Billy Budd and Capital Punishment: A Tale of Three Centuries

Billy Budd and Capital Punishment: A Tale of Three Centuries
Author(s): H. Bruce Franklin
Source: American Literature, Vol. 69, No. 2 (Jun., 1997), pp. 337-359
Published by: Duke University Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2928274
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H. Bruce
Franklin
ATaleof
Punishment:
BuddandCapital
Billy
ThreeCenturies
H
literature
generated
as anyworkofAmerican
thanHerman
hostileinterpretation
and mutually
moreantithetical
Melville'sBillyBudd,Sailor?Andall thebattlesaboutthemoraland
politicalvisionat theheartofthetaleswirlaroundonequestion:Are
we supposedto admireor condemnCaptainVereforhis decisionto
astonish1 Somehow,
sentenceBillyBuddtodeathbypublichanging?
inglyenough,nobodyseemstohavenoticedthatcentraltothestory
anditshistory.
is thesubjectofcapitalpunishment
thefirstnumber
This is trueevenin thetenessays constituting
which
was
devotedtoBilly
Law
and
Cardozo
Studies
in
Literature,
of
RichardH. Weisberg-it
Buddbecause-in thewordsoflawprofessor
"2 The closest
is "thetextthathas cometo'mean'Law andLiterature.
intheseessaysorelsewiththeissueofcapitalpunishment
encounter
JudgeRichardA. Posner
wherecomesfromWeisberg'santagonist,
oftheUnitedStatesCourtofAppealsfortheSeventhCircuit(anda
Vere's
thosewho"condemn
"newcritic"),whocondemns
self-styled
withauthority,
conduct"as mere"liberals"whoare "uncomfortable
("mostlitandhatecapitalpunishment"
authority,
military
including
the
to
judge,"we
erarycriticsare liberals,"addsPosner).According
intoa
aboutcapitalpunishment
mustnotreadmoderncompunctions
a century
ago."3
storywritten
thestoryYetduringtheveryyearsthatMelvillewas composing
attention
was focusedonthe
1886to 1891-nationalandinternational
in
battleovercapitalpunishment
unfolding
climaxofa century-long
theveryplacewhereMelvillewas living-NewYorkState.Whyhave
so obvious?Is it because we ignorethe
we overlookedsomething
C) 1997by Duke
Volume69, Number2, June1997.Copyright
American
Literature,
Press.
University
Literature
338 American
including
century,
in the nineteenth
historyof capitalpunishment
Or havewe,whohave
influence
on Americanculture?4
itsprofound
WarII cultureof
thisstorywithinthepost-World
been scrutinizing
tothe
becomedesensitized
century,
thesecondhalfofthetwentieth
to nineteenth-century
oftheissuethatwereso manifest
implications
BillyBuddwithinthe
In anycase, ifwe do contextualize
Americans?
and its bizarreoutcomein
Americanhistoryofcapitalpunishment
NewYorkStateduringtheyears1886to 1891,thestorytransforms
beforeoureyes.
in1891,whenMelvillewrote"End
IfBillyBuddhadbeenpublished
fewreadersat thetime
ofBook"on thelastleafofthemanuscript,
thatthe debatethenragingabout
couldhave failedto understand
andtothesereadersthe
was centralto thestory,
capitalpunishment
and
story'spositioninthatdebatewouldhaveappearedunequivocal
BillyBuddderivesin partfromtheAmericanmoveunambiguous.
It dramatizeseach ofthe crucial
mentagainstcapitalpunishment.
Andit bringsintovivid
and conceptsofthatmovement.
arguments
debate:Whichoffenses,
focusthekeyissuesofthecontemporaneous
serve
Does capitalpunishment
ifany,shouldcarrythedeathpenalty?
What
to killingor as an exemplary
modelforkilling?
as a deterrent
ofpublicexecutions?
Is hanginga methodofexecuare theeffects
tionappropriate
to a civilizedsociety?Is an impulsiveact ofkilling
more-or less-reprehensiblethanthe apparently
by an individual
essencalmlyreasonedact ofjudicialkilling?Is capitalpunishment
A
An
ofthepowerofthestate? ritualsacrifice?
tiallya manifestation
A keycomponent
ofthe cultureof
ofclass oppression?
instrument
onall sidesofthedebateseemedtoagreeon
militarism?
Participants
inthehistory
moment
ofcapionlyonething:thatthemostappalling
wasthereignofGeorgeIII
talpunishment
withinmoderncivilization
inEngland.
forhisdrumwhomCaptainVerehashandpicked
Whentheofficers
to convictBillyand sentencehimto
head courtappearreluctant
thattheyowetheir
reminds
thesesubordinates
death,Vereforcefully
"'allegiance"'notto "'Nature,"'their"'hearts,"'or their"'private
to "'the King"' and his "'imperial[conconscience,"'butentirely
in thecode underwhichalonewe officially
proscience]formulated
ceed."'"
The time is 1797, the king is George III, and the code
to whichVere referswas knownin the nineteenth
centuryas the
"BloodyCode."
BillyBuddandCapitalPunishment339
crimeshad
Duringthe reignsof the Tudorsand Stuarts,fifty
and morewere slowlyadded.The most
carriedthe deathpenalty,
increasecamelater,duringthereignofGeorgeIII, when
spectacular
statutes.6
By the
wereappendedto the death-penalty
sixtyoffenses
GeorgeIII's BloodyCode had
century,
last thirdofthe nineteenth
bothin Englandand
repudiatedand condemned,
been universally
ragedwhileMelAs thebattleagainstcapitalpunishment
America.7
BillyBudd,partisanson bothsides agreedthat
villewas composing
one ofthe
constituted
mostofthecode'scapitaloffenses
eliminating
inhumanprogress.Notsurprisingly,
notableachievements
century's
ofthedeathpenaltycitedtheGeorgiancode as barbaric
opponents
Forexample,a
century.
and anachronistic,
evenforthe eighteenth
justice"as "a scanto"Georgian
1889articlereferred
widelyreprinted
" andagreedwithMirabeau'sverdaltotherestofthecivilizedworld,
dictatthetimethat"'The Englishnationis themostmercilessofany
thatI haveheardorreadof. "18Evenadvocatesofcapitalpunishment
outthat
theBloodyCode,pointing
theprogress
awayfrom
celebrated
in Englandhad been reducedto
bytheearly1880scapitaloffenses
noneofwhichincluded"crimes
murder,
"threeclasses"ofdeliberate
suddenpassion,
undercircumstances
ofgreatexcitement,
committed
"9Articlesfavoring
publisheddurcapitalpunishment
orprovocation.
"be
ingthelate1880sarguedthatthedeathpenaltyshouldcertainly
malice
a
sane
with
perto murdercommitted
by
prepense,
restricted
10
ofanotherfelony."
son,in resistingarrest,or in the commission
is chargednotwithmurder
butwithstriking
BillyBudd,remember,
ingrade'"; "'Apartfrom
itseffect
theblowitselfis,'" as
"'his superior
under
the
crime"'
ArticlesofWarof
Vere
"'a
states, capital
Captain
theGeorgiancode (272).Nobodyontheshipbelievesthesailoracted
but
ormalicious-muchless murderous-intent,
withpremeditation
the courtthattheymustdisregardall questionsof
Vere instructs
intent(274).
