Buletin INTAN 2013

Transcription

Buletin INTAN 2013

KANDUNGAN
Leading Change for a Successful Transformation 5
Quantitative Methods for Judgemental Decision Making
15
Dr. George Patrick @ Marimuthu
Ho Chooi Peng
Stres dan Pengurusannya
‘Ainur Shahriyah Md. Sa’id
29
The Failed Political Economy of the Euro Crisis: The Survivability
of the European Union (EU). A Political Risk Assessment
39
Daripada “Rakyat Didahulukan” Kepada “Merakyatkan
Perkhidmatan Awam”: Satu Tinjauan Konsep Dalam Ruang
Lingkup The New Public Service
55
Rasuah Cemar Kredibiliti Penjawat Awam
65
Pengurusan Latihan Dalam Sektor Awam: Konsep dan Arah Tuju 77
Interconnected By Intrusion: A Blessing in Disguise
95
Suzianah Nhazzla Ismail
Dr. Alauddin Sidal
Zurina Moktar
Dr. Alauddin Sidal
Zurina Moktar
Pengurusan Sisa Pepejal dan Pembersihan Awam: Selepas
Setahun Pengambilalihan
105
Good Governance in Public Administration: Malaysia’s Experience 125
National Development Planning in Malaysia: A Free Hand or a
Strong Arm? 139
Wan Azlida Wan Muda
Dr. Hj. Al-Azmi Bakar
Wan Kozil Wan Ahmad
Dr. Maziah Che Yusoff
Buletin INTAN 2013 031013.indd 1
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LEADING CHANGE FOR A SUCCESSFUL
TRANSFORMATION
Dr. George Patrick @ Marimuthu
Senior Research Fellow
Cluster of Development and Policy Research
INTAN Bukit Kiara
[email protected]
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LEADING CHANGE FOR A SUCCESSFUL
TRANSFORMATION
INTRODUCTION
Transformation has been the new waking agenda that has left many organisations
reeling to seek new ways of doing things in a highly performing stature that the public
are demanding especially in unpredictable times. Transformation is not a choice
but a necessity. Governments throughout the world are embarking on looking
things differently and placing new programs and plans that change the underlying
assumption of its existence. Transformation in the public service is an inevitable
agenda when it is plagued by turbulent changes in a myriad of issues ranging
from globalisation, economic crises, technology advances and the very increased
public demand for improved public services which are growing intensely. Public
service cannot orient its thinking on the traditional and conventional premises but
must look beyond the shores to bring new and effective changes in the way it
provides and render services.
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LEADERSHIP
Leaders and their teams must evolve new mind-sets and motivate new set
of behaviours that behest the transformational agenda in the public service.
Leadership is at the helm of realising and reaping the benefits of transformation.
This is necessary for the entire organisation to adapt, grow and prepare for
future challenges. Changes cannot be brought or forced through pure technical
approaches such as restructuring and reengineering (McGuire, Palus, Pasmore
and Rhodes (2009). It must be based on promulgating new kind of leadership that
is able to reframe dilemmas, reinterpret options and reform operations and the
ability to look far ahead.
Leadership is always the important tenet that drives transformation by providing
a compelling vision that helps to clarify the direction. Being forward-looking—
envisioning exciting possibilities and enlisting others in a shared view of the
future—is the attribute that most distinguishes leaders from non-leaders (Kouzes.
and Posner (2009).
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Buletin INTAN Jilid 37, Bil. 1/2013
Leadership must inculcate new emerging skills to lead employees during the initial
stage of transformation which is usually an important denominator for the early
surge of transformation in organisation. Leaders must be able to understand the
complexities of transformation process that needs the ability of leadership to be
a role model; walk the talk and continuously communicate and engage with their
employees. To lead change at the infant stage of transformation is riddled with
suspiciousness, anger, frustration, despair, lack of trust and increase the sense
of insecurity and finally leads to low motivation. This will finally pinnacle to the
demise of productivity and job satisfaction.
LEADING CHANGE
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During these times of uncertainty, the single most imperative indicator to bring
about trust and confidence in the transformation and its reaping benefits is
LEADERSHIP. Leading change as espoused by John P. Kotter (Kotter, 1995;
Kotter, 1996) will be the practised model in this article for explaining transformation
and the need to change progressively in a systematic manner. The 8 steps or
phases that every organisation experience during transformation is arranged
accordingly:
Step 1: Establishing a sense of urgency
Step 2: Forming a Powerful Guiding Coalition
Step 3: Creating a Vision
Step 4: Communicating the Vision
Step 5: Empowering others to act on the vision
Step 6: Planning for and creating Short-Term Wins
Step 7: Consolidating Improvements and Producing still more change
Step 8: Institutionalising New Approaches
Step 1: Establishing a Sense of Urgency
Leaders who trot on this stage must be creating the sense of urgency that
sparks the need for change and transformation. At this stage, leaders must look
intensively and aggressively to the signs and hard facts of competitiveness, the
quality of service decline, market share deterioration, financial performance and
in the context of the public service, the fiscal and financial sustainability of the
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Leading Change for a Successful Transformation
country, the quality of services rendered and the wellbeing of the people. There
must be effort to identify and discuss crises, potential crises or major opportunities
even threats and labour suits that can bring the organisation’s image to shatters.
Leaders need to engage and get the right sense of urgency moving and not fall
to the false sense of urgency. Many organisations fail to identify the real sense
of urgency and start to address issues that are not impacting the organisation’s
raison d’etre- the very existence of the organisation or simply its survivability.
Step 2: Forming a Powerful Coalition
Transformation belongs to the entire personnel of an organisation. Moreover in
the public sector, it must emanate in entirety and to be cascaded down to the
lowest level personnel. Nevertheless, the imperative issue is that the renewal
programs must be a maximum mass to ensure some worthwhile happens. There
should be an effort to develop a shared commitment to accelerate the successful
transformation and this emanates when there is a powerful coalition that is apparent
in terms of title, information and expertise, reputations and relationships. People
who pool their resources and work together are generally more powerful and
more able to advance their interests, than those who do not (Spangler, 2003).
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The powerful coalition should consist of senior management and members who
are not part of the senior management which operates outside of the normal
hierarchy. Senior leadership must develop and harness a shared assessment of
the organisation and create a minimum level of trust and communication. This
coalition group will render its role as change agents and vocal representation of
the organisation.
Step 3: Creating A Vision
The objective of creating a vision is to clarify the direction in the change effort in
which the organisation needs to move especially in the outset of the transformation
stage. The coalition group should be staging and developing the picture of the
future which must be compelling and appealing and it must be communicated
effectively. The vision must be clearly articulated failing which it might be dissolved
into a list of confusing and incompatible projects and programs and thus moving
the transformation in the wrong direction. People need to know where all this
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are leading. This creation and articulation of vision in months to come must be
accompanied with strategies that explain and express the development towards
achieving this vision. This stage must see the personnel understanding and
showing interest and believe the practical achievements of this vision.
Step 4: Communicating the Vision
Efforts to communicate the vision is imperative at this early stage and is important
that all personnel understands, believes, respects, trusts and together have the
dedication and commitment to work together towards this vision. It is imperative
that the leadership and the coalition group use every possible mechanism at its
disposal to communicate this vision and its strategies with utmost clarity.
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The guiding coalition group should emphasize in inculcating new behaviours
that inspires and energise the personnel to work together for a common vision.
People can radically transform their behaviour or beliefs in the face of the right
kind of impetus. They are actually powerfully influenced by the surrounding, the
immediate context and the personalities around them (Gladwell, 2000). As such,
the powerful coalition group must ensure that the personnel must be convinced
to help towards realising this vision and notifying them the need to make shortterm sacrifices and learn and ready to have or change to the desired behaviours.
They usually will not make sacrifices even if they are unhappy with the status quo
or their present situation unless they believe that the change will reap benefits
for them. This need to be communicated in a sincere and responsible manner.
Transfers, job losses and loss of power and authority will behest a mood of being
betrayed and this might culminate into frustrations and fear. Communication plans
must be design and implemented quickly to address this situation.
Step 5: Empowering Others to Act on the Vision
The momentum of a transformation will be successful when all the people in an
organisation believes the benefits of the transformation and are willing to try new
ideas, new initiatives and propel to provide leadership to realise the vision.
Imagine employees want to subscribe to the vision, but they cannot do that
immediately, then it is important to provide the employees with simple tools with
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which they can jump on the bandwagon with a feeling of shared ownership (Boer,
2012).
The guiding coalition which is imperative to drive this transformation must be
able to communicate the vision and the direction and this is paramount when it
involves a big number of people.
The only constraint at this juncture is that there tend to be obstacles that undermine
the transformation effort. These obstacles could be in the form of organisational
structures, systems, performance appraisals that are not appealing with the
present new outfit and finally, the heads of department who decline to change.
This could be due to fear, loss of authority with the new transformation, nonconfidence in delivering results but simply sees that the changing behaviours
towards this transformation is not far-reaching and not achievable. Nevertheless,
the credibility of this transformation must be appreciated and these bosses must
be convinced fairly but also tactfully to walk the talk and provide the appropriate
leadership needed.
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Step 6: Planning for and Creating Short-Term Wins
Successful and real transformation is a long journey but must be coveted
with significant results in terms of productivity, performance and successful
implementation of programs and initiatives that result in higher impact and
outcomes. Personnel look out for these results to gauge and evaluate the effects
of transformation and whether it bears fruits of victory. The rule of thumb is
that if nothing convincing and compelling happens within 12 to 24 months, the
momentum of transformation fizzles away void of the expected results. Without
short term wins, too many employees give up or actively join the resistance (ITIL,
2005).
As such, creating short-term wins and celebrating is a trustworthy evidence that
the transformation is indeed something to believe, seen and appreciated. It is not
passively hoping for a short-term wins. Successful transformation with short-term
wins must results in achieving objectives, strategies and must be translated in
promotions, rewards and recognitions to the deserved personnel.
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Step 7: Consolidating Improvements and Producing Still More Change
Successful transformation needs considerable and worthy results that can
permeate through time. Any success should be consolidated to see bigger
things in the future and this effort must be producing more change in the future.
Revitalising the energy of transformation must be a continuous process and
conviction. The infusion of new ideas to the way we work must be complemented
with new people with new perspectives and endeavours. The passion must be
growing with the leaders providing direction and energy. It simply means, keep up
the momentum. According to Kennedy, Musselwhite and Plouffe (2012), this can
include more experiential learning, peer coaching and leadership assessments,
monthly conference calls to keep everyone informed of successes and results,
and more employee and customer surveys. It pays to encourage leaders to share
successes with reports. This facilitates better two-way communication, reinforces
the learning, and supports desired new behaviors.
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Finally, talent management must be revisited to ensure that the right people are
at the right place with the right skill and competencies. This is imperative because
this reality check ensures that the momentum of transformation is consistent with
the long term vision and is implementable.
Step 8: Institutionalising New Approaches
The last part of this phase of the transformation program must be to ensure
that the support processes in the organisation reinforce the new ways of doing
things and work against the old ways of doing things. There must be continuity to
articulate the benefits of the new status quo and work relentlessly to embed new
habits throughout the organisation (Roberts, 2011).
New approaches to institutionalise change must be permeated in the entirety in
an organisation. Personnel must be convinced that transformation becomes “the
way we do things around here”. New set of behaviours and beliefs must be deeply
rooted in the organisation and becomes the social norms and shared values. As
such, all this transpires to what we call as the domination and pervasiveness of a
corporate culture in an organisation. They must believe that they were part of the
successful transformation and feel proud of the achievements. They feel rewarded
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and recognised from this transformation. There are two important determinants for
institutionalising a corporate culture; firstly, there is a conscious attempt to depict
to the people how the new approaches, behaviours, attitude and beliefs have
been a significance contributory factor to the transformation and its performance.
Secondly, the future generation in the organisation must prevail and portray the
required passion and conviction to carry on with the transformation.
CONCLUSION
Transformation is a long enduring process that needs the dedication and
commitment of the entire personnel in an organisation. It must be appreciated,
trusted and must be driven by passion to improve and deliver results convincingly
to the customers and stakeholders. It is a promise that change is inevitable and
new ways of doing things is the prime order now. It is also a promise to serve and
deliver a product or service better enshrined in the principle of performance and
wellbeing.
Transformation at any organisation is a pace setting event that is witnessed by
many stakeholders especially by an organisation’s competitors. The clarion call to
transform by the top leadership at the organisation must be adhered, appreciated
and advocated and mostly implemented with passion and conviction - a conviction
to bring results significantly to the organisation.
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REFERENCES
Boer, G. 2012. UX design and change management: Empower others to act on the vision
[Part 6/10]. Retrieved 11 September, 2013, from http://informaat.com/blog/uxdesign-and-change-management-empower-others-to-act-on-the-vision-part-610.
php
Gladwell, M. 2000. The Tipping Point: How Little Things Can Make a Big Difference.
United States: Little Brown.
ITIL .2005. Creating Quick Wins. Retrieved 10 August, 2013, from http://www.pinkelephant.
com/DocumentLibrary/UploadedContents/PinkLinkArticles/Creating%20
Quick%20Wins.pdf
Kennedy, S., Musselwhite, C. & Plouffe, T. 2012. Learning: How Change Management is
Done. Retrieved 9 July, 2013, from http://www.trainingmag.com/article/learninghow-change-management-done-0
Kotter, J. P. 1995. Leading Change: Why Transformation Efforts Fail. Harvard Business
Review, March-April.
Kotter, J. P. 1996. Leading Change. United States: Harvard Business Press.
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Kouzes, J. M. and Posner, B. Z. 2009. To Lead, Create a Shared Vision. Retrieved 1
August, 2013, from http://hbr.org/2009/01/to-lead-create-a-shared-vision/ar/1
McGuire, J. B., Palus, C. J. Pasmore, W. & Rhodes, G. B. 2009. Transforming Your
Organisation. Retrieved 15 September, 2013, from http://www.ccl.org/leadership/
pdf/solutions/TYO.pdf
Roberts, G. 2011. Institutionalise new approaches- embed your learning. Retrieved 19
September, 2013, from http://www.personalexcellenceprogramme.com/508
Spangler, B. 2003. Coalition Building. Retrieved 19 September, 2013, from http://www.
beyondintractability.org/essay/coalition-building
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QUANTITIVE METHODS FOR JUDGEMENTAL
DECISION MAKING
Ho Chooi Peng
Deputy Head of Cluster
Cluster for Expertise Development
INTAN Bukit Kiara
[email protected]
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QUANTITIVE METHODS FOR JUDGEMENTAL
DECISION MAKING
INTRODUCTION
Managers today are under intense pressure to make correct decisions. They
often do so, without the luxury of time and resources, and have to rely on their
judgement. However, judgement can be subject to biases that may be detrimental
to the quality of decisions made. Quantitative methodology, be it statistics or
operations research, has the potential to play a major role in planning and
decision making, whether in the private sector or public organisations. However,
studies in the late eighties by Han (1986) and Jantan and Ng (1990) found
that the use of such methodology in Malaysia is low. The low usage has been
attributed to reasons of lack of expertise, the theory-practice gap, lack of support
from top management and the organisation culture, teaching and training in
institutions of higher learning. Despite these, there are some success stories in
the application of these techniques. Samik (1987) has shown that management
science techniques can be successfully applied to deal with problems of resource
allocation, scheduling and forecasting in rural planning in Malaysia. Similarly,
Ramji (1987) has demonstrated the applicability of such techniques in India;
whereas Ang (1987) found that the majority of quantitative techniques usage lies
in strategic planning and control.
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As evident from the above, the areas where quantitative methods can contribute
most towards organisational excellence is in the area of planning and decision
making. The two roles that these techniques play in enhancing decision making
are:
•
•
The role in reducing uncertainty, and
The role in reducing complexity.
We will explore the decision making process and related issues to explore
opportunities for the greater use of quantitative techniques in enhancing the
quality of decision making.
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Buletin INTAN Jilid 37, Bil.1/2013
THE DECISION MAKING MODEL
The quality of a decision is judged by “how good the decision is” and therefore
implicit in it, some criteria on which to evaluate the “optimality” of the decision
made. This then calls for a “prescriptive”, as opposed to “descriptive” model to
describe the decision making model. A typical prescriptive model of decision
making can be described by the following six steps:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Define the problem
Identify the criteria
Weight the criteria
Generate the alternatives
Rate each alternative on each criterion
Compute the optimal decision
The Descriptive and Prescriptive Models of Decision Making
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The above prescriptive model rests on the assumption of rationality, requiring
the decision maker to undertake the steps in a “rational” manner. However,
the pioneering work of Simon (1957) and Simon and March (1958) argued for
a “bounded rationality” in acknowledging the information limitations faced by
decision makers when making decisions. Limitations in time and costs reduce
the quantity and more importantly the quality of available information in defining
the problem, the relevant criteria and so on. Further, the limits on intelligence
and perceptions constrain the interpretation of the available information, thus
hindering the ability of the decision maker to accurately “calculate” the optimal
choice (Bazerman, 1998). These limitations force the decision maker to deviate
from the rational model and instead seek a “compromise” solution (March and
Simons, 1958).
The above has described the prescriptive model of decision making vis-a-vis
how a decision should be made. However, given the large number of decisions
that managers have to make on a daily basis, such a model may not be viable
for all as evident by the work of Mintzberg (1975). Another major area in the
field of decision making is the study of the descriptive model of decision making.
Descriptive models reflect how decisions are actually made as opposed to how
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decisions should be made in the normative approach. In arguing for the role of
quantitative techniques, one has to look at the descriptive approach, and identify
avenues where statistics and management sciences can help reduce decision
making deviations from the prescriptive approach.
Biases in Judgemental Decision Making
Mintzberg (1975) found that in making decisions, managers tend to rely on their
intuitive judgement. The pioneering works of Tversky and Kahneman (1974) and
subsequent researchers, have shed tremendous insight as to how judgements
may be biased. They have argued that decision makers typically use simplifying
strategies (some would call it a rule-of-thumb) which are now termed “heuristics”.
The three heuristics commonly used by managers are availability heuristics,
representativeness heuristics and anchoring and adjustment heuristics. These
heuristics and their associated biases are briefly discussed below:Biases from Availability Heuristics
Have we given much thought as to why a subordinate whose office is next to
the manager receives a more critical (good or bad) evaluation at the end of the
year? The successes and failures of that subordinate are magnified relative
to other subordinates by virtue of the close proximity. This is the essence of
availability heuristics where judgements on events are based on readily available
information. In most cases, more frequently occurring events are more easily
recalled. It can lead to biases as other factors may influence the decision maker in
terms of significance, vividness and ease of recall. Some of the common biases
associated with this heuristic are the (a) ease of recall bias, (b) retrievability bias,
and (c) presumed association bias.
a.
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The Ease of Recall Bias
Consider the following scenario created by Russo and Shoemaker (1989) to
illustrate the Ease of Recall Bias amongst decision makers. The respondents
were asked the following question:
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“Which of the following causes more deaths in the USA each year?
(A) Stomach cancer (B) Motor vehicle accidents.”
They found that most people in the US believe that motor accidents cause more
deaths than stomach cancer, whilst official figures indicated that it is the reverse by
a ratio of two-to-one (Bazerman, 1998). This bias is accounted for by the frequent
reporting in the mass media, where in a one year period a typical newpaper reports
137 deaths by motor accidents as opposed to one reported case of stomach
cancer. This availability bias has been effectively used by advertisers in their
design and frequency of messages through the mass media.
b.
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The Retrievability Bias
Another common bias unconsciously committed in relation to the use of availability
heuristics, is the result of the manner in which human memory is structured. We
tend to structure an organisation to provide some degree of order. However, the
same order may be a source of confusion if the presumed order is not exactly
as suggested. For example, universities (or colleges) are structured according
to faculties and normally if we search for economic expertise in the Faculty of
Social Sciences or in particular the Department of Economics, the search will
prove effective. If however, the expertise is not listed under that Faculty but exists
elsewhere in the university, the structure is likely to lead to an ineffective search.
c.
The Presumed Association Bias
Availability heuristics are also subject to the presumed association bias when
judgements are made for the occurrence of two or more events simultaneously.
For example, we frequently associate juvenile delinquency with broken homes
or drug addiction and crimes. Typically if one knows of many cases of juvenile
delinquency which arise from broken homes, then he or she will assign a large
probability for these two events co-occurring. However, a proper analysis to
establish the association would require the examination of four groups: (i) juvenile
delinquent and from a broken home, (ii) juvenile delinquent and not from a broken
home, (iii) non-juvenile delinquent and from a broken home, and (iv) non-juvenile
delinquent from not a broken home.
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Biases from Representative Heuristics
Representativeness heuristics refer to the simplifying strategy of using similarity
and stereotypes. As Nisbett and Ross (1980) have noted “A botanist assigns a
plant to one species rather than another by using this judgment strategy. The
plant is categorized as belonging to the species that its principal features most
nearly resembled”. The study by Noraie (2001) noted that familiarity with the
decision making situation reduces the rationality and comprehensiveness of
decision makers in Malaysia. This representativeness heuristics is also reflected
in discriminatory practices.
Biases from Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristics
In making an assessment, there is a general tendency to begin with an initial
value (anchor) which can come from precedent, from the way the problem is
presented, or even randomly. Dawes (1998) found that in an ambiguous problem,
adjustment made based on the starting point, is subject to influence by trivial
factors, thus rendering the estimate grossly unreasonable or irrational.
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A case was done in USM where the starting salary for an engineer given by a
secretary who has little knowledge of the profession was guessed at RM24,000.
The question posed was as to how much a newly hired engineer for a computer
firm who has 4 years working experience and good all-round qualifications would
be?
Based on the figure given by the secretary the mean salary was estimated at
RM39,129 with the minimum given as RM7,000 and the maximum as RM72,000.
The figure would have been different if the secretary had quoted RM50,000. This
syndrome is very common in daily life. We often do not adjust our opinion of
someone appropriately simply because we placed too much emphasis on our first
impression. Human resource consultants always emphasise the need to make
a good first impression at interviews and this is another example of how the bias
is exploited.
Clearly managers use judgements in decision making and rely on simplifying
heuristics in their decision making process given the pressure of time and costs
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they face. The decisions made are by no means inferior in all cases however.
Thus the question is: “Are managers aware that they are using these heuristics
and the potential biases emanating from these heuristics?” In some of these cases
we have provided some indications as to how statistics and other quantitative
techniques can play a role in making judgements more rational and bridge the
gap between the descriptive and prescriptive models of decision making. The two
roles that these techniques can play in decision making situations are in reducing
uncertainty and complexity.
THE Role OF QUANTITATIVE METHODS in Reducing Uncertainty
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Statistics is one of the major branches of quantitative techniques which provides
inferential tools to deal with uncertainty and risk. All statistical inferences can
be classified as either estimation or hypothesis testing. Estimation methods
allow for quantification of uncertainty, thus making known that which is previously
unknown. Besides this, the confidence level associated with most of the estimation
techniques facilitates decision making from the aspect of allowing decisions to be
made based upon calculated risk. At the same time, sampling theory dictates
that the variance of the unknown parameter is a factor of (1/√n). Awareness of
such quantitative methods will reduce biases such as insensitivity to base rate
and insensitivity to sample size.
Hypothesis testing, covering the numerous parametric and non parametric tests
of differences, further provides avenues for reducing uncertainty by differentiating
“facts” from “fiction” or gut feeling. This reduces the danger arising from selective
observation.
Further statistical analysis provides for the establishment of relationships, again
removing uncertainties regarding associations of the various issues under
consideration in decision making such as presumed association bias. Experimental
design tools provide for proper analysis of situations.
THE Role of quantitative methods in Reducing Complexity
Noraie (2001) argued that as the environment surrounding the decision situation
becomes more dynamic, hostile and complex, coupled with increasing pressure
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of time, managers tend to use less rational and less comprehensive decision
making processes.
The Need to Quantify and Operationalise
One of the principal characteristics of quantitative methods is the need to quantify
and measure the phenomenon of interest. Measurement theory dictates that
a systematic procedure is adhered to during the operationalisation process.
Experience has shown that even the most common phenomenon can be very
difficult to quantify. For example the quantification of the phenomenon of socioeconomic status faces a host of problems. Everyone seems to know what it is,
but faces difficulty when asked to precisely define what it means. This process
of quantification highlights the various interrelated issues and helps clarify the
decision context and thus allows for a clearer definition of the problem. As we
commonly hear, “a problem that is well defined is half solved.”
The Multivariate Nature of the Problem
Another common characteristic of the modern day decision making context is
the multivariate nature of the problem. Various factors and issues are involved;
thus making it difficult for the decision maker to deal cognitively with the interrelationships amongst them. As Saaty (1980) noted, a human has difficulty
when comparing three or more items simultaneously and when that is attempted,
problems of intransitivity of choice or preference often results, leading to
inconsistent decisions. Multivariate tools can help reduce a complex situation
into a simpler situation. Regression analysis for example helps identify the
significant factors that impinge on the phenomenon of interest, thus reducing
the number of potential variables to be taken into consideration in the decision
making context. Factor analysis (another multivariate statistical technique) can
group or cluster similar variables. Similarity refers to the information content of
those highly correlated to each other. In this manner, the decision maker need not
address each variable individually but rather as groups of variables, thus lending
clarity and parsimony to the decision context. It is quite common to have 50 or
more variables reduced to less than 5 groups of variables sharing a commonality.
Cluster analysis helps to categorise items, individuals etc. on the basis of a whole
range of variables. Multiple discriminant analysis is able to differentiate groups on
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the basis of many variables. All these tools, and many more not mentioned here,
help to reduce a complex decision making situation to one that can be cognitively
handled by humans.
The Final Stage of Decision Making
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Thus far we have been dealing with statistical tools that are generally used to
help transform data into information that can be usefully deployed in making the
optimal decision. They seldom deal with the final stage of making a choice. This
stage of decision making is by no means easy. We have situations where we
have to make choices from various alternatives in light of numerous constraints,
which are quite often conflicting. Such complexity is difficult to handle unless we
use tools that help track the substitutability of the various choices and constraints.
