Everything you need to know about frogs and other slippery

Everything
you need to
know about
FROGS
AND OTHER
SLIPPERY
CREATURES
DK PUBLISHING
LONDON, NEW YORK, MUNICH,
MELBOURNE, and DELHI
Senior editor Carrie Love
Senior designer Claire Patané
Design Hedi Hunter and Rosie Levine
Editorial Holly Beaumont, Fleur Star,
Ben Morgan, and Alexander Cox
US editor Margaret Parrish
Consultant Brian Groombridge
Publishing manager Bridget Giles
Art director Martin Wilson
Creative director Jane Bull
Category publisher Mary Ling
Production editor Clare McLean
Production controller Claire Pearson
Picture researcher Rob Nunn
Proofreaders Caroline Stamps and
Lorrie Mack
Jacket editor Matilda Gollon
First published in the United States in 2011
by DK Publishing
375 Hudson Street, New York, New York 10014
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
001–180779–Aug/11
Copyright © 2011 Dorling Kindersley Limited
All rights reserved under International and
Pan-American Copyright Conventions. No
part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in
any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording, or
otherwise, without the prior written permission
of the copyright owner. Published in Great
Britain by Dorling Kindersley Limited.
A catalog record for this book
is available from the Library of Congress.
Can you
SEE ME?
ISBN: 978-0-7566-8232-3
This high-casqued
chameleon (Chamaeleo
hoehnelii) is superb at blending in
with its surroundings. Find out
more about camouflage
on page 17.
Printed and bound in China by Hung Hing
Discover more at
www.dk.com
CONTENTS
6
Amphibians
46
What’s for dinner?
8
Reptiles
48
Living fossils
10
What’s inside?
50
Snakes and ladders
12
Super skin
52
Horned lizard
14
Life cycle of a frog
54
16
Colors and markings
Why did this woman turn
people into stone?
18
Home, Sweet Home
56
In search of the flapping frog
20
Amazon horned frog
58
Defense techniques
22
How do crocodiles breathe
underwater?
60
Travel blog
62
Lost and found
24
Parental care
64
Is it a bird? Is it a plane?
26
Biggest and smallest
66
Don’t look up
28
Sun seekers
68
30
Can you spot the fake?
How did frogs’ legs shock
science?
32
The glass frog
70
How to survive an encounter
with a crocodile or an alligator
34
Fancy feet
72
36
The water-holding frog
Working with amphibians
and reptiles
38
Top 10 deadliest
74
40
Sixth sense
How does this lizard
walk on water?
42
Gecko feet
76
Record breakers
44
The newt that never grows up
78
Glossary and index
80
Credits
How does a fer-de-lance snake kill its prey?
Discover its tactic on page 39.
Ribbit,
Which lizard is an insectivore?
Take a look at page 46.
scuttle,
Why is the male midwife
toad a hands-on father? See
for yourself on page 25.
How can you survive an attack from
a crocodile or alligator? Read and
REMEMBER the tips on page 71.
4
How far can a leatherback
sea turtle travel? Take a
journey with one on
pages 60—61.
Try to outstare a frog on pages
30—31. One frog will always win,
since it has a spot that looks like an eye!
How does a reptile obtain heat
from its surroundings? Get a
glimpse on page 28.
slith
e
r
Play a game of snakes and ladders on pages
50—51. Be careful, or you might slip down an
inland taipan!
When a frog sheds its skin what
does it do with it? Discover the
answer on page 13.
Amphibians
Amphibians are animals
that live PARTLY in water
and PARTLY on land.
Frogs, toads, NEWTS, and
salamanders are all
HOW MANY?
There are about 6,800
species of amphibian, most
of which are frogs. There
are about 600 species of
newt and salamander.
amphibians.
REPTILES have dry, scaly
amphibians can breathe through
Fr
wn
spa
og
skin, but AMPHIBIANS
have soft, moist skin. Most
their skin, but only if it stays
damp. Adult amphibians can
also BREATHE
through lungs.
6
Most
amphibia
ns
breed in w
ater.
Unlike rep
tiles, whic
h lay
tough-sh
elled eggs
on
land, mos
t amphibi
ans
lay soft, je
llylike egg
s
in water.
g
ro
ef
Is a toa
d a frog
I have d
?
ry, lu
mpy sk
like it’s
in that
covered
looks
i
n
warts. P
call me
eople us
a toad, b
ually
ut I’m r
eally a f
rog.
I’m
re
t
a
a river
Most frogs live near
t in
or pools of water. Bu
mid
rainforests, it is so hu
the time,
the trees are wet all
to stay
allowing some frogs
. They
in them permanently
and have
are called tree frogs
to help
huge, sticky fingers
them climb.
T
Most baby amphibians live entirely in water.
Called tadpoles, they swim like fish and
breathe through gills. As they grow up, they
develop legs and crawl onto land, but they
must always be in wet places.
ad
poles
tadpole
When a
g,
f an eg
o
t
u
o
s
to
hatche
n life is
i
k
s
a
t
egg,
its first
ft of its
e
l
’s
t
a
s.
eat wh
utrient
n
f
o
l
l
s fu
s, the
which i
phibian
m
a
t
s
o
an
In m
es into
g
n
a
h
c
called
tadpole
process
a
y
b
t
l
adu
is.
orphos
m
a
t
e
m
7
Reptiles
Today, there are more than
9,000 reptile species
HOW MANY?