In themidstoftheAmericanRevolution
againstGeorgeIII's imtoabolishcapitalpunishment
perialregimethereweresomeattempts
ThomasJefferandtreason.Forexample,
forallcrimesexceptmurder
son and fourotherVirginialegislatorsdraftedsuch a law in early
until1785,whenitwas defeatedbya
1777,butitwas notconsidered
one-vote
marginintheHouseofDelegates.1"
The mostinfluential
legalactcamein 1794,threeyearsbeforethe
becamethefirst
actionofBillyBudd,whenthestateofPennsylvania
Literature
340 American
Capiintolawtheinnovative
tocodify
conceptof"degrees"ofmurder.
defined
the
"first
degree,"
tomurder
in
was restricted
talpunishment
"12 Two yearslater,
deliberateand premeditated
killing.
as "wilful,
thirteen
to
ofcapitalcrimesfrom
NewYorkStatereducedthenumber
as a punwhipping
two-murderandtreason-whilealso abolishing
In theensuingdecades,stateafterstatein
ishmentforanycrime.13
andNewYorkin
theleadofPennsylvania
theNorthandWestfollowed
of
forcompleteabolition
andthemovement
capitaloffenses,
reducing
intothe1850s.Mainein
gainedmomentum
thedeathpenaltysteadily
onall executions;
in 1849passedmoratoria
1837andNewHampshire
Massachusettslimitedthe deathpenaltyto firstdegreemurderin
votedtoabolishthedeath
1852;andonehouseofthestatelegislature
(1853).Capipenaltyin Ohio (1850),Iowa (1851),and Connecticut
in Michigan(1846),Rhode
was abolishedaltogether
talpunishment
Island(1852),andWisconsin(1853).14
were
ofthesurgingcampaignforabolition
Amongthechampions
manyofthe republic'sculturalleaders,such as HenryWadsworth
JohnQuincyAdams,Lydia
JohnGreenleafWhittier,
Longfellow,
Maria Child,TheodoreParker,MargaretFuller,and HenryWard
Beecher.The twogreatnewspapersofNewYorkCitywerefordeWilliam
ofcapitalpunishment,
opponents
cades editedbyprominent
Post(1829-1878)andHorace
CullenBryantoftheNewYorkEvening
(1841-1872).15
GreeleyoftheNewYorkTribune
GeorgeIII's BloodyCode had itsdisIn theslaveSouth,however,
inthemyriadofoffenses
definedas
Americancounterpart
tinctively
as an instrument
byslaves.Capitalpunishment
capitalifcommitted
moreblatantly,
an
has neverbeen demonstrated
ofclass oppression
intheanti-death-penalty
literature.
Forexmadefrequently
argument
minister
CharlesSpearofMassachusetts
ample,in 1844Universalist
ofcapital
citedthelawsoftheSouthas examplesoftheclasscontent
andreasonsforitstotalabolition.
Georgiahad a mandapunishment
crimes:"Rapeon a freewhite
torydeathsentenceforthefollowing
to murder,
freewhitefemalewithintent
female,ifa slave.Assaulting
containedin penal
ifa slave. Burglaryor arsonof anydescription
code ofstate,ifa slave.Murderofa slaveor freepersonofcolor,if
a slave."916
On theotherhand,a whitemanin Georgiaconvictedof
rapinga slavewomanorfreewomanofcolorfaceda fineand/orimInAlabama,Spearnoted,
at thediscretion
ofthecourt.17
prisonment,
BillyBuddandCapitalPunishment341
it was nota capitalcrimeto killa black,buttherewas a mandatory
orattempt
tokillanywhite
"Murder,
fortheseoffenses:
deathpenalty
ifa slave,freenegroormulatto.
to commit,
person.Rape,orattempt
ArBurglary.
againstthewhiteinhabitants.
or rebellion
Insurrection
son.Accessary[sic] to anyoftheabovecrimes."Missouriprovided
rape
or freecoloredperson"committing
thatany"negro,mulatto,
Virginiahad seventy-one
wouldbe executedbymeansofcastration.
forslavesbutnotforwhites.These
crimesthatwerecapitaloffenses
a horsethief,
stealinga horseorharboring
forgery,
includedburglary,
ofmoneyor
firetoanystackorcockofwheat," theft
"wilfully
setting
" andofcourserapingorattempting
goods"ofthevalueoffourdollars,
In 1848,Virginia
passeda newstatuterequirtorapea whitewoman.18
thatwas punishable
ingthedeathpenaltyforblacksforanyoffense
if
committed
bywhites.19
three
or
more
imprisonment
years
by
inthe
ofcapitalpunishment
was alsomanifest
The politicalcontent
ofslavery.Pre-CivilWar
the institution
legal codes thatsupported
sentenceof deathforanyperson
NorthCarolinahad a mandatory
orfor"circulatguiltyofconcealinga slavewithintentto freehim20
Georgia
amongslaves,secondoffence."21
ingseditiouspublications
insurrectionary
deathpenaltyfor"Circulating
imposeda mandatory
Misorfreeperson."22
papers,eitherbya white,a negro,mustizzo,
executionfor"Excitinginsurrection
sourilaw requiredmandatory
Louisianahad a mandatory
amongslaves,freeblacks,ormulattoes."
foranyoneguiltyof"writings
ofa seditiousnature."23
deathpenalty
to abolthrough
theCivilWar,themovement
Fromthemid-1850s
against
by the movement
ish the deathpenaltywas overwhelmed
Whenrevivedinthelate1860s,theanti-capital-punishment
slavery.24
movement
oftenseemedto its adherentsto be partof inexorable
globalprogress.By 1889theycouldcite the abolitionofthe death
by law or in practice,in Holland,Finland,Belgium,Pruspenalty,
To maximizeshockvalue,they
andRumania.25
Tuscany,
sia,Portugal,
oftenfocusedonwhatmanyregardedas themostbarbaricaspectsof
andhanging.
as practiced:
publicexecution
capitalpunishment
to CaptainVere's
whichareintegral
Publicexecutionandhanging,
for
the
of
necessity killingBillyBudd,playeda complex
arguments
As abocentury.
roleinthedebatesofthelastthirdofthenineteenth
emphasizedthegrotesqueand sordidspectaclesofpublic
litionists
whosaw
theyoftenplayedintothehandsofretentionists,
hangings,
342 American
Literature
forpreserving
thedeathpenalty
layincleansthattheirbeststrategy
ing it of the featuresalmostuniversally
condemnedas loathsome
remnants
ofa savagepast.26
Between1833and1849,fifteen
statesabolishedpublicexecutions,27
was unstoppable
andthemovement
tobanishthepracticealtogether
theend ofthe
in thepostwardecades.Fromthelate 1860sthrough
andreformist
century,
hangingbecamethefocalpointofabolitionist
and New YorkStatebecame the pivotalbattleground.
arguments,
In his 1869Putnam'sarticle"The Gallowsin America,"Edmund
ClarenceStedman(whowas to becomeMelville'smostenthusiastic
dwellson the
patronduringtheperiodofBillyBudd'scomposition)
horrorsofhangingto convincereaders,especiallyin New York,to
"LettheEmpireState"joinMichiabolishthedeathpenaltyentirely.
in
ten
Stedmandeclares,"andwithin
gan endingcapitalpunishment,
the gallowswillbe banishedfromeveryStatein
yearsthereafter
thatthrough"newscienthe Union."28
Althoughhe acknowledges
some"painlessmodeofkilling
maybe discovered,
tificknowledge"
as by an electricshock,"the movement
againstthe deathpenalty
is growing"so rapidlythatthereis smalllikelihoodofits modificationbynewforms."29
Stedmandidnotforeseehowone ofthemost
Americantechnological
and
bizarrechaptersin nineteenth-century
culturalhistory-the"BattleoftheCurrents"-would
helppreserve
inNewYorkandmuchofthenationdeepintothe
capitalpunishment
twentieth
century.
