Conference Proceedings part 1

Transcription

ICDE International Conference
“Connecting the World through Open,
Distance and e-Learning”
Международная конференция ICDE
«Открытое, дистанционное,
электронное обучение: мир без границ»
Conference proceedings/ Сборник докладов
Part 1/ Часть 1
Moscow, 2014
Proceedings of the ICDE International Conference “Connecting the World
through Open, Distance and e-Learning” // Moscow state university of
economics, statistics and informatics. – М., 2014
Сборник докладов Международной конференции ICDE «Открытое,
дистанционное, электронное обучение: мир без границ» // Московский
государственный университет экономики, статистики и информатики. –
М., 2014.
ISBN 978-5-7764-0946-2
© Moscow state university of economics,
statistics and informatics–M., 2014
© Московский государственный
университет экономики,
статистики и информатики – М., 2014
2
PROCEEDINGS/ ДОКЛАДЫ
Adedeji Abiodun L., Odishika Vivian A. ………………………………………………
6
Adegoke Niyi ……………………………………………………………………………………..
15
Adewale Olubiyi Adeniyi ……………………………………………………………………
35
Alemayehu Demissie ………………………………………………………………………….
44
Alizadehfard Susan …………………………………………………………………………….
51
Al-sharaabi Waheeb A. ………………………………………………………………………
55
Ani George Ndubuisi ………………………………………………………………………….
61
Arinto Patricia B. ………………………………………………………………………………..
71
Bao Huaying, Huang Wenfeng, Xia Lan, Li Xiaolei ..…………………………….
71
Bountrogianni Marie, Djafarova Naza ………………………………………………..
82
Cant Michael C., Wiid Johannes A., Nell Corinne ………………………………..
84
Casimiro Leni ……………………………………………………………………………………..
104
Chen Ying, Chen Ke ……………………………………………………………………………
115
Darojat Ojat ……………………………………………………………………………………….
123
Darojat Ojat, Chandrawati Titi …………………………………………………………..
141
Diedericks Hanneli …………………………………………………………………………….
154
Gunduz Osman Mehdi, Hasrat Almaz İsrail ………………………………………..
163
Inegbedion Juliet Obhajajie ……………………………………………………………….
171
Iwuchukwu Onyeka, Kelikume Genevieve ………………………………………….
180
Jakovljevic Marija ………………………………………………………………………………
186
Job Gabriel C. …………………………………………………………………………………….
198
Khar Thoe Ng, Suma Parahakaran, Thien Lei Mee ………………………………
210
Le Van Thanh …………………………………………………………………………………….
225
Lee Tae Rim ……………………………………………………………………………………….
230
Li Dun, Xu Ping …………………………………………………………………………………..
237
3
Mahapatra Sukanta Kumar ………………………………………………………………..
244
Nguyen Van Quang ……………………………………………………………………………
251
Obaka Abel Inabo ………………………………………………………………………………
257
Olusanya Samuel Olumuyiwa, Ebobo Christiana Urowoli …………………..
265
Oosthuizen A G, Davis A …………………………………………………………………….
270
Ouyang Xiyu ………………………………………………………………………………………
272
Rajguru Hemant, Shewale Madhukar, Yashwantrao Chavan ………………
278
Rapp Christian, Margarov Gevorg, Gulbahar Yasemin, Zhurbina
Natalia, Shykova Olena ………………………………………………………………………
285
Roberts Jennifer, Gous Ignatius …………………………………………………………
289
Sabo Elizabeth ……………………………………………………………………………………
302
Shchelkonogov Mikhail ………………………………………………………………………
310
Sherrie Lu Hwangji …………………………………………………………………………….
316
Spamer Manie, Van Zyl Marinda ………………………………………………………..
318
Sri Sediyaningsih ………………………………………………………………………………..
322
Santosh Sujata, Ayyagari Ravi …………………………………………………………….
332
Tenebe Vincent A., Galadima Madu Baba ………………………………………….
340
Tikhomirova Natalia …………………………………………………………………………..
353
Trang Tran Huu ………………………………………………………………………………….
363
Tuaru Velepat ……………………………………………………………………………………
367
Vento Gianfranco ………………………………………………………………………………
377
Wang Jin-Long, Chen Jian-Bo, Hung Shu-Chiu, Chen Chun-Man, Lin
Wen-Ting, Ming Chua ………………………………………………………………………..
386
Xu Wei ……………………………………………………………………………………………….
392
Yang Mei-he, Wang Chun-ying …………………………………………………………..
401
Ye Xuan Lin ………………………………………………………………………………………..
404
Zhang Dai …………………………………………………………………………………………..
411
4
Xiangyang Zhang, Xiaofeng Ye, Shuchiu Hung ……………………………………
424
Zubaidah Ida ………………………………………………………………………………………
433
Zubieta Garcia Judith, Rosario Freixas Flores ……………………………………..
442
Zubieta-García Judith, Bautista-Godínez Tomás, Germán-Castelán
Edgar Albert ………………………………………………………………………………………
451
5
KNOWLEDGE ECONOMY AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT:
THE ROLE OF OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING (ODL) IN NIGERIA
Adedeji Abiodun L.; Odishika Vivian A., National Open University of Nigeria
(NOUN), Nigeria
ABSTRACT: In today’s globalized, competitive and technologically driven world,
human capital is seen as the major engine of growth and development especially
in the industrialized nations where the majority of their labour force is highly
skilled, and the main driver of growth is service provision, which is no doubt
knowledge driven. Education is seen as the key to economic development, as it is
through education that humans can acquire the skills and knowledge needed to
effectively utilize the scarce resources at their disposal. This paper uses descriptive
analyses, employing secondary data from existing literature to compare ODL in
Nigeria with what is obtainable in other parts of the world, with the aim of
addressing the efforts made by ODL in this case National Open University of
Nigeria (NOUN) which is the first and for now the only unimode ODL tertiary
institution in Nigeria, in providing education fit for economic growth of the nation
and it also addresses the areas it is lagging behind. From the result gotten it was
found that NOUN has greatly increased the number of graduates in Nigeria, and it
has provided education that is apt to the needs of the economy as regards human
capital development for economic growth for example, nursing, lifelong learning,
vocational and entrepreneurial courses. However, the paper found that the
institution still needs to improve the quality and capacity of its infrastructure and
human resources on ground so that it can compete with key players in other
countries of the world like Open University United Kingdom, Open University
Malaysia among others and therefore recommends adequate funding of the
institution by the government.
KEY WORDS: Knowledge Economy, Economic development, ODL, Education,
Capability
INTRODUCTION
In recent time, globalization, international competition and the rapid evolution of
information and communication technology (ICT) have triggered various 21st
Century challenges, such as changing employment practices, crave for knowledge
and societal values as well as expanding international trade and commerce. For
many countries, these challenges indicate a need to develop a national capacity to
adapt to these new conditions, particularly from the human capital perspective.
The value and quality of labour force is a very germane issue with regards to
human resource development in a country. This is why the level of development of
education and training (especially at the higher level), and the availability of
learning facilities are always a top priority of every government across the globe.
6
Higher education institutions worldwide have been encouraged to create the
means for more people to obtain higher level of education so as to develop the
required knowledge and skills needed to achieve highly skilled manpower that will
develop and sustain economic development of the nation. However, in developing
countries where the existing workforce is not highly skilled, and opportunities for
training and skills upgrading within existing industries are lacking as well, the ever
increasing population in these countries will thus necessitate an increase in higher
education enrolment. For this growing population to be effectively educated to
meet the challenges of today’s globalized world, these developing countries need
to look beyond the conventional brick-and-mortar universities, and this is where
open and distance learning (ODL) can play a major role.
As an alternative approach in higher education, ODL leverages on ICT to deliver
academic programmes, thus creating an avenue for people to learn independently,
anywhere and anytime. In general, Open and distance Learning mainly caters for
working adults albeit the trend is changing in Nigeria where majority of students
seeking admission into National Open University of Nigeria are not workers
because of the demand and supply gap in the provision of higher education. As
such, ODL has opened the door for people from all walks of life to obtain a
university degree, either for career advancement, upgrading of qualifications or
even for personal fulfillment.
According to UNESCO (2002), the terms open and distance learning represent
approaches that focus on opening access to education and training provision,
freeing learners from the constraints of time and place and offering flexible
learning opportunities to individuals and groups of learners. Peratton, Robinson &
Creed (2001) defined distance education as ‘an educational process in which a
significant proportion of the teaching is conducted by someone far removed in
space and/or time from the learners. In distance learning, the teacher, through the
use of technology, delivers instructions to a student at a separate location
(Siddiqui, 2007). Distance learning is therefore any type of education that occurs
when location, time, or both separate the participants.
In Nigeria, ODL at the tertiary level has been (to a large extent) able provide access
to quality education to Nigerians who were denied because of artificial barriers
and increase equity in educational opportunities for those who otherwise would
have been denied. It has also met special needs of employers by mounting special
certificate courses for their employees at their work places and encourages
internationalization especially of tertiary education curricula with the help of
collaborators from other renowned open university in the world.
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This paper will briefly review the current ODL scene in Nigeria and Africa and also
discuss how open universities can further contribute to knowledge economy for
economic development. The paper will also explore several key issues related to
ODL, knowledge economy such as lifelong learning and international collaboration,
and how some of the challenges faced can be addressed if Nigeria/African
countries are to promote knowledge economy, which is the competitive edge for
countries in this borderless world.
OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING EDUCATION AND KNOWLEDGE ECONOMY
DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA
The practice of distance education as a new vista for early African scholars was
described by Bell and Tight (1999), and echoed by Alan Tait (2003), who said:
“Some Nigerians who desired higher education were not left out of the
opportunities provided by University of London. Omolewa (1976) reported records
showed that a handful of Nigerians, as far back as 1887, enrolled for the first time
in the University of London matriculation examination as external students
studying through correspondence, and without enjoying any established formal
ties to that educational institution. Later, E.O. Ajayi and Alvan Ikoku both obtained
University of London degrees in philosophy in 1927 and 1929 respectively, and J.S.
Ogunlesi obtained a degree in History in 1933 (Omolewa, 1982). Access to such
educational opportunities at a distance contributed immensely to these
individual’s productivity, which in turn resonated in the innovations they
subsequently demonstrated in their teaching methodology at the St Andrew’s
Teachers College, Oyo (Aderinoye, 1995). Besides these individuals, a significant
number of Nigeria’s early educated elites were products of the British
correspondence distance education system. Indeed, in spite of the establishment
of a University College in Ibadan in 1948, many of its academic staff still passed
through the higher degree programmes of the University of London as distance
learners, enabling them to combine work with higher degree programmes. This
informed different regimes after independence, to make significant steps to
promote policies which aim at developing human resource for economic
development of Nigeria. Knowledge economy in Nigeria is at present characterized
by a good deal of imbalance in terms of region, sector, gender and levels of
education. These imbalances cut across all the levels of education, the primary,
secondary and higher levels of education.
With the emergence of many conventional higher institutions in Nigeria, most of
which were once based on purely correspondence modalities, distance education
still constitutes an integral part of these institution’s educational offerings
(Aderinoye, 1992). Institutions in Nigeria that offer distance education includes:
Ahmadu Bello University, which offers a special training programme called: “The
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Correspondence and Teachers’ In-service Programmes (TISEP), established in 1976
to prepare middle level teachers for Nigeria’s primary schools.
Others are, the Correspondence and Open Studies Unit (COSU), now called
Distance Learning Institute, which was established in 1974 by the University of
Lagos to produce university graduates in disciplines necessary to meet national
labour needs (e.g., teachers, nurses, etc.)
The first independent institution dedicated solely to distance education is, the
National Teachers’ Institute (NTI), which was officially established in 1978 to
upgrade unqualified teachers working in the nation’s primary schools and to
accelerate the preparation of qualified teachers needed for the implementation of
the Universal Primary Education programme introduced in 1976 and the Universal
Basic Education programme introduced in 1999.
The External Study Programme (ESP), that later became the Centre for External
Studies (CES) and today called the Distance Learning Centre (DLC), was established
by the University of Ibadan’s Senate in 1988 under the umbrella of the Nigerian
Department of Adult Education to provide opportunities for teachers working in
the field to improve their skills and knowledge through on-the-job training. This inservice training enabled them to subsequently raise their status from holders of
Nigeria Certificate in Education (NCE) to full-fledged university degree holders.
To offer similar programs, the University of Abuja established its Centre for
Distance Learning and Continuing Education in 1992. The realization that ODL is a
tool for speeding up socio-economic development is the trend all world over, and
for Nigeria with estimated population of one hundred and seventy million people
it became imperative more than ever before to cash in on the advantages of open
and distance learning in order to grow the knowledge base of the economy for
growth.
The idea of the Open University system as a separate and different institution with
a national spread was first muted in Nigeria in the late 1977. This was
subsequently reflected in the National Policy on Education by 1977. The university
was intended to rely heavily on the use of the radio as well as the television. The
National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN) was later established on the 22nd
July, 1983 as a springboard for open and distance learning in Nigeria (NOUN,2006).
NOUN remains till date, the only federal government established single-mode
tertiary institution in Nigeria dedicated to quality open access education through
distance learning. As concisely put by the former vice-chancellor of NOUN
Professor Jegede in 2006, NOUN is set-up “towards taking the distance out of
9
education for many Nigerians who would not normally have the opportunity to
study through the conventional mode face-to-face, full-time study”.
Open and Distance Education as evidenced in the activities of NOUN is being used
as a strategy for educating the masses in much needed areas of the economy
such as Nursing, Computer Science, Teachers Education, Peace and Conflict
Resolution to mention only a few. There are other training programmes as well
for the industrial/ corporate workers, this is handled by the Centre for Continuing
Education and Workplace Training (CCE&WT. This centre caters for all types of
training that are germane to skill acquisition and development of human capital of
the industries knowing full well that many workers who are of age and those who
could not leave their jobs to attend full time schooling but require one type of
training or the other would through this arrangement achieve their goals of
becoming equipped with the knowledge/training they require at work.
Concept of Knowledge Economy
Education as a measurement for quantity, availability and human resource quality
is the sole method which can be used to analyze the effect or human capital
impact on economic growth (Benhabib and Spiegel, 1994). The idea of a
knowledge economy stemmed from the concept that knowledge can generate
economic values. To develop a high-income economy based on knowledge, human
capital must encompass the right skills and competencies, including the capacity to
innovate. Considered the most recent stage in the global economic structure, a
knowledge economy represents a clear transition from agricultural and industrial
economies of past decades to service based economy. This marks the growing
importance of innovation, research and development and ICT.
David and Foray (2002) describe the move to knowledge or knowledge based
economy as a sea change or “soft discontinuity” rather than a sharp break from
the past. Although, the term knowledge economy/worker is not a simple concept
to explain analytically, as a result, the terms is often taken as self-evident and in
some cases, not tested against hard data because of its intangible nature.
Therefore, we can rightly say the knowledge economy is what you get when firms
bring together powerful computers and well educated minds to create wealth. The
key to developing a knowledge economy involves the upgrading and creation of
the relevant skills and competencies, not only from the technical fields, but also
involving ‘soft’ and interpersonal skills, as well as language and communication
abilities.
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Theoretical Framework
Human development brings together the production and distribution of
commodities and the expansion and use of human capabilities. Human
development is, concerned not only with basic needs, satisfaction but also with
human development as a participatory and dynamic process.
This paper therefore discusses development from the Capability Approach,
developed by Nobel Laurel Amartya Sen. It stresses that development occurs when
people are more able to achieve what makes their lives valuable to them.
Education, in its larger sense of term, serves as a tool people can use to achieve
the level of freedom that they feel is intrinsically valuable, as well as achieving
rudimentary levels of knowledge acquisition (e.g., beginning with literacy and
basic arithmetic), which serves as a functional key to greater educational
development.
Education and development policies based on Capability Theory are judged to be
successful if they enhance people’s individual capabilities, whether or not they
directly affect income or economic growth.
ODL (NOUN) MILESTONE IN NIGERIA
1. Widening Access
There are 36 federal universities, 37 state universities, and 45 private universities
accredited by the National Universities Commission (NUC) in Nigeria (US Embassy
2012).
The National Open University of Nigeria started with unprecedented admission of
34000 students which no single conventional university in Nigeria having the
capacity to absorb such. Since then the figure has been on the increase, as at July
2013 the National Open University of Nigeria has 198,547 registered students.
NOUN has fifty-two study centres across Nigeria, fully run on information and
communication technology with the intention to open more (NOUN website, July
2013).
The university has further increased the access by creating more study centres in
Military Barracks, Nigerian Prison Yards, Immigration Office, Nigerian Security and
Civil Defense and most recently National Union of Road and Transport Workers.
2. Gender Equality
One major aspect of education gap in Nigeria is the discrepancy with respect to
equal opportunities in education for girls and women. It is a known fact that
distance learning mode reaches a large number of women especially full house
11
wives and women in Purdah. The National Open University of Nigeria has
overcome this challenge by creating unfettered opportunities for women in
Nigeria.
3. Vocational and Lifelong Education
NOUN has responded effectively to the growing demand of working adults or any
others who have difficulties in obtaining higher education in conventional
universities as a result of lack of flexibilities in timing and location. The acceptance
of open and distance learning mode has gained tremendous acceptance among
young and old citizens of Nigerians.
4. Programme, Course Relevance and Quality Assurance
NOUN offered about 102 programmes under six schools/faculties as at 2010, but
currently due to ever increasing demand from hitherto deprived Nigerians and
unparalleled relevance of programmes on offer by the university, the available
programmes have soared to 134 with 997,770 course materials developed. Many
of these programmes are not run by any university in Nigeria for example (B.Sc.
and M.Sc.) Peace Studies and Conflict Resolution, Medical Office Management,
Hospital Management, Hotel Reception and Supervision, e-Banking, French and
International Studies, e-Learning, Criminology and Security Studies. These show
that NOUN would always be proactive and relevant with the dynamics of Nigerian
society and producing human resources appropriate for different sectors in
Nigeria.
The institution also, has the least incidence of examination malpractice in the
country because of the adoption e-exams system which Joint Admission and
Matriculation Board just started using to conduct her examination because of
examination malpractice challenges.
5. Local and International Partnership
The collaboration of NOUN with both local and international organizations has
yielded a lot of benefits for the university and the Nigerian population at large.
These benefits include the implementation of ODL in Nigeria, development of new
courses, training teachers and managers, programme evaluation and quality
assurance, sharing of experience on common policy issues. The University signed
memoranda of understanding with some foreign universities on human capacity
building for academic and non- academic staff. Some of these are; Institute of
Chartered Accountant of Nigeria (ICAN), Anglo-Nigerian Welfare Association for
the Blind (ANWAB), United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO), United Kingdom Open University (UKOU), University of
Huddersfield, University of South Africa (UNISA), Indra Ghandi National Open
University (IGNOU), Open University of Hong Kong, Asian Association of Open
12
University, African Council on Distance Education ACDE, Commonwealth of
Learning (COL), Chinese Cultural Exchange Centre among others.
Success Stories of some selected key players of ODL in the world
In the areas of teaching and learning, Korea National Open University (KNOU) has
developed various forms of electronic content, Open University of Malaysia (OUM)
is credited with ICT innovations to deliver a blended pedagogy while Open
University UK (OU) has developed programme and infrastructure to accommodate
people with disabilities. Indra Ghandi National Open University (IGNOU) serves the
educational aspirations of over 3 million students in India and other countries.
National Open University of Nigeria has graduated over eleven thousand, four
hundred and ninety-six thousand as January 2014(NOUN ICT Unit).
Shortcoming of the Institution
The following are the challenges faced by ODL (NOUN) in Nigeria:
Low level Funding is affecting the growth of the university, inadequate ICT
infrastructure, Staff capacity most especially academic staff and low level of public
awareness of the universities programmes.
Findings
From the analysis of the operations of key players in comparison with that of
NOUN, it was discovered that NOUN has recorded impressive results so far given
that it is still new in the business compared to other topnotch institution.
However, the result found out that the institution still needs to improve in the
areas of ICT infrastructure and human resources most especially academic staff.
Summary and Recommendations
This paper looked at the ODL system of education and how it has been able to
move the economy of Nigeria to a knowledge economy in order to achieve
sustainable development. The descriptive analysis approach was used, the
achievements of NOUN were highlighted and compared with other key players of
ODL in the world. The paper found out that NOUN has not only greatly provided
tertiary education for the hitherto denied candidates and workforce; it has also
provided education that is key in addressing the economic need of the nation.
From the findings, this paper recommends the following: - The proper funding of
NOUN to be able to cope with the ever increasing demand for higher education,
there should be more collaboration with other reputable ODL institutions in the
world as this would make it conform to international standard, and also more
courses that are work related and suitable for the economic development of the
country should taught.
13
Conclusion
The concept of ODL though not recent has evolved over time and because of the
success stories recorded all over the world it has come to stay. For any economy to
effectively educate its population especially those who are constrained in time or
space for example those already working and need improvement in the skills and
knowledge needed at work, the sure way to go is the ODL way. This is even more
so for the developing countries characterized by teeming population and lack of
skilled manpower. For these countries to step up to the growing trends and for
them to compete favourably in today’s service/information driven, technological
advanced world, the only option is for them to fully embrace the ODL system of
education.
References
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Effectiveness in Teacher Training. Paris: UNESCO.
Akintayo, M. O. (1989). Investment in University Education and the Problems of
Unsatisfied Demand. Journal of Andragogy and Development, 1(1) 88 – 95.
Horgan, B. (1998). Transforming higher education using information technology:
first steps. (On-Line). Available: http://microsoft.com/education/hed/vision.html.
Hanover Research (2011, February). Trends in Global Distance Learning. Accessed
August 15, 2013, from http://www.hanoverresearch.com/wpcontent/uploads/2011/12/Trends-in-Global-Distance-Learning-Membership.pdf
http://www.ignou.ac.in/ignou/aboutignou/profile/2
Tan Sri Anuwar (2013): Open and Distance Learning for Human Capital
Development: Lead paper presented Asia Forward 27th Annual Conference of
Asian Open of Universities
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McLuhan, M., and Powers, B. (1989). The Global Village: Transformations in world
life in the 21st century. Oxford University Press: New York.
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UNESCO (2002). Sudan Basic Education Sector Study. UNESCO: Paris
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14
IMPROVING THE PROFESSIONAL EFFICIENCY OF THE NIGERIA POLICE FORCE
THROUGH OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING: EVIDENCE FROM THE NATIONAL
OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
Adegoke Niyi, National Open University of Nigeria, Nigeria
ABSTRACT: During the past two decades, a debate rages as to the measures to
improve the professional efficiency of the Nigerian police. Media and scholarly
works have acknowledged that the Nigerian Police Force is corrupt,
unaccountable, non-observant of human rights, and consequently cannot provide
the needed protection to lives and properties of the citizenry. Although various
reasons have been ascribed in the past to the causes of their inefficiency, growing
attention has in recent times been focused on their exposure to education. This
paper therefore, examines the effect of open and distance learning on the
performance of the Nigerian police. It adopts a purposive and random sampling
approach, through a longitudinal approach, spanning six years - during and after
graduation – to measure these effects. Out of the 120 questionnaires
administered to police officers, 105 questionnaires were returned (87.5 percent).
Three hypotheses were tested in the study, and data were analysed using simple
percentages, and relationships established with the use of Chi-square analysis.
Findings revealed that there was remarkable improvement, overtime, in the
professional efficiency of the police officers who completed an open and distance
learning programme. The study recommends amongst others the need for the
Nigerian police authorities to put in place measures to train their officers using the
open and distance learning medium.
KEY WORDS: Open and Distance Learning, E-learning, Quality Assurance,
Information and Communication Technologies, Accessible Education, National
Open University of Nigeria.
INTRODUCTION
Recent AfroBarometer surveys continue to show that the police attract the highest
ratings of corruption across the 34 countries. On its part, Nigeria takes the lead
with the highest negative perception with 78 percent of people saying that “most”
or “all” of them are involved in corruption (Richmond and Alpin, 2013). Media and
scholarly efforts have pointed out that the Nigerian Police Force is corrupt,
unaccountable, non-observant of human rights, and consequently cannot provide
the needed protection to lives and properties of the citizenry.
Both the citizens and the international community have called for far reaching
measures to rescue the Nigerian police from ‘dancing on the brink’. In a report
published in July, 2003, Amnesty International raised an alarm on police brutality
and misconduct when they indicted Nigerian police for using ‘live ammunition and
15
tear gas against peaceful demonstrators’ (Amnesty International, 2003). Ogaga
Obaro recently pointed out that the ‘decades of police and official corruption and
continued failure to train police officers properly has led to a situation where
extrajudicial killing is an accepted form of dealing with people the police believe to
be criminals’ (Obaro, 2014:424). Although various far reaching reforms have been
carried out in the Nigeria Police Force till date, the Civil Society Panel on Police
Reform in Nigeria 2012 Final Report specifically identified the wide gap been
training and education of the police officers and their professional efficiency (Civil
Society Panel on Police Reform, 2012).
This study will examine the effect of open and distance learning on the
performance of the Nigerian police. Although the role of education in promoting
efficiency in an organisation remains incontrovertible, the choice of open and
distance learning is quite illuminating in the sense that it is believed to be a viable
means of supporting the attainment of academic, social and economic
development, providing instruction to students who, because of distance, time, or
financial constraints, do not have access to traditional learning opportunities or
specialised courses (Ambe-Uva, 2010).
Countries world over, but especially developing countries where resources are
scare and funding for higher education is dwindling, are increasingly relying on this
mode of education, to democratize access to learning. As Aderinoye and Ojokheta
(2004) have pointed out that, distance education in Nigeria and throughout the
continent of Africa is helping to democratise and spread knowledge even to those
living in remote, marginalised, and isolated communities. Inadequate access to
education hinders effective participation in national development, thereby
denying improvement in societal wellbeing. Such can be corrected by providing a
strong educational system, which responds to the dynamics of a nation (Ewuzie,
2012).
Open and distance learning also allows people to ‘work and learn’, at the same
time, itself the motto of the National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN). As the
only single mode open and distance learning university in Nigeria, NOUN has
embraced a ‘learner-centered’ approach to learning. This approach is a departure
from the conventional teaching and learning culture, in that it employs a wide
range of tools to effect learning outcomes. These tools recognize and are designed
to support self-learning, and enable remote distant delivery to an ever increasing
number of learners, despite physical distances (Ambe-Uva, 2007:8).
Open and distance learning is therefore facilitative of life-long learning. In the case
of the police who are expected to continuously keep up with changes in the
society, such as crime detection, surveillance and information gathering, human
16
rights issues amongst others, the imperative for open and distance learning cannot
be overemphasized. Equally important, the University’s geographic penetration
allows it to serve some of the remote regions in Nigeria. Since the Nigerian Police
Force is domiciled in every local government in Nigeria, the University reaches
police officers in such places, in which they would otherwise be deprived of
opportunities to learn. Moreover, NOUN’s educational programmes are designed
in such a way as to enable people to start applying what they have learned
immediately (Jegede, 2003).
Statement of the Problem
Extant studies have pointed out that the poor performance of Nigeria Police Force,
may not be unconnected to their level of education and training. In fact, as
pointed above, any attempt to reform the NPF without a fundamental change
towards their education and training would meet its Waterloo. Yet, the
conventional educational system suffers major setbacks when a swathe of police
officers is to be moved for training. What happens to their niches and posts where
they are stationed? Who takes over their functions of the protection of lives and
properties? These are certainly not rhetorical questions. However, open and
distance learning offers the opportunities for people to work and learn at the
same time. In this context, police officers would be in a position to work and learn
at the same time, there by achieving life-long learning and increasing their
performance skills. As surmised by Peter Okebukola, “Open education enhances
the provision of literacy, numeracy, technical and vocation skills in a flexible,
largely‐free and learner friendly manner. It is not difficult, therefore, to imagine
that the more workers that have basic skills obtained through open education”,
the higher will their performance (Okebukola, 2013). Reiterating further, he noted
that the “knowledge and skills to be a good farmer or engineer; attitudes and
values such as honesty, objectivity, perseverance and being a good team player
which are necessary for the workplace are taught in schools. On exiting school at
the basic or higher education level or as an open education student, the learner is
better prepared to contribute meaningfully to the economy” (Okebukola, 2013).
Therefore, this study is set in the context of assessing the effects of National Open
University of Nigeria on the professional efficiency of the Nigerian police officers.
It will provide answers to the following questions: Does the professional efficiency
of the police officers attending NOUN increase overtime? What are the challenges
police officers encounters in accessing education at NOUN?
The hypotheses that are considered in the study are threefold:
H0: There is no significant effect on the relationship between police officers who
are studying or have studied in NOUN and their intra-personal relation
17
H0: There is no significant effect on the relationship between police officers who
are studying or have studied in NOUN and their professional skills
H0: There is no significant effect on police officers relationship with the public and
their study at NOUN
The State of the Art
In this review, this study attempts to link the theoretical and philosophical
underpinnings of open and distance education with life-long learning, and how this
leads to skills acquisition and professional efficiency of the police.
Although ODL has been used in both the developed and the developing countries
to increase access to education, it is in the latter that it has become a practical
strategy to address the challenge of widening access thus increasing participation
in higher education. Pityana (2009:7) specifically pointed out that on the African
continent where resources are scarce and higher education provision is poor, ODL
has been accepted as a viable, cost effective means of expanding provision
without costly outlay in infrastructure. Olakunlehin and Ojo (2006) showed that
ODL “is a scheme that affords a nation the opportunity to effectively disseminate
educational benefits to all its citizens economically and more effectively, especially
those hitherto unreached or denied access on the basis of one social consideration
or the other”. On their part, Ambe-Uva and Adegbola (2009:5) contend that
through this system, even the low-income people who have no access to
education in formal universities can improve their qualification, which in turn
contributes towards increasing the literacy rate, which in the long run can be
useful towards eradicating poverty.
Germane to the arguments above is the concept of life-long learning. According to
the European Lifelong Learning Initiative, lifelong learning is “…a continuously
supportive process which stimulates and empowers individuals to acquire all the
knowledge, values, skills and understanding they will require throughout their
lifetimes and to apply them with confidence, creativity and enjoyment, in all roles
circumstances, and environments.” (Watson 2003: 3). Four themes, according to
Delor (1996) are at the heart of life-long learning: (a) learning to know (b) learning
to know (c) learning to do and (d) learning to live together, and with others. It is
argued that lifelong learning can instill creativity, initiative and responsiveness in
people thereby enabling them adapt in the society through enhancing their skills.
The growing inefficiency of the Nigeria Police Force has recently been taken up at
a higher level, with the establishment since 2012, the Nigeria Police University, in
Wudil, Kano. This university is expected to prepare police officers to adequately
18
stand on their own academically and compete with their counterparts globally.
Although this decision is noble, the question of access continues to stare the police
squarely in the face. The University continues to discriminate based on age, and
cannot give police officers the opportunity to work and learn, as the philosophical
tenets of life-long learning dictates. In the final analysis, a university that is highly
accessible, affordable and of good quality, is required to improve the educational
status of Nigerian police officers. This is where the National Open University of
Nigeria has an indelible role to play.
The Nigeria Police Force
The Nigeria Police Force is regarded as a colonial contraption in many ways: first
through colonialism and domination, and second, through neo-colonialism and
diffusion. The origins of the NPF, as known today dates back to 1861, following the
British annexation of Lagos (Tamuno, 1978). Consequently, the Consul Guard in
Lagos was established by the Police Act of 1861 to help maintain law and order,
which was renamed in 1863, as Hausa Guard. Thus, the Hausa Guard came to be
known as Hausa Constabulary, which though mainly military in character,
performed some police (civil) duties. An Inspector-General of Police commanded
this Force recruited mainly from Hausas, known as the "Hausa Constabulary".
In 1888, the North of the Niger, the Royal Niger Company set up a constabulary in
Lokoja. Six years after, a Niger Coast Constabulary was formed in 1894 in Calabar.
In 1896, the Lagos police was established. After the annexation of the Northern
and Southern protectorates, both the Royal Niger Company Constabulary and
Niger Coast Constabulary merged with the North and Southern Nigeria police
respectively. In 1930, the Northern and Southern police were merged to form
Nigeria Police Force with Lagos as the headquarters while the Nigeria Police Act
was enacted in 1943 by the British colonial government.
Before the Northern and Southern protectorate were merged in 1930, however,
there were traditional police, such as dogari from the Northern emirate, and Ilari,
Emese and Agunren in the Yoruba kingdom. The colonial administration allowed
the creation of Native Authority (NA) police in the North and West as a product of
the developing influence of the indirect rule. In the east, the British extended its
existing fostered police forces over the territory because the Igbo have a
decentralized traditional community system.
After 1930, the organizational structure and the nomenclature of the police rank
changed in response to the circumstances of colonial administration. Following the
MacPherson Constitution of 1951 and Littleton Constitution of 1954 by which
Nigeria developed into a federation, the Nigeria Police was reformed to conform
19
to the political order. A contingent of the police under a Commissioner of Police
was established for each of the regions.
The 1960 Constitution established the Nigeria Police force as a federal force
charged with the responsibility of maintaining law and order throughout Nigeria.
However, the Constitution did not prevent the regions from establishing their own
local police forces. Hence the North retained the Native Authority Police and the
West, the Local Government Authority Police.
The dual system of policing involving multiplicity of local forces and a national
police forced continued until 1966.
In 1966, Major General J.T.U Aguyi-Ironsi emerged as the Head of the Military
Government. He established a working party to examine among other issues, the
unification of the police force. The recommendation of the working party was
accepted which led to current Nigeria Police Force.
Section 4 of the Police Act summarised the functions of the Nigerian Police Force
as follows:
1) Prevention and detection of crime
2) Apprehension of offenders
3) Preservation of law and order
4) Protection of life and property
5) Enforcement of all laws and regulations with which they are charged
6) Military duties within or without Nigeria as may be required of them
(CLEEN, 2009).
In order to discharge their numerous functions, police in Nigeria are accorded
wide powers by law. For example, Nigeria Police have such powers:
1) To take measures to prevent crime
2) To investigate crime
3) To prosecute suspects
4) To search properties and persons in order to prevent crimes, detect or
investigate crimes, apprehend offenders, and collect evidence for
prosecution
5) To grant bail to suspects pending investigation or arraignment in court
6) To serve summons
7) To regulate processions and assemblies (CLEEN, 2009).
Despite the far reaching powers given to the Nigerian police, it is recently
embroiled in a crisis of legitimacy. A lot of scholars argued that this is not
surprising since the Nigerian police in the first instance, was established, organised
20
and maintained by colonial and post-colonial governments largely for the
protection of the interests of political and economic power-holders. Both Alemika
(2003: 26-29) and Ibidapo-Obe (2003: iii) have argued that this background may
explain why policing in the country had been characterised by a culture of
impunity, corruption, incivility, brutality and lack of accountability. Obaro (2014)
argued that the Nigerian police are currently bedeviled with three monster-hydra
challenges: performance, integrity and legitimacy, which have constrained their
performance, made them ineffective and inefficient in their job of crime
prevention, criminal investigation, and response to distress calls by citizens.
The resultant effect of these constraints is that the Nigerian police cannot
guarantee the security of citizens and as a result of this failure, cannot command
the respect of the public. Massive corruption and widespread brutality, in addition
to a culture of impunity has continued to hang on the neck of the Nigerian police,
like an albatross.
As a consequence of the two challenges of performance and integrity, the Nigeria
police is confronted with legitimacy crisis. The legitimacy of the police depends on
several factors including the following: effectiveness and efficiency in the
prevention and control of crime; in the detection, apprehension and prosecution
of offenders; scrupulous observance of the rule of law; recognition and protection
of the dignity and right of citizens; accountability to the citizens; civility and
incorruptibility; and concern for the general welfare of citizens. When these
conditions are satisfied, the public accords the police legitimacy and support, and
their performance is enhanced. Obaro (2014) concludes that the Nigeria police
suffer deficit of public legitimation and support.
METHODOLOGY
Research design
The research approach adopts a longitudinal design whereby the influence of
professional performance was measured on a group of police students admitted
into the Bachelor of Science in Criminology and Security Studies programme at
three levels in a four years program and after their graduation. The survey method
was adopted to elicit information from this group of students.
Population
The population of the study consists of graduates of BSc. Criminology and Security
Studies at the National Open University of Nigeria. The Lagos Study Centre was
chosen because of its significantly higher number of students and access, whereas
students enrolled in the three sets 2004, 2006 and 2007 were selected.
21
Sampling
Purposive and systematic random sampling method was used. The records of the
graduated students, accessed from the Academic Registry and the Convocation
Booklet were used in the selection of the policemen in the sets.
Out of the police officers in the graduating list, 120 of them were randomly
selected from Lagos center in this distribution; 40 from 2004 set, 40 from 2006 set
and 40 from 2007 set. Out of the 120 respondents only 105 questionnaires were
returned.
Data collection Procedure
Primary data were the main source of information for the study. However, a
triangulation included other approaches such as library research for secondary
data. The interview schedule and the questionnaire thus served as instruments for
primary data for the study. A set of questionnaire was applied to the same set of
correspondents at two different period of time, that is, correspondent when they
were students and after graduation.
Data analysis
The collected data were statistically analysed. Both descriptive and inferential
statistics were used. The method of presenting data was based on frequency
counts, which were eventually calculated in simple percentages and presented in
tables. To draw inferences and establish relationships between variables, the Chisquare statistical test was adopted. Thematically, discussion on topical and
hypothetical issues was adopted to provide for qualitative analysis of the critical
issues.
Hypothesis 1: H0: There is no significant effect on the relationship between police
officers who are studying or have studied in NOUN and their interpersonal relation
Table 1: Intrapersonal relationship before being a student of ODL programme?
Respondents
2004 set
2006 set
2007 set
Total
Very
positive
8
5
7
20
Positive
15
13
12
40
Very
negative
6
6
8
20
Negative
Undecided
Total
6
5
5
16
3
4
2
9
38
33
34
105
From the above table, the chi-square X2 calculated value for hypothesis 1 is as
follows:
Chi-square X2 = 2e
22
Where o = Observed frequency
e = Expected frequency
Expected value is calculated by multiplying the row total by column total for each
response and then dividing by the total number of respondents.
Chi-square X2 = 2e
The table of Chi-square is calculated by the formula:
X2 = (ad-bc)2(a+b+c+d)
(a+b) (c+d) (b+d) (a+c)
Table 2: Intrapersonal relationship before being a student of ODL programme?
Respondents
2004 set
2006 set
2007 set
Total
Observed
(o)
8
15
6
6
3
5
13
6
5
4
7
12
8
5
2
105
Expected
(e)
7.2
14.5
7.2
5.8
3.3
6.3
12.6
6.3
5.0
2.8
6.5
12.9
6.5
5.2
2.9
105
(o-e)
(o-e)2
0.8
0.5
-1.2
0.2
-0.3
-1.3
0.4
-0.3
0
1.2
0.5
-0.9
1.5
-0.2
-0.9
0.64
0.25
1.44
0.04
0.09
1.69
0.16
0.09
0
1.44
0.25
0.81
2.25
0.04
0.91
(o-e)2
E
0.889
0.017
0.2
0.007
0.027
0.268
0.013
0.567
0
0.514
0.038
0.063
0.346
0.008
0.314
3.271
Chi-square (X2) calculated value = 3.271
To compare calculated value with table value, Degree of Freedom (DF) is
ascertained thus:
Degree of freedom (df)
= (c-r) (r-1)
= (3-1) (5-1)
23
= 2
4
Calculated degree of freedom (df) = 8
Where x
Value of x2
X2 c (calculated value)
X2 t (table value)
= 0.05 (level of significance)
= Tabulated (8,0.05)
= 15.507
= 3.271
= 15.507
= 3.271 < 15.507
The general acceptable decision rule for the application of the Chi-square test
states that “accept the null hypothesis if the calculated value is less than the table
value and reject null hypothesis if the calculated value is greater than the table
value.” In this study, since the calculated value of X2 is 3.271 and the table value is
15.507, the hypothesis 1 which states that there is no significant effect on the
relationship between police officers who are studying in NOUN and their
interpersonal relation is hereby rejected.
Table 3: Intrapersonal relationship after graduation
Respondents
2004 set
2006 set
2007 set
Total
Very
positive
12
11
9
32
Positive
13
14
10
37
Very
negative
7
5
8
20
Negative
Undecided
Total
5
5
4
14
1
1
0
2
38
36
31
105
follows:
Chi-square X2 = 2e
Chi-square X2 = 2e
24
(a+b) (c+d) (b+d) (a+c)
Table 4: Intrapersonal relationship after graduation
Respondents
2004 set
2006 set
2007 set
Total
Observed
(o)
12
13
7
5
1
11
14
5
5
1
9
10
8
4
0
105
Expected
(e)
11.4
13.2
7.1
5.6
0.7
10.9
12.7
6.9
4.8
0.7
9.5
10.9
5.9
4.1
0.6
105
(o-e)
(o-e)2
0.6
-0.2
-0.1
-0.6
0.3
0.1
1.3
-1.9
0.2
0.3
-0.5
-0.9
2.1
-0.1
-0.6
0.36
0.04
0.01
0.36
0.09
0.01
1.69
3.61
0.04
0.09
0.25
0.81
4.41
0.01
0.36
(o-e)2
E
0.0315
0.0030
0.0014
0.0643
0.1286
0.0009
0.0133
0.5232
0.0083
0.1285
0.0263
0.0074
0.7474
0.0024
0.6
2.287
ascertained thus:
= (c-r) (r-1)
= (3-1) (5-1)
= 2
4
Where x
Value of x2
X2 t (table value)
= Tabulated (8, 0.05)
= 15.507
= 2.287
= 15.507
= 2.287 < 15.507
25
value.” In this study, since the calculated value of X2 is 2.287 and the table value is
15.507, the hypothesis 1 which states that ODL has significant on the
interpersonal relation of police officers after graduation is hereby accepted.
Hypothesis 2: H0: There is no significant effect on the relationship between police
officers who are studying or have studied in NOUN and their professional skills
Table 5: Skill level on your job before your ODL studentship?
Respondents
2004 set
2006 set
2007 set
Total
Very
positive
9
12
9
30
Positive
14
9
9
32
Very
negative
10
5
5
20
Negative
Undecided
Total
4
6
8
18
1
3
1
5
38
35
32
105
follows:
Chi-square X2 = 2e
Chi-square X2 = 2e
(a+b) (c+d) (b+d) (a+c)
Table 6: Skill level on your job before your ODL studentship?
Respondents
2004 set
Observed
(o)
9
Expected
(e)
10.9
26
(o-e)
(o-e)2
-1.9
3.61
(o-e)2
E
0.3312
2006 set
2007 set
Total
14
10
4
1
12
9
5
6
3
9
9
5
8
1
105
11.6
7.2
6.5
1.8
10
10.7
6.7
6
1.6
9.1
10
6
5.4
1.5
105
2.4
2.8
-2.5
-0.8
2
-1.7
-1.7
0
1.4
0.1
-1
1
2.6
-0.5
5.76
7.84
6.25
0.64
4
2.89
2.89
0
1.96
0.01
1
1
6.76
0.25
0.4966
1.0889
0.9615
0.3556
0.4
0.2700
0.4313
0
1.2250
0.0011
0.1
0.1667
1.2518
0.1667
7.2464
ascertained thus:
= (c-r) (r-1)
= (3-1) (5-1)
= 2
4
Where x
Value of x2
X2 c(calculated value)
X2 t (table value)
= 15.507
= 7.2464
= 15.507
= 7.2464< 15.507
value.” In this study, since the calculated value of X2 is 7.2464 and the table value
is 15.507, the hypothesis 2 which states that there is no significant effect of Open
and distance learning education on Nigerian Police professional skill is rejected.
27
Table 7: Skill level on after graduation?
Respondents
2004 set
2006 set
2007 set
Total
Very
positive
15
10
11
36
Positive
14
10
9
33
Very
negative
7
5
5
17
Negative
Undecided
Total
4
6
5
15
1
2
1
4
41
33
31
105
follows:
Chi-square X2 = 2e
Chi-square X2 = 2e
(a+b) (c+d) (b+d) (a+c)
Table 8: Skill level on after graduation?
Respondents
2004 set
2006 set
Observed
(o)
15
14
7
4
1
10
10
5
6
2
Expected
(e)
14.0
12.9
6.6
5.9
1.6
11.3
10.4
5.3
4.7
1.3
28
(o-e)
(o-e)2
1
1.1
2.8
-1.9
-0.6
-1.3
-0.4
-0.3
1.3
0.7
1
1.21
7.84
3.61
0.36
1.69
0.16
0.09
1.69
0.49
(o-e)2
E
0.0714
0.4966
0.0937
0.6118
0.226
0.1495
0.0154
0.0169
0.3596
0.3769
2007 set
Total
11
9
5
5
1
105
10.6
9.7
5.0
4.5
1.2
105
0.4
-0.7
0
0.5
-0.2
0.16
0.49
0
0.25
0.04
0.0151
0.0505
0
0.0556
0.0333
2.6641
ascertained thus:
= (c-r) (r-1)
= (3-1) (5-1)
= 2
4
Where x
Value of x2
X2 t (table value)
= 15.507
= 2.6641
= 15.507
= 2.6641< 15.507
is 15.507, the hypothesis 3 which states that ODL affects the skills of members of
the Nigerian Police force who pass through them is accepted.
Hypothesis 3: H0: There is no significant effect on police officers relationship with
the public and their study at NOUN
Table 9: Relationship with the General Public before your Studentship in Noun
Respondents
2004 set
2006 set
2007 set
Total
Very
positive
5
3
8
16
Positive
4
5
9
18
Very
negative
7
10
10
27
29
Negative
Undecided
Total
13
13
12
38
1
3
2
6
30
34
41
105
follows:
Chi-square X2 = 2e
Chi-square X2 = 2e
(a+b) (c+d) (b+d) (a+c)
Table 10: Relationship with the General Public before your Studentship in Noun
Respondents
2004 set
2006 set
2007 set
Total
Observed
(o)
5
4
7
13
1
3
5
10
13
3
8
9
10
12
3
105
Expected
(e)
4.6
5.1
7.7
10.9
1.7
5.2
5.8
8.8
12.3
1.9
6.3
7.1
10.5
14.8
2.3
105
30
(o-e)
(o-e)2
0.4
-1.1
-0.7
2.1
-0.7
-2.2
-0.8
1.2
0.7
1.1
1.7
1.9
-0.5
-2.8
0.7
0.16
1.21
0.49
4.41
0.49
4.84
0.64
1.44
0.49
1.21
2.89
3.61
0.25
7.84
0.49
(o-e)2
E
0.0348
0.2373
0.0636
0.4046
0.2882
0.9308
0.1103
0.1636
0.0398
0.6368
0.4587
0.5085
0.0238
0.5297
0.2130
4.5885
ascertained thus:
= (c-r) (r-1)
= (3-1) (5-1)
= 2
4
Where x
Value of x2
X2 t (table value)
= 15.507
= 4.5885
= 15.507
= 4.5885< 15.507
Table 11: Relationship with the General Public after graduation Noun
Respondents
2004 set
2006 set
2007 set
Total
Very
positive
14
10
10
34
Positive
8
10
12
30
Very
negative
6
8
6
20
Negative
Undecided
Total
6
6
6
18
0
3
0
3
34
37
34
105
follows:
Chi-square X2 = 2e
31
Chi-square X2 = 2e
(a+b) (c+d) (b+d) (a+c)
Table 12: Relationship with the General Public after graduation Noun
Respondents
2004 set
2006 set
2007 set
Total
Observed
(o)
14
8
6
6
0
10
10
8
6
3
10
12
6
6
0
105
Expected
(e)
11.0
9.7
6.5
5.8
1.0
11.9
10.6
7.1
6.4
1.1
11.0
9.7
6.5
5.8
1.0
105
(o-e)
(o-e)2
3
-1.7
-0.5
0.2
-1
-1.9
0.6
0.9
-0.4
1.9
3
-1.7
-0.5
0.2
-1
9
2.89
0.25
0.04
1
3.61
0.36
0.81
0.16
3.61
9
2.89
0.25
0.04
1
(o-e)2
E
0.8181
0.2979
0.0385
0.0068
1
0.3033
0.1295
0.1140
0.025
3.2818
0.8181
0.2979
0.0385
0.0068
1
8.1762
ascertained thus:
= (c-r) (r-1)
= (3-1) (5-1)
= 2
4
Where x
32
Value of x2
X2 t (table value)
= 8.1762
= 15.507
= 8.1762< 15.507
= 15.507
Discussions of the Findings
From the findings of this study, Table 1 shows that Open Distance Learning (ODL)
has influenced the intrapersonal relation of police officers who have studied at the
National Open University of Nigeria. This assessment was achieved by putting into
test such a Questions that are in tandem with the hypothesis like: how was your
intrapersonal relationship before being a student of ODL programme? What
impact does ODL programme have on your intrapersonal relationship in the police
after graduation?
Table 2 shows that Open Distance Learning (ODL) has a strong effect on
professional skills development and efficiency of police officers who have
completed a programme at the National Open University of Nigeria. The findings
which show a high correlation between skills acquisition and completion of a open
and distance learning programme are in agreement with Okebukola (2013), who
emphasised that “Open education enhances the provision of literacy, numeracy,
technical and vocation skills in a flexible, largely‐free and learner friendly manner.
It is not difficult, therefore, to imagine that the more workers that have basic skills
obtained through open education.” Therefore, ODL has proven the fact that it has
the capabilities of not only giving qualitative education to those who pass through
it but also to build their capacity to perform highly at their choosing endeaviours.
Table 3 shows that ODL affects the skills of police officers who have enrolled at
NOUN. To test this hypothesis, this study sought to measure the changes from
police officers on their relationship between the general public before and after
their studentship in NOUN. It is hypothesized that ODL would have remarkable
sharpened their skills during the course of their study. Findings do indicate that
these police officers have indeed forged a better relationship, and do interact
better with general public. This is therefore a solution to what scholars such as
Afonja (2008), have posited when he remarked that there have been an awful
relationship between the police and the general public overtime and this was
33
based on the fact of “ignorance of each other’s problems, limitations and civil
responsibilities within the community to which they belong”. Hence, open
distance education remains a spring board by which skills are sharpened for better
use and to the advantage of all.
Recommendations
From the above findings, the following recommendations are put forward:
1. Police authorities should recognize and encourage ODL programmes among
the members of their staff.
2. Officers of Nigerian Police Force should be encouraged to upgrade their
educational status through programme which offers opportunities to work
and learn.
3. Government should encourage the police authority to make use of ODL
programmes especially, Criminology and Security Studies, Peace Studies and
Conflict Resolution, Law and Information and Communication Technology to
improve police-community relationship.
4. Scholarship and other monetary incentives should be made available to
encourage police officers who are studying through ODL.
5. There is also need for a mass public enlightenment to encourage workers to
enjoy enormous opportunities of ODL.
REFERENCES
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Aderinoye, R and Ojokheta, K (2004) Open Distance Education as a Mechanism for
Sustainable Development: Reflections on the Nigerian Experience. International
Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 5(1):1-12.
Alemika, E. E. O. (2003) “Police and Policing in Nigeria: Mandate, Crisis and
Challenges”, in V. T. Jike, ed., The Nigeria Police and the Crisis of Law and Order, A
Book of Readings, Lagos: NISS Publications, pp. 19-32.
Ambe-Uva, T. N (2010) Combating HIV/AIDS Epidemic in Nigeria: Responses from
National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN). International Review of Research in
Open and Distance Learning 8 (3): 1-21.
Ambe-Uva, T. N and Adegbola, E (2009) “Open Flexible Learning as a Strategy for
Enhancing Human Security in Nigeria International Journal of Education and
Development using Information and Communication Technology (IJEDICT), 5
(3):1-9.
Ambe-Uva, T. N (2007) Open and Distance Education: A Contribution to Poverty
Alleviation and Empowerment of Women? Presented at the 5 th PanCommonwealth Forum in Kochi, India.
Amnesty International (2003) Nigeria: Police use lethal force against protests. 16
July 2003.
Civil Society Panel on Police Reform (2012) Civil Society Panel on Police Reform in
Nigeria. Final Report, September 2012.
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CLEEN (2009) Review of the Nigerian Police Act, 1943: Legal Diagnosis and Draft
Bill. Lagos: CLEEN Foundation.
Delors, J. (1996) Learning: The treasure within Report to UNESCO of the
International Commission on Education for the Twenty-first Century, UNESCO.
Ibidapo-Obe, O. (2003) “Forward” in V. T. Jike (ed) The Nigeria Police and the
Crisis of Law and Order. A Book of Readings, Lagos: NISS
Jegede, O. J. (2003). Taking the Distance Out of Higher Education in 21 st Century
Nigeria. An Invited Convocation Lecture Presented at the Federal Polytechnic Oko,
Anambra State, on the November 28.
Obaro, O. A (2014) The Nigeria Police Force and the Crisis of Legitimacy: Redefining the Structure and Function of the Nigeria Police. European Scientific
Journal 10 (8): 421-436.
Okebukola, P (2013): open education and the march to 2020: can Nigeria make
it? Paper presented at the pre-convocation lecture, National Open University of
Nigeria (NOUN), on January 18,2013.
Olakulehin, F. K and Ojo, O. D. (2006) “Distance Education as a Women
Empowerment Strategy in Africa”. Indian Journal of Open Learning, l5 (3):271-280.
Pityana, N. B (2009) Open Distance Learning in the Developing World: Trends,
Progress and Challenges. Keynote Speech delivered on the occasion of the M–
2009 23rd ICDE World Conference on Open Learning and Distance Education.
“Flexible Education for All: Open-Global-Innovative” 7 -10 June 2009, Maastricht,
the Netherlands.
Richmond, S and Alpin, C (2013) Governments Falter in Fight to Curb Corruption:
The people give most a failing grade. Afrobarometer 13 November, 2013
Tamuno, T.N. (1978) The Police in Modern Nigeria (1861-1965): Origins,
Development and the Role, Ibadan: University Press.
Watson, L. (2003) Lifelong Learning in Australia, Canberra, Department of
Education, Science and Training
HARNESSING WEB 2.0 FOR LEANER SUPPORT IN NIGERIA: A CASE STUDY OF
LAGOS STUDY CENTRE OF THE NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
(NOUN)
Adewale Olubiyi Adeniyi, National Open University of Nigeria, Nigeria
ABSTRACT: Web 2.0 tools are now common among Nigerians and hitherto limited
to social networking. However, they hold great promises for academic and learner
support activities, which can be tapped by higher institutions. Its educational
relevance notwithstanding, the social web is novel in Nigeria as many higher
institutions are yet to adopt it. This author initially used it to solve learner support
challenges at the Lagos Study Centre of NOUN. This paper, reports the use of Web
2.0 tool as a learner support tool at the center, with a view to determining its
35
advantages to the students and the students’ perception on its continuous use.
Using the survey method and a descriptive analysis, the study shows that the use
of the tool is acceptable accessible to the users. Users claim to have received
prompt support at their various locations through the use of the tool. The paper
thus recommends the use of Web 2.0 to deliver academic and learner support
activities in Nigeria.
KEY WORDS: Web 2.0; Learners’ Support.
INTRODUCTION
The Lagos Study Center of the National Open University of Nigeria, with 42,000
students, is undoubtedly the most populated study center of the university. The
major problem facing the study center had been the dissemination of necessary
information to the students promptly and accurately. At the beginning, the
students had no choice but to visit the center office regularly to read the notices
or rely on second hand information from their colleagues which usually results in
misinformation. This situation that led to the decision to use the Facebook, a Web
2.0 tool, as a means of disseminating information thereby providing learning
support services through the medium.
Some felt it would not be successful because of the assumption that most of the
students are not computer savvy and even if they are, they may not have access to
the internet that would make them have up-to-date information through the
medium. All arguments against the move notwithstanding, the Lagos Study Center
Information Center was established as an open group on Facebook by the Study
Center Director. The main aim of this paper is to measure the effectiveness of the
Lagos Study Center Information Center, a Web 2.0 tool in the provision of learning
support services and also determine if the students would support the use of the
Web 2.0 tools for academic purposes.
Statement of the Problem
The concept of open education is to make students receive qualitative education
despite the distance between the learners and educational institutions. In Nigeria
however, the bridging of this distance has been a herculean task. Whether in
NOUN or other dual mode tertiary institutions in Nigeria, students had to carry the
burden of moving back and forth the study centers in order to get information and
necessary support for their learning. The researcher believes that using Web 2.0
tools would effectively bridge any communication gap and resolve problem
associated with learner support services.
Research Objective
The objective of this research is to determine:
36