Lizards make up the largest group of
reptiles (with 5,461 species), followed
by snakes (3,315 species), then turtles (317
species). There are fewer amphisbaenians
(181 species), and even fewer crocodilians
(24 species). The smallest group is the
tuataras (with just 2 species).
on Earth; the major groups are
alligators and crocodiles,
Brightly
colored
Iguanas and their relatives
make up some of the
most colorful of all lizards.
This green iguana is
brightly colored with
a few markings.
TURTLES, lizards, and
snakes. ALL
REPTILES are
cold-blooded,
which is why they WARM
the sun and
have bodies covered in dry,
THEMSELVES in
All re
p
have tiles
backbo
nes
HORNY SCALES.
Some reptiles
lay eggs; others
Bright lines
give birth to
8
live young.
The red markings on a Madagascan
giant day gecko vary between individuals.
Reptiles vary greatly in shape and size.
However, all reptiles have scales in contrast
to the smooth, moist skin of amphibians.
Scales differ among species, but they are
a defining feature of a reptile.
Legless
and long
Snakes are legless reptiles.
They’re found all over the
world, but they don’t do
well in cold places. The
Common boa constrictor,
such as the one shown
here, can grow to
3–13 ft (1–4 m)!
Light like sand
Like many geckos, this Sandstone gecko is colored
to blend in with its surroundings.
Tuataras are a group of reptile found only in New Zealand.
9
What’s inside?
FROGS have simple skeletons with fewer bones than other
vertebrates (animals with backbones). They tend to have robust
bodies and strong hind limbs. Most frogs have protruding eyes
and no tail. Take a look at what’s under a frog’s skin.
Skull
The hands and fingers of frogs vary
according to lifestyle. Climbing frogs
need fingers that can grip well.
Frogs tend to have
broad heads with large
sockets for the eyes.
They usually have short
spines and no ribs.
Hand
Heart CHAMBERS
Frogs have a developed nervous
system that is made up of a brain,
nerves, and a spinal cord. A frog’s
heart has three chambers, whereas
a mammal’s has four.
A frog’s brain is
structured in a similar
way to a human’s brain.
The cerebellum (region
on the top of the brain)
controls posture and
muscular coordination.
Elongated
ankle bone
Toe bone
10
A frog’s bone structue helps
it jump a long way. The tibia
(shin bone) and fibula (calf
bone) are fused into a single,
strong bone.
The legs and feet of frogs vary depending
on where they live. Frogs that live in water
have webbed toes. The more time they spend
in water, the more webbed their toes are.
SNAKES have incredibly LONG necks. The neck takes up
one-third of their length. Their organs are also
long and fit in
one behind the other. The heart
is encased in a sac, but it’s not fixed in place, preventing
damage when swallowing a large animal.
Snakes have strong
skulls with a solid and
complete braincase.
Skull
Trunk
vertebra
Dry SKIN
Longer species have as many as
400 vertebra along their backbones.
Smaller snakes have 180.
Snakes have flexible spines and strong
trunks that allow them to move in a
wavelike pattern.
Tail vertebra
Ribs
Snakes have dry, smooth
skin that is covered in scales.
They shed their skin regularly.
When they shed their skin it
comes off as a whole layer and
is often intact.
Snakes have really
flexible lower and
upper jaws, allowing them
to stretch their mouths open
wide to eat prey that is often
wider than their own heads.
11
Frogs have very special skin. They don’t just
water like we do.
Instead, they absorb most of the moisture they need
through their skin. They also get water
FROGS don’t usually SWALLOW
from prey that they eat. Their skin is used to get
extra
oxygen from the water (in addition to the oxygen
that’s come into their lungs via their mouth cavity).
Because frogs only get oxygen through their skin
when it’s moist, they need to take
good care of it or
they might suffocate. Some frogs are
slimy. This is
because their SKIN secretes a
12
mucus that stops it from getting dry.
wear it, they also drink and breathe through it!
Frogs regularly shed their
outermost layer of skin cells to
keep it
healthy. This looks pretty
yucky. They start to twist and turn and act
like they have the hiccups. They do this to stretch
out of their old skin! Finally, they pull
the skin OFF over
their head LIKE A SWEATER, and then
they
EAT IT! Eeeeewww!
(this is gross)
13
Life cycle of a frog
From a baby tadpole to a young frog
Life begins
Tiny tadpoles
A male and a female frog come
together to mate. Eggs are laid
in clumps or strings. An egg
hatches about six days after it’s
been fertilised. At first it feeds on
the remains of the yolk.
When an egg hatches, a tadpole’s
mouth, tail, and external gills are
not fully developed. At about seven
to 10 days, a tadpole begins to feed
on algae and attaches itself to weeds.
Fully formed
Between 12 to 16 weeks a
frog has completed its growth
cycle. The timing varies
between species and on the
food and water supply. A fully
formed frog starts the process
afresh by mating.
14
Getting bigger
At four weeks the external gills
are covered by body skin. They
eventually disappear and are
replaced with lungs. Tadpoles
have tiny teeth that help them
to chew away at plants and
algae-covered surfaces.
A bit of both
Tiny legs start to form from six
to nine weeks. The head becomes
more obvious. The arms begin to
come out, with the elbows
showing first. After nine weeks
the tadpole is beginning to look
more like a frog.
Nearly there!
By 12 weeks the young froglet
only has a small stub of a tail. It
looks like a smaller version of an
adult frog. Soon it will leave the
water to live on the ground.
15
COLORS
AMPHIBIANS and REPTILES
have a variety of
and
markings
and
S
G
N
I
K
R
MA
colors. The spectrum ranges
from bright reds and blues to
muddy
greens and BROWNS.