Mathematical programming models, of which the linear programming (LP) model is
the most commonly known, can be of tremendous help in handling this complexity.
Another common consideration in making choices is the definition of “optimal” or
“goodness of choice”. Quite often, how good a choice is, is judged on a number
of criteria . This adds to the complexity of the choice situation, particularly when
the criteria are in conflict with one another. Tools such as goal programming and
analytic hierarchy process (AHP) are useful when dealing with such situations.
While the former deals exclusively with objective criteria, the latter can combine
both objective and subjective criteria. Another relatively complex choice situation
is one that deals with identifying the most efficient homogenous productive unit
amongst many, where each unit converts various inputs into numerous outputs.
The substitution between inputs and between outputs makes the problem a
complex one. Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) has been developed to handle
such complexity.
CONCLUSION
It has been discussed how judgements in decision making are subject to biases
that are committed either consciously or unconsciously by decision makers. These
biases emanate from reliance on heuristics to simplify increasingly complex and
uncertain decision making environments faced by modern day managers, who
are also subject to increasing pressure of time and costs. A good judgement if
made can be the most efficient way of decision making. However, judgement
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used by non experts who may not be aware of the inherent biases can lead to
disastrous decisions.
The various quantitative methods that we have highlighted help to reduce
uncertainty and complexity in decision making. They are by no means exhaustive
as there are many more in the literature and many that are still being developed.
However the indiscriminate use of these techniques without understanding the
context of the problem and improper interpretation of the results of these tools
have tarnished the usefulness of these methods. The use of these techniques
no doubt requires the use of the computing power and capacity to overcome the
problem of the number crunching associated with these techniques. In Malaysia,
the development and maintenance of database needs to be looked into so that we
can move forward with the expanded use of quantitative methods in the Malaysian
environment. But this needs to be supported by the development of expertise not
just in the technical side, but also that of the applications.
23
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REFERENCES
Ang,C.H. 1987. The practice of operations research in the public sector of Malaysia.
Proceedings Management Science/Operations Research Society of Malaysia
Conference, Kuala Lumpur, 27-28 April.
Bar-Hillel, M. 1973. On the subjective probability of compound events. Organisational
Behaviour and Human Performance. Vol 9 pp 396-406.
Baron, J. 1994. Thinking and Deciding. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Bazerman, M.H. 1998. Judgment in Managerial Decision Making (4th Ed). New York:
John Wiley.
Dawes, R.M. 1998. Rational choice in an uncertain world. New York: Harcourt Brace
Jovanovich.
Einhorn, H.J. and Hogarth, R.M. 1978. Confidence in Judgment, Persistence in the illusion
of validity. Psychological Review. Vol 85, pp 395- 416.
Gigerenzer, G Todd,P.M. and the ABC Research Group. 1999. Simple Heuristics that
make us smart. New York: Oxford University Press.
24
Han, C.K. 1986. The practice of operations research in Malaysia and Singapore. Omega,
International Journal of Management Sciences, Vol 14. pp 333-344.
Jantan, N. and Ng, V.M. 1990. Usage of Statistics and Operations Research in Malaysia.
School of Mathematical Sciences, USM.
March, J.G. and Simon, H.A. 1958. Organisations. New York: John Wiley.
Mintzberg H. 1975. The nature of managerial work. New York: Harper Row.
Nisbett, R.E. and Ross, L. 1980. Human interference: Strategies and shortcomings of
social judgment. Englewood Cliffs: New Jersey. Prentice Hall.
Noraie, M. 2001. Factors influencing strategic decision making process-an integrated
framework. School of Management, USM.
Ramji,S.A. 1987. Brief survey of operations research in India. Proceedings Management
Science/Operations Research Society of Malaysia Conference, Kuala Lumpur,
27-28 April.
Russo, J.E. and Shoemaker, P.J.H. 1989. Decision Traps. New York: Doubleday.
Saaty, T.L. 1980. The Analytic Hierarchy Process. New York: Mc Graw Hill.
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Samik, M.N. 1987. Relevance and need of operational research in the planning and
management of agriculture projects. Proceedings Management Science/
Operations Research Society of Malaysia Conference, Kuala Lumpur, 27-28
April.
Simon, H.A. 1957. Models of man. New York.
Tversky, A and Kahneman D. 1974. Judgment under uncertainty. Heuristics and biases.
Sciences, New Series, Vol 185, pp 1124-1131.
Tversky, A. and Kahneman, D. 1973. Availability, A heuristic for judging frequency and
probability. Cognitive Psychology. Vol 5, pp 207-232.
Tversky, A and Kahneman, D. 1983. Extensional versus intuitive reasoning. The
conjunction fallacy in probability judgment. Psychological Review. Vol 90, pp 120145.
25
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STRES DAN PENGURUSANNYA
‘Ainur Shahriyah Md. Sa’id
Penolong Pegawai Tadbir
INTAN Kampus Wilayah Selatan (IKWAS)
[email protected]
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STRES DAN PENGURUSANNYA
PENDAHULUAN
Kita yang berkerjaya sering kali terhimpit dengan pelbagai masalah yang dihadapi
sama ada di tempat kerja atau dalam kehidupan seharian. Antara isu-isu tersebut,
seperti:
•
•
•
•
•
Tambahan beban kerja di pejabat
Aduan guru tentang kenakalan anak di sekolah
Harga barang naik lagi
Ibu masuk wad
Tanggung adik masuk universiti
Tanpa kita sedari, kita dikategorikan sebagai telah mengalami stres. Apabila
menghadapi berita-berita sebegini, tubuh kita akan bertindak balas secara ‘fight
or flight’ yang mana sistem saraf tubuh bertindak ke atas keadaan yang menekan.
Tubuh akan mengeluarkan sejumlah kimia kortisol, adrenalin dan noradrenalin
yang merangsang penambahan degupan jantung, mempercepat kesediaan otot,
berpeluh dan meningkatkan tahap awasan. Tindak balas ini melindungi kita dari
sebarang situasi yang mencabar. Dalam keadaan ini (‘fight or flight’), fungsi tubuh
yang kurang penting seperti sistem penghadaman dan sistem imun tubuh badan
akan menurun. Kesemua sumber ditumpukan ke fungsi pernafasan, peredaran
darah, tahap awasan dan penggunaan otot.
29
Stres ditafsirkan sebagai tindak balas fizikal, emosi dan mental kepada perubahan
atau cabaran. Ia dialami oleh semua peringkat umur baik kanak-kanak hinggalah
ke usia emas. Kepelbagaian stres mengikut umur boleh dilihat misalnya pada
kanak-kanak yang menangis, menjerit dan bermurung sebagai tanda stres
terhadap perkara yang mereka rasakan tidak menepati kehendak mereka. Bagi
remaja pula, stres ditunjukkan melalui sikap agresif malah sehingga ke tahap
penggunaan dadah yang berlebihan. Stres golongan dewasa dapat dilihat melalui
kemurungan, kurangnya penglibatan terhadap aktiviti sosial, mudah terasa dan
gelisah, dan sebagainya.
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Stres dikatakan berpunca dari dua faktor iaitu dalaman dan luaran. Faktor-faktor
stres adalah seperti berikut:
•
Punca Dalam Diri (pengalaman pahit zaman kanak-kanak, perwatakan/
personaliti, keyakinan dan harga diri yang rendah dan dilema membuat
pilihan)
•
Punca Luaran (stres dalam perkahwinan dan rumah tangga, stres
keibubapaan, perhubungan interpersonal yang bermasalah, cabaran cara/kos
hidup yang tinggi, pekerjaan, peristiwa dalam kehidupan, beban kewangan
dan penyakit kronik)
SITUASI STRES
30
Stres atau tekanan perasaan merupakan suatu reaksi dalam diri seseorang
disebabkan oleh suatu bebanan yang menimpanya. ‘Bebanan’ ini boleh wujud
dalam bentuk ancaman, cabaran ataupun sebarang perubahan dalam kehidupan
seseorang yang memerlukan pengurusan yang sewajarnya. Terdapat tekanan
yang yang baik lagi positif iaitu dikenali sebagai “eustress” dan ada pula yang
buruk lagi negatif di namakan sebagai “distress”. Sekiranya stres berlaku
berpanjangan dalam hidup kita dan kita pula tidak bijak untuk menguruskannya,
ia akan bertukar menjadi “distress”yang memberi kesan buruk dan menyebabkan
penyakit-penyakit tertentu.
MENGURUS STRES
Kebanyakan kita yang mengalami stres tidak memahami bagaimana menguruskan
stres ini. Stres boleh dikendalikan melalui pelbagai cara yang perlu dicuba agar
dapat diketahui hasilnya. Antara cara pengendalian stres yang baik adalah :
a.
KEPADA KANAK-KANAK
i.
Berikan Ruang Untuk Mengekspresikan Perasaan.
Jika anak meronta-ronta tidak dapat apa yang diminta, biarkan anak bersendirian.
Jangan ditegah anak yang meronta kerana ia akan mengakibatkan stres didorong
dalam jangka masa panjang seperti membenci, berdendam, pemarah dan
sebagainya.
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ii.
Alihkan Perhatian Dengan Sesuatu Yang Lain.
Jika anak ditegah menonton televisyen pada hari bersekolah, pastikan anak
mempunyai aktiviti lain seperti membuat kerja sekolah, aktiviti seni keluarga
seperti beriadah, membuat kolaj lukisan, bergotong-royong membersihkan bilik
masing-masing (dengan hadiah), dan sebagainya.
iii.
Ekspresikan Perasaan Sayang Kepada Mereka.
Kanak-kanak adalah merupakan golongan ‘fragile’ yang mudah mengikut kata
apabila dibelai dan dimanja. Gunakan kuasa sentuhan seperti belaian, pelukan
kepada mereka setiap kali mereka menunjukkan tanda-tanda stres. Sentuhan
yang diberi akan berupaya melembutkan hati mereka yang sedang marah di
samping jenaka yang bersifat mendidik mereka ke arah yang lebih baik.
b.
KEPADA REMAJA
i.
Luangkan Masa.
Remaja mudah terbentuk disebabkan sifat mereka yang terlalu ingin belajar
sesuatu yang baru apatah lagi perkara tersebut menjadikan mereka lebih menonjol
dari yang lain. Atas dasar inilah, pengurusan stres remaja boleh dikendali secara
mengetahui keinginan dan tingkah laku mereka dengan meluangkan masa
bersama. Masa yang terluang patut diisi dengan aktiviti santai yang bersifat lebih
ke arah menyesuaikan keadaan dengan kehendak mereka. Contoh : melayari
laman web sosial bersama, beriadah petang atau ke pusat karaoke keluarga
(dengan teman mereka, jika inginkan lebih meriah).
31
ii.
Jadikan Remaja Sebagai Teman.
Waktu remaja adalah merupakan waktu puncak pencarian identiti diri di mana
mereka suka meluahkan perasaan, berkongsi suka duka kepada teman
berbanding keluarga. Jika kita meluangkan masa dengan mereka kita akan
mudah diterima untuk menjadi teman rapat tempat mereka akan mencurahkan
segala masalah, keinginan dan pengalaman untuk dikongsi. Malah Rasulullah
S.A.W. sendiri menerapkan bentuk didikan yang seimbang seiring usia melalui
kaedah hukuman ketika kanak-kanak, dan lebih kepada kawan apabila anak
menginjak usia remaja.
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c.
KEPADA GOLONGAN DEWASA
i.
Bertenang.
Tiada tindakan yang waras boleh diambil jika kita tidak bertenang dalam
banyak perkara. Kaedah bertenang ialah dengan menarik nafas panjang dan
melepaskannya dengan perlahan supaya dapat meredakan stres yang sedang
memuncak dengan syarat ia dilakukan dengan minda yang positif.
ii.
Sayangi Diri Sendiri.
Terapkan dalam diri bahawa diri sendiri lebih perlu diberi kebajikan kerana diri
sendiri yang akan menentukan keberkesanan sesuatu tugas yang diberi. Contoh:
rasa marah dan tertekan dengan tekanan kerja menyebabkan kita marah-marah
dan akhirnya menimbulkan persepsi orang lain bahawa kita adalah pemarah, kita
tidak boleh dibawa berunding, kita tidak boleh memikul beban lebih sedikit dari
biasa, dan sebagainya. Jadi, sayangi diri sendiri dengan cara mengawal tingkah
laku, bertenang dan berfikiran positif.
32
iii.
Amalan Gaya Hidup Sihat.
Stres boleh timbul akibat tekanan hidup lantaran beban kewangan yang besar,
ekspektasi organisasi yang menggunung dan karenah anak-anak yang membesar.
Tanpa amalan gaya hidup sihat seperti pemakanan seimbang, senaman rutin, tidur
yang cukup, stres akan berlarutan menjadi satu penyakit lain yang dinamakan
sakit jiwa. Ironinya orang kita hanya akan menghargai akan kepentingan gaya
hidup sihat apabila telah mengalami penyakit seperti sakit jantung, darah tinggi,
kencing manis dan obesiti.
PANDUAN MENGELAKKAN STRES
Kaedah pengendalian stres yang disenaraikan di atas lebih kepada matlamat
jangka panjang. Saya ingin kongsikan panduan 10B untuk mengelakkan stres
seperti yang digariskan oleh Bahagian Pendidikan Kesihatan, Kementerian
Kesihatan Malaysia iaitu:
1. Bertenang
Bertenang boleh membantu mengurangkan stres dengan menghentikan kitaran
stres di peringkat permulaan.
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2. Bernafas Secara Dalam
Pernafasan melalui abdomen adalah yang terbaik, bernafas dengan perlahan,
panjang dan lebih dalam.
3. Berkata: “Relakslah….”
Kata-kata ini sedikit sebanyak membantu mempositifkan diri kita dengan
mententeramkan perasaan dan mengurangkan stres.
4. Beribadat
Mengambil contoh Nabi Muhammad S.A.W., baginda memastikan wudu’ sentiasa
ada bagi memastikan tidak terjebak ke arah perkara-perkara yang membatalkan
wudu’. Selain itu, mengambil wudu’ dapat memberi ketenangan sekaligus
mententeramkan kita. Berzikir dan berdoa dapat memberikan sokongan emosi
dan melegakan perasaan.
33
5. Berkongsi Masalah/Perasaan Dengan Seseorang
Perasaan / masalah yang dipendam boleh menyebabkan seseorang menjadi
pemarah, murung dan sebagainya. Masalah sebolehnya dikongsi dengan orang
yang dipercayai (sebaiknya sama jantina untuk mengelakkan syubhah/syak
wasangka) seperti bercakap dengan ahli keluarga atau kawan-kawan. Malah ada
pendapat mengatakan cukup dengan membela sekumpulan ikan, kerana luahan
dan penceritaan apa yang dialami sehari-harian kepada makhluk tersebut dapat
mengurangkan stres.
6. Berurut
Masyarakat Melayu dikenali dengan amalan berurut, baik melalui tangan
(tradisional) mahupun mesin (moden). Berurut merupakan amalan yang baik dan
berkesan dalam melancarkan darah kerana tanpa kita sedari, stres menyebabkan
otot di leher, kepala dan bahu menjadi tegang. Berurutlah (pada masa terluang
yang semestinya bukan pada waktu pejabat) demi melegakan otot-otot yang
tegang di leher, bahu, kepala dan kaki.
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7. Berehat dan Mendengar Muzik
Jika kita lihat sesetengah orang mengalunkan muzik yang agak kuat atau
mengamati muzik perlahan dan sentimental. Kaedah tersebut adalah antara cara
mengurangkan stres. Tenangkan fikiran, tanyakan diri jika menginginkan irama
yang boleh meruntun stres yang memuncak.
8. Beriadah
Aktiviti seperti berkelah, bersukan setiap petang atau berjoging sekurangkurangnya dapat meredakan stres. Berkhemah, mendaki gunung dan melakukan
hobi dapat juga meredakan stres. Berkaraoke bersama kawan-kawan dan
bermain boling juga antara aktiviti yang boleh melegakan stress.
9. Bersenam
34
Menggunakan 20 minit dalam sehari, 3 kali dalam seminggu adalah tempoh ideal
senaman yang boleh kita ikuti untuk mengelakkan dirundung stres berterusan
akibat tekanan kerja atau kehidupan. Bersenam dapat mengeluarkan hormon
endorfin yang boleh melegakan stres. Contoh : bersenam di hadapan komputer
melalui kaedah duduk, melunjur, menggerakkan jari-jemari dan sebagainya.
10. Berfikiran Positif
Penjanaan pemikiran mengenai perkara-perkara yang positif dapat meredakan
stres dalam diri. Misalnya, “Kita mesti boleh melakukannya!”, “Anak pasti boleh
lulus peperiksaan kelak”, “aku pasti boleh menyelesaikan masalah kecil ini”, dan
lain-lain.
PENUTUP
Pucuk pangkal penyelesaian masalah menguruskan stres dalam hidup kita
sebenarnya bergantung kepada diri sendiri. Garislah banyak mana ‘B’ pun, tetapi
jika kita sendiri tiada pemacu atau ‘drive’ untuk memulakannya, maka kelak akan
tercetuslah satu penyakit yang dipanggil masalah kemurungan, sakit jiwa, sakit
hati dan sebagainya. “Tepuk dada, tanya selera.” Selamat mencuba!
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RUJUKAN
Kit Poskad “Jom Tangani Stress”. Bahagian Pendidikan Kesihatan, Kementerian Kesihatan
Malaysia.
Medical News Today, 2009. What is Stress? How to Deal With Stress. www.
medicalnewstoday.com 5. Bahagian Pendidikan Kesihatan KKM, 2011. www.
infosihat.gov.my/artikelHP
Portal Bahagian Pendidikan Kesihatan KKM. 2010. 10B Menangani Stress. www.infosihat.
gov.my
Smith R. and Seagal J. 2001-2011. Understanding Stress. www.helpguide.org/mental/
stress_signs.htm.
35
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THE FAILED POLITICAL ECONOMY OF THE EURO
CRISIS: THE SURVIVABILITY OF THE EUROPEAN
UNION (EU). A POLITICAL RISK ASSESSMENT
Suzianah Nhazzla Ismail
The University of Sheffield
United Kingdom
Former Senior Assistant Director
INTAN Bukit Kiara
[email protected]
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28/10/2013 11:04:01 AM
THE FAILED POLITICAL ECONOMY OF THE EURO
CRISIS: THE SURVIVABILITY OF THE EUROPEAN
UNION (EU). A POLITICAL RISK ASSESSMENT
Overture
What has become known as the Eurozone crisis actually started at the dawn of
2010 when there was a heightened distress about the fiscal positions of a number of
Eurozone member states; specifically their unsustainable fiscal credibility. Greece
was the first member state to trigger the alarm (The Guardian, 2011). There were
suspicions that Greece was not in the economic position to serve its debts and
this had caused investors to become reluctant to procure bonds issued by the
Greek government. There was panic that the Greek default could be contagious
to other Eurozone member states and unfortunately it was. By November 2011,
the default had spread to Ireland, Italy, Portugal and Spain. Unfortunately it has
strained relations with Germany recently (The Guardian, 2011).
39
As of 2011, the Eurozone consists of Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Estonia, Finland,
France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands,
Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia and Spain. Other European Union (EU) member
states are obliged to join the Eurozone once they meet the criteria to do so
(Europa, 2011). Today, around 330 million citizens in 17 countries live in the
Eurozone and this number will increase as future enlargements of the Eurozone
continue to exponentially spawn the benefits of the single currency in the EU
(Europa, 2011).
The Eurozone was initiated in 1991 with a primary purpose; to augment the
economic efficiency and conserve the financial stability of its member states
especially those of the EU’s. The current crisis which is plaguing the Eurozone
has momentous unfavorable repercussions on the EU. This is because most of
the economically strong Eurozone member states (Austria, Belgium, Finland,
France, Germany and the Netherlands) are also member states of the EU. One
of the unpleasant consequences would be that any country that quit the Eurozone
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would probably have to leave the EU. The fracturing of the Eurozone could put an
end to the European Union (The Economist, 2011).
OVERTURNED SCENARIO
Studies supporting the merits of the EU member states joining the Eurozone have
been extensive (Bird, 2010). In general, these studies postulated that membership
in the Eurozone increases the economic efficiency of EU member states and
promises to preserve its competitive advantage. By using Euro as a currency,
a member state of the EU exhibits a high degree of sustainable economic
convergence with the Eurozone economy. The economic convergence ensures
that the Eurozone economy functions smoothly and that the member states of EU
can grow and prosper in it (Europa, 2011).
40
The membership of the Eurozone or the Euro area fortifies the amplitude
of economic affiliation between its member states. The member states of the
Eurozone share the Euro as a mutual currency and having the European Central
Bank (ECB) to govern the single monetary policy will harbour closer trade and
financial nexus. Such amplified economic amalgamation galvanises closer
coordination of economic policies (Duval and Elmeskov, 2005).
In recent years, the empirical literature in the area of European political, economic
and socio-cultural environment has changed. Most of the literature now focus on
what will happen to the EU as soon as or if the Eurozone collapses. This scenario
seems to be imminent with the economic interdependence as the Eurozone and
the EU share the same member states and these member states will be facing
aggravated mutual challenges (European Commission, 2009).
Following World War II, France’s Jean Monnet, who was acknowledged as the
man who inaugurated modern Europe, argued that economic integration would be
imperative in defeating inter-continental conflict in the post-war period (Fransen,
2001). The single currency was built on Monnet’s belief that economic integration
was cardinal to European peace and prosperity. “The way to build the new union
was through incremental steps toward economic integration that one day would
lead to political integration” (Pavoncello, 2011). However, the decline of the Euro
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The Failed Political Economy of the Euro Crisis: The Survivability of the European Union (EU). A Political Risk Assessment
exchange rate against the dollar by more than 15% in the midst of the fiery global
financial and economic crisis has proven Monnet wrong and it aggravated a series
of iniquitous apprehensive speculations about the impending failure of the Euro
and the beginning of a new world crisis ( Ahearn, Jackson, Nelson and Weiss,
2011).
THE EUROZONE CRISIS: CONTRIBUTING FACTORS
There are four key features which have been identified as the contributing factors
in igniting the Eurozone crisis. The features are as follows:
a)
The Eurozone crisis is seen to be STRUCTURAL and it stems from the
specifics of the EU integration. The co-existence of poor and rich member states is
visible in the EU and Eurozone. The poor member states have a significant disparity
in their levels of development compared to the rich member states. In addition
to that, most of the poor member states in the Eurozone are not in the position
of embracing the innovative development model successfully. This hampers the
EU ambition of retaining a competitive edge in the globalised environment. Such
situations impede the efforts for the EU and Eurozone to efficaciously pursue an
accorded economic policy with standardised guiding principles (Kaiser, 2011).
41
The European countries in the southern part of Europe are powerless and
incapable of morphing their regressive and weak economies to accommodate the
competitive nature of globalisation. These weak countries often view the EU and
Eurozone membership as a form of escapism from their deteriorating economic
conditions. Hypothetically by joining the EU and Eurozone these poor countries
will have the opportunity to be rich and competitive (Reuters, 2011).
The least developed and poor countries from the southern and eastern part
of Europe are classified as developed nations, despite their lagging behind in
education, low human capital and research development, low welfare policy,
imperfect social security system, lack of capital and economic resources and
ineffective administration of government (Euractive, 2011). This is the leverage
that the poor and least developed European countries look forward to once they
make it into the EU’s list of member states (European Commission, 2011).
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The underlying structural issues in the Eurozone periphery became increasingly
visible following the global financial meltdown of 2007-2008 (Eichengreen and
O’ Rourke, 2009). Liquidity quickly dried up and several states were left with
unsustainable deficits and public debts greater than their GDP. By 2010, a
sovereign debt crisis, most pronounced in Greece, was spreading throughout the
periphery and imperiling the future of the Eurozone (Arghyrou and Kontonikas,
2011).
42
Within the course of a year, the EU and the IMF bailed out Greece, Ireland, and
Portugal. In the summer of 2011, Eurozone leaders broadly agreed to provide
Greece with a second financial rescue package to allow the country to meet its
debt obligations until 2014 (Erixon, 2011). But EU officials were slow to act. As
fears of sovereign debt contagion to the Eurozone core intensified during the fall,
EU leaders came under stiff pressure by markets and international policymakers
to act decisively. In late October, they hammered out a comprehensive agreement
to save Greece, shore up the continent’s financial sector, and prevent further
contagion (The New York Times, 2011).
b)
The nature of the Eurozone crisis is SYSTEMIC AND INSTITUTIONAL. It is
a predicament for the European Monetary Union (EMU) to harmonise the national
economic policy of its member states. This is because each member state has its
own economic setup which is different from one country to another. The EMU can
only regulate monetary and credit policy at the supranational level; failing to unite
the different economic guidelines which are at the micro level (Reuters, 2011).
Member states of the EMU handed over to the European Community the two
most imperative tools of national economic policy, which are the rights to:
i.
ii.
set the interest rates; and
change the national currency exchange rate.
Therefore, member states which are affected by the Eurozone crisis are stripped
off of the crucial instruments of anti-cyclic regulation while battling the economic
crisis (European Commission, 2010).
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c)
The FISCAL NATURE AND THE LIABILITIES of the Eurozone sparked off
the crisis. The launching of the single currency and a unified monetary and credit
policy was inadequate in preventing the uneven development of the national
economies of the member states. The European Central Bank (ECB) has had
disagreements with national governments regarding the ways of resolving the
emerging economic problems. This is because there is an imperfect coordination
between the economic policy regulated at the national level and at the community
level. Such breakdown in coordination decreases the effectiveness of the whole
economic policy and economic endeavours (World Socialist Web Site, 1999).
The Eurozone member states have violated the budget discipline stipulated in
the Stability and Growth Pact, 10th Maastricht criteria; that is the consolidated
state budget deficit must not exceed 3% of its GDP (Aslund, 2010). In the
conditions of the global financial and economic crisis, the majority of the European
countries launched colossal programmes to reanimate their economic situations.
