Dr. Shaheen Pasha Division of Education University of Education

Dr. Shaheen Pasha
Division of Education
University of Education, Lahore
SESSION LEARNING OUTCOMES
Participants will be able to understand:

What is learning?

Learning theories

Types of Learning

Types of Learning Difficulties

Types of inappropriate Behaviour

Causes of inappropriate Behaviour

Difference between Stress, Distress & Eustress

Stages of Stress

How adult students develop cognitively, emotionally, socially and deal with their
developmental tasks.

Psychosocial theory

Guidance, Counseling and Mentoring

Types of Counseling

Self-Efficacy & Motivation

Dimensions of Motivation

Motivating Students

Principles of Good Practice in Teaching
What is Learning?
LEARNING
What topic? What issue?
Knowledge
Attitudes
Skills
(life)
About what?
Towards what?
Learning Outcomes
For what?
BLOOM’S TAXONOMY FOR LEARNING
Level
Definition
Verb Examples That Can Represent
Intellectual Activity
Evaluation
Appraise, assess, or
critique on basis of
standards or criteria
appraise, argue, assess, attach, choose, defend, estimate,
judge, predict, rate, select, evaluate
Synthesis
Originate, integrate, or
combine ideas into a new
product or plan
arrange, assemble, compose, construct, create, design,
develop, formulate, organize, propose
Analysis
Distinguish, classify, or
relate assumption,
hypotheses or evidence
analyze, appraise, categorize, compare, distinguish,
examine
Application
Select, transfer, and use
data or principles to
complete new task
apply, choose, demonstrate, employ, illustrate, interpret,
solve, use
Comprehension
Translate, comprehend,
or interpret information
classify, describe, discuss, explain, indicate, restate,
translate
Knowledge
Recall or recognition of
information, ideas and
principles
arrange, define, label, list, name, relate, recall, repeat,
reproduce
Bloom’s Taxonomy
Bloom’s Original Taxonomy
21st Century Learning
Revised Learning Taxonomy
Revised by Anderson & Krathwohl (2001)
ASK Learning Taxonomy
 Professor Mark Tennant (1995) categorized types of learning in
a different way:
A represents "attitude―: known as affective learning. (For
example a shift in attitude toward the academic abilities of students
with disabilities).
S represents "skills―: called psychomotor or manual learning.
Learning to operate adaptive technology is an example of the
development of skills.
K represents "knowledge―: called cognitive learning
which is
the formal term used for mental skills such as recall of information.
TYPES OF LEARNING
 Perceptual learning – ability to learn to recognize stimuli that
have been seen before (Changes within the sensory systems of the
brain )
 1) Visual Learning
 2) Auditory Learning Learners
 Stimulus-response learning – ability to learn to perform a
particular behavior when a certain stimulus is present
(Establishment of connections between sensory systems and motor
systems )
 Motor learning – establishment of changes within the motor
system
TYPES OF LEARNING
 Relational learning – involves connections between different
areas of the association cortex
 Spatial learning – involves learning about the relations among
many stimuli
 Episodic learning – remembering sequences of events that we
witness
 Observational learning – learning by watching and imitation
other people
TYPES OF LEARNING (Cont.)
TYPES OF LEARNING DIFFICULTIES
 Motor difficulties and learning disabilities: problems with
movement and coordination whether it is with fine motor skills
(cutting, writing) or gross motor skills (running, jumping).
 Math difficulties and learning disabilities: Learning disabilities in
math vary greatly depending on the child’s other strengths and
weaknesses (like language learning disability, or a visual disorder or a
difficulty with sequencing, memory or organization.)
 Language difficulties and learning disabilities: problems with
verbal language skills, such as the ability to retell a story and the
fluency of speech, as well as the ability to understand the meaning of
words, parts of speech, directions, etc.
 Reading difficulties and learning disabilities: problems with:
letter and word recognition; understanding words and ideas; reading
speed and fluency; general vocabulary skills)
LEARNING DIFFICULTIES (Cont.)
 Writing difficulties and learning disabilities: problems with:
neatness and consistency of writing; accurately copying letters and
words ; spelling consistency; writing organization and coherence .
 Auditory and visual processing: the importance of the ears and
the eyes: problems in visual perception include missing subtle
differences in shapes, reversing letters or numbers, skipping words,
skipping lines, misperceiving depth or distance, or having problems
with eye–hand coordination. Visual perception can affect gross and
fine motor skills, reading comprehension, and math.