In theearly1880sThomasAlvaEdisonandhisEdisonCorporation
theemerging
electrification
ofurbanAmerica,especially
dominated
in the New YorkCityarea. Edison,however,
was obsessivelycomtodirectcurrent
transmitted
(DC), whichcouldnotbe economically
mitted
morethana mileortwo.In 1886GeorgeWestinghouse's
newly
Electricaland Manufacturing
Company
incorporated
Westinghouse
current(AC) generating
placedintooperationthe firstalternating
thatAC couldbe transmitted
overgreat
stationand demonstrated
CivilWarheroGeneralNewtonCurtis,elected
distances.Meanwhile,
to theNewYorkAssemblyin 1884,had launcheda majorcampaign
In 1885Governor
to abolishthe deathpenaltyin NewYorkState.30
DavidHill,anxioustopreservecapitalpunishment
whilerecognizing
the prevalent
revulsionagainsthangingas a "remnant
ofthe dark
to createa commission
to exploreways
ages," askedthelegislature
ofcarrying
manner.
'31
outthedeathpenalty"ina less barbarous
BillyBuddandCapitalPunishment343
with
movedintodirectcompetition
In early1887Westinghouse
Edisonin New YorkCity,touchingoffthe Battleofthe Currents.32
Edison'sstrategy
was to convincethepublicthatAC was toodangercamous fordomesticuse. So in 1887he begana gruesomepublicity
from
theNewYorknewspapers,
particularly
paign,inviting
reporters,
ofcats,dogs,calves,and
towitnesstheatrically
stagedelectrocutions
horses.Edisonevenmanagedto get themembersoftheNewYork
and Reportthe MostHumaneand
StateCommission
to Investigate
intoEffectthe SentenceofDeath to
PracticalMethodofCarrying
Edison'smain
ofneighborhood
dogs.33
attendhis AC electrocution
whopretended
tobe actingindewas oneHaroldP. Brown,
operative
evenaftertheNewYorkSun printeda seriesofforty-five
pendently
lettersbetweenBrownand Edison,as well as betweenBrownand
In 1888Brownstagedat
thecompaniescovertly
actingforEdison.34
ColumbiaCollege'sSchoolofMinesan especiallycruelexecutionof
whattheNew YorkHeraldcalled"a largemongrelNewfoundland";
theshowproducedsensational
accountsintheNewYorkdailiesand
withNew
conspiring
Brownwas secretly
evena ballad.35
Meanwhile,
AC
to purchasethreeWestinghouse
YorkStateprisonauthorities
and set themup in prisonsto be wiredto a proposed
generators
"electricchair."36
The objectwas to arrangeforhumanexecutions
thepoputobe conducted
withAC,thusterrorizing
byelectrocution
technology.
lationaboutthelethalmenaceposedbyWestinghouse's
felons
to Edisonandhiscohort,condemned
Fromnowon,according
Brownconcludeda selfwouldnotbe hangedbut"Westinghoused."37
American
Reviewwiththesewords:
serving1889articleintheNorth
"strenuous
efforts
havebeenmadeto befogthepublicmindin order
forthedeath-penalty,
lest
theuse ofthealternating
current
toprevent
thepublicshouldlearnitsdeadlynatureanddemandthattheLegisthusendingtheterrible,
laturebanishitfromstreetsandbuildings,
ofunoffending
men.
"^38
needlessslaughter
New YorkCity'snewspaperschargedintothe Battleofthe Currents.The New YorkEveningPost,no longereditedby ardentfoe
ofcapitalpunishment
WilliamCullenBryant,
favoredelectrocution.
andNewYorkTimeswerebothzealousallies
The NewYorkTribune
The Timesin 1887
ofcapitalpunishment.39
ofEdisonand defenders
in favorof replacinghanging-whichit characterized
editorialized
whichit envisioned
as so
as sheer"barbarity"-with
electrocution,
iturged"theState
quickanddeadlyas to be a formof"euthanasia";
344 American
Literature
to substitute
a civilizedfora
ofNewYorkto be thefirstcommunity
barbarousmethodofinflicting
andto set an excapitalpunishment,
"40 When
theworld.
amplewhichis sureofbeingfollowed
throughout
inJanuary
theNewYorkStateCommission
1888reported,
tonoone's
in favorofelectrocution,
the Tribune
and Timespresented
surprise,
therecommendation
as majorandwelcomenews.Besidestheirnews
editorialsextolling
eleccoverage,bothpapershad daysoflengthy
The Tribune
trocution.
declaredthatelectrocution
wouldbe "a step
In anothereditorialthesame day,
towardhumanity
and decency."'41
the Tribuneevokedthe almostuniversalrepugnance
againsthangindesiring
ing:"TheAmerican
peoplearepractically
unanimous
that
thepresentcruelandclumsymethodofexecutionshallbe relegated
"42 Bothnewspapers
ofpunishment.
amongtheotherbarbarisms
also
thatall executionsbe heldwithin
approvedoftherecommendation
withthenumber
thewallsofa prison,
ofwitnesses-alltobe selected
totwelve.The onlycaveats,expressed
byprisonauthorities-limited
recommendations
bybothpapers,had to do withtheCommission's
thattheexecutedperson'sbodyshould"in no case be deliveredto
and thatanynewspaper
anyrelativeor otherpersonwhatsoever"
an accountofan executionotherthan"thestatement
publishing
of
thefactthatsuchconvictwas on thedayin questiondulyexecuted
tolawat theprison"wouldbe "guilty
ofa misdemeanor.
"43
according
The Timescommended
theintentoftheseprohibitions,
whichwas
tokeeptheexecutedcriminal
frombecoming"a hero"ofthemasses
withcrimeas wasfurnished
andprevent
"sucha displayofsympathy
inChicago." The editorialist
oftheAnarchists
bythefuneral
argued,
thatto "makea mystery"
ofan executionsuchas thatof
however,
wouldbe "proceeding
"theChicagoAnarchists"
toomuchintheline
ofa despoticGovernment
tobe acceptablehere."44
Duringthe nexttwoand a halfyearsNew Yorkwas embroiled
in legal suitsand politicalmaneuvering
thatbroughtnationaland
worldwide
to itsstruggles
withtheissue ofcapitalpunishattention
ment.LawyersforWilliamKemmler,
theintended
victimofthefirst
went
to
court
this
and unusualpunto
"cruel
electrocution,
prevent
ishment."Edisonmergedhis companyintoGeneralElectric,partly
to fightthelegal suitsfiledbyWestinghouse
to keep its equipment
frombeingused to electrocute
Kemmler.
GeneralCurtissubmitted
his secondAssemblybillto outlawcapitalpunishment.
The Tribune
and the Timesnowbeganto impugnGeneralCurtis'smotives,im-
BillyBuddandCapitalPunishment345
plyingthathe was actingmerelyas a bribedagentofWestinghouse
yearslateras a memberofCongressto
byhisefforts
(chargesrefuted
abolishthedeathpenaltyforthewholenation).The personalattacks
was
whenhisbillto abolishcapitalpunishment
on Curtisgotfiercer
1
a
vote
of
74
1890
by
passed by the New YorkAssemblyon May
to29.45
bytheStateSenate.Alltherecapproved
The billwasnot,however,
criminal
penalties
oftheStateCommission-including
ommendations
unchalbecame
the
of
executions-now
forpublishing
descriptions
lengedlawofNewYorkState.So on6 August1890,WilliamKemmler
civilizedformofexecution
by
victimofthemodern,
becamethefirst
electricity.
earlierpromised
bythe
The spectaclewas hardlythe"euthanasia"
dayviolated
page oftheTimesthefollowing
Times.Indeed,thefront
bypublishKemmler'selectrocution
theverylawthathad mandated
that"placed
circumstances"
of"themostrevolting
inga description
thatwas a disoftheStateofNewYorkan execution
tothediscredit
in
The witnesses,"meneminent scienceand
graceto civilization."