Some of the European countries, including the member states of the EMU and
EU expedited the atonement plans to begin structural changes by massively
developing infrastructures, retooling the economy and enhancing its resource
and energy effectiveness (Aslund, 2010). Such exponential expenditure by the
member states has caused amplified state budget deficits. The deficits of the
Eurozone member states was at an average of 6.3% (European Commission,
2010) exceeding the 3% condition stipulated by the Maastricht Treaty (Greiner,
Koeller and Semmler, 2010).
43
Following the Maastricht Treaty leaders of European countries with debilitated
economies tended to defer tougher budgetary measures because of domestic
challenges. The political price for those moves which are mandated by the
Maastricht Treaty was too high for countries like Italy, Spain, and eventually
Greece, and these countries entered the Euro without a profound restructuring
(CME Group, 2011). The effects were not immediately felt. The periphery states
thrived in the first years of the Euro, propelled by large infusions of liquidity and
unprecedented access to credit from other Eurozone states. The “productive
capacity” of the periphery however was limited by rigid labour markets and a
reduction of economic competitiveness.
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d)
The leading EU banks in Germany and France bought two trillion Euros
of government bonds in incapacitated EU member states. Strong EU member
states’ banks have been bailing out member states that have excessive debts (The
Guardian, 2011). The CREDIBILITY GAP on the part of the financial institutions
between the problematical states and the EU twelve supranational governance
is the fourth contributing factor to the Eurozone crisis (Lapavitsas, Kaltenbrunner,
Teles, Lindo, Meadway, Michell, Painceira, Pires, Powell, Stenfors, Lambrinidis,
2010). A number of the EU member states are considered as problem states.
These member states have been having difficulties in meeting the requirements of
economic integration within the EU. These problem states are not at par with the
advanced EU member states when it comes to economic, financial and political
development; and have ineffective anti-crisis measures (Aslund, 2011). Due to
this credibility fissure, the EU’s capability to resolve the problems of its individual
state members is questionable.
44
THE POTENTIAL POLITICAL AFTERMATH OF THE EUROZONE CRISIS ON
THE EU
Despite the unfavourable current states of the Eurozone, there is a widespread
belief that the Eurozone will survive; because the European leaders are taking
decisive actions to save the Eurozone. The giants, Germany and France, are
coming up with corrective action plans to reinstate the Eurozone back to its most
effective and supreme state and circumvent the probability of the disintegration of
the European Union (Roubini, 2011).
On the other hand, it is obvious that the Eurozone crisis will have serious
implications on the EU; political and legal changes, economic changes, sociocultural changes, technological changes, and environmental changes (Duy,
2011). This research will focus on the political risks within the EU due to the
Eurozone crisis. How does the deteriorating condition of the Eurozone affect EU
politically?
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a)
The Disruption Of EU’s Political Sovereignty
The global economy is experiencing a sovereign debt crisis that is spreading
rapidly across certain European states; the members of the Eurozone and the
EU. The sovereign debt crisis has spread to Greece, Ireland, Italy, Portugal and
Spain; there is a possible domino effect throughout the Eurozone. The roots of
the Eurozone crisis can be traced to certain European governments’ inability to
manage their debt (Bloomberg, 2011).
Italy, Spain and now France are under increasing pressure due to skepticism
of the ability of the European leaders to resolve the debt crisis. This scenario
highlights the probability of multiple defaults by other Eurozone member states.
Such defaults would increase the chances that one or more members of the EU
economic bloc would leave the Eurozone (Rao, 2011).
The EU practices the concepts of “shared sovereignty,” “pooled sovereignty”
and “joint national sovereignties” amongst its member states (Coughlan,
2004). Therefore the Eurozone crisis puts the EU sovereign ratings at risk as
the Eurozone sovereign and banking crisis threatens the credit standing of all
European government bond ratings (The Edge Malaysia, 2011). The sovereignty
of the EU is dubious since there is contemplation of an Eurozone fragmentation.
45
The collapse of the EU due to the Eurozone crisis will create a “lost generation”
of young people; the livelihoods of working age youths will be threatened by high
levels of unemployment (The New York Times, 2011). If the economic conditions
of the member states are not improved, various “Occupy”, movements will have
the opportunity to gain momentum and become more aggressive (The Guardian,
2011). This is not the right formula to be associated with the EU’s sovereignty.
The EU’s sovereignty is also at stake if the Eurozone collapses. The EU is the role
model for other regions of the world to emulate successful and well coordinated
economic and political integration initiatives (Borzel and Risse, 2009). The failure
of the Eurozone will definitely shift the EU’s accreditation from a role model to
bad example. Such a scenario will reduce EU’s global influence what more its
sovereignty (Emmanouilidis, 2011).
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The breakup of the Eurozone will cause political and economical projects within
the EU to crumble. There is a possibility that Greece and Italy may leave the
Eurozone; this will lead to the disintegration of the Eurozone. The dissolution of
the Eurozone signals the end of the Euro as the single currency for the European
Union. The EU is expected not to survive the collapse of the Euro as a huge
political will is required to keep the EU on the road and that political will is absent
(Hughes, 2011).
b)
46
The Degradation of EU’s Political Autonomy
The EU is a three pillared structure consisting of the original supranational
European Economic Community and the nuclear non-proliferation treaty, the
Euratom, plus two largely intergovernmental pillars dealing with External Affairs
and Justice and Home Affairs (Verdun, Christiansen, Schmidtke and Goold, 2007).
The EU is therefore not a de jure federation, although some academic observers
conclude that after 50 years of institutional evolution since the Treatise of Rome
it is becoming one (Buthe and Swank, 2007).
The EU possesses the attributes of a federal state. Its central government
however is far weaker than that of most federations and its individual members
are sovereign states under international law, so it is usually characterised as an
unprecedented form of supranational union (Mann, 2009). The EU is accountable
for significant areas such as trade, monetary union, agriculture and fisheries.
Nonetheless, EU member states retain the right to act independently in matters
of foreign policy and defence, and also enjoy a near monopoly over other major
policy areas such as criminal justice and taxation. Since the Treaty of Lisbon,
member states’ right to leave the Union is codified, and the Union operates with a
more qualified majority voting (rather than unanimity) in many areas (CEPS, EPC
and EGMONT Joint Study, 2007).
The EU can be regarded as an autonomous organisation of states; integration
has deeply affected the autonomy of some of the European countries (Baubock,
2003). The EU does not recognise sub-state political economies; this is because
supra-state integration spreads over matters of regional competence. Since
the EU does not recognise the existence of state autonomy, the Committee of
28/10/2013 11:04:01 AM
Regions was created to institutionalise the autonomous units of the EU (Marks,
Hooghe and Blank, 1995).
The dire economic condition of the Eurozone is giving a signal that there is a
propensity for a member state to withdraw from the Eurozone. Any country that
leaves the Eurozone will most likely have to leave the EU. There will be a major
fracture of the Eurozone and this could put an end to the existence of the EU.
Member states that have decided to leave the Eurozone might set up a new
grouping of a separate Europe.
There is a notion that countries which have left the Eurozone could bring into
existence the power of ultranationalist or extremist parties. This is because these
newly deprived post EU states feel that the Treaty of Versailles impinged sternly
on them when they were a part of the EU and Eurozone. If this notion materializes,
international tensions could dramatically rise; the impoverished states might turn
against the EU core states.
The collapse of the EU will also cause the survivability of NATO to be questionable.
NATO has been strained repeatedly by disagreements over its wars against
Serbia, Iraq and Libya (Chifu, 2009). Most NATO states have been slashing
defence budgets due to fiscal austerity; and the US has long moaned that the
European states are not spending enough on defence. With Europe in disarray,
the US would no longer be able to rely on Europe as its security partner (The
Economist, 2011).
c)
47
EU’s Impassive Role in International Relations
It is stupendously clear that the Eurozone crisis has significant repercussions on
the EU foreign policy. The leaders of the Eurozone member states are engaged full
time in managing the crisis (bailing the Euro, reducing expenditure and stemming
the tide of unemployment). The situation forces the leaders to have less time
and desire to understand and strategise about on how to react to foreign policy
demands and requirements; foreign policy is being pushed to the bottom of their
list of priorities.
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The EU has not played its role in the world of international relations; as the EU is
too preoccupied in handling the Eurozone crisis. Its foreign policy has been put
aside and postponed; be it in relation to Vladimir Putin’s return to the Russian
presidency or even the revolutionis in Egypt, Libya, Tunisia and Ukraine.
Foreign policy is costly; it buys the EU various degrees of influence, power and
diplomatic weight. The amount of expenditure that the EU spends for foreign policy
is actually a result of a trade-off between moral commitments, self interest, and
politicians’ accountability to voters. With a growing pie, politicians and decision
makers could get a decent balance between these various imperatives; but with a
shrinking pie, a more egoistic narrow-mindedly voter-oriented behaviour is likely
to be elicited. This will pin down EU member states’ aspiration to allocate funds
internationally. The increasing numbers of the unemployed and salary deductions
will make the member states become less altruistic internationally and put
pressures to spend money domestically.
48
d)
The Revival of Communism and the U.S.S.R.
If the Eurozone disintegrates and the EU collapses, the less developed member
states such as Bulgaria, Romania and the former Yugoslavia states will have an
absent anchorage policy which will assist them in converging with the economic,
financial, legal and social norms of the Western European countries. This condition
will indirectly pave the route to the occurrence of ethnic violence such as what
had happened in Bosnia, Kosovo and Macedonia.
The dismissal of the EU as a powerful block will be the long awaited event for
Russia. The demised U.S.S.R. will gradually reinstate its supremacy. Russia will
have the opening to reassert its influence in Central and Eastern Europe. Vladimir
Rasputin has revived Russia’s geopolitical mechanics by immensely focusing on
rebuilding a sphere of influence in the former U.S.S.R.; the Kremlin will soon take
over the EU’s political autonomy and have the leverage of meddling in the political
affairs of Poland, Slovakia, Romania, Bulgaria and so forth.
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CONCLUSION
The success of the Eurozone strongly determines the economic performance
of the EU; and by far the Eurozone is the most advanced area of the European
integration. The Eurozone is vital since it anchors the stability in Europe and the
EU.
Therefore it is exhorted that the governments in the Eurozone must prescribe
the right panacea in order to cure the ailing economy of its member states. As
advocated by Karl Marx’s apprentice; Antonio Gramsci (a Neo-Marxian) in his
book “Prison Notebooks”; the superstructure (politics) and base (economy) of
a country reciprocate each other. If the base (economy) of a nation state is in a
regressing momentum it will be reflected on its superstructure (political) stability
and vice versa.
49
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DARIPADA “RAKYAT DIDAHULUKAN” KEPADA
“MERAKYATKAN PERKHIDMATAN AWAM”: SATU
TINJAUAN KONSEP DALAM RUANG LINGKUP THE
NEW PUBLIC SERVICE
Dr. Alauddin Sidal
INTAN Bukit Kiara
[email protected]
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28/10/2013 11:04:02 AM
DARIPADA “RAKYAT DIDAHULUKAN” KEPADA
“MERAKYATKAN PERKHIDMATAN AWAM”: SATU
TINJAUAN KONSEP DALAM RUANG LINGKUP THE
NEW PUBLIC SERVICE
PENGENALAN
Era pembangunan yang dipelopori sejak negara mencapai kemerdekaan telah
menyaksikan perkhidmatan awam mengalami perubahan yang dinamik ke arah
meningkatkan taraf hidup rakyat di samping menjamin keamanan, kesejahteraan
dan keselamatan awam. Perkhidmatan awam dengan itu telah memikul tugas
penting dalam merealisasikan aspirasi negara menerusi pelaksanaan segala
dasar, program dan projek Kerajaan. Meskipun pendekatan, strategi dan gerak
kerja telah mengalami perubahan selaras dengan tuntutan persekitaran, namun
begitu peranan asas perkhidmatan awam tetap sama iaitu sebagai pemberi dan
penyampai perkhidmatan kepada rakyat. Perkhidmatan awam dengan itu pada
akhirnya adalah entiti yang menjaga kepentingan dan kemaslahatan rakyat,
manakala penjawat awam pula adalah khadam pemelihara kepentingan awam
atau custodian of the public interest.
55
“RAKYAT DIDAHULUKAN” DAN “CITIZENS FIRST!”
Tatkala YAB Perdana Menteri Dato Sri Mohd. Najib Tun Abdul Razak
memegang tampuk kepimpinan, beliau mempelopori pendekatan baharu
untuk memperkasakan kesejahteraan kehidupan rakyat iaitu di bawah gagasan
1Malaysia, Rakyat Didahulukan, Pencapaian Diutamakan. Konsep Rakyat
Didahulukan ini menggariskan hak semua orang (rakyat) untuk mendapat
perkhidmatan yang terbaik tanpa mengira keturunan, kelas sosial, warna kulit
dan kepercayaan. Prinsip “Rakyat Didahulukan” bererti kerajaan menumpukan
perhatian kepada aspek dan perkara yang dikehendaki dan diperlukan oleh
rakyat jelata, manakala sumber negara yang terhad akan digunakan sebaiknya
berdasarkan keutamaan ini (Pelan Hala Tuju Pelan Transformasi Kerajaan 2010).
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Menjadi asas kepada semua ini ialah prinsip keadilan untuk semua yang membawa
maksud bahawa nasib semua rakyat akan terbela dan tiada sesiapa yang akan
dipinggirkan. Lebih khusus lagi, konsep Rakyat Didahulukan ini telah menampung
aspirasi kerajaan dalam melaksanakan tujuh Bidang Keberhasilan Utama Negara
(NKRA) yang telah disasarkan dalam konteks untuk memakmurkan negara di
samping menjamin dan meletakkan kepentingan rakyat sentiasa diutamakan.
56
Konsep Rakyat Didahulukan ini ada persamaannya dengan pendekatan Citizens
First! oleh Linda W. Chapin apabila beliau dilantik menjadi County Chairman di
Orange County, Florida pada 4 April 1995. Berhadapan dengan situasi sebelum
itu di mana kepercayaan publik terhadap kerajaan semakin menurun, persepsi
rakyat di Amerika Syarikat ketika itu adalah pegawai kerajaan terutama di peringkat
persekutuan, kurang kejujuran, tidak prihatin dan tidak bersedia mendengar
permasalahan rakyat. Pada masa yang sama, komitmen dan penglibatan rakyat
dalam hal-ehwal kemasyarakat juga dianggap telah menurun. Justeru, Linda
Chapin menegaskan bahawa kejayaan pelaksanaan sesuatu dasar awam
dan program kerajaan adalah bergantung kepada kepercayaan dan komitmen
daripada masyarakat.
Citizens First! telah mengubah persepsi lama dengan masyarakat ditanggapi
sebagai Rakyat (citizen) dan bukan lagi sekadar pelanggan. Pendekatan lama
iaitu menanggap rakyat sebagai pelanggan yang perlu dipenuhi kepuasannya
adalah pendekatan ala-perniagaan yang berfokuskan kepada kepentingan
individu dan kepuasan ekonomi mereka. Sebaliknya idea Citizens First! diutarakan
sebagai model untuk memberi perkhidmatan kepada rakyat dengan mendengar
permasalahan rakyat dan memenuhi kehendak mereka. Ini kerana manusia bukan
hanya perlu dipenuhi kepentingan diri mereka tetapi perlu dikhidmati dengan nilai,
kepercayaan dan keperihatinan. Seperti dikatakan oleh Chapin:
Those in government must be willing to listen and to put the needs and
values of citizens first in our decision and our actions. We must reach
out in new and innovative ways to understand what our citizens are
concerned about. And we must respond to the needs that they believe
will help, make a better life for themselves and their children. In other
words, those of us in government must put citizens first. (Denhardt
2011: 187)
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Daripada “ Rakyat Didahulukan “ Kepada “Merakyatkan Perkhidmatan Awam”: Satu Tinjauan Konsep Dalam Ruang
Oleh itu projek Citizens First! di Florida ini telah membawa konsep dan
pendekatan baharu kepada perkhidmatan awam apabila berhadapan dengan
masyarakat iaitu melibatkan diri dalam memahami keperluan dan kepentingan
rakyat dan mencari jalan untuk menangani masalah mereka. Oleh itu
perkhidmatan awam bukan lagi bersifat regulatori dan penjawat awam bukan
lagi regulator atau fasilitator, tetapi perlu melaksanakan banyak perundingan,
tawar menawar, menyelesaikan, meneroka, mencipta, menyokong dan
mengambil berat.
Bagaimanapun pendekatan Citizen First! ini mempromosikan pendekatan bersifat
resiprokal bagi kedua-dua belah pihak iaitu kerajaan dan rakyat. Maksudnya,
penjawat awam perlu bersedia untuk mendengar dan meletakkan keperluan
rakyat sebagai keutamaan. Manakala di pihak satu lagi, lebih ramai rakyat
diperlukan untuk memenuhi tanggungjawab mereka. Rakyat digalakkan untuk
meningkatkan komitmen dan keprihatinan mereka menerusi penglibatan dalam
program-program berbentuk civic engagement.
Dalam konteks ini, tanggungjawab tadbir urus itu dicirikan menerusi perkongsian
antara perkhidmatan awam dengan rakyat secara aktif dan efektif. Kerajaan perlu
sensitif dalam memenuhi keperluan rakyat manakala rakyat perlu melaksanakan
tanggungjawab dengan mengambil berat dan melibatkan diri dalam aktiviti
komuniti dan persekitaran masyarakat. Namun begitu, dalam mengamati konsep
Rakyat Didahulukan, apakah komitmen rakyat dalam pendekatan yang bersifat
resiprokal telah terlaksana dalam konteks Malaysia? Jika belum, apakah yang
perlu dilakukan?
57
PERKHIDMATAN AWAM BAHARU (THE NEW PUBLIC SERVICE)
Baik Rakyat Didahulukan mahupun Citizens First! , kedua-dua konsep tersebut
adalah bermula dari ruang lingkup pendekatan Perkhidmatan Awam Baharu
(The New Public Service). Perkhidmatan Awam Baharu (PAB) adalah peralihan
daripada perspektif New Public Management (Pengurusan Awam Baharu). Ia
bertitik-tolak daripada perubahan peranan perkhidmatan awam iaitu daripada
‘steering’ kepada ‘serving’. Pendekatan PAB mengetengahkan mekanisme
dan struktur baharu untuk mencapai objektif dasar iaitu dengan mengambilkira
kepentingan pelbagai pihak di kalangan rakyat untuk didengari, dirundingi dan
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ditangani. Berbeza dengan pendekatan sebelumnya yang bersifat ‘marketdriven’ iaitu mengutamakan kepentingan individu pelanggan, PAB berusaha
mencipta nilai persefahaman dan membentuk kebersamaan kepentingan antara
mereka. Pentafsiran kelompok sasaran bagi pendekatan ini turut berubah iaitu
perkhidmatan awam memberi perkhidmatan bukan lagi kepada pelanggan tetapi
kepada rakyat.
Denhardt dan Denhardt (2002) telah menyatakan bahawa dua asas utama yang
mendasari pendekatan PAB ialah untuk meningkatkan ‘the dignity and worth’
perkhidmatan awam dan menegaskan nilai kerakyatan dan kepentingan awam
sebagai tumpuan utama dalam pentadbiran awam. Berdasarkan premis utama
tersebut, Denhardt (2011) telah menggariskan tujuh (7) prinsip utama PAB iaitu
seperti berikut:
58
i.Memberi perkhidmatan kepada rakyat bukan pelanggan. Penjawat
awam tidak hanya sekadar memenuhi permintaan pelanggan, tetapi
lebih daripada itu memberi perhatian kepada pengukuhan jaringan
hubungan kepercayaan dan kolaborasi dengan rakyat. Dengan itu
perkhidmatan awam perlu memenuhi aspirasi rakyat.
ii.Mengenalpasti kepentingan awam. Penjawat awam harus memberi
sumbangan untuk memastikan kepentingan awam dipenuhi, manakala
isu dan masalah diselesaikan dengan adil dan demokratik.
iii.Menghargai nilai kerakyatan dan perkhidmatan awam. Peranan
pentadbir tidak lagi semata-mata memenuhi kehendak pelanggan
tetapi lebih utama ialah memberi perkhidmatan kepada rakyat. Mereka
perlu melibatkan rakyat dalam perbincangan dan proses pembuatan
keputusan.
iv.Berfikir secara strategik dan bertindak secara demokratik. Penggubalan
program dan dasar yang memenuhi kehendak rakyat akan lebih efektif
sekiranya dicapai menerusi usaha bersama dan proses kolaboratif.
Penglibatan rakyat tidak harus terhad kepada penetapan objektif dasar
tetapi mereka seharusnya menyertai setiap tahap pelaksanaan dan
penilaian. Oleh itu melalui kesemua proses ini rakyat akan memahami
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sesuatu usaha secara menyeluruh dan tidak sekadar membuat
tuntutan yang hanya bersifat untuk memenuhi kehendak jangka pendek
mereka.
v.Menyedari bahawa akauntabiliti bukan suatu yang mudah. Menjadi
penjawat awam memerlukan seseorang berhadapan dengan
kompleksiti dalam membuat pertimbangan. Dalam usaha memenuhi
kepentingan rakyat, penjawat awam perlu mengambilkira semua aspek
melibatkan perundangan, peraturan, nilai komuniti, norma politik,
standard profesional dan sebagainya. Namun begitu, dalam memberi
perkhidmatan, penjawat awam perlu mematuhi undang-undang, moral,
pertimbangan dan tanggungjawab.
vi.Memberi perkhidmatan bukan memandu arah. Kepimpinan baharu
perkhidmatan awam adalah untuk memberi perkhidmatan, bukan
menunjuk arah dan menentukan mana yang difikirkan terbaik buat rakyat.
Mereka harus berkongsi kuasa, dan memimpin dengan komitmen dan
integriti.
59
vii.Menghargai insan, bukan sekadar produktiviti mereka. Perkhidmatan
awam akan lebih berjaya dalam jangka panjang menerusi kolaborasi
dan mengamalkan kepimpinan berdasarkan penghormatan kepada
semua. Rakyat akan lebih tertarik kepada perkhidmatan awam kerana
nilai yang dipegang dan diamalkan iaitu untuk berkhidmat dan memberi
kesejahteraan kepada rakyat.
Menurut Denhardt (2011: 192) lagi: ... the new public service is built on the idea
of the public interest, the idea of public administrators serving citizens and indeed
becoming full engaged with those they serve. PAB menyarankan bahawa rakyat
adalah pemilik kerajaan dan boleh bertindak bersama-sama untuk membina
kesejahteraan. Dalam hal ini, PAB mengutarakan pendekatan perkongsian nilai
dan persamaan kepentingan menerusi dialog dan engagement dengan rakyat.
Justeru, perkhidmatan awam itu sendiri dilihat sebagai kesinambungan kepada
rakyat dan dipacu oleh keinginan untuk memberi perkhidmatan kepada rakyat
dan mencapai matlamat dasar awam.
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PERANAN
“CITIZEN-ADMINISTRATOR”
PERKHIDMATAN AWAM”
UNTUK
“MERAKYATKAN
Konsep “Merakyatkan Perkhidmatan Awam” (MPA) yang dibawa oleh Ketua
Setiausaha Negara (KSN), YBhg.Tan Sri Dr. Ali Hamsa merupakan kesinambungan
daripada pendekatan “Rakyat Didahulukan” oleh YAB Perdana Menteri. Menurut
KSN, konsep MPA memerlukan penjawat awam untuk meletakkan diri mereka
dalam kedudukan rakyat yang menerima atau menggunakan perkhidmatan yang
disediakan oleh perkhidmatan awam. Konsep MPA ini adalah berteraskan premis
bahawa penjawat awam juga sebenarnya adalah rakyat:
60
“Sekiranya penjawat awam tidak menyampaikan perkhidmatan
dengan baik, satu hari nanti, kita sebagai rakyat juga akan merasa
apa yang rakyat lain lalui. Ini mungkin juga akan terjadi kepada
ibubapa kita, adik-beradik atau saudara-mara kita... Jadi, dengan
memberikan perkhidmatan yang terbaik kepada rakyat adalah sama
dengan memberi perkhidmatan kepada diri, keluarga serta sahabat
kita sendiri” (Ketua Setiausaha Negara, 2012).
Apa yang disarankan oleh beliau tersebut sebenarnya telah diungkap oleh Terry
Cooper dalam An Ethic of Citizenship for Public Administration (1991) yang
menghubungkaitkan antara pemimpin, pentadbir dan rakyat. Menurut Cooper,
apabila menjadi penjawat awam, individu tersebut memegang dwi-peranan
sebagai “citizen-administrator” iaitu rakyat yang berkhidmat untuk rakyat. Justeru,
obligasi utama “citizen-administrator” adalah untuk menyampaikan perkhidmatan
kepada publik untuk tujuan kesejahteraan kepada kehidupan masyarakat
menerusi perwatakan dan “civic virtue”. Apa yang dinyatakan oleh Cooper ini
diperkukuhkan oleh McSwite dalam Invitation to Public Administration (2002)
apabila beliau menegaskan tidak kira apa tugasan yang diberikan kepada penjawat
awam, matlamat utamanya dalam melaksanakan tugasan tersebut adalah untuk
melindungi dan mengukuhkan kepentingan awam.
Selari dengan pendekatan tersebut, penjawat awam berjiwa rakyat serta
memegang konsep MPA akan terus meningkatkan mutu penyampaian
perkhidmatan kepada rakyat. Ini dapat dilakukan menerusi pendekatan “turun
padang” untuk mendengar “denyut nadi dan keluh-kesah” rakyat. Pendekatan
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turun padang akan membolehkan penjawat awam mendengar permasalahan
rakyat dan mencari jalan bersama bagi mengatasi permasalahan tersebut di
samping menjaga kebajikan mereka. Namun begitu, KSN turut membawa satu
objektif “turun padang” yang baharu iaitu keperihatinan penjawat awam bukan
sahaja kepada rakyat, tetapi juga kepada penjawat awam yang lain. Menurut
beliau, pemimpin organisasi akan dapat mengeratkan silaturahim dengan anggota
bawahan masing-masing serta memahami akan kekangan atau masalah yang
dihadapi oleh kakitangan dalam melaksanakan tugas.
