A Study of the Benthic Foraminifera of Laucala Bay, with Special

Transcription

A Study of the Benthic Foraminifera of Laucala Bay,
with Special Focus on Marginopora vertebralis
By
Ashishika D. Sharma
A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the
Degree of Master of Science in Marine Sciences
School of Marine Studies
University of the South Pacific
July 2007
DECLARATION
I, Ashishika Devi Sharma, declare that this thesis is my own work and has not been
submitted for the award of any other degree in any institution. Any information derived
from the published or unpublished work of others has been acknowledged in the text of
the thesis and a list of the references has been given.
Signature
Date
ii
CERTIFICATION
This is to certify that this work was carried out under our supervision by Ashishika Devi
Sharma to fulfil the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in the School of
Marine Sciences, the University of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji.
Signature (Dr. Susanne Pohler)
Signature (Prof. Dr. John Collen)
'll/^
Date
Date
in
DECLARATION
I, Ashishika Devi Sharma, declare that this thesis is my own work and has not been
submitted for the award of any other degree in any institution. Any information derived
from the published or unpublished work of others has been acknowledged in the text of
the thesis and a list of the references has been given.
Signature
Date
CERTIFICATION
This is to certify that this work was carried out under our supervision by Ashishika Devi
Sharma to fulfil the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in the School of
Marine Sciences, the University of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji.
0
Signature (Dr, Susanne Pohter)
Signature (Prof. Dr. John Collen)
Date
Date
ABSTRACT
Foraminifera (often abbreviated to "forams") are acellular organisms (protists) that form
shells (tests) of calcium carbonate or cemented grains of sand or other material which,
when the animals die, may form calcareous sand. The purpose of the study was to
determine the species of benthic foraminifera present in Laucala Bay, and to investigate
the role of large foraminifera, especially the soritid Marginopora vertebralis (Quoy &
Gaimard, 1830) in supplying carbonate sediments to a lagoonal sedimentary system in
Fiji, namely the Nukubuco Reef flat in Laucala Bay. A total of 68 different species from
48 different genera were identified from the 13 sites sampled and the species
classification and taxonomy were determined. Synonyms for each species were found
and recorded. Plates were made showing the photographs and the species details. It was
assumed that the species live close to where their tests were found and so were mapped
accordingly. Generally, it was seen that the sites around Makuluva Island, Nukulau
Island and the "Fish Patch" showed high diversity of species, while the sites on the
Nukubuco Reef and on the northern edge of Makuluva Island showed fewer species. The
sites in the middle of Suva Harbour and Laucala Bay as well as off the Laucala Island
showed a considerably fewer species. However, the least number of species were to be
found on the Nasese Tidal Flat and in the Vatuwaqa River estuary. A multidimensional
scaling map divides the 13 sites into 3 clusters based on the presence of similar species.
It appears that all the sites on or near the reefs consist of similar species, while the sites
toward the middle of the bays have similar species and those sites close to the mainland
have similar species. The general trend in the study area was a greater abundance of
species in sediments from the sites outside the reef boundary on the lagoon: that is, the
iv
sites around Makuluva Island. The abundance of foraminifera in the sediment samples
decreased towards the mainland, becoming the least near the Nasese Tidal Platform and
Vatuwaqa River estuary. Three separate large colonies of Marginopora vertebralis were
found on the seagrass beds off the Sandbank Island. The largest colony was located on
the south of the Sandbank Island and the colony was spread out to the southeastern part.
Two other smaller colonies were found on the northeastern side and the southwestern
side of the southern end of the island. M. vertebralis seems to prefer to live on the bilate,
flattened fronds of Halodule uninervis than on the cylindrical blades of Syringodium
isoetifolium. This may be due to the density of the different seagrass species populations.
Culture of M. vertebralis in the laboratory showed that the group of M. vertebralis larger
than or equal to a diameter of 1 cm showed a growth of 0.1307 grams/month while the
group of M. vertebralis bigger than a diameter of 0.5 cm and smaller than or equal to a
diameter of 0.7 cm showed a growth rate of 0.0632 grams/month. However, if the
weight grown relative to size of organism (percentage growth) is considered then the
smaller group has a much faster growth rate. The smaller organisms show a growth rate
of 7.7277% of their initial body weight while the larger organisms show a growth rate of
1.8727% of their initial body weight. The growth rates obtained from this culture
allowed calculation of the approximate rate of sediment production from the three M.
vertebralis colonies from the Sandbank Island: 35.9304 kg of sediments each month and
431.1648 kg of sediments each year, at an average of 0.1274 kg/m2/yr. Future studies
may seek to identify all species of Foraminifera from around Viti Levu and compare
distribution over greater distances.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and foremost, I would like to acknowledgement the constant support and
encouragement of my supervisors, Dr. Susanne Pohler, Department of Marine Science,
the University of the South Pacific and Professor Dr. John Collen, School of Earth
Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington.
My sincere thanks to who made the work possible through use of the facilities of the
SEM and the microprobe at the Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand.
Special thanks to them for putting me first among their long list of students waiting to
use the SEM.
I also wish to acknowledge the help of Professor Martin Langer, Rheinische FriedrichWilhelms Universitat Bonn, Germany, for his help in taking some SEM images and in
the identification of some species.
I am grateful to Stephen Eagar, Victoria University of Wellington and the Collen family
for their help and hospitality during the duration of the attachment with Victoria
University.
My gratitude goes to Dr. Linton Winder of the Biology Department, University of the
South Pacific for his help in the statistics of the research and to Dr. Arthur Web of
SOPAC for his assistance in analyzing the growth rate statistics.
Particular acknowledgement is due to the staff and postgraduate students of the Marine
Studies Programme, University of the South Pacific, for their co-operation and
assistance during data collection and analysis.
Last but not least, I would like to thank my family for bringing me to this stage in my
life.
vi
CONTENTS
Declaration
ii
Certification
iii
Abstract
iv
Acknowledgements
vi
Table of Contents
vii
Figure Captions
ix
Table Captions
xi
Plate Captions
xii
Chapter 1
1
Chapter 2
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Aims
2
1.2
Introduction
3
1.3
Previous work
12
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LAUCALA
2.1
16
General geological and geographical setting of
Laucala
Chapter 3
BAY
Bay
2.2
Climate
2.3
Range of near-surface water temperature and
17
21
salinity
22
2.4
Sedimentology
23
2.5
Turbidity/ Pollution within the lagoon…………… 30
2.6
Currents
31
2.7
Description of the reefs
33
2.8
Tides
34
FORAMINIFERA SPECIES
35
3.1
Methodology
36
3.2
Results
40
3.3
Systematic description
42
3.4
Glossary
73
VII
3.5
Chapter 4
Chapter 5
Chapter 6
Chapter 7
Chapter 8
Plates of foraminifera species identified
75
DISTRIBUTIONS OF FORAMINIFERA SPECIES IN
THE BAY
104
4.1
Methodology
105
4.2
Results
107
4.3
Discussion
115
PERCENT ABUNDANCE
123
5.1
Methodology
124
5.2
Results
125
5.3
Discussion
127
LOCATIONS OF Marginopora vertebralis COLONIES
129
6.1
Methodology
130
6.2
Results
132
6.3
Discussion
136
GROWTH RATE FOR Marginopora vertebralis
139
7.1
Methodology
140
7.2
Results
143
7.3
Discussion
147
CONCLUSION
150
8.1
Conclusion
151
8.2
Sources of error
153
8.3
Recommendations for additional work
153
References
154
Appendices
168
Alphabetical index of taxa at species level
177
viii
Figure Captions
Fig. 1.1: Foraminifera and their phylogeny
4
Fig. 1.2: Generalised foraminifera lifecycle
6
Fig. 2.1: Map of the central Pacific Ocean showing the location of the Fiji Islands.17
Fig. 2.2: Locality maps showing the study area
19
Fig. 2.3: General bathymetry of Laucala Bay
20
Fig 2.4: Rainfall and Temperature Records from December 2003 to December
2004
22
Fig. 2.5: Map showing the geology of the land area around Laucala Bay
24
Fig. 2.6: Map showing the geology of the Suva area
25
Fig. 2.7: Mean grain-size distribution in Laucala Bay as mapped by Kyaw………28
Fig. 2.8: Carbonate content of sediments in Laucala Bay as mapped by Kyaw
29
Fig. 2.9: Current patterns in Laucala Bay
32
Fig. 2.10: Bathymetry of Laucala Bay
34
Fig. 4.1: Location of the sampled sites within the study area
106
Fig. 4.2: The number of different species found at each of the 13 sites within
the study area
108
Fig. 4.3: The number of different species found at each of the 13 sites within
the study area
109
Fig. 4.4: Multidimensional scaling map showing clusters of sites with similar
species
1ll
Fig. 4.5: TWINSPAN (Two-Way Indicator Species Analysis) showing the
clusters of sites
112
ix
Fig. 4.6: Distribution of cluster groups in the study area………………………… 114
Fig. 4.7: Species distribution in the 3 clusters
120
Fig. 5.1: Percent abundance of foraminifera at each site in the study area……… 126
Fig. 6.1: Sandbank Island area on Nukubuco Reef where M. vertebralis
colonies were mapped
Fig. 6.2: Location of Marginopora vertebralis colonies
131
132
Fig. 6.3: Approximate size and locations of the three M. vertebralis colonies
on an aerial map of Sandbank Island
133
Fig. 6.4: M. vertebralis attached on coral rubble and calcareous algae
134
Fig. 6.5: A - Syringodium isoetifolium, B - Halodule uninervis
137
Fig. 6.6: A - Syringodium isoetifolium population, B - Halodule uninervis
population
137
Fig. 6.7: Map of the Sandbank Island showing the distribution of the
seagrasses Syringodium isoetifolium and Halodule uninervis
138
Fig. 7.1: Living M. vertebralis attached on aseagrass frond
140
Fig. 7.2: Setup for observing the growth of M. vertebralis in the laboratory
141
Fig. 7.3: Growth rate for two groups of M vertebralis
143
Fig. 7.4: Growth rate for two groups of M. vertebralis as a percent of body weight 145
Table Captions
Table 2.1: Physical dimensions of the lagoons in Suva
18
Table 2.2: Physical dimensions of Suva's reefs
33
Table 3.2: Taxonomy of the foraminifera species in the study area
40
Table 4.1: Locations and Descriptions of the Sampled Sites…………………… 105
Table 5.1: Percent abundance of foraminifera at each site in the study area…… 125
Table 6.1: Measurement of sizes for the three M. vertebralis colonies
134
Table 7.1: Significance regression relationship
144
Table 7.2: Approximate sediment production from the three M. vertebralis
colonies
146
xi
Plate Captions
Plate 1
77
Plate 2
79
Plate 3
81
Plate 4
83
Plate 5
85
Plate 6
87
Plate 7
89
Plate 8
91
Plate 9
93
Plate 10
95
Plate 11
97
Plate 12
99
Plate 13
101
Plate 14
103
XII
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Aims
Research Objectives
The purpose of the study was to determine the species of benthic foraminifera present in
Laucala Bay, and to investigate the role of larger foraminifera, especially the soritid
Marginopora vertebralis, in supplying carbonate sediments to a lagoonal sedimentary
system in Fiji, namely the Nukubuco Reef flat in Laucala Bay.
The objectives were:
•
To identify and determine the different benthic foraminifera within Laucala Bay, as
well as identifying the locations where these species are present. Broad patterns of
distribution of foraminifera within the Bay were established. The percent
contribution of foraminifera towards sand aggregation was also analysed.
•
To identify and map the colonies of the large soritid foraminifera, Marginopora
vertebralis, around Sandbank Island. This map can then serve as a baseline map for
future monitoring of these colonies.
•
To culture Marginopora vertebralis in the laboratory and monitor its life cycle and
growth rate in order to calculate of the rate of sediment formation from this species
of foraminiferan.
1.2
Introduction
Foraminifera (forams for short) are acellular organisms (protists) that form shells (tests)
of calcium carbonate or cemented grains of sand or other material which, when the
animals die, may form calcareous sand. The Order Foraminiferida (informally
foraminifera) belongs to the Kingdom Protista, Subkingdom Protozoa, Phylum
Sarcomastigophora,
Subphylum
Sarcodina,
Superclass
Rhizopoda
and
Class
Granuloreticulosea. Living benthic and fossil foraminiferan species can aid in
understanding temporal and spatial variability as well as the implications of positive and
negative anthropogenic impacts on the environment (Eade, 1988).
There are approximately 4,000 living species of forams in the world's oceans (Wetmore,
1995). Of these, 40 species are planktonic (that is, they float in the upper 300 feet of the
ocean) while the remainder are benthic and live on shells, rocks and seaweeds or in the
sand and mud at the ocean bottom (Wetmore, 1995).
Foraminifera are found in all marine environments, from the intertidal to the deepest
ocean trenches, and from the tropics to the poles, but individual species of foraminifera
can be very restricted in the environment where they live (Wetmore, 1995). Some are
abundant only in the deepest parts of the ocean, others are found only in brackish
estuaries or salt marshes along the shore, and most live at certain depths and water
temperatures in between (Wetmore, 1995).
1 Globigerinina
c
C
Spirillinina
Rotalfina
Carterinina
f
Allogromina
)
Foraminiferal suborders and their envisaged phylogeny. Redrawn
from Tappan and Loeblich (1988), Among the suborders shown
only the Fusulinina are extinct.
Fig. 1.1: Foraminifera and their phylogeny (University College London, 2002).
Foraminifera are classified primarily on the composition and morphology of the test.
The basic types of wall structures are: agglutinated (test made of particles cemented
together); calcareous hyaline (interlocking crystals of calcite about 1 micrometer in
diameter); micro granular (equidimensional, subspherical particles of calcite closely
packed together without cement); porcellaneous (wall made of apparently randomly
arranged microscopic rods of calcite, with ordered inner and outer surface layers)
(Wetmore, 1995).
The size of individuals range from about 100 micrometers to almost 20 centimeters long
(Wetmore, 1995). A single individual may have one or many nuclei within its cell. The
largest living species in the warm subtropical seas have a symbiotic relationship with
algae while other species eat foods ranging from dissolved organic molecules, bacteria,
diatoms and other single celled phytoplankton, to small animals such as copepods
(Wetmore, 1995). In return, foraminifera themselves are preyed upon by many different
organisms including worms, crustacea, gastropods, echinoderms, and fish. The
foraminifera have been proposed to be the key group in the marine food chain: they feed
on small prey mostly inaccessible for the macrofauna and are prey for the latter.
Of the approximately 4000 living species of foraminifera the life cycles of only 20 or so
are known (University College London, 2002). There is a great variety of reproductive,
growth and feeding strategies; however, the alternation of sexual and asexual
generations is common throughout the group and this feature differentiates the
foraminifera from other members of the Granuloreticulosea (University College London,
2002).
Foraminifera have been found in rocks of marine origin since at least the Cambrian
(-550 million years ago) (Polyak et al,
2001). Planktonic forams appeared
approximately 200 million years ago (Polyak et al, 2001). Both planktonic and benthic
species are sensitive to changes in food availability as well as physical environmental
parameters, such as salinity, nutrients and temperature (Polyak et al., 2001). Because of
this sensitivity, forams are useful indicators of environmental change, both on local and
global scales.
r haploid young,
}Jl_s fnay produce —
1
schizont in
^^-Asome forms
agamontrdiploid microspheric
gamont, haploid
megalospheric
zygote.diploid
O
mitosis, or
g a metagenesis
gametes
Diagram showing a generalised foramfnifera life cycle note
alternation between a haploid megalospheric from and a
diploid microspheric form.
Redrawn from Goldstein 1999.
Fig. 1.2: Generalised foraminifera lifecycle (University College London, 2002).
Three important aspects of foraminiferan biology/geology for the present study are:
1. Foraminifera are important marine resources. For most small island countries
where sand mining is done for construction and infrastructure development purposes,
sand aggregate is a critical resource. Sand can be mined from beaches or dredged from
lagoons for use in the building industry and for traditional covering of graves in public
cemeteries as in Tonga. Sediments are generated by the breakup of coral reefs as well as
by the addition of the discarded biogenic skeletons of marine animals and plants (Haig,
1988).
On some islands (for example, Tongatapu) a large amount of calcareous sand has been
mined at a rate that is far in excess of the natural replenishment rate. This indiscriminate
mining contributes to extensive beach erosion and in some cases has already resulted in
beaches being stripped to the bare rock substrate (Haig, 1988). Consequently, it is
important to understand the factors governing the natural replenishment rate of
carbonate sand.
The accretion of lagoonal carbonates does not only depend on export of reef rubble to
the back reef but has its own accretion system that is producing carbonate sand, albeit at
a slower rate. Major producers are molluscs and green algae (particularly Halimeda). In
addition to that, in some lagoonal areas foraminifera are important contributors to
carbonate sand production. In the nutrient-poor marine waters of the tropics, the
symbiont-bearing foraminifera can grow quite large, and make a significant contribution
to the overall deposition of calcium carbonate on coral reefs (Collen and Garton, 2004).
In some tropical lagoons the sands consist largely of dead foraminiferal tests.
These organisms are capable of generating 2 kg of carbonate skeletons/m" /year" (Harney
et al., 1999). For example, the pink sands of Bermuda get their color from the shells of a
foraminiferan called Homotrema rubrum which has pink to red-colored shells
(Wetmore, 1995). The consequences for some coastal areas through loss of these
important sand producers have been highlighted by Hallock et al. (1995) and Hammond
etal.,.(1998).
2. Foraminifera can be used as proxy indicators of environmental changes. The
fossil record of benthic foraminifera dates to more than 550 million years while planktic
species range to about 190 million years (Huber, 1993). The abundance of their shells in
ancient sediments, their wide distribution and their sensitivity to changes in
environmental conditions make them valuable indicators of past climate change.
Foraminifera are good ecosystem monitors because they are usually the last organisms
to disappear completely at sites heavily impacted by contamination (Murray, 1973).
These organisms are highly resistant to pollution. However, as each particular species
has its own tolerance level of the amount of pollution, species monitoring can help to
calculate the amount of pollution at the site. They are abundant, usually occur as
relatively diverse populations, are durable as fossils, and are easy to collect and separate
from sediments (Scott et al, 2001). As such, they have great potential for environmental
mapping in highly contaminated sites (Schafer, 2000).
Foraminifera facilitate biological characterisation of a variety of freshwater (forams very
rare or absent in freshwater habitats) and coastal marine environments; they react
quickly to environmental stress, either natural or anthropogenic (Scott et al, 2001).
Because they are of small size, these organisms can occur in large numbers in small
diameter core samples, and since they have a hard shell, they yield fossil assemblages
that can be used to reconstruct the past environmental history of a site in the absence of
the original physiochemical baseline data (Scott et al, 2001).
Schafer (2000) states that "the relatively high species diversity of most coastal
foraminifera populations provides a broad range of environmental sensitivities and
preferences that has marked this group of organisms as a key indicator of marine
environmental variation in both time and space domains."
Changes in benthic foraminiferal assemblages and test morphologies are becoming
increasingly useful for assessing environmental quality (changes in water salinity,
temperature, dissolved oxygen, nutrient input, heavy metals and other toxic materials) in
coastal regions, and reconstructing historical changes in near-shore ecosystems (US
Geological Survey, 1993). Geochemical analyses of benthic foraminiferal tests provide
information on water salinity and temperature (US Geological Survey, 1993). Using
water depth ranges of benthic foraminifera as paleobathymetric indicators helps
determine past sea level changes in coastal regions (US Geological Survey, 1993).
Most foraminifera favor oligotrophic, oxygen-rich and well-lit marine habitats and have
received much attention lately as indicators of reef health (Lidz & Hallock, 2000) and
"harbingers of global change" (Hallock, 2000). These organisms are very well
documented in terms of their environmental preferences. Hence, once the characteristics
of modern living assemblages have been defined for particular environments, it is
usually possible to go back into time to reconstruct paleoenvironments with a degree of
confidence, or to monitor and manage future environmental variations associated with
change.
