COLOR-MUSIC SP PSYC - Algoma University Archives

Synesthesia
1
Literature Review: Color-Music Synesthesia
Debbie Pokno
Algoma University College
Running Head: COLOR-MUSIC
SP
PSYC
P0K
88/89
RESERVE
Synesthesia
2
Color-Music Synesthesia
Color affects us in many ways, some of which we
are often unaware of. Color provides us with more
than information about our surroundings. It has
emotional consequences, sometimes it makes us happy,
and sometimes it makes us sad. It can make us feel
warm or cold, tense or relaxed (Meer, 1985).
Color can produce a variety of different sensory
impressions that are common to other senses and, in
turn, color images can be produced by stimulating
other senses (Rosenfeld, 1985). Some people, when
they are listening to music, see colors along with
the music and these colors change with variations in
the music. The stimulation of one sense, hearing,
has an effect on another sense, vision (Meyer, 1961).
This is called synesthesia. Hearing and vision are
not the only two senses that can be involved; any
crossover between two senses is called synesthesia.
A definition of synesthesia from Warren's Dictionary
of Psychology explains it as "a phenomenon
characterizing the experiences of individuals, in
which sensations belonging to one sense or mode
Synesthesia
3
attach to certain sensations of another group and
appear regularly whenever a stimulus of the latter
type occurs" (cited in, Karwoski, Odbert, & Osgood,
1942, p.214). Synesthesia was also described as,
"the simultaneous response to a stimulus in more than
one sensory mode" (Radocy & Boyle, 1979, p. 323324). Synesthesia occurs in a large number of normal
people but also in certain drug states and is
sometimes mentioned as a symptom of mental of mental
illness. Marks (1975) postulated that if drugs can
induce synesthesia in people who never display it
normally, then most people probably have the
potential to experience synesthesia. If this is so,
then it is likely that there is some neurological
mechanism in the human system that connects the
senses to one another.
Studies of Synesthesia
Some of the earliest studies of the color-music
relationship were performed by Karwoski and Odbert
(1938) when they asked introductory psychology
students to report in detail, the nature and type of
color response they experienced when they listened to
a particular selection of music. Karwoski and Odbert
Synesthesia
4
then classified the individuals into different groups
depending on the nature of their particular "type" of
synesthetic report. They found that there were
several different patterns. Some subjects reported
that their color experience to music was similar to a
film or cloud, while others described theirs as
"spreading sheets of color, which overlay one
another" (Karwoski & Odbert, 1938, p.9). Others
described their color response as a band of color
that varied in its width, degree of color, and its
movement that was almost always in a left to right
direction that occurred along with variations in the
music. Karwoski and Odbert (1938) also
differentiated the subjects into three more types, on
the basis of the intensity and frequency of their
synesthetic experiences. The first grouping was
described as having "rudimentary" color hearing
consisting of simple color experiences, the second
group showed "complex" synesthesia composed of images
with a system or pattern, the third group was
described as having "synesthetic imagery" which
involved a strong tendency for combining visual
images with unusually colorful images. Some
Synesthesia
5-
individuals also reported having meaningful images as
a response to a particular selection of music. By
meaningful images Karwoski and Odbert meant, that
some subjects in response to the music saw elaborate
pictures or scenes, for example one individual saw
what he believed to be a snow covered mountain scene.
Karwoski and Odbert (1938) state that it is their
feeling that synesthesia and meaningful imagery are
closely related but in examining the range of
-
responses of their subjects they felt that there was
a significant range of differences that enabled them
to classify the subjects into their particular type
of color experience. They also postulated that some
individuals may have had a similar color experience
but described it in a different way; for example, one
individual described his orange response as a sunset,
while another described his orange response as a band
of orange light. One person described his
interpretation of a response while the other person
seems to describe a purely sensory experience with
little or no interpretation.
Odbert, Karwoski, and Eckerson (1942) examined
synesthesia from a different angle; they looked at
Synesthesia
6
the relation between the mood of the music, and the
colors suggested by the music. They asked subjects
to report the mood of ten musical selections, and
upon hearing the selections again report what colors
they associated with each. They found that there was
some similarity of color suggested by each selection
of music. Odbert, Karwoski, and Eckerson found that
those individuals who disagreed on the mood of the
selection tend to report different colors for the
selection.