Some have spots, while
others have stripes.
Texas coral
snake
Markings can be
deceptive! Milk snakes
have thin black bands, and
thick yellow and red bands. They
aren’t poisonous, but they appear to
be dangerous because their banding is
so similar to venomous coral snakes.
Fire
salamander
Red-eyed tree frog
16
Regal
ring-neck snake
Southern dwarf
chameleon
Collared
lizard
Colorful CAMOUFLAGE
The pattern and color of an amphibian or reptile
can help it to blend in with its surroundings to
hide from predators. Chameleons, as their
name suggests, have an amazing ability to
hide themselves by changing their
appearance. They can alter their color as
well as their markings.
Strawberry poison-dart frogs are
bright red. This acts to warn
other creatures that their
skin secretions are
highly toxic.
Hide and seek
The Pacific tree frog is able to blend into
its surroundings very easily. It reacts to
seasonal changes and can switch its
coloring from brown to green. It can
also change its markings and the
lightness of its skin according to the
shift in background brightness.
17
Home, Sweet Home
Amphibians are found on all continents except Antarctica. Nearly all amphibians live
in or near wet areas such as streams, rivers, ponds, lakes, and other wetlands, but some
display amazing adaptations that allow them to live in dry, dusty deserts. Many adult
amphibians spend their lives on land, but nearly all need to lay their eggs in water.
Desert LIVING
The desert tortoise (Gopherus agassizii)
spends about 95 percent of its life
underground. It can go a year without water.
Plant LIFE
The female strawberry poison-dart
frog (Oophaga pumilio) lays her eggs
on a leaf. When the tadpoles hatch, she
moves them to a water-filled location.
Up in the TREES
The red-eyed tree frog
(Agalychnis callidryas) lives high up
in rainforest canopies in Central
America. It is also known as the
“monkey frog” because of its
excellent climbing skills.
Couch’s spadefoot toad (Scaphiopus
couchii) gets its name from its feet, which
help it to dig down through loose sand. It
lives underground during dry months.
The sandfish
(Scincus scincus) lives
in Africa’s Sahara
desert and is famous
for its ability to
“swim” through sand.
The gold frog (Brachycephalus
didactylus) makes its home in mountain
rainforests. It mainly lives among leaf
litter. It is a ground-dweller, since it can’t
jump or climb very well. The female lays
eggs that hatch directly into small frogs,
missing out the tadpole stage.
The tree hole frog (Metaphrynella
sundana) is a native of lowland
forests in Borneo. It lives in the
hollows of tree trunks. The little
frog uses tree hollows to amplify
its mating calls so that it can be
heard over long distances.
Who lives in a dry place? Many reptiles
Who lives in a “house”? Some frogs
Who lives up in the trees? Most
live in deserts. They can hide from the
extreme temperatures in burrows. The desert
is the last place you might expect to find an
amphibian, but a few species have adapted to
this extreme environment.
have adapted to live in dead leaves that
have fallen onto the forest floor whereas
others cleverly use leaves to hide their
eggs in until they hatch.
of the world’s frogs live in tropical
rainforests, where the temperature
is nice and high and there is plenty
of water.
18
Reptiles don’t exist in Antarctica either. Unlike amphibians, they have watertight
skin. This means that they don’t dry out as quickly. Some reptiles live in hot, dry
places such as deserts. Others live in warm swamps, rivers, or forests. A few have
even adapted to a life at sea, but all return to land to lay their eggs.
All at SEA
The yellow-bellied sea snake (Pelamis
platurus) has the largest lung of any snake.
This helps it to control bouyancy so it can
stay under water for long periods of time
(up to three and a half hours).
In the WET
Cool CREATURES
The African clawed frog (Xenopus
laevis) lives in ponds, lakes, or streams
in southern Africa. It spends most of
its time in water.
The wood frog (Rana sylvatica)
survives freezing conditions by
hibernating. It finds cracks in rocks,
or gaps in logs, or can bury itself in
leaves, to get through the cold winters.
Northern water snake (Nerodia
The hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys
imbricata) uses its narrow beak to
forage for mollusks, sponges, and
other animals.
Who’s that in the sea? Amphibians
can’t cope with seawater because their
skin is too thin to protect them from
all the salt. Reptiles have thicker skin
and a few species can regulate the salt
in their blood and are therefore able to
live in the sea.
sipedon) lives in and around
streams, ponds, lakes, and
marshes. Water snakes are good
swimmers. They have been known
to herd tadpoles to the water’s edge
before tucking in.
Who likes to live somewhere
moist? Amphibians provide tasty
meals for many reptiles, so where they
live you will often find reptiles, too.
The Northern water snake lives near
ponds, where it can catch amphibians.
Slow worm (Anguis fragilis) is
a legless lizard that hibernates in
piles of leaves, or in hollows
between tree roots. It goes to sleep
in October and emerges in March
to breed in early summer.
Who’s hiding from the cold? Some
reptiles and amphibians live in
temperate parts of the world, with cold
winters. One of the ways in which
they can survive these cold months is
to save energy by hibernating.
19
Amazon horned
FROG
ENORMOUS GAPE
Famed for its big
appetite and its bad
temper, the Amazon
horned frog can grow
to reach the size of a
small dinner plate.
With a mouth that is
wider than the length of
its body, the Amazon
horned frog can gobble
up prey almost as big
as itself.