3. The study of the biodiversity of foraminifera (species diversity and distribution)
can help to define ecosystems. Because different species of foraminifera are found in
different environments, paleontologists can use their fossils to determine past
environments (Wetmore, 1995). These data help to understand how climate had changed
in the past and thus how it may change in the future.
Some species have well-defined preferences for certain conditions, and their presence in
sediment can to help us to identify changes in the environment over past ice ages and
warm periods - the glacial-interglacial cycles (Manighetti & Northcote, 2000).
Planktonic species are often strongly associated with a particular latitudinal range. Thus,
the oceans can be divided into five planktonic foraminiferal provinces: tropical,
subtropical, transitional, subpolar and polar, with the greatest species diversity in the
tropics (Manighetti & Northcote, 2000).
In addition, some species prefer particular water temperatures or salinity ranges and
10
conditions of productivity (biological growth), water circulation and food availability
(Manighetti & Northcote, 2000). All these factors influence the assemblage of species at
a given site. For example, an assemblage known as the Gyre Margin Group includes
species known to colonise the outer parts of oceanic regions where deeper water is
brought up to the surface because such upwelling zones are commonly very rich in
organic matter (Manighetti & Northcote, 2000).
As is with any biological entity, taxonomy (names for species) for foraminifera is a
problem, but this problem can be mitigated by providing detailed information on the
benthic species present in Laucala Bay. To date very little is known about the local
benthic foraminifera of this area.
Very little is known about how most species of foraminifera live. The few species that
have been studied show a wide range of behavior, diet and life cycles. Individuals of
some species live for only a few weeks, while other species live many years. Some
benthic species burrow actively into sediments at speeds of up to 1 cm per hour, while
others attach themselves to the surface of rocks and marine plants (Capriulo, 1990).
Even less is actually known about the growth rates, reproduction modes and the overall
lifecycle of foraminifera, with only a handful of shallow-water species having been
actually reproduced in laboratories. Their reproductive behavior is complex as the life
cycle involves several stages. It is influenced by nutrient supply and possibly water
currents and water temperature (Harney et al., 1998). However, generally, most
11
foraminifers are capable of an alternation of asexual and sexual reproductive modes
(Murray, 1973).
1.3
Previous Work
While the recent foraminifera of Fiji are very poorly documented, there is considerable
information on the fossil species of the Fijian foraminifera. Fossil foraminifera were first
described in Fiji by Brady in 1888, from the late Cenozoic "soapstone" of Viti Levu
(Kleinpall, 1971). He was the first man to accurately identify the rock as "marl". Much
of his paper was paleontological and dealt with microfossils. He examined the Suva
Marl and identified 92 species of foraminifera of which 87 forms are still living in the
Pacific.(Ibbotson, 1960).
Yabes (1928) also studied forams from the limestone horizon within the Suva Series and
identified these following species (Ibbotson, 1960):
Leprodocyclina sp. indet
Amphistegina lessonii d'Orbigny
Gypsina vesicularis (Parker and Jones)
G. inhoerens Schultze var. plana Carter
Heterastegina sp.
Polystomella craticulata Fichtel and Moll
Planorbulina larvata Parker and Jones
Operculina bartschi Cushman
O. bartschi Cushman var. punctata Yabe and Hanzawa
Cycloclypeus annulatus Martin
C. sp.(C. communs Martin or C. gumbeliann-carpenteri Brady)
Crespin (1958) did much work on Fiji fossils and identified the following species
12
(Ibbotson, 1960):
Amphistegina lessonii d'Orbigny
Cycloclypeus cf. reticulatus Martin
Elphidium craticulatum (Fichtel and Moll)
Gypsina globula Reuss
Lepidocyclina sp.
Operculina cf. japonica Yabe and Hanzawa
Operculinella venosa (Fichtel and Moll)
Ladd and Hoffmeister (1945) have reviewed early investigations on the paleontology of
Fiji and of the Lau islands in particular.
Sherlock (1903) described the limestone from various islands in the Pacific Ocean, but
chiefly from the Fiji and Tonga Groups. He investigated whether the raised terraces of
limestone were composed of recent reef-building corals, or were of Tertiary age and of a
different origin from the reefs then growing around the islands. He found that only a few
rock-sections were composed of corals and that in the majority of the cases corals were
absent, with algae and foraminifera making up the bulk of the rocks.
The organisms he found comprised of fifteen genera of foraminifera: Miliolina,
Orbitolites,
Truncatulina,
Textularia,
Gaudryina,
Carpenteria,
Globigerina,
Polytrema,
Tinoporus,
Planorbulina,
Gypsina,
Discorbina,
Amphistegina,
Heterostegina, and Orbitoids, with seven other genera doubtfully present; Ammodiscus,
Hastigerina, Sphaeroidina, Spirillina, Pulvinulina, Calcarina, and Anomalina.
Studies on the recent foraminifers of Fiji have been done by Cushman (1917), Sherlock
13
(1903) and Whipple (1934). However, more focus has been on the species of
foraminifera present on the Lau Islands, than on the mainland. Cushman has also
produced a series of bulletins on the North Pacific Ocean (1911), the Phillipines (1921)
and the tropical Pacific (1932) (Hughes, 1997).
Ladd and Whipple (1930) paid attention to a few of the larger foraminifera of Viti Levu
while Ladd and Hoffmeister (1945) focused on those from the Lau Islands. Further
records of small foraminifera from Viti Levu were added by Cushman (1931).
Recent papers describing the present-day foraminifera in tropical Pacific islands include
those from the Marshall Islands (Cushman et al., 1954), Great Barrier Reef (Collins,
1958), Phillipines (Graham and Militante, 1959), Onotoa Atoll, Gilbert Island (Todd,
1961) and Portuguese Timor (Rocha and Ubaldo, 1964) (Hughes, 1997).
Collen and Newell (1999) and Nielsen, Collen and Ferland (2002) studied some parasitic
foraminifera from the Fijian waters.
Eade (1988) focused his study on the planktonic foraminifera in the tropical and subtropical waters of the south-west Pacific between New Zealand at 36°S and the southern
Cook Islands and Tonga at latitude 18°S. He also compared the distribution of
planktonic foraminifera species in surface waters with the distribution of the same
species in the surface sediments.
He found that the distribution of planktonic
foraminiferal species corresponds closely with the distribution of faunas in the overlying
14
surface water masses.
However, the general distribution of planktonic foraminifers shows a gradual decrease in
the number of species per 1000 m3 of water from high to low latitudes. Largest numbers
off New Zealand were associated with diverging surface waters and high nutrient values
while the smallest numbers off the southern Cook Islands and Tonga were associated
with converging surface waters and low nutrient values (Eade, 1988). In total, sixteen
species were recognized.
Morris (1998) studied the sedimentology of the Nukubuco Reef Flat and found that the
carbonate clasts originate mostly from coral debris (65%), molluscan shells (15%;
bivalves and gastropods), foraminifera (11%; mainly Marginopora vertebralis, some
Amphistegina spp.) and in lesser amounts from calcareous green algae (Halimeda),
crustaceans, bryozoans, echinoderms and ostracods.
In 1995 Schneider, Schmelzer and Wurtz analysed the sediments in the western and
northern parts of the Bay and found that benthic foraminifera contributed only 2% to the
faunal groups.
15
CHAPTER 2
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
OF LAUCALA BAY
16
2.1
General geological and geographical setting of Laucala Bay
The Fiji Islands are located in the Southwest Pacific Ocean between the latitudes of 15°
to 22° S and longitude 177° W to 174° E. They consist of more than 300 islands that
cover over 1.3 million square kilometers.
Fig. 2.1: Map of the central Pacific Ocean showing the location of the Fiji Islands
(SOPAC, 2006).
The two largest islands in Fiji are Viti Levu and Vanua Levu. The coastal areas of Viti
Levu consist of rocks of varied ages and composition. The southern coast consists of late
Eocene to Miocene volcanic and plutonic assemblages, with some minor Pliocene
marine elastics and limestones. The northern and eastern coasts are composed of
volcanic rocks, marine elastics, limestones and fluvial deposits of Pleistocene age.
Laucala Bay is situated on the southeastern side of Viti Levu (Fig. 2.2). Three major
17
rivers enter the Bay: the Rewa, Samabula and Vatuwaqa rivers. Laucala Bay is a shallow
triangular estuarine lagoon bordered by Suva's suburbs along its northwest shore,
mangrove forests and the Rewa River on the eastern side, and the coral reefs of the Suva
Reef (Sosoikula Reef) and the Nukubuco Reef to the south (Wallis and Chidgey, 1995).
Nukubuco Sand Bank Island and Nukulau Island form emerged caps of the barrier reef
platform dipping gently northward into the lagoon, whereas Makuluva Island is exposed
as a barrier reef front (Schneider et al, 1995).
At high water Laucala Bay has a surface of 4.5 x 107 m2 (4500 ha) and at low water an
area of about 3.9 x 107 m2 (3900 ha) (Naidu et al, 1991). The average depth of water in
Laucala Bay is 15-25 m, deepening to 40 m and more in the Nukubuco Channel (Fig.
2.3) (Penn, 1983, SOPAC, 2006).
Table 2.1: Physical dimensions of the lagoons in Suva (Solomon and Kruger, 1996)
Suva Harbour
Suva Channel
Laucala Bay
Area at high tide (m2)
16 000 000
12 000 000
52 000 000
Tide range Springs (m)
1.3
1.3
1.3
Tidal prism (m3)
20 800 000
15 600 000
67 600 000
18
180S-
Peninsula
190S-
Sosolkula
Reef
Nukubuco
Reef
Makuluva
Is.
1785.
Fig. 2.2: Locality maps showing the study area. (Mineral Resources Department,
2005).
19
645000
650000
655000
660000
665000
Fig. 2.3: General bathymetry of Laucala Bay (SOPaC, 2006).
20
2.2
Climate
There is a marked wet/hot season from October to March and a cool/dry season from
April to September. The average relative humidity ranges from 73% to 92% (Fiji
Meteorological Services, 2005).
The dominant winds in the cooler season are the southeast trade winds that, although
relatively dry, bring rain to the Suva area. Tropical cyclones of hurricane force can
develop and cause severe damage during the warmer season.
Total rainfall from October to December 2004 was 524.5 mm, which was an average
rainfall within the Fiji group in the three months (Fiji Meteorological Services, 2005).
A high monthly mean night temperature was recorded at Laucala Bay in 2005 and the
total sunshine hours for Laucala Bay were 85% (Fiji Meteorological Services, 2005).
The average air temperature ranged from 30.6°C to 24.2°C with extreme maximums
from 32.6°C to 21.5°C (Fiji Meteorological Services, 2005).
Fig. 2.4 below shows the temperature and rainfall records from December 2003 to
December 2004.
21
Laucala Bayj'Suva - Temperature & Rainfall Records for the last 13 Months
(December 2003 - December 2004)
IkHlUllv
F..-inf.-JI Toi.il
•500
•400
•350
(19T1-2DOO0
-300g
•35D|
•200|
-150
• 100
•50
-0
fee
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
June
month
July
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nm
•
Ninthly
Average
Maximum
Temperatuie
^ ^ ^ Monthly
Average
Mninum
Temperatuie
Dec
Fig. 2.4: Rainfall and Temperature Records from December 2003 to December
2004 (Fiji Meteorological Services, 2005).
2.3
Range of Near-Surface Water Temperature and Salinity
The temperature of the water in Laucala Bay may vary from 24°C to 31°C for a typical
year (Singh, 2001). Water that comes over the reef from the open ocean may be 1 to 2%
colder than this.
Naidu etal (1991) found temperature variations within the water column in the bay to be
less than 0.5QC and seldom exceeding 1QC.
During flashfloods on the Rewa River, the surface salinity within the Bay becomes less
than 10 ppt. However, during dry periods the surface salinity may range from 30 to 35
ppt. Seeto (1994) recorded a surface water reading of 0 ppt salinity at the USP jetty
during times of heavy rain. There is a density and hence a salinity stratification within
Laucala Bay due to the very large freshwater influx from the rivers (Singh, 2001). The
surface water usually has a salinity of 25 ppt and overlies water of 34 ppt or more (Penn,
22
1983).
2.4
Sedimentology
The northern highlands of Suva bordering Laucala Bay consist of Tertiary volcanic
rocks as well as some Cenozoic sediments (Schneider et al., 1995). The Suva foreshores
are mainly siliciclastic mudflats within a reef lagoon.
Figure 2.5 shows the provenance of the sediments at the study site. The nearshore
sediments are mostly washed in from land and hence the components of the Suva
Penninsula play a major role.
Rocks from the Suva area are mostly young sedimentary rocks from Late Miocene to
Late Pliocene, and perhaps early Pleistocene, age (Rodda, 1990). The sedimentary rocks
range from conglomerate and coarse sandstone to fine-grained sandstone and siltstone,
including some with 40 - 60% carbonate. There is also a unit of limestone. These strata
have been divided into the Veisari Sandstone (oldest), the Nauluvatu Sandstone, the
Lami Limestone, the Suva Marl and the Nakasi beds (Fig. 2.6) (Rodda, 1990).
The Suva Marl, which dominates the bulk of the Peninsula, is a light-grey, fine-grained,
relatively soft siltstone/sandstone rock which appears in near vertical faces around the
southern peninsula, but at the surface it is commonly highly weathered to the typical redbrown fine to very fine highly plastic clay visible in Namadi and northwards (Rodda,
2005).
23
Fig. 2.5: Map showing the geology of the land area around Laucala Bay. (Mineral
Resources Department, 2005)
Suva Marl forms the bedrock in most of Suva Harbour and Laucala Bay, but is overlain
by sediments up to over 100m thick and also by the Barrier Reef (Rodda, 2005). There
is a comparably wide variation in these underwater sediments, which were sediments
deposited in conditions varying from fluvio-deltaic to lagoonal (Schneider et al, 1995).
24
alluvium
m]qd duties, beach n d g «
variable ilikkiiess at
tliivi.il tIrpa.Hits fin Nnk;iM
McSu
MtL
Suva
Lami
W
Waminwla
liiUle \
Jl
Fig. 2.6: Map showing the geology of the Suva area (Rodda, 2005).
25
Singh (2001) describes Laucala Bay as a "transitional sedimentary environment" with
three main sedimentary facies: gravelly muddy sand (gmS), gravelly sandy mud (gsM),
and muddy sandy gravel (msG). Lagoonal sediments within the bay show a very wide
range of sizes, ranging from 0.9 phi to 3.8 phi (0.55mm to 0.0625mm) (Schneider et al,
1995).
There are three major depositional zones in the Bay; namely, reef associated
environment, nearshore intertidal depositional environment, and the mixed siliciclastic carbonate delta zone (Schneider et al, 1995).
Laucala Bay sediments consist mainly of clayey-silty muds and fine-grained dark siltysandy muds (Schneider, 1995). The seabed comprises soft sediments which grade from
fine sands along the shoreline to fine silts from the shallow subtidal to the center of the
lagoon (Wallis and Chidgey, 1995). Sand is found close to the river mouths while the
carbonate content of the sediments increases with increase in coarse-grained sediments
towards the reefs (Singh, 2001). Mud and silt can be found in the quieter central portion
of the bay.
Sharma (2003) studied three depositional areas within Laucala: nearshore intertidal, reef
dominated and estuarine areas. The nearshore intertidal sediments were found to be
intermediate, moderately to poorly sorted with a wide range of grain sizes. Most of the
sediments were of terrigenous origin. The facies type was slightly gravelly muddy sand.
The reef-dominated sediments were poorly sorted and had mostly large grains. The
26
facies type was slightly muddy sandy gravel. The estuarine dominated area was very
well sorted. It consisted mostly of fine silty grains. The facies type was slightly sandy
mud.
According to Kyaw (1981), who established a granulometric network across Laucala
Bay, the median, standard deviation, and skewness show that the shallow, subtidal
environment near the mainland consists of moderately sorted, fine grained siliciclastics
of low carbonate content, the outer areas of the lagoon behind the reefs is dominated by
medium to coarse grained calcarenites, while clayey, silty muds of poor sorting can be
found near the delta extending to the center of the lagoon (Schneider et al, 1995).
A transect from the Institute of Marine Resources towards the Nukubuco Reef showed a
continuous decrease in grain size to the center of the lagoon and then an increase
towards the reef. Following the same direction, the total carbonate content increased
from 8 to 63% (Schneider et al, 1995). Both grain size and carbonate content increase
towards the reefs (Schneider et al, 1995).
27
jUiP
I^*SESE
• Y ^ . ; - 7 ••/•••
: ; ; ; : W S ^
•
Fig. 2.7: Mean grain-size distribution in Laucala Bay as mapped by Kyaw (Solomon and Kruger, 1996)
28
L.tjijj j
Eld,-
5UVH
V U U v * , Flu Islands
Fig. 2.8: Carbonate content of sediments in Laucala Bay as mapped by Kyaw (Solomon and Kruger, 1996)
29
2.5
Turbidity/ Pollution within the Lagoon
The Rewa River, as well as the Nasinu, Samabula and the Vatuwaqa rivers add a large
sediment load into the lagoon after heavy rains. The water at the rivermouths is high in
suspended sediments and debris. The effects of these sediments and low salinity on the
reefs surrounding the Bay are countered by the South-East Trade Winds pushing clean
oceanic water of high salinity into the lagoon (Seeto, 1994).
The pollution problems in the Bay are partially attributed to the Kinoya Sewage works
which discharges partially treated waste, as well as to the land run-off, industrial and
river discharges. Sewage disposal in Suva is a major problem and health risk. Less than
45% Suva's urban population is connected to piped sewerage systems while septic tanks
and pit latrines serve the remainder (Asian Development Bank, 2003).
Industrial discharges of wastewater to waterways and sewage overflows and exfiltration
from the failing sewerage systems are major contributors to the aquatic pollution (Asian
Development Bank, 2003). Overflows, which are caused by inoperative sewage pumps
and by blocked and broken sewer pipes, discharge untreated sewage into numerous
waterways and bays around Suva (Asian Development Bank, 2003).
Studies have revealed frequent high counts of coliform bacteria, indicating pollution by
fecal material, with data from the National Water Quality Laboratory (NWQL) showing
coliform levels in the hundreds to several thousands in the lower reaches of the Rewa
and Laucala rivers and in the thousands to tens of thousands level in Laucala Bay
30
(Anderson, 2006, Fiji Daily Post article by Jyoti Pratibha, March 16); high levels of
nitrogen (2 mg/l) and phosphorous (0.27 mg/l) in Laucala Bay indicating sewage
pollution and causing eutrophication that causes further environmental problems;
frequent oil slicks (visual observations, 2004/5); cadmium found in shellfish, albeit at
less than critical levels; coverage of large tracts of shoreline with litter; and residents
interviewed living along one major stream complained of upstream sewage dumping so
severe that they can no longer use the stream for bathing or fishing (Asian Development
Bank, 2003). Water clarity in the bay ranges from 0.5 m to 5 m (Naidu et al.,1991).
2.6
Currents
Off SE Viti Levu the currents are driven westward by the tradewinds at speeds of 0.19
m/s to 0.32 m/s while immediately outside the reef the currents are tidally driven
eastward on flood and westward on ebb at a maximum of 0.1 m/s (Penn, 1983).
Saline bottom water flows into Laucala Bay. There is a surface drift of fresher, debrisladen Rewa River water from Laucala Bay into Suva Harbour (Singh, 2001).
Gendronneau (1986) described the currents as follows:
-
there is an outflow of surface water from the Nukubuco Passage;
-
within Laucala Bay surface currents are quite small (< 0.006 m/s);
-
in the middle of the Nasese Channel currents are always towards Suva Harbour
in the rising tide and towards Laucala Bay in the falling tide; and
-
freshwater from Rewa River is brought into the bay although the main estuary
31
falls outside the bay due to the Coriolis effect.
14:
12:
0.25 m/s
0
2
4
6
8
(kilometer)
10
02/09/05 10:05:00
12
14
Scale 1:105600
Fig. 2.9: Current patterns in Laucala Bay (SOPAC, 2006).
The brackish upper layer of water tends to be driven by the wind although it moves with
the tides during prolonged periods of calm (Penn, 1983). The deeper layer of water
shows a tidal rhythm and flows northerly with the flood and southerly on the ebb (Penn,
1983).