Further studies on the subject of synesthesia
were performed by Karwoski, Odbert, and Osgood (1942)
in which they asked subjects who reported having
synesthetic experiences to draw a picture to a
particular selection of music. They observed that
there were similarities between the drawings.
Karwoski, Odbert, and Osgood (1942), also asked
individuals who did not report having synesthetic
experiences to draw their responses to the same music
and they were similar to the pervious set of
drawings. In a follow up study, Karwoski, Odbert,
and Osgood (1942) attempted to examine synesthesia by
looking at the amount of agreement between two
Synesthesia
7
extremes on a polarity scale. Each test item brought
together a particular visual scale (such as up-down)
with a typical auditory scale (such as loud-soft).
The subjects were then asked to say which pole of a
given auditory stimulus seemed more closely related
to a particular visual pole. In almost every case,
the majority of subjects related the words the same
way drawing a parallel relationship from one sense
modality to another; for example, they would relate
levels of brightness to increases in loudness of a
test sound. Karwoski, Odbert, and Osgood agree with
recent research that synesthesia is the cognitive
relating between two sensory experiences. They
explain in the body of their paper that they approach
synesthesia from a general definition, as the
association of sensory and imaginal experiences on a
cognitive level. These researchers feel that the
disputes concerning the origins of synesthesia are
only the result of a narrow definition of the
subject. Karwoski, Odbert, and Osgood, find Warren's
definition of synesthesia far too rigid because it
does not allow for the irregularity found when
examining the sensory system in the context of this
Synesthesia
8
phenomenon. They propose that regularity is often
only found under restricted conditions. Some
subjects in their study reported the same experience
when presented with the same tone twice but when this
tone was incorporated into a musical composition they
did not report the same experience. Karwoski,
Odbert, and Osgood propose that the use of a broader
term would help concentrate on the relations between
sensory experiences and the different levels of
individual differences in the vividness of each
person's sensory experiences.
Theories of Synesthesia
Karwoski, Odbert, and Osgood (1942) have
developed a theory of synesthesia based on the
"Principle of Parallel Polarities and Gradients. In
color-hearing a linkage of an auditory pole with a
visual pole implies a linkage of their opposites.
Gradations along an auditory continuum may be
paralleled by gradations along a visual continuum."
(Karwoski, Odbert, & Osgood, 1942, p.211). What this
means is that music that starts in a high pitch may
be represented as a bright image and as the pitch of
the music goes lower the image gets darker. This
Synesthesia
9
suggests that there may be a correlational or
parallel relationship that occurs when two types of
sensory information are processed simultaneously.
Karwoski, Odbert, and Osgood (1942) also suggest that
the individual differences that occur in their colormusic testing might be the result of shifts in a
persons frame of reference from testing to testing.
Marks (1975) examined synesthesia in search for
"regular systematic intersensory connections" that
would help explain this phenomenon. He asked
synesthetic and non-synesthetic subjects to
associations between different shades of gray and a
number of tones that varied in loudness and pitch.
Marks found that brighter shades of gray were linked
to higher pitch and loudness. He postulated that
both sensory experiences shared a common feature
which was brightness.
Others have attempted to examine synesthesia
from a different perspective; Omwake (1940)
investigated color-music associations across
different grade levels. She asked children in grades
4-12 to indicate what color a certain piece of music
made them think of. In three of the four examples
Synesthesia
10
presented she reported a consistency of response that
appeared to strengthen with age.
Recent research in the field of music education
supports the theory that people have color
preferences that they associate with a particular
selection of music (Cutietta & Haggerty, 1987). In a
series of studies, Cutietta and Haggerty (1987) had
1259 individuals ranging in age from 18-78 listen to
three selections of music. After each selection, the
subjects were asked to indicate which color the music
invoked. The results indicated that some selections
of music were associated to a particular color in a
large percentage of cases. Cutietta and Haggerty
(1987) propose that further research try to determine
whether color-music associations are the result of a
"sensory processing technique" or a set "response
mode"
Conclusion
Throughout the literature reviewed on
synesthesia there seems to be a general thread of
agreement that there are observable similarities and
conformity of response in some of the individuals
tested. Most of the research done in the area of
Synesthesia
11
color-music synesthesia has been of a correlational,
observational, or subjective nature. It may be
advantageous and interesting for future research in
this area to pursue an empirical approach, therefore
the experimenters will be able to examine this
phenomenon from a more factual basis.