"nauseated"bythegoryspectacle
in medicine,"
wereso physically
warsay thatthissingleexperiment
that"theyalmostunanimously
repealofthelaw."The articleendedbynotingthat
rantstheprompt
thewitnessesall acted"as thoughtheyfeltthattheyhad takenpart
in a scene thatwouldbe toldto the worldas a publicshame,as a
"46
legalcrime.
selectedto conducttheautopsyon
Oneoftheattending
physicians
appealto abolKemmlerpublishedin October1890an impassioned
openingwithan evocationofthe"world-wide
ish thedeathpenalty,
detailsofthedeath
intheexecution:
"Whentheharrowing
interest"
and
wiresofthecountry,
chamberweretingledalongthetelegraph
thecable,theentirecivilized
through
theirimpulseswerethrobbed
In an influential
worldviewedthe scene withastonishedhorror."47
1891,
to warpublishedinJanuary
capitalpunishment
volumelinking
as
AndrewPalmnotedthattheKemmlerexecutionwas "denounced
etc. Englishedia disgraceto humanity,
brutal,atrocious,
horrible,
on thisside ofthe
torswerejustas muchshockedas theirbrethren
senta
execution
thatKemmler's
oneLondondailydeclaring
Atlantic,
"148
aroundtheglobe.
thrillofhorror
Itwas inthiscontextthatMelvillecomposedBillyBudd,whichhe
afterKemmbeganin1886andconcludedinApril1891,eightmonths
Literature
346 American
whoalmostuniMelville'scontemporaries,
Although
ler'sexecution.
mighthave shudderedat CaptainVere's
hanging,
versallyabhorred
decisionthatBilly"'musthang"' (232),the storyis
instantaneous
frombeinga signifitokeepthemeansofexecution
crafted
carefully
cantissue.
Whenhe is hanged,Billyevincesnoneofthehideousagoniesfamiliar to the crowdsat publichangingsand describedwithsickening
detailincountlessnineteenth-century
essaysandbooks.Thereis not
muscular
ejaculation.
spasmorinvoluntary
eventhealmostinvariable
death
insertedbetweenBilly'stranscendent
Chapter26,obtrusively
and the sailors'reaction,is devotedto a discussionofthisperfect
must
lack of motion.The pursersuggeststhatthis"'singularity"'
In
"'will
be attributed
to Billy's
power."' thesurgeon'sresponsewe
in Melville'sNewYork
can heara parodyofthedebatetranspiring
wayto killa person:"'In a
aboutthe mosthumaneand scientific
conducted-andunderspecialordersI myself
hangingscientifically
following
directedhow Budd'swas to be effected-anymovement
inthebodysuspended,
such
andoriginating
thecomplete
suspension
Then
system.
movement
indicatesmechanical
spasminthemuscular
to willpower,as youcall
theabsenceofthatis no moreattributable
to thepurserthatthis
Admitting
to
(321-22).
horsepower"'
it,than
"'muscularspasm"' is almost"'invariable,"'the surgeonacknowlpretendto account"'
edges,"'I do not,withmypresentknowledge,
thatat the
foritsabsence:"'Even shouldwe assumethehypothesis
by
firsttouchofthehalyardstheactionofBudd'sheart,intensified
stopped-muchlikea
emotionat its climax,abruptly
extraordinary
thus
itup youstrainat thefinish,
watchwhenin carelesslywinding
howaccountforthe
thechain-evenunderthathypothesis
snapping
(323).
thatfollowed?"'
phenomenon
"
bythehalter,
The purserthenasks, 'wastheman'sdeatheffected
or was it a speciesofeuthanasia?"'"'Euthanasia,"'repliesthesuras a scientific
term"'(324).Though
geon,has dubious" 'authenticity
it may outwardly
resemblethe "euthanasia"the New YorkTimes
forelectrocution,
Billy'sdeathbyhanging
haderroneously
predicted
but
understanding
notonlythesurgeon'sscientific
clearlytranscends
swirling
also thedebateaboutthemodalitiesofcapitalpunishment
ofthestory.
aroundthecomposition
relevant
toBillyBuddarethetermsofthedebate
Moreprofoundly
issueofcapitalpunishment
itself.Indeed,the
aboutthefundamental
thestory.
essenceoftheissuestructures
347
Punishment
BillyBuddandCapital
Onecomesfrom
aboardH.M.S.Bellipotent.
Wewitnesstwokillings
theimpulsive,
involuntary
fatalblowBillyBuddstrikesto theforehead ofClaggart.The blowis partlyin responseto CaptainVere's
VererecBilly,"'Defendyourself!"'
exhortation
to thestammering
ognizesthatClaggarthas been "'Struckdead byan angelofGod!"'
thatBillyactedwithandhe andhisdrumhead
courtall acknowledge
oranymurderous
intent.
The otherkillingis
outmalice,forethought,
andby
carriedoutundercoveroflaw,afterreasonedargumentation,
theagencyofCaptainVereandhisofficers.
thestateactingthrough
murder?
Buddis notevenacWhichofthesetwoactsconstitutes
the
cused ofmurder.
One questionthatunderlies twentieth-century
to
thisway:Does itconform
discussionofVere's
actmightbe framed
inthe"first
definition
ofmurder
degree,"that
the1794Pennsylvania
killing"?
andpremeditated
deliberate
is,"wilful,
Thisis precisely
thewaytheargument
againstcapitalpunishment
The factthathangwasframed
duringtheyearsMelvillewaswriting.
ings were conductedby the stateundercoverof law did not,to
Inofthedeathpenalty,
absolvethemfrom
beingmurders.
opponents
deed,thetermswidelyusedforthesekillingswere"legalmurders,"
The following
commentaries,
and"murder
bylaw."49
"legalkilling,"
publishedin 1890,could applydirectlyto the twokillingson the
Bellipotent:
circumstances
[W]hena criminalis judged,all the extenuating
Werethisruleobserved,
thevicshallbe takenintoconsideration.
timofthelaw wouldseldomappearin so bad a lightas thegovthethought:
a
thatpassedthesentence.Let me illustrate
ernment
inturnsentencestheman
thegovernment
mancommits
a murder:
to death.Herewe havetwopartieswhohavepresumedto takea
human life....
[T]he question now arises, upon the shouldersof
There
guilt?A mostsolemnthought.
whichpartyreststhegreatest
inthefirst
butwhat
circumstances
aremanyextenuating
instance,
50
ofthegovernment?
canbe saidinjustification
inanyform
a relic
administered
is essentially
[C]apitalpunishment
ofa barbarousage.... [T]he Statealwaysactswithcoolnessand
whileninety
slaytheirfellowdeliberation,
percent.ofherchildren
ofpassion.51
meninthefrenzy
CaptainVerehasalreadydecidedthatBilly"'musthang"'
Although
he handbeforehe conveneshis drumheadcourt,thethreeofficers
Literature
348 American
toconvictandsentencetheHandsomeSailor.
picksarequitereluctant
and,
In thetrial,duringwhichVereactsas sole witness,prosecutor,
ofthejury,he findsitnecessarytooverwhelm
ultimately,
commander
One is precisely
witha delugeofarguments.
his threesubordinates
thattheymust"'let notwarmheartsbetrayheads thatshouldbe
cool"' (270).52
whilestillin his role of witness
Vere makeshis firstargument
"'HithertoI havebeenbutthewit(thoughlaterhe tellstheofficers,
motive
ness,littlemore"'[265]):"'Quiteasidefromanyconceivable
oftheprovocation
to
and irrespective
actuating
themaster-at-arms,
theblow,a martialcourtmustneedsin thepresentcase confineits
to theblow'sconsequence,whichconsequencejustlyis to
attention
deed"' (256).Byarguthanas thestriker's
be deemednototherwise
his courtis notto
that
in
legalistic
phraseology,
such
ing,especially
or motive,Vereis underlining
circumstances
considerextenuating
The
injusticeoftheproceedings.
forreadersin 1891thefundamental
of"a prein fact,are disturbed
bythismanifestation
threeofficers,
" 'Budd's
onthespeaker'spart"(258).LaterVerereiterates,
judgment
tothepurpose"'(274).