32
2.7
Description of Reefs (Back reef. Passage, Fore-reef, Lagoon basin)
Suva Harbour and Laucala Bay are well protected by an extensive barrier reef (Fig. 2.2).
Table 2.2: Physical dimensions of Suva's reefs (Solomon and Kruger, 1996)
Area (hectares)
Length - EW (km)
Width - NS (km)
Suva Reef
920
9.9
Nukubuco Reef
Uciasala Reef
Makaluva reef
580
190
60
4
Centre- 1.8
West end - 0.6
East end- 1.0
1.2
2.8
0.63
0.6
1
The fore- reef slopes down steeply into the Suva Basin and some large coral fragments
embedded in the ooze indicate slumping at the reef flank (Schneider et al, 1995). The
outer reefs rise steeply from more than 200 m water depth (Fig 2.10) (Solomon and
Kruger, 1996).
Makaluva Island is surrounded by a fringing reef, which is part of the barrier reef system
that encloses Suva Harbor from the west and continues east to form the outer boundaries
of Laucala Bay (Seeto, 1994). The reef at the Makaluva passage has approximately a
10% slope (Schneider et al, 1995).
Sandbank Island reef is almost rectangular in shape, with an area of just over 5 square
kilometers (Seeto, 1994). The profile has more grooves than Makaluva Reef and is
terraced (Schneider et al, 1995).
33
At high tide the reefs are submerged and a shallow layer of seawater enters the bay twice
a day around high water.
Fig. 2.10: Bathymetry of Laucala Bay (SOPAC, 2006).
2.8
Tides
The tides in Fiji are predominantly semi-diurnal with a mean range of 1.1 m (Penn,
1983). Tide height is recorded on a gauge on Suva wharf and tidal predictions for Suva
are based on a harmonic analysis of the record from the gauge.
The tidal level varies with factors such as seasons, weather and atmospheric pressure.
The range between high and low waters is 0.9 m for neap tides and 1.3 m for spring tides
(Naidu et al., 1991).
34
CHAPTER 3
FORAMINIFERA SPECIES
35
3.1
Methodology
Sample Collection
Sediment samples of approximately 1 kg weight were collected from 12 sites within
Laucala Bay, and from one site at the centre of Suva Harbour for comparison (Table 4.1
and Fig. 4.1). Grab samplers were used to collect sediments from the deeper areas while
in shallower areas sediment samples were obtained by wading or snorkeling and
collecting handfuls of sand.
Rose Bengal Preparation and Staining
Immediately after collection the samples were stained using Rose Bengal stain, a
protoplasmic stain used to detect live foraminifera. Rose Bengal stains mucus,
degenerating and dead cells (Gelatt, 1972). To prepare 100ml of the 1% Rose Bengal
Stain solution, 1.0 g of Rose Bengal Stain was taken and diluted in 10ml of 95% ethanol.
10ml of this prepared stain was then added to 60 or 70% ethanol and made up to the
100ml mark with distilled water.
Bleaching and Sieving
The samples were then washed in dilute bleach and left overnight to soak. This was to
ensure that microorganisms didn't start to grow on the foraminifera after separation. The
samples were then washed over a 63|pm sieve to remove all the clay and mud
components and then dried in the oven at 60-80°C and subsequently sieved in a series of
sieves ranging from 2mm, 1mm, 500|um, 250|pm, 125um, and 63um. The sediment
36
samples were used to find the different species of foraminifera at each of the 13 sites.
The sieved fractions are easier to observe under the microscope since the grains are all
of similar sizes and so there isn't need for frequent magnification adjustments.
Picking Different Species of Foraminifera
Although most foraminifera fall into micro- and meio-fauna size ranges (between 63 and
5000 |um), they can readily be observed under a low-power (10 to 40x)
stereomicroscope. Each fraction of each sample was then placed under the microscope
and the different species of foraminifera were picked out manually until no new species
could be found in each sample. The foraminifera were stored on microfossil slides.
These were then photographed under a Scanning Electron Microscope and classified to
genus and species level with the help of literature and experts on the subject.
Scanning Electron Microscope
A short training at Victoria University in Wellington with co-supervisor, John Collen,
allowed the use of a scanning electron microscope and a microprobe to photograph the
different species, as well as to learn the classification and taxonomy of foraminifers so
that the different species were correctly classified.
A Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) is used to produce high-resolution images of
objects at high magnification. Scanning electron microscopes (SEMs) allow scientists to
view objects too small to be seen with a light microscope. SEMs don't use light waves
but instead use electrons (negatively charged electrical particles) to produce images that
37
magnify objects up to two million times.
A beam of electrons bombards the surface of the material and those that are emitted or
backscattered allow microscopists to see down to resolutions of 10 nanometres or so,
giving them intricate details of the surface of the material.
The specimens to be photographed were mounted on carbon adhesive tabs on an
aluminium stub, using a fine brush and with the side to be photographed facing upwards.
Once mounted with foraminifera, the stub was coated with a layer of gold. The SEM
requires a high vacuum and a coating on the specimen to make it conduct electricity such as a thin layer of gold - and produce secondary electrons.
Next, the prepared stub is placed in the vacuum chamber beneath the column containing
the electron gun. Inside the column are lenses that focus the electrons on the specimen
(Schrock, 2005). Above the specimen, scanning coils move the electron beam back and
forth across the entire object. Images may be scanned on a digital imaging system by
computer enhancement.
As the beam moves across the specimen, it produces secondary electrons that are
recorded and enhanced (Schrock, 2005), thus creating an image of the surface relief of
the target that is viewed on a monitor and recorded digitally.
Once the different species of foraminifera had been photographed, the species
38
classification and taxonomy were determined. Synonyms for each species were found
and recorded. Plates were made showing the photographs and the species details.
The overall taxonomic scheme followed has been of Hottinger, Halicz & Reiss (1993).
Paratypes of the figured specimens are deposited in the University of the South Pacific's
Marine Collection under numbers 5645-5714.
39
3.2
Results
A total of 68 different species from 48 different genera were identified from the 13 sites
sampled (Table 3.2, Plates 1 - 14).
Table 3.2: Taxonomy of the foraminifera species in the study area
Suborder
Family
Genus
Species
Miliolina
Alveolinidae
Borelis
Borelis schlumbergeri
Hauerinidae
Hauerina
Hauerina circinata
Miliolinella
Miliolinella cf. M. hybrida
Miliolinella labiosa
Pseudomassilina
Pseudomassilina reticulata
Pseudotriloculina Pseodotriloculina granulocostata
Pyrogoella
Pyrgoella sp.A
Quinqueloculina
Quinqueloculina bicarinata
Quinqueloculina parkei
Quinqueloculina philippinenis
Quinqueloculina pseudoreticulata
Siphonaperta
Siphonaperta pittensis
Triloculina
Triloculina affinis
Triloculina terquemiana
Miliolidae
Pitella
Pitella haigi
Peneroplidae
Monalysidium
Monalysidium acicularis
Penewplis
Penewplis perfuses
Penewplis planatus
Riveroinidae
Pseudohauerina
Pseudohauerina involuta
Soritidae
Marginopora
Marginopora vertebralis
Spiroloculinidae
Spiroloculina
Spiroloculina angulata
Spiroloculina antillarum
Spiroloculina attenuata
Rotaliina
Acervulinidae
Acervulina
Spiroloculina foveolata
Acervulina mabaheti
40
Alfredinidae
Ammoniidae
Planogypsina
Planogypsina acervalis
Epistomaroides
Epistomaroides punctulatus
Haynesina
Haynesina germanica
Ammonia
Ammonia beccarii
Ammonia convexa
Amphisteginidae
Amphistegina
Amphistegina lobifera
Amphistegina radiata
Calcarinidae
Baculogypsina
Baculogypsina sphaerulata
Calcarina
Calcarina hispida
Cassidulinidae
Evolvocassidulina Evolvocassidulina belfordi
Cibicididae
Lobatula
Lobatula lobatula
Cymbaloporidae
Cymbaloporella
Cymbaloporella tabellaeformis
Milletiana
Milletiana millettii
Elphidium
Elphidium alvarezianum
Elphididae
Elphidium craticulatum
Elphidium crispum
Elphidium cf. E. limbatum
Elphidium striatopunctatum
Heleninidae
Helenina
Helenina anderseni
Homotrematidae
Miniacina
Miniacina miniacea
Mississippinidae
Pegidia
Pegidia lacunata
Nummulitidae
Operculina
Operculina ammonoides
Pararotaliidae
Neorotalia
Neorotalia calcar
Parrelloididae
Cibicidoides
Cibicidoides collinsi
Planorbulinidae
Planorbulinella
Planorbulinella elatensis
Rosalinidae
Rosalina
Rosalina bradyi
Rotorboides
Rotorboides granulosus
Tetromphalus
Tetromphalus bulloides
Loxostomina
Loxostomina limbata
Siphogenerinoididae
Loxostomina sp. A
Rectobolivina
Rectobolivina raphana
Siphogenerina
Siphogenerina raphana
Siphogenerina sp. A
Textularia
Ammosphaeroidinidae Haddonia
Haddonia (?) sp. A
41
Eggerellidae
Sahulia
Sahulia cf. S. conica
Textularia
Textularia agglutinans
Textularia foliacea
Textularia kerimbaensis
Textularia rugulosa
Pseudogaudryinidae
Textulariidae
Valvulinidae
3.3
Septotextularia
Septotextularia rugosa
Siphonifewides
Siphonifewides siphoniferus
Siphotextularia
Clavulina
Siphotextularia curta
Clavulina tricarinata
Systematic Description
Order FORAMINIFERIDA Eichwaldm, 1830
Suborder MILIOLINA Delage & Herouard, 1896
Family ALVEOLINIDAE Ehrenberg, 1839
Genus Borelis De Montfort, 1808
Borelis schlumbergeri Reichel, 1936
Plate 1, fig. 1
1936
1993
Borelis schlumbergeri Reichel, p. 89
Borelis schlumbergeri Reichel. Hottinger, Halicz & Reiss, p. 68, pl. 75, figs.
1-17.
Porcelaneous, elongate-ovoid test. The surface of the test has low, wavy ridges located
over chamberlet sutures. Apertural face has a single row of foramina.
Remarks
This species was found at only one site, 5, on the southern side of Makuluva Island
facing the open ocean.
Marine Collection number: 5645
42
Family HAUERINIDAE Schwager, 1876
Genus Hauerina d'Orbigny, 1839
Hauerina circinata Brady, 1881
Plate 1, figs. 2, 3
1881 Hauerina circinata Brady, p.47
1988b Hauerina circinata Brady. Haig, 220, 221, pl. 2, figs. 1, 2.
1993 Hauerina diversa Cushman. Hottinger, Halicz & Reiss, p. 50, pl. 36, figs. 1-7.
Porcelaneous test, covered with longitudinal and transverse striae. Lateral view shows a
rounded outline, compressed but slightly biconvex. Aperture located at distal end of
chamber.
Remarks
This species was found at sites 3, 5 and 10, reef environments around Makuluva and
Nukulau Islands, with sedimenst ranging form reef rubble, coarse sand to fine sand.
Genus Miliolinella Wiesner, 1931
Miliolinella cf. M. hybrida (Terquem, 1878)
(Not photographed)
1878
1949
1993
cf. Quinqueloculina hybrida Terquem, p. 79, pl. 9, fig. 23.
Miliolinella labiosa (d'Orbigny). Said, p. 5, pl. 1, fig. 10.
Miliolinella cf. M. hybrida (Terquem). Hottinger, Halicz & Reiss, p. 52, pl. 39,
figs. 1 - 6.
Porcelaneous test, extremely fine random holes, probably due to bioerosion, can be seen
in the external layer. Sutures are distinct and depressed. Aperture is terminal, bordered
by a thick rim.
Remarks
This species was found at all the reef-related sites, on Nukubuco Reef, around Makuluva
Island, on the Fish Patch location and on Nukulau Island.
Miliolinella labiosa (d'Orbigny, 1839a)
Plate 1, fig. 4
1939a Triloculina labiosa (d'Orbigny). De la Sagra, p. 178
1988b Miliolinella labiosa (d'Orbigny). Haig, pl. 2, fig. 15.
43
Porcelaneous test, extremely fine random holes can be seen in the external layer. Sutures
are distinct and depressed. Aperture is terminal, bordered by a thick rim. The test is
largely formed by the two last-formed chambers. The shape is variable and the wall is
smooth. The aperture consists of a long narrow opening.
Remarks
This species was found at sites 3, 7 and 10, all were reef environment sites with
sediments ranging form rubble, coarse to fine sand.
Genus Pseudomassilina Lacroix, 1938
Pseudomassilina reticulata (Heron-Allen & Earland, 1915)
(Not photographed)
1915
1949
1993
Massilina secans var. reticulata Heron-Allen & Earland, p. 582, pl. 45, figs. 1 4.
Massilina misrensis Said. Said, p. 11, pl. 1, fig. 32.
Pseudomassilina reticulata (Heron-Allen & Earland). Hottinger, Halicz &
Reiss, p. 54, pl. 42, figs. 5 - 8 , pl. 43, figs. 1 - 8.
Test porcelaneous, covered with longitudinal and anastomosing microstriae and the wall
has distinct pits. Sub-elliptical in lateral view. Aperture terminal elongated and
compressed.
Remarks
This species was found on Nukubuco reef, around the northern and southern sides of
Makuluva Island, on the Fish Patch and on Nukulau Island.
Genus Pseudotriloculina Cherif, 1970
Pseudotriloculina granulocostata (Germeraad, 1946)
(Not photographed)
1946
1949
1993
Quinqueloculina granulo-costata Germerraad, p. 63.
Quinqueloculina sulcata d'Orbigny. Said, p. 11, pl. 1, fig. 20.
Pseudotriloculina (?) granulocostata (Germeraad). Hottinger, Halicz & Reiss,
p. 55, pl. 46, figs. 7 - 12.
Test porcelaneous, covered with longitudinal, anastomosing microstriae. Laterally
compressed, and fusiform in shape. Aperture terminal, rounded and at the end of a
distinct neck.
44
Remarks
This species was found at only two sites, on the eastern and western sides of Makuluva
Island. The sediments at these sites range from coarse to fine sand.
Genus Pyrgoella Cushman and White, 1936
Pyrgoella sp. A Haig, 1988a
Plate 1, fig. 5
1988a
Pyrgoella sp. A Haig, p.233, pl. 4, figs. 7, 8
Test porcelaneous and elongated. Laterally compressed and fusiform in shape. Aperture
terminal and elongated.
Remarks
This species was found at only two sites, on the eastern and western sides of Makuluva
Island. The sediments at these sites range from coarse to fine sand.
Genus Quinqueloculina d'Orbigny, 1926
Quinqueloculina bicarinata d'Orbigny, 1878
Plate 1, figs. 6 - 8
1878
1988b
Quinqueloculina bicarinata d'Orbigny, 68, pl. 7, fig. 10
Quinqueloculina bicarinata d'Orbigny. Haig, p. 223, 233, pl. 4, figs. 27, 28;
pl. 5, figs. 1-5.
Test porcelaneous.
Remarks
This species was found at sites 1, 3, 6 10, and 12, reef environments and at Vatuwaqa
River estuary.
Quinqueloculina parked (Brady, 1881)
Plate 1, figs. 9,10
1881 Miliolina parkei Brady, p. 46.
1988b Quinqueloculina parkeri (Brady). Haig, p. 226, 234, pl. 6, figs. 30 - 33.
1993 Lachlanella corrugata (Collins). Hottinger, Halicz & Reiss, p. 51, pl. 36, figs.
10-13, pl. 37, figs. 1 - 3 .
45
Test porcelaneous, covered by oblique, transverse, welt-like costae which merge towards
the oral end. Sub-elliptical in lateral view, laterally compressed. Aperture terminal,
elongated drop-shaped and laterally compressed, bordered by everted peristomal lip.
Remarks
This species was found at all sites except sites 8 and 12, Nasese Tidal platform and the
Vatuwaqa River estuary, which consisted of medium sand to mud.
Quinqueloculina philippinensis Cushman, 1921
Plate 2, fig. 1
1921
Quinqueloculina kerimbatica (Heron-Allen & Earland) var. philippinensis
Cushman. Cushman, p. 432, pl. 89, figs. 2, 3, p. 439, pl. 2, fig. 34.
1988b Quinqueloculina philippinensis (Cushman). Haig, p. 227, 234, pl. 7, figs. 1 8.
1993 Pseudotriloculina philippinensis (Cushman). Hottinger, Halicz & Reiss, p. 55,
pl. 47, figs. 1 - 7.
Test porcelaneous, with widely spaced costae as well as somewhat sinous costae.
Surface is covered with minute anastomosing microstriae. Sub-elliptical in lateral view.
Aperture is terminal, rounded on a short neck with everted lip.
Remarks
This species was found at quite a number of sites, 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10 and 11. these sites
were on Nukubuco Reef, Makuluva Island and Nukulau Island as well as off the
northern edge of Laucala Island.
Quinqueloculina pseudoreticulata Parr, 1945
1945
2001
Quinqueloculina pseudoreticulata Parr, p. 305.
Quinqueloculina pseudoreticulata Parr. Albani et al, fig. 483.
Test elongate with slightly inflated chambers and rounded periphery. The surface of
each chamber shows clearly the reticulate ornamentation which is not continuous but the
part of each face close to the sutures is smooth. The aperture is at the end of a short neck
with lip.
Remarks
This species was only found at two sites, on the southern and western sides of Makuluva
Island. The sediments consisted of rubble, coarse to fine sand.
46
Genus Siphonaperta Vella, 1957
Siphonaperta pittensis (Albani, 1973)
Plate 2. figs. 5 - 7
1973
1993
Quinqueloculina pittensis Albani, p. 33, 35, pl. 1, figs. 1 - 3 .
Siphonaperta pittensis (Albani). Hottinger, Halicz & Reiss, p. 63, pl. 64, figs. 1
-6.
Porcelaneous walls, with longitudinal, anastomosing microstriae, covered with scattered
small-sized agglutinated material. Sub-elliptical in lateral view. Aperture terminal,
rounded and at the end of a short neck with a slightly everted peristomal lip.
Remarks
This species was found at sites 2, 4, 6, 7 (reef-related sites with rubble, coarse to fine
sand) and 9 (center of Suva Harbour with muddy ooze).
Genus Triloculina d'Orbigny, 1826
Triloculina affnis d'Orbigny. 1852
(Not photographed)
1852
1993
Triloculina affinis d'Orbigny, p. 161.
Triloculina affinis d'Orbigny. Hottinger, Halicz & Reiss, p. 64, pl. 65, figs. 7 10, pl. 66, figs. 1 - 3 .
Test procelaneous with smooth test surface. Ovate in lateral view. Aperture is at distal
end of chamber and is surrounded by peristomal lip.
Remarks
This species was found on all reef-related sites, on Nukubuco reef, around Makuluva
Island, on the Fish Patch, and on Nukulau Island.
Triloculina terquemiana (Brady, 1884)
Plate 2, fig. 8
1884
1917
1993
Miliolina terquemiana Brady, p. 114, fig. 1.
Triloculina terquemiana (Brady). Cushman, p. 72.
Triloculina terquemiana (Brady). Hottinger, Halicz & Reiss, p. 65, pl. 68, figs.
1-6.
Test porcelaneous, covered with heavy, longitudinal elongate and anastomosing costae.
47
Ovate in lateral view. Aperture at distal end of chamber and surrounded by a weak
peristomal lip.
Remarks
This species was found at sites 9, 11 and 13. These sites were in the middle of Suva
Harbour, off the edge of Laucala Island and in the center of Laucala Bay lagoon. The
sediment types were mostly muddy ooze.
Family MILIOLIDAE Delage and Herouard, 1896
Genus Pitella Langer, 1992
Pitella haigi Langer, 1992
Plate 2, figs. 9-11
1992
2001
Pitella haigi Langer, p. 88, 91, pl. 2, figs. 11 - 14.
Pitella haigeni (Langer). Faller, p. 66, pl. 4, figs. 10, 11.