Dalam konteks ini, bukan sahaja kebajikan rakyat akan terbela oleh “citizenadministrator”, tetapi mereka juga dapat memahami kesulitan penjawat awam
lain seterusnya memperbaiki kemudahan serta proses kerja mereka. Dengan
itu, “citizen-administrator” ternyata memiliki ciri-ciri “civic engagement” seperti
komitmen tinggi terhadap nilai murni, fokus memberi perkhidmatan kepada publik
dan mencurah dedikasi yang tidak berbelah-bahagi kepada sesama penjawat
awam dan perkhidmatan awam itu sendiri.
PENUTUP
61
Dengan itu perkhidmatan awam perlu back to basic iaitu memberi perhatian kepada
kepentingan dan keperluan rakyat. Dari perspektif teori, PAB mempunyai objektif
untuk menggalakkan lebih ramai orang untuk memenuhi tanggungjawab mereka
sebagai rakyat dan dengan itu PAB perlu lebih sensitif kepada suara mereka.
Akhirnya dalam konteks Malaysia, “Rakyat Didahulukan” dan “Merakyatkan
Perkhidmatan Awam” merupakan dua biji benih yang tumbuh dalam jambangan
PAB yang kini mulai mekar di dalam taman kesejahteraan kehidupan negara ini.
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RUJUKAN
Cooper, T.L. 1991. An Ethic of Citizenship for Public Administration. NJ: Prentice Hall.
Denhardt, R.B. & Denhardt, J.V. 2002. The New Public Service: Serving Rather than
Steering. Public Administration Review 60(6): 549-559.
Denhardt, R.B. 1999. The Future of Public Administration. Public Administration &
Management: An Interactive Journal 4(2): 279-292.
Denhardt, R.B. 2011. Theorist of Public Organization. Sixth Edition. Boston: Wadsworth.
Dato’ Sri Dr. Ali Hamsa. 2012. Ucapan KSN Sempena Majlis Perjumpaan Anggota
Perkhidmatan Awam Persekutuan dan Negeri Selangor Darul Ehsan, 11
Oktober.
McSwite, O.C. 2002. Invitation to Public Administration. NY: Sharpe Inc.
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RASUAH CEMAR KREDIBILITI PENJAWAT AWAM
Zurina Moktar
University of Cambridge
United Kingdom
Former Assistant Director
INTAN Bukit Kiara
[email protected]/ [email protected]
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28/10/2013 11:04:02 AM
RASUAH CEMAR KREDIBILITI PENJAWAT AWAM
PENGENALAN
“Penjawat Awam Paling Banyak Rasuah”, “41 Peratus Penjawat Awam Terlibat
Rasuah”, “Lagi Penjawat Awam Terlibat Rasuah”, “418,200 Penjawat Awam
Babit Rasuah”. Demikianlah antara tajuk-tajuk utama akhbar yang telah menjadi
seakan-akan fenomena tidak asing di negara ini. Rentetan daripada senario ini,
penjawat awam dan salahlaku rasuah seakan-akan telah sebati. Seolah-olah
semua penjawat awam ‘runcing tanduk, bangkah kening’. Hakikatnya, kebejatan
rasuah ini telah menjejas reputasi penjawat awam di negara ini. Hanya kerana
tertitiknya nila maka rosaklah susu sebelanga. Lebih teruk lagi, rasuah dalam
kalangan penjawat awam telah menimbulkan bibit-bibit curiga akan keihklasan
dan ketelusan penjawat awam terhadap tanggungjawab kerja yang telah
diamanahkan.
Pada zaman dahulu, amalan memberi hadiah kepada seseorang adalah sebagai
tanda penghormatan dan bukanlah sesuatu yang dilinkuen (Syed Husin Al-Attas,
1980). Walaubagaimanapun, budaya yang pada asalnya bertujuan mulia telah
disalahgunakan untuk memenuhi kehendak dan kepentingan peribadi atau
diistilahkan sebagai rasuah. Gunnar Myrdal (1996) melalui kajiannya mendapati
isu rasuah adalah satu stigma di negara-negara Asia dan ia telah berada pada
tahap kritikal. Menurut Gosh (1997), beliau mendapati banyak negara Asia terlibat
dengan rasuah secara besar-besaran pada sekitar tahun 1996. Keadaan kian
parah apabila tahun berikutnya telah berlaku krisis ekonomi di Thailand, Korea
Selatan, Malaysia dan Indonesia. Pada tahun tersebut bukan sahaja isu rasuah
dibahaskan, malahan isu berkaitan seperti kronisme, nepotisme, tanggungjawab
dan akauntabiliti terhadap pentadbiran awam juga telah galak dibangkitkan.
Rentetan itu, rasuah telah menjadi cabaran besar terhadap pentabiran awam
Malaysia yang ketika itu sedang bertatih untuk mengatasi krisis kewangan dan
pada masa yang sama perlu pula menghadapi isu-isu rasuah.
65
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TAKRIF RASUAH DAN PENJAWAT AWAM
Secara prinsipnya etimologi terma rasuah berasal daripada nahu Bahasa Arab
“al-riswah”. Istilah yang digunapakai dalam Bahasa Melayu sebagai rasuah ini
didefinisikan sebagai pemberian untuk menyogok atau menyuap. Jika diperincikan
dari sudut undang-undang Malaysia yang terkandung dalam Seksyen 3(a), 3(b),
4(a) dan 4(b) dalam Akta Pencegahan Rasuah 1961 (Pindaan 1971), rasuah
ditafsirkan sebagai:
“menerima atau memberi apa-apa suapan sebagai dorongan, upah atau
galakan kepada seseorang untuk melakukan sesuatu perbuatan atau
untuk tidak melakukan sesuatu perbuatan yang ada hubungan dengan
prinsipalnya.”
Manakala menurut Seksyen 2 dalam Akta Pencegahan Rasuah 1997, suapan
bermaksud;
66
“wang, derma, pinjaman, hadiah, cagaran berharga, harta atau
kepentingan mengenai harta, iaitu apa-apa jenis harta sama ada alih
atau tidak alih atau apa-apa manfaat seumpamanya.”
Berdasarkan Akta Suruhanjaya Pencegahan Rasuah Malaysia (ASPRM) 2009
(Akta 694) pula, terdapat empat kesalahan rasuah yang utama iaitu meminta atau
menerima rasuah [Seksyen 16 & 17(a) ASPRM 2009]; memberi suapan [Seksyen
17(b) ASPRM 2009]; mengemukakan tuntutan palsu [Seksyen 18 ASPRM 2009]
dan salah guna kuasa [Seksyen 23 ASPRM 2009].
Peruntukan Seksyen 3, Interpretation Acts 1948 dan 1967 (Akta 388), UndangUndang Malaysia pula mentakrifkan penjawat awam sebagai:
“seseorang yang diperuntukkan oleh undang-undang, bertindak dalam
atau berfungsi sebagai pegawai awam manakala perkataan pegawai
awam adalah pegawai yang berkhidmat di mana-mana perkhidmatan
Kerajaan.”
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Menurut Perkara 132 (1) perenggan (c), Perlembagaan Persekutuan mentakrifkan
perkhidmatan awam am Persekutuan sebagai salah satu kategori perkhidmatan
awam. Penjawat Awam pula boleh dibahagikan kepada tiga kumpulan perjawatan
iaitu Pengurusan Tertinggi, Pengurusan dan Profesional dan Kumpulan Sokongan
yang berfungsi melaksanakan dasar-dasar dan program-program Kerajaan.
KERUNCINGAN RASUAH DALAM KALANGAN PENJAWAT AWAM
Jika disorot kembali, menurut Laporan Tahunan Government Transformation
Programme (GTP) 2012, Kedudukan Indeks Persepsi Rasuah (CPI) Malaysia
telah meningkat daripada kedudukan ke-60 kepada kedudukan ke-54 dengan
memperoleh 49 mata daripada 100 mata dalam pengiraan CPI. Pencapaian ini
sekaligus membolehkan negara berada pada kedudukan ketiga dalam kalangan
negara ASEAN selepas Singapura dan Brunei. Kontradiknya, tinjauan awam
melalui Barometer Rasuah Global (GCB) oleh penganalisis pasaran bebas
antarabangsa, Frost & Sullivan sebaliknya menunjukkan bahawa rata-rata rakyat
Malaysia tidak percaya bahawa rasuah telah berjaya dibendung sejak Bidang
Keberhasilan Utama Negara (NKRA) Membanteras Rasuah diperkenalkan dalam
GTP. Berdasarkan tinjauan awam ini didapati rakyat terus beranggapan bahawa
rasuah masih berleluasa sehingga rakyat terdorong untuk mempercayai bahawa
rasuah merupakan amalan yang tidak dapat dipisahkan bagi menjalankan pelbagai
urusan dan transaksi, terutamanya di sektor awam. Persepsi ini disokong oleh
statistik Suruhanjaya Pencegahan Rasuah Malaysia (SPRM) yang menunjukkan
bahawa walaupun jumlah tangkapan kes rasuah menurun setiap tahun, namun
jumlah tangkapan pesalah rasuah dalam kalangan penjawat awam berbanding
keseluruhan jumlah tangkapan telah meningkat sebanyak 5 peratus pada tahun
2012 berbanding tahun sebelumnya. Justeru keperluan untuk mengembalikan
keyakinan rakyat terhadap perkhidmatan awam wajar dilihat sebagai mendesak
kerana ia membantu pelaksanaan Ikrar Integriti dan seterusnya membasmi gejala
rasuah.
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Jika diperincikan secara demografik pula, penjawat awam hanya mewakili empat
peratus daripada keseluruhan penduduk negara. Namun secara relatifnya, 41
peratus kesalahan rasuah yang dilakukan oleh penjawat awam merupakan angka
yang amat membimbangkan kerana penjawat awam hanya mewakili sekelompok
kecil penduduk negara. Hal ini memperlihatkan tahap keseriusan amalan rasuah
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yang kian meruncing dalam kalangan penjawat awam. Sehubungan itu, menyedari
peri mustahaknya masalah ini diatasi, Ahmad Shah Mohd Zin, Setiausaha Agung
Congress of the Union of Employees in the Public and Civil Services (CUEPACS)
pada 17 Mac 2012 telah menggesa supaya kerajaan menjalankan satu kajian bagi
mencari punca penjawat awam terbabit dalam amalan rasuah. CUEPACS sama
sekali tidak akan berkompromi untuk melindungi penjawat awam yang terlibat
dalam kesalahan ini. Malah CUEPACS akan terus menjalinkan kerjasama jitu
bersama SPRM dalam membendung gejala ini daripada terus menular melalui
pelbagai ikhtiar. Menurutnya lagi, amalan rasuah dalam kalangan penjawat awam
tidak harus dipandang rucah (sembarangan), sebaliknya perlu ditangani segera
bagi memelihara imej penjawat awam.
PUNCA DAN NATIJAH KETERJEBAKAN RASUAH PENJAWAT AWAM
68
Di peringkat antarabangsa, telah banyak kajian dijalankan bagi mengenalpasti
punca utama kebejatan rasuah dalam kalangan penjawat awam. Kaufman (1997)
telah menemui kaitan yang kuat antara rasuah penjawat awam dan pencabulan
peraturan. Menurut Joseph S. Nye (1967) pula, rasuah yang melibatkan
penjawat awam merupakan sesuatu kelakuan yang menyimpang disebabkan
dorongan kepentingan sendiri sama ada peribadi, keluarga, kenalan, wang,
status atau menyalahi peraturan. Selain itu, Whitton (1994) berpendapat rasuah
penjawat awam adalah satu perbuatan yang tidak beretika yang mencerminkan
pengkhianatan penjawat awam terhadap etika profesional iaitu untuk berkhidmat
dengan rakyat secara jujur dan amanah. Dari perspektif Asia pula, Quah (1995)
menyatakan bahawa di Asia terdapat dua faktor wujudnya masalah ini iaitu budaya
semula jadi negara-negara berkenaan dan keberkesanan pemimpin politik untuk
membanteras masalah tersebut. Manakala menurut Palmier (1985), terdapat tiga
faktor penting yang mempengaruhi wujudnya masalah rasuah iaitu gaji, peluang
dan dasar.
Secara kolektif, Jarita (2008) dalam kajiannya telah membuktikan bahawa faktor
perbelanjaan yang tinggi, khususnya tanggungan hutang telah menyumbang
kepada kecenderungan rasuah yang tinggi dalam kalangan penjawat awam di
negara ini. Beliau mendapati tanggungan hutang peribadi dan isi rumah yang tinggi
melibatkan pinjaman rumah, pinjaman kereta, pinjaman peribadi dan kad kredit
menyebabkan penjawat awam cenderung untuk mengambil rasuah. Beliau turut
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mengaitkan bahawa tabiat perbelanjaan boros turut menjadi punca pembabitan
dalam rasuah. Tidak syak lagi, gejala rasuah merupakan salah satu ancaman
terbesar terhadap aspirasi negara mencapai status negara berpendapatan tinggi
menjelang tahun 2020. Rasuah boleh menyebabkan perencatan pertumbuhan
ekonomi, pembantutan pembangunan dan ketidakadilan sosial di kalangan
masyarakat. Menurut kajian Transparency International Malaysia, rasuah telah
menyebabkan lebih kurang RM30 bilion mengalir keluar daripada negara setiap
tahun. Kesannya pula adalah amat signifikan di mana peningkatan rasuah
sebanyak 1 peratus akan mengakibatkan penurunan Keluaran Dalam Negara
Kasar sebanyak 1.618 peratus (Ziyadi, 2008).
IKHTIAR PEMBANTERASAN RASUAH DALAM PERKHIDMATAN AWAM
Tidak dapat dinafikan bahawa rasuah adalah masalah yang menggusarkan rakyat
Malaysia. Jika tidak dibendung, masalah ini akan merebak sehingga ke peringkat
akar umbi terutamanya pada peringkat sektor awam, swasta dan masyarakat
secara umumnya. Kajian oleh Merdeka Centre National Youth Survey (2008)
menyatakan bahawa rakyat Malaysia berpendapat rasuah merupakan perkara
yang harus diberi keutamaan oleh Kerajaan. Sehubungan itu, seawal Rancangan
Malaysia Kesembilan (RMK-9) lagi, Kerajaan telahpun berusaha meningkatkan
integriti dan ketelusan sektor awam bagi menambah baik tahap tadbir urus
pembangunan. Pelan Integriti Nasional (PIN) yang diperkenalkan pada tahun
2004 telah meletakkan sasaran di bawah TEKAD 2008 iaitu (i) mengurangkan
gejala rasuah, penyelewengan dan salah guna kuasa secara berkesan; dan (ii)
meningkatkan kecekapan dalam sistem penyampaian perkhidmatan awam dan
mengatasi karenah birokrasi. Selain itu, undang-undang serta peraturan telah
disemak dan diperkemaskan untuk menambahbaik tadbir urus korporat serta
memperkukuh langkah menangani rasuah.
69
Di bawah GTP, Kerajaan telah mensasarkan usaha membanteras rasuah sebagai
salah satu agenda utama, dengan mendokumentasikan pembanterasan rasuah
sebagai salah satu NKRA. Dengan tumpuan khusus ini, sumber dan fokus dapat
digembleng bersama bagi mengatasi masalah rasuah. Antara sembilan inisiatif
utama untuk menangani senario rasuah ialah Pangkalan Data Pesalah Rasuah,
Perbicaraan Kes Rasuah dalam Tempoh Satu Tahun, Akta Perlindungan Pemberi
Maklumat (Whistleblower), Integrity-Pact dalam sistem perolehan Kerajaan,
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Mempamerkan Keputusan Tender/Sebutharga Kerajaan yang Berjaya dan
penubuhan Unit Pematuhan di Agensi Kerajaan Berisiko. Sejak inisiatif-inisiatif
ini diperkenalkan, NKRA Membanteras Rasuah telah mula mendapat sokongan
dan reaksi yang positif daripada pelbagai kumpulan pelanggan. Selain itu,
Kerajaan terus mempergiat usaha-usaha untuk meningkatkan tanggapan positif
umum terhadap keberkesanan Kerajaan membanteras rasuah. Menurut Datuk
Hisham Nordin, Pengarah NKRA Membanteras Rasuah (2011), selain daripada
pemantapan penguatkuasaan dan prosedur perolehan Kerajaan, pendekatan
baru iaitu pendidikan dan sokongan awam diperkenalkan untuk memperbetul
persepsi rakyat terhadap rasuah. Beliau turut memaklumkan bahawa 20 inisiatif
telah dirangka bagi menggerakkan NKRA Membanteras Rasuah untuk tempoh
berakhir 2015. Daripada jumlah tersebut, 14 inisiatif dikenal pasti sebagai Big
Fast Result (BFR) kerana dianggap memberi impak dan hasil yang pantas.
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Keberhasilan NKRA Membanteras Rasuah pada 2011 (sumber: www.pemandu.gov.my)
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KEMAJUAN MEMERANGI GEJALA RASUAH
Sejak diperkenalkan pada tahun 2010, NKRA Membanteras Rasuah telah
mencapai kemajuan yang signifikan dalam tempoh tiga tahun pertama iaitu
selepas beberapa inisiatif diwujudkan bagi memerangi gejala rasuah. Antara
kejayaan besar yang dicatatkan adalah pemulihan kedudukan CPI daripada
tangga 60 pada tahun 2011 ke tangga 54 pada tahun 2012. Walaupun demikian,
kedudukan ke-54 daripada 176 negara ini masih gagal mengulangi pencapaian
kedudukan ke-43 daripada 179 negara yang pernah dicapai pada 2007, iaitu
sebelum NKRA Membanteras Rasuah diperkenalkan.
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Mata CPI Malaysia bagi tempoh lima tahun
(Sumber diubahsuai daripada Transparency International Malaysia, 2012)
Hal ini mengandaikan bahawa usaha-usaha pelaksanaan tiga teras utama
inisiatif pembanterasan rasuah negara masih belum mencukupi. Dari kaca mata
global pula, hakikatnya banyak negara dengan GDP per kapita yang lebih rendah
daripada Malaysia mampu memperoleh kedudukan CPI yang lebih baik termasuk
Rwanda (50), Bhutan (33) dan Botswana (30), begitu juga negara ekonomi
perindustrian baru (NIE) di Asia seperti Korea Selatan (45), Taiwan (37), Hong
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Kong (14) dan Singapura (5). Justeru, rakyat pada amnya dan penjawat awam
khasnya, tidak wajar berasa selesa dengan pencapaian pembanterasan rasuah
berdasarkan indikator sedia ada.
KESIMPULAN
Dr Yusuf Qardawi (1998) telah menyatakan bahawa:
“Dengan bersandarkan keimanan seseorang mukmin dapat menikmati
kehidupan dengan jiwa yang tenang, hati yang tenteram serta dada
yang lapang. Kehidupannya dipenuhi oleh keredhaan, kedamaian dan
semangat kecintaan yang murni.”
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Dengan keimanan yang kukuh, penjawat awam akan reda dengan apa yang dimiliki
dan terhindar daripada sifat tamak yang membuka jalan kepada amalan rasuah.
Secara holistiknya, penjawat awam merupakan nadi modal insan terpenting
dalam memacu pembangunan sesebuah negara. Dalam konteks negara kita,
penjawat awam sama ada kumpulan Pengurusan dan Profesional atau Kumpulan
Sokongan bertanggungjawab dalam menjayakan semua perancangan dan
matlamat Kerajaan. Namun begitu, keterjebakan penjawat awam dalam amalan
yang bertentangan dengan nilai dan etika profesional seperti rasuah akan
merencatkan pembangunan negara, terutamanya dari perspektif moral, ekonomi
dan produktiviti.
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RUJUKAN
Alatas, S.H. 1991. Corruption: Its nature, causes and functions. Kuala Lumpur: S. Abdul
Majeed.
Gosh. 1997. Laporan Economic Review. The New York Times.
Gunnar Myrdal. 1996. Corruption Analysis. The New York Times.
Jarita Duasa. 2008. “Tendency of Corruption and Its Determinants Among Public Servants:
A Case Study on Malaysia”.
Joseph S. Nye. 1967. “Corruption and Political Development : A Cost Benefit Analysis”.
Kaufmann, D. 1997. Corruption: The Facts. Foreign Policy 107, pp.114-131.
Palmier, L. 1985. The Control Of Bureaucratic Corruption: Case studies in Asia. New
Delhi: Allied Publishers.
Syed Hussen Al-Attas. 1995. Rasuah, Sifat Sebab Dan Fungsi. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan
Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Whitton H. 1994. “The Rediscovery of Professional Ethics for Public Officials: An Australian
review” in Preston N Ethics for the Public Sector: education & training.
73
www.pemandu.gov.my/
www.sprm.gov.my/
www.utusanonline.com/
Yusuf Qardawi.1998. Peranan Nilai dan Akhlak dalam Ekonomi Islam. Kuala Lumpur:
ABIM.
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PENGURUSAN LATIHAN DALAM SEKTOR AWAM:
KONSEP DAN ARAH TUJU
Dr. Alauddin Sidal
INTAN Bukit Kiara
[email protected]
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28/10/2013 11:04:02 AM
PENGURUSAN LATIHAN DALAM SEKTOR AWAM:
KONSEP DAN ARAH TUJU
PENGENALAN
Modal insan (pekerja) adalah aset terpenting organisasi. Merekalah yang
membantu organisasi untuk mencapai matlamat dan meningkatkan prestasi.
Sebaliknya keupayaan organisasi akan tersekat jika pekerja tidak komited, tidak
mempunyai kebolehan dan pengetahuan yang mencukupi. Oleh itu organisasi
tidak mempunyai banyak pilihan jika ia ingin terus bersaing dalam suasana rumit,
mencabar dan kompetitif. Dengan itu kemahiran dan pengetahuan pekerja harus
dipertingkatkan pada setiap masa agar dapat memberi perkhidmatan berkesan
kepada organisasi. Selain itu, latihan dan pembangunan modal insan perlu
diurus secara strategik kerana ia boleh mempengaruhi atau merubah gelagat
pekerja menjadi lebih produktif dan seterusnya dapat memberi sumbangan ke
arah pencapaian matlamat organisasi. Dengan kata lain, latihan penting untuk
mencapai objektif pekerja dan organisasi.
77
FUNGSI LATIHAN DALAM ORGANISASI
Latihan merupakan aktiviti dalam domain pembangunan modal insan yang
berperanan untuk membantu pekerja melaksanakan tugas mereka (Werther
& Davis, 1985) dan meningkatkan produktiviti mereka (Klinger & Nalbandian,
1985). Dalam satu definisi yang agak komprehensif, Nadler & Wiggs (1986: 4)
menjelaskan: “Training activities focus on learning the skills, knowledge and
attitudes required to initially perform a job or task or improve upon the performance
of current job or task”.
--------------------* Kertas kerja ini telah dibentangkan dalam Seminar Kebangsaan Merekayasa Pengurusan
Latihan: Inovatif dan Kreatif, anjuran Universiti Sains Malaysia di Hotel Grand Riverview,
Kota Bharu, Kelantan pada 16-18 April 2011.
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Justeru itu latihan merupakan satu proses memberi dan menambahkan
pengetahuan, meningkatkan kemahiran atau kebolehan untuk meningkatkan
kualiti sumber manusia. Latihan juga berperanan untuk mencipta dan berkongsi
pengetahuan atau untuk meningkatkan modal intelek (intellectual capital) pekerja.
Dengan itu, latihan dan pembangunan perlu diurus berasaskan kepada keperluan
pekerja dan organisasi kerana ia bertujuan untuk:
•
•
•
•
78
memberi kemahiran kepada pekerja baru agar mereka dapat menjalankan
tugas jawatan yang disandang;
memberi pengetahuan yang lebih mendalam, atau meningkatkan kompetensi
pekerja dalam pelaksanaan tugas dan tanggungjawab mereka;
memberi motivasi kepada mereka serta peluang memajukan kerjaya, dan
menyediakan pekerja dengan kebolehan tambahan untuk peningkatan
prestasi.
Mengintegrasikan komponen latihan dalam pembangunan organisasi adalah satu
daripada usaha untuk melengkapkan strategi organisasi. Dalam keseluruhan
strategi organisasi, latihan adalah termasuk dalam komponen pembangunan
modal insan. Oleh itu terdapat hubungan langsung dan tidak langsung antara
latihan dengan strategi dan matlamat organisasi. Ini kerana latihan boleh membantu
pekerja untuk mengukuhkan kompetensi yang diperlukan untuk melaksanakan
kerja iaitu mempengaruhi secara langsung produktiviti organisasi.
LATIHAN SEBAGAI AKTIVITI PENGURUSAN SUMBER MANUSIA
Pengurusan Sumber Manusia (PSM) merupakan istilah yang mula digunakan
semasa tahun 1930-an. Ia melibatkan set aktiviti, program dan fungsi yang
dirangka untuk memaksimumkan keberkesanan pekerja dan organisasi.
Semua aktiviti yang melibatkan kerjaya modal insan (pekerja) adalah di bawah
horizon PSM iaitu meliputi perlantikan, saraan, pengurusan prestasi, latihan dan
pembangunan, kenaikan pangkat dan sebagainya. Oleh itu dalam konteks sektor
awam di negara ini, latihan dan pembangunan adalah merupakan salah satu
komponen di bawah PSM.
Objektif utama latihan dan pembangunan adalah untuk mempastikan tersedianya
tenaga kerja yang berkemahiran dan berpengetahuan untuk memberi sumbangan
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Pengurusan Latihan Dalam Sektor Awam: Konsep dan Arah Tuju
kepada organisasi. Secara umumnya, latihan dan pembangunan sektor awam
mengarah kepada:
•
Objektif individu – membantu pekerja untuk mencapai objektif peribadi yang
juga meningkatkan sumbangannya kepada organisasi.
•
Objektif organisasi – dengan meningkatkan kecekapan individu pekerja, ia
akan membantu organisasi mencapai objektifnya.