is nothing
ornon-intent
intent
thatthe officers
As discussedearlier,Vere'sextendedargument
owe theirallegiancenot to "'Nature,"' their"'hearts,"' or their
"'privateconscience,"'but entirelyto King George III and his
proceed"'wouldto anylate"'code underwhichalonewe officially
reminder
ofthebarbaric
audiencebe an emphatic
nineteenth-century
BloodyCode forwhichVereis actingas agent.Vereinsists,in fact,
of
as agentsandinstruments
mustactmerely
thathe andhisofficers
"
not
Our
the
of
we
are
responsible.
thatlaw: 'Forthelawand rigor it,
thatlawmay
is in this:Thathoweverpitilessly
vowedresponsibility
we nevertheless
adheretoitandadminister
operateinanyinstances,
readers,thiswouldserveas a
it"' (270).To latenineteenth-century
ofGeorgianjusticefromwhich
reminder
ofthehorrors
conspicuous
had liberatedboththe UnitedStatesand
nine decades of reform
infact,defendsoneormoreofthe
Each ofVere'sarguments,
Britain.
thathadbeen
oftheGeorgiancode,features
mostegregiousfeatures
bylawinthosenineensuingdecades.
repudiated
may not consider
afterinsistingthathis officers
Immediately
Vere claimsthattheyare taking
"'Budd's intentor non-intent,"'
especiallyin lightof
too muchtime(a blatantly
speciousargument,
thetimelaterspentin theexecutionandburialrituals):"'strangely
349
Punishment
BuddandCapital
Billy
thatshouldbe summary-theenemymay
we prolongproceedings
result.We mustdo; and one oftwo
be sightedand an engagement
thingsmustwe do-condemnor let go"' (275). In response,the
who has not previouslysposailingmaster,the one trialofficer
"'Can we notconvictand yetmitigatethe
ken,asks "falteringly,"
penalty?"'(275).
for
Insistingthatthiswouldnot be "'lawful,"'Vere highlights
aspectsofthecode
condemned
readersone ofthemostuniversally
deathpenalties.Opponentsof
underwhichhe operates:mandatory
and
brutality
ofcoursefocusedon theinflexible
capitalpunishment
them,
crueltythuscodifiedintolaw and passingforjustice.Joining
however,were some of the mostardentdefendersof capitalpunwho were
ishment,includingmanyjudges and districtattorneys,
juriesthat-likethesailingmaster-would
encountering
continually
ratheracquitthanconsigna criminalto death.In the periodfrom
todiscretionary
frommandatory
1860to 1895,eighteenstatesshifted
the
usuallyciting reluctanceof
withlegislators
capitalpunishment,
incapitalpunishment.53
juriestoparticipate
shiftsfromall hisprevious
Atthispointin thetrial,Vereabruptly
werebasedonthepremisethathe andhisdrumarguments-which
underlaw,sentenceBillytodeath-totheargument
headcourtmust,
theyshouldhangBillyin a public
convinceshis officers:
thatfinally
us,is nottotheir
informs
"Hisclosingappeal," thenarrator
execution.
(280,italicsmine),and
as sea officers"
reasonbut"to theirinstinct
leasttothem.
thisis whatmakesitso convincing-at
themain
ofdeterrence,
Thisappealis basedsolelyonthedoctrine
thenineteenth
throughout
capitalpunishment
preserving
argument
vast
By thelate 1880s,however,
century.
(as wellas thetwentieth)
there
that
had
demonstrated
evidence
and
other
statistical
of
amounts
is littleifanyreasonablebasisforthebeliefthatcapitalpunishment
the
detersanyofthe crimesforwhichit is imposed.Nevertheless,
likeVere,tendedmoreandmoreto
defenders
ofcapitalpunishment,
ordainedby
thatitwasjust,fair,appropriate,
abandontheargument
in
its
valueas a
belief
God,et cetera,andmoreandmoreto relyon
to crime.Theyappealednotso muchto evidenceas to the
deterrent
and affluent
fearofviolentcrimewidespreadamongtheprivileged
classes,a fearwhichtheyofcourseencouraged.54
ofcapitalpunishment,
defender
nineteenth-century
Likethetypical
class
Vereappealstothefearofthefellowmembersofhisprivileged
Literature
350 American
as sea officers."
in otherwords,to "theirinstinct
on theBellipotent,
betweenthe deterdifference
There is, however,one fundamental
readersand Vere's
familiarto nineteenth-century
renceargument
was (andis) thatcapiargument
The customary
decisiveargument.
crimeby makingan example
detersthe particular
tal punishment
morecynical-isthathanging
Vere'sargument-far
ofthecriminal.
the
themand reinforce
BillyBudd beforethe crewwillintimidate
not
while
discipline"'exertedoverthembytheofficers,
"'arbitrary
Mutinyis thecrimeofwhich
hanginghimwouldencouragemutiny.
ClaggarthadfalselyaccusedBillyandofwhichVereandhisofficers
But,arguesVere," 'thepeople,"' becausethey
knowBillyis innocent.
thatmightqualify
responsiveness
"'have notthatkindofintelligent
willbelievethatBillyhas
and discriminate,"'
themto comprehend
" 'a flagrant
emulatehim
andwilltherefore
actofmutiny"'
committed
ifhe is notappropriately
punishedforit.Forreadersin 1891,Vere's
wouldseem so
officers,
so persuasiveto his subordinate
argument,
a parodyofthe
speciousandillogicalas to appearvirtually
obviously
forthesakeofdeterrence:
usualdefenseofcapitalpunishment
were thatclearlylawfulforus underthe circum"Gentlemen,
The people"
stances,considertheconsequencesofsuchclemency.
(meaningthe ship'scompany)"havenativesense; mostofthem
andhowwouldthey
withournavalusageandtradition;
arefamiliar
position
takeit?Evencouldyouexplaintothem-whichourofficial
not
that
have
molded
discipline,
arbitrary
by
long
forbids-they,
thatmightqualifythemto comresponsiveness
kindofintelligent
deed,
No,tothepeopletheforetopman's
prehendanddiscriminate.
willbe plainhomicide
howeveritbe wordedintheannouncement,
Whatpenaltyforthatshould
ina flagrant
actofmutiny.
committed
theywillruminate.
theyknow.Butit does notfollow.Why?
follow,
Youknowwhatsailorsare.Willtheyrevertto therecentoutbreak
alarm-thepanicit
at theNore?Ay.Theyknowthewell-founded
struckthroughout
England.Yourclementsentencetheywouldacthatwe are
countpusillanimous.
Theywouldthinkthatwe flinch,
dea lawfulrigorsingularly
afraidofthem-afraidofpracticing
What
lestitshouldprovokenewtroubles.
mandedat thisjuncture,
shameto us such a conjectureon theirpart,and how deadlyto
(276-78)
discipline.