Elongate test, porcelaneous surface pitted with pseudopores. Short simple tooth.
Remarks
This species occurred in most reef-related sites, on Nukubuco reef, around Makuluva
Island and on Nukulau Island, and at the Fish Patch site.
Family PENEROPLIDAE Schultze, 1854
Genus Monalysidium Chapman, 1900
Monalysidium acicularis (Batsch, 1791)
1791
1993
Nautilus acicularis Batsch, p. 3, pl. 6, fig. 16 a, b.
Monalysidium acicularis (Batsch). Hottinger, Halicz & Reiss, p. 70, pl. 78,
figs. 1 - 1 4 .
Porcelaneous test, crosier-shaped, composed of about 15 planispiral-involute early
chambers followed by barrel-shaped uniserial chambers. Depressed sutures. Blunt faint
ribs on chamber walls. Apertural face has numerous, elongate and small pits arranged
around the single aperture in terminal position.
48
Remarks
This species was found at all the reef-related sites, Nukubuco Reef, Makuluva Island,
Fish Patch, and Nukulau Island, as well as off the edge of Laucala Island.
Genus Peneroplis De Montfort, 1808
Penewplis pertusus Forskal, 1775
Plate 3, figs. 4, 5
1775
1993
2003
Peneroplis pertusus Forskal, p. 164
Coscinospira hemprichii (Ehrenberg). Hottinger, Halicz & Reiss, p. 69, pl. 76,
figs. 1 - 12, pl. 77, figs. 1 - 8.
Peneroplis pertusus (Forskal). Renema, p. 341.
Porcelaneous test, planispirally coiled, involute, nautiloid to crosier-shaped with a
shallow umbilical depression. Flat (keeled) appearance. Covered with strong ribs
perpendicular to the septum. Multiple apertures on an elongate apertural face.
Remarks
This species is found at five sites, 3, 5, 6, 10, and 11. Four of these sites are reef
environments so we can conclude that the species is mostly present in rrubble and coarse
to fine sand.
Peneroplis planatus Fichtel & Moll, 1798
Plate 3, figs. 6-10
1798
1965
1993
2003
Peneroplis planatus Fichtel & Moll, p. 91, pl. 16, figs. a - f, i.
Peneroplis planatus Fichtel & Moll. Jell, Maxwell & McKeller, p. 277,
pl. 44, figs. 2a, b.
Peneroplis planatus Fichtel & Moll. Hottinger, Halicz & Reiss, p. 70,
pl. 79, figs. 1-16, pl. 80, figs. 1 - 8.
Peneroplis planatus (Fichtel & Moll). Renema, p. 341, fig. 3
Test porcelaneous and flat, planispiral involute and compressed. Shallow umbilical
depression. Sutures depressed. Adult chambers gradually become evolute and flaring.
Blunt or faint ribs on lateral chamber walls. Multiple apertures.
Remarks
This species was quite common and was found at all sites except site 8, the outer edge of
the Nasese platform.
49
Family RIVEROINIDAE Saidova, 1981
Genus Pseudohauerina Ponder, 1972
Pseudohauerina involuta (Cushman, 1946)
Plate 3, fig. 11
1946 Hauerina involuta Cushman, p. 13, pl. 2, figs. 25 - 18
1972 Pseudohauerina occidentalis involuta (Cushman). Ponder, p. 149, fig. 4
1988b Pseudohauerina involuta (Cushman). Haig, p. 222, 228, pl. 3, figs. 16 - 18.
Test wall thin and non-laminated. In side view test is circular. Aperture is terminal
Remarks
This species was only found at sites 3 and 7, east of Makuluva Island and the Fish
Patch.
Family SORITIDAE Ehrenberg, 1839
Genus Marginopora Blainville, 1830
Marginopora vertebralis Quoy & Gaimard in Blainville, 1830
Plate 4, figs 1 - 9
1830 Marginopora vertebralis Quoy & Gaimard. Blainville, p. 377
1988b Marginopora vertebralis Quoy & Gaimard. Haig, p.220, 221, pl. 2, figs.
12, 13.
1965 Marginopora vertebralis Quoy & Gaimard. Jell, Maxwell & McKeller, p.
277, pl. 44, fig. 1
2003 Marginopora vertebralis Quoy & Gaimard. Renema, p. 343
Macroscopic and discoidal. They are characterized by flat, circular tests with numerous
small chambers arranged in annular series. Apertures, connecting adjacent chambers of
successive series, are located on the periphery, a row of marginal apertures at each side
of the test.
Remarks
This species was quite common and was found at 10 of the thirteen sites studied. Mostly
concentrated on the reef environment sites, the species was found on both the Nukubuco
Reef sites, all four sites around Makuluva Island, at the Fish Patch location, and on
Nukulau Island. The sediments at these sites ranged from coral rubble, coarse to fine
sand. The species was also found off the Northern edge of Laucala Island as well as in
the centre of Laucala Bay. The sediments at these two sites ranged from medium sand to
50
muddy ooze.
Family SPIROLOCULINIDAE Wiesner, 1920
Genus Spiroloculina d'Orbigny, 1826
Spiroloculina angulata Cushman, 1917
1917 Spiroloculina grata Terquem var. angulata Cushman, p. 36, pl. 7, fig. 5.
1988b Spiroloculina angulata Cushman. Haig, p. 231, 234, pl. 10, figs. 1-7.
Test porcelaneous, biloculine, and evolute. Test fusiform in lateral view, moderately
biconcave. Sinous, discontinuous and anastomosing costae on lateral and peripheral
walls. Aperture subcircular at the end of an elongated and costate neck.
Remarks
This species was present at all the reef related sites except site four around Makuluva
Island, and sites 8, 9,12 and 13, which were not, reef related sites.
Spiroloculina antillarum d'Orbigny, 1839a
(Not photographed)
1839a Spiroloculina antillarum d'Orbigny, p. 166, pl. 9, figs. 3, 4.
1993 Spiroloculina antillarum d'Orbigny. Hottinger, Halicz & Reiss, p. 45, pl. 24,
figs. 15 - 17, pl. 25, figs. 1-2.
Test porcelaneous, biloculine, and evolute, fusiform to ovate in lateral view, slightly
biconcave. Distinct sutures. Neary continuous, longitudinal, sometimes anastomosing
costae. Circular aperture at the end of a stout neck, with a weak peristomal lip.
Remarks
This species was found at all the reef-related sites, Nukubuco Reef, Makuluva Island,
Fish patch and Nukulau island, as well as at site 11, which was off the Laucala Island.
Spiroloculina attenuata Cushman & Todd, 1944
Plate 5, fig. 4
1944
Spiroloculina attenuata Cushman & Todd, p. 54, pl. 20, figs. 3, 4.
51
1993
2003
Spiroloculina attenuata Cushman & Todd. Hottinger, Halicz & Reiss, p. 45, p.
25, figs. 3 - 9 .
Spiroloculina attenuata Cushman & Todd. Langer & Lipps, p. 151, 152,
fig. 7 A a.
Test porcelaneous, biloculine, and evolute, fusiform in lateral view, strongly biconcave.
Surface covered in minute, longitudinal, short anastomosing mircostriae. Subcircular to
oval aperture at the end of elongated neck bordered by a peristomal lip.
Remarks
This species was well distributed amongst the reef related sites but absent from the
lagoonal, tidal flat and estuarine sites.
Spiroloculina foveolata Egger, 1893
Plate 5, fig. 5, 6
1893 Spiroloculina foveolata Egger, p. 224, pl. 1, figs. 33, 34
1988b Spiroloculina foveolata Egger. Haig, p. 231, 234, pl. 10, figs. 14, 15
Test porcelaneous, biloculine, and evolute, fusiform in lateral view, strongly biconcave.
Surface covered in rounded indents. Subcircular to oval aperture at the end of elongated
neck bordered by a peristomal lip.
Remarks
This species was present at all the reef related sites except site four around Makuluva
Island, and sites 8, 9,12 and 13 that were not reef related sites.
Suborder ROTALIINA Delage and Herouard, 1896
Family ACERVULINIDAE Schultze, 1854
Genus Acervulina Schultze, 1854
Acervulina mabaheti (Said, 1949)
1949
1993
Planorbulina mabaheti Said, p. 44, pl. 4, fig. 26.
Acervulina mabaheti (Said). Hottinger, Halicz & Reiss, p. 122, pl. 165, figs. 1 7, pl. 166, figs, 1 - 8.
Lamellar, attached test. Chambers added according to the geometry of the available
52
substrate. Flattened chamberlets on the attached side of the shell. Chamberlet walls
thick, and coarsely perforate. Sutures on both sides of the shell depressed. Apertures
peripheral
Remarks
This species was found at sites 1, 3, 4, 6, 7 and 10. All were reef-related sites with
sediments ranging from rubble, coarse to fine sand.
Genus Planogypsina Bermudez, 1952
Planogypsina acervalis (Brady, 1884)
Plate 6, figs. 1,2
1884
1949
1993
Planorbulina acervalis Brady, p. 657, pl. 92, fig. 4.
Planorbulina mediterranensis d'Orbigny. Said, p. 44, pl. 4, fig. 25.
Planogypsina acervalis (Brady). Hottinger, Halicz & Reiss, p. 125, pl. 169,
figs. 1 - 9, pl. 170, figs. 1 - 8.
Lamellar, low conical to discoid test attached to even substrates. Ventral chamberlet
walls coarsely perforate. Ventral chamberlet sutures depressed, dorsal chamberlet
sutures faintly raised. Main aperture bordered by a peristomal rim.
Remarks
This species was only found at three sites, on the eastern side of Makuluva Island, on the
Fish Patch and on Nukulau Island.
Family ALFREDINIDAE Singh and Kalia, 1972
Genus Epistomaroides Uchio, 1952
Epistomaroides punctatus d'Orbigny, 1826
Plate 6, figs. 3, 4
1826
1993
2003
Epistomaroides punctatus d'Orbigny, p. 230
Epistomaroides punctatus (Said). Hottinger, Halicz & Reiss, p. 131, pl. 180,
figs. 1 - 1 1 , pl. 181, figs. 1-6.
Epistomaroides punctatus d'Orbigny. Langer & Lipps, p. 151, 152, fig. 7 Ca.
Lamellar and optically radial test, perforated on both sides by coarse pores. Test
auriculate in lateral view, spiral side evolute, umbilical side involute. Sutures deeply
sunken on both sides. Main aperture is a small, low, equatorial arch.
53
Remarks
This species was sparsely distributed at only some sites, 2, 7, 9, 10 and 13. It seems to
prefer a range of different habita as is found on different sediment types.
Genus Haynesina Banner and Culver, 1978
Haynesina germanica Ehrenberg, 1839
Plate 6, figs. 5, 6
1839 Haynesina germanica Ehrenberg, p. 78
1989 Haynesina germanica Ehrenberg. Langer et al, p. 85
Lamellar and optically radial test, perforate on both sides by coarse pores. Test articulate
in lateral view, spiral side evolute, umbilical side involute.
Remarks
This species was only found at two sites, on the northwest tip of Nukubuco Reef and on
the western side of Makuluva Island.
Family AMMONIDAE Saidova, 1981
Genus Ammonia Briinnich, 1772
Ammonia beccarii Linne, 1772
Plate 6, figs. 7, 8
1772
2003
Ammonia beccarii Linne. Briinnich, p. 232
Ammonia beccarii Linne. Javaux & Scott, p. 10, 12, figs. 2.2, 2.3
Lamellar, trochospiral, dorsoconvex test. Test perforated on the dorsal side. Peripheral
outline subcircular.
Remarks
This species was found only at three sites, 3, 4 and 6. All three sites were around
Makuluva Island, with coarse to fine sandy sediments.
Ammonia convexa (Collins, 1958)
54
1958
1993
Streblus convexus Collins, p. 414, pl. 5, fig. 10a - c.
Ammonia convexa (Collins). Hottinger, Halicz & Reiss, p. 142, pl. 201, figs.
1 - 14, pl. 205, fig. 1.
2003 Ammonia convexa (Collins). Langer & Lipps, p. 150 - 152, fig. 7 A b
Lamellar, trochospiral, dorsoconvex test. Chambers dorsally evolute, ventrally involute.
Dorsal sutures raised, septal sutures arcuate. Peripheral outline subcircular. Aperture a
low, interiomarginal arch bordered by a narrow lip.
Remarks
This species was present and abundant at all reef related sites but was absent from the
lagoon sites, estuary and the tidal flat due to the muddy sediments.
Family AMPHISTEGINIDAE Cushman, 1927
Genus Amphistegina d'Orbigny, 1826
Amphistegina lobifera Larsen, 1976
Plate 7, figs. 5, 6
1976
1993
2003
Amphistegina lobifera Larsen, p. 4, pl. 3, figs. 1-5, pl. 7, fig. 3, pl. 8, fig. 3.
Amphistegina lobifera Larsen. Hottinger, Halicz & Reiss, p. 133, pl. 186, figs. 1
- 1 1 , pl. 187, figs. 1-7, pl. 188, figs. 1-6.
Amphistegina lobifera Larsen. Renema, p. 344, figs. 9 a-b.
Coarsely perforate, lamellar, thick-shelled, lenticular to subglobular, ow-trochospiral,
involute test. Peripheral outline smooth. Dorsal chamber sutures flush. A large
transparent, sparcely perforated, flush umbo occupies the shell apex. Aperture in ventral,
interiomarginal position forming a low but comparatively long slit with a notched lip.
Remarks
This species was present in abundance at all the sites showing good adaptation to all
kinds of environments within the lagoon.
Amphistegina radiata Fichtel & Moll, 1798
1798
1993
2003
Amphistegina radiata Fichtel & Moll
Amphistegina aff. A. lobifera Fichtel & Moll. Hottinger, Halicz & Reiss,
p. 133, pl. 186, figs. 1 - 1 1 , pl. 187, figs. 1-7, pl. 188, figs. 1-6.
Amphistegina radiata Fichtel & Moll. Renema, p. 345, figs. 11 a-b.
55
Finely perforate, lamellar, flattened lenticular to distinctly biconvex test. Peripheral
outline smooth to lobulate. Dorsal chamber sutures flush. Dorsal umbo covered with
pustules. Aperture an interiomarginal, comparatively short slit near the periphery, with a
faint lip.
Remarks
This species is found on all the reef related environments, with sediments ranging from
rubble to coarse to fine sand, and is absent from sites 8, 9, 11 and 12 which have mud
present.
Family CALCARINIDAE Schwager, 1876
Genus Baculogypsina Sacco, 1893
Baculogypsina sphaerulata Parker & Jones, 1860
Plate 7, figs. 10, 11
1860
1965
Baculogypsina sphaerulata Parker & Jones, p. 33
Baculogypsina sphaerulata Parker & Jones. Jell, Maxwell & McKeller,
p. 277, pl. 44, fig. 6
1990 Baculogypsina sphaerulata Parker & Jones. Rottger & Kriiger, p. 422,
fig. 7, 12
2002 Baculogypsina sphaerulata Parker & Jones. Lobegeier, p. 214, 215, pl. 2,
figs. 15 - 17
2003 Baculogypsina sphaerulata Parker & Jones. Langer & Lipps, p. 151, 152, fig. 7
Df.
Test is large, biconvex and globular. The distal parts of the test have several small
spines. Wall is calcareous and coarsely perforate.
Remarks
This species was quite abundant at the sites studies and was found at all sites except the
Nasese tidal platform and Vatuwaqa River estuary, where the sediment size ranged from
fine sand to mud.
Genus Calcarina d'Orbigny, 1826
Calcarina hispida Brady, 1884
Plate 8, figs. 1, 2
56
1884
1965
Calcarina hispida Brady, p. 713, pl. 108, figs. 8, 9
Calcarina hispida Brady. Jell, Maxwell & McKeller, p. 277, pl. 44, figs. 4a, b.
Test is covered with pustules, with long radial spines.
Remarks
This species was present at all the sites studied and was quite abundant at each site.
Family CASSIDULINIDAE d'Orbigny, 1839
Genus Evolvocassidulina Eade, 1967
Evolvocassidulina belfordi Nomura, 1983
Plate 8, fig. 3
1983
1993
Evolovcassidulina belfordi Nomura, p. 79, pl. 2, fig. 6, pl. 20, figs.
8-10,12.
Evolvocassidulina belfordi Nomura. Hottinger, Halicz & Reiss, p. 94, pl. 114,
figs. 5 - 1 3 .
Test lamellar, biserial, compressed, pyriform in shape; early portion enrolled. Periphery
rounded, apertural end bluntly rounded. Wall smooth, finely perforated with elongated
pores. Aperture subterminal, an elongate slit with a narrow lip.
Remarks
Very few of this species was found at three sites, 2, 7 and 13.
Family CIBICIDIDAE Cushman, 1927
Genus Lobatula Fleming, 1828
Lobatula lobatula (Walker & Jacob, 1798)
Plate 8, figs. 4, 5
1798
1993
1993
Nautilus lobatulus Walker & Jacob in Kanmacher, p. 642, pl. 14, fig. 36.
Lobatula lobatula (Walker & Jacob). Langer, p. 245, pl. 1, fig. 7
Lobatula lobatula (Walker & Jacob). Hottinger, Halicz & Reiss, p. 117,
pl. 154, figs. 5 - 1 1 .
Test lamellar, trochospiral, involute on umbilical side, evolute spiral side. Peripheral
57
outline smooth to lobulate. Coarsely and uniformly perforated on both sides. Aperture
interiomarginal, extraumbilical-equatorial with thick rim, extending into a
supplementary spiral aperture remaining open in last chambers.
Remarks
This species was only found at three sites, Nukubuco Reef, southern side of Makuluva
Island and on Nukulau Island.
Family CYMBALOPORIDAE Cushman, 1927
Genus Cymbaloporella Cushman, 1927
Cymbaloporella tabellaeformis Brady, 1884
Plate 8, figs. 6, 7
1884
1949
1993
Cymbalopora tabellaeformis Brady, p. 637, pl. 102, figs. 15-18.
Cymbaloporella tabellaeformis Brady. Said, p. 41, pl. 4, fig. 15.
Cymbaloporella tabellaeformis Brady. Hottinger, Halicz & Reiss, p. 119, pl.
159, figs. 1-6.
Test lamellar, flat, evolute on the spiral side, involute on the umbilical. Peripheral
outline lobulate, circular to elliptical. Sutures on the spiral side curved and depressed;
radial and depressed on the umbilical side. Coarsely and regularly perforated on the
spiral side, more fine and scattered on the umbilical side. Aperture in interiomarginal
extraumbilical position, arch shaped and bordered by prominent rims.
Remarks
This species was found on one site in Nukubuco Reef, at 3 sites around Makuluva Island
and at the Fish Patch.
Genus Millettiana Banner, Pereira and Desai, 1985
Millettiana milletti Heron-Allen & Earland, 1915
Plate 8, figs. 8-11
1915
Cymbalopora milletti Heron-Allen & Earland, p.252, 255, 257, pl. 16, fig. 36, pl.
17, figs. 46-48,50,51.
1993 Milletiana milletti (Heron-Allen & Earland). Hottinger, Halicz & Reiss, p. 120,
pl. 160, figs. 9 - 1 3 .
Test small, spiro-convex. Evolute on spiral side, involute on umbilical one. Peripheral
58
outline slightly lobulate, circular. Sutures depressed on both sides. Distinctly perforated
on spiral side, imperforate on umbilical side.
Remarks
This species was foun on all the sites that were reef-related, on Nukubuco reef, around
Makuluva Island, on the Fish Patch and around Nukulau Island. Also found at site 13,
which was the center of Laucala Bay.
Family ELPHIDIDAE Galloway, 1933
Genus Elphidium De Montfort, 1808
Elphidium alvarezianum (d'Orbigny, 1839a)
Plate 9, fig. 1
1839a cf. Polystomella alvareziana d'Orbigny, p. 31, pl. 3, figs. 11 - 12.
1993 Elphidium cf. E. alvarezianum (d'Orbigny). Hottinger, Halicz & Reiss, p. 146,
pl. 207, figs. 8 - 1 1 .