•
Objektif fungsional – mengekalkan sumbangan organisasi pada aras yang
diperlukan olehnya.
•
Objektif kemasyarakatan (societal objectives) – mempastikan organisasi
menunaikan tanggungjawab sosial melalui perkhidmatannya bagi memenuhi
keperluan masyarakat.
Bagi membolehkan sesuatu latihan itu berjaya memenuhi pencapaian prestasi
yang diharapkan, beberapa faktor perlu diambilkira iaitu seperti rajah di bawah.
79
Rajah 1: Pra-Syarat Latihan
EKSPEKTASI
TERHADAP
LATIHAN
DORONGAN
UNTUK
DILATIH
JANGKAAN
PRESTASI
PENGETAHUAN,
KEMAHIRAN & SIKAP
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Sekiranya pekerja tidak bermotivasi untuk mengikuti latihan, sebaik mana
sekalipun kaedah latihan atau setinggi mana bakat mereka, latihan itu tidak
akan berjaya. Oleh itu sangat penting sebelum latihan, pekerja diberi maklumat
secukupnya tentang objektif yang diharapkan dari latihan supaya mereka dapat
menjangkanya serta memahami bagaimana objektif latihan akan dapat membantu
mereka mencapai matlamat organisasi. Keadaan ini akan meningkatkan dorongan
pekerja untuk dilatih dan mengikuti latihan dengan jayanya.
Ekspektasi positif akan memberi pengaruh positif dalam pelaksanaan program
latihan. Jika pekerja menganggap latihan hanya membuang masa dan sumber,
proses pembelajaran tidak akan berlaku dengan berkesan. Persepsi negatif tidak
akan dapat membantu proses latihan berlangsung. Sebaliknya jika pekerja percaya
dan menjangkakan latihan dapat membantunya untuk meningkatkan kemahiran
profesional dan membantunya mencapai objektif peribadi, kemungkinan untuk
latihan mencapai objektifnya adalah tinggi.
80
Selanjutnya adalah penting sekiranya pekerja memiliki pengetahuan, kemahiran
dan sikap yang betul sebelum mengikuti latihan. Kaedah latihan yang bagus
sekalipun tidak akan berkesan sekiranya pekerja kekurangan pengetahuan
dan kemahiran yang diperlukan untuk mengikutinya. Oleh itu kaedah pemilihan
peserta yang betul adalah satu kemestian untuk memperolehi bakal peserta yang
berkelayakan dan tepat iaitu memiliki tahap pengetahuan, kemahiran dan sikap
yang bersesuaian.
LATIHAN DAN PEMBANGUNAN MODAL INSAN
Pembangunan dan latihan merupakan dua konsep yang kerap digunakan secara
silih berganti dalam literatur latihan. Kedua-duanya bagaimanapun membawa
maksud yang sedikit berbeza. Latihan bersifat jangka pendek untuk membantu
pekerja memperbaiki atau meningkatkan prestasi kerja mereka menerusi perolehan
pengetahuan, kemahiran dan sikap (Werther & Davis 1985). Latihan dirangka
berdasarkan keperluan kerja dan ekspektasi oleh stakeholders, pengurus dan
pelanggan (Rothwell 2002). Pembangunan pula melibatkan proses pembelajaran
yang berfokus jangka panjang iaitu menjangkaui keperluan kerja hari ini. Oleh itu
pembangunan diselarikan dengan visi dan misi organisasi menerusi pengukuhan
kemahiran, pengetahuan, pembelajaran dan keupayaan inovatif modal insan
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di setiap peringkat (Steward 1999). Oleh itu dalam pembangunan, peranan
organisasi ialah untuk menyediakan peluang dan insentif pembelajaran kepada
pekerjanya.
Model di bawah menunjukkan bahawa proses bermula dengan menentukan
dasar organisasi dan kemudian memilih inisiatif latihan dan pembangunan yang
menyokongnya. Selanjutnya aktiviti latihan dirangka bagi merealisasikan latihan
strategik dan pembangunan. Ini diikuti dengan pengukuran nilai latihan iaitu
menentukan sama ada latihan membantu menyumbang kepada pencapaian
matlamat organisasi.
Rajah 2: Proses Latihan Strategik dan Pembangunan
Dasar
Organisasi
Visi
Misi
Objektif
Latihan
strategik dan
pembangunan
Aktiviti latihan dan
Pengukuran nilai
pembangunan
latihan
Meningkatkan
Gabungan
Perubahan sikap
kualiti
kaedah
pekerja
perkhidmatan
pembelajaran
Peningkatan
Meluaskan ruang
Pelaksanaan
prestasi
pembelajaran
perancangan
Pengurangan
Penciptaan dan
pembangunan
aduan
perkongsian ilmu
Pembentukan
Kepuasan pekerja
81
jaringan
perkongsian
pengetahuan
Sumber: Disesuaikan daripada Noe, R (2010: 59)
Memberikan pekerja peluang pembelajaran dan membina persekitaran kerja yang
kondusif bermakna turut memberi motivasi kepada pekerja dan mengekalkan bakat
dalam organisasi (Noe 2010). Latihan strategik mengarah kepada perancangan
latihan untuk memenuhi matlamat jangka panjang organisasi, sama ada untuk
menghasilkan perkhidmatan yang lebih baik, penghasilan produk baru, “doing
more with less” atau mengembangkan sayap ke arena antarabangsa.
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Bagaimana pula organisasi dapat menentukan sama ada aktiviti latihan dan
pembangunan menyumbang kepada pencapaian matlamat organisasi? Bagi
menentukan keberkesanan latihan, indikator yang dilihat adalah seperti kepuasan
kakitangan terhadap latihan, perubahan sikap pekerja, peningkatan pengetahuan
dan kemahiran pekerja serta dampak atau outcome latihan kepada organisasi.
Dampak tersebut dinilai menerusi perubahan tingkahlaku pekerja, ketepatan dan
kepantasan perkhidmatan kepada pelanggan, “zero defect”, kepuasan pekerja
dan pengurangan aduan.
MODEL PENGURUSAN LATIHAN
82
Berdasarkan tinjauan literature, dua model pengurusan latihan kerap ditemui iaitu
pertama berasaskan pendekatan mikro, manakala kedua adalah berasaskan
pendekatan makro. Pendekatan mikro memberi fokus semata-mata kepada
pelaksanaan latihan iaitu menerangkan aktiviti-aktiviti terlibat tanpa mengambilkira
elemen-elemen persekitaran organisasi yang turut mempengaruhi latihan tadi
(Schneier et al. 1988; Nadler 1982). Nadler (1982) misalnya telah mengemukakan
Critical Event Model iaitu melihat proses pelaksanaan latihan dari perspektif
mikro.
Rajah 3: Model Pengurusan Latihan Menyeluruh
Iklim Latihan
Pembangunan Latihan
Dasar PSM
TNA
Kepuasan Pekerja
Objektif PSM
Pemilikan KSA
Penilaian
Rekabentuk
Agihan Sumber
Komitmen Pemimpin
Input
Perubahan Individu
Prestasi Kerja
Pelaksanaan
Proses
Kepuasan Publik
Output
Maklumbalas
Sumber: Disesuaikan daripada Macro Training and Development Model
(Al-Khayyat & Elgamal, 1997)
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Sebaliknya, model latihan dari perspektif makro merupakan percubaan untuk
mengambilkira faktor-faktor dalaman dan luaran organisasi yang mempengaruhi
pelaksanaan latihan. Satu daripada model yang komprehensif dalam pengurusan
latihan ialah Macro Training and Development Model (MTDM) yang mengandungi
tiga set utama angkubah iaitu input, proses dan output (Al-Khayyat & Elgamal
1997).
Input pertama adalah berkaitan dengan objektif PSM yang perlu dinyatakan
dengan jelas dan dikaji mengikut masa. Terdapat dua set objektif iaitu peringkat
makro yang berkaitan dengan objektif strategik (di tahap organisasi), manakala
satu lagi ialah peringkat mikro iaitu objektif pada peringkat pelaksanaan latihan
itu sendiri. Dasar jangka panjang PSM pula merupakan dasar payung kepada
pelaksanaan aktiviti latihan dalam sesebuah organisasi. Komitmen pengurusan
mencerminkan persepsi pihak pengurusan organisasi terhadap peranan PSM di
mana latihan perlu dilaksanakan secara komprehensif dan tidak ditanggapi sebagai
aktiviti berasingan. Latihan juga perlu dianggap berfungsi untuk melaksanakan
perubahan dan menjana idea baru demi kecemerlangan organisasi. Input terakhir
ialah ketersediaan sumber dalam bentuk fizikal, tenaga kerja dan kewangan.
Kesemua input berkenaan adalah penting dalam mempastikan aktiviti latihan
dapat dilaksanakan dengan sistematik dan berkesan.
83
Input-input tersebut akan ditransformasikan dalam bentuk tindakan dan keputusan
(results). Di sinilah proses pembelajaran berlaku dan membawa perubahan kepada
prestasi pekerja yang dikehendaki. MTDM menggariskan kaedah yang bertujuan
untuk menghasilkan persekitaran pembelajaran yang progresif, menggalakkan
peserta untuk menguasai prestasi yang standard dan menilai pengalaman
pembelajaran. Model ini memberi penekanan kepada analisis keperluan latihan,
latihan sebagai proses berterusan (ongoing process) dan penilaian impak sebagai
komponen yang perlu disekalikan dalam setiap aktiviti latihan.
Analisis keperluan latihan perlu dikendalikan bagi menentukan sama ada latihan
adalah diperlukan dan apakah jenis latihan yang diperlukan untuk menyelesaikan
sesuatu isu. Analisis ini perlu dilaksanakan untuk memastikan kemahiran dan
kebolehan yang ada pada setiap pekerja bersesuaian dengan tugas yang diberikan
kepadanya. Jika tidak, latihan perlu diberikan kepada pekerja bagi meningkatkan
kemahiran supaya dapat melaksanakan tugas dengan lebih berkesan. Peringkat
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rekabentuk adalah susulan iaitu menghasilkan pelan latihan untuk dilaksana
menggunakan pemilihan teknik dan metodologi yang bersesuaian.
Pelaksanaan latihan adalah aktiviti seterusnya dengan melibatkan perkaraperkara tertentu dalam merancang latihan, mengendalikan latihan dan pasca
latihan. Penilaian maklumbalas dan impak latihan penting bagi menilai sama
ada aktiviti latihan mencapai objektifnya dan dikendalikan dengan baik. Penilaian
impak latihan ini seterusnya melihat sama ada berlaku perubahan sikap dan
peningkatan pengetahuan dan kemahiran pekerja setelah mengikuti latihan.
Selanjutnya di peringkat makro, impak latihan menilai sama ada penganjuran
latihan memberi pulangan yang sewajarnya kepada organisasi.
84
Berdasarkan pelaksanaan MTDM, lima output yang dinilai ialah penambahbaikan
prestasi kerja, peningkatan produktiviti dan kualiti, aplikasi pengetahuan,
kemahiran dan sikap, kepuasan pekerja dan kepuasan pelanggan. Mengukur
kepuasan pekerja setelah mengikuti latihan adalah lebih kepada tinjauan
“reaksi” awal mereka terhadap latihan yang telah diikuti. Pemilikan pengetahuan,
kemahiran dan sikap merujuk kepada sejauh mana pekerja boleh menguasai nilai
tambah yang diperolehi menerusi latihan. Manakala penambahbaikan prestasi
kerja merujuk kepada impak Tahap Ketiga iaitu “the effect of training on job
performance” dalam terminologi impak latihan oleh Kirkpatrick (1983). Akhirnya,
kepuasan pelanggan merupakan natijah yang terhasil daripada penilaian kepada
sejauh mana latihan dapat melengkapkan pekerja dengan kebolehan dan
kompetensi untuk melaksanakan tugasnya dengan cekap dan berkesan.
KEDUDUKAN SEMASA DAN ARAH TUJU LATIHAN DALAM SEKTOR
AWAM
Menyedari pentingnya pembangunan sumber manusia dalam sektor awam ini,
Dasar Latihan Sumber Manusia Sektor Awam telah dilaksanakan untuk pegawai
awam (Pekeliling Perkhidmatan Bilangan 6 Tahun 2005) dengan menyatakan
“setiap anggota perkhidmatan awam perlu melengkapkan diri atau dilengkapkan
dengan sikap (attitude), kemahiran (skills) dan pengetahuan (knowledge) yang
bersesuaian, melalui program pembangunan sumber manusia yang terancang
yang berteraskan pembangunan kompetensi dan pembelajaran berterusan”.
Dasar ini digubal untuk mencapai objektif-objektif berikut:
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i.
Menyediakan anggota yang berkelayakan, berkebolehan dan berkompetensi;
ii.
Mencapai hasil kerja yang berkualiti / bermutu tinggi;
iii.
Meningkatkan kompetensi dan produktiviti;
iv.
Membentuk nilai-nilai murni dan sikap-sikap positif;
v.
Mewujudkan nilai cipta (value–creation) dan nilai tambah (value– added) di dalam sektor awam; dan
vi.
Menyediakan hala tuju kemajuan kerjaya.
Dasar ini juga telah menggariskan strategi-strategi, antaranya ialah keperluan
jabatan menyediakan peruntukan tahunan bersamaan sekurang-kurangnya satu
peratus (1%) daripada peruntukan emolumen untuk tujuan latihan dan memastikan
anggota di semua peringkat mengikuti kursus sekurang-kurangnya tujuh (7) hari
setahun. Selain itu, Majlis Latihan Sektor Awam yang dipengerusikan oleh Ketua
Pengarah Perkhidmatan Awam ditubuhkan bagi pelaksanaan di peringkat pusat;
manakala Panel Pembangunan Sumber Manusia yang dipengerusikan oleh
Ketua Setiausaha Kementerian/ Ketua Jabatan ditubuhkan bagi pelaksanaan di
peringkat Kementerian/ Jabatan. Sehubungan itu, setiap pegawai awam perlu
melengkapkan diri dengan pengetahuan, kemahiran dan sikap yang bersesuaian
melalui program pembangunan sumber manusia terancang berteraskan
kompetensi dan pembelajaran berterusan.
85
Dalam hal ini, Bahagian Pengurusan Sumber Manusia setiap agensi diberi
tanggungjawab merancang dan melaksanakan program-program latihan kepada
penjawat awam dengan kerjasama Institut Latihan Awam (ILA) serta penyedia
latihan swasta. Dalam melaksanakan program latihan ini, agensi awam memberi
perhatian kepada latihan strategik iaitu keperluan sebenar pelaksanaan latihan
dan manfaat yang akan diperoleh oleh pegawai awam dan organisasi daripada
latihan tersebut. Sehubungan itu, perancangan program latihan bagi penjawat
awam dilakukan berdasarkan kepada Analisis Keperluan Latihan (TNA) dan
Analisis Jurang Kompetensi (CGA) bagi memastikan penjawat awam sesuatu
agensi itu mengikuti latihan yang relevan dengan keperluan mereka.
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Oleh itu, program-program latihan diatur sebagai sebahagian strategi
pembangunan sumber manusia bagi memantapkan penyampaian perkhidmatan
pekerja dan agensi berkenaan. Justeru itu, latihan dijalankan bagi membantu
memacu pencapaian visi, misi dan objektif strategik agensi iaitu selaras dengan
pelaksanaan Pelan Strategik agensi berkenaan. Menerusi pendekatan strategik
dan inovatif, semakin banyak agensi dalam sektor awam yang melaksanakan
penyampaian latihan secara blended approach. Antaranya, kaedah penyampaian
latihan telah dipelbagaikan dan bukan hanya melibatkan pembelajaran secara
convensional face-to-face (classroom method) sahaja, tetapi juga menerusi
pembelajaran atas talian (e-learning).
86
Selaras dengan agenda transformasi nasional menuju sebuah negara
berpendapatan tinggi, Kerajaan telah memancang empat tonggak utama iaitu
Gagasan 1Malaysia: Rakyat Didahulukan Pencapaian Diutamakan, Program
Transformasi Kerajaan, Model Baru Ekonomi dan Rancangan Malaysia
Kesepuluh. Dalam hal ini, penjawat awam perlu dilengkapi dengan kebolehan
dan keupayaan untuk melaksanakan gerak kerja dengan pantas dan tersusun
bagi melaksanakan tanggungjawab untuk mencapai cita-cita tersebut. Oleh itu
PSM mempunyai beban berat untuk memastikan bahawa perancangan dan
strategi latihan dapat memenuhi aspirasi untuk melahirkan penjawat awam yang
berbakat, responsif dan mempunyai kompetensi untuk menterjemahkan agenda
transformasi negara.
28/10/2013 11:04:02 AM
Rajah 4: Cadangan Arah Tuju Pengurusan Latihan Sektor Awam
Pengukuhan Kapasiti
Transformasi
Latihan
Pengurusan
Perubahan
Pembangunan kemahiran dan kompetensi Peningkatan produktiviti dan prestasi
Pengukuhan kolaborasi dan perkongsian ilmu
Pengekalan bakat dalam perkhidmatan
Pembikinan pemimpin masa depan
Keberkesanan
Mencapai Negara
Sistem Penyampaian
Maju
•1Malaysia: Rakyat Didahulukan Pencapaian
Diutamakan
• Program Transformasi Kerajaan (6NKRA)
• Model Baru Ekonomi (Program Transformasi
Ekonomi)
• Rancangan Malaysia Kesepuluh (2011-2015)
Transformasi Perkhidmatan Awam
87
Sumber: Disesuaikan daripada Model Pelaksanaan Transformasi (MAMPU, 2010)
Sektor perkhidmatan awam perlu membawa negara dalam mencapai hala tuju
pembangunannya menuju Wawasan 2020. Keberkesanan sektor awam selaku
pemudahcara yang efektif adalah penting untuk menguruskan perubahan
sosioekonomi negara menerusi keberkesanan sistem penyampaian perkhidmatan.
Penyampaian sistem perkhidmatan sektor awam merupakan komponen teras
dalam pencapaian agenda transformasi negara dan transformasi yang berkesan
memerlukan komitmen tinggi seluruh jentera perkhidmatan awam. Oleh kerana
transformasi sektor awam sebenarnya berorientasi pelanggan (client oriented),
maka tumpuan utama adalah kepada penambahbaikan sistem penyampaian dan
hubungan yang erat dengan rakyat dan entiti perniagaan.
Ke arah itu, perkhidmatan awam itu sendiri perlu melalui proses transformasi dalam
pengukuhan kapasiti dan pengurusan perubahan. Dalam pengukuhan kapasiti
ini, lima aspek utama terlibat iaitu pemantapan pengurusan dan agihan sumber,
perekayasaan struktur dan sistem, pencarian dan pengurusan bakat terbaik,
28/10/2013 11:04:02 AM
pembudayaan tadbir urus berasaskan integriti dan ketelusan serta kedinamisan
pemimpin. Manakala dalam mengurus perubahan pula, ia melibatkan usaha
untuk merubah minda (mindset), mengaplikasi kreativiti dan inovasi, membudaya
prestasi dan amalan terbaik serta akhirnya menghasilkan lonjakan prestasi
dan outcome. Jelasnya, anggota sektor awam merupakan watak utama dalam
agenda transformasi sektor awam untuk memberi perkhidmatan secara pantas,
profesional, kos efektif dan berintegriti.
88
Dalam konteks ini, peranan PSM dan ILA ialah untuk melaksanakan latihan
dalam bidang-bidang strategik yang diperlukan oleh penjawat awam bagi
membolehkan mereka menjalankan tugas dengan cekap dan berkesan. Ini
memerlukan penjajaran semula program latihan mengikut keperluan pekerjaan
dan dasar semasa. Latihan berorientasikan pekerjaan dan dasar ini dijangka
dapat menghasilkan produktiviti (output) yang membantu dalam pencapaian
impak organisasi dan keberhasilan agenda baru kerajaan. Justeru itu latihan
perlu dikenalpasti, dirancang, dikendali dan dinilai keberkesanannya agar
dapat memberi impak dalam memenuhi outcome untuk setiap inisiatif atau
program yang dilaksanakan oleh Kerajaan ke arah meningkatkan kesejahteraan
kehidupan rakyat. Tumpuan kepada keberkesanan impak latihan adalah penting
bagi membolehkan penjawat awam memberi sumbangan yang berkesan dan
menghasilkan outcome yang diharapkan oleh rakyat.
KE ARAH TRANSFORMASI LATIHAN DALAM SEKTOR AWAM
Transformasi perkhidmatan awam memerlukan reformasi pengurusan latihan.
Ke arah mencapai matlamat tersebut, PSM sektor awam dan ILA perlu
menyediakan latihan yang berkesan bagi melahirkan tenaga kerja sektor awam
yang kompeten, berbakat dan berkebolehan melaksana tugas dengan berkesan.
Tenaga kerja yang mempunyai ciri-ciri tersebut akan dapat melaksanakan tugas
mereka dengan penuh tanggungjawab dan memberi perkhidmatan yang melebihi
jangkaan masyarakat. PSM sektor awam dan ILA perlu menyemarakkan tenaga
kerja ini bagi menggunakan daya kreativiti untuk menjayakan agenda Kerajaan
dengan sempurna dan mencapai objektifnya. Ini hanya akan berlaku jika PSM
sektor awam dan ILA terlebih dahulu dapat membangunkan perwatakan mereka
berasaskan sikap dan nilai positif. Usaha berterusan untuk menerapkan budaya
kerja cemerlang dan etika kerja terpuji dalam kalangan penjawat awam sangatlah
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perlu diperkasakan menerusi latihan. Justeru PSM sektor awam dan ILA
mempunyai tugas berat untuk bertindak selaku katalis bagi membentuk budaya
kerja baru perkhidmatan awam yang berteraskan pencapaian dan berorientasikan
rakyat.
PSM sektor awam dan ILA juga perlu melaksanakan tugas penting dalam
merealisasikan program-program latihan bagi mengukuhkan kapasiti jentera
pentadbiran Kerajaan agar semakin efektif, efisien, berkeusahawanan
(enterprising), pro-aktif dan berkebolehan untuk mempercepat agenda kemajuan
negara. Latihan boleh menjana “enterprising government machineries” yang akan
menganjak fungsi tradisional pentadbiran Kerajaan daripada regulator kepada
fasilitator dan pace-setter serta mewujudkan persekitaran kondusif kepada
pertumbuhan ekonomi yang diterajui oleh sektor swasta. Jentera pentadbiran
awam yang berkeusahawan akan membantu negara menghadapi cabaran dan
persaingan di peringkat global. PSM sektor awam dan ILA juga boleh menyumbang
kepada pemantapan jentera Kerajaan yang pro-aktif menerusi jangkaan terhadap
perubahan ekspektasi rakyat dan merekabentuk sistem perkhidmatan yang maju
untuk memenuhi keperluan mereka yang lebih kompleks pada masa hadapan.
89
Pada masa yang sama, PSM sektor awam dan ILA seharusnya mampu
menawarkan program-program latihan bagi menggilap pemimpin di setiap
peringkat hierarki organisasi dan perkhidmatan yang berkemampuan untuk
menjadi catalysts dan strategists yang berkemampuan untuk menjana perubahan
bagi kepentingan negara. Pemimpin pelbagai peringkat ini wajar dilengkapi
dengan ilmu dan kemahiran dalam bidang atau disiplin strategik yang tertentu
dan berkebolehan untuk menganalisis serta mencari penyelesaian dari perspektif
yang luas. Dengan itu mereka ini boleh diharapkan untuk menjadi “think-tank”
bagi menjalankan “advisory roles” kepada Kerajaan dalam merangka formula,
dasar dan strategi serta memberi maklumbalas yang tepat kepada pelaksanaan
dasar dan projek.
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PENUTUP
90
Falsafah latihan merupakan sebahagian daripada komponen pembangunan
sumber manusia. Disebabkan itu, tinjauan literatur banyak menyebutkan latihan
dan pembangunan (training and development) sebagai satu komponen. Melihat
kepada bentuk tradisional, latihan memberi tumpuan kepada pengajaran
kemahiran dan pemberian pengetahuan. Ini kerana latihan kerap-kali dikaitkan
dengan usaha untuk membantu kakitangan menyelesaikan masalah berhubung
dengan tugas di tempat kerja. Namun begitu, menerusi pembangunan juga
latihan perlu diselarikan dengan keperluan organisasi (business needs) dan
kehendak dasar. Dalam menjayakan agenda pembangunan negara, peranan
latihan semakin penting untuk melahirkan penjawat awam berkebolehan dan
dapat melaksanakan tugas dengan berkesan, membentuk budaya kerja baru
berteraskan prestasi dan pencapaian, mengukuhkan struktur pentadbiran
Kerajaan agar memberi penyampaian perkhidmatan berkualiti kepada rakyat
dan melahirkan pemimpin dalam setiap peringkat sektor awam. Ini bermakna kita
memerlukan transformasi latihan supaya transformasi perkhidmatan awam dapat
diterjemahkan segera untuk membawa negara mencapai wawasannya.
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RUJUKAN
Al-Khayyat, R. M. & Elgamal, M.A. 1997. A Macro Model of Training and Development:
Validation. Journal of European Industrial Training 21(3): 87–101.
Kirkpatrick, L. D. 1983. Four Steps to Measuring Training Effectiveness. Personnel
Administrator 28(11): 19-25.
Klinger, D.E. & Nalbandian, J. 1985. Public Personnel Management: Context and
Strategies. NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Nadler, L. & Wiggs, D.G. 1986. Managing Human Resource Development. CA: JosseyBass.
Nadler, L. 1982. Designing Training Programs: The Critical Events Model. MA: AddisonWesley Publishing Co.
Noe, R. A. 2010. Employee Training and Development. Fifth Edition. New York: McGrawHill Irwin.
Rothwell, J.W. 2002. The Workplace Learner. New York: Amacom.
Schneier, E.C., Guthrie, P.J., James, P. & Olian, D.J. 1988. A practical approach
to conducting and using the training needs assessment. Public Personnel
Management 17(2): 191-205.