Patient PREDATOR
Amazon horned frogs are voracious
carnivores. They ambush their prey by
sitting quietly and waiting for it to approach,
before striking with a sudden snap of their
jaws. Amazon horned frogs aren’t picky
eaters. Mostly they live on a diet of ants and
other insects, but they will try to eat any
animal smaller than themselves, including
mice and, occasionally, rats. They don’t
always get it right, and may try to take on
an animal that is too big for
them to stomach.
Watch your feet! The Amazon horned frog
will sometimes defend itself by attacking
people if it is disturbed. They tend to grab anything
that comes near them that could be edible.
20
Impressive HORNS
FROG FACTS
As its name suggests, the Amazon
horned frog has big fleshy horns above
its eyes. These are the largest horns of
any of the horned frog species. These
pointed brows help to disguise the
frog’s shape as it sits among
the leaves on the forest floor
awaiting its prey.
· Unlike other tadpoles, the
Amazon horned frog tadpoles
are predatory from the start.
When they hatch, they attack
other tadpoles and even attack
each other.
· Females lay up to 1,000 eggs!
They lay their eggs around
aquatic plants.
· Males are
slightly smaller
than females.
They make a
mating call that
sounds like a cow
lowing (making
a “moo” sound).
This frog grows
up to 8 in
(20 cm) in
length.
21
How do
crocodiles breathe
underwater
Crocodiles have an amazing ability to breathe and hunt
underwater at the same time. By closing a flap of skin at the
back of their throats they prevent water from flowing into
their lungs. They hold air in their lungs until they resurface.
They are able to keep their mouths open to grab prey
underwater, although they usually move to land to swallow
it. They also have flaps that can be closed over the nostril
and ear openings.
?
Saltwater
crocodile
(Crocodylus
porosus)
TURTLES
Aquatic turtles breathe
through their lungs. The Florida
softshell (right) has to surface and
use its snout to fill its lungs with
oxygen above water. Some turtles
manage to stay underwater for
weeks, living on very low
oxygen levels.
22
Florida
softshell turtle
(Apalone ferox)
Crocodiles can waterproof their eyes with a
SEA
SNAKES
FROGS
Frogs can breathe
through their skin when they’re
in the water. Their skin absorbs
oxygen from the water around
them. Find out more about their
amazing skin on pages 12–13.
Okinawa frog
Sea snakes can stay underwater for
up to five hours. They have an enlarged
lung that helps them to store lots of
oxygen for when they’re underwater.
They have to resurface to breathe in
more oxygen before they can make
another dive.
(Rana sp.)
Banded sea snake
(Laticauda
colubrina)
CROCODILIANS have a FLAP of tissue
tongue that covers
their throats when they are
submerged in WATER.
behind the
membrane that acts as a transparent shield.
23
PARENTAL CARE
AMPHIBIANS and REPTILES have different ways
bringing their young into the world. Most
hatch from an egg.
of
Amphibian eggs
A lot of
amphibians lay
their eggs in water,
where they develop
into tiny tadpoles.
Other
amphibians
carry eggs on their
backs, in their vocal
sacs, in skin pockets,
or even in their
stomachs!
Most
lizards lay
eggs. They
rarely return to
their nests, although
some skinks stay with
their eggs to help
maintain moisture
and warmth.
24
However,
many amphibians
choose a sheltered
egg-laying location
where they guard their
eggs or protect them
in a layer of foam.
Reptile eggs
Alligators
and caimans
make their nests
from mounds of soil
and leaves. Crocodiles
and gavials lay their
eggs in holes they
dig in sand or dry,
crumbly soil.
The shells
of eggs laid by
most turtles and
tortoises are hard,
but the shells of
marine and river
turtle eggs are
softer.
Father FIGURES
In some species of frog, the father plays
a key role. The male Darwin’s frog
takes care of the eggs as they
The male midwife
develop. When the tadpoles
toad (right) shows an
hatch, he puts them in his
interesting form of care. The
vocal sac, where they
female lays the eggs, but the male
grow until they are
carries them on his legs! After about
released as
three weeks, the male takes the
tiny frogs.
eggs to water, where the
tadpoles hatch.
Absent PARENTS
The majority of geckos lay their eggs in
bark or in the crevices of rocks. Geckos DO
NOT take care of their young. The young are
self-sufficient from birth. Turtles lay the most
eggs out of all reptiles, but they don’t watch over
them. The eggs are left in soil or sand and
when the baby turtles emerge, they are on
their own. They have to learn survival
skills pretty quickly!
an
a caim
t
When
orn, i
b
tor is
a
er.
g
i
h
l
t
l
or a
ts mo
se to i
o
l
e
c
r
s
a
es
stay
reptil
rs in
oung
mothe
r
i
e
The y
h
t
y
ives.
b
l
d
te
f their
o
protec
s
y
k
e
ed the
rly we
detect
s
the ea
i
r
e
dang
r as a
When
mothe
their
e
der
s
n
u
can
ing u
by hid
d
l
e
i
sh
dy.
her bo
Boy
or
girl?
The
gender of baby
crocodiles,
turtles, and
tortoises is often
determined by
egg temperature
during
incubation.
25
L
A
U
T
AC ZE
SI
from this......................................................to this!
The GOLIATH FROG starts out SMALL.
Its tadpole is the same size as that of the
keeps on
growing until it reaches the size of
a cat. With legs outstretched, the frog
average frog, but it
can MEASURE almost 3 ft (1 m) in length.
26
The goliath frog
(Conraua goliath)
lives in western Africa. It is found across a
narrow range of Equatorial Guinea and
Cameroon, in and around fast-flowing rivers
and waterfalls. It is a popular food for locals.