Test lamellar, involute, planspiral, flat and biconcave, subelliptical in side view.
Peripheral ouline smooth to very slightly lobulate. Chambers narrow and slightly
inflated, rapidly increasing in size, strongly curved backwards. Apertures are multiple,
interiomarginal and have small rims. Generally smooth finely and distinctly perforated
test except for minute pustules.
Remarks
This species was found well-distributed in thee study sites in that it was found at one site
on Nukubuco reef, at two sites around Makuluva Island, on the fish patch, as well as in
the center of Suva Harbour, off the edge of Laucala island and at the Vatuwaqa River
estuary. The species seems to be adapted to all sediment types.
Elphidium craticulatum (Fichtel & Moll, 1798)
1798
1965
Nautilus craticulatus Fichtel & Moll, p. 51, pl. 5, figs, h, I, k.
Elphidium craticulatum (Fichtel & Moll). Jell, Maxwell & McKeller, p. 277, pl.
44, figs. 7a, b.
1993 Elphidium craticulatum (Fichtel & Moll). Hottinger, Halicz & Reiss, p. 147,
pl. 208, figs. 1 - 10, pl. 209, figs. 1 - 6.
2003 Elphidium craticulatum (Fichtel & Moll). Langer & Lipps, p. 151, 152, fig. 7 Bh.
59
Test lamellar, planspiral, involute and thick lenticular in profile view, nearly circular in
side view. Peripheral outline smooth to very slightly lobulate. Chambers slightly
inflated, short, backward curved. An intraseptal, interlocular space is present. Apertures
are multiple, interiomarginal rounded openings bordered by weak peristomal rims. Test
is finely perforated and covered by small and numerous pustules and pseudospines. A
large imperforate, canaliculate umbilical plug is characteristic.
Remarks
This species was present at all sites except site 12, Vatuwaqa River estuary.
Elphidium crispum (Linne, 1758)
1949 Elphidium crispum (Linne). Said, p. 23, pl. 2, fig.36
1993 Elphidium crispum (Linne). Hottinger, Halicz & Reiss, p. 152, pl. 216, figs. 2 10
Test lamellar, planspiral, involute and broadly lenticular in profile view, subcircular in
side view. Peripheral outline smooth. Chambers narrow and strongly curved backwards.
An intraseptal, interlocular space is present. Apertures are multiple, interiomarginal
rounded openings bordered by weak peristomal rims. Test is finely perforated and wall
texture is optically radiate. A large imperforate, canaliculate umbilical plug is
characteristic.
Remarks
This species was present at all sites except site 12, Vatuwaqa River estuary.
Elphidium cf. E. limbatum (Chapman, 1909)
Plate 10, fig. 1
1909
1993
Polystomella macella Fichtel & Moll var. limbata Chapman, p.142, pl. 10,
figs. 9 a, b.
Elphidium cf. E. limbatum (Chapman). Hottinger, Halicz & Reiss, p. 149, pl.
212, figs. 1-9.
Test lamellar, planispiral, involute, lenticular in profile view, laterally slightly
compressed, especially in the umbilical area. Chambers narrow and radially elongated,
strongly curved backwards. An intraseptal, interlocular space is present. Apertures are
multiple, a row on interiomarginal rounded openings, each bordered by a rim. The test is
finely perforated, strongly postulated on the apertural face
Remarks
60
This species was found at only two sites, on the southern side of Makuluva Island and on
Nukulau Island.
Elphidium striatopunctatum (Fichtel & Moll, 1798)
Plate 10, fig. 2
1798
1993
2003
Naitilus striato-punctatus Fichtel & Moll, p. 61, pl. 9 a - c.
Elphidium striatopunctatum (Fichtel & Moll). Hottinger, Halicz & Reiss,
p. 149, pl. 213, figs. 1 - 8, pl. 214, figs. 1 - 6.
Elphidium striatopunctatum (Fichtel & Moll). Langer & Lipps, p. 151, 152, fig.
7A i.
Test lamellar, planspiral, involute, thick lenticular in profile view, subcircular in side
view. Peripheral outline smooth. Chambers slowly increasing in size, weakly backward
curved. An intraseptal, interlocular space is present.multiple apertures surrounded by
thick, collarlike rims occur in the low apertural face interiomarginal position. The test is
very finely perforated and covered adjacent to the aperture by numerous pustules and
pseudospines.
Remarks
This species was only found at all the reef related sites, and was absent from sites 8, 9,
11, 12, and 13.
Family HELENINIDAE Loeblich and Tappan, 1988
Genus Helenina Saunders, 1961
Helenina anderseni (Warren, 1957)
(not photographed)
2001
Helenina anderseni (Warren). Albani et al. CD-ROM - ISBN 0 7334 1835 X
The test is hyaline and coarsely perforated. The ventral side is slightly convex and has a
deep umbilicus. The central area of the apertural face is imperforate.
Remarks
This species was found at only one site, 6, on the western side of Makuluva Island, near
the passage.
61
Family HOMOTREMATIDAE Cushman, 1927
Genus Miniacina Galloway, 1933
Miniacina miniacea (Pallas, 1766)
Plate 10, fig. 3
1766 Millepore miniacea Pallas, p. 251
1993 Miniacina miniacea (Pallas). Langer, p, 247, pl. II, figs. 1-8.
Lamellar and attached test, simple or forked stem. Lateral walls of chambers are
perforate by small, rounded and widely spaced pores. Main apertures are multiple.
Remarks
This species was found at only one site, on the eastern side of Makuluva Island with
medium to fine sand.
Family MISSISSIPPINIDAE Saidova, 1981
Genus Pegidia Heron-Allen and Earland, 1928
Pegidia lacunata McCulloch, 1977
1977
1993
Pegidia lacunata McCulloch, p. 347, pl. 154, fig. 2.
Pegidia lacunata McCulloch. Hottinger, Halicz & Reiss, p. 108, pl. 139, figs. 7
- 9, pl. 140, figs. 1 - 5.
Test is trochospiral, unequally biconvex with the umbilical side, much flatter than the
domed spiral side. Sutures distinct on umbilical side, obscured by ornamentation on the
spiral side. The spiral side is covered with large, irregularly shaped pustules. Small
distinct pores are present on the spiral side, much more scattered on the umbilical side.
Rows of rounded to oval apertures are present on the umbilical side.
Remarks
This species was found only at two sites, on the southern side of Makuluva Island and in
the middle of Suva Harbour.
62
Family NUMMULITIDAE de Blainville, 1827
Genus Operculina d'Orbigny, 1839
Operculina ammonoides Gronovius, 1781
Plate 10, fig. 7
1781
1993
2003
Operculina ammonoides Gronovius, p. 282, pl. 19, figs. 5 - 6 .
Assilina ammonoides (Gronovius). Hottinger, Halicz and Reiss, p. 154, pl. 222,
figs. 1 - 8, pl. 223, figs. 1 - 14, pl. 224, figs. 1 - 8, pl. 225, figs. 1 - 9.
Operculina ammonoides Gronovius. Renema, p. 354, figs 27 a-d
Lamellar, planispiral, evolute to involute, flat discoidal to subglobular test. Chambers
undivided. Sutures raised, imperforate, curved backwards at their peripheral end.
Involute shells smooth, evolute shells ornamented. Apertural face imperforate,
ornamented with more or less parallel, longitudinal grooves. At the base of the apertural
face there is no aperture but a tubular space.
Remarks
This species was found only at 2 sites, 9 and 13, the centre of the Laucala Bay and
Suva Harbor lagoons. Both environments consisted of muddy ooze.
Family PARAROTALIIDAE Reiss, 1963
Genus Neorotalia Bermudez, 1952
Neorotalia calcar d'Orbigny, 1839
1839
1993
2003
2003
Neorotalia calcar d'Orbigny, p. 81, pl. 5, figs. 22 - 24.
Neorotalia calcar d'Orbigny. Hottinger, Halicz & Reiss, p. 140, pl. 199, figs. 1
-10.
Neorotalia calcar d'Orbigny. Renema, p. 347, figs 13 a-b.
Neorotalia calcar d'Orbigny. Langer & Lipps, p. 151, 152, fig. 7 D e.
Test trochospiral, evolute on the spiral side, involute on the umbilical side. Chambers
radially elongated and peripherally pointed, each chamber with a canaliculated spine.
Apertural face narrow, slightly inclined forward, perforate and covered by grooves.
Main aperture is low interiomarginal, extraumbilical arch, with a thick postulate lip.
Remarks
This species is found on all the reef related environments, with sediments ranging from
rubble to coarse to fine sand, and is absent from sites 8, 9, 11 and 13 which have mud
63
present.
Family PARRELLOIDIDAE Hofker, 1956
Genus Cibicidoides Thalmann, 1939
Cibicidoides collinsi Yassini & Jones, 1995
Plate 11, fig. 1
1995
2001
Cibicidoides collinsi Yassini & Jones, p. 168, figs. 881- 883.
Cibicidoides collinsi Yassini & Jones. Albani et al, fig. 82.
Test planispiral, low trochospiral, periphery subrounded, sutures on the umbilical side
are straight and radiate, on spiral side they are limbate and curved. Wall calcareous,
coarsely perforated, perforations are denser on the spiral side. Aperture is a low
interiomarginal and equatorial arch at the base of the apertural face.
Remarks
This species was found at all four sites around Makaluva Island and on Nukulau Island.
Family PLANORBULINIDAE Schwager, 1877
Genus Planorbulinella Cushman, 1927
Planorbulinella elatensis Thomas, 1977
1977
1993
Planorbulinella elatensis Thomas, p. 188, text fig. 10, fig. 11 left hand side, pl.
1, fig.3, 4, pl. 2, fig. 1,2, pl. 3, fig.3.
Planorbulinella elatensis Thomas. Hottinger, Halicz & Reiss, p. 118, pl. 157,
figs. 1 - 1 0 .
Lamellar, biplanar, discoid, free test. A very shallow umbilical depression. Apertures a
pair of low interiomarginal arches rimmed with a peristome. Inflated chamberlets
alternate in radial position. Chamberlet walls coarsely perforate, with thick interpore
ridges covered with pseudospines randomly.
Remarks
This species was found at sites 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 10. All sites were reef-related and had
sediments ranging from reef rubble, coarse to fine sand.
64
Family ROSALINIDAE Reiss, 1963
Genus Rosalina d'Orbigny, 1826
Rosalina bradyi (Cushman, 1915)
1915
1993
1993
Discorbis globularis (d'Orbigny) var. bradyi Cushman, p.12.
Rosalina bradyi (Cushman). Langer, p. 245, pl. 1, fig. 11
Rosalina bradyi (Cushman). Hottinger, Halicz & Reiss, p. 110, pl. 142, figs. 11,
12, pl. 153, figs. 1 - 6.
Test lamellar, trochospiral, evolute and slightly convex on the spiral side, involute to
slightly concave on the umbilical side. Subelliptical outline, peripheral outline
occasionally lobulated. Coarsely and densely perforated on the spiral side, imperforate
on the umbilical side. Aperture is extraumbilical, an interiomarginal slit with a distinct
rim.
Remarks
This species was only found at 3 sites around Makuluva Island, where the sediments
ranged from rubble, coarse to fine sand.
Genus Rotorboides Sellier de Civrieux, 1977
Rotorboides granulosus Hansen and Revets, 1992
1992
Rotorboides granulosus Hansen and Revets Hansen and Revets.
Test is lamellar, spherical and has a number of apertures and rounded openings all over.
Remarks
The specimen was found at site 1, on the Nukubuco Reef in the microatoll zone
consisting of reef rubble and coarse to medium sand, and site 5, which was the southern
side of Makuluva Island facing the open ocean. The site consisted of reef rubble and
coarse to fine sand.
65
Genus Tretomphalus Mobius, 1880
Tretomphalus bulloides d'Orbigny, 1839
Plate 11, fig. 10
1839
1993
Rosalina bulloides d'Orbigny, p. 98, pl. 3, figs. 2 - 5 .
Tretomphalus bulloides (d'Orbigny). Hottinger, Halicz & Reiss, p. 112, pl.
146, figs. 1 - 7.
Test lamellar, trochospiral, spiral side evolute and convex, umbilical side involute and
slightly concave. Peripheral outline subelliptical to subcircular. Chambers kidneyshaped. Test distinctly perforated on both sides. Aperture is interiomarginal,
extraumbilical with rim. A perforate balloon chamber with numerous rimmed, rounded
openings.
Remarks
This species was only found at three sites, on the northwest tip of Nukubuco Reef, on
the southern side of Makuluva Island and on the Fish patch location. The sedimenst at
these sites ranged from reef rubble, coarse to medium sand.
Family SIPHOGENERINOIDIDAE Saidova, 1981
Genus Loxostomina Sellier de Civrieux, 1969
Loxostomina limbata Brady, 1881
Plate 12, fig. 1
1880
1993
2001
Loxostomina limbata Brady.
Loxostomina limbata Brady. Haig, p. 170, pl. 1, figs. 21, 22
Loxostomina limbata Brady costulata (Cushman). Faller, p.62, pl. 7, fig. 9.
Test elongate, compressed and ovate in section. Initially biserial, later developing
cuneate chambers with a tendency to become uniserial. Chambers becoming
progressively higher. Surface ornamented with strong, wavy costae. Aperture terminal.
Remarks
This species seemed well distributed amongst reef-related sites, and was found in the
middle of Suva Harbour.
Loxostomina sp. A. Haig, 1993
Plate 12, fig. 2
66
1993
Loxostomina sp. A. Haig, p. 170, pl. 1, figs. 26, 27
Test is elongate and biserial.
Remarks
This species wsa found at only at 3 sites, on Nukubuco Reef, at the southern side of
Makuluva Island and on Nukulau Island.
Genus Rectobolivina Cushman, 1927
Rectobolivina raphana Parker & Jones, 1860
1860
2001
Rectobolivina raphana Parker & Jones, p. 31
Rectobolivina raphana Parker & Jones. Faller, p. 67, pl. 7, figs. 10, 11.
Test small with an initial short biserial portion followed by the uniserial part formed by
slightly inflated chambers. Sutures depressed. Aperture terminal and with a small rim.
Remarks
This species was only found at two sites, the southern end of Makuluva Island and at the
Fish patch location. Both sites had sediment size range form rubble, coarse to fine sand.
Genus Siphogenerina Brady, 1951
Siphogenerina raphana Parker & Jones, 1865
1865 Siphogenerina raphana Parker & Jones, p. 335
1993 Siphogenerina raphana Parker & Jones. Haig, p. 170, pl. 3, figs. 8 - 1 0
1999 Siphogenerina raphana Parker & Jones. Lipps, & Langer, p. 282, pl. 1, fig. 12.
Test is small, uniserial in the adult. Lamellar walls with pseudospines present. Distinct
pores present. Terminal aperture.
Remarks
This species was only found at two sites, on the Nukubuco Reef and on the southern side
of Makuluva Island.
67
Siphogenerina sp. A. Langer et al, 1994
1994
Siphogenerina sp. Langer et al, p. 852, fig. 4
Test large, elongate and agglutinated. Aperture terminal, a basal slit.
Remarks
This species was only found at two sites, at the Nukubuco Reef and on the southern side
of Makuluva Island.
Suborder TEXTULARIINA Delage and Herouard, 1896
Family AMMOSPHAEROIDINIDAE Cushman, 1927
Genus Haddonia Chapman, 1898
Haddonia? sp. A. Hottinger, Halicz & Reiss, 1993
Plate 12, fig. 10
1993
Haddonia? sp. A. Hottinger, Halicz & Reiss, p. 30, pl. 3, figs. 4 - 12.
Test agglutinated, large early chambers indistinctly coiled, attached, later chambers
uniserial, flattened and also attached, while final chambers become cylindrical and free.
Aperture is terminal, rounded and subdivided. Agglutinated material mostly calcareous,
relatively coarse-grained.
Remarks
This species was found only at two sites, the northern side of Makulva Island facing
towards Nukulau Island and on Nukulau Island itself.
Family EGGERELLIDAE Cushman, 1937
Genus Sahulia DeFrance, 1824
Sahulia cf. S. conica (d'Orbigny, 1839)
Plate 12, fig. 11
1839
1993
Textularia conica d'Orbigny, p. 143, pl. 1, figs. 19-20.
Sahulia cf. S. conica (d'Orbigny). Hottinger, Halicz & Reiss, p. 34, pl. 9, figs. 1
68
2003
-7.
Textularia conica d'Orbigny. Javaux & Scott, p. 21, 22, pl. 5, figs. 5.10, 5.11.
Test agglutinated, low conical, usually wider than long, broadly triangular in lateral and
peripheral view, subelliptical to broadly suboval in end view. Aperture an elongated, low
slit covered by a distinct lip. The agglutinated material composed mostly of angular
calcareous and non-calcareous, fine to medium grains.
Remarks
This species was only found at 3 sites, 3, 4 and 6, all around Makuluva Island and the
sediments consisted of coarse to fine sand.
Genus Textularia DeFrance, 1824
Textularia agglutinans d'Orbigny, 1839a
Plate 12, figs. 12 - 15, Plate 13, figs. 1 - 5
1839
1993
Textularia agglutinans d'Orbigny, p. 144, pl. 1, figs. 17, 18, 32 - 34.
Textularia agglutinans d'Orbigny. Hottinger, Halicz & Reiss, p. 36, pl. 13,
figs. 1 - 9.
2003 Textularia agglutinans d'Orbigny. Javaux & Scott, p. 21, 22, pl. 5, figs. 5.8, 5.9
Test agglutinated, large, elongated, narrowly triangular in lateral and peripheral view.
End view suboval to subcircular. The aperture is a basal slit. The agglutinated material
is composed of carbonate grains, fairly well-sorted.
Remarks
This species was found at all sites except at the Vatuwaqa River estuary. The species
was quite abundant at the sites.
Textularia foliacea Heron-Allen & Earland, 1915
Plate 13, figs. 6-10
1915
1993
1999
Textularia foliacea Heron-Allen & Earland, p. 628, pl. 17, pl. 47, figs. 17 20.
Textularia foliacea Heron-Allen & Earland foliacea Heron-Allen & Earland.
Hottinger, Halicz & Reiss, p. 37, pl. 13, figs. 15 - 18, pl. 14, figs. 1 - 5.
Textularia cf. Tfoliacea Heron-Allen & Earland. Lipps & Langer, p. 282, p1.1,
fig. 6.
Test agglutinated, elongated, broadly triangular in lateral view, laterally strongly
compressed, suboval in end view. Aperture is a low basal arch. The agglutinated
material is heterogenous in shape, size and composition.
69
Remarks
This species was found to be quite abundant at all sites except on the Nasese tidal
platform and at the Vatuwaqa River estuary.
Textularia kerimbaensis (Said, 1949)
Plate 14, fig. 1
1949
1993
Textularia kerimbaensis Said, p. 6, pl. 1, fig. 8.
Sahulia kerimbaensis (Said). Hottinger, Halicz & Reiss, p. 34, pl. 9, figs. 8 12, pl. 10, figs. 1-10.
Test agglutinated, elongate, broadly to more narrowly triangular in lateral view, laterally
compressed, thickest in the axial part. Test margin has a serrated appearance. The
aperture is a basal, narrow slit bordered by a lip. The walls are composed of medium
grained quartz and calcareous fragments, mostly angular.
Remarks
This species was found on all reef-related sites except for site 1.
Textularia rugulosa (Cushman, 1931)
Plate 14, fig. 2
1931
1993
Gaudryina rugulosa Cushman, pl. 47, figs. 7 - 9 .
Textularia rugulosa (Cushman). Hottinger, Halicz & Reiss, p. 38, pl. 15, figs. 1
-6.
Test agglutinated, very large, subtriangular in lateral view. Aperture an interiomarginal
elongated slit. Agglutinated material is composed of rounded calcareous particles.
Remarks
This species was only found at three sites, on the eastern and southern sides of
Makuluva Island and at the Fish Patch.
Family PSEUDOGAUDRYINIDAE Leoblich & Tappan, 1985
Genus Septotextularia Cheng & Zheng, 1978
Septotextularia rugosa Cheng & Zheng, 1978
70
1978
2003
Septotextularia rugosa Cheng & Zheng, p. 163
Septotextularia rugosa Cheng & Zheng. Langer & Lipps, p. 151, 152, fig.