91
Steward, J. 1999. Employee Development Practice. London: Financial Times Pitman
Publishing.
Unit Pemodenan Tadbiran dan Perancangan Pengurusan Malaysia (MAMPU). 2010.
Bersama Melaksana Transformasi. Putrajaya: MAMPU
Werther, B.W. Jr & Davis, K. 1985. Personnel Management and Human Resources. New
York: McGraw-Hill Book Co.
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INTERCONNECTED BY INTRUSION: A BLESSING IN
DISGUISE?
Zurina Moktar
University of Cambridge
United Kingdom
Former Assistant Director
INTAN Bukit Kiara
[email protected]/ [email protected]
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INTERCONNECTED BY INTRUSION: A BLESSING IN
DISGUISE?
INTRODUCTION
2013 Lahad Datu Armed Intrusion conjures images of infiltrated borders, skirmish
episodes, bloodshed gunfights, pinned-down heroes and invasion by raiders. Never
ever, in our wildest dream that such violent was emerging right on our venerated
land Malaysia. We might have read history of insurgencies, armed separatists,
secessionist movements and inter state conflicts takes place decades ago. But,
who would have thought that the peace preserved and harmony enjoyed for over
fifty years was finally confronted. March 2013 has marked a black retention in
the nation memoir when a total of 68 people were killed in Sabah over an armed
intrusion by a group of self proclaimed Royal Security Forces of the Sultanate
of Sulu. The tragic invasion crunch had instantly turned the global spotlight to
Lahad Datu. In resolving the crisis, United Nation (UN) Secretary General, Ban
Ki-moon had sought an end to the conflict by advocating both sides to sort out
the incursion peacefully. Consequently, on March 8th 2013, Ban met Ambassador
Extraordinary and Plenipotenia, Malaysian Permanent Representative to the UN,
His Excellency Dato’ Hussien Haniff restating his hope for a peaceful solution
on the tangling issue to avoid more casualties. This had echoed a collaborative
effort between both countries when Philippine Foreign Affairs Secretary, Albert del
Rosario urged Filipinos intruders to return home to their families while our Prime
Minister, Dato’ Sri Najib Tun Razak engaged and tolerated relevant negotiations
while assuring Malaysian that our safety and sovereignty will be protected.
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96
A map illustrating inruders point of entry during 2013 Lahad Datu Armed Intrusion.
(Source: www.nst.com/)
After months of battle, the crux has conclusively ended and most importantly
offered us 1001 takeaways in various perspectives peculiarly on nation building.
It is opt to say that, Lahad Datu tragedy may sound as a bygone history but it has
definitely packed a big punch to every single Malaysian especially to those who
had personally experienced the adverse impact of this incident. However, not all
of us have seen this crisis in an outrageously rotated angle. Every cloud has a
silver lining. If we could loosen a grip of seeing this incident as purely fatalistic,
this crisis can also be seen as a blessing in disguise when unity was unwittingly
restored and eventually revalued. In defiance of all the extensive arrays of jaw
dropping devastating news, the nation had once again knitted together coalescing
as one fighting for our sovereignty. Through Lahad Datu tragedy, re-establishment
of nation building can be observed in four utmost standpoints; cherished peace,
restored unity, elevated patriotism and appreciation of history.
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Interconnected by Intrusion: A Blessing in Disguise?
CHERISHED PEACE
Since the year 1957, Malaysians embraced the tranquil peacefulness whilst
showcasing a superb togetherness despite its diversity. Standing at 27 million
population that hails from heterogeneous ethnicity and beliefs, we have no
predicament sheltering beneath the same overshadowing supremacy. In fact, it is
evidence that we are passionate to perform our shared responsibility in sustaining
placid harmony. However, as post-independent generations who rejoice persistent
solidarity, most of us are not capable of imagining the hardship of living on a land
that afflicted by turmoil. Moreover, it has become a fundamental human nature
that we will not comprehend the price of peace, security and stability until we
lose it or have to live without it. Reason being is we do not know what it would
be like if we have to work for it. Contradictory, those who had experienced World
War, understood distinctly the agony of losing peace, security and stability, simply
because they valued what they struggled for. In another words, it is the dearness
that we give value for. Likewise, when intruders infringed upon our territorial
integrity that was when we started to cherish peace we used to enjoy. Just like a
knee-jerk, when difficulties bump us off-track, we will be able to witness reasons
behind the happenings, thus appreciate whatever we previously owned.
97
In the eyes of foreigners, Malaysia is renowned for its safety. Even so, being the
one of the safest countries in Southeast Asia and ranked 19th in the world is not a
ground for being negligent on our security business. By the same token, this crisis
served as an eye-opener to bolster the existing soundness that we are living in.
Seeing is believing; only with those physical evidences of violences, wars, terrorist
threats and hostilities then we were convinced that peace and harmony ought to
be treasured at all cost. What the eyes do not see, the heart does not grieve over.
It is therefore, the crucial lesson to be learnt from the intrusion is; we must never
take safety for granted even in times of peace. Interestingly, on March 8th 2013,
Malaysians fought fire with flowers through an event creatively named as Ops
Bunga encouraging passers-by to flood the Philippine Embassy gates with flowers
that symbolised peace. According to the organiser, Joseph Lee, Ops Bunga has
proven how Malaysian disagree upon the blitz and love peace. Looking at another
stance, through this intrusion we had also wholeheartedly acknowledged the
police, armed forces and other related agencies for contributing to such a high
mark defending our country during the crisis. Since education and awareness are
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the catalyst for a nation development, it is paramount for Malaysian, young and
old to learn an insight in cherishing peace.
RESTORED UNITY
98
Unity is instilled in the hearts and minds of the multiracial citizens of Malaysia.
More often than not, perpetually articulated 1Malaysia spirit is manifested in
events of togetherness such as National Day and festive seasons. Nevertheless,
Lahad Datu crisis managed to unify Malaysian in a vastly different operandi. The
most commonly proclaimed and promulgated unity was evidently explicit during
the crisis through various collective expression of concern by fellow Malaysians
wherever they are. Instantly, due to this crisis, we were wearing other hearts on our
sleeves by demonstrating our concerns boldly. For instance, in less than a month,
millions of ringgit was collected through Tabung Wira Lahad Datu, established
exclusively to commemorate the sacrifices made by our perished security
personnel in defending our country. On March 31st 2013, monetary contribution
raised for this trust fund reached RM3.2 million and donations keep on coming in
which substantiated Malaysian believe in the spirit of a trouble shared is a trouble
halved.
Apart from that, attentive individuals, regardless of religious beliefs had channeled
their heartfelt care and sympathy by dints of endless prayers for our heroes’
safety in bringing back our sovereignty, protecting us from fear, hatred and
injustice. On March 12th 2013, it is estimated around 3,000 Muslims overflowed
Masjid Ar-Rahmah, Taman Wira, Mergong, Kedah for Solat Hajat Perdana Ops
Sulu. Such event has gone virally widespread and common since the incursion
occurred not only in mosques but also in the churches and temples all over the
states of Malaysia. Plainly, Lahad Datu crisis proved our undivided backing to the
authorities and security forces upon a threat to national security. Netizens in the
other hand have called on all Malaysians to stand consolidated and manifested
that such incursion is not tolerable at any cost. Interestingly, Facebook and Twitter
users as well as bloggers had enthusiastically flaunted their support by publicising
thoughtful messages like “Pray for Sabah” and “Solidarity for Sabahans”. “Sleep
Now”, a tribute song for our fallen heroes by Josaphine Hedikusumo, a Singaporebased Malaysian lawyer that picked up thousands of YouTube likes in just no time
signified honest gratitude by netizens to our warriors. Clearly, as an entity, we are
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concern by what were faced by our fellow Malaysian and this unity that scared
our enemies away just like the saying goes cut a blade of grass and you shake
the universe. For once, it seems that there is no distinction exist between us
according to lineage or race. With one shared goal, we were united in supporting
the measures taken by the authorities to quell the threat without any fears and
indifference of thoughts. Due to the crisis, our existing unity got its spur which can
be analogised as a dead clock getting new batteries.
ELEVATED PATRIOTISM
The populace of Malaysia owes an irreparable debt and accord cordial recognition
to our troop who has defended our territorial integrity and sovereignty. As a
matter of fact, during the incursion; bullets really flew, bombs really exploded and
casualties really happened. Loss of life and injuries buttressed by our national
heroes markedly proved their undivided homage to our country. Nevertheless,
bitter pills may have blessed effect. Such occurrences were hitting the nail right on
our heads and eventually left scars in our heart, resulting in an elevated sentiment
of nationalism. It is undeniable that being patriotic entails deeper meaning,
more than just waving flags, singing national anthem, and writing patriotic posts
and blogs. Contrariwise, patriotism is not something that can be worn, it is not
something that can be nurtured effortlessly like taking a duck to water but it is all
about genuine devotion and loyalty for Malaysia and the burning passion to see
our country as a better place to live in. Notwithstanding, as civilians, we may not
be holding weapons in safeguarding our land on the battlefield like the security
force personnel did, however we did play our respective roles with high spark
of patriotism during Lahad Datu Armed Intrusion. For instance, as requested
by the authorities, we validated our patriotism by ensuring the confidentiality
of the security force’s tactical information thus preventing it from leaking to our
enemies. We highly respected the duty of our armed forces. Micheal Ignatieff,
a distinguished Canadian politician once said “Patriotism is strong nationalistic
feeling for a country whose borders, legitimacy and ethnic composition is taken
for granted”. Often, veracious nationalism is revealed in times of despair.
99
Similarly, following the incidence, our sense of attachment to our homeland was
fueled up. This is extremely obvious especially among the younger generations.
For instance, at the early age of twelve, a young Malaysian Mohd. Dinnie
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expressed his frank sentiment of patriotism when he told his mother that he had
switched his ambition to a solider when his previous career choice was to be an
engineer. The Chairman of the National Service Volunteer Brigade, Mohd Syafik
Mohd Taufik also agreed that sentiment of ownership to the country was fostered
through the intrusion and people are well-aware of their accountability to keep the
country as a safe place to live, work and play. Deputy Vice Chancellor of National
Defence, University of Malaysia (UPNM), Associate Prof. Mohamed Fadzil Che
Din, also admitted that patriotism which was rarely deliberated among youngsters
are now mainstreamed effectively.
APPRECIATION OF HISTORY
100
As a matter of fact, history is more than just divulging event of the past academically.
It is not supposed to be learnt only by memorisations but it is supposed to be
recognised through rigorous interpretation and sophisticated analysis of the
yesteryears. Although Lahad Datu siege is over, another substantial lesson learnt
is to appreciate history more than just past documentations. The importance of
historical research was evidently lucid when the whole Malaysian relied heavily
on such solid facts to defeat the claim for royal lineage, titles, prerogative and
territory made by descendants of the Kiram family. Exceptional battle tactics or
perhaps immense physiological strategies may equip us insufficiently in whipping
the claim because a pen is always mightier than the sword. We know perfectly
that their claim upon Sabah was radically dubious as it strayed away off the beam.
However, without pertinent historical facts, we can never grain the gospel truth.
Likewise, Profesor Emeritus Koo Kay Kim, one of the most eminent Malaysian
historians eloquently believes that history is the mother of all disciplines as the
history help us in making sense of the present. Confucius teachings in the other
hand illuminated that we need to study the past if we want to define the future.
It was through this siege that Malaysians took initiative to hunt for historical
evidence in rebutting Sulu Sultanate claim on Sabah. As general public, although
we are not capable to peel the whole chronology proficiently, at least we manage
to reveal the basic historical facts about this issue assisted by the advancement
of mass media. We are informed that prior to the formation of Malaysia, Sabah
was formerly known as North Borneo. It is true that The Sultanate of Brunei and
Sulu, the North Borneo Chartered Company, Japan and the British once governed
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Sabah. However, in 1963 through Cobbold Commission, the state of affairs was
revamped when Sabah officially joined Malaysia on September 16, 1963 after
gaining independence on August 31, 1957. It is crystal clear that Sabah legally
belongs to Malaysia. As it was sanctioned by the international law, any claim upon
Sabah by other party is not valid. Again, history need to be looked upon highly not
only just as events of the past, it also has the aptitude in developing distinctive
historical thinking skills to make sense of new and simultaneously intricate
developments. Marcus Cicero once said, “History is the witness that testifies to
the passing of time, it illumines reality, vitalises memory, provides guidance in
daily life and brings us tidings of antiquity.”
A BLESSING IN DISGUISE
All in all, Lahad Datu crisis is a wake up call serving food for thought to all Malaysian
in cherishing peace, restoring unity, elevating patriotism and appreciating history.
Even in all beliefs uphold by fellow Malaysian, the teachings reinforced great
emphasis on these qualities. For example, in Bible English Standard Version,
Peter, Verse 2:9-10, it is transparently stated that “But you are a chosen race, a
royal priesthood, a holy nation, a people for his own possession, that you may
proclaim the excellences of him who called you out of darkness into his marvelous
light. Once you were not a people, but now you are God's people; once you had not
received mercy, but now you have received mercy”. Hinduism in the other hand,
instill Dharma as one of the prominent themes in their beliefs highlighting good
ethics and duties covering path of righteousness and living one's life according to
the codes of conduct as described by the Hindu scriptures. Everything happens
for a reason including the bitter trails of tragic Lahad Datu seige. In the translation
of Al-Quran verse 2:216, “but it may happen that ye hate a thing which is good for
you, and it may happen that ye love a thing which is bad for you. Allah knoweth,
ye know not”. We might not likely see the light at the end of the tunnel in just a
trice, but after everything set the seal on, it is authenticated that 2013 Lahad Datu
Armed Intrusion is indeed a blessing in disguise.
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REFERENCES
C.Buckley: A School History of Sabah, London, Macmillan & Co. Ltd., 1968
Ramlah binti Adam, Abdul Hakim bin Samuri, Muslimin bin Fadzil: "Sejarah Tingkatan 3,
Buku teks", published by Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. 2005.
Singh, DS Ranjit. The Making of Sabah, 1865-1941: The Dynamics of Indigenous Society.
University of Malaya Press. ISBN 9831001648. 2000.
www.abs-cbnnews.com/
www.inquirer.net/
www.theborneopost.com/
www.thestar.com.my/
www.utusan.com.my/
www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ig2glsMCBOU
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PENGURUSAN SISA PEPEJAL DAN PEMBERSIHAN
AWAM: SELEPAS SETAHUN PENGAMBILALIHAN
Wan Azlida Wan Muda
Bahagian Inspektorat
Kementerian Perumahan dan Kerajaan Tempatan
[email protected]
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PENGURUSAN SISA PEPEJAL DAN PEMBERSIHAN
AWAM: SELEPAS SETAHUN PENGAMBILALIHAN
PENGENALAN
Pengurusan sisa pepejal merupakan antara masalah utama yang dihadapi oleh
masyarakat terutama di bandar. Proses pembandaran dan perindustrian yang
pesat menyebabkan bertambahnya sisa pepejal yang dijana oleh masyarakat.Kos
pengurusan sisa pepejal dari peringkat pengutipan, pengumpulan, pengangkutan
sehingga ke tahap pelupusan, sangat tinggi. Oleh itu amatlah wajar jika kuantiti
sisa pepejal, khususnya sampah domestik, perlu dikurangkan bagi mengurangkan
perbelanjaan kerajaan.
LATAR BELAKANG
Dalam usaha menjadikan Malaysia sebuah negara yang bersih dan sejahtera,
penswastaan sistem pengurusan sisa pepejal dan pembersihan awam telah
dilaksanakan. Mesyuarat Jemaah Menteri pada 6 September 1995 telah
bersetuju untuk menswastakan perkhidmatan Pihak Berkuasa Tempatan (PBT).
Penswastaan secara interim telah berlangsung selama 14 tahun bermula 1997
sementara menunggu penswastaan sepenuhnya dilaksanakan.
105
Penswastaan pengurusan sisa pepejal dilaksanakan setelah mengambil kira
beberapa faktor. Pertama, berikutan aspek tenaga kerja, sumber kewangan dan
kepakaran yang terhad pada kebanyakan PBT dalam menguruskan sisa pepejal.
Kepesatan pembangunan negara yang berterusan telah meningkatkan kuantiti
sisa pepejal yang dijana setiap tahun lalu menyebabkan kos pengurusan sisa
pepejal turut meningkat. Keadaan ini amat membebankan sebahagian besar
PBT dengan meningkatnya kos kutipan dan pembinaan fasiliti untuk merawat
dan melupus sisa pepejal.
Secara puratanya, pada masa ini seorang warga Malaysia menjanakan sebanyak
0.8 kilogram sisa pepejal sehari. Mengikut laporan Rancangan Malaysia
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Kesembilan 2006-2010, jumlah sisa pepejal yang dijana di Semenanjung Malaysia
meningkat daripada 16,200 tan metrik sehari pada tahun 2001 kepada 19,100 tan
metrik sehari pada 2005. Jumlah ini dianggarkan akan meningkat kepada 30,000
tan sehari pada tahun 2020. Komposisi sisa pepejal isi rumah di Malaysia adalah
seperti berikut:
15
3
6
45
Sisa Makanan
Plastik
Kertas
Logam
Kaca
Lain-lain
7
24
106
Sumber: Rancangan Malaysia ke-9
Kedua, selain daripada aspek pengurusan dan penguatkuasaan sisa pepejal di
tapak-tapak pelupusan, kerajaan turut komited untuk mengurangkan penjanaan
dan penghasilan sisa isi rumah di peringkat punca. Oleh yang demikian, program
kesedaran rakyat melalui program seperti Kempen Kitar Semula, Kempen 3R
(Reduce, Reuse, Recycle) dan pengasingan sisa pepejal di punca adalah amat
penting. Memandangkan aspek ini menuntut komitmen dan perhatian yang
berterusan maka adalah kurang praktikal sekiranya ianya dibebankan kepada PBT
yang telah memikul pelbagai tanggungjawab dalam soal pentadbiran tempatan.
Ketiga, melalui penswastaan juga kerajaan mampu mewujudkan perkongsian
pintar ataupun smart partnership dengan syarikat swasta untuk sama-sama
meneroka kaedah-kaedah dan teknologi terkini dalam pengurusan dan
pelupusan sisa. Aspek pembangunan dan penyelidikan ini amat penting kerana
ianya merupakan langkah jangka panjang bagi menjamin kaedah pelupusan sisa
pepejal negara sentiasa sejajar dengan tahap pembangunan semasa, kos efektif
dan mesra alam.
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Pengurusan Sisa Pepejal dan Pembersihan Awam: Selepas Setahun Pengambilalihan
Keempat, ketiadaan perundangan dan dasar berkaitan pengurusan sisa pepejal
yang seragam antara negeri-negeri menyebabkan usaha pengurusan sisa pepejal
tidak dapat dilakukan dengan bersepadu dan holistik lantaran peningkatan kos
pengurusan dan kos pengendalian sisa pepejal.
Setelah mendapat persetujuan semua wakil kerajaan-kerajaan negeri
dalam mesyuarat Majlis Negara Kerajaan Tempatan ke-58 pada 22 Jun
2007, Akta
Pengurusan Sisa Pepejal dan Pembersihan Awam (Akta
672) dibentangkan di Parlimen dan dikuatkuasakan pada 30 Ogos 2007.
Akta ini telah memberi kuasa kepada Kerajaan Persekutuan untuk
mengambilalih pengurusan sisa pepejal dan pembersihan awam daripada
Pihak Berkuasa Tempatan (PBT). Shafiul Azam dan Mansoor Ali (2002)
telah membincangkan teori partnerships dalam pengurusan sisa pepejal di
negara-negara membangun. Penulis menyimpulkan bahawa partnerships
ini tidak akan berkesan melainkan insentif yang sesuai bagi kedua-dua sektor
dibangunkan. Akhirnya, penulis juga membahaskan sama ada terdapat keperluan
untuk mewujudkan agensi bagi memudahkan pelaksanaan partnerships.
Seterusnya kerajaan telah menubuhkan Jabatan Pengurusan Sisa Pepejal
Negara (JPSPN) bagi memainkan peranan dalam penyediaan dasar, strategi dan
perancangan pengurusan sisa pepejal bersepadu diperingkat makro. Perbadanan
Pengurusan Sisa Pepejal dan Pembersihan Awam (PPSPPA) pula ditubuhkan
di bawah Akta Perbadanan Pengurusan Sisa Pepejal dan Pembersihan Awam
2007 (Akta 673) dan bertanggungjawab mengawalselia prestasi syarikatsyarikat konsesi yang membekalkan perkhidmatan pengurusan sisa pepejal dan
pembersihan awam.
107
Lanjutan itu, satu perjanjian antara syarikat-syarikat konsesi pengurusan sisa
pepejal dan pembersihan awam dengan Kerajaan Persekutuan telah dimeterai
pada 19 September 2011. Tiga syarikat konsesi yang dilantik untuk pengurusan
sisa pepejal ialah Alam Flora Sdn. Bhd. (Zon Tengah dan Timur), Environment
Idaman Sdn. Bhd. (Zon Utara) dan SWM Environment Sdn. Bhd. (Zon
Selatan). Negeri-negeri yang telah menerimapakai akta ini ialah Johor, Negeri
Sembilan, Melaka, Kedah, Perlis, Pahang, Wilayah Persekutuan Putrajaya
dan Wilayah Persekutuan Kuala Lumpur. Perjanjian konsesi selama 22 tahun
ini membolehkan mereka mengambil langkah menambah baik tenaga kerja,
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menggunakan trak penyendat, menyediakan tong sampah yang cukup serta
melupus sampah di tapak yang ditetapkan. Kerajaan Persekutuan juga bersetuju
untuk menanggung sebahagian daripada kos pengurusan sisa pepejal supaya
pengguna dapat membayar mengikut kadar bayaran yang sedia ada kepada PBT.
KAJIAN MENGENAI PENGURUSAN SISA PEPEJAL
108
Beberapa kajian terhadap pengurusan sisa pepejal di Malaysia telah banyak
memberi tumpuan kepada amalan pengurusan, penjanaan sisa pepejal,
hubungkait pengurusan sisa pepejal dengan pengeluaran gas rumah hijau, dan
penilaian kecekapan pengutipan sisa pepejal (Kasbi et al., 1993; Arahim, 2006;
Chua et al., 2011; dan Hasnah Ali et al., 2012). Kajian ini pula dilaksanakan
bagi mendapatkan pandangan dan maklumbalas orang awam tentang kualiti
perkhidmatan pengurusan sisa pepejal selepas setahun pengambilalihan. Walau
bagaimanapun, tahap kepuasan orang awam terhadap aktiviti pembersihan awam
tidak dikaji memandangkan kebanyakan PBT yang terlibat dalam kajian ini belum
menyerahkan premis-premis atau kawasan-kawasan pembersihan kepada pihak
PPSPPA untuk diuruskan.
Responden kajian ini terdiri daripada 799 orang awam di lapan kawasan kajian.
Lapan kawasan daripada lapan bandar yang telah melaksanakan sepenuhnya
penswastaan tersebut adalah seperti berikut:
Kawasan Pentadbiran
Negeri
DBKL
Perbadanan Putrajaya
MP Kuantan
MP Seremban
MB Melaka Bersejarah
WP Kuala Lumpur
WP Putrajaya
Pahang
Negeri Sembilan
Melaka
MB Johor Bahru
MP Kangar
MB Alor Setar
Johor
Perlis
Kedah
Syarikat Konsesi
Alam Flora Sdn Bhd
SWM Environment
Sdn Bhd
Environment Idaman
Sdn Bhd
Instrumen kajian adalah merupakan soal selidik yang mengandungi 18 soalan
berkaitan tahap kepuasan orang awam terhadap pengurusan sisa pepejal.
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Responden dipilih secara rawak dan soal selidik dilaksanakan secara bersemuka.
Responden diminta menentukan tahap kepuasan mereka terhadap aktiviti-aktiviti
pengurusan sisa pepejal yang dijalankan di kawasan tempat tinggal mereka.
Responden terdiri daripada pelbagai peringkat usia antaranya pelajar dan pesara.
Data dianalisis secara statistik deskriptif bagi melihat tahap kepuasan orang
awam terhadap aktiviti-aktiviti pengurusan sisa pepejal.
Selain itu, temubual turut dijalankan dengan meliputi kesemua PBT yang terlibat
bagi mendapatkan pandangan tentang perkhidmatan pengurusan sisa pepejal di
kawasan pentadbiran mereka. Akhir sekali, temubual turut diadakan dengan lapan
PPSPPA di negeri-negeri yang terlibat bagi mendapatkan input berhubung usahausaha PPSPPA dalam memantau prestasi perkhidmatan syarikat konsesi.
PENGURUSAN SISA PEPEJAL
A)
Kutipan Sampah
Kajian mendapati 84% responden berpuas hati dengan perkhidmatan kutipan
sampah domestik tetapi kebanyakan daripada responden tidak berpuas hati
dengan perkhidmatan kutipan sampah pukal dan sampah kebun. Carta 1 di
bawah menunjukkan tahap kepuasan orang awam terhadap perkhidmatan
kutipan sampah domestik, kebun dan pukal.
109
Carta 1: Tahap kepuasan responden terhadap perkhidmatan kutipan sampah
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Buat masa ini kekerapan kutipan sampah domestik ialah tiga kali seminggu,
manakala sampah pukaI dan sampah kebun sekali seminggu. Faktor-faktor yang
menyumbang kepada kepuasan hati responden terhadap perkhidmatan kutipan
sampah domestik ini kerana PPSPPA telah melaksanakan penguatkuasaan
menggunakan Key Performance Indicators (KPI) terhadap syarikat konsesi
mulai 1 September 2011. Terdapat 6 KPI prima dan 18 KPI sekunder dalam
perkhidmatan kutipan sisa pepejal. Antara KPI prima ialah pematuhan jadual
dan frekuensi kutipan yang ditetapkan serta lokasi pelupusan dan KPI sekunder
ialah kesempurnaan kutipan dan pelaksanaan kutipan yang menyeluruh.