Goliath frog
The goliath frog is the
largest anuran (the class
of animal that includes
frogs and toads).
How
small?
The smallest frog in the world is the Monte
Iberia frog (Eleutherodactylus iberia) of
Cuba. This tiny amphibian reaches a full size
of only ⅓ in (9.8 mm) from snout to vent.
It would sit comfortably on one of
your fingernails.
Smallest frog
The Monte Iberia frog breeds by direct
development, missing out the tadpole
stage altogether.
27
seekers
Reptiles
are cold-blooded animals,
although once they have sunbathed their
blood is about the same temperature as ours.
Most reptiles live in warm climates, as
they rely on their surroundings
to obtain heat.
eir
p th e at a
e
e
o
sk
ur
tile perat ving t
p
e
o
R
m
l te
ym
rna level b e.
e
t
in
ad
t
tan the sh
s
n
co
m
fro
d
n
a
t
ea
ain h
t
b
o
lso
a
can a
e
l
i
lly on
t
e
p
b
e
r
s
it
A
sting
by re rock.
warm
28
If the temperature doesn’t suit a reptile then some
Air
temperature
In the summer months, reptiles
that live in tropical areas are
inactive in the middle of the
day, since it’s too hot to move.
ºC
45
ºF
110
Lizard’s body
temperature
90
30
Sheltered to
avoid cold
Basking
70
15
50
Normal
activity
This graph shows the
activity levels of a lizard. Take a
look at how and where it
spends its day.
Sheltered to
avoid heat
0
32
6 am
9 am
12 noon
3 pm
6 pm
8 pm
ACTIVITY PATTERNS
Reptiles need to stay warm when
they eat. A snake that has eaten
a meal but cannot get to a
warm place might die if the
food in its stomach is too
cold to digest.
species will hibernate until the temperature is right.
29
Can you spot the FAKE?
FROGS use their MARKINGS for protection against predators. One of the
frogs shown here has a cleverly positioned
eyespot that helps it to confuse
any potential ATTACKERS. Can you tell which one it is?
30
1
2
5
6
9
10
31
3
4
7
8
11
12
Answer: the fake eye is number 7, which is actually the back of a dwarf frog. Here are the names of the other frogs:
1. Dumeril’s bright-eyed frog 2. Common big-headed frog 3. Water-holding frog 4. Poisonous tree frog 5. Smoky jungle
frog 6. Mossy frog 7. Dwarf frog 8. Long-nosed horned frog 9. Red-eyed tree frog 10. Bronze frog 11. American
bullfrog 12. Red-eyed tree frog
South America.
THE
FROG
With its amazing see-through body, the glass frog
blends in perfectly with its surroundings. This little frog
hangs on to leaves with tiny, round–ended toes that seem
almost to melt into the leaf surface. It lives in Central and
32
1–3 in (3–7 cm)
Glass frogs are more
transparent from beneath.
You can even see their
hearts beating busily in
their chests.
MOST GLASS
Glass frogs lay their eggs on
leaves that overhang running
water. The male frog stands
guard and protects the eggs
from parasitic flies.
FROGS live high in THE
rainforest CANOPY. At such a
height, the trees are covered with
clouds all year round and the frogs’
skin is kept nice and moist.
They come down from the canopy
to lay eggs.
When the tadpoles hatch,
they drop down into the
water. They have powerful
tails and are well-adapted
for life in fast-flowing
forest streams.
33
There is only one known
surface a gecko can’t stick
to: Teflon®. (That’s the shiny
black plastic used to coat
nonstick pans.)
t
es
KO
re the larg
34
feet
th
wi
Some geckos have
claws at the ends
of their toes. The
claws are
retractable (they
can be pulled back
in on demand).
colorful famil
zards,
f li
yo
G EC
Sa
m
d
an
o st
Fancy
2,0
00
es.
i
c
e
sp
known
There are half a
million hairs on
a gecko toe!
e il
ing.
The special pads on a gecko’s feet
are self-cleaning. Dust or dirt in
the hairs might stop them
gripping. Fortunately, dirt easily
drops off a gecko’s scaly skin.
e
Th
come i
n
a ll
ET
E
ir F
sh
ap e
c
izes. They can wal
k
n the
o
n
w
o
d
e
d
i
s
up
s and s
If an average-sized,
2½ oz (70 g) adult
gecko had every
hair on its feet in
contact with a
surface, it would
have enough force
to lift a 290 lb
(133 kg) weight.
35
WATERH LDING
This frog is bloated with all the water it has consumed.
Where does it LIVE?
W
The water-holding frog (Litoria platycephala) lives in Australia. During
T
the rain
rainy season, the frog absorbs water and in doing so puts on 50 percent of
its own body weight! To keep from losing this water during the dry months, it
creates an underground home to stay in. Since the mud is still wet from the
rainy season, its able to burrow down more than 3 ft (1 m) beneath the
surface. It enters a summer hibernation and can stay underground waiting for
the next rainy season. When it senses the water from heavy rains, it wakes up
and starts to resurface.
STORING water
S
The water-holding frog stores water in its bladder and beneath its skin.
T
“Living WELL”
“
Aborigines used to dig up the frog to extract drinking water. They used
A
the frog
th
f
as a “living well.” To gain access to the water they squeezed the frog.
FEEDING time
F
W
When
active above the ground, it lives in water bodies. It feeds on other
ffrogs, ttadpoles, and small insects.
EGG laying
E
A female usually lays more than 500 eggs at one time! She lays her eggs
and then
the goes into a hibernation. She enters this state in order to prevent
damage from extreme dryness and heat.