7D c.
Test agglutinated, very large, subtriangular in lateral view. Aperture an interiomarginal
elongated slit. Sutures are distinct, depressed and curved. Paraporous.
Remarks
This species was only found on the Nukubuco reef Flat and around Makuluva Island.
Genus Siphoniferoides Saidova, 1981
Siphoniferiodes siphoniferus Brady, 1881
Plate 14, fig. 6
1881
2003
Siphoniferiodes siphoniferus Brady, p. 42
Siphoniferiodes siphoniferus Brady. Langer & Lipps, p. 151, 152, fig. 7 D b.
Test agglutinated, large and elongate, early part triangular, later on subrectangular. The
aperture is a basal slit.
Remarks
This species was very sparsely distributed at some reef sites, 2, 5, 7 and 10, and was
absent from the rest of the sites.
Family TEXTULARIIDAE Ehrenberg, 1838
Genus Siphotextularia Finlay, 1939
Siphotextularia curta (Cushman, 1922)
1922
2001
Textularia flintii var. curta Cushman, p. 14, pl. 2, figs 2-3
Siphotextularia curta (Cushman). Albani et al., fig. 540.
Test agglutinated, elongate, biserial, small size, slightly longer than broad, periphery
rounded with inflated chambers, suture depressed and oblique. Wall finely agglutinated
with smooth finish. Aperture is a long slit with a short neck at the base of the apertural
face of the last chamber.
Remarks
71
This species was found at four sites, 1, 3, 5, at Nukubuco Reef and Makuluva Island and
11, off the Laucala Island.
Family VALVULINIDAE Berthelin, 1880
Genus Clavulina d'Orbigny, 1826
Clavulina tricarinata d'Orbigny, 1839a
Plate 14, fig. 9
1839a
1993
2003
Clavulina tricarinata d'Orbigny. De la Sagra, p. 111, pl. 2, fig. 16-18.
Clavulina cf. C. multicamerata Chapman. Hottinger, Halicz & Reiss, p. 42, pl.
22, figs. 1 - 6.
Clavulina tricarinata d'Orbigny. Javaux & Scott, p. 12, 13, pl. 2, fig. 2.14
Test agglutinated, large, elongated, irregular in lateral and peripheral views. The
aperture is large, circular and terminal. Agglutinated material is a heterogeneous
collection of calcareous grains.
Remarks
This species was found at sites 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7. All the sites were reef environments,
with rubble, coarse to fine sand.
72
3.4
Glossary
Agglutinated test - composed of foreign particles bound by secreted organic or mineral
cement.
Aperture - primary opening within the test. May be single or multiple.
Apex - initial portion of trochospiral or conical test.
Biconvex - test having both sides convex
Biloculine - all terminal apertures are positioned on a single common axis.
Biserial - trochospiral chamber arrangement with about 180 between consecutive
chambers producing two rows of chambers.
Canaliculate spine - spine- or club-shaped to arborescent radial structure composed of
consecutive outer lamellae enclosing canals. May contain spikes.
Chamberlets - segments or subdivisions of a chamber.
Costae - raised ribs or ridges on test surface.
Equatorial - located in median plane and normal to the axis of coiling.
Evolute chamber arrangement - in spirally coiled foraminifera where, due to chamber
shape, the chamber lumina in a coil do not laterally cover those of the preceding coil.
Extraumbilical - unconnected with umbilicus.
Foramina - opening putting in communication consecutive main chamber lumina and
providing passage for functional endoplasm.
Imperforate - lacking pores or parapores.
Interiomarginal aperture - aperture situated at suture between distal wall and
preceding coil.
Interlocular space - a space formed as a consequence of a deeply sunken suture
between consecutive chamber walls or consecutive coils.
Involute chamber arrangement - in spirally coiled foraminifera where, due to chamber
shape, the chamber lumina in a coil cover laterally those of the preceding coil.
Lamellar wall - test wall built of layers of calcite or aragonite formed at consecutive
instars and covering exposed surfaces of previously formed test. Wall generally
possessing true pores.
73
Microstriae - minute longitudinal, usually anastomosing ridges on surface of
porcelaneous test.
Oblique - in direction neither parallel to axis, nor normal to it.
Peristomal lip- raised rim or tube around aperture or foramen.
Perforate- referring usually to walls possessing true pores, but also applies to walls
possessing parapores.
Porcelaneous test wall - composed of optically cryptocrystalline lathes and rods or
needles of calcite. Wall imperforate, but may posses pits.
Pseudospines - a pointed conical, or elongated spine-like, usually solid, but sometimes
hollow, inflational ornament feature.
Pustules - hemispherical to subconical inflational protuberance of the outer lamella.
Reticulate - having ornamental features arranged in a network.
Septum - wall separating two consecutive main chamber lumina.
Spiral side - dorsal side
Striae - thin costae
Suture - line of adherence of chamber wall(s) to previously formed test.
Test - shell or skeletal component of a foraminfer.
Umbilical depression - a closed depression in axial position formed by the curvature of
the umbilical chamber-walls in the same coil.
Umbilical side - ventral side
Umbo - expanding pile of thickened lamellae in axial position of involute or orbitoidal
foraminifera.
74
3.5
Plates of Foraminiferal Species Identified
75
Plate 1
1
Borelis
schlumbergeri (Reichel, 1936) lateral view x200
2, 3
Hauerina circinata (Brady, 1881) 2 apertural view x150, 3 lateral view x150
4
Miliolinella labiosa (d'Orbigny, 1839a) lateral view x200
5
Pyrgoella sp.lateral view x100
6 -8
Quinqueloculina bicarinata d'Orbigny, 1878 6 lateral view x200, 7 lateral view
x200, 8 lateral view x200
9,10
Quinqueloculina parkeri (Brady, 1881) 9 lateral view x100, 10 apertural view
x170
76
77
Plate 2
1
Quinqueloculina philippinensis Cushman, 1921 lateral view x150
2-4
Quinqueloculina pseudoreticulata Parr, 1945 2 lateral view x160, 3 apertural
view x160, 4 lateral view x160
5-7
Siphonaperta pittensis (Albani, 1973) 5 lateral view x100, 6 lateral view x70, 7
lateral view x90
8
Triloculina terquemiana (Brady, 1884) lateral view x100
9 -11 Pitella haigi Langer, 1992 9 lateral view x100, 10 lateral view x100, 11 apertural
view x250
78
79
Plate 3
1 -3
Monalysidium acicularis (Batsch, 1791) lateral view 1 x50, 2 x50, 3 x100
4, 5
Penewplispertusus Forskal, 1775 4 lateral view x150, 5 lateral view x150
6 -10 Penewplis planatus Fichtel and Moll, 1798 lateral view 6 x50, 7 x50, 8 x50, 9
x50,10 x50
11
Pseudohauerina involuta (Cushman, 1946) lateral view x100
80
81
Plate 4
1,2
Marginopora vertebralis Quoy & Gaimard in Blainville, 1930 1 adult lateral
view x4, 2 adult lateral view x4
3
Marginopora vertebralis Quoy & Gaimard in Blainville, 1930 1 month old M.
vertebralis lateral view x130
4, 5
Marginopora vertebralis Quoy & Gaimard in Blainville, 1930 4 lateral view x15,
5 lateral view x25
6, 7
Marginopora vertebralis Quoy & Gaimard in Blainville, 1930 6 reproductive
cells lateral view x35, 7 reproductive cells lateral view x40
8,9
Marginopora vertebralis Quoy & Gaimard in Blainville, 1930 8 free-living
diatoms adhered to foram lateral view x50, 9 free-living diatoms adhered to
foram lateral view x60
82
83
Plate 5
1 -3
Spiwloculina angulata Cushman, 1917 1 lateral view x90, 2 lateral view x85, 3
lateral view x60
4
Spiwloculina attenuata Cushman and Todd, 1944 lateral view x100
5, 6
Spiwloculina foveolata Egger, 1893 5 lateral view x140, 6 apertural view x190
7 -9
Acervulina mabaheti (Said, 1949) 7 lateral view x140, 8 attached surface view
84
85
Plate 6
1,2
Planogypsina acervalis (Brady, 1884) 1 lateral view x140, 2 attached surface
x140
3,4
Epistomawides punctatus (d'Orbigny, 1826) 3 apertural view x120, 4 lateral
view x120
5, 6
Haynesina germanica Ehrenberg, 1839 5 lateral view x200, 6 lateral view x330
7, 8
Ammonia beccarii (Linne, 1772) 7 x50 lateral view, 8 x50 apertural view
86
87
Plate 7
1-4
Ammonia convexa (Collins, 1958) 1 x50 lateral view, 2 x50 apertural view, 3 x50
lateral view, 4 x50 apertural view
5, 6
Amphistegina lobifera Larsen, 1976 5, 6 lateral views x50
7 -9
Amphistegina radiata (Fichtel and Moll, 1798) 7, 8, 9 lateral views x50
10,11 Baculogypsina sphaerulata (Parker and Jones, 1860) lateral view 10 x40,11 x40
88
89
Plate 8
1, 2
Calcarina hispida Brady, 1884 1, 2 lateral view x100
3
Evolvocassidulina belfordi Nomura, 1983 lateral view x200
4, 5
Lobatula lobatula (Walker and Jacob, 1798) 4 lateral view x150, 5 lateral view
x150
6,7
Cymbaloporella tabellaeformis Brady, 1884 6 lateral view x100, 7 apertural
view x150
8 -11 Millettiana milletti Heron-Allen and Earland, 1915 8 lateral view x200, 9 lateral
view x200,10 lateral view x200,11 apertural view x200
90
91
Plate 9
1
Elphidium alvarezianum (d'Orbigny, 1839a) lateral view x150
2 -4
Elphidium craticulatum (Fichtel and Moll, 1798) 2 lateral view x150, 3 lateral
view x150, 4 lateral view x150
5 - 9 Elphidium crispum (Linne, 1758) 5 lateral view x150, 6 lateral view x150, 7 l
ateral view x150, 8 apertural view x200, 9 lateral view x150
92
93
Plate 10
1
Elphidium cf. E. limbatum (Chapman, 1909) lateral view x150
2
Elphidium striatopunctatum (Fichtel & Moll, 1798) lateral view x200
3
Miniacina miniacea (Pallas, 1766) lateral view x150
4 -6
Pegidia lacunata McCulloch, 1977 4 apertural view x140, 5 side view x190, 6
side view x150
7
Operculina ammonoides Gronovius, 1781 lateral view x43
8, 9
Neorotalia calcar (d'Orbigny, 1839) 8 lateral view x100, 9 lateral view x100
94
95
Plate 11
1
Cibicidoides collinsi Yassini & Jones, 1995 lateral view x200
2, 3
Planorbulinella elatensis Thomas, 1977 2 lateral view x140, 3 apertural view
x140
4, 5
Rosalina bradyi (Cushman, 1915) 4 apertural view x200, 5 lateral view x200
6-9
Rotorboides granulosus Hansen and Revets, 1992 6 lateral view x150, 7 lateral
view x150, 8 lateral view x140, 9 apertural view x140
10
Tretomphalus bulloides d'Orbigny, 1839 lateral view x200
96
97
Plate 12
1
Loxostomina limbata (Brady, 1881) lateral view x100
2
Loxostomina sp. lateral view x100
3, 4
Rectobolivina raphana (Parker and Jones, 1860) 3 lateral view x100, 4 apertural
view x250
5, 6
Siphogenerina raphana (Parker and Jones, 1865) 5 lateral view x100, 6 apertural
view x250
7-9
Siphogenerina sp.1 apertural view x40, 7 lateral view x40, 8 lateral view x40, 9
lateral view x40
10
Haddonia? sp. lateral view x80
11
Sahulia cf. S. conica (d'Orbigny, 1839a) lateral view x50
12 -15 Textularia agglutinans d'Orbigny, 1839a 12 lateral view x60, 13 lateral view
x60,14 lateral view x60,15 lateral view x60,
98
99
Plate 13
1 -5
Textularia agglutinans d'Orbigny, 1839a 1 lateral view x60 2 lateral view x80, 3
lateral view x60, 4 lateral view x60, 5 lateral view x60
6 -10 Textularia foliacea Heron-Allen and Earland, 1915 6 lateral view x60, 7 lateral
view x50, 8 lateral view x50, 9 lateral view x50,10 lateral view x50
100
101
Plate 14
1
Textularia kerimbesis (Said, 1949) lateral view x100
2
Textularia rugulosa (Cushman, 1931) lateral view x50
3-5
Septotextularia rugosa Cheng and Zheng, 1978 3 lateral view x40, 4 lateral view
6
Siphoniferiodes siphoniferus (Brady, 1881) lateral view x100
7, 8
Siphotextularia curta (Cushman, 1922), 7 lateral view x50, 8 apertural view x50
9
Clavulina tricarinata d'Orbigny, 1839 lateral view x70
102
103
CHAPTER 4
DISTRIBUTION OF FORAMINIFERA
IN LAUCALA BAY
104
4.1
Methodology
Sample Collection
The sediment samples that were collected from 12 sites within Laucala Bay and from
one site at the centre of Suva Harbour for comparison were used to determine the
distribution of foraminifera species within Laucala Bay (Table 4.1 and Fig. 4.1).
It was assumed that the species live close to where their tests were found.
Multidimensional
scaling
(MDS)
and
Two-Way
Indicator
Species
Analysis
(TWINSPAN) were used to analyse the species distribution at the sites. The original
faunal distribution were described and plotted on maps of Laucala Bay.
Table 4.1: Locations and Descriptions of the Sampled Sites
Sites
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Locations
Nukubuco Reef
Nukubuco Reef
Makuluva Island
Makuluva Island
Makuluva Island
Makuluva Island
Fish Patch
Descriptions
1/2 way to reef margin in
microatoll zone
Northwest tip
Eastern side
Northern side
Southern side - toward open ocean
12
Western side - near passage
Due south from Nasese Tidal flat
Nasese Tidal Platform Outer edge of platform
Suva Harbour
Centre of lagoon
Nukulau Island
Northwestern edge - near jetty
Laucala Island
Off the northern edge
Estuary
Vatuwaqa River
13
Laucala Bay
Centre of lagoon
Sedimentation
Rubble, coarse to medium sand
Coarse to medium sand
Medium to fine sand
Coarse to fine sand
Rubble, coarse to fine sand
Coarse to fine sand
Rubble, coarse to fine sand
Medium sand to mud
Muddy ooze
Rubble, coarse to medium sand
Medium sand and muddy ooze
Fine sand to mud
Muddy ooze, some fine sand
105
Locations of Sampled Sites:
179.5°]
Samabula
Suva
Harbour
9
Vatuwaqa
Laucala
Bay
13
Suva Barrier Reef
1 Nukubuco
Reef
10 Nukulau
Reef
4
Makaluvs
Reef
Fig. 4.1: Location of the sampled sites within the study area (Mineral Resources
Department, 2005).
106
4.2
Results
Jell et al. (1965) stated, "The foraminiferal material tends to produce a residual biofacies
within the overall lithofacies and is therefore a reliable indicator of the original faunal
distribution". Therefore, it was assumed that the species live close to where their tests
were found and so were mapped accordingly.
Rose Bengal stains mucus, degenerating and dead cells and our entire samples were
stained red for protoplasm when the dye was applied. Also, the presence of Rose Bengal
stained organisms does not necessarily mean that the organisms were living at the
collection site, since Rose Bengal will stain the protoplasm of dead organisms as well as
the living (Bernhard, 2000). Therefore, there was no distinction among the dead and live
foraminifera and the foraminiferal assemblages analysed and reported in this study are
based on the total shell count of dead and living foraminifera.
The graph and map for the number of different species found at each of the 13 sites
within the study area (Figs. 4.2 and 4.3) show that the greatest number of species (46)
occured at Site 5, on the southern side of Makuluva Island towards the open ocean. A
total of 44 different species were found at both Site 3, on the eastern side of Makuluva
Island, and Site 7, the "Fish patch" south of the Nasese Tidal Flat.
Site 6, on the western side Makuluva Island, recorded a total of 41 different species
while Site 10, at the northwestern edge of Nukulau Island, had 40 species.
107
Number of Different Species at the Sampled Sites
45 40 -
Q.
52 30
i
t
25
~
20
w
n
.Q
E 15-1
3
10 -
5
6
7
10
11
12
13
Site No.
Fig. 4.2: The number of different species found at each of the 13 sites within the
study area.
Site 1, the microatoll zone in the Nukubuco Reef, Site 2, northwest tip of the Nukubuco
Reef, and Site 4, northern edge of Makuluva Island showed 35, 34, 34 species
respectively.
The samples at Site 9, center of Suva Harbour, Site 11, off Laucala Island and Site 13,
center of Laucala Bay consisted of 15, 18 and 16 different species respectively. The
lowest number of species, 5 and 6, were found at Sites 8, Nasese Tidal Flat and 12,
Vatuwaqa River estuary.
108
179.5°]
Suva
Harbour
10 Nukulau
Suva Barrier Reef
1 Nukubuco
Reef
UVc
Fig. 4.3: The number of species found at each of the 13 sites within the study area.
Generally, it can be seen that sites around Makuluva Island, Nukulau Island and the
"Fish Patch" showed a high diversity of species, while the sites on Nukubuco Reef and
on the northern edge of Makuluva Island had slightly fewer species. Sites in the middle
109
of Suva Harbour and Laucala Bay as well as off Laucala Island had considerably fewer
species. However, the least number of species are found on the Nasese Tidal Flat and in
the Vatuwaqa River estuary.
Figure 4.4, a multidimensional scaling (MDS) map, provides the visual representation of
the pattern of similarities among the sites. The sites that are perceived to have very
similar species to each other are placed near each other on the map, while the sites that
are perceived to be very different from each other are placed far away from each other
on the map.
According to the MDS map, the sites can be clustered into 3 groups based on the
similarities amongst the species present at each site. Cluster 1 consists of the Sites 1, 2,
3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 10. Cluster 2 contains the Sites 9, 11, 13 while Cluster 3 contains the
Sites 8 and 12 (Fig. 4.6). This tells us that the Sites 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 10 have similar
species while Sites 8 and 12 have similar species. Sites 9 and 13 seem to have much
more similar species although Site 11 also has some similarities with them.
The Two-Way Indicator Species Analysis (Fig. 4.5) divides the sites originally into two
clusters based on the presence or absence of the species Milionella cf. M. hybrida. The
cluster which contains this species includes Sites 1, 3, 4, 6, 2, 5, 7, and 10. The cluster
which does not contain this species includes the Sites 9, 11, 13, 8, and 12.
110
Fig. 4.4: Multidimensional scaling map showing clusters of sites with similar species.
111
Fig. 4.5: TWINSPAN (Two-Way Indicator Species Analysis) showing the clusters of sites,
Miliolinella cf.
112
These two clusters are then further divided. Cluster 1 which contained the Sites 1, 3, 4,
6, 2, 5, 7, and 10 is divided into further two clusters based on the presence or absence of
the indicator species Siphoniferoides siphoniferus. The cluster which contains this
species includes Sites 2, 5, 7 and 10, while the cluster which does not contain this
species includes Sites 1, 3, 4 and 6.
The original cluster 2 which did not contain the species Milionella cf. M. hybrida is now
divided into two further clusters depending on the presence or absence of the species
Textularia foliacea foliacea. The cluster which contains this species includes Sites 9, 11
and 13, while the cluster which does not contain this species includes Sites 8 and 12.
Hence, the TWINSPAN classification technique has divided the sites into four clusters
already based on indicator species. The first cluster contains Sites 2, 5, 7 and 10. The
second cluster contains the Sites 1, 3, 4 and 6. The third cluster contains the Sites 9, 11
and 13, while the last cluster contains the Sites 8 and 12.
Both the multidimensional scaling map and the TWINSPAN classification reveal that
there are three to four major clusters amongst the 13 sites studied (Fig. 4.6). Sites 1,5,7,
and 10 fall in one cluster, Sites 1, 3, 4 and 6 fall in another cluster, Sites 9, 11 and 13 can
be in yet another cluster and the final cluster is made up of Sites 8 and 12.