110
Jika berlaku ketidakpatuhan, dan tidak dapat diselesaikan dalam masa 24
jam oleh syarikat konsesi, PPSPPA akan melantik back-up contractor bagi
melaksanakan tindakan pembetulan. Pembayaran untuk back-up contractor
akan diambil dari pemotongan pembayaran bulanan syarikat konsesi. Akhirnya,
kawasan skim dan zon pembersihan akan ditarik balik dari kontrak konsesi jika
syarikat konsesi melanggar KPI dan setelah dikenakan penalti yang mencukupi.
Semasa perkhidmatan pengurusan sisa pepejal dan pembersihan awam di bawah
tanggungjawab PBT, perkhidmatan ini dilaksanakan oleh pekerja-pekerja PBT
sendiri atau syarikat yang dilantik. Kaedah pemantauan yang sama diaplikasikan
terhadap prestasi syarikat iaitu melalui pengeluaran Notice to Correct, back-up
contractor dan pemotongan bayaran.
Namun begitu, masih terdapat 16% responden yang tidak berpuas hati dengan
perkhidmatan kutipan sampah. Ketidakpuasan hati responden adalah dari aspek
pengendalian kutipan sampah seperti kutipan sampah tidak sempurna, tidak
menutup tong selepas kutipan dan tidak meletakkan tong di lokasi asal tong.
Pandangan daripada responden berhubung perkara ini selari dengan jumlah
KPI bagi kesalahan sekunder yang telah dikenakan sehingga Jun 2012 ke atas
syarikat-syarikat konsesi iaitu 12,544. Untuk mengatasi masalah ini, PPSPPA
Johor telah membangunkan Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) Tatacara
Kerja bagi memudahkan pemahaman pekerja-pekerja syarikat konsesi dalam
tatacara pengurusan sisa pepejal dan pembersihan awam.
Sehingga 1 November 2012, 575 orang anggota Penguatkuasa yang terdiri
daripada 509 orang Pembantu Penguatkuasa, 18 orang Penolong Pegawai
Penguatkuasa dan 48 orang Pegawai Penguatkuasa telah ditempatkan di 38 buah
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cawangan di sembilan buah negeri di seluruh Semenanjung Malaysia yang telah
menerima Akta 672. Namun begitu, bagi mengimbangi sumber tenaga anggota
penguatkuasa untuk memantau syarikat konsesi dengan bilangan premis yang
banyak serta menguatkuasakan Akta 672, penggunaan peralatan handheld oleh
anggota penguatkuasa PPSPPA telah dapat memastikan tugas tersebut dapat
dilaksanakan. Handheld ini dilengkapi dengan Sistem i-MEMS yang digunakan
bagi aktiviti pemantauan dan tindakan pembetulan terhadap ketidakpatuhan
Kekunci Petunjuk Prestasi (KPI) yang berlaku di lapangan. Peralatan ini
mengandungi perisian maklumat pemantauan yang diperlukan dan pengeluaran
notis serta kompaun terhadap sesiapa yang melakukan kesalahan di bawah Akta
672. Rekod-rekod pemantauan dan penguatkuasaan akta akan dimuatnaik ke
dalam sistem back-end dan laporan harian akan disediakan secara automatik.
Selain itu, peralatan ini juga mempunyai Global Positioning System (GPS) untuk
mengesan lokasi anggota penguatkuasa serta berfungsi sebagai alat komunikasi
dan kamera. Selain itu, penggunaan Sistem Dam Haji turut memudahkan tugas pemantauan
KPI syarikat konsesi dan kontraktor oleh PPSPPA. Sistem Dam Haji ialah
satu kaedah bagi memantau kadar pematuhan KPI syarikat konsesi mengikut
kawasan. PPSPPA telah bercadang untuk meningkatkan keupayaan peralatan
handheld agar dapat berfungsi secara atas talian dan mengintegrasikan Sistem
Dam Haji dengan Sistem i-MEMS supaya Pengarah atau Pengurus Cawangan
dapat mengetahui lebih awal tentang ketidakpatuhan dan tindakan penyelesaian
dapat diambil dengan segera. (Temubual, 12 September 2012)
111
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B)
Jadual Kutipan Sampah
Carta 2: Pengetahuan responden tentang Jadual Kutipan Sampah
112
Kajian mendapati 87% responden mengetahui tentang jadual kutipan sampah.
Walau bagaimanapun, jadual ini diketahui melalui rutin harian perkhidmatan
kutipan sampah oleh syarikat konsesi dan bukanlah melalui informasi yang
terdapat di laman web atau papan kenyataan di taman-taman perumahan.
Kaedah memaparkan jadual kutipan di laman sesawang www.sisa.gov.my amat
bersesuaian untuk orang awam yang celik IT. Semasa perkhidmatan kutipan
sampah di bawah tanggungjawab PBT, papan kenyataan disediakan di setiap taman
perumahan bagi memaklumkan kepada penduduk tentang jadual kutipan sampah.
Sementara itu, PPSPPA Johor pula telah mengambil inisiatif menandatangani
memorandum kerjasama bersama 37 daripada 117 Jawatankuasa Penduduk di
kawasan MBJB sebagai salah satu medium memaklumkan jadual kutipan sampah
dan menjelaskan tanggungjawab, peranan dan fungsi bersama bagi memastikan
kualiti perkhidmatan dapat ditingkatkan dari semasa ke semasa. (Temubual, 12
September 2012)
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C)
Tumpahan Leachate
Carta 3: Maklumbalas responden tentang tumpahan leachate
Majoriti responden menyatakan masih terdapat masalah tumpahan leachate
semasa proses kutipan sampah. Walau bagaimanapun, hanya penduduk di
kawasan Majlis Perbandaran Seremban yang menyatakan masalah leachate
kurang berlaku di kawasan mereka. Tumpahan leachate atau air larut resapan
masih berlaku di taman-taman perumahan yang kutipan sampahnya dilaksanakan
oleh subkontraktor dengan menggunakan lori kompaktor lama. Pada masa ini,
subkontraktor yang masih menggunakan lori kompaktor lama telah digesa agar
membuat perolehan lori kompaktor baharu yang dilengkapi dengan bahagian
khas yang mampu menakung leachate serta berupaya meresapnya daripada
melimpah ke permukaan jalan.
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D)
Pengedaran Tong Sampah
Berdasarkan perjanjian konsesi, syarikat konsesi perlu mengedarkan tong
sampah secara percuma kepada setiap premis di lapan kawasan PBT ini bermula
pada 1 September 2011 hingga 31 Ogos 2012. Namun begitu, berdasarkan
maklumat yang diperolehi daripada PPSPPA, pengedaran tong sampah masih
belum mencapai 100%. Prestasi edaran tong sampah oleh syarikat konsesi
berdasarkan kawasan PBT adalah seperti Carta 4 berikut:
114
Carta 4: Pretasi pengedaran tong sampah
Kegagalan pengedaran tong sampah ini akan menyebabkan KPI mengenai
penggunaan bin lifter tidak dapat dilaksanakan. Di antara faktor yang menyebabkan
pengedaran tidak dapat dilaksanakan sepenuhnya ialah:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
premis tidak berpenghuni;
penghuni tiada di rumah semasa penghantaran;
penghuni enggan menerima; dan
penghuni tidak mengambil di pusat pengedaran terdekat.
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Namun begitu, masih terdapat responden yang belum menggunakan tong sampah
yang dibekalkan atas sebab-sebab yang berikut:
1. Syarikat konsesi masih menggunakan lori kompaktor lama di beberapa
kawasan dan tidak memerlukan penggunaan tong sampah baharu;
2. Saiz tong yang besar dan ruang tempat letak tong sampah di hadapan rumah
yang kecil;
3. Responden bimbang akan kehilangan tong sampah kerana prosedur untuk
melaporkan kehilangan sukar dan responden boleh dikenakan denda; dan
4. Tiada penguatkuasaan penggunaan tong sampah kerana buat masa ini tiada
sebarang tindakan akan diambil sekiranya pengguna tidak menggunakan
tong sampah.
E)
Pengurusan Aduan
Secara purata, hanya 36% penduduk mengetahui tentang kewujudan talian
aduan 1800-88-7472 dan laman sesawang www.aduansisa.my. Tahap kesedaran
penduduk bagi lapan kawasan PBT adalah seperti berikut:
115
Carta 5: Kesedaran penduduk terhadap talian dan laman web aduan PPSPPA
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Tahap kesedaran yang rendah ini menyebabkan penduduk kurang mengemukakan
aduan mereka melalui saluran tersebut apabila mereka tidak berpuas hati terhadap
perkhidmatan syarikat konsesi dalam pengurusan sisa pepejal. Responden
didapati lebih gemar mengemukakan aduan terus ke PBT, Jawatankuasa
Penduduk atau melalui Ahli Majlis di PBT.
F)
116
Kitar Semula
Pada masa kini, kadar kitar semula di Malaysia ialah pada kadar 5%. Kadar ini
adalah rendah jika dibandingkan dengan negara-negara maju seperti negara
Jerman (74%), Belgium (71%), Austria (67%) dan Belanda (66%). Kementerian
Perumahan Kerajaan Tempatan (KPKT) telah mensasarkan pencapaian kadar
kitar semula di Malaysia pada kadar 22% menjelang tahun 2020. Bagi memastikan
program kitar semula mencapai matlamat yang telah ditetapkan maka pengurusan
sisa pepejal yang menekankan konsep dan amalan 3R perlu dilaksanakan dengan
berkesan. Pelbagai alternatif telah diperkenalkan oleh PPSPPA untuk mengatasi
masalah sisa yang terlalu banyak. Antara projek perintis bagi program kitar semula
yang telah dilaksanakan oleh PPSPPA ialah seperti Jadual 1 di bawah.
Bil.
Program
1.
Kelab dan Bank Kitar Semula di sekolah-sekolah di Johor & Selangor
2.
Bank Kitar Semula di Tadika Negeri Kelantan
3.
Kitar Semula di Masjid di Negeri Sembilan
4.
Kitar Semula di Premis Kerajaan di Negeri Kedah
5.
Kitar Semula Drive Thru di Mydin Mall, Kuala Terengganu
6.
Kitar Semula di Rumah Titian Kaseh
Jadual 1: Projek rintis program kitar semula
Selain daripada program di atas, PPSPPA juga sedang giat memperkenalkan
aktiviti pengkomposan iaitu proses penguraian dan penstabilan bahan-bahan
organik secara biologi di bawah keadaan yang terkawal bagi menghasilkan produk
akhir yang bermanfaat kepada tanah. Kesan pelaksanaan aktiviti termasuklah
sisa makanan (organik) dapat dikurangkan dari sumber, dapat merawat sisa dari
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sumber, dapat menghasilkan produk yang memberi faedah kepada orang awam
dari segi ekonomi dan dari segi alam sekitar serta memanjangkan jangka hayat
tapak pelupusan.
Walau bagaimanapun, kajian mendapati secara purata hanya 46% penduduk
pernah terlibat dengan program kitar semula anjuran agensi kerajaan, swasta
dan NGO. Penemuan ini menyokong dapatan kajian Jamilah Ahmad, Hasrina
Mustafa, Hamidah Abd Hamid & Juliana Abd Wahab (2011) dan Seow T. W,
Jamaluddin Md Jahi & Indera Shahrul Mat Radzuan (2007). Carta 6 mendapati
hanya penduduk di kawasan DBKL dan Putrajaya sahaja yang mencatatkan
kadar penglibatan melebihi 50%. Berdasarkan maklumbalas daripada penduduk,
kebanyakan program kitar semula yang disertai adalah anjuran PBT dan NGO.
Kajian ini juga mendapati terdapat beberapa pusat kitar semula yang kurang aktif
dan tidak digunakan secara optimum.
117
Carta 6: Penglibatan penduduk dalam aktiviti kitar semula.
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PERBINCANGAN
Walaupun dari segi analisis dapatan kajian ini menunjukkan terdapat perubahan
positif terhadap kualiti perkhidmatan pengurusan sisa pepejal di lapan kawasan
kajian tersebut, beberapa tindakan perlu diambil bagi meningkatkan kualiti
perkhidmatan sedia ada.
Pertama, bagi meluaskan pemakluman kepada semua golongan tentang jadual
kutipan sampah, dicadangkan papan kenyataan yang sedia ada dikemaskini
oleh PPSPPA bagi tujuan memaklumkan jadual kepada orang awam. Kaedah ini
dapat menjimatkan kos kerana PPSPPA atau syarikat-syarikat konsesi tidak perlu
memasang papan kenyataan baharu di setiap kawasan perumahan.
118
Kedua, pemantauan berterusan oleh pihak PPSPPA terhadap syarikat konsesi
serta kerjasama PBT yang terlibat akan membawa kepada pengurusan sisa
pepejal yang cekap pada masa hadapan. Selain itu, orang awam juga boleh
bertindak sebagai mata dan telinga PPSPPA dengan melaporkan sebarang
ketidakpatuhan syarikat konsesi dalam melaksanakan perkhidmatan tersebut.
Ketiga, PBT dan PPSPPA hendaklah meningkatkan kerjasama bagi
mengoptimumkan Pusat Kitar Semula supaya amalan 3R dapat diluaskan dan
kebergantungan kepada tapak pelupusan dapat dikurangkan. Selain itu, program
kesedaran 3R dan pengkomposan perlu ditingkatkan lagi di kalangan isi rumah.
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KESIMPULAN
Dengan dapatan kajian pelaksanaan perkhidmatan pengurusan sisa pepejal
yang positif ini, diharapkan orang awam selaku pelanggan bagi perkhidmatan
pengurusan sisa pepejal akan mendapat manfaat daripada pengambilalihan
pengurusan sisa pepejal oleh Kerajaan Persekutuan. Orang awam juga
seharusnya tidak meletakkan tanggungjawab pengurusan sisa pepejal kepada
satu-satu pihak sahaja, sebaliknya turut sama melibatkan diri sendiri secara
berdisiplin dan menyayangi alam sekitar untuk menjamin kehidupan yang lebih
baik, seterusnya menjaga kelestarian bumi. Oleh itu, tidak mustahil matlamat
Dasar Pengurusan Sisa Pepejal Negara iaitu mewujudkan sistem pengurusan
sisa pepejal yang menyeluruh, bersepadu, kos efektif, mapan dan diterima
masyarakat yang mementingkan pemeliharaan alam sekitar, pemilihan teknologi
mampu bayar dan menjamin kesihatan awam, akan dapat dicapai dalam tempoh
yang lebih singkat.
119
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RUJUKAN
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Penduduk Mengenai Perkhidmatan Pengurusan Sisa Pepejal di 8 PBT. Bahagian
Inspektorat.
Lab Pengurusan Sisa Pepejal. Diakses pada 23 Oktober 2012 daripada h t t p : / / w w w .
kpkt.gov.my/kpkt/fileupload/hebahan/lab_sisa_pepejal.pdf
Noor Rasidah Kasbi A. Wahid Ghazali & M. Nasir Hassan. 1993. Penilaian Kecekapan
Pengutipan Sisa Pepejal di Malaysia Satu Kajian Kes di MajIis
Perbandaran
Seremban. Pertanika, Journal of Science & Technology 3(1) : 73-86.
Penswastaan
Pengurusan
Sisa
Pepejal
Dimuktamad.
Diakses
pada
24
Oktober
2012
daripada
http://www.utusan.com.
m y / u t u s a n / i n f o . a s p ? y = 2 0 11 & d t = 1 2 2 9 & p u b = U t u s a n _
Malaysia&sec=Keluarga&pg=ke_01.htm#ixzz28f8pFPZC.
Perbadanan Pengurusan Sisa Pepejal dan Pembersihan Awam. 2011. Laporan Tahunan
2010 Perbadanan Pengurusan Sisa Pepejal dan Pembersihan Awam.
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Seow T. W, Jamaluddin Md Jahi & Indera Shahrul Mat Radzuan. 2007. Tingkah Laku
Masyarakat Terhadap Program Kitar Semula: Kajian Kes Di Daerah Batu Pahat.
Diakses pada 5 Disember 2012, dari http://sssums.files.wordpress.com/2007/09/
tingkah-lakumasyarakatterhadap-program-kitar-semula-kajian-kes-di-daerahbatu-pahat.pdf
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GOOD GOVERNANCE IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION:
MALAYSIA’S EXPERIENCE
Dr. Hj. Al-Azmi bin Bakar
INTAN Bukit Kiara
[email protected]
Wan Kozil bin Wan Ahmad
Deputy Head of Cluster
Cluster for Economy and Public Finance
INTAN Bukit Kiara
[email protected]
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GOOD GOVERNANCE IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION:
DEFINITIONS ON GOVERNANCE AND GOOD GOVERNANCE
Governance refers to the act or manner of governing. It can be related to decisions
that define expectations, grant power, or verify performance. Governance
consists of either a separate process or part of decision-making or leadership
processes. In modern nation-states, these processes and systems are typically
administered by a government. As a process, governance may operate in an
organization of any size: from a single human being to all of humanity; and it may
function for any purpose, good or evil, for profit or not. A reasonable or rational
purpose of governance might aim to assure (sometimes on behalf of others) that
an organization produces a worthwhile pattern of good results while avoiding an
undesirable pattern of bad circumstances. Governance can be used in several
contexts such as corporate governance, international governance, national
governance and local governance. In the case of a business or of a non-profit
organization, governance relates to consistent management, cohesive policies,
guidance, processes and decision-rights for a given area of responsibility. For
example, managing at a corporate level might involve evolving policies on privacy,
on internal investment, and on the use of data. There is a plethora definition
of governance. It encompasses concepts such as leadership, stewardship,
accountability, ethical behaviour and control. As a result, it is difficult to provide
one all-embracing definition that satisfies all those with a view on the matter. The
effectiveness of governance arrangements has a significant impact on how well
organisations meet their aims and objectives.
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Good governance promotes equity, participation, pluralism, transparency,
accountability, and the rule of law, in a manner that is effective, efficient and
enduring. In translating these principles into practice, it needs free, fair and frequent
elections, representative legislatures that make laws and provides oversight, and
an independent judiciary to interpret those laws.
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GOVERNANCE OR GOVERNMENT: A THIN BOUNDARY LINE
126
The differences between the term governance and government can be described
in terms of a geo-political entity (nation-state), a corporate entity (business entity),
a socio-political entity (chiefdom, tribe, family, etc.), or any number of different
kinds of governing bodies. The term government may be referred to formal
institutions of the state and their monopoly of their legitimate coercive power.
Government is characterized by its ability to make decisions and its capacity to
enforce them. Some political scholars defined governance as the government’s
ability to develop and enforce rules, and deliver services, regardless of whether
that government is democratic or not. Sammy Finer (1970) outlines governance
as an important characteristic in defining government which include; the activity
or process of governing or ‘governance’, a condition of ordered rule, those people
charged with the duty of governing or ‘governors’ and the manner, method or
system by which a particular society is governed’. A good government could
consist of a set of inter-related positions exercising coercive power that assures,
on behalf of those governed, a worthwhile pattern of good results while avoiding
an undesirable pattern of bad circumstances, by making decisions that define
expectations, grant power, and verify performance.
“Government is a trust, and the officers of the government are trustees. And
both the trust and the trustees are created for the benefit of the people.” Henry Clay, American Statesman and Senator (1777-1852).
“If government is to be truly government for the people, if the public is
to be able to participate in government and to experience its benefits,
the public must be properly informed about government and its affair.” –
Australia’s Auditor General Report, 2000.
GOOD PUBLIC GOVERNANCE
Good governance can be perceived as the highest state of development and
management of a nation’s affairs whereby people participate in decision-making
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Good Governance in Public Administration: Malaysia’s Experience
processes, that service are delivered efficiently, that human rights are respected,
and that government is transparent, accountable and productive. Criticism from
the public on service quality of public sector is unavoidable because of the sheer
size of the public service. Any dissatisfaction with a particular department or a
branch office in the most remote area will be highlighted alleging that the entire
public service is to be blamed. Understandably, being a taxpayer, one would like
to exercise one’s rights to the fullest.
If governance is defined as policy formulation and implementation through
synergistic participation of private and third sector, then good governance is defined
as the exercise of power by various levels of government that is effective, honest,
equitable, transparent and accountable. The emphasis is on the end result, whereby
the citizens enjoying a higher quality of life than before. It can be concluded that
good governance include; (1)Economic liberalism which constitutes private
ownership, more investment and greater equality, (2) Political pluralism, which
refers to participation of people in the development process, decentralisation of
authority from the centre and democracy, (3) Social development which includes
human rights, rule of law, independent judiciary and free press, (4) Administrative
accountability which refers to transparency, less corruption, economy, efficiency
and effectiveness; and (4) Public sector reforms, strategic planning and
management of change.
127
The term ‘constitutionalism’ may be described as the concept of limited
government, whereupon the power of the different wings of government are
defined, and the rights of the governed, enshrined. It covers various concepts
which can be employed to check exercise of power by the government which
includes the doctrines of separation of powers, rule of law, limited government,
good governance, transparency, accountability, democracy and human rights.
The brief ideas of the doctrine of Separation of Powers include 3 functions of
government (legislative, executive and judicial), each of these 3 functions should
be vested in one organ of government namely the legislative, the executive and
the judiciary with no overlap, each organ act as check and balance, to concentrate
more than one function in any organ of government is a threat to individual liberty,
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a government of separated powers is less likely to be tyrannical and more likely
to follow the rule of law.
Malaysia is a democratic country where the essence that the government is formed
by the consent of the governed, which is through election. The Constitution requires
that a general election must be held at least once every 5 years. However, the
Prime Minister may advice the Yang di-Pertuan Agong (The King) to dissolve the
Parliament at any time before the 5-year period has expired. Voting is no longer
deemed as privileged but a right and the effective tool of every citizen. The Cabinet
of Malaysia is the executive branch of Malaysia's government led by the Prime
Minister. According to the Article 43 of the Constitution, members of the Cabinet
can only be selected from members of either houses of Parliament. Parliament
holds crucial role in superintending the actions of the Executive branch.
GOVERNANCE IN CIVIL SERVICE
128
Public Administration is concerned with the implementation of government policy,
and is an academic discipline that studies this implementation and prepares
civil servants for working in the public services. Talking about public services,
the Malaysia Federal Constitution defines that the public services comprises
of armed forces, judicial and legal services, general public service of the
Federation, police force, joint public services mentioned in Articles 133, public
services of each State and education service. Each category has its respective
commission for managing over its service members which include appointment,
confirmation of service, conferment into pension status, promotion, transfer
and exercise discipline control. Except for the police force commission, the
Constitution does not allow any legislative member be appointed as a member
of any Commissions. As an agent for the government, public services are firmly
committed to the establishment of quality administration since the strength of
the government relies on the effectiveness of its agents.
The flow of public service reformation in Malaysia includes: administering and
providing essential public services and self-guarding national security in the
1960as, planning and implementing socio-economic programmes to support the
New Economy Policy in the 1970s, facilitating and regulating economic activities
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during the industrialisations period in the 1990s and modernising and instilling
human capital values to combat maladministration in the new millennium in the
2000s.
GOVERNANCE IN PUBLIC FINANCE MANAGEMENT
Accountability is a crucial mainstay for the public finance management. The
governance structure is laid in the mother of national statute namely Federal
Constitution. Minister of Finance is the sole person answerable to the Parliament
on the national financial affairs. The respective ministry will issue circulars and
orders to impose the new rulings on financial management to the line ministries
in order to ensure that the public monies are prudently, efficiently and effectively
managed. Furthermore, the Auditor General’s Office shall lay the annual report
before the Parliament on the affairs on the financial management in term of
compliances.
GOVERNANCE IN SERVICE DELIVERY
129
Accountability in governance is an issue in most countries and a cornerstone of all.
The importance of an efficient and ethical administrative system in developing and
implementing sound development policies and programmes is well recognised.
Governance is crucial especially in the public administration where there is a
need to reform the public sector to overcome many unethical and inefficient
bureaucratic dysfunctions and problems. The principles of good governance have
been operationalized through various circulars issued by the Central Agencies
ranging from human resource management, financial management, development
policies and modernization of government procedures.
MECHANISMS OF GOOD PUBLIC GOVERNANCE IN MALAYSIA
Special Cabinet Committee on Governance Management (SCCGM) was
established in 1988 due to raising concern on the level of corruption in the
Government sector. In 1997, the functions and roles of the SCCGM were
strengthened and the Committee was subsequently renaming the Special Cabinet
Committee on Integrity of Government Management (SCCIGM), a very high level
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committee chaired by Prime Minister himself. The Committee aims to establish
a Government administration and public service that is efficient, disciplined ad
imbued with the highest integrity by enhancing noble values. The Committee
also focuses on efforts to overcome problems and weaknesses particularly in the
Government financial management, public administration, handling of disciplinary
cases, corruption, abuse of power and malpractices as prohibited by the regulation,
law and religion.
The Chief of Secretary to The Government’s circular in 2007, is a clear signal
to institutionalise the principles and practices of good governance in order to
further enhance and strengthen the overall capacity of the Public Sector towards
achieving the National Mission. It spells out the principles of good governance in
the Public Sector as integrity, accountability, stewardship and transparency,
130
In 2009, the Malaysia Government administration of management system
is structurally strengthened via the issuance of Prime Minister’s Order No.
1 Year 2009 for establishment of the Committee on Integrity Governance
(Jawatankuasa Keutuhan Tadbir Urus, JKTU) to improve and strengthen the
Government administrative and management system, enhance governance and
reduce bureaucratic red-tape to prevent corruption. JKTU is assisted by four
(4) Expert Groups, specialised to recommend the necessary improvement in
the administration of government machinery for respective areas which include:
policies, laws and regulations, systems and procedures, noble values and code of
ethics, client’s management, internal control, detection, punitive and rehabilitations
measures and recognition and appreciation. The ethical conduct of public officials
includes Public Officers (Conduct and Discipline) Regulations 1993, The Judges’
Code of Ethics 1994; and Code of Ethics for Member of Parliament.