Synesthesia
12
References
Cutietta, R.A., Haggerty,K.J. (1987). A comparative
study of color association with music at various
age levels. Journal of Research in Music
Education, 35, 78-91.
Karwoski, T.F., Odbert, H.S. (1938). Color-Music.
Psychological Monographs, 50, 1-60.
Karwoski, T.F., Odbert, H.S., Osgood, C.E. (1942).
Studies in synesthesia thinking: II The role of
form in visual responses to music. The Journal
General Psychology, 26, 199-122.
Marks, L.E., (1975). On colored-hearing synesthesia:
Crossmodal translations of sensory dimensions.
Psychological Bulletin, 82, 30.
Marks, L.E., (1975, June). Synesthesia: The lucky
people with mixed-up senses. Psychology Today,
pp. 48-52.
Meer, J. (1985, December). The light touch.
Psychology Today, pp. 60-67.
Meyer, L.B. (1961). Emotion and meaning in music.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Synesthesia
13
Odbert, H.S., Karwoski, T.F., Eckerson, A.B. (1942).
Studies in synesthetic thinking: I. Musical and
verbal associations of color and mood. The Journal
of General Psychology, 26, 153-173.
Omwake, L. (1940). Visual responses to auditory
stimuli. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 24,
468-481.
Radocy, R.E., Boyle, J.D. (1979). Psychological
foundations of musical behaviour. Springfield,
Ii.: Charles E. Thomas Publishing.
Rosenfeld, A. (1985, June). Music the beautiful
disturber. Psychology Today, pp. 48-56.
Syn5thEs1
Interference Effects in Color-Music Synesthesia
Debbie Pokno
Algoma University College
Running Head INTERFERENCE EFFECTS
Abstract
Often the stimulation of one sense will have an
effect on another this phenomenon is known as
synesthesia (Meyer, 191). Previous research has
suggested that svnesthetic factors are involved in
the association of color and music (Karwoski &
Odbert, 1938). Most of this research has been of
correlational or subjective nature: In the current
study 63 subjects participated in a three color
discrimination task, in which 180 match to sample
trials were presented, while subjects were exposed
to three selections of classical music:
these three selections had been associated to one
of three colors used in this study, in an earlier
investigation (Cutietta & Haggerty, 1987)
predicted that more errors would occur when the
music was mismatched to the color sample.
The
findings in this study did not concur with the
predicted results but they demonstrate the
complexity of trying to deal with the subject of
Interference Effects in Color-Music Synesthesia
Color affects us in many different ways, some
of which we are often unaware o+. Color provides
us with more than just in-Formation about our
surroundings. It has einot.ion-al consequences,
sometimes it makes us happy, and some times it
makes us sad.
It can make !is feel warm or cold,
tense or relaxed (Meer, 1988).
Color can produce a variety of different
sensory impressions that are common to other senses
and, in turn, color images can be produced by
stimulating other senses (Rosenfeld, 1989). Some
people, when they are listening to music, see
colors along with the music and these colors change
with variations in the music (Karwoski & Odbert,
198). The stimulation of one sense hearing, has
an effect on another sense vision. This is called
synesthesia (Meyer, 1961), Hearing and vision are
not the only senses that can be involved any
crossover between two senses is called synesthesia.