The extent to which the use of Web 2.0 tools have bridged the
communication gap between the students of Lagos Study Center, thereby
fulfilling learners’ support role.
If students would be willing to undertake their learning activities using
the Web 2.0 tools.
Research Questions
In order to achieve the above listed objectives, two research questions were
formulated and they are:
1. Did the use of Web 2.0 tools perform learners’ support functions for the
students of Lagos Study Center?
2. Are the students convinced that they can use Web 2.0 tools can be used
for teaching and learning purposes?
Significance of the Study
In Nigeria, as of today, there is no known university that is officially using the Web
2.0 tools either for teaching and learning or learner support activities. This
research would be able to show that the students are at home with the use of
Web 2.0 tools and also have alternative means accessing the internet. Apart from
this, most of the students themselves feel that they will not miss out if Web 2.0 is
used for both teaching and learning and learner support activities. The research
would thus help the National Open University of Nigeria to forge a policy on the
use of Web 2.0 for teaching and learning and learner support. This may also lead
to the point that the country would also formulate policy to favor the use of Web
2.0 tools.
What is Web 2.0?
The term Web 2.0 was first coined by O’Reilly (2005) and he used it to refer to “the
modern generation of interactive web-based services which allow users to create
content themselves and are referred to variously as the social web, user generated
web, read-write web, interactive web” among others (Strawbridge, 2010).
Anderson (2007) describes the Web 2.0 as a web system that breaks off from the
centralized web concept and moved the power of the web to the individual’s
system. Silva et al. (2008) say that Web 2.0 is user-oriented, service-based, open,
bilateral, writable, social and dynamic.
The coming of Web 2.0 has redefined the social and communication landscape in
the world. Describing the landmark change, Kuswara. Cram and Richards (2008)
say that “these tools have enabled the extension of social interactions and
relationships well beyond the physical boundaries (e.g facebook, Friendster),
37
connecting people with the same interests (e.g. linked-in), creating virtual
communities (e.g. myspace) that share each other’s thought and contributing
artefacts such as text (e.g. Wikipedia) pictures (e.g. flickr, picasa), audio (e.g
voicethread), video (e.g. youtube, howcast), browsing history (e.g. del.icio.us,
stumbleupon), and annotated web pages (e.g diigo), at a scale that has not been
possible before.
Web 2.0 and Higher Education
The huge potentials that Web 2.0 holds opened up a lot of changes in the teaching
and learning realm. This is what Kuswara, Cram and Richards (2008) describe when
they say that “in the educational realm, Web 2.0 is particularly attractive for the
support it can potentially provide for collaborative learning” (p. 70). Quoting the
US Department of Education on the changes Web 2.0 brought to education; Lee,
Williams and Kim (2012) say that:
technologies representing Web 2.0, social media, and mobile ubiquity make the
nature of teaching and learning change. On account of the features of these
technologies, especially Web 2.0, such as engaging, participating, connecting,
collaborating, and sharing, learners in all ages have diverse ways to access to
information and resources all the time, create multimedia educational content
with participation and collaboration, and share it with other learners from all over
the world.
It has to be noted that the advanced nations and many other developing nations
have tapped into these possibilities and are actually using Web 2.0 both for
learning and learning support activities. However, Nigeria and some other
developing nations have not tapped into this huge potential.
Learners’ Support Services
Ogidan (2013) defines learners’ support services as “the means through which
individuals are enabled to make use of institutional provisions” (p. 15). It is further
described as non-instructional activities that are provided by ODL institutions to
support learner education. These include catalogues, schedules, admissions,
assessment and placement, registration, financial aid, scholarships, billing, degree
requirements, grades, transcripts, students’ club, counselling, faculty office hours,
tutoring, laboratories and library resources.Quoting Bailey (1987), Ogidan (2013)
further defined learner support as “a range of processes that are aimed at helping
individuals become more self-reliant and more able to manage their own personal,
educational, and vocational development” (p. 16).
Research Design
Since the study is designed to determine the learners’ perception on the use of
Web 2.0 tools for the purpose of learners’ support, the survey methodology,
38
(specifically, the cross-sectional survey) that collects information from a sample
drawn from a population at one point in time is used. The cross-sectional survey is
particularly suitable because this study is designed to present the perceptions of
the target population as at the time the instrument is administered.
Sample
As at March 2014, the total student population of Lagos Study Center stands at
42,000. For time effectiveness and financial purposes, the researcher decides to
use 1000 of the total population for the research. The stratified random sampling
is used because the population reflects a division into five schools. As such, each of
the schools has 200 questionnaires allocated to it.
Instrument
A questionnaire having two sections is the only instrument used for this research
and it is designed to address the two research questions that have been identified
for the research. The first section focuses on the personal and background
information of the learners while the second section deals with the current
research. It contains 13 5-point Likert items designed to harvest data on the users’
evaluation on the use of Web 2.0 in the Lagos Study Center as a tool to handle
learners’ support. The 5-point Likert scale is scheduled as follows: 5-Strongly
Agree; 4-Agree; 3-Moderately Agree; 2-Disagree and 1-Strongly Disagree.
Validity and Reliability of the Instrument
For the purpose of validity and reliability, the instrument was administered to 20
students of the Lagos Study Center, who will no longer participate in the research.
The data collected during pilot study were analyzed in order to determine the
instrument’s reliability. Content validity was also established through the use of
Cronbach’s alpha method. The reliability of the questionnaire was carried out
through a pilot-test using the Cronbach Alpha. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient
obtained from the instrument is 0.880 which implies that the instrument is
reliable. For example, Phillips (2007), quoting Nunnally (1978) opines that 0.7 is an
acceptable reliability coefficient, therefore having .880 could be considered very
strong.
Data Collection
Copies of the questionnaire were administered through the class representatives
of the programmes in the various schools during the March – May 2014
examinations. Because the students were readily available, and because the
questionnaire was administered personally, the researcher was able to obtain
100% returns on the data instrument.
39
Data Analysis
Data analysis was carried out using Statistical Packages for Social Science (SPSS).
Descriptive statistics of frequency count and percentage were used to analyze the
data collected for the purpose this study. The following are the results of the
analysis
Demographic Characteristics of Respondents
Four demographical characteristics, namely, gender, age, academic qualification
and employment status were highlighted in the demography.
Gender
A breakdown of the data shows that 40% of the respondents were male while the
remaining 60% were female. This implies that there are more female respondents
than male. This shows that NOUN has more female students than male. This is an
important development. Though it is out of the focus of this paper, it can however
lead to further research on the Girl-Child educational campaign in Nigeria or the
role of the Open and Distance learning system in improving the Girl-Child
academic status.
Age
On age distribution, 50 (5%) of the respondents were within the age range of 1620 years; 400 (40%) were within the age range of 21-30 years while 252 (25.2%)
were within the age range of 31-40 years, 198 (19.8%) were in the range of 41-50
years and 100 (10%) were in the age range of 51 years and above. This result
shows that almost half of the respondents are in the age range 21- 30 years and
thus implies that nearly half of the respondents were still in their youthful age.
This has two implications for the use of Web 2.0 for learners’ support. One, since
450 of the respondents, representing 45% of the population are in their youthful
age, they actually belong to the digital native divide, and thus can be expected to
have the ability to effectively use Web 2.0 tools. Two, those who belong to the
older age range of 41 to above 51 also have access to the Web 2.0 tools. This
implies that those that management usually wants to protect by not going digital,
for the fear of not excluding them, are not so much of digital illiterates. From this,
it can be implied that using Web 2.0 tool for learners’ support would not exclude
any age range.
Academic Qualification
As regards highest academic qualifications, 350(35%) of the respondents were
HND/B Sc. Holders; 250(25%) had O’ Level while 400(40%) had PGDE. The
implication of the result is that nearly half of the respondents had PGDE. This
means that most of the respondents were second degree holders. This also means
40
that many people are making use of the opportunity of the open and distance
learning programmes to improve their academic and professional knowledge. It
also implies that most of the students of the university are of good academic
standing and are likely to be used to Web 2.0 tools.
Employment Status
The survey also showed that 30% of the respondents were unemployed, 24.8%
were self-employed while 45.2% of the respondents were employed by others as
shown in Figure 4 below. With an employment rate of 70%, it can be implied that
most students would have the financial means to keep themselves connected to
the internet thus creating access to Web 2.0 tools. On the alternative, they can use
their office internet connectivity.
Research Question 1: Did the use of Web 2.0 tools perform learners’ support
functions for the students of Lagos Study Center?
To determine the answer to this research question, we need to ascertain firstly, if
the students use the Lagos Study Center Information forum. All the respondents
are aware of the existence of the Facebook Group and they are all members. This
implies that most of the students of Lagos Study Centre are members of the
Facebook Group. It is important to note however that 200 respondents,
representing 20% of the total sample indicates that there are some students of the
Centre that does not belong to the Facebook Group.
From the data, 44.8% indicated that they visit/check the information study center
daily; 40.2% visit it every other day and 10% visit it fortnightly while only 5%
indicated others. This means that most of the respondents use the Lagos Study
Center Information Centre. At least, 86% can be said to get prompt and accurate
information from the information center.
On medium of accessibility, 20% of the respondents indicated through the mobile
phone, 30% indicated personal laptop/desktop computer and 25% through their
office computers while the remaining 5% indicates other ways. Also, 20% of the
respondents indicated that they access to information study center anytime time
of the day (24 hours), 35% indicated between 9am to 6pm while the remaining
45% access it between 6pm to 9am. These results are tabulated below in table 2
below.
P r e s e n ta t i o n of Re s u l t o n t he Re s e a r c h Q ue s t i o n s
R e s e a r c h Qu e s tio n 1 : Will the use of Web 2.0 tools perform learners support
function for the students of Lagos study center?
41
Respondents were asked if the use of Facebook Group perform learners’ support
function for the students of Lagos study center. They affirmed that information
obtained from the Lagos study Centre Information center are current and
disseminated quickly, questions posted by the students on the group are
answered, the Study Centre Director responds to issues raised through the center;
and it permits student to student interactivity on the forum and above all
academic guidance is given to the students through the Lagos study Centre
information Centre with (79.8%), (100%), (64.8%), (69.8%), (85.0%) and (65.0%)
respectively. Similarly, all of the respondents (100%) agreed that the educational
support given to students on the Lagos Study Centre Information Centre is
satisfactory.
Since analysis reveals that Lagos Study Centre Information Centre is used in
disseminating current information quickly and it allows peer-to-peer as well as
staff-to-students interaction when needed, it has given opportunity to the
students to enhance their learning through the sharing of ideas, experiences and
learning material among others thus giving added value and functionality to their
academic life. Therefore, based on this result it could be deduced that Web 2.0
tools perform learners’ support functions for the students.
Research Question 2: Can the use of Web 2.0 tools fulfill academic function among
the students of Lagos study center?
Respondents were asked if the use of Web 2.0 tools could fulfill academic function
among the students of Lagos Study Center. Respondents affirmed strongly that
examination timetable is always posted on the information center, the
Information Centre gives access to information anytime and anywhere in the
world and also with their experiences on the forum they would support the use of
Web 2.0 tools for learning purposes in National Open University of Nigeria with
94.8%, 79.8% and 95.0% respectively. And 15.2% of the respondents indicated that
the opening of the Lagos Study Centre Information Centre did not lead to the
opening of other Facebook groups while all of the respondents (100%) indicated
that facilitation timetable is always posted on the Information Centre which is very
important to their academic pursuits. The implication of this factor is that its helps
the students in fulfilling their academic pursuits.
Based on the results revealed, that is Lagos Study Centre Information Centre
provides examination timetable, facilitation timetable, its opening led to the
opening of other Facebook groups and that its gives access to information anytime
and anywhere in the world; and the respondents support of the use of Web 2.0
tools for learning purposes in NOUN based on their experiences on the forum.
42
Hence it could be deduced that the use of Web 2.0 tools could fulfill academic
function among the students of Lagos study center.
Recommendations
Firstly, with the success of the Lagos Study Centre Information Centre in fulfilling
learners support activities of the students, the National Open University of Nigeria
should adopt the policy of using Web 2.0 tools for learners support activities. In
doing this, one or more tools can be adopted by the University and used across all
the study centres in the country. Further research has also to be done in other
parts of the country, especially, the centres that are in the northern part of the
country to determine if the same results can be upheld.
Secondly, apart from planning to use Web 2.0 tools for learners support activities,
the plans should also undertake to teaching and learning activities with Web 2.0
tools.
Conclusion
As in other developed countries, Web 2.0 has succeeded in facilitating learners
support activities among the students. Accordingly, this would be a success if tried
out in a large scale in the country. All available resources should then be garnered
towards the implementation of Web 2.0 in the universities in the country that had
adopted open and distance learning mode.
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Anderson, P. (2007). What is Web 2.0? Ideas, technologies, and implications for
education. JISC Technology and Standards Watch. Retrieved from
http://www.jisc.ac.uk/media/documents/techwatch/tsw0701b.pdf.
Cram, A., Kuswara, A. & Richards, D. (2008). Web 2.0 supported collaborative
learning activities: Towards an affordance perspective In L. Cameron & J. Dalziel
(Eds), Proceedings of the 3rd International LAMS & Learning Design Conference
2008: Perspectives on Learning Design. (p.p. 70-80). 5th December 2008, Sydney:
LAMS Foundation. Also available on
http://lams2008sydney.lamsfoundation.org/papers.htm
Lee, K., Williams, M.K. & Kim, K. (2012). Learning through social technologies:
facilitating learning experiences with Web 2.0 social media. In P. Resta (Ed.),
Proceedings of Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education
International Conference 2012 (pp. 560-565). Chesapeake, VA: AACE.
Ogidan, R. (2013). ODL 721- Learner Support Services in Distance Education.
Lagos: National Open University of Nigeria.
O’Reilly, T. (2005). What Is Web 2.0. Design Patterns and Business Models for the
Next Generation of Software. O'Reilly Media, Inc. Retrieved from
http://www.oreillynet.com/pub/a/oreilly/tim/news/2005/09/30/what-is-web20.html.
43
6.
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Strawbridge, F. (2010). Is there a case for web 2.0 in higher education? Do the
benefits outweigh the risks? An assignment for Introduction to Digital
Environment for Learning. Available on
http://online.education.ed.ac.uk/gallery/strawbridge_web_2.pdf Accessed on 19
May 2014.
Silva, J. M., Rahman, A. S., & El Saddik, A. (2008). Web 3.0: a vision for bridging
the gap between real andvirtual. Paper presented at the 1st ACM international
workshop on Communicability design and evaluation in cultural and ecological
multimedia system, Vancouver British Columbia, Canada.
U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Technology. (2010). National
education technology plan 2010: Transforming American education: Learning
powered by technology. Washington, D.C
A BLENDED DISTANCE LEARNING APPROACH
FOR A QUANTITATIVE GRADUATE PROGRAM
Alemayehu Demissie, Columbia University, New York, USA
ABSTRACT: Infrastructural, logistical and economic constraints have made
traditional modes of delivering advanced studies challenging, necessitating the
need to explore alternative cost-effective approaches. While there is a growing
interest in distance-learning formats using the Internet and other media, there are
certain aspects of traditional programs that cannot fully be satisfied by
nonconventional teaching modalities. In this paper, we consider an approach that
is in a launch phase, and is characterized by features that combine elements of the
conventional and distance instructional formats. The hybrid design is intended to
allay some of the difficulties associated with conventional modes of learning, while
providing the appealing benefits enjoyed by students in traditional settings and at
the same time maintaining the academic rigor unadulterated.
KEY WORDS: Distance education, online course, hybrid program, virtual school,
synchronous learning.
INTRODUCTION
With the increased infrastructural, logistical and economic limitations associated
with the conventional face-to-face learning modality, educators and policymakers
continue to explore alternative cost-effective approaches to make higher
education accessible to a wide pool of prospective students. Thanks in part to the
advancement in technology, ever-increasing globalization, and growth in interest
in certain fields of higher education, distance learning has become a fairly wellaccepted mode of educational delivery (Holmberg, 1995). The increase in
44
enrollment in certain technical fields has especially put considerable stress on the
teaching infrastructure in major universities. In most cases, the increase in the
volume of applications has not been accompanied by a corresponding growth in
investment on classrooms, teaching staff, and other resources essential to support
a beneficial student experience on campus.
From the perspective of students, a major issue has also been the relentless
growth in the cost of higher education over the years, characterized by
unrestrained surge in tuition costs, and prohibitively skyrocketing cost of living in
major cities (Table 1).
Table 1. Average Annual Percentage Increases in Inflation-Adjusted Published
Prices by Decade, 1983-84 to 2013-14
Tuition and Fees and
Room and Board
Tuition and Fees
Private
Nonprofit
Four-Year
Public
FourYear
Public
TwoYear
Private
Nonprofit
Four-Year
Public
Four-Year
1983-84 to 1993-94
4.1%
4.3%
5.0%
3.5%
2.3%
1993-94 to 2003-04
2003-04 to 2013-14
3.1%
2.3%
3.7%
4.2%
1.9%
3.0%
2.6%
2.1%
2.9%
3.2%
Source: The College Board, Annual Survey of Colleges; National Center for
Education Statistics (NCES), Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System
(IPEDS).
Reproduced
from
https://trends.collegeboard.org/collegepricing/figures-tables/average-rates-growth-tuition-and-fees-over-time
Recent advances in technology have patently helped to allay some of the pervasive
problems by shifting the mode of delivery of higher education from the traditional
settings, to one that involves distance learning. Technology has not only improved
communication between teacher and student, it has also enhanced the
accessibility of material essential for effective learning.
However, despite the considerable advance made in distance education, there are
sundry challenges and barriers to these nonconventional modes of instruction
(see, e.g., Berge, Muilenburg , and Haneghan (2002); Carr (2000); and Sinn
(2004)). Most notably, there are still certain elements of the traditional setting
that cannot fully be replicated in remote learning modalities. The university
environment is always conducive to learning and generating new ideas outside the
classroom experience. There may also be resources within the university that may
not always be accessible remotely. Further, the support mechanism that university
45
administrators have at the disposal of their resident students may not be available
to distance learners.
Recent experience in the Statistics Department at Columbia University, in the City
of New York, has led to the introduction of a new dimension to the existing
program, with a feature that combines the benefits of the two modes of delivery,
without compromising the quality of the curricula. This was especially necessitated
by the surge in the volume of applications that outpaced the investment in
infrastructure and teaching staff. In this paper, we outline relevant aspects of the
hybrid program, and outline some of the anticipated challenges and opportunities.
1. Rationale for a Hybrid Program
The hybrid model has long been recognized as a viable option to cut cost and meet
the needs of students (see, e.g., Young 2002). In one study, Jones (2006)
addressed its effectiveness in mitigating attrition rates. In another study,
Simonson, Smaldino and Zvacek (2009) shed light on its value in enhancing learner
satisfaction. While there is no widely accepted characterization of a hybrid
program, it is generally expected that a reasonable proportion of the course
requirement for the degree will be completed remotely, and the rest in a face-toface format. The effective balance will depend on logistical, pedagogical,
infrastructural, academic and other considerations (see, e.g., Verkroost,
Meijerink, Lintsen, and Veen, 2008).
Over the last ten years, the number of applications to the Statistics MA program at
Columbia University has increased from 116 in 2004 to 1434 in 2014 (Figure 1).
There are several factors that are responsible for this steady growth. First and
foremost, there is a growing need for trained statisticians, especially in the finance
and technology sectors, where data-driven decision making is deemed
indispensable. In addition, a conscious effort was made by the department to
design a program that was in conformance with the evolving needs of the job
market. Further, the potential pool of applicants was expanded by reaching out to
major universities in East Asia.
Incidentally, the vast majority of the applicants to the statistics graduate program
at Columbia are now from China, a phenomenon shared with many other similar
institutions of higher learning in the United States (United States Immigration and
Customs Enforcement, 2014). Most of these applicants appear to be attracted by
the opportunity that an on-campus education provides, including the chance to
interact with students of diverse backgrounds, the ability to have face-to-face
meetings with the world-renowned faculty in the department, and the desire to
experience the unique environment of campus life in the City of New York.
46
For domestic students, on the other hand, the traditional modes of delivery pose
numerous challenges. The cost of living in the New York City area is high, as are
tuitions and fees. For prospective students who work full-time, classes offered
during the daytime may not be convenient. In this regard, the advantages of
distance learning are substantial, with the accompanying convenience manifested
in the ability to take courses at one’s leisure, and the reduction in living expenses.
The benefits of distance learning notwithstanding, there are certain fundamental
issues with the nonconventional mode of instruction that technology alone cannot
completely solve. Relative to on-campus experience, the degree of communication
between teacher and student may not be optimal. Students who attend classes
exclusively through online modes may not have the same opportunity as those in
traditional settings to share experiences with other students of diverse cultural
and academic backgrounds. Furthermore, there may be resources and facilities
that require physical presence on campus to take advantage of. There are, of
course, other non-tangible benefits to being on-campus, which provides the
necessary condition for creative and independent thinking to those at a critical
stage in their intellectual development.
Figure 1. Number of Applicants to the Statistics MA Program at Columbia by Year
2000
1500
1000
500
0
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
Source: Department of Statistics, Columbia University
Features of the Statistics Hybrid Program
The hybrid online/on-campus program, which is being launched and will start
offering courses beginning in the Fall 2014 semester, will include an initial cohort
of thirty to forty students. The first phase of the program of study will be
conducted exclusively online; and as in the regular on-campus program, it is
intended to give students the proper background and training in foundational
courses, including modern probability, statistics, and applied statistics in a
47
systematic fashion, and prepare them for the more advanced elective courses
offered subsequently. This will be conducted exclusively online through an
innovative learning management system developed at Columbia University.
Students can choose to take the entire suite of the online core courses in one
semester, or on a part-time basis (two courses per semester) over semesters 1
and 2. The part-time study option allows students to complete the program at
their own pace while maintaining their existing work and study commitment.
Upon completion of the four online courses, the students will be admitted to the
resident program to complete the remaining required courses.
For the online phase, live lecture sessions are delivered through a sophisticated
web-conferencing tool that permits students and instructors to interact through
video and audio. The platform has several desirable features that are intended to
mimic in-person classroom experience, including questions and answers, as well as
test and exam administration. Most notably, online students will also have
private, one-on-one access to faculty, program administrators, and advisors, via
the platform.
As an added feature, the online live sessions are recorded and are available to
students to review at their convenience. This is particularly important to ensure
students get the maximal benefit from the instruction, especially in situations
where time zone differences may not be optimally opportune to some
participants. Nonetheless, as with traditional on-campus requirements, class
attendance will be strictly mandatory and will be considered a critical component
of the online learning experience.
Students who successfully complete the online phase will then be permitted to
enroll in the on-campus phase of the program. The latter is an integral component
of the regular program, and the incoming students will have all the benefits of
those who are already enrolled in the resident program, including housing and
access to other university resources.
International students will be issued with the necessary documentation to get
student visas to complete the program on-campus. However, international
students who are in the United States on a student visa will not be eligible to
enroll in the online portion of the program.
The admission criteria and the degree certification requirements are identical for
both the regular and hybrid programs. In addition, there are no differences in the
syllabi of the core courses that are offered to the online and regular on-campus
students. This is intended to maintain the quality and rigor of the two programs at
the same level, while ensuring the flexibility provided by the online component.
48
Instructors of courses in the hybrid program are selected from among the teaching
faculty in the department who also have assignments to teach in the regular
program. Further, the academic calendars for the hybrid and regular programs are
seamlessly synchronized, and online students will get similar administrative
communications as those studying on campus.
Anticipated Benefits of the Blended Program
By all measures, the program is expected to be beneficial both to the students and
the institution. Early experience with the program will help design an expanded
version that would eventually allay the stress on the teaching infrastructure. The
experience with the statistics program may also help to develop and implement
similar projects in other departments that contend with analogous problems of
class sizes and growing enrollment.
One major aspect of the regular M.A. program in statistics at Columbia has been
the relative homogeneity of the student body, consisting mainly of students from
East Asia. Local and other domestic students who are unable to attend classes due
to cost and logistical reasons, may now have the opportunity to enroll in the
program. As a byproduct, the new model is expected to complement and enrich
the educational experience through enhanced student diversity.
Relative to the online-only programs, the hybrid program may appeal to
prospective students who value the increased face-to-face communication with
teachers and other students that is possible in the on-campus phase. The latter
also gives students relatively greater access to university resources that are not
available through the on-line component, including courses from other
departments, high-speed computing environment, on-campus placement and
career services, internships, and all the other advantageous aspects of life on
campus.
Conclusion
As the technology and the needs of the job market continue to evolve, there is
considerable opportunity to evaluate the format and content of the new hybrid
program. It is expected that the effectiveness of the new approach will periodically
be appraised through proactive solicitation of input from students, employers and
instructors. While it is too early to tell how effective the project will turn out to be,
based on the level of interest expressed by prospective applicants, there seem to
be a segment of the student population to whom the medium may be a viable
option. Indeed, the number of applicants to the program has been sizeable,
despite the limited effort made hitherto to publicize its imminent launch in the Fall
l2014 semester.
49
Incontrovertibly, the new program is likely to present both challenges and
opportunities. As is invariably the case with the launch of a new educational
project, the hybrid program will encounter unanticipated and unforeseen
challenges that will require meticulous handling to ensure uninterrupted delivery
of the educational material. The effectiveness of the delivery is in part a function
of how smoothly the technology works, especially in areas where the
infrastructure may not be highly developed. Time zone differences may introduce
a level of difficulty to simultaneously conduct live sessions for all students living in
different parts of the world. For international students, the processing of entry
visa in a timely manner to move to the United States for the on-campus portion
may introduce additional administrative hurdles complexity. Nonetheless, the
experience gained from the first few years will not only help improve the delivery
of education in the new format, but will also help in the planning and
implementation of the next phase of enhancement of the graduate program in
statistics and related disciplines at Columbia and elsewhere.
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Berge, Z. L., Muilenburg L.Y., and Haneghan, J. (2002). Barriers to distance
education and training. Distance Learning Administration, 3 (4), 409-419.
Carr, S. (2000). As Distance Education Comes of Age, the Challenge Is Keeping the
Students. Chronicle of Higher Education, 46 (23), A39
Sinn, J. (2004). Electronic course delivery in higher education: Promise and
challenge. The Journal of Technology Studies, 30 (1), 39-45.
Holmberg, B. (1995). Theory and Practice of Distance Education. London:
Routtedge.
Jones, N. (2006). E-college Wales, a case study of blended learning. In C. Bonk & C.
Graham (Eds.), The Handbook of Blended Learning (pp. 182-194). San Francisco,
CA: John Wiley & Sons
Simonson, M., Smaldino, S., Albright, M., and Zvacek, S. (2009). Teaching and
learning at a distance: Foundations of distance education (4th ed.). Boston:
Pearson.
United States Immigration and Customs Enforcement Agency (2014 April).
Student and Exchange Visitor Information System General Summary Quarterly
Review. Retrieved June, 2014: http://www.ice.gov/doclib/sevis/pdf/by-thenumbers1.pdf
Verkroost, M., Meijerink, L., Lintsen, H., and Veen, W. (2008). Finding a balance in
dimensions of blended learning. International Journal on ELearning, (7)3, 499-522.
Young, J. R. (2002, March 22). 'Hybrid' teaching seeks to end the divide between
traditional and online instruction. Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved June,
2014: http://chronicle.com/free/v48/i28/28a03301.htm
50
DIFFERENT RELATIONSHIP OF GENDER, ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT,
PERCEIVED SOCIAL SUPPORT AND EDUCATIONAL SATISFACTION IN
STUDENTS WITH DISTANCE EDUCATION EXPERIENCE
Alizadehfard Susan, Psychology Department, I.R. of IRAN
ABSTRACT: Introduction: The aim of this study is determine different prediction of
academic achievement by perceived social support and educational satisfaction in
men and women students with distance education experience.
Method: The sample consists of 120 second year students in Payame Noor
University. Participants completed self-reported education satisfaction
questionnaire and multidimensional scale of perceived social support (1988).
Results: Finding discovered that educational satisfaction is a meaningful predictor
of academic achievement between male and female students. Also it was
determined that perceived social support predicted academic achievement in
women but it isn't a meaningful predictor in male students.
Conclusion: Implications of the findings of the present study are crucial for
institutions planning to offer distance education courses.
KEY WORDS: distance education, perceived social support, academic achievement,
gender.
INTRODUCTION
The majority of undergraduate students and students with distance education
experience at IRAN are women. Women have used distance education to try to
complete courses and degrees after high school for different reason: age,
interests, economic and marital status, and failed to attending in formal university
with traditional education.
In one of the few studies to focus on gender as critical personal variables, May
(1994) studied women pursuing distance education. Among her conclusions, she
stated that the distance education experience was significantly different
experience for female learners than for male. This finding was echoed by Gillis,
Jackson, Braid, MacDonald, and Macquarie (2000) in another study focusing on
women learners, which leads us to consider the impact of social systems on
learners.
The most important function of modern education is to help the individuals to
develop as a whole from the aspects of physical, social and psychological ways.
51
(888) because of this systematic view, there are different kind of physical, social
and psychological factors that influence on academic achievement.
Two important subjects of this list are social and psychological factor that clearly
are very different in men and women. In this study we focused on social support
(as a social factor) and educational satisfaction (as a psychological factor). Social
support can be defined as the support which is taken from family, peers, friends,
neighbors and institutions which enhance the psychological dynamics, and help
the individual in the aspects of affective contribution (Bahar, 2010). The
individual's interaction model is different between men and women, so this
question appears that what's different effecting on academic achievement?
From the other hand, recently there is a focus on student satisfaction as a
customer and recent studies explore the relationships between Student
Intentions, Retention and their educational satisfaction in Higher Education. So the
mail purpose of this study is determine different prediction of academic
achievement by perceived social support and educational satisfaction in men and
women students with distance education experience.
Method
Participants were undergraduate students at Payame Noor University in Iran
(Tehran), that studying with distance education system. All of them were second
year psychology students which 60 were males and 60 were females. The
sample was drawn object ively and systematically from available
students who participate. The research instrument included 4 scales:
1- Participant demographics. 2- Distance education satisfaction survey: This scale
has 10 questions that measure how much students were satisfied with distance
education. Higher scores showed higher levels of satisfaction from distance
education. This survey included Likert type items with response choices ranging
from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). 3- University grade: University
grade is individuals' total score across all subjects taught during the two year
university program. The average score ranged from 0 (lowest) to 20(highest). 4Multidimensional scale of perceived social support: Perceived socia l
support was assessed through by Zimet, Dahlam, Zimet and Farley (1988). It
has three different subscales: (a) Family, (b) Friends and (c) Significant Other. The
test scores of the Likert type of scale scored from 1 to 5 points, and the scale’s
total scores vary between 12 and 60. Being high scores means higher perceived
social support.
52
Results
Descriptive statistics on the participant students are shown in Table 1. In the next
step, t- test was calculated for comparing male and female scores. As it is shown in
table 2, there are significant different between them. In order to answer the
research question, firstly inter-correlation among all the variables was calculated
(see Table 3 & 4). All correlations between the variables and the dependent
variable are statistically significant and positive. Then multiple regression analysis
technique has been used. The results relating to prediction of university grade are
shown in Table 5. It was found that Educational satisfaction is a significant
predictor of university grade in both male and female. In the other hand,
perceived social support is a significant predictor of university grade only in
female.
Table1. Descriptive Statistics on the Participant Students
University grade
mean
16.34
14.87
Female
Male
Std.
1.08
2.66
perceived social
support
mean
Std.
37.02
8.27
43.18
9.85
Educational
satisfaction
mean
Std.
41.53
10.95
42.20
12.27
Table2. T-test results in comparing male & female
University grade
perceived social support
Educational satisfaction
t
3.27
6.79
2.95
df
118
118
118
sig
0.01
0.001
0.01
Table 3. Correlations between variables in male
1
2
3
variables
1
University grade
0.09*
0.21*
* Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level
** Correlation is significant at the 0.001 level
53
2
0.18*
Table 4. Correlations between variables in female
1
2
3
variables
1
University grade
0.37**
0.24*
* Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level
** Correlation is significant at the 0.001 level
2
0.13*
Table 5. Multiple regression analysis results relating to prediction of university
grade
Male
Female
constant
B
β
t
Sig
0.162
Std.
Error
0.110
Perceived
social
support
Educational
satisfaction
Perceived
social
support
Educational
satisfaction
0.134
1.469
0.149
1.452
0.156
0.682
4.390
0.000
1.298
0.252
0.506
7.159
0.000
0.520
0.156
0.394
3.393
0.002
Conclusion and discussion
The results of the study supports the hypotheses predicted and indicate that there
is a positive relationship of academic performance with the student's experience
and there is no different between men and women. Students with positive
experience show satisfaction with the quality of education (Liao, 2006). This is also
proved to be significant from the correlation results of student experience and
satisfaction.
Also the result shown perceived social support has the maximum ability of
predicting university grade and it's just seen in female student. The females are
more likely to receive social support from friends and significant others, than
males are. One explanation could be that females are more emotional as
compared to males; thus they might be able to share their feelings more freely
and readily with friends. By doing so, the females perceive having someone to talk
to as having adequate social support. On the other hand, males are expected to
live up to certain social expectations that have been set and that if they were to
share their feelings, it would be deemed as a sign of weakness. Hence, males tend
54
to perceive lower social support because they are more likely to feel that they
have no one to express their feelings to. Social interaction in distance education is
lower than traditional system. Lower interaction could be making its satisfaction
lower as well (Altermatt, 2007). So, social support is important to predict
university grade especially in women.
Refrences
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Altermatt, E. (2007). Coping with academic failure: Gender differences in
students' self-reported interactions with family members and friends. The Journal
of Early Adolescence, 27, 479-508. doi:10.1177/0272431607302938
Bahar, H. H. (2010). The effects of gender, perceived social support and
sociometric status on academic success. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences,
2, 3801-3805. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.03.593
Gillis, A., Jackson, W., Braid, A., MacDonald P., & MacQuarrie, M. (2000). The
learning needs and experiences of women using print-based and CD-ROM
technology in nursing distance education. Journal of Distance Education,15,(1), 1–
20.
Liao, L. (2006). A flow theory perspective on learner motivation and behavior in
distance education. Distance Education, 27 (1), 45-62.
May, S. (1994). Women’s experience as distance learners: Access and technology.
Journal of Distance Education, 9(1), 81–98.
M-LEARNING EFFECTS ON QUALITY OF LEARNING AND ENGAGEMENT
Al-sharaabi Waheeb A., University of Science and Technology, Yemen
ABSTRACT: The purpose of this study is to investigate the impact of m-learning on
student's quality of learning between students using smart mobile phones for
learning and students without smart mobile phones. It goes further to investigate
the impact of m-learning on students’ engagement between the two groups of the
students with and without smart mobile phones. The study employs a 2x2 quasiexperimental factorial design to examine the impacts of the independent variable
on the dependent variables at each of the two levels of the moderating variable.
Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyze data. The findings
assures that m-learning is crucial for educational institutes to adopt the needs of
new generation who certainly requires setting up the technological environment
and incorporate it to their learning experiences. The findings were consistent with
other studies in literature.
KEY WORDS: quality of learning, students engagement, m-learning, open learning,
distance education.
55
INTRODUCTION:
Poor Information and Communication Technology (ICT) infrastructure can severely
affect the students learning experience and consequently the academic
achievement in the open and distance learning. Cultural society also has great
effects in fostering learning opportunities and academic achievement. ICT has
played a crucial role in expanding learning opportunities at their convenient time.
The term m-learning or "mobile learning”, is used in different context among
communities, covering a range of use scenarios including e-learning, educational
technology and distance education, that focuses on learning with mobile devices.
Mobile learning is defined as "learning across multiple contexts, through social and
content interactions, using personal electronic devices” (Crompton, 2013 p. 4) In
other words, with the use of mobile devices, learners can learn anywhere and at
any time (Mary, 2011). It offers modern ways to support learning process through
mobile devices, such as Personnel Digital Assistants (PDAs), tablets, smart phones
and MP3 players. It is convenient in that it is accessible from virtually anywhere
and like other forms of e-learning, is also collaborative. Sharing is almost
instantaneous among everyone using the same content, which leads to the
reception of instant feedback and tips. This highly active process has proven to
increase exam scores from the fiftieth to the seventieth percentile, and cut the
dropout rate in technical fields by 22 percent (Saylor, 2012). M-learning with its
main key feature, mobility, brings notes and books to small devices with full of
effective entertaining experience filled with tailored learning contents. Quality and
learning engagement are issues to be considered.
Study purpose
The purpose of this study is to investigate the impact of m-learning on student's
quality of learning between students using smart mobile phones for learning and
students without smart mobile phones. It goes further to investigate the impact of
m-learning on students’ engagement between the two groups of the students with
and without smart mobile phones. It is crucial for educational institutes to adopt
the needs of new generations who certainly requires setting up the technological
environment and incorporate it to their learning experiences.
Research Questions:
Do quality of learning differs significantly between students using smart mobile
phones for learning and those without smart mobile phones in an online and
distance learning environment?
Do students’ engagement differs significantly between students using smart
mobile phones for learning and those without smart mobile phones in an
online and distance learning environment?
56
Research Hypotheses
1. There are no significant differences in (a) Quality of Learning, (QL) and (b)
Student Engagement, (SE), via mobile in Distance education and Open
Learning between a group with smart mobile phones and a group without
smart mobile phones. Existing work of relevance:
1- Quality Learning and Student’s engagement
The predominant view is that quality relates to how good students achieve their
awards. Hence, Academic quality is the final outcomes of students learning
experience. It is about student's achievement and the availability of learning
opportunities available for students to help them improve academic success.
Engagement and collaborative are another determinant for quality learning to be
fostered. Zepke,and Leach( 2010) in their study findings acknowledged that active
learning in groups, peer relationships, and social skills are important in engaging
learners. Student engagement is a psychological process that refers to the degree
of attention, curiosity, interest, optimism, and passion that students show when
they are learning or being taught, which extends to the level of motivation they
have to learn and progress in their learning.
Marks (2000) aggregated the definitions of several researchers and redefined
engagement as a psychological process, specifically, the attention, interest,
investment, and effort students expended in the work of learning. Finn (1993)
explained four levels of engagement, participation in extracurricular activities,
academic self-concept, educational aspirations and parental expectations and
those levels of engagement changed with an individual's age.
Fredricks et al (2004) drawing on bloom (1956) three components of engagement:
1) Behavioral engagement, where participation in class ranging from involvement
in extra curricula activities to (Fullarton, 2002) attendance at or absenteeism from
class
2) Emotional engagement, where a sense of belonging (Wilms, 2003) and value
3) Cognitive engagement where students have the belief that school is an
engagement and investment in learning and the school community.
2- Student’s online engagement:
The National Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE) identified five dimensions that
should be emphasized in online courses:
1) Academic challenges, 2) Active and collaborative learning, 3) Student-faculty
interaction, 4) Supportive environment and 5) Enriching educational experiences
Engagement is not involvement or participation but rather goes beyond this to
57
sense-making. In other words, Acting without feeling engaged is just involvement
or even compliance; feeling engaged without acting is dissociation (Harper and
Quaye, 2009)
A study on the Impact of Mobile Access on Motivation in Distance Education
Student Perceptions (Mockus et al, 2011) results revealed that students with
course material delivered on their mobile devices felt having the opportunity to
learn better than the same content presented in the traditional online format. in
addition, Students who had the materials on their mobile devices improved their
learning experience.
In the study of Dye and Rekkedal( 2005), The Norwegian Knowledge Institute (NKI)
developments and research on mobile learning in correspondence with four
European Universities have resulted in better solutions for serving distance online
learners. They also concluded that cost efficiency considerations is behind the
prevention of developing parallel versions of courses as courses must be
developed, presented and distributed in a way that would allow both mobile and
none mobile learners to participate and enroll in the same course and that course
materials can be assessed both by standard and mobile technology with
acceptable quality of all content elements. Interaction with course content and
multi-media materials and communication with tutors and fellow students must
also function adequately both through standard and mobile technology.
West, D. (2013) pointed that one of the greatest features of mobile technology is
the way it enables social collaboration. He indicated to a study by the High School
Survey of Student Engagement, “the most engaging forms of class work involve
collaborative or creative components.” Its authors note that “61 percent of
students report being excited and engaged by discussion and debate in class.” The
study shows that students are quite positive about the ways they think the use of
mobile devices will their learning environment. According to previous research
(Finn, 1993; Marks, 2000), student engagement and academic achievement have a
positive relationship.
Research Design
The study employs a 2x2 quasi-experimental factorial design as shown in Figure (1)
(learning approach X Quality Learning) to examine the impacts of the independent
variable on the dependent variables at each of the two levels of the moderating
variable. The independent variable of the study is learning approach that consists
of two modes of interactivity learning.
1- Learning with smart mobile phones
2- Learning without smart mobile phones
58
The dependent variables are:
1- Quality of Learning (QL).
2- Student’s engagement (SE).
Figure (1): Research Design
Meanwhile, the moderating variable is this study was the level of Quality of
learning. Students’ quality of learning is being classified into high and low, and was
identified by students’ academic achievement after categorizing students to
students with smart mobile phones and students without smart mobile phone.
Research Sample and sampling
The sample of his study involved 154 undergraduate students studying in various
majors through online course in open leaning faculty at the University of Science
and Technology (UST), Yemen. Students were mostly from the gulf area where
they receive offshore learning. First the survey were administrated through the
web and students were classified according to their academic achievement into
high Quality learning students and low quality learning student. Students also
divided into high engaged student and low engaged student. The instrument was
Learning with smart mobile
phones
Learning without smart
mobile phones
SE / QL Hi
SE / QL Low
adapted from the amended version of the National Student Survey Environment
(NSSE) (Kuh, 2003) by (Schreiner & Louis, 2006). For the purpose of this study, the
behavior dimension is used in this instrument to measure the level of student’s
engagement.
Conclusion and key findings:
2. H01: There are no significant differences in
3. (a) Quality of Learning, (QL) and
4. (b) Student Engagement, (SE), via mobile in Distance and Open Learning
education between a group with smart mobiles phones and a group without
smart mobile phones.
Table 1.0 reports the means and standard deviations for the QL, and SE scores for
the Learning approach with and without smart mobile phones.
a) For QL, the group with smart mobile phones reported a mean of 25.13
with standard deviation of 1.34 while the group without smart mobile
phones reported a mean of 20.23 with standard deviation of 1.78. An
59
ANCOVA test between the means gave F (1,154) =490.01at p=0, 00. As
p<0.05, H01 (a) is rejected. The findings showed the group with smart
mobile phones performed significantly better in terms of quality of
learning as compared to the group without smart mobile phones.
b) For the SE, the group with smart mobile phones reported a mean of 7.23
with standard deviation of 0.88 while the group without smart mobile
phones reported a mean of 5.92 with standard deviation of 1.56. An
ANCOVA test between the means gave F (1,154) =59.93 at p=0, 00. As
p<0.05, H01 (b) is rejected. The findings showed the group with smart
mobile phones scored significantly higher in terms of student's
engagement as compared to the group without smart mobile phones.
Table (1.0)
Group
QL
SE
With Smart
Mobile Phones
Mean
SD
25.13
1.34
7.23
0.88
Without Smart
Mobile Phones
Mean
SD
20.23
1.78
5.92
1.56
F
P
490.01
59.93
0.000
0.000
R2
The findings showed that the m-learning significantly improved the students’
quality of learning and the students’ engagement. These results have rejected
H01.
REFERENCES
12-
3-
4-
5-
6-
Bloom, B.S. (ed.) (1956) Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: the Classification of
Educational Goals. New York: D McKay & Co, Inc. Crompton, H. (2013). A historical overview of mobile learning: Toward learnercentered education. In Z. L. Berge & L. Y. Muilenburg (Eds.), Handbook of
mobile learning (pp. 3-14). Florence, KY: Routledge. Dye, A. & Rekkedal, T. (2005): Testing of an “always-online mobile environment”.
Evaluation paper for the project, mLearning- the Next Generation of
Learning. Retrieved 12.3.2006 from
http://learning.ericsson.net/mlearning2/files/workpackage6/testing.doc
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http://www.facultyfocus.com/articles/effective-teaching-strategies/10ways-to-promote-student-engagement/#sthash.OPWpJ9Vl.dpuf SUBSTANCE ABUSE AWARENESS AMONG
SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN LAGOS:
OPEN EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES AS A VERITABLE TOOL
Ani George Ndubuisi, National Open University of Nigeria, Nigeria.
ABSTRACT: The use of drugs among adolescents is a global phenomenon eating
deep into the fabrics of our society. Students are vulnerable at this transformative
stage due to lack of awareness. The International Community and Governments all
over the world have made commitments to make information available through
61
the right technology by way of open educational resources. This paper which
employed a descriptive design explored the awareness of students on substance
abuse. It identified that many are still confused on substances abused and made
case for open educational resources as a veritable tool in awareness creation on
anti substance abuse among the students. It recommended that in curbing the
menace of substance abuse, open educational resources by way of open access to
knowledge through the right and appropriate technology, should be incorporated
into the Secondary school system as part of a vehicle driving the anti substance
abuse programme of Government.
KEY WORDS:
Substance abuse, Awareness, Open educational resources,
Secondary school students
1. Introduction
Substance abuse refers to the harmful or hazardous use of psychoactive
substances, including alcohol and illicit drugs. (WHO 2014). The use of these drugs
among adolescents is a global phenomenon eating deep into the fabrics of our
society. Senior Secondary Students are most vulnerable at this transformative
stage of their lives and are often prone to dangers associated with lack of
awareness on substance abuse.
Substance abuse, a public health and social problem has gradually become a cause
for concern in Africa and indeed Nigeria. In Nigeria, the consumption of illegal
drugs and the harmful use of other psychoactive substances such as alcohol,
pharmaceutical drugs, inhalants and solvents have increased at an alarming rate
over the years. Available report indicates that Nigeria is currently the highest
consumer of cannabis and amphetamine in Africa (UNODC,2011). An analysis of
the World Drug reports over a ten-year period (2001 – 2011) showed that the
estimated annual prevalence of cannabis consumption among persons aged 15 to
65 years increased from about 8.7% to 14.3%; amphetamine consumption from
1.2% to 1.4% while cocaine and opiates increased from 1.0% and 0.3% respectively
to 0.7%.(UNODC,2001;2011).
In all these revelations, a couple of studies in Nigeria attests to the fact that there
is obviously demonstrated poor knowledge of the harmful effects of drug abuse
among students and the researchers attributed the reason to inadequate drug
education and relative lack of information on substance abuse.
(Kobiowu,2006;Ene&Stanley,2004;Amosun&Ige et al,2010;Ekpeyong,2012). There
is need to protect vulnerable students especially in Senior Secondary School from
the menace of dangerous drug abuse. They need to be properly guided and well
informed of the future that lies ahead and the adverse health implications
associated with drug use. How can the sources of such information be harnessed?
62
The International Community and Governments all over the world have made
commitments to make vital life-changing information through the right technology
(by way of open educational resources), accessible to her citizenry to help educate
and create the necessary awareness on lifelong topical issues like substance abuse.
Open educational resources (OER) as important as it sounds means a lot to many
in different ways and different definitions abound. Organization of economic
cooperation and development(OECD) prefers OER as digitized materials offered
freely and openly for educators, students and self-learners to use and reuse for
teaching, learning and research.(OECD,2007)
The concept of OER came to the fore at a conference hosted by United Nations
Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (OECD,2007. This was to kick start
a global action on the provision of free and accessible educational materials to her
citizenry which was meant to bridge the gap between non-formal, informal and
formal lifelong learning. UNESCO thus defined OER as an open provision of
educational resources, enabled by information and communication technologies
for consultation, use and adaptation by a community of users for non-commercial
purposes (Johnstone,2005). Materu in what may be called the first comprehensive
report on OER affirmed that open courseware has generated interest in all parts of
the world with the United States ahead. The concept though is yet to have
measurable effects on learning in institutions of higher education, there are
indications that open source courseware is viewed as a valuable opportunity by
institutions in developing countries (Materu, 2004). International Council on
distant education (ICDE, 2006) launched its global open educational resources task
force and was proclaimed as one of the main driving forces for efficient and quality
e-learning in the future-a tremendous opportunity for everyone to share, use and
reuse the world’s knowledge.
OECD (2007) identified over 3000 open courseware courses available from over
300 universities around the world including United States, China, Japan, France,
United Kingdom and Ireland as OER for higher learning. National Open University
of Nigeria (NOUN) who has been in the forefront of distance learning in the
Country has over 1,650 courses in its courseware for her students and general
public use (NOUN, 2010). It is important to note that most of the efforts on Open
educational resources globally are centered on higher education. What about
Secondary education? How has OER been used for combating substance abuse?
According to the United Nations office on drug and crime (2004), the objectives of
drug abuse prevention programme for senior school should include among others,
the following; that students should know the importance of self esteem; rights and
responsibilities in relationships; the concept of abstinence and alternatives to drug
use; the definition of drugs, drug misuse and abuse, drug dependence et.cetera.
63
This strategy by UNODC however is a classroom- based learning programme which
did not emphasize specifically on OER as an excellent tool for students. Though
UNODC among other bodies have OER on substance abuse for the general public
to read, a lot do not know the information they need and how to go about getting
it.
National drug law enforcement agency of Nigeria on its drug abuse prevention
education stated that preventive drug education curriculum has been developed
with implementation in primary, secondary and tertiary institutions in progress
(NDLEA, 2009). Is this really going on? What is the impression of the students on
this? The essence it claimed was to encourage children to recognize the benefits of
adopting drug free and healthy life style and to provide them with necessary skills
to be able to resist pressures to take drugs. However this is another class-room
structured learning experience which never mentioned anything like OER among
its learning strategies and has paucity of online support materials on substance
abuse prevention.
There is need for anti- substance abuse education through formal, informal or
non-formal approaches especially at the formative stages in secondary education.
This study which employs a descriptive design explores the level of awareness on
substance abuse available to secondary school students as well as their use of OER
in combating the menace of drug abuse.
2.0
Methods
2.1
Study design: This was a cross sectional descriptive study to identify the
level of awareness on substance abuse and OER use among public senior
secondary School students in Mainland Local Government, Lagos Nigeria.
This study included all Senior Secondary 1 and 2 Students in public
schools in Mainland Local Government. Senior secondary 3 Students
were however excluded because at the time of this study, they had
finished West African School Certificate Examinations and were out of
school. There was a target student population size of 5,791 from the nine
schools in the area. From this, a study population of 3,671 students from
randomly selected five out of the nine schools was identified. Ethical
approval was sought and approved by the Research and Ethics
Committee of Lagos University Teaching Hospital (LUTH). Informed
consent was obtained from heads of Schools and students.
Confidentiality was also assured as no personal identification information
was included on the questionnaire.
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2.2
Sample and sampling method: A sample size of 262 was determined
using the formula for descriptive studies. (Araoye,2003) Multistage
sampling method (simple random sampling, systematic sampling and
proportionate to size sampling) was employed in the selection of these
262 respondents from the five public schools in a sampling frame of
1,938.
2.3
Data collection/Analysis: Self -administered questionnaire consisting of
open and close-ended questions generated using research objectives and
from relevant literature review was used for data collection.
(Ene&Stanley,2004; Soyibo&Lee, 1999; Amosun&Ige et al,2010;
Ekpeyong,2012; Atoyebi &Atoyebi, 2013; Oriahi &Ajekwena et al 2012;
Lawoyin& Ajumobi et al, 2005; Okonkwo &Lawal et al, 2010; Essien,2010).
The questionnaire comprised questions ranging from awareness on the
substances of abuse, sources of information on drug abuse to students
preferred method of learning on issues about drug abuse. Data entry and
analysis was done using Epi-info version 3.5.1. The data gotten was
presented in tables
3.0 Results
3.1 Awareness of students in Lagos Mainland Local Government on substance
abuse
Table 1. Have you heard of
any of these drugs below
Yes (%)
No (%)
No response
(%)
Total
Tranquillizers or sedatives
124(47.3)
110(42.0)
28(10.7)
262
Marijuana
197(75.2)
46(17.6)
19(7.3)
262
Amphetamines
25(9.5)
237(92.7)
25(9.5)
262
Ecstasy
12(4.6)
243(92.7)
19(7.3)
262
Lsd
16(6.1)
149(56.9)
113(43.1)
262
Relevin
20(7.6)
159(60.7)
103(39.3)
262
Crack
34(13.0)
228(87.0)
0(0.0)
262
65
Cocaine
241(92.0)
11(4.2)
10(3.8)
262
Heroine
31(11.8)
254(96.9)
8(3.1)
262
Tranquilizers or sedatives, Marijuana and Cocaine topped the list with One
hundred and twenty four respondents (47.3%), one hundred and ninety seven
respondents (75.2%) and two hundred and forty one respondents (92.0%)
respectively.
Table 2. Can any of the
following drugs below be
abused
Yes (%)
No(%)
No
response(%)
Total
Alcohol
244(93.0)
0
18(6.9)
262
Cigarette
252(96.2)
0
10(3.8)
262
Tranquilizer or sedatives
129(49.2)
28(10.7)
105(40.1)
262
Marijuana
254(96.9)
0
0
262
Amphetamines
155(59.2)
23(8.8)
84(32.1)
262
Ecstasy
176(67.2)
33(12.6)
53(20.2)
262
Lsd
113(43.1)
12(4.6)
137(52.3)
262
Relevin
114(43.5)
19(7.3)
129(49.2)
262
Crack
178(67.9)
15(5.7)
69(26.3)
262
Cocaine
255(97.3)
0
7(2.7)
262
Heroine
192(73.3)
7(2.7)
63(24.0)
262
Two hundred and forty four respondents (93.0%) claimed that Alcohol can be
abused, two hundred and fifty two (96.2%) said Cigarette, one hundred and
twenty nine (49.2%) Tranquillizer or Sedatives, two hundred and fifty four (96.6%)
claimed Marijuana while one hundred and ninety two respondents (73.3%)
claimed cocaine can be abused.
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3.2
Source of information on drug abuse to students
Table 3. How did you learn about drug
abuse?
Frequency
Percentage (%)
Mass media(television, news paper)
130
49.6
Family
12
4.5
Friends
40
15.3
Internet
30
11.5
Others (church, school, social groups)
50
19.1
Majority of respondents (49.6%) claimed the learnt of drug abuse through mass
media while a few respondents (11.5%) was through the internet.
Table 4. Does your school teach students about substances abuse and
prevention?
Yes (%)
No (%)
No response (%)
Total
50 (19.0)
202(77.0)
10(3.8)
262
Seventy seven percent of respondents claimed their school never taught
substance abuse and prevention while nineteen percent said they did.
Table 5. if your answer is yes, through what
ways were you taught?
frequency
Percentage (%)
Face to face school lectures
10
21.7
School talk/workshop/anti drug club
20
43.5
Distribution of print materials
16
34.8
Through audio and videos
0
0.0
School talk/workshop/anti drug club topped the list(43.5%) of ways substance
abuse and prevention was taught in school.
67
3.3 The preferred method of learning about drug abuse by students
Table 6. Which information source do you think Frequency
Percentage (%)
will better educate students on substance
abuse?
Mass media
21
8.0
Family/friends
0
0.0
Internet/ online materials
181
69.1
Print materials
60
22.9
Sixty nine percent of respondents preferred internet/online materials as better
information source on drug abuse while twenty two percent preferred print
materials.
Table 7. Which of these reasons make you feel
the chosen information source is better?
Frequency
Percentage (%)
Accessibility
20
7.6
Flexibility
18
6.9
Wider reach
40
15.3
Increase in use of mobile technology by
students
174
66.4
Greater percentage of respondents (66.4%) feel online materials is better because
of the increase in the use of mobile technology.
4.0 Discussion/Conclusion
In this study, different questions were used in assessing students’ awareness on
substance abuse as seen in the result. The findings are not in line with some
reports from literature which claimed paucity of awareness on substances abused
(Kobiowu,2006;Ene&Stanley,2004;Amosun&Ige
et
al,2010;Ekpeyong,2012).
However the revelation here is that more respondents claimed they do not know
of amphetamines, ecstasy, crack and heroin but contradictorily believed those
substances could be abused. It showed most were still confused with the names of
these substances of abuse. Aside alcohol and cigarette whose names are common
substances of abuse; Marijuana, Cocaine and tranquilizers recurred in both
variables as more respondents identified knowing them and also as substances of
abuse.
68
Another important finding here is that more students (49.6%) claimed they got
aware of drugs as substance of abuse through the mass media with more (77%)
also saying their school authority never taught anything like substance abuse. This
contradicts the claim of NDLEA (2009) that preventive drug education curriculum
which has been developed with implementation in primary, secondary and tertiary
institutions was in progress. This showed that students are still in dire need of the
right information through appropriate channels.
Great percentage of students (69.1%) preferred internet/ online materials as
better source of information on substance abuse and claimed this was the best in
view of the increase in mobile technology trend as source of information. This
justifies OER as a veritable tool in this regard and is further confirmed by the ICDE
(2006) proclamation that global open educational resources will be one of the
main driving forces for efficient and quality e-learning in the future-a tremendous
opportunity for everyone to share, use and reuse the world’s knowledge.
UNESCO (2012) in its Paris declaration on OER expects total commitment from
Nations in fostering awareness on the use of OER in widening access to education
at all levels, to facilitate enabling environment for use of information technologies
and finally encourage the open licensing of educational materials produced with
public funds. These constitute the core elements/objectives of the declaration.
In conclusion, the ministry of Education, NDLEA, Federal Ministry of health and
other relevant organizations should be proactively empowered to develop and
coordinate the use of free and accessible educational resources through open
mode of education in increasing learning and awareness on the different drug
types and dangers of use or misuse. As a matter of fact, anti drug use education
should be incorporated into secondary school curriculum in Nigeria to help
increase knowledge and curb the menace.
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70
ISSUES AND CHALLENGES IN OPEN AND DISTANCE E-LEARNING:
PERSPECTIVES FROM THE PHILIPPINES
Arinto Patricia B., Philippines
ABSTRACT: Rapid advances in information and communications technology in the
digital age have brought about significant changes in the practice of distance
education (DE) worldwide. DE practitioners in the Philippines’ open university have
coined the term ‘open and distance elearning’ (ODeL) to refer to the new forms of
DE, which are characterised by a convergence of an open learning philosophy, DE
pedagogies, and e-learning technologies. This paper discusses the issues and
challenges that ODeL poses for the Philippines’ open university from the point of
view of the institution’s leading ODeL practitioners. The paper concludes with a
discussion of the policy development and administrative changes required to
support innovative teaching practice across the institution. The findings and
conclusions are relevant for other institutions in the same stage of ODeL
development.
IMPROVING THE PUBLIC SERVICE CAPABILITY:
BUILDING A PUBLIC SERVICE PLATFORM FOR THE NATIONAL UNION
OF NETWORKED TEACHER EDUCATION IN CHINA
BAO Huaying, HUANG Wenfeng, XIA Lan, LI Xiaolei, Beijing Normal University,
School of Continuing Education and Teacher Training, China
ABSTRACT: The purpose of this paper is to describe the framework and functions
of the public service platform as ‘education cloud’ of the National Union of
Networked Teacher Education (NUNTE) and to delineate the application of the
public service platform for supporting the cooperation among members of NUNTE
that undertake three tasks. As an ‘education cloud’, the public service platform
makes it possible for normal universities, distance education institutions and other
organizations to select courses and recognize credits among universities, satisfies
learners’ flexible and diverse learning needs, and innovates the service pattern of
teacher education by technology.
KEY WORDS: National Union of Networked Teacher Education; Public service
platform; Open distance learning; Teacher education
71
INTRODUCTION
The National Union of Networked Teacher Education (NUNTE) in China founded in
2003 under the support and effort of the Chinese Ministry of Education. It
combines three nets including the teacher education system, satellite TV net and
internet to become a teacher collaborative learning organization that exploring
and sharing the high quality educational resources. NUNTE was launched by
fourteen members that consist of nine universities(six national and two local key
normal universities and Peking university), two distance education institutions (the
Open University of China and the National Center for Educational Technology),
two education presses (the High Education Press and the People's Education Press),
and China Education Television. The mission of NUNTE is to construct a national
teacher education network system that led by the key normal and other
universities undertaking teacher education, supported by the regional centers
providing public service for teacher learning and learning resources, engaged by
multiple social forces, to integrate different kinds of teacher education for
teachers’ professional development for its members to explore and share the high
quality educational resources, and to form an integrated innovation through the
technology of modern distant education and the support from governments. The
emergence of NUNTE provides chances for cooperation among multiple
institutions that undertake teacher education programs and it is a vital important
for innovating the service pattern of teacher education in China.
In 2009, NUNTE step up its pace to build a public service platform of NUNTE for its
members getting connected to share their high quality educational resources and
providing substantial support for their distance education. This platform was built
up and ran in test in 2012. Since 2012 fall term, depending on this public service
platform, NUNTE has undertaken three tasks including sharing high quality
teaching resources for undergraduates, sharing resources for normal universities’
graduates with tuition free to obtain the master degree of education and sharing
resources for primary and secondary school teachers’ continue education. Until
the 2014 spring term, there have been 1.7 million students selecting shared
courses among universities. The public service platform of NUNTE has made the
members that major composed by the normal universities connected through
uniformly standardizing their teaching plans, curriculum and credits, made the
dispersed high quality education resources in different institutions integrated, and
satisfied learners’ personal and diverse learning needs.
FRAMEWORK AND FOUNCTIONS OF THE PUBLIC SERVICE PLATFORM
As an education cloud, the public service platform of NUNTE is based on cloud
computing, which is a cooperative innovation for the service platform to collect
high quality resources and to integrate institutions on teacher education including
72
universities, governments, enterprises and regional learning centers through the
technology of Service-Oriented Architecture. The building purpose of this public
service platform is to connect the information, resources and services of teacher
education with its members and especially to support three tasks undertaken by
NUNTE. The framework of the public service platform consists of two parts: one is
the basic supportive part and the other one is the applicable service part. It is
shown in figure1.1.
Figure 1.1 Framework of the public service platform of the NUNTE
1.1 The Basic Supportive Part
The basic supportive part is the foundation for the public service platform to get
connected with its members’ distance learning platforms and it is an information
supportive system for members to exchange messages on teaching management,
to share resources and to recognize each other’s credits. The core function is to
unify standards for identity recognition, curriculum management, course selection,
credit management, charge settlement and learning records, which would protect
the data exchange smoothly among members. The basic supportive part is a
technical support system that is invisible for front-end users.
1.2 The Applicable Service Part
The applicable service part offers support and service for three tasks undertaken
by NUNTE members, which includes six sub-systems: portal web and office system，
73
resources sharing system, supportive system for sharing high quality teaching
resources for normal universities undergraduates, supportive system for sharing
resources for normal universities graduates with tuition free to purchase master
degree of education, supportive system for sharing resources for primary and
secondary school teachers continue education and online learning and
management system. The functions of each sub-system are as follows.
The function of portal web and office system is to integrate education
information, resources and daily office on the website, which includes website
content management system, education community, office system and business
guide. Confirmed identity through the public service platform, students from the
member universities of NUNTE could enter the platform to select courses
undertaken by other universities or enter the distance learning platforms of its
members to learn by login their name and password in the red box bottom right
shown in figure 1.2. It achieves the ‘single sign on’ of different systems.
Figure 1.2 the portal website of the NUNTE
The function of resources sharing system is to provide resources for the members
and other institutions by the technology of distributed storage and management,
which includes education resources enrollment, search, storage and distribution.
The building purpose is to search resource intensively and to store resource
dispersedly, which means building a center resource pool to store the teacher
education resources index, non-profit free resources and shared resources offered
by NUNTE, and building resources node by each university to provide resources for
the customers from it and to provide shared resources for the customers from
other universities through courses mutual selection. Also, the public service
74
platform links up “the Intel online learning community for normal universities
graduates with tuition free”, which makes it possible for the members get
connected with the national and international institutions offering high quality
resources at any time.
The function of three tasks supportive systems includes supportive system for
sharing high quality teaching resources for normal universities undergraduates,
supportive system for sharing resources for normal universities graduates with
tuition free to purchase master degree of education, supportive system for sharing
resources for primary and secondary school teachers continue education. These
three systems are to provide business and system management, the plans for
courses mutual selection, course-selection management and learning records
management in order to achieve the purpose of courses mutual selection and
credits mutual recognition among NUNTE’s members and to make them explored
and shared high quality resources. The supportive system of three tasks is
presented in figure 1.3.
Figure 1.3 the functions of the supportive systems of three tasks of the NUNTE
The function of online learning and management system (LMS) is to make the
high quality teaching resources and teaching supportive service shared among
NUNTE’s members, and to create an online learning environment run by NUNTE
directly that satisfies learners’ personal needs. LMS provides special features for
different customers including students, teachers, manager of NUNTE, manager of
the learning center and subject manager. It offers teaching and learning resources
75
including courseware, assignment, curriculum forum and thesis debate for
teachers and students. Also, it creates a communication environment for teachers
and students by providing them bulletin, mobile-phone messages, station text
messages and learning community. It provides supportive systems for the
managers of NUNTE and learning center on enrollment, student status, teaching
material, teaching, examination and fund management. Besides, it offers
management functions for subject managers on students, teachers, assignments,
thesis and examination, etc.
THE APPLICATION OF THE PUBLIC SERVICE PLATFORM ON NUNTE’S THREE TASKS
Since 2012 fall term, NUNTE has applied this public service platform on three tasks:
sharing high quality education resources for undergraduates, sharing resources for
normal universities’ graduates with tuition free to purchase the master degree of
education and sharing resources for primary and secondary school teachers’
continue education. Depending on this platform, until 2014 spring term, the
members of NUNTE have set up 218 shared courses for more than 1.7 million
students to select among universities, which make the high quality education
resources shared and complementary.
2.1 Sharing High Quality Education Resources for Undergraduates
Sharing high quality education resources for undergraduate would be achieved by
Synchronous Classroom and Asynchronous Classroom. First, based on the public
service platform, NUNTE coordinates its members to launch the practice of
Synchronous Classroom. The Synchronous Classroom of NUNTE is a kind of
teaching model capturing video frames from one live broadcast classroom,
pushing them to the cloud server that delivering the video to the long-distance
classrooms located in the other universities at the same time, which makes
undergraduates from different universities participate the same classroom.
Depending on the media of internet and satellite, the Synchronous Classroom is
carried out by the technologies of live video, bidirectional interaction, cloud
computing service, etc. Compared to traditional classroom, Synchronous
Classroom requires higher quality standards for the equipments of live broadcast
classroom, subject professors, faculty advisers and technical staffs.
Six national and two local universities had launched 23 shared courses for the
synchronous classroom since 2012 fall term to 2014 spring term, which made 8371
undergraduates participate and 6485 undergraduates select the courses from
other universities. The numbers of the involved universities, interscholastic shared
courses and participating students in the synchronous classrooms are shown in
Table 2.1.
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Table 2.1 Numbers of the involved universities, interscholastic shared courses
and participating students in the Synchronous Classroom
Number of Students Selecting
Shared Courses
Number of students
Total
Selecting Courses of
Number
Other Universities
Number of
Involved
Universities
Number
of Shared
Courses
2012 Fall
6
5
1648
1235
2013 Spring
8
6
2417
1768
2013 Fall
7
6
1953
1589
2014 Spring
8
6
2353
1893
23
8371
6485
Term
Total Number
Since application in 2012, the Synchronous Classroom has become very popular
among the undergraduates from eight normal universities. They consider the
Synchronous Classroom as a special teaching model strengthens the
interscholastic connections and make them experience different teaching styles
from other universities.
The application effect of the Synchronous Classroom is influenced by four factors
including teaching content, teaching model, technical support and organization
support. On the aspect of teaching content, according to the attention pattern of
adult learning, NUNTE encourages the universities recommending less than 3
credits, university-based courses for the Synchronous Classroom. On the aspect of
teaching model, the Synchronous Classroom is usually organized by teachers who
have profound academic attainments, rich teaching experiences and are good at
classroom management. The resources of shared course are published by the
university who undertakes it on the public service platform through online
learning management system for students who choose shared course from other
universities free use. Given too many students participating, the Synchronous
Classroom adopts an integrated model of synchronization and asynchroniztion to
answer questions in order to protect the teaching time. It means a few of
questions in class and a lot of questions after class should be answered by the
77
support of the learning and management system. On the aspect of technical
support, considering the technical support influencing the application effect and
student evaluation of the Synchronous Classroom, we set up technical standards
for live broadcasting classroom, listening classroom, video frame capturing and
make unified requirements for the hardware, software and internet of the
Synchronous Classroom. On the aspect of organization support, NUNTE
coordinates six national and two local normal universities who take part in the
Synchronous Classroom to sign the project cooperation contract to make sure the
basic norms for teaching management and technical support, and to ask the
professional technical team to monitor the whole process of live broadcasting
classroom and to record the tracking service of each class and to feedback the
technical tracking results to the live broadcasting university.
2.2 Sharing resources for normal universities’ graduates with tuition free to
purchase the master degree of education
In May 2007, the State determined to launch free education for normal
universities’ undergraduates. According to the policy, normal universities’
graduates with tuition free have the opportunity to purchase master degree of
education without examination after one term serving in the primary or secondary
schools. The normal university graduates with tuition free should adapt on job
learning model to purchase the master degree of education, which is composed by
distance education and concentrated face to face education on winter and
summer vocation.
In 2010, depending on the public service platform, NUNTE coordinated six national
normal universities to sign a cooperation contract on courses mutual selection and
credits mutual recognition. The normal universities graduates with tuition free
could select other universities’ courses at a specified quota on the public service
platform.
Since 2012 fall term to 2014 spring term, the six national universities have
undertaken 159 shared courses on the public service platform. The content of the
shared courses is extensive including moral construction, education theory,
pedagogy, education research methods, education information technology,
adolescents’ psychological healthy and classroom management. There were 6774
students selecting the shared courses from other universities. The number of the
involved universities, shared courses and participating students are presented in
Table 2.2.
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Table 2.2 Numbers of the involved universities, shared courses and
participating students in the task of Normal Universities’ Graduates with Tuition
Free to purchase Master Degree
Number of
Involved
Universities
Number of
Shared
Courses
Number of students Selecting
Courses of Other Universities
2012 Fall
6
41
2405
2013 Spring
6
38
1025
2013 Fall
6
51
2525
2014 Spring
5
29
819
159
6774
Term
Total Number
The normal university graduates with tuition free use the public service platform
to select courses undertaken by the other universities and login the online learning
platforms of the other universities by using the authorized account. The online
learning platforms of each universities offers convenience for normal university
graduates with tuition free to purchase master degree of education on job, which
makes them work and learn at the same time and solves the tension between the
lack of teacher resources in local primary and secondary school and the need of
teachers’ professional development. The public service platform offers more
choices for the normal university graduates and makes them shape themselves by
their own will and capability. Meanwhile, it makes use of the internet resources
such as the project of ‘Intel online learning community for normal universities
graduates with tuition free’ for learners to enjoy diverse and high quality teaching
resources, which is useful to shape teachers’ high complicated quality. Also, the
public service platform provides ‘My Space’ for the normal universities graduates
with tuition free, which helps the normal universities graduates from different
schools, different subjects and different regions to communicate online on this
platform at any time.
2.3 Sharing resources for primary and secondary school teachers’ continue
education
The public service platform provides degree education and non-degree education
on the task of primary and secondary school teachers’ continue education. At
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present, NUNTE coordinates seven universities on this public service platform to
launch courses mutual selection and credits mutual recognition at teachers’ online
degree education that encourages teachers with junior college degree to purchase
bachelor degree on the subject of Chinese language and literature as a trial.
Since 2012 fall term to 2014 spring term, as members of NUNTE, seven universities
including four national and two local normal universities and Peking university,
have launched 36 shared courses and organized 4076 students to take part in the
course mutual selection on the public service platform. The numbers of the
involved universities, shared courses, and participating teacher students are
shown in Table 2. 3.
Table 2.3 Numbers of the involved universities, shared courses, and participating
teacher students in the task of Teachers’ Online Degree Education as a trial
Number of
Involved
Universities
Number
of Shared
Courses
Number of students Selecting
Courses of Other Universities
2012 Fall
7
7
1654
2013 Spring
7
10
930
2013 Fall
7
10
822
2014 Spring
7
9
670
36
4076
Term
Total Number
In practice, through signing the cooperation contract, NUNTE helps every
university to overcome the difficulties in coordinating the proper time for course
selection, learning and evaluation, organizes students to select courses collectively
and coordinates universities to settle the expense.
CONCLUSIONS & IMPLICATIONS
In the era of information and the knowledge economy, building the public service
platform of NUNTE has a signification for reforming the service pattern of teacher
education and promoting teachers’ lifelong learning in China. The building and
successfully application of the public service platform push forward current
education reform, which is a shock wave for old education idea, teaching model
80
and management pattern. It breaks the traditional independent teaching model
among universities, liberates teachers from their own university and makes them
enter a wider teaching space outside their university. While the more learning
options students owing makes the competitions between teachers, which
promote them to take part in teaching reforms that improves the teaching quality.
As an education cloud, the public service platform is a “connection”, resources
especially high quality resources shared platform that provides service from the
third organization. It supports university members to undertake courses mutual
selection and credits mutual recognition between each other, which changes the
education model from depending on universities’ teaching capability to students’
diverse learning needs. It’s a pattern innovation that makes education be service.
The key point of the public service platform is to support three tasks NUNTE
undertaken, which runs through the teacher education including pre-service and
post-service education and makes an innovation on the service level.
Based on the public service platform, the members of NUNTE undertake three
tasks, such as the Synchronous Classroom, the courses mutual selection and
credits mutual recognition for the normal universities graduates with tuition free
to purchase the master degree of education and for the teachers’ online degree
education, which is a typical case about the integration of technology and
education and is a reform and innovation on teacher education including
transformation of teaching and learning, innovation of educational service pattern
and evaluation. NUNTE building the platform for teachers’ lifelong learning
through the integration of technology and teacher education makes useful
exploration and practice for constructing the lifelong learning system.
In future, in order to make the public service platform sustainably develop, we
should solve the problems on the systems and mechanisms of the third servicing
organization, make full use of the market mechanism to achieve the purpose of
enterprise operation, and stimulate the motivation of educational institutions and
teachers. We should strengthen cooperative innovation and do more on the
system and mechanism reform, platform building, and resources integrated,
updated and shared, etc. Meanwhile, we should follow the developmental trends
of technology especially the modern education technology. In the process of
courses mutual selection and credits mutual recognition, the platform should be
optimized and improved on its framework, functions and management model to
satisfy learners’ personal and diverse needs.
We should integrate more high quality education resources to amplify the
resource pool of the public service platform. As a public service platform run by
the third organization, it should be reformed on systems and mechanisms to
81
attract more education resources taking part in, not only the members of NUNTE,
but also the other social institutions. Also, the public service platform transmits
the high quality education resources to institutions who are non-members of
NUNTE and individuals especially teachers who are in the rural and remote
primary and secondary schools to expand the use scope of the resources and to
make contribution for education justice.
Reference
[1] Huaying BAO, Wenfeng Huang, Lan Xia, Exploration on the Model of High-quality
Teacher Education Resources Sharing among Colleges: A Study on Synchronized
Classroom of NUNTE[C], Tianjin, China: International Council for Open and Distance
Education, 2013
[2][3]Zenghui LIU, The National Union of Networked Teacher Education: An innovation
career [D], China distance education, 2013（12）, 25-38
[4] Huaying BAO, Wenfeng Huang, On the Service Pattern of Teacher Training based on
the National Union of Networked Teacher Education in China[C], Valencia: World
Conference on Continuing Engineering, 2012
ADDRESSING THE INTERNATIONAL ISSUE OF UNDEREMPLOYMENT
THROUGH E-LEARNING INITIATIVES: THE DIGITAL EDUCATION CASE
AT THE G. RAYMOND CHANG SCHOOL OF CONTINUING EDUCATION,
RYERSON UNIVERSITY, CANADA
Bountrogianni Marie, Djafarova Naza, The G. Raymond Chang School of Continuing
Education, Ryerson University, Canada
ABSTRACT: Underemployment is a well documented and growing policy concern,
resulting in significant earning loss and impacting the economic benefit of a
university degree. As we move into a global, knowledge-based economy, utilizing
the talents of young graduates and older workers is crucial to each nation's future
economic prosperity. This presentation will demonstrate how continuing
education and e-learning can address underemployment through partnerships
among education, business and government.
Through high-quality programming, the award-winning G. Raymond Chang School
of Continuing Education helps working professionals apply knowledge and skills to
the workplace. With 70,000 annual enrollments (20,000 of which are distance), we
are the largest university-based provider of adult education in Canada, with
programs based on multicultural and diversity principles that allow us to compete
82
on the global stage. Our success is largely due to the fact that our business
efficiency and course-production model allow us to develop 90 online courses
annually.
KEY WORDS: Underemployment, Economic prosperity, Online Education, Elearning
POSTER DESCRIPTION:
Underemployment is now a well documented and growing policy concern,
resulting in significant earning loss and impacting the economic benefit of a
university degree. As the countries of the world move into a knowledge-based
economy, tapping into the talents of young graduates and older workers is crucial
to each nation's future economic prosperity. This presentation will show how the
role of continuing education, and e-learning in particular, can address the issue of
underemployment through partnerships between education, business and
government.
Through relevant, high quality and flexible educational programming, The G.
Raymond Chang School of Continuing Education, Ryerson University, helps
learners such as working professionals apply their newfound knowledge and skills
to the workplace faster and more effectively. With annual enrollments exceeding
70,000, and 93 career-focused certificate programs, we are the largest universitybased provider of adult education in Canada and a leader in providing applied
adult learning that combines academic rigor with practical experience. Our
success is largely due to the fact that our course production process and delivery
model is based upon a model of business efficiency and cost effectiveness,
allowing us to increase course production and course delivery by 300% without
increasing staff numbers. We develop up to 90 courses annually, averaging 3500
hours of learning units, and distribute our course materials through national and
international partners. Furthermore, at close to over 20,000 annual distance
enrollments, we have 22 fully online certificate programs, with courses counting
toward 13 part-time degree programs.
The Chang School’s course design is continually recognized for its quality and
relevance and we develop our courses based on multicultural, interdisciplinary,
and interprofessional principals that allow us to compete on the global stage. We
have been the recipients of international and national awards for our programs
and pedagogical innovation, including the Sloan Consortium’s Award for
Excellence in Institution-Wide Online Education.
In this poster presentation, we will demonstrate how The Chang School has built
the internal capacity to develop and deliver high quality, engaging and relevant
curriculum aligned with recommended practices of adult learning principles and
83
constructivist theories. For our students in particular, this works well as it
encourages them to apply the skills and knowledge they acquire immediately into
their everyday lives. Our approach to online learning takes into account the needs
of adult learners from all stages of life. About (80%) of these learners are
employed and their average age is 36 years old. In a recent student survey, 93% of
distance education student respondents said they would choose to enroll in
another course offered by The Chang School.
Social media networking systems as an educational tool: the perception of
students from an Open Distance Learning (ODL) institution
Cant Michael C., Wiid Johannes A., Nell Corinne, University of South Africa, South
Africa
ABSTRACT: Organizations are increasing expecting students, who are entering the
workforce, to be proficient in the use of social media. Therefore, it is important
for students’ institutions to make use of similar technology in delivering
educational material. The aim of this study was to investigate students’
perceptions of the use of social media networking systems during their time of
studying at an Open Distance Learning (ODL) tertiary institution. The study
investigated whether students feel at ease when using social media networking
systems, whether they will be able to find information on these social media
networking systems, and whether they believe it will be an effective and easy way
to study course content. These were tested by making use of the Technology
Acceptance Model (TAM) constructs namely, “Perceived ease of use”, “Perceived
usefulness”, Attitude towards using”, and “System accessibility”. The study found
that students regarded “Perceived ease of use” as the most important factor to
consider when they are using social media networking systems.
KEY WORDS: Open Distance Learning; ODL; Social Media; Social Media Networking
Systems, TAM
Introduction
The way in which education is delivered to the student has changed dramatically
over the past few years. The days of a one dimensional offering of knowledge to a
passive audience, is long gone. Today’s student is more informed and technology
savvy than at any time in the past and with the advances in technology measured
in days and not years, this pace of change is accelerating. The use of Internetbased social media networking systems have enabled companies, consumers,
institutions and many more to communicate more effectively and in real time with
hundreds, even thousands of other people around the world about a specific topic,
84
product or issue at any point in time (Mangold & Faulds, 2009: 357). Social media
networking systems do not only make it easier for companies to communicate
with their consumers, but also makes it easier for tertiary institutions to
communicate related course work to their students, to encourage discussion
between and among students and to address administrative issues (Adamson,
2012; Moran, Seaman & Tinti-Kane, 2011: 4). Shen, Laffey, Lin and Huang (2006:
270) further indicate that online learning through means of various social media
networking systems have become a very common educational format to use by
both tertiary institutions and their students around the world, due to its flexibility
of time and place. Social media networking systems have the ability to enable
lecturers and students to collaborate and share information at any time
convenient to them and from any place in the world (Adamson, 2012).
Adamson (2012) and Picardo (2011:1), have different opinions concerning social
media networking systems in Higher Education Institution. Adamson (2012) is of
the opinion that social media networking systems might change the focus of
education from a single student to a group of students, but that students’
individual learning experience is enhanced through collaboration and informal
learning with their peers. However, according to Picardo (2011:1), it is a potential
threat that the use of social media networking systems in the tertiary institution
can lead to a loss of control for many lecturers as they experience social media
networking systems as being highly disruptive. This may be attributed to the fact
that students are more familiar with using different social media tools than the
lecturers (Picardo, 2011:1).
A lack in knowledge, according to King, Duke-Williams and Mottershead (in
Picardo, 2011) may cause lecturers to resist the adoption of social media
networking systems. This fact may have an impact on the use of social media
networking systems in tuition and it is important to establish the wishes of the
students in this regard.
Research objectives
The purpose of this study is to determine students’ perceptions on the use of
social media networking systems during their time of studying at an open distance
learning (ODL) tertiary institution. The following was specifically researched:
 To determine the perception of students on the effectiveness of social media
networking systems as a lecturing tool.
 To establish to what extent social media networking systems is utilised by
students.
 To investigate the relationship between social media networking systems as a
lecturing tool and the private use of social media networking systems by
students.
85
The following section gives an overview of social media networking systems, the
different types of social media networking systems, as well as a review of the
influence thereof on students. The empirical findings and the discussion of the
findings appears in the latter part of the paper.
Literature review
Overview of social media networking systems
Defining social media
Boyd and Ellison (2008:211) define social media as, “... web-based services that
allow individuals to construct a public or a semi-public profile within a bounded
system, articulate a list of other users with whom they share a connection and
view and traverse their list of connections and those made by others within the
system”. Mangold and Faulds (2009:357) on the other hand define social media or
‘consumer-generated media’ as, “... a variety of new sources of online information
that are created, initiated, circulated and used by consumers intent on educating
each other about products, brands, services, personalities and issues”.
Evident from these definitions is that social media networking systems include
various online, and word-of-mouth forums which also includes blogs, companysponsored discussion boards and chat rooms, consumer-to-consumer email,
consumer product or service ratings websites and forums, Internet discussion
boards and forums, moblogs (sites containing digital audio, images, movies, or
photographs), and social networking websites, to only name a few (Mangold &
Faulds, 2009:358).
Larson (2012) explains that the five most popular social media networking systems
used and accepted in the market are; Facebook with 901 million users, Twitter
with 555 million users, Google+ with 170 million users, LinkedIn with 150 million
users and lastly Pinterest with 11.7 million users. Given the importance and
relevance of these different social media networking systems, a brief discussion of
each is given below.
 Facebook
Facebook is a social media networking system which was originally developed for
tertiary students. Today it is open for any individual older than 13 years of age.
Facebook enables their users to create and modify their own profiles with photos,
videos and information about themselves. Facebook friends have the ability to
browse the profiles of other friends, as well as write messages to them (Tech
terms, 2008).
86
Facebook is a one-way communication form and it is a very effective tool to use
for sharing information, as well as collaborating with students from a safe
distance. Facebook groups do not require their members to be friends with each
other and the members of the group can easily and immediately swap and upload
files, links, articles, information and videos at no cost. A Facebook page can, for
example, be used as a central page for students and lecturers to share and discuss
information (The Guardian, 2013).
 Twitter
Twitter is a micro-blogging application that can be described as a combination of
instant messaging and blogging. It has established itself as an effective tool for
communicating news, market trends, questions and answers, as well as sharing
photos, videos and links with many benefits for both business and personal use
(Social Media defined, 2008).
Some lecturers in tertiary institutions have managed to set-up subject or class
Twitter accounts that students can follow. Lecturers can tweet information
relevant to their subjects and they can even tweet homework or reading work to
their students following them (The Guardian, 2013).
 Google+
Google+ is a social networking system from Google that is presently an invitationonly service that offers functionality and many features that is comparable to
Facebook (PCMAG, 2013). Google+ has developed and introduced Circles which is
used to share information among different groups of people, Sparks which is used
to offer videos and articles, and Hangouts which is used for video chatting with a
friend or group of friends, together with other unique features (Webopedia, 2013).
WikiHow (n.d.) explains that the features offered by Google + (Circle, Sparks and
Hangouts) are of great value for lecturers teaching at institutions that are located
at a distance from their students. The reason for this is that Google+ Hangouts is a
tool that is created in order to reduce the travel-strain in the teaching processes.
The time can then be used by lecturers to carry out more virtual classrooms at
more places. Therefore Google+ enables institutions to teach more students with
fewer lecturers, in that way saving costs, as well as placing institutions in a position
to reward lecturers in more effective ways. The main benefit of Google+ Hangouts
is that it enables lecturers to teach to ten classrooms simultaneously.
 LinkedIn
LinkedIn allows people to share work-related information with other users as well
as to keep an online list of other professional contacts. It is a social networking
website that is aimed at business professionals (WhatIs, 2013). LinkedIn also allow
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their users to create a profile page. The only difference is that a LinkedIn profile is
created based on a business focus, instead of on a personal focus. In other words,
a LinkedIn profile highlights education and past work experiences, almost the
same as a resume. The profile also enables other users to see the connections list
of each other, as well as the recommendations that are made to or received from
other users (Tech Terms, 2010).
 Pinterest
Pinterest is a social media website that enables users to organise and share
images, quotes and videos from around the Web (Walker, 2013). Images that are
uploaded by users/pinners are called Pins and can be organised into pinboards
that are customised, themed and followed by other users. Users/pinners are
allowed to like or repin images, videos and quotes that is shared by other users.
Pinterest is very similar to Twitter, as any pinner/user can follow another
(TechoPedia, 2013).
According to The Guardian (2013), Pinterest is becoming very popular as a virtual
pinboard. It is a very effective way to share web resources that both students and
lecturers might find interesting or relevant. Pinterest enables lecturers to make
different pinboards by creating different categories that students can find useful
and the other way around.
 Youtube
YouTube is a video sharing service that enables users to watch videos that are
posted by other users, as well as upload their own videos. All uploaded videos on
YouTube appear on the YouTube website and can also be posted on other
websites, although the original files are hosted on the YouTube server (PCMAG,
2013).
Although the YouTube service was originally designed for ordinary people who
want to publish videos that they have created themselves, a number of companies
and organisations use YouTube to promote their businesses (Tech Terms, 2009).
People also use YouTube to post instructional videos for instance step-by-step and
do-it-yourself guides, educational information lessons, power point presentations
and other how-to videos (Tech Terms, 2009).
Adamson (2012) stated that social media networking systems are an important
tool for learning and should be used for this purpose more extensively. Due to the
fact that both students and some lecturers are familiar with social media
networking systems they should take advantage of this and use social media
networking systems as a platform for communication, learning and collaboration,
as well as sharing ideas and topics of interest (Adamson, 2012). In order to use
88
social media networking systems effectively both lecturers and students should be
aware of the benefits of social media networking systems. By doing this, it will
enable them to communicate with each other on a more effective, flexible and
faster way (Laffey et al., 2006: 270).
The use and benefits of social media networking systems
Jackson (2011) found that using social media networking systems in classrooms
have a positive psychological effect on students. As soon as students were
allowed to answer questions by means of using, for example Twitter, they felt less
pressured even though the answer was wrong.
Table 1 below summarises the ways in which social media networking systems can
be implemented in teaching, as well as the benefits thereof.
Table 1: Uses and benefits of social media networking systems
Type of
Social
Media
System
Description of use and benefits


Facebook






Twitter



Improve communication by enabling students to easily contact
lecturers and other students with questions.
Easily integrate class projects with Facebook through the sharing of
books, reviews and promoting student work.
Use Facebook applications and groups in order to make learning and
studying easier and more enjoyable for students.
Create a Facebook page where you can schedule events, post notes
and remind students of important dates and due dates.
Be a news source by posting status updates and follow other media
and well-known leaders.
Post additional materials such as links to articles and videos in order
for students to continue with their learning even if classes are over.
Setting-up specific feeds to enable all students to see and monitor
certain events.
Develop a feed for your students in order to tweet about important
dates, upcoming events and assignments, as well as class news.
Connect with other students, lecturers, as well as parents in order to
increase communication and build community.
Follow tweets of other lecturers’ in order to keep up with the latest
teaching trends, to get ideas and to support one another.
Share ideas and collaborate with lecturers and students from other
classes, schools and departments.
89


Pinterest




YouTube


Use community boards for group projects, as well as brainstorming
to enable a number of users to save their resources in one place.
Allow and encourage students to use Pinterest for presentations and
projects.
Search for inspiring tips on how to organise and decorate your
classroom.
Search, find, pin and organise images, projects, videos, stories etc for
future classes and projects.
Search for video-clips under specific topics that can be used in the
classroom to give a lesson in a more memorable way.
Organise playlists to enable students to easily find and watch all
relevant and approved videos on a topic.
Record lessons and post them on YouTube in order for students to
review them whenever they want to.
Create interactive videos by adding quizzes, comments etc to it.
Source: Lepi, K. 2012. 25 Ways teachers can integrate social media into education.
[Online] Available from: http://edudemic.com/2012/07/a-teachers-guide-to -socialmedia/ [Accessed: 13-02-2013].
According to Picardo (2011) students’ perceptions and use of technology will play
a part in the use or absence of social media networking systems in tertiary
institutions. The question still to be answered is; ‘Do students wish to interact
with their lecturers online’? The answer to this question may be more complex
than it initially appears to be, as the participation of students in a social media
networking system should be voluntary in order to ensure that the necessary
quality of interaction and cooperation is obtained in order to improve teaching
and learning (Picardo, 2011).
Picardo (2011) further argues that social media networking systems challenge the
ability of both lecturers and students to interact and collaborate successfully via
this medium, meaning that when it comes to academia students do not feel
comfortable with the degree of transparency needed in order for the social media
networking systems to be effective.
The five constructs of the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) was studied in
order to determine the students’ perceptions on the use of social media
networking systems in tertiary institutions (higher education), the five constructs
of the Technology Acceptance Module was studied. These are discussed in the
next section.
Technology Acceptance Model
The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) is an information system (a system that
90
consists of all the network communication channels used within an organisation)
theory that demonstrates how users accept and use specific technology (Davis,
1993:475). The model indicates that when users are confronted with a new
software package, various factors influence their decision about how and when
they will use this specific technology (Mazhar, 2006). Davis, Bagozzi and Warshaw
(1989:985) indicated that user motivation can be explained by three constructs;
‘Perceived ease of use’, ‘Perceived usefulness’, and ‘Attitude toward using the
system’.
‘Perceived usefulness’ is the first construct which is described according to Davis
(1993:477) as, “... the degree to which an individual believes that using a particular
system would enhance his or her job performance”. The second construct which is
‘Perceived ease of use’ is defined as, “... the degree to which an individual believes
that using a particular system would be free from effort” (Davis, 1993:477). The
third construct is ‘Attitude towards using’ and is defined as, “... the degree of
evaluative affect that an individual associates with using the target the target
system in his or her job”. The last construct that was being tested, was that of
‘System accessibility’ which refers to organisational context variables.
These constructs were imbedded in the research study. The next section deals
with the research methodology and the findings of the research.
Research methodology
Students’ perceptions on social media networking systems were determined by
the use of a questionnaire. The questionnaire mostly incorporated questions that
are of a quantitative nature. A total of 221 correctly completed questionnaires
were obtained.
The demographic profile of the respondent group is presented in Table 2 below.
The majority of students (29.80 per cent) were between 18 and 24 years of age.
The gender split for the respondent group is female dominated, with 63 per cent
of the students being female. Most of the respondents are African (62.63 per
cent).
Table 2: Demographic profile
Age group
18-24
25-29
30-34
35-39
40+
Gender
% of Total
29.80%
25.25%
17.68%
15.66%
11.62%
N
59
50
35
31
23
91
Age group
Male
Female
Race
African
Coloured
Indian
White
% of Total
37.00%
63.00%
N
74
126
62.63%
18.95%
4.74%
13.68%
119
36
9
26
Research findings
Perceptions of students on social media networking systems as a lecturing tool
Respondents were asked to rate 21 statements on a seven point Likert scale (1
being “Strongly disagree” and 7 being “Strongly agree”) to determine the
perceptions students had of social media networking systems.
The 21 statements are structured as five sub-constructs:

‘Perceived ease of use’: statements 1 to 5

‘Perceived usefulness’: statements 6 to 10

‘Attitude towards using’: statements 11 to 15

‘Intention to use’: statements 16 to 20

‘System accessibility’: statement 21
Table 3 below represents the first construct- ‘Perceived ease of use’.
Table 3: ‘Perceived ease of use’
Strongly
Disagree
2
3
4
5
6
Strongly
Agree
Mean
% of Total
Social network
1 systems is easy 12.89%
to use
Easy learning
to use social
2
11.34%
network
systems
Interaction
3
10.94%
with
social
6.19 7.22
%
%
10.82
%
8.76%
13.40
40.72%
%
4.99
4.64 7.22
%
%
11.86
%
9.28%
15.98
39.69%
%
5.10
6.25 6.77
%
%
14.58
%
10.42
%
17.19
33.85%
%
4.94
92
Strongly
Disagree
2
3
4
5
6
Strongly
Agree
Mean
% of Total
network
systems is clear
and
understandabl
e
Easy to find
information on
4
10.42%
social network
systems
Easy
to
become skilful
5 at using social 8.81%
network
systems
8.33 4.17
%
%
14.06
%
13.54
%
17.19
32.29%
%
4.93
7.77 5.18
%
%
15.03
%
16.58
%
13.99
32.64%
%
4.95
The majority of respondents marked a 5, 6 or 7, indicating that they strongly
agreed with the statements, this is also shown by the averages varying from 4.93
to 5.10, although few respondents strongly disagreed. All the measurements of
perceived ease of use’ were agreed upon by the respondents. Considering the
averages (for ranking purposes) the mostly agreed upon item is the item ‘Learning
to use social networking systems would be easy for me’.
The following share chart produces a visual representation of the responses with
red agreeing and blue disagreeing.
Figure 1: ‘Perceived ease of use’ responses
93
Table 4 below represents the second construct – ‘Perceived usefulness’.
Table 4: ‘Perceived usefulness’
Strongly
Disagre 2
e
% of Total
6
7
8
9
10
Using social
network
systems
would
enhance
effectivenes
s in teaching
Using social
network
systems
would
improve
course
performance
Using social
network
systems
would
increase my
productivity
in
my
teaching
work
I
found
social
network
systems
useful
Social
network
systems
could make
it easier to
study course
content
3
4
5
6
Strongl Mea
y Agree n
11.52%
7.85
%
10.47
%
14.14
%
15.71
%
15.71
%
24.61% 4.60
14.14%
7.33
%
8.38%
19.37
%
13.09
%
14.14
%
23.56% 4.47
16.93%
5.82
%
8.99%
18.52
%
15.34
%
11.11
%
23.28% 4.36
14.52%
7.53
%
4.30%
14.52
%
11.29
%
17.74
%
30.11% 4.74
18.03%
7.65
%
8.74%
17.49
%
14.21
%
13.11
%
20.77% 4.25
94
agreed with the statements, this is also shown by the averages varying from 4.25
to 4.74, although some respondents strongly disagreed. The respondents agreed
upon all the measurements of ‘perceived usefulness’. Considering the averages
(for ranking purposes) the mostly agreed upon item is ‘I found social network
systems useful‘, while the item ‘Social network systems could make it easier to
study course content’ were least agreed upon.
Figure 2: Perceived usefulness responses
Table 5 below represents the third construct – ‘Attitude towards using
social media’.
Table 5: ‘Attitude towards using social media’
Strongly
2
Disagree
3
4
5
6
Strongly
Mean
Agree
% of Total
Disliking the idea
11 of using social 16.40% 8.99% 5.82% 10.05% 10.05% 12.70% 35.98% 4.70
network systems
Favourable
attitude towards
12
18.92% 5.95% 7.03% 18.38% 14.05% 13.51% 22.16% 4.32
using
social
network systems
Good idea to use
13 social network 17.84% 9.19% 6.49% 15.14% 14.59% 12.43% 24.32% 4.34
systems
for
95
Strongly
2
Disagree
3
4
5
6
Strongly
Mean
Agree
% of Total
teaching
Using
social
14 network systems 12.23%
is a foolish idea
Positive towards
15 social network 17.74%
systems
4.79% 3.19% 11.17% 11.70% 9.04% 47.87% 5.24
4.30% 7.53% 10.22% 15.59% 16.67% 27.96% 4.63
Please note that items Question 13.11 and Question 13.14 were reversed. Most
respondents agreed with the statements by marking 5, 6 or 7, this is also shown by
the averages varying from 4.32 to 5.24, although some respondents strongly
disagreed. The respondents agreed upon all the measurements of ‘Attitude
towards social media use’. Considering the averages (for ranking purposes) the
mostly agreed upon item is ‘Using social network systems is (NOT) a foolish idea’,
while the item ‘I have a generally favourable attitude towards using social network
systems’ were least agreed upon.
Figure 3: Attitude towards using social media responses
Table 6 below represents the fourth construct – ‘Intention to use social media’.
96
Table 6: Intention to use social media
Strongly
Disagre 2
e
% of Total
1
6
1
7
1
8
1
9
2
0
Intend to use
social network
systems
for
teaching
purposes
Often return
to
social
network
systems
Intend to visit
social network
systems
frequently for
teaching work
Intend to be a
heavy user of
social network
systems
Intend to use
social network
systems
for
communicatio
n
3
4
5
6
Strongl Mea
y Agree n
18.18%
6.42
%
7.49%
19.25
%
12.83
%
14.44
%
21.39% 4.31
15.76%
4.89
%
8.70%
20.65
%
10.87
%
10.87
%
28.26% 4.52
15.96%
5.32
%
9.04%
13.83
%
16.49
%
14.89
%
24.47% 4.52
18.52%
6.88
%
12.17
%
17.46
%
12.70
%
11.11
%
21.16% 4.17
13.37%
6.95
%
7.49%
11.23
%
14.97
%
9.63% 36.36% 4.82
agreed with the statements, although some respondents strongly disagreed. All
the measurements of ‘intention to use’ were agreed upon by the respondents.
Considering the averages (for ranking purposes) the mostly agreed upon item is ‘I
intend to use social network systems for communicating with others’, while the
item ‘I intend to be a heavy user of social network systems’ were least agreed
upon.
97
Figure 4: Intention to use social media
Table 7 below represents the fifth construct – ‘System accessibility’.
Table 7: ‘System accessibility’
Strongly
2
Disagree
% of Total
No
difficulty
accessing and using
21
12.50%
an
e-learning
system
3
4
5
6
Strongly
Agree
5.43% 8.15% 10.33% 15.22% 14.67% 33.70%
Most respondents agreed with the statement ‘I have no difficulty accessing and
using an e-learning system in the university’ by marking 5, 6 or 7. The average for
ranking purposes is 4.89.
Reliability of the sub-constructs
Reliability is the consistency of the measurement, or the degree to which an
instrument measures the same way each time it is used under the same condition
with the same subjects. A Cronbach’s alpha value above 0.8 has a very good
reliability, a value between 0.6 and 0.8 has an acceptable reliability and a value
below 0.6 has an unacceptable reliability. The Cronbach’s alpha for the four subconstructs all yielded high Cronbach’s alpha values (≥0.80) indicating good
reliability. Table 8 below represents the Cronbach’s alpha values of each of the
five sub-constructs. Please note that ‘Accessibility’ is only one item and cannot be
tested for reliability.
98
Table 8: Cronbach’s alpha
Sub-construct
Ease of use score
Usefulness score
Attitude score
Intention score
Accessibility score
Questions
Statements 1 to 5
Statements 6 to 10
Statements 11 to 15
Statements 16 to 20
Statement 21
Cronbach’s alpha
0.92
0.92
0.80
0.91
None
The individual Cronbach’s Coefficient Alpha value of each dimension is used as a
measure of the reliability of the tested dimension. A reliable Cronbach’s
Coefficient Alpha value validates that the individual items of a dimension
measured the same dimension (concept) in the same manner (or consistently).
For each sub-construct a mean was calculated to assess the level of agreement
among sub-constructs. Table 9 below shows the means and standard deviations.
Table 9: Means and standard deviation
Sub-construct
Ease of use score
Usefulness score
Attitude score
Intention score
Accessibility score
Mean
4.98
4.50
4.64
4.44
4.89
Standard Deviation
1.80
1.84
1.65
1.84
2.10
Although the mean of the sub-constructs ‘Ease of use’ and ‘Intention’ were closely
distributed, ‘Ease of use’ was considered most important with a mean of 4.98,
while ‘Intention’ was least important with a mean of 4.44. The fact that the means
were closely distributed indicates a general agreement on the importance of all
the sub-constructs, but not strong.
The standard deviations are fairly high indicating variation in agreement among
sub-constructs.
Profiling the views of respondents on social media networking systems
The biographical variables age, gender and population group were tested against
the sub-constructs for significant different views. Of the biographical variables
tested, only age groups showed significant different views.
99
Comparison of the respondents views on the five sub-constructs of social media use
among age groups
A profile plot from Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) will be used in
order to explore differences between the different sub-constructs mean score’s of
students of different age groups.
The profile plots from the MANOVA shows the least square means
Figure 5: Students of different age groups on five social media sub-constructs
It is clear from the figure that there is a difference between some of the age
groups. The age-groups 18-24 years and 30-34 years seemed to view the subconstructs of social media more important than the rest of the age-groups.
In order to develop a profile of the different age groups, the following descriptive
statistics should be taken into consideration, as observed from the table below.
Table 10: Descriptive statistics of age groups
Age group
18-24
25-29
30-34
35-39
40+
Ease of use Usefulness
score
score
5.23
4.93
4.98
4.11
5.00
4.83
4.91
3.91
4.25
3.98
Attitude
score
4.99
4.52
5.04
4.19
3.98
100
Intention
score
4.91
4.13
4.90
3.93
3.94
Accessibility
score
5.09
4.88
4.68
4.54
5.00
The 18-24 years and 30-34 years age groups have higher scores on ‘Usefulness’
(4.93 and 4.83), ‘Attitude’ (4.99 and 5.04) and ‘Intention’ (4.91 and 4.90) than the
other age groups.
Separate Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) were conducted for each sub-construct in
order to determine whether these differences between the means of the agegroups are statistically significant. The distributions of the constructs were tested
for normality. Because the sub-constructs were not normally distributed
nonparametric Kruskall Wallis tests was used instead of ANOVA.
From the Kruskall Wallis analyses probability values (p-values) were produced. A
‘p-value’ smaller than 0.05 indicates a significant difference between the means of
the dimension tested for the spectator groups at a 95per cent level of confidence.
Only significant differences are shown in table 11 below.
Table 11: Significant differences
Chi-Square
value
10.36
9.79
to 9.09
Sub-construct
DF
P-value
Significance
Usefulness
Attitude
Intention
use
4
4
4
0.0348
0.0442
0.0589
Significant
Significant
Borderline case
Significant differences between the age-groups exist for the sub-constructs
‘Usefulness’ and ‘Attitude’ at a 95per cent level of confidence, while ‘Intention to
use’ is significant at a 90per cent level of confidence.
Conclusion
Today people, specifically students, are more enabled to become informed and
aware of the different types of technological systems as opposed to a few years
ago. The use of the internet has further enabled many people, students and
institutions around the world to communicate more effectively with each other on
specific topics and issues at any point in time (Mangold & Faulds, 2009: 357).
Therefore, it becomes evident that the use of social media networking systems
among tertiary institutions does not only make communication easier between
them and the students, but it can also add a lot of value in encouraging discussions
between and among students, as well as addressing administrative issues (Moran,
Seaman & Tinti-Kane, 2011: 4; Adamson, 2012).
101
The findings revealed that ‘Ease of use’ and ‘Accessibility’ are the most important
factors according to students’ perceptions of the effectiveness of social media
networking systems as a lecturing tool.. It is clear that social media networking
systems can easily be adopted as an educational tool, as learners are exposed to
social media networking systems in a social application. Although, social media
networking systems are regarded as useful, there is a degree of doubt that it could
ease up the learning process. It is clear according to the findings that using social
media networking systems for educational purposes is not a foolish idea and that
students would like to use social media networking systems to communicate with
fellow students, lecturers; discussion forums etc. The responsiveness and
application of social media networking systems makes it an ideal instrument for
real time communication.
When analysing the constructs and by taking demographic information into
consideration, no significant biographical differences were found, except for agegroups. The age-groups 18-24 years and 30-34 years seemed to view the subconstructs of social media networking systems as more important than the rest of
the age-groups.
The study showed that social media networking systems are used more for social
purposes than it is for work purposes, and it is used between 0 and 5 hours per
week. Facebook is the most used social media application. Furthermore, the agegroup 40+ used Facebook significantly less than the other age-groups.
When analysing the relationship between perceptions of social media networking
systems and use of social media networking systems, the findings revealed that
the users of social media networking systems considered all the constructs as
more important than the none users of social media networking systems. The
constructs ‘Ease of use’, ‘Attitude’, ‘Intention to use’ and ‘Accessibility’ were
significantly more important for the none users of social media networking
systems.
Lastly, the study found that younger age groups generally put more importance on
the use of social media networking systems, while students that do not use social
media networking systems put less emphasis on it. It is therefore recommended
that tertiary institutions make social media networking systems for educational
purposes more attractive by implementing programmes to stimulate usage,
especially under older students. The type of social media networking systems
used should be easy to use, as well as accessible.
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COGNITIVE ENGAGEMENT IN ONLINE INTERACTIONS
IN INTERCULTURAL SETTINGS: BEYOND ANALYTICS
Casimiro Leni, Adventist International Institute of Advanced Studies, Philippines
ABSTRACT: The high drop out or attrition rate in many online classes as well as
concerns on their quality have attracted research in online student engagement.
Of particular importance among the dimensions of engagement is cognitive
engagement because of its close affinity with learning. However, the distance
factor between teachers and online students and the mental nature of cognitive
processes makes cognitive engagement difficult to observe. Academic analytics
provide a picture of student engagement but learning is far from quantifiable. This
paper attempts to explore the conditions that support cognitive engagement in
online classes through discourse analysis of the discussion forum. Results showed
five conditions that could have defined student engagement: nature of discussion
questions, the mitigating factors for the level of student response, learning
community, student characteristics, and teacher facilitation. Of these five, the
nature of discussion questions and learning community appeared to be the best to
104
promote cognitive engagement.
KEY WORDS: student engagement, cognitive engagement, analytics, online
interactions
INTRODUCTION
Student engagement has been a well-researched construct in mainstream
education because of the need to improve student outcomes in schools. Many
studies show that there is a “causal relationship between engaged time, that is,
the period of time in which students are completely focused on and participating
in the learning task, and academic achievement” (Bulger, et al., 2008, p.76). They
also found that students who are highly engaged in their classes have higher
chances of completion and lower tendency to drop out of school (Davis, et al.,
2012).
The reported high drop out or attrition rate in online classes (Burnsed, 2010) as
well as concerns on quality online instruction have likewise attracted research in
online student engagement. Since online courses are usually designed in advance
before delivery, teachers and instructional designers normally ask, how can I be
sure that students will learn in this class? Two big words come to the fore:
interactivity and engagement. That is, online students must interact not just with
teachers but also with peers, content, and their environment (Anderson, 2008);
and at the same time be fully engaged in the learning process. The two concepts
are actually interrelated since interactivity is considered one of the conditions for
engagement (Davis, et al., 2012).
The distance factor between teachers and students in online education makes
student engagement difficult to observe in this modality. This is complicated
further when students come from varied cultural backgrounds, a common
scenario in most online classes. Some evidences like interacting actively in online
discussions may be used to gauge engagement; but what if the interaction is
merely socialization? Strong connections with classmates may prevent the student
from dropping out but it doesn’t automatically translate to deeper thinking
processes or cognitive engagement. On the other hand, a student may not be very
active in the discussion forum but is actually actively processing the lesson
mentally on his own and may even top the final exam. This is probably the reason
why too few studies have been done on online student engagement.
One way of observing student engagement in online learning that has recently
become popular is through academic analytics (Campbell, Oblinger, & DeBlois,
2007). Learning management systems are now capable of tracking and storing vast
amounts of data on student behavior, such as number of posts in the discussion
forum, number of times a student accesses a resource or learning activity, and
105
others. However, although these data can be used as indicators of engagement,
they cannot fully represent learning and thus are merely called “proxies for actual
learning” (Beer, et al., 2010).
How then is student engagement in online learning best explained? More
specifically, how can we be sure that online students are cognitively engaged in
the learning process? What are the conditions that lead to deeper thinking
processes in online courses? These are the questions this study aims to explore.
This study attempts to contribute to the scanty research in online student
engagement and at the same time supplement the limitations of learning
analytics.
Literature Review
Two strong forces that have rekindled interest on student engagement in recent
years are the need to improve school completion rates (Lawson & Lawson, 2013)
and the changing demands of the global marketplace (Manzilla & Jackson, 2011).
Research has proven that students who are engaged in school tend to achieve
academically (Bulger, et al., 2008; Lawson & Lawson, 2013; Fredricks, et al., 2004).
The new global economy, likewise, call for students who must have been deeply
and actively engaged in their learning because, among others, they are expected
to be able to think critically, solve problems, reason effectively, communicate
clearly, and collaborate with others (Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2009).
In this review, engagement, as a construct, is then explored followed by a special
focus on cognitive engagement. Two important conditions that may influence
engagement that are present in the subject of this study are likewise briefly
discussed: learning community and interculturality.
Student Engagement
Student engagement is the “quality of effort students themselves devote to
educationally purposeful activities that contribute directly to desired outcomes”
(Krause & Coates, as cited in Beer, et al., 2010, p. 76). Other authors simply define
engagement in terms of students’ time-on-task, willingness to participate in
activities, interest, effort, and motivation (Beer, et al., 2010). Researchers,
however, agree that the construct is complex and is multifaceted in nature.
Fredricks, et al. (2004) define engagement in three ways
Behavioral engagement draws on the idea of participation; it includes involvement
in academic and social or extracurricular activities and is considered crucial for
achieving positive academic outcomes and preventing dropping out. Emotional
engagement encompasses positive and negative reactions to teachers, classmates,
academics, and school and is presumed to create ties to an institution and
influence willingness to do the work. Finally, cognitive engagement draws on the
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idea of investment; it incorporates thoughtfulness and willingness to exert the
effort necessary to comprehend complex ideas and master difficult skills. (p. 60)
Davis, et al. (2012) also believe on the three-dimensional nature of engagement
but contend that emotional engagement is actually referring to relational
engagement because it encompasses the need for acceptance and belonging in
the school.
Engagement in Online Learning
Engagement studies in online learning do not deviate from the foundational
definitions of the construct. Researchers, however, recognize that the difficulties
of measuring engagement in traditional classroom settings are even more
magnified when done online (Douglas & Alemanne, as cited in Beer, et al., 2010).
Some difficulties that could inhibit engagement in online learning are
procrastination, unpreparedness for self-directed learning, distance, lack of
competency in the language used in the virtual class, etc. These underscore the
importance of understanding how student engagement is achieved online and the
accompanying difficulty of measuring it. To address these problems, researchers
suggest ways to design online classes in order to ensure engagement. The
following have been found, thus far: (1) learning communities (Palloff & Pratt,
1999); (2) multimedia (Stoney & Oliver, 1999); (3) active online discussion forums
(Levy, 2008; Casimiro, 2009); (4) authentic learning activities (Visser, 2012); (5)
responsive student support system (Secreto, 2014); and (6) effective instructional
design (Casimiro, 2009).
Cognitive Engagement
Amidst all suggestions to engage online students, concerns are still aired as to the
certainty of cognitive engagement in online classes. Davis, et al. (2012), for
instance, stress that a student may be behaviorally engaged but not cognitively
engaged. Thus, others take the extreme stand that “for learning to be truly
meaningful students have to be cognitively engaged” (Solis, 2008, para. 1).
Of the three engagement types, it is cognitive engagement that is closest to
learning as it involves the mental processes involved in class work. Cognitive
engagement typically describe “the ways in which students think deeply about
ideas and concepts, how they make meaning of the material presented to them,
and how they use self-regulating and metacognitive strategies to master academic
content and tasks” (Lawson & Lawson, 2013, p. 436). Thus, of the three
dimensions of engagement, cognitive engagement is the most difficult to observe
and probably the most difficult to achieve.
Some strategies suggested by educators include teaching for meaning, teaching for
critical thinking, and using high-level questions when preparing questions for
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discussion based on the cognitive dimension of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational
objectives (Peterson and Taylor, n.d.;).
Learning Community
One of the basic premises of successful online learning is the formation of learning
community in the online class (Palloff & Pratt, 1999; Garrison & Anderson, 2003).
Social relationships and connections tend to support cognitive engagement as it
encourages discourse. Research has already established that a sense of belonging
with teachers or successful peers can facilitate school achievement (Davis, et al.,
2012).
Interactivity in a learning community needs to be fostered in order to challenge
students cognitively. In today’s classrooms, “the trend is to reduce the ‘amount’ of
information delivered and to increase the ‘interactive value’ of the learning
experience” (Simonson, Smaldino, Albright, & Zvacek, 2012, p. 157). Interactivity in
online classes normally happens in the discussion area if done asynchronously, and
chat rooms or videoconferencing rooms if done synchronously.
Interculturality
In today’s online classrooms, it has become inevitable to see cultural differences
with students coming from many countries, educational backgrounds, and mother
tongues. While it can become a challenge in face-to-face interactions, it is much
more so online (Mason, 2003, p. 751). Thus, to address this challenge,
interculturality is to be practiced in the online classroom. Interculturality is defined
as “the interaction of people from different cultural backgrounds using authentic
language appropriately in a way that demonstrates knowledge and understanding
of the cultures. It is the ability to experience the culture of another person and to
be open minded, interested, and curious about that person and culture”
(University of North Carolina School of Education, 2010).
Methodology:
This study used computer mediated discourse analysis (Herring, 2008) to examine
the dynamics in online interactions, both by individual students and as a group.
Since the focus of interest is cognitive engagement, the thinking processes
involved in the responses by students was assessed vis-à-vis actual conditions in
the online class.
To observe the full impact of distance in learning online, a fully online class was
chosen for this study. The class was made up of 14 fully online graduate students
who were taking a Master of Public Health course in one university. The students
came from 8 countries in three continents: Asia, Africa, and America.
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The first step was to look at the discussion questions posted by the teacher to
determine their cognitive level in terms of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational
objectives (Anderson, et al., 2001). Then students’ responses were examined as to
their quality or cognitive level and the possible factors that could have influenced
their engagement.
Discussion of Findings
Analysis of interactions in the discussion forums of the observed online class
showed five areas that could have defined student engagement. These were the
type of questions prepared by the teacher, the quality of students’ response, the
existence of a learning community, teacher’s forum facilitation, and certain
student characteristics.
On Teacher’s Discussion Questions
All of the 20 main discussion questions that were prepared for the whole duration
of the class were found to be in the higher level of the cognitive domain of
Bloom’s taxonomy. A few were testing mainly for understanding or
comprehension of the content but 90% of the total called for application, analysis,
synthesis, and evaluation skills of students. This is an example of the question
posted by the teacher:
Calcium, a bone mineral, is an important nutrient in bone health. Ecologic studies
show that the incidence of hip fractures (an indicator of osteoporosis or another
bone disease) is more prevalent in developed countries where calcium intake is
higher than in developing countries. What do you think is/are the reasons for this
paradox?
In this question, the teacher not only expects students to analyze the paradox but
also calls them to think globally. Eight of the 20 discussion questions were global in
nature, hence students from different countries were equally motivated to
participate in the discussion.
Along with the main discussion questions and during the discussion period, the
teacher occasionally posted follow-up questions as well to further direct the
students to essential related topics. These questions were also found to be in the
application and above levels of Bloom’s taxonomy. Thus, it can be said that the
teacher in the observed class initiated cognitive engagement on the students.
On Students’ Responses
There was a total of 1,488 responses on the questions from the 14 students.
Hence, each of the main question posted by the teacher generated an average of
64 responses, a proof that the students were generally motivated to participate in
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class discussions. These responses were examined and six levels of cognitive
engagement emerged from the data, namely:
1. Lurking or non-response – zero cognitive engagement. There may be
personal engagement with the course content but no evidence is yet
observed.
2. Praising/Simply agreeing – little cognitive engagement. While expressing
simple agreement to a classmate’s answer is an indication of
acknowledgment of a good answer, a desire to connect with others, or
for one’s presence to be felt in class, it doesn’t always indicate
understanding of the lesson.
3. Connecting – some cognitive engagement. The student attempts to
respond but bases the answer purely on personal opinions or
experiences and thus lacks scholarship.
4. Extending – The student responds to the question and shows interest by
asking further questions or clarifications along the same line of argument.
5. Expanding – The student responds to the question and also (a) adds fresh
ideas to the discussion, (b) applies concepts learned to new situations, or
(c) considers implications in other areas of the topic.
6. Emancipating – An evidence of mastery of the topic is shown by
exercising critical thinking and making personal convictions on the issue
at hand. At this stage, the student is able to engage in intellectual conflict,
without fear of being judged badly or disliked by others. This is the
highest level of cognitive engagement.
Using the above levels of engagement, results showed that the respondents of this
study were generally on the extending (85%) and expanding (63%) levels of
engagement. Although many of them contained mere opinions, students tried to
intersperse their opinions with relevant sources of their ideas.
An initial observation of the overall online discussion brings one to recognize the
value of good questions prepared by the teacher. Indeed, as the literature has
already documented, critical thinking questions can generate high-level answers
from students. But since not all answers were high level, what could have caused
the difference between the highly engaged students and those that were weakly
engaged? Why do some students lurk, others bluff, while others are active? This
necessitated an individualized examination of participation by the students.
Individual observations not only looked into the quality of student posts but also in
their individual differences, particularly in terms of the number and timing of their
posts and their characteristics. Academic analytics afforded by the LMS can easily
show the number of hits and the number of forum posts by individual students.
Data mining revealed a wide discrepancy in the participation rate of students,
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despite the seeming active appearance of the whole class. The number of posts by
individual students in one discussion question alone (Forum 5), for example,
ranged from 0 to 30 posts. This means the class appeared to be dominated by
some students while others lurked. The goal of every educator is of course active
participation by all; so this can be a concern. On further examination of the
discussion forum, these were the observations:
1. Although the discussion questions were high in terms of cognitive level,
in many instances they called for specific answers because of the
scientific nature of the subject matter. For example, one question states
When planning a community project, why is it important to do needs
assessment? This calls for an explanation but cursory examination of the
class lecture reveals a good discussion of this topic already. Hence, once
the first response gives a complete answer, other students were forced
to simply agree or praise the responder (for example, “I couldn't agree
more ______. Thank you.”), indicating a low level of cognitive
engagement. There appeared to be a race in class on who can post the
first response.
2. Despite some specificity in the answers to many questions, students
were still active in sharing their personal ideas because of the felt
relevance of the topics. The class topic – nutrition – appeared to have
attracted the interest of the students. As an example of the students’
excitement on the class, one post in the Introductions forum states “I am
very excited to learn about public nutrition with some disturbing facts in
my mind such as my country India is home to more than 40% of
malnourished children in the world and in my current country of
residence, Malawi 46% of the under 5 children are malnourished and is
the biggest cause for increased infant mortality rate. I am confident . . .”
Another student posted “I am looking forward to this class. Nutrition has
been a topic that I have been very interested in for many years. I have
been especially interested in how nutrition affects chronic diseases. I am
also very interested in the discussions on the use of supplements . . .”
3. It appears that students who tended to lurk or had few posts were the
late responders. Nevertheless, some of them are still able to post high
cognitive level answers. A report by the student services coordinator who
was assisting the students revealed that these students were either “too
busy with work” or “had personal issues” that prevented them from
active participation. One even said, “. . . as long as I answered the
question, I think that’s enough” (email communication).
Further examination of student interactions revealed other observations. These
were related to the existence of learning community and student characteristics,
which are discussed below.
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On Learning Community
Learning community, obviously, has already been established prior to the
beginning of the class. The Introductions forum alone has generated 86 posts as
students welcomed both old and new classmates. Old students recalled
experiences in past classes while new students were assured of an exciting
learning journey together. This contributed to the comfort level experienced by
students to participate. This kind of post is commonly mentioned “Hi Mary. Nice
to be sharing the same class with you again. I appreciate your very informative
and honest insights and sharing from our previous class. Looking forward to our
future interactions here. God bless!”
It was, however, observable, that the students in the class almost did not disagree
with each other even in some controversial issues. Are they supposed to be
comfortable even to disagree with each other because of the learning community
they already formed? Examined as to why intellectual conflict seemed stifled even
though there appeared to be strong community in the class, it was found that
friends in class showed inhibitions in engaging in conflicting exchange of ideas or
critical discourse for fear of hurting others. They either resorted to silence or
immediately feeling sorry for expressing an opposite viewpoint. For instance, one
student who happened to be a newcomer and hence would not have yet
developed a strong connection with the class community was frank enough to
strongly disagree with one old member of the group: “Wow! I am not sure I agree
with the way you characterize people as lazy . . . ” Then the old student
immediately apologized, “. . . I do apologize if I seem to make absolute statements.
I do mostly mean them to be general . . . .” Then another old classmates was ready
to stand at his defense, “Maybe John is not literally saying we are lazy, it means we
are made lazy with the available technology in our midst.” Then the discussion
stopped.
On Student Characteristics
One area that this research tried to look at was the role of a student’s cultural
background in online interactions. The students in the class came from 8 countries
in three continents: Asia, Africa, and America. As mentioned earlier, since the
teacher tried to incorporate global thinking in the questions for discussion,
students showed excitement and comfort in sharing their experiences in their own
countries, whether it is positive or negative. Interculturality was evident among
the students. However, from the analytics, it appears that Asians were generally
the most talkative or participative at an average of 125 posts per head, with the
Americans following closely at 117 posts per head, and the Africans showing least
participation at 54 posts per head. The literature normally pictures Asians as less
talkative in online interactions compared to Americans because of language
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differential (Bingham & Okagaki, 2012). However, a cursory examination of the
Asian students in this class showed that, except for two, all the rest were working
outside their country of origin and hence may have acquired new cultures. The
African students happened to be the busy ones hence their lack of participation
may not have always been due to culture.
This study also looked into gender and online learning experience of the students
to determine if females, for example, are more participative than males or if older
students are more interactive than new ones. From the analytics, it appears that
both male and female students were equally active. In fact, the top four most
active students in the online discussions consisted of two males and two females.
As to their online learning experience, it appears that new students may not be
the top participants of the class but they were not far behind. This is probably
because of the warm welcoming learning community of the class that made them
comfortable right away.
On Teacher’s Facilitation
The teacher’s posts, other than the main discussion questions, were likewise
examined to determine their impact on student participation. Data from analytics
revealed 142 posts by the teacher compared to 1,488 posts by students. As to the
quality of the teacher’s posts, around 10% are in the praising or simply agreeing
level. This result clearly shows that the teacher’s interaction during discussions
was moderately inactive and may not have impacted the response by students.
Other factors could have been powerful enough to motivate the students to
participate actively in class.
Conclusion
Based on the analysis of online interactions, cognitive engagement can be
achieved in online classes through the discussion forum. Certain conditions,
however, need to exist in class. The discussion questions need to be carefully
prepared in ways that require higher levels of thinking as well as critical thinking.
Even if some answers were specific, the questions still generated discussion
because of their relevance to students’ needs, their accommodation of cultural
realities in a global scale, and they asked for personal stand on related issues. The
existence of a strong learning community, likewise, contributed to a comfortable
learning environment for discourse among the students such that even if the
teacher was not very active in interacting with them, the discussion continued
freely.
One interesting finding of this study is that a strong learning community is
supportive of discourse only up to a certain extent. When intellectual conflicts
occur, students tend to shy away from engaging in continued critical discourse,
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probably in order to preserve good relationships among them. Another interesting
finding is that the number and timing of posts may not always relate to the quality
of students’ response. This makes careless judgments based on analytics
dangerous. Lurking among students may be due to personal busyness and may not
mean lack of understanding. Should they be punished for posting responses
minimally?
It was not clear in the interactions if culture is still an issue in online classes. What
were evident were the intentional inclusion of global perspective in the discussion
questions and the possible avoidance of conflict due to collectivist nature of the
majority of the students’ culture. It was not clear also if class size or other aspects
of the course like course structure and instructional design contributed to
successful interactions even though teacher presence was lacking. These could be
the subjects of further research.
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UPON TEACHERS’ TEAM-BUILDING IN THE PERSPECTIVE
OF PERSONALIZED EDUCATION IN CHINA’S OPEN UNIVERSITIES
CHEN Ying, CHEN Ke, Changzhou Open University, China
ABSTRACT: Personalized Education is defined as a people-oriented education with
the characteristics of openness, subjectivity, distinguishing features and diversity.
115
And its theoretical connotation is closely related to the philosophy of running open
universities in China. In order to promote personalized education, the Open
University should build a team of teachers in conformity with the requirements of
personalized education by means of concept reconstruction, appropriate
guidance, incentive regime and integration of human resources. Thus the key
competitive edge of Open University can be enhanced.
KEY WORDS: personalized education; teachers’ team-building; the Open
University; key competitive edge
INTRODUCTION
It has been pointed out in the ‘National Mid-long Term Education Reform and
Development Plan (Year 2010-2020)’ that we should focus on students’
comprehensive and personalized development, their different characters and
personalities and fully develop their potential. This manifests the philosophy of
personalized education.
In recent years, this philosophy has become a central issue and trend in the
education field, being promoted and carried out in most of the developed
countries. Now the construction of open universities in China is being explored and
developed. We must learn from the experience of advanced countries and
promote personalized education. Among all the factors, an excellent team of
teachers is the guarantee. This article will elaborate on the team-building of
teachers in open universities from the perspective of personalized education.
THE CONNOTATION OF PERSONALIZED EDUCATION
Currently the academia has not reached an agreement on the definition of
personalized education. Some scholars hold that the personalized education is the
opposite of uniform education; it stresses on individuality and explores the
potential advantages of personality; it stands for nurturing good character and
achieving harmonious development of a person in a comprehensive way (Liu W.X.,
1997). Some scholars believe that the personalized education refers to respecting
students’ individuality and promoting the development of their personalities. The
author believes that the personalized education is a people-oriented education
with the characteristics of openness, subjectivity, distinguishing features and
diversity. It emphasizes that each student’s uniqueness and difference should be
respected. Educators should deliberately guide the learners, give full play to their
subjectivity and provide appropriate ways of education to their needs.
Openness: Personalized education provides timely, appropriate and proper
personalized education according to the learners’ needs, regardless of their age,
occupation or background. Students can receive education at anytime at anyplace.
Subjectivity: Personalized education emphasizes on the learners themselves.
Teachers should regard each learner as an independent entity and respect their
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personalities. Only if the learners’ subjectivity is given full play, the potential of
learners could be further fulfilled.
Distinguishing features: In the mode of personalized education, to some extent,
the learners become the principal part of learning. They have the right to
autonomously choose their own way of being educated. Therefore, open
universities must be able to provide distinctive personalized education; otherwise
they cannot survive the competition and will be discarded by learners.
Diversity: In personalized education, students’ diversity should be given full
consideration, including the content and approaches of education so as for the
open universities to carry out customized education to meet learners’ diversified
needs.
THE PRACTICE OF PERSONALIZED EDUCATION IN UK OPEN UNIVERSITY AND
INSPIRATION TO CHINA
1 The Practice of Personalized Education in UK Open University
As a type of open, inclusive, flexible distance university with the feature of lifelong
education, open universities should and must explore personalized education.
Personalized education has become popular in the education field. Many
developed countries have explored the application of this philosophy in their own
educational reforms.
The UK Open University is the earliest and most successful one in the world. The
idea of personalized education is reflected in its educational philosophy,
curriculum, teaching management and service and team-building.
1.1 An All-round Educational Philosophy
An all-round educational philosophy is the guide to carry out the personalized
education. It is a basic requirement for open universities to adapt itself to the
times and current market. The UK Open University is learner-centred. It eliminates
the obstacles of student enrollment, such as learners’ identities or entrance
examination scores. What is more, by virtue of the information technology, it
breaks the limit and constraint of time and space in traditional education. It is now
open to all the people, open to all the places and open for all time. This has laid
the foundation for personalized education.
1.2 The Flexible Curriculum
A flexible curriculum is a prerequisite for personalized education. Learners in open
universities vary in their own situations, learning interests and learning demands.
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In order to meet these diversified needs, open universities must provide
corresponding courses (Si H-.Y-., 2011). In the UK Open University, students can
sign up for courses at their own will according to their actual needs and obtain
corresponding certificates, qualifications and diplomas. Furthermore, the courses
are set at different levels and are interchangeable in different majors. So the
learners’ individual learning needs can be satisfied, turning learning into
customized and personalized.
1.3 Learner-centred Teaching Management and Service System
The learner-centred teaching management and service system serves as quality
assurance for the personalized education. The teaching mode in open universities
breaks through the limits of time and space and pass on knowledge via
information technology and other electronic media. In this mode, learners’
autonomy is very strong.
In order to solve the problem of separation between teaching and learning, the UK
Open University has also adopted the learner-centred teaching management and
service system. The university provides a comprehensive guidance and detailed
service for students so as to provide guarantee for the quality of education.
1.4 The Excellent Faculty
The excellent faculty is the key to the implementation of personalized education.
The UK Open University is equipped with full-time backbone teachers, senior
instructors as well as part-time educators and course tutors. At present the total
number of faculty has reached 5,600. And a considerable portion of them are from
Oxford, Cambridge and other famous universities. These teachers are required to
have not only certain professional knowledge, teaching experience and knowledge
of pedagogy and psychology, but also organization ability and a strong sense of
responsibility and dedication. They are responsible for different assignments and
play different roles. This is the key to the implementation of personalized
education in UK Open University.
2 The Inspiration Drawn from the UK Open University
It is known that the UK Open University is the most successful Open University in
the world. Its teaching quality and level of academic and scientific research take
the top spot in Britain and it enjoys high reputation in the world. Its operational
experience and characteristics are worthy of our study and reference in our
construction of open universities in China.
2.1 The Key Competitive Edge of Open Universities
Personalized education is the key competitive edge in the construction and
development of open universities in China. One of the features of Open University
is openness, which reflects learners’ subjectivity and their diversified needs. It
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coincides with the connotation of personalized education. Therefore, compared
with other colleges and universities, the key competitive edge of open universities
should be reflected in personalized education.
3.2.2 The Teachers’ Team-Building
In the process of personalized education, the philosophy is the guide; the
curriculum is the prerequisite; the teaching management and service system is the
guarantee. But the key to the implementation in open universities is the teambuilding. At the end of the day, it is the educators who actually organize teaching
and implement personalized education. Therefore, to build a team of teachers
suitable for the development of personalized education is the decisive factor. In
the course of construction of open universities in China, teachers’ team-building is
vital.
PROBLEMS OF TEACHERS’ TEAM-BUILDING IN CHINA FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF
PERSONALIZED EDUCATION
There is still a long way for us to implement personalized education and fully meet
the learners’ various needs in open universities in China. At present, China’s open
universities are based on the original Radio and TV universities. We still have much
to do to exert influence on the construction of learning-oriented city and the
lifelong education system in our country.
1 Teachers’ Teaching Philosophies
The teachers’ teaching philosophies are now behind the times. They are unaware
of learners’ subjectivity, which is the theoretical basis of personalized education
and the prerequisite for its implementation. If the learner-centered philosophy is
not formed, personalized education can not be realized. At present, most of the
teachers in China’s open universities still position the roles of teachers and
students in the traditional approach and require uniformity in class. Teachers
usually dedicate most of the energy to repetitive and mechanical activities. They
lack both self-learning and self-development.
2 Teacher’s Career Development
At present, teachers lack proper guidance in their career development, whereas
the implementation of personalized education requires teachers to achieve
personalized development. Without personalized teacher, there would be no
personalized education.
However, teachers in China’s open universities usually carry a heavy workload of
teaching assignments. So they attach great importance to teaching rather than
academic researches. Many teachers can master the professional knowledge, but
do not really have the speech right in the field; they can skillfully handle teaching
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methods and means, but have not formed their own teaching styles. The teachers’
own strengths and potential cannot be realized, thus it is impossible to achieve
their own individual and personalized development.
3 Incentive Regime
The lack of teachers’ incentive regime would hinder the realization of personalized
education. In the current system, teachers’ performances are assessed and
evaluated by their workload. This approach can only ensure that teachers finish
the tasks on time. It is difficult to evaluate how well they implement personalized
education, let alone reflect the features of personalized education. A proper
incentive regime would encourage teachers to explore personalized education.
4 The Quantity and Quality of Teachers
The current quantity and quality of teachers cannot satisfy learners’ diversified
needs. The basic target of personalized education is to meet the different
demands of learners and realize their personalized and creative development.
There is a gap between the UK Open University and China’s current open
universities from the perspective of faculty strength, such as the number of
teachers, their ages, majors, titles or their ability to carry out personalized
education. The current Radio and TV universities focus more on the classification
of teachers at all administrative levels (Xiao J-.H-., 2011). The advantage of Radio
and TV universities has not really been made use of in the construction of open
universities. The faculty strength in basic unit, e.g. at the municipal level or county
level, is weak and unable to meet the demands in personalized education.
THE APPROACH OF TEACHERS’ TEAM-BUILDING IN CHINA’S OPEN UNIVERSITIES
In order to implement personalized education in China’s open universities, we
need a team of teachers who can meet the needs of different learners and
showcase the characteristics of the school. The author believes that we can get
down to it from the following four aspects.
1 Reconstruction of Concept
The concept is the guide of action. In open education, learners come from all walks
of life. They are of different ages and occupations; they are under diversified
conditions. The premise to promote personalized education in China’s open
universities is to urge teachers to reconstruct their concepts, raise the awareness
of ‘openness’, break through the traditional positioning between teachers and
students and recognize that the difference is a kind of resource. Learners deserve
more attention in open education than in the traditional education.
Teachers should realize learners’ subjectivity, respect their characteristics and
treat them as equals. Thus, teachers can implement personalized education
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according to learners’ diversified demands and at the same time achieve individual
self-development under this philosophy.
2 Appropriate Guidance
Appropriate guidance is vital to promote teachers’ personalized development in
China’s open universities. Whether the teacher can take the initiative to selfdevelop or not directly determines the developments of the learners. Therefore,
how well teachers receive personalized education will also determine their
abilities to carry out personalized education, by which the quality of learners’
personalized education is confined (Yu L. & Liu J-.Q-., 2013).
A very important step to promote the teachers’ development is for the universities
to guide teachers’ development. The key factor is to provide personalized training
and other career development opportunities. Personalized education lays stresses
on respecting each student’s personality and potential. But teachers also have
their own personalities and potential. For example, some teachers are the masters
of practice; some are good at academic and scientific researches; some excel
others in communication; some are experts in certain aspects in their own fields.
These all are the teachers’ personalities. The universities should pay more
attention to these issues, fully explore these potential, provide training
opportunities so as to fully discover their potential and promote teachers’
personalized development.
3 Incentive Regime
The incentive regime is a guarantee for personalized education in China’s open
universities. Countless cases in the Chinese and foreign education history have
shown that the survival and development of a school depends on its own brand
features. The ultimate assimilation will hinder the development of schools (Wang
Z.-H-., Xiong M., 2012). In the field of adult education and distance education, the
competition is intense. In order to stand out, the open universities should carry
out personalized education, satisfy the learners’ diversified needs and create their
own signature characteristics.
Of course this needs the support from faculty. Therefore, the school needs to
reform the mechanism of teacher evaluation system and incentive regime and at
the same time, establish multi-dimensional evaluation system and developmental
index. We should especially reward the teachers who have formed certain
characteristics in teaching, for example, by promoting them so as to further
encourage them to study and explore teaching methods and carry out
characteristic teaching practices. Thus we can meet the learners’ needs and create
our own brand features of open universities.
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4 Integration of Human Resources
This is the key to teachers’ team-building in China’s open universities. The current
quantity and quality of teachers cannot meet the requirements of personalized
education. And it is not realistic to solve this problem solely by the introduction of
talents.
China’s open universities are established on the basis of former Radio and TV
universities. One of the major distinctions between the Radio and TV universities
and other universities is the systematic operation. For example, teachers at the
national level in China’s open universities (the first echelon) are mainly responsible
for curriculum planning and teaching resources. Teachers at the provincial level
(the second echelon) serve as a link between the national level and basic levels.
They provide support and monitor the quality of teaching. The bottom is the basic
level (the third echelon, or the municipal or county level), where teachers provide
learners with direct support services and tutorials.
However, judging from the current situation, it is a bit difficult for teachers at
whatever level to fully perform their functions. Let’s take the curriculum resources
as an example. On one hand, communication and understanding from top to
bottom is not enough. Teachers with specialty and advantages are not playing
their roles while teachers at the national and provincial levels fail to get timely
feedback from the learners. On the other hand, teachers at the basic level open
universities tend to work individually instead of as a joint force. The author
suggests that we establish course teams within the system and divide up the work
according to each teacher’s specialty and strength. We could form resourcedeveloping teams, research teams, management and service teams and give full
play to their individual characteristics. We ought to pool the wisdom and efforts of
everyone and maintain close ties with each other.
In addition, local community colleges are also based on the Radio and Television
Universities. What’s more, in the process of development, they have already
established a good cooperative relationship with other local colleges, universities
or enterprises. We can make full use of this advantage via engaging experts in
certain industries or inviting teachers from other universities to participate in open
universities. Thus, we can establish a team of complementary and compatible
faculty and finally meet the needs of personalized education.
CONCLUSION
The document named ‘the Ministry of Education’s Agreement upon Setting Up a
National Open University on the basis of Central Radio and TV Universities’ was
released by the China State Ministry of Education on July 5th, 2012. It says our
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National Open University will ‘meet people’s diversified and personalized learning
needs and make its due contributions to the construction of a flexible and open
system of lifelong education’. Nowadays, the competition in adult education is
becoming increasingly fierce. The implementation of personalized education is the
path that we open universities must take. We should give full play to the
advantages of the former Radio and TV universities and create our own brand and
improve the key competitive edge. Under the guidance of the personalized
education, we expect that China’s open universities integrate various resources to
to create a team of high-quality faculty with specialties in order to meet the needs
of personalized education.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
Liu, W-.X-., A Complete Comprehension of Personality Education. Journal of
Inner Mongolia Normal University (Philosophy & Social Science),1997,(2):7-8.
Si H-.Y-.. Personalized Educational Thought in British Open University. Journal
of Nanchang College of Education, 2011, (4):15.
Wang Z-.H-., Xiong M.. On the Value Appeal ， Obstacle Factors and
Promoting Strategies
of Personalized Education. Modern Education
Management, 2012, (12): 13.
Xiao J-.H-.. Construction of teachers from the perspective of the top-level
design of Open University. Distance education in China, 2011, (6):17.Yu L., Liu
J-.Q-.. Research on the Personalized Teacher Training. Journal of Continuing
Higher Education, 2013, (9):13.
HOW DO PEOPLE IN DTISTANCE TEACHING UNIVERSITIES PERCEIVE QUALITY
AND QUALITY ASSURANCE: A COMPARATIVE CACE STUDY IN THAILAND AND
INDONESIA
Darojat Ojat, Universitas Terbuka, Indonesia
ABSTRACT: This research is an international comparative case study that
investigates quality assurance focusing on the perception of quality and quality
assurance (QA) in distance teaching universities. The general aims of this study
were to explore and understand the issues related to the concept of quality and
QA in the two selected distance teaching universities (DTUs), STOU Thailand and
UT Indonesia. A case study approach was used to investigate the phenomena. This
investigation recognized that these DTUs have shared many similarities and
differences. Whilst the Universities have addressed the importance of students as
their major customers in viewing quality, their perspectives on QA reflect the
importance of quality guidelines to maintain consistency in the management
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process as the roadmap to achieve quality criteria.
KEY WORDS: Distance education; distance teaching universities; quality; quality
assurance
INTRODUCTION
Dale (2000) argued that the introduction of quality and QA policies in education,
particularly in higher education, were partly derived from the marketization and
privatisation in higher education. Dale (2000) added that the marketization and
privatization of higher education have been encouraged within the discourses of
neoliberalism in Western (Industrialized) countries in which economic policies with
a focus on competition have supported the policy making framework in the public
sector. Neoliberalism is a political movement which supports the ideological belief
that competition, privatization and open market forces strengthen the economy
(Shanahan, 2009). Within this ideological view, QA increasingly becomes defined in
global markets, including in education to create transparency, to ensure quality,
and to inform different stakeholders (Martin & Stella, 2007). According to Gibson
(1986), however, quality in the higher education context is “notoriously elusive of
prescription and no easier even to describe and discuss than to deliver in practice”
(pp. 128-129). Martin and Stella (2007) argued that the dilemma of defining
quality in higher education “is not merely a question of setting standards; it is also
an issue of who defines it on the basis of what interest” (p. 33). For this reason,
conceptualizing quality in higher education in general, and DTUs in particular, may
serve multiple perspectives. Harvey and Green (1993) argued that ‘quality’, like
‘liberty’ or ‘equality’, is a slippery concept.
There are extensive debates throughout academia about the concept of quality
and QA in DTUs. While quality measures have gained significant attention over the
past 30 years in higher education (Maniku, 2008), questions remain about quality
in DTUs. The concept of quality in DTUs is challenging, in part because quality in
DTUs is difficult to define and standardized practices remain elusive. This is
particularly the case because DTUs consist of multiple stakeholders, involving
relationships between and among faculty, learning material developers,
tutors/instructors, learners, administrators, employers, government, and other
professional bodies.
Despite the difficulty in conceptualising the terms quality and QA, scholars in the
field of distance education such as Belawati and Zuhairi (2007) and Jung and
Latchem (2012) argued that it is crucial for DTUs to deal with QA for the
development of distance education and the upcoming challenges of the growing
demand for improving quality and accountability. According to McKay and
Makhanya (2008), enhancing quality of distance education programs has become a
key challenge for DTUs and “this challenge must be met in the context of greatly
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increased access to a wide diversity of students” (p. 33). There is a growing
commitment among distance teaching providers to be involved in QA paradigms
(Belawati & Zuhairi, 2007; Jung & Latchem, 2007; Latchem & Ali, 2012; Parker,
2004). According to Parker (2004), in the current environment, it is incumbent for
educational institutions to “demonstrate the quality of their services in ways that
are intelligible to potential students and their employers, faculty and staff,
regulators, and government agencies” (p. 385). Latchem and Ali (2012) observed
that a number of different organisations, such as Asian Association of Open
University (AAOU) (2010) and Commonwealth of Learning (COL) (2009) have
designed principles and guidelines to assure quality in distance education. Some
note, however, that assuring quality in DTUs is much disputed (Jung & Latchem,
2007; Stella & Gnanam, 2004) involving multi-dimensional and complex systems.
Although considerable studies on QA have been undertaken, there is a little
agreement regarding standards, principles, and procedures of QA in DTU contexts
(Latchem & Ali, 2012). Some think that QA practices for DTUs should essentially be
the same as those used for conventional universities (Jung & Latchem, 2012).
Others think the present mechanisms of QA for traditional higher education are
not adequate to ensure quality of DTUs (Jung, 2008; Stella & Gnanam, 2004).
Following his study of six colleges and universities, Compora (cited in Moore &
Kearsley, 2012) disclosed that “there appears to be a discrepancy between the
literature cited and the actual practice of the institutions surveyed” (p. 190).
There is little research-based literature to guide policymakers, managers, and
practitioners in applying QA in education (Jung & Latchem, 2012). There is a gap in
the research about assuring quality of distance education so that it remains “an
uncharted area for many QA agencies” (Stella & Gnanam, 2004, p. 150). There
remain questions about what constitutes quality and how quality should be
measured in DTUs (Chalmers & Johnston, 2012). Therefore, there is substance
enough to investigate issues of quality and QA in DTUs. How does QA work in
DTUs? What philosophical background rests with a given QA decision? And how
can findings on current QA processes be applied to improve the culture of quality
in DTUs? This research may help close that gap by exploring the perception of the
people on quality and QA in different DTUs: Sukhothai Thammathirat Open
University (STOU) Thailand and Universitas Terbuka (UT) Indonesia.
The STOU and UT are DTUs in the Southeast Asian region which have already been
involved in employing QA programs. As part of their commitment to quality, STOU
and UT have been formally equipped by the establishment of their centralized
quality assurance units to coordinate and manage their quality programs. These
universities have been recognized as leading examples in adopting quality
programs in distance teaching institutions in each of their respective countries.
Considering the broader areas of QA, however, this research only focuses on how
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do key people at the two selected DTUs conceive quality and quality assurance?
Further, given their understanding of quality, this research also explore in what
ways do these people perceive quality in learner support dimension?
Methodology
This present study adopts an epistemology based on constructivists’ views that
claim that meaning is not discovered but constructed (Crotty, 1998). In this
research I accept Crotty’s perspective that “all knowledge, and therefore all
meaningful reality as such, is contingent upon human practices, being constructed
in and out of interaction between human beings and their world, and developed
and transmitted within [an] essentially social context” (p. 42). Following Crotty’s
model, the constructivist epistemological approach will help the researcher to
understand how QA programs have been socially and collectively constructed by
people in the different DTUs. The constructivist epistemological view will help me
to explore how the context of QA programs and the placement of these programs
within wider social environments have impacted constructed understandings.
Aligning with the epistemological assumption of this research, the case study
approach is relevant in being adopted since the aim of this study is “seeking out
the emic meanings held by people within the case” (Stake, 2000, p. 41). Case study
design promotes the research approach taken in this study, which focuses on how
a QA program is constructed by those who participate in the system. Further, a
case study approach also supports my research orientation that assumes no
intervention from the researcher and hence there is little or no disruption to the
actual setting.
Fieldwork, semi-structured interview and documentary analysis have been
employed to collect data. In this study, it was through fieldwork that important
documents regarding QA program within two DTUs were obtained and interviews
with the key people who interact with QA policy domain and implementation were
undertaken. The interview technique supports the interpretive qualitative
paradigm taken in this study since the research focus is on the exploration of the
way people interpret and make sense of their experiences in the worlds in which
they live, and how the context of events and situations have impacted on the
constructed understanding of those worlds (Grbich, 2007). Semi-structured
interviews allow the researcher to provide a framework within which respondents
can express their ideas, values, perceptions, and feelings about QA programs in
their own words. The interviews in this research do not attempt to explore an
inherent truth or single reality but, rather, the researcher recognises that there are
multiple perceptions; different participants have their own meanings related to QA
programs. This strategy is congruent with the philosophical assumption of this
study discussed earlier and consistent with the epistemological view of
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constructivism and the interpretive qualitative paradigm taken in this present
research (Crotty, 1998). Further, the use of documentary analysis allows the
researcher to validate and generate richer information from the semi-structured
interviews concerning the quality and QA issues at each institution. Therefore, it
seems important to integrate existing documentary analysis relating to QA issues
with interviews to understand the perspectives of people as they socially produce
policy domains and further generate policy actions.
Presentation of the Results
Part 1: Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University (STOU)
This part presents the findings from the case study of STOU in Thailand. The data
gathering for the this case study focused on defining quality involving different
interview subjects including policy contributor, Director of the Educational Quality
Assurance and Coordinating center, top manager of Faculty and Department, and
academic and administrative staff. During the fieldwork, one of the selected key
informants could not be interviewed because of several reasons. The interview
data, supported by official documents from STOU international office and the
Office of Educational Quality Assurance and Coordinating center, revealed
different recurrent concepts for coding purposes, categories, and emergent
themes. The emerging themes from STOU case study are as follows.
Research questions
Emerging themes
How do key people involved in the QA
programs in learner support areas at
STOU conceive of quality in general?
 In what ways do they
perceive quality in learner
support areas?
 Given their understanding of
quality, how do they conceive
of QA?
1.
2.
3.
Quality refers to meeting
customers' needs and
government QA standards
Quality of learning materials and
instructions is important to
support student learning
QA as a system involves different
activities to ensure expected
quality
Theme 1: Quality refers to the meeting customers' needs and corresponds to the
government QA standards
Key informants (KIs) in STOU revealed their perspectives on quality in different
expressions with the same focus on orientation of quality in which quality must fit
the customers’ needs and correspond to the government QA standards. The
concept of customer itself has been defined by one of the KIs as referring to
students, government and general audience/public (STOU-FD-03). One KI stated
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this point as follows: “For us, I think [quality is] meeting the customer needs and
the criteria that are set by the government [OHEC and UNESQA]” (STOU-FD-03). “It
means that right now we have to make the curricula meet the requirements under
the TQF—Thai Qualifications Framework” (STOU-FD-06). Another KI argued that
“Quality for me is that you have to meet the customer’s requirements and
correspondent to the Thailand Qualification Framework for Higher Education”
(STOU-AS-04).
Theme 2: Quality in learner support refers to the learning materials and
instructional delivery to support student success
Closely aligned to compliance with students’ needs, it was disclosed that
perspectives on quality in learner support areas refers to the quality of learning
materials and instructional delivery to support student success. The quality of
learning materials and instructional delivery were regarded as an important
component in STOU since instructional textbooks play as a major role to support
student learning (STOU-AS-04). Corresponding to Holmberg’s (1995) ideas about
the importance of self-contained course in distance education, this KI confirmed
that learning materials “should be easy for the students to learn by themselves
because we do distance learning.” This KI went on to argue “that is a type of
quality … to make sure that if you are the student, you can read and learn by
yourself and can understand … and for producing textbooks—the content has to
be correct (STOU-AS-04).
Referring to this perspective of quality, STOU has been equipped by variety of
instructional deliveries methods as it was revealed by another KI as follows:
At STOU, we focus on lots of media to contribute to the studies.
The first one is textbooks, or print-based. In every subject, we
have the textbooks to contribute to the studies. And another
media is CD, or DVD, including the content and multimedia in
the disc. The third one is the STOU television channel to reach
the students at home, in order that they can learn anytime and
anywhere. The fourth media is e-learning. We have e-learning in
order to teach interaction between the lecturers and the
students online. (STOU-PC-01)
The STOU has been established to expand access to learning using different
technologies. One of the interview subjects disclosed that course team approaches
were employed for the development of learning materials and one of the course
team members is from the Office of Educational Technology (STOU-AS-04).
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Theme 3: QA as a system involving relevant people in different activities to ensure
expected quality
The university has adopted a QA system for a long time and everyone understands
what quality assurance was about (STOU-QC-02). It was found that QA has been
placed as a systems approach involving different people in diverse areas of
activities. Another interview subject mentioned that “quality assurance should be
any methodology or anything that you have to make sure that you’ve got the
quality as you would like it to be” (STOU-AS-04). To ensure the success of QA and
achieve the expected quality then it was very important to involve people in the
system. This was confirmed by one of the participants who expressed that:
Successful quality assurance, no matter what efforts we make,
what meetings we organize, if the involved people do not place
importance on it or don’t take responsibility for their duties,
implementing quality assurance successfully is difficult. I think
for us to succeed at quality assurance—all relevant parties—we
have to see the importance of our duties and of the quality
assurance process so that it is part of our way of working.
(STOU-PC-01)
The same participant recounted the importance of involving people in the QA
process to ensure that “everyone has to look towards the same target [and] … to
make them see that quality assurance has the objective of making sure that we
produce quality graduates for society” (STOU-QC-02).
Based on the forgoing discussion, the case study of STOU reveals a number of
emergent themes related to the currents issues in defining quality and QA. First, it
was clear that quality, albeit differently expressed, referred to the compliance of
STOU’ strategic stakeholders’ requirements and standards, students and
government. This perspective of quality reflects the importance of establishing
standards or inherent requirements of what quality in their educational products
arises from the stakeholders’ perspectives. The quality of outcomes must
correspond to the customers’, particularly students’, requirements and quality
standards set by government. The desirability of students’ requirement
orientation has become a major concern for STOU. At the same time, the
university must also align their QA policies and practices with the government’s
quality criteria. The university has started to adopt the Baldrige Quality Award in
2012 on one hand, and is considering that quality is a dynamic concept on the
other hand. Thus, it is presumable that this perspective of quality may change in
accordance with the potential influence of this international quality agency on the
university’s QA management system and the people involved in the QA programs.
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Part 2: Universitas Terbuka
Similar to the previous case study, a thematic analysis will be used to discuss the
findings. The identification of codes, categories, and themes from UT also follows a
similar pattern to that of the STOU case study. Subsequent to the organisation of
the list codes from the first cycle of coding, the second step of ordering codes
through categorisation is conducted to identify the emergent themes. The
consolidated major themes are presented in the following table.
Research questions
How do key people involved in the QA
programs in learner support areas at UT
conceive of quality in general?
 In what ways do they see
quality in learner support
areas?
 Given their understanding
of quality, how do they
conceive of QA?
Emerging themes
1.
Quality refers to the
compliance with quality audit
standards and corresponding
to the customer’s expectation
2.
Quality as meeting criteria in
learner support services
3.
QA as procedures or
mechanisms to ensure
expected outcome
Some interesting issues relating to the perception on quality and QA at UT were
captured through the diverse responses from different KIs supported by
documentary analysis. To address the issues, respondents from different clusters
have been invited in this case study. Respondents at UT gave their perspectives on
quality and QA in fairly different ways. This section presents their general
perspectives on quality and how they perceived quality in learner support areas
and QA.
Theme 1: Quality refers to the compliance with quality audit standards and
correspond to the customers’ expectation
Quality standards at UT have evolved and been revised to the requirements of
internal quality criteria and external QA standards. Amendments to Rector’s
Decree Number 160/J31/KEP/2003 and subsequent policy changes have
contributed to the university involvement in standardization of quality in different
core business activities (UT, 2012). These quality standards have been developed
into UT’s formal quality assurance system known as Simintas as guidelines and in
university quality manuals for their QA implementation. Latter, a decision to
employ external quality standards has also been taken by inviting three external
quality agencies. These include the National Accreditation Board of Higher
Education, the International Council for Open and Distance Education (ICDE), and
the International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) (UT, 2010). This
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continuous revision of the quality standards demonstrated the university’s
attempts to align quality with external quality standards and correspond to
continual changes of students’ expectation. One of the key participants explained:
There are many perspectives about quality, we can define it from
an academic point of view or from stakeholder dimensions and
both can be applied. To me, it is very important to respect what
quality is in terms of stakeholders, specifically in terms of
students. Therefore, quality should refer to customer satisfaction
and compliance to the external quality auditors’ standards that
include BAN-PT, ICDE-ISA and ISO. These quality reviewers have
their own quality criteria that we should see. They have universal
quality standards that are usually applied for higher education
institutions. For example: BAN-PT conducts quality assessment
for study program in Indonesian higher education, ISO focuses on
quality of management or processes and ICDE-ISA addresses the
universally accepted of good practices of open and distance
education. (UT-PC-01)
Another interview subject confirmed the desirability of quality as compliance with
standards:
Quality is compliance to the external auditors’ standards that we
have chosen. To assess quality of our educational programs, we
select BAN-PT because it is mandatory. For assessing quality
within the framework of open and distance education, we select
the ICDE. Then in terms of internal management, we employ ISO
standards. (UT-QC-02)
The perspectives of quality also refer to customers’ expectation which have been
reported by another respondent who stated that, “In general quality refers to the
achievement of customers’ expectations, especially students. For example, when
students come for help, quality is achieved if we can meet a student’s
expectation” (UT-CS-08). The importance of customers’ expectations was also
recounted by one participant by mentioning that quality is about fulfilling
customer expectation (UT-LC-09).
Theme 2: Quality as meeting criteria in learner support services
Closely aligned to the fulfilment of customers’ requirements, most respondents
described quality in learner support areas as various characteristics related to
teaching and learning provisions and support service dimensions. These quality
criteria included promptness and accuracy of support services, delivered excellent
quality support services, provided self-contained learning materials, provided
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favourable classrooms, and employed qualified tutors for F2F tutorial sessions. The
point was further contextualised by one participant as follows:
Quality refers to the timely and accuracy of services that we
provide for our students. For example, through the application of
online CRM, students’ complaints can be handled in a timely
manner because it does not use a correspondent letter anymore.
Through CRM, students can more quickly communicate their
problems. We can also provide prompt response to the students’
problems and the results can be immediately delivered. This is
what the quality of the student services is about. (UT-CS-08)
Meanwhile, quality criteria for learning services have been identified by another
respondent addressing printed materials and F2F tutorial services.
Learner support is a very broad term. In terms of learning
materials, modules, for example, must be good, the quality of
paper and cover should be good; the content must be correct and
not outdated. So modules can actually be used as learning
sources for supporting independent learners. Secondly, dealing
with tutorials, F2F tutorials should be taken in strategic places
meaning that are easily reached by participants; classrooms
including their environment should be advantageous for learning;
tutors should meet the standard requirements and tutorials must
be organised in accordance with the designated procedures and
guidelines. (UT-AS-07)
These excerpts indicated concerns regarding quality for both teaching learning and
provisions and support services as important components in distance education.
Theme 3: QA as procedures or mechanisms to ensure expected outcomes
One of the major changes in UT after adopting a QA system was the introduction
of various quality guidelines or SOPs for different quality programs. The
development of QA procedures was aimed at providing guidelines to ensure
expected outcomes. These guidelines were used by all staff and units in
implementing QA covering all core business activities within the university. One of
the KIs stated his desired focus of QA as procedures or mechanisms to ensure
expected outcome as follows:
QA refers to a mechanism. This is a tool; if you don’t have a
mechanism you don’t know exactly what to do. A mechanism
guides us in terms of steps, procedures to be followed to achieve
the target of quality. Working is a process. However, more
important are the sense of responsibility and the spirit of people.
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They deal with the awareness of the people about the
importance of quality, the spirit of people to do quality and
implement quality assurance. (UT-PC-01)
Another interview subject revealed the importance of quality procedures when
the organisation employs a QA system. This respondent stated that:
Quality assurance is about procedures that we set. Quality
programs should be supported by procedures that we follow with
the assumption that if we follow these procedures we will
produce good outcomes according to what we defined. (UT-QC02)
Different KI recounted this perspective by mentioning that QA referred to
“procedures that allow people to work by following the same workflow in order to
achieve expected outcome” (UT-FD-06).
From the forgoing discussion and findings, it is clear that UT has observed its
students and thus defined quality as standards or criteria of their educational
services that meet students’ requirements. In addition to this, the university has
also employed their quality standards to comply with the three external standards.
The university has involved BAN-PT, representing the Indonesian government, and
has voluntarily invited ISO and ICDE-ISA to assess the following three different
areas of focus: educational programs, management processes, and the
standardized practices of distance education.
The university has had a formal quality management system, Simintas, since 2003,
adapted and contextualised from the Asian Association of Open University (AAOU)
QA framework. AAOU’s Quality framework has been regarded as a leading model
for the university self-assessment and shared by all staff at UT head office and
regional centers. These quality guidelines clearly explain quality standards for
different quality areas. Along with the use of this quality manual, it is clear that the
perspective of quality in the university has been stirred by this quality manual in
which quality has been viewed by different respondents as referring to compliance
with standards in general and meeting quality criteria in learner support areas
more specifically.
Cross case analyses and Discussion
The in-depth interview with different KIs at STOU and UT indicated that the
perspectives of quality and QA have been expressed differently. The concept of
quality in particular has been perceived with particular reference to stakeholders.
The emergent themes of quality in general, quality in learner support areas, and
QA from these two DTUs are renamed and presented in the following table.
133
List of themes
Research question
How do key people
involved in the QA
programs in learner
support areas
conceive of quality in
general?
• In what ways do
they perceive
quality in learner
support areas?
• Given their
understanding of
quality, how do
they conceive of
QA?
STOU
• Meeting customers'
needs and government
QA standards
UT
• Compliance with
quality audit
standards and
corresponding to
customers’
expectations
• Quality of learning
materials and
instructions to support
student learning
• QA as a system involves
different activities to
ensure expected quality
• Meeting quality
criteria in learner
support services
• QA as procedures or
mechanisms to
ensure expected
outcomes
General Perspective on Quality
At STOU, quality has been regarded as meeting customers’ needs and government
QA standards. Meanwhile, at UT quality has been interpreted as compliance with
quality audit standards and corresponds to customers’ expectations. The
differences between these two general perspectives on quality seem very subtle.
These perspectives address two major stakeholders in quality, i.e., direct
customers and their external quality auditors’ standards. In the STOU case study,
in addition to students’ requirements, government’s QA indicators have been
identified as critical external quality standards as the university has invited Office
of the Higher Education Committee (OHEC) and Office for National Education
Standards and Quality Assurance (ONESQA) for internal and external quality audits
with both of them representing government QA bodies. Both OHEC and ONESQA
have diverse QA standards and have been equipped with different QA components
and key performance indicators (Sungkatavat & Boonyarataphan, 2012).
Meanwhile at UT, the concept of quality as compliance with external quality
standards has been derived from the fact that the university has not only invited
the National Accreditation Board of Higher Education to assess quality of study
programs but also has voluntarily employed ISO and ICDE to assess its quality
processes and practices in distance education. This could be inferred to mean that
the desirability to conceive quality as compliance to a standards orientation refers
to the quality standards set by National Accreditation Agency, ISO, and ICDE.
134
These two DTUs, however, share similar perspectives in looking at quality when
customers’ requirements or expectations become the critical orientation. Within
this perspective, STOU and UT place customers as the center of their focus within
a general quality perspective. At STOU and UT, students are regarded as the vital
point above all concerns and the university has been totally devoted to their
students as their important clienteles. In spite of the problematic nature of
defining quality, it seems fair enough to note that there is a common
understanding on how respondents in the selected research sites viewed quality.
In some ways, KIs involved in this study agree that quality is more about standards
or criteria of their products and services that meet students’ requirements as
major customers. These two DTUs demonstrated examples of this point of view.
The desirability of quality as meeting these students’ requirements is discussed in
the following section, which focuses on the specific perspective of quality in
learner support dimension.
Perspective on Quality in Learner Support Areas
Based on emergent themes of quality in learner support, it was apparent that
STOU and UT provide examples of how learner support areas have been
emphasised in these institutions. Major respondents in this research confirmed
that quality is about how to meet the quality criteria in learner support services
(represented UT) by developing quality learning materials and instructional
delivery to support student success (exemplified by STOU).
To promote its strong commitment for customer focus and its interest in meeting
quality criteria in learner support areas, it was reported at UT that the university
has set quality criteria in learner support areas covering different activities in
learning and support services. The learner support quality criteria (statements of
best practices) have revised to respond to external QA standards and to meet
students’ expectations (UT 2012; UT-PC-01). The university has expanded its
support services through the development of an e-CRM application in order to
provide promptness and accuracy of response for students’ complaints, inquiries,
and compliments (UT-QC-02; UT-CS-08). New quality criteria, such as the
employment of online learning and online registration for all subjects, have been
set and will be introduced in 2013 as response to a new student demand (UT-FD06).
Another example from STOU also offers a different perspective of quality as being
concerned with student orientation. The university has used its internal and
external sources to develop high quality learning materials supported by various
instructional deliveries to support student success. As the oldest DTU in the
Southeast Asian region, STOU has had long experience in the development of high
quality, different multimedia learning materials for students. To ensure the quality
135
of learning materials, instructional deliveries and learner support areas in general,
the university has set performance indicators in two major components of its
quality framework: teaching and learning provisions and student development
activities (STOU, 2011).
Corresponding with the working definitions of quality and QA in this study, the
perspectives of quality emerging from these DTUs reflect two basic messages.
Firstly, quality can be regarded as the standards or criteria of their products and
services that meet inherent requirements of their students and external quality
standards such as ICDE, ISO, and Baldrige Award. Secondly, these basic
perspectives, in turn, shaped their QA policies and strategies.
Perspective on Quality Assurance
Closely aligned to the emergent themes about perspectives on QA in this study,
Melton (2002) asserted that:
Quality assurance depends on two essential requirements: the
first is the specification of standards for whatever it is you want
to produce – materials, services or systems – and the second is
the development of systems or procedures that will enable you
to produce what you have in mind to the standards specified.
(p. 2)
Melton’s idea of QA in distance education seems to be correlated with the
perspectives of QA that have been reported by different interview subjects at
STOU and UT. At these universities, QA has been regarded as the procedures or
internal mechanisms designed to ensure expected outcomes. These perspectives
of QA addressed two important aspects out of three interrelated key components
in implementing QA programs: input, process, and output. The first component,
process, refers to internal mechanisms or procedures that are used as quality
guidelines. The second component, output, refers to the expected outcomes
(products or services). With regard to the internal mechanisms to ensure expected
outcome, Harvey & Green (1993) believed that QA is not about “specifying the
standards or specifications against which to measure or control quality. [QA] is
about ensuring that there are mechanisms, procedures and processes in place to
ensure that the desired quality … is delivered” (p. 20).
A series of findings from STOU and UT confirmed that these DTUs have been
significantly involved in developing and reviewing a number of quality guidelines
(the term used at STOU) and Standard operating procedures (the terms used at
UT), to ensure the implementation of their QA programs. These guidelines
described a detailed explanation of how their quality policies should be
implemented. They contained a set of written instructions or guidelines that
should be followed by departments or units or people in charge. At UT for
136
example, the quality procedure of study orientation for new enrolments consisted
of: objective of the program, scope of the quality procedures, definition of terms,
general regulations, related documents, and was equipped by a series of activities
from start to the end. These quality procedures clearly communicated who would
perform the tasks, what sources (materials or information) were necessary, where
the activities would take place, when the processes should be done, and how
relevant people would execute the task.
The perspectives of QA as being referred to the mechanisms or quality procedures
have been regarded as a contentious issue. The debate about different
perspectives in using the quality procedures in the context education institutions
appears to be an enduring discussion. On the one hand, the quality procedures
support institutions to minimize variation and promote quality through consistent
implementation of a process. On the other hand, however, the use of these
procedures has been regarded as a stumbling block for teaching and learning
invention. This issue is addressed by Nicholson (2011) who argued that “quality
assurance processes tend to inhibit innovation in teaching and learning rather than
advance it” (p. 8). The same vein had also been expressed by Harvey and Knight
(1996, p. 68) who asserted that “there has been very little linkage between quality
policy and the encouragement of innovative approaches to teaching and learning.”
Others, such as Barnett (1992) argued that the implementation of QA systems and
procedures that lead to a check-list approach to maintaining quality in higher
education is misguided, ineffective, and pernicious.
Despite these criticisms, this cross case analysis confirms that there is no evidence
that has been reported regarding the impediment of QA for innovative activities in
learner support areas. Respondents’ interests in QA as being referred to as internal
mechanisms for ensuring expected outcomes have been driven by the fact that
STOU, UT have deeply engaged in strong internal mechanisms for their QA
programs. UT (2010) confirmed that “UT operational activities have been
systematically supported by documented procedures and work instructions in core
operational activities” (p. x). It was reported that the development and the
implementation of these quality guidelines lead the university to develop better
organization performance, increase students’ satisfaction level (UT-LC-09), enhance
a high quality rating for knowledge transmission to students and successfully address
its core mission of making education accessible to all (STOU-PC-01).
Conclusions
The results of this research provide some understandings about the diverse
perspectives of quality of education specifically in DTUs. For example, quality has
been defined as maintaining academic standards, achieving student satisfaction,
(Sallis, 2002), and conforming to specifications and purpose (Green, 1994).
137
Further, quality in higher education has also been identified as exceptional and
getting value for the money (Harvey & Green, 1993). Different interview subjects
involved in this study also reacted in diverse ways in expressing their personal
understanding of quality. Some looked at quality as fitting the customers’ needs
and satisfaction (STOU-FD-03; UT-PC-01). Others commented on the quality as
being in compliance with the external quality standards (UT-QC-02; STOU-AC-04).
These different perspectives of quality indicate that defining quality in education
specifically in DTUs is very challenging and can be discussed from different points
of views.
Despite the diverse perspectives of quality in general, this research confirms that
there are shared commonalities among interview subjects in the two DTUS in
looking at quality in learner support areas. This comparative study discloses that
quality has been expressed differently by interview subjects emphasising the
importance of standards or criteria of the universities’ educational products and
services for their customers, particularly students who have been regarded as their
major stakeholder. Respondents at these DTUs have shared similar insights in
articulating quality in learner support areas in which many of them have addressed
the importance of meeting “quality criteria” of their products or services for their
students. What constitutes acceptable quality criteria for educational products
and services is debatable as quality criteria is a dynamic concept and there is
always interpretation in context. However, this perspective of quality provides a
basic underlying structure in the search for comprehending the meaning of quality
and it appreciates the basic importance of products and services.
Closely related to the perspective of quality, quality assurance has been generally
regarded by interview subjects at the two DTUs as ‘quality guidelines’ or ‘internal
mechanisms’ that must be followed to ensure ‘expected outcomes’ or ‘designated
quality criteria’. Simply said, QA is more about putting quality into action. This
perspective emphasizes two important elements of QA, process and output
(Nicholson, 2011). In this perspective, respondents address the importance of
internal mechanisms to guide the processes in different quality areas. Quality
guidelines are regarded as crucial elements to generate a quality-oriented work
aligned with the university’s existing systems. In addition, this perspective also
reflects the basic importance of outputs that meet their designated quality criteria
in order to satisfy students. In regard to QA in learner support areas, these
processes and outputs may refer to internal mechanisms in performing diverse
academic services such as F2F sessions and online learning services. As these DTUs
were heavily involved in employing self-managed learning, the quality of the
outputs was also attached to their printed-based learning materials as major tools
for student learning.
138
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REVIEWING THE BASIC THEMES IN DISTANCE EDUCATION
Darojat Ojat, Universitas Terbuka, Indonesia;
Chandrawati Titi, Simon Fraser University, Canada
ABSTRACT: This paper explores a review of distance education literature focusing
on the basic themes on open and distance education (ODE). The aim of this study
is to figure out the current trend of the research in the field of distance education
(DE). This investigation recognizes that distance education research was robustly
dominated by strategic issues correlated to the historical development of distance
education and the use of educational technology for current teaching and learning
delivery modes. Besides, a basic theme of defining DE was also another important
area in line with the dynamic concept of DE itself. Aligning with the evolution of
DE, significant trend of research towards theories of DE has also been highlighted
in the literature. Recently, however, research in the field of DE has been fashioned
by more qualitative studies on quality and quality assurance; how these concepts
have been interpreted and implemented in different educational settings.
KEY WORDS: distance education, review of distance education research
INTRODUCTION
With the rapid spread of open and distance learning (ODL) as a strategic mode in
the practice of distance higher education, research, seminar, conference, and the
publication of various literature on ODL has also advanced significantly in search
for understanding the trends and issues of ODL. Moore (2007) identify that the
basic themes in DE can be generated from the definition of DE that includes: the
study of communication technology; design of teaching or instruction;
administrative, organizational, and policy issues and historical and conceptual
foundations. Salas, Kosarzicky, Burke, Fiore, and Stone (2002) disclose that the
emerging themes in distance learning research and practice can be classified into
definition of distance learning, identification of the major learning theories, how
collaboration can be achieved via distance learning, and issues relating to the
learners and the effectiveness of the distance learning.
Following their extensive research into the literature published from 1990 to 1999
involving 1,419 total articles, Berge and Mrozowsky (2001) reveal that content
themes in DE research literature have been dominated by five out of ten research
areas i.e. design issues, learner characteristics, strategies to increase interactivity
and active learning, technology selection and adoption, and policy and
management issues. Current review of research on DE has also been conducted
by Zawacki-Richter, Backer, and Vogt (2009) by examining 695 articles from the
most prominent and recognized journals in the field of DE including Open
Learning, Distance Education, the American Journal of Distance Education, the
141
Journal of Distance Education, and the International Review of Research in Open
and Distance Learning. According to Zawacki-Richter, Backer, and Vogt (2009) the
research areas of DE have been characterized by three general themes: DE
systems and theories; management, organization, and technology; and teaching
and learning in DE. They went on to write that content themes of management,
organization, and technology consist of various issues such as learner support
services and quality assurance. The former deals with the infrastructure for learner
support systems from information and counseling for prospective students to
career services and alumni networked. The latter refers to the issues of
accreditation and quality standards in DE (Zawacki-Richter, Backer, & Vogt, 2009,
p. 25).
Considering the broader area of the themes in DE, in this paper, we will focus on
the selected basic themes that relevant to my interest. Themes include the
following: the historical foundations of DE, current issues in defining DE, the
theory of DE, the use of media and educational technologies for bridging the
dialogue and interaction, and the adoption of quality assurance (QA) in DE.
Theme 1: outlining the historical foundations of distance education
The evolution of DE has grown and changed more than a century (Schlosser &
Simonson, 2006). Moore and Kearsley (1996) and Peters (2008) disclose that DE
has evolved through three different generations: correspondence study, followed
by the appearance of the first open universities in the early 1970s, and the use of
digitized DE in the 1990s.
Correspondence study
Historical evidence of DE started in the1830s in the form of correspondence study
created to teach those who could not to go to the conventional school or
university (Holmberg, 1986,1995). Correspondence instruction was initiated when
an advertisement in a Swedish newspaper in 1883 promote teaching and learning
mode through postal service (Schlosser & Simonson, 2006). Later in 1840,
England’s newly established penny post allowed Pitman to teach shorthand
(Schlosser & Simonson, 2006). It was taken by ‘self-instructional texts’ (Holmberg,
1995), equipped by communication in writing. It conveyed by postal service as an
initially major medium of delivery (Rumble, 1989) that could make possible tuition
for ‘independent study’ (Wedemeyer, 1981) and ‘home-based student’ (Lambert,
1983). Correspondence study is the first generation of DE in which the principal
media of communication are printed courses and the exchange of letters
(Holmberg, 1995; Peters, 2008). According to Moore and Kearsley (1996) a large
percentage of current DE courses are still conducted by correspondence. The
existing literature in the field notes that teaching and learning by correspondence
142
study is the origin of what is today called DE (Moore & Kearsley, 1996; Peters,
2008; Schlosser & Simonson 2006).
Electronic communication
The advancement technology and modern communication media have a
significant impact on the delivery modes of DE and “the term correspondence
education was felt by many to be too narrow” (Holmberg, 1995, p. 3). According
to Perry and Rumble cited in Zuhairi (1994) the use of delivery methods has
advanced using radio in the 1940s, television in the 1950s and 1960s, followed by
audio and video cassettes and computers in the 1970s and 1980s. As electronic
communications technologies more common and advanced since early 1990s, the
use of computer-mediated communications (CMC) has broaden the opportunities
for the growing of DE (Rovai, Ponton, & Baker, 2008; Simpson, 2002; Schlosser &
Simonson 2006). The use of CMC in learning allows the transfer of information
between individuals in many ways either asynchronous such as discussion boards
or synchronous such as real-time audio and video (Rovai, Ponton, & Baker, 2008).
Nowadays, computer networks are becoming commonplace and convenient way
to distribute learning materials; they have made internet-based education and
online learning programs more attractive to both students and distance teaching
providers (Ally, 2004; Anderson, 2004; Koonts, Li, & Compora, 2006; Milheim,
2004; Northrup, 2001). The revolution of industry and electronics has major
impacts on DE. Keegan (2000) adds that the information and communications
technology (ICT) associated with the electronics revolution of the 1980s made it
possible to teach face-to-face at a distance.
Distance higher education
The development of DHE goes back to the decision that the University of South
Africa is definitely established distance teaching university through a
governmental decree of 1962 (Boucher cited in Holmberg, 1995; Schlosser &
Simonson, 2006). Another significant landmark of the DE at the university level has
been credited to the founding of the British Open University or Open University of
the United Kingdom (UKOU) in 1969 with its first student enrolled in
1971(Holmberg, 1995; Keegan, 1986; Schlosser & Simonson, 2006). Since the early
1970s and 1980s, DTE has gradually been adopted to most English-speaking
countries and spread rapidly to other parts of the world (Zuhairi, 1994). Zuhairi
went to write that many countries, irrespective of their economic and political
ideologies, have urged distance higher education as a strategic way to wider
access and equity for higher education provision, including in South East Asian
countries, such as, STOU has been launched in 1978, then UT Indonesia in 1984,
and recently OUM in 2000.
143
Theme 2: defining distance education
The concept of DE has been defined in different ways. In its first incarnation of
correspondence study, DE is devised as a means of providing education to
students who are geographically isolated and who are unable to go to an ordinary
school (Shale, 1986). In its further development, however, there are many names
have been used to describe the variety of teaching learning process in which there
is a physical separation the learners from the teachers such as distance learning,
distance teaching, telelearning, flexible learning (Fuller, 2002; Moore & Kearsley,
1996). Wedemeyer (1981) identifies that the term DE is frequently used very
loosely with independent learning, open learning, and external study. Independent
learning refers to the learning characterised by learner autonomy and distance
from educational authorities. Meanwhile, external study most often used in British
and Commonwealth countries, that refers to the extramural or off-campus
learning. And open learning come into use after the founding of the British Open
University (BOU) that provides part-time learning opportunities for learners at a
distance. According to Williams, Paprock, and Covington (1999), open learning has
become the catchword used for the same term as DE. However, the proliferation
of open universities that employ distance learning system has not helped to clarify
the issue. Furthermore, there are also various terms emerged to name a few:
distributed learning, virtual learning, web-based learning, flexible learning, open
and distance learning (ODL). The last is a term used extensively in European
Commission documentation (Keegan, 2000).
With regards to these problematic issues in defining the field of DE, it is important
to note that the purpose of a definition is to summarise and clarify rather than
complicate. Yet there is still confusion and debate about the terminology of DE.
There have been agreements and disagreements among authors on what
constitutes DE (Keegan, 1980). Consequently, it is argued that a theoretical basis
for DE is needed. According to Garrison (2000), theory is “a coherent and
systematic ordering of ideas, concepts, and models with the purpose of
constructing meaning to explain, interpret and shape practice” (p. 3). A theoretical
understanding of DE is important in order to reach “a common perspective, and a
common vocabulary that will help us ask questions in a sensible way and make
sense of the problems” (Moore & Kearsley, 1996, p. 197).
Theme 3: Overviewing theory of distance education
While DE has evolved from traditional correspondence courses to networked
learning (Taylor, 2001) glamorized by the application of modern educational
technology (Dooley, Lindner, & Dooley, 2005), literature in the field reveals a
conceptually fragmented framework lack of theory (McIsaac & Gunawardena,
2001; Perraton, 1983). DE has been described by some as no more than “a
hodgepodge of ideas and practices taken from conventional education and
144
imposed on learners who just separated physically from instructor” (McIsaac &
Gunawardena, 2001, p.1). The lack of theoretical foundations has resulted in the
lack of guidance on research to be undertaken and the lack of confidence in
planning and decision making in the field (Sewart, Keegen, & Holmberg, 1983).
Significant contributions to the theoretical approaches in DE have been made by
many scholars. In this paper, however, we will overview some pioneering theories
in the field: (1) theories of autonomy and independence, based on the works of
Wedemeyer and Moore, (2) theories of industrialization, proposed by Peters, and
(3) theories of interaction and communication founded by Holmberg.
Theories of autonomy and independence
Theories of autonomous and independent study are based on the works of Charles
Wedemeyer and Michael Moore (Keegan, 1986). For Wedemeyer (1971) the
essence of DE is the independence of the learner to organize instruction so that
greater freedom in learning is possible for learner. He bases his views of
independent study on two concepts: “a democratic social ideal and a liberal
educational philosophy” (Keegan, 1996, p. 59). Wedemeyer (1971) said that in
democratic social ideal, the acquisition of knowledge, skills, and attitudes should
be open to all, nobody should be denied the opportunity to learn for any reasons
such as poor, geographically isolated, socially disadvantaged, in poor health,
institutionalized, or otherwise being unable to attend the institution’s special
environment for learning.
Further, Michael Moore shares similar views to that of Wedemeyer. Moore, one of
the students of Wedemeyer at the University of Wisconsin, (Wedemeyer, 1981, p.
xiii), is attracted by the idea of independence study and leading him to offer his
theory at the 1972 ICDE conference (Moore & Kearsley, 1996). For Moore (1973)
independent study is an educational system in which the learner is autonomous
and separated from the teacher by space and time so that communication is
mediated. According to Moore (1973) in distance learning environment the learner
and the teacher are connected by a variety of communication techniques.
Distance is identified as a function of individualization and dialogue rather than
measured by physical proximity such as miles and minutes. Moore (1973)
contends that autonomous learners may turn to teachers for help in formulating
the problems and their learning tasks. He identifies “autonomous learner is one
who knows how to proceed through each of the learning events” (p. 669). The
difference between the non-autonomous and autonomous learners lies in the
extent of direction provided by the teacher. The function of the teacher in this
teaching and learning relationship is “providing information, advise (or suggestions
and recommendations), and reason that help the learner make the decision and
understand the reasons for it” (p. 670). Further, Moore develops and refines his
theory of independent study by classifying educational programs on the two
145
dimensions of “autonomy” and “transactional distance”. He argues that
independent study is a generic term describing a major category of educational
transaction which consists of “distance” and “autonomy”. Distance or telemathic
teaching is a teaching program in which the interactions are conducted through
print, mechanical, or electronic devices. While, autonomy is the extent to which
the learner is able to determine the selection of objectives, resources and
procedures, and evaluation procedure (Moore & Kearsley, 1996).
Theory of industrialization
Otto Peters proposes his thought to the relationship between distance teaching
and the industrial production process. Peters (1993) argues that DE is a form of
study complementary to our industrial and technological age. He describes the
industrial approach as “objectification of the teaching process,” (Peters, 1994a, p.
111) that “reduces the forms of shared learning, and keeps learners away from
personal interactions and critical discourse” (Peters, 1994b, p. 16). Compared with
conventional and other forms of study which involves direct interaction, group
learning, teacher-centered instruction and teacher-initiated organisation and
delivery of instruction, distance study has obviously different characteristics for
example highly individualised learning, course-material focus, and learner selfdirection (Peters, 1989; 1993). The underlying assumption of Peters’ thesis rests
with the thinking that “distance education relies and depends on a great number
of elements borrowed from the theory and practice of industrial production”
(Peters, 2007, p. 58). Thus, the concepts and principles derived from industrial
production should also be applied to the analysis of DE, although the comparison
is purely heuristic (Peters, 1993).
Peters’ (1993) theory of industrialisation invites attention and support as well as
disagreement. Garrison (2000), for example, has similar thinking to that of Peters
who has perspective that the industrial production model of Peters is “the most
coherent, rigorous and pervasive example of distance education theory” (p. 6). For
Garrison, Peters’ industrial model is not a theory of teaching and learning, but
rather a contribution to clear thought about the organisation of DE. On the other
side, such as, Ehmann (1981) criticises industrialisation theory as unsympathetic
attitude of the world of learning and the commercial character of the DE at that
time. Being invited to respond to such critics, Peters (2010) observes them as
misunderstanding in which many of those interested in DE have adopted only a
narrow and reduced idea of industrialised education.
Theories of interaction and communication
Borje Holmberg has made substantial contributions to the theories of interaction
and communication (Garrison, 2000; Keegan, 1983; Schlosser & Simonson, 2006).
Other pioneering theorists who have contributed to this field are Baath and
146
Sewart (Keegan, 1983). The core of Holmberg theory is what he call “guided
didactic conversation” (Holmberg, 1981, p. 30) introduced in 1960. His theory of
DE as a method of guided didactic conversation implies that of a guided
conversation is essential to fill the distance between the teacher and the learner.
The presence of the typical traits of such a conversation facilitates learning process
(Holmberg, 1985).
Holmberg (1995) believes that guided didactic conversation is to influence
students’ attitudes and goal attainment (Holmberg, 1988). For Holmberg (1995)
personal relation, study pleasure, and empathy between students and those
supporting them are central to learning in DE. Feelings of empathy and belonging
encourage student motivation to study and improve the result of learning
(Holmberg, 2007). Therefore, the two forms of communication: counselling and
didactic two way communication should be provided in DE system (Holmberg,
1981). Counseling can be performed through correspondence, on the telephone,
or face- to-face to encourage and express concern as well as ask pertinent
questions. Meanwhile, didactic two-way communication is customary for courses
to provide questions, problems and other tasks, evaluation and correction.
According to Holmberg (2011), the unprecedented technological innovation in
communications has “further opened new possibilities for interaction among
students” (p. 67). Online teaching and student contact with one another
spontaneously make individual and group work in DE possible for adults with jobs,
families, and other commitments (Holmberg, 2008). They strengthen and advance
“the flexibility that from the beginning made [DE] a useful tool in adult education
and caters [to] collaborative learning” (Holmberg, 2008, p. 27). For Holmberg
(2008), computer technology is an excellent medium for interaction between
students and their tutors, for exchanges of views and experiences between
individual students and groups of students, and “for all kinds of contact between
those engaged in a [DE] program” (p. 29). The next theme will focus on how media
and educational technology is becoming a strategic issue in DE.
Theme 4: Utilizing educational technology for distance education
Media and educational technologies specifically computerized communications for
bridging the dialogue and interaction among instructors, students, and content has
always been a defining feature of DE (Bates, 2008; Kaufman, 1986). According to
Kaufman (1986), “the marriage of computers with communications technology”
(p. 297) has provided a significant impact on developing and delivering learning
materials in various instructional modes. The delivery modes of instruction in DE
have been changes from the paper based and processed correspondence study to
web-based instructions and other kinds of online learning programs that leads to
the possibilities of virtual learning environments (Juwah, 2006; Han, Dresdow, Gail,
147
& Plunkett, 2003; Haughey, Evans, & Murphy, 2008; Koper, 2000). Computer
networks are now becoming a convenient way for people to distribute course
materials and to participate in learning (Simonson, Smaldino, Albright, & Zvacek,
2003; Friesen, 2011).
While the delivery modes of instruction seem to be evolved involving more
advance technologies, the primary purpose of open and distance learning remains
on the need to reach quality instruction for learners (Koonts, Li, & Compora,
2006). Therefore, it is important that the use of delivery mode can ensure that
instruction fits with the students’ interests. Some researchers, such as Luschei,
Dimyati, and Padmo,(2008) and Riana, Zuhairi, and Maria (2006) disclose that the
innovation of online learning in developing countries, such as Indonesia, has
proved daunting task simply because many students in developing countries do
not have access to the internet. Although internet kiosks have been developed in
some provinces and districts all over the country, access to the internet is
relatively difficult for many students residing at rural part and remote regions of
the country. Moreover, the lack of skill in information navigation as one of the
critical factors to be involved in online program has also proved a big challenge not
only for students but also for online instructors. Moore and Kearsley (2005)
disclose that DE is much more complex than simply integrating technology in a
conventional classroom. Similar thinking to that of Moore and Kearsley (2005),
Koonts, Li, and Compora (2006) argue that “Careful planning and a systematic
design approach…is essential to make sure that the needs of the students are
continuously being met in an ever-changing environment” (p. 32). Therefore, it is
important for DE institutions (including faculty, administrators, policy makers, and
researchers) to seek ways to better understand how to integrate information and
communication technology (ICT) in designing courses and pedagogical strategies.
Theme 5: Assuring quality in distance education
According to the current study, the approach to QA in education points to great
variety in methodologies (Maniku, 2008). Some frequent approaches to QA
methodologies in education include: (1) accreditation, (2) use of performance
indicators (or statement of best practices), (3) student survey, (4 ) self study or self
evaluation, (5) peer review and quality audit, and (6) use of industry-based
framework such as total quality management (TQM), ISO 9000 standards, and The
Baldrige Award (Bogue, 1998; Maniku, 2008). However in this section, we only
overview the first two major approaches for the reason that these methodologies
are more commonly used in DHE.
Accreditation
Eaton (2010) reports that accreditation is the oldest system for QA and quality
improvement in the world. Accreditation refers to a quality assessment by an
148
authorised body of whether an institution or program qualifies for certain status
(Brennan & Shah cited in Maniku, 2008) which the primary purpose is to ensure
quality and to support continuous improvement (Olcott, 2003; Sywelem & Witte,
2009). Accreditation can be defined as “a process of external quality review used
by higher education to scrutinize colleges, universities, and educational programs
for quality assurance and quality improvement" (Council for Higher Education
Accreditation, 2002, p. 1). Accreditation promotes at least five core values of
higher education: institutional autonomy and academic freedom (Eaton, 2010),
the quality and the efficiency of educational process (Sterian, 1992), and
institutional commitment to student learning and achievement (Sywelem & Witte,
2009). However, accreditation also has some serious challenges: (1) it places more
emphasis on minimum standards and less on continual re-evaluation,
experimentation, and improvement (Maniku, 2008), (2) the correlation between
the requirements for meeting accreditation standards and future professional
success is not clear, (3) the potential different perspectives of the experts involved
make the process subjective is in itself suspicious, and (4) group interests cannot
be disregarded by the accreditation process (Sterian, 1992).
The use of performance indicators
The performance indicators (PIs) are generic statements that can be adapted for
use by DE providers to maintain and enhance quality (COL, 2009). They can be
used as tools to evaluate performance trends in the institution to initiate
continuous improvement (COL, 2009) and to monitor efficiency with regard to
staff-student ratios, indexes of revenue and capital resources, market share and
examination (Harvey & Green, 1993). One of the dilemmas related to QA in DTU
lies in identifying suitable benchmark (Stella & Gnanam, 2004) or performance
indicators (COL version) which will make the quality assessment clear especially to
the QA agency and the DE universities. To use the benchmarks, indicators and
sources of evidence are necessary important for judging the level of quality
performance (COL 2009; Stella & Gnanam, 2004). For example, without specific
indicators the statement of best practice “The institution has well run student
support services” (p. 154) does not tell us clearly what characterises effective
students support. For Stella and Gnanam (2004, p. 154), “it is essential to spell out
what characterizes the different levels of performance” to avoid the ambiguity and
affect the objectivity of the quality assessment.
Conclusion
The purpose of this study is to provide a general picture of the research trend
published in DE. According to the data drawn from a number of authors it was
found that research topics in DE have been correlated to some strategic issues in
DE. They include the historical and conceptual foundation of DE. In line with
development of DE, current issues of defining and major theories of DE have also
been addressed in the literature.
149
Further, this literature review also disclosed that research in the field of DE has
also been characterised by a number of qualitative research deals with the
application of educational technology for educational purposes emphasizing the
importance of ICT for supporting teaching and learning delivery in DE as well as
administrative services. In addition, the research areas of DE have been also been
dominated by the themes of quality and QA. QA, a concept long associated with
the manufacturing sector, has now becoming a strategic issue in DE. The adoption
of the concept of quality in DE is challenging, in part because quality in DE is
difficult to define and standardized practices remain elusive. This is particularly the
case because DE institutions consist of multiple stakeholders, involving
relationships between and among faculty, learning material developers,
tutors/instructors, learners, administrators, employers, government, and other
professional bodies.
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THE IMPLICATIONS OF ORGANISATIONAL DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES,
NEW PEDAGOGIES AND THE CHANGING ROLE OF FACULTY
FOR HIGHER EDUCATION POLICY IN ODL UNIVERSITIES
Diedericks Hanneli, Unisa, South Africa
ABSTRACT: The overall aim of this paper is to shed light on how organisations
should manage change to assist faculty to make sense of the new roles,
competencies and pedagogical orientations expected of them in the changing
world of learning. Faculty’s socially constructed view of their changing role shape
the way they teach on-line, design curricula, guide learners towards mastering
content and form an on-line community, manage the course and use technology
successfully. Significant changes foreseen over the next five to six years include the
continued increase of massive on-line courses (MOOCs), free on-line universities
and personalised learning environments (PLE) supported by the vast number of
social networks. The method used was an in-depth review of the existing literature
and research findings on faculty’s. Recommendations for new policy in ODL
universities seeking to implement innovative change initiatives in terms of new
pedagogies and learning opportunities, while fully engaging faculty are offered.
KEY WORDS: change, organizational development, faculty, roles, pedagogies
1. Introduction:
Previous research results revealed that appropriate learning and development
programs, supported by appropriate competency development interventions are
essential to equip Open Distance Learning (ODL) facilitators with the skills,
154
knowledge and attitudes required of generation 5 (European institute for Elearning, online; Varvel, 2007). Various authors have written on the variety and
complex nature of new roles expected from faculty, for example Lentell (2003).
The premise that this paper is based on, is that simply focussing on mastery of new
roles and competencies is not enough. Considering the effective management of
change in terms of assisting and supporting ODL faculty to accept and adjust to
new roles and competencies, the responsibility of policy makers (higher level
management) cannot be ignored. This paper argues that unless an effective
organisational development strategy is developed and implemented, faculty will
not be ready to embrace these roles and competencies on a cognitive, affective
and emotional level. The dissonance that would be experienced is likely to
manifest in the form of stress, anxiety, burnout and eventual turnover.
Siemens and Tittenberger (2009, 1) highlighted the important implications of
personal coherence making of all the different pieces of information that role
players in higher education are confronted with. This paper argues that
institutions of higher education need to pay attention to the complexity of the
academic role, the difficulty experienced by faculty in adjusting to new role
demands and the responsibility of distance university policy makers to manage
this change process effectively, if effective “adoption” of these new roles and
competencies by faculty are to take place.
2. Literature review
Open Distance Learning (ODL) research can be defined as a particular form of
multi-disciplinary research, with a specific focus in understanding and informing
ODL praxis. This includes issues around policy and capacity development and
implementation (Prinsloo, 2012: 7). This paper is written from a multi-disciplinary
perspective, considering the challenges of generation five pedagogies:
 education (an educational perspective),
 the changing work roles of ODL academics (an organisational psychology
perspective) and finally
 organisational change management strategies (an organisational
development perspective).
It focusses on the interface of these three perspectives and hopes to provide an
integrated input into policy and capacity development in open distance learning
universities, as referred to by Prinsloo (2012), based on evidence found in the
literature.
155
Organisational
Development
strategies
Ecological change
management model in
DE
Changing
academic work
roles
New ODL
pedagogies
New roles
Fifth generation
technologies
Technology
Connectivism
Curriculum design
Figure 1 Interface between organisational development strategies, changing
roles of academics and new ODL pedagogies
2.1 Generation five pedagogies
Distance education refers to instruction where there is a difference in terms of
time, location or both (Conceição, 2006:27). This implies the use of a variety of
distance education delivery systems, e.g. correspondence, digitally via computers,
broadcasting, teleconferencing, the worldwide web, the internet and many new
innovations. Due to these innovations, the work context of distance education
faculty has changed significantly over the last decade. The advent of new distance
learning pedagogies, including delivery modes and increasingly going “online”
have redefined the way faculty experience teaching (Conceição, 2006:26-45)
implying that the way they experience their jobs have changed fundamentally.
The historical development of ODL pedagogies is described in the “five generations
of ODL pedagogy “(Taylor, 2001:3). While an overview of the development of all
five stages falls beyond the scope of this paper, the current generation, generation
five pedagogy, needs to be elucidated upon in order to build the argument on
156
which this paper stands. The key features of generation five (referred to as “The
Intelligent Flexible Learning Model”) include interactive online multimedia,
internet-based access to world wide web resources, computer mediated
communication and campus portal access (Taylor, 2001). Furthermore, generation
five technologies imply the use of video conferencing, asynchronous and live
communication, open educational resources (OERs), massive online courses
(MOOCS), YouTube, Facebook and Twitter. The medium through which content is
delivered includes printed material, computer design, images, sound, video and
focusses on the involvement of the learner.
Fifth generation distance education demands pedagogies that speak to
asynchronous and synchronous interaction, mass delivery and increased demands
for interaction from learners. Pedagogies that are relevant to the fifth generation
are social constructivism and connectivism (Prinsloo, 2014). The theoretical
framework used to make sense in this paper is connectivism. Siemens &
Tittenberger (2009, 11-12), describes connectivism as a school of thought where
knowledge and cognition are distributed across networks of people and learning
and technology are used in the process of connecting, growing and navigating
those networks. Learning can then be described as a network on three different
levels, namely:
 Neural level,
 Conceptual level and
 External level.
In the world of work of faculty, the level that we are most concerned with is the
conceptual level. On a conceptual level a node is represented by an idea or a
collection of ideas. Therefore it can be concluded that through the process of
learning, new learners (students) must form conceptual connections similar to
those of experts (faculty). Once the connections have been formed, the learners
are able to develop an advanced understanding of the new subject matter and the
discipline as a whole. In addition, Siemens and Tittenberger (2009, 13) proposes
that the elimination of “barriers” to connection is the greatest challenge
universities face. If one considers the challenges that ODL universities face, it is
reasonable to expect that these barriers might be even more important.
To return to generation five pedagogies, new technology such as Facebook,
Twitter, and discussion forums must thus be used to enable and support learners
(via text, sound, images and video clips to increase learner involvement) to form
these connections between what they already know (internalised knowledge) and
new information that they are trying to integrate into their existing frame of
reference on a conceptual level. It is thus the job of faculty to facilitate this
learning process in learners.
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2.2
New roles and competencies for faculty
Faculty is key to creating an enabling and empowering learning environment for
distance education learners. Therefore, it can be assumed that faculty’s
commitment to develop and advance distance education for their specific
disciplines and subjects is key to fostering concerted growth of distance education
programmes (Shapiro, Morales & Biro, 2009). The Commonwealth of Learning
(COL, 1999) emphasises the needs of faculty who face specific changes in their
distance education work context as a result of changes within the distance
university as a whole (for example the introduction of new technology to receive
training).
New roles:
With regard to the changes faced by online faculty, Bawane and Spector (2009)
mentions eight roles and competencies:
 Pedagogical: develop course content, link a subject with scientific, social
and cultural phenomena, manage own professional development
 Social: maintain and improve a learning environment, give feedback to
students and promote student interaction
 Evaluator: monitor and assess student progress, evaluate programmes
 Administrator/manager: demonstrate leadership, manage time and the
program
 Technologist: constant awareness of technological developments of main
resources and virtual tools, learn new software, suggest resources to
students
 Advisor/ counsellor: suggest measures to enhance performance, provide
guidance based on student needs, offer advice and motivate students
 Personal: comply with ethic and legal standards, adopt a positive
attitude committed to e-learning
 Researcher: conduct research, interpret and integrate research findings
into program content
New competencies: Technology: Faculty must recognise the role of instructional
technology as a learning resource and therefore the role of faculty is being
transformed dramatically from being the exclusive source of information to being
one of several sources. ODL faculty is increasingly an intermediary between
students and the available resources (Beaudion, 2009).
New competencies: Curriculum design: Arinto (2013) performed a comprehensive
study on the way ODeL faculty member’s course design practices have changed
and these findings emphasises the importance of the fact that faculty training
programmes in ODeL should aim to develop a comprehensive range of ODeL
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competencies in a systematic and coherent way. Faculty will for example need to
be prepared for the advent of Massive open online courses (MOOCs), where
curricula increasingly become fluid and open.
Although social technologies are changing the nature of knowledge, the
curriculum and the validation of knowledge, the task as faculty primarily remains
the same namely to try to understand our students and to learn to speak their
language (Siemens & Tittenberger, 2009, 1).
2.3 A change management strategy for ODL institutions
“Change” is central in the management of modern organisations (McLagan, 2002).
However, organisations (including universities) do not change automatically.
Organisations require pro-active, strategic human effort in the form of explicit
change management strategies (Taylor, 2001). He adds that distance education
universities have always been and will always be on the frontline of institutional
change and innovation. Zawacki-Richter (2009) listed the distance education
research areas being of high importance and found that both “management of
innovation and change” and “professional development and faculty support” were
among the highest rated research areas. He specifically recommends more
research to be done on the management of change and innovation, organisational
development, faculty support and professional development. Zawacki-Richter
(2009) identifies these areas as “the most neglected fields” in distance education
research. In support, Shapiro, Morales and Biro (2009) state that increasing
demand for online courses means institutions will remain challenged with
implementing processes that allow for manageable and successful scaling up of
online courses or entire degree programmes.
Policy makers need to be aware of the dramatic changes to the world of work of
the ODL academic and the implications that this transformation has on the
academic’s work experience, emotional wellbeing, cognitive functioning and the
resulting quality of interactions with students (Bezuidenhout, 2013). These
changes necessitate a future orientated epistemological and pedagogical approach
from ODL facilitators. It should also be accepted that these changes faced, may
create an uncomfortable contradiction in faculty (Surikova & Baranova, 2009) and
may cause them to experience emotional discomfort and possibly even a lowered
belief/confidence in their own competency. Therefore, Olcott and Wright (1995)
argue that a lack of institutional support frameworks to train ODL academics to
cope on an emotional, cognitive and behavioural level, may be detrimental to the
healthy work experience of the academic.
Unfortunately, from an organisational point of view, change strategies often rely
on the use of power, influence and politics in one form or another (French, Bell &
159
Zawacki, 2005). Through coercive strategies (power and politics) people are
required to comply with a new way of doing things and often penalties and
rewards are used to induce compliance. This approach has not been successful
with faculty within universities.
ODL and E-learning policies and its implementation are increasingly affecting how
higher education institutions operate, are structured and are organised (de Freitas
& Oliver, 2005). To explore how policy influences change, a few Models of Change
are identified in the literature.
The Ecological Model of Change, adopted by a number of theorists in the field of
ODL technology development, seems relevant in managing change and innovation
in increasingly complex contexts (Turan, 1997; Nardi & O’Day, 1999; Tatnall &
Davey 2003). This model as defined by Tatnall and Davey (2003), explains change
in ODL universities according to:
1. Energy expenditure and satisfaction obtained - the take-up of ODL and elearning across an organisation requires high expenditure of energy, including
cost, time and training.
2. Competition: within an organisation - there may be resistance to innovative
technological development due to perceived competition between individual
faculty.
3. Cooperation - some staff members may feel at ease with the new ODL
technology and feel able to cooperate with their development in the university.
These people may be ‘‘early adopters’’ or innovators.
4. Filling a niche – ICT development may fulfil a niche, for example, providing extra
support for ODL learners.
This theoretical perspective emphasise the complex relationship between ODL and
e-learning policies, organisational change, and the implementation there-off.
Furthermore, ODL strategies are increasingly being used as part of an
organisation’s change management strategy and due to its cross-cutting nature,
ODL has been identified as a useful tool for change management within higher
education institutes.
3.
Conclusions and recommendations
Addressing the issue of how to manage the changes faced by ODL academics and
the evolving paradigms they use to support learners effectively, clearly necessitate
a range of theoretical perspectives. It is not a quick nor an easy task to integrate
fifth generation technologies, connectivism, the changing role of faculty and the
ecological change management model.
160
Distance Education Universities need to accept the fact that most people
(including faculty) see change as a daunting experience and will react accordingly.
The normal human reaction to change is resistance. For this reason, having a
laizzes-faire approach to managing change in the university is inappropriate. It is
therefore recommended that ODL universities adopt an ecological model for
managing change in their institutions. Via targeted change management strategies
faculty needs to be prepared for their new roles, both on a cognitive and an
emotional level. Once faculty has managed to emotionally and cognitively accept
and adopt their new roles, they should be enabled through staff development
programmes to use their new knowledge, skills and attitudes to design new
curricula, using pedagogies such as connectivism.
In terms of the ecological model of change management, the following conditions
should be met:
1. Energy expenditure: High costs and targeted investment in terms of ICT
infrastructure development; staffing of faculty, professional development
of staff
2. Competition: Competition among faculty in terms of the time needed to
implement effective online curricula, spending time on-line to provide
support to students, facilitating on-line debates etc. versus competing
academic roles such as producing research outputs, providing post
graduate supervision guidance should be managed fairly, equitable and
empathetically among faculty members.
3. Cooperation: Informal learning between colleagues should be
encouraged via teamwork, encouraging personal learning environments
(PLEs), formal staff development programmes, managing conflicting
relationships between faculty and support staff to the benefit of the
learners. Faculty should be supported to integrate cutting edge
technology into their programmes to assist distance learners to form
“connections” between their existing knowledge and the new knowledge
they are trying to master.
4. Filling a niche: The observable benefits include increased participation of
learners, increased access to study material, library material and support
via learning management platform, facilitates learning, improves
flexibility, improves success rate of students, success spirals for academic
staff, improved skills and competencies, improved morale and eventually
improved adoption of new roles.
As faculty often experience ODL universities efforts as inefficient or fragmented,
the ecological model offers a more integrated approach to change management.
In this way change can be managed holistically to the benefit of all involved,
creating an environment conducive to successful life-long learning.
161
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SYSTEM OF NEW TECHNOLOGY TOOLS
IN FORMATION OF INFORMATION CULTURE
Gunduz Osman Mehdi, Baku State University named after M. A. Rasulzadeh,
Azerbaijan
Hasrat Almaz İsrail, Institute of Educational Problems of the Republic of Azerbaijan,
Azerbaijan
ABSTRACT: This article deals with the role of modern information technologies in
activities of creative persons, especially teachers and pupils against the
background of fast development of ICT. The main goals of the article are to explain
the benefits of ICT system in creative conditions, show new directions in
experiments and to support effective activities arising from these experiments.
The article refers to the latest literature on modern information technologies and
authors use Internet resources in order to support their scientific and practical
theses.
KEY WORDS: ICT, education, the Internet, information society, information
culture, school, computer, pupil, social network, teacher.
We observe a day-by-day increase of the impact of technology on the society in
the modern age. This impact is mainly seen in the youngest members of our
society: children, pupils and students. Today pupils prefer electronic information
resources to libraries and reading books. Of course, the surroundings cause the
163
emergence of this wish. The exceeding flow of new information at any movement,
as well as advertisements, use of modern computer technologies in TV, constantly
renewing computer games, the latest computer models, new electronic
equipment, iPads, tablets, electronic games, etc. have a great impact on the
upbringing and education of young generation, their behaviours and perceptions
of the environment. Of course, activities of pupils, who live in such conditions,
change practically. Our toys that we used, games that we played, fairy tale
characters whom we loved in our childhood have disappeared. The nature of
games, favourite heroes and hobbies of the modern young generation also
change. Children obtained any information from various sources, such as
textbooks, belles-lettres, teachers’ lectures, their own lesson notes, etc. in past
time; but now they use external sources of information. It must be said that a
modern teacher should apply quite new methods in the education process in
accordance with the current conditions.
Brains of modern children are adjusted to more easily receiving and perceiving
new information from various media agencies, especially from entertaining TV
programmes. In this case, children should be taught to select the necessary
information in an age of information abundance, receive and use it effectively in
their practical life activities. Therefore, the process of education should be built in
such a way that pupils can be active, participate in lesson willingly and
interestedly, and see the results of their work and assess them.
The unity of traditional teaching techniques and modern information technologies,
as well as usage of computer can help teachers in solving such difficult tasks. The
usage of computer allows teachers to make the teaching and learning process
more interesting and diverse.
In past time, the most widely used tools in traditional education, such as TV, video,
books, calculator, etc., made the lessons more interesting and had a positive effect
on children’s mastering the topics more easily. However the latest technology
brought tools, which can make the lessons more interesting, into our classrooms.
This tool is information and communication technology (ICT). The use of ICT in
education stimulates its development. Modern pupils cannot imagine their
lessons, classrooms and ways of perceiving the environment without the Internet.
On the other hand, the process of education built through ICT is also very
attractive for teachers. Teachers can understand pupils and involve them in new
researches by using ICT. They even can assess pupils’ knowledge and skills more
quickly and qualitatively. Teachers search for newer methods and forms that differ
from the traditional ones by using ICT in the process of education. It allows
teachers to be more creative and reveal their research skills.
164
Azerbaijan Republic has become the developed and leader state of the region as a
result of her increasing power. The increase of integration in the globalizing world
occurs in parallel with the process of mastering modern information and
communication technologies. The results of the increasing use of ICT in all spheres
of our country, such as education, health, economy, and governance, have been
being seen in recent years. The President of Azerbaijan Republic Mr. Ilham Aliyev
announced 2013 the Year of ICT in order to increase the effectiveness of a variety
of projects being implemented in this field. Thorough approach of our president to
this issue demonstrates that ICT plays a very important role in all areas of our
society. Preparation of pupils and any person in accordance with the conditions of
the information society should be one of the main priorities. First of all, we should
achieve formation of information culture of teachers and intellectual people in
order to achieve good results in this process. “By information culture, we mean
person’s obtaining, processing and using necessary information in order to achieve
the set goal for solving important issues during their lives or careers. As a
computer is a very powerful and convenient tool for performing information
processes, a person can perform a variety of necessary operations using it. From
this point of view, working at a computer, having knowledge of computer software
and hardware, as well as being able to use other information technologies are the
main features that characterize a person’s information culture.” (1) A modern
teacher should be able to work at computer and be aware of its software and
hardware that are updated daily. A teacher who has competencies in this field can
come before today’s pupils. A modern teacher should be able to come before
modern pupils with the modern technology and his/her subject using modern
methods.
We often use the concept of “the use/usage of ICT.” But what does ICT mean?
“ICT is a collection of methods, production processes, technical and programming
tools that ensure collecting, processing and storing of information and combine it
in the technological cycle in order to reduce hardships in the use of information
resources and increase their safety and operativeness.” (2) Teachers can
implement methods that they use constantly for collecting, processing and storing
of information faster only by using a computer. Therefore, we can call this
technology instructional computer technology, too. By the instructional computer
technology, we mean the process of preparation and transmission of information
specifically by a computer. In short, a computer is a tool. Nevertheless, an
innovation is that everybody can upload and transmit any information through ICT.
That is to say, citizens who study or give education are also able to upload and
spread information. Let us imagine 5 pupils in each class of any school upload new
information and 20 of 100 teachers of the same school publish their sample
lessons, reviews, outcomes, tests, etc. in various social networks in a day. It is
apparent that this process will lead to the improvement of the Internet with new
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information. Nevertheless, we should take into account that the accuracy of this
information is unknown. Maybe the information is true or maybe it is wrong. The
quality of information cannot be controlled as its amount is very large. In this case,
information abundance occurs and consequently, an information society emerges.
It is a society in which a great part of the population is engaged in producing,
storing, processing and transmitting information, especially knowledge, the
highest form of the information, using modern information technologies. (3)
Profound information culture of the younger generation should be formed in
order to get access to true information in the information society. First of all,
information culture of schoolchildren is shaped by the impact of their families and
then educational institutions and their own surroundings.
As it is stated in the article “Information Culture: its Essence, Problems of
Formation and Ways of Solution” by R. Aliguliyev and R. Mahmudova, information
culture is not a product of the computer age. Information culture has
accompanied mankind since its emergence. The structure of a person’s
information culture was very simple as information tools were very simple in the
early periods of the human history. (4)
The additional information sources of pupils were only teachers at secondary
schools until 1990. However, development-oriented changes show that one can
find more additional information on the Internet. It is also stated in the article that
well-informed people evoke curiosity among other people. Various people
gathered around well-informed people in order to get new information and to
learn something new. In past time, people who live in conditions of scarce
information resources, especially in villages, far from scientific and cultural
locations gathered together and listened to tales and legends. Afterwards, book
publishing reduced information scarcity to some extent; but as there were few
resources of information people read books that they got over and over again
because of hunger for information. The growth rate of the volume of information
and the process of updating information were very slow; therefore, it was not so
difficult to work with information (5). At last, the emergence of the Internet, owing
to a wide range of opportunities of ICT, facilitated instant access to information. It
was very convenient for all learners. Now we can meet all learners in the Internet
and social networks. We can meet schoolchildren as well as teachers on the
Internet. “The emergence of the information society opens wider opportunities for
securing the human rights; because the main goal of the information society is to
satisfy people’s demand for information at any time, regardless of their age, sex,
race, physical capabilities, social status, and to create tools for conveying their
thoughts without any obstacles. Freedom of conviction and expression, freedom
of dissemination of information are carried out through blogs, i.e. online diaries
that are actual today (6).
166
There is a reality that each pupil can access the Internet like other ICT users. They
can get information they need in the virtual world and even upload information on
the Internet themselves. Pupils also have their rights in this field like every other
citizen. “Everyone has the right to education and these opportunities should be
convenient for everyone. Education should be directed to the development of the
human personality and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and
freedoms. The traditional education system of the industrial society is being
replaced by innovative education, individualized and uninterrupted education
programs and distance education which eliminate limitations on time and place.”
(7)
Studies show that only a person, who has high-level information culture, can be
headed in the right direction in an age of information abundance and be secured
from a variety of negative cases. First of all, informative activities should be carried
out in order to lead schoolchildren in the right direction. These activities should
firstly be carried out in families. Schools also should not deny their assistance; they
have great responsibilities. All teachers should teach rules for Internet usage to
their pupils, regardless of subjects they teach. A teacher should exactly know the
rules for using the Internet, selecting and disseminating the accurate information,
etc. Of course, it very much depends on teacher’s creative potentials and skill of
selecting the right information.
“As long as the teacher’s personality is a significant factor of the upbringing,
his/her emotional attitudes and reactions are also of great importance during the
upbringing of children in the teaching and learning process. A teacher should be a
model with his/her attitude, facial expression, speech, honesty; expressing his/her
objection, indifference, carefulness, punishment, and defending a child who is
against injustice. All these features foster pupils’ emotional attitudes about
education and improve the quality of teaching and learning process.” (8) Taking
into account the latest innovations, a new term related to modern period should
be added to the opinion stated above: the phrase “information culture”. In other
words, a teacher should have computer skills and proper behaviour on the
Internet along with the qualities mentioned above. Let us give an example… There
are many teachers among users of Facebook, one of the most popular social
networks. Sometimes, teachers are not registered with their real names and
surnames and name their Facebook profiles with weird names like “A White
Flower”, “A Sad Lady”, “A Teacher”, “A Yellow Leaf”, “Girl from Baku”, “Disloyal”,
etc. How can a teacher, who is registered with such names, talk his/her pupils
about rules for Internet usage? After all, a teacher should always be a good role
model in society. When pupils see that their teachers are registered with fake
names, they also use weird names in social networks. In this case, nobody knows
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each other in social networks and the communication becomes unclear. A teacher
should be registered with his/her real name and be a model for pupils through this
deed.
“A person simultaneously receives, maintains, processes and transmits
information while working with it. Nevertheless, some people cannot perform all
of these functions because of various reasons. That is to say, norms of information
culture can be violated because of psychological factors, defects in the organs of
sense, as well as unfulfillment of the demands connected with characteristics of
information.” (9)
Generally, recent studies conducted in Azerbaijan show that attitudes towards
upbringing have changed in schools and in the education system, on the whole.
Now teaching and learning process plays a crucial role in the education system and
upbringing acts as an element of teaching and learning process. Therefore,
teaching and learning process is closely connected with its technologization in the
modern education system. The technologized teaching and learning process opens
wide opportunities for ensuring its quality and developing a personality with
predetermined characteristics.” (10) Meanwhile, we have already been using one
of such technologies in the process of education. This teaching-learning technique
is called computer based education which is mainly fulfilled through a computer.
A teacher, who teaches today’s pupils methods of transmitting information and
getting new information, is considered to be creative and professional. The
amount of information is abundant and there are different ways of its
presentation. “Information must be presented in a specific form. If it is not
possible, at least an interest for information should be evoked. Therefore, first of
all, a teacher must convey to his/her learners where, when and why the
information can be needed. B. Stewart, the famous English philosopher, said: “ Do
not read what you do not want to remember and do not what you will not use. If
the material is difficult and uninteresting, but it is necessary to learn it, it is more
efficient to modify its content.” (11) In this case, a teacher can use a computer and
different interesting programs suitable for teaching and transform materials into
forms which can be learnt by pupils; for example: by making a video, using
interesting illustrations or photos on the Internet, citing to websites appropriate
for the topic, involving pupils in researches, etc.
While using ICT, a teacher should not forget that he/she conducts a lesson. So a
teacher should make a lesson plan conforming to the main didactic principles of
the syllabus; differential approach, scientific and systematic character and
coherence in order to achieve his/her goal. In this case, computers do not replace
teachers; they just complement their activity. Teachers’ using ICT during lessons
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evoke admiration of pupils. Modern pupils and students show interest towards
lessons of teachers with such competencies and attend their lessons willingly.
The essential features of a lesson, in which ICT is applied, are the following:
adapting a lesson to individual characteristics of each pupil
(student);
options for making changes during lessons at any time, i.e.
availability of handling lessons;
a constant dialogue between teachers and pupils, and ensuring
interactivity of lesson owing to computer technology;
optimal conformity between individual and group activities of pupils
in the lesson;
a teacher’s control over pupils when they work at computer;
getting much and useful information more quickly during a lesson by
economizing on time.
A teacher can use a computer in different stages of a lesson: introduction;
motivation; research; determining the result and outcome; assessment; and
revision. In other words, a teacher can give useful information, show images or
videos, solve tests, make notes of results during the lesson and assess pupils at any
stage of a lesson.
We can mention several functions of a computer in the process of education:
1. to help teachers and pupils:
a. as an educational and informational resource;
b. as a visual aid;
c. as “an instructor” or “a trainer”;
d. a function of diagnostic testing tool.
2. As a working tool:
a. for preparing texts and storing them in its own memory;
b. as a graphic editor;
c. a tool for preparing presentations;
d. a function of calculating machine with a wide variety of options.
A teacher should be able to use a computer as a teaching aid while preparing and
conducting a lesson. First of all, each teacher should know whether there are
Internet resources covering topics of the subject that he/she teaches. A teacher
should attempt to have resources for each topic at his/her disposal and prepare
texts, tables, questionnaires, tests, create images and videos, etc. corresponding
with the personal interests of each pupil in a class. Of course, it requires a teacher
to put much effort. However, electronic resources, which are prepared daily, will
169
become a great collection at the teacher’s disposal after a while. A teacher will
have many electronic resources in his/her folder.
For example, an educational biology website in the Azerbaijani language (12) was
founded in order to increase schoolchildren’s interest in biology. The blog
functioned primarily as an online diary; and later it was transformed into a website
for everyone, as its content was improved. You can get acquainted with biology
syllabuses for secondary education; biology curriculum; textbooks; methodical aids
and additional materials; videos; and information about famous biologists of the
world and Azerbaijan on this website. Now the website contains nearly 1,000
interesting news on biology. A group of the website has been created in Facebook
in order to introduce it to the broader public, to expand informative activities (13).
More than 1,000 pupils, students and teachers interested in biology joined this
website. Interesting contests are conducted by using sharings, discussions, virtual
multiple choice tests and tests without answers on this website. It leads to the
creation of a new communication/contact tool, in which modern pupils and
teachers come together, and emergence of advantages of this
communication/contact.
Thus, our studies show that ICT can help everyone in our changing world, as well
as it plays an important role in creating an efficient education process.
REFERENCES
1. R. M. Aliguliyev, R. Sh. Mahmudova, Functions of Education System in Formation of
Information Culture of Personality. Journal of “Azerbaijan mektebi” (i.e. Azerbaijani
School), 4, 32 (2012).
2. http://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/İnformasiya_texnologiyaları
3. http://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0nformasiya_c%C9%99miyy%C9%99ti
4. R. M. Aliguliyev, R. Sh. Mahmudova, Information Culture: its Essence Problems of
Formation. Problems of Information Society. 1,14-22 (Baku, 2010).
5. http://www.csc.gov.az/az/downloads/TestPrograms/IT/word/InformasiyaMedeniy
yeti.doc;
http://www.rasim.az/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=62&Itemid=7
5 ; http://jpis.az/storage/files/article/3ea43775b52482610cee5261d4335f83.pdf
6. http://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0nformasiya_c%C9%99miyy%C9%99tind%C9%
99_insan_h%C3%BCquqlar%C4%B1
7. A. Ahmadova, Opportunities of Implementation of Human Rights in Information
Society. Express Information, ("İnformasiya Texnologiyaları" (i.e. Information
Technologies) publishing house, 2009).
8. Y. Sh. Karimov, Teaching Methods. Textbook (Baku, 2009), 241.
9. R. M. Aliguliyev, R. Mahmudova, Information Culture: its Essence Problems of
Formation and Ways of Solution. The Institute of Information Technologies of
Azerbaijan National Academy of Sciences.
170
10. A.Mehrabov, Methodological Problems of Modern Education (Baku, 2012),117.
11. A. Mehrabov, Modern Problems of Education System of Azerbaijan (Baku,
2007),146.
12. http://www.biologiya.org/
13. https://www.facebook.com/groups/375248589217002/
DEVELOPING A POLICY GUIDANCE FOR e-LEARNING
Inegbedion Juliet Obhajajie, National Open University of Nigeria
ABSTRACT: E-learning is receiving acceptance at all levels of education in the
world over. However, it is observed that what is practiced in most schools is
neither here nor there because there is a lack of policy guidance. This gap could
affect the teaching learning process in a negative way if not checked. This paper
focuses on the procedure of developing policy guidance for e-learning by
discussing possible theories, activities in e-learning development and deriving the
policy. From the discussions, it was suggested that novice in e-learning should not
take part in e-learning policy making rather such persons should first had a training
on e-learning development.
KEY WORDS: Policy, e-learning, e-learning.
INTRODUCTION
The method of teaching and learning in the school environment is no more one
way. Before now the only method of teaching was the face-to-face or
conventional method but today e-learning and blended learning are being
advocated for because of their improvement on teaching and learning. Every
country in the world over is working towards the good practices in the integration
of new technology in teaching and learning. Pertinent among the new technology
is e-learning which has transformed teaching and learning process. The elearning as a standalone comes as virtual learning. Blended learning is often a
combination of face-to-face and e-learning. The main components of e-learning
include governance, management, assessment, ethical issues, copyright/licensing,
content development, incentive/appreciation, quality assurance, training and staff
development, research and development (Pulist, 2013). Food and Agricultural
Organisation – FOA (2011) classified e-learning components as e-learning content,
e-tutoring/e-coaching/e-mentoring, collaborative learning and virtual classroom.
It has been observed that the institutions that are doing quite well in e-learning
have guidelines for example, The Open Polytechnic of New Zealand. The elearning practice in the polytechnic is guided with the New Zealand e-Learning
171
guidelines (2006). The guideline was the result of the collaboration of Massey
University, Lincoln University, The Open Polytechnic of New Zealand, The Auckland
University of Technology, The University of Auckland, The University of Waikato
and Victoria University of Wellington. The guideline was developed for the tertiary
institutions.
It has been observed that e-learning development suffers dearth of literature and
policy guidance procedure which possibly may have resulted in the haphazard
implementation of e-learning in most institutions especially in Nigeria.
The survey carried out in Commonwealth Asia Countries by Pulist (2013) on the
different components of e-learning policy revealed that 61.8% of respondents
agreed that their institutions’ policy on e-learning has focus on content
development. Although it did not ascertain the extent to which the policies
enhance the development of e-learning, it signifies the importance attached to
policy on e-learning. The almost 40% that do not have policy guidance on their elearning is worrisome. The question is how do we derive a policy that could help
in the attainment of institutional goals and objectives? This is where this paper
comes in. Therefore, the paper is focused on developing e-learning course for
university programmes.
Policy Development Processes and Theories for e-learning
Policy has been defined differently by different people, but for the purpose of this
paper, policy is “an explicit or implicit single decision or group of decisions which
may set out directives for guiding future decisions, initiate or retard action, or
guide implementation of previous decisions” (Haddad, W. D, 1995). However,
policies could differ in scope, complexity, decision, environment range of choices
and decision criteria as presented in Figure 1. Issue specific policies deals with
short-term decisions or particular issue; programme policy is concerned with the
design of a programme in a specific area; multiple programme policies are broader
and deals with more than a programme; and strategic are large scale policies.
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Figure 1:Policy Scope
Source: Haddad, W. D. (1995)
From the definition, an institution may have directives for guiding future decisions,
but such decisions could be retarded if the directives fail to meet the prescribed
goals and objectives. Policy makers are often interested on the actors (who does
it) and the process (how). Historically, the actor is considered unitary and rational.
Recently, a new dimension has been introduced by policy – the organisational
(pubic interest) model and the personalistic (self-interest) model. The process
element is said to fluctuate between synoptic (Comprehensive) and incremental
approach. The differences as specified by Lindblom and Cohen (1979) indicate
that:
In the extreme form, synoptic method is one single central planning for the whole
society combining economic, political and social control into the integrated
planning process. This process does not welcome interaction; and it assumes: (a)
that the problem at hand does not go beyond main’s cognitive capacities and (b)
there exist agreed criteria (rather than social conflict of values) by which solutions
can be judged and (c) that the problem-solves have adequate incentives to stay
with synoptic analysis until it is completed (rather than ‘regress’ to using
incremental planning). Incremental policy making on the other hand relies on
interaction rather than on a complete analysis of the situation to develop a blue
print for solving problems. The incremental approach to policy making is built on
the following assumptions: (a) policy options are based on highly uncertain and
fluid knowledge and are in response to a dynamic situation (ever changing
173
problems and evolving contexts, (b) No ‘correct’ solution can therefore be found
or technically derived from a diagnosis of the situation. Thus, no sweeping or
drastic reforms should be attempted, (c) only incremental and limited policy
adjustments can be made and (d) policy adjustments are expected to remedy an
experienced dissatisfaction with past policies, improving the existing situation or
relieving an urgent problem. Consequently, these adjustments should be tentative
and in some cases temporary and must be revised as the dynamics of the solution
evolve.
In addition to the policies making procedures there are several theories and
models guiding e-learning development. This paper will concentrate on
Community of inquiry framework by Anderson and Garrison; Brain Spitzberg’s
computer-mediated communication model; and ADDIE model. Community of
inquiry framework is based on the premise that a community of learners is an
essential part of the learning experience; on constructivist approach to learning;
the element do not exist in isolation, the important part is how these elements
interrelate i.e. their relationship; the focus was on higher education; how
traditional educational values and practices could be incorporated into e-learning;
Community of inquiry model assumes that learning occurs within the community
through the interaction of three core elements – cognitive presence, social
presence and teaching presence; people are united by a common purpose of
learning; the development and maintenance of the three presences allows the
learners to achieve their learning goals. Teaching presence has two functions that
can be performed by anyone in the learning community but in an educational
environment these functions are likely to be the primary responsibility of the
teacher; and that teaching presence is responsible for designing the educational
experience, and facilitating the learning of the community. These responsibilities
entail three critical components – design and organisation, facilitating discourse,
and direct instruction (Garrison and Anderson, 2011). The implications of this
framework for e-learning development is that there must be well organised
learning experiences in a linear form; selected content and learning activities that
encourages discourse while the reading provided direct instruction; confirm
learning outcomes through assessments and provide timely and explanatory
feedback to the learners; design assessment and learning activities to encourage
conversation and to listen to the perspectives of others in the group; clarify topics
by providing answers to questions posted in the discussion forum and talking with
the students directly on Skype during office hours; make attempt to make
instructions clear and explicit, so little clarification from learners is required.
The social presence can be referred to as the ability of participants in the
community of inquiry to project their personal characteristics into the community,
thereby presenting themselves to the other participants as real people (Garrison et
174
al, 2000). This can be applied through the use of audio and video discussion in
voice thread. Seeing and hearing is more real than reading their thoughts in a
discussion forum; assignments on reflection on their experiences; and asking for a
personal experience encourages social presence as group members are able to tell
their own stories, which are projection of themselves.
Cognitive presence as described by Garrison et al 2000) is the extent to which the
participants in any particular configuration of a community of inquiry are able to
construct meaning through sustained communication. An example of cognitive
presence is the use of case study assignments. The assignment will require
students to apply their understanding of facilitating teams from their own
personal reflections and the reading for example group assignment.
Spitzberg’s CMC (Computer Mediated Communication) model focuses on how a
learner’s motivation, knowledge and skills affect their experiences (Spitzberg,
2006). As policy makers for e-learning, it is important to be aware of the different
technological skills learners will have and the support they may need in order to
have a successful e-learning experience. Motivation refers to the desire to
communicate in an effective and appropriate manner so that clear communication
is achieved. Knowledge is an awareness of what behaviour is appropriate or suited
to a particular situation and involves information about the person involved, the
communication rules and the context. Skills are the actual ability a person has
when making use of a particular technology. The assumptions of Spitzberg model
is that learners’ ability to make effective use of CMC will affect overall experiences
with technology, and an essential aspect of the model is the way in which it can be
used to help assess a person’s competence with CMC.
ADDIE model represent five distinct stages in the creation of e-learning (Molenda,
2011). ADDIE means analyse, design, develop, implement and evaluate. This is
represented diagrammatically in Figure 2.
Analyse
Implement
Evaluate
Develop
Figure 2: ADDIE Model
175
Design
ADDIE model focuses on analysis of the situation surrounding learners learning;
designing the learning experiences; developing the content; implementing the
content and evaluation of all aspects. The evaluation is both formative and
summative.
There is no one best model or theory in e-learning design. Integration is the best
based on the context, audience, teaching activities (learning design, teaching
relationships, learner support), and e-learning principles.
Activities in e-learning Development
E-learning could be developed as stand-alone or wrap-round. Stand-alone means
developing the content from the scratch and as wrap-round text the content is
developed from already existing text. The text could be course materials that have
been developed for open and distance learners or ordinary text book. The
structure of e-learning is focused on achieving appropriate electronic delivery.
E-learning development involves subject expert, instructional designer, education
technologist, editor, proof reader and graphic design artist. The subject expert is
the subject specialist who is knowledgeable in the content; the instructional
designer (ID) arranges the media and content to help learners learn effectively; the
education technologist present the developed content in the prescribed medium;
the editor edit the content while the proof reader ensures that all the layouts,
formatting, and linkages are adhered to after the technologist has presented the
content and the graphic design artist help in getting prescribed pictures, drawings
and cartoons as may be required by the content expert and the ID.
Competencies needed for web-based content requires focus on the features of the
course management tools and the understanding of the multimedia capabilities of
the web (Parhar and Mishra, 2000). In some institutions, the responsibility of the
development of instruction for e-learning is carried out by IT experts, web
specialists, graphic/visual artists and instructional designers are hired by the
institutions for development of e-learning programmes (Hussain, 2004).
Somanada (2012) also opined that different learning styles of the learners need to
be accommodated by the e-learning ID and that delivery method should be
deployed to support students’ learning styles.
There are two types of e-learning – self-paced e-learning and
facilitated/instructor-led. In the self-paced e-learning the e-learning provider does
not have to schedule time of meeting. But e-learning content for individual study
can be integrated with instructor’s lectures, individual assignments and
collaborative activities among learners. FAO (2011) categorised e-learning into
simple learning resource; interactive e-lesson; electronic simulations; and job aids.
176
Simple learning resources are non-interactive resources such as documents,
PowerPoint presentations, video or audio files. They are classified as noninteractive because learners can only hear, see or watch. The most common
approach for self-paced e-learning is web-based training. E-lesson is the linear
sequence of screens which can include text, graphics, animations, audio and
interactivity in the form of questions and feedback. E-lesson can also include
recommended readings and links to online resources as well as additional
information on specific topics. In electronic simulation, the term simulation is the
creating of a learning environment that simulates the real world. This allows the
learner to learn by doing. Simulations require a specific form of web-based
training that immerse the learner in a real world situation and respond in a
dynamic way of his/her behaviour. Job aids provide just-in-time knowledge.
These can be presented in different platform such as the computer, printed
document and mobile phones. These aids usually provide immediate feedback to
specific questions thereby help users to accomplish job tasks. Technical glossaries
and checklists are few examples of simple job aids (FOA, 2011)
To balance the development of e-learning it is worthwhile to know the cut
between provider’s thinking and the learners’ perspectives. Gunawardana (2005)
reported that learners in Sri Lanka take online courses more seriously when
reading materials were provided to them through books and CD-ROMs that saved
their online time. The e-learning comprised static pages without animations in the
content of virtual university of Pakistan (Siddiqui, 2011). The use of LMS can
enhance the performance of the students in examinations (Chew, 2010)
E-learning activities can be synchronous or asynchronous. The activities in the
synchronous take place in real time e.g. chat conversation, video/audio
conferencing, live webcasting, polling and application sharing. The activities in the
asynchronous take place at independent time. Examples are self-paced course,
email, discussion forum, wiki, blog, and webcasting.
Deriving a Policy
To derive policy for e-learning development the following steps are
recommended:
1. The context
2. Derive a model or framework
3. Institution goals and objectives
4. The course aims and objectives
5. Expected learning outcome
6. Versatility of the context
177
7.
8.
Do your research
Evaluate
The first step is to identify the context in which you intend to use the guidelines.
Secondly, identify the institution’s goals and objectives then the course aims and
objectives. The course aims and objectives should be aligned with the institution’s
objectives and then derive expected learning outcome in the course if not already
spelt out. The next step is to identify a model or framework that would guide in
identifying the specific elements that would be required in decision making. To
come up with a policy that would match steps two to five above the policy makers
must have a full understanding of the context of the learning environment. This is
where the knowledge of models, theories and the activities in e-learning
development is required. Adequate knowledge of the policy makers on these
parts would affect the decision types of learning for example, with the knowledge
on the community of enquiry framework, policy could be derived for cognitive,
social and teaching presence. This will affect the type of learning platform that
would be recommended and determining the workload of students and tutors.
Also the ADDIE model would guide the type of policy that would be formulated on
monitoring and evaluation of programmes.
To be well conversant with the context, it is recommended that a study is carried
out. This is necessary because a policy that succeeds in one context may not
succeed in another context. A good grip of the context would help in developing
policies that can easily be implemented and thereby derive the desired objectives.
Finally, there should be a time frame to evaluate the implementation and success
of the policies. Are the policies producing the desired results? If not what are the
factors hindering the success? Is it as a result of poor implementation or as a
result of improper policy formulation? These are questions that should be
addressed during evaluation.
From the discussions presented in this paper, the possible policies that might
emanate to guide the development of e-learning are:
1. E-learnings are learning experiences presented in electronic format
either web structured or on CD-ROMs or social media.
2. The media elements for structuring should include texts, graphics, audio,
video, blogs, forums and animations.
3. Personnel requirement for e-learning development should include
subject expert, instructional designer, education technologist, editor,
proof reader and graphic design artist.
4. There should be a separate unit for learning management. The personnel
in this unit should include instructional designers, education
178
5.
6.
7.
8.
technologists, editors, proof readers and graphic design artists. Editors
could be out sourced. The head of the unit should be designated as
Learning Manager. The learning manager must be versatile in
instructional design. These personnel are to assist the content experts in
presenting the e-learning. That is to say the content expert who needs
their services should go to them.
The adopted Learning Management System (LMS) should be learner
friendly.
Learning should be supported through the use of learning devices such as
explanations, examples, interactivity, feedback and glossaries.
The learning activities can be synchronous or asynchronous or both.
The contents should be arranged in linear and manageable chucks to be
visible on the computer screen when accessed.
In addition, the roles, functions, and the activities in the under listed must be well
specified when institution guidelines are prepared.
1.
2.
3.
4.
The audience – This include the academic staff, students and
administrators.
Teaching activities – specify the learning design i.e. setting learning
outcomes, planning teaching strategies, choosing resources and planning
evaluations. Also to be considered are teaching relationships to ensure
effective course delivery and management and learner support.
Other supports such as staff development and institutional strategy.
Classify the type of e-learning – no access, web-supported, webenhanced and web-based.
Conclusion
In conclusion it could be said that to derive a working policy for easy
implementation and achievement of expected outcomes, the policy makers must
be conversant with the context of operations. This is to say that those that are not
knowledgeable in the context of e-learning should not be involved in the policy
decisions.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
Chew, L. K. (2010). Quality and effectiveness of e-learning courses: Some
experiences from Sigapore, 7th International Conference on E-learning for
knowledge-based society. Thailand.
FAO (2011). E-learning methodologies: A guide for designing and developing elearning courses. Rome. Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United
Nations.
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3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Garrison, R., & Anderson, T. (2011). E-Learning in the 21st century: A framework
for research and practice. Hoboken, NY: Taylor & Francis.
Grnawardana, K. D. (2005). An empirical study of potential challenges and
beneits of implementing e-learning in Sri Lanka. Proceedings of the second
international conference on eLearning for knowledge-based society, Thailand:
Bangkok
Haddad, W. D. (1995). Education policy-planning process: an applied framework.
Paris, UNESCO: International Institute for Educational Planning.
Hussain, R. M. R. (2004). E-Learning in Higher Education Institutions in Malaysia.
E-mentor. 5(7).
Lindblom, C. & Cohen D. K. (1979). Usable knowledge: Social science and social
problem solving. New Haven: Yale University.
Molenda M. (2011). In search of the elusive ADDIE model performance
improvement accessed January 2011, doi:10.1002/pf:4930420508.
Parhar, M. & Mishra, S. (2000). Competencies for Web-based Instructional
Designers, Indian Journal of Open Learning, 9(3).
Pulist, S. K. (2013). eLearning in commonwealth Asia. New Delhi. CEMCA.
Siddiqui, Z. H. (2011). Promoting E-learning in Pakistan: Strategies and
challenges.
Retrieved
on
12th
March,
2013
from
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Somananda, B. L. (2012). Memoirs of student of online teaching. Retrieved 8th
December,
2013
from
http://asiacall.org/network/?q=system/files/bihimini_1._somananda.pdf
Spitzberg, B. H. (2006). Preliminary development of a model and measure
of computer-mediated communication (CMC) competence. Journal of ComputerMediated
Communication, 11(2).
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14,
2012,
fromhttp://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol11/issue2/spitzberg.html
Milne, J. & Dimock, E. (2006). E-Learning guidelines: Guidelines for the support of
e-learning in New Zealand tertiary institutions, Palmerston North
THE CO-OPERATION BETWEEN THE CENTRE FOR LIFELONG LEARNING
OF NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA AND THE PRIVATE SECTOR
TO CURB UNEMPLOYMENT: TRAINING TECHNICAL CREW
IN THE PERFORMING ARTS
Iwuchukwu Onyeka, Kelikume Genevieve, National Open University of Nigeria
ABSTRACT: The complexities of unemployment have compelled Nigerian
university graduates to seek further studies in professional areas different from
their professions to meet labour market needs. Consequently, some institutions
mount skill-acquisition-related programmes in specific areas. Also, National Open
University of Nigeria’s (NOUN) Centre for Lifelong Learning which hitherto was
180
training, re-training and certifying skilled professionals recently, embarked on
collaborative ventures with some establishments to mount short term courses in
skill acquisition geared towards curbing unemployment among graduates. This
paper therefore is an appraisal of that venture and attempts to create an
awareness of this unique opportunity. Findings indicate low enrolment implying
that the target clientele is still largely ignorant hence the importance of this paper
which, hopefully, will contribute to knowledge and circulate information on the
existence of this unique opportunity for an employment pathway in the booming
Performimg Arts industry especially in the area of technical theatre.
KEY WORDS: complexities, skill acquisition-related programmes, collaborative
ventures, skilled professionals, unemployment
INTRODUCTION
National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN) was re-established in 2002 as an Open
and Distance Learning University (ODL) and it remains the only mono-modal
tertiary institution in the country. The “concept of ODL …provides education
through which one can qualify in one’s chosen field without attending formal
classes and it also creates opportunity for lifelong learning” (Iwuchukwu 2013 p.
142). The University, aware of the fact that the vision behind its establishment is
the need to provide education for as many Nigerians as possible, in line with these
tenets of ODL, set up study centres in all states of the federation. It started with 12
study centres in 2002 and presently, there are 54 of such centres spread
throughout the country. The learners are expected to study at their own pace and
at their own convenience hence the flexibility of ODL. However, they are expected
to meet the NUC minimum requirement for admission into specific programmes of
the university. This minimum requirement is the same provided by the Joint
Admission and Matriculation Board (JAMB) and somehow, this criterion negates
the openness of the university. In order to live up to its nature of openness and
pave way for the fulfilment of the vision of wider access to education for all
Nigerian citizens, the university tried to circumvent this rule through the creation
of the Centre for Continuing Education and Workplace Training in 2003; between
2010 and 2013, it was changed from Centre for Lifelong Learning and Workplace
Training to Centre for Lifelong Learning and the focus was and is still on the offer
of diploma and certificate courses for those who are not qualified to enroll for
undergraduate degree programmes. The centre was therefore established to train,
re-train and certify learners especially in areas of skilled labour and professions
amongst which are, fashion design, hair dressing.
However, with fluctuations in the economy, the ever-increasing complexities of
unemployment especially among youths and changing sociopolitical issues in the
country, and the need for graduates to possess new set of skills and credentialing
has grown especially as there appears to be a widening gap between the
181
competencies required for practice and those the graduates learned in their
education programs. This is because the country has proliferated universities and
higher education with little or no attention to skill acquisition and the absorption
of the graduates in the labour market. On the part of the service provider in the
education system, more attention is paid performance in examinations and
possession of certificate while standardized tests are being used by employers to
assess new employees before an offer of employment is made where vacancy
exists. Employers therefore expect skills that go beyond the certificates.
Consequently, new expectations in skill acquisition are emerging as waves of new
knowledge, technology and related requirements have also materialized to
overtake previous ones resulting in changes to meet the demands of these broad
societal changes. This has compelled university graduates to seek further studies
in areas that are different from their main courses for either self-employment or
to meet needs of the labour market.
Employment in Nigeria
Belief in one’s own competence and certificate is no longer enough in the
contemporary job market instead demonstrated competence now motivates
employers, hence the need for continuing education which results, at times, in
deviations from the graduates’ original professions. This continuous education
hinges on the evolution of new knowledge, new skills that requires shift from
original area of specialization to a perceived more viable ones(Allen & Seaman
2005 p. 25). The role of service providers has therefore shifted considerably from
lectures and traditional content to strategies that promote competence and
confidence in the graduates to equip them for the evolving workplace. They are
now redesigning and reforming curricula to meet the present needs. For instance,
Entrepreneurship as a course has been made a compulsory subject in Nigerian
universities.
Meanwhile, there is significant escalation in the expectations of the new jobs.
Increasing global competition, new technologies, and the innovations are having
significant impact on the level of education/skill preparation for employment
security as credentials, experience, and loyalty no longer guarantee career
success. The market increasingly demands higher competencies, in broader skill
areas, and a workforce committed to, and capable of, continuous improvement.
Predictable job stability, tenure, and career paths for those who possessed
essential (basic) skills, loyalty, and a good work ethic is gradually being threatened.
The mass retrenchment and the collapse of the banking industry is a case in point.
It is an established fact that in Nigeria, in the sixties and early seventies, university
graduates were highly regarded, envied and often emulated as they were largely
in control of their destinies. They did not look for employment, instead jobs sought
182
them; employers of labour go to universities to recruit staff. Achebe (2012)
recounts such an experience:
After graduation, I did not have to worry about where to go next. The system was
so well organized that as we left university, most of us were instantly absorbed
into civil service, academia, business or industry. We trusted the country and its
rulers to provide this preparatory education and then a job to serve my nation…I
was notified of a job opening at what was then called the Nigerian broadcasting
service NBS) in Enugu. I was offered a choice by the search committee of coming
to Enugu to interview or have them come to me. I …proceeded to enjoy the
privilege by asking them to come to me, which they did (p. 29-30)
This has become history as youths even on National Youth Service find it difficult
to find placements. In view of this development, the future demand for tertiary
education and lifelong adaptive learning needs to be emphasized as it will help to
define the economic opportunity and security of both the individual and the
nation. Competitiveness, innovation, productivity, and standard of living will
depend directly on the ability of institutions to increase the ability of tertiary
education to contribute significantly to the current workforce.
New employers are requiring higher basic, academic, and technical skills,
measured competencies, adaptive learning, critical thinking, teamwork, etc. and
the assurance of employment stability is gone, and the ultimate retirement benefit
has become a defined contribution plan. These can only be achieved if the
graduates are well equipped with desired skills and abilities.
Noun Co-operation with the Private Sector
The Centre for Lifelong Learning provides academic programmes, linking life
experiences with continuing education as well as creates a seamless system of
lifelong access to new skills and credentials (Allen & Seaman 2005 p.32). It seeks to
promote a system of education that is in line with the global move from the
education culture of the old world that is no longer meeting the needs of
individuals, companies, or policy makers to “ a process of changing the
organization and metrics of higher education from a system of fixed time,
structure, and content to one where curriculum, competency, and outcomes
continuously aligned with the rapidly changing world” (Bueno1995b p. 10) to meet
changing expectations of employers. This fundamental shift results from need to
mobilize increased percentages of the unemployed into the workforce, by
preparing them for significantly in increased education/skill employment
expectations.
It is not possible for the centre to provide training in all professions in the society it
therefore decided to partner with some private organisations to provide the
183
needed manpower for the nation. Being an ODL university (NOUN), the
programmes are expected to have a wide base to absorb as many unemployed
youths as possible while the institutions provide the needed practical experience
and competencies. The primary purpose of these cooperation is to ensure both
the “continuous alignment and portability of academic content and outcomes with
the constantly changing expectations of both the employer and academic
world.”(Ewell 1994 p. 26) The new programme is expected to equip the graduates
with the realization that they can reach beyond their traditional academic
qualifications, become more flexible and resilient, growing more knowledgeable in
their new area of specialization thus paving the way for a new broadened system
of university education.
This initiative took off in three cities, Lagos, Abuja and Kadunawith the following
organisations: AUTOMEDICS, Ikeja Lagos; Business Outlooks and Associates. Yaba,
Lagos; National Power training Institute of Nigeria(NAPTIN), Wuse, Abuja;
Multimix Academy, Yaba, Lagos; BNM Associates- Opebi, Lagos; Eduwatch
Consults and Research Centre, Gwarinpa, Abuja; backup Networks Ltd, Marina
Lagos; Headquarters 81 Division Nigerian Army, Victoria Island, Lagos; Centre for
Human Resource Development. The focus is on the following graduates from
Lagos
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Automative Mechanitronics – 35
French – 35
Event Management – 14
Sound Engineering – 3
Make-up Artistry – 35
Photography – 29
Graphic Design – 16
Video Editing – 8
Out of the fifteen areas of study where graduates have been produced, five of
them are connected with the Performimg Arts. Apart from in numbers 1, and 2
where there are candidates with school certificate as the highest qualification, in
the remaining 3- 8 and the graduands are graduates in various disciplines. This is
not surprising since the Performing Arts industry is becoming a great employer of
labour especially in film, movies, music and dance. This is evident in the number of
reality shows in the area through which more youths are being empowered. This is
not surprising because as the world advances in information technology, the tube
in form of television, computers, android and smart phones and their link with the
internet has boosted the entertainment industry in the Nigeria. This was a
profession which hitherto was regarded as profession for drop-outs popularly
called ‘Alawada’(clown) in Yoruba language. The Perfoming Arts Professionals
184
(dancers, dramatists and musicians) were regarded as never-do-wells and loafers
in the traditional African society are gaining wealth, prominence and popularity in
the contemporary society. In the face of increasing unemployment problems in
many African societies, youths are turning to the performing arts for employment,
self-employment and sustenance (Iwuchukwu 2013 p. 228).
The practitioners are indeed very proud of their profession. For instance, Femi
Osofisan(2001) asserts:
By jesting, beating drums, singing songs, we…seek to exquisitely to please. Out of
the instruments of wind and wood, of stone and string, we weave melodies of
enchantment. And sometimes too, we adorn ourselves in costume and mask, paint
our faces, and decorate our bodies in sumptuous patterns. Then through the
effects of lighting, we turn an empty space into a magic circle in order to help you
realize the fantasy of your dreams, ithsevera methods of artifice and ingenuity, we
teach and practice the arts of awada (102)
The performing arts has indeed has become an enviable profession as the industry
is empowering and providing employment for many Nigerians through the
Nollywood, reality shows, music, dance and stand up comedies. These changes
therefore require related reforms in policies and curricular of service providers in
the education sector. The expectations are to present a different set of
competencies and consequences from those of the past, for both academic and
private sectors. Other institutions should brace up to the challenge by redesign
their curricular to be more responsive to contemporary changes and seek
collaboration instead of each institution independently focusing just on its own
responsibilities, which falls short of the collective need. National Open University
of Nigeria and service providers are working collaboratively to establish core
practice skills that would guarantee employment for more graduates.
Conclusion
It is practically impossible for the Nigerian Government as presently constituted to
provide employment for the ever-increasing graduates from the numerous tertiary
institutions in the country. The birth, nurture and astronomic growth of Nollywood
and other aspects of the Performing Art is commendable and since it is impossible
for everyone to be in the public glare as principal participants in acting, music,
dance, comedy and others, the members of the crew who work behind the scenes
like the director, stage managers, costumier, screen writers and many other are
equally important and also earn their living comfortably. For instance make-up
artists are in great demand as they are needed in all areas of performing arts, the
Television houses and recently by new brides at their weddings. Some wealthy
individuals are now engaging professional make-up artists and pay exorbitant
185
prices. Some of them like Tara set up their own make up studios and are doing
very well.
This system of collaboration between NOUN and these organisations helps to
create more skilled graduates as it provides a base for work based learning, and
ultimate support for placement of graduates within the entertainment industry. It
is the time for other tertiary institutions to engage in thoughtful and creative
reflection in an effort to participate this mode of solving the unemployment
problem without remaining paralyzed by the magnitude of the efforts needed to
change the existing system of governance. Directing and other aspects of film
movie production should also be included to ensure a steady supply of the needed
manpower in a sector that is becoming a major employment provider in Nigeria.
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Achebe, Chinua (2012) There was a country: A Personal history of Biafra
Allen, I., & Seaman, J. (2005, November). Growing by degrees: Online education in
the United States, 2005. Sloan Consortium, p. 1-24.
Bueno, D. J. (1995b). Why can't new grads think like nurses? Nurse Educator, 19(4),
p. 9-11.
Ewell, P.T. (1994). A matter of integrity: Accountability and the future of selfregulation. Change 26(6), p. 24-29.
Iwuchukwu, O. (2013) “Dislodging the ‘university of Nkwo Nnewi’ through open and
distance learning”. Igbo Studies Review No. 1 2013. pp138-149
Iwuchukwu, Onyeka (2013) “Performing arts in open and distance learning (ODL)
Curriculum” African Research Review Vol 7(2) No 29, April 2013. Pp227-242
KoriehChima(2013) The way we lived: Essays on Nigerian history, gender and
society. GlassboroNJGoldline Publishers.
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Osofisan, F. (2001) Insidious treasons: Drama in a postcolonial State. Ibadan:
OponIfa Publishers
EMPOWERING KNOWLEDGE EXCHANGE AND INNOVATION THROUGH THE
COMMUNITIES OF PRACTICE MODEL (COPM) IN THE ODL ENVIRONMENT
Jakovljevic Marija, School of Computing, College of Science, Engineering and
Technology, UNISA, South Africa
ABSTRACT: The motivation for this research has been found in the increasing
numbers of ill-prepared learners with inadequate study skills who are entering
186
open distance learning (ODL) environments and performing their study tasks in
socially isolated contexts. This leads to low throughput and a decline in learning
and innovative outputs.
The purpose of this paper is to create a CoP model and examine its impact on the
stimulation of innovation processes and knowledge sharing at the ODL institution
of higher education in South Africa. The nature of this study demanded a
qualitative research approach with informal individual interviews and journals’
reports as methods of data collection. The study sample consisted of two CoP
groups with five members in each group enrolled in two undergraduate modules at
the ODL institution of higher education in South Africa.
Findings indicated a need for CoPs within the ODL environment with adequate
monitoring and guidance that stimulate innovation and knowledge exchange.
KEY WORDS: CoP model, ODL, knowledge exchange, innovation
INTRODUCTION
ODL in general characterizes online tools and infrastructure that are currently not
well-designed to satisfy the needs of students with varying learning skills and
experiences (Maor, 2003; Pitsoe & Maila, 2011). Research has revealed that there
is a lack of a specific framework to guide learners’ communities of practice (CoP)
and the innovative knowledge exchange in ODL higher education (Bushney,
Buckley, Jakovljevic, Majewski, 2013). A CoP group is formed when two or more
individuals come together voluntarily and informally to share expertise or ideas
and are passionate about a common venture (Wenger, 1998a,b; Wenger,
McDermott, & Snyder, 2002).
The motivation for this research has been found in a need to develop a CoP model
(CoPM) based on the principles of learning theories, ODL research and CoP
theories and practice in higher education. Innovative practice and a
multidisciplinary approach becomes a social need that requires urgent attention in
higher educational institutions and ODL environments. Teaching-intensive
institutions of higher education should be aware of a lack of appropriate models
for building effective communities of practice as the main drivers for innovative
knowledge exchange (South Africa, 1997: 9-91). This study is a part of Women in
Research (WiR) longitudinal action research project that consists of six phases:
developing a theoretical framework and criteria for CoPs; exploring students'
preliminary attitudes towards CoPs; forming communities of practice pilot groups
and implementing the CoP model; evaluating pilot CoPs groups; implementing the
CoP model in the main action research study; evaluating and applying a CoP model
(CoPM) to other groups.
187
The main purpose of this article is to create the CoP model and examine its
application in the pilot study at the ODL institution of higher education in South
Africa. Furthermore, the aim of this paper is to report on phase three of the
Women in Research Project (WiR) project namely: forming pilot communities of
practice under specific guidelines of the CoP model in order to empower learning
and enhance innovative outcomes.
Based on the above discussion, the specific aims of this article are as follows:
1. Identify major components of the CoP model
2. Identify and discuss key aspects of the model in terms of its applicability
for CoPs’ groups in the ODL context.
To do this, the following research questions are set:
1. What are the students’ perceptions in terms of guidelines, allocated
activities and roles within the model?
2. What are the major components of the CoP model and how do students
perceive it’s effectivess to knowledge sharing?
3. How does the CoP model contribute to empowering of learning and
innovation in the open and distance learning environment?
The theoretical framework will be presented in the next section, highlighting the
theoretical pillars and innovative knowledge sharing within ODL environments.
The descriptions of the CoP model will follow with its deployment and
appropriateness for the ODL context.
Theoretical framework for communities of practice model in the ODL
environment
Theoretical pillars for communities of practice
CoPs have been described as “groups of people informally bound together by
shared expertise and passion for a joint enterprise” (Wenger & Snyder 2000: 139)
with similar task responsibilities that solve authentic problems and promote
interdisciplinary knowledge and practice across different groups (Johnson, 2001).
CoPs trace their roots in constructivism, sociocultural and socio-constructivist
approaches to learning that involves collaboration, shared goals, cognitive tools
and the role of instructor as a facilitator or coach (Vygotsky, 1978; Wertsch, 1991;
Resnick, 1991; Ruey, 2010).CoPs support situated learning through apprenticeship,
coaching, collaboration, multiple practices, and the articulation of learning skills,
stories and technology (Brown, Collins & Duguid, 1989). Peer interaction,
scaffolding, and modelling are important ways of facilitating individual cognitive
growth and knowledge acquisition (Vygotsky, 1978; Pitsoe & Maila, 2011). Thus,
188
these theories and perspectives present a basis for the growth of human
competencies within CoPs.
Innovative knowledge sharing within communities of practice: Online
technologies and barriers in the ODL environment
There are varieties of technologies at ODL contexts such as multimedia, video and
audio conferencing, telephony, SMSs and MMS s via cell phones, discussion
forums/chat facilities to support open and distance learning (Ferreira & Venter,
2011:86). However, “…the throughput rate of students is still unsatisfactory”.
Multiple barriers exist for knowledge sharing in current ODL contexts, for example,
poor support services, institutional attitudes, a low opinion of communities of
practice, missing CoP guidelines, teaching overload, limited or no management
support and limited resources.
Eckert (2006) specifies that within CoPs knowledge development can be
continuous, cyclical and fluid. Knowledge sharing and transfer depends on
individual characteristics, experiences, values, motivation, and beliefs (Borthick &
Jones, 2000; Hsiu-Fen, 2007; Kehrwald, 2008). Wegner (2000:143-144) points out
that managers identify potential CoPs, provide the infrastructure and use nontraditional methods to measure the value of CoP effectiveness. Schooling has
become progressively marketized (Goodson, 2005) demanding innovative
products. CoP members engage in developing new products through peer
interaction and expert-to-apprentice interaction (Pan & Scarbrough, 1998).
Traditional teams vs. community of practice teams
Traditional teams and CoPs teams differ. Burk, (2005) indicates that traditional
teams have deadlines and specific deliverables. CoP teams usually have longer life
spans than traditional teams lasting as long as they have value to their members
(Burk, 2005) in promoting interdisciplinary knowledge and practice. Thus, CoPs are
self-organising systems based on the intrinsic value that membership brings into
the action ((Wenger, et al, 2002). “Communities of practice teams possess
different levels of expertise, fluid peripheral to centre movement that symbolizes
the progression from being a novice to an expert…” (Johnson, 2001:1).
CoP teams have a sense of connectedness of shared passion derived from ongoing interaction (Gannon-Leary & Fontainha, 2007). “CoPs are facilitated by an
instructor or a CoP group leader (a moderator, coach or mentor), whose role is to
act as a gentle guide or facilitator, that includes the instructor's duty of opening
the community environment for discussion of goals, evaluations and peer
evaluation and self-evaluation”(Bielaczyc & Collins, 1999).
Communities of practice model (CoPM) for ODL learning and teaching
189
In considering the purpose of this study, an in-depth research on the aspects
related to the CoP model, its structure and deployment within the ODL field were
emphasised.
The components of the CoP model
Figures 1a and 1b present the following key CoPM components:
Phases: Phase I: Foundation (domain, purpose, mission, vision, outcomes); Phase
II: Planning (activities, technologies, communications, roles); Phase III: Pilot
(deploying and testing the CoP model); Phase IV: Competence development
(design of a charter, deliver events, performance measurements); Phase V:
Sustainability (evolving community culture of learning and innovation); Phase VI:
Evaluation and the way forward.
The Core Team: two facilitators/leaders for each CoP group. The researcher of this
study played the role of the CoP leader/moderator and the member of the core
team.
Roles: five rotating roles were assigned: the facilitator/leader, the learning
specialist and content tutor; the administrator and critical reader, the researcher
and innovator, the technical advisor.
Activities: A predefined set of activities were allocated for each role and open for
additional activities and changes.
Time planning: The start time was manually entered. The end time was calculated
through the software indicating the project advancement in terms of activities and
phases.
Critical Performance Indicators (CPI) and Assessment Criteria (AC) were designed
for each role and activity within the CoP phases.
190
Figure 1a: The CoP model (CoPM)
Figure 1b: The CoP model (CoPM)
The CoP model deployment
The deployment of the model demanded intensive preparations such as, sending
invitation letters to students, motivating and training facilitators/leader. The
enthusiasm of the researcher for this study in synergy with the CoPM provided a
point of departure for the learning endeavour. Modelling of innovative behaviour
and a passion for knowledge exchange and sharing can inspire students who are
usually divorced from innovation practice in ODL contexts.
191
The CoP deployment procedure
CoPs teams met online through a social media tool of their choice. They had to
develop a web design project with the aim of solving a real-world problem. The
facilitators formed the teams, led and managed meetings and recorded the
progress. They were involved in assigning roles, activities, time frames and
methods of communication and reporting. The facilitators organized online CoP
meetings once a week for 10 weeks, with duration of 30 minutes per session.
Learning activities were supported through the application of the CoP model.
Research design
This research can be described as a qualitative case study (Creswell, 1994;
Merriam, 1998) as the learning experience of students is investigated relating to
an event in a bounded context.
Profile of the CoP members
The study sample consisted of two CoP groups with five members in each group
enrolled in two undergraduate programming modules at the ODL institution of
higher education in South Africa. Participants presented a purposive convenient
sample, as they were available and inexpensive to this study (Merriam, 1988).
Methods of data collection
The methodological triangulation was applied with two data gathering methods:
informal individual interviews and the facilitators’ and students’ reports. Two CoP
facilitators provided a feedback in a form of a report about the CoP
model/guidelines in general. Informal individual interviews were performed over
Skype and phone conversations with CoP facilitators. Facilitators compiled their
reports during the model deployment. The final summary report was submitted at
the end of the CoP deployment.
Students provided regular weekly reports to their facilitators. The students’
responses in reports were used to determine their perceptions on the model, their
innovative engagements, the scope of work, their willingness to share knowledge
through varieties of communication channels. These continuous data gathering
process contributed to the richness of the evidence.
Data analysis and assessment of trustworthiness
Analysis of the interview data and reports’ data entailed the categorizing and
tabulation of data in order to focus on the research questions of the study.
Themes that were detected through the analysis of the data were segmented into
categories and subcategories and were supported by evidence in the alignment
with Creswell’s guidelines (1994). The constant comparative method was applied
192
to the gathered data (Merriam, 1998). The research phenomenon was embedded
in a theoretical framework that contributed to the internal and external validity of
this study. Researchers carried out the necessary preparations including
clarification of prejudices and assumptions, and exploring the social context of the
entire case.
Results: Evidence of the CoP model effectiveness
This section presents the results of qualitative analysis of data gathered from the
facilitators and students reflecting their learning experience with a support of the CoP
model. The following categories were derived:
a) An initiative of an inspiring facilitator to act as a driver for CoP that leads to
the formation of the core group and maintaining the spirit of innovation.
b) Empowering of learning can flourish within a multidisciplinary CoP group in
synergy with structured guidelines that allows guided self-monitoring
dynamics.
c) A pre-defined set of roles and activities within the phases of the CoP model
and critical performance indicators helped CoPs members with learning tasks.
d) The Cop groups kept innovation spirit high because of its multiple goals such
as empowering learning, innovation and entrepreneurial skills.
Using comparative analysis, the researchers selected the relevant answers relating
to the categories derived from each of the interview transcripts and comments
from the reports and these are discussed in the following sections as evidence.
a)
An initiative of an inspiring individual acts as a driver for CoP that leads to the
formation of the core group and maintaining spirit of innovation.
Facilitator A (Group 1) report revealed: “the team members were inspired
individually…it was necessary to keep continuous enthusiasm and the excitement
of discovering new solutions…” Student A (Group 1) noted“…our facilitator was
monitoring, reminding us, encouraging our activities and decisionmaking…”Student B (Group 2) noted: “thanks to our facilitator, the extent of our
innovative spirit was high…he was demonstrating knowledge sharing, modelling
and communication skills…”Facilitator B (Group 2) reported, “ the core group
helped us to manage and monitor all activities… a deep insight, empathy and
incorporating technology were a key during the innovation process…”Student C
(Group 1) noted:“brainstorming sessions were experienced as exciting and
fun...our learning experience was reflected in simulating scenarios…often we used
concept sketches, mind maps, experience mapping to investigate concepts…”
b)
Empowering of learning can flourish within a multidisciplinary CoP group in a
synergy with structured guidelines that allows guided self-monitoring
dynamics.
193
The facilitator B (Group 2) reported in the interview: “ structured guidelines within
the CoP model encouraged us to do research so our learning process was
enriched…the measuring and testing processes were missing due to lack of time
and close supervision of the lecturer...” Student D (Group 2) commented, “The
design was performed within six phases…we were excited during the exploration
phase but not reaching the sustainability …” The facilitator A (Group 1)
commented: “….we had a member from another module…he helped us through
scaffolding and modelling to generate new ideas in web design…” Student C
(Group 1) commented “To begin our journey into the world of innovation we had
to use a structured tool …we were immersed in the high level of innovative
activities as organizational aspects were clarified within the existing model…”
Student B (Group 2) commented: “I have to accept that the innovation process
was not always in its peak as it was difficult to find time for innovation
activities…the model was used as a monitoring and a design mapping tool.”
c)
A pre-defined set of roles and activities within the phases of the CoP model
and critical performance indicators helped CoPs members with learning tasks.
Student C (Group 2) noted: “In my opinion it was easier to learn when roles and
activities are clearly defined…for example it was important for us to clarify
administrative tasks, so we knew who was responsible to write minutes, who was
responsible for sending invitations for meetings…a critical reader was responsible
for accuracy of our documents …” The facilitator A (Group 1) commented, “The
model provided a profile of tasks, activities, and a time frame with key
performance indicators that our team followed with an accurate delivery.”The
facilitator B (Group 2) commented: “…”Different roles, tasks and activities helped
us to visualise and to fullfil the learning outcomes. The facilitator A (Group 1)
commented: “There is little reward for innovation in our institution… students are
not trying hard enough because they are not motivated as they have to carry out
current routine learning operations…the key performance indicators were used as
a checklist for each activity...”
d)
The CoP groups kept innovation spirit high because of its multiple goals such
as empowering learning, innovation and entrepreneurial skills.
Facilitator B (Group 2) commented, “Innovations should have a clear time frame
from an idea to the commercial outcome…it wasn’t indicated in the
model...However, a visible progress in our design work was available on a weekly
basis at our regular online brainstorming sessions…” Student B (Group 1) reported:
“It is not enough to carry out the innovation… the ultimate goal of innovation is its
application in practice… It is important that the innovation has an economic aspect
and that it is financially viable…there was no sufficient time…” Facilitator A (Group
1) reported: …I think the innovation infrastructure at the institution is inadequate
to support students in innovative activities..." Facilitator B (Group 2) reported:
194
“Team members were inspired by opportunities to get entrepreneurial skills,
expecting a commercial output…these expectations were encouraged and kept
design and innovation spirit very high.” Student A (Group 2) reported, “Through
our model we were instilling a culture of research...the challenge was to motivate
members to integrate research with learning requirements to pass exams.” The
next section gives answers to the research questions and interpretation of the
results.
Discussion
The first research question seeks to determine students’ perceptions in terms of
CoP guidelines/model. The leader/facilitator contributed to the effective formation
of groups and maintaining a spirit of innovation within the group. This is supported
in the literature (Lave & Wenger, 1991) as CoPs are able to retain dynamics and
evolving knowledge within a real-time process. Applying the model, it was possible
to pay attention to individual differences such as personality, motivation, will,
attention, character, creativity, and other important and significant human
capacities (in response to question 1). Providing adequate support to students
through the structured guidelines to become more connected and competitive is
of increasing importance in ODL higher education.
The second research question attempts to define key components of the model
such as phases, the roles, the core team, tasks, activities, risks, time frames,
assessment criteria and key performance indicators. Students and facilitators felt
that the CoP model with its components was an appropriate tool for effective
learning since the organizational and administration matters were resolved and
roles contributed to the clear task designation (in response to question 2).
In answer to the third question about empowering learning and innovative ideas
through the model it can be said that every ODL institution requires a special
infrastructure in enabling communities of practice. The fact that learners were
involved in the generation and refinement of ideas within small communities of
practice groups positively influenced their innovative skills. The evidence shows
that students communicated within and across different groups that promoted
interdisciplinary knowledge through scaffolding, and modelling. Evidence shows
that students within CoP groups were involved in apprenticeship and coaching due
to their motivation, varieties of shared experience and their values. The evidence
shows that the innovation infrastructure and rewarding innovation need further
attention. The CoP core group management is an important factor in the ability to
innovate because the core team leaders have a great influence on the
development of group vision and strategy to achieve it.The core group had an
impact on keeping an innovative spirit high through interactivity, discussions,
195
brainstorming and problem solving exercises, which were applied as tools for
creativity (in response to question 3).
By comparing the findings it is possible to conclude that the CoP model and its
implementation were adequate in promoting knowledge exchange and innovative
engagement.The next section presents the most important conclusions and
recommendations of this paper and remarks for further research.
Conclusions, limitations and further research
The implementation of the CoP model revealed new paths in the facilitation of
learning in the ODL environment. The results strongly support the following
general conclusions:
An inspiring individual and the core group is a driving force that influnces the
formation of the CoP providing a model of innovative behavior that
contributes to a sustained desire for solving real-world problems and
innovative learning.
Critical performance indicators serve as a checklist for the fullfilment of
activities, roles, goals and evalution metrics that asssit CoP team members
with learning tasks.
Innovative learning can be enhanced due to the multidisciplinary nature of
the CoP groups and its multiple goals such as empowering learning,
innovation and entrepreneurial skills.
In any learning and innovative endeavour it is necessary to have proper tools
and guidance in the form of a model. These altogether presents a baseline
that provide an environment for free flow of ideas and allow continous
concentration on the problems. The multiple and various routine tasks in ODL
academic environments disrupt any innovation venture.
The voluntary and spontaneous nature of CoPs teams can provide an ideal
environment for fruitful ideas due to its tendency to inspire and attract a
variety of students that work together in an ODL context.
Forming CoP voluntary groups would help to set up mechanisms for the
improvement of gross learning increments that depend on motivation,
knowledge, skills, expertise, students’ relations and cooperation and
teamwork.
In conclusion, communities of practice in ODL context with appropriate guidelines
holds great promise, particularly as a way of empowering students through
innovative techniques and knowledge exchange during learning processes.
Contribution/originality and value-add: The findings of this study provide a solid
theoretical basis and a building block for an integrated CoP framework in ODL higher
education. This study identified several crucial issues essential to organize successful
196
learning and empower innovation within communities of practice.The study
suggests practical recommendations to ODL educationalists in order to empower
students with innovation potential and learning performance by employing the
CoPM relevant to global demands for knowledge exchange and sharing.The baseline
of this study can be used for further research on a role of e-tutors and teaching
assistants in CoPs and the application of the model in face-to-face communities of
practice contexts.
Limitations: Time constraints were limitations in this study as the CoP groups could
not complete their innovative ideas and all six phases due to the lack of an
adequate CoP infrastrucure at the institution of higher education.
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THE GLOBAL QUEST FOR ACCESS TO QUALITATIVE EDUCATION AND
THE OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING (ODL) METHOD:
THE NIGERIAN PROGRESS AND EXPERIENCE VIA
NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERISTY OF NIGERIA
Job Gabriel C., Mational Open University of Nigeria
ABSTRACT: This paper reviewed the pervasive powers of education to transform
nations from ignorance, particularly as it relates to health, poverty and the general
198
being of the individual and the nation at large. The paper opined that various
governments of the world make huge budgetary provisions toward providing
qualitative education. The paper further averred that the surge in population of
individuals requiring formal education, the inadequacies of the conventional
systems of education and the cost inherent in that system have prodded the
governments to establish and embrace open and distance learning of education in
order to meet with the MDGs in education. The paper justified that the
establishment of National Open University of Nigeria has accounted for high
illiteracy level noticeable now in the country. The paper recognized the existence
of major challenges, which it categorized into external and internal. It therefore
recommended amongst others for adequate funding, training and retraining of
staff.
INTRODUCTION:
Globally, education has been recognized as a major vehicle for human
transformation. It has power of equalizing and bridging gabs between statuses,
eradicating poverty and diseases from the populace. In the same vein, knowledge
acquisition and economic mobility are correlated with educational attainment.
In recognition of these impacts of education in human and societal development,
governments of various nations make concerted efforts to provide qualitative
education to their citizens. Hence governments make high budgetary provisions to
their educational sector, in order to equip them with more of their infrastructure
requirement.
The importance of education and the need for nations to provide qualitative
education to their citizenry has occupied centre stage globally. This assertion can
gleaned from the various world leaders’ summits and their proclamations, such as,
the child right Act, the millennium development goal (MDG) two, which
emphasized on – achievement of universal primary education by the year 2015,
the World Education Forum held at Darkar, Senegal in April, 2000
which
reiterated Education for All (EFA), after reviewing the deplorable and slow
progress towards the achievement of the goals of education in their various
countries. The summit upheld to ensure that the learning needs of all young
people and adults are met through equitable access to appropriate learning and
life-skill programmes.
Regrettably, the efforts of these governments have not brightened the future in
terms of providing access to qualitative education to all. The reasons are obvious.
The surge in the population of these countries particularly the developing
countries outweighs the limited facilities for teaching and learning in the
traditional institutions learning. This is evidenced by crowded lecture and seminar
199
halls, Inadequate fund to establish and run more institutions of higher learning by
these governments, the high rate of poverty and diseases and so on.
The scenario in the Nigerian context has been very pathetic. Okonkwo (2012)
stated that the current information by stakeholders in the higher education sector
in Nigeria paints a dismal picture on access. Separate reports by experts in
education – Julius Okojie in 2011 – tertiary institutions in the country could only
accommodate about 250,000 candidates as against the demand of 1000,000.
Peter Okebukuk reported that up to 800,000 candidates who sat for 2011 UTME
would not be given admission. These statistics therefore points that majority of
Nigerians do not have the privilege of higher education. When we consider the
Nigerian population of 120 million, her poverty rate of 67.8% and her 70% rural
population, we will realize that these statistics will keep expanding in terms of
those who would not have access to any higher of education.
Peters, (2002) stated that the managers of conventional Universities have realized
their inability to absorb candidates qualified for admission and had to make
structural adjustments to be able to meet the new challenges. Reflecting on the
education challenges, (Jegede, 2003) opined that whatever we visualise and the
conclusion drawn is the tremendous need to meet the demands for education at
all cost.
These challenges as mentioned here above put together and in acknowledgment
of the conventional Universities inability to provide education to teaming and
desiring candidates, the Nigerian government established an Open and Distance
Learning (ODL) institution on 22nd July, 1983, to complement the efforts of the
Conventional institutions.
Open and Distance Learning (ODL)
Advancing definition for open and distance learning, (Job, 2013) segmented it into
two:
1) Open Learning: – This points to the flexibility of and access to instruction
through the distance mode.
2) Distance Learning: - This is associated with the physical separation
between the teacher and learner. Distance education therefore is that
form of education where teachers and learners are physically separated
in time and space and in which most barriers and restrictions are
removed.
Experts in education have affirmed that Open and Distance Learning is a way of
learning that focuses on releasing learners from the constraints of time and place
200
whilst offering flexible learning opportunities, (Sikwibele & Mungoo, 2006, Hope &
Guiton, 2006, Tahir, 2006, Mathew, 2012,).
Job, (2013) stated that the Open nature of distance education is institutionalized
on – Open admission, freedom in selection of what, when and where to learn.
And that it is further institutionalized on relatively flexible organisational
structures, delivery/communication patterns and the mediated technologies.
Open and distance education has become an inevitable and phenomenal
revolution in educational development globally (Job, 2013). This revolution is
ignited by the growth of information and communication technologies on one
hand and the inherent limitations in the formal system (conventional institutions),
with regard to expansion, provision of access and equity and cost-effectiveness on
the other hand.
Open and Distance Education metamorphosed from correspondence education.
Britain’s Open University was the first and played major role in the development
of distance learning around the world. The success of this University led to the
establishment of other Open Universities such as:
 Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU)
 University of South Africa (UNISA)
 Open University of Hong Kong (OUAK)
 Open University of Australia (OUA) etc.
These Open Universities have common objectives, which include, to:
 Serve as a cost-effective, flexible and dynamic system of education;
 Provide self-paced open learning opportunities;
 Serve as a channel for life-long learning;
 Retrain workers who may be rendered obsolete or redundant.
They also share such common features like:
 Physical separation of teacher and learner;
 Self – pacing;
 Self – instructional content software;
 Two way communication;
 Formative and summative evaluation;
 Degrees by cumulative credits;
 Learner support services;
 Extensive network of students;
 Relaxed entry qualification etc.
Benefit of Open and Distance Education
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According to (Job, 2013), open and distance education moved the achievements of
educational goals to unprecedented heights. It identified the following benefit:
 Increase access to learning and training opportunities;
 Provide increased opportunities for updating, retraining and enrichment;
 Improve cost-effectiveness of educational resources;
 Support the quality and variety of existing educational structures;
 Enhance and consolidate capacity;
 Balancing inequalities between age groups;
 Extending geographical access to education;
 Offering the combination of education with work and family life;
 Providing speedy and efficient training for key target groups;
 Delivery educational campaigns and other education for large audience.
Instructional Delivery Method of Open and Distance Learning (ODL)
Open and Distance Learning thrive on information and communication
technologies. Since the teachers and learners are separated in time and space, the
only option for effective learning is through the various forms of media formats.
Print Media: - This consists of printed materials in form of text and graphics in
paper form or books – popularly referred to as courseware materials or
correspondence courses. This form of media exists as a stand-alone ‘means of
delivering instructional content. It allows the learners to go at their own pace.
Record Audio (Tape/Digital Broadcast): – This is another medium of transmitting
the instructional content to the learners. This tool can stand-alone as the learners
can study on their own with the tape material without any aid, or transmitted
electronically by the guide of a presenter.
Recorded Video: - This is a delivery tool in which the learning content is captured
as a digital file for viewing on-demand. This tool can also stand-alone or be used in
blended form.
Instructional Television/Radio (ITV): - In this method, full classroom instruction is
transmitted through telecommunication channels such as satellite or cable TV.
This medium presents full motion video and audio transmissions to the learners.
Audio Conferencing: - In this medium, the learners make use of telephones or
other audio conferencing equipment to communicate with their teacher or with
each other in real time.
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Computer-based Instruction: - In this method, the computer stands in as the
teacher and presents the learning content and interacts with the learners. In this
tool, the computer presents the stimulus and the student responds.
Web-based Instruction (WBI): - This is a method where online-based instruction
stored on a server are accessed across a distributed electronic network. The
instruction can be delivered over the internet or private local area network (LANs)
or Wide Area Networks (WANs), as the content is displayed using web browser.
The Nigerian Progress via National Open University of Nigeria
A discussion of the Nigerian Progress in accessing qualitative education through
the Open and Distance Learning (ODL) method cannot be achieved without an
evaluation of the progress of the National Open University of Nigeria. The
institution was established by an Act of the National Assembly of the Federal
Republic of Nigeria (NOUN Act of 1983).
The Vision, Mission and Motto of National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN)
Vision: - The National Open University of Nigeria providing highly accessible and
enhanced quality education anchored by social justice, equity, equality and
national cohesion through a comprehensive reach that transcend all barriers.
Mission: - To provide functional, cost-effective, flexible learning which adds lifelong value to quality education for all who seek knowledge.
National Open University of Nigeria- Objectives