In the Malaysian version, the Ombudsman system (Public Complaints Bureau
(PCB)) was set-up in 1971 under the Prime Minister’s Department. It gives
the opportunity to the public to file complaints pertaining to non-compliance to
systems and procedures with regard to the public sector services. The principle
of accountability through the Ombudsman may increase the public confidence
towards the administrative practices and also reducing the abuse of power, breach
of trust and others.
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Other mechanisms to promote and embrace good public governance include
Business Ethics Institute of Malaysia (1997), Malaysia Institute of Corporate
Governance (1998), Malaysian Institute of Integrity (2003), National Integrity Plan
(2004), Enforcement Agencies Integrity Commission (2011), Integrity Vetting,
Letter of Undertaking, Asset Declaration of Ministers and Government Servants
and Circular on Gift Giving and Receiving.
GOOD GOVERNANCE AND CORRUPTION
Corruption in the public sector hampers the efficiency of the public services,
undermines confidence in public institutions and increases the cost of public
transactions. Promoting good governance in all its aspects, including the rule
of law, improving efficiency and accountability of the public sector, and tackling
corruption is an essential element of a framework within which economies can
prosper.
The most important and powerful institutional mechanism available to check
administrative abuse in Malaysia is the Malaysian Anti-Corruption Commission
(MACC, 2009). Established in 1967 by the name Anti-Corruption Agency (ACA),
it began with a small group of officials entrusted with responsibility and given
powers to prevent and eradicate all forms of misuses of powers, corruption, and
maladministration from the society.
131
GOOD PUBLIC GOVERNANCE: IS IT A MUST?
Since the government is dealing with the legitimate mandate to act on public or
society, the potential of the unlimited magnitude of consequences can be caused
from the government policies. The unchecked power tends to give the unlimited
spectrum of power abuses and corruptions. It is due to the conditions that only the
government is allowed to enforce the laws or acts which can permit confiscate the
personal property, imprisonment and a death penalty to any misdeed of its citizen,
for the cause of public interests. The same view is echoed by Lord Acton (18341902) “Power tends to corrupt, absolute power corrupt absolutely”. Raja
Azlan Shah in Pengarah Tanah dan Galian, Wilayah Persekutuan v Sri Lempah
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Enterprise Sdn Bhd., share similar sentiment when he stated that “Every legal
power must have legal limits, otherwise there is dictatorship”.
“To rule is easy, to govern difficult.” ~ Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (17491832): German philosopher and chief minister.
132
The society basically comprises of three components; government, public and
private enterprises. In the old days, the last two segments (public and private
enterprise) can be considered as a single large component and all goods and
services are rendered from the government. The concept of governance describes
certain forms of interaction between the state and society. This mode of politics
is considered modern in which the plurality of actors is acknowledged. Societal
problems are not solved by state institutions only; rather, the state interacts with
other actors, for example, with private companies or civil society organisations.
This interaction is necessary because – among other reasons – the quality of these
problems exceeds the capacity of states. This holds true for social problems, for
example, in the context of poverty reduction or demographic change, as well as
for environmental problems, climate change and so forth.
Intense public scrutiny is a fact of modern governance. There is greater societal
oversight of state institutions and public agencies than ever before. Important
institutions like civil service, the police, the military, the judiciary, the anti-corruption
commission are under tremendous pressure to perform. This is generally a good
thing and should be welcomed in the interests of good governance and clean and
honest government. It is therefore imperative for public officials to continuously
improve on the delivery of public goods and services in an effective, efficient,
equitable and ethical manner.
The rising of the third sector (third force) known as civil society which contains the
Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) focused in specialised area such as
media, trade unions, professional bodies, green movements, etc. has challenged
the credibility of government decisions. NGOs dedications and `no self-interest
look was paid off when public give more trusts and ears to NGO’s arguments
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rather than an official explanation by the government. This, however does not
justify for some incidents where civil society becoming uncivil in their demands.
GOOD PUBLIC GOVERNANCE: THEORETICAL ANALYSIS
The two fundamental responsibilities that the governments have towards their
people are to ensure their well-being as well as their security. Since good
governance warrants the public confidence over the public institutions presence
and delivery, it is important to anticipate the level of public confidence on public
institutions, looking from the analysis of legitimacy theory and principal-agent
theory. Legitimacy theory describes that the absence of good governance can
undermine the legitimacy of public institutions and disrupts policy goals. The
huge amount of public funds annually allocated for public institutions if not spent
prudently will create suspicious financial management indiscipline. A ministerial
programme during the election campaign as such will deem as incongruent with
society perception on neutrality of state institutions.
In principal agent-theory, governance is about the performance of agents in
carrying out the wishes of principal, and not about the goals that principals set. A
well-functioning public expenditure management (PEM) system is considered to
be a critical pillar of government efficiency. The Ministry of Finance (MoF) acts as
the principal, providing public funds to line ministries to implement a set of actions.
The contract must therefore specify a level of output. Line Ministries can be seen
as agents of the MoF (the principal) because they are required to produce a
certain level of public output – including the quality of this output – in exchange for
their budget appropriation. As a principal, the minister’s main objective is to make
sure his agent implements the required task. In this principal-agent model issue,
the MoF has the capability in measuring and judging the outcomes.
133
Public procurement is a key function of government. Effective and efficient
procurement processes are essential in ensuring that scarce public funds are well
spent and the public projects are properly carried out. However, such processes
are often best by waste, corruption and inefficiency. The other aspect is the shared
vision among the top leaders (Minister and Secretary General of Ministry) in the line
ministries. Even though they hail from different types of disciplines, it is important
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for them find a mutual understanding and work in a synergy. Nevertheless, there
is a possibility for the team to dissolve since the Minister has the political power
to command the rest. In this case, it is not necessary to form good and effective
governance. However, further strategies are required.
CONCLUSION
134
Issues of good governance are being widely discussed and debated worldwide.
In fact, there is a need to understand not only the social, economic and political
imperatives that underpin the nature and purpose of good governance, but also
to appreciate the cultural sources and traditions which have contributed to, and
influenced, the way we govern societies and manage our business enterprise.
The traditional roles played by the government are gradually taken over by
several non-government segments; civil society, business communities and other
upcoming new forces. The residual authorities hold by the government sector
if not being tied-up with a good governance, will stamped out the legitimacy of
public institutions. Without mandate and legitimate power, the government roles
no longer relevance to the public needs. At the end, the public affairs will govern
it and running without governing body called government.
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REFERENCES
Ahmad Faiz, Nadhrah, and Kamaruzaman. 2009. Accountability from the Perspective of
Malaysian Governance. Journal of Politics and Law. Vol. 2, No. 3.
Article 132(1) of Federal Constitution.
Article 142 of Federal Constitution.
Chief of Secretary Circular, ref: PM(S) 17479/13 Jd. 4 dated 9 March 2007.
Dorothee de Neve. 2012. Civil Society and Governance-Pluralizing the State. FriedrichEbert-Stiftung, Singapore.
Francis Fukuyama. 2013. What is Governance?. Governance: An International Journal of
Policy, Administration, Institution, Vol. 26, No. 3.
Gerry Stoker. 1998. Governance as theory: Five propositions. International Social Science
Journal. Vol. 50, Issues 155.
Halim Ali. 2000. Leadership and Good Governance in Good Governance: Issues and
Cases. INTAN.
Khairul Azmin & Siti Aliza. 2011. The role of judicial review in Malaysia as a tool of check
and balance under the doctorine of separation of powers. In: Constitutional law
and human rights in Malaysia. Selected Issues. IIUM Press, Kuala Lumpur, pp.
45-70.
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LooSee Beh 2007. Administrative Reform: Issues of Ethics and Governance in Malaysia
and China. Asia Research Centre, CBS, Copenhagen. Discussion Paper.
Raja Nazrin Shah. 2012. The Challenges of Governance in Contemporary Malaysia.
Razak School of Government’s Lecture Series. Kuala Lumpur. Unpublished.
Random House Webmaster Unabridged Dictionary, online version.
R.A.W. Rhodes. 1996. The New Governance: Governing without Government. Political
Studies, XLIV, 652-667.
Sam Agere. 2000. Promoting Good Governance: Principles, Practices and Perspectives.
Commonwealth Secretariat.
Sam Perlo-Freeman and Carina Solmirano. Why arms procurement goes wrong.
Stockholm International Peace Research Institute. Background paper. (http://
www.sipri.org/research/armaments/milex/publications/unpubl_milex/unpubl_
milex_default/procurement).
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Sharifah Hayati Syed Ismail. 2011. Role and transition of public services in Malaysia: An
effective governance perspective. African Journal of Business Management, Vol.
5(5).
Sirajuddin H. Salleh. 2001. Government, Business and Civil Society: Collaboration
towards A Common Destiny”. INTAN Executive Series Vol. 4, No. 1.
United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP).
What is Good Governance.
www.un.org/en/globalissues/governance.
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NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLANNING IN MALAYSIA:
A FREE HAND OR A STRONG ARM?
Dr. Maziah Che Yusoff
INTAN Bukit Kiara
[email protected]
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NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLANNING IN MALAYSIA:
A FREE HAND OR A STRONG ARM?
INTRODUCTION
National Development Planning is a dominant policy instrument for most developing
countries including Malaysia. Malaysia in fact has a long history of using national
development plans to great effect, accelerating both the economic growth and
the social development of the country. Back in the 1960s, the early plans were
focused on the modernisation of traditional sectors like agriculture and mining. In
the 1970s and 80s, poverty alleviation and income distribution became the issues
of the day, with emphasis shifting to the development of large scale infrastructure
projects like the North South Highway and the Penang Bridge. The 1990s were all
about boosting industrial and manufacturing capacity and capability. Since 2000,
Malaysia has been relentless in focusing on knowledge management, human
capital development and ICT. This approach of using national development
plans has withstood the test of time and has been proven successful in charting
impressive economic growth and development for the country.
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THE RELEVANCY OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLANNING: MALAYSIA
NEEDS TO SHIFT GEARS
However, as the country progresses and charts its way towards becoming a highincome and developed nation by 2020, national development planning is deemed
to be outmoded and should be abandoned as it is no longer being practised by most
advanced countries. There is a growing notion that government direct intervention
should be kept to the minimum and a developed economy should be freely left
to market forces. Many have argued that the success of past experiences should
not be the basis for future action and a fresh approach is, therefore, needed for
Malaysia to face the challenges and uncertainties of the current global scenarios.
This argument is based on the fact that the global outlook is so dynamic making
any medium or long term plans such as 10th Malaysia Plan, 2011-2015 and New
Economic Model, 2011-2020 no longer relevant. Malaysia has lost its growth
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momentum since the Asian Financial Crisis in 1997/1998. There are fears that
Malaysia will be stuck in the vicious cycle of being a middle income country, unable
to remain competitive as a high-volume, low-cost producer, yet unable to move up
the value chain for knowledge and innovation based products and services. While
Malaysia was among the highest growing nation during the 1990-1997, average
growth has only been 5.0% per annum after the Asian Financial Crisis. This has
become a challenge for Malaysia in pushing for potential growth beyond 6%. The
question is how Malaysia can gain back its growth momentum.
140
There are suggestions that Malaysia needs fundamentally new economic
transformation strategies to forge forward. Thus, policymakers need to shift gears
and to make necessary adjustments in addressing the downside risks posed by
global uncertainties. For Malaysia to be globally competitive, the market should
be agile enough for the private sectors to respond to the changing environment.
Some people are of the view that for the flexible market to exists, the government
should stay out of the market. Market forces should direct the country’s resources
into businesses in which Malaysia has clear comparative advantages. It is within
this context that the relevancy of the national development plan is debated.
STATES VERSUS MARKETS
It was customary to regard the absence of government control as being the key
feature in distinguishing a capitalist economy from a state-controlled economy. But
this equates a competitive market to a monopolistic market. What if government
policy is necessary in order to establish a competitive market? The debate can
be envisaged in terms of more-or-less rather than either-or. The rapid recovery
in China provided evidence on the role of state enterprises in initiating a revival
of growth. For Malaysia, the last four decades of growth with quality is the result
of sound economic policies. Those successes might not be realised if the country
allows for a complete free rein of the market.
Malaysia adopts a mixed system approach in her development plans whereby
the government sets directions and private enterprises are free to operate. This
mixed system is known as the Anglo-Saxon model. The Anglo-Saxon model
characterised many of the economies of the European Union and that of the US.
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National Development Planning in Malaysia: A Free Hand or a Strong Arm?
The mixed system is an intermediate system between two extremes - centralised
planning and laissez faire. The centralised planning of the socialist system exists
in socialist countries such as Cuba and South Korea. The socialist system requires
the state to plan and execute in detail its socio-economic programmes and
activities. At the other extreme, the laissez faire or the free enterprise, advocates
the non-involvement of the state in business and the economy. Between these
two extremes, the mixed system calls for the state to have a role in setting the
economic direction and facilitating, through loose regulation, the economic growth
of the country. This approach in the Malaysian development planning process
provides clear direction with flexible strategies as well as forming the basis for
strategic collaboration between the government and private sector. The Malaysian
development path is to have growth with quality. Desire for wealth should not
override other moral obligations. These are the unique features of the Malaysian
development plans that have served well in the past and should continue to be
the thrust for the future. These unique features are discussed in the following
paragraphs.
THE DEVELOPMENT PLAN PROVIDES CLEAR VISIONS OF THE FUTURE
141
For the past 50 years, Malaysia has practised development planning model that
provides clear visions of the future and identifies long and medium term strategies
to achieve multiple outcomes. This experience has meant that the government
has been patient and committed in carrying out development plans over five or
more years. Organising and analysing diverse mixture of data in the planning
process helps bring clarity to possible future events. The point is of course not to
predict the future, but to be better prepared for potential developments and to deal
with new type of challenges. Economic planning assesses the current state of the
economy; designs various types of initiatives to break barriers or bottlenecks in
important sectors of the economy; and provides improvement on the coordination
between different parts of the economy. Having a plan provides greater focus on
the whole of government. Developing a long term vision and applying consistent
policies over several years will help achieve sustainable development results.
A development plan is a guide for the nation’s sustainable growth. It provides clear
and flexible policies, strategies and programmes. The ideal Malaysian economic
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development plan is very simple. There are no miracles in economic plans. The
nation’s progress is the result of sound economic plans. Henry Kissinger once
said: “if you don’t know where you are going, every road will get you nowhere”. The
planning process tests the ability to acknowledge the prospect and work through
possible consequences. Without it, there would be a lack of shock absorbers
when we hit bumps in the road.
The development plan also seeks to achieve consistency among different
economic objectives. Some desirable economic goals are likely to conflict with
others. It may be possible to stimulate the economy for higher levels of output and
employment. But in doing so, the measures applied may also produce rising prices
leading to rising imports and falling exports. The result may lead to a balance of
payment crisis. Having a plan provides greater focus on the whole of government.
Developing a long term vision will help to achieve sustainable development results
and promote economic self-reliance in avoiding sole dependence on the foreign
sectors.
142
THE SUCCESS STORY IN THE PAST FOUR DECADES (1970-2012)
With the comprehensive development planning in place, real gross domestic
product (GDP) has grown by an average of 6.3 per cent per annum during 1970
to 2012, higher than the average growth of advanced nations. In fact, Malaysia
was one of the fastest growing nations during the period of 1988-1996, where
the economy recorded more than 9% growth. Gross National Income (GNI) per
capita in current prices grew 25 times from USD 376 in 1970 to USD 9,610 in
2012. The Malaysian economy has undergone tremendous transformation from a
low income to an upper middle income economy. Unemployment was reduced to
2.9% in 2012 from 7.4% in 1970. All this was achieved with low rates of inflation
which ranged from 1.7% to 1.6%. These remarkable successes had translated
into substantial improvements in the people’s quality of life. The people enjoy
superior standards of health and education. They lived longer with the average
life span of males and females being 72 and 77 years respectively. Poverty has
declined to below 2 per cent. Over 95 per cent of households enjoy electricity
and have piped water. Within the same period, the economy has grown from
US$19.0 billion to US$242 billion. The structure of the Malaysian economy has
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changed from being an agricultural-based to an industrial and services-based
economy. The share of the manufacturing sector to GDP has increased from
11% in 1970 to 25% in 2012. The services sector has become the major source
of growth contributing 55% to GDP. Major services subsectors are the wholesale
and retail trade, accommodation and restaurants; the finance and insurance; and
the transport, storage and communications. The agriculture sector continues to
be the major contributor to the economy but has undergone transformation in its
value chain. Therefore, as a result of increasing value-add of agriculture products,
its contribution as a primary sector declined from 27% in 1970 to 7% in 2012.
Nowadays, agricultural products have become an input to the resource-based
manufacturing sector.
From being an exporter of primary products such as rubber, tin, and palm oil, in
the 1970s, Malaysia has become a diversified economy. The nation has made
very impressive gains, not only in terms of economic restructuring, but also in
poverty eradication and liberalisation of the services sector. In 1970, almost
half of the population was poor. The mean household income in 1970 was only
RM264 per month, with 27% of households earning below RM100 per month
and a further 31% earning between RM100 to RM200 per month. By 1990,
the incidence of poverty declined to 16.5%. By 2010, hard-core poverty was
virtually eradicated. By 2012, the average monthly income for all households has
increased to RM5,000. The success story of poverty eradication programmes is
evident from the sharp decline in poverty rate from 49.3% in 1970 to only 1.7%
in 2012; urban poverty from 21.3% (1970) to 1.0% (2012); rural poverty from
58.7% (1970) to 3.4% (2012). What brought about these remarkable changes?
This progress is the result of sound economic plans, coupled with national unity,
political and economic stability. None of those would have been realised if the
country has allowed for a complete free rein of the market.
143
Today, the challenge has shifted from absolute poverty to low income households
– the bottom 40% households (B40%). Poverty is no longer a rural phenomenon.
Migration to urban areas and significant development of rural areas has contributed
to the increasing numbers of urban vulnerable households.
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THE NATION’S ASPIRATION: GROWTH WITH QUALITY
Malaysia has envisioned its aspiration to be a developed country in its own mould
by 2020. It means, Malaysia will not only be a high income and developed nation
but will also encompass a united society with strong moral and ethical values. The
nation’s aspiration of growth with quality is well reflected under the principles of
1Malaysia: People First, Performance Now, whereby strategies and approaches
to drive Malaysia into becoming developed nation will not compromise on the
people’s well-being. The 2012 budget formulated with the theme “National
Transformation Policy: Welfare for the People and Well-Being for the Nation” has
further reinforced this spirit.
144
Learning the lessons of her own development experience, Malaysia fought hard
to ensure an emphasis on sharing the benefits of growth, reducing inequalities
and transforming economies to help lift their people out of poverty. These were
delivered with critical focus on the foundations of human development – health,
education, nutrition and water. It is within this context that the national development
plan accorded equal emphasis on social justice. While restructuring the economy
is necessary for the nation to progress and achieve high income growth, social
justice is essential to ensure that every Malaysian would be able to participate in
the nation’s development. Past experience has provided hard evidence that some
sort of government interventions are very much needed for Malaysia to forge
ahead without compromising on social justice and the quality of life of the rakyat.
It is a conventional wisdom that higher economy growth leads to a better quality
of life. But, in reality higher income does not always improve quality of life. Even
though people with more income have higher purchasing power, it does not
guarantee them greater well-being and a happier life. Happiness and well-being
do not just come from wealth creation but also from non-material factors. The
development of the country should not neglect the provision of quality services
such as education, healthcare, housing, environment, communication, public
safety, transportation as well as leisure and culture.
As such, the government is expected to not only look after the people’s well-being
of today and future generations, but also the conditions that allow us to live in
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peace. Governments today are often asked to fix wages, eradicate poverty, settle
disputes, ensure equitable income distribution, care for the sick and the elderly,
enhance trade balance, provide support to vulnerable groups and the list goes on
and on. Again, none of those would be realised if the country allows for complete
free rein of the market. Market forces rely on the assumption that economic agents
are motivated only to optimise the satisfaction of their preferences on the basis of
rational choice. In reality, this is not so as they are also influenced by sentiment,
greed and unrealistic expectations.
Malaysia’s development thrust lies on the belief that economic growth is not an
end in itself but a means to prosperity and a better quality of life. Striving for better
quality of life means, in addition to what has been listed above, ensuring people’s
access to affordable housing, quality education and healthcare. It is the nation’s
aspiration to be a developed and high income country with a united society. For
multiracial countries such as Malaysia, the need to achieve social harmony requires
an inclusion policy to provide social justice by removing economic inequalities
and to balance the needs of even the smallest minority groups.
145
From 1970 onwards, quality with growth has been the underlying focus for
development plans. In 1970, the introduction of the New Economic Policy had set
Malaysia on a path of new economic progress. In 1991, Malaysians were given
an audacious plan under the title of Vision 2020. For the majority of Malaysians it
was a pipe dream, but to the nation’s leaders it was a lighthouse to move forward
to be in the league of developed countries. In 2010, the New Economic Model,
the Government Transformation Program and the Economic Transformation
Program, and the 10th Malaysian Plan were all components integrated into a
plan to steer our nation’s progress along the relatively short period towards Vision
2020. In ensuring that growth translated into better quality of life of the people, the
Malaysian Quality of Life Index (MQLI) was measured on an annual basis using
20-years of time series data. The findings show that Malaysians over the years
have enjoyed a better quality of life.
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DEVELOPMENT PLANNING PROCESS WITH STRATEGIC COLLABORATION
Development planning process involves consultation with the private sectors
and various stakeholders. Different from command economy model, Malaysian
development plans are indicative, not directive, in nature. Indicative development
plans provide roadmap for the country’s transformation, state general guidelines
and highlight government goals for the national economy. Those are general
indicators, not prescriptive. State-owned enterprises are subject to market
forces. The development efforts are premised on a pro-business strategy. The
development plan redefines the role of government to facilitate the private sector
to be the engine of growth. It adopts market oriented policies to encourage private
sector investment. This collaboration of government and private sector is crucial
for the nation’s progress.
146
The experience of yesteryears shows the need for long term policy planning to
ensure that we rise to the challenges and maximise the opportunities facing us.
The market economy, left unattended, can be vicious without the existence of
complementary institutions which represent our collective values. Having long
term plans give us the opportunity to leverage on diversity, to integrate with the
global world and to build bridges and effective partnerships. National institutions
and history matter to economic performance. There is no such thing as a universal
template such as the free market forces for economic growth. The rise of “state
capitalism” or the “visible hand” against “free market capitalism or invisible hand”
as the emerging world’s new model has gained much popularity recently and
serves as a testimony that economic development planning remains relevant
today.
CHALLENGES IN MOVING FORWARD: MALAYSIA NEEDS A NEW GAME
CHANGER
Today, the roadmap to achieve the nation’s aspiration is not as easy as when it
started in 1970. Neither is the way to move forward. Malaysia is at a situation
where the economy is already very large and the nation is very much influenced
by the world economy. Malaysia can no longer sit on her rural and singularity area.
Globalisation has made the world flat. Competition can come from economies as
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far away as South America and Eastern Europe. The financial crisis and global
economic slowdown has intensified competition for investment and trade. Lacking
in creativity and innovation to push for higher productivity, Malaysia is not in a
good position to compete with high value-added economies. Malaysia is at a
critical juncture in her development path. Malaysia can no longer rely on low cost
advantage as in the past, but is also facing intensifying competition from regional
economies. The regional economies are fast growing, taking advantage of their
scale to leapfrog over their smaller middle income peers. Obviously, the traditional
growth engine has slowed down and doing business as usual is not enough.
Therefore, it is undeniable that some serious revamps are necessary. However,
there is no need to start from scratch as the foundations are all there. Malaysian
development plans have served as strong foundations to shift the growth
trajectory from a low income to an upper middle income nation for the past four
decades. What Malaysia needs is a new game changer to forge the way to the
future of Malaysia as a developed nation. Malaysia needs to foster innovation and
upgrading in products and processes. Thus, the answer on how Malaysia can gain
back its growth momentum is not on the relevancy of the national development
plan. It is about the right priorities of the right sectors at the right time. Identifying
the right investment, the right catalyst and the right innovation are imperative to
complete an equation to accelerate growth.
147
CONCLUSION
Moving forward, the thrusts of the nation’s development will continue to leverage
on the success and strengths that have been built from past initiatives as well as
initiating new strategies to ensure sustainable growth. High income is not the end
of the development process. The expected outcome of the national development
plan is the well-being and quality of life of the rakyat. GDP is a means to achieving
better quality of life. Does higher economic growth translate into better quality
of life?. Ideally, better quality of life of the rakyat should be the outcome of the
GDP growth. But in reality, this is not so. Market forces rely on the assumption
that economic agents are motivated only to optimise the satisfaction of their
preferences on the basis of rational choice. In reality, they are also influenced
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by sentiment, greed and unrealistic expectations. Thus, the nation’s aspiration
for quality growth might not be realised if the country allows for a complete free
rein of the market. For that purpose, the national development plan provides a
strong arm for the government to set direction and guidance towards becoming a
developed nation; and a free hand for policymakers to have flexible strategies and
for the private enterprises to operate. This adopted mixed system in the Malaysian
development planning process provides clear direction with flexible strategies as
well as forming the basis for strategic collaboration between government and
private sector.
148
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REFERENCES
Bank Negara Malaysia Annual Report 2012.
Government of Malaysia. 1970. Second Malaysia Plan, 1971-1975. Percetakan National
Malaysia Bhd. Kuala Lumpur.
Government of Malaysia. 1991. Sixth Malaysia Plan, 1991-1995. Percetakan National
Government of Malaysia. 2010. Tenth Malaysia Plan, 2011-2015. Percetakan National
John Antony Xavier and Zafar U. Ahmad. 2011. Proposed scholarly research agenda for
transforming Malaysia into a model developing nation. International Journal of
Public Sector Management Vol. 25 No. 3, 2012 pp. 231-243
John Williamson. 2012. Some Basic Disagreements on Development. A paper presented
to the Development Policy Forum on “Rethinking Development Policy Packages”
organised by KDI and the World Bank in Seoul on Oct 15, 2012.
Malaysian Quality of Life Index Report 2011.
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Buletin INTAN 2013

Transcription

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