A definition of synesthesia from Warren's
___ at. PsYctv..L., ,Lay. e x plains it as "a
,
ph e nomenon
-
characterizing the exoerienu
of
individuals, in which sensations belonging to one
sense or mode attach to certain sensations
another group and appear regularly whenever a
stimulus of the latter type occurs" (cited in,
Karwoski, Odbert, & Osgood, 194*2). Svnesthesia was
also described as "the simultaneous response to a
stimulus in more than one sensory mode" (Radocy &
Boyle, 1979,
Synestnesia occurs in a
large number of normal people but also in certain
drug states and is sometimes mentioned as a symptom
of mental illness. Marks (1975) post
u lated
that if
drugs can induce svnesthesia in people who never
display it normally, then most people have the
potential to experience synesthesia. so, then it is likely that there is
If this is
SOME
neurological mechanism in the human nervous system
that connects the senses to one another.
of
connecting network allows 1s to associate
auditory dimensions like pitch and loudne ,, ,, with
,
,
visual dimensions like brightness and size SOME how
uniting a common experience (Mars, 1975).
Synesthesia could help explain some of the
interaction that occurs between our senses.
Some of the erllest studies of color-music
synesthesia were per
f ormed by Karwoski and Odbert
(198) when they asked introductory psychology
students to report in detail the nature and type
of
color response they experienced when they listened
to a particular selection of music. Karwoski and
Odbert then classified the individuals into
different groups depending on the nature of their
particular "type" of synesthetic report. They
found that there were several different patterns.
Some subjects reported that their color experience
to music was similar to a film or cloud, while
others described theirs as 'spreading sheets of
color overlay one another' (Karwoski & Odbert,
1938, p. 9). Others who participat e d in this study
described their color response as a band of color
that varied in its width, degree of color, and its
movement. Karwoski and Odbert also differentiated
their subjects into three further types depending
of the intensity and frequ e ncy of their :,:vnesthetic
Some individuals also roport having
meaningful images as a response to a particular
selection of music. By meaningful images Karwoski
Svnesthesia
and Odbert meant that some subjects in response to
the music saw elaborate pictures or scenes, for
example, one individual saw what he believed to be
a snow covered mountain scene. Odbert, Karwoski,
and Eckerson (1942) examined synesthesia from a
different angle they looked at the relation
between the mood of the music and the colors
suggested by the music. They asked subjects to
report the mood of ten musical selections and upon
hearing the selections again, report what colors
they associated with each. They found that there
was some similarity of color suggested by each
selection of music. Odbert, Karwoski, And Eckerson
found that those individuals who disagreed on the
mood of the selection tended to report different
colors for the selection. Further synesthesia
studies were performed by Karwoski, Odbert, and
Osgood (1942) in which they asked subjects who
reported having synesthetic experiences to draw a
picture to a particular selection of music.
observed that there were similarities between the
drawings. Karwoski, Odbert, and Osgood (1942) ,
also asked individuals who did not report having
"7
synesthetir
experiences to draw their r^^
music and they were similar to the previous set of
drawings. In a
.
follow up study, Karwoski. Odbert,
and Osgood (1942) attempted to study synesthesia by
the amount of agreement between two
extremes on a polarity scale
. Each test item
brought together a particular visual scale (such as
up
-
down) with a typical audi
tory scale (such as
loud-soft). According to Karwoski, Odbert, and
Osgood, in almost every case the majority of
subjects related the words the same way, drawing a
parallel relationship from one sense modality to
another, for example the
y would relate levels
brightness to increases in the loudness of a test
Marks (1975) examin e
d synest.iesia in Search
of
"regular systematic intersensory connections" that
would help explain this phenomenon. He asked
synesthetir and non
--
sync.7.s' he;.....c
-
subjects to make
associations between different shades of gray and a
number of tones that varied in loudness and pitch.
Marks
-
Found that brighter shades were linked to
higher pitch and loudness. He postulated that both
2',/nath
sensorY experiences shared a common feature wh^ch
was trightr
-
Others have attempted to study synesthesia from
a different perspective; Omwake (1940) inv e stigated
color-music across different grade levels. She
asked children, in grades 4-12, to indicate what
color a certain piece of music made them think of.
In three of three of the four examples of music
presented, she reported a consistency of response
that appeared to strengthen with age.