Social and emotional difficulties: sometimes kids have trouble
expressing their feelings, calming themselves down, and reading
nonverbal cues, which can lead to difficulty in the classroom and with
their peers.
LEARNING DIFFICULTIES (Cont.)
 Dyslexia
 Difficulty processing language
 Problems reading, writing, spelling, speaking
 Dyscalculia
 Difficulty with math
 Problems doing math problems, understanding time, using
money
 Dysgraphia
 Difficulty with writing
 Problems with handwriting, spelling, organizing ideas
LEARNING DIFFICULTIES (Cont.)
 Dyspraxia (Sensory Integration Disorder)
 Difficulty with fine motor skills
 Problems with hand–eye coordination, balance, manual dexterity
 Auditory Processing Disorder
 Difficulty hearing differences between sounds
 Problems with reading, comprehension, language
 Visual Processing Disorder
Difficulty interpreting visual information
Problems with reading, math, maps, charts, symbols, pictures
OTHER DISORDERS MAKING
LEARNING DIFFICULT
Difficulty in school doesn’t always stem from a
learning disability. Anxiety, depression, stressful
events, emotional trauma, and other conditions
affecting concentration make learning more of a
challenge.
 ADHD – Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), while not
considered a learning disability, can certainly disrupt learning. Children
with ADHD often have problems with sitting still, staying focused,
following instructions, staying organized, and completing homework.
 Autism – Difficulty mastering certain academic skills can stem from
Pervasive Developmental Disorders such as autism and Asperger’s
syndrome. Children with an autism spectrum disorder may have trouble
making friends, reading body language, communicating, and making
eye contact.
TYPES OF INAPPROPRIATE
BEHAVIOUR
1)
Fighting and physical aggression
2)
Disobedience and rudeness
3)
Verbal aggression
4)
Gangs
5)
Vandalism
6)
Stealing
7)
Bullying
8)
Substance abuse – Drugs, Cigarettes, Alcohol
9)
Possession and use of a weapon
10) Truancy
11) Sexual misconduct
CAUSES OF INAPPROPRIATE
BEHAVIOUR
 Breakdown in family – Parental irresponsibility
 World Violence
 Negative influence of television, movies, videogames
 Poverty – widening income disparity
 Drug trafficking and guns
 Loss of influence of religion and lack of spirituality
 Peer pressure – youth culture
CAUSES OF INAPPROPRIATE
BEHAVIOUR (Cont.)
 Irrelevant curriculum
 Low self-esteem
 Machismo and low performance of boys
 Teacher absenteeism/inability to manage classrooms
 Inability to understand and manage anger and stress
 Inadequate physical security
 Child abuse by parents, teachers, and other adults
 Lack of respect for Authority
STRESS
WHAT IS STRESS?
 Stress is a condition or feeling experienced
when a person perceives that ―demands
exceed the personal and social resources the
individual is able to mobilize.‖
 Stressors can be internal (thoughts, beliefs,
attitudes or external (loss, tragedy, change).
DISTRESS
Distress or negative stress occurs
when your level of stress is either too
high or too low and your body and/or
mind begin to respond negatively to
the stressors.
EUSTRESS

Eustress or positive stress occurs when
your level of stress is high enough to
motivate you to move into action to get
things accomplished.
 is good for you as it is a challenge to your
body or mind (or both), but the end result
is growth and moving toward your goals
(instead of away from them.)
STAGES OF STRESS
 Alarm Stage: As you begin to experience a
stressful event or perceive something to be
stressful psychological changes occur in your
body. This experience or perception disrupts
your body’s normal balance and immediately
your body begins to respond to the stressor(s)
as effectively as possible. For example:
 Cardiac - increased heart rate
 Respiratory - increased respiration
 Skin - decreased temperature
 Hormonal - increased stimulation of adrenal genes
which produce an adrenal rush.
STAGES OF STRESS (Cont.)
 Resistance Stage: During this stage your body tries
to cope or adapt to the stressors by beginning a
process of repairing any damage the stressor has
caused. Your friends, family or co-workers may notice
changes in you before you do so it is important to
examine their feedback to make sure you do not reach
overload.
 Behavior indicators: lack of enthusiasm for family, school,
work or life in general, withdrawal, change in eating
habits, insomnia, hypersomnia, anger, fatigue.
 Cognitive Indicators: poor problem solving, confusion,
nightmares, hyper-vigilance.
 Emotional indicators: tearfulness, fear, anxiety, panic,
guilt, agitation, depression, overwhelmed.
STAGES OF STRESS (Cont.)
 Exhaustion Stage: During this stage the
stressor is not being managed effectively
and the body and mind are not able to
repair the damage.
• Digestive disorders, withdrawal,
headaches, tension, insomnia, loss of
temper.
How adult students develop
cognitively, emotionally, socially and
deal with their developmental tasks
which could be fulfilled during the
education.
WHY DO STUDENTS THINK THEY
CAN OR CAN’T CHANGE?
Beliefs about Ability!