36
21⁄3 in (6 cm)
Widespread in
Australia
The term for a water-holding frog’s “sleep” is
Before...
In its normal state, a
water-holding frog is just
21⁄3 in (6 cm) in length.
After...
When it has consumed half
its own body weight in
water, its body is enlarged to
41⁄2 in (12 cm) in length.
When active, it
lives in puddles,
pools, and streams.
estivation. It usually happens in the summer.
37
TOP 10
DEADLIEST
ST
LIE AN
D
A
I
DE HIB
P
M
A
Most reptiles and amphibians are perfectly
harmless to people, but a few can inflict
lethal bites or kill with a touch of their
poisonous skin. Here are some of
the world’s deadliest
cold-blooded killers.
!
rt FROGbia can kill
Poison darib
ilis of Colom
Phyllobates ter
y
Just one of these tin
you if you touch it.
ze
aly
par
to
h poison
frogs contains enoug
e deadly
Th
.
ple
peo
50
l
and kil
skin comes
chemical in the frog’s
, which are
nts
pla
s
from poisonou
in turn eaten
are
t
tha
ts
eaten by an
ples
by the frog. Native peo
son
poi
use the frog to make
blowpipe darts.
Australian brown SNAKE
The eastern (or common) brown snake (Pseudonaja
textilis) of Australia is the world’s second most
venomous land snake after the Taipan, based on the
strength of its venom. Its bite is usually fatal, unless
the victim receives an antidote. The venom contains
potent nerve toxins, which paralyze the victim’s
muscles, and chemicals that make the blood clot.
!
38
Inland TAIPAN
The inland taipan (Oxyuranus
microlepidotus) of Australia has the
deadliest venom of any land-dwelling
snake. The venom, injected by a bite, not
only poisons nerves, but also causes the
victim’s blood to clot, blocking arteries.
Before an antidote was developed, there
were no known survivors of a taipan bite.
Fortunately, the taipan is very shy and
bites are rare.
Saltwater CROCODILE
The saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) of Australia and
parts of Asia is the largest reptile on Earth, with big males weighing
more than a ton. Normally seen basking lazily in the sun or wallowing
in shallow water, it is capable of explosive bursts of speed when
attacking. It drags its victim into the water and then rolls around to
tear the body apart.
Nile CROCODILE
The Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) of Africa
kills a large number of people, since locals often
collect water or wash from the river. It sneaks
toward victims with its body hidden in the
muddy water and only its eyes above the
surface. It then leaps out and snatches the victim in its
jaws before dragging them in the water.
Komodo DRAGON
The world’s largest lizard, the Komodo dragon (Varanus
komodoensis) weighs as much as a man and can attack
and devour a human being. The lizard kills prey in an
especially gruesome way, biting victims with filthy
teeth that are covered with disease-causing bacteria.
The victim may escape, but the bite turns into a
festering wound that can kill.
!
DE
A
LI DLI
ZA ES
RD T
Eastern diamondback RATTLESNAKE
The bite of North America’s deadliest snake can kill in a matter
of hours. The Eastern diamondback rattlesnake (Crotalus
adamanteus) venom contains hemotoxins, which attack
the blood and damage a huge area of
tissue, potentially leading to loss of
a limb or death. Thanks to
rapid treatment with
antivenom, only a handful
of deaths occur each year.
Puff ADDER
This bad-tempered African snake is called
the puff adder because it hisses and puffs
when approached, while curling itself into
a tight S-shape, ready to strike. Get too
close and it will lunge forward and sink its long
fangs deep into your skin, injecting a venom that
attacks the blood. The puff adder (Bitis arietans)
causes more deaths than any other snake in Africa.
Fer-de-LANCE
This South American relative of the
rattlesnake preys on rats and other rodents,
killing them by injecting venom through its
hollow teeth. The fer-de-lance’s (Bothrops atrox)
venom is packed with enzymes that destroy blood
cells and body tissues, causing fits of vomiting,
diarrhea, paralysis, and blackouts.
Black MAMBA
The bite of the black mamba
(Dendroaspis polylepis) kills in
less than an hour, and without
antivenom is almost always fatal. The
lethal ingredient in the venom is dendrotoxin,
a chemical that paralyzes muscles and stops the
lungs and heart from working. Death is usually
caused by suffocation.
39
Bamboo pit viper
Sixth
The heat pit in a python
has one section. In a pit
viper, it has two sections.
The inner one is the
temperature of the snake
and the outer one heats
up when the
snake is near
a heat source.
sense
SNAKES such as pythons,
some
pit vipers, and
BOAS are able to PICK UP small changes in air
temperature around them by using organs on their
faces, called heat pits. They
detect these changes as
infrared rays (heat vision).
This sixth
SENSE allows them to locate
prey during the night.
This royal python
(Python regius) sees a
thermal image in its
brain that allows it to
track prey quickly
and efficiently.
Royal python
40
This system is so precise that
pit vipers can notice
The
FIVE senses
HEARING
Snakes do not have external
ears. Their hearing is poor so
they rely on vibrations from
the ground that pass through
skull bones on their lower jaws
to their ears. This puff adder
(Bitis arietans) is sticking close
to the ground to sense
any vibrations.
SIGHT
Snakes generally don’t have
great vision, although they are
adept at detecting movement.
The vine snake (Ahaetulla
nasuta) is unusual in that it
has forward-facing eyes that
give it binocular vision and a
good sense of distance.