Throughout most of the literature on
syneathesia there seems to a general thread of
agreement that there are observable similarities
and conformity of response in some of the
individuals tested. Recent research in the field
of music education done by Cutietta and Haggerty
(1987) supports the theory that people have color
preferences that they associate with a particular
selection of music. They had 1259 individuals
ranging in age from 18-78 to listen to three
selections of music. After each selection, the
listeners were asked to indicate on a color wheel
which color the music invoked. The results
indicated that some selections of music were
associated to a particular color in a large
percentage of the cases.
Many of the studies done in the field of colormusic synesthesia have been of a correlations,
observational, or subjective nature. The purpose
of the present study was to examine synesthesia
from an empirical foundation. This was attempted
by using the music as interference in a match to
sample color choice task. Interference effects
refer to the type of forgetting that occurs when
new information interferes with the retaining of
old information in short term memory (Matlin,
1983). The present attempted to determine whether
there was an increase in the Tate of errors when
the music and colors are mismatched as to there
type of color preferences. This type of result
would provide evidence for the existence
of color-
music synesthesia.
Method
Subjects
The participants consisted of 63 undergraduate
students enrolled at Algoma University.
There
Synesthes z a
were 19 males and 48 females ranging in age from 18
to 48, with a median age of
Material
5roup , of subjects were asked to perform a
,,,
match to sample discrimination task involving
various colored stimuli, while exposed to three
different selections of music. This music was the
same three selections used in the Cutietta and
Haggerty (1987) study of color and music
associations where they found a level of agreement
on which selection of music was most often
associated with specific colors. The three musical
selections used were (1) Gustav Holst's Suite Nn.1
in Eb, third movement, "March", measures 1-36,
c:n
Modest Moussorosky's Pictures at an Exhibition,
fourth movement, "Bydio", measures 1-20, and (3)
George Frideric Handel's Music for the Royal
Fireworks, "Bouree", measures 11-26. These musical
excerpts were used because they possessed three
distinct musical qualities, the selections bein
"majestic", the second was "plodding and laboring",
and the last "lively and dance-like" (flutfta &
Haggerty, 1987).
i .1
The colored stimuli were projected on a viewing
screen by means of a standard Kodak 4600 slide
projector and the use of different colored Lee
Filters which are standardized colored theatrical
gels. Three basic colors were presented in this
task, blue-violet, red, and yellow.
Procedu e
In half of the 180 trial conditions, the target
color and the two color choices were presented
simultaneously for 3 seconds followed by a 3 second
delay. In the remaining 90 trials, the target
color was presented for 1 second, followed by a 2
second display of the color choices with one
matching the target stimulus. The trials were
randomized as to the order of presentation of
simultaneous or delayed conditions, color, and
musical selections. The subjects were given 60
match to sample color tasks for each musical
selection. Each of the musical selections were 30
seconds in length, with 5 match to sample tasks,
taking 6 seconds each, were presented within each
selection. The subjects were presented with same
10 color pairings of match to sample tasks for each
selection of music as shown in Figure 1.
Insert Figure 1 about here
Subjects were given a response sheet and they were
ask e d to indicate their sex and age. During the
testing procedure they were asked to check in the
boxes provided, whether the right or left color was
the correct match to the target color presented.
Results
In the initial examination of the mean error
rates for the simultaneous and the delayed
conditions indicate an increase in fhic=
,
rate of
error across all the color trials in the delayed
condition as shown in Figure 2. This indicates
that the subjects found it more difficult to make
correct choices due to the delayed condition.
13
Insert Figure 2 about here
The error rate for the simultaneous condition
seemed to remain constant across all the different
colors and music selections, Figure 3 shows the
consistency of the error rate. This implies that
subjects had little difficulty making the correct
Insert Figure 3 about here
color choice when the target color and the sample
colors were reviewed together, with the music
having little influence.
In the delayed color
presentation situation the error rate tended to
fluctuate more in the 'areas of similar and
dissimilar in the two color groups. These
variations in the error rate were not consistent as
shown in Figure 4, in one color area there was
Insert Figure 4 about here
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the expected results occurred with more errors
happening in the matched music and color
than in the mismatched color-music combinations.