Incremental: ability changes over time (Mastery)

Entity: ability is set at birth (Performance)
Mastery vs. Performance
 Mastery goal orientation (Good)
 Students are mostly concerned with mastering the task at hand
 Failure suggests areas for improvement – can be motivating.
 Performance goal orientation (Bad)
 Students are mostly concerned with doing better than others
 Student fears that failure indicates something about their ABILITY to
do the task.
WHY WOULD SOMEONE WANT TO
MASTER THE TASK?
 Mastery is INTRINSICALLY motivating
 Intrinsic motivation: wanting to do something
just because it is—in and of itself—enjoyable!
 Why are things enjoyable?





Interest
Competence
Curiosity
Relatedness
Autonomy
WHY DO WE SET
GOALS?
Goals are about where we want to be.
which goals we set
which goals we value and
which goals we keep working at
Goals are related to who we WANT TO BE
PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY
 Authur Chickering’s theory (1969) contends that there are
seven specific developmental tasks of college students:
competence, autonomy, managing emotions, identity,
purpose, integrity, and relationship.
 In developing competence, students move from lower to
higher levels of intellectual, physical, interpersonal
competence.
 In managing emotions, students progress from lower to
higher levels of: (a) control over disruptive emotions (e.g.,
anxiety, aggression and depression); (b) awareness of
feeling (c) ability to integrate feeling with actions.
 In developing mature interpersonal relations, students
progress from lower to higher levels of interpersonal and
intercultural tolerance of differences and from having nonexistent, short term or unhealthy relations to a greater
capacity for intimacy and commitment.
PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY (Cont.)
 Establishing identity is a journey from discomfort
to comfort with one’s appearance, gender, family,
social/cultural roots, roles and lifestyles.
 Developing purpose enables students to articulate
their interests, goals, plans with respect to vocation,
personal interest, and commitment to relationship.
 Developing integrity is closely related to two
previous vectors. At this point , a student’s values
are transformed from being dualistic, rigid, self-centered
to values that are humanizing (considering other
people’s interests) personalizing(affirming one’s core
values while respecting those of others) and congruent
(matching one’s personal values with socially responsible
behavior).
GUIDANCE AND COUNSELING
 Guidance and counseling is the process of
helping learners make important choices that
affect their lives.
 The decision making aspect of guidance has
long played its role in the counseling process.
 Guidance focuses on helping individuals choose
what they value most
 Counseling focuses on helping them make change.
MENTORING
 Mentoring is a lifelong relationship in which a
mentor helps a mentor reaches her or his God-given
potential. Some of its synonyms include role model,
coach, guide, sponsor, friend and adviser.
 Mentoring is a power-free partnership between two
individuals who desire mutual growth. One of the
individuals usually has greater skills, experiences,
and wisdom.
 Mentors offer helpful information, suggestions, and
career counseling.
MENTORING (Cont.)
Mentoring aim at overall improvement of teaching
quality.
 The job of a teacher/counselor is to concentrate on
helping new students adjust to campus life.
 Teacher should maximize, personalize, and individualize
higher education for students, helping them fully use
the environment to promote their development.
 An important by-product of this process is that students
are greatly assisted in making successful transitions
from their communities to institutional life and back
again.
 Guidance services facilitate the accomplishment of
student and college goals.
TYPES OF COUNSELING
 Appreciative Counseling: counselors focus on and express
appreciation for a student's strengths and past successes in
various areas of life, acknowledging these successes and
encouraging students to bring this awareness to their current
problems
 Intrusive Counseling: Intrusive counseling encourages
academic counselors and advisers to insert themselves into a
student's everyday life and activities, creating more availability
and a sense of connection that goes beyond an office
appointment. Since students are likely to approach the academic
counselor with issues outside the classroom, this kind of
availability increases trust and openness.
TYPES OF COUNSELING
 Interactive Counseling: Successful academic counseling
centers on dialogue, not monologue. Counseling works best when
counselors listen without judgment and provide a safe and
respectful environment for students to find ways to solve their
own problems. Cultural sensitivity and respect for diversity
 Learning-Centered Counseling: Academic counseling
encourages student learning, independence and creates
opportunities for students to learn and grow
 Holistic Counseling: academic counselors may find themselves
dealing with. Students may feel more comfortable talking about
personal crises, emotional challenges and issues with their
academic counselor. The counselor need to offer appropriate
resources and a comprehensive plan of support.
SELF-EFFICACY
Self-Efficacy means whether or not
someone is capable of achieving a
goal
 Things that effect self-efficacy:
 Mastery experiences
 Vicarious experience (models)
 Verbal persuasion
SELF-EFFICACY (Cont.)
For many students there is a discrepancy between
who they are and who they want to become…
 …it can be motivating
 if students think they can change.
 if they can make connections between the present
and the future.
 …or devastating
 if students don’t think they can change.
 if they are too focused on the present.
MOTIVATION
 DEFINITION: From the Latin verb movere (to move).
 Motivation is the process whereby goal-directed activity is
instigated and sustained.
 Motivation is usually defined as an internal state that arouses,
directs and maintains behavior.
 ―It consists of internal and external incentives which spur us
to satisfy some need‖ (Child, 2007, p 226).
 Learning complex skills and knowledge requires extended
effort, persistence, motivation and practice. It also involves
considerable investment of time and energy.
 Motivated creature is more likely to learn than the one which
is not.
WHAT MOTIVATES OR
DIRECTS OUR BEHAVIOR?
Our drives, needs, incentives,
goals, self confidence, interest,
curiosity and many other things
energize our behavior and
sustain motivation.
DIMENSIONS OF MOTIVATION
 Biological motives: deal with biological needs such as
hunger, thirst, pain, fatigue, sleep and sexual desires.
 Psychological motives: deal with psychological needs
such as interests, curiosity, achievement, power and selfactualization.
 Social motives: are the needs and desires that are
learned through experience with the social world. It is the
need for affiliation, which is the motive to securely
connect to other people.
WHAT HURTS INTRINSIC
MOTIVATION?
 Controlling rewards
 Threats and deadlines
 Evaluation and surveillance
Rule of thumb: If someone else made you – it’s not
intrinsic motivation – it’s EXTRINSIC motivation.
MOTIVATING STUDENTS
 Reward and punishment: A reward is an attractive object or
event supplied as a consequence of a particular behavior. It
enhances motivation of learner.
 Incentives: Incentive is an object or event that encourages or
discourages behavior.
 Self-esteem: It is a person’s belief about his worth. High selfesteem increases learner’s motivation. It can be enhanced
through personal development activities
 Self-efficacy: The belief that one can master a situation and
produce positive outcome. It has much in common with
mastery motivation and intrinsic motivation. Self-efficacy is the
belief that ―I can‖.
MOTIVATING STUDENTS (Cont.)
 Modeling: Present motivated characters before learners to
increase their motivation. People who are professionally
developing can be a model for their colleagues.
 Goal setting: Encourage the learner to set challenging
goals. It may be commitment to self improvement (I will
get mastery in computer).
 Planning: One way of motivating the learners is to ask
them to plan their activities such as to make a calendar of
their monthly activities
MOTIVATING STUDENTS (Cont.)
 Self-monitoring: It is a technique through which learners can
systematically evaluate their progress
 Give choices: If the learners are provided with different
choices, their learning will be improved.
 Provide challenges: The challenges that match the learner’s
skills will enhance his or her motivation
 Strategize with struggling students: When students are
struggling with poor academic performance, low self-efficacy or
low motivation, one strategy that may help is to teach them
how to learn. That is, to outline specific strategies for
completing an assignment, note-taking or reviewing for an
exam.
MOTIVATING STUDENTS (Cont.)
Make it real: try to create learning activities that are based on topics
that are relevant to your students' lives.
Balance the challenge: Students perform best when the level of
difficulty is slightly above their current ability level. Easy task
promotes boredom and may communicate a message of low
expectations. A task that is too difficult may be seen as
unattainable, may undermine self-efficacy, and may create anxiety.
Establish a sense of belonging: Students sense of belonging is
fostered by an instructor that demonstrates warmth and openness,
encourages student participation, is enthusiastic, friendly and
helpful, and is organized and prepared for class.
Adopt a supportive style: A supportive teaching style that allows
for student autonomy can foster increased student interest,
enjoyment, engagement and performance. Supportive teacher
behaviors include listening, giving hints and encouragement, being
responsive to student questions and showing empathy for
students.
MOTIVATING STUDENTS (Cont.)
 Give frequent, early, positive feedback that supports students'
beliefs that they can do well.
 Ensure opportunities for students' success by assigning tasks that
are neither too easy nor too difficult.
 Help students find personal meaning and value in the material.
 Create an atmosphere that is open and positive.
 Help students feel that they are valued members of a learning
community.
SEVEN PRINCIPLES OF GOOD
PRACTICE IN TEACHING
1. Good Practice Encourages Contact between Students and
Faculty
2. Good Practice Develops Reciprocity and Cooperation among
Students
3. Good Practice Gives Prompt Feedback
4. Good Practice Uses Active Learning Techniques
5. Good Practice Emphasizes Time on Task
6. Good Practice Communicates High Expectations
7. Good Practice Respects Diverse Talents and Ways of Learning
THANK YOU