The widening of access to education to ensure equity and equality of
opportunities;
The enhancement of opportunities that support education for all and lifelong learning;
The entrenchment in the Nigeria populace of the emerging global culture
of technological literacy;
Provision of infrastructure for the acquisition and dissemination of
educational resources via an information and communication
technology;
Provision of avenues for the acquisition of flexible and qualitative
education for all categories of learners which will be accessible anywhere,
anytime and via an appropriate and cost effective medium (Okonkwo,
2012).
203
National Open University of Nigeria runs her academic programmes through
schools, as against faculties in conventional institutions. There are five schools:
viz–
i)
School of Arts and Social Sciences
ii)
School of Education
iii)
School of Law
iv)
School of Management Sciences
v)
School of Science & Technology
The Institution also executes academic programmes through such units like –
i)
Centre for Lifelong Learning and Work Place Training
ii)
Access Programme – A remedial of a sort
Achievement of National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN)
National Open University of Nigeria has recorded unprecedented success as an
Open and Distance Learning Institution in Nigeria. These achievements include: Provision of Access to Higher Education:- This is the primary mandate
given to National Open University of Nigeria and she has recorded
monumental success as reflected in making professional programmes
accessible to remote rural areas who do not have convenient access to
higher education institutions. It has responded effectively to the growing
demand of working adults who have difficulties in getting training in
conventional institutions due to rigid nature of their programmes in
terms of timing and location. Provided opportunities for the
empowerment of those most disadvantaged by existing provisions of the
conventional institutions like –the employed, the disabled, women and
so on. These are reflected in the admission list of NOUN as captured
below.
S/N
Year
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
2003/2004
2005/2006
2007/2008
2008/2009
2009/2010
2010/2011
2011/2012
Total
Admitted
Students
10,620
36,074
47,435
33,329
24,689
30,631
23,479
206,257
Adapted from Okonkwo 2012
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Registered
Students
7,515
17,519
19,752
13,548
2,629
16,115
15,000
92,078

Graduation of Students:- In the same vein, National Open University of
Nigeria graduated a total of 7,220 students in her last Convocation. A
breakdown of this result shows: Workplace Training
84
 School of Arts & Social Sciences
969
 School of Education
124
 School of Management Sciences
409
 School of Science & Technology
2,033
 School of Postgraduate Studies
3,601
Total 7,220
(Source – NOUN News Bulletin)







Provision of Employment and Capacity Building:- The institution has
given jobs to numerous Nigerians who otherwise would have been
without job. These National Open University of Nigeria staffs are
subjected
to
regular
in-service
training,
which
include
workshops/seminars and scholarships for higher certificates.
Accreditation of all National Open University of Nigeria Programmes:This is another landmark achievement for the foremost Open and
Distance Learning institution. The Universities regulatory body in Nigeria
– National Universities Commission (NUC) last year – 2012, accredited all
the programmes of National Open University of Nigeria.
Establishment of Study Centres:- This is also an achievement to National
Open University of Nigeria, as it has established Study Centres in almost
all the 36 States of the Federation.
Promotion of e-technology Education:- National Open University of
Nigeria encourages the use of e-technology for the advancement of
education in Nigeria, specific areas of usage include: Automatic electronic admission at all levels;
 Automatic electronic issuance of students’ ID cards;
 Online payments and registration;
 Electronic Assessments.
Endowed with a UNESCO chair in Open and Distance Learning. According
to (Jegede, 2007) she is the first Open University in the developing world
to be so honoured.
The Regional Training Institute of Open and Distance Learning
(RETRIDAL)- housed in National Open University of Nigeria, and this Unit
of Commonwealth of Learning (CoL) sponsors training workshops and
provides scholarships for higher degrees.
Development of courseware materials for register able courses and
posting same on the web.
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

Production of CD Roms for all non-edited and unprinted courseware
materials.
National Open University of Nigeria has numerous merit awards from
national and international organisations. And she is rated 7 th position in
Nigeria out of only eight (8) Universities in Nigeria by webometric rating
(2011).
Challenges of National Open University of Nigeria
National Open University of Nigeria as an Open and Distance Learning (ODL)
institutions has such challenges as are common to ODL institutions which are
categorized here into two broad headings of external and internal challenges.
External Challenges:
 Acceptance of National Open University of Nigeria and Her Brand:National Open University of Nigeria as an Open and Distance Learning
institution, has to contend with the issue of acceptance of her certificate,
delivery pattern and learning mode by the general public. The league of
conventional institutions in particular have made the audience to believe
that learning through the distance mode is inferior, not qualitative, hence
the certificates are awarded on a platter of gold. The Vice Chancellor of
National Open University of Nigeria, Prof. Vincent Ado Tenebe identified
this challenge in his convocation address and called for proper advocacy.
The ignorance here is that most people are not aware that the
Universities regulatory body in Nigeria, the National Universities
Commission (NUC) had accredited the courses offered in National Open
University of Nigeria. This National Universities Commission also
provides the bench mark upon which the minimum academic standard of
Noun courses are based. In addition, NOUN is regulated by an
international body – (a parent body) Commonwealth of Learning (CoL),
which is based in Vanconver, Canada.
 Inadequate Funding: As an Open and Distance Institution, National
Open University of Nigeria requires adequate funding to sustain her
numerous structures. The information and communication technology
equipments are highly expensive and are the major facilities used for
instructional delivery, administration and the total success of distance
education. Therefore, proper funding of National Open University of
Nigeria will assist in acquiring more of these hi-tech equipments,
guarantee regular facilitation of the students in their various Study
Centres, as the facilitator’s would be paid promptly.
 In the same vein, the development of National Open University of Nigeria
Study Centres are critical to the success and quality of academic
programmes. Currently, most of the National Open University of Nigeria
206
Study Centres are either cited at rented buildings or abandoned buildings
of the Federal Government. In my opinion, befitting permanent
structures, such as Enugu Study Centre among others will be enough
advocacies for National Open University of Nigeria and a pronouncement
of a status of an institution of higher learning.
Internal Challenges:
 The Quality of Programmes: The programmes of National Open
University of Nigeria have been affected by the limited use of
information and communication technology. Generally, Open and
Distance Learning (ODL) thrives on the various strands of information and
communication technology, so, the more these various formats are
deplored for instructional content delivery and general interaction with
the students, the better attainment of quality of programmes.
 Related to the Lack of ICT is the Lack of awareness of quality parameters
of delivery systems among staff. The staff here is not limited to academic
staff only, but the totality of staff that assist in content delivery – the
staff of Communication networking services (CNS) unit, the Learners’
Support Services and more importantly the Counsellors at the various
study centres. The Counsellors are to enlighten the Learners more about
their academic programmes but unfortunately, most of these Counsellors
are not knowledgeable about the course descriptions, credit units to be
earned by students and so on.
 High Attrition Rate: Attrition rate here refers to the rate of drop-outs
from the programme. This phenomenon is a major concern to Open and
Distance Learning (ODL) providers. The variables that can be associated
with attrition include:- Income, gender, distance from learning Study
Centres and learners’ ability to integrate the demands of off-campus
study with family, work and social commitments. Job, (2013) considered
cognitive overload as a variable of attrition. It asserted that first-time elearners suffered from domestic workload, lack of sleep, lack of congenial
environment in most homes and so on.
 Acquisition of Online Study Habits: Majority of National Open University
of Nigeria students as ODL learners are immigrants to ICT facilities.
Therefore, these learners find it difficult to be independent and
responsible to their own self, recognizing and mastering strengths and
skills that will improve their self-esteem in terms of relating and
interacting with their teachers and peers.
 Courseware preparation: The complexity associated with the analysis of
learners’ characteristics while preparing the courseware material is also a
major problem faced by National Open University of Nigeria. Job, (2013)
opined that designers of courseware materials are faced with the
207