A repeated measures analysis of varianc
e
revealed two significant main effects. The first
was the manipulation of the conditions of
presentation of the colored stimuli into
a
simultaneous and delayed, F (1,62) = 132.99,
<.001, and the second being that there was a
variation in the error rate in the three different
types of music presented, F
(2, 124) = 7.74,
a:(.001. Interaction effects were found in
examining the difference in the conditions and type
of music, F (2, 124) = 401, a<.05. There was also
significant differences found on the basis of
whether or not the music matched or did not match
the particular color it was presented with F (2,
124) = 35.86, a<.001. Other interaction eff
e cts
were revealed in the analysis of the presentation
condition X matched music and color X variations in
the music, F (2, 124) = 63.39, p:(.001.
The analysis of variance revealed several
interesting facts. There was a difference in the
16
number of errors in the simultaneous versus the
delayed condition, this in its self is not too
surprising being that the simultaneous color
presentation seemed easier than the delayed
condition because it required little memory work.
The analysis also revealed that there was a
difference in error rates for the three selections
of music. This is interesting because all three
selections of music were presented with the same
ten color discrimination tasks, the only difference
being the order of presentation. Whether or not
the music matched the color was another area of
significance, but this statistic is difficult to
interpret because some of the variation in the
error rate occurred in both the matched and nonmatched music situations. This variation does not
show that a consistent change in the error rate was
due to matched and non-matched music.
Discussion
Interpreting the results of this study was
difficult due to inconsistencies of the error rate
in both the matching and non-matching color music
combination. Some music based effect did occur but
17
they were not consistent. The three diff e rent
types of music did have an influence on the error
rate, but because each type
of music influenced it
differently this makes it the re s ults difficult to
interpret. Subjects in this study may have been
influenced by personal music preferences which in
turn may have influenced the amount of interference
incurred by each individual.
The variability that occurred in this study has
some interesting implications as to the nature of
psychological processes involved in synesthesia.
There may be considerable variability in each
individual's synesthetic ability. The difference
in error rate may have been caused by each
individual attending to a different quality in the
music, such as pitch or rhythm.
Any further studies attempted in this area
should try to incorporate larger subject groups to
help rule out individual differences that may sway
the out come of a repeated study. Another area of
study in the field of synesthesia is the level of
consistency of response. It may be interesting to
find out whether or not individual's color response
Synesthesi
1.8
remains consistent over long periods of time. It
may also be beneficial in future studies to examine
individual, sex and age related differences in
color-music matching preferences. Dividing subjects
into such groups may reveal that different age and
sex groups may reveal that different age and sex
groups are influenced differently by the music.
Synesthesia is an elusive phenomenon that is
some what easy to some what easy to understand but
difficult to capture, it appears in our everyday
language in numerous instances such as, golden
music and dark sounds. Even though examples of
synesthesia are numerous it still lacks hard
consistent evidence.
19
References
Cufietta, P.A., Hacigerty,K.J. (19,97). A comparative
study of color association with music at various
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21
Figure Captions
Figure
1 Number of stimuli presentations for both
the simultaneous and delayed conditions.
_
Figure 2 Mean error rates in the simultaneous and
delayed conditions.
Eigure „7: . Mean error rates for matched and non.
.
matched music and color.
Fi .gw-g_11
Mean error rates for the matched and non-
matched music and color.
30
RED
30
BLUE
30
YELLOW
MARCH
10
10
10
LABORIOUS
10
10
10
DANCE
10
10
10
3.0 —
or
SIMULTANEOUS
7)
DELAYED
2.5
Mean 2.0
Errors
1 .5
1.0
0.5
0.0
BLUE
YELLOW
L'IMUL7ANEOUS CONDITION
Similar Color and Music
Dissimilar Color and Music
1.4
1 .2
1.0
Mean
Errors 0 8
.
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
RED
MARCH
RED OTHER
BLUE
BLUE
LABOR- OTHER
IOUS
YELLOW YELLOW
DANCE
OTHER
DELAYED CONDITION
Similar Color and Music
Dissimilar Color and Music
3.0 —
2.5 —
2 —
Mean 2.0
Errors
1.5 —
1.0 —
0.5 —
0.0
RED
MARCH
RED
OTHER
BLUE
BLUE
LABOR- OTHER
IOUS
YELLOW YELLOW
DANCE
OTHER