BillyBuddandCapitalPunishment351
In otherwords,because"we" are afraidof"thepeople,""we" have
"they"wouldthink"we" are afraid
to hangBuddbecauseotherwise
of"them"!
articlepublishedin January1890,entitled"The
One influential
attacksVere'sfinalandmost
directly
CrimeofCapitalPunishment,"
to
killing... is donemerelyas a warning
argument-"legal
effective
exan
"an
afterthought,
andforthesafetyofsociety"-as
evil-doers
ofthepeopleis forcing
humanesentiment
whichthegrowing
planation
bylaw."55
whodefendandpractisemurder
fromthebarbarians
The same articlegoes on to focuson theroleoftheclergyin the
there
"Ateveryscaffold
ofcapitalpunishment:
actualadministration
unionofChurchand State.The Stateis
is a strangeand significant
The Churchis thereintheperthereinthepersonofthehangman.
sceneoftheState
It is theoldfamiliar
son ofthepriestor minister.
andorder,and
law
in
name
of
and
blood
the
deeds
of
violence
doing
seemstobe
"56 Melville
ofreligion.
andconcurrence
withthesanction
from
thispassage,ormanysimilaronesoftheperiod,in
extrapolating
toavertthe
tolift"a finger
inability
onthechaplain's
hiscommentary
and on his overallrole,
to martialdiscipline"
doomofsucha martyr
totheessentialpurposeoftheBellipotent:
whichlinkstheexecution
ofthePrinceofPeace serving
put,a chaplainis theminister
Bluntly
in thehostofthe God ofWar- Mars.As such,he is as incongruWhy,then,is
ous as a musketwouldbe on thealtarat Christmas.
subservesthepurposeattestedby
he there?Becausehe indirectly
ofthe
thecannon;becausetoohe lendsthesanctionofthereligion
but
of
is theabrogation everything
meekto thatwhichpractically
bruteForce.(312)
The responseofthecrewto Billy'sexecutionis a directrefutation
in whichhe suggestedto his offiofVere'sdeterrenceargument,
on theship.
was smoldering
mutiny
cersthatthethreatofimminent
itrevealsnotthe
thestoryis labeledan "InsideNarrative,"
Although
priorto Billy'sdeath.Discipline
hintofanysuchpossibility
faintest
is breachedonlyafterBilly'shangingand in responseto it,in the
midstofthe ritualsofthe publicexecutionand subsequentburial
(326,330,331).
ofBillyBuddcomesoutinthese
ofthekilling
The truesignificance
raisedagainstthedeathpenalty
scenes.Likemanyofthearguments
Literature
352 American
betweenthe1790sandthe1890s,BillyBuddstripsawaytheillusions
torevealtheessenceofcapitalpunishment:
ofjusticeanddeterrence
a ritualofpowerin whichthestateand theruling
humansacrifice,
and celebratetheirultimate
power-the
sanctify,
class demonstrate,
poweroflifeanddeath-overtheclassestheyrule.
publicexecutionhad
century,
By thelastthirdofthenineteenth
and legallyabandoned,in Englandas
discredited
been thoroughly
crowdscontinued
wellas inmostoftheUnitedStates.Nevertheless,
thatwereofficially
closedtothepublic.
tofindwaystoviewhangings
tookplaceat theTombsin
execution
When,forexample,a "private"
buildings[were]blackwithpeople,
NewYorkCity,"theneighboring
seekingto look downoverthe prisonwallsand witnessthe death
"57Suchsceneswerea maintargetofthe
agoniesofthepoorwretch.
in the NewYorkStateelectrocution
law thatexecutions
stipulation
musttakeplace insidethe walls of a prison.A principalargument
on the"mobs"that
againstpublicexecutionshad been theireffects
echoedin the strange
came to watch.This reasoningis ironically
thatrunsthrough
thesailorsforcedto witnesstheirship"murmur"
revulsion
of
"itseemedtoindicatesomecapricious
mate'sexecution:
or feelingsuchas mobsashoreare liableto,in thepresent
thought
on themen'spartof
a sullenrevocation
instancepossiblyimplying
(326).
theirinvoluntary
echoingofBilly'sbenediction"
to
againstpublicexecutionwas that,contrary
Anotherargument
thecriminal
into
it tendedto transform
effect,
its allegeddeterrent
Vere's
The sailors,pointedly
botha victimand a "hero."58
refuting
feltthatBillywas a sortofman
aboutthem,"instinctively
prediction
as ofwilfulmurder."To themhe becomes
as incapableofmutiny
morethana hero.The verysparfromwhichhe was hangedis meta"To thema chipofit
intotheobjectoftheirveneration:
morphosed
was as a pieceoftheCross"(345-46).59
a meretreatiseagainstcapitalpunishBillyBuddis not,however,
awarenessabouttheissue
ment.Melvilleis usingcontemporaneous
and politicalquestionsit
to explorethe largerethical,philosophic,
Hitt
focuses.Undoubtedly
New YorkAssemblyman
so dramatically
thecase whenhe claimedin early1890,"atpresent
was overstating
whoyetfavorcapital
thereare onlytwoclasses ofthe community
and theseare clergymen
and prosecuting
attorneys."60
punishment
Melvillecouldsafelyassumethatalmostall potential
Nevertheless,
readersin 1891wouldregardpublicexecutionandhangingas relics
353
Punishment
BillyBuddandCapital
tothelargerissuessurroundpast,wouldbe sensitized
ofa barbarous
and wouldalreadyeitheropposethe death
ingcapitalpunishment,
murder
onlyforfirst-degree
orconsideritwarranted
outright
penalty
penalty
death
the
of
proponents
ardent
most
the
Even
and treason.
by posiAmericawouldbe embarrassed
in late-nineteenth-century
Billyto death"(Peter
condemns
tionssuchas these:"Verejustifiably
anda cause ofhis owndeath"and
Shaw);BillyBuddis a "murderer
withCaptainVere(MiltonStern);"the
Melville"is to be identified"
virtuousman,CaptainVere,"must"punishtheviolenceofabsolute
innocence"-thatis, mustkillBillyBudd-since "absolute,natural
is "atwarwiththepeace oftheworldandthetruewelfare
innocence"
Readersin 1891wouldbe farmore
ofmankind"(HannahArendt).61
(236-237),
likelyto wonder,likethesurgeon(235) andthenarrator
Vereis insane.
whether
Thereremainsa questionthatbynowmusthaveoccurredtomost
especiallydurcircumstances,
readersofthisessay:Do notmilitary
ingwar,demandthekindofmartiallaw underwhichVereproceeds
inchapter
in1850presents
(orclaimstoproceed)?62 A bookpublished
British
ofthisposition.Ascribing
afterchaptera detailedrefutation
thathadrefeudalaristocracy"
navallawofthisperiodtoa "barbarous
anditssequel,theauthorarguesthat
gainedpowerintheRestoration
"a perioddeemedso glorioustotheBritishNavy,
intheInterregnum,
he reasons,"such
Therefore,
theseArticlesofWarwereunknown."
war-to the
during
arenotindispensable-even
ordinances
tyrannical
marine."He pointsoutthat
ofa military
highestpossibleefficiency
androupunishment
Nelson(lionizedinBillyBudd) opposedcorporal
seamento an admiralwho
tinelyreassigned"whollyungovernable"
the
winning
thereby
all corporalpunishment,"
"heldin abhorrence
abuses
ofgovernment
loyaltyofthesemen."The mutinouseffects
at the
"developedthemselves
to thiswriter,
in theNavy,"according
greatmutinyofthe Nore."The authorsumsup his viewin these
a codeforitsgovthenecessitiesofnavieswarrant
words:"Certainly
thanthelawthatgovernstheland;butthat
morestringent
ernment
ofthe
to the spiritofthepoliticalinstitutions
code shouldconform
ofthe
some
thatordainsit.It shouldnotconvertintoslaves
country
He thendenouncestheAmerican
citizensofa nationoffreemen."
fromabroad,evenfromBritain,
ArticlesofWaras "an importation
and yetretained
whoselawswe Americanshurledoffas tyrannical,
ofall." That author,ofcourse,is HermanMelthemosttyrannical
354 American
Literature
ville.The book is White-Jacket,63
a volumehe consultedfrequently
whilecomposing
BillyBuddon a writing
box to whichhe had glued
thismotto:"Keeptruetothedreamsofthyyouth."64
Onanother
level,therelations
betweenmartial
lawandcivilsociety
had moredisturbing
implications
forMelvillein 1891thanin 1850.
As he was writing
BillyBudd,the risingtide of imperialism,
with
itscorollary
ofmilitarism,
was threatening
thebasic republican
and
democratic
valuesexpressedso passionately
in White-Jacket.