difficulty of copping with setting objectives that would capture the
diverse characteristics of these learners, particularly when most of the
academic staff who write these courseware materials are not trained in
the rudiments of instructional design.
Media Integration: Media choice and integration are also major concern
in instruction content delivery to learners. The instructional designers
(writers) in National Open University of Nigeria are not only faced with
the dilemma of media choice that would accommodate the diverse and
complex audiences typified in this distance learning mode, they are also
faced with the lack of skills and competence to manipulate these media
formats.
Evaluation Technique: The right evaluation technique that will be
incorporated into the instructional process is also a challenge to National
Open University of Nigeria instructional designers. The students like
other Open and Distance Learning learners are separated from their
teachers, hence rely on media for effective interaction. Unfortunately,
some of the adult learners are benefit of access to these media formats,
and this turns out to be a source of frustration for the designers on the
proper evaluation strategy to be infused into the design process in order
to assure quality.
In the same vein, National Open University of Nigeria courseware
materials ought to be reviewed within a specified period – five years. But
this principle of courseware material review had not been adhered to, as
the institution still allows her learners to Study using obsolete
courseware materials that were hastily prepared at the inception of the
institution.
CONCLUSION
The quest for qualitative education is the concern of every nation today. This
concern is due to the power of education to transform not only the individual, but
the entire country from the path of ignorance, poverty, diseases while enthroning
equity and equality of all people. Though nations desire to provide education for
all her citizenry, they are handicapped by limited resources to provide adequate
facilities for their traditional institutions to cope with the teaming population on
one hand and the strict and stratified nature of these traditional institutions in
terms admission requirement that only permits learners to move from one stage
to another on the other hand. Hence, the establishment of ODL is to complement
the efforts of the traditional institutions. The Nigerian government established
only single mode ODL institution- National Open University of Nigeria in 1983. The
institution has made tremendous achievements since inception by opening access
to qualitative education. Like every other organization, NOUN faces a lot of
challenges that threaten her maximum performance.
208
RECOMMENDATIONS
The following recommendations are advanced for the improvement of NOUN to
actualization the mandate of EFA in Nigeria.
Adequate funding: The government should provide more fund for the
management of NOUN. Fund is one major variable that could inhibit the activities
of the institution in several ways.
Building of permanent sites: It is very essential for NOUN Study Centres to be
properly built and developed to assume the status of high institution.
Integration of diverse Media formats: NOUN should endeavour to integrate
various media formats as this is the main stay of ODL.
Courseware materials review: The Courseware materials that are developed for
the learners should be reviewed at intervals to ensure that the quality
requirement is guaranteed. In the same vein, the Courseware material writers
(designers) should be properly guided to ensure that they comply to design
specifications in order to maintain high quality output.
Training and Re-training of Staff: NOUN has performed exceptionally well in this
regard, but there is still room for more training, particularly in the area of etechnology, in order to enhance instructional content delivery.
Facilitation: This is one area that has been contentious for some time, but an
evaluation of the academic performances of learners will review that they actually
require facilitation in order to reduce the incidence of drop-outs from the
programmes.
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2.
3.
4.
5.
Hope, A. & Guiton, P. (2006). Strategies for Sustainable Open and Distance
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presentation to the principals/Head of Nursing institutions at Ilorin
Jegede, O.(2007). “Free from ignorance, Empowered by Knowledge”. An address
at the special Convocation ceremony held for the NOUN building Headquarters.
Job, G.C (2012). Educator’s Instructional Delivery Strategy: A Global Challenge to
Learners’ Academic Performance. Journal of Pedagogical Thought. Vol.9, pp35-44
Job, G. C (2013). The Challenge of Ensuring Quality in Courseware Material
Preparation in Open and Distance Education. Journal of Educational Studies and
Management. University of Benin, vol.1(1) pp77-89
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Mathew, S. (2012). Issues and Challenges in Open and Distance Learning.
http://ezinearticles.com. Retrieved 4/4/2013.
7. Okonkwo, U.M (2012). Establishment and Development of the National Open
University of Nigeria. Education in Nigeria. Foremost Educational Services Ltd,
Lagos. Pp 57-76
8. Peters, O. (2002). Distance Education in Transition; New Trends and Challenges.
Oldenburg: Carl Von Ossietzky University Center for Distance Education.
9. Sikwibele, L & Mungoo, J.(2009). Distance Learning and Teacher Education in
Botswana: Opportunities and Challenges. The International Review of
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ENHANCING SUSTAINABLE AWARENESS THROUGH SSYS CONGRESS:
CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES OF E-PLATFORMS
TO PROMOTE VALUES-BASED EDUCATION
Khar Thoe Ng, SEAMEO RECSAM, Penang;
Suma Parahakaran, Sathya Sai School, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Thien Lei Mee, R&D Division, RECSAM, Penang
ABSTRACT: Constructivist student-centred learning incorporating the use of
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) tools has gained increasing
attention among Millennial Generation or Gen Y who should be taking over the
roles of Gen X to dictate the future of the web in the very near future. If well
guided with exposure of sustainable awareness and blended learning enrichment
opportunities using Open Educational Resources (OER), these groups of people
should gain independent learning abilities with enhanced values/thinking skills.
This paper reports on the authors’ recent initiative to connect the world by
introducing the biennially held ‘Search for SEAMEO Young Scientists’ (SSYS)
congress through Open, Distance and e-Learning platforms. The first author was
tasked to organize a forum in conjunction with SSYS congress that was also
broadcasted through web-conferencing tools to provide input on topics ‘disaster
management and water related issues; earthquake and tsunami: causes and
mitigation’ in line with the congress theme ‘Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) for
Sustainable Development’. SSYS was conducted through organization of congress
as platform for exchange among SEAMEO student and teacher delegates in
conventional educational settings using face-to-face mode. But due to distance
constraint, the second author was invited as third forum speaker to deliver on
topic ‘Human factor during the impact of natural disaster: Reflective perspectives’
210
using e-platforms and video conferencing tools including ‘FB social networking
site, webinar and skype’ as the pioneering initiative for SSYS. Survey
questionnaires (both available in off-/on-line versions) were distributed to elicit
the understanding of SSYS delegates and on-line respondents about the concepts
of ‘Interactive technology: Its functions and challenges to promote values-based
awareness, enhance thinking and life skills for sustainable living’. This article
reports the piloting of survey and case study on ODL mode of delivery for SSYS
forum including the qualitative analysis on survey findings of the participants’
‘Attitudes Towards Use of Technology to Enhance Sustainable Living’ (ATUTESL).
Generally the interviewees expressed their positive values/attitude towards
blended learning digital tools. The implications of study will be deliberated with
suggestions of future research including the challenges and opportunities of
blended learning platforms to enhance values and thinking skills of younger
generation. (350 words)
KEY WORDS: Student-centered blended learning, science congress, conventional
educational settings, sustainable awareness, values-based education
INTRODUCTION
In the recent years, constructivist student-centred learning integrating Information
and Communication Technology (ICT) tools has gained increasing attention among
Millennial Generation or Gen Y (born between 1980s to late 1990s) who very soon
should be taking over the roles of Gen X (born between 1960s to early 1980s) to
dictate the future of the web. However, literature revealed that the body of
knowledge present in this scientific era caters to information regarding science
and technology, societal issues and political agendas are more often aimed only at
development of the cognitive domain. Student performances through oral
assessment, tests and projects are well embodied in the cognitive sense within the
scientific context. Areas that cover the affective domain have taken a back seat
and social illnesses with new diseases are on the rise. The lack of content in values
education and time constraints have more often caused the lack of emphasis on
values-based education. Another contributing factor to the forgotten focus in the
affective domain is due to the fact that the focus of policy makers is more on
content knowledge in the rapid development of science and technology in society
rather than to promote values-based education. The emphasis on values
education can happen only if both policy makers and curriculum developers work
together. Hence, educators face a dilemma of implementing value-based
education in a packed academic curricular framework.
This paper reports on the authors’ recent initiative to connect the world by
introducing the biennially held ‘Search for SEAMEO Young Scientists’ (SSYS)
congress through Open, Distance and e-learning platforms to promote valuesbased education. The first author was tasked to organize a forum in conjunction
211
with SSYS congress that was also broadcasted through web-conferencing tools to
provide input on topics such as ‘disaster management and water related issues,
earthquake and tsunami: causes and mitigation’ in line with the congress theme
‘Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) for sustainable development’. The second author
was invited as forum speaker to deliver on topic ‘Human factor during the impact
of natural disaster: Reflective perspectives’ using e-platforms and video
conferencing tools including ‘FB social networking site, webinar and skype’ as the
pioneering initiative for SSYS congress that was normally attended by SEAMEO
student and teacher delegates in normal face-to-face mode.
Objectives and Focus Areas
The objectives of this study that guided the focus of research activities are:
 To explore the ways, challenges and opportunities to connect the world with
the organizer of the biennially held event SSYS congress through Open,
Distance and e-Learning platforms;
 To showcase the blended mode of organizing SSYS congress incorporating
values-based education in line with the congress theme;
 To report on cases of Generation X and Y respondents’ attitudes towards use
of digital tool to promote values-based awareness, thinking and life skills for
sustainable living.
The following section will review relevant literature including framework of study
that guide the direction of research activities using mixed-research methods
(Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004).
Review of previous studies and work done
Blended learning in conventional educational settings: Challenges and
opportunities
Research showed that the constructivist problem-solving curriculum through
situated learning or shared cognition guided by adults as More Knowledgeable
Others (MKO)(Larkin, 2002) and capable peers in a learning community or
Community of Practice (CoP) was found to be effective by educators/researchers.
In the advent of digital era, this type of CoP can be more effective if facilitated
through blended learning platforms that include both digital and non-digital or
face-to-face conventional settings. The study by Crawford, Krajcik & Marx (1999)
revealed that CoP with desirable environment could provide opportunities for
students to engage collaboratively in solving contextual problems when faced with
scenarios. In the CoP possibly facilitated through digital platforms, learners and
stakeholders connected for various reasons to interpret, reflect, and negotiate
meaning in an open process through meaningful interactions in the community
(Wenger, 2000).
212
Realizing that developing scientific skills, values, attitudes and infrastructure is the
first step towards improving the nation's ability to use science and technology to
promote ESD (Sawahel, 2007), emphasis was placed by many aspiring institutions
to promote ESD through inquiry/problem-based science education. Among the
ways of developing public understanding on sustainability included alternative
strategies initiated by various institutions with evidences to support sound
succession planning (Workforce, 2013) of activities with various challenges and
blended mode opportunities. An example is the ‘Search for SEAMEO Young
Scientist’ (SSYS) congress that was initiated by the Regional Centre for Science and
Mathematics Education (RECSAM) in 1997 with the main objectives to ‘promote
scientific attitudes, awareness, provide a forum/platform for exchange of ideas
and experiences’ among youths/students in SEAMEO member countries. SSYS
serves as platform for ‘training and reorientation of pedagogical approaches’ using
student-centred blended mode Project-based Activities (PBA) and Problem-based
Learning (PBL). Since the inception of SSYS, this Centre’s visionary programme was
held biennially at regional level with ESD related sub-themes from 1997 to 2002.
The success of the first congress in 1997 (theme on conserving environment) had
spearheaded the subsequent events in line with the themes to promote ‘Science,
Technology, Environment, Society’ (STES) education. Values-based research
projects with ESD related main themes integrating Technology Education were
also set for SSYS congresses from 2004 to 2014 in accordance to the philosophy of
Decade of ESD (2005-2014)(UNESCO, 2003) to enhance the Centre’s visibility as
stakeholder of the Regional Centre of Expertise (RCE)(UNU-IAS, 2013) since 2008.
Enhancing awareness on sustainable living incorporating values-based water
education
Forums/networking sessions (Ng, 2006) were also introduced in SSYS as part of the
initiative to promote values-based awareness on sustainable living in line with the
congress themes that stimulate students’ creative thinking skills in the cognitive
and psychosocial domains of learning. For example, during the fifth SSYS congress
in 2006 with the theme ‘Sustainable development (SD) for a better world’, the
‘important concepts of SD, the current sustainability scenario, values and practices
for SD, why scientists and technologies are important to achieve SD, research on
graduate students’ learning to be scientists, and so forth’ were introduced (Ng,
2006). The affective domain of education is responsible for bringing in awareness,
changes in attitudes and values in students. There are many educators who have
repeatedly in their work emphasized on the affective domain such as Daryl Macer
from the UNESCO (Macer, 1994), Dr Jumsai the Director of the Institute of Sathya
Sai Education in Thailand, Dr Margaret Taplin from Hong Kong Institute of values
education and many others from the UNESCO, UNHABITAT and world bodies
(UNHABITAT & ADB 2003; UNHABITAT & Global Dharma Centre, 2005; UNHABITAT
213
& SEAMEO, 2007). These new changes associated in society have made a deep
impact on hearts of educators who regard values education as a necessity.
The SEAMEO - UN-HABITAT cooperative project on Promoting ‘Human Valuesbased Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Education’ (HVWSHE) in Southeast Asian
Schools was initiated by SEAMEO Secretariat to contribute towards addressing two
of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) set by the United Nations, namely
Goal 5 and Goal 7 (Dzikus, 2007; Ng, et al., 2008). Water and Values Education
(WAVE)(SEAMEO Secretariat, 2007) is an innovative approach that not only seeks
to impart information on water, sanitation and hygiene but also inspires and
motivates learners to change their behaviour towards sustainable water-use ethic.
The curriculum framework of HVWSHE is a philosophical foundation of values
education that is built upon a commitment to five basic human values, namely
Right Conduct, Peace, Truth, Love and Non-Violence. All the five values cannot be
taught but has to be elicited from the students through the curriculum. For
example, when science is taught, teachers must discuss the importance of
cooperation and unity among people to serve and uplift society. If students focus
on the scientific content both ethics and values must go together. Students are
taught the chemical formula of water and how water is formed. Students are also
given information about the inherent value that water has, also other negative
implication related to water such as diseases, pollution and disaster. Students can
think about the answers and teachers are then able to facilitate a discussion. Most
integrated lessons take multidisciplinary approaches (Jumsai, 2003). Some of the
practices for sustainable living where water issues are concerned include ceiling on
desires of using water as a luxury item, how to conserve and preserve water to
prevent pollution and disasters. Issues with urbanization and the availability of
fresh water as well as the misuse must be highlighted to students. Here the value
and knowledge of the availability of water is important. Unless students feel that
they are the future stakeholders of land, water and air they would not feel the
responsibility of valuing water throughout their educational years. Practising right
conduct by making sure they learn to save and preserve water by checking on
water loss in their daily living activities and updating themselves with issues of
water in societies they live in does have a significant impact on their lives. An area
that is missing in students’ subjects is issues of water in their local contexts. Do
students know of the water catchment areas where they live in and how much
access they have to water in their own areas? They need to discuss cleanliness
and water treatment procedures in classrooms so that the quality of water safe for
drinking is kept for survival purposes.
Methodology and Data Analysis
Prior to the biennially held event the 9th ‘Search for SEAMEO Young Scientists’
(SSYS) congress [http://www.recsam.edu.my/ssys], a survey questionnaire (both
available in off-/on-line versions) was distributed to elicit the understanding of
214
SSYS delegates and on-line respondents about the concepts of ‘Interactive
technology: Its functions and challenges to promote values-based awareness,
enhance thinking and life skills for sustainable living’.
Development and pilot testing of questionnaire to evaluate attitude towards use
of technology
This survey questionnaire with a total of 36 items was developed to measure
‘Attitudes Towards Use of Technology to Enhance Sustainable Living’ (ATUTESL)
(Ng, Chockalingam & Thien, 2014). ATUTESL was drafted based on the objectives
or focus of study, aiming at eliciting the respondents’ perceived level of perception
on use of digital tools related to the aspects of Resource usefulness (RU),
Responsive feedback (RF), Interface features (IF), User friendliness (UF) and User
gratification (UG). The instrument was constructed with the 4-point Likert scale
format, indicating 1=Strongly Disagree, 2=Disagree, 3=Agree and 4=Strongly Agree
for the evaluation on the level of perception. Rasch partial credit model with
WINSTEP computer software was used to analyze the data. The instrument was
piloted in February, one month before it was administered during the 9 th SSYS with
the congress theme ‘Disaster Risk Reduction for Sustainable Development’. Figure
1 shows the event page created in FB to invite participation through video
conferencing
tools
such
as
skype
and
webinar
[https://engageteachers.adobeconnect.com/_a816142044/r22693258/].
Figure 1. SSYS forum page created in FB
[https://www.facebook.com/events/1401275593457278/]
to invite participation through video conferencing tools
215
Table 1 shows the item reliability that is 0.72. The results indicated some items fail
to lie within the acceptable range of 0.4 to 1.6 recommended by Linacre and
Wright (1994). In relation to this, the wordings of Item RU1, RU2, RU3, RF4, RF5,
RF6 were reviewed and refined prior to administering ATUTESL in the 9th SSYS
congress from 3rd to 7th March 2014.
Table 1
Summary of 29 measured items
MEAN
TOTAL
SCORE
COUNT
MEASURE
MODEL
ERROR
82.4
29.0
.00
.45
.95
.91
1.88
-1.43
.77
.79
.06
.63
.35
SEPARATION
SEPARATION
.44
1.98
.31
1.56
1.73
S.D.
5.4
.0
MAX.
88.0
29.0
MIN.
57.0
29.0
REAL RMSE
.49
TRUE SD
MODEL RMSE
.46
TRUE SD
S.E. OF ITEM MEAN = .17
INFIT
MNSQ
ZSTD
-.2
OUTFIT
MNS
ZST
Q
D
.99
-.1
1.3
.61
2.5
2.49
-2.3
.18
ITEM RELIABILITY
ITEM RELIABILITY
1.4
2.9
-2.3
.71
.75
Connecting the world with the SSYS event through blended learning platforms
The SSYS event was conducted through organization of congresses as platforms for
exchange among SEAMEO student and teacher delegates normally in conventional
educational settings using face-to-face mode. During the 9th SSYS congress, the
first author was again tasked to organize a forum in line with the congress theme
‘Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) for sustainable development’. It was also
broadcasted through web-conferencing tools to promote Education for All (EFA).
The following are three main topics in conjunction with the congress:
(1) Impacts of Disasters and Disaster Risk Management in Malaysia
(2) Tsunami and Earthquake: Causes, Effect and Mitigation
(3) Human factor during the impact of natural disaster: Reflective Perspectives
The first two topics were delivered by two university professors in School of
Humanity and School of Physics respectively with further information such as
abstracts
accessible
from
FB
[https://www.facebook.com/events/
1401275593457278/]. Due to the distance constraint of the third forum speaker
who lives in capital city and is also the second author of this paper, blended
learning platforms were leveraged to deliver the third topic (Figure 2) including the
use of video conferencing tools such as ‘FB social networking site, webinar (Figure
3) and skype (Figure 4)’ as pioneering initiative to connect the world through
Open, Distance and e-Learning platforms.
216
Figure 2. Abstract of the third SSYS 2014 forum topic ‘Human factor during
the impact of natural disaster: Reflective perspectives’ (Parahakaran, 2014)
delivered using ODL mode
This forum was held from 8.15 a.m.(15 minutes preparation) to 10.15 a.m.
(Malaysian time) Friday of 7th March 2014, the last day of 9th SSYS congress
(http://www.recsam.edu.my/ssys).
A trial run session was also conducted on Thursday of 27/2 from 8 a.m. to 7 p.m.
(Malaysian time) with invitation for all to visit the meeting room. Instruction was
given to the guest to go to the URL of Intel webinar meeting
room:
https://engageteachers.adobeconnect.com/_a816142044/r22693258/,
then clicked 'Guest' and Enter the webinar meeting room using their own ID/Name
and wait for the host to invite them inside the meeting room with marking of
attendance by typing something in the Chat box. Overseas participants were also
guided with the checking of time zone between several cities using Time
Difference
Calculator:
http://www.
timeanddate.com/worldclock/
converter.html?iso=20140307T08&p1=1228&p2=83&more=4
217
Figure 4. Photos taken on video conferencing activities during SSYS forum
(7/3/2014) and printscreen of skype account that was used later
Feedback from open-ended survey findings
Apart from quantitative data, ATUTESL was also analyzed qualitatively with some
verbatim responses extracted from the ‘Comments’ column with open-ended
responses. Generally the interviewees (3 teachers and 6 student delegates)
218
responded that they used e-learning and m-learning tools quite a lot as shown in
the following verbatim responses:
We use e-learning tools such as Internet (x1), netbook, smart phone,
laptop (x2) very often; We also use e-learning tool such as e-forum (x2),
webinar (x2), skype (x2), e-book (x2) and m-learning tools such as smart
phone (x2), tablet (x2), netbook, laptop, i-pad (x2) quite a lot.
(Female Filipino, Male Malaysian and Chinese teachers, survey response on 7 th
March 2014)
But we use e-forum, webinar, e-book, netbook, i-pad and skype the least.
(Male Chinese teacher, survey open-ended response on 7th March 2014)
We use e-learning tools e.g. Internet (x3), and m-learning tools e.g. smart
phone (x3), netbook and i-pad (x3) very often; e-forum (x2), skype, tablet
(x3), netbook (x2), webinar (x2), e-book (x2), laptop (x2) quite a lot; but
not so much for e-forum and skype (x2), e-book and laptop.
(Filipino Female, Male student 1 and 2, survey open-ended response on 7th March
2014)
E-learning tools such as Internet, e-forum, webinar, skype, e-book and mlearning tool such as smart phone, tablet labtop and i-pad are used very
often; netbook also quite a lot.
(Female Singaporean student, survey open-ended response on 7th March 2014)
We use e-learning tools such as Internet, skype, wikipedia and m-learning
tools such as netbook, laptop, i-pad very often; but not so much for elearning tools such as e-forum, webinar, e-book, and m-learning tools
such as smart phone and tablet.
(Male Thailand student, survey open-ended response on 7th March 2014)
The interviewees also expressed their positive values/attitude towards blended
learning digital tools to enhance awareness and promote sustainable living as
reflected in the following excerpts:
The technology tools help teachers to design learning objects for me in
any learning, environmental friendly. The use of technology enriches my
thinking skills to lead a sustainable life. Online feedback can be provided
by the digital tools for teaching and learning process. The comprehensive
features of interactive technology tools stimulate me to create new
knowledge. E-learning tools can also be used to download the materials,
and update the information rapidly.
(Female Filipino teacher, survey open-ended response on 7th March 2014)
219
E-learning tools can be used to keep in touch with far-away friends more
easily and frequently. Technological tools are part and parcel of modern
living. Thus incorporating sustainable living feature is necessary.
Technological tools become a necessity in everyday life. Thus every effort
has to be undertaken to incorporate sustainable living feature into it.
(Male Chinese and Malaysian teachers, survey open-ended response on 7th March
2014)
We found that the use of Internet enhances my sustainable living, the use
of e-forum helps me enhance my skills in reasoning, helps me socialize,
mostly pocket e-book stories are only posted there, so much learning. The
use of smart phone allows the connection to all learning tools. Tablet
allows some connection to all learning tools. Netbook allows some
connection to some learning tools. Laptop allows limited connection to
some learning tools. But i-pad greatly allows connection to all learning
tools. Latest info. can also be shared through regular conferences.
(Female Filipino and Malaysian students, survey open-ended response on 7th
March 2014)
We found that these things are very help to my understanding. These
things should be more accessible. Intel is very helpful. Very good!
Amazing! Hooray! The Internet is so helpful and insightful.
(Male Filipino student 1 and 2, survey responses on 7th March 2014)
We found that technology helps to make learning more effective and fun.
I think these tools can enhance people living through technology, e.g. we
can connect the world together by the Internet and exchange our
knowledge.
(Female Singaporean and Male Thailand students, survey responses on
7th March 2014)
CONCLUSION
This study explore the Centre’s the most recent initiative to connect the world
with the biennially held event SSYS congress through Open, Distance and eLearning platforms.
Challenges and Opportunities of Blended Learning Platforms to Promote Values
Education
In addition to showcasing the blended mode of organizing SSYS congress
incorporating values-based education in line with the congress theme ‘Disaster
Risk Reduction for Sustainable Development’ despite various constraints faced, the
220
following are some challenges and opportunities identified during the
implementation of event:
 Several types of digital learning and video conferencing tools should be
explored on the respective strengths and weaknesses as contingency plans in
the events of constraints faced. For example, some technical errors were
faced during this SSYS to use webinar to broadcast the presentation by the
second author from far to the delegates attending the forum at Centre and to
those outside the Centre in other countries. Luckily skype was able to be set
up to solve problems, hence the event was conducted successfully and
according to the schedule.
 Since the interviewees of three Generation X teachers and six Generation Y
student delegates showed positive attitudes generally towards the use of
digital e-/m-learning tools to promote values-based awareness, thinking and
life skills for sustainable living, such types of tools should be implemented
more often to promote EFA through ODL mode.
Research Implications, Limitations and Future Direction
In this study, the idea of using digital tools to connect SSYS project-based
programme with the world was evolved as a result of the researchers’ previous
experiences involving in ODL and various blended learning programmes such as
‘Science across the World’ (SAW) and HVWSHE. An implication is that in order to
facilitate successful ODL activities despite various constraints, more strategic
plannings should be made to deal with key questions such as ‘What else could be
done, for whom to do and how to excel’, perhaps to consider including broader
field of research and evaluation towards building new knowledge and high quality
services (Armstrong, 1986; Cohen, 2004). The researchers should reflect on the
lessons learnt to improve the delivery/ implementation of programmes especially
the technical aspects of ODL.
Moreover, the analysis of data collected from surveys and interviews also revealed
the research implications that are worth pondering. Apparently many stakeholders
who were interviewed felt that they were motivated to use the digital tools to
promote sustainable living and learned tremendously from their experience
involving in SSYS that promote values-based ESD related programmes as
evidenced also in their research projects presented in the congress. In fact, SSYS
congresses generated many creative, values-based ESD related project ideas. Most
of the student delegates involved in the previous congresses were found to have
ventured into science and technology related careers such as engineers, medical
professionals and research scientists, some of whom are still in touch with the
researchers as also reported by Ng (2002) and Ng (2005). Hence the future areas
that could be exploited may include the opportunities for directions, challenges to
support the advancement of youth development in values-based ESD related
221
programmes through ODL approaches. New domains of partnership that provide a
repository for knowledge areas required to address the needs from SEAMEO
perspectives for regional collaboration/partnership in youth development should
be explored.
More follow-up activities should be done to analyze the quantitative and
qualitative findings of the surveys being administered during the 9th SSYS congress
(3rd to 7th March 2014) to explore the delegates’ inclination and attitudes towards
the use of technology to enhance sustainable living. More Continuing Programme
Development (CPD) programmes should also be included to promote the teaching
and learning of thinking skills, technology skills and life (i.e. work/entrepreneurial
and survival) skills that are required for Borderless School project as an area
identified under the vision of Golden SEAMEO. Towards achieving the aspiring
goals of ‘building sustainable campus with creative minds through networking and
human resource development’ especially through SSYS as reported by Ng et al.
(2014), Ng, Aligaen, Thien and Ab Bakar (2014), curriculum writing/editing
workshops were conducted (as have been completed from 19th to 20th June and
targetted to be completed from 1st to 3rd October 2014) to prepare Open
Educational Resources (OER) with sharing of exemplars to be disseminated on-line.
ODL platforms will be used including mainly through the ‘South East Asia Regional
Capacity-enhancing Hub’ (SEARCH) to promote sustainable knowledge
management system (Ng, 2010; 2012a). The SSYS project output being archived in
the e-forum of ‘Science Project/problem/programme-based Activities
inCorporating Experiment MANagement’ (SP3ACEMAN)(a subportal linked to
SEARCH) also serves as rich source of information for the sharing of exemplary
practices and dissemination of values-based projects through investigative
research as reported by Mangao and Ng (2014), Ng (2012b), Ng (2013), Ng and
Baharum (2013). The scientific projects completed by youth may feature the
dynamics of values education using blended mode, with training for better
understanding of sustainability and enhance public awareness with knowledge,
skills, values required for quality living.
Acknowledgement
The authors wish to acknowledge the management, academic, all staff of RECSAM,
all stakeholders and educational partners who have contributed to the success of
the SSYS event and made this study feasible.
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UNHABITAT & SEAMEO (2007). In P. Pannen, Ng K.T., J. Ikhsan, D. Mustafa &
Herawati (Eds.). SEAMEO Resource Package : Human Values-based Water,
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(UN-HABITAT).
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Retrieved February 4, 2014 from URL:
http://www.workforce.com/articles/succession-planning-roadmap
THE ECONOMIC VALUE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION
A CASE STUDY AT HANOI OPEN UNIVERSITY
Le Van Thanh, President of Hanoi Open University, Vietnam
ABSTRACT: In this study, the economic value of different modes of learning at
Hanoi Open University is calculated as the sum of three items: 1) the profit that
the university gains, which has as plus sign, 2) the expenditure on the part of the
student, which has as minus sign and 3) the opportunity earning for the student,
which has as plus sign. The results show that at HOU, the sum economic value to
the society as a whole of the Online Distance mode of learning is the highest, then
comes that of the F2F Distance mode of learning, and the lowest is of the F2F
mode of learning. What is the most remarkable is although the university profit
per student for the Online Distance mode of learning is the lowest, and the annual
expenditure on the student’s part for the Online Distance mode of learning is the
highest, the sum economic value of this mode of learning to the society as a
whole, with opportunity earning on the student’s part taken into account, is the
highest.
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KEY WORDS: Economic value; Distance education; Costing; Profit; Expenditure;
Opportunities; Online distance mode of learning.
INTRODUCTION
Costing Open and Distance Learning (ODL) involves sensible questions that affect
policy and people’s lives. They include questions like: Is ODL cheaper or dearer
than the alternatives? How can the costs of using the web be worked out? In
practice, however, these questions are often neglected.
In Vietnam, ODL has witnessed a fast development in the past 20 years. Yet up to
now these question have never been in focus. At the time being, in the context of
heavy investments in ODL from ODL providers and the government, these
questions should be taken more seriously into consideration.
Hanoi Open University (HOU), a leading university in ODL with a mission to open
learning opportunities for all, has applied some form of an accounting system to
calculate the incomes from different modes of learning and education. However,
cost drivers for ODL and the economic value of this mode of learning and
education have not been isolated and analysed systematically. Also there have
been no studies to compare the economic value of ODL with that of the
alternatives available at the university.
In this preliminary study, the economic value of ODL at the university for the
society as a whole is analysed and calculated with data collected from a survey on
students and from financial reports of the university for the fiscal year 2013. The
relative economic strengths of different modes of learning at the university are
also touched upon.
A Framework for Costing
The costs of a particular system are usually measured in terms of the annual cost
per student in the system, the cost per student learning hour, or the cost per
graduate. The actual results for any particular system depend upon the relative
impact of a number of factors, such as the number of learners or students
involved, the number of courses on offer, the number of years over which courses
are presented, and the frequency with which materials have to be remade, the
technologies used, the way in which each technology is used, the extent to which
students are supported by staff, etc. (Eicher 1978: 14).
These factors impinge on each other, making it difficult to disentangle cause and
effect, and so link decisions about size, curriculum, technology, structure, working
practices, and personnel policies to cost outcomes. As Perraton (1993: 382), put it,
“There is no a priori or simple answer to the question, ‘Is distance education a
cheap alternative?’ The question is likely to depend on the number of students
enrolled, the sophistication of the media used, the amount of face-to-face support
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provided, and the range of courses offered to students. And the answer may
depend on a decision about whose costs are to be included in the equation.”
An important element in costing is to understand the system being cost so that
cost elements are not missed. The wider one’s span of interest, the more one will
want to look at the macro-picture. Individual teachers may be content to find out
whether teaching online, for example, takes them more or less time than teaching
face-to-face, but departmental heads will want to know whether they can teach
more courses and/or more students per course, and what the effect will be on
their expenditure and their income. Institutional heads will be concerned with all
the above questions, but will also want to know what the impact is on
administrative costs, while institutional heads and national educational planners
may want to know whether teaching online is cheaper or more expensive than
teaching face-to-face or by some other distance teaching methodology. Students
will want to know whether taking a course online adds to their costs, or saves
them money and/or time - and actually academics, course leaders, and
institutional leaders should care deeply about student costs, since student
decisions on whether or not to study with a particular institution will be driven in
part by cost considerations. These considerations will go beyond the cost of tuition
to cover the costs of engaging with the course. Students will have to answer
questions like: Do I need a computer to study this course? What travel costs might
I incur? How much will the materials I need cost me? Will I spend significant
amounts of money online? What are the opportunity costs if I take this course?,
etc. This argues for a whole system approach that moves beyond the immediate
concerns of individual course and departmental budgets to take account of the
cost implications of the system as a whole.
At HOU, basically there are three modes of learning: Face to face (F2F), F2F
Distance - teachers go to remote satellite learning centers to deliver lectures face
to face to students, and Online Distance – learning and teaching are done mostly
online. There are different accounting systems for different modes of leaning, and
at the end of the fiscal year, the accounting department shall prepare a financial
report related to each mode of learning.
In this study, economic values of different modes of learning at the university are
understood as the sum values for the society as a whole. For simplicity, only the
economic values for two major stakeholders, the university and the student, are
taken into consideration. On the part of the university, the economic value of each
mode is the profit that it gains. On the part of the student, two major cost
categories are taken into account: expenditures and opportunity costs. For the
purpose of this study, opportunity costs are converted into opportunity earnings;
that is if students do not lose opportunity to earn (they do not have to leave work
227
to learn), they are considered to have opportunity earnings. In this way, the
difference between opportunity costs and opportunity earnings is opportunity
costs have a minus sign and opportunity earnings have a plus sign in the
calculation of economic values. In sum, the economic value of different modes of
learning at HOU is calculated as the sum of three items: 1) Profit that the
university gains, which has as plus sign, 2) Expenditure on the part of the student,
which has as minus sign and 3) Opportunity earning for the student, which has as
plus sign.
Economic values of different modes of learning at HOU
As discussed above, to calculate the economic values of different modes of
learning at the university, three categories are considered: university profit,
student expenditure, and student opportunity earning. Data for the university
profit are taken from the university’s financial report for the fiscal year 2013. Data
for the student’s annual expenditure and opportunity earning are collected
through a survey on three groups of students majoring in Laws; the first group
consists of 100 F2F students, the second 100 F2F Distance students, and the third
100 Online Distance students. Table 1 below shows the university profit for
different modes of learning.
Table 1: University profit for different modes of learning at HOU
(fiscal year 2013)
Unit: VND
Mode
Number of
Profit/student/year
Total profit
Students
F2F
11,523
105,000
1,209,915,000
Online Distance
7,023
71,429
501,645,867
F2F Distance
36,627
82,857
3,034,803,339
(Source: HOU’s financial reports, 2013)
The table reveals that the university profit per student for the F2F mode of
learning is the highest, and the university profit per student for the Online
Distance mode of learning is the lowest. However, the sum economic values of
each mode of learning for the society may tell a different story.
As discussed above, on the part of students, two major cost categories are
calculated: expenditure and opportunity cost. Table 2 below shows the annual
228
expenditure per student (on students’ part), broken into five major items, namely
accommodation, travel, tuition, materials, and technology.
Table 2: Annual expenditure per student (on students’ part)
Unit: VND
Items
F2F
Online Distance
F2F Distance
Accommodation
1,450,000
0
0
Travel
370,000
597,000
702,000
Tuition
5,000,000
5,000,000
5,000,000
Materials
1,083,000
236,000
961,000
Technology
107,000
3,070,000
623,000
8,903,000
7,286,000
Total
8,010,000
(Source: Survey by the author, 2013)
Table 2 reveals that the annual expenditure per student for the Online Distance
mode of learning is the highest; the lowest is for the F2F mode of learning.
So far, from what Table 1 and Table 2 reveal, we can come to conclusion that the
F2F mode of learning is the cheapest for students and the most profitable for the
university.
However, what we are interested here are the sum economic value of each mode
of learning for the society as a whole, with opportunity earnings taken into
consideration.
Table 3 below shows the sum economic value for different modes of learning for
the society as a whole at HOU.
Table 3: Economic value for different modes of learning
(for the society as a whole, per student)
Unit: VND
Items
F2F
University profit
105,000
Online
Distance
71,429
Student expenditure
-8,010,000
-8,903,000
-7,286,000
Student opportunity earning
6,374,000
60,720,000
53,126,000
Sum economic values
-1,531,000
51,888,429
45,922,857
(Source: Calculated by the author 2013)
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F2F Distance
82,857
The table shows that the economic value of the Online Distance mode of learning
is the highest, and the economic value of the F2F mode of learning is the lowest. In
this case, the economic value of the F2F mode of learning has the minus sign,
which means the expenditure is higher than the sum of the university profit and
the student opportunity earning.
The results show that at HOU, the sum economic value to the society as a whole of
the Online Distance mode of learning is the highest, then comes that of the F2F
Distance mode of learning, and the lowest is of the F2F mode of learning. What is
the most remarkable is although the university profit per student for the Online
Distance mode of learning is the lowest, and the annual expenditure on the
student’s part for the Online Distance mode of learning is the highest, the sum
economic value of this mode of learning to the society as a whole, with
opportunity earning on the student’s part taken into account, is the highest.
Although it is still rather hasty to come to conclusion that the Online Distance
mode of learning is the most economically efficient, as the question of the quality
of this mode of learning is still open, it is advisable that this mode of learning
should receive a higher status at the university and in the educational system.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
Eicher, J. C. (1978). Some thoughts on the economic analysis of new
educational media. In UNESCO (1980), The economics of new educational
media. Vol. 2: Cost and effectiveness. Paris: The UNESCO Press.
Perraton, H. (ed.) (1993). Distance education for teacher training. London:
Routledge.
Hanoi Open University, (2013). Financial reports 2013.
HOW CAN TECHNOLOGY BEST BE USED FOR ODL?
Lee Tae Rim, Korea National Open University (KNOU)
ABSTRACT: Korea National Open University have been utilized one-way
instructional delivery system during the history of distance education from 1972.
The isolation of students in their learning is the most important problem to solve
in this one-way mode. ICT application like e-Learning or m-Learning is an
alternative instructional model that makes available student to have more
interaction with their instructor and peer, is more accessibility to multimedia
learning resources than the traditional delivery system. The e-Learning system
230
which is used for online graduate school for distance education has improved the
lack of two-way communication and repetition, the main weakness of the existing
media, TV, radio and written text. From December 2008 KNOU kick off the mobile
learning system under the MOU with Korean Telephone Company KT. In the near
future, m-Learning could become a normal part of open and distance learning for
lifelong education and self-directed learning. The Mobile learning and ubiquitous
learning system for distance education that anyone who wants to study could
study anywhere, anytime with the internet and multimedia system. Internationally
KNOU was assigned as the coordinator of e-ASEM network under the research
theme, "ICT skill, e-Learning and the culture of e-Learning in Lifelong Learning",
the project team, therefore, plans to establish an online community for sharing ICT
skill- and e-learning-related education and research among the ASEM LLL member
countries (http://asem.knou.ac.kr/).
KEY WORDS: e-Learning, m-Learning, ODL
BACKGROUND
Since the opening of a school in 1972, KNOU has been growing as the only one
open and distance learning mega-university in Korea with a considerable scale for
the past 30 years. KNOU has 4 colleges, 23 departments, and approximately
179,726 students and it has turned out 290,000 graduates so far. It also opened an
online graduate school based on e-learning start with 4 departments and now 17
departments with 1402 graduate students. The large number of students reveals
the high and dynamic demand for lifelong learning of the Korean society. KNOU
has managed curriculums corresponding to a lot of demand for lifelong learning.
However, recent social, cultural and environmental changes related to the open
and distance learning provides many suggestions for the new direction of
development of KNOU.
First, major delivery system of distance education has been changed as
information and communication technology develops. KNOU has been using a
one-way delivery system such as TV, radio, and cassette tapes. However, the
developments in computer science and communication technologies opened the
path to a two-way delivery system that enables learners to actively participate in
their learning process.
Second, it was a hot issue that several cyber-universities conferring a bachelor’s
degree started blitz running. The reason why 16 cyber universities established in
Korea since 2001 (Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development,
2003), is the variety of lifelong education institutions brought about competitive
relationship between the traditional distance educational system, KNOU and those
cyber universities.
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Third, there is an increase in variety of the learners of KNOU. In the past, the most
of the students of KNOU were those who had no chance to enter the universities
after graduated from high schools, but recently the proportion of those who enter
KNOU for re-education or transition into different majors after bachelor’s. This
implies that the need for a flexible teaching-learning system corresponding to the
level of learners should be analyzed.
ICT adaptation in KNOU
(1) Objectives of e-Learning Adaptation
The objectives of e-learning adaptation in KNOU courses are as follows:
First one is easy accessibility with learning resources. One of characteristics of
distance education, the flexibility in time and space, which means that a student
can learn anywhere and anytime, provides those who used to have difficulty in
keeping the course schedule with usefulness (KNOU, 2003).
Second, it can provide various learner-oriented materials comprehensively.
According to research results, learners could connect with fruitful self-study
materials and study them comprehensively by e-Learning (KNOU, 2003). It can be
said that the management and delivery of study materials through ICT is an
effective way of interactivity to the needs of students.
Third, it motivates the transition into a self-regulated learner. The self-regulating
learning ability can be an important factor greatly affecting whether e-learning
could be successful or not since the learner takes the initiative in decision-making
about studying process and method. The self-directed learning has the
characteristics of meta-cognitive strategies that further, manage, control, and
improve one’s learning through setting the goals of study, reviewing, evaluating,
and managing oneself (Knowles, 1975). It is the ability including a motivating
element to continue learning and a behavioral element to practice it
(Zimmermann, 1990). Since e-learning requires learners to play an active role in
learning process, they come to learn self-regulating ability.
(2) Readiness for e-Learning
According to the data from the National Computerization Agency (2004), the
number of Korean population who has a PC is 49 per 100 in 2002, the rate of the
Internet using population reached 61%, and the high-speed network 23.3%. Our
international information index holds the 8thrank. These data imply the sufficiency
of technical infrastructure, which is the ideal boundary condition for the
adaptation of e-learning.
To make the most of e-Learning courses are activated, learner, instructor, and
organization-level preparations are required like the followings;
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First, how much learners prepare for learning is influenced how much they can use
internet and high speed networks.
Second, how much instructors have experiences of e-learning contents
development and course management.
Third, the organization-level preparation is one of them. KNOU has 103 courses
developed into e-learning contents out of total 554 courses annually opened
courses by faculties, which amounts up to 18.9%, and e-learning staffs who are
wholly responsible for e-learning content development and course management
consulting, faculty development, and educational program management by
establishing the e-Learning Center at 2001 to build an effective e-learning
supporting system.
Development of e-Learning courses
<Fig.1> KNOU e-Learning & m-Learning
1) Undergraduate school program
KNOU has finished the contents development of 103 out of 554 courses operated
by the faculties, which accounts for 18.9% of the entire course. The programs
provided through TV, LOD and web based multimedia contents are available on
the KNOU homepage on line. The previous media provided by the cable channel,
OUN, were also prepared so that learners can see them whenever they want to.
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The LOD (Learning on Demand) service includes the entire 554 courses of the
faculties. Besides this, fee-charging 110 open courses are available for those who
are not students of KNOU.
KNOU has been developing e-learning courses and supplementary learning
materials for regular courses since 1998. From 2004, 64stand-alone Course - ware
was operated.
2) Graduate School Program
KNOU established a graduate school in 2001, and turned out 223 graduates in
2004. There are 129 graduate school courses are registered by 1537 students at
this 2009. Online Graduate School in KNOU is process of lifelong learning and
professional learning through e-Learning Contents since 2001. It consists of eLearning contents development and course operation. e-Learning development
has consideration of subjects characteristic and learner level.
3) Lifelong Educational Program
KNOU has been operating a teacher training in-service program for an e-learning
course since 2004. It’ll be extended e-learning courses for the diversity of the
professional job for senior age group through Prime college.
4) International Programs
KNOU has been developing ‘Korean History’ and ‘Korean culture and arts’ as
international programs, and also developing English, Chinese, and Japanese
version of those programs respectively since 2003. After the completion of the
development, it is going to promote program exchanges with the universities all
over the world including the members of AAOU and e-ASEM.
After the above trial version KNOU e-learning center had developed 4 more
international e-Learning contents in English funded by MOE, ‘Economic
Development and Economic Policy in Korea’, ‘Click Korean’, ‘Water Quality Test
Method’, ‘Introduction to Computers’, ‘History of Korean Economy’
(http://elic.knou.ac.kr/). Among those contents ‘Economic Development and
Economic Policy in Korea’ was cooperated with KDI for international school
program students, Click Korean was cooperated SNU international language center
used for foreign students who study at SNU came from whole world to learn
Korean language. Water Quality course was co-worked with faculty member of
Dept. of Civil Engineering, UW Madison used for UW student’s supplementary
materials.
234
m-Learning
KNOU Ubiquitous Learning Campus had kicked off from December 2008.
Mobile technologies, like mobile devices and wireless internet services, have the
potential to introduce new innovations in the area of education m-learning, a new
form of education using mobile internet systems and handheld devices can offer
students and teachers the opportunity to interact with and gain access to
educational materials, independent of time and spaces. This study suggested some
considerable suggestions for preparing the future of open and distance education
based on Mobile and one more step advanced ubiquitous learning. Fig.20 shows
the title window for KNOU mobile learning cooperated with Korean telephone
company KT under MOU.
<Fig. 2> Title window of KNOU m-Learning Campus
1) Mobile Campus in Hand
Using new information sharing device Mobile Phone make renovation to UCampus and technology solution promote the renovation to the new paradigm of
KNOU U-CAMPUS in hand. It provides composite solution of on and off line direct
connection between the LMS for KNOU U-Campus and KT Mobile Solution.
For the high quality m-Learning it should be continued to evaluate and feedback to
the ODL learning resources under the team approach in which educational
technologist, computer analyst, web programmer, web designer and contents
specialist together.
2) Future Mobile based campus solution;
In the future, mobile based campus solutions will be used for detail campus life
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more conveniently.
Conclusions
This paper intended to draw up plans for introduction of e-learning m-learning
courses to the whole undergraduate curriculum in the near future through the
evaluation of learning contents, course management and student support, and
institutional and administrative aspects.
This study led to the following conclusions and suggestions.
First, there is no meaningful difference of satisfaction of e-learning content and elearning course management according to the condition of class size. Further
studies on e-learning course models according to various class sizes of KNOU
should be conducted. The e-learning courses should be developed considering a
lot of elements such as type of study, class sizes, and goals of study, and
standardized management programs according to each model should be built.
Second, improvement in estimation methods is needed for active learning
participation of learners. Based on a learners’ questionnaire survey research, the
preference is that they tend to have a lesson in a rather passive mode held by the
teacher.
Third, the incorporated policies for various media such as TV, e-learning, and mlearning are required. The e-learning can utilize previously developed broadcasting
media usefully. Therefore, the broadcast media should be developed as a
component consisting of e-learning contents considering that they can be reused
for e-learning from the planning stage of TV or radio program development.
Fourth, the systematic study support system should be built. KNOU has been
mostly focusing on support for professors, but the actual situation is that the
construction of the student support system is not sufficient.
Fifth, the learner-tendency analysis program is required. To develop this kind of
program, the information on learners such as their preference and level should be
systematically managed and it should be actively reflected on the course
development and management (Joung & Kwak, 2004).
Sixth, the quality should be continuously controlled during the whole process of elearning course development (Joung & Jang, 2004). Presently, KNOU is controlling
quality from the e-learning course development stage through an instructional
system design, but needs to establish a circulative quality control system by
confirming if the evaluation results have been improved in the next courses.
236
REFERENCES
1.
Clark, R. C. & Mayer, R. E. (2003). e-Learning and the science of instruction. NJ:
John Wiley & Sons.
2. Joung, Y., R. & Kim, S., Y.(2002). Design template framework of learning object for
reusable e-learning contents. The 16th AAOU Annual Conference Proceeding.
3. Joung, Y., R. & Jang, E., J. (2004). A study of quality criteria for excellence of elearning course. The journal of educational information and media, 19(2),
159~192.
4. Joung, Y., R. & Kwak, D. H. (2004). A study of standardization model of learner
information in e-learning. The journal of Korean association of computer
education, 7(4), 77~91.
5. KNOU(2003). The Research on the utilization state of learning media in KNOU.
The white book 03-3 of institute of distance education in KNOU.
6. Knowles, M. S. (1975). Self-directed learning: A guide for learners and teachers. IL:
Association press.
7. Kolodner, J., & Guzdial, M. (1996). Effects with and of CSCL: Tracking learning in a
new paradigm. In T. Koschmann(Eds.). CSCL: Theory and Practice.(pp. 307-320).
NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
8. KVC(2003). The 2ndwhitepaperofevaluation for Korea virtual campus.KVC.
9. Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development(2003). 2003
Educational information white book. Korea Education & Research Information
Service.
10. Ministry of Information and Communication(2004). The informational statistics of
Korea. [on-line available] http://www.mic.go.kr/index.jsp
11. Zimmermann B. J. (1990). Self-regulated learning and academic achievement: An
overview. Educational Psycologist, 25(1).
ON THE APPLICATION OF INTERNET QQ GROUP IN DISTANT INSTRUCTION
Li Dun, Xu Ping, Yunnan Open University, P. R. China
ABSTRACT: Yunnan Open University is a distant education one with open
instructions and modern information technologies. It takes the advantages of nonspecific instruction network and software in distant learning and has established
an instruction community of a online Teacher-student QQ Group by the popular
instant message of China QQ software and successfully used its superiorities for
the teaching and learning. In this paper we present how the Online QQ Group
effectively assembles the functions of chat, text message, email, video, file
transformation, remote learning assistance and information store as a whole, and
how the teachers and students in the university communicate and exchange their
views and disseminate the information in real time. Multidimensional instruction
237
environment is great for the distant learning with the Group. It is really an
effective and useful mode for the distant instruction and, for sure, an attractive
learning way providing more vigor and vitality to the open universities’ education.
KEYWORDS: QQ online instruction, advantages, learning environment
INTRODUCTION
Today, information technology has led constant innovations and creations in
various fields, so has done the China distance education. In 2010, China State
Council approved six open universities to carry out a special pilot reform project
called “The exploration of open university modes”in China. Yunnan Open
University (former Yunnan Radio and TV University) founded in 1979 is the one of
the six pioneer universities. It is a university using modern, integrated and multimedia in distant instruction by means of textbooks, radio, television, computer
networks, audio-visual materials, computer courseware and other media for the
all kind of works in urban, rural, remote and ethnic areas. It, with the new
construction of open learning, will provide more and better opportunities and
conveniences for the online education. Special campus network online learning is
a kind of usual way in the general open Universities, while the QQ- group-online
learning, here we present, is another wonderful distant instruction method in
recent years in China. This instruction, especially in distant learning these years,
has been successfully tried in China higher education. This teaching and learning
mode has played an effective revelation for the online education and welcomed by
the students and the education units.
“QQ” is an Internet-based instant message tool launched by China Tenxun
Company in 1999, The software assembles online chat, SMS, mail, video, file
transfer and remote assistance with stored information as a whole to have realtime communication, idea-exchange and information dissemination. Data has
showed that the network QQ Group has higher audience penetration (By January
2014, QQ space active users has reached over 10 million) QQ is easy to use, costs
lower and has a good performance for real-time and non real-time interaction in
distant learning, which finely supports the campus network instruction.
1. QQ teaching network
In recent years, QQ Group has been loved by the higher education and particularly
by the distant learning teachers and learners. It truly has a convenient learning
stage.
1.1
QQ software
The full name of QQ is OICQ originated from ICQ. ICQ is I SEEK YOU in English. It is
similar to the network pager or cell phone. Developed by China Shenzhen Tenxun
238
Computer System Co. Ltd. in November 1998, it is a internet-based instant
message software with the function of real-time online information exchange.
For years of development, QQ software is stable, reliable and mature. It’s free of
charge and easy to use. By only a simple training, students can master and take
the advantage of using the online QQ Group for dealing with their study,
assignments and exams’ information. Students now basically have QQ number and
this online learning tool has become an important part in their lives.
1.2
QQ Group and its function
QQ Group is an online communication space for the group learners, which serves
people for exchanging their views and opinions. The members of each group have
a close link as a family. QQ Group has simple, practical and many advantages
similar to a virtual network society. Simply setting up a QQ group, students and
teachers can join in the group and interact directly on line. It also helps the
students themselves solve the problems with each other. QQ Group offers a
variety of real-time information interaction stage and also audio, video, pictures
and other materials are available for the learning information exchanges. QQ
Group software is interactive, timely, broad and flexible to meet the needs of the
online learning.
2. The teaching strengths of QQ Group Network
QQ Group is a useful complement for the campus network teaching. It is a simple
network learning tool need not to have a website and a separate LAN. As long as
the students have a computer with internet access, they can learn at any time and
anywhere. With it, the teachers and the students are able to have teaching,
learning, resources and media interaction.
2.1 A teacher-student communion without distance
QQ network achieves the distant teaching and learning (place a camera, both the
teachers and the students can see each other). The relative separation in time and
space is the distant education character for the teachers and students. Finely with
the use of QQ, teaching and learning have no distance. The teachers can discuss
with the students synchronously (with keyboard dialogue, BBS, etc.) and
asynchronously (with email, BBS topics boards) wherever and whenever they are.
By doing these, the teachers are capable of knowing something about the students
of how many times they joined the discussions and the quality, the usage of the
shared online resources etc. So, teachers can observe students’ learning and
guide, evaluate and master the students' learning orientation and effectiveness in
time so as to give advices for their future study. Teachers in the QQ Group are also
able to give the teaching schedule, requirements, materials for the students to
read, email to check the students' work and arrange the tasks. They use the
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interactive function to have real-time or non real-time talk through virtual QQ
space, give the students proper guidance and help the students at any time and
any where.
2.2 Achieve without ages
QQ makes the teachers and students have no psychological distance. In the virtual
QQ, they are as friends to chat without stress. The good thing is that if the
teachers sometimes can not answer the students in time they can do it later. In
terms, the students may have no psychological fear to chat. Both of them become
friends and anyone can be a teacher to say and give ideas. Teachers give the
topics, students express their views and boldly ask questions, insights and
recommendations, they learn from each other, expand their views without
psychological distance and both of them achieve. They do show their personality,
mutual respect, trust, support and friendly help.
2.3 Learn without certain time and space
QQ can do the teaching-learning work at any time and any place. Distant learners
are from all walks of live and can not study at the same time. The learning form of
QQ by one-to-one, one-to-pair and one-to-many are able to allow students to
study in their spare time, at the same time or by e-mail in different times. By oneto-one, one-to-pair and one-to-many teaching, announcements, group messages
and different sort of problems are solved effectively.
2.4 Use multimedia interactions, graphics and words
With the interaction of texts, images, audio-video, animations and other media,
teaching and learning show the better results. The print media better help the
students master their knowledge and the pictures are easier to arouse students’
attention. Audio-visual media finely give a further understanding for the students
and greatly help increase students' learning interest. The students learn in a
pleasant state and their analysis and problem-solving skills are enhanced. Here we
should say digital resources with sound and illustration for the students must to be
developed so as to meet the needs of the students’ multiple senses for gaining the
knowledge and guide them to learn efficiently.
2.5 Interact online resources and share them fully
With QQ Group, we achieve real-time and non real-time transmission of the
teaching resources. The teachers can upload the resources, give arrangements,
assignments, tests, reviews and exams scores. They show teaching experiences
and advanced academic knowledge and introduce good school webs for the
students to browse or download for their independent learning. Meanwhile, the
students can leave messages to the teachers, ask questions and upload some
enlightening information for the teachers and other students to share. QQ online
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teaching meets the needs of different students’ level. The open instruction is truly
expanded and extended. QQ transmission form has all supplementary functions
with phone, email and blog making both the teachers and the students wildly
communicate and transmit information. In the Group, Anyone may set up a QQ
teaching, QQ reading, QQ notes and other topics to store and share the
knowledge. Using QQ synchronous and asynchronous interaction, the teachers
and the learners really enjoy teaching and learning, and certainly they both are
improved.
3. Establish the multi-dimensional network learning environment with the help
of QQ Group
It is very important to create a human environment for the learners’ knowledge
construction so that they are able to learn with each other and grow and improve
together in the environment
3.1 Self-learning environment
Adults’ learning is a kind of autonomous learning, which attaches the importance
to the independent co-operation learning. The teachers are the creators of the
learning environments. They should guide students for their learning aims,
contents and methods. The real excellent instruction is not only a kind of one-way
knowledge transferring to the students, it is a sort of process to form the teaching
and learning experience of both the teachers and the students.
The following aspects are something harmonious and loose in learning
environment to create and promote the students’ mastery of the knowledge.
A. Make a free and equal learning condition. The teachers now are not the
knowledge giving authorities, but the partners, listeners, collaborators to join the
instruction and create a place where everybody can say, instruct and learn.
B. Have a collaborative learning situation. Equal talks and consultations among the
teachers and the students promote both cooperation and communication. The
teachers and the students then have mutual acceptance, appreciation and
argument and think more of the others.
C. Build an open learning environment. With open independent learning
environment, the students can choose learning contents, processes, ways and
partners. Teachers should not interfere and impose their own ideas on the
students, but rather focus on helping learners to implement the learning plans,
guide them to have mutual understandings and establish a sort of learning
relationships with concern, support and collaboration.
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With the above atmosphere, the students regarded each other as useful learning
resources to share. They shear, externalize, present, interact their mastered
knowledge nature, type, quantity externalization and finally take others
knowledge into their own.
3.2 Collaborative learning situation
Collaborative Learning (rose in the United States in 1970s and developed in the
mid-1980s) is a learning strategy for the students to study in a group or team. It
means the relevant processes and successes which have been made and
experienced together by the students in order to achieve their common learning
goal and extend the personal and others study acquisition.
In the network collaborative learning, the teachers are the directors and the
students are the main body or the actors. They both make the script and leave
maximum learning space for themselves.
Here we demonstrate some characteristics of the network collaborative learning.
A.
The openness of time and space: the advantage of network learning is
that learning time and space is no limit. The learners can independently participate
in the study anytime and anywhere. Learning process truly becomes an important
part in the education.
B.
The interactivity: through dynamic exchanges of collaborative network
learning, learning resources and media, the learners are able to get the rich
information from various sources to have better understandings of the knowledge
and train their capacities in the information gaining, learning ability and social
skills.
C.
The personality: under the free learning atmosphere, the learners can
better give full play to their initiatives and change their roles from the recipients
into active constructors, which do make the individual teaching and learning come
true.
In addition, in network learning process, group learning is a successful
collaborative teaching-learning form and activity. The teachers arrange the
appropriate learning groups, point out the group leaders and make the plans for
them. Then the groups achieve the collaborative learning by synchronous
discussions, discussion boards and group announcements as the asynchronous
learning tools to realize multi-angle collaborative learning.
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In short, with the joint efforts of the teachers and the students, the QQ network
environment keeps the diversity, openness and wide learning area. It is real a
place for the teachers and the students to have their study gatherings, views
exchange and knowledge promotion and enjoy their free learning.
4. Conclusion
QQ is a popular network which opens to all the people of the society nowadays.
We ought to make better and more use of QQ Group for the distance education
and provide more and various learning places to make both of the campus
network and the society network play their individual roles. Still much attention
should be paid to the following usage points: keep campus network instruction as
the main one, guide the students to use network better and give them evaluation;
enhance and update the teachers knowledge of network and the new science and
technology progresses of the world and upload new learning materials regularly
for the students; manage and update QQ Group promptly and effectively to keep
the upload data and materials have a smooth process on line. In general, to make
the network learning better, convenient and effective is surely our online
instruction target, which, we think, can keep the distant learning having a great
vitality and achievement.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
http://dianda.china.com.cn/zhuanti/2011-06/24/content_4290157.htm
http://edu.ifeng.com/news/detail_2010_08/04/1886506_0.shtml
http://www.yscbook.com/zcyyks/wsl/201012/517190.html
http://www.12edu.cn/lunwen/yyjy/201205/48795.shtml
Ding Junjie, “Network transmission and modern education” Beijing, Beijing
Broadcasting Institute Press,2001.
6. Zhu Zhiting," Modern educational technology-----going to the information-based
education." Beijing Education and Science Press, 2002.
7. Ding Xing, "Distance education theoretical principles". Beijing. Central Radio and
TV University Press,1997.
8. Ding Xingfu, "Distance learning pedagogy". Beijing, Beijing Normal University
Press,(1), 11, 2001.
9. Michael G • Moore. "Distance education----a system concept." The Songgang
Computer Books and Materials Co., Ltd..
10. Gao Liming, "Media and information technology." Beijing University Press.(1),
1998.
243
CONNECTING PARTNERS FOR PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT:
A CASE OF CAPACITY BUILDING INITIATIVES
THROUGH COLLABORATION IN NIOS
Mahapatra Sukanta Kumar, National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS), India
ABSTRACT: The responsibility to prepare young learners for the unique
demands of a 21st century world not only claim for changing curriculum and
pedagogic practices but also demands for a huge transformation in policy,
programme and training mechanism in the education system. Thus, Capacity
building of the teachers, educators and policymakers to bring innovation and also
solve the challenge the demands of creating well informed and responsible
citizens, who will ensure peace, drive our economy and solve pressing problems in
the future, is highly desirable today. Driven by the demands of professional
development, National Institute of Open Schooling, the largest open schooling
system in the world, has also taken steps to innovate it’s intellectual capital to
match the demands and expectations of the learners through continuous scope
for Training of faculty members and staffs. The current paper addresses different
concerns how mechanism of capacity building through collaboration exist in NIOS.
While there has been huge opportunity, challenges do exist in terms of financing,
infrastructure and lack of expertise and experience of Trainers and institutions in
open schooling perspective.
KEY WORDS: Capacity Building, Collaboration, E-Learning
INTRODUCTION
We are living in the 21st century where there is need to develop mechanism to
ensure that students are learning in a meaningful context and effective teaching
learning mechanism reach to them. While Globalization of economy, demographic
and technological changes have transformed the Societies and Individuals in a
large scale, children being the part of the system are also affected by these
economic and technological transformations. On the other hand, the changing
social and economic landscape also demands the children be equipped with all the
skills that will help them to compete and leverage the socio-economic
development of the country.
In present times, when the Technological tools such as Mobile, Telephone, Radio
are available with each group of learners irrespective of age and socio-economic
background, where jobs are changing rapidly and also the demographics,
education systems has to emphasize on enabling individuals to become lifelong
learners and also the usability of technology in education. Students also need to
be learnt how to be capable of constantly adopting and of positioning themselves
and repositioning themselves in a fast pace of change.(Schleicher,2012).Thus,
244
there is a need to revise and restrategise our curriculum, teaching learning process
, assessment standards so that it can benefit to make strategic planning and
transformation in the knowledge economy.
The responsibility to prepare young learners for the unique demands of a 21st
century world not only claim for changing curriculum and pedagogic practices but
also demands for a huge transformation in policy, programme and training
mechanism in the education system. In the past years, teacher was trained once
and it was considered the training received by teachers will help her/him to teach
throughout and also one set of teaching will useful for all the learners. But in
present times, it is desired that teachers need to be trained continuously to match
the changing demands of Society and learners and teachers are expected to
embrace diversity with differentiated pedagogical practices suit to individual
needs. On the other hand, it is essential in teaching professions today that
teachers should play the role of high-level knowledge workers who constantly
advance their own professional knowledge as well as that of their profession.
Hence, Capacity building of the teachers, educators and policymakers to bring
innovation and also solve the challenge the demands of creating well informed
and responsible citizens, who will ensure peace, drive our economy and solve
pressing problems in the future, is highly desirable today.
No doubt, the changes in teacher education programmes and reform and
restructuration in Policies and practices has been operating in India like other
parts of the country. But the question arises the financial viability is a challenge
with regard to restructure the schools all over the country with high quality
technology and also upgrade the standards of teacher through continuous training
given that a large pool of teachers are in service and they are different level of
qualification with varying competencies. While it is challenging in formal education
system to train large pool of teachers and administrators, open and distance
learning embedded with flexibility in timings and/or use of information and
Communication technology widely facilitated capacity building of
various
stakeholders. Underlying these dimensions, the current paper explores how
collaboration in various aspects facilitate capacity building in open and distance
learning. The second section focuses on how capacity building is very important in
distance learning. How collaboration better facilitate in the planning and delivery
of capacity building programmes is discussed in the third section. The last section
explores various issues and challenges concerned with collaboration.
2.0.
Capacity Building in School Education: Implication for ODL in India
India is one of the largest public funded education system in the world having
around 5.8 million teachers in 1.3 million schools (Hindustan Times). However,
20% of all teachers appointed in the country being untrained and having lower
245
qualification do not meet the minimum requirements of the National Council for
Teachers' Education ( NCTE), the apex body for regulating teacher education,
training and research in the country. As a result, in majority of the schools,
untrained teachers are handling secondary classes. Even those who are trained,
they are facing lot of challenges particularly in Science and Mathematics.
In order to address the challenges of teacher education, various committees and
commissions have recommended for continuous and in-service teacher education
in India. Education Commission in 1964-66 recommended for 2-3 months of inservice training of teachers in five year. National Policy on Education (1986)
further states that Pre-service and In-Service Education for Teachers is inseparable
for professional development of Teachers. Acharya Ramamurthi Review
Committee (1990) recommended that in-service and refresher course should be
the related to the specific needs of teacher and Evaluation and follow up should be
done. The need of training of teachers were also emphasized in Sarva Siksha
Abhijan(SSA)i and further in Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan Framework.
RMSAii framework very specifically states that in-service teachers and heads of
schools need to be trained for five days every year.
While there is requirement of massive number of trained teachers iii in the country
as per the norm of RTE Act iv, the teacher training institutions do not have
adequate infrastructure or mechanism to address the challenges of meeting such
large scale requirements in most of the states particularly in North-Eastern
States. Even there are Teacher training institutions recognized by NCTE, these
institutions hardly have the teaching and training capacities available and there is
also doubt about the quality of education provided in these institutions. The
problem is further compounded by the inadequate availability of teacher
educators in number of states in India(MHRD,2012). Underlying these challenges,
Open and Distance Learning mechanism has been found as a productive way out
to provide quality education at school level. The initiatives of National Institute of
Open Schooling (NIOS) in Launching of Diploma in Elementary Education (D.EL.Ed.)
and action taken by Capacity Building Cell of NIOS were the positive step in this
direction.
In India, the Open Schooling System is being operationalised by the National
Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS) at the national level and the State Open Schools
(SOSs) at the State level. So far 18 states have set up State Open Schools. The
National Policy on Education (NPE-1986) suggested strengthening of Open
Schooling System for extending open learning facilities in a phased manner at
Secondary level for all over the country as an independent system with its own
curriculum and examination leading to certification. (NIOS, 2011).While Academic
Staffs of NIOS and state open schools were continuously trained in various
246
dimensions of open schooling with the help of experts from outside if the
expertise is not available within NIOS, which has been aimed at improving the Selflearning Material, developing quality Audio-Video materials etc. and overall
providing quality educational services to learners, the course on Diploma in
Elementary Education (D.EL.Ed.) was offered with an objective to provide the
training to the untrained Teachers of the willing state governments with in India.
3.0.
Areas of Collaboration
NIOS has the vision of providing "Sustainable inclusive learning with universal and
flexible access to quality school education and skill development. India being a
country with social, economic and cultural diversity, it is a massive task for NIOS to
innovate it’s intellectual capital to match the demands and expectations of the
learners so that it will develop their capabilities to have a successful life and also
can contribute for economic and social development of the nation and also their
individual wellbeing. While there is essential
of diversified and integrated
knowledge to build up the citizens of future for sustainable development,
collaboration between different institutions are needed for facilitating a rich
knowledge and resource base attuned to the new global environment by
promoting creativity and improving the quality of education and training. Hence,
Education system needs to innovate and expand connections and collaborations
with different institutions for leveraging intellectual capital.
3.1.
Need Analysis
No doubt, NIOS has taken up number of strategies for training from the inception
but development of Action Plan for creation of capacity building cell in NIOS in
India with the support from Commonwealth of Learning is major step in taking
capacity building activities in NIOS. Networking and support from Commonwealth
of Learning has facilitated not only in instituting capacity building cell, which is
going to be emerged as department but also helped in identifying various needs
and priorities of training for Open Schooling.
3.2.
Course Development and Delivery
The shift in role expectation in teacher
from rote based transmitting of
information to making teaching a means of harnessing the child’s creative nature
demands that teachers have the knowledge and skill to play an active role in the
design of learning materials, and have the ability to organize meaningful learning
experiences and to use evaluation as means to improve their own
performance(NCF,2005). National Curriculum Framework, 2005 further states that
there is requirement for connecting knowledge to life outside the school and
enriching the curriculum by making it less textbook-centered for quality education.
For this to happen, the role transformation of teacher is more important and
247
therefore, there is a need of training for teachers and also redesigning course
materials for creating meaningful learning environments for learners.
The learners not only to be provided with the upto date knowledge but also the
relevant life-skills and
the diversified and integrated knowledge. While the
teachers in the formal education system are able to streamline local knowledge
through specific and local relevant situations, the education system in open and
distance learning provides less opportunity to learn both local and global cultures.
Therefore, drawing diversified expertise and experiences not only in terms of
disciplinary knowledge but representations in terms of different geographical area
was taken under considerations. The situation becomes very challenging when the
educators are from formal education background.In NIOS, the Academic Officers
and lesson writers have the formal education background, therefore for bringing
transformation in designing Self-Learning Material, many trainings were organized
on development and designing of SLM inviting experts from Wasawasan
Univeristy, Malayasia and Former Director of NIOS. The experts not only help in
transferring their previous experiences of working in NIOS and the state of writing
SLM but also facilitate in bringing the international expertise to the training
programme.
For development of
Diploma in Elementary Education course in NIOS, the
expertise
are drawn from different institutions with expertise in different
subjects. While the course on Science Education was written by the faculty
members of Homi Bhaba Centre of Science Education, who are the renowned
experts in Science Education in India, the contents in Pedagogy were developed by
experts from School of Education, IGNOU, who have the expertise both in
Pedagogy and distance education. Similarly, experts in other subjects are also
involved. Involvement of experts from different institutions has not only expanded
the horizon of content enrichment but also a scope to acquaint learners with
various local examples in parallel with global standard of knowledge.
3.3. Integration of Vocational with Academic courses
New Teaching models in Open Schooling stem must include learning with
livelihood concepts tying real work experience and real-life skills to student
learning. Unlike formal school set-up, the learner enrolled in the open schooling
system are either employed or in the preparation stage for employment.
Therefore, learning firsthand knowledge and practice with regard to various job
skills are needed for learners (Schmitz et. al.2000). Involving experts from Industry
and corporations in training related to designing curriculum and writing lessons
would advantage to the learners in learning real work situations and also acquire
the requisite skills to compete in the job market.
248
In vocational related courses, the training and course delivery mechanism also
need to be devised in consultation and coordination with industries and
corporations linked to the course. The resource support provided by National Skill
Development Corporations(NSDC) in terms of Training to Faculty members and
experts for making curriculum at the line of National Occupational Standards.
With increase in technology and the fast pace of change in economy demanding a
new space to be filled up with the human resources with new and innovative skills
to produce quality manpower for future, NIOS has a role to fulfill all these
expectations in the field of Open Schooling. Therefore, bringing international
expertise and experience and adding the dynamics to the level of functioning in
terms becomes very important in the era of globalization to make curriculum
need based and relevant and mechanism of delivering learning matching to the
expectation of world of work. However, it’s applicability and delivery of training
needs to be seen in the national context. In recent years, capacity development of
NIOS staff on Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL) in collaboration with New
Zealand Poly-technique is one of the examples. Recognition of Prior Learning is a
pioneer exercise, which is one of the successful practices and benefitted New
Zealand in recognition of traditional skills and expertise and overall in enriching
industrial output of the country as found very innovative and thus a new
collaboration developed. Faculty members those who are principally involved in
the development of curriculum and contents and also the future implementer and
Regional Directors who are the implementers of policies in open schooling are
trained.
3.4.
E-Learning
The potentiality of ICT-based education to facilitate high quality learning and
students’ development as creative and active participant has encouraged many
distance learning institutions to approach E-learning platform. and thus, if NIOS
has the objective to reach mass, online courses can help in this
direction.Considering that online mode is very important to reach out to a very
large target group, NIOS has recently launched and started Virtual Open Schooling
platform to initiate online Education for the learners those who are willing to use
this opportunity. To make well-familiar with the concept and functioning of
Virtual Open Schooling, various workshops are organized in collaboration with
Commonwealth Educational Media Centre for Asia(CEMCA) and feasibility report
for Virtual Open Schooling was also prepared in collaboration with CEMCA.
4. Issues and Challenges
Collaboration is the opportunity for the holistic development of the institution.
While the fast pace of change in technology has changed the socio-economic
landscape and also the requirement of knowledge and Skills, professional
development through collaboration brings diversity of expertise and experience.
249
No doubt, NIOS as the largest Open Schooling system of the world has tried to
bring both national and international expertise in recent years for the capacity
building of it’s staff, there has been challenges in terms of finances, lack of
professionals having expertise in Open Schooling and resource support. Open
Schooling system in India has evolved just 25 years back and therefore, lack of
resource person having expertise in Open Schooling has become very challenging.
While the pedagogy and planning in school education in ODL mode is entirely
different from higher education, sometimes, it was very challenging for the
resource person to visualize the demands of the trainees in Open Schooling.
With the change in demands of professional developments in the economy,
various consulting firms have evolved to provide training. But the lack of
awareness of these firms with regard to functioning of Open Schooling system
does not help in accessing their benefits. No doubt, NIOS is able to have a pool of
trainers in pedagogy and technology, but the training of staffs with regard to
leadership and management has been very challenging due to the lack of
knowledge of the Training institutions with regard to functioning of NIOS as a
system.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Government of India (2009) The Right to Free and Compulsory Education Act,
Gazette Extraordinary, New Delhi: Ministry of Law and Justice.
Government of India (2012) Vision of Teacher Education in India Quality and
Regulatory Perspective, Report of the High-Powered Commission on Teacher
Education, New Delhi: Ministry of Human Resource Development.
Hindustan Times (2012) State of education: Untrained, underpaid teachers,
students with declining learning ability. Accessed on 18th May 2014
http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/teachersday/state-of-educationuntrained-underpaid-teachers-students-with-declining-learning-ability/article11117562.aspx
Kennedy,K. and L. Archambault(2013) Partnering for Success:A 21st Century
Model for Teacher Preparation. Accessed on 11th May 2014.
ttp://www.inacol.org/cms/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/iNACOL-Partnering-forSuccess-October-2013.pdf
NCERT (2014 )In-Service Teacher Pprofessional Development. Accessed on 18th
May 2014. http://www.ncert.nic.in/departments/nie/dse/deptt/activities/pdfs/
Chapter_6.pdf
Saavedra, A.R., and V. D. Opfer (2012 ) Teaching
and
Learning 21st
Century
Skills: Lessons
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Schleicher,Andreas(2012) )Preparing Teachers and Developing School Leaders
for the 21st Century Lessons from Around The World.Accesed on 11th May 2014
http://www.oecd.org/site/eduistp2012/49850576.pdf
250
8.
Young Lives(2013)Professional Development of Teachers:The Need of the Hour
Accesed on 18th May 2014
CONTRIBUTIONS OF DISTANCE EDUCATION
IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF LABOUR FORCE IN VIETNAM
Nguyen Van Quang, Hanoi Open Univeristy, Vietnam
ABSTRACT: Over the past 20 years, distance education has made important
contributions to the development of the labour force of Vietnam. Within this
paper, data from Hanoi Open University, a leading distance education higher
education institution is used for illustration. Data shows that distance education
has gained a high status in the educational system of Vietnam, with a fully
developed system of laws and regulations to ensure its status and development.
Demands on different fields of knowledge and skills provided via distance
education have been changing in response to the demands of the country’s socioeconomic development. Although distance education has been successful in some
major fields such as Economics, Laws, and English, it seems that distance
education is difficult to develop in technical fields such as Informatics and
Electronics. Also, there are still opportunities to be explored for the develoment of
distance education in fields such as Tourism and Chinese.
KEY WORDS: distance education, labour force, education system, socio-economic
development, opportunities, benefit.
Introduction
Distance education is found to make valuable contributions to the socio-economic
development of those countries that utilize the mode (Perraton 2000). Many
countries have therefore recognized that distance education is a powerful tool for
achieving the country’s educational and training needs and a potent instrument in
creating a learning society capable of bringing about scientific, technological, social
and economic development. In Vietnam, since it was officially regconized in
Vietnam in 1993, distance education has made great contributions to the
development of the country, especially in the development of its labour force. In
this case study, data from Hanoi Open University, a leading provider in distance
education, together with insights into the set of government laws and regulations
regarding distance education will help to provide a clearer picture on the scene of
distance education in Vietnam at the time being.
Distance Education: Concepts and Benefits
Distance education, distance learning, dlearning, or D-Learning is a mode of
delivering education and instruction, often on an individual basis, to students who
251
are not physically present in a traditional setting such as a classroom. Distance
learning provides "access to learning when the source of information and the
learners are separated by time and distance, or both." [2] Distance education
courses that require a physical on-site presence for any reason (including taking
examinations) have been referred to as hybrid[7] or blended[8] courses of study.
Distance learning can expand access to education and training for both general
populace and businesses since its flexible scheduling structure lessens the effects
of the many time-constraints imposed by personal responsibilities and
commitments[5]. Devolving some activities off-site alleviates institutional capacity
constraints arising from the traditional demand on institutional buildings and
infrastructure[5]. Furthermore, there is the potential for increased access to more
experts in the field and to other students from diverse geographical, social,
cultural, economic, and experiential backgrounds[4]. As the population at large
becomes more involved in lifelong learning beyond the normal schooling age,
institutions can benefit financially, and adult learning business courses may be
particularly lucrative[46].
Distance education can also provide a broader method of communication within
the realm of education. With the many tools and programs that technological
advancements have to offer, communication appears to increase in distance
education amongst students and their professors, as well as students and their
classmates. The distance educational increase in communication, particularly
communication amongst students and their classmates, is an improvement that
has been made to provide distance education students with as many of the
opportunities as possible as they would receive in in-person education. The
improvement being made in distance education is growing in tandem with the
constant technological advancements.
The high cost of education affects students in higher education, to which distance
education may be an alternative in order to provide some relief. Distance
education has been a more cost-effective form of learning, and can sometimes
save students a significant amount of money as opposed to traditional education.
Distance education may be able to help to save students a considerable amount
financially by removing the cost of transportation [1]. In addition, distance
education may be able to save students from the economic burden of high-priced
course textbooks. Many textbooks are now available as electronic textbooks,
known as e-textbooks, which can offer digital textbooks for a reduced price in
comparison to traditional textbooks. Also, the increasing improvements in
technology have resulted in many school libraries having a partnership with digital
publishers that offer course materials for free, which can help students
significantly with educational costs[1].
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Within the class, students are able to learn in ways that traditional classrooms
would not be able to provide. It is able to promote good learning experiences and
therefore, allow students to obtain higher satisfaction with their online learning [3].
For example, students can review their lessons more than once according to their
need. Students can then manipulate the coursework to fit their learning by
focusing more on their weaker topics while breezing through concepts that they
already have or can easily grasp[3].
Due to these advantages, distance education has been developing very fast in
Vietnam. Up to now, there are around 20 officially recognized distannce education
providers at higher education level. Distance education can be said to have a high
status in the educational system of Vietnam, which is partly shown in the section
below.
The status of distance education in Vietnam
Distance education was officially recognized in Vietnam in 1993 with the birth of
Hanoi Open University and the Open University of Hochiminh City. On the one
hand, distance education can get its current status because of its advantages and
its contributions to the society; on the other hand, the recognition of its status has
helped to boost up the development of distance education.
At the national level, there are a full set of documents confirming the role and
status of distance education. Following are some of the most important ones
among these documents.





Resolution 02-NQ/HNTW of the 2nd Congress of the 8th Central
Standing Committee of the Communist Party, on 24/12/1996. The
resolution emphasizes there should be more investment in distance
education.
Directive 58-CT/TW of the Central Standing Committee of the Communist Party, on
17/10/2000. The directive emphasizes distance education should be enhanced.
Resolution of the 9th National Congress of the Communist Party, on
22/04/2001. The resolution emphasizes human resources development
through distance education.
Resolution 14/2005/NQ-CP of the Government on the project
Comprehensive Innovation for Education, Vision 2020, on 02/11/2005.
The resolution stresses that the two open universities should be
strengthened to increase the scale of distance education.
Decision 164/2005/QĐ-TTg on the project Distance education
development for the period 2005-2010, on 04/07/2005. The decision
states that Hanoi Open University and the Open University of Hochiminh
City are to receive more investments.
253




The Law on Education of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, on
14/06/2005. The law recognizes the equality of all types of education,
including distance education.
Decision 56/2007/QD-TTg by the Prime Minister approving the Program
on Vietnam Digital Content Industry Development towards 2010, on
03/05/2007. The Decision emphasizes the need for research and
development investment in learning materials to support distance
learning and e-learning.
The Action Plan of the Ministry of Education and Training for the Period
2011-2016, on 04/05/2012. The development of distance education is a
focus of the Action Plan.
Decision 711/QĐ-TTg of the Prime Minister on Strategy for Education for
the period 2010-2020, on 13/06/2012. The strategy emphasizes the need
to invest more in Hanoi Open University and the Open University of
Hochiminh City.
It can be said that current national policy focus is elevating distance education to a
level equal to on-campus programs, and this can bee seen as a great opportunity
opened to distance education.
Contributions of distance education to labour force development in Vietnam
Over the past 20 years, distance education has made important contributions to
the development of the labour force of Vietnam. Within this paper, data from
HOU, a leading distance education higher education institution will be used for
illustration.
Up to now, HOU has trained a total of 51,229 undergraduates via distance
education. Table 1 below helps to provide more details regarding the number of
distance education undergraduates in different fields of study at the university.
Table 1: Number of distance education undergraduates from HOU in different
fields
No
Faculty
Total
1
Economics
32100
2
Laws
14373
3
English
3171
4
Informatics
1075
5
Electronics
407
6
Finance & Banking
103
7
Bio-Tech
0
8
Tourism
0
254
9
10
11
Industrial Design
Chinese
Total
0
0
51229
(Source: Academic Department, HOU, 2013)
Table 1 shows that most of distance education undergradutes from HOU are in
‘hot’ fields such as Economics and Laws. This reflects the demands of the emerging
market of Vietnam in line with its industrialization, modernization and economic
integration processes. Demands on different knowledge and skills change over the
course of socio-economic development of Vietnam are also reflected in the
changes in the number of distance education undergraduates, which is illustrated
in Table 2.2 below.
Table 2.2: Changes in demands on different fields of knowledge and skills
Faculty
2000
2001
2003
2004
2005
2007
2008
2009
2012
2013
Economic
s
Laws
2104
1147
697
594
893
2220
2887
3116
4304
4462
0
0
0
0
510
975
1215
1601
2149
3190
3210
0
1437
3
384
119
165
345
327
348
462
239
82
105
3171
0
0
0
0
28
101
107
158
74
120
1075
0
0
0
42
39
45
52
0
43
37
407
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
48
55
103
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Industrial
Design
Chinese
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Total
51229
English
Informati
cs
Electronic
s
Finance &
Banking
Bio-Tech
Tourism
Total
(Source: Academic Department, HOU, 2013)
Table 2.2 shows that demand on Economics has been high and stable over time.
This is understandable as Vietnam has been trying to intergrate into the world
economy since its reforms in 1986 and economic activities have been booming in
this country since then.
255
To successfully compete in the world arena, skills in foreign languages are
considered as keys for Vietnamese labourers. Naturally, demand for skills in
English, an international language, has been high in Vietnam. However, it seems
that the demand has declined in the past few years. This may be a result of the
successes of programs to promote English learning in Vietnam since 1986.
Remarkably, demand on Laws has been rising over time, especially in the past few
years. This may be a response to the recent reforms to make Vietnam a country of
“the rule of law.”
Table 2.2 also shows that demands on Informatics and Electronics are low,
although these fields have been developing fast in Vietnam. This may be because it
is difficult to learn and to teach the knowledge and skills related to these fields via
distance education.
Demand on Finance & Banking has been low. This may be due to two reasons.
Firstly, distance education in this field has been in existence it the university for
just two years, and it needs time to develop. Secondly, due to the recent banking
crisis in Vietnam, this field is now not as ‘hot’ as it was in the past.
Regarding Bio-Tech and Industrial Design, it seems that it is impossible to deliver
knowledge and skills related to these fields via distance education. So far, distance
education in these fields has never been taken into consideration at the univeristy.
Regarding Tourism and Chinese, although there seem to be opportunities for
distance education in these fields, they have yet to be explored.
Conclusions
Distance education has gained a high status in the educational system of Vietnam,
with a fully developed system of laws and regulations to ensure its status and
development. Since it was officially regconized in Vietnam in 1993, distance
education has made great contributions to the development of the country,
especially in the development of its labour force. Demands on different fields of
knowledge and skills have been changing in response to the demands of the
country’s socio-economic development.
Although distance education has been successful in some major fields such as
Economics, Laws, and English, it seems that distance education is difficult to
develop in technical fields such as Informatics and Electronics. Also, there are still
opportunities to be explored for the develoment of distance education in fields
such as Tourism and Chinese.
256
REFERENCES
1. "Benefits of Online Education". Worldwidelearn.com.
2. Honeyman, M; Miller, G (December 1993). "Agriculture distance education: A valid
alternative for higher education?". Proceedings of the 20th Annual National
Agricultural Education Research Meeting, 67–73.
3. Kirtman, Lisa (2009). "Online Versus In-Class Courses: An Examination of Differences
in Learning Outcomes". Issues in Teacher Education, 18(2), 103–115.
4. Maggio, L. M., Chenail, R., & Todd, T. (2001). “Teaching family therapy in an
electronic age”. Journal of Systemic Therapies, 20(1), 13-23.
5. Oblinger, Diana G. (2000). "The Nature and Purpose of Distance Education". The
Technology Source. Michigan: Michigan Virtual University.
6. Perraton, Hilary (2000). Open and distance learning in the developing world.
Routledge, London.
7. Tabor, Sharon W (2007). “Narrowing the Distance: Implementing a Hybrid Learning
Model”. Quarterly Review of Distance Education (IAP) 8(1), 48–49.
8. Vaughan, Dr Norman D. (2010). "Blended Learning". In Cleveland-Innes, MF;
Garrison, DR. An Introduction to Distance Education: Understanding Teaching and
Learning in a New Era. Taylor & Francis. p. 165.
ARE NOUN’S GRADUATES EMPLOYABLE?
EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE FROM NOUN’S LOKOJA STUDY CENTRE
Obaka Abel Inabo, National Open University of Nigeria, Nigeria
ABSTRACT: One of the recurring themes in public discussions about higher
education in Nigeria over recent times has been the employability of graduates
from the Nation’s higher institutions. It is sometimes suggested that Nigerian
university graduates are not sufficiently literate and numerate for employment.
The National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN) is the first university that
operates in an exclusively open and distance learning (ODL) mode of education.
NOUN focuses mainly on open and distance teaching and learning system, and
delivers its courses materials via print in combination with information and
communication technology (ICT). This study assesses the employability of NOUN’s
graduates using alumnae of NOUN’s Lokoja study centre as target population in
which a sample of one hundred and fifty (n = 150) were randomly selected. The
Graduates’ Opinion Rating of Employability of Products of Open and Distance
Learning Institutions (GOREPODLI), a model developed by the researcher, were
administered electronically to the sample over a period of two weeks to measure
their employability. Within the period, 140 responses were received. The summary
of the main findings in the survey was in many respects an affirmation of the
employability of NOUN’s graduates. First, the Survey revealed that the NOUN’s
257
graduates – about 65 per cent of the sample – were either employed after
graduation or benefited from promotion/conversion after graduation, i.e. those
who entered NOUN while working. Notwithstanding, about 90% of the employed
respondents were mainly employed by government. The implication of this finding
is that NOUN’s graduates are employable. It also implied that majority of the
employed NOUN’s graduates were public servants. In view of the findings above, it
is hereby recommended that the private sector be sensitized about the
employability of NOUN’s graduates in order to encourage their employment in the
private sector. It is also recommended that NOUN’s curricula be redesigned to
meet private sector’s employment requirements. Other recommendations are the
inclusion of formal training for life skills in NOUN’s curricula; provision of technical
and vocational education system; the use of more life case analysis in teaching to
improve practicality; development of compulsory entrepreneurial studies for
NOUN’s students and; improving employability content in curricula and developing
employability performance indices of NOUN’s graduates.
KEY WORDS: Employability, graduates, employment, open and distance learning
(ODL), promotion/conversion, private sector and curricula.
THE CONCEPT OF EMPLOYABILITY
The related literatures have tried to trace the historical trends in youth
employment and unemployment over the years in order to help determine
employability. Schultz, Bowman, Becker and the like as suggested in Akangbou
(1985) believe that increase in the stock of human capital can accelerate natural
development. Adeyeye, Ogundele and Akintayo criticized the manpower planning
and educational system of past and present policy-makers. Some other scholars
blamed graduate unemployment on mad-rush for paper qualification. The need
for a closer look at the educational content to ensure tie between job demand and
the educational course content was suggested by authors like Akangbou (1985)
and Akintayo (2006).
While unemployment figures mount, industries ranging from manufacturing to
logistics and supply chains in Europe continue to observe a shortage of skilled
workers. Indeed, a study of over 300 executives by Transport Intelligence revealed
that 64% of executives surveyed experienced difficulty in recruiting suitable
employees.
As we struggle to create additional jobs over the next decade to simply stabilize
unemployment, how can we bridge this mismatch? It is critical for society to
consider the roots of the problem and take action. Are we unemployed or
unemployable? In other words, are there no jobs or do we not have the skills and
qualifications needed to get jobs?
258
The Factors Which Enhance Employability
Competency plays a very vital role in the world of employment. People need skills
in order to be competent. Kirsten (2000: 1) defines competency as the ability to do
something or perform one’s job according to the prescribed standards or norms.
Furthermore, Abdullan (2002:75) defines competency as the set of behaviour
patterns that the incumbent needs to be in a position in order to perform his or
her task. Different jobs require different competencies, and that is why training is
very important. This brings afore the role of tertiary institutions in ensuring that
their programmes are designed in such a way that they equip graduates with the
necessary and relevant skills, and, therefore, with the needed competencies.
The role of the private sector in the training of graduates and the provision of
apprenticeship and internships cannot be over-emphasized. Of vital importance, is
the role of the government and its agencies in developing norms and standards
relating to qualifications and competences through both policy and legislation.
There are institutions, agencies, policy frameworks and other initiatives by the
government to address the issue of competency regarding graduates from our
institutions of learning.
To create jobs, a number of issues ought to be addressed, like reducing barriers to
formalization. Job creation strategies must make it easier for businesses to migrate
from the informal to the formal sector – easing records keeping and facilitating
access to credits from micro finance banks. Technical and financial assistance from
all tiers of government, but particularly from community-based poverty alleviation
agencies is crucial (Nigeria Intel, 23/02/2012).
Export facilitation and standardization of products can also help to develop the
private sector and create jobs. Relevant agencies must promote local goods and
artifacts and help local businesses produce them according to international
standards. There is also a need to modernize skills and production processes of
artisans and products, and professionals interested in setting up professional
services such as in law, estate management, surveying, auditing, etc, must be
helped in obtaining professional certification.
The informal economy can no longer be ignored because it forms a large part of
the economies of many economies and comprises 42% of value added in Africa,
41% in Latin America and 35% in the transition economies of Europe and the
former Soviet Union. It is estimated that informal employment accounts for 84% of
women’s employment in sub-Saharan Africa. The informal economy provides
employment and income for many who lose or cannot find work in the formal
economy and it includes a high number of young people and others from
disadvantaged groups (Nigeria Intel, 23/02/2012).
259
While the informal economy has helped to engage many people in one form
economic activity or the other, its prevalence has also limited the growth of the
formal private sector. This implies that Nigeria must develop a strong interest in
fostering policy and institutional environments that enables the private sector to
flourish and act as an effective driver of pro-poor growth. This requires addressing
the needs and maximizing the contribution of the many informal enterprises,
family-run farms and self-employed people, as well as those of formal and large
businesses.
Method
The samples for this study comprised 120 distant learning students randomly
selected from study centres located at the six geo-political zones in Nigeria. The
sample was drawn from students who registered for various postgraduate
diplomas and master degree programmes at the NTI and NOUN study centres. A
structured questionnaire entitled the Students’ Attitude and Perceptions Rating of
Open and Distance Learning Institutions Inventory (SAPRODLII), was developed by
the researchers to gather the required information. The SAPRODLII is a 12 item
Likert-type inventory designed to measure those distance learning students who
have also experienced conventional university training, attitude and perception
towards ODL. The instrument was administered face-to-face to the distance
learners during the tutorial sessions through the assistance of the Study Centre
Managers at the Centres in each of the six geo-political zones. Subjects were asked
to rank each item (in comparison to traditional education) as true, false, or
undecided. The questions on the SAPRODLII were designed to elicit subjects’
opinions and attitudes towards the learning materials used in the two different
modes, the instructional technology used, entry point considerations, attention to
students’ counselling needs, available materials for learning, and the perceived
advantages of the two modes. The instrument was validated by two experts in
research and evaluation; its test-retest reliability was 0.67 (n = 15).
The respondents’ were 57 percent male and 43 percent female, with age ranging
from 24 to 65 years. Thirty-two (n = 32) respondents were from NTI; eighty-eight
(n = 88) were from NOUN. Respondents were registered in programmes such as
PGD Education; PGD Human Resource Management, Financial Management;
Masters of Business Administration; Masters of Ed in Educational Planning; M. Sc.,
in Information Technology. Results were analysed using simple percentage
statistics.
Results and Findings
Results generated from the instrument are presented in Table 3.
260
Table 3. Results of the Survey
Table 3 shows the item-by-item percentage analysis of the SAPRODLII. Sixty-six
students (55%) perceived that the course materials used in their ODL study are of
higher quality than the lecture notes provided by lecturers at conventional
institutions. Fifty-eight students (48.3%) disagreed to the statement: “ The use of
instructional technology in the ODL is as prevalent as those used during my training
261
in the conventional system.” We suggest that this finding is not surprising
however, considering that distance teaching institutions in Nigeria currently only
make use of low-level technology such as audiotapes and videotapes.
Responses to Item 4: “The tutorials in use in ODL are as effective as the lecture
methods used in the conventional system,” indicate that there is little difference in
students’ perceptions of lectures/ tutorials used in the conventional institutions
versus ODL institutions. This finding suggests that students engaged in ODL will
likely achieve learning outcomes similar to that offered by conventional
educational methods.
Findings from Item 5, “The counselling needs of learners are better met in ODL
than in the conventional higher education,” suggests that students’ need for
counselling were better met in ODL institutions than in conventional university;
46.6 percent of the students responded positively approve this statement, while
30 percent responded negatively, and 23 percent indicated they were undecided.
Other statements designed to measure students’ attitudes and perceptions about
ODL institutions, specifically Items 6, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12, indicated students held
favourable perceptions towards ODL. On the other hand, findings were very
similar for Item 7 “There is more room for academic cheating in ODL
institutions,”which was developed to ascertain students’ perceptions of cheating.
Discussion
Widely held attitudes are fundamental to understanding social perception of
people because they greatly influence peoples’ actions. Cohen (1966) and Ojo
(2000) contend that it is only human nature to view things in certain ways and to
act accordingly. The flexibility inherent in ODL as a delivery method enables
students to pursue whatever kind of degree or training they want, even though
they may be working full or part-time. Entry point requirements are more relaxed
in ODL, and if there is demonstrable need, students have the opportunity of defer
courses, programmes, and even examinations. Such flexibility is very difficult to
achieve in the conventional universities because their activities and management
are more rigid and thus restrictive by design.
Innovative use of instructional technology is another point of potential contact
between students and the institution. Use of instructional technology may also be
the reasons leading to favourable findings students indicated toward ODL. Other
favourable factors may be personal, social, academic, and situational – factors that
may influence students’ intention to enrol for programmes offered by ODL
institutions (Walker and Lowenthai, 1981).
262
Findings from this study are very important as well. Although respondents’
recognition of the worth of a conventional university education was never in
doubt, they nonetheless had purposefully chosen to enrol in an ODL institution.
Students' responses to Items 4, 9 and 11 support this assertion. Most students in
this study held positive perceptions and attitudes towards ODL. This finding alone
suggests there is strong rationale for the expansion of the ODL institutions in
Nigeria. It also suggests that ODL institutions have reached the critical tipping
point of acceptance, and as such ODL institutions are well positioned to become a
permanent component of the formal education system in Nigeria. Sustaining
students’ favourable perceptions and improving any and all shortcomings as they
arise now rests on the shoulders of those charged with running Nigeria's ODL
institutions. These educational leaders must not only run ODL institutions
effectively and efficiently, they must strive to continuously improve the quality of
their institutions' educational offerings and seek ways to expand their educational
provision.
Responses in Item 2, “The use of instructional technology in the ODL is as prevalent
as those used during my training in the conventional system” indicates that the use
of instructional technology/ ICT remains rather sparse in the pedagogical practice
of distance education in Nigeria. It is suggested, however, that this shortcoming is
more a reflection of the entire education system throughout Nigeria and, by
extension, its entire socio-economic system. Indeed, most Nigerians still grapple
with problems inherent in the digital divide; access to instructional technology and
capacity to use such technology is negligible compared to those of developed
nations (Yusuf and Falade, 2005). Thus, those administrators and leaders charged
with oversight of distance teaching institutions in Nigeria may want to concentrate
their research efforts on overcoming the deficits that underpin and perpetuates
the digital divide.
For Item 7, a large percentage of the respondents (45.8%) agreed that ODL
institutions provide ample opportunity for cheating. However, there is no clear cut
difference in the responses between ODL and conventional universities on the
topic of ‘cheating.’ Such small difference (< 3%) might be attributable to the fact
that ODL students are at liberty to answer the Tutor Marked Assignment given to
them in course materials provided. This practice can be compared to that of the
conventional universities in which students are required to answer questions in a
face-to-face classroom setting. Thus, whatever cheating that may be perpetuated
by ODL students as compared to those students enrolled in conventional
universities cannot be easily deciphered . Moreover, perhaps such differences
cannot be accurately measured simply because the rationale for giving ODL
students the answers in the learning materials in the first place, puts emphasis on
functional application of knowledge as opposed to mere memorization and recall
263
which often characterises conventional learning settings. This means that distance
learning institutions should remain focused on developing open-book, portfolio,
and problem-based learning situations wherein students work together to find
creative solutions to problems posed in the learning materials.
ODL students may cheat by hiring someone who has a greater understanding of
the topic to write their assignments for them. Indeed, no one is there to watch
over them and monitor their learning as is the case in conventional universities.
Thus quality concerns in ODL should be addressed through the administration of
end-of-semester exams that are proctored in face-to-face settings. In short, use of
proctored examinations will help ensure ODL students' assessment of learning
outcomes is 100 percent reliable. Exam results are key to understanding students
comprehension, knowledge, and application of the study materials, and are
needed to critically assess the learning materials itself.
Conclusion
Findings from this study reveal that distance learners in Nigeria are favourably
disposed to Open and Distance Learning institutions at this point in time. The 120
students who responded to this survey indicated their interest in the unique
features that make-up ODL institutions, such as open access, opportunity for
flexible learning, provision of quality learning materials, the use of multi-media
and ICTs, etc. The findings reported here also suggest that those administering and
leading Nigeria’s ODL institutions are in an excellent position to build positively on
the favourable perceptions already held by many distance learning students. They
can achieve this through the effective and efficient management of Nigeria’s ODL
institutions. In other words, because students currently hold favourable opinions
and perceptions towards ODL and its potential, Nigeria is a position to leap
forward to take advantage of their ODL institutions at home, and perhaps expand
to serve sub-Saharan Africa in general. To achieve the full potential of ODL
however, effective measures must be undertaken to adopt instructional
technology for distance learning, expand provision of quality assurance in design,
ensure the timely development and delivery of quality course materials, and
continuing to enhance student support services must be undertaken. ODL can be
everything to more people and now is the time to act.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
Abdullan, W. (2002). Human Resources Management: A Comprehensive
Guide. Cape Town: Heinemann.
Akangbou S.D. (1985). The Economics of Educational Planning in Nigeria.
Vikas Publishing House Ltd. Pp. 3.
Akintayo, M.O. (1990): The relevance of Out – Reach Programmes to capable
under utilization of Resources in Higher Education in Nigeria in 1990s. The
Educational Planner. Vol.1.No.3. pp. 120 – 13
264
ICT IMPLEMENTATION CHALLENGES AND STRATEGIES FOR ODL EDUCATION:
NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA STUDENTS EXPERIENCE
Olusanya Samuel Olumuyiwa, Ebobo Christiana Urowoli, National Open University
of Nigeria, Nigeria
ABSTRACT: The use of information and communication technology, (ICT) in ODL
institutions is of great challenge to students all over Nigeria, and it has been
received with a positive welcome in most institutions of higher learning in the
developed nations of the world where computer is at the finger tips of almost all
the citizens (children and Adults). However, integrating the system into the
operations of the ODL institutions have posed a lot of panic to the students in
National Open University of Nigeria. Such challenges could pose uneasiness to use
ICT hardware in operations, display of resistance to change to the operating
systems and formula; and satisfaction with situations that clearly present
themselves as unsatisfactory. However, the objective of the study will basically
examine the impact of ICT hardware on the performance of student in National
Open University of Nigeria. Moreover, the study will make use of primary data of
questionnaire analysis that will be examine to 200 students of National Open
University Lagos Study Center and spearman’s rank correlation coefficient was
adopted as the estimation techniques. Therefore, the study concludes that ICT is a
pre-requisite for student undergoing Open and distance learning programme in
National Open University of Nigeria. Finally, the study recommends that National
Open University of Nigeria should embark on ICT training to all the students in
other for them to able to communicate better on their various programmes and
Government should also increase the awareness and the important of Open and
distance learning in Nigeria.
KEY WORDS: Information and communication technology, Open and distance
learning, Students, National Open University of Nigeria, Spearman’s rank
correlation coefficient.
INTRODUCTION
Information and communications technology (ICT) represents an enormous
opportunity to introduce significant and lasting positive change across the
developing world (Walesy 2012). The rapid penetration of mobile access in
particular has resulted in considerable improvements in the lives of the poor in
both rural and urban contexts and all evidence suggests that this trend is going to
continue, as the availability expands and the cost of access continues to decline,
(Miller, 2013).
The breathtaking pace of penetration and uptake of mobile telephony and
broadband Internet is supporting many new possibilities, products, and services;
265
providing breakthrough ideas in agriculture, health, education, and access to
finance; and helping local and international trade (Adejare, 2014). He also asserts
that it provides new ways of communicating and lobbying, which transcends
international borders, as shown by the role of mobile phones and the Internet in
the waves of revolution that spread across Northern Africa in 2011.
According to Dale (2012), an internet search using the phrase “information and
communications technology for development” (ICT4D) produces an overwhelming
volume of literature, with many exciting examples that promise enormous
possibilities. ICT is changing the landscape whether we like it or not, and despite
its somewhat erratic progress to date, the influence is increasingly profound.
BRIEF LITERATURE REVIEW
The development of information and communication technology, (ICT) in Open
and Distance Learning (ODL) institutions has been met with a lot of challenges
and it has been received and adopted in most tertiary institutions in Nigeria
especially open and distance learning programme operated by National Open
University of Nigeria, (Oyewunmi, 2013).
Several writers have made interesting discoveries associated with challenges in
ICT implementation in all forms of operations. In America and Europe for
instance, the challenges have much to do with approaches to intellectual
property and to modes of culture. According to Veltman (2003), five dangers
are outlined, namely overzealous commercialism; anti-technology among
scholars, anti-universal narratives; forgetting the past and a more systematic
destruction of memory. Such dangers are felt when new users of ICT came face
to face with the technology.
In Africa, the situation is even worse as evidenced by the lack of adequate
capacity to implement and enforce public interest policies, limited participation
in global ICT negotiation and inadequate cooperation and coordination at
regional levels (Adetire, 2013). The unavailability of telecommunication
infrastructure for remote areas to access e-services like the internet (Ogukeogu,
2012) as well as a pursuance of unrealistic targets that are usually set by
information technology professionals or international institutions, e.g. those
related to the United Nations Millennium Development Goals and poverty
reduction strategies have also hampered ICT access in Africa (Adetire, 2013). In
Southern Africa, some of the challenges are emanating from erratic electricity
supplies which are key in making direct impact on ICT.
These challenges have repel effects in the development of a sound ICT system
that can systematically ward off the hinges that institutions like NOUN are
facing.
266
DISCUSSION OF QUESTIONNAIRE
Based on the questionnaire result, it is observed from the questionnaire that 75%
which represent the majority of the respondents assert that ICT gadget is best
instrument that can be used for the operation of open and distance learning in
Nigeria while 12.50% strongly disagree, 6.25% agree and 6.25% disagree with the
statement. In addition, majority of the respondents strongly agree that the
Challenges of ICT in learning at NOUN is very high. However, 42.50% of the total
respondents strongly agree that the Challenge of acquisition of ICT (e.g. computer)
gadgets for accessing information on NOUN activities is fairly better now.
In the same vein, 83.75% of the whole respondents opine that the cost of in using
ICT in NOUN open and distance learning is very low. However, 46.25% of the total
respondents assert that NOUN Strategy in delivering it course material online for
your programme is very good while 51.25% claim that NOUN Lagos Study center
train you (students) on how to use Computer and other ICT gadget from time to
time.
Moreover, 85% of the total respondents agree that You can use ninety five percent
packages on the computer through the training you acquire from NOUN Lagos
study center while 98.33% opine that Open and Distance Learning Education is the
best for a country like Nigeria. 95.83% of the respondents agree that ICT hardware
proficiency has a significant effect on the performance of students in National
Open University of Nigeria.
In addition, majority of the respondents state that the NOUN ICT has improved
over the years and this has help you in studies. All the respondents opine that
Computers make it relevant and easy for you (students) to grasp certain concepts
on PowerPoint presentations and it is easy to operate while 80% assert that Poor
Power Supply in your office/school and at home has posed a big challenge for your
programme in NOUN. Finally, 100 percent of the total respondents said ICT
implementation challenges are put under check and has improved ICT service to
the Students.
3. METHODOLOGY
This paper employed the qualitative research paradigm and its allow the
researcher to analyze as well as interpret data from the perspectives of the
participant’s point of view. Taking a look at the study of Hedegaard and
Hakkarainen (1986), qualitative researchers tend to have a strong commitment
to seeing through the eyes of those being studied. However this commitment
calls for a considerable level of involvement with the people whose experiences
the researcher is trying to investigate and by going through this, the paradigm
will give the researchers an opportunity to be able to answer the topic of the
267
paper which is ICT implementation challenges and strategies for ODL education,
using the Students of National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN) Lagos study
center.
Questionnaire was distributed to the Students of National Open University of
Nigeria, Lagos Study Center. However, the study population comprises 120
Students of NOUN Lagos Study center and the population has different marital
status from single to married and Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient was
adopted as the estimation techniques.
3.3 TEST OF HYPOTHESES
Hypothesis One
Null Hypothesis (Ho): ICT hardware proficiency has no significant effect on the
performance of student in National Open University of Nigeria.
Alternative Hypothesis (H1): ICT hardware proficiency has a significant effect on
the performance of student in National Open University of Nigeria.
4.0 RESULT AND ANALYSIS
Table 5 SPEARMAN’S RANK CORRELATION COEFFICIENT RESULT
**SPRCC TABLE
Spearman’s correlation
Coefficient Sig. (2 tailed)*
N
Correlation Coefficient *
N
Q1
1.000
Q2
.872
200
.872
120
200
1.000
120
**Population: 200
**Date: 5/15/2014
SOURCE: SPSS PACKAGE
Decision Rule: If the Spearman rank correlation coefficient calculated is greater
than tabulated value, we accept the alternative hypothesis and reject the null
hypothesis but if otherwise accept null hypothesis and reject alternative
hypothesis.
From the result above, the spearman's rank correlation coefficient, is R=0.872
which means there is a positive correlation and strong relationships is established.
Using 5% level of significance which is (0.05), and the spearman’s rank correlation
coefficient is 0.872, comparing the two values, we can conclude that since the
268
spearman’s rank correlation coefficient is greater that the tabulated value we then
accept alternative hypothesis and reject the null hypothesis. Then conclude that
ICT hardware proficiency has a significant effect on the performance of student in
National Open University of Nigeria.
RECOMMENDATION
The paper has vividly generated a lot of ideas from ICT challenges and the way
forward for NOUN ICT unit in the university. The management of the university
should make sure that some of the challenges such as poor power supply,
inadequate training of staff on ICT facilities from time to time should be address to
improve service delivery to the students. However, electronic library of the
university should still be upgraded to meet the demand and challenges of ICT
encounter by the students and ICT personnel need to collaborate in their efforts to
come up with a model that expedites examination processing of results and
inputting programmes into the database from time to time. National Open
University of Nigeria should embark on ICT training to all the students in other for
them to able to communicate better on their various programmes and
Government should also increase the awareness and the important of Open and
distance learning in Nigeria.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion there is need to develop the both the academic and non academic
staff of the university so that they are able to deliver the best quality service to the
students at the same time acquiring lifelong skills for self enhancement. However,
this paper has shown that training is very essential for the staff and the student
and it should be the priority of the university. Mobile ICT gadget should be given to
academic staff in other form them to deliver a good online service to the students.
However, ICT is a pre-requisite for student undergoing Open and distance learning
programme in National Open University of Nigeria.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
Adejare, G.J. (2014). Information and Communication Technology and Trade in
Nigeria, Journal vol 3, pg 21-34, Mill Publication limted.
Adetire, G.H. (2013). Information Communication Technology as a Strategies for
improving Open and Distance Learning in Nigeria, Journal vol 4, pg 45-60, Ibadan
Publisher limited.
Dale, F.D. (2012). Internet as a source for Information and Communication
Technology, a broder perspectives, 1st edition, pg 88-97, West point Publication
limited.
Hedegaard, H. & Hakkarainen, T. (1986). Qualitative research and Respondents
Commitment, a Methodology of paradigm, 1st edition, pg 55-68, Macgraw Hill
Press limited.
269
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Miller, N.D. (2013). Mobile Access and Information and Communication
technology, Journal of Information and Communication Technology, vol 11, pg 7992, Hedges & Kenedy Publisher.
Ogukeogu, E.C. (2012). Challenges of Information Communication Technology in
Open and Distance Learning in Nigeria, 1st edition, pg 23-41, Jemini Publisher
company.
Oyewunmi, G.T. (2013). The relationship between Information and
Communication Technology and Open and Distance Learning programme in
Nigeria, Journal of Open and flexible learning, vol7, pg 12-26, Partyler and
Company limited.
Veltman, R.S. (2003). Information Communication and Technology and its
Challenges in Open and Distance learning institution, Journal vol 2, pg 19-31,
Height & Deller Publisher limited.
Walesy, A.A. (2012). Information and Communication Technology Strategy in a
tertiary institution, a broader issue, 2nd edition, pg 31-43, Mill world Publication
Company.
A QUALITY MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK
TO MANAGE RISK IN AN ODL INSTITUTION
Oosthuizen A G, Davis A, College of Economic and Management Sciences,
University of South Africa
ABSTRACT: This poster presentation depicts the conceptual process followed to
develop a quality management framework to manage risk in the teaching and
learning portfolio in an open and distance learning (ODL) institution. The
requirement for such a framework was born out of the need to bridge the gap
between quality standards and risk management strategies. The proposed
framework draws on internal auditing principles of control and the requirement
for due processes. The framework is based on the translation of quality standards
for teaching and learning into control activities to mitigate risks. Input towards the
proposed framework include the teaching and learning components typical to an
ODL institution, academic standards, quality principles in higher education,
interdependencies within and outside the institution, and the institutional risk
classification system. The purpose of this poster presentation is to discuss the
conceptualisation of such a framework process, the design and the merits of it and
to create a platform for collaborative discussions with tuition and learning
portfolio managers and other interested parties in an open and distance learning
setting.
KEY WORDS: Quality management, controls, quality standards, risk management,
framework
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POSTER DESCRIPTION
It is widely accepted that the long-term survival of universities depends on the
quality of their offerings. Yet, there is still no consensus on how best to measure
and manage quality within higher education institutions (Becket & Brookes, 2008).
In an attempt to mitigate the risks in the teaching and learning portfolio and to
improve the practical relevance of a quality management system in our institution,
we initiated a process to develop a framework that is grounded in the operational
realities of the institution. The proposed framework offers an internal stakeholder
interpretation of quality in an open and distance learning institution. In support of
the views of McKay and Kember (1999), the emphasis for internal stakeholders is
not only on quality assurance, but also on quality enhancement and management
aiming for an overall increase in the actual quality of teaching and learning. When
integrating the total quality management view of Deming, we consider education
as system or a network of interdependent components that work together to try
to accomplish the aim of the system (Deming, 1993:98). The system consists of
inputs, transformation processes and outputs. Following is a brief description of
the process we followed to develop a quality management framework to manage
risk. The quality of teaching and learning was our key consideration throughout
the conceptualisation process.
Inputs
Input towards the proposed framework include the components of teaching and
learning in an ODL institution, academic standards, quality principles in higher
education, interdependencies within and outside the institution, and the
institutional risk classification system. The teaching and learning components
comprise the Programme Qualification Mix (PQM), the curriculum, the study
material, the assessment, the tuition and student support, academic management
and staff. The academic standards originated from the South African Higher
Education Quality Council (HEQC) and were translated into specific standards
adapted for Unisa and the ODL context. These standards were consulted internally
in the institution and are recorded in Unisa’s Department of Strategy, Planning and
Quality Assurance. The interdependencies within and outside the institution were
identified through collaborative efforts within the institution. The institutional risk
classification system is the recognised system within the institution and was
adopted into the framework without adjustment.
Transformation
The method of transformation is encompassed within the translation of the quality
standards into risks. The risks are then assessed in terms of the risk classification
system of the institution. The business intelligence sources are identified and this
is followed by the development of the responses to the risks. The responses to
risks are categorised according to 1) the control activities and 2) the monitoring of
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controls. Overall, requirements for due processes and adherence to academic
planning deadlines are considered. The type of evidence required in the
monitoring of the controls is also specified.
Outputs
Ultimately, the output of this conceptual process is a quality management
framework that specifies the standards, the control activities, the due dates, the
responsibilities, the monitoring controls and consequences of non-compliance that
can be implemented on college (faculty) level and consolidated into institutional
risk strategies.
The aim of the framework is not to create a bureaucratic network of checklists.
Rather, the framework builds on the notion of “less is better, unless it is not
enough” (Longanecker & Hill, 2014). It is envisaged that the framework, and the
considered implementation at all levels of the academic hierarchy will finally lead
to an enhancement of quality and a culture of quality management embedded
within the curriculum, the programmes, the study material, the assessment, the
student support, the staff and the academic management – all the components of
teaching and learning.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
Becket, N & Brookes, M. 2008. Quality management practice in higher education
– what quality are we actually enhancing? Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport &
Tourism Education. Vol 7, No 1.
Longanecker, D., & Hill, M.A. 2014. The state authorisation reciprocity agreement
(SARA): a good idea whose time has come. Change: the magazine of Higher
Learning. Vol. 46, No 3.
McKay, J & Kember, D. 1999. Quality assurance systems and educational
development. Part 1: The limitations of quality control. Quality Assurance in
Education, Vol 7, No 1: 25-29.
ONLINE TEACHING MODEL UNDER THE TREND OF MOOC
FROM THE PRACTICE OF BEIJING OPEN UNIVERSITY
Ouyang Xiyu, Beijing Open University, China
ABSTRACT: This paper analyzes the differences and similarities between the online
teaching model that Beijing Open University utilizes and the MOOC model. It
highlights the creativity of MOOC and in the meantime identifies problems existing
in the MOOC model. It illustrates how Beijing Open University can grow from
taking advantage of the benefits of MOOC trend.
KEY WORDS: MOOC; Beijing Open University; Online education; teaching model
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1. Introduction
MOOC was among the most discussed topic in the area of global opening
education in 2012. In 2 years, it has drawn extensive attention internationally.
New York Times marked 2012 as the start of the MOOC Era, and 2013 as the start
of the Chinese MOOC Era. Since May 2013, Tsinghua University, Peking University
and Fudan University have signed the agreements with MOOC and promoted their
own MOOC projects. The other five universities (Southwest Jiao Tong University
joint hsinchu JiaoTong University, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, xi'an Jiao Tong
University and Beijing Jiao Tong University) also jointly launched Ewant in August
2013, which was the first online learning platform for Chinese students.
The rising popularity of MOOC has imposed great impact on the traditional
education. There are splitting opinions on MOOC. Some people believe that MOOC
is an “Education Revolution”  and an “Education Tornado” . Others insist that
MOOC is only the online version of traditional education model. It is the
combination of classroom teaching, online interaction and customized online
courses. It still follows the traditional teaching process of registration, lecturing,
quiz, homework, discussion, examination, graduation and credentials. It still uses
outdated behavioral teaching methods. It simply is teaching “Learning 1.0” in a
world of Web 2.0 , which is a flawed educational model. Personally I think that
MOOC is the product of the development of Internet and IT technology and the
innovation on the traditional online courses. It not only provides rich course
resources, but also emphasizes on the support service which is far more flexible.
The presence of MOOC opens up new possibilities for the further development of
online education. It offers both challenges and opportunities for Beijing Open
University that primarily uses remote online learning model. How to take
advantage of the benefits to perfect the current education system requires
thorough understanding on the MOOC model.
2. The development of teaching models Beijing Open University
Since the foundation of the Radio and Television University, it has gone through 3
stages in learning models from self-taught at the beginning, radio and television to
online education. There are now two online platforms currently being used by
Beijing Open University. One is Dian Da Online which is supported by the Beijing
Open University, and the other is Moodle 2.3 online platform which is co-founded
by Beijing Open University and Australia Cuckoo Network Teaching Technology
Company.
2.1 Teaching model basec on Dian Da Online platform
Teachers use Dian Da Online to upload course resources, including module notes
and exam instructions. The content can be displayed in readable documents,
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videos or outsourced web links for students to access. For each course, there are
normally 2-3 classes held in the form of real time discussion through a forum,
where students and lecturers interact with one another to solve problems, correct
homework and discuss any course-related issues.
2.2 Teaching model basec on Moodle Platform
With the help of Moodle technology, the support provided for students have been
greatly enhanced. It provides access to course notes, discussion forum, course
administration, assessment, online learning and course credentials. The main
implementation includes providing clues for students’ problem solving, organizing
Q&A discussion between expertise and students, providing discussion forums for
group discussion, posting and correcting homework, online testing and etc. At the
moment, Beijing Open University has already applied the system in all the courses
ran by the university.
3.
Comparison between MOOC, traditional online courses and the two
platforms of Beijing Open University
In the Horizon Report issued by The New Media Consortium and EDUCAUSE,
MOOC is listed as the top one new technology. Then, as an online course program,
is MOOC an absolute new thing? What are the differences between MOOC and
other traditional online public courses?
Now, in China, free public courses are mainly provided by NetEase, Sina and
Icourse. NetEase is the most influential website that launched public courses ran
by globally famous Universities in November 1st, 2010. The initial launch was
mainly about providing free access for the public to 1,200 lectures video clips held
in other universities with Chinese subtitles. Then other websites followed suits to
provide all different kinds of free video public courses to target general public
other than university students. Here we will use the co-operation between
Guokr.com and Courseara as an example to illustrate the differences and
similarities among the MOOC, online courses and the Beijing Open University
online courses in terms of learning support services.
3.1 The difference between MOOC and online public courses
Table 1 shows that the main difference between MOOC and online public courses
lies in the teaching process. MOOC replicates online version of classroom teaching,
students learning and the interaction between teachers and students. On the
other hand, online courses simply represent Open Education Resources (OER)
through online resources sharing without any involvement in the teaching process.
A well-known scholar in the field of distance education Ding Xingfu said: "So far
most of Chinese online courses videos are simply using the Internet to replace the
traditional face-to-face teaching in well-known schools. But due to the lack of
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interaction between teachers and students as well as learning support, it is far
from the real meaning of distance education." As a result, online course is just a
resource sharing. The development of MOOC model is not only the enhancement
of the OER, but also the transformation of OER from the course sharing to actual
teaching. MOOC model is the product of evolvement of IT and it represents the
achievement of online education.
3.2 The comparison between MOOC and online teaching platforms of Beijing Open
University
From the practice of the online teaching platforms and MOOC, we find that
Moodle teaching platform makes up for a variety of functions which the TV
University lacks. Apart from interaction between student, learning resources and
teachers it further developed these interactions in the whole learning process and
the design of the online learning environment. At the same time, we can also see a
lot of similarities between Moodle teaching platform and MOOC platform. Firstly,
they both possess video resources, whereas in Moodle platform the resources are
more abundant including text documents, video and IP courses. Secondly, there
are interaction function between teachers to students and students to students on
both platforms but MOOC platform provides not only the discussion forum among
students but also the commentary function in the forum. Thirdly, both platforms
have communication and collaboration functions while MOOC platform integrates
social media such as wiki, Facebook, Twitter and cloud services to facilitate
discussion. This gives the students the exposure to do society study and explore
students' learning ability.
In addition, MOOC differentiate itself from other online courses in creativity and
innovation. Firstly, the scale is broader. The number of students in each course is
well spreaded all over the world. Besides learning, they can also use Wiki, Blog,
BBS and other various communication tools to discuss the issues, leave each other
comments and share the wisdom. Secondly, it is more open and flexible. It
provides the access to famous universities and respectable teachers as well as
high-quality teaching resources. Students can access the resources through not
only PC but also mobile phones and tablets. Online learning is not restricted to
time and location. Thirdly, it can provide timely feedback by embedding in - video
quizzes. The research published in the United States "proceedings of the national
academy of sciences (PNAS) by Harvard University psychologists Karl Szpunar et.al
shows that one can reduce stray and improve the quality of learning if memory
test is added into the online course (guokr.com). Besides, there are multiple
evaluation methods including online assessment, peer assessment and selfassessment. In addtion, the credit system is being used. MOOC has cooperated
with colleges and universities to create credit mechanism of mutual recognition.
For instance, part of Coursera courses have been officially recognized by the USA
275
education commission (ACT CREDIE), and the development credit recognition with
other universities is in progress. There are 5 courses for credit recognition
between Udacity and SAN Jose State University, and these credits are recognized
in any partners within SAN Jose state university system.
Dimensions of
learning support and
service
MOOC
Online public
courses
Beijing Open
University’s online
courses
Interactions between
teachers and
students
Answer questions in
course forum
No
Discussion and
leave comments in
the forum
Interactions between
students and
students
Course discussing space
and interpersonal
interaction tool
No
Discussion and
leave comments in
the forum
Teaching resources
Video and reading
materials
video
Text, PPT and video
Assessment
Machine evaluation
and peer evaluation
No
Regular tests
Credential
Get certificates through
tests
Unable to
evaluate
Get credits
Curriculum time
On certain time
At any time
On certain time
Homework and
examinations
In-video quiz
No
yes
Table 1. Comparisons of learning support and service function between MOOC,
online courses and open university online courses
From the above, it is easy to find out that in some extent, both the TV university
online and Moodle online learning platform are the prototypes of MOOC. There
are similar fundamental elements in technology and presentation and they share
the MOOC spirit in the design of the teaching. However, MOOC pays more
attention to the implementation of the functions in learning support services and
online interaction, thus effectively motivates students' learning initiative, selfawareness and creativity.
3.3 Main problems of MOOC online teaching model
As any other new teaching model, MOOC has both its advantages as well as issues.
First of all, the public access determines that there are a large number of students
276
for each course. However, with only 1-2 tutors available, they are unable to read
through all the posts on the forum hence it is hard to provide specific guidance to
each individual students. Secondly, the completion rate is comparatively low. In
the case of Open University in UK, the graduation rate was only 22% in 2010 and
the dropout rate in the remote education in American reached 70%.  There are a
lot of reasons behind this. As far as I am concerned, the main reason is that MOOC
has no restrictions on admission and it costs almost nothing. Moreover, a lot of
students signed up for pure interest to test the MOOC model without seriously
considering being committed.
4. What we can learn to develop Beijing Open University
MOOC has brought a new perspective for online learning and teaching for the
Open University. It plays a significant role in promoting the quality and openness
of online learning. We should have a thorough understanding on the MOOC online
teaching model and think strategically about how we can utilize it to perfect our
education system based on our proposition and purpose of our university. It is
understood that the national Open University, namely "CDB MOOCs", plans to
launch the first batch of 123 “Mu class” this year, and another 200 “Mu class” is in
preparation stage. So what benefits can MOOC bring to the course construction
and innovation of Beijing Open University?
4.1 Integrating with MOOC to create exellent teaching resources
In the era of radio and TV university, we engaged well-known teachers to make
teaching videos. And will this be adjusted to MOOC’s coming? We can introduce
MOOC to the traditional school teaching. By combing both methods, the benefits
of traditional face-to-face mode and online learning can be greatly enhanced. This
can not only stimulates students’ initiative, enthusiasm and creativity but also
promotes teachers’ roles in guidance, inspiration and monitoring. 
4.2 Transforming MOOC into a means of lifelong learning
Beijing Open University holds responsibilities for the promotion of the learning
culture and lifelong education system and providing social members with open,
flexible and various ways of learning options. As we all know, different people
have different learning needs and their learning motivations and styles can be
quite different. The flexibility of MOOC serves this purpose well. In addition, with
the enormous database readily accessible anytime anywhere, lifelong learning can
be guaranteed.
4.3 Perfecting learning support system with MOOC’s big data
Big data is of great importance in the current Internet and technology era. It is a
critical resource which nobody can ignore. The data collected from online learning
can be utilized to improve on the teaching content and course design. It can also
277
be used to provide customized study support service. In addition, data collected
on students’ performance can be used to provide employment services for
whoever needs it in coordination with human resource departments. All these are
assumptions presumably the MOOC is well established.
5．Conclusion
To conclude, there are many advantages to implement MOOC. It is not restricted
by time and audiences. It promotes change in teaching content and shows positive
outcome in the teaching process. It is a milestone in the education history in terms
of creativity. And it opens up a new era in the teaching methodology and online
learning. It promotes openness and quality learning. All we need to do is to think
rationally according to our responsibility, strategic goal and proposition. With the
assistance of MOCC, we are to perfect our own core competitiveness and set up
the online learning system to adapt to the new the era.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Tamer Lewin. Universities Reshaping Education on the Web
[OL].<http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/17/education/consortium-ofcolleges-takes-online-education-to-new-level.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0.>
Wang Zuoli. MOOC: Is an educational tornado coming? [J]. China Education
Network, 2013(4):11-15.
Gu Xiaoqing. Appeal and response to the development of MOOCs’
localization in China ［J］． Journal of Distance Education，2013( 5) : 7
Ding Xingfu. Critical Issues in Curriculum an Platform Development of Beijing
Open University. Journal of Beijing Open University 2012（4）
Liu yongquan，Niu Jian，Li Ying. Comparative study on dropout research in
open and distance learning between Chinf and abroad［J］．Modern
Distance Education Research，2012( 5) :59-66.
Gu Xiaoqing. Appeal and response to the development of MOOCs’ localization
in China ［J］． Journal of Distance Education，2013( 5) : 7
PROVIDING LEARNING OPPORTUNITIES TO THE NEEDY SEGMENT OF SOCIETY
THROUGH A SPECIALLY DESIGNED BACHELOR DEGREE PROGRAM:
A CASE STUDY OF YCM OPEN UNIVERSITY, NASHIK (INDIA)
Rajguru Hemant, Shewale Madhukar, Yashwantrao Chavan, Maharashtra Open
University, India
ABSTRACT: Indian economy is basically an agrarian economy. It was strongly felt
that the overall development of rural as well as urban masses would be possible
mainly through providing educational opportunities to needy persons. It has been
278
realized that there is a large proportion of population which abandoned the
education at an early stage of life due to academic as well as personal reasons.
Further, due to pressing personal and domestic needs, such persons had to earn
the livelihood by accepting meager jobs. This has often resulted into stagnation in
the same job over many years. In addition, being partially educated, there persists
a feeling of guilt among such people who sincerely wished to pursue education.
The YCM Open University, aptly decided to formulate and offer an academic
program specially for the persons who are directly associated with providing
services to consumers. This concept was resulted into genesis and development of
an academic program namely “Bachelor of Arts (Consumer Services)”
The main objectives the program were provide need based, skill oriented
educational program to the persons associated in consumer services and to help
the learners to improve soft and communication skills. Addition to own
educational status would help to improve self respect and confidence of an
individual. It would also indirectly have a positive impact on the work
performance. This feedback was received while discussing with the students of B.
A. (Consumer Services) program. It has been observed that the B. A. (Consumer
Services) program was well accepted by the learners.
KEY WORDS: Learning Opportunities, Consumer Services, Social Commitment,
Graduate Level Program
Background:
India is a country having a large segment of population living in villages. The rural
set up of India still provides the major input to the Indian industries. Though the
share of agriculture in the Indian economy is declining, it is still a formidable factor
in the economy. The proportion of population engaged in agriculture and allied
activities is still very high. Therefore, it is rightly described that Indian economy is
basically an agrarian economy.
Having achieved the self-sufficiency in food-grain production provided an impetus
to the overall development of the country. However, the other sectors, namely,
health and education needed more attention, as quality of life depended on these
sectors, too.
Various government agencies undertook the gigantic task of overall rural
development. Ever growing population and limited resources of the government
were the main hurdles in the development process. It was realized that education
was the most powerful tool to fight with this problem. The formal education
infrastructure also underwent a metamorphic change after independence. It was
strongly felt that the overall development of rural as well as urban masses would
be possible mainly through providing educational opportunities to needy persons.
279
In spite of large number of enrolment at primary school education level, it is
observed that very few students reach the level of graduation. The social and
economic responsibilities compel them to prefer other priorities over education.
Concept:
It is with this philosophy, the Yaswantrao Chavan Maharashtra Open University
(YCMOU), one of the leading state open universities, decided to offer learning
opportunities to different segments of the society. It has been realized that there
is a large proportion of population which abandoned the education at an early
stage of life due to academic as well as personal reasons. Further, due to pressing
personal and domestic needs, such persons had to earn the livelihood by accepting
meager jobs. This has often resulted into stagnation in the same job over many
years. In addition, being partially educated, there persists a feeling of guilt among
such people who sincerely wished to pursue education.
It has been observed that there are many partially educated youth engaged in the
services namely, gas cylinder delivery boys and newspaper delivery boys. The
youth / manpower associated with these tasks often go unnoticed and also they
have lower social status. Their services are often taken for granted by society.
Moreover, the remuneration level is also very poor as compared to the physical
efforts they put in.
The YCM Open University, aptly decided to formulate and offer an academic
program specially for the persons who are directly associated with providing
services to consumers. This concept was resulted into genesis and development of
an academic program namely Bachelor of Arts (Consumer Services)”.
Objectives:
The main objectives the program were:
 To document the present status pertaining to education, employment
opportunities of persons engaged in consumer services
 To provide need based, skill oriented educational program to the persons
associated in consumer services
 To provide opportunity to persons engaged in consumer services sector
to improve educational qualification as well as self-esteem
 To help the learners to improve soft and communication skills
Review of past work:

Empowering Rural Communities through Virtual Academies-
According to Dileepkumar (2008) for providing life long learning opportunities to
the needy people who discontinued their education in early stages of life and
280
interested to pursue the same in the later stages for satisfying their information
and knowledge needs and to create livelihood opportunities, the M S
Swaminathan Research Foundation, India has started a school – Jamsetji Tata
Training School (JTS) for Leadership in rural knowledge connectivity – on 17
February 2007 with an aim to use contemporary ICTs and ODL principles to
educate and train vulnerable rural communities and intermediaries (NVA
fellows/kiosk operators/chaupal managers/Agricultural Extension Officers etc.)
about improved agricultural technologies, health, governance, water
management, environment, biodiversity and livelihood opportunities. The stage is
thus set for ushering in a knowledge revolution in rural India. The Green
Revolution helped to improve the production of wheat, rice and other crops, and
the Knowledge Revolution can lead to the enhancement of human productivity
and creativity in every area of human endeavour.