113
Barrier Reef
NiJLkubuc o
Reef
M-aKuluva
Island.
Fig. 4.6: Distribution of cluster groups in the study area.
114
4.3
Discussion
Jell and others (1965) state that the regions of living and growing foraminifera show a
close correspondence with regions of high foraminiferan concentration in the sediments.
Since the environments where the foraminifera live are generally well protected, the
dead skeletal remains are preserved well in the undisturbed area. However, in
environments where foraminifera do not generally live but are transported to, the tests
often appear abraded and torn (Jell et al., 1965).
Study site analysis
Site 1
35 species of foraminifera were picked from sediments from this site located on the
Nukubuco Reef flat half way to the reef margin in the microatoll zone. The water depth
was approximately 0.5 m and the sediments were mostly reef rubble as well as coarse to
medium sand. The area was not too far off from the seagrass beds. The water was quite
clear with low turbidity. This was due to clean oceanic water coming through the
Nukubuco Passage and over the reef.
Site 2
34 species of foraminifera were determined at this site. This site was at the northwest tip
of the Nukubuco Reef. The water depth was approximately 1 meter and the sediments
consisted of mostly coarse to medium sand. The water was quite clear and the current
very swift at this location. The site was directly affected by the water flowing through
the Nukubuco Passage.
115
Site 3
Site 3 was on the eastern side of Makuluva Island and had 44 different species. The
sample is from a depth of 0.2 m at low tide. The sediments consisted of medium to fine
sand. This site also faces away from the Nukulau Passage leading into the lagoon but the
water might in be part affected by the water coming down the Rewa River.
Site 4
The sample off northern end of Makuluva Island consisted of 34 different species of
foraminifera. The sample was collected from the pools left at low tide. The depth of
water in these tide pools was approximately 0.2 meters. The sediments in the pools
consisted of coarse to fine sand. This end of Makuluva Island was directly facing the
Nukulau Passage and was also affected by the downflow from the Rewa River.
Site 5
According to the graph of the different number of species at each site (Fig. 4.2) the
highest number of species is at Site 5. This site was on the southern part of Makuluva
Island facing the open ocean. The sediments at this site consisted of a range of sizes
ranging from coral rubble to coarse to fine sand. The water depth at this location was
approximately 1.2 m. The current at this site was quite swift and the water was crystal
clear. There were some seagrass species further out but not where the sample was
gathered. This site was facing away from the lagoon and so was unaffected by the water
from within the bay and the water at this site was from the Pacific Ocean.
116
Site 6
The western side of Makaluva Island, Site 6, had 41 species. This site faces the Nukulau
Passage into the lagoon so it might be affected by the quality of water inside the bay.
However, Makaluva Island falls outside of the barrier reef systems of Laucala Bay and is
surrounded by the Pacific Ocean water. The water depth at this site was approximately
0.3 m, while the sediments consisted of coarse to fine sand.
Site 7
Site 7 also had 44 different species. This site is known as the "Fish Patch" and is located
on the Suva Barrier Reef. The water depth at this location was approximately 1 - 2 m.
The area had quite healthy micro atolls and corals and the water was very clean. The
sediments consisted of reef rubble and coarse to fine sand.
Site 8
This site was located on the outer edge of the Nasese Tidal Platform. Only 5, the lowest
number of species was found at this site. The water depth was approximately 0.5 m. The
water was quite turbid at this location and the sediments consisted of mainly medium
sand to mud. Most of the species that were found at this site were quite abraded and torn
leading to the assumption that they were not living in this area but had been transported
from another area.
Site 9
This site was chosen in the center of Suva Harbour as a comparison with the sediment
117
samples within Laucala Bay. 15 species were determined from this site. The sample was
collected from a depth of about 10 meters. The water was quite turbid and the sediment
sample was mostly muddy ooze with some terrigenous organic material.
Site 10
This site was at the northwestern edge of Nukulau Island and consisted of 40 species of
foraminifera. This sample was collected off the island at a depth of approximately 1.5 m.
The sediments consisted of reef rubble and coarse to fine sand. This site is affected both
by the oceanic incoming water from the Nukubuco Passage as well as the water coming
downstream from the Rewa River.
Site 11
This site was off the northern edge of Laucala Island at a depth of approximately 5
meters. 18 species of foraminifera were found at this site. The water was quite turbid and
the sediments consisted of medium sand and muddy ooze. The Rewa River brings its
sediment load to this site, hence the finer sediments.
Site 12
6 species were found in the sediment sample from the Vatuwaqa River estuary. This site
was also affected by the sediment loads brought down by the Vatuwaqa River and so the
water was quite turbid and the sediments consisted of mostly fine sand and mud.
Site 13
118
The sediment sample from the center of Laucala Bay consisted of 18 species of
foraminifera. The water depth was approximately 10 meters. The turbidity in the water
column was high and the sediments comprised of muddy ooze and fine sand.
Cluster analysis
The multidimensional scaling map (Fig. 4.4) divides the 13 sites into 3 clusters based on
the presence of similar species. The first cluster contains the Sites 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and
10. Cluster 2 contains the Sites 8 and 12 while Cluster 3 contains the Sites 9, 11 and 13.
This tells us that the Sites 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 10 have similar species while Sites 8 and
12 have similar species. Sites 9, 11 and 13 seem to have much more similar species.
On the map these three clusters are quite significant (Fig. 4.6). The first cluster has all
the reef sites. Cluster two has two sites that are very close to the mainland. And the third
cluster has sites towards the middle of the bays.
It appears that all the sites on or near the reefs consist of similar species, while the sites
toward the middle of the bays have similar species and those sites close to the mainland
have similar species. This can be seen on the cluster groups plotted on the map of the
study area (Fig. 4.6).
119
Species Distribution in the 3 Clusters
§
!
Q.
I
0)
.C
"o
i
• Number of different species in:
Cluster 1 (Reef sites)
D Number of different species in:
Cluster 2 (Close to land sites)
• Number of different species in:
Cluster 3 (centre of the bays sites)
12 10 8
6 -
a.
4 -
a
2
JnHf I
Si
3
0
f f f
.-ff
5
§ .c .5 .c .
1
I 1 1 1 o11 # I
f
/
II
? S J° S &
is -5 .5 .5
#^
s
©
I
£ .f .§ .ff ^
c
111§81 ? | 1.5 11
1
.£ .c
#
,T3
o
I
Family
Fig. 4.7: Family distribution in the 3 clusters.
Cluster 1, which consists of all the reef sites, is unique from the other two clusters by the
presence of species from the Families Ammosphaeroidinidae, Valvulinidae,
Miliolidae,
Riveroinidae,
Alveolinidae,
Heleninidae,
Cibicididae,
Rosalinidae, Planorbulinidae, Acervulinidae and Homotrematidae. Species
from these familes are found only at the sites in Cluster 1 and not in the other two
clusters.
Cluster 2, which has two sites that are very close to the mainland, does not consist of any
species which can be classed as found only there and not in any other clusters. It is
merely a heterogenous mixture of some of the species which are found in Clusters 1 and
3.
120
Cluster 3, which has the sites towards the middle of the bays, is unique due to the
presence of species from the Family Nummulitidae. These species are found only at
the sites in Cluster 3.
Factors affecting the distribution of foraminifera species
This distribution pattern correlates with a sediment facies mapping of the Laucala Bay
by Sharma (2003). There were three sedimentary facies found within the bay: the
nearshore intertidal which was intermediate, moderate to poorly sorted and had a wide
range of grain sizes; reef dominated sediments which were poorly sorted and had mostly
large grains; and estuarine and lagoon dominated areas which were very well sorted. The
three clusters of foraminifera were formed around these three sedimentary facies types,
which shows that different foraminifera prefer different sedimentary conditions.
The Two-Way Indicator Species Analysis divides the sites into four clusters instead of
three clusters as the multidimensional scaling. The clusters are the same as that of MDS
except that the first cluster with Sites 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 10 is further divided into two
other clusters, one with Sites 2, 5, 7 and 10, the other with Sites 1, 3, 4 and 6. This
further division appears to be depth related. The samples at Sites 2, 5, 7 and 10 were
collected in deeper waters than the samples from Sites 1, 3, 4 and 6. This division states
that foraminifera species are distributed depending water depth as well.
Temperature restricts larger foraminifera to regions characterised by temperatures never
falling below 14°C for several weeks (Hohenegger, 2004). Since the temperature of the
water inside the Bay is generally homogenous, the main controlling factor in the
121
distribution patterns is light.
Light is probably the most important factor to determine the distribution of foraminifera
because most species are at least partly dependent on light for growth. Hohenegger
(2004) noted that the symbiont-bearing benthic foraminifera of tropical seas are limited
to the euphotic zone. High turbidity in the water column changes the water transparency
and therefore limits the depth distribution of species. Species that are adapted to living
with minimum light can be found at greater depths and more turbid waters than species
that are more dependent on light for metabolism.
We can conclude that species from the Family Nummulitidae require minimum light
since these organisms were found only in Cluster 3 which had sites in the middle of the
bays. The environment at these sites was deep waters with low light and high turbidity.
All other species from the Families Ammosphaeroidinidae,
Eggerellidae,
Pseudogaudryinidae,
Hauerinidae,
Miliolidae,
Valvulinidae,
Riveroinidae,
Amphisteginidae,
Spiroloculinidae,
Peneroplidae,
Calcarinidae,
Soritidae,
Pararotaliidae,
Alveolinidae,
Cymbaloporidae,
Ammoniidae, Heleninidae, Mississippinidae, Cibicididae, Rosalinidae,
Siphogenerinoididae,
Planorbulinidae,
Acervulinidae,
Elphididae,
Alfredinidae, Alfredinidae, Cassidulinidae, and Homotrematidae are found
at sites in Cluster 1. These sites are on or near the reef and are mostly shallow with clear
waters and hence maximum light. So it can be concluded that members of these Families
require at least some light for survival
122
CHAPTER 5
PERCENT ABUNDANCE
123
5.1
Methodology
Samples of bottom sediments were collected for comparison from the same 12 sites
previously used within Laucala Bay and the one site at the centre of Suva Harbour (refer
to Table 3.1 and Fig. 3). At each site 5 small samples of about 20g each were collected
randomly from within a 5 m radius.
The five 20 g samples from each site were used to calculate the percentage abundance of
foraminifera compared to other components at that particular site. This was done by
examining 100 random grains of the original, unsieved sediment and counting the
number of foraminifera present. Five replicates were used to get an average percentage.
All tests, of either living or dead organisms, were counted.
124
5.2
Results
Table 5.1: Percent abundance of foraminifera at each site in the study area
Location
Site
1 Nukubuco Reef
2 Nukubuco Reef
3 Makuluva Island
4 Makuluva Island
5 Makuluva Island
6 Makuluva Island
7 Fish Patch
8
9
10
11
12
13
Nasese Tidal Platform
Suva Harbour
Nukulau Island
Laucala Island
Vatuwaqa River
Laucala Bay
Description
1/2 way to reef margin in microatoll zone
Northwest tip
Eastern side
Northern side
Western side
% Abundance
7%
7%
10%
13%
20%
12%
Outer edge of platform
9%
2%
Centre of lagoon
Off the northern edge
Estuary
5%
8%
3%
3%
5%
Centre of lagoon
The greatest abundance, that is, the highest number of foraminifera per 100 grains of
sand, was at the southern side of Makuluva Island, facing the open ocean. The other sites
around Makuluva Island also had relatively high percent abundances. Nukulau Island
and the "Fish Patch" had 8% and 9% abundance respectively while the sites around
Nukubuco had 7% abundance.
There is a decrease in the abundance of foraminifera from the reef towards the mainland.
The centre of Suva Harbour and Laucala Bay had 5% abundance, while Vatuwaqa River
estuary, the site off Laucala Island and Nasese Tidal Platform had the lowest percent
abundances.
125
178.5°E
s
Saritabuia
_
Suva
arbour
2
-&
Nukulaii
1 Nukubuco
Suva Barrier Reef ^ ^
M
Keef
Fig. 5.1: Percent abundance of foraminifera at each site in the study area
126
5.3
Discussion
The general trend in the study area was a greater abundance of species in sediments from
the sites outside the actual reef boundary on the lagoon; that is, at the sites around
Makuluva Island. The abundance of foraminifera in the sediment samples decreased
towards the mainland, becoming lowest near the Nasese Tidal Platform and Vatuwaqa
River estuary.
Foraminifera have preferences for where they live, dependent on sediment types, water
quality, depth and other environmental factors. Around Makuluva Island and Nukulau
Island, the water quality was quite good in terms of nutrients and clarity and hence the
abundance at these sites was quite high compared to all other sites. It can be concluded
that foraminifera preferred to live in this environment where cleaner oceanic water
flowed compared to other sites. The sediments at these sites consisted of reef rubble,
coarse to fine sand. This sorting of sediments also allows foraminifera to get maximum
light without being smothered by fine sediment grains.
The Fish Patch also showed a relatively high abundance. This location on the reef had
quite clean water as well, and this was evident in the presence of good live coral species.
Fast flowing water due to currents moving from Suva Harbour and Laucala Bay flushes
this site continuously allowing foraminifera to grow.
The two sites on Nukubuco Reef showed a higher percent abundance compared to sites
close to the mainland in the center of the lagoons. These two sites have continuous
127
flushing from flood and ebb of diurnal tides. The water clarity was quiet good, and the
sites were shallow, allowing foraminifera to get maximum light.
Sites 9 and 13, in the center of Suva Harbour and Laucala Bay each had 5 % abundance.
The species found at these locations were different from the species at the reef
environments. The sediments at these sites consisted of medium sand to muddy ooze,
while the water clarity and quality was quite bad. It can be concluded that few
individuals could live in these low-light, muddy and polluted sediments and hence the
low abundance of foraminifera at these sites.
Sites 8, 11 and 12 were closest to land areas and had the least abundance. These sites
were most exposed to pollution, the Kinoya Sewage outlet, industrial outfalls and
general waste from the mainland. These factors reduced water clarity and oxygen
content and increased the toxicity and mud content of the sediments, thus smothering,
and possibily killing, the foraminiferan species.
128
CHAPTER 6
LOCATIONS OF
Marginopora vertebralis COLONIES
129
6.1
Methodology
Marginopora vertebralis was one of the most common species at all the sites studied but
was found to be in greatest abundance in the bottom sediment samples from around
Sandbank Island. Therefore, the locations and sizes of living colonies of this particular
species around Sandbank Island were mapped in order to provide baseline data for the
existing colonies that could be used for future monitoring.
The area around Sandbank Island consists of relatively shallow water at low tide and it
was possible to conduct this part of the studies by wading. The locations of the different
colonies were plotted using GPS as well as aligning with landmarks.
The area of each colony was measured using a meter tape while the number of living
organisms in each colony was estimated by counting the organisms in 5 random 1 m2
quadrants within each colony. These colonies were plotted on the map of Nukubuco
Reef.
130
Sandbank Island
Scale
0.06 km
Sandbank
land
Nukubuco
Fig. 6.1: Sandbank Island area on Nukubuco Reef where M. vertebralis colonies
were mapped (Mineral Resources Department, 2005).
131
6.2
Results
Three separate large colonies of M. vertebralis were found on the seagrass beds off
Sandbank Island (Fig. 6.2 and 6.3). The largest colony was located on the south of
Sandbank Island and this colony was spread out to the southeastern part. Two other
smaller colonies were found on the northeastern side and the southwestern side of the
southern end of the island.
sandbank island
Nukubuco Reef
Marginopora
vertebralis
colony
Fig. 6.2: Location of Marginopom vertebralis colonies.
132
Fig. 6.3: Approximate size and locations of the three M. vertebralis colonies on an
aerial map of Sandbank Island.
133
The seagrass beds on the southern and southwestern side of the Sandbank Island consist
of the species Halodule uninervis and Syringodium isoetifolium. The area is a relatively
low energy environment and therefore seagrass beds dominate the muddy facies. The
northeastern colony is found on very sparsely distributed Halodule uninervis on a hard
rocky reef surface.
Table 6.1: Measurement of sizes for the three M. vertebralis colonies
Southern colony
Northeastern
colony
Southwestern
colony
Average no. of
organisms/m2
Measurement of
colony (m2)
No. of organisms in
colony
136.2
2520
343224
34.4
720
24768
16.8
144
2419
Fig. 6.4: M. vertebralis attached on coral rubble and calcareous algae (Cushman
Foundation for Foraminiferal Research, Inc., 1987).
134
Marginora vertebralis is found in large numbers living in association with the seagrass
beds on the reef flat (Fig. 6.4).
The highest concentration of the living M. vertebralis occurs on the seagrass Halodule
uninervis on the southern side of Sandbank Island. There were at least 4 individuals
attached per frond. Seagrass beds were also found on the western side of the island;
however, the dominant species of seagrass here was Syringodium isoetifolium and
therefore no large colonies of M. vertebralis were found. Marginopora vertebralis seems
to prefer to live on the bilate, flattened fronds of Halodule uninervis rather than on any
other species.
M. vertebralis colonies were not found around the northern tip of Sandbank Island
where currents were stronger and seagrass beds sparse.
135
6.3
Discussion
Foraminifera were found to be settled on and loosely attached to the seagrass roots or
fronds and coral rubble, or living loose amongst the sediments. In this habitat they get
sunlight from above and absorb nutrients such as nitrates released by the seagrass from
below.
The individuals inhabiting the more energetic reef flat environments, the northwestern
colony, take shelter in spaces between coral rubbles. It is likely that the pores on the
apertural face in Marginopora vertebralis give it an advantage by allowing it to stream
out numerous pseudopodia for better anchorage in this slightly higher-energy
environment.
Marginopora vertebralis seems to prefer to live on the bilate, flattened fronds of
Halodule uninervis rather than on the cylindrical blades of Syringodium isoetifolium.
This may be due to the density of the different seagrass species populations or to the
shape of the surface available for attachment.
Syringodium isoetifolium grows in dense clumps while Halodule uninervisis sparsely
spread out on the reef (Fig. 6.6). The less dense population of Halodule uninervis allows
M. vertebralis to absorb maximum sunlight from above while they absorb nutrients
released by the seagrass from below. The denser clumps of Syringodium isoetifolium do
not allow M. vertebralis to obtain as much sunlight.
136
Fig. 6.5: A - Syringodium isoetifolium,
B - Halodule uninervis
Fig. 6.6: A - Syringodium isoetifolium population, B - Halodule uninervis population
The distribution of the two species of seagrass are quite easy to detect on the aerial
photograph of Sandbank Island. Syringodium isoetifolium appears as a darker patch
while Halodule uninervis shows as lighter patches (Fig. 6.7).
137
Fig. 6.7: Map of the Sandbank Island showing the distribution of the seagrasses
Syringodium isoetifolium (yellow arrows) and Halodule uninervis (red arrows).
138
CHAPTER 7
GROWTH RATE FOR Marginopora vertebralis
139
7.1
Methodology
Live Marginopora vertebralis were collected from around the seagrass beds near
Sandbank Island. The organisms were placed in buckets with seawater with some sand
at the bottom and taken to the laboratory.
Fig. 7.1: Living M. vertebralis attached on a seagrass frond (Poppe Images, 2006)
The organisms and the sand were placed in a 50 liter aerated aquarium with clean,
filtered seawater and left overnight. The following day the healthy live organisms had
climbed onto the walls of the tank, while those dead or weak stayed on the bottom. The
live ones were collected and divided into two groups, one with all the larger organisms
of diameters above 10 mm, and the other with organisms of diameters between 4 and 7
mm.
Two smaller tanks of 1.5 litre capacity were set up. These tanks had clean sand at the
bottom and a basket made of fine net of 63 On mesh size suspended in the middle with
styrofoam holding it afloat in the water column (Fig. 7.2). About 20 individuals of each
group were placed in each of the nets. Before being placed on the baskets, all 20
140
organisms from each tank were weighed and their weights were recorded. The weights
of these 20 organisms were measured on a monthly basis over a period of 8 months
altogether to give their growth rates.