TASTE
The Jacobson’s organ enables
snakes to taste and smell. The
organ consists of two sensitive
cavities in the roof of the snake’s
mouth. Their tongue gathers
particles that the organ analyzes.
Snakes that live in water, such as
the green anaconda (Eunectes
murinus) are able to use their
tongue to gather particles underwater.
SMELL
Snakes use their sense of smell to
help them locate prey. The
common boa constrictor (Boa
constrictor) detects its prey
through scent and taste. Using its
Jacobson’s organ it is able to work
out if prey is nearby. Boas wrap
their coils around their victims and
squeeze hard to kill them.
TOUCH
From the beginning of a
snake’s life, it relies on touch
for guidance. It uses its tongue
and pressure receptors in its
skin to touch objects, move,
and orientate itself. The Indian
python (Python molurus) is
using its tongue to explore
its surroundings.
changes in
temperature that are less than a degree.
41
Nothing GOES like a
gecko’s toes. They even inspire science.
Gecko FEET
GECKOS are small lizards
but they’ve set humans a
challenge: to mimic
their amazing ability to
walk up WALLS. Their
secret ? BILLIONS of tiny
hairs (called setae), and
long toes to help
a lizard grasp
the bumps.
BIG
The toe-pads on
fan-fingered geckos are
split into two parts. This
gives them extra grip,
even compared with
other geckos.
There’s more to a gecko’s
feet than hair. Their toes
bend backward (compared
to ours), and they must
“peel” them off a surface a
bit at a time. It’s like
Velcro—it won’t slip!
Fan-fingered
gecko
When SCIENCE copies
There are 14,000 hairs
in 1 mm² of a gecko’s
foot. Each hair has
between 100 and 1,000
filaments that grip onto
the wall as it climbs.
42
nature,
it’s called
biomimetics.
STICKYBOT
Stickybot’s
feet have rows of
stiff, yet flexible “gecko
tape” on them. This material
produces a sticky force that
allows the robot to climb
up windows and
whiteboards.
STICKYBOT uses 12 motors to mimic
Stickybot
one animal.
is a robot that can
climb SMOOTH
SURFACES such
as glass. HOW?
43
The newt that
This captive-bred axolotl
looks like an albino—with no
pigment in its skin—but since
it has pigment in its eyes it’s
called “leucistic,” which means
reduced pigment.
“Wild-type”
axolotls are
usually dark.
Wild axolotls
are only found
in the canal
systems of Mexico’s
Lake Xochimilco.
Located close to Mexico City, these
canals are threatened by pollution
and increased development.
44
Axolotl means “water-dog” in
P
U
s
w
o
r
g
r
e
v
ne
The axolotl is the Peter Pan of the
animal world. It doesn’t undergo
metamorphosis like many other
amphibians. Instead, it spends its
entire life in a juvenile form, keeping
it gills and fins, and living
in water. The axolotl
grows steadily
bigger until it is
old enough to
reproduce.
Though their numbers
are falling in the wild,
many axolotls are kept in
captivity. Axolotls are popular pets,
but they are also studied by scientists because
of their interesting life cycles and their
powers of regeneration—axolotls can regrow
entire limbs. In captivity it is sometimes
possible to make the axolotls metamorphose
by injecting them with special hormones that
trigger growth and development. In their
adult form, they look very like their
near-relatives, the tiger salamanders.
the ancient language of the Aztecs.
45
What’s for
dinner?
Lizards for starters
Most lizards are insect-eaters
(insectivores), but some have special
diets. Some big lizards are carnivores
and eat animals such as birds,
rodents, or other lizards. A few
lizards are plant-eaters (herbivores).
The Gila monster
stores fat in its thick,
stumpy tail. It is this
energy store that
allows it to survive for
months without food.
The binge-eater
The Gila monster (Heloderma suspectum)
only eats between 5–10 times a year, but
when it does, this lizard can consume
the equivalent of over half of its
body weight. It mainly eats
the eggs of birds or
other reptiles.
The insectivore
The Sinai agama (Pseudotrapelus
sinaitus) is a slender lizard. It has long, thin
limbs, which make it good at running over
the hot sand when it hunts in the heat of
the day. It feeds on ants and other
insects, but it also eats sand!
The vegetarian
One plant-eating lizard is the green iguana
(Iguana iguana), which survives on a complex diet
of leaves, shoots, flowers, and fruit. It can’t digest
animal protein well, although it may sometimes
accidentally eat small insects and other
invertebrates that are attached to vegetation.
Frog food that moves
46
Most frogs are carnivorous. Nearly all of
them eat insects and other invertebrates
like worms, spiders, and centipedes, but
some of the bigger frogs take on larger
prey, such as mice, birds, or other frogs.
The cannibal
The American bullfrog (Rana
catesbeiana) is the largest of the North
American frogs, growing up to 8 in (20 cm)
in length. These frogs are voracious eaters
and will eat anything they can fit into their
exceedingly large mouths. This includes
insects and other invertebrates, rodents,
birds, snakes, and even other bullfrogs.
Sea turtles
The jelly-eater
Leatherback turtles (Dermochelys coriacea)
are the biggest turtles in the world. They live on
a diet of jellyfish and comb jellies, both of which
are made up mostly of water. To get enough
energy and nutrients to grow so big, leatherbacks
eat huge quantities of food—they sometimes eat
their own weight in jellyfish each day.
The diet of sea turtles varies between
species. Some eat a wide range of foods,
both plant and animal, but others have
special diets, with adaptations that make
it easier to eat particular things.