Empowering rural communities for sustainable development-
Seshadri (2010) elucidates that Syngenta Foundation India (SFI), in partnership
with Maharogi Seva Samiti (MSS), started up the Anandwan Institute for Transfer
of Agriculture Technology (AITA) at Anandwan in central India. This multipurpose
institution provides vocational and professional training across a range
of agricultural science, technology and business topics. Within AITA, Anandwan
Agri-tech School offers a two-year diploma. MSS and SFI are committed to high
academic standards, and to appropriate hands-on training. That way, our future
graduates will be able to find good employment or start their own ventures. The
school has started with five qualified teaching staff, including its Principal, plus
three non- teaching personnel. 58 students have enrolled for the first year,
including 16 women. MSS and SFI are committed to high academic standards, and
to appropriate hands-on training so that the future graduates will be able to find
good employment or start their own ventures.In its next phase, AITA aims to start
short and medium-term tailor-made courses for rural youth, school drop-outs
and young professionals recruited by agribusiness companies.

Empowering rural Communities Through Entrepreneurship-
Kenneth (2004) explains that for many small, rural communities, the consequences
of global capitalism have resulted in unemployment, out migration, and general
community decline. Under such conditions low-income residents, limited-resource
farmers, and other economically disadvantaged groups are particularly vulnerable.
A holistic policy strategy that seeks to enhance economic opportunities for
underserved rural communities through entrepreneurship and small business
development. Each component is directed toward developing entrepreneurial
capabilities and leadership to facilitate economic growth. The Initiative’s call for
281
the expansion of private and public support of programs that invest in human
capital development, particularly in those communities where resources are
limited, suggests that the agricultural policy is beginning to change, with rural
economic development gaining more prominence on the national policy agenda.
In any case, the Entrepreneurial Outreach Initiative must continue to expand
beyond the traditional cooperative extension land-grant university constituency to
encourage and enhance business capacity across an even wider segment of rural
communities, including the transitional poor, disadvantaged youth, and women,
among others. To this end, rural development policies must continually adapt as
economic organization and public policy environments change, thereby creating a
viable policy framework for setting rural economic goals, developing strategies to
accomplish those goals, and transforming institutions to address critical issues
facing rural communities.

Empowering rural Communities Through education –
Walker (2010) stated that UNICEF has collaborated with the IKEA Social Initiative
to improve sanitation and hygiene in schools in Rural Uttar Pradesh. In over 210
schools in Sonbhadra district are in the process of improving sanitation and
teaching their students the importance of proper hygiene. IKEA Social Initiative is
partnering with UNICEF to promote the rights of every child to a healthy, secure
childhood with access to quality education. What once started as IKEA’s fight
against child labour in the supply chain has developed into a broad commitment to
create a better everyday life for the many children in Uttar Pradesh and in
communities throughout India.
Oza (2010) added that the Aga Khan Rural Support Programme (India) was
founded as a part of the Aga Khan Development Network (AKDN) in 1983 has
pioneered efforts in areas such as participatory irrigation management, joint forest
management, rain water harvesting, watershed development, preventing salinity
ingress, micro-enterprise development, and alternative energy to empower rural
women and marginalized communities. The development approach programme
differs by region. In Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh, it uses sequential interventions
that begin by improving economic opportunity, which allows for later investments
in social development such as health, early childhood and basic education, etc. In
Bihar, the Aga Khan Foundation (India) have collaborated to implement an area
development approach. This approach uses simultaneous investment in economic
and social development through community-based, community-led schemes.
Since mid-2008, a range of interventions in economic development, community
institution building, education, and health have been piloted.
282
Methodology:
The present paper is based on the experiences gathered during the initiation,
development and implementation of specially developed Bachelor of Arts
(Consumer Services) program for the specific segment in the society. Since, the
YCMOU is the only State Open University to initiate such kind of academic
program, the authors adopted Case Study approach for the present paper.
The initial concept was confined to launch a graduate level degree program for the
persons associated with consumer services sector. The basic idea was later
elaborated to formulate three year degree program encompassing different
subjects related to humanities, languages, social sciences, commerce,
management and communication skills. This is a unique experiment to provide
blended courses (subjects) with an aim to orient the learners specifically for
consumer services. Similarly, considering that the learners have been out of the
process of learning since long time, the three year degree course was formulated
accordingly.
The entry criterion to this program was at par with the existing criterion for
general degree (graduation) program. Accordingly, the entry was made open to
whosoever interested for this program.
Initially, the program was offered at two study centers located in different cities.
Later on, the academic program Bachelor of Arts (Consumer Services) was made
available at various study centers under jurisdiction of the University.
The program planning process also considered the prior education level of the
prospective students. Therefore, it was decided to formulate the program
structure in such manner that it would encompass almost all knowledge and skill
domains essential for a person associated with consumer services
activityincorporate courses
Impact:
The present paper has been prepared to assess the impact of such nonconventional academic program on learning behavior and preferences of needy
persons in the society. It has been observed that the B. A. (Consumer Services)
program was well accepted by the learners. It is evident from rise in yearwise
enrolment to this program. The program was initiated in academic year 2012-13
with enrolment of 84 students at two study centers. In the subsequent year 201314, the enrolment was 882 (nearly 10 times over earlier year) at all 16 study
centers.
283
Conclusions:
There is a sizeable population associated with different aspects pertaining to
consumer services sector. It has been observed that majority of such population is
partially literate. They had to be out of the education system due to different
personal and social reasons. The opportunities to carry on and continue further
education would be limited. Addition to own educational status would help to
improve self respect and confidence of an individual. It would also indirectly have
a positive impact on the work performance. This feedback was received while
discussing with the students of B. A. (Consumer Services) program.
It could thus, be concluded that B. A. (Consumer Services) program was useful to
the learners. The courses (papers) included at first and second year level catered
to the needs of the learners. It is evident that the academic programs if designed
and implemented for the actual and specific target groups, could be of great use to
needy learners in general and society at large in particular. The YCM Open
University has undertaken a novel approach to provide learning opportunities to
needy persons in the society and also bring them to the mainstream of life. The
‘Second Opportunity of Learning’ to such persons would provide more mental
satisfaction and a feeling of achievement, even at later stage of life. It could thus,
be stated that the YCM Open university has pioneered in the process of
community development also while pursuing its main task of providing education
to masses. Thus, the YCM Open University, has truly attempted to be worthy of
moto “Dnyanganga Gharoghari (Knowledge at Every Doorstep).
REFERENCES:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Dileepkumar, G. and Senthilkumaran, S. (2007) ‘Empowering Rural Communities
through Virtual Academies: Experiences from India’, M S Swaminathan Research
Foundation, India.
Kenneth, L. Robinson. Wylin, Dassie. and Ralph, D. Christy. (2004)
‘Entrepreneurship and Small Business Development As A Rural Development
Strategy’, Rural Community Economic Development Conference Proceedings,
Tuskegee University, Tuskegee, Alabama
Oza, Apoorva. (2010) ‘Empowering Rural Communities in a
Changing India’ events.berkeley.edu/index.php/calendar/sn/sph.html?...
Seshadri, B.T. (2010) ‘Empowering rural communities for sustainable
development’, www.syngentafoundation.org/index.cfm?pageID=430
Walker, Angela. (2010) ‘IKEA helps India schools improve sanitation
and hygiene’, Ikea, IKEA Social Initiative, india, schools, UNICEF, Uttar Pradesh
www.clemson.edu/uced/entrepreneurship_small.../1890_proceeding.pdf
Program Prospectus, 2013, B. A. (Consumer Services), Yashwantrao Chavan
Maharashtra Open University, Nashik
284
IMPLEMENTING TEACHING INNOVATIONS IN EASTERN EUROPEAN
UNIVERSITIES - RESOURCES DEVELOPED AND EXPERIENCES OF TWO
MEDIUM SIZED EU/ SWISS NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION PROJECTS
Rapp Christian, Zurich University of Applied Sciences, Switzerland;
Margarov Gevorg, State Engineering University of Armenia (Polytechnic), Armenia;
Gulbahar Yasemin, Ankara University, Turkey;
Zhurbina Natalia, Voronezh State University, Russia;
Shykova Olena, KROK University, Ukraine
ABSTRACT: In this paper we present the outcomes of two international projects 1,
both dealing primarily with innovations implemented in Eastern European
academic teaching. The outcomes are publicly available in Russian, plus most are
also in English, and some in Armenian and Ukrainian. In this session we aim to
publicise the results, share our experiences from the implementation, and discuss
best practices. We also seek to link up with others who are active in this area, and
to seek out potential synergies and to discuss prospective future projects.
KEY WORDS: Technology Enhanced Learning, Social Media, Teaching Innovation,
Distance Learning, Blended learning
The projects
Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF), Institutional Partnership –
“Implementing state-of-the-art didactics/ methods and research tools in academic
teaching”, part of the ‘Scopes’ funding scheme of SNSF. This project focuses on
support and implementation of innovation in three areas: (1) Electronic tools that
support young scientists in retrieving, processing and publishing scientific results,
and linking with the Western science community; (2) learner-centred instructional
design/ methods like research-based teaching, simulations, problem-based
learning, flipped classrooms etc.; and (3) distance learning with limited resources
(e.g. low bandwidth availability) with a focus on free (cloud) services and open
source tools.
EU Era.Net RUS “Social Media as a Catalyser for Cross National Learning SoMeCat”: Utilising a mixed-method approach (interviews/focus group [n=145] in
1
Swiss National Science Foundation Institutional Partnership (Implementing state-of-the-art
didactics/ methods and research tools in academic teaching), January 2012 to December 2014,
with partners in Armenia, Ukraine, Russia and Switzerland (coordinator). EU FP7 Era.Net RUS
(Social Media as a Catalyser for Cross National Learning, SoMeCat), October 2012 to September
2014, with partners in Russia, Germany, Turkey and Switzerland (coordinator).
285
four countries; online teaching style survey2), we research how instructors and
students in higher education (HE) use social media (SoMe) for teaching, learning,
and research. Based on the results, we developed a strategy for how to use social
media in HE teaching3. Furthermore we developed a Social Media Toolkit that
supports instructors in using social media within HE.
The outcomes/ products
The coordinator runs one of the biggest German speaking platforms 4 on
professional information retrieval and processing for scientific purposes 5. It
provides eleven tutorials on how to research for scientific literature, such as how
to develop a search strategy, an overview about search instruments including deep
web searches, searching for scientific literature/ artefacts, searching for data and
how to search blogs for new scientific information. It also looks at how to process/
manage the artefacts found (bibliographic services, bookmarks, web notebooks)
and how to stay up-to-date in one’s research area using alerts and RSS. Special
attention was given to resources available free of charge, and to allow for
collaborative work, the platform was translated into Russian, taking in account
country specific databases/ resources.
In the Scopes project, we investigated state-of-the-art instructional design/
methods and corresponding software/ web services, and hardware that are useful
in university teaching activities. This led to the openly accessible book,
“Information Technology Toolkit in Education” (in Russian), in which we analysed
obstacles to the application of ICT in education and suggested approaches to
overcome them. Additionally, the book discusses the main stages of learning
activities and their components, assesses the potential of modern information
technologies and tools, and references existing resources. The book is intended for
university teachers and students, plus other readers interested in using modern IT
tools for solving practical problems in teaching/ learning processes. Also based on
these materials, an educational tool (ToolTrain) was designed, which aids the
organisation, tracking and management of specialists retraining in the application
of IT tools in education.
For the SoMeCat project, we researched current and potential usage of social
media for teaching, learning and research in HE (four countries, interviews/ focus
2
Development and Pilot Implementation of Online Teaching Style Survey. World Conference on
Educational Media and Technology, Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education.
23-26 June 2014. Tampere, Finland.
3
Strategy presented: European Distance and E-learning Network (EDEN) 2014 Annual Conference,
Zagreb, 10-13 June 2014.
4
http://www.recherchieren-im-internet.ch/home.html
5
See also the corresponding book by Müller, Plieninger, and Rapp, 2013.
286
group with both instructors and students [n=145]). We found that many
instructors were sympathetic towards social media usage in HE, however they
faced difficulties integrating it into teaching. Students, although initially reticent,
also favoured social media usage for learning and communication throughout the
course. Usually instructors are experts in their field of teaching and research, have
substantial experience, but with generally less systematic knowledge about
instructional design or the integration of technology in teaching. Based on the
research findings and a detailed literature review, we developed a social media
toolkit6 that analyses the instructors’ teaching scenario7 by asking four questions
related to intended learning outcomes (basing on Arends, 2011; Borich, 2013;
Burden & Byrd, 2013; Anderson et al., 2000; Bloom, 1956), content types (Bower,
Hedberg, & Kuswara, 2010; McLoughlin & Lee, 2007; OECD, 2007; Safko, 2012),
preferred instructional methods and intended assessment (summative, formative Garrison & Ehringhaus, 2007; classic, alternative - Pressley & McCormick, 2007).
Through pattern matching with a decision matrix, an algorithm 8 , based on
instructional theories, suggests the best match 9 social media type (based on the
classifications of Bower, Hedberg, & Kuswara, 2010) and provides some
instructional tips about how best to use it.
In recent years, many Eastern European countries’ governmental directives
demanded the implementation of blended/ distance academic teaching, and
sometimes a mandatory learning management system (often Moodle). This is a
challenge for many universities, who often lack the required know-how on
instructional design, content production, faculty development, as well as technical
aspects. In cooperation with the Distance Learning Centre of Ankara University, an
e-Tutor Certificate Programme has been developed for implementation in
October 2014: Attendees learn about the management of e-learning and the
changing roles of the instructor, in addition to important areas that instructors
6
www.socialmediaforeducation.org. Available in English, Turkish and Russian.
Pedagogical basis is beyond the scope of this paper (to be discussed ‘in session’), but is included
in “Social Media Toolkit––Supporting Instructors to Create Social and Unbound Learning Spaces in
Higher Education”. Annual conference of the Association for Media in the Sciences #GMW14:
Designing Learning Environments – RETHINKING EDUCATIONAL CONTEXTS. 2-4 September 2014.
Zürich, Switzerland
8
Technical basis is beyond the scope of this paper (to be discussed ‘in session’), but is included in
“Social Media for Education—A Toolkit for Supporting Instructors in Higher Education Enriching
Their Teaching with Social Media”. Social Media & Society 2014 International Conference. 27-28
September 2014. Toronto, Canada
9
Validation is beyond the scope of this paper (to be discussed in session) and will be included in
“Validation of Social Media Toolkit”. Ireland International Conference on Education 27-29 October
2014. Dublin, Ireland.
7
287
need to develop themselves. The certificate programme consists of 14 topics 10,
completed over seven weeks, totalling 90 hours of instruction for 3 ECTS credits.
These courses are conducted using Moodle, with the support of a virtual
classroom using a commercial software. The course will be made available under
CC licencing and translated into Ukrainian, Armenian and Russian. We welcome
anyone who would like to participate in the course (from October 2014) or would
like to translate it into their own language in order to facilitate wider participation.
All participating universities 11 required institutional structures to support the
implementation of Technology Enhanced Learning (TEL), with e-Learning centres
established, as well as a laboratory for assessing the suitability of ICT (focusing
mainly on state-of-the-art hardware but also Software as a Service SaaS) for
teaching and learning processes. The Introduction of TEL brought changes to
existing curricula (e.g. an increase in student self-study) and corresponding
measures for faculty development. Participating universities researched the
demand for, and impact of the changes, and empirical results and so experiences
can be exchanged and discussed.
Hence, two distinct projects are merged to create mutual benefit through
knowledge sharing across different cultures. While delivering to e-Learning
instructors of several countries, the process will not only support effective eTutoring, but also share different aspects of various e-Learning implementations
by different universities. Everybody will learn from each other by fulfilling the
premise of scientific process which will hopefully lead to many other innovations
other than those already implemented.
REFERENCES:
1.
2.
3.
Anderson, L. W., Krathwohl, D. R., Airasian, P. W., Cruikshank, K. A., Mayer, R. E.,
Pintrich, P. R., Raths, J., & Wittrock, M. C. (2000). A taxonomy for learning,
teaching, and assessment: A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational
objectives. New York: Pearson, Allyn & Bacon.
Arends, R. (2011). Learning to teach (9th ed., rev.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill
Higher Education.
Bloom, B. (1956). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook I: The cognitive
domain. New York, NY: David McKay.
10
Fundamentals of e-Learning, Online Learning Theories, Learning and Content Management
Systems, Virtual Classrooms Managing, Online Instructional Design, Online Instructional Methods,
Copyright, DRM & Plagiarism, e-Assessment, Graphical Design, Creating Effective Visuals,
Multimedia Content Development, Creating Interactive Applications, Social Media and Emerging
Technologies, Quality Control.
11
State Engineering University of Armenia (Yerevan, Armenia); KROK University (Kiev, Ukraine);
Voronezh State University (Voronezh, Russia).
288
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
Borich, G. D. (2013). Effective teaching methods: Research-based practice (8th
ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.
Bower, M., Hedberg, J. G., & Kuswara, A. (2010). A framework for Web 2.0
learning design. Educational Media International, 47(3), 177–198.
Burden, P. R., & Byrd, D. M. (2013). Methods for effective teaching: Meeting the
needs of all students (6th ed.). Boston: Pearson, Allyn & Bacon.
Garrison, C., & Ehringhaus, M. (2007). Formative and summative assessments in
the classroom. Retrieved from
http://ccti.colfinder.org/sites/default/files/formative_and_summative_assessme
nt_in_the_classroom.pdf
McLoughlin, C., & Lee, M. J. W. (2007). Social software and participatory learning:
Pedagogical choices with technology affordances in the Web 2.0 era. In ICT:
Providing choices for learners and learning. Proceedings ASCILITE Singapore 2007.
Retrieved from http://www.ascilite.org.au/conferences/
singapore07/procs/mcloughlin.pdf
Müller, R., Plieninger, J., Rapp, C. (2013). Recherche 2.0: Finden und
Weiterverarbeiten in Studium und Beruf. Wiesbaden: Springer VS.
OECD. (2007). Participative web and user-created content: Web 2.0, wikis and
social networking.
Collins College.
Safko, L. (2012). The social media bible: Tactics, tools, and strategies for business
success (3rd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
MY MOOC WALK: AN AUTO-ETHNOGRAPHICAL ACCOUNT
1.
Roberts Jennifer, Gous Ignatius, University of South Africa Paris: OECD.
Retrieved
from
http://browse.oecdbookshop.org/oecd/pdfs/free/9307031e.pdf
Pressley, M., & McCormick, C. (2007). Cognition, teaching, and assessment. New York,
NY: Harper
ABSTRACT: Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) have been heralded by some
as the future of education, particularly for people from the developing nations of
the world. Other people are critical of the effectiveness, impact and longevity of
MOOCs and see them as simply a passing phase. This article discusses the findings
of a narrative enquiry written by the author on her journey through registering for
and taking different types of MOOCS. It is an auto-ethnographic study, carried out
in order for the author understand and become involved in the student’s
perspective on undertaking a MOOC. The purpose of this research is therefore to
create an understanding of the MOOC experience from a student’s perspective. It
is a qualitative article and provides a personal reflection on the author’s walk
through the MOOC process from start to finish. It includes findings through
metacognitive self-reflection regarding self-directed learning, motivation, life-long
289
learning and other light bulb moments, all of which are important to the future
development regarding MOOCs.
KEY WORDS: MOOCs; Distance Education; Metacognition; Self-directed learning;
Personality.
Introduction
The debate over the use of MOOCs as the way forward for higher education
around the world is currently receiving much attention, both positive and
negative. Rosen (2014) talks about a “nightmare scenario” if institutions move
from the traditional teacher-student interaction through using MOOCs, while
Koller (2014) talks about how students from all around the world are benefiting
from MOOCs and that she anticipates that growth in MOOCs internationally,
particularly in the developing countries, will be exponential.
It is clear that further research into the MOOC phenomenon is essential and that
much research is being carried out regarding how MOOCs are changing higher
education and whether MOOCs are really a disruptive innovation. The Distance
Education Journal in Australia has produced a special themed edition of the
journal devoted to MOOCs which will be available in May 2014 and there is
currently also a call out for papers on MOOCs for the Universities and Knowledge
Society Journal - RUSC which will be published in January 2015.
One of the authors is a senior researcher at the Institute of Open and Distance
Learning (IODL) at the University of South Africa (Unisa). The IODL is an academic
unit of Unisa, charged with the responsibility to undertake pragmatic and reflexive
research. This is in response to the growing demand not only for higher degree
qualifications and professional studies in Open and Distance Learning niche areas,
but also in strengthening Open Distance Learning (ODL) practice at Unisa. The IODL
is housed in the College of Graduate Studies and is part of the portfolio of the Vice
Principal: Research and Innovation. It is a research intensive institution committed
to provide leadership in innovation and excellence in ODL research. The second
author is the leader of the Cognitive Science Interest Group at Unisa and has
published widely on Metacognition in Distance Education.
Due to the fact that MOOCS are currently receiving much attention in ODL
research units internationally, and that Unisa is conceptualising their contribution
to MOOCs at the university, the IODL is the ideal environment to carry out this
research.
This article is an auto-ethnographic study, carried out by the one of the authors, in
order to understand and become involved in the student’s perspective on
undertaking a MOOC. This paper is going to be written in the first person as it
reflects the experiences of the first author, while the second author has
290
contributed to the aspects of metacognition and research vigour in a narrative
inquiry.
The purpose of this research is therefore to create an understanding of the MOOC
experience from a student’s perspective. It is a qualitative article and provides a
personal reflection on my walk through the MOOC process. According to Marachel
(2008), auto-ethnography is a form of research that involves self-observation and
reflexive investigation. It is an approach to research that seeks to describe and
systematically analyse (graphy) personal experience (auto) in order to understand
cultural experience (ethno).... (Ellis, 2004).
The theoretical framework on which this article is based on Flavell’s theory of
metacognition (Flavell, 1976).
The term metacognition was coined by John Flavell. According to him,
metacognition refers to one’s knowledge concerning one's own cognitive
processes or anything related to them, e.g., the learning-relevant properties of
information or data. For example, I am engaging in metacognition if I notice that I
am having more trouble learning A than B; if it strikes me that I should double
check C before accepting it as fact (Flavell 1976: 232).
Metacognition refers to a range of acts which call for thinking about thinking. One
of these, labelled as self-reflectivity, refers to thinking about one's own thoughts
and feelings. It refers to both cognitive and emotional experiences and is related
to, though not synonymous with, other aspects of metacognition (Lysaker, Buck,
Caricione et al, 2011).
According to Flavell (1979), metacognition consists of both metacognitive
knowledge and metacognitive experiences or regulation. Metacognitive
knowledge refers to acquired knowledge about cognitive processes, knowledge
that can be used to control cognitive processes. Flavell further divides
metacognitive knowledge into three categories: knowledge of person variables,
task variables and strategy variables.
Intrinsic to auto-ethnography is the cognitive self-reflection of experience. The
following table is adapted from Learninghistories.net and introduces some of the
areas that result from the examination of self-reflection. These cognitive processes
can be linked to the metacognitive category of knowledge of person as stated in
the paragraph above.


Self-reflection is an essential component of continuous learning
It provides new insight into the self
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




It enhances your understanding of others
It exposes challenges and assumptions
It facilitates transfer of knowledge
It encourages personal adaptability
It allows people to learn from experience
In this research I have analysed my personal experience of selecting and
completing a MOOC in order to create an understanding of the whole learning
experience from a student’s perspective. I will address some of the points in Table
1 with regard to my personal reflection of my MOOC Walk. I believe that these
findings will assist me when carrying out further research on MOOC pedagogy,
implementation, perspectives and learning experience – in fact, I deem it essential
before further research can be carried out.
According to Webster and Mertova (2007), Narrative Inquiry provides researchers
with a rich framework through which they can investigate the way human
experience the world as told through their own individual stores. In the same light,
Connelly and Clandinin (1990) say that what we know about education comes
largely from sharing stories of our own educational experience with other people.
The methodology used for this research was therefore a narrative enquiry which
was conducting through keeping a regular journey of my MOOC Walk, from the
early decisions on which MOOCs to register for, the format of the teaching of the
MOOC, particularly with regard to my own personality and learning style, the
journey through the MOOC until completion of the final exam and receiving of the
Certificate of Accomplishment. I also recorded thoughts that emerged during the
MOOC Walk that gave ideas for further research and general links between
MOOCs and Distance Education.
So this is the story of my walk through a MOOC!
Literature Review
A plethora of literature regarding MOOCs is available, ranging from concepts,
models, participation, engagements, and pedagogy to trends and criticisms. The
focus of this article is on participation, reflection and overall experience of MOOCs
from a student’s perspective and as such, the literature review will focus on these
aspects of MOOCs.
292
Metacognition
Flavell’s theory of metacognition, as mentioned in the introduction to this article,
serves as the theoretical framework for this article (Flavell, 1979). Particular
emphasis will be on his task of self-awareness and self-reflection.
Definition of a MOOC
The term MOOC is an acronym for “massive open online course”. The advantages
of MOOC’s according to Bhaskar (2013) are firstly that they have a low barrier to
entry and they are tools with which you can expand your knowledge in a cost
effective way. MOOC’s make use of the latest digital technologies. In addition,
Bonk (2013) sees MOOCs as effective for Continuous Professional Development
and early introductory classes.
FutureLearn (2013) states that the promise of MOOCs is to open access, provide
state of the art courses and lower the cost of tertiary education. Dikeogue & Clark
(2013) state further that MOOCs are able to offer students the opportunity of
taking classes from respected lecturers and specialists without having any prerequisites.
MOOCs are able to provide online courses to an indefinite number of students and
make use of video lectures, online quizzes, discussion forums and student
participation, all without placing additional workload on the instructors (Khalil &
Ebner, 2012).
One of the criticisms of MOOCs is the high attrition rate and the low level of
participation from developing countries. Kolowich, writing in the Chronicle of
Higher Education in January 2014, presents some statistics from a report released
by Harvard and MIT on statistics drawn from their 17 MOOC offerings in 2012 and
2013. This report stated that only 5% of all registrants earned a certificate of
completion and that only 3% were from developing countries.
Methodology
According to McIlveen (2008, 4), auto-ethnography is a reflexive method by which
the researcher consciously immerses him or herself in the situation and, through
an intimate autobiographical account, makes sense of a phenomenon under
investigation
He goes on further to say that there are few regulations regarding the writing of
an auto-ethnographic analysis and most of the emphasis should be placed on the
meaning of the story. He goes on further to state that the place of autoethnography is to produce a narrative that is authentic and that conveys
293
information which assists the reader in coming to a deeper understanding of the
phenomenon being investigated.
In addition, a distinction has been drawn between analytical and evocative autoethnography. The analytical approach, according to Anderson (2006) concentrates
more on scientific analysis whereas the evocative approach is distinguished by a
more free-form style and tends towards empathy and resonance with the reader
(Ellis & Bochner, 2000).
This article is a mixture of both the analytical and evocative approaches. The
journal was systematically analysed, with themes and codes being assigned
through the Atlas ti software. In the analysis I also selected significant quotes
which have been included in this article, as these sequences of quotations tells my
story – and that is the context of this research.
For the purpose of this research, I maintained a personal journal in which I
regularly wrote entries about my walk through the MOOC process. I started the
journal in December 2013 when I first had the idea to think about registering for a
few MOOCs. Throughout the journal entries over the following months I
documented not only the progress that I was making but also my reflections,
feelings and motivations. There were also a few AHA moments during this journey
and as soon as one of these occurred, I would document it immediately. My final
journal entry was in April which reflected the feelings of excitement and
satisfaction at receiving the news that I had passed the course and when I received
my certificate of accomplishment.
My MOOC Walk: An auto-ethnographical account
I am a senior researcher in the Institute of Open and Distance Learning (IODL) at
Unisa and my research areas focus on the changing role of distance educators,
metacognition in distance education and digital technology in distance education.
I am a product of distance education in all its formats having undertaken most of
my tertiary education in a distance format.
Figure 1 below is a diagrammatic representation of my Distance Education walk
and I present this to contextualise the reasons why the model of a MOOC caught
my attention, in this case as a student rather than an academic researcher.
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Figure 1
From Figure 1 it can be seen that I have a long academic association with distance
education and that because of circumstantial reasons, I found this method of
delivery to be well suited to my particular personality. However, my ideal learning
environment, as reflected from the beginning of my journey through to my forays
into lifelong learning, has always been one of a desire for total flexibility,
asynchronous teaching and learning, and openness. I envisaged these features
right from the start of my journey in 1977 and so my enthusiasm for MOOCs was
ignited when I first heard about them when attending a presentation by George
Siemens at Unisia’s 1st International conference on Open and Distance Learning
which was held in 2012.
MOOC decisions
My initial intention was to register for a variety of MOOCs, ranging from totally
flexible ones to more structured courses. The reason for this was to ascertain
whether my personality type – the Myers-Briggs ENFP – being extrovert, intuitive,
feeling and perceiving, and taking into account my ideal learning environment as
mentioned in the paragraph above, would have more success in completing a
flexible MOOC rather than a more structured one (Myers, 1980).
13 January 2014:
My initial feelings about MOOCS are that the ones that will best suit
me will be totally flexible with no pacing or deadlines. I want to be
able to study when and where is suitable and I want to make the
decisions. Maybe when I am feeling highly energized I will want to
complete many lectures and quizzes, and at other times I would
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prefer to skip a week or two. The danger with this approach
however, is that the risk of dropout and completion is very high.
In January 2013 I registered for two different MOOCs, one on mathematical
thinking and the other on Psychology as a science. Both courses started around
the same time and were 12 weeks in duration. The mathematics course was
unstructured and flexible whereas the psychology one had set weekly lessons and
quizzes as well as an examination at the end. The psychology course was run by
Coursera through the Georgia University of Technology. All deadlines were strictly
enforced and a minimum of 70% was required in order to pass the course which
consisted of weekly quizzes and a final examination.
14 January 2014:
Although at first glance I can see that this course is more structured
than I would normally have liked, I am quite comfortable with it and
at this stage I feel that the format could be the one that affords me
the best opportunity for completing and passing this course.
The mathematics course had no strict deadlines and I could start it at any time
although all the work had to be completed by a certain date. Needless to say, I
started on the psychology course and waited until I had more time to start the
mathematics course. As could be predicted, I never even read the first lesson and
so my research is based solely on the psychology course.
22 January 2014:
Start of MOOC on Statistical Learning. It seems as if the weekly
deadlines for this MOOC are not as strict as the Psychology one. My
initial reaction is that this format will suit me better but the question
to be answered is whether the more relaxed deadlines will cause me
to fall behind and not complete the course
The following are excerpts from the journal entries as I proceeded along my MOOC
walk. They are presented in a continuous way so that the story of my walk can be
followed. Sometimes the entries were purely descriptive and at other times they
were reflective. I have also reproduced a few entries that inspired light bulb
moments. After all the pertinent journal entries have been put together as a
narrative, I will then provide a reflection of my experience of the course and
indicate the findings that I discovered.
24 January 2014:
Despite my best intention, things are not as straightforward as one
hopes. When I tried to watch the 1st lesson’s videos, my browser
would not support it. I then downloaded an updated version and
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then I could watch but there was no sound. After starting off all
bright eyed and bushy tailed, the frustration of the technology got to
me and I gave up and sort of lost interest. An email from the course
leader stating that an extension for the 1st quiz had been given due
to technical problems on their side prompted me to try again and
WALA..... This time everything worked.
27 January 2014:
My feelings regarding continuous learning for the sake of acquiring new
knowledge and not simply for certification has been confirmed again
through reading the discussion forums
Today I started discussing some of my thoughts and reflections on my
MOOC WALK with one of my colleagues.
From my readings on MOOCS it seems as if they have not attracted the
large economically challenged masses as a solution to low cost
education but rather people in a similar position to my self
It seems to me that many people might only want to register for tertiary
education in order to obtain certification to help them find a good job
and are not overly concerned with the acquisition of knowledge
27 January 2014:
Another thought I had today was that the course content would be
relatively easy and that I would be able to whizz through it. This is
not the case – the content is as challenging as any undergraduate
module. Therefore it seems that if I have mastered the content I
should be able to receive due recognition which should lead to credit
towards as degree/diploma because the work is the same
A final reflection today is that the way that this particular MOOC is
being taught should be the way that Distance Education modules are
presented. Lessons should be structured weekly and interactive
activities and quizzes should form part of the teaching.
As it stands, many UNISA modules are being presented simply by a
tutorial letter and study guide with only one assignment needed to
obtain DP. Students often work totally at their own pace of resulting
in last minute cramping and inevitable failure
29 January 2014
Heard today that the paper I am working on has been accepted to
present at DEANZ conference in New Zealand – motivation to keep
going and get this week’s assignment in on time. This emphasises
the importance of continuous motivation – something that is often
lacking in Distance Education course delivery.
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11 February 2014
I have pushed really hard to get the this week’s quiz submitted on
time but once again the technology has let me down and that there
is a real possibly of missing the deadline. I had almost reconciled
myself with the fact that I would not be able to complete the course.
I even justified to myself that I already had enough data which
renewed my enthusiasm..... I am firmly of the opinion that
motivation and communication are essential for success in both
MOOCs and Distance Education.
18 April 2014:
I completed the final assignment and exam today – a full 2 days
ahead of the deadline. Because these assignments are computer
marked, I could get my result almost immediately – 80% and a
certificate of accomplishment. It was interesting to read the
discussion forums and note the number of students who missed the
70% subminimum and who were told that they would have to retake
the course.
My reflections and findings
25 April 2014:
Having completed the MOOC successfully and received my certificate of
accomplishment, my final journal entry was a reflection of my overall experience
of the walk, both from a personal point of view as well as findings that need
further research and unpacking. This follows the metacognitive process of digging
deep to really understand my MOOC experience. My findings are as follows:
1. It was challenging for me to adapt to strict deadlines but without the deadlines
my chances of completing the course were very slim. This can be borne out by the
fact that I did not even start the mathematics course because of its flexible
deadlines. Therefore structure and deadlines would seem to me to be a necessary
factor in order to address the high attrition rates of MOOC participation.
2. Challenges with digital technology are an important factor. My frustration
levels were high when the technologies let me down. I am fortunate enough to
have a good quality computer, wifi connectivity both at work and in my home as
well as a 4G modem. This is far more than many other people and yet I still
experienced interruptions and difficulties.
3. I learned a lot. Despite all the criticisms about the quality of learning in a
MOOC I definitely acquired new knowledge. Sometime during the course I was
asked to be a critical reader for a PHd student. When reading through her
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proposal, I found that she made reference to a theory that I had learned about in
my MOOC – one that I had never heard of before.
4. I enjoyed the experience. Although there were times when the deadlines and
work volume created stressful incidences, my overall experience of my MOOC was
an enjoyable and pleasing one. I can attest to this by confirming that I have
already enrolled for 2 further MOOCs, one staring shortly and the other on in a
few weeks’ time.
5. I completed and passed the MOOC. There were many times when I felt that I
would be unable to complete the course due to time and workload pressures,
when motivation was low and “life” got in the way. There have been many
discussions that I have been involved in where people have been asked whether
they have ever registered for a MOOC. Many people raise their hands. Then the
inevitable following question is how many of you have completed a MOOC. This
sees those same people sink down and try to become invisible. I certainly do feel a
sense of achievement in not only completing, but also passing the MOOC. My
perception from reading the forum discussions on the course was that many
students had failed to obtain the pass rate of 70%.
6. Intrinsic motivation is a prerequisite to completing a course where
certification and credit are not the course objectives. Self-regulated and selfdirected learning as metacognitive tools are necessary for successful completion.
Extrinsic motivation also has a role to play. For me, this came in the form of email
communication from the course leaders even though it was sent to all participants
and not personally to me. The course leaders made a concerted effort to
communicate regularly.
7. Understand the limitations of my personality type. I have thought deeply
about my own personality type and learning style and understand how my
particular personality traits could hinder my progress in MOOCs. My need for
openness and flexibility and resistance against rules and organisation would have
resulted in disaster if I had stuck with the unstructured MOOCs. Because I am
aware of my limitations I can actually compensate for them. However, a major
finding of this study is that I now know that I need to register for MOOCs that
provide deadlines and structure; otherwise my chances of successfully completing
them will be very low.
8. I am now a lifelong Learning addict. Within days of completing the psychology
MOOC I was already searching for all the MOOCs that I want to complete in the
future and as stated earlier, I have already registered for two. Using my newfound
reflexive knowledge, I made sure that these MOOCs do not run concurrently as I
am aware of the workload and my time management issues. I have also made
certain that they follow a structured format. A word of warning here – MOOCs can
be contagious!
9. MOOCs are more suited to mature, life-long learners. The statistics on MOOCs
show that most students are from developed countries, already have academic
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qualifications and are undertaking a MOOC in order to increase their knowledge in
a certain subject. MOOCs were at one time hailed as the answer to mass
education, offered free of charge to anyone who wanted to study, and particularly
suited to developing nations. Because MOOCs are totally technology based, this
will cause a barrier to reaching these people. The challenges facing people of
developing nations include lack of digital literacy, financial constraints with regard
to the hardware required and the cost of internet connectivity, lack of and
slowness of bandwidth as well as inefficient electrical supply.
10. Light bulb moments. As can be seen from some of my journal entries, a few of
these moments occurred. The first one was the similarities that exist between
MOOCs and Distance Education in general. Having traversed the full spectrum of
distance education generations, I am aware of the almost simplistic manner that is
often used for teaching in this environment. In many cases teaching takes place
through a study guide, a few tutorial letters, one assignment which often only has
to be submitted and not passed, and then a final examination.
This psychology course made use of interactive quizzes, with hints and “Did you
get it sections”. At the end of each bite size portion of work, you can self assess
your understanding of the work and decide if you were ready to move on or if you
needed to go through it another time.
Another light bulb moment is a contentious one. It relates to the lack of uptake of
MOOCs by the economically challenged and developing areas of the world. As
stated earlier, certification is not the main objective of a MOOC. It is about
acquiring new knowledge for yourself without the piece of paper that
accompanies it. Self-directed learning is an essential component here and the
satisfaction that you obtain through gaining this knowledge. It would seem to me
that for many people, the main reason for studying is to obtain certification in
order to get a good job and that the acquisition of knowledge is secondary. For
this reason a MOOC might seem unattractive. It is therefore my contention that it
is essential for MOOC developers as well as employers to create and recognise the
importance of MOOCs before they will be able to fulfil their role as vehicles for
mass education for those who cannot afford the luxury of face-to-face traditional
education.
I approached this study from a metacognitive standpoint in order to experience
the full journey through a MOOC. I am firmly of the belief that it is futile to carry
out research on a subject if you have not lived the experience firsthand. Decisions
regarding the implementations (or lack thereof) of MOOC offerings at universities
are being carried out at senior levels of university management, basing their
decisions on business models, pedagogical considerations and faculty autonomy.
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It is my hope that this auto-ethnographical study, taken from a learner’s
experience, will provide information that should also be taken into consideration.
There are various MOOC route options available that need to be explored and this
study should serve as a starting point for further research. Too often the human
component is overlooked when considering new developments and in education it
should be the voice of the student that is also heard.
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ASSESSMENT OF OPEN DISTANCE AND E-LEARNING FACILITIES AND
INFORMATION NEED BY OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING STUDENTS
Sabo Elizabeth, National Open University, Nigeria
ABSTRACT: Electronic learning is increasingly popular learning approach in higher
educational institutions due to vast growth of internet technology. An
investigation of open distance and e-learning facilities and information need by
open and distance learning students was carried out in Jalingo, Nigeria. Structured
questionnaires were administered to 70 registered ODL students of the NOUN.
Information sourced from the respondents covered demographic, economic and
institutional variables. Data collected for demographic variables were computed as
frequency count and percentages. Assessment of the effectiveness of ODL facilities
and information need among open and distance learning students was computed
302
on a three or four point Likert Rating Scale. Findings indicated that there are more
men compared to women. A large proportion of the respondents are married and
there are more matured students in ODL compared to the youth. A high
proportion of the ODL students obtained qualifications higher than the secondary
school certificate. The proportion of computer literate ODL students was high, and
large number of the students does not own a laptop computer. Inadequate e books and reference materials, internet gadgets and inadequate books (hard
copies) and reference material are factors that limit utilization of e-learning
facilities in the study areas. Inadequate computer facilities and power back up
caused inconveniences and delay in administering and use of e learning facilities.
To a high extent, open and distance learning students needed information on
university time table and schedule of activities, availability and access to books
(hard and e-books) and reference materials. The respondents emphasized that
contact with course coordinators via internet will provide a better learning and
academic performance.
KEYWORDS: Open and distance learning, information required, electronic books,
internet gadgets, Likert scale test
INTRODUCTION
Electronic learning is the use of information and communication technology e.g.
Internet, Computer, Mobile phone, Learning Management System (LMS),
Televisions, Radios and others to enhance teaching and learning activities in
tertiary institutions. However this encompasses an ample array of systems, from
students using e-mail and accessing course materials online while following a
course on campus to programmes delivered entirely online. Using electronic
learning facilities is tied to the Internet or other online network (Lorraine, 2007).
Electronic learning is an education via the Internet, network, or standalone
computer. It is basically the network enabled to convey skills and knowledge, this
learning happen when content is delivered via the Internet, intranet/extranet,
audio or video tape, satellite TV, and CDROM (Oye et al. 2010 and 2011). This
approach refers to using electronic applications and processes to learn. The
processes of e-learning include web-based learning, computer-based learning,
virtual classrooms and digital collaboration (Oye, Salleh, & Iahad, 2010). Electronic
learning is increasingly popular learning approach in higher educational
institutions due to vast growth of internet technology. Today e-learning
technology removes geographical barriers and facilitates everybody to learn
anytime and anywhere without the presence of the lecturer (Christensen, et al.,
2001). The main purpose of e-learning is to increase access to education and
reduce costs and time. The popularity of e- learning is due to the rapid growth of
Internet technologies. This involves the use of information and communication
technology (ICT) to enhance and facilitate teaching and learning (Oye et al. 2010
303
and 2011). These facilities enhance teaching and learning activities, removed
geographical barriers and facilitate uninterrupted learning and increase access to
education and reduce the costs and time as well as improving learning (Moore and
Lockee, 1998; Ostendorf, 1997; Savoye, 2001).
The National Open University, Nigeria (NOUN) operates study centers located in
several parts of the country. Taraba state is located in the north Eastern Nigeria, it
accommodates a study center and the state is educationally disadvantaged
compared to other states in Nigeria. The establishment of the jalingo study center
of NOUN was to avail residents willing and ready to benefit from the education
provided through flexible and affordable open and distance learning. The learner
support unit of NOUN avail the students with facilities that can facilitate learning,
these include human and non human resources. These resources may be library
facilities, various media and software program. Savoye, (2001) stated that learner
support services can be provided through the preparation of a study material,
appropriate comments on performance of students by tutors, and organizing
personal contact programme through face – to – face classroom teaching,
guidance and counseling, and system of study centers, library services, audio-video
facilities, interaction through computer mediated communication.
The students of open and distance learning institutions in commercial cities may
probably experience some limitations in utilizing e-learning facilities provided by
learners support unit, in contrast open and distance learning students in less
commercial locations in Nigeria may experience different challenges. Expectedly,
these facilities may have positive or negative impact on learning, students’
preparation for semester examination and academic performance. There are
possibilities that the location of the study center, transportation cost, traffic grid
lock, work schedule, poor and erratic power supply, and lack of public reading
rooms, domestic issues and reference materials may have positive or negative
impact on the academic activities, preparation for examination and performance
during examination and information need by students’. Consequently, it is
imperative to appraise the status of e –learning facilities at the study center, an
accomplishment of this may emphasize the need to upgrade existing facilities or a
replacement.
Problem statement
The open and distance learning accommodates learners who are involved in one
form of employment or the other or unemployed. Learning by open and distance
learning students may be constrained by myriad of challenges, some of these
challenges are consistent or not with volume of business activities in commercial
city, available infrastructure, transportation networks and social amenities.
Commercial cities in developing economies in Africa are characterized by traffic
304
grid locks, erratic power supply, poor internet facilities, poor accommodation etc.
In contrast less commercial centers may share the same factors (erratic power
supply, poor road network, absence of pipe – borne - water), though may
characterized by inadequate manpower to handle e – learning facilities and poor
internet connectivity. These may limit utilization of the benefits of e-learning
facilities provided by the learner support services. Similarly, information required
by open and distance learning students in cites characterized by low volume of
business may differ from those of commercially active cities.
The purpose of the study
The learner support unit provides e- learning facilities and services to all the study
centers of the National Open University, Nigeria. There could be instances
whereby facilities and services provided in one location is underutilized and fully
utilized elsewhere. The study focuses on assessment of e-learning facilities
provided by the learners support services for open and distance learning students
in Jalingo study center, Taraba state, Nigeria. Taraba state was established twenty
years ago, it is educationally disadvantaged and currently registered a few
thousand students for ODL study compared to study centers located in Lagos
state. The study is important as open and distance learning university in Nigeria is
evolving and awareness for this form of education is on the rise. To large extent a
cross section of the population that constitute the working class in the state are in
need of new skills, further training and skill acquisition which open university in
the country is currently providing. The outcome of this investigation will assist
policy makers in developing new ideas or improve the existing facilities at the
study center for proper learning and redesigning the strategies for reaching out to
the clientele.
Research Questions
1. To understand the demographic characteristics of open and distance
learning students in jalingo, Nigeria.
2. To assess the effectiveness e-learning facilities provided by the learner
support services for open and distance learning students.
3. Assess information need by open and distance learning students.
Hypotheses:
H0 1:
Facilities provided by the learners support services are inadequate and
may impact student academic performance.
H0 2:
Information required by open and distance learning students in Jalingo
study center differ.
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The objectives of the study are
1. To provide information on institutional and demographic characteristics
of open and distance learning students in the study area.
2. To assess effectiveness of e-learning facilities provided by the learner
services to open and distance learning students.
3. Evaluate information need by open and distance learning students that
could improve ODL quality and output.
Methodology
The study was conducted among registered students of National Open University
Nigeria in Jalingo study center, Nigeria. The respondents are registered ODL
students were randomly selected among other ODL students spread over four
local government areas from Taraba states. Structured questionnaires were
administered to 70 students of the university. Information sourced from the
respondents covered demographic, economic and institutional variables, these
variables are age (years), gender, occupation and educational attainment, access
to e-learning facilities and use of e - learning facilities etc. The respondents
accessed the e-learning facilities provided at the Jalingo study center using a four
point rating scale. Similarly facilities or information required by the respondents in
improving performances were score on a three point rating scale.
Data collected were computed as frequency count and percentages, while
information on the effectiveness of ODL facilities and information need by ODL
students were sourced using structured questionnaires. Responses were fitted
into a three and four point Likert Rating Scale (LRS), as great extent = 4, some
extent = 3, little extent = 2, no extent =1. The mean score was computed as
4+3+2+1 = 10/4 = 2.50. Using the interval score of 0.05, the upper limit cut-off was
determined as 2.50 ± 0.05 and the lower limit as 2.55 ± 0.05=2.45. On the basis of
this, mean score (MS) below 2.45 (i.e. <2.45) were ranked ‘low’, those between
2.45 and 2.54 were considered ‘medium’ (i.e. 2.45 ≥ MS ≤ 2.54), while the mean
score greater than or equal to 2.55 (i.e. MS ≥ 2.55) were considered ‘high’.
Results and Discussion
This investigation examined assessment of e-learning facilities and information
required by open and distance learning students in Jalingo, Taraba state Nigeria.
As shown in Table 1, a gender distribution of 60 male compared to 10 female
respondents was recorded. This implied that there are more men than women in
open and distance learning at the study center. The preponderance of men
compared to women in open and distance education may be associated with the
religious beliefs in this region as both men and women are involved in quoranic
education. But the male sex has upper hand in pursing western education
compared to women. Sixty-three percent of the respondents are married; this
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indicated that domestic issues may further influence their assessment of e –
learning facilities and information required by distance and learning students. The
age distribution of the respondents showed that respondents within the age group
30 and 40 years accounted for 40% of the respondents, while respondents within
the age group 41 and 50 years summarized 37% of the respondents (Table 1).
Respondents within the age group 20 and 30 years are expected to be working
part-time; relatively independent learners; high ‘subject’ motivation; confident
technology users. In contrast respondents within the 31 and 40 years are the
working full-time; independent learners; high ‘subject’ motivation; mainly distance
learners; heavy technology users. In contrast respondents within the age group 41
and 50 years are well experienced and probably in need of a higher qualification to
enhance their performance and promotion in their places of work. A larger
proportion of the respondents possessed the primary school certificate and
secondary school certificate, while 43 out of 70 respondents obtained Diploma,
higher National Diploma and National Certificate in Education. A large proportion
of the respondents interviewed are employed by the public service, a less
proportion was employed by the private sector.
High proportion (83%) of the respondents own computers, while 71% are
computer literate (Table 1). The implication of this is that there are some students
who are computer literate but do not have a personal computer for their elearning activities. Accessibility of internet facilities to open and distance learning
was high among the respondents. The respondents showed a high preference for
use of libraries external to NOUN, established by the state government, local
government and private sector for academic activities. The trend of result showed
that the library (electronic materials and other facilities) at the NOUN study center
in Jalingo is ill-equipped and not patronized by students. However, this may not be
the case with other study centers in the country.
Among the variables investigated, inadequate e-books and reference materials,
internet gadgets and inadequate books (hard copies) and reference material are
important variables that are limit effective utilization of e-learning facilities. As
shown in Table 2, high proportion of the respondents indicated that inadequate
and erratic power supply did not limit the use of e-learning facilities at Jalingo
study center. This variable recorded a low impact on the assessment of e-learning
facilities. The inadequate power supply is a very common factor in high and low
business cities in Nigeria, and has resulted into low productivity. Open and
distance learning students in commercial cities are faced with challenges related
to access of internet and electricity for their personal computers. This adversely
affects preparation for examination and academic performance. The roles of
technicians at the study center showed high impact on the assessment of elearning facilities. The respondents indicated that technicians are ill-trained to
307
handle internet facilities and other e-learning gadgets available at the study
center. Consequently, there are lots of technical faults for example electrical
faults, uploading the TMA, assessing grades, low connectivity etc., which some of
the technicians cannot handle. Books (hard copies) and reference materials and ebooks and electronic reference materials are inadequate. This implied that some
students may have to provide personal books or lend from their friends for
academic activities, in some cases they may access the internet for materials to
supplement the short fall. Inadequate books (electronic and hard copies) will
negatively impact on student preparation and academic performance.
Consequently the students will require information on available sources of books
and materials (hard or soft copies).
However, inadequate computers at the study center for examination and other
activities limit harnessing the benefits of e-learning facilities. This implied that the
students may need to be on the wait list for too long a time during conduct of
examination. Delay in the examination schedule may affect the readiness, thinking
and overall performance of the students, this may account for poor grades in such
examination. The ease of uploading TMA, knowledge of computer use and
industrial disputes had little influence on assessment of e- learning facilities.
Access to e- learning facilities is hampered by geographic distance between the
study centers, ODL students’ place of work, and residences of ODL students. These
variables are dependents on transportation fare and traffic gridlock. In this
investigation, our respondents indicated that students that reside in villages and
suburbs are constrained by geographic distance and high transportation fares.
These limit access to e-learning facilities; consequently students incurred higher
cost and may not be consistent in academic training and performance. Traffic
gridlock is a common feature in most African cities; this has impacted negatively
on access to ODL centers and access to e-learning facilities. ODL students without
laptop computers are worse hit by these conditions.
The information required by open and distance learning students in Jalingo study
center as shown in Table 3 indicated that practical sessions, contact with lecturers
via the internet, availability of books (hard and e-books) and reference materials at
the study center and availability of university time table and schedule of activities
are highly required by open and distance learning students. If these facilities are
made available to the students an improved learning and academic performance is
expected. Further information on online books access directory was high among
the students, this is sequel to absence of books (hard and e-books) and references
(hard and e-books). The need for information on student guide was moderately
required by the respondents. Also, information on revision questions, equipment
and hardware available at the study center and quality of instructional material
was moderately required.
308
In conclusion the study indicated that respondents interviewed in Jalingo study
center are fairly matured and matured. The e- facilities available at the study need
upgrading and the technicians require further training. The study center lacks
books and reference materials. Inadequate e -books and reference materials,
internet gadgets and inadequate books (hard copies) and reference material are
important variables that limit utilization of e-learning facilities at Jalingo study
center. The study showed that delay in examination schedule at the study center
affects the readiness, thinking and overall performance of the students. The open
and distance learning students required to a high extent information on university
time table and schedule of activities, books (hard and e-books) and reference
materials and contact with course coordinators via internet. Efforts should be
intensified to make available computers, books and reference materials (hard and
soft) to students. Also, training of the centers technicians should be intensified.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
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4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Christensen, E. W., Anakwe, U. P., & Kessler, E. H. (2001). Receptivity to distance
learning: The effect of technology, reputation, constrains, and learning
preferences. Journal of Research on Computing in Education., 33,, 263-279.
Lorrain, M. (2007). Strategies to Engage Online students and Reduce Attrition
Rates. [Electronic Version]. The Journal of Educator Online. Retrieved December
2013.
Moore, D.R., & Lockee, B.B. (1998). A taxonomy of bandwidth: considerations and
principles to guide practice in the design and delivery of distance education.
Unpublished manuscript: Portland State University
Ostendorf, V.A. (1997). Teaching by television. Teaching and learning at a
distance: what it takes to effectively design, deliver, and evaluate programs. (71),
51-57.
Oye , N. D., Salleh, M., & Iahad, N. A. (2010). Holistic Elearning in Nigerian Higher
Education Institutions. Journal of Computing, 2(11), 20-26.
Oye , N. D., Salleh, M., & Iahad, N. A. (2011). Challenges of E-learning in Nigerian
University Education Based on the Experience of Developed Countries.
International Journal of
Managing Information Technology, 3(2), 39-48.
Savoye, C. (2001). Distance Learning with a twist-real campuses. Christian Science
Monitor, pp. 15, 21.
Vrasidas, C., & McIsaac, M. S. (2000). Principles of Pedagogy and evaluation for
web-based learning. Educational Media International, 37(2), 105-111.
309
EURASIAN CULTURE. MANAGEMENT CULTURE. PRODUCTION CULTURE
Shchelkonogov Mikhail, Private educational institutions of further education «Sun
Way Academy Int.» (SWAI), Russian Federation
ABSTRACT: "It’s necessary to restore order in the country in the near future." Vladimir Putin
"Who directs clarity, rules the world." - Mikhail Shchelkonogov
The reality is sweepingly changing, becoming less similar to the idea of it.
Establishing of the Eurasian Economic Union (EAU) is forcing events. It's time to
formulate a new Eurasian techniques of culture and practice of management.
Globalization of the economy, Russia's accession to the WTO, the creation of the
EAU, enterprise modernization, innovative activities, bringing order to the
economy and social sphere are the urgent demands of time. The latest knowledge
about the nature of things, about the prospects for the development of society
and the future of humanity are needed. Reducing costs and improving business
profitability, reduction of corporate loan will create opportunities for increased
investment and economic growth of EAU enterprises on a sound basis, which
would be a positive scenario.
KEY WORDS: Freedom; Choice; Independence; Consent; Consciousness;
Cooperation.
Must be noted immediately that any large-scale planning is idealism of the first
water, no matter what material and administrative resources may be involved.
Practice of the further development of the enterprise is materialism, which
contains all the possible costs, at least because of the pervasive influence of the
human factor. Such a factor, however, in our case it is possible to take into
account and control by understanding the phases of development processes and
the specific behavioral responses of the control object - person. Which,
nevertheless, in this case to account for and control with understanding the
phases of development processes and the specific behavioral responses of the
control object - person. In these arguments on management author's position is
based on four main theses:
People are projects with their mission, goals, objectives, methods, functions,
resources, development phases, etc. (all required attributes of project
activity), which are managed by their consciousness;
The organization is a project that brings together a certain number of
workers , necessarily submitting to the Management Directorate;
The organization is a human-like organism that obeys the universal laws of
nature;
310
-
The effectiveness of the project activity is directly proportional to the
effectiveness of management, which must necessarily be as conscious as
possible on the physical plane, and in the metaphysical, from the stage of
inception of the idea. Differences between individuals and between projects
and organizations are provided by individual characteristics of each unit and
their combination, including the scope of the project, the initial energyinformational resources, objectives, remits and impacts, implementation and
vital activity methods, etc.
Shchelkonogov’s Law states that the basis of all phenomenon of Being is Energy.
When free energy ( E), liberated or released, performs work over Time (T), i.e.
shows its potential (A), then the old order, being quite satisfactory so far, is
crumbling and Chaos (S) comes , i.e. a new Order is formed. All of these processes
produce various kinds of creative and managerial stress , as well as human
emotions , sometimes very strong ones, since the project participants do not
know, do not understand and are not accustomed to the result of their efforts.
Clearly, the amount of energy (resources) or time (scope) spent on the project is
directly proportional to the impact on the surrounding world and, consequently,
also directly proportional are associated benefits or harm. Let us consider in more
detail each of the seven phases of the project development and describe the
features of each stage in terms of four grades.
Phase 1
Phase 2
Phase 3
Phase 4
Phase 5
Phase 6
Phase 7
E – energyinformational
T – temporary,
procedural
S - scoring
Idea
A – scale of
interaction of fields
and actors involved
in process
Interaction
Inception
of
the idea
Doubts
Action
Overcoming
Exinanition
Apathy
Rest
Concept
Strategy
Tactics
Technology
Organization
Result
Interference
Mutual reflections
Mutual determination
Interosculation
Mutual formation
Mutual advocacy
Thought
Word
Motion
Act
Calling
Recognition
Feeling
It is quite obvious that any social revolution is qualitative winning of dominant
position by some idea which has not passed the test of time on the truth of its
quality and relevance. Evolution, on the contrary, such as the creation of the EAU,
it's way of more stable long-term development of social ideas in relation to human
life. In the evolutionary development of any idea passes test of time: whether the
essence and meaning of the idea, as well as its further development from
generation to generation is transmitted? It is important to remember that our
activities, based on the work and the results of previous, are preparing a foothold
311
for our descendants. Succession of generations is the guarantee of a happy
successful future of the EAU, its evolutionary development that concerns the
whole of humanity as a whole.
Eurasian Economic theory is based on an individualized personality, as a basic
element of the hierarchical pyramid, which includes the concept of "human
trinity" with three basic instincts of the material world, world Ocean.
It becomes clear that in order to overcome objective and subjective problems of
Eurasian society, in order to meet the challenges of the Eurasian business, power
and business elite of the EAU must ensure the following rights, in order of
importance according to Shchelkonogov’s Metaphysical dialectics doctrines:
1. Sacred sense of ownership – Instinct of self-preservation - ideological doctrine.
2 . Freedom of religion –Instinct of reproduction - political doctrine.
3 . Freedom of expression - Herd Instinct - Socio-demographic doctrine.
4 . Freedom of movement - horizontal and vertical transitions as an opportunity
for career growth – Military and economic doctrine.
The EAU also raises the question for Scientific Information Revolution: how to
cooperate at the international, regional, inter-regional, national, local and
institutional levels to combine the following concepts:
1 Etiquette.
2. Morale.
3. Morality.
4. Ethics.
EAU enterprises which employ brainwork specialists are not capable of providing
instructions to each employee, because life is incredibly wider than any ideas
about it and that is why the question of moral guidelines personality becomes a
first-class and economically justified.
Shchelkonogov’s law determines and unambiguously interprets the relationship of
business ethics and business income, and thus warns business elite of society from
unreasonable and unproductive expenditure in business design and/or
development. For violation of the law has guaranteed bankruptcy in the near
future, which would be a permanent loss of scarce resources such as time and
effort.
Let me remind you that our mental constructions and paradigms is only our
limited understanding of Nature, and this is despite the seemingly fantastic
successes of science. But the point precisely is that recent advances and showed
clearly how far we are from the truth, to what extent we are depending on the
nature, how vulnerable we are from nature whims. These questions are incredibly
312
relevant to the business and political elite, because it is this class, being the
vanguard of modern society, that has the responsibility for the future of humanity.
Responsibility that cannot be avoided. As you know, "if you cannot prevent a
revolution, you must lead it". Here is an example of the first stage of the Eurasian
methods :
«Small Secrets of Big Business», SSBB ™
"Eurasian system of the individual enhancement.
28 methods of personal growth leader".
SSBB 1.1.: Avoid unnecessary knowledge.
Daily volume management solutions increases exponentially with the
development of the organization and society as a whole, the time for making
decisions is reduced. Unsolved problems suppresses and destroys any business .
The technique allows to solve problems in high-speed mode . All incoming
information from outside to a person can be divided into that which is necessary
to him in life, in terms of individual specific challenges, and the one without which
you can do safely.
Man doesn't have a knowledge on the future but rather a suggestions on it,
therefore it's difficult to know exactly what would be required, but the superfluous
is better known: information, communication, projects, resources. Conducting
internal audit of every day in the automatic mode is a constant struggle with the
costs of production and life in general, which, however, increases sales and leads
to success.
SSBB 1.2.: Content is style.
Passionate love and fake emotions, responsible event and ridiculous costume, the
actual idea and funny politician. Each of you must immediately recall a dozen more
such examples, when the method of expression or delivery is capable of nullifying
content, essence of the moment. Any business meeting has the context of the
past, which dictates strategy. This methodology is your shield and sword: content
of speech should match the manner, time and situation. It should represent you
as a complete person and fully thought-out business proposal project. Constant
checking for compliance with this procedure - your protection from unscrupulous
partners.
SSBB 1.3.: Practice is the criterion of truth.
Companies, like life itself, are based on real objective facts . We constantly find
ourselves in the same situation, having a remarkably stable result , but we cannot
learn a lesson and with stunning blindness again are stepping on the same rake,
313
and keep wondering how unfair fate could be. Our practice does not generate a
theory, although the hypothesis exists in our minds for a long time. Once is an
accident, twice - a coincidence , thrice - a law.
SSBB 1.4.: Work in the information field.
All relationship in life and, especially, in business have physical nature of the
interaction and exchange of energy and information. This technique allows you to
access the Noosphere to obtain moral, ethical, business attitude. Imagine that you
have made a choice and hit the road, which, of course, leads you to not only the
joy of victory, but also sorrow, and even fear, from which we instinctively try to
isolate themselves. But without death there is no life. Fear or alertness themselves
can cause relevant situations, however, in terms of methodology, in such
moments, it is necessary to relax spiritually, mentally and physically in order to
maximize the concentration of attention on the task .
«Big Secrets of Big Boss», BSBB ™
"Eurasian system of management and business improvement.
28 practical techniques of evolutionary transformation of the enterprises '
BSBB 1.1.: Method of minimizing costs.
Humanity is growing in an exponential progression, and this process cannot be
stopped or slowed down by the economic and political levers of power. But even
war with a modern nuclear arsenal is not a problem solution, but a matter of
disappearance of mankind as a species in the world. Therefore all the new
millennium will be held under the slogan "minimize costs" throughout the human
trinity. By the way, that opens up a unique segment of a successful business - a tip
for businessmen!
"Easier. Faster. Finer. Cheaper. Larger. Wider. More globally" - these are the
basic concepts of a successful enterprise. Timeless method eventually overgrown
with individual details and nuances of specific production
BSBB 1.2.: Method of continuous transformations.
The aggressive nature of human existence is the guarantor of improvements and
changes. However in business it's impossible to organize business enterprises
solely on the basis of "brilliant insights" due to the fact that humanity is not able to
control the mental and creative processes of the brain. That's why system
provided by BSBB 1.2 is required as a system of demand for innovations and
improvements at all levels of the company hierarchy.
This method indirectly determines the essential qualities of employees such as
loyalty, discipline, diligence, initiative. The traits modern enterprise cannot
function without.
314
BSBB 1.3.: Processes optimization method.
All enterprises are similar by 70-80% faced with typical issues. However individual
differences depending on staffing account for the remaining 20-30% and
constitute a unique and inimitable sample for mass copying. Optimum to achieve
is a point of equilibrium between the ever-increasing cost of production and
technologies being constantly improved. Calculations are carried out, all kinds of
unproductive operations are eliminated in industrial sites as well as in
administrative and support services. Career logic is formed, a system of
knowledge, experience, technical innovations exchange is built, learning and
creativity are encouraged.
BSBB 1.4.: Initiative groups organization method.
An individual personality appeared at the dawn of a new era, they call for a new
modern teaching and management approaches. The question in the 21st century
is formulated this way: who is in greater demand, a job for people or workers for
job? This method starts with the definition of the head of the initiative group who
subsequently gaining command independently and under his responsibility and
working with the personnel. This method becoming traditional in the enterprise
causes the aspiration for career growth and also provides groups initialization and
competitive nature of the relationship in companies that serve as the basis of its
prosperity in the competition.
REFERENCES:
1.
Alexander Zinoviev. West. Moscow: ZAO Publ Tsentrpoligraf , 2000.ISBN 5-22700736-5 http://www.zinoviev.ru/ru/zinoviev-magazine.html
2. Dimitry Laletin. Cultural studies: a tutorial. Voronezh: SGMP , 2008.ISBN 978-588519-353-5 http://www.gumer.info/bibliotek_Buks/Culture/lalet/index.php
3. Ivan Ilyin. What is a state, a corporation or an institution?
http://iljinru.tsygankov.ru/works/book0203.html
4. Iwao Kobayashi. 20 Keys to Workplace Improvement Moscow: RIA " Standards
and Quality ", 2006.ISBN 5-94938-041 -X
5. Lee Iacocca. An Autobiography. Moscow: Potpourri . 2011.ISBN 978-985-15-12276 http://tululu.org/b55/
6. Mikhail Shchelkonogov. Hints of millions of people. St. Petersburg: SWAI, 2011.
ISBN 978-5-904238-08-7 www.ozon.ru
7. Mikhail Shchelkonogov. Small Secrets of Big Business. St. Petersburg: SWAI.
2010 .ISBN 78-5904238-03-2 www.ozon.ru
8. Mikhail Shchelkonogov. Solid YES Principle. St. Petersburg: SWAI. 2012 . ISBN 785-904238-09-4 www.ozon.ru
9. Mikhail Shchelkonogov. The Law of Love. St. Petersburg: SWAI. 2010. ISBN 978-5904238-06-3 www.ozon.ru
10. Mikhail Shchelkonogov. Two worlds - one reality. Absolute. St. Petersburg: SWAI,
2010.ISBN 978-5-904238-01-8 http://www.plati.ru/asp/pay.asp?id_d=881535
315
11. Nikolai Berdyaev. The Philosophy of Inequality. Moscow: AST . 2006.ISBN: 5-97132765-8 http://royallib.ru/book/berdyaev_nikolay/filosofiya_neravenstva.html
12. Wassily Leontief http://www.leontief-centre.ru/content2
THE IMPACT OF USING MULTIMEDIA ON STUDENT’S LEARNING
Sherrie Lu Hwangji, U of Phoenix, USA
ABSTRACT: With the advance of technology, the online classroom setting has
become an imperative component in higher education, providing fascinating
opportunities for learners to meet their educational needs along with fulfilling
other life obligations simultaneously. Nevertheless, the high attrition rate
continues to be a major issue in the online environment. Institutions and
educators need to identify strategies for enhancing student learning, student
retention, and student success. Multimedia has been used and incorporated in
online classrooms in various ways. Appropriate use of multimedia could give rise
to a positive impact on student’s learning experience. The purpose of this study is
to examine the relationship between student’s satisfaction as well as student’s
learning outcomes and the quality of a redesigned course incorporated with
multimedia. The quantitative and qualitative data collected from the end-ofcourse survey, scores on the final project, and content analysis of weekly
discussion forums will be assessed.
KEY WORDS: Multimedia, Online Classroom, Student Learning
Background and Significance
Online courses and programs provide intriguing, flexible learning opportunities for
broadening access to education. Online classrooms have become an indispensable
part of higher education. However, many educators may neglect the differences
between adult learners and the traditional college students when they design
and/or teach the distance education modules. Despite the fact that adult learners
are internally motivated, goal-oriented, and self-directed (Knowles, 1984), they
often juggle the schoolwork along with the demands of job, family, and other life
commitments. It is not astonishing to see that the attrition rate of online courses
and programs was 50% (Schilllling, 2009), which is higher than that of the
traditional setting.
Attribution is a key measurement in determining the quality of education delivery.
High attrition rates have both economic and quality impacts on universities
(Angelino, Williams, & Natvig, 2007) since high attribution rates bring about loss in
revenue and poor perception of the quality education provided by the institutions.
316
It is critically important that educators and institutions identify strategies to
reduce attrition rates by enhancing student learning and improving student
retention (Angelino et al., 2007). A myriad of research studies have shown that
integrating multimedia into the online classroom can promote student’s
engagement, improve student’s learning, and elevate student’s success (ClarkIbanez & Scott, 2008; Courts & Tucker, 2012; Schilling, 2008).
The author redesigned an online module course in the master’s program of
Healthcare Administration. The original course relied solely on text, requiring an
unusually large amount of reading and writing. In contrast, the redesigned course
is incorporated multimedia into course content, course delivery, assignments, and
textbook. Assessing the quality of the redesigned course and student’s learning
outcomes is needed to reflect the depth and breadth in instructional design
principles. Thus, two research questions are raised: (1) How do multimedia
instructional materials enhance student’s learning? (2) What are the relationships
between multimedia instructional materials and student’s satisfaction? The
purpose of this study is to examine the association between the quality of this
redesigned course and student’s satisfaction as well as student’s learning
outcome.
Methodology
This research study is designed to ascertain whether and to what extent
multimedia and instructional enhancements to a Healthcare Administration
graduate course resulted in tangible differences in student performance and
attitude. A comparison of FY2013 and FY2014 courses will be conducted.
Quantitative data will be collected from multiple sources such as final course
project and the end-of-course survey, while qualitative data will be gathered
through content analysis of weekly discussion forms. A variety of simple
comparative tests including ANOVA will be performed using SPSS.
Contributions
The quality of online courses has become an important topic for criticism and
research in the higher education. The findings of this research study could have
implications for instructional design, use of instructional technology, student
achievement, student retention, marketing and recruiting, and accreditation.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
Angelino, L. M., Williams, F. K., & Natvig, D. (2007, July). Strategies to engage
online students and reduce attrition rates. The Journal of Educators Online, 4(2), 1
– 14.
Clark-Ibanez, M., & Scott, L. (2008, January). Learning to teach online. Teaching
Sociology, 36(1), 34-41.
Courts, B., & Tucker, J. (2012). Using technology to create a dynamic classroom
experience. Journal of College Teaching & Learning, 9(2), 121- 127.
317
4.
5.
Knowles, M. (1984). Andragogy in action: Applying modern principles of adult
education. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.
Schilling, K. (2009). The impact of multimedia course enhancements on student
learning outcomes. Journal of Education for Library and Information Science, 50
(4), 214 -225.
THE USE OF SMART INTERACTIVE WHITE BOARD TECHNOLOGY IN THE
DELIVERY OF DISTANCE LEARNING PROGRAMMES IN SOUTH AFRICA
Spamer Manie, Van Zyl Marinda, North-West University, South Africa
ABSTRACT: Due to the need for higher education in South Africa, the country
experiences a rapid growth in open distance learning, especially in rural areas. It is
difficult for people to enrol fulltime at contact universities, owing to work and
financial constraints. The Unit for Open Distance Learning (UODL) at the NorthWest University (NWU), Potchefstroom campus, South Africa was established in
2013 with its main function to deliver open distance learning programmes to
30 000 students from the Faculties of Education Sciences, Theology and Health
Sciences.
With the use of Interactive White Boards (IWBs), the NWU and UODL are now able
to deliver lectures to students concurrently at fifty five regional open learning
centres across Southern Africa as well as to an unlimited number of individuals
with Internet access worldwide. Therefore, the aim of the study is to explore
students’ perceptions for the use of IWBs in the delivery of programmes.
KEY WORDS: Open Distance Learning; Inter Active Whiteboards, Rural Students
Introduction
Worldwide traditional universities cannot cope with the demand for higher
education. Many universities see distance education as a means of giving people
greater access to higher education and a possible solution to the ever growing
demand for higher education.
Correspondence education is largely regarded as the historical foundation of
distance education (Tapfumaneyi, 2013: 558). The term correspondence education
gradually changed to distance education and later to distance learning
(Tapfumaneyi, 2013: 558). As the field develops more terms were used, such as
flexible learning; open learning, off campus study and independent study. A term
that is used quite often and prefer by many is open distance learning (ODL)
(Mohakud, Mohapatra & Behera, 2012).
318
ODL also makes education more accessible and provide opportunities for those
students who cannot go to a residential campus due to financial or work
constrains.
Background and context
South Africa is a developing country and it is estimated that in 1994 there was
approximately 85000 under qualified or unqualified in-service teachers in the
country with the majority of these teachers teaching in rural areas (Van Zyl, Els &
Blignaut, 2013). The government and higher education institutions realised that it
was a major problem hampering economic growth in the country. The solution
proposed for this problem was to upgrade the qualifications of all these under
qualified and unqualified teachers. The problem however was that these teachers
were already in full time teaching posts and could not attend classes or study full
time. For that reason many stakeholders realised that distance education is a
possible strategy that could be used to solve the mentioned problem.
In 2013 the Unit for Open Distance Learning (UODL) at NWU was established with
its main purpose to deliver open distance programs to NWU students in Southern
Africa. Currently NWU has a total enrolment of 65 000 students on all three
campuses of which 30 000 students are ODL students. In the past year the UODL
became more technology driven. The rationale behind this initiative was to deliver
the academic programmes more effectively to all students. Innovations such as
IWB technology, social media, Moodle and Dropbox were implemented in the
system. The main reason for implementing IWB technology was to reach more
than 30 000 NWU open distance students. During an IWB session all open learning
centres are connected to one another through the IWBs. This makes it possible for
a lecturer and his/her students to be interactive by means of talking or writing to
one another. The advantage for the NWU is that one lecturer can now teach to 55
learning centres simultaneously but furthermore have the ability to interact
immediately when students ask questions. All the broadcast lectures are then
recorded by Panopto video capturing software and store for students to have
access to it later.
The purpose of this research was then to explore students’ perceptions for the use
of IWBs using Moore’s Theory of Transactional Distance in the delivery of open
distance learning programmes at the UODL of NWU.
Theoretical framework
Moore’s Transactional Theory is the appropriate lens to look at the data gathered
for this study. The Transactional Theory is not a new theory but still a very valuable
319
and logical theory to use. A number of authors Bishoff, 1993; Bishoff, Bisconer,
Kooker and Woods, 1996; Chen, 2001; Force, 2004 confirmed the value of Moore’s
Transactional Theory to analyse distance education practice (Falloon, 2011). Jung
(2004) strengthens this claim when he said it is a useful conceptual framework for
analysing distance education practice.
Moore (1997) discussed three factors that need to be considered when this
transaction between lecturer and student is taking place. These three factors are:
 Dialogue
 Structure
 Learner autonomy
Methodology
A questionnaire was developed to find out how students perceive lectures through
the IWBs. The questionnaire consists of 28 closed ended statements. A Likert scale
was used with five options from strongly disagree to strongly agree with an option
of no answer. The questionnaire consists of two sections namely, Section A on
how students experience lecturers teaching via the IWB and Section B on how
students’ prepare for participation in the IWB sessions.
Forty questionnaires were sent out to each of the fifty five open learning centres
of the UODL. The centre managers were asked to distribute the questionnaires to
the students. The completion of the questionnaires was voluntary and
anonymous. Ninety two students completed the forms and hand it back to the
centre manager who courier it back to the UODL.
Data analysis
The responses from the students were calculated and presented in percentages in
Tables. In the subsequent analysis these statements were matched with the three
factors namely dialogue; structure and learner autonomy (Moore’s Transactional
Theory).
Findings
The study found that there is enough evidence from the data to indicate that
effective dialogue between students and lecturers occurred. The process of
dialogue seems relatively strong and it can be inferred it is as a result of the use of
interactive white boards. This is positive finding because interactivity was one of
the main reasons for implementing IWB technology. The data further shows that
the majority of respondents feel that interactivity happens at various stages of the
teaching and learning process and that contributes further to the positive dialogue
between the lecturer and student. Another important component of dialogue is
communication and the data clearly indicated that the majority of students are
320
satisfied about how lecturers communicate with them and their level of language.
There is however also areas for improvement regarding dialogue. One such an
area is the knowledge and skill of using technology. The data indicated quite a low
level of such knowledge and skill. The lecturers’ use of the internet is another
aspect that can inhibit dialogue and this was clearly evident in the data that there
is room for improvement in this regard. Less than half of respondents felt
competent to use the internet and to teach via the IWB. Dialogue is strengthening
further by the fact that all 55 open learning centres are linked and lecturers and
students can communicate freely.
We found sufficient evidence to suggest that the structure of the curriculum and
our physical structures are adequate. The majority of students were happy with
the time table and how we structure the white board sessions. The students were
also happy with the volume of work they received from the lecturers. An
interesting result was that some students still prefer the previous method of faceto-face teaching by a facilitator but it is understandable as the use of IWBs is a
new initiative and will take time for students to get use to that and to see the
benefits of the method, such as to get first hand lectures from the lecturer that
develops the course and set up the examination papers. Structure of our delivery
is further enhanced by the recording of lectures via the Panopto software.
Learner autonomy is an integral part of distance learning and of Moore’s theory
and the data indicated that our students move into the direction of learning
autonomy. We based this finding on the fact that more than half of the
respondents agreed that lectures encourage them to participate during the IWB
sessions. An important indicator for learner autonomy is the fact that over 60% of
the students said that lecturers encourage them to think deeper. This finding of
positive learner autonomy is further strengthening by the fact that students
mentioned that they come prepared to the lecturers. This is the first step to
learner autonomy and an aspect that must be developed further in future.
Conclusion
The purpose of this research was to explore students’ perceptions for the use of
IWBs using Moore’s Theory of Transactional Distance in the delivery of open
distance learning programmes at the UODL of NWU. Generally the data suggested
that the current use of the IWB to deliver programmes to the students contribute
to successful dialogue, structure and learner autonomy. We also inferred from the
data that in terms of Moore’s theory there is no real communication gap or
misunderstanding scenarios between students and lecturers although it was also
clear from the data that there is room for improvement in certain areas, especially
the lecturers’ competency to use the internet more interactively.
321
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distance and its relevance to the use of a virtual classroom in postgraduate online
teacher education. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 43(3), 187209.
Jung, I.S. (2004). Quality assurance and accreditation mechanisms of distance
education for higher education in the Asia-Pacific Region. Five selected cases. A
paper presented at the UNESCO workshop. (20 March 2004), Beijing, China.
Mohakud, L.L., Mohapatra, R.L., & Behera, S. K. (2012). Encouraging higher
education through open and distance learning: Some aspects. Turkish online
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Moore, M. (1997). Theory of transactional distance. In D. Keegan (Ed.) Theoretical
principles of distance education. New York: Routledge.
Tapfumaneyi, K.D.K. (2013). Teaching challenges on open and distance learning in
Africa: A critical analysis of the transition from conventional teaching to ODL
teaching. International Journal of Advanced Research, 1(5), 543-548.
Van Zyl, J.M., Els, C.J., & Blignaut, A.S. (2013). Development of ODL in a newly
industrialized country according to face-to-ace contact, ICT, and E-readiness. The
International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 14(1), 84-105.
COMMUNICATION ETHICS AND COMPUTER MEDIATED COMMUNICATION
(CASE STUDY IN IMPLEMENTATION OF ETHICAL COMMUNICATION
THROUGH CMC, AND INTERPERSONAL MEDIATED COMMUNICATION
TO IMPROVE SMART EDUCATION IN THE PROCESS
OF E-LEARNING DI INDONESIA)
Sri Sediyaningsih, Universitas Terbuka, Indonesia
ABSTRACT: Starting from the experience of the author who has already five years
to implement tutorials online and a desire to observe the process of
communication that occurs during the process of interaction tutorial online
through a computer on tutorials online. The process of communication in online
tutorials consist of 8 (eight) initiation as subject matter, 3 (three) tasks as a means
of knowing the ability of college students and the discussion as a means of
exchanging thoughts or respond to problems of college students. The process of
interaction often occurring at the time the discussion, because there is a discourse
dialogue in it. After investigation, it turns out that a lot of us are especially
students not putting themself as a student to tutors. They discuss or inquiring as a
fellow friend. Even the use of the word calls to friends or Tutors is not used as it
322
should be. In the other hand, Smart people not only seen from value but rather
the how, she/he has a good etiquette of interacting. These matters encourage
writer to discuss problems ethic communication in a distance learning process, by
the use of the very qualitative and descriptive analysis through the theory
Computer-Mediated-Communication
(CMC),
Interpersonal
Mediated
Communication, Hyper-personal Communication dan Communication Ethics. And
also shared with various parties, especially those engaged in the long distance
learning, to understand ethics communication of interacting through CMC and
other social media. And also for all of us as parents to be able to give the
understanding of our children about the communication etiquette through the
CMC in the virtual world.
KEY WORDS: CMC, Interpersonal Mediated Communication, and Hyper-personal
Communication, Communication Ethics
Introduction
Advantage technology directly many influence on the learning that using methods
long-distance as such as Indonesian open university (UT). Technological progress
always giving two choice for the end user, namely giving benefit kindness and also
to provide things which could negative. In higher education, utilization of
technology become very instrumental especially like the UT which has 500
thousands of students scattered throughout the territory of the motherland, so
that advances in technology are helping the process of study. The communications
technology in the learning used by UT in terms of delivery of the learning material
through online such as tutorials in it also as a means of communication between
faculty and students and media in providing services to students.
The process of long distance communication through the internet, chat rooms,
Web sites, and so forth make the source of the communication had not been
confronted in phisic, therefore, many of the factors contributing to its such as non
verbal signs. Therefore, through this paper will be discussed about how ethics
communication that occurs in the process of interaction of distance learning,
through some interpersonal theory approach i.e. mediated communication,
computer-mediated communication (CMC), a hyperpersonal communication and
ethical communication.
Interpersonal Communication
The communication process converges and has always been a part of the culture,
because communication must occur within a culture. Any sign, symbol and also
codes that is used to provide restrictions or specific shows that there is a group of
communicating in it. Communication process is a dynamic and a part of the
culture. Meaning formed adjust by culture, and culture is transmitted over the
process called socialization through the enculturation process. All process has
323
occured through communication can be interpersonal communication or other
forms of communication including those communication through printed media
and electronic. To initiate discussion about the communication process we look
back on the Harold D Lasswell model who began used in 1948 to propaganda
namely 4w + 1h ( the who says what, in which channel, to whom and with what
effect. Although formulations Lasswell is approach to mass communication but
can used in the process interpersonal communication . Who are in fact that is
considered who? What can affect? Thus a communicator can be used as role
models, and the other considered significant in the processes of communication.(
Hill Anne, James Watson, 2007). On the other Claude Shanon and Weaver posited
linear model communication consisting of source, receiver, a message, transmitter
and purpose, where ' s inside things that must be considered as any disturbance /
noise, who may include disorder technical, semantic and effectiveness. In the
Shannon Weaver model doesn't seem to display feedback, making it appear a
more complete model put forth by Osgood and Schramm, 1954, where it is said
that the communication process is a transaction of an interpretation, their
sentences were against what is said was not merely his words but also of non
verbalnya activity, which then responded by the recipient, so there was this
process of internalization. In the Shannon Weaver model doesn't seem to display
feedback, making it appear a more complete model put forth by Osgood and
Schramm, 1954, where it is said that the communication process is a transaction of
an interpretation, their sentences were against what is said was not merely his
words but also of non verbal activity, which then responded by the recipient, so
there was this process of internalization that is described as follows
MESSAGE
ENCODER
INTERPRETER
DECODER
Field of
Experience
DECODER
INTERPRETER
ENCODER
MESSAGE
Osgood and Schramm Model,1956 and Schramm,1956
That Model is an intersection between Osgood and Schramm model that explain
about Encoder and Decoder, while the model that created by Schramm concern
with the field of experiences. From both, the concern in this model in encoder and
decoder process, because in the communication process, the communicator
324
always be faced with codes. Codes of expression, language, verbal and non verbal
that embeded in the process of interaction.
How could someone said something as important things to interpreted because
that ' s what actually. Communication is simple but complex, why, because we as a
communicator have to encode the message based on the receiver. Therefore the
personal experience of each person that interacts very important. Griffin (2003),
said that communication between us began when there is a similarity between
them and more effective depend on the similarity degree.
CMC THEORIES
CMC is a form of communication that is very popular in our daily lives, which is still
based on a text. But still considered as a medium that has limitations in exchange
of information, among them in terms of the participation of the existing social
function or signs. Selection of media focus on the decision in choosing the most
appropriate media in distance learning. For example, should be seen in terms of its
capacity takes messages, feedback, its channels, source and language, in the form
of face-to-face dialogue, video conference, telephone, voice mail, computer
conference, telefax, email, letters, etc.
There are various theories about the CMC can be applied in education, such as
how the selection of media, which can take media richness theory (Daft & Lengel,
1984) and social presence theory from Short,Williams & Christie,1976, then in
terms of the characteristics of the media, can use the Cues-filtered-out theory
from Culnan & Markus 1987 and reduce social cues theory from Sproull & Kiesler,
1988. While in communication behavior through media, communication can be
seen from social theory of information processing from walther,1992.
Media characteristics theory describes the impact of the CMC in the
communication process that is based on the text, so the properties of the message
takes less non-verbal, this led to social or environmental conditions in which the
communication takes place is not carried in the communication process via the
CMC, and this according to Culnan & Markus, 1987 could increase the sense of
free and increasing unusual behavior
Interpersonal Mediated Communication
Relationship communication happens through face-to-face and CMC is different,
definitely different is the absence or lack of non-verbal signs that always
accompanies every communication process through CMC. From some research
suggests that CMC does not fully enclose the emotions or personal in
interact.(Rice,1984 in Walther,1992) While the theory of the social presence
stated that through CMC have different systems in terms of the ability to express
325
the feelings, see other parties in phiysic, signs of non-verbal and also vocal signs,
emotion or personal of interacting. Therefore, the level of social presence in the
CMC low and is very influential to the message itself, on the other hand, messages
are sometimes confusing because it can be personal or impersonal. (Short,1976)
When compared with face-to-face interaction, the CMC having four main
difference is directly/undirectly, lack of feedback , weakneses the process of
dramaturgy ,
minimum social signs and sometimes anonymity of
sender.(Kiesler,1984). With the lack of a meeting in physic make the environment,
the eye contact, touch physically which there are usually in the process of face-toface communication, almost gone through CMC, in interaction existing is all of
verbal, whether it ' s applied in writing and using emotext or emoticon. This is said
as decontextualisation communications.(Sediyaningsih,2010). CMC is media that
can be categorized interpersonal and mass communication or so called by Walther
as interpersonal mass medium. CMC can be distinguished into two major groups
with the time factor as its primary differentiator that is asynchronous or arguably
independent of time , such as e-mail and sycnchronous who put time
simultaneously, such as chatting. It can all be done on a one to one, one to many
or many to many, depends on how we use it, so it can be used as interpersonal
communication and mass communication. As currently used in the tutorial on line
at the Open University (UT), And learning process through tutorial online is using
the two functions simultaneously that is can be in interpersonal in the form of a
message through e-mails and also simultaneously accessible or read by many
people in the form of the discussion, so that two functions of communication
fulfilled through the medium of this CMC. Sending text via CMC is not as face-toface but mediated by computers that are indirectly sending experience and
knowledge without the presence of non-verbal signs such as hand gestures or
facial expressions and also signs like para-lingusitic tone of voice and so on.
Hyper-Personal Communication
In interpersonal communication it is said that hyper-personal is the result of the
process of interpersonal communication due to the resulting from the interaction
of communication are progressing. So that a source of strategic have the ability to
develop their presentations, edit and sent it to whomever he wanted to do
(Usita,2010). A term used for those who interact hyper-personal online that has
characteristics such visual anonymity, lack of identity, asynchronous interaction
and uncertainty reduction.(Joinson,2004 in Usita,2010)
How could someone treats something depends on how big incentive he would
make. All begins with motivation and volition. On technology development usually
motivation and volition low, people typically know little of technology and been
the motivation always connected with the personal interest (O’Keefe,2002)
clarified by Scheufeoe and Lawenstein that develop an understanding of
326
information technology requires a significant effort in order that the people could
understand it well, because if not, there will be new information disintegration.(
Scheufele & Lewenstain,, 2005)
In learning process, usually occurring is form of communication, its top-down
communication it means a student received only what is given by a tutor or
lecturers. A method that works like this was said to be fundamentally narrative
character of traditional teacher-student relationships, that is analogous to the
banking concept of education.( Paulo Freire,1972) Your students only received,
store and telling back what is received by the teacher / his professor to. This
method currently should not be applied longer in education, especially for higher
education. Method should use is horizontal communication, where should
communication with friends who shares attribute, access and power are more
effective than banking education.( William & Dawson, 2008) Although discussion
of horizontal communication had already been talked about, but the concept of
banking education still dominate the existing education system.
Virtual Community E-learning
Communication technology can not be obstacles in the establishment of the
innovation process of learning through technology, interactions can occur and will
form a perception between students and tutors. And this is what must be paid
attention that we can build a learning process. Communication technology has two
roles, namely as a mediator and the constituent that is representing the
relationship of culture, politics and economics. keep in mind that virtual learning
technologies never value-free or neutral to culture, this should be integrated in
the formal education, so that ICT are driving changes in the process of learning is
good.( McWilliam, 2008)
Broome (2005), have an experiment about a pattern of a long distance learning
which he dubs interaction between a tutor and student or tutee. He separated the
Social Cooperation Script that was more worried about the relationship or
interaction between two people with Epistemic Script that prefer the material,
apparently from the results of his research shows that social cooperation scripts
more effective in distance learning. This is shown in the following model:
Social Cooperation Script :
Step 1
Step 2
Tutor
Explaining the text
material
Supporting the learner's
activities
327
Tutee
Asking comprehension
questions
Explaining and typing the
information received in the
shared
text document
Step 3
Step 4
Elaborating on text
information individually
Discussing generated
ideas with the partner
Discussing generated ideas
and writing the results
in the shared text
document
Epistemic Script
Theory
What are the most important concepts
of the Theory ?
Empirical Finding
How was the theory examined?
What are the main ideas of the theory?
What were the results of the empirical
studies ?
Consequences
Individual Judgement
Which pedagogical interventions can be
concluded from the theory?
What do I likeldislike about the Theory
?
Which limits of pedagogical
interventions can be concluded from
the theory?
Which of my own experiences
supportldo not support the theory?
The problem of interaction with students through the collaborative CMC nature
should be between the construction of knowledge is facilitated with the media and
learning tasks. So the script and the media can never stand alone, they must
collaborate. There are some things we can learn in make scripts for the CMC:
1. Collaborative between knowledge and the structure of media processes
2. Concerning the learning outcome
3. Use the social cooperation script to achieve the expected effects.
E-Learning
New Zealand Council For Educational Research revealed that learning longdistance can be seen from several sides that is, e-learning, online learning,
distance education, blended learning and flexible learning. E-learning is learning
that takes place within the context of that deals with the applications use the
328
internet and the web as a medium for conveying learning experience.( E-learning
Advisory Grup, 2002). In e-learning have always been associated with the use of
technology, be it CD or other digital learning. While distance education or online
when a student using the computer to access the lesson, so students don't have to
meet by a lecturer or tutor phisically, or even do not need to be present at the
face-to-face tutorial. Online learning as distance education requires detailed
specifications of the needs of the students, the lesson objective, material, activity,
way of the distribution and the requested sources. There are three things that are
considered by the student in selecting distance learning, namely convenience,
flexibility and adaptable to the needs of the students. Blended or hybrid learning,
is the combination of online and conventionally class face to face. While students
learning more flexible see freedom to choose when, how, what, and how long they
are learning it ' s all supported by a great variety of learning.( New Zealand Council
For Educational Research, 2004).
Communication Ethics
Ethics in Greece interpreted as moral philosophy, which comes from the word
ethos meaning custom, so talk about ethics and values and habits relating to a
person within a group. Ethics is divided into three parts namely meta-ethics that
focuses on the concept of ethics, normative ethics, which puts a focus on how to
provide restrictions against ethics and applied ethics, the study of the use of ethics
itself. ( Demiray & Sharma, 2009). Brocket, said to be in view of ethics can be
divided into three tiers namely the study of good and bad of human behavior, then
meta-ethics concerning the study formal good bad or right-wrong rather than on
reality of life and the third was normatif ethics. There are some perspective in
seeing ethics communication, but on this discussion would be seen from two
perspective, they are situational perspective whereas perspectives see that
communication that its nature very situational. Ethics communication different to
each other, because ethics communication very pertaining to where it
communication occurs, and the other perspective is dialogical perspective. (
Berkman & Shumway, 2003), And he saw that would lead to the attitude of
someone who was invited to communicate, this means that every interaction will
use of ethics which holds true for those who are interacting. As an example when
we can communicate with parents, would be different when we interact with a
friend. So that communication is dialogc, by its very nature with a key the
authentic, inclusion, confirmation, presentences, spirit of mutual equality and
supportive climate. In the study of internet there are two things always concern
that is how the internet influence on other media and how the relation between
internet users with their environment. The internet has become a source of the
news. In 2008 survey in America tended to decrease the audience TV and
newspaper in terms of search- the news. By increasing the use of the internet then
329
there is the other side concerning the relationship between human beings to be
far, and internet users tending to lonely and isolated.( Dominic, 2011).
Interaction through computer or CMC requires more attention in analyzing our
opponents talk. It is difficult to distinguish whether a person speak honestly or not.
In the communication we should speak clearly and be honest, wherein it can all be
seen from the way we communicate. In face-to-face communication, this process
of interaction can be seen all of the verbal and non verbal from our gesture,
expression and eye contact, but through CMC much loss of the signs. Ethics
communications not just pay attention to what is said, but also what is not say. As
what is mentioned by Mark S Putnam, 2010 “Try not to let what comes out of our
mouths are always honest, then you will be trusted and respected”
Jones (2007) suggests there are 10 commonly used communication ethics on faceto-face communication, i.e. : 1) Seek to “elicit the best” in communications and
interactions with other group members. 2) Listen when others speak. 3) Speak
non-judgmentally. 4) Speak from your own experience and perspective, expressing
your own thoughts, needs, and feelings. 5) Seek to understand others (rather than
to be “right” or “more ethical than thou”). 6) Avoid speaking for others, for
example by characterizing what others have said without checking your
understanding, or by universalizing your opinions, beliefs, values, and conclusions.
7) Manage your own personal boundaries: share only what you are comfortable
sharing. 8) Respect the personal boundaries of others. 9) Avoid interrupting and
side conversations. 10) Make sure that everyone has time to speak, that all
members have relatively equal “air time” if they want it. (Submitted by Jones
Johnson Lewis on Mon, 05/14/2007)
What about the ethics of communication through the computer? From the records
produced The Ultimate Communication Course Five Day London Based Training,
said that ethics online communication should be based on knowledge, according
to the rules , create charm ( charm of a person ) and always mention names
correctly. And remember when will send a message, be read / thought back ( lurk
before you leap ). Should be clear and to the point, use procedure / manner
properly, don ' t forget fixed appreciate grammar existing do not use uppercase all,
because it shows that you angry and avoid excessive punctuation, and use
emoticons
and
emotexts
to
express
your
feeling,
(http://www.ableaustralia.org.au/communication-etiquette.asp)
Conclusion
UT as a University with students who have various backgrounds are very
heterogeneous is still not able to apply horizontal communication model. Why is
this, it can be seen from a ) the creation of a book subject matter ( bmp ), b )
330
tutorials face-to-face ( ttm ), ( c ) tutorials online . The challenge UT is how bringing
a conception banking education this communication toward horizontally where
students feel speak with his/her peers group, or at least not make students feel
comfortable with learning method of teaching. Based on the Jones,2007, we have
to conclude that the smart people in the learning process especially throug CMC,
have to :
1) must begin the interaction with good intentions .
2) read well and do not give prior justifications.
3) write the appropriate experience and expertise,
4) Trying to understand the other side
5) avoid discussing other parties
6) an separate the public and personal information
7) respects the privacy of others.
Finally, the etiquette of communication can read our personality although through
online interaction. With the good attitude / behavior will bring us into smart
people.
REFERENCES
1.
Barlund, DC, 1970, A Transactional Models of Communication, in KK Sereno and
CD Mortensen (eds) Foundation of Communications Theory, New York, Harper
Row
2. Bromme Rainer, Hesse Friedrich W., Spada Hans,, 2005, Barriers and Biases in
Computer-Mediated Knowledge Communication, Computer-Supported
Collaborative Learning, Volume 5, Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication
Data
3. Boyd and Ellison,2007, Social Network sites: Definition, History and Scholarship,
Journal of Computer Mediated Communication,13(1);210-230
4. Demiray,Ugur , Sharma,Ramesh, 2009, Ethical Practices and Implications in
Distance Learning, Information Science Reference, New York
5. Dominic, Joseph R, 2011, The Dynamics of Mass Communication, Media in
Transition, McGraw-Hill International Edition
6. Freire,Paulo, 1996, Pedagogy of the oppressed, London and New York; Penguin
Books
7. Griffin,E, 2003, A First Look At Communication, 5th edn.New York, McGraw Hill
8. Hill Anne, Watson James, Rivers Danny and Joyce Mark, 2007, Key Themes in
Interpersonal Communication: Culture, Identities and Performance, McGraw Hill,
Open University Press
9. Submitted by Jones Johnson Lewis on Mon, 05/14/2007
10. McWilliam,E & Dawson, 2008, Pedagogical practice after the information age,
Journal of future Studies,12 (3),1-14
11. New Zealand Council For Educational Research, 2004, Critical Success Factors and
Effective Pedagogy for e-learning in Tertiary Education, Wellington, New
Zealand
331
12. O’Keefe,D.J, 2002, Persuasion 2nd ed, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
13. Scheufele,D.A & Lewenstain,B.V, 2005, The Public and Non Technology. Journal of
Nanoparticle Research, 7, 659-667
14. Schramm,W, 1954, The Process and Effects of Mass Communication, Champaign,
Ill;University of Illinois Press
15. The Ultimate Communication Course Five Day London Based Training ,
http://www.ableaustralia.org.au/communication-etiquette.asp)
16. Usita
Lem,
Hyperpersonal
Communication,
June
6,
2010,
http://identityspecialist.net/2010, diunduh pada tanggal 15 Juni 2011.
17. Westin, A.F,2003, Social and Political Dementions of Privacy. Journal of Social
Issues,59 (431-453)
USE OF ICT IN DISTANCE LEARNING – A DEVELOPING COUNTRY PERSPECTIVE
- A CASE STUDY OF INDIA
Santosh Sujata, Indira Gandhi National Open University, India;
Ayyagari Ravi, ICT to Ministry of HRD, Government of India, India
ABSTRACT: The learning environments of today are gradually being transformed
by the use of ICT. The use of multimedia and web based technologies has become
a vital component of the teaching learning process. In India, the policy framework
has laid immense stress on the overall importance of using ICT for promoting and
improving education. The present paper discusses the various initiatives in the use
of ICT in distance education in India to augment the quality of education. It also
presents the various national policy initiatives for encouraging and promoting the
use of ICTs in distance education in India. The present paper discusses the various
opportunities and challenges presented by the use of ICTs in the distance learning
scenario of today. The paper also presents major initiatives at IGNOU, a premier
University in the field of ODL, towards the use of ICT, development of interactive
multimedia content and web-based platforms in reaching out to the distance
learners.
KEY WORDS: ICT, distance learning, India, developing country
Introduction
The learning environments of today are gradually being transformed by the use of
ICT. Technology provides new ways of catering to the varied learning needs of the
students. ICT enabled educational systems endeavor to make learning easier,
more convenient, and thus more effective. For example, classroom teaching
enriched by vivid presentations promise to improve the motivation of the learner.
Concepts may be given a perceivable existence in a video show and important
details can be stressed. Video capturing of lectures has become common practice
to produce quality content for distance education directly from the classroom.
332
Simulations allow learners to explore experiments which would be otherwise
impossible to be conducted physically. Interest in the use of ICTs for education has
grown steadily over the past decade in almost all the developing countries. The
use of multimedia technologies in educational institutions is seen as necessary for
keeping education relevant to the 21st Century (Selwyn & Gordard, 2003). It is
essential to design and develop mechanisms to exploit the full potential of ICT. A
number of policy initiatives are being taken up. Formulation and use of teaching
strategies involving innovative use of available technologies within the curriculum
is crucial to enable access to quality education with the help of ICT.
National Policy Initiatives for use of ICT in Education
The policy framework in India has laid immense stress on the overall importance
of using ICT for improving education. Since 1992 the National Policy on Education
emphasized using educational technology to improve the quality of education.
Consequently major government schemes have a component of funding allocated
for using ICTs. The government has recently initiated a stakeholder dialogue on
formulating a draft national policy for ICT in Education (Kelly, 2010). In 1998 with
development of Information Technology as one of its top priority Indian National
Task Force on Information Technology and Software Development was constituted
by the Government. The Task Force came out with an IT Action Plan (GOI, 1999)
which gave emphasis to expansion of IT education at school and university level at
national level (Snehi, 2009).
The Tenth Plan provided further impetus to use of ICTs in education in the 21st
century by emphasizing knowledge and use of new information and
communication technology for ensuring quality in teaching and research. Towards
enhancing relevance of higher education, during the Tenth Plan, initiatives such as
UGC INFONET, e-Journal Consortia and e-Content Development were started
(UGC, 2011). A glance at the Eleventh Five-Year Plan also reflects the importance
of ICT in the education scenario of India. With the focus on digitization and
networking of the educational institutions, a national ICT initiative, the National
Knowledge Network was launched based on the recommendations of the National
Knowledge Commission (NKC) (Seth, 2006 & GOI, 2012). Further, the National
Mission on Education through ICT (NMEICT) was launched by the MHRD to
leverage ICTs to provide high-quality, personalized, and interactive knowledge
modules over the Internet/intranet to all learners in higher education institutions,
any time anywhere (Kelly, 2010). Under this initiative, 392 universities and 18,374
colleges were provided with broadband connectivity. The development of virtual
reality labs and initiatives for the creation of e-content was taken up. In addition, a
low cost computing cum access device, Akash, was also developed. The first phase
of the three phase “Technical Education Quality Improvement Programme
(TEQIP),” initiated in 2002- 03 with the support of the World Bank, ended in 2008-
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09. TEQIP helps to improve the quality of technical education in selected
engineering institutions by providing input on modernization of laboratories,
libraries, faculty and staff development, research, networking between institutions
and service to community. The programme covered 127 engineering institutions
during the Plan period.
National ICT Interventions and Initiatives
In India a large number of meaningful initiatives have utilised ICT to augment the
quality of education (Harishankar, Balaji & Ganapuram, 2013). These initiatives
aimed at promoting the use of ICT at all levels of education. Some of these are at a
pilot stage while others are fully operational. While individual states in India have
significant ICT-related interventions in their education systems, some of the major
initiatives operating at a national level in educational institutions are as follows:
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The Consortium for Educational Communication (CEC) is a nodal agency
to coordinate, guide and facilitate educational programme production
through 22 Media Centres known as Educational Multimedia Research
Centres (EMRCs). With the help of these educational multimedia
research centres, the CEC produces TV programmes on syllabus-based
topics. These are archived in a learning object repository.
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT)
makes its textbooks available online through its website to ensure easy
and free access by teachers and learners.
National Science Digital Library (NSDL), an initiative of the Council for
Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), provides free access to
supplementary curriculum based content to the undergraduate students
of science.
Project Ekalavya is an open source educational initiative by the Indian
Institute of Technology, Bombay, for content development in Indian
languages. It is an endeavour to provide an interactive platform for the
creation, absorption, dissemination and usage of knowledge.
Project OSCAR (Open Source Courseware Animations Repository), is a
large repository of web-based, interactive animations and simulations for
teaching various concepts and technologies.
The National Programme on Technology Enhanced Learning (NPTEL) is a
joint initiative of the seven Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) and the
Indian Institute of Science (IISc). It aims to enhance the quality of
engineering education in the country by providing easy access to
curriculum based video and web courses.
VASAT, a wing of the International Crops Research Institute for the SemiArid Tropics (ICRISAT), has created open access learning materials on
agricultural practices, aimed to promote natural resource literacy. Under
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a Creative Commons licence enabling reuse, these VASAT materials
reveal a simple and effective sharing of resources in the non-formal
education sector.
The National Educational Foundation, under the National Knowledge
Commission, aims to develop web-based common open resources.
NME-ICT, launched in 2009, and its Web portal — Sakshat — that
provides one-stop access to e-content, e-journals and e-books. The aim is
to leverage the potential of ICT, in providing high quality personalized
and interactive knowledge modules over the internet/intranet for all the
learners. The Mission shall work in close cooperation and collaboration
with other Missions/Schemes such as the National Translation Mission,
Vocational Education Mission, and National Knowledge Network, Scheme
of ICT @ Schools etc., to avoid any duplication and attain synergy.
Media Lab Asia (MLAsia), set up by the Department of Information
Technology, Government of India, is a not-for-profit Research &
Development organization. MLAsia works with academic and R&D
institutions, industries, NGOs, and the Government to develop relevant
technology and culturally appropriate solutions in the areas of ICT for
healthcare, education, empowerment of the disabled and rural
connectivity. Some of the education-related projects undertaken are
Gyanpedia and Virtual Laboratories for Life Science Experiments.
Gyanpedia is an interactive portal for collating, organizing, and circulating
contents generated in schools in India through a single open web
platform. Virtual Life Sciences Experiments use multimedia technology to
simulate a virtual classroom environment. These virtual classrooms are
available on CDs and multimedia cards for mobiles. Many other smallscale initiatives are being piloted.
A-VIEW is a multipurpose e-learning platform by Amrita University. It
provides a number of online programs and other facilities such as Online
Gurukul, a pioneering initiative meant for Arts & Science college students
in Kerala, National Weekly discussions between Universities and national
workshops as part of ‘Talk to a Teacher’ program.
The ICT@Schools scheme was launched in 2004 with a view to provide
opportunities to students to develop their ICT skills as well as use ICTs to
aid the teaching learning process. Under this scheme, support is provided
for procurement of computers, peripherals, software, connectivity, and
so on. The scheme is currently being implemented in all states and union
territories of India in government and government-aided secondary and
higher secondary schools.
These initiatives span different levels of education and different types of providers
(government, public, private). However, they converge in their attempts to
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provide access to quality teaching and learning resources (Harishankar, Balaji &
Ganapuram, 2013).
ICT Initiatives and Practices in IGNOU
The lndira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) has emerged as a national
resource centre for open and distance learning (ODL), with international
recognition and presence. The university has been providing seamless access to
sustainable and learner-centric quality education, skill upgrading and training to all
sections of society by using innovative technologies and methodologies. The
university serves the educational aspirations of over 3 million students in India and
43 countries through 21 schools of study, 12 divisions, 14 centres, and a network
of 67 Regional Centres, approximately 3400 Learner Support Centres and 80
Overseas Centres (IGNOU, 2013). IGNOU uses a variety of media and latest
technology for providing continual professional development and training to all
aspirants for further empowerment through education. The university provides
multichannel, multiple media teaching and learning packages in the form of selfinstructional print and audio/video materials, radio and television broadcasts,
face-to-face counseling/tutoring, laboratory and hands-on experience,
videoconferencing, interactive radio counseling, interactive multimedia CD/DVD
and Internet-based learning (Kanjilal, 2013).
At IGNOU emphasis is laid on developing interactive multimedia and online
learning, and adding value to the traditional distance education delivery mode
with modern technology enabled education within the framework of blended
learning. To reach out to the unreached IGNOU has taken certain major initiatives
towards the development of interactive multimedia content through web-based
platforms. Some of the initiatives taken up at IGNOU are eGyanKosh, FlexiLearn,
Education Broadcast. These are mentioned below.
 eGyanKosh is a knowledge repository to store, index, preserve, distribute
and share the digital learning resources developed by the ODL
institutions in the country. This repository offers online access to around
3000 courses of IGNOU and 2,000 video lectures. The video programmes
are provided through a YouTube channel established for eGyanKosh.
There is also a wiki for collaborative content generation.
 FlexiLearn is a personal learning space where free learning resources are
integrated with a learning management system for anyone who wants to
learn, whatever their educational needs and experience. More than 936
open courses are available on FlexiLearn for self guided and self-paced
learning. FlexiLearn facilitates informed learning by allowing anyone to
register and explore courses to gain knowledge and skills in a particular
area of interest.
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Education Broadcast provides access to live educational programmes
through the webcast. This webcasting platform provides access to
broadcast channels Gyan Darshan-1, Gyan Darshan-2 and Gyan Vani
(Delhi), with many more channels planned for addition.
Online programmes are being offered using an inhouse developed
eLearning platform. The platform provides a complete virtual learning
environment covering all the activities, from registration to certification.
The platform has integrated tools for question bank generation, course
management, assignment management, online examination etc.
Pan-African e-Network Project is another major initiative on the online
education front where IGNOU is participating and providing teleeducation to 53 countries of Africa. This ICT project between India and
the African Union seeks to enable sharing of expertise in the areas of
tele-education, telemedicine, resource mapping, e-governance and ecommerce. The project is now proposed to be expanded to establish the
Indian Africa Virtual University to promote collaborations for distance
education between India and African nations.
Sakshat Portal is a single window portal for all education-related needs
of students, teachers, and lifelong learners. It provides a range of services
from informational services like details of scholarships, tests, educational
resources, as well as interactive services like a discussion forum, one-onone sessions with teachers, career counseling, and video conferencing
facility. Sakshat has been designed and developed with the help,
cooperation and participation of the Indira Gandhi National Open
University (IGNOU), Indian Institute of Science, Indian Institutes of
Technology and other educational institutions. The portal addresses the
educational requirements of learners from Kindergarten to PhD.
Distance Education Program (DEP-SSA) is a major intervention created
by the MHRD, Government of India to provide need-based and local
specific training to teachers and other elementary education
functionaries associated with Sarv Siksha Abhiyan (SSA). IGNOU is the
nodal agency responsible for implementing the distance education
component throughout the country. Teacher training is imparted without
dislocating the functionaries from their place of work and is paced as per
their convenience through multimedia inputs which include print, audio,
video, multimedia and teleconferencing.
Rajiv Gandhi Project for EDUSAT (Education Satellite) Supported
Elementary Education (RGPEEE) is another initiative aimed at harnessing
the benefits of EDUSAT. It is a collaborative project of MHRD, IGNOU and
ISRO. The project promotes the use of EDUSAT in enabling teachers to
incorporate ICT in elementary education. It aims to provide education
through massive satellite connectivity up to grassroot level. The focus of
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the project is on development of district level networks for interactive
online modes of communication to meet the education and training
requirements.
SMS Alert Service is used to communicate with the learners across the
country and regional centres. This enables each and every constituent
department of IGNOU to send communications by SMS to the learners
and other stake holders attached to them. The SMS service aims to
reduce the communication gap between IGNOU and its learners.
Challenges for Use of ICT in Education
There is an enhanced stress on the use of ICT in education and the developing
world is gearing up to the benefits of the various available technologies and tools
in addressing the basic requirements of quality education and enhancing
employability. In India, innovative initiatives and encouraging efforts have been
taken and there is considerable progress in the use of ICT tools in education at
different levels. However, it is to be understood that while the developments in
ICT provide innumerable opportunities to the educators, the need to harness this
potential of ICT also presents certain challenges. These challenges appear in terms
of policy and planning, infrastructure, learning content and language, capacity
building and financial costs involved. The existence of political commitment of the
concerned bodies goes a long way in strengthening the use of ICT in the education
system. In India, the use of ICT in education has received priority in terms of policy,
planning and implementation at national level. However, there is a strong need for
a strong and focused ICT policy framework to provide the necessary direction to
strategies at all levels of education. There should be a provision for adequate
infrastructure. There are issues such as lack of access to computers, lack of
technical, software support, internet access, trained teacher and reliable power
supply. Other impediments may be poor organization of resources, sub-standard
quality of hardware, inappropriate software or insufficient time and curricular
scope to incorporate ICT in the knowledge-dissemination framework. It is
important to develop the ICT competencies of teachers and school administrators
by imparting them new skills and training them to introduce innovative
pedagogies in the classroom. Implementation and use of ICT in education involves
huge costs for developing necessary infrastructure, acquisition and maintenance
of hardware or software, or other resources, staff training and capacity building.
Cost-effectiveness and effective use of appropriate technology are two important
parameters to be considered. Paucity of funds can hamper the implementation of
ICT related projects. Therefore, self supporting mechanism can be devised to
support such innovative initiatives to ensure their sustainability. There is a strong
need for a greater focus on the development of relevant content and applications
to ensure improvement in quality of education. There is a lack of proper standards
or guidelines at national level to develop or choose relevant content. Inter-
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institutional collaboration can be formed to ensure optimal usage of the available
technology, expertise and available resources.
Conclusion
Distance education and technology augmented classroom teaching have become
established parts of everyday teaching and learning. The changing education
scenario of today necessitates proper integration of the ICT in the education
environments for providing quality education to the masses irrespective of
geographic or physical locations. The ODL systems of today adequately supported
with various technologies have emerged as viable mechanism for effective
dissemination of knowledge. The developing countries have realised the potential
of ICT in addressing the basic requirements of education and enhancing
employability. While the technology provides new possibilities, it is necessary to
harness its full potential through committed policy makers, enabling policies and
guidelines, capacity building of teachers, proper infrastructure, ensuring quality
learning resources, proper monitoring and sufficient funds. A concentrated effort
on part of all the stakeholders under clear framework and guidelines is required to
ensure the success of all the initiatives taken up at various levels. Proper planning
and implementation is crucial for ensuring proper integration of ICTs in education
thus paving way for creation of an entire ecosystem of ICT-enabled teaching and
learning.
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Harishankar, V. B., Balaji,V. and Ganapuram, S. (2013). An Assessment of
Individual and Institutional Readiness to Embrace Open Educational Resources in
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An Asian Perspective. Vancover: CEMCA.
Indira Gandhi National Open University. (2013). Annual Report, 2012–13. New
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Kanjilal, Uma (2013). Digital Repository to Open Educational Resource Repository:
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Plan Period (2007-2012) for Univerities and Colleges. New Delhi: UGC. Retrieved
from: http://www.ugc.ac.in/oldpdf/pub/he/HEIstategies.pdf
INNOVATIONS IN THE DEPLOYMENT OF ICT FOR OPEN AND DISTANCE
LEARNING: IMPLICATION FOR THE NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA.
Tenebe Vincent A., Galadima Madu Baba
ABSTRACT: The evolution of open and distance learning (ODL) through
developments in information and communications technologies (ICTs) has
revolutionised the perception of educational institutions and the role of education
in development globally. The effectiveness of open and distance learning (ODL) is
defined by the availability of appropriate technologies required for operational
efficiency. Such technologies include electronic learning (elearning) platforms and
other ICT-based innovations, as well as, educational technologies necessary for the
design, development, delivery and evaluation of academic programmes and
administrative procedures. The National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN),
Nigeria’s premier open and distance learning (ODL) institution has operated for
ten years under a single mode learning approach consisting of online learning, face
to face facilitation and self managed learning. NOUN emphasizes the provision of
‘highly accessible and enhanced quality education anchored by social justice,
equity, equality and national cohesion. It is no gain saying that for the university to
achieve these noble goals, the availability of ICT infrastructure which is constantly
undergoing enhancement to correspond to current trends and ideas is imperative.
This paper examines several areas of ICT- related innovations at NOUN i.e.
development of e-exams application and assessment, establishment of e-student
management portal with modules for online application, online admission, online
registration and online wallet, establishment of e-courseware, provisions of
robust network backbone and e-library.
KEY WORDS: ICT, open and distance learning, e-exams application, e-student
management portal, e-courseware
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Introduction
Information and communication technologies (ICTs), borne through various
connectivity devices, applications software as well as firmware and the World
Wide Web have the potential to make learning a highly personalised and datadriven experience. Today’s students have greater expectations. They expect
courses to be engaging, for their instructors to be available online, and their
questions answered quickly. Influenced by their own professional backgrounds,
they also want their educational experiences to have relevance to their career
aspirations (Bamberger, 2004). And it is ICTs that offer support to students while
they learn, acquire knowledge and communicate (Debevc, et al., 2007).
This is particularly important to open and distance learning (ODL) providers like
the National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN). As new advancements in ICTs
continue to emerge, ODL providers must strive to keep abreast with the emerging
trends in new technologies in order to meet student demands and expectations.
The rapidly growing array of Web-based technologies creates more seamless
opportunities for exchange. Bransford, et al. (2008) also cited that digitally-driven
courses and their online delivery modes are examples of new technologies
improving access to learning content and opportunities. Therefore, ODL providers
must know how to respond promptly to this rapidly changing technological
environment.
As open universities worldwide greatly depend on ICTs for the deployment of ODL,
it is thus significant that contents and materials as well as support services be
designed to be accessible and adaptive. Such is the requirement for holistic
teaching and learning experience. Open and distance learners want to feel
empowered through an educational experience that allows them to explore,
discover, integrate and develop. As distance learning through ICT-driven virtual
learning environment is considered more effective and useful (Debevc, et al.,
2007), it is integral that ODL providers ponder their ICT needs. Bamberger (2004)
suggested a model for education evolution mirrored after Abraham Maslow’s
Hierarchy of Needs. All higher education institutions have “basic survival” needs,
and as they begin to leverage technology to support teaching and learning
processes, they will move from addressing institutional to faculty-centric needs,
and finally learner-centric needs (Bamberger, 2004).
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Connected
Learning
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Integrated student services
On-demand learning
Supports mobile lifestyle
Data-driven
Personalized
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Blended/hybrid courses
Active experimentation
Group and team learning
Affordable reality
Distance learning
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Classroom based instruction
Lecture based pedagogy
Correspondence courses
Advanced
Needs
Enable pedagogical
best practices
Intermediate Needs
Support traditional educational
approaches
Basic Needs
Figure 1: A Model for Education Evolution.
(Source: Bamberger, 2004)
ODL providers tend to gain the most from this model, as it is apparent that
technological capacity plays an integral role in helping universities move up the
pyramid. An ODL experience will continue to advance towards greater
empowerment, mobility and independence for its students through ICTs. In this
respect, NOUN, like many other ODL institutions, is no different. Within the past
few years, the University has embarked on several ICT-led initiatives with the
collective aim of enhancing and enriching the teaching and learning experience at
NOUN.
ICT has been a contributing factor in social transformation and poverty
eradication thus leading to development in education. ICT in education is used to
develop course material, to prepare presentation, to deliver lectures, supports
research work, learners’ enrolment and various administrative works. It provides
greater access to target learners both on campus as well as the distant learners
and has become a vehicle for enriched learning experiences. The trends of
technological advancements in ICT are paving the way for radical transformation
of the educational system. The Internet provides a wide range of scope for
integrating varied learning experiences and making learning holistic and
collaborative. There has been significant progress in the incorporation of ICT in
education. ICT have been flaunted a potentially powerful enabling tools for
educational change and reform. When used appropriately, different ICTs are said
to help expand access to education, strengthen the relevance of education to the
increasingly digital workplace and raise educational quality, helping make
teaching and learning into an engaging, active process connected to real life.
Experts are now talking about the ‘School of the Future’ (Taylor & Hogenbirk,
2001), which must grapple with the ever changing need of increasingly interconnected, globalized, information-based society. Westbrook (2001) observed
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that the introduction of ICTs in education has resulted in the changes in four core
areas: 1) curriculum; 2) role of facilitator and learners; 3) organizational
structure; and 4) learning environment.
ICT infrastructure can be considered an influential factor in increasing learner
intake. Thus, an open university such as NOUN needs to be equipped with the
appropriate capacity to sustain e-learning and ICT-based activities.
Open and Distance education in Nigeria
The historical antecedents of Open and Distance education in Nigeria can be
traced to the colonial period (1914 – 1959). Nigerian students offered courses
through the correspondence system from foreign institutions such as the
University of London, Wolsey Hall College, Bennett College, Rapid Results College
among others (Omolewa, 1978; Fagbamiye, 2000; Owoeye, 2004). However, postindependence and contemporary distance education environment in Nigeria is
characterised by post secondary institutions. There are dual mode arrangements
which emerged from the introduction of distance education units as parts of
existing conventional universities in Nigeria. The National Universities Commission
recognises only about six conventional institutions as dual mode institutions in
Nigeria, following the closure of outreach centres of several universities which
have been labelled as degree mills.
Another distance education institution is the National Teachers Institute (NTI),
Kaduna established as a teacher training institution, in 1976, with the mandate to
upgrade the skills of in-service teachers and train Grade II teachers (TCII). The
Institute was specifically established to meet the demands for teachers for the
Universal Primary Education (UPE) scheme which was launched in the same year.
In 1990, the Institute added the Nigerian Certificate of Education (NCE)
programme to its compliment of programmes based on the rationale that the
minimum teaching certificate in Nigeria was to be the NCE, as stipulated by the
National Policy on Education (NPE, 1977 revised 1998). More recently in the year
2004, the Institute added the Postgraduate Diploma in Education (PGDE) to the
number of programme it offers to students.
The National Open University of Nigeria is the latest in the line of institutions
offering distance learning programmes in Nigeria. It is the first single mode open
and distance learning university in the West African sub-region. It was initially
established in 1983, but suspended nine months later due to modifications in
government policy. In 2002 the National Open University of Nigeria was
resuscitated to meet the huge gap in application and admission statistics of
Nigerian universities. The University currently offers over 100 courses ranging
from the Proficiency Certificate, Certificate, Diploma, Bachelors, Postgraduate
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Diploma, to Masters levels under five schools and one centre, viz: the Schools of
Arts and Social Sciences; Management Sciences; Education, Law and; Science and
Technology as well as the Centre for Lifelong Learning. The University currently has
about 49 study centres spread across the six geopolitical zones of the country.
Additionally, the university has its headquarters in Lagos, a planning office at
Abuja (the Federal Capital Territory) and an Educational Technology Campus in
Kaduna.
Challenges of ICT deployment for ODL in Nigeria
Analysts have drawn attention to the discrepancy in access to ICTs for education
delivery between developed and developing countries (Manjulika and Reddy, 2002
and Rumajogee 2003). This discrepancy has been both a cause and consequence
of inadequate technological infrastructure that the developing countries are
experiencing. Contributing to this discussion Gulati (2008) argue that “the
introduction of computers into education in developing countries seems to have
done little to widen educational access to the rural poor, who also do not have
easy access to conventional schools and colleges.” This implies that there has been
insufficient uptake of technology in developing countries, not necessarily due to a
lack of willingness or interest, rather due to the macro-ecological factors such as
the technological and/or internet infrastructure that are available in a country,
which would have been the platform on which educational activities in eLearning
and ICTs would have been based.
These challenges include limited ICT infrastructures (in terms of facilities and
competent staff); lack of information and information illiteracy in teachers and
teacher trainers-technophobia; poor or nonexistent internet connectivity; poor ICT
resources, limited technology capabilities of support staff; weak technology
infrastructure such as narrow internet bandwidth; epileptic power supply to urban
areas, and complete absence of power supply in rural communities, inadequate
learning resources including related educational tools, course curriculum and
other learning materials; attitudes of teacher-trainees and teacher trainers which
indicates a gross lacking in independent learning skills and reluctance to take
responsibility for their own learning; software license and highly prohibitive costs
associated with the; maintenance and technical support as well as poor power
supply in most parts the developing regions of the world, a problem that is
peculiar to Nigeria in particular. Countries must be able to benefit from
technological developments.
From the foregoing, it can be observed that Nigeria and many other countries in
sub-Saharan Africa fall below expectations regarding the use of ICTs in general and
particularly in ODL. It is now a critical challenge for developing countries to
educate students and teachers to use computers and develop accessible
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infrastructures so that they may benefit from the interactivity offered by online
learning (Belawati 2005). However, the current inadequacy is through no fault of
theirs, the disparity in access to information and communications technology in
Africa is occasioned by many and diverse problems, including, low bandwidth for
internet access, lack of funds to embark on full scale computerization, irregular
supply of power, inadequate functional telephone lines and other infrastructural
facilities needed to support the efficient and effective introduction and
development of the technology. Nigeria is also short of manpower for effective
utilization of software and for maintenance. Qualified programmers, engineers
and technicians are equally difficult to find and when they are found, the (public)
education sector cannot afford to retain them, as competition from the private
sector is fierce.
ICT INITIATIVES AT NOUN
Indeed having a robust and well-equipped ICT infrastructure in place is the fulcrum
for open and distance learning (ODL) operations. It is imperative on open and
distance learning (ODL) providers to continue to enhance and improve ICT
infrastructure in order to correspond to ever-evolving technological
advancements. As asserted earlier, the World Wide Web, increased internet
access and a multitude of devices capable of supporting diverse platforms and
media will continue to influence how ODL can be delivered; as well as how best
the distance learning experience can be improved.
In this paper, six of NOUN’s ICT-related innovations will be discussed, i.e.:
 Development of e-courseware and content
 Development of e-exam application and assessment
 Deployment of online student management portal
 Deployment of robust network backbone
 Provision of e-library resources
 Radio NOUN for Lagos environs
Development of e-Courseware and Content
The ODL journey begins with the design of pedagogically-sound, well-organised
and fully-structured learning materials before a course can actually be taught and
examined (Dias and Bidarra, 2007). Thus, course materials are pivotal in order to
ensure the successful deployment of ODL. With new technological and scientific
opportunities, innovation-based institutions would look to design, organise and
manage learning content with the support of specific software tools, adaptable to
the learning requirements of different courses, with a stable and user-friendly
interface (Dias and Bidarra, 2007).
Beginning 2003 to 2007, NOUN embarked on the development initiative of course
material mainly in printable format. By the end of 2008 NOUN began another
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initiative to develop e-courseware in electronic format and convert the print
modules of course material into electronic format with the aim of achieving
pedagogical richness and to enhance the ODL teaching and learning experience.
By the end of 2013, it is anticipated that modules for all of the University’s courses
have been converted into their respective electronic materials and are available on
the university website: http://www.nou.edu.ng. As open educational resource
(OERs) for students to use. NOUN is also well aware that e-courseware should
take into account the capabilities of its users and that it is presented in a clear and
simple way (Debevc et al., 2007). It is foreseeable that e-courseware could also be
adapted according to every learner’s personal capabilities and current learning
curve.
Currently the university has over 1400 courses online in electronic and pdf
formats. Significant quantity of these course materials have also been produced on
CDROM for onward transmission to students. The delivery channels of these
course materials are:
 Physical transportation of hardcopy (printed materials and CDROMS)
materials by in-house transport division.
 Electronic transmission of materials in multimedia (data and graphics)
over the Internet.
Development of e-exam application and assessment
In order to achieve high level of integrity, regular conduct of examinations as well
as timely release of results, the university has adopted the computer based
examination for all 100 and 200 level students as well as certificate programmes
and general studies courses. The university has upgraded its examination platform
to exam pro+ which has enhanced capabilities for administering and managing the
examination process.
The e-exam pro+ is a web-based application which uses a client/server mode. The
application and questions database reside on a server on the network LAN.
Candidates who are connected on the same LAN can simply open a browser
(Firefox preferably) and type in the specified URL to launch the CBT application.
Once the exam is concluded, marking of the results is done on the server and the
results displayed to the student immediately. The features of the exam pro+
include the following:
 A fully robust web application which can work on any client systems
such as PCs, laptops, and thin client systems on popular browsers such
as Firefox, Chrome and Internet Explorer
 Can handle various question types such as multi-choice questions (i.e.
objective questions), fill-in-the-blank questions, and check list questions
(i.e. select-all-that-apply questions)
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