1 - Heater
2 - Sand at the bottom
3 - Styrofoam and string holding
up tray
4 - Aeration
5 - Basket of mosquito screen
suspended in water
Fig. 7.2: Setup for observing the growth of M. vertebralis in the laboratory
The water of temperature in the tanks ranged from 28°C to 30°C, salinity was around
35ppt and pH was between 8.0 and 8.2. Physiochemical parameters (salinity, pH,
temperature) varied by <2% throughout the two culture experiments. The tanks were
aerated constantly and placed in front of open windows in the laboratory in order to
maintain constant light. The environment of the reef flat was maintained as much as was
possible. A 75% water change and clean up of the tanks was done every week. The algal
population was kept low so as to prevent buildup of organics, as suggested by Ross
(1972).
141
The weights for the two groups over time were plotted on a graph and the growth rates
and their significant regression relationships calculated.
The growth rates obtained from this culture were used to calculate an approximate
amount of sediment production from each of the three Marginopora vertebralis colonies
mapped around Sandbank Island in Chapter 7. It was assumed that at any given time
each colony consisted of 50% larger individuals and 50% smaller individuals. Another
assumption made was that the population in each colony remains approximately the
same throughout the year. Reproduction and mortality are assumed to be even and equal,
leaving the population approximately the same size at all times.
142
7.2
Results
The two groups of M. vertebralis, each with a different class of individuals, showed
slightly different growth rates (Fig. 7.3).
Growth Rates in Two Groups of M. vertebralis
7y = 0.1307x+5.9707
R2 = 0.9956
5
"in
E
3 4-
3
2
y=0.0632x +0.2771
F¥ = 0.9908
•
Larger size (• 1 cm)
•
Smaller size (DO.5 DO.7 cm)
— Linear (Larger size (• 1 cm))
Linear (Smaller size (D 0.5
0.7
Fig. 7.3: Growth rate for two groups of twenty M. vertebralis each.
143
Table 7.1: Significance regression relationship:
Larger size
(•1 cm)
t = 39.727
P < 0.001
n =9
t = 27.395
P < 0.001
n =9
Smaller size
(•0.5 []0.7cm)
The group of M. vertebralis larger than or equal to a diameter of 1 cm showed a growth
of 0.1307 grams/month while the group of M. vertebralis bigger than a diameter of 0.5
cm and smaller than or equal to a diameter of 0.7 cm showed a growth rate of 0.0632
grams/month.
The significant regression relationship shows that P < 0.001, therefore the growth rate is
statistically significant (Table 7.1).
However, if the weight grown relative to size of organism (percentage growth) is
considered then the smaller group has a much faster growth rate (Fig. 7.4). The smaller
organisms show a growth rate of 7.7277% of their initial body weight per month while
the larger organisms show a growth rate of 1.8727% of their initial body weight per
month.
144
Growth Rate as % of Body Weight
•
Larger size ( • 1cm)
•
Smaller size ([]0.5[]0.7 cm)
^— Linear (Larger size ( 1 cm))
Linear (Smaller size ([]0.5[]0.7 cm))
Fig. 7.4: Growth rate for two groups of twenty M. vertebralis as a percent of body
weight.
Two of the organisms from the group of larger M. vertebralis of individual weights
0.4952g and 0.415 8g reproduced during the 7th month of culture. The reproductive cells
of the organisms can be viewed on Plate 4, Figs. 6 and 7.
The juvenile M. vertebralis were found attached to the sides of the netting baskets in
large numbers. Initially, they seemed like a mass of white material attached to the sides.
145
Individual organisms could be detected only under a microscope. They were kept in the
same tank and left to grow for the rest of the research time. By the end of the culture
period the individual organisms could be detected by the naked eye and they had moved
from the net basket onto the walls of the glass tank. Each organism was by this time
approximately 1 mm in diameter (Plate 4, Fig.3).
Table 7.2: Approximate sediment production from the three M. vertebralis colonies
Southern
colony
Northeastern
colony
Southwestern
colony
Growth rate per
Sediment
month (kg)
production in
50% large 50% small colony/month (kg)
Average no.
of
organisms/m2
No. of
organisms in
colony
136
343224
22.436
10.846
33.282
34.4
24768
1.625
0.783
2.408
16.8
2419
0.164
0.077
0.241
At the end of each month the Southern and largest colony of M. vertebralis grows by an
additional 33.282 kg. The Northeastern colony grows by 2.408 kg while the smallest and
southwestern colony grows by 0.241 kg each month.
Altogether, the three M. vertebralis colonies contribute approximately 35.930 kg of
sediments to Sandbank Island each month which could amount to about 432 kg per year
or 1 ton (1000 kg) of sediment every 28 months (2.4 years).
146
7.3
Discussion
The growth rates show that the larger individuals added more weight than the smaller
individuals (Fig. 7.3). However, when relative growth rates are compared as percentage
of body weight gained, then it can be seen that the smaller individuals grew much faster
than the larger (Fig. 7.4).
Interpretations of the results show that the smaller individuals, which can be assumed to
be younger, grew faster relative to their body weights. The larger individuals, which are
assumed to be older, accumulated more weight over time but when taken as percent of
their original body weight, it can be seen that their growth had slowed.
Visual observations over the research period also showed that the smaller individuals
were growing more in diameter compared to the larger, in which growth by visual means
was hard to detect due to size.
There are three stages of shell construction in M. vertebralis: embryonic, laminate and
reproductive chamber stages (Ross, 1972). These give a trilaminate arrangement of
chamberlets which shows bands of coloration: a narrow light yellowish-green band that
is adjacent to the central hole, a broader brownish-yellowish green band that includes
most of the shell up to the reproductive chambers, and, if present, a cream colored outer
band of reproductive chambers (Ross, 1972).
Reproduction of M. vertebralis was asexual; it occurred in some larger individuals and
147
was absent in the younger, smaller ones. This indicates that M. vertebralis needs to reach
a certain age and size before reproduction can occur. Ross (1972) stated that M.
vertebralis generally reaches 10 mm and occasionally 30 mm in diameter before
undergoing reproduction.
The juvenile M. vertebralis during this culture were most likely formed within the
reproductive chambers of the adult during their embryonic stages via multiple fission
and were released into the water column after being fully formed. The peripheral margin
of the reproduction chambers is coarsely porous (Plate 1, Fig. 6). Ross (1972) stated that
M. vertebralis produces about 100 young per reproduction.
Hallock (1985) stated that an individual foraminifera reproduce only once and that the
life of the parent ends with reproduction. In the present experiment, the two parent M.
vertebralis survived from reproduction until the end of the experiment, which was
another month.
From the growth measurements seen, M. vertebralis reproduces asexually after a certain
shell size and age, probably older than a year and when shell size exceeds 1 cm in
diameter.
The growth rates obtained from this culture allowed the calculation of the approximate
rate of sediment production from the entire colonies present at Sandbank Island. An
assumption was made that there were 50% large organisms in each colony and the other
148
50% was made of the smaller group of organisms. Using both the growth rate equations
sediment production from M. vertebralis in a month in each of the colonies was
calculated.
At the end of each month the Southern and largest colony of M. vertebralis increases by
an additional 33.2818 kg. The Northeastern colony increases by 2.4078 kg while the
smallest and southwestern colony increases by 0.2408 kg each month (Table 7.2).
Altogether, the three M. vertebralis colonies contribute 35.9304 kg of sediments to the
Sandbank Island in a month. In one year, this one species produces 431.1648 kg of
sediments around the Sandbank Island at an average of 0.1274 kg/m2/yr. There are 70
more species present in that same area, abeit smaller in size than M. vertebralis. Harney
et al. (1999) calculates that foraminifera are capable of generating 2 kg of carbonate
skeletons/m2/year. This highlights the importance of foraminifera in sediment
production and budget.
149
CHAPTER 8
CONCLUSION
150
8.1
Conclusion
A total of 68 different species from 43 different genera were identified from the 13 sites
sampled. Synonyms for each species were found and recorded. Plates were made
showing the photographs and the species details. It was assumed that the species live
close to where their tests were found and so were mapped accordingly.
Generally, it was seen that the sites around Makuluva Island, Nukulau Island and the
"Fish Patch" showed greater diversity of species, while the sites on Nukubuco Reef and
on the northern edge of Makuluva Island showed slightly fewer species. The sites in the
middle of Suva Harbour and Laucala Bay as well as off the Laucala Island showed
considerably fewer species. However, the least number of species were to be found on
the Nasese Tidal Flat and in the Vatuwaqa River estuary.
A multidimensional scaling map divides the 13 sites into 3 clusters based on the
presence of similar species. It appears that all the sites on or near the reefs consist of
similar species, while the sites toward the middle of the bays have similar species and
those sites close to the mainland have similar species. Possible factors that affect this
distribution are the sediment facies, temperature of the water, and light intensity at each
site.
The general trend in the study area was a greater abundance of species in sediments
from the sites outside the actual reef boundary on the lagoon, that is, the sites around
Makuluva Island. Moving towards the mainland, the abundance of foraminifera in the
151
sediment samples decreased, becoming the least near the Nasese Tidal Platform and
Vatuwaqa River estuary.
Three separate large colonies of M. vertebralis were found on the seagrass beds off the
Sandbank Island. The largest colony was located on the south of the Sandbank Island
and the colony was spread out to the southeastern part. Two other smaller colonies were
found on the northeastern side and the southwestern side of the southern end of the
island. Marginopora vertebralis seems to prefer to live on the bilate, flattened fronds of
Halodule uninervis than on the cylindrical blades of Syringodium isoetifolium. This may
be due to the density of the different seagrass species populations.
Culture of M. vertebralis in the laboratory showed that the group of M. vertebralis larger
than or equal to a diameter of 1 cm showed a growth of 0.1307 grams/month while the
group of M. vertebralis bigger than a diameter of 0.5 cm and smaller than or equal to a
diameter of 0.7 cm showed a growth rate of 0.0632 grams/month. However, if you
consider the weight added relative to the size of the individual (percentage growth) then
members of the smaller group had a much faster growth rate. The smaller individuals
show a growth rate of 7.7277% of their initial body weight while the larger individuals
show a growth rate of 1.8727% of their initial body weight.
The growth rates obtained from this culture allowed the calculation of the approximate
rate of sediment production from the entire colonies present at Sandbank Island. The
three M. vertebralis colonies contribute 35.9304 kg of sediments to the Sandbank Island
152
in a month. In a year, this one species produces 431.1648 kg of sediments around the
Sandbank Island, at an average of 0.1274 kg/m2/yr. There are 70 more species present in
that same area, although smaller in size than M. vertebralis. This shows the importance
of foraminifera in sediment production in an area.
8.2
Sources of error
•
It is quite possible that some species of foraminifera, especially from the smaller
grain sizes, could have been missed being picked and identified.
•
Slight displacement of sites is possible during the map plotting due to error of +
20 m in the GPS reading.
8.3
Recommendations for additional work
•
A complete assessment of the foraminifera of Laucala Bay is possible if
sediments are obtained from within a 20m radius of each other. A further
distribution map can be made if species are analysed from transects within the
bay rather than random samples.
•
Future studies may seek to identify all species of foraminifera from around Viti
Levu and compare distribution over considerable distances to get a more
complete picture of the foraminifera of Fiji.
153
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167
APPENDIX
168
APPENDIX 1
List of Species and their distribution at the sites within the study area (1 means present, 0 means absent):
Suborder
Family
Genus
Species
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Miliolina
Alveolinidae
Borelis
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
Hauerinidae
Hauerina
Hauerina circinata
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
Miliolinella
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
Pseudomassilina
1
1
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
Pseudotriloculina
Pseodotriloculina granulocostata
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Pyrogoella
Pyrgoella sp.
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
Quinqueloculina
1
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
0
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Siphonaperta
0
1
0
1
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
Triloculina
Triloculina affinis
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
Miliolidae
Pitella
Pitella haigi
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
Peneroplidae
Monalysidium
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
Peneroplis
Peneroplis pertuses
0
0
1
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
Peneroplis planatus
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
Riveroinidae
Pseudohauerina
169
Rotaliina
Soritidae
Marginopora
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
Spiroloculinidae
Spiroloculina
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
Acervulina
Acervulina mabaheti
1
0
1
1
0
1
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
Planogypsina
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
Haynesina
Haynesina germanica
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Epistomaroides
Epistomaroides punctulatus
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
1
0
0
0
Ammonia
Ammonia beccarii
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Ammonia convexa
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
Baculogypsina
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
0
0
Calcarina
Calcarina hispida
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
Acervulinidae
Alfredinidae
Ammoniidae
Amphisteginidae
Calcarinidae
Amphistegina
Cassidulinidae
Evolvocassidulina Evolvocassidulina belfordi
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
Cibicididae
Lobatula
Lobatula lobatula
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
Cymbaloporidae
Cymbaloporella
1
0
1
1
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
Milletiana
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
Elphidium
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
Elphidium crispum
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
Elphididae
170
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
Heleninidae
Helenina
Helenina anderseni
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Homotrematidae
Miniacina
Miniacina miniacea
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Mississippinidae
Pegidia
Pegidia lacunata
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
Nummulitidae
Operculina
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
Pararotaliidae
Neorotalia
Neorotalia calcar
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
Parrelloididae
Cibicidoides
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
Planorbulinidae
Planorbulinella
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
Rosalinidae
Rosalina
Rosalina bradyi
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Rotorboides
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Tetromphalus
0
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
Loxostomina
Loxostomina limbata
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
0
0
0
Loxostomina sp.
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
Rectobolivina
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
Siphogenerina
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Siphogenerina sp.
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
Siphogenerrnoididae
Textularia
Ammosphaeroidinidae
Haddonia
Haddonia (?) sp. A
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
Eggerellidae
Sahulia
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
Textularia
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
Textularia foliacea
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
Textularia rugulosa
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
Pseudogaudryinidae
Septotextularia
171
Siphoniferoides
Siphoniferoides siphoniferus
0
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
Textulariidae
Siphotextularia
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
Valvulinidae
Clavulina
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
172
APPENDIX 2
Total number of different species found at each site:
Site
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Location
Description
No. of Species
Nukubuco Reef
Nukubuco Reef
Makaluva Island
Makaluva Island
Makaluva Island
Makaluva Island
Fish Patch
Nasese Tidal Platform
Suva Harbour
Northwest tip
Eastern side
Northern side
35
34
44
34
12
Nukulau Island
Laucala Island
Vatuwaqa River
13
Laucala Bay
Centre of lagoon
Off the northern tip
Estuary
Centre of lagoon
46
41
44
5
15
40
18
6
16
173
APPENDIX 3
Abundance of foraminifera at each site:
No. of forams per 100 grains sand
Site
Location
Description
Count 1
Count 2
Count 3
Count 4
Count 5 Average
1
Nukubuco Reef
8
7
9
5
7
7
2
Nukubuco Reef
Northwest tip
9
6
7
7
8
7
3
Makaluva Island
Eastern side
10
8
11
12
9
10
4
Makaluva Island
Northern side
15
11
11
13
14
13
5
Makaluva Island
23
19
21
20
19
20
6
Makaluva Island
12
10
11
14
12
12
7
Fish Patch
8
7
10
9
9
9
1
1
3
2
2
2
Centre of lagoon
4
6
5
7
5
5
Nasese Tidal
8
Platform
9
Suva Harbour
10
Nukulau Island
11
5
7
10
9
8
11
Laucala Island
Off the northern tip
4
3
3
2
3
3
12
Vatuwaqa River
Estuary
3
2
3
4
2
3
13
Laucala Bay
Centre of lagoon
3
5
4
6
5
5
174
APPENDIX 4
Number of M. vertebralis in 5 quadrants in each of the 3 colonies:
Southern Colony
Northeast Colony
Southwest Colony
Quadrant 1
102
53
14
Quadrant 2
171
27
23
Quadrant 3
126
24
19
Quadrant 4
145
31
11
Quadrant 5
137
37
17
136.2
34.4
16.8
Average
175
APPENDIX 5
Weight of the two groups of 20 M. vertebralis on a monthly basis:
Weight of 20 organisms (grams)
Month
Group 1 - Larger size
(•1cm)
Group 2 - Smaller size
(•0.5
0.7cm)
0
5.971
0.2962
1
6.0832
0.3395
2
6.2448
0.3989
3
6.3672
0.4581
4
6.4768
0.5245
5
6.619
0.5903
6
6.7982
0.6398
7
6.9024
0.7032
8
6.9767
0.8173
176
ALPHABETICAL INDEX OF
TAXA AT SPECIES LEVEL
177
Acervulina mabaheti
Ammonia beccarii
Ammonia convexa
Calcarina hispida
Elphidium crispum
Epistomawides punctulatus
Evolvocassidulina belfordi
Haddonia (?) sp. A
Hauerina circinata
Haynesina germanica
Helenina anderseni
Lobatula lobatula
Loxostomina limbata
Loxostomina sp. A
Miniacina miniacea
Neorotalia calcar
Pegidia lacunata
Peneroplis perfuses
Peneroplis planatus
Plate 5, figs. 7-9
Plate 6, figs. 7, 8
Plate 7, figs. 1-4
Plate 7, figs. 5, 6
Plate 7, figs. 7-9
Plate 1, fig. 1
Plate 8, figs. 1,2
Plate 11, fig. 1
Plate 14, fig. 9
Plate 8, figs. 6, 7
Plate 9, fig. 1
Plate 9, figs. 2-4
Plate 9, figs. 5-9
Plate 10, fig. 1
Plate 10, fig. 2
Plate 6, figs. 3, 4
Plate 8, fig. 3
Plate 12, fig. 10
Plate 1, figs. 2, 3
Plate 6, figs. 5, 6
(not photographed)
Plate 8, figs. 4, 5
Plate 12, fig. 1
Plate 12, fig. 2
Plate 4, figs. 1-9
(not photographed)
Plate 1, fig. 4
Plate 8, figs. 8-11
Plate 10, fig. 3
Plate 3, figs. 1-3
Plate 10, fig. 7
Plate 10, figs. 4-6
Plate 3, figs. 4, 5
Plate 3, figs. 6-10
52, 53, 85
54,87
54, 55, 89
55,89
55, 56, 89
56,89
42,77
56, 57, 91
64,97
72, 103
58,91
59,93
59, 60, 93
60,93
60, 61, 95
61,95
53, 54, 87
57,91
68,99
43,77
54,87
61
57, 58, 91
66,99
66, 67, 99
50,51,83
43
43, 44, 77
58, 59, 91
62,95
48, 49, 81
63, 64, 95
63,95
62,95
49,81
49,81
178
Pitella haigi
Pseodotriloculina granulocostata
Pyrgoella sp.A
Rosalina bradyi
Siphogenerina sp. A
Siphoniferoides siphoniferus
Textularia foliacea
Textularia rugulosa
Triloculina affinis
Plate 2, figs. 9-11
Plate 6, figs. 1,2
Plate 3, fig. 11
(not photographed)
(not photographed)
Plate 1, fig. 5
Plate 1, figs. 6-8
Plate 1, figs. 9,10
Plate 2, fig. 1
Plate 2, figs. 2-4
Plate 11, figs. 6-9
Plate 12, fig. 11
Plate 14, figs. 3-5
Plate 12, figs. 7-9
Plate 2, figs. 5-7
Plate 14, fig. 6
Plate 5, figs. 1-3
(not photographed)
Plate 5, fig. 4
Plate 5, fig. 5, 6
Plate 12, figs. 12-15,
Plate 13, figs. 1-5
Plate 13, figs. 6-10
Plate 14, fig. 1
Plate 14, fig. 2
Plate 11, fig. 10
(not photographed)
Plate 2, fig. 8
48,79
53,87
64, 65, 97
50,81
44
44,45
45,77
45,77
45, 46, 77
46,79
46,79
67,99
65,97
65,97
68, 69, 99
70, 71, 103
67,99
68,99
47,79
71, 103
71, 72, 103
51,85
51
51,52,85
52,85
69, 99, 101
69, 70, 101
70, 103
70, 103
66,97
47,79
47, 48, 79
179

A Study of the Benthic Foraminifera of Laucala Bay, with Special

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