In 1850
he couldplead forextensionofthe highestlaws ofthe land to its
shipsat sea. But by 1891,as the nationwas aboutto buildits first
large-scale
standing
navytoprepareforitsimperial
manifest
destiny,
Melvilleenvisioned
thegovernanceofthewarshipbecomingdominantoverthelawsoftheland.65
Likemanyofhiscontemporaries,
he
saw thattheessenceofcapitalpunishment
is thestate'spowerover
lifeanddeath,a powerboundlessly
expandedinwar.He dramatized
thedeadlymeaningofcapitalpunishment
forthe eighteenth,
nineandtwentieth
teenth,
inthekidnapping
centuries
ofBillyBuddfrom
theRights
ofMan andhisexecution
ontheaptlynamedBellipotent.
Rutgers
Newark
University,
Notes
1
2
3
Myownviewofthegreatdebatecan be foundin "FromEmpireto Empire:BillyBudd,Sailor," inHermanMelville:
Reassessments,
ed.A. Robert
Lee (NewYork:BarnesandNoble,1984):199-216.Foran astuteanalysis
ofthecontesting
interpretations
as expressions
ofpoliticalchangesduringseveraldecadesofrecentU.S. history,
see Geraldin2
Murphy,
"The
PoliticsofReadingBillyBudd,"American
Literary
1 (summer
History
1989):361-82.
RichardH. Weisberg,
"Editor'sPreface,"CardozoStudiesin Law and
Literature
1 (spring1989).Weisberg
himself
has donethemostthorough
analysisofthespecificlegalissuesin thestoryin "HowJudgesSpeak:
SomeLessonsonAdjudication
inBillyBudd,Sailorwithan Application
toJusticeRehnquist,"
NewYorkUniversity
Law Review57 (April1982):
1-69,andinTheFailureoftheWord:
TheProtagonist
as LawyerinModern
Fiction(NewHaven:Yale Univ.Press,1984),131-59.See also theperinSusanWeiner,
ceptiveexploration
Law inArt:Melville's
MajorFiction
and Nineteenth-Century
American
Law (New York:PeterLang,1992),
139-66.
RichardA. Posner,"Comment
on RichardWeisberg'sInterpretation
of
BillyBudd," Cardozo
StudiesinLawandLiterature
1 (spring
1989):73-74.
BillyBuddandCapitalPunishment355
to AbolishCapitalPunarticle"The Movement
In his groundbreaking
Review63 [OctoHistorical
(American
inAmerica,1787-1861,"
ishment
ber1957],23-46),DavidBrionDaviswas shockedto discoverthatthis
in thestandardsocialand
is "seldommentioned
movement
prominent
historiesofthe period"(23). This articledid mostof the
intellectual
spadeworkformorerecentstudiesand stilloffersthe mostcompreforthenineteenthbackground
ofthephilosophic
hensiveexploration
capitalpunishopposingand defending
Americanarguments
century
ment.
ed. Harrison
BillyBudd,Sailor(AnInsideNarrative),
5 HermanMelville,
andMertonSealtsJr.(Chicago:Univ.ofChicagoPress,1962),
Hayford
tothistextwillbe byparenthetical
references
leaves267-72.Subsequent
leafnumber.
ControThePublicExecution
6 DavidD. Cooper,TheLessonoftheScaffold:
England(Athens:OhioUniv.Press,1974),27.Cooper
in Victorian
versy
devotesa chapterto "The BloodyCode" ofGeorgeIII. See also Hugo
3rded. (NewYork:Oxford
inAmerica,
AdamBedau,TheDeathPenalty
Univ.Press,1982),6.
inEnglandagainst
ofthemovement
7 See Cooper'svolumeforthehistory
andhanging.
publicexecution,
capitalpunishment,
Maga" Eclectic
"TheCaseAgainstCapitalPunishment,
8 B. PaulNeuman,
British
from
the
American
reprint
this
is
an
518;
1889,
October
zine,
1889,322-33.
September
Review,
Fortnightly
on CapitalPunArticles
in Selected
9 SamuelHand,"The DeathPenalty,"
comp.LamarT. Beman(New York:H. W. WilsonCompany,
ishment,
December1881,541Review,
American
North
from
1925),178;reprinted
from
theprogress
Handcelebrates
ofcapitalpunishment,
50.A defender
ofthecentury.
thebeginning
onCapi" inBeman,Selected
Articles
"CapitalPunishment,
10 J.M. Buckley,
fromForum,June1887,381-91.See also
94; reprinted
tal Punishment,
Month,
W.C. Maude,"ShallWeAbolishtheDeathPenaltyforMurder?"
February
1889,168-79.
1787toCapitalPunishment,
Opposition
Death:American
Against
11 Voices
& Co.,1976),
1975,ed. PhilipEnglishMackey(NewYork:BurtFranklin
4
xiv.
States(Hackin theUnited
12 Bedau,4; SarahT Dike,CapitalPunishment
1982),7-8;
ensack,NJ.:NationalCouncilon Crimeand Delinquency,
xvi.
Mackey,Voices,
Pun13 PhilipEnglishMackey,Hangingin theBalance:TheAnti-Capital
in NewYorkState,1776-1861(NewYork:Garland,
Movement
ishment
xvi-xvii.
1982),69;Mackey,Voices,
xxvi-xxvii.
14 Mackey,Voices,
in Lec15 In 1850 MelvillepurchasedGreeley'sHintstowardReforms,
which
included
1850),
York,
and
Other
Writings
(New
Addresses,
tures,
Literature
356 American
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
"DeathbyHumanLaw"
attackonthedeathpenalty,
Greeley'sinfluential
of
Reading:A Check-List
(301-10);see MertonM. SealtsJr.,Melville's
fromHarvardLibraryBulletin
offprinted
BooksOwnedand Borrowed,
HarvardUniv.Press,1950),130.
(Cambridge:
ofDeath,10thed. (London,
CharlesSpear,Essayson thePunishment
in 1844,thisvolumeexerteda majorinpublished
1845),224.Originally
inEnglandas well
againstcapitalpunishment
fluenceonthemovement
as America.
WilliamJ.Bowers,withGlennL. PierceandJohnF. McDevitt,Legal
inAmerica,1864-1982(Boston:NorthDeathas Punishment
Homicide:
easternUniv.Press,1984),140.
Spear,224-31.
Bowers,140.
Bedau,8.
Spear,223.
Spear,224.
Spear,225-26.
andtheTransforCapitalPunishment
LouisP. Masur,RitesofExecution:
Univ.Press,
1776-1865(NewYork:Oxford
Culture,
mationofAmerican
xxvii;Davis,45-46.
1989),160;Mackey,Voices,
524.
Neuman,
England,eventhosewhowereinfavorofpublicexecutions
In pre-1850
"evil,"and
"ugly,""disgusting,"
thattheywere"depraving,"
admitted
(Cooper,50).
"brutalizing"
xx.
Mackey,Voices,
MagaPutnam's
"The GallowsinAmerica,"
EdmundClarenceStedman,
1889,234.StedmanmetMelvillein 1888.On 20 October
zine,February
bookslentto himby Stedmanwitha letterin
1888Melvillereturned
whichhe wrote,"Andyourownbookin manyofitsviewshas proved
a
to me." In 1890Stedmanarranged
or suggestive
eithercorroborative
of
dinnerforMelvilleat theAuthor'sClub,one ofthefewrecognitions
becamea goodfriend
sonArthur
theauthorinhislateryears.Stedman's
ofMelvillein thelasttwoyearsofthewriter'slifeandafterMelville's
fourofhisbooks;see
deathworkedwithElizabethMelvilleinreissuing
1951),1:xxxiii;
Brace,
Harcourt,
York:
Melville
(New
Log
The
Leyda,
Jay
2:804-06.
230.
Stedman,
1943),s.v.Curtis,
(NewYork:Scribner,
Biography
ofAmerican
Dictionary
NewtonMartin.