Questions are shuffled such that no two candidates have the same set of
questions.
For objective questions, the answer options for each question are also
shuffled so that, for instance, option A would have a different answer for
another candidate for the same question
Supports Latex expressions for mathematical and chemical equations
Supports images within questions. These questions are characteristic of
science subjects such as Biology, Physics or Geography
Supports questions within a passage. This is where an English passage
contains blank spaces as questions numbers for the candidate to answer
Ability for a candidate to answer the questions in either sequential or
random manner.
Answers are marked by the engine immediately the candidate submits
his/her exam. The results can be displayed immediately or sent via SMS
to the candidate.
All exams are timed with a clock timer displayed at the top of each
subject. Once the time elapses, the exam ends and answers are marked
immediately.
The exam administrator has the power to end a particular candidate's
exam, end all exams, extend exam duration, download all students'
results in an encrypted format, etc
The security features of the exam web-based application include:
 Database Encryption
 Code Obfuscation
 Ability for candidates to view already written exams via the browser
cache has been eliminate Multiple login by a candidate is disallowed.
This can be changed via settings at the Admin level
Deployment of online student management portal
The admission and registration of students are done online from the NOUN portal;
this facility makes it possible for students and applicants to interact with the
university online and in real time. The university student management portal can
be accessed using the URL: www. noun.edu.ng which allows prospective and
registered students to pay directly to the university using designated bank
accounts and also to do the following:
 Online Application: This module allows students to obtain application
forms online using PIN code and apply for admission.
 Admission: Minimum entry requirements for all programmes and criteria
for admission have been built into the e-admission portal which allows
for instant admission on qualification or suggest a program of study
commensurate with students qualification and experience. Detail
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

procedure for online application can be obtained from the management
portal.
Registration: Admitted students can perform course and exam
registration online using the e-registration module of the management
portal. This module is tied to a dynamic web-based database application
that updates data on the platform as students register. An e-wallet
module has also been created. This module allows the student to save
money online and is synchronized with the e-registration module. The
essence of this is for the system to be able to confirm student’s balances
in the e-wallet before allowing the student to carry out course and exam
registration online.
Assessment: Students are expected to carry out continuous assessment
at all levels as they progress through their programs of study. The eassessment module of the student management portal allows student to
attempt their Tutor Marked Assignment (TMAs) online, students see
their grades as well as correct answers to the assignment questions in
their prospective portals.
Deployment of robust network backbone
Local Area Network (LAN) with a minimum of 50 computers has been set up in
each of the 49 study centres across the 6 geo-political regions. The LANs will
allow for the following functions:
 Training and learning
 Assessment and testing
 Interactive sessions
 Communications
 Other computer applications ( word-processing, spreadsheets,
database)
A Wide Area Network (WAN) using VSAT radio link has been set up with a
hub/gateway infrastructure at the university’s corporate headquarters in Lagos
and two-way VSAT radio link in each of the study centres for the delivery of
distance learning content. The network link is a high speed and scalable IP link for
the support of distance learning content based on data, video and voice
communication delivery. The solution also supports Unicast, Multicast and
broadcast transmission based on DVB standard of satellite transmission. Critical
factors are:
 Reliability: guaranteed end –to-end uptime on the communication link.
 Availability: Guaranteed 95% uptime
 Quality: guaranteed response times and performance
 Throughput: guaranteed availability of bandwidth at all time
 Security: Ability to support required encryption schemes
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
Flexibility: Adjustments in speed and support of multiple applications.
Provision of e-library resources
As learners are geographically distributed throughout the country, NOUN provides
access to the resources of its digital library through an integrated Windows-based
library system that is made constantly available online. The provision of this elibrary is an essential support service to the learners; allowing them to easily and
rapidly access the library’s collections at a distance. The e-library is a concept
integral to ODL teaching and learning, and has many advantages, such as roundthe-clock accessibility, effortless information retrieval through user-friendly
interfaces and conservation of physical collections through the process of
digitisation.
The NOUN library has developed electronic resource centre which provides access
to electronic information resources, multimedia publications and permit the
creation of multimedia materials. The centre also permit access to other online
catalogues of other libraries around the world subscribed by NOUN. Such eresources include:
 A variety of resources on CR-ROM
 Electronic journals
 Published multimedia resources
The e-library URL is www.NOUN.edu.ng/NOUN/depts/elibrary/libraryI.httml . Due
to the e-library’s digital nature and as new technologies in archiving and
digitisation come into the picture, it is also open to enhancement and will continue
to be a major component in the ODL experience at NOUN.
THE WAY FORWARD: WHAT DOES THE FUTURE HOLD FOR NOUN?
Technology has been identified as the most compelling developmental factor for
the development of ODL (Casey, 2008). As ICTs continue to expand, the
acceptance and quality of ODL are perceived to improve as well. ODL institutions
must realise that the world is changing and there is a need to adapt, while still
preserving the essential elements of the higher education experience (Bamberger,
2004).
That said, however, there is no doubt that there are technological trends and
forces that need to be highlighted, some of which are connectivity, digital
convergence, smarter devices and a learner’s online/offline experiences
(Bamberger, 2004). Thus, the higher education experience, through ODL, will be
“just in time, just enough and just for me” (Bamberger, 2004).
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The OSS movement is a fashionable topic in education (Bulchand, Osorio and
Rodríguez, 2007) and ODL in particular. As connectivity becomes more ubiquitous;
as man-machine interaction continues to improve; and as the World Wide Web’s
span and universality continue to grow, so too has the cost and fiscal demands for
technological targets. Thus, one of the greatest contributions of the OSS
movement is the alleviation of this financial pressure on educational institutions
(Bulchand, Osorio and Rodríguez, 2007) by providing a range of free-of-cost
softwares and platforms.
Moodle is a noteworthy open source e-learning platform that has been adopted by
many ODL institutions that require an adaptable course management system
without having to bear the burden of cost. Apart from cost, an OSS such as Moodle
also offers independence from seller; control and quality; opportunity for
innovation and development; promotion of the local technological industry; as
well as widely available technical support (Bulchand, Osorio and Rodríguez, 2007).
In light of the developments in ODL, it is significant to note the contribution of
several initiatives in the OSS movement, one of which is the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology (MIT) OpenCourseWare (OCW) programme. Initiated in
1999, the MIT OCW programme provides open access to 1,800 of its courses over
the internet without stipulating any cost. The MIT OCW programme is, indeed, the
true success story of the OSS movement and literally fulfils MIT’s mission
statement to serve the nation and the world in the 21st century. Through this
programme, entire class syllabi, lecture notes, course calendars, problem sets and
solutions, examinations, reading lists and even video lectures can be freely
obtained by anyone with an Internet connection.
The OpenCourseWare Consortium, a by-product of the MIT initiative, now includes
over 200 members from 16 countries, with major involvement by China and also
includes the United Kingdom’s Open University (OU). The Consortium offers free
and open digital publication of high quality educational materials that are
organised as courses and made available online under an open license. Similar to
MIT’s OCW programme, OU’s OpenLearn (http://openlearn.open.ac.uk/) provides
access to almost 500 units of its course materials grouped under different topics
and levels of difficulty. The Commonwealth of Learning (COL) also supports Open
Educational Resources (OER) by providing various materials online
(http://www.col.org/colweb/site/pid/4516). Most of the course materials,
guidebooks, handbooks and toolkits are jointly produced by COL’s partnering
institutions. COL’s involvement not only exemplifies providing open access to
education, it also promotes collaborative efforts of open universities in the
Commonwealth region.
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This provides a snapshot of what the future might hold for ODL. In the case of
NOUN, the OSS movement provides many opportunities to share and collaborate
among like outfits. Based on the fact that OSS allows for freedom to modify,
customise, adapt and enhance softwares, higher education institutions,
particularly open universities, now have the choice to ‘build’ rather than ‘buy’.
Apart from the obvious financial advantage over the purchase of commercial
licences, the movement also encourages networking among ODL institutions.
Through the sharing and redistribution of various softwares, NOUN believes that
open universities across the spectrum could learn from each other’s experiences;
all for the betterment of ODL in general.
NOUN as well as other ODL institutions could do well to keep in mind the efforts of
MIT and the OpenCourseWare Consortium. There is much to learn and adopt from
their successes, and ODL can clearly profit from the open provision of extensive,
high quality course materials. Similarly, the idea of exploiting the universal
influence of the internet for the benefit of higher education is one that is presently
offering limitless possibilities to ODL practitioners.
CONCLUSION
The advancement of ODL remains concurrent with the progress of ICT. Even
historically, distance education has drawn parallel lines with continued
developments in technology – from correspondence courses to broadcasted
programmes over the radio and television, and now, through the seemingly
boundless capacities of the internet.
NOUN will continue to place emphasis on its ICT infrastructure. Through the
betterment of access, services and adopting new tools, there is ample opportunity
for sustained growth and surpassing learners’ expectations. Through ecourseware, NOUN hopes to produce learning materials that are accessible,
adaptive and contextualised for an enriched pedagogical experience.
An ODL institution such as NOUN must continue to strive to employ the best
technologies in order to provide the “just in time, just enough and just for me”
higher education that ODL learners demand. Keeping in mind Bamberger’s model
for education evolution (2004), ICT is anticipated to remain a compelling factor for
ODL institutions to move towards a mobile, data-driven, personalised and learnercentric learning experience.
REFERENCES:
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Bamberger, R. H. (2004). Learning in a Connected World: Leveraging Technology
in Higher Education Institutions [White Paper]. Retrieved July 2, 2008, from
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Belawati, T. (2003). Malaysia: ICT Use in Education. In Farrell, G., & Wachholz, C.
(Eds.), The UNESCO Meta-Survey on the Use of Technologies in Education in Asia
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Technology and Designs for Educational Systems: Some Thoughts about Change.
In Learners in a Changing Learning Landscape: Reflections from a Dialogue on
New Roles and Expectations (pp. 37-67). Berlin: Springer.
4. Bulchand, J., Osorio, J., & Rodríguez, J. (2007). Information Technology for
Education Management and Open Source Software. In Tatnall, A., Okamoto, T., &
Visscher, A. (Eds.), IFIP Volume 230: Knowledge Management for Educational
Innovation (pp. 115-122). Boston: Springer.
5. Casey, D. M. (2008). A Journey to Legitimacy: The Historical Development of
Distance Education through Technology. TechTrends, 52(2), 45-51.
6. Debevc, M., Stjepanoviĉ, Z., Povalej, P., Verliĉ, M., & Kokol, P. (2007). Accessible
and Adaptive e-Learning Materials: Considerations for Design and Development.
In Stephanidis, C. (Ed.), Universal Access in Human-Computer Interaction:
Applications and Services (pp. 549-558). Berlin: Springer.
7. Dias, A., & Bidarra, J. (2007). Designing e-Content: A Challenge for Open
Educational Resources. Presented at the European Association of Distance
Teaching Universities 20th Anniversary Conference. Retrieved 26 June, 2008, from
http://www.eadtu.nl/conference-2007/files/OER9.pdf
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International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, Vol. 9 (1)
9. Manjulika S and V.V. Reddy. 2002. The Changing Context of Higher Education in
the 21st Century, In: V.V. Reddy and S. Manjulika (Eds.) Towards Virtualization:
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10. Taylor, H. and Hogenbirk, P. 2001, Information and Communication
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11. Rumajogee, A. 2003. Distance Education: Issues and Challenges in Sub-Saharan
Africa, In: M.A. Beebe,K.M. Kouakou, B.O. Oyeyinka and M Rao (Eds.)Africa.Edu:
IT Opportunities and Higher Education in Africa. Tata McGraw-Hill: New Delhi
352
SMART AND INNOVATIVE VISIONS OF HIGH SCHOOLS AND TEACHERS
Tikhomirova Natalia, Moscow State University of Economics, Statistics and
Informatics (MESI), Russian Federation
ABSTRACT: The Internet penetrates deeply into the everyday life due to the
availability of broadband networks and mobile devices. The wide spread of the
Internet along with the development of innovative services, social networking and
tools (known as Web 2.0) gives rise to the phenomenon of the digital world. A
university striving not to be “an ivory tower” should meet the needs of the “Net
Generation”, prepare the graduates for professional work and life in the digital
world and comply with the social demand for providing lifelong learning services,
especially in the vulnerable crisis times.
Moscow State University of Economics, Statistics and Informatics (MESI) started
implementing information and communication technologies (ICTs) both in the
academic and administrative processes more than fifteen years ago. Today its
unified e-learning environment allows rendering educational services to students
of all levels and forms (both on-campus and off-campus) and 24x7x365 support.
Information System for Administration comprises electronic document
management systems, students’ records, the results of their individual learning
activities for the current, interim and final assessment. The university
management system empowers centralized management of its Moscow
headquarters and branches as well as regulation of teaching/learning process.
Long-term development of education in Russia is directly dependent on large-scale
introduction of e-learning tools, design and implementation of new methods of
organization of educational process on its base, creating and using an appropriate
electronic teaching and learning practices, new approaches to the management of
the education system and educational institutions.
KEY WORDS: New generation, e-learning, university management model, ITtechnologies, SMART-Education, lifelong learning services, information and
communication technologies, knowledge
INTRODUCTION «What has appeared in the Digital World?»
A twentieth century person, suffering from a constant lack of time, was given an
opportunity to subdue space to a considerable degree. Long distance was always
an obstacle for people to achieve their goals. Within several minutes the
underground can move us from one side of a town to another; travelling time of
the high speed trains between different cities has been reduced for several times;
and it takes us only few hours to get from one continent to another on a jet
airliner. The broadband availability and the popularity of mobile devices are the
reasons why the Internet has entered our daily lives. Its widespread availability
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together with the development of social networking innovative services and Web
2.0 give rise to the phenomenon of the digital age.
TNS Russia has given the results of WebIndex12 survey on the number of mobile
web users and Web in Russia on the whole at the end of February 2011. 95 % out
of young people aged 12-24 years use the Internet, 51 % - the mobile Internet.
According to the Moscow house of books survey, 35 % of respondents read ebooks, 29 % intend to use them in the near future. A Russian online user on
average spends 51 minutes on social networking sites, 26 minutes on portals like
yandex.ru, mail.ru, google.com and 5 minutes he spends on education. 1,7 millions
American bloggers out of 20 millions are making money through their blogs and
452 thousands use blogs as the main revenue source.
Generation Y or netters are the so-called young people who were born after 1980.
They grew up in the era of virtual reality, computers and digital technologies. 97 %
of Gen Y representatives have their own computers. 76 % use instant messaging
systems (like ICQ or Gtalk) with 15 % of full-time onliners (users of mobile devices)
and people regularly communicating in social networks. 34 % ignore all mass
media except the Internet from where they get all news reports. They trust wordof-mouth ads more than they trust paid advertising. 44 % read other people’s
blogs, and 28 % keep their own blogs13. People of this generation are impatient,
they cannot wait for the results of their activity, and they want everything here
and now.
The new generation is significantly different from the previous one, and especially
as far as the business qualities are concerned. They don’t want to learn
information consistently by reading books and coursebooks. They’d rather
participate in an experimental study. They create their own interactive and
collaborative learning regardless of whether we acknowledge it and take it into
consideration or not. All of them have new approaches to their work: they are
aimed at competition, they are excellent team players and they are not afraid to
take risks. They need other skills and they get them differently. 25 % of students
use the Internet to find information for their work or study, 17% gain new
knowledge and 14 % share information on work or study.
Modern society, rapidly changing technologies, new needs of students are
challenging the entire system of education. It has to evolve due to the growth of
knowledge that never appeared in the history of mankind before.
12
TNS Web Index, ФОМ, February 2011, Monthly Reach – http://www.tns-global.ru/eng/
Scott Deborah P., MPH. Retrospective Review of Technology and the Native Youth HIV
Prevention Media Project: 2005-2011. Sage Associates, Inc. Houston, Texas
www.sageassociatesinc.com
13
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According to UNESCO, in 2009 people created more data than for the past 5000
years. The quantity of technical information doubles every two years. For a
student it means that half of what he was learning for the first year will be out of
date by the third year of the studies. The development of information and
communication technologies and their use in education gives an opportunity to
offer students up-to-date knowledge, implement flexible and inclusive education
focused on consumer demand. UNESCO representatives consider that open and
distance education and ICT expand access to a high-quality education. The Internet
gives students access to communications, expanded resources, and gives ability to
use sound, graphic, video and text. Open information environment allows placing
online courses and tutorials, holding live broadcasts and video recordings of
lectures and presentations, and organizing teacher and student communication
involving people from different countries. Open educational resources became
greatly widespread. Such projects as MIT OpenCourseWare, YouTubeEDU,
AcademicEarth give an access to countless number of video lectures from
hundreds of the best institutions of the world. Libraries 2.0 are already available
for users. They comprise online services such as electronic catalogues, RSS, Wiki
and blogs. Social networks are becoming a widespread tool for an up-to-date
educational process. They allow arranging educational process in a student’s
familiar environment, help to overcome territorial and organizational obstacles,
provide for open discussions and information exchange and develop the concept
“learning as a lifestyle”.
However, the information society brings forth a set of problems for a present-day
manage, which require the development of the new approach to the management
system. The key management objectives are narrowed to the development of the
well-coordinated business systems, capable of competing in the information
society.
If the management process of every company is considered from the standpoint of
four main management functions (proplanning, administrating, motivating and
monitoring&control, the elaboration on their filling-up and the increase of such
functions’ adaptability to the modern conditions is required. Whereas the planning
and motivation functions require the application of the new approaches less, the
adaptability of the administration and control functions are the core basis for
modeling the competitive business systems.
Table 1. The main management functions in the information society.
Main
functions
management
Major problems at the modern
stage of development
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Application of the management
functions in the information
society.
Planning.
This is one of the means by
which the management
guarantees the unified
effort of all members of an
organization to reach its
common
goals.
The
management
process
starts with this function
and
the
organization
success closely depends on
its quality.
Administration.
To facilitate the decision
implementation from the
administrative side, i.e. to
create the managerial
relationships, providing for
the most efficient relations
between all the elements
of the controlled system.
Rapid
depreciation
of
information. This increases the
cost of mistakes in planning and
forecasting. The possibility of
transition from the controlled
system to the state of
bifurcation,
rendering
it
unstable to the changes is
increasing which leads to the
known state of uncertainty.
The implementation of ITtechnologies permits to monitor
the internal and external
changes not only in the
operational mode but also online, thus, enhancing the
relevance of the information in
use
and
reducing
the
uncertainty of the decisions
made.
Imperfection of the typical
administrative structures of the
modern companies (while the
new ideas repose “down”, the
right to allocate recourses for
their realization is concentrated
at the top of the modern
company’s hierarchy).
Motivation.
The process of stimulating
oneself and others in order
to reach the defined goals.
The loss of confidence in the
former management systems.
The modern economic realities
present the cases where the
top-managers incomes are
boosting while their companies
are on the verge of collapse.
The inconsistencies in the
processing
of
the
key
performance indicators due to
the untimely and incomplete
control checks performed, the
depreciation of the adopted
standards,
and
the
communication
channels
barriers.
The shift to the more adaptive
forms of administration, such as
network
and
shell
organizations.
Implementing
the principles of the “learning
organization”, which creates
the conditions for education,
exists in the constant selfperfection and, by doing so,
changes the world around.
The increase of the business
processes transparency, aimed
at strengthening the confidence
between
the
market
participants and enabling the
transactional costs reduction.
Control.
The process to support the
achievement of the goals
set by an organization. It
presents a system of
monitoring and checking
the
compliance
of
controlled
sub-system
functioning
to
the
approved decisions as well
as a system of generating
certain
activities
to
perform.
All-encompassing
implementation of the Control
and Monitoring System aimed
to coordinate the systems of
managerial interaction and their
efficiency control into the
organization
practice.
Controlling and Monitoring
System is designed to provide
the
information
analysis
support of decision-making
process to the organization
management and may be
engaged
in
designating
decisions in the framework of
the certain managerial systems.
The role of modern universities in the information society
Nowadays, a modern university management model is management of the global
networked organization based on information and communication technologies.
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The system of information and communication provision allows implementing the
principle of “Everything is in the net” (management, faculty, students and
content). A joint portal university system provides tools, on the one hand, for
administrating for creation, updating and using of the content within the academic
process, and on the other hand, for the arrangement of a management system of
the distributed university. Information technologies provide effective human
resource management: the organization of e-learning, electronic document
management, processing of electronic reporting, interviewing personnel, etc. In
order to illustrate the modern approaches to development and management of
the well-coordinated business systems, we’d like to share the experience of the
Moscow State University of Economics, Statistics and Informatics (MESI).
The Russian economy modernization and restructuring, the national innovation
systems development, the information society (or knowledge-oriented society)
evolvement put forward the new requirements to the higher professional
education.
The universities and higher educational establishments introducing the innovative
educational programs are assigned with the task to prepare all-around practice
oriented experts of a new type, who will be in demand in the realities of the
innovation economy. The relevance of such processes is explained by the
integration of the Russian universities into the international educational standards
and joining the Bologna process14.
According to H. Van Ginkel15 five major factors that changed the conditions of
universities operations as well as their trends of development and functional
capabilities can be distinguished as:
1. Information and knowledge become the main resources of society.
2. Global informatisation and fast-moving development of the information
and communication technologies are the basis of the new economy.
3. Novelty, transience and acceleration are the distinctive features of the
information society life. The production and social technologies turnover
cycle makes up from 6 to 8 years.
4. Increasing globalization will gradually result in global struggle in global
markets.
14
Tikhomirova N.V. (2009): The management of the contemporary university integrated into the
information space: conception, instruments, methods. Series «E-University». Finance and
Statistics Publishing, 264 Pages. Moscow.
15
Ginkel, H.J.A. van (2003): What Does Globalization Mean for Higher Education? In: Gilles Breton
and Michel Lambert (Eds.), Universities and Globalization. Private Linkages, Public Trust. UNESCO
Publishing/Université Laval/Economica. Paris, pp. 71-80.
357
5.
On-going disputes about the personal and public responsibilities in the
sphere of higher education.
The strategy of the information society development in the Russian
Federation determines the key trends of the state policy in the sphere of
information technologies, which in the current historical context turns out to be
the backbone elements of the social infrastructure as well as the main factor for
acceleration of the innovation processes and the modernization of economy. Such
processes are closely tied to the modern challenges faced by the economy in
general and by each higher educational establishment in particular, comprising:
 Rapidly changing technologies permitting to implement flexible and
all-encompassing education;
 Unparalleled to the former human history experience growth of the
knowledge scope;
 Development of the information and communication technologies;
 Orientation to consumer’s demand rather than on supply;
 The need to attract new sources of income;
 The need for the high quality and clear educational standards;
 Fast transition from the elite to the mass and totally accessible
higher education; and
 The need for flexibility of structures and programs implementation
as a part of the “lifelong learning” approach to higher education.
Elements of a unified information environment of MESI
Nowadays MESI is a sub-divided, electronic university representing a business
system based on the self-learning principle of organization. Apart from the
classical university education, MESI moves towards the SMART-Education, which
implies the flexible learning process in the interactive environment with the use of
the global and freely accessible content. The university’s main objective is to
provide the maximum accessibility of knowledge.
The university is managed in the integrated information space comprising the
integrated system of continuous qualifications upgrade, the integrated system of
education quality management, control and monitoring and the integrated system
of education. The integrated system of continuous qualifications upgrade
embraces the new methods of education, the information and communication
technologies and the modern pedagogy. The integrated system of education
quality management, control and monitoring implies the implementation of the
integrated IT-technologies. The integrated system of education stands for the
integrity of the educational programs and the learning courseware of students.
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The integrated information system and its functioning model are built on the
principles pertinent to the management of the complex production facilities. The
core is the principle of the single-door entry of information, which secures the
maintenance of the high level of the knowledge warehouses accuracy, and,
therefore, procures the reliability of the whole integrated information system. This
system permits to develop the industry-driven approaches in education and to
implement the unified and standardized learning procedures, thus, providing for
the flexibility and personalization of education. Based on the integrated
information system a set of interrelated norms, rules and values is adopted to
regulate and administer the administrative management, academic staff and
student’s behavior.
As it can be seen from the above, the information technologies and the integrated
information environment change the tools and methods of the managerial impact
on the major and accessory processes that are reflected in the figures 1 and 2.
Fig. 1. Integrated communication systems of the education process
management and organization16.
16
359
Fig. 2. The financial management system in the sub-divided electronic
university17.
In addition, MESI actively develops the academic knowledge management system,
which suggests the formation of the university’s integrated knowledge
environment by means of generating the scientific and research studies,
conducting the scientific and methodology work, choosing the best practices for
implementation of the above, as well as opening educational internal and
Internet-based resources. The system provides for the complete lifecycle of the
educational content in the sub-divided online environment. Moreover, the content
is constantly kept updated by means of the disciplines information centers
(information centers are run and applied for these purposes by the relevant chairs
for each of the education courses disciplines).
For more than three years the university has been using e-learning system “virtual
campus”, which allows teachers to work together using a Wiki, distribute topics of
the reports, essays, control tasks, manage subject calendar and publish notices. In
MESI teachers also use electronic journals to monitor student activity in electronic
environment considering student attendance and publishing marks for the
semester control activities (SCA).
Teachers were also offered to use such tools as Web 2.0, twitter and blog.
Teachers had to create twitter accounts or continue using this service where they
17
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had to post short messages on the subject with reference to the blog or some
interesting articles or other websites. On Blogger.com (one of the Google
resources) teachers were blogging on the professional themes. That was a pilot
project which showed positive and negative sides of the usage of those tools in
educational process.
Speaking about the usage of twitter it has become obvious that the shortness of
the messages doesn’t allow discussing serious issues because the service is quite
informal. Nevertheless many teachers have approved of the service referring to
the fact that instant communication with students allows to inform them about
interesting events relating to the subject.
The results of blogging have shown that it lacks most drawbacks of twitter.
Teachers marked out such advantages as easy navigation, information
transparency and possibility of self-PR in a professional environment. Moreover,
teachers can use blog as a means of their professional growth through creation of
the professional community. Among disadvantages they marked out a failure to
find universal and attractive topics for all students.
It should be noted that in general hereinabove tools are quite useful if a teacher
doesn’t have a ready-made e-learning system. It depends on a teacher which tools
he will choose to use and implement in educational process. In one of the projects
participants pointed out the activity of a teacher is the best impetus for student’s
activity.
Today 97 % of the staff, administrative and managerial staff, faculty and branch
students have accounts in information networks of MESI: Outlook mailboxes,
access to SharePoint of MESI, Skype, ICQ.
Improvement of the quality of foreign language teaching, increasing of amount of
foreign language classes, implementation of foreign language subjects,
development of language programs and courses require improvement of language
skills of the faculty and staff members. Knowledge of a foreign language will give
them an opportunity to participate in international scientific conferences and
other events, to make publishing in foreign editions, to take part in the
international research projects together with foreign partners, to expand export
and import of educational programs and courses. Good language skills of teachers
will guarantee increase in the number of foreign students of different modes of
study, development of academic mobility of students and postgraduates, increase
in cooperation with non-governmental international organizations and
international professional associations.
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MESI carried out an investment project that implied teaching faculty and
administrative and managerial staff English. Those, who passed the final exam,
were given an opportunity to work on probation in one of the leading language
schools in the UK, The English Language Centre, that collaborates with MESI.
Social network service as a tool for a modern teachers
Due to appearing of the new conditions teachers must help students to acquire
new competencies that include: self-motivation, self-organization and planning of
personal educational process, personal methods of work with informational
resources in electronic environment, willingness to be engaged in life-longlearning. Using of the disciplines information centers teachers can offer students
topical content. Disciplines information center include student works, research
findings, journals and magazines, books, articles, information from conferences
and seminars that are constantly updated by the tools of Web 2.0. Distributed
teams of teachers are working at the creation of digital content and new academic
materials. Teachers talk tête-a-tête or in groups on thematic forums or on blogs,
exchange experience and upgrade their qualification on YouTube. This is the way
the full life cycle of educational content functions in distributed online
environment.
Today universities are not just the suppliers of education services; they are
providers of a platform for a new production of knowledge and unique
developments as well. Therefore the faculty is becoming more focused on
informative and financial aspects (commercialization, innovation) than on
publication activity and participation in research and conferences. MESI tends to
carry out effective fundamental and applied scientific research and to set up
scholar schools.
Globally changing economy, the information society brings in the innovations into
people’s life business, states and education systems, and requires the modern
managers to make the corresponding managerial decisions.
The modern university management system has to be aimed to the ongoing
external changes, meet all the information society requirements, use the scientific
attitude towards the management process, thus, becoming an effective
instrument to increase the level of the education services offered and its
competitiveness. The perfection of the management process must be oriented to
the higher educational standards and current demands of the modern society.
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THE CONTRIBUTION OF OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING
TO VIETNAM’S LEARNING SOCIETY
Trang Tran Huu, Head of Department for Scientific Research and International
Cooperation
ABSTRACT: As science and technology have become direct productive forces,
lifelong learning, aided through tremendously advanced information technology, is
now becoming a trendy educational philosophy. This paper summarizes the
requirements of a learning society and the role of open and distance learning in
building learning society in Vietnam, contributing to the successful
implementation of the project “Building learning society for period 2012 – 2020”.
KEY WORDS: lifelong learning, learning society, Open and Distance Learning (ODL).
1. Concept of learning society
"Learning society" is a concept born in the beginning of 1970s. The first person
who officially used this term is the philosopher Donald A. Schon. It first appeared
in his work named Beyond the Stable State Public and Private Learning in a
Changing Society, published by Penguin Pelican (1973). Gradually this term
became popular in European countries thanks to the scientific revolution in
information technology, with which human knowledge has been increasingly
accumulated into a huge treasure. On the other hand, science and technology
have become direct productive forces, which require humans to regularly train
themselves to improve their knowledge and their understanding for their work
and life. Along with the concept of learning society is the concept of lifelong
learning. At the meeting of the European Council in Lisbon in March 2000, lifelong
learning was identified as the center of a long-term strategy to build a modern
society in Europe.18 Slogans like “It is never too soon or too late for learning” or
"Education is unlimited” are always emphasized in educational projects of the
European Council.19 A learning society can be said to be a society that facilitates
lifelong learning for its members by reducing barriers and obstacles. Learning
society and lifelong learning are the goals that modern societies are getting at in
order to improve the working capacities and to meet essential demands of their
members.
In Vietnam, understanding the role and the importance of building a learning
society, the Prime Minister issued Decision No. 112/2005/QD-TTg approving the
18
Irakli Gvaramadze – AEGEE Education Working Group expert on Lifelong Learning,
www.projects.aegee.org/educationunlimited/.../Lifelonglearning.
19
www.projects.aegee.org/educationunlimited/.../Lifelonglearning.
363
project "Building a learning society for the period 2005-2010" on May 18, 2005.
However, the scope of this project only "focuses primarily on issues of continuous
education." On January 9, 2013, the Prime Minister issued Decision No. 89/QD-TTg
approving the project "Building a learning society for the period 2012-2020". This
project has some steering viewpoints as follow:
In a learning society, all individuals are responsible for continuous and
lifelong learning, taking advantages of every learning opportunity to
become good citizens, to find jobs, to work with increasing effectiveness,
to make themselves and other people happier, to build up their
homeland and to uphold humanity.
State agencies, economic organizations, social organizations, people's
armed units, residential communities and families are responsible for
providing learning opportunities and creating favourable conditions for
everyone to enjoy lifelong learning.
Learning society will be built on developmental platforms, connecting fulltime education and continuous education, promoting lifelong learning
activities outside the school, with priorities on deprived people, ethnic
people, women, and disadvantaged people."
2. Requirements of a learning society
A learning society should meet the following requirements:

The first requirement is the provision learning opportunities for all
individuals
A learning society is a society in which all individual can participate, without any
obstacle, in learning to enhance their knowledge and understanding to improve
their job and their life. Currently, there are many causes that prevent people from
participating in learning. Some of the causes are lack of money, lack of cognitive
ability, lack of courses which are designed for disabled people, illiteracy, lack of
time… A learning society needs to reduce the causes that prevent its members
from participate in learning.

The second requirement is the diversification of modes of education
To meet the diverse and abundant learning demands of the society, educational
institutions need to diversify modes of education. Conventionally, there are three
modes of education in a learning society: formal education, non-formal education
and informal education.

The third requirement is the revision of diverse training programs
To meet diverse learning demands of the society, educational institutions should
develop and provide enough training programs and to meet diverse demands of
learners.

The fourth requirement is the activeness, enthusiasm, attempt, effort of
individuals in the society
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In order to increase the efficiency of the learning society, all individuals in the
society need to change their basic attitudes toward learning. It should be clearly
pointed out that learning is not for qualifications; rather learning is a process of
cultivating and gathering knowledge and understanding for improvements in life
and at work. The viewpoints that learning is for social movements, learning is for
the honor of the family or clan, etc, should be done away with. Then each
individual should be active and positive in choosing the courses, the mode of
learning, the academic level and the type of diploma or certificate in accordance
with his or her circumstances, conditions, interests, abilities and work
requirements to achieve the highest efficiency in learning.

The fifth requirement is the development of the information technology
system to support the teaching process
The development of information technology will facilitate the digitalization of
learning materials for the learning process. The delivery of learning materials
through the Internet will significantly reduce the costs compared to other means
of delivery. In addition, information technology is an important tool connecting
training facilities and learners, lecturers and academic advisors with learners for
maximum supports for learners.
3. Open and distance learning best meets requirements for building a learning
society
Distance learning, characterized by “... The distance between lecturers and learners
in terms of time and space. The learner will primarily study by him/her self...”20,
combined with open learning with the philosophy of “Open opportunities for
learners, open locations, open methods and open ideas”21 has created undeniable
advantages in building a learning society in Vietnam at the time being.
The first advantage of distance learning is the elimination of geographical
boundaries. With the motto of bringing education closer to learners, distance
learning shall provide programs and learning materials to resident places or work
places of learners. Through training technologies, learners can access program
contents and learning materials as well as exchange ideas and interact with
lecturers and education management staffs. By doing so, learners will learn,
research, cultivate and achieve knowledge by themseves. Learners can make use of
their time to study anytime, anywhere, using their time in the most reasonable
way for both work and learning to improve their knowledge and understanding.
20
Prof.Dr. Nguyen Kim Truy, Distance education – theory and practice, Journal of science – Hanoi
Open University N0.1/2013, p.8.
21 Prof.Dr. Lam Quang Thiep, Open education – Philosophy, development and prospects, Journal of
science – Hanoi Open University N0.1/2013, p.2.
365
On the other hand, due to the characteristics of open and distance learning,
classes and courses for particular subjects such as visually impaired or disabled
people can be specifically designed. With the advantage of self study, it is not
troublesome for learners to study with those who do not have the same
circumstances. It helps learners to be much more confident in the learning process.
Besides, learning outside the class is also a big advantage for those who have
difficulties in moving around, such as visually impaired people.
To apply for distance learning, there need to be no entrance exams. In the context
where university entrance exams are high barriers and pressures preventing many
people from accessing knowledge and getting a univeristy education like it is in
Vietnam at the time being, open and distance learning will create opportunities
and favorable conditions for those who do not pass the formal entrance exams to
access knowledge necessary for them.
With the emphasis on self study, courses should be highly flexible with highly
diverse; they should include not only various training programs but also various
forms and levels of training. With outstanding advantages, open and distance can
help to customize training programs to meet specific requirements of learners,
while traditional education cannot.
4. Some recommendations
For the successful implementation of the project “Building learning society for the
period 2012-2020”, open and distance learning should play a central role, and then
it is necessary to implement well the following:
Firstly, it is necessary to issue complete policies on open and distance learning
and to complete a specific legal framework for this type of education. Besides,
there should be specific and clear regulations for the two open universities to
promote open and distance learning.
Secondly, it is essential to make adequate investments in the two open
universities to make them real pillars of a learning society in Vietnam. Distance
learning technology requires heavy investments, then the government needs
to make some initial investments to help the two universities improve and
upgrade their equipments and training techniques as well as provide training to
their staffs and teachers so that they can absorb advances in open and distance
learning around the world.
Thirdly, it is essential to change the attitudes and the thoughts that
discriminate the modes of training and the types of education that exist in the
society. With active teaching methods, the learning results now depend
primarily on the efforts, the attempts, and the attitudes of the learner, not on
366
the type of training. Therefore, the society needs to change the way to
evaluate a person from looking at his/her degrees to assessing his/her abilities
in doing tasks or problem solving.
REFERENCES:
1.
2.
Frameworks for Suppporting Lifelong Learning, BeiJing 2010
Irakli Gvaramadze – AEGEE Education Working Group expert on Lifelong Learning,
nguồn www.projects.aegee.org/educationunlimited/.../Lifelonglearning
3. Prof.Dr. Lam Quang Thiep, Open education – Philosophy, development and
prospects, Journal of science – Hanoi Open University N0.1/2013, p.2.
4. Prof.Dr. Nguyen Kim Truy, Distance education – theory and practice, Journal of
science – Hanoi Open University N0.1/2013, p.8.
5. Vietnam Forum Lifelong Learning building a learning society, Hanoi 2000
6. http://www3.open.ac.uk/study/
7. www.projects.aegee.org/educationunlimited/.../Lifelonglearning
8. Thorpe, M. (2005) “The Impact of ICT on lifelong learning” in Perspective on
Distance Education: Lifelong learning and Distance Higher education, UNESCO.
9. Idrus, R. and Hanafi, A. (2007). “Lifelong and lifewide distances education” in
Abdul Razak, N., Kamarul Kabilan, M. and Silong, A. D (eds) Online Lifelong
leaning in Malaysia: research and practice: pp1 – 8, Serdang: University Putra
Malaysia Press.
10. Doukas, C. 2010. “Space and time dimension of lifelong learning: The approach of
learning in cities”. In Longworth, N. and Osborne, M. Eds. Perspectives on
Learning Cities and Regions: Policy, practice and participation. Leister: NIACE
11. Knapper, C.K. and Cropley, A.J. (2000) Lifelong Learning in Higher Education. 3rd
Edition. London: Konan Page
12. Jarvis, P. (2006) Towards a comprehensive theory of human learning; Lifelong
learning and the learning society, London: Routledge
OPEN, DISTANCE AND FLEXIBLE LEARNING FOR REDUCTION OF THE GENDER
GAP BETWEEN FORMAL EDUCATION AND WORK
Tuaru Velepat, University of Papua New Guinea
ABSTRACT: There are three aims of the paper. Firstly the paper outlines gender
issues in Papua New Guinea ( PNG), provides an historical review of PNG culture
and identity in colonial and contemporary times, and highlights gender issues
against the background of this historical snapshot. Secondly, the paper reviews the
background literature to examine gender imbalances for enrolment of students in
all levels of formal education in PNG. Thirdly, the common educational barriers
that prohibit females from continuing their education to find work are discussed
together with the implications for ODL and its unique role in enrolling and
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promoting opportunity and empowerment towards gender equity at work and
social justice in PNG. In conclusion the paper explains the relevance of ODL and
underscores the imperative for gender equity from the PNG Education Reform
Plan 2005-2014, the Vision 2050 guidelines to international perspectives towards a
model for gender equity in the formal education and work.
Introduction:
A: An historical context of PNG culture and identity in
postcolonial and global contexts
PNG and Australia were linked by land up until six thousand years ago. As the Ice
Age ended and ocean levels rose, the waters from the Pacific and the Indian
Oceans poured through Torres Strait, cutting off the Australian continent from the
world’s second largest island. The first immigrants were hunters, gatherers and
fishers. The present Torres Strait Islanders are similar to some of the coastal
Melanesians of PNG. Dorney, a pioneer journalist, documents that Australia,
Holland, Britain and Germany were the colonisers of PNG. The names, Papua and
New Guinea, were coined by men from two other European countries, Portugal
and Spain. Jorge de Meneses, the Portuguese Governor General of the Moluccas,
first used the name, Papua in 1526, taking it from the Malay word for ‘frizzy hair’ .
The Spaniard, Inigo Ortiz de Retez, wrote New Guinea on the map in 1545 because
he believed the people resembled the people of Guinea in Africa (Dorney, 2001).
Dorney considers the diversity of the people and cultures of PNG are the nation’s
most distinctive trait. The differences in physical appearance amongst PNG people
can be quite marked. It does not take a foreign resident long to distinguish a Sepik
from a Trobriand Islander, a Highlander from a Tolai, or a Bougainvillean from a
Mekeo. Skin colour ranges from midnight black of the Buka people to all shades of
brown to the pale brown of some of the people from Central Province. While the
vast majority of PNG people are Melanesians, the tiny populations of the western
islands of the Manus province are of Micronesian descent and those of the
furthest flung eastern islands in the North Solomon province are Polynesian.
Societies may be patrilineal, matrilineal, or an amalgam of both. But what
evidences the remarkable patchwork of PNG’s multiple societies best is the
languages they speak (Dorney, 2001). An oft-repeated statistic about PNG is that
its people speak over 860 languages. However, this is just part of a story, because
these languages have evolved from many different roots and are of widely varying
antiquity and the most complex in the world (Dorney, 2001). This complexity
comes from so many different dialects or even entirely different languages that
can be spoken within only miles of each other. In practice, the average Papua New
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Guinean can speak up to four or five different languages. The three national
languages are English, Hiri Motu22 and Tok –Pisin.23 A major factor contributing to
the rich diversity of people and culture in PNG is the nature of the geography
(Dorney, 2001). The impact of contact with the outside world has resulted in many
old practices being discarded because PNG people are adaptive by nature (Dorney,
2001). Massive reassessments continue to take place as formal education and the
experience of outside cultures teach people to question and doubt the
explanations of their grandparents and why things happen as they do.
Nevertheless, the PNG people retain much closer links with the Hiri Motu and Tok,
Pisin. Few urban Papua New Guineans have totally dismissed the power of sorcery,
magic and witchcraft despite the influence of different religions.
The next section of this paper reviews common educational problems to analyze
where the imbalance is and why females drop-out of the education system. From
this, one can then formulate mechanisms or strategies to adopt in order to
minimize attrition rates.
B: The review of common educational problems, the gaps and
reasons for female attrition in PNG
According to previous research investigating the barriers females face in having
access to formal education at all levels of the education system, the obstacles fall
into the main categories of educational, social, economic, political and cultural.
Other researchers report similar findings (Avalos, 1993; Flaherty & Tuaru Gutuma,
2001; Seta, 1992; Tuaru, 1996; Yeoman; 1985). Yeoman’s (1985) table of factors
(Table 1) includes both in and out of school factors which frequently contribute to
poor enrolment and retention of girls at school. These factors are still at work
today.
Table 1: The main factors contributing to female attrition in PNG primary and
Secondary schools
Type
In school
The Main Factors
Age of entry, materials, school fees, sexual harassment
quality of learning environment
Out of school
Attitude of parents, family labor, geographical, school fees
Source: L Yeoman, 1985, p. 12.
22
Hiri – a word from Motu is a name given to a traditional trade exchange expedition. Motu is the
name and the language of the Papuan coastal village located near the national capital city of Port
Moresby.
23
One of the 3 target and national language of Papua New Guinea
369
In assessing the importance of these factors, Yeoman (1985) indicated that where
physical access to school was possible the most important out of school factor
affecting enrolment and retention was the attitude of parents, particularly fathers,
to the education of girls. The other important factors, in Yeoman’s view, were
teachers’ skills and commitment to creating a suitable learning environment, and
girls’ visions of their role, status and potential, as well as their level of motivation
to succeed. A similar study was conducted for secondary education in the East
Sepik Province. Seta (1992) reported on questionnaire and interview responses
from school administrators, teachers, female students and female ‘drop-outs’, and
community representatives on reasons for low female retention in the high
schools of the province. A number of factors were reported which paralleled some
of those identified by Yeoman (1985) for community schools. Amongst these
factors was the impact of Sepik’s traditional culture whereby if a choice was to be
made between a girl and boy continuing schooling, the preference would be given
to the boy (Seta, 1992). Cultural attitudes towards women affected the decision to
force a girl to drop-out if she was considered in danger of becoming pregnant, or
of marrying someone outside her village. Moreover, these attitudes affected the
decisions to choose who to keep in school if parents were faced with excessive
high school fees as they were (and are) in many of the provinces. Unwanted
pregnancies and evidence of relationships between the sexes in schools were also
identified by Seta (1992) as obstacles to retention. Girls in this situation either
decided to leave or were asked to leave by the school authorities. There are no
mechanisms or policies in place to address the ongoing problem of pregnancy
where responsibility should be faced by both parents of the child. Too often it is
the female who is asked to leave.
Finally, Seta (1992) also found that girls might leave school because the curriculum
and teaching were neither sufficiently challenging nor appropriate to their needs
and interests. These are complex issues that need further research but for the
purpose of this study inclusive curriculum and effective teaching strategies are
recommended to enhance student motivation and interest. In a contemporary
study of child abuse in schools, in recalling their school experiences, interviewees
reported that one of the factors contributing to girls leaving school was sexual
harassment and sexual abuse by teachers (Boorer & Tuaru Gutuma, 1993). Too
often these kinds of issues are hidden or brushed aside, and not legally dealt with.
Furthermore, there are no effective support systems where counseling and
mentoring can be sought for the victims in such serious situations.
Other factors affecting access and retention at high school level were the unequal
proportion of females selected and stereotypical attitudes. In the early 1990s the
proportion of girls entering upper secondary schools was approximately 29% of
the total enrolment (Avalos & Tuaru Gutuma, 1993). More women were found in
370
nursing and secretarial service type jobs than in teaching and other professions,
such as technical or management positions. This reinforces the factor of
stereotypical attitudes where the females are still opting for traditional type
career paths rather than pursuing a formal education within higher education.
Parental cultural and negative attitudes have hindered and denied female children
their education. There needs to be parental awareness programs from all levels of
society including national, community and at school levels. At the national level
relevant school fee subsidies should be made available so parents do not have to
pay excessive school fees. As shown by the literature (Seta, 1992; Yeoman, 1985),
when it comes to a choice it is often the male child who has preference to
continue schooling when school fees become a burden for parents.
This paper hopes to address this issue by having an equity policy which provides
for a Gender Equity Commission (GEC) committee in liaison with Student Services
to investigate such cases and to take appropriate action in this regard — an
institutional policy that allows full investigation into the nature of the situation so
that responsibilities are faced by both parents. Provisions should allow students, if
they choose to leave, to maintain their study space if and when they choose to
resume, or for the institution to make rented accommodation available for them if
they choose to stay. This is where ODL is an alternative opportunity for the
females in these situations to complete their education. The Certificate in Tertiary
and Community Studies (CTCS) is a bridging program being offered by UPNG Open
College. The aims of the CTCS programs is twofold (i) Prepare students with
appropriate skills and knowledge to cope with academic studies in higher
educational institutions and (ii) Provide skills for use in employment and
community dev and self-employment.
ODL AND ITS UNIQUE CONTRIBUTION TO GENDER EQUITY IN FORMAL
EDUCATION AND WORK
The importance and potential of distance learning modes are widely recognized in
PNG and internationally. Several Institute of Higher Education (IHEs) have
experience in providing courses and programs through distance education because
there is a high demand for this in PNG. For example, in 1997, a total of 11,707
students applied for distance mode study. Seventy percent of these applicants
were rejected, with 30% National Higher Education Plan (NHEP II 2000-2004)
accepted based on the availability of materials and human resources. There is a
high level of support for distance learning and other life-skills and flexible learning
modes, but requirements for effective implementation are generally not well
understood in IHEs or government departments and agencies. It is recommended
by the NHEP II 2002-2004 review that more research is required before major
initiatives are launched, in order to provide a strategic framework for the IHEs to
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strengthen offerings by distance and flexible learning modes. It is recommended
by the plan that a Distance and Flexible Education Committee (DFEC) be
established to review all higher education courses and programs being offered in
distance or other flexible learning modes by public, private and international
education and training organizations. The aim is to strengthen quality with vertical
and horizontal integration within a unified and comprehensive national system of
higher education.
In this scenario, what is ODL’s unique contribution in gender equity and social
justice? Table 2 below shows enrolment data for UPNG Open College (UPNGOC).
UPNGOC has 23 centers in the whole of Papua New Guinea. Below is student
enrolment statistics. The figures clearly indicate the big demand for students to
continue their education through distance mode. Although most of data shown
does not indicate the gender ratio, Table 3 shows a random selection of 5 of the
23 centers raw data where gender is disaggregated. These findings imply that well
over 50% are female students (refer to Table 3). Furthermore, qualitative feedback
from the Center Directors of the 23 centers concluded that nearly all enrolment of
the CTCS programs indicated that well over 50% are females. This assumption is
justified by the gender ratios shown in Table 3.
Table 2: Total Student Enrolment Totals for the UPNGOC Unicenters:
Year
200
200
200 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
3
4
5
Total
2,58 3,73 673 10,74 13,65 19,17 22,32 15,15
Enrolme 7
2
1
1
4
7
0
1
nt
of
Students
Source: UPNGOC Admissions 2011.
Table 3: 2007 UPNGOC CTCS Enrolment Data:
Name of Unicentre Semester 2/Total
Male Students
Enrolment
National
Capital 416 students
45%
District( Urban)
Kokopo
Open 702 students
35%
Campus(Urban/rural)
Kokopo
Open Literacy
1-23 50%
Campus
students
Enga Uni Center
102 students
47%
Solomons Island
117 students
35%
Source: UPNGOC Admissions 2011.
372
Total
94,09
3
Female Students
55%
65%
50%
53%
65%
In assessing the above statistics ODL is definitely contributing effectively to the
female population as percentages indicate well above 50% in the above centers.
These females have been pushed out of the normal conventional educational
system and hence finding alternative modes to complete their secondary
education.
For a child to have equal access, compulsory policies play an important role in
maintaining and retaining the child. The children whose education is free have
more opportunities to gain access to education than children who have to pay
fees. From the community and school levels, it is essential to establish stronger
network and community outreach educational programs between the schools and
the wider communities.
Currently, there are more than 30 Institutions of Higher Education (IHE), the
majority of which offer a single or limited range of programs, that are responsible
to larger departments within six established universities in PNG. They are UPNG,
UOG, University of Technology Lae (UNITEC), Divine Word University Madang
(DWU), Agricultural University Rabaul (VUDAL) and Pacific Adventist University
Port Moresby (PAU). There are 12 General Education Primary Teachers Colleges,
11 specialized professional institutions of nursing and health as well as fisheries,
Institute of Business Studies (IBS); Lae Technical Institution (LTI) and 7
technological colleges. In addition to these are the Distance Educational
Institutions of UPNG which have Open Colleges (OC) in almost all the 20 provinces
of PNG. Their enrolments in 1999 ranged from approximately 200 to 4,000
equivalent full time students. All are planning to become multidisciplinary
institutions that offer a range of academic programs at several levels have not
matched population demand or growth.
C: Why the imperative for gender for reduction of gender gap in formal
education and work?
The PNG Government Vision 2050:
Under its seven important development pillars of the Vision 2050 is the first pillar
which stipulates ‘Human Capital Development’. PNG is way below in the Human
Development Index. The country’s fundamental development challenge is
ensuring that the majority of the population participates and shares the benefits
of economic growth. The levels of social indicators remain extremely poor,
especially for women. Low life expectancy, high infant mortality, poor adult
literacy and low enrolment at all levels of education combined with low per capita
income make PNG’s human development level the lowest of the Pacific member
countries of (Asian Development Bank) (ADB). The low developmental indicators
reflect the lack of provision of essential services and the inadequate development
373
management, in the context of very difficult physical and social conditions (United
Nations, 2002).
D: The imperative for gender equity from international context
The push for gender equity is directed by International Conventions where the
rights of women and girls are being promoted. The UN Declaration of Human
Rights (1962). Article 2 stipulates:
Everyone is entitled to all rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without
distinction of any kind, such as race, color, sex, language, religion, political or other
opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status. Furthermore, no
distinction shall be made on the basis of the political, jurisdictional, or international
status of the country or territory to which a person belongs, whether it be independent,
trust, non-self governing or under any other limitation or sovereignty. (p. 2)
The above human rights are essential for any person regardless of gender, color,
creed or disability. Furthermore every child through Universal Primary Education
(UPE) has the right of education. In PNG education systems, however, this
universal right is not adhered to. Further research is critical in monitoring UPE in
PNG to ensure that each child, particularly females, have the right of access to
education at elementary, primary and secondary levels. This international human
right is reinforced by The Beijing Declaration (1995). Its Mission Statement refers
to women’s empowerment and advancement as follows:
The Platform for Action is an agenda for women's empowerment. It aims at
accelerating the implementation of the Nairobi Forward-looking Strategies for the
Advancement of Women and at removing all the obstacles to women's active
participation in all spheres of public and private life through a full and equal share
in economic, social, cultural and political decision-making. This means that the
principle of shared power and responsibility should be established between
women and men at home, in the workplace and in the wider national and
international communities. Equality between women and men is a matter of
human rights and a condition for social justice and is also a necessary and
fundamental prerequisite for equality, development and peace. A transformed
partnership based on equality between women and men is a condition for people
centred sustainable development. A sustained and long-term commitment is
essential, so that women and men can work together for themselves, for their
children and for society to meet the challenges of the twenty-first century.
In PNG, the imperative for gender equity results from the call for equal
opportunities for all as outlined above. The PNG Platform for Action was a result of
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the Beijing Declaration. It called for the mainstreaming of gender issues within
government departments, and led to gender desks within the Departments of
Agriculture, Health, Police, Defense, National Planning Office and Education. The
gender equity imperative is also coming from Donor Agencies that are present to
support the National Department of Education (NDOE) in carrying out its
programs. In support of its reform programs in PNG, the Australian Agency for
International Development (AusAID) has a gender component in all its education
projects. One role of the gender component is to train teachers in PNG on how to
address inequity in the classroom, curriculum and schools at all levels of the
education system which is a challenge for educationists. There is some support
from the government but this is not sufficient. The government still needs to
provide more resources for research towards implementation and sustainable
mechanisms to effectively introduce the NHEP II Strategic Plan 2000-2004, as one
example of an innovation that needs support. It requires a concerted effort from
all levels of the community.
CONCLUSION:
This paper seeks to contribute to achieving gender equity and inclusiveness by
investigating suitable mechanisms for monitoring and sustaining gender equity in
higher education. Many women in PNG still suffer silently (Flaherty, 2001; Tuaru,
1996; Yeoman, 1985,). Despite this gloomy situation there have been some
achievements recently such as the launching of the National Gender Equity in
Education Policy (September, 2003) (NGEEP) through joint partnerships of AusAID
and the National Department of Education of Papua New Guinea. This was a
milestone reached by the Primary and Secondary Tertiary Education Project
(PASTEP) Gender Component of 2001-2003. The National Gender Equity in
Education Policy (NGEEP) has an important role in enhancing and promoting the
goals of the National Constitution and the Education Reform Plan 2005-2014.
Inherent within this NGEEP is the understanding that gender equity will be
implemented within all education work places. Affirmative action and positive
discrimination, supported by Equal Employment Opportunities Policy, will help to
ensure women in education are provided with opportunities to participate in
decision-making and be representatives at the highest levels. From the above
analysis it can be argued that all legislation for the move towards gender equity
and justice is in place within the PNG and international context. The challenge is to
provide effective mechanisms to ensure these legislations or policies are achieved.
ODL, however, is meeting this challenge through its increasing number of females
enrolment. ODL is definitely proving a unique and effective contribution in
enhancing gender equity and social justice.
375
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FORMAL EDUCATION AND JOB:
DIGITAL REVOLUTION AND STRATEGIC ROLE OF THE CURRICULUM
Vento Gianfranco, Università degli studi Guglielmo Marconi, Italy
ABSTRACT: For quite some time we have been witnessing an evident crisis of the
education national systems as consequence of the changed relationship among
the job division on global scale, the change in the productive specialization and the
employment and professional requirements which have to deal with the new
different reality of the globalized competition.
Furthermore, the education systems have to adapt to the impetuous growth of the
demand for education at all levels and they have to tackle with the competition,
which is becoming more and more intrusive, and the non-formal education (both
external to the institutions responsible for the formal-education).
377
This troubled context has generated frequent re-design attempts at several
education levels by the governments which, nevertheless, have not yet succeeded
in focusing on a shared inspiring concept able to imprint a global direction to the
reformatory process. In the absence of the above mentioned concept it has been
preferred merely an occasional support to the problem of the increasing distance
between formal education and employment, with partial and poor solutions.
In fact, the failure of the reformatory impulse essentially comes from a basic
choice which had the scope of preferring the myth of a new reference model
business-type, disregarding the inescapable and structural problem related to the
process of the knowledge creation. Nonetheless, the resource “knowledge”
represents the foundation of the competitive advantage, generated by the
modalities with which the acquired knowledge are stored, used, shared and
increased in order to be conveyed to the future generations.
The third millennium University has to aim for the training of talented persons
who have knowledge, rules, cognitive organizer and metacognitive orientation and
adequate competence to discover and re-build knowledge and experience types.
Moreover, the impact of the digital revolution imprints also in the knowledge
production process the typical speed intensification which represents an essential
source for the competitive success.
Therefore, it seems to be obvious that , even in the persisting lack of a global
reformative concept, also in the entirety of the structures, application and
organization policies which converge to create the knowledge management
system, the identification and the management of formative interventions able to
operate for a connection, at least partial, of the separation between formal
education and employment might have a fundamental role.
In this viewpoint and thanks to the potentialities generated by the digitalization
processes, the university can proceed to a revision of the curricular organization in
order to set on new basis the building process of the professional completion
according to modalities able to connect the theoretical knowledge to the practices
related to the specific implementation context.
Indeed, the procedures made possible by the virtualization, firstly the simulation
one, can favour the building process of a new professional competition,
appropriate for the needs of an open, segmented, mobile and flexible labour
market.
Taking for granted the priority of the problem of a re-composition between the
formal education area and the professional operating contexts, it becomes
378
possible to elaborate a curricular planning focused on the procedure of imitation
(“simulation”) as result of the comprehension/ conjecture path of the way of
acting of the systems detected as imitation object.
On this basis, and through an appropriate curricular planning, it results possible to
integrate a knowledge merely technical with the operative awareness of the
several functioning aspects of the context definable as the capacity of evaluating,
selecting opportunities, interacting with others, dealing with complex problems,
acting in applicative adjacent fields in order to obtain in the learner an
appropriate experience in order to achieve a full control of the simulated
environment.
KEY WORDS: distance learning, education
Introduction
For some time, it has been showing an evident crisis, of the educational traditional
systems, at global level, attributable essentially both to the fast and constant
typical transformation of the production systems of goods and services and, at the
same time, to the change and intensification of the demand of higher education
from an ever wider-ranging of users.
All these elements cause an emergency in tackling with the problem of the
organization of the education, in relation to the needs of adequate qualifications
to levels of professionalism required by the labour market in a society “of the
knowledge”. The main feature of this tension concerns the transformations
affecting the labour allocation on a planetary scale and changes of productive
specializations: factors disrupting the traditional adaptation of employment and
professional qualifications that it confronts itself unexpectedly with a globalised
competition.
This paper analyses the key trends in global education and employability, and try
to provide some possible responses to the current challenges in this area.
Formal education and employment: the role of digital revolution
At the root of these globally tensions in this sector, the intensity which the labour
allocation on a planetary scale stands with, and the related change of
specializations, interferes on professional qualifications and jobs involved in
globalized competition. In such a situation, it is unavoidable a direct involvement
of national training systems which have been no coincidently involving in the redesign of the various levels of education for some time.
379
In fact, for over seventy years, we have been observing to the succeeding of the
responses proposed by national States to the tensions and imbalances stemmed
from, as a first step, and in the context of higher education, by the sudden
transition from an elitist university to a mass university. Consequently, and in an
extremely invasive manner, the primacy of the “formal education” (i.e. that
hierarchically structured and time-marked system extending from primary school
to university) came into crisis as a result of the massive emergency of the
“informal education” (i.e., that process for which individuals can gain, in the
course of their own life, skills, competencies and behaviours through daily
experience, the influence of the environment and media); and even that of the
“non-formal education” referred to all types of structured training activity carried
out in competition with delegated institutions at the national level to the task of
formal education.
So it ensued that, compared to the traditional sequential education sorting out in a
rigorously vertical way, a new educational model arose as a permanent process
that can promote a network of relationships that extend the duration of the
learning process to the whole space of the existence, and that offer the
opportunity to benefit from a range of systematic integration compared to
collateral experiences. The combination of these interacting factors, together with
their twine, has de facto deeply involved the constitutive structures of the
traditional models of formal education, nevertheless generating anywhere, the
gap between formal education and job that ends up by generating a deep division
in the relationship between the “outcome” of education and the labour market.
Unfortunately, in the light of the facts we cannot indeed avoid to ascribe the
responsibility for this disastrous result to the chosen design dynamics by the
reformist movement, which is acted in the perspective to adapt teaching and
organizational structures of the traditional university model to a new reference of
“corporate”- oriented model, with the aim of turning the old system into an
“open” one able to tackle with the modern competitive dynamics. Put in front of
the peculiar dynamics of a knowledge-intensive economy, the reformer has
forgotten one of the terms of the problem: just that concerning the knowledge
creation in the absence of which the failure was assured.
While it is true the specific task of the university as institution is to educate the
long-term cultural development of individuals; and, in parallel, to satisfy the shortterm needs in the world of work in a global context, this mission lays essentially
and inevitably on an proper vision of the organization of the knowledge that in
turn, in the operational and teaching practice, have to put into the analysis of
complex connections of knowledge as well as they appear in the time at issue.
Therefore, if one wants to recognize in the growth and in the economic and social
380
development the ultimate aim that the educational institution establish through
the effectiveness of the teaching/learning process, it is impossible to disregard for
that resource named “knowledge”, representing the basis for the competitive
advantage. It is in fact originated just from the modalities which knowledge are
stored, used, shared and increased with, in forms that allow its transmission to
consecutive generations.
What differentiates current production operations of the knowledge from the
past, is the speed which the processes of analysis, deduction and induction can be
carried out with, by means of digital technologies that allow to accrue and
transform an endowment of knowledge of proportions absolutely unimaginable in
the past. Just this ever-increasing ability of processing, being an essential research
tool of information in support of the undertaking of strategic decisions, represents
an essential resource for the competitive success.
In short, the competitive advantage, which represents the ultimate goal of the
process is based on the creation embodied in people and generated by social
interaction. It is, as was observed, a “spiral of the knowledge” intended as
cognitive process that, in reference to new events, continuously produces new
knowledge which, in turn, will have to be encoded giving life to new procedures.
With these innovative practices, the new knowledge is socialized thus becoming a
collective heritage.
So, the education system, and in particular the university of the third millennium
have to focus on the training of talents , i.e. under a training profile consisting of
knowledge, rules, cognitive organizer, metacognitive orientation. It is hence to
tend toward the building up the competencies, in a student, able to regenerate
and develop discovery strategies and the reconstruction of knowledge and
experience forms, so that they can be attributed in the range of different domains
of declarative, procedural and imaginative-heuristic type. In fact, science,
knowledge and forms of culture develop indeed in function of how the education
system is able to produce and set up expert models of organization of the
knowledge and of competencies training. To pursue the aim of a developmentoriented training profile of talents means, then, arrange a curriculum that can
systematically facilitate the production and construction of meanings maps able to
stimulate, to the trainer, the acquisition and competency of appropriate frames
and models of mind set at the base of further forms of knowledge, experience and
relation. Thanks to this path, it is possible to establish a sort of continuity between
the world of knowledge (disciplines, contents, cultures, knowledge) and the world
of experience (development of psychological evolutionary processes, development
of the mind), through a dynamic process that can enhance and transform the
heritage of knowledge/experiences already possessed.
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Currently, the education system is called to develop competitive learning and
personal talents fostering the ability of the individual to organize the knowledge
and information in a distinctive manner, thus aiming to achieve the self-regulation
and self-evaluation of their experiences in harmony with the evolution of values
and professions. Evidently, the attainment of this goal envisages the assumption,
as starting point, of a specific curriculum strongly characterized by the necessary
flexibility to favour a model of culture, science and education, in permanent
evolution. The instrument through which the curriculum works, is represented by
the explanatory model of each discipline designated to explain a specific reality,
providing also the tools to use productively this explanation. In fact, the
explanatory model, thanks to its dynamism, is designated to reduce the complexity
of the task; to make the learner aware of the stages it has been undertaking; to
tailor the learning of the process and its sub-processes (flexibility); to develop
general ways of thought such as the invention, the decision, the evaluation.
Today, as we mentioned, the requirement of flexibility seems essential to reach an
adequate definition of the curricula types that are able to provide a strategic
response to the problem of the equality of opportunities, as well as for access to
employment of new generations in a context of globalized economy and of labour
market opening that has become, by the time, highly segmented, fast and flexible.
In this context, we have to remember that the university as institution has always
played a crucial role in the development of a socio-economic and productive
system, through both the training of human resources talented of high learning
abilities, and the development of mental capacities caused by processes able to
build the basic structures of the adult knowledge. In today's society, the needs of
skills are multiplying in terms of quantitative (learning throughout the lifespan)
and qualitative perspective (needs of specific sector knowledge closely linked both
to practical knowledge applications, and to the abilities to develop them). The
social need of an increasingly wider range of knowledge producers requires,
therefore, the identification of new ways with which the knowledge is made
available to the purpose to stimulate growth. Today, in the context of a
knowledge-intensive economy, universities have to address the long-term cultural
development of individuals as well as the meet short-term needs in the world of
work in a global context. In such a perspective, we still have to recognize the role
of universities as invaluable in the planning of human resources needs and in
needs identification to met through quality programming and path specializations.
The educational system must consider both human-resource needs from the world
of work, and the question of potential consumers of education; and moreover,
above all that, the calculation of the human capital yield rates, as a fundamental
determinant of educational demand, as well as an important requirement for an
optimal planning in the educational market. By a careful analysis of all of these
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factors, the supply of the education type, and its quantity, originates also on
account of the time needed to the completion of the training processes. In fact,
this last factor often shows an imbalance in the fluctuations of human resources
demand with specific skills and knowledge; and that forces the education system
to consider also, from a strategic point of view, the necessary lapse of time for the
acquisition of the human capital needed for economic and social development.
The analysis of the knowledge structure in contexts characterized by rapid changes
makes obviously more complex than in the past, the problem of its management.
In fact, societies in which the technological development cycle was wider than a
generation lifetime, competencies training was based on the transmission of a
knowledge already produced and formalized. In this sense, skills comprised a
defined set of functions that could be learned, within a specific and limited period
of life, through recurring practices and applicative procedures.
Nowadays, instead, an effective knowledge management has to develop new
strategies that consider both the identification of the areas of knowledge to be
included in, and the operating methods by which administrate the connected
encoding operations, transfer and utilization. In each organization, the strategic
planning must then identify the necessary resources of knowledge and skills to
acquire and develop so that the competitive advantage is preserved and
increased; and it should develop more appropriate procedures to carry out the
operations of appropriation of these knowledge so that they can essentially be
used and immediately assimilated by various agents. And so, in the overall view of
the structures, of the organizational policies and applications converging to create
the knowledge management system, the identification and organization of
innovative training play a crucial role such as to set up the building process of
professional competence on new bases. After all, the new concept of competence
includes not only a purely technical knowledge, but also the operational
awareness of various aspects of the working environment, as such the ability to
assess, to select opportunities, to interact with others, to tackle with complex
problems, to act also in neighbouring fields of application. Definitively, the
responsibility identifies largely with the ability to organize and articulate its own
knowledge, making it more flexible and then suitable to be contextualized.
Therefore, the training processes of professional competence will have to be able
to connect the theoretical knowledge to the practices relative to the specific
context of application, trigging problem-solving sequences capable to promote
operations of complexity prediction, to train the ability of choice and decisionmaking, and to develop useful skills in the use of knowledge. In such a perspective,
it becomes necessary a rapid reprogramming of the education system such as to
provide proper answers to the problems highlighted, beginning by the curricular
planning pinpointed on the organization of teachings. In the practical building of a
curriculum, a fundamental factor is represented by a reference to a theory of
383
science as a constant process of synthesis and accumulation starting from the
continuous interaction between old and new models of explanation of the world.
By way of example we can re-start from the comparison between the idea of
“natural world”, investigated and revealed by natural sciences (biological and
physical) that are specialized in the knowledge of objects and natural phenomena,
and “artificial world”, designed by the artificial human intervention which uses
artefacts (symbols), however perceived through sensory organs but adapted to
specific objectives and purposes. In the artificial world objects and phenomena are
produced wherein human purposes and natural laws encounter, two disparate
components that need specific tools (technique) to be related each other.
Natural science, as we know, deals with the analysis, whereas artificial sciences,
through a technique, dealing with the synthesis, i.e. of the process of composition
or design. As a result of this, we can say that the design of artificial objects
(synthetic) with the desired features represents the technical activity goal on the
basis of purposes including the aim, for the artefact; the character; the
environment which it has to operate in. The artificial character of the object is
realized, then, through external perceivable similarities, but also by differences in
the essence: the object mimics the reality, though adapting to sequences of
different external tasks. The process of imitation (which we define “simulation”)
comes out first by the understanding and predicting of the behaviour of
reproduced systems; but in particular it develops, then, as a source of new
knowledge at the time that is able to predict the behaviour of the existing
components in a combination that is made homogeneous. At this point it becomes
evident, and necessary, the reference of imitation process to the nature and to
dynamics of the processes of teaching and learning; and, in particular, to the
potential of this process as a tool of new knowledge creation. The imitative
process, namely the simulation, clearly belongs to the human mind powers which
works through artefacts we can be defined as “symbolic systems” able to work
through symbols, or rather symbolic representations as part of symbolic
frameworks. In the process of teaching/learning the systematic recourse to
methods based on the simulation comes up as a fundamental resource able to
create a bridge between the understood knowledge as a result of a theoretical
work and that based on the experience.
In the current context, education systems have the ability to have recourse to
digitalization resources placed at the service of the human mind. This opportunity
can certainly to optimize the imitation processes (simulation) feeding them into
virtual learning environments that represent the ideal context for a form of
sharing of tasks aimed at creating a product endowed with an important added
value to the cognitive process. The virtual learning space that is realized in this
way, highlights the enhanced capacity to develop new educational approaches
384
tailored on the knowledge relativistic models, able to increase the interactions in a
much more intense and effective manner than it is possible to perform in a face to
face mode. In particular at the higher education level, the technology is able to
create a new type of learning environment, a new articulation of professionalism
involved in it (lecturers, tutors, project coordinators, planners on different
functional levels, experts in evaluation processes, network managers, web editors,
etc.), a new figure of learner experimenting new ways of communication, a strong
differentiation of curricula with highly personalized programs. In this way it is
possible to promote a new educational paradigm based, especially with the use of
simulation, on the collective intelligence. In this perspective, virtual universities
are able to promote the comparison activity to the maximum level, the integration
and negotiation of meanings built around a problematic circumstance that
substantiates the process of the knowledge acquisition. Clearly, the adoption of an
active methodology, together with a more greater adherence to the context,
increases the variables at stake that will have to be controlled and managed in the
course of the learning process.
Conclusion
Especially at the level of higher education, most of the problems generated by this
radical methodological break can be dealt with success through the recourse to
those simulation practices which, based as they are on the control of a variety of
variables, within the digital reality, can be handled and developed while increasing
the involvement and responsibility of learning subjects. The implementation of
virtual learning environments takes on as qualifying state the recourse, in
particular, to procedures of simulation substantiated by a series of dynamic
performances that utilize substitute formal elements of the modelled reality by an
abstraction process. The main objective of the simulation consist in the building of
a system (model) able to facilitate the study, the understanding and the
management of reality imitated. The simulation is based on a systemic vision of
reality, considered as an organized homogenous set, a complex entity consisted of
interacting components among them. We can then define the simulation as a tool
that can enhance the analysis capabilities of phenomena and the understanding
of the reality which one works in, thanks to a modelling activity aimed principally
at the comprehension of complex situations. Through the replication of a
phenomenon (a task or an operation), it is possible to carry out the analysis of that
specific object and the transfer of the result, the artificial environment, to the real
one. In essence, the simulation is the process by which one designs the model of a
real system. Then, on it, experiments are conducted with the aim to understand
the behaviour of the system, or to evaluate strategies for its operability. It is
therefore a manipulation of the reality through a model that allows to make
reliable predictions on real behaviour. From the learning standpoint, the
simulation processes operate on the creative and analytical aspect providing
385
working conditions that favour the direct intervention of the individual learner on
the “object” that is being proposed. The model allows to improve the knowledge
of real phenomena in a more powerful and complete way than by the direct
observation. The method reduces the complexity of the observed situation
allowing to understand and handle in the most immediate way its relative
mechanisms, and to organize and rationalize the diverse and conflicting data. The
simulation make possible for individuals or groups to perform the most quantity of
links or stages while maintaining the highest control level of the process. Evidently,
simulation practices require also a proper environment, a laboratory wherein the
subject may experience operationally real or prospect situations. For this aim is
needed to make reference to a specific and dynamic rebuilt environment, more
comprehensible than the real environment, but comparable to it. In any case, the
simulation requires a high degree of participation in the context of a learning
model wherein diverse forms of cooperation and conflict find enough space able
to provide an appropriate experience for the achievement of a full control of the
simulated environment.
CONSTRUCTION, APPLICATION, AND CHALLENGES OF DEVELOPING
CONTEXTUALIZED MOODLE-BASED E-TEACHING AND LEARNING SYSTEM
IN ONE CONVENTIONAL UNIVERSITY
Wang Jin-Long; Chen Jian-Bo; Hung Shu-Chiu; Chen Chun-Man; Lin,Wen-Ting Ming,
Chuan University, Taiwan.
ABSTRACT: The paper is to report on construction and applications of
contextualized Moodle-based e-teaching and learning system in one conventional
university in Taiwan, and to discuss challenges encountering in the current
application of the contextualized e-learning in higher education. The
contextualized Mood-based e-teaching and learning system was developed to
support traditional teaching and learning in higher education, to explore how to
successfully optimize open web-based Moodle sources, and to integrate
technology with education in one conventional universities. To conclude, the
current developments in the contextualized Moodle-based teaching and learning
have showed encouraging and promising results. With challenges ahead, it is
expected that the contextualized Moodle-based e-teaching and learning system
will be further optimized in multiple dimensions and, thus, to integrate and
optimize e-learning in conventional universities in higher education.
KEY WORDS: contextualized Moodle –based e-teaching and learning system;
contextualized e-learning; self-learning supporting site; conventional universities
386
Introduction
The application of e- learning into language education has been widely discussed
and proactively adopted among universities alongside with the advance of
computer technology, internet and multimedia (English & Yazdani, 1999; Collison,
et al. 2000). E-learning particularly developed for a wide variety of purposes and
choices is supposed to provide an expanded range of course options to students or
language learners (English & Yazdani, 1999; Mandinach & Jackson, 2012).
Following this trend, e-learning as a new model of learning has emerged to
support conventional face-to-face teaching (English & Yazdani, 1999; Collison, et al.
2000). Consequently, many conventional universities in Taiwan are aware of the
need to integrate e-teaching and learning with conventional face-to-face and
classroom-based teaching in higher education. The paper is to report on
construction, applications and challenges of MCU Moodle-based e-teaching and
learning system which is one contextualized e-learning platform developed based
on the Moodle system and is the largest scaled Chinese Moodle platform among
Chinese-medium universities.
Construction of MCU Moodle-Based Teaching and Learning System in one
Conventional University
New technologies are constantly evolving, knowledge is expanding and
information is updating in speed (Relan and Gillani, 1997; Mandinach & Jackson,
2012). In Ming Chuan University (MCU), one conventional university in Taiwan, the
MCU Moodle-based teaching and learning system is developed with aims to
support face-to-face and classroom-based teaching at the university, and to
facilitate students’ learning through a mode of e-learning. Figure 1 shows the
contextualized MCU Moodle-based e-teaching and learning system.
387
Figure 1: The MCU Moodle-based E-Teaching and Learning System
Applications of Contextualized Mood-based E-Teaching and Learning System
The Moodle-based teaching and learning system, open web-based Moodle
sources, has been contextualized to be one largest scaled e-learning platform in
higher education by one conventional university in Taiwan. At the spring semester,
2013 academic year, the university has offered 3219 course. Among them, 2597
courses (80.68%) have used the MCU Moodle teaching and learning system to
support teaching and learning in-and-out of classroom teaching. Table 1 shows the
various uses of the MCU Moodle teaching and learning system. The major use is to
set files related to the course, so 2296 courses (71.33%) have set up course files on
the MCU Moodle system. 2196 courses (68.22%) have used it to provide learning
resources and 1252 courses (38.89%) set up homework. 1190 courses (36.97%)
have used it for discussion, 248 (7.7%) courses set up testing and only 20 course
used the Moodle system to do surveys.
Table 1: Uses of the MCU Moodle –Based E-Teaching and Learning System
Uses
of
Moodle
No. of
Courses
Total No.
Files
Resources
Homework
Testing
Discussion
Survey
2296
(71.33%)
62894
2196
(68.22%)
25408
1252
(38.89%)
7278
248
(7.70%)
1971
1190
(36.97%)
36326
20
(0.62%)
97
388
Further to infuse self-learning theories into the e-learning system, one selflearning supporting site has recently been constructed with aims to expand
students disciplinary knowledge of, to motivate university students’ learning and to
develop autonomous learning capacity of university students through hi-tech and
multi-media online courses in the university. In order to optimize applications of
the MCU Moodle-based teaching and learning system, one self-learning supporting
site which is underpinned by self-learning theory has recently been developed with
an aim to support university students’ learning through offering certificate courses
and summer e-courses. The case study is to report one course entitled ‘Current
Issues in English’ offered in summer in the self-learning supporting site within the
MCU Moodle-based teaching and learning system in the university. Figure 2 shows
the course offered in the Moodle –based self-learning supporting site in the
university.
Figure 2: One On-Line English Course within MCU Self-Learning Suppoting Site
Figure 3 shows the design of the course. It is one 12-week course. The syllabus of
the course is weekly-based. In every week, there is one topic related to current
issues for teaching and learning, for example, Education Fair, and so on. The
teaching videos were filmed and uploaded for content teaching of every topic
around 10-15 minutes. And, websites or resources relevant to every topic are lined
for expansive learning. In addition, self-testing is also used to facilitate learning.
After-class discussion and chats are also set up to encourage student-student or
student-teacher interaction.
389
Figure 3: Presentation of the Online Course on the MCU Moodle System
The online English course was initiated in 2010. After that, the course was revised
and further developed since 2011. The course was offered to perspective
freshmen and students signed up the course in summer. Figure 4 shows the
number of students who signed up the on-line course in the past four summers. In
its initiative in 2010, 101 students signed up the course. After some revisions made
on the online course in 2011, 288 students signed up in 2011, 6956 students in
2012 and 171 students in 2013. Therefore, the number of students who signed up
the online English course is 7516 in total.
8000
6956
6000
4000
Students
2000
101
288
2010
2011
171
0
2012
2013
Figure 4: The number of students signed up the course
390
Conclusion and Challenges Ahead
The technology has been a powerful instrument to deliver courses for students
and learners in a large-scale. The MCU Moodle-based e- teaching and learning
system has contributed to the integration of technology and higher education. The
paper reported construction and applications of the MCU Moodle e-system
developed in the university. It is observed that more than thousands of students in
the university singed up on-line courses and did online self-learning. That indicates
that for present university students on-line or e- learning seems to be part of their
learning activities. Online learning is accessible anytime and anywhere due to
technological advances. However, large remains unknown of how on-line learning
courses can optimize self-learning and, thus, lead to better learning achievements
and personal development for college and university students in higher education.
All those are challenges ahead. Therefore, more work and research in future
should be more concerned with construction and applications of e- teaching and
learning system to energize and support university students’ learning in
conventional universities.
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391
AN EMPIRICAL RESEARCH OF METACOGNITIVE STRATEGY TRAINING
AND DISTANCE LEARNERS’ LEARNER AUTONOMY –
A CASE OF ZHEJIANG RADIO & TV UNIVERSITY
XU Wei, Zhejiang Radio & TV University, China
ABSTRACT: Currently, distance education features as a large number of student
enrolment and person variables, which leads to the increasing pressure of distance
teaching. Therefore, it is a hot issue drawing extensive attention in the distance
education that transfer learning strategies correspondingly into efficient
autonomous learning. So far, there are lots of studies on learner autonomy and
metacognitive strategies training respectively, but few of them focus on the
empirical study with distance education students as research subjects. The
research consequently aims to find out whether metacognitive strategy training
will ultimately improve learner autonomy in distance English teaching and
learning, help learners increase their metacognitive awareness and benefit from
taking charge of their own learning, namely, making study plans, monitoring
learning process and assessing learning effects. Meanwhile, the research findings
could be converted into practical application in distance English teaching through
strategy training．
KEY WORDS: Distance learners, Metacognitive strategy training, Learner
autonomy
1. Introduction
1.1 Distance Learners
Distance learners are the learning subjects who are encouraged to improve the
ability to continue lifelong learning even after their formal language education.
Meanwhile, responsibility in learning involves distance learners in taking partial or
total ownership of many traditionally teacher-dominated processes, such as
setting learning goals, selecting appropriate approaches and skills, monitoring the
learning program and evaluating the overall performance.
1.2 Learner Autonomy
Henry Holec (1981) introduced the theory of autonomy in his book Autonomy and
Foreign Language Teaching and Learning. He defined learner autonomy as “the
capacity or ability to take charge of one’s learning”, which demonstrates in five
components: setting learning goals, determining learning contents and progress,
selecting appropriate approaches and skills, monitoring the program and
evaluating the overall performance. Over the last two decades, the concept of
learner autonomy has gained momentum. It has been described as “buzz-word”
within the context of language learning. With the focus of teaching approach
transferred from teacher-centered to learner-centered, the concept of learner
autonomy is beginning to enter the mainstream of language learning
392
methodology. It is commonly agreed the importance of helping distance learners
to be more autonomous in language learning. As a matter of fact, successful
distance learners are capable of dominating the learning process in an active way
and being able to transfer what they grasped to new learning materials and
learning activities. They can benefit from such kind of capacity to a great degree in
their lifelong education.
1.3 Metacognitive Strategy
It is evidenced that there are close relationship between metacognitive strategies
and learner autonomy. First, metacognitive strategies are highly executive skills
that support distance learners as more objective-regulated. When supervise the
learning process, distance learners analyze the relationship between learning
objective, learning methods and task performances. Then they accommodate their
learning process and make adjustments actively and consciously. Secondly,
metacognitive strategies empower distance learners more responsibilities in their
learning process. As the stress of language teaching and learning is transferred to
be more communicative and learners’ needs oriented, distance teachers no longer
behave as teaching authority and take responsibility for everything in the learning
process. Instead, distance learners are encouraged to participate in the learning
process in a learner-focused approach and reduce their reliance on teachers as
they used to be. Integration of metacognitive strategies with autonomous learning
grants learners more responsibility in language learning and enables them to study
their learning needs, assess their strengths and weaknesses, and manages their
language learning process. Third, metacognitive strategies help distance learners
to take part in the learning process in a more active way instead of as passive
recipients only.
2.Previous Research at Home and Abroad
The prominent role of metacognitive strategy has drawn attention of many
western researchers who had strong interest in conducting metacognitive strategy
training. Holec (1987) carried out metacognitive training to adult learners in a selfstudy center, in attempt to guide them to manage and dominate their learning
process. As a consequence, the result showed that there were great changes on
adult learners’ learning process after training, from have no idea of how to learn to
be able to set learning goals, make learning plans and evaluate learning outcomes.
Carrell (1989) tried to raise learners’ metacogonitive awareness in an experiment
of reading comprehension with the help of metacogonitive strategies as semantic
mapping and experience-text-relationship. After data collection and analysis, it
evidenced that the experimental groups made great progress in the skills of
reading comprehension; as for the control groups, no improvement has been
made. So Carrel got inspiring results to prove the effectiveness of metacogonitive
training in improving reading comprehension of foreign language. Tabolt (1995)
393
adopted mapping, a type of metacognitive strategy training, to the students of
Hong Kong University. It was found that the trained students have more
consciousness in expository writing of three styles (by using contrast method,
causal analysis method and problem solving method) and therefore gained higher
scores in testing than those of the untrained students.
Metacognitive strategy trainings provided by the foreign scholars deserve our
reflection and reference. However, due to the cultural and educational differences
in Chinese and foreign language, learning strategies advocated by western scholars
are not always suitable for the practice in distance English teaching in China.
Therefore, in order to generate practical metacognitive strategy training program
suitable to the learning needs, positive and effective strategies training forms need
to be combined to agree with the actual situation of distance English curriculum
reform in China.
3. An Empirical Study
3.1 Research Questions
What is the correlation between metacognitive strategy training and distance
learners’ learner autonomy? Is metacognitive strategy training helpful to improve
learner autonomy?
3.2 Subjects
The subjects involved in this empirical research are 62 students of non-English
majors from two classes of Zhejiang Radio &TV University. They are freshmen with
similar scores in their university entrance examination and taught by the author,
an English teacher. Class one of 31 students serves as experimental group(EG) and
receives college English teaching with employment of metacognitive strategy
training. On the other hand, Class two of 31 students is treated as the control
group (CG) and receives routine college English teaching without metacognitive
strategy.
Meanwhile, four respondents from experimental group and control group are
chosen to have interview before and after training. In order to guarantee that
interviewees are entirely representative from different levels of respondents, the
author takes the following key factors into account, such as English achievements,
their involvement in questionnaires and attitudes toward distance English teaching
and learning. Precisely, the author chooses two successful students, one in
experimental group and the other in control group, and two unsuccessful
students, coming from experimental group and control group respectively.
394
3.3 Instruments
The research makes up of both quantitative and qualitative survey. The
quantitative survey refers to questionnaire on learner autonomy. While qualitative
investigation includes interview. According to the data and responses collected
from these instruments, the author is then able to analyze and compare the
significant differences between EG and CG before and after the training.
3.3.1 Questionnaires
Questionnaire on learner autonomy (see Appendix) is amended according to the
literature of O’Malley et al.(1990),Oxford(1990) and Wen Qiufang(1996). There are
two parts of questionnaire. Part one includes background information such as
students’ name, gender and age. Part two consists of 26 statements about the
autonomous learning in various aspects of responsibilities for one’s own learning,
setting learning goals, participating actively in learning, selecting appropriate
learning approaches and skills, and supervising the learning process.
The items the questionnaires indicates of the five-point Likert Scale, varying from
1= never true of me; 2=usually not true of me; 3=somewhat true of me; 4=usually
true of me; 5=always or almost true of me. Subjects of both groups are asked to
give a choice to the questions spontaneously, without hesitation.
At the end of semester, the same questionnaire is taken to subjects of both groups
again, to detect whether there are differences in subjects’ learner autonomy.
3.3.2 Interviews
Interview is regarded as a face-to-face interactive way to draw respondents’’
comments on the changes to autonomous learning effect before and after
training. When choose the interviewees, the author would take considerations
into the factors such as subjects’ English achievements and their involvement in
questionnaires. Precisely, two respondents are successful students with high
scores, with one in experimental group and the other in control group. Whereas,
the other two respondents are unsuccessful students with low scores, coming
from experimental group and control group respectively. Interviews last about 15
minutes for every interviewee and the author keeps track of the whole process of
interview.
3.4 Data Collection and Analysis
Questionnaire on learner autonomy includes subjects’ background information
and 26 statements about the autonomous learning in various aspects of
responsibilities for one’s own learning, setting learning goals, active participation
in learning, selecting appropriate learning approaches, and supervising the
learning process. After the results and scores of questionnaires are collected, the
author analyzes the data by SPSS 19.0 and employs descriptive statistics, namely,
395
means, standard deviation, and paired-samples T test. The standard of t>2.000
and p(Sig.)<0.05 is adopted to determine significant differences between pretest
and posttest of both EG and CG throughout the research. In other words, a
relationship would be treated as valid in statistics on the condition that t-value is
above 2.000. At the same time, the results are significant at the special alpha of
0.05.
After one semester’s training, the group of data would be collected again by asking
respondents to finish the same questionnaires on learner autonomy. The data
would be administrated again by the author to present descriptive statistics and
paired-samples T test and compare the differences between EG and CG. The
author analyzes the responses collected from interview and communication
between teacher and respondents.
3.5 Metacognitive Strategy Training Pprogram
3.5.1 Setting goals and planning
Teacher first gives clear instructions to the importance of set learning goals and
study plans. Having specific learning objectives may help to build up learners’
motivations and strengthen their senses of responsibility to take charge of their
learning. Also it would contribute to learners’ study in an orderly way, in
accordance with their goals. Next, teacher asks students to make study plans by
themselves, with reference to learning objective and timetable. Then, students
would be encouraged to make both long-term and short-term plans in
correspondence to their language learning requirements. Short-term plans refers
to those daily, weekly and monthly requirements and expectations for their
learning; while long-term plan means lasting a longer period with more difficult
targets such as improving specific English skills as listening, speaking, reading, and
writing. No matter the form of plan, detailed or concise, it should be feasible and
easy to follow for students to carry out those plans.
Table 1: Weekly plan sheet
Week
1
2
3
4
Learning content
Listening
Speaking
Reading
Writing
Activities
——
——
——
——
Time
——
——
——
——
3.5.2 Monitoring
It is necessary for distance learners to maintain consciousness for their
engagements in the learning process, to avoid randomness and propel them
toward new targets. Teacher asks students to keep diaries, daily or weekly, which
396
are beneficial for them to keep up with their schedules and introspect their
learning. Keeping dairies would help students to highlight their good points and
avoid shortcomings in their learning and make adjustments accordingly.
Table 2: Monitoring Sheet
Week
1
2
3
4
Plans
completed
——
——
——
——
Strategies
adopted
——
——
——
——
Strengthens
——
——
——
——
Problems &
obstacles
——
——
——
——
3.5.3 Evaluating
Instructions are made to learners on how to make evaluations in various aspects
as whether their learning goals are achieved; how about the plan execution; what
about their adopted strategies and their own strengthens and weaknesses.
Teacher offers help to analyze the difficulties and confusions that learners
confronted and guides them to evaluate the overall learning process
comprehensively, trying to keep track of their proceeding in a targeted way.
Table 3: Evaluating Sheet
Item
1
2
3
4
5
6
Learning activity
Previewing
Maintaining attention
during task
Asking for help
Target-oriented
Reviewing
Reflecting
Good
——
Evaluating Ranks
Average
——
Poor
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
4. Results Analysis and Discussion
Table 4: Descriptive statistics of pretest and posttest about learner autonomy
pretest
posttest
EG
CG
EG
CG
N
Score
Maximum
Minimum
Mean
31
31
31
31
130
130
130
130
120
119
123
109
35
31
76
34
72.02
74.32
92.71
73.66
397
Std.
Deviation
19.728
19.045
10.976
18.222
Table 4 reveals the descriptive statistics of learner autonomy in the pretest and
posttest. The total score of questionnaire on learner autonomy is 130. The
maximum and the minimum of EG in the pretest is 120 and 35 respectively, with
two extremes of autonomous learning ability. At the same time, the maximum and
the minimum of CG in the pretest is 119 and 31 respectively, which also indicates
the distance between learners with high autonomous abilities and learners with
low autonomous abilities. The mean of EG and CG in the pretest show that their
original level of autonomous learning is very close to each other, with 72.02 of EG
and 74.32 of CG. To some extent, the average score of CG is about 2 marks higher
than that of EG, which indicates that subjects in CG is more capable of learner
autonomy. However, things have changed in the posttest. We can see that the
maximum and the minimum of EG in the posttest is 123 and 76 respectively, with
tremendous improvement, especially in the minimum. The mean of EG increases
largely to 92.7. In the contrast, the maximum and the minimum of CG is 109 and
34 respectively, with the mean 73.66. It almost remains as the same to the
statistics in the pretest.
The value of standard deviation is statistically meaningful, which draws attention.
It is significantly decreased from 19.728 in the pretest to 10.976 in the posttest in
EG but remains at the same level in CG, that is, 19.045 in the pretest and 18.222 in
the posttest. The posttest value of standard deviation in EG 10.976 indicates that
responses are not far from its means. They are clustered closely. It shows that a
deviation is expected in the results of this study up to 10.976.
By taking these two groups of statistics into consideration, the author comes to
the conclusion that the gap of autonomous learning ability narrows down
significantly among the EG respondents and it is not so notable for the distance
between two extremes of respondents who with high abilities and low abilities. On
the contrary, it demonstrates that the gap of autonomous learning ability does not
narrow down among the CG respondents. There are still obvious scope between
two extremes of CG respondents who with high autonomous abilities and low
autonomous abilities.
Table 5: Paired-samples T test of pretest and posttest about learner autonomy
Pretest
Posttest
EG-CG
EG-CG
Paired differences
95% Confidence
Sig.
Std.
Interval of the
t
Df
Std.
(2-tailed)
Mean
Error
Difference
Deviation
Mean
Lower Upper
-2.306
24.533 4.406 -11.305 6.693 -.523 30
.605
19.052 18.942 3.402 12.104 26.000 5.600 30
.000
398
According to Table 5, we could analyze the paired-samples T test of pretest and
posttest about learner autonomy. It reveals that there is no statistically significant
differences between EG and CG in the pretest. Because t value is -.523, lower than
the critical value 2.000; and Sig. (2-tailed) value, namely P value, is 0.605, which is
higher than the critical value 0.05. However in the posttest, we can notice
remarkable difference between EG and CG. T value is 5.600, exceeding the critical
value 2.000, and Sig. value, is 0.000, which is much lower than the critical value
0.05.
Table 6: Paired-samples T test about learner autonomy between pretest and
posttest within EG and CG
Paired differences
95%
Confidence
Std.
Std.
Mean
Error Interval of the
Deviation
Difference
Mean
Lower Upper
Posttest
Pair
of EG20.691
1 pretest of
EG
Posttest
Pair
of CG-.667
2 pretest of
CG
t
Df
Sig.
(2tailed)
11.330
2.035 16.535 24.847 10.168 30
.000
4.592
.825
.425
-2.351
1.018
-.808
30
The author also longitudinally explores paired-sample T test. The result (see table
6) reflects that there is remarkable difference between pretest and posttest of EG
respondents, since t value is 10.168, >2.000; P value is 0.000, <0.05. In contrast,
the change between pretest and posttest of CG respondents is little, with t value .808, <2.000; P value 0.425, >0.05.
According to analysis of paired sample T test calculated by SPSS 19, which has
been under demonstration in details(see Table 5 and 6), it reveals that P value of
learner autonomy of both EG and CG in the pretest is higher than 0.05. Therefore,
it is no significant differences between EG and CG before the training, which is
treated as solid foundation and prerequisite of test and comparison of the two
groups involved in this research. After the training program, T test results show
that P value of learner autonomy of both EG and CG in the posttest is below 0.05,
which means significant differences between EG and CG. Extraordinary progress is
witnessed to the experimental group with the average score rising from 72.02 in
399
the pretest to 92.71 in the posttest. However, no improvement has been made to
control group.
By summarizing what the respondents say in interview, the author finds out that
successful learners have recognized the importance of learning English.
Meanwhile, they show interest in English and would invest both time and effort in
English relevant exercises and entertainments after class to improve their English
skills. They prefer student-focused teaching to teacher-centered approach. That is
to say, they don’t take teacher as the authority in class and would take charge of
the learning process by setting learning objectives, choosing learning contents,
accomplish language tasks after class. Sometimes they would adopt learning
strategies to enhance their English learning unconsciously.
Obviously, the training has impact on respondents of EG in the aspect of learner
autonomy. The metacognitive strategy training broadens their horizons and helps
them to get rid of original inappropriate learning methods. It inspires them to have
cognitions of their own learning states and then adopt suitable learning strategies
accordingly, rather than imitate others’ strategy mechanically. What’s more,
metacognitive strategy is effective to overcome their frustrations and anxiety
when in difficulty, and helps to rebuild up their confidence in English learning.
5 Conclusion
Based on the above quantitative and qualitative analysis, an apparent conclusion
can be made that metacognitive strategy training effectively enhances distance
learners’ autonomous learning ability. They improve their abilities in setting
learning objectives, determining learning contents and progress, selecting
appropriate approaches and skills, monitoring the program and evaluating the
overall performance. Gradually, they learn to dominate the learning process in an
active way and transfer what they grasped to new learning materials and learning
activities. Then they accommodate their learning activities and make adjustments
actively and consciously. They manage their schedules under control, knowing
what they have already mastered, what they have not, how to learn effectively
and ultimately turn to be the masters of their own learning process, rather than
students who just follow teacher’s arrangements. In addition, in order to optimize
distant learners’ learning atmosphere, it is advised to establish learning support
service on the basis of learners’ autonomous learning. In that case, distance
learners can realize extensive online courses, such as Moocs and microcourses,
which are in such popularity nowadays. Meanwhile, distance teachers can be
released from tedious work and transfer their focus into the research on effective
teaching approaches, which deserves to make subsequent conjoint analysis.
400
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Little, D. Learner Autonomy in Practice[Ml. In Autonomy in Language Learning.
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QUALITY GUARANTEE FOR DISTANCE EDUCATION RESOURCES
YANG Mei-he, WANG Chun-ying, Yunnan Open University, China
ABSTRACT: Quality guarantee for distance education resources should reflect
open and innovation, particularly including quality guarantee for teaching
resources, quality guarantee for teaching design, quality guarantee for teaching
activities and quality guarantee for teaching effect.
KEY WORDS: distance education resources; quality guarantee; standard
Quality aims of distance education resources is to provide plenty internet course
resources, to design and organize internet teaching activities, to offer study
supporting services, to help learners complete distance study in internet, achieve
established aims, acquire study effect. For distance education learners, besides
individual factors, studying effects are mainly decided by distance education
401
resources. Therefore, quality of distance education resources is vital to learners.
However, existing demanding difference among distance education learners,
requirement for distance education resources is difference, as a kind of feasible
method for education for all , the following is quality guarantee for distance
education resources.
1、Quality Guarantee for Teaching Resources
Quality aims for teaching resources is based on requirement of “standardization、
integration、all-covered、multiform”, in according with teaching aims、teaching
tactics, completely、normally establishing internet courses teaching resources,
including courses teaching and supporting services. Quality factors: presenting
methods of resources、module content of resources and practical teaching
resources. Detail quality standards including:
Form and technological standard of resources fitting the requirement of
distance education, resource modules linking reasonable, neat node
frames, clear logical levels.
Resource content showing course orientation, fitting aims and
specifications of talent cultivating , clear logical relationships between
leading and following courses.
Plenty forms of virtual practical teaching resources, for example: internet
virtual training is main; training on campus and outside school is
subsidiary, if necessary, adding training package.
2、Quality Guarantee for Teaching Design
Quality aim of teaching design is teachers according to teaching aim、teaching
tactics and autonomic study requirement of learners, to entirely design internet
teaching, to improve teaching effect and teaching quality. Quality factors: internet
teaching entire design、knowledge unit design、teaching medium design. Detail
quality standard including:
1. According to nature and target of course, systematically designing
internet courses, including teaching content and procession、teaching
tactics and method、medium selecting and application.
2. According suitable teaching tactics and method, scientifically splitting
knowledge units, reasonably designing teaching tasks、items or theme.
Each knowledge unit including important、difficult points explaining and
self-testing questions about unit study.
3. Teaching medium design fitting course nature, making all kind of
teaching mediums reasonable division, complement each other, forming
organic whole to meet teaching requirement.
402
3、Quality Guarantee for Teaching Activities
Quality aim of teaching activities is according to autonomic study requirement of
learners, using modern information technology, adopting “mixed teaching
method”, innovating teaching method and means, improving teaching effect.
Quality factors: teaching method 、 interactive teaching 、 teaching support
services. Detail quality standard:
1. According to content of course and nature of learners, flexibly using
mixed teaching method, combining heuristic teaching、discussing
teaching、case teaching、scene style teaching、task drilling、analogue
simulation、role playing, etc..
2. Host teacher hosting “course forum”, launching interactive teaching
activities of real-time and non-real-time . Including: study method guide、
difficult question explaining、typical cases analyzing、homework
comment、virtual experiment and training、test guard, etc.
3. Reasonably、real-time、effectively using communication tools: modern
information technology、teaching technology、E-mail、QQ、message、
we chat, etc.
4、Quality Guarantee for Teaching Effect
Quality aim of teaching effect is formulating insurance measures of teaching
quality、self-monitoring、self-evaluating teaching effect、constantly improving
teaching quality. Quality factors: security measures、quality monitor、study
evaluation. Detail quality standards:
1. Insurance measures of teaching quality should be clear、detail、
practical. Effect should be obvious.
2. Auto-monitoring、self-evaluating internet teaching effect. Background
data, resources using efficiency、students participation rate, should be
complete、analyzing proper.
3. Content of study evaluation fitting talent cultivating aims、courses
orientation and teaching aims; evaluating methods: home works、
internet test、process testing、final test, etc.
Conclusion
Quality guarantee of distance education resources should reflect open and
innovation. Open is to uphold core idea of open and service, take learners as
center, highlight open of study form、study process、study resource; Strengthen
communication and cooperation with domestic and foreign open and distance
education organizations and institutions、 universities、professions、enterprises,
co-constructing and sharing resources. Innovation is to innovate distance
education culture, deepen integration between modern information technology
403
and teaching、study. Fitting the requirement of constructing learning society of
national learning and lifelong learning.
REFERENCES:
1.
2.
YU Ping & Zhu Zhiting. The Study of Content Standards for Open Educational
Resources[J],Open Education Research,2014(1):111-120.
Paul Kawachi. Quality Assurance Guidelines for Open Educational Resources:
YIPS Framwork.[J],Distance Education in China,2013(10):11-21.
ORGANIC COMBINATION OF MODERN DISTANCE EDUCATION
AND HIGHER VOCATIONAL EDUCATION BRINGS NEW OPPORTUNITIES
FOR DEVELOPMENT ACCORDING TO THE CONSTRUCTION
OF YUNNAN OPEN UNIVERSITY AS AN EXAMPLE
YE Xuan Lin, College of mechanical and electrical engineering, Yunnan Open
University, China
ABSTRACT: Based on higher vocational education and open education
characteristics and commonness analysis in two forms, this paper expounds the
modern open and distance education and the necessity of the interactive
mechanism of higher vocational education to establish modern distance education
and higher vocational education complementary advantages, mutual promotion.
Describes the basic idea of the construction of YunNan Open University,
educational philosophy, objectives and tasks, based on this, advances some
thinking of the construction of the Open.
KEY WORDS: Higher vocational education, Modern distance education, Resource
sharing, The Open University
Introduction
YunNan Radio and TV University for the implementation of the "national medium
and long-term education reform and development plan outline (2010-2020)" and
"YunNan Province medium and long-term education reform and development plan
outline (2010-2020)" on the aim of "Do a good job in Open University", combining
with the situation of YunNan, seize the opportunity, reform and innovation, prior
to carry and try, to promote the innovation in school running system, integration
of provincial amateur University, community college, University of industry
enterprises, higher education self-study exam, network education resource such as
education, vocational education center, in 2009 merged with the defense industry
in YunNan vocational and technical college, has formed "a team", "two pieces of
brand", "one school, two systems" from some educational pattern, the open and
distance education and higher vocational education and ordinary double-track
404
mode, make full use of the professional disciplines in common colleges and
universities, teachers and curriculum resources such as advantage, actively explore
the construction of the new mode, to build talent growth "overpass", actively
promoting the construction of the Open University work [1].
The higher vocational education and open education characteristics analysis
Higher vocational education. The higher vocational education, can be summed up
in three words: it is the higher education; It is a vocational and technical education;
It is the higher stage of vocational and technical education. Higher vocational
education "of higher education and vocational education", the characteristics of
great importance to the professional training facilities construction, and base,
campus cultural atmosphere, perfect the teachers enough advantages such as
stable is most prominent, and the advantage is contemporary and long-range
education is relatively weak. With the aid of these advantages, the practice
teaching of modern distance education and quality education training objectives
will be able to achieve better [2].
At present, higher vocational college talent cultivation mode reform is still in active
exploration, teaching methods from look on the whole is still relatively simple,
mainly to classroom lectures or participate in centralized training, in addition,
higher vocational colleges generally exists in the campus information construction
lag, lack of multimedia teaching means.
Modern distance education. Modern distance education is along with the
development of modern information technology and produce a kind of new
education form, is the use of computer network and multimedia technology, under
the environment of digital signal characteristic of the teaching aspects of the
education process is bound to reflect students' autonomous learning, reflect the
students' participation, reflected the application of modern methods, the use of a
variety of media resources [3]. The prominent characteristics of modern distance
education is: really not limited by space and time; By the education object expands
to the whole society; There are more abundant teaching resources for educatees
to choose; Teaching form changed from mainly taught to give priority to in order to
learn. Highlight the advantages of modern distance education in the teaching level
of diversity, flexibility of teaching methods and teaching management efficiency.
Mainly in coverage, the types of education, the education object more less limit,
flexible learning forms, a variety of media and, advanced facilities and so on. These
advantages are actually also to adapt to the needs of higher vocational education,
especially with the economic structure adjustment and speed up the pace of
construction of learning society, all kinds of transfer education training and on-thejob personnel to continue education increasingly strong demand, the social
demand of higher vocational education has been gradually increased.
405
Higher vocational education and modern distance education have
complementary advantages, mutual promotion. Although YunNan Radio and TV
University and YunNan defense industry professional technology institute their
form of education objects, education is different, but the two schools in a campus,
the teacher is a duty double post. Over the past few years we made beneficial
exploration and practice, the characteristics of coexistence, complementary
advantages due to the constant reform of the education, higher vocational
education and modern distance education if the ability of communication and
cooperation, realize resource sharing between each other, complementary
advantages, to the health of both have a positive role in promoting rapid
development, achieve a win-win result.
With the aid of higher vocational education, distance education development
had the new breakthrough. Through the practice of higher vocational education
good conditions, campus cultural foundation and strong teachers, teaching
practice of modern distance education and quality education training objectives
will be able to better implement, the overall level of training of personnel can get
larger ascension. With the help of higher vocational education teachers, practice
condition such as support, an amalgamation of YunNan Open University distance
education functions instead of shrinking, but realized leap-forward development,
performance for the recruitment of students scale increased year by year and have
a stronger practical teaching to further strengthen quality education, etc
The distance education, higher vocational education development prospects
more vast. Distance and open education teaching system can well satisfy all kinds
of social members to accept various forms of the demand of higher vocational
education. Many lags far behind of digitization, information construction in higher
vocational colleges in the past, the two schools merged, comrade many long
engaged in higher vocational education in involved in modern distance education
ideas, profound changes have taken place after education, management and
teaching departments in the work pay more attention to "people-oriented", pay
attention to provide support services for students [4]. Teachers, for example, in
addition to do a good job in the classroom teaching, using the Internet means
auxiliary teaching, use of campus network teaching resources, through the BBS,
EMAI L, such as collecting the feedback information of students, to answer in a
timely manner, and so on. Proven experience of home and abroad, the higher
vocational education and the connotation of the modern distance education
communication and cooperation of complementarity between determines besides
can achieve full sharing resources can the education object, education content,
education method and so on level deeper integration. After merging, complement
each other both will get more strong vitality and broad prospects for development.
406
The basic idea of the construction of YunNan Open University
To promote formation of the learning society for the purpose. YunNan Open
University construction, in order to satisfy the masses of the people to receive
higher education quality, personalized demand, realize the education fair value
pursuit, actively constructing lifelong education system in YunNan province,
promoting the coordinated development, academic education and non-academic
education to vocational education and ordinary education to communicate with
each other, pre-service education and post-career education effectively, promote
all the people learn to teach, have learned something, use, promote the formation
of a learning society.
Supported by modern information technology. The nature of YunNan Open
University, tasks and mission, determines its must be supported by modern
information technology, build open and flexible, powerful, secure and reliable
network platform, the development and construction of high quality digital
learning resources, promote the education and the depth of the fusion of science
and technology, to explore areas of YunNan province education informationization
and modernization development path. Through the integrated application of
modern information technology, integration of high quality education resources,
better for the rural, frontier poverty-stricken areas and ethnic minority areas, to
promote education fairness, to promote education reform and innovation.
Driven by reform and innovation. YunNan Radio and TV University in teaching
history of more than 30 years, has made fruitful achievements, but in the face of
construction of YunNan Open University when a new task, new concepts and new
requirements of many don't adapt to the present, so you have to keep pace with
The Times, reform and innovation, exploration and scientific and efficient schoolrunning mode, management mode, service mode and operation mechanism,
promote YunNan Open University to better adapt to economic and social
development.
YunNan Open University educational philosophy, goals and tasks
The school philosophy: open education, service for life. Persistence and
emphasizes the education idea, open, open running mode of open learning objects,
the training model of open, open management style, education resources system
of open, open, open learning time and learning site open, open, and admission
requirements. Emphasis on YunNan Open University standardization,
standardization and individuation service process. Oriented to the frontier, nation,
mountainous areas and poor areas, service our province's economic and social
development; Geared to the needs of all the social members, for each learning
desire of lifelong education opportunities and services, to provide high quality
education resources sharing platform and services.
407
Construction goal. YunNan Open University construction into learning the
important pillar of YunNan, the key hub of education overpass, department of firstclass, demonstration, southeast Asia, across the country have rich in resources, the
characteristic, support and service of life-long education and learning society new
Open University in YunNan province.
The main task.The Open University in YunNan construction main tasks are the
following several aspects:
To build life-long service system in YunNan province. Construction of
stereoscopic covers urban and rural areas in YunNan province learning services
system, integrate quality curriculum resources, the construction of digital learning
resource center in YunNan province.
To develop continuing education record of formal schooling. Make full use
of the public service platform of the Open University and all kinds of high quality
resources, network curriculum in various forms, rich in content, to vigorously
promote vocational ability as the core of all kinds of vocational education and skills
training, actively carry out favorable improve citizens' quality, scientific quality and
cultural quality of community education and various types of online training.
To carry out multi-level and diversification, high quality education to
continue education. Integrated defense industry professional technology institute
of YunNan vocational colleges such as resources, explore and promote all kinds of
education at all levels and mutual recognition between different learning
outcomes, cohesion of credit bank, set up the lifelong education "overpass",
support and service of YunNan construction of life-long education and learning
society.
The organic combination of modern distance education and higher vocational
education to innovate study, strengthen the construction of the connotation of
the Open University. To distance education, open education, lifelong education
theory research and the development of the higher vocational education
innovation; To carry out the learner centered under the condition of distance
education teaching mode, management mode, service mode and operation
mechanism research and application of the exploration "anytime, anywhere can
learn can take an examination of" learning support service system; To carry out the
standard of the construction of the Open University, the educational quality
assessment system and the construction of the academic research of subjects, to
strengthen the construction of the connotation of the Open University.
What time of the construction of the Open University in YunNan
In order to implement the Open University in YunNan double mode of running a
school idea, actively explore and construct the modern open and distance
408
education and the depth of the higher vocational education practical teaching
system, and the "combining study, engineering, technical lead, alternately alliance
produced, wide into severe out" personnel training mode. To the Open University
in YunNan on the scale, characteristics, run out, here are some thinking and
Suggestions:
To improve the teaching quality in the first place. Improve the teaching quality is
the overall requirements of the state institutions of higher learning, in the aspect
of higher education of YunNan Open University, combining the demand of the
society, to strengthen industry, enterprises and social unit of choose and employ
persons is the depth of cooperation, lead enterprises enrolled, strengthen
University-industry cooperation, also put the teaching quality in the first place. And
establish the support system in accord with the characteristics of open education
discipline construction, improve and optimize the education quality guarantee
system. In continuing education, and strive to improve the quality of teaching and
training level, with the curriculum building to strengthen the construction of high
quality learning resources and better meet the relevant departments, industry,
enterprise diversified demands of learning.
To update teaching ideas, reform teaching methods. Higher vocational education
and open and distance education mutual communication and integration, we must
pay attention to the modern education mode. Both requires teachers to update
the traditional education concept, reform the traditional teaching method, to use
instructional teaching methods to help students set up the correct world outlook,
the formation of scientific learning method and form a good habit of autonomous
learning, help students solve the difficulties of learning, guide students to set
learning goals and choose the best way to achieve learning goals.
Improve the optimized integration of teaching resources, and realize resources
sharing. With the modern open and distance education and the improvement of
higher vocational education and constantly improve and update the demand, the
resource construction and integration of both is very important. Should be in
accordance with the requirements for digital, multimedia and interactive
technology adapted to existing teaching resources, adjustment, modification,
supplement and perfect, to meet the needs of the multimedia teaching and online
teaching, and pay attention to the collection, the introduction of domestic and
foreign outstanding teaching resources, storage good lesson plans and
interdisciplinary preparation materials, papers, reports, journals and other
teaching materials, establishing database, CAI storage audio-visual materials
related to the education, catalog and all kinds of books and materials, realize
resources sharing.
Create the open and distance education and higher vocational education
communication and cooperation of macro policy environment. Modern open and
distance education and higher vocational education to implement the coexistence
and co-prosperity, but because of the higher vocational with pre-service full-time
409
education is given priority to, remote education is given priority to with after
amateur adult education, the two different nature, functional differences, different
business executives, so can't communicate better in many ways, the fusion. In the
funds investment, profit distribution, and many issues such as recruitment and
management needs corresponding policies and regulations to coordinate and
specification. Therefore, we need to promote modern open and distance
education with the cooperation of higher vocational education, the need to give
full play to the function of macroeconomic regulation and control and
management, should study related policy laws and regulations, as soon as possible
to build two kinds of education communication and cooperation of good policy
and institutional environment, open and distance education and higher vocational
education to promote common development [5].
To build the modern open and distance education and higher vocational
education communication and cooperation of policy and institutional
environment. Research funds safeguard measures and operation aspects of policy
regulation, government funding, and enterprises to participate in the investment,
school and social cooperation, and personal investment, etc., to formulate
conducive to the development of modern open distance education and higher
vocational education, is advantageous for the two kinds of education
communication and cooperation, or file of the rules and regulations. Build system
of national vocational qualification training and certification, can provide learners
in a nationwide recognition of professional qualification certificate, to facilitate
learners obtain employment, but also to modern open and distance education
communication and cooperation between higher vocational education [6].
As soon as possible to establish learning outcomes certification system,
constructing lifelong learning "overpass" for the talent training mode and the
innovation of management system of the system. Due to the openness of the
Open University and has the multi-function, so as to build the channels through a
variety of learning success "overpass", thus establishing learning outcomes
certification system and the "credit bank" system should be Open University in
YunNan province the key points in construction and system innovation, promote
the general education, vocational education, continuing education, academic
education and non-academic education between the mutual communication,
cohesion and integration, promote the construction of lifelong learning system and
learning society in YunNan.
To strengthen international exchanges and cooperation of the Open University.
The construction of the Open University in China is still in its infancy, lack of
experience, we need to start from China's national conditions, efforts to open
universities around the world to learn advanced experience, such as: the Open
410
University, the University of phoenix, such as peer learning, sharing the world of
remote education successful experience.
REFERENCE
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
X.L.Ye, S.P.Huo: Electronics World,(2013) No12(Late) , p238-240
J.X Li, J.Sun: Science & Technology Information, (2008)No24,p567-568
W.M.Cao, L.H.Ye: Journal of Nanjing Radio & TV University, Sum No.67
(2012)No2, p6-10
Y.N.Wang: Education and Vocation, (2005)No28,p44567-45
W.Y.Mao: Adult Education, TotalNo.294(2011) No. 7,p94-95
T.H.Pan, X.J. Tang, X.Y.Yi and Q.Y.Chen: Journal of Zhenjiang College, Vol.17
(2004)No12,p41-46
COURSE INSTRUCTORS TAKING RESPONSIBILITIES IN OPEN EDUCATION
REFORM FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF RESPONSIBILITIES TO STUDENTS
Zhang Dai, JiangSu Open University, China
ABSTRACT: Not only have MOOCs restructured the teaching environment of open
education, they have also changed teachers working with them and
responsibilities teachers shoulder. Course instructors taking responsibilities is
conducive to helping students achieve learning results, in turn, teachers gain a
more intense sense of responsibility. If course instructors are lacking in
responsibility cognition, responsibility emotions, responsibility will and
responsibility behavior, ineffective teaching will inevitably ensue. Course
instructors should reinforce the care about educational objects and their ability to
organize and manage online curricula, influencing students with the responsibility
ideal and attitude of differentiated development; they should prompt a running
mechanism of cultivating students’ independent learning behavior; they should
enhance the ability to take responsibility when communicating with students; they
should strengthen responsibility emotions to exert the role of psychological
expectation.
KEY WORDS: Open Education; Course Instructors; Lack of Responsibility; Taking
Responsibility; Responsibility Restructuring
Coursera, Udacity, and edX have swept the globe, torn down the walls of
universities, and changed the traditional forms of teaching, bringing a new
educational eco-environment. The role of teachers has turned directions three
times. The first is from teachers paying attention to the imparting of knowledge to
focusing mainly on motivating and managing students during the learning process.
MOOCs have come in the right time to provide a loosely organized, unstructured,
411
fast and efficient way of conveying knowledge that give learners the dominant
position of learning（Zheng Yajun ,2014; Lu Fang,2014）, shifting the center from
knowledge management to learning activity management; the second is from
teachers’ discourse hegemony of imposing meanings on students to
communication between teachers and students on a free and equal basis. The online learning process is one that requires complete cooperation between teachers
and students. The role of a teacher is no long perceived in the traditional sense. He
is more like a consultant or coach. His relationship with students is free and equal.
He conducts dialogues with students in a relaxed, harmonious and democratic
learning environment, discussing issues and solving problems together; the third is
from singular, unified evaluation of students by teachers to comprehensive,
individualized evaluation. MOOCs created on the platform of online courses can be
continuously improved to collect massive data about students, conduct statistical
analysis in an intelligent way, and provide feedback in the form of a clear and
individualized chart （Sang Xinmin , 2013;Li Shuhua , 2013;Xie Yangbin,2013.
Learning analysis techniques based on large data makes personalized learning
evaluation possible, also the teachers are well grounded in an all-round
assessment of learners. New teaching practices and their impact on students’
learning pose an urgent need for open education teachers to re-examine their role
and take responsibilities as they should.
I. Course Instructors Taking Responsibilities
In long distance education, counseling teachers are necessary because they serve
a special role in the overall curricula. They are the link between the students and
long-distance education institutions that provide courses and trainings; they take
special responsibility for the requirements, norms and working methods of the
institutions. Their role is to motivate students towards a positive direction rather
than a negative direction, so as to promote students’ learning (McConnell，1994).
David Sewart first mentioned the responsibilities of “counseling – consulting”
teachers. He believes that the “counseling – consulting” teachers of British Open
University are the faithful practitioners of implementing “sustained attention” to
the students (Wu Lizhi,2008;Ding Xin,2008). With the rise of MOOCs, the
counseling teachers of online courses have captured the attention of a number of
scholars. The teaching mode of MOOCs also emphasizes the importance of
support from teaching assistants (or course coordinator). Teaching Assistants are
in charge of managing , maintaining and publishing course-relevant information (
for example , course summary , content resources , weekly theme , event
notifications , assignments and so on) , and guiding students through the whole
process of the course. It is required that they are professional in course content,
skilled at communication as well as capable of flexibly using social media tools (Gu
Xiaoqing,2013; Hu Yiling,2013; Cai Huiying,2013).
412
In open educational reform, the responsibilities of counseling teachers are unlike
those of traditional network education. At present, Jiangsu Open University has
introduced the concept of "course instructors" in the curricula reform, which
means that teachers will take on more responsibility in the organization and
management of the courses. Responsibility is a basic concept of ethics;
responsibility reveals the behavior content of the prescribed behavior subject. The
scope of teachers’ responsibilities is divided according to the targeted objects into
the responsibility to themselves, the responsibility to others, the responsibility to
the workplace / school, the responsibility to education, and responsibility to the
society. Among them, the responsibility to students is ranked first (Fischman,
2006;DiBara, 2006; Cardner, 2006). From the perspective of being learnercentered and responsible for the students, we believe that the course instructor
taking responsibility refers to the effort they make when they establish
management mechanisms in the process of curricula organization, implementation
and evaluation and take actions to influence students, in order to achieve the
desired objectives. The primary responsibility of course instructors is to make
students progress in academic results, skills, emotions and so on in order to adapt
to the society.
In MOOCs, we are more concerned about the wonderful teaching of the expert
teachers, in practice, course instructors play a vital role in the MOOCs. The
localization of online courses of Jiangsu Open University serves as an example.
Based on the authority given by the platform, course instructors assume
responsibilities as shown in Diagram 1.
413
Inputting teachers
Teaching
Affair
administrator
Reviewing teacher information
Validating head teacher
Authority
administrator
Authority allocation
Basic Information of Courses
Anchoring
teacher
Class curricula setting
Textbook information of courses
Course
Instructors
Examination methods of courses
Assignment/activity time
adjustment
Course counseling
Construction of course content
Class member management
Course team management
Summary of counseling
Course class management
Class announcement
Course announcements
Formative test results
Diagram 1: authorities of course instructors on the learning platform of Jiangsu
Open University
Authority of course instructors determines the fundamental responsibilities that
are due to them. Taking the minimum responsibility has become the basic premise
and condition of course instructors.
The anchoring teacher is the director in charge of the course. He constructs the
content of the course and manages the course team, working as the course
instructor if necessary. The course director makes building plans of courses,
teaching documents and integrated teaching programs; he conducts team
management, class management and so on. A course has one anchoring teacher
but can have multiple course instructors. The main responsibilities of the course
instructor include class curricula setting, assignment and activity time adjustment,
course counseling, class member management, assessing formative test results
and others.
414
The online teaching is designed to be carried out in accordance with the teaching
unit or module. The course director pre-designs curricula, and organize teaching
mainly by virtue of the tasks (learning activities) to be completed in a week as the
core. He determines the weekly learning objectives or the objectives for every
stage of the teaching, at the same time provides learning activities required to
complete the objectives and completion time. Students’ learning is to complete
one specified activity after another. By completing activities elaborately designed
by teachers, students will learn the relevant knowledge and skills.
Currently Open University is based on learning after course registration; course
instructors receive teaching tasks before conducting a dynamic management of
learners’ requirements, including teaching support and non-teaching support to
students.
Some investigative work needs to be done by course instructors one week before
the course. Through teaching affair information, the course instructors understand
the enrollment of the major and the course, students’ learning registry sources,
and students’ educational background, then make learning plans, predict learning
outcomes, and establish QQ groups for course counseling.
Within the first week of the course, course instructors can conduct icebreaking
activities to guide and help students know each other in order to adapt to the
online learning environment as soon as possible. Through OQ groups, platforms
and phones, they can further learn about students' personal information,
students’ learning needs and so on. They introduce learning methods, offer
learning advice to students, and sign learning agreements together.
From the second week to the third week, learning objectives and learning tasks of
each unit should be clarified as well as the means to reach the end; they guide
students to understand learning resources; they divide students into groups based
on "complementation" principle, that is, to coordinate students according to their
personality, academic background and ability, set up group discussions. It is
appropriate to assign five to six students to a group.
The fourth week comes to the middle of study. After a previous stage of learning,
there will be significant differences in students’ academic progress. Teachers
should carry out individual counseling by phone and QQ with particular students,
understand the reasons of those who fall behind schedule, and help them find the
right way to learn. They should adjust the learning progress, do mid-term learning
summary and give learning evaluation to promote learning.
415
From the fifth to sixth week, they answer questions that arise in the learning
process and guide students through their problematic behavior in the learning
process, promote in-depth learning, and continue motivating them to further
develop independent learning skills.
The seventh to eighth week, teachers counsel students about the content to be
tested in the final exam and urge students to complete the project or the final
inspection.
When the course is ending, they conduct learning surveys. On the basis of the
survey, urge the students to achieve self-evaluation and self-improvement.
Teachers summarize the learning, give their assessments and reflect on their
teaching. Teachers taking responsibilities in modular learning process is shown in
Table 1.
instructors’ role
time
Specific responsibilities
One week
before the
course
Eight to ten
weeks
according
to learning
units
Within the
first week of
the course
Week2 to
week 3
Understand the major, the course
enrollment, students’ learning registry
sources, students’ learning
background, guide students in
selecting courses, and establish QQ
groups
Through ice-breaking activities help
students adapt to online learning as
soon as possible. Through QQ groups,
platforms and phones further
understand students ’personal
information, their learning needs.
Introduce learning methods and offer
learning advice.
Clarify learning objectives, the tasks of
every unit and the means to reach the
end; guide students to understand
learning resources, deepen students’
learning and organize groups
according to complementation
principle to conduct learning
discussions.
416
functions
Investigate
Predict
plan
Organize
Motivate
Guide
Guide
Coordinate
Assess
Week 4,
middle of
the term
Week 5 to
week 6
Week 7 to
week 8
Course
ending
Particularly deal with the students
falling behind, understand the
reasons, and help them find suitable
learning methods. Adjust learning
progress, do mid-term summary, and
give learning evaluation.
Answer questions that arise in
students’ learning process, guide them
through their problematic behavior,
promote in-depth learning and
cultivate self-learning ability.
Counsel students about content to be
tested in the final, urge them to
complete the project or final
inspection.
On the basis of survey summarize the
learning, give assessments and reflect
on teaching
Coordinate
Control
Assess
Control
Motivate
Assess
Motivate
Control
Assess
Investigate
Summarize
Reflect
Table 1 course instructors’ responsibilities corresponding to chronological
arrangement of learning units
In view of the entire process of curricula organization and implementation, the key
to the responsibilities of course instructors is guidance. Organization and
implementation of curricula is a process of teachers addressing students’ learning
problems. For example, teachers help students understand the content of the
course; counsel them about the course; offer constructive feedback of the project;
establish a study group and provide advice.
The responsibility of course instructors also lies in “supervision”. Course
instructors put a lot of energy and work in the communication and contact with
students, thus the task of supervising them is heavy. For example, remind students
to keep to the learning schedule, urge them to turn in formative test assignments,
supervise online learning, participate in BBS discussions, do WIKI collaborative
group discussions, inspect, evaluate and so on.
II. Analysis of Why Course Instructors Lack Responsibility Implementing Their
Role
Course instructors should face the objective requirements of responsibility with
great enthusiasm and ably fulfill their obligations. Seen from the current practice
of online education courses, there is something missing in course instructors’
417
fulfilling their responsibility, which is manifested in four aspects as responsibility
cognition, responsibility emotions, responsibility will and responsibility behavior.
1. Insufficient Responsibility Cognition
The recognition of adapting to open education objects is insufficient. From the
perspective of open education objects, learners differ in age, motivation and
learning styles. They come from different regions and different social classes,
showing a great discrepancy. Following the same old uniform requirements and
management is not suitable to meet the practical needs. Because of students’
sources, platform operation and other reasons, there are many uncertain factors
in the course management. A large number of practical problems, such as
interpersonal relations, the relationship between people and culture, the
relationship between man and society, affect online learning and management.
The curricula reform in open education especially needs teachers to complete the
role redirections. On the surface it seems to relate only to the implementation of
the course, but in fact, the effective practice of the teachers’ role requires the
support of more advanced curricula reform concepts. If the course instructors do
not have advanced concepts of open education curricula or clear awareness of
their responsibilities, the teaching will inevitably be deviated, which leads to the
phenomenon that relatively difficult parts of their duties are quite hard to grasp,
resulting in students’ emotional revolt or learning delays. Once bad mood spreads
out, it will infect a large number of students. Eventually many students will not be
able to complete the learning task.
2. Missing Responsibility Emotions
Responsibility emotions arise from responsibility cognition. Teachers without
responsibility emotions will not have a responsible attitude. First, the course
instructor needs to face all kinds of relationships in the course team, for example,
between the relationship with colleagues and the relationship with the executive
administrators, conflicts may occur, though sometimes one role’s requirement is
possibly consistent with the other, then it requires that the course instructors aim at
the objective of a greater system in curricula management, keep in mind the big
picture, understand and respect each other and realize mutual coordination, so that
a pleasant and satisfying experience will be generated in the teaching of the course.
Secondly, it is an interactive and mutually influencing process between teachers
and students. Teachers’ emotional attitude will affect, directly or indirectly, the
development of students' psychology and behavior. Teachers must be passionate
about teaching to motivate and influence students, actively seeking a variety of
ways to encourage, guide and push students into exploring their own learning. A
responsible and enthusiastic teacher can lead students to think and act, so that
418
students are touched and encouraged; On the other hand, lack of teachers' sense
of responsibility, with emotional apathy, will weaken the students’ sense of
responsibility for learning. Teachers’ neglect and untimely feedback will result in
students’ disappointment and then their loss of enthusiasm for learning (Zhang
Dai,2013).
3. Negative Responsibility Behavior
Responsibility behavior is a manifestation of responsibility emotions while
responsibility emotions are the foundation of responsibility behavior. There will be
no positive responsibility behavior without a pleasant and satisfying teaching
experience. Fully online education coupled with an ever-increasing number of
learners means that the teacher should pay a lot more energy and time, so that
the connotation of what teachers "should do" expands. If the limit is exceeded,
teachers will fail to stand up to the situation, turn a blind eye to emergence of
students’ behavioral problems in the process of the course, and let problematic
behaviors happen, which eventually leads to learners dropping out.
The use of the new platform to conduct fully online teaching is one that is lack of
concrete educational practice. There is not much to learn from existing
experience. It requires that course instructors break the routine, and find out
problems with keen observation. Probability of something unpredictable arising is
large. To cope with new problems, multi-directional, multi-channel thinking is
needed to effectively solve the problems.
4. Fragile Responsibility Will
The will of responsibility can promote one man to beat irresponsible motives with
a variety of responsible motives and to enact responsible motives. Course
management is a practice that is not unchangeable, as learning deepens,
management style and methods will vary. No problems and contradictions are
constant in this process. There will always be new situations and new problems.
The work of course counseling is minor and trivial. Course instructors needs to
continuously collect how students receive, digest and understand knowledge in
the teaching process, and based on that information adjust and improve their
teaching. In the teaching practice course instructors need to keep learning,
exploring, innovating, reflecting on what they do and achieving epiphanies. With a
strong will they can deal with emergencies incessantly, and overcome one
difficulty after another.
III. Restructuring of Course Instructors’ Responsibilities in Educational Reform
Teachers who shoulder responsibilities have an enduring belief that they can
change students’ learning lives and achievements, because they know who they
are (their identity), they know what they can do (knowledge, strategies, skills) and
419
how to teach (belief and attitude expressed through their behavior in reality, and
personal and professional values) ( Will,2009). Faced with doubt from the society
about the quality of open education, teachers are placed at the center of
accountability. Course instructors are committed to the society as well as the
students. Improving the care towards the education objects and the ability to
organize and manage online courses has become a priority.
1. Influence Students with Responsibility Beliefs and Attitudes of Differentiated
Development
Most teachers know that there are differences between students, but in the actual
implementation of teaching, they put requirements on students with a uniform
standard. It is necessary to strengthen the responsibility belief of "differentiated
development". Constantly blaming those students falling behind for their poor
foundation and low quality does not help solve the problem. Teachers should be
good at analyzing the reasons behind the backwardness, which may include
barriers in terms of motivation, knowledge, method, thought and will. For
example, for those “motivation barrier” students who do not want or love to
learn, teachers should continue to inspire and mobilize students’ learning
emotions, and stimulate students' motivation to learn properly; For those
“knowledge barrier” students who have no particular areas of learning experience,
or cannot retrieve learned knowledge, teachers need to help them eliminate
knowledge barriers; for those who do not know where to start the new online
learning, and have methodical problems, teachers need to give guidance on
methods, teaching students ways to lift learning initiative. This is not only
beneficial to study of a single course, but also conducive to the completion of all
the curricula. For “will barrier” students who have difficulty remaining interested
in learning for a long time, teachers need mobilize their will, and give them more
encouragement and praise.
Course instructors should effectively adjust the difficulty level of the learning task,
in order to adapt to different levels of students. In particular they should provide
more learning support and assistance to students with learning difficulties, making
full use of network tools for individualized instruction. For students who can keep
up, mass text messages or e-mails are enough, but for students who learn
passively, leaving individual messages on QQ is recommendable, and phone calls
are the most direct and effective. In short, a variety of ways should be adopted to
achieve the goal of "not pursuing that everyone is successful but pursuing that
everyone is progressive".
2. Cultivate Independent Learning Behavior in Students as Running Mechanism
How should fully online learning be organized to ensure as much as possible that
students actively watch the video, make use of resources for learning so as to
420
promote initiative and exploring interests? For the learning method to shift from
passive acceptance to self-learning, it is very important to develop independent
learning behavior. David Sewart thinks long distance learning students are not
born to be capable of independent learning. Students' self-learning ability, selfcontrol, the ability to select information resources and to control the learning
process are to be cultivated and developed gradually with the guidance and help
from the universities and teachers.( Wu Lizhi,2008; Ding Xin,2008) While course
instructors are imparting knowledge content, they should focus on cultivating
students' self-learning ability. Firstly, they should help students clarify learning
objectives and analyze subjective and objective conditions to achieve learning
objectives. Secondly, they should guide students to develop learning programs
scientifically, like the term learning programs, course learning plans and so on to
ensure that independent learning is planned step-by-step. In addition, they should
guide students to adjust learning time and schedule in a reasonable way. For
example, they can guide students to put the course schedule on the desk to
remind them of the task to be completed in the specified time.
Students learning self –control is a process to promote learning success, improve
learning outcomes, and actively regulate meta-cognition, motivation and behavior.
Course instructors should create the conditions to mobilize students’ internal
positive factors, allow students to possess enthusiasm to actively participate in
learning, besides, they should give timely feedback and evaluation, and promote
independent learning through the publication of learning results, for example, the
establishment of a weekly list of learners sequencing down, and statistics of
learning results published can motivate students to learn and to catch up; in the
middle of the term, students are allowed to sum up or evaluate their own learning,
which is a part of the learning activities; at the end of the term, personal
evaluation and team evaluation should be conducted, and finally, the teacher
gives every student positive evaluation.
3. Improve Ability to Take Responsibility in Interaction with Students
When researching on instructor's responsibilities in the United States, Hall, KM
found that teachers should possess such qualities as personal characteristics (easy
to communicate, kind, and so on.), knowledge, experience, valid criticism, teaching
techniques, and so on. These are factors that influence and determine whether
teachers are consistent with their roles and responsibilities (Ma Tingting,2013; Li
Baoqiang,2013). Fully online teaching environment tests the quality of teachers
and their abilities, especially the ability to interact with students. To create an
interdependent communication environment that enables students to improve
ability and develop personal character in the process of completing the learning
task has become the direction of the course instructor’s effort.
421
Course instructors should understand students' personality, interests and
expertise in a comprehensive and in-depth way, continuously motivate them to
learn, and frequently communicate with them, which requires that course
instructors master comprehensive communication skills and response strategies.
For example, writing course announcements, course summaries, and summaries of
the panel discussion is inseparable from language skills. Communication with
students on phone calls is inevitable, so teachers must also master telephone
etiquette. Time to call and tone in which the call is made will directly affect the
student's acceptance. Students’ analysis and judgment of motivation and purposes
often determines the attitude with which they receive teachers’ information. It
will cause students to resonate with their thoughts and feelings if course
instructors phrase properly, so that it is easily acceptable; on the contrary, it will
result in rejection or rebellious psychology.
4. Strengthen Responsibility Emotions and Exert Psychological Expectations
Strengthening teacher-student communication and understanding can effectively
motivate students to learn. Rosenthal's experiments showed that teachers’
expectation of students will affect the development of students. From the practice
of the current curricula, it can be seen that students generally take the teachers’
expectation in various attitudes, the first attitude may be that they accept it fully,
and learning recommendations made by teachers are quickly adopted; secondly,
they may refuse to accept, and do not respond to the text messages or phone
calls; third, they may not care, if there is time, they respond, if there is no time,
they don’t respond. The differences in students’ attitude to teachers’ expectations
largely depends on the psychological relationship between teachers and students.
A big psychological distance between teachers and students is reflected in the
performance of refusing to accept the desired attitude; a small psychological
distance between teachers and students leads to that students show an
acceptable attitude.
Teachers’ professionalism, psychological quality, personality traits are internal
conditions that affect teachers’ expectations. "Endearing the teacher means
believing in their doctrines," therefore, teachers creating their own conditions,
improving relations with students and establishing good interpersonal atmosphere
are the basis for teachers to implement the desired expectation strategy. When
the condition of the teacher applying the effect of expectation is desirable,
students are willing to accept, then the personal power through his mind is turned
into his desire and put into action. For example, when a student faced with
difficulties of completing the formative test assignment asks a teacher for the
answer, the teacher says to the students: "why don’t take a look at the forum first,
the students have been discussing it" (teachers will bring up the difficult points of
the formative test assignment for discussion, and then offer some of the problem-
422
solving ideas), then encourage him with the incentive words, "I believe that you
can make it through your own efforts". If teachers have "excessively strong" sense
of responsibility and give answers directly to the students, it will backfire. Under
network environment, students can not directly see the teachers, but through
teachers’ behavior information from online learning, they respond accordingly to
teachers’ behavior. Teachers must actively seek a variety of ways to encourage
and guide students.
As key facilitators and assistants of students, counseling teachers have been seen
as a key factor to improve the support level of modern distance education quality
(Chen Li,2005). Responsibilities of course instructors in open education are
enormous. For fully online teaching, the change of teaching and learning models
has brought change in the functions and roles of teachers, which is bound to be
uncomfortable in many ways. Thus, on the one hand, course instructors should
strengthen self-learning and further study, and constantly improve their own
quality; on the other hand, in addition to strictly holding teachers who can not
fulfill their obligations accountable and implementing the policy of rewarding the
good and punishing the bad, the universities should start to improve the
interpersonal skills and psychological adjustment of course instructors from such
various aspects as system, culture, material equipment, to create a relaxing
cultural environment for teachers to conduct effective teaching.
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Chen Li.(2005). Direction of Student Support in Current Long Distance Education
[J]. Open and Distance education, (2):46-50.
Gu Xiaoqing, Hu Yiling, Cai Huiying.(2013). Demands of MOOCs Localization and
Countermeasures [J]. Journal of Distance Education, (5):3-11.
Christophe Will. (2009).Remain Excited: Achievements of Outstanding Teachers [J]
Education Research, (3):60- 64.
Fischman, W., DiBara, JAand Cardner, H. (2006).Creating Good Education Against
the Odds[J]. Cambridge Journal of Education,36 (3):383-398.
Ma Tingting, Li Baoqiang.(2013). Review and Reflection on Responsibility
Research of Teachers at Home and Abroad [J]. Educational Science Research, (5)
:5-11.
McConnell, D. (1994) Implementing Computer Supported Cooperative Learning,
Kogan Page, London.
Sang Xinmin , Li Shuhua , Xie Yangbin.(2013). Cultural Strategy Interpretations of
“Jobs’ Question”-- Deep Thoughts about the new trends of online courses [J] Open
Education Research, (6):30-41.
Wu Lizhi, Ding Xin,.(2008).Student Support Services: Theory and Practice of David
Sewart [J] Chinese Distance Education, (1):25-29.
Zhang Dai. (2013).Adults’ Contract Learning Under Network Environment [J].
Yangzhou University Journal( Higher Education Edition ) , (6):83-88.
423
10. Zheng Yajun , Lu Fang. (2014).Mooc3.0: Teaching Reform Toward Universities’
Ontology [J] Fudan Education Forum, (1):5-9.
SHIFTING THE CLASSROOM LECTURERS TO E-TUTORS IN MEDIA RICH
DISCOURSE OF OPEN LEARNING IN CHINA
Zhang Xiangyang, Ye Xiaofeng, Open University of Jiangsu, China,
Hung Shuchiu, Mingchuan University, Taiwan
ABSTRACT: Teaching a distance course is quite different from teaching in a
traditional classroom, and different from mainly text based classroom. One major
challenge for online lecturers is the issue of their shift in role, that is, from
presenters or transmitters of information to moderators or facilitators of learning
in the current media rich discourse.
We conducted a qualitative research surveying the shifting of the role changes
these lecturers in the English Language Programme. We have found that these
lecturers’ role have been changed dramatically, shifting into a counsellor, a
facilitator, a guide, a moderator, a peer and a designer. All these altered roles
indicate that they are having a paradigm shift regarding virtual management
techniques, and the ability to engage students in virtual communication.
KEY WORDS: on line teaching, open learning, lecturer’s role, e-tutors, media rich
discourse
1 Introduction
The internet has, over the past ten years, had a profound impact on higher
education worldwidely with the emergence of a new form of distance education--the online learning. Open and Distance Education (ODE) facilitated the buzz from
both inside and outside higher education. It created the potential to provide
learning to new cohort of customers, to ease capacity constraints, and to capitalise
on emerging market opportunities. Up to the present time, the ODE appears the
integral and crucial part of the higher education.
Online learning expands the educational process beyond the traditional oncampus experiences. Teaching a distance course is quite different from teaching in
a traditional classroom and different from mainly lecture and text based
classroom. To accommodate the differences in these two distinctive modes of
course delivery, one major challenge for online lecturers is the issue of their shift
in role, that is, from presenters or transmitters of information to moderators or
facilitators of learning in the current media rich discourse. Fortunately, the
technology available today makes it possible for most of the elements of
traditional teaching to be an integral part of on-line teaching. Because of this ease
424
in internet and rich media accessibility, both traditional and on-line courses can be
significantly enriched.
In this paper, the authors intend to present a qualitative research surveying the
shifting of the role changes lecturers presented in the English Language Teaching
investigating their beliefs, attitudes, motivation and strategies operated in the role
change experiences while they have been appointed as the associate lecturers in
the open and distance BA programme undertaken in the Open University of
Jiangsu, discussing the possibility and workability of shifting of roles lecturers in
open and distance learning and teaching, and certain unexpected subsequent
changes of teaching modes discovered in trainers through the 3-year BA
programme in the online distance rich media discourse.
By examining the current practices of teaching in the ODE online environments
from instructors’ perspectives, it was hoped that this paper would provide some
insights and guidance for distance education.
2 The Role of the Tutor in Online Learning
Online language learning changes the teaching-learning relationship that students
have been encountered for much of their lives. If learners are more active and
more engaged in the distance learning environments, they will be in need of being
supported to find ways of managing themselves and their learning experience
effectively. Online tutoring has been widely considered as a critical factor in the
success of computer-mediated collaborative learning activities.
In fact, by making the decision to offer the online teaching, the teachers need to
re-evaluate their roles as academic tutors, since the face-to-face teaching
solutions they are familiar with may not work in an online and rich media learning
discourse. Engagement in online teaching means changing one’s professional
career in certain sense.
Different scholars (Murphy et al., 1998; Hotte and Pierre, 2002; Gerrard, 2002;
Kerr, 1986; Feenberg, 1986; Salmon, 2000; Berge, 1992; Collison et al. 2000;
Marjanovic, 1999; English & Yazdani, 1999) define the roles of the teacher
involved in the online teaching different names, such as coach, leader, tutor,
moderator, facilitator, motivator, mentor, mediator and even production
coordinator were used. Berge’s (1995) categorise the roles (pedagogical, social,
managerial and technical) as necessary for successful e-tutoring.
The European Union E-tutor project (Directorate-General for Education and
Culture, 2004-2005) has developed a model for e-tutoring which incorporates the
interrelationships between the various roles as shown below:
425
E-tutor roles:
1. Content facilitator
2. Metacognition facilitator
3. Process facilitator
4. Advisor/counsellor
5. Assessor
6. Technologist
7. Resource provider
Goodyear et al. described the roles in quite similar way as process facilitator,
advisor/counsellor, assessor, researcher, content facilitator, technologist,
designer, and manager/administrator (2001).
Cosetti (2000) found in a case study that the traditional knowledge required by the
university tutor was insufficient for the e-tutor, since interacting via an online
environment is quite different from interacting in a face to face classroom. Online
tutor’s role requires a paradigm shift in perceptions of instructional time and
space, virtual management techniques and ways of engaging students through
virtual communications (O’Neil, 2006).
As White, Murphy, Shelley and Baumann pointed out in their research that tutors
and e-tutors are very different ‘in terms of the roles they assume and the ways
they interact with students, and the attributes and expertise required of them’
(2005; p. 83). The online tutor-facilitator has a unique role that ‘requires a wholly
new range of skills that arise from the cyber-dynamics of the online world’ (Cox,
Clark, Heath & Plumpton, 2000; p.2).
3 The Study
3.1 Background for the BA teacher training programme
The Open University of Jiangsu (hereafter JSOU), formerly Jiangsu Radio and
Television University, has been a legitimate and accredited university offering
tertiary education to adults in Jiangsu Province. As a distance educational
institution, JSOU has been involved, since 1996, in the 3-year BA degree (nonhonour) programme for in-service school English teachers throughout the Province
to upgrade their academic qualification and access to new pedagogical materials,
methodology, and technology via distance teaching and learning. The programme
has been experienced from face-to-face tutorials in the outset to online teaching
and learning up to date.
Owing to better networking and affiliated teaching and learning centres in Jiangsu
Province, JSOU has played a key role for the BA distance teacher training
426
programme to accommodate the urgent need for in-service school teacher
training in a short time and a considerable scale.
This in-service programme aimed to upgrade the junior and senior school teachers’
qualification, to develop their pedagogic and linguistic competence including
teaching methods, teaching and learning strategies, and language knowledge and
ability (listening, speaking, reading and writing).
School teachers who succeeded in completing all courses in the programme with
the time span of 8 years would be awarded a BA degree (non-honour) certificate
validated by the State Ministry of Education via China Central Radio and Television
University (CRTVU).
The programme was credit-based, composed by 11 compulsory courses with three
orientation courses. Hopefully after the distance training, the trainees were
expected,
To build up their solid knowledge of the English language, and a motif for
lifelong education.
To obtain a better understanding of current development in language
education, equipped with new teaching materials, methods, and course
design.
To develop their capability of designing syllabi; and carrying out action
research in their classrooms.
To apply modern educational technology to their classroom teaching to
some extent.
The online tutorials or synchronic web chats were arranged once a month by the
JSOU managerial team for the trainee teachers and local tutors most often on
Sundays, on which day all trainees and tutors were free from their daily teaching
at their schools or universities. From 2007, more learning and teaching activities
are arranged on the web since the trainees are equipped with computers and
internet access. Consequently, the tutors in the face to face teaching in the
traditional classroom have been shifted to the tutors with online teaching.
3.2 Method
Questionnaire and interviews have been adopted in the current research.
3.2.1 Participants
Fifteen lecturers working as the e-tutors from the traditional universities
participated in the study. Why only selected the lecturers from the traditional
universities? The main reason lied in the following: they had less or no experiences
427
in the open and distance learning; they were not so proficient in computer
literacy; and they were familiar with the text based instructions.
3.2.2 Data sources
A questionnaire concerning the beliefs, attitudes, motivation and strategies
operated in the role change experiences was designed and issued after the three
year cycle (from 2010 to 2013) to collect their reflections on the change of roles as
an e-tutor experience. After that, in-depth, semi-structured one-on-one interviews
were conducted for the study. A list of open-ended questions was generated to be
guidelines for the interviews about participants’ experiences and perceptions of
online teaching. Interview questions were designed based on the research
questions with the focus on their beliefs, attitudes, motivation and strategies in
the online teaching to testify the degrees of roles changes. Participants were asked
questions such as their experiences and perceptions of online teaching in general,
their likes and dislikes about online teaching, their strategies to facilitate online
communication, their perceptions of the impact of communication mode on
student learning, the difficulties they encountered for online communication, and
reasons they would use or not to use future online teaching.
3.2.3 Data analysis
The unit of analysis for the study was individual interviewees. All interviews were
recorded using a digital audio recorder, and the recordings were transcribed and
the transcripts were analysed following the constant comparative method (Corbin
& Strauss, 1998). The data were coded into different categories as beliefs,
attitudes, motivation and strategies, until themes emerged from the data as
related to the research questions.
4 Results and Analysis
The feedback from the e-tutors was positive on the online teaching in the
programme. By the questionnaire and personal and informal interviews of the part
time e-tutors from the traditional universities, they reported they were satisfied
with the learning materials, the approaches of the course delivery and the
monitoring and assessment system, which made the trainees take serious
attitudes to do the hands-on learning at certain pace in their spare time and
ensure the real and deep learning happened. They enjoyed the interaction with
the learners over the internet in the virtual learning environment, and they enjoy
the tutoring in the rich media learning environment, which they lack in their
traditional university classrooms. What they ‘complained’ a bit was that staying
online outstretched them, for they have their own face-to-face teaching in their
own real classroom. A reluctant change and transformation hereby took place.
While the trainees learned to be the independent learners, the part time
university lecturers learned to play the tutor’s roles that they never thought they
would: content facilitator, metacognition facilitator, process facilitator,
advisor/counsellor, assessor, technologist, resource provider.
428
The statistics indicated that great majority was satisfied with the online learning
programme. Here is the brief statistical summary of the feedback from the trainers
on the overall evaluation of the programme in the questionnaires in terms of
beliefs, attitudes, motivation and strategies:
Table 1. A Brief Summary of the Questionnaire
Yes
No
Beliefs
100%
Attitudes
100%
Motivation
99%
1%
Strategies
95%
5%
Here, the fifteen trainers have changed their beliefs and attitudes to the online
learning and teaching through their engagement in the online teaching
experiences. However, as mention above, staying online interaction with distance
learners is really a time consuming activity. Academic promotion, family care and
their social activities made some lecturers rethink their participation in the online
teaching.
We also conducted semi-structured interviews following up the questionnaires.
The prominent key words from the part-time lecturers were that the online
learning and teaching “convenient,” “flexible,” “dynamic”, “interactive” “enjoy”
and “computer literacy”. On the other hand, “heavy load of work”, “outstretched”,
“time-consu

Conference Proceedings part 1

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