The cruncher
Loggerhead turtles (Caretta caretta) mainly eat hard-shelled
creatures such as crabs, conchs, and clams. Their big heads and
strong jaws help them to crush the shells and they can hold their
breath for up to 20 minutes on their dives down to the sea floor.
The fruitivore
Izecksohn’s Brazilian tree frog
(Xenohyla truncata) is one of the very
few plant-eating (herbivorous) frogs.
Living in bromeliads in the Brazilian
coastal moist forest, it eats brightly
colored berries from arum plants and
fruit from the cocoa tree. The frog helps
to disperse plant seeds in its poop.
The sponge muncher
Hawksbill turtles (Eretmochelys imbricata)
live around coral reefs, rich in marine life.
They can eat a range of prey, but they mainly
live on a diet of primitive, plantlike animals
called sponges. The turtles are named after
their sharp, birdlike beaks that make it easier
for them to reach sponges growing in
crevices between rocks and corals.
The mite-y eater
Poison dart frogs use poisons in their
skin to deter potential predators. They get their
poisons from their food. The strawberry poison-dart
frog (Oophaga pumilio) gets its toxins from a mite that
lives in the soil in Central and South America. The
frog also eats other small invertebrates. As the frog
eats its food, the toxic chemicals build up in its body,
which makes it more poisonous.
47
G
N
I
V
I
L
FOSSILS
The giant salamanders of China and Japan are the world’s
largest amphibians. While most salamanders would fit in the
palm of your hand, giant salamanders grow bigger than your
arm—and some longer than the length of your entire body. NO
ONE KNOWS how long giant salamanders live in the wild, but
the oldest captive salamander lived for 52 years.
GIANT salamanders have changed very
The Chinese
giant salamander
(Andrias davidianus) is the
world’s largest amphibian,
growing up to 6 ft (1.8 m) in length
in captivity. It is heavily built, with a
flat head and a wide mouth. Like its
Japanese cousin, it lives a completely
aquatic existence and its short legs
cannot support its body weight
when it is out of the water.
little in the last 30 million
Chinese giant
salamander
Giant salamanders
are paler on their
undersides.
48
Skeleton of a Chinese
giant salamander
Giant salamanders live in hollows in the banks of
streams and rivers. At night, they walk slowly along
the bottom, feeding on fish and crustaceans. They have
a powerful bite and they catch their food with a quick
sideways snap of their wide, many-toothed mouths.
Stressed-out salamanders
can produce a thick,
smelly mucous that
makes them very
unpleasant to handle.
What a stink!
years, which is why they are described as “living fossils.”
The Japanese
giant salamander (Andrias
japonicus) is the second-largest
amphibian, growing up to 5 ft (1.5 m) in
length. The Japanese and Chinese
salamanders breathe through their skin.
Their skin has folds and wrinkles that
increase the surface area, allowing more
oxygen in. They like to live in clean,
fast-flowing streams but numbers of
both species have dropped owing to
pollution and dam building.
Japanese giant
salamander
49
Snakes
&
&
Ladders
Are you feeling LUCKY? Challenge a
friend to a game of
snakes and
YOU’VE
WON!
100
99
You discovered a
new antivenom.
Go forward 5
places.
81 82
You mistook a
79
slow worm for a
snake. Go back 2
places.
80
61
62
ladders and see who gets to the top
first. BE CAREFUL not to step on a
snake—the ones in this game
all have
59
42 43
60
deadly bites!
41
You will need:
* One or more friends to play with
* A small object to use as a counter for each person
* A die
38
39
40
How to play:
To decide who starts, everyone rolls the die and the
person with the highest number goes first. When it’s
your turn, roll the die and move your counter along by
the number. If you land on the bottom of a ladder, climb
to the top of the ladder. If you land on the top of a snake,
slither down to the square at its bottom. If you roll a six,
take another turn. The first person to pass 100 wins.
Good luck!
50
21 22
Coastal
taipan
20
START
HERE
1
19
2
Hog nose
viper
98
83
96
97
87
Black tiger
snake
85
84
94
95
93
92
88
86
91
89
Death
adder
90
72
75
78 77
A spitting cobra
spat in your eye.
Go back two
places.
74
76
66
67
73
68
69
71
70
64 65
63
Beaked sea
snake
58
3
57 56
Death
adder
53 52
54
55
51
47
44 45
49
48
46
You got rattled
by a rattlesnake.
Go back one
place.
50
33
37 36
24
23
35
25
34
27 28
32
Inland
taipan
29
12
26
13
18
3
17
4
16
5
15
You got squeezed
by a boa
constrictor. Go
back 3 places.
6
14
7
31
You wrestled
an anaconda and
won. Go forward
3 places.
30
11
8
9
10
51
Horned lizard
Built like miniature armored tanks, horned lizards move ponderously along the
baking ground of their dry desert habitats; stopping to sunbathe, dig burrows, and snack
on ants. They have evolved a range of adaptations to help them survive.
52
Bloody DEFENSE
Horned lizards use the spines on their
backs in self-defense. In addition, they
also exhibit a startling form of defense. A
network of weakened blood vessels allow
5½ in (14 cm)
Found in northern Mexico
and southwestern US
them to spray a stream of blood out from
their eyes toward attackers. This blood tastes
horrible to potential predators.
Dew DRINK
Living in dry, desert conditions,
horned lizards have evolved to get as much
water from their environment as possible.
The tiny grooves between the lizard’s scales
channel moisture from dew that has
gathered on its body toward the lizard’s
mouth, providing a refreshing morning drink.
Body BEAUTIFUL
Another adaptation to its desert
environment, is the horned lizard’s