kettle holes and
clefts in the ice were widely distributed along the front
of the glacier as a result of ablation. With the rise of
the equilibrium line, the zone of clefts became larger,
although it decreased in size at low altitudes. Before
1980, many “glacier arches” were visible (personal
communication with Zhang Wenjing), but since then,
they have gradually disappeared and evolved into
clefts (Fig. 8d). Surface rivers were also widely
distributed in the Hailuogou glacier tongue area on
account of heavy ablation (Fig. 8e). There was also an
englacial water channel in the glacier tongue area
owing to washing out by surface runoff (Fig. 8f).
between mass balance and temperature is significant,
which indicates that climate warming is the crucial
cause of glacier mass loss.
(3) The annual mean runoff records show a
strong positive trend and remarkable similarities to the
climatic data. High ablation and increased runoff fed
by melting snow and ice have increased in recent
years, with seasonal and inter-annual variations.
(4) Climatic warming and an increase of
equilibrium line altitude have resulted in changes in
glacier surface morphology, such as, thinning of the
glacier, enlargement of glacial caves. The ablation
area of the Hailuogou glacier is increasing and the
ablation period is lengthening.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Thanks to Professor Theakstone W. H. from
School of Environment and Development, University
of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, England for
grammar modification, and also to Professor Xie
Zichu from Hunan Normal University for method of
mass balance reconstruction.
REFERENCES CITED
Chen, Y. Y., Li, X. Y., Qin, D. H., et al., 2006. Climate and
Environment in China. Science Press, Beijing. 15–36 (in
Chinese)
Duan, Q. F., Zhang, K., X., Wang, J. X., 2007. Sporopollen
Assemblage
CONCLUSIONS
Four principal conclusions can be drawn from the
data analyzed here.
(1) Warming during the 20th century has caused
a general retreat of the glaciers on Mt. Gongga, as
manifested by the retreat of the Hailuogou glacier.
The glacier has retreated 1.822 km in the past 106
years, at a mean rate of 17.2 m·a-1. Glacier retreat
stages have occurred during the warm phase of China
and the Northern Hemisphere in the last 100 years,
and vice versa.
(2) Climate warming has resulted in a negative
trend of the Hailuogou glacier’s mass balance, with
constant mass loss over the past 45 years. The
accumulated mass balance from 1959/60 to 2003/04
is -10.83 m water equivalent, with an annual average
of -0.24 m water equivalent. The negative correlation
from
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