History
in American
Crimeand Punishment
LawrenceMeirFriedman,
(NewYork:BasicBooks,1993),171.
see Matthew
Fora goodoverallaccountoftheBattleoftheCurrents,
(NewYork:McGrawHill,1959),344Edison:A Biography
Josephson,
in RobertSilverberg,
are offered
perspectives
50; somewhatdifferent
BillyBuddandCapitalPunishment357
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
D. Van
N.J.:
(Princeton,
theWorld:
EdisonandthePowerIndustry
Lightfor
1967),238-43;RonaldW.Clark,Edison:TheMan WhoMade
Nostrand,
Sons,1977),157-60;andMargaret
theFuture(NewYork:G. P. Putnam's
N.J.:Prentice-Hall,
Cheney,Tesla:Man OutofTime(EnglewoodCliffs,
accountis ThomasP.
1981),41-49.A moredetailedandwell-documented
An Incident
Current:
Hughes,"HaroldP. Brownand theExecutioner's
Review32 (spring1958):
BusinessHistory
in theAC-DCControversy,"
itsrole
ramifications,
including
143-65.ForsomeoftheBattle'scultural
Court,see H. Bruce
Yankeein KingArthur's
in Twain'sA Connecticut
and theAmericanImagination
WarStars:The Superweapon
Franklin,
Univ.Press,1989):54-77.
(NewYork:Oxford
17January
1888.The dogs
NewYorkTribune,
forMurder,"
"Lightning
neighandcatswerepetsgatheredfromtheWestOrange,NewJersey,
whowerepaidtwenty-five
byschoolboys
borhoodofEdison'slaboratory
was decicentsforeach animal;as a result,thelocalanimalpopulation
347).
mated(Josephson,
NewYorkSun,25August1889.
Hughes,148-49.
andthecovertoperations
machinations
Fora detailedaccountofBrown's
ofEdison'sfront
see Hughes,156-58.
organizations,
45.
348;Cheney,
Josephson,
American
ofExecution,"
North
HaroldP. Brown,"The NewInstrument
November
1889,586-93.Inthesameissue,theeditorsran"DanReview,
in Sepan anti-AC
articlebyEdisonhimself;
gersofElectricLighting,"
ReviewhadpublishedanotherarticlefavortembertheNorth
American
by ElbridgeT.
by Electricity,"
"CapitalPunishment
ingelectrocution,
whowas secretly
the chairmanof the New YorkCommission,
Gerry,
withBrown.
working
soon
Afterthe deathofeditorHoraceGreeley,theNew YorkTribune
voicesin favorofabolishing
ceased to be one oftheforemost
capital
punishment.
NewYorkTimes,17December1887.
"CapitalPunishment,"
22January
1888.
ortheRope,"NewYorkTribune,
"Electricity
22January
1888.
"ANewAgentofDeath,"NewYorkTribune,
NewYorkTimes,
ofHanging,"
and"TheAbolition
"DeathbyElectricity"
17 JanuforMurder,"New YorkTribune,
17 January
1888;"Lightning
ary1888.
is to the workers'leaders
of Hanging";the reference
"The Abolition
ofreFora discussion
bombing.
hangedin 1887forthe1886Haymarket
andBillyBudd,see RobertK.
hangings
lationsbetweentheHaymarket
Literature
American
Hangings,"
Wallace,BillyBuddandtheHaymarket
47 (March1975):108-13.
"Gen.Curtisof St. Lawrence.. . ," New YorkTimes,29 March1890;
hoursafterthenews. . .," New YorkTimes,2 May 1890;
"Forty-eight
Literature
358 American
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
"Is It the DynamoAgain?Rushingthroughthe Bill to AbolishCapi2 May 1890;"The DeathPenalty,"
NewYorkTribune,
talPunishment,"
NewYorkTribune,
3 May1890;"CapitalPunishment,"
NewYorkTribune,
6 May1890.
"Far WorseThan Hanging;Kemmler'sDeath Provesan AwfulSpectacle,"NewYorkTimes,7 August1890.
TheArena,October1890,
"The DeathPenalty,"
Dr. GeorgeF. Shrady,
513.
to
A Consideration
oftheObjections
AndrewJ.Palm,TheDeathPenalty:
on War(NewYork:G. P. Putnam's
witha Chapter
CapitalPunishment,
Sons,1891),100.
Billy
Davis,33. For an examplepublishedwhileMelvillewas writing
The
"The CrimeofCapitalPunishment,"
Budd,see Hugh0. Pentecost,
1890,175-83.
Arena,January
The
to KillOurFellowmen?"
0. Flower],"ShallWe Continue
[Benjamin
1890,243-44.
Arena,January
[Benjamin0. Flower],"Thoughtson the Death Penalty,"TheArena,
October1890,636.
comment
aboutthosepossessedby"deNotetheechoofthenarrator's
ofan aim
accordingto nature":"Towardthe accomplishment
pravity
ofatrocity
wouldseemtopartakeoftheinsane,he
whichinwantonness
sagaciousandsound"(133-34).
willdirecta cooljudgment
xxx.
Mackey,Voices,
An 1889articlepublishedin bothEnglandand theUnitedStatesgave
statistics
showingthatthehomicideratehad droppedin each stateas
thathad abolishedcapitalpunishment;
wellas each Europeancountry
see Neuman,
524.
175-76,italicsmine.
Pentecost,
178.
Pentecost,
JamesD. McCabeJr.,Lightsand ShadowsofNew YorkLife(1872),as
170.
quotedinFriedman,
1888.
"TheAbolition
ofHanging,"
NewYorkTimes,17January
227:"Greatandgoodmenhavebeenhanged,andit
CompareStedman,
liketheCross"' (the
was saidofone,thathe 'madethegallowsglorious,
is fromEmerson'seulogyofJohnBrown).
internal
quotation
theBill to AbolishCapital
"Is It the DynamoAgain?Rushingthrough
2 May1890.
NewYorkTribune,
Punishment,"
Literature
PeterShaw,RecoveringAmerican
(Chicago:IvanR. Dee, 1994),
SteelofHermanMelville(Urbana:
76;MiltonStern,TheFineHammered
OnRevolution
(New
Univ.ofIllinoisPress,1957),26-27;HannahArendt,
York:Viking,
1965),79.
Vereis actuallynotfollowing
butviolating
the code underwhichhe
pointedoutbyC. B. Ives,
Thisviolation
was first
claimstobe operating.
34 (March
Literature
"BillyBuddand theArticlesofWar,"American
BillyBuddandCapitalPunishment359
Stanincluding
byothercritics,
further
1962):31-39;ithasbeenexplored
"Fraudas FactinHermanMelville'sBillyBudd," SanJoseRetonGarner,
TheFailure
Weisberg,
view4 (May1978):82-105,and,mostthoroughly,
thatMeltaketheposition
144-59.Vere'smoderndefenders
oftheWord,
rendered
navallaw,an argument
withBritish
unfamiliar
villewas simply
reofthislaw,based on thorough
dubiousbythedetailedexploration
TheTailoring
ofMelville's
see HowardP.Vincent,
search,in White-Jacket;
Univ.Press,1970),103-06.
Ill.:Northwestern
(Evanston,
White-Jacket
ed.
in a Man-of-War,
orTheWorld
arefromWhite-Jacket
63 The quotations
HershelParker,and G. ThomasTanselle(Evanston
HarrisonHayford,
Library,
1970),
Univ.PressandtheNewberry
andChicago:Northwestern
35,36,71.
chapters
(Chicago:Univ.of ChicagoPress,
64 MerlinBowen,TheLongEncounter
217.
1960),
65 For an analysisofBillyBuddin the contextofthe end-of-the-century
see my"FromEmpireto Empire:Billy
movement
towardimperialism,
Budd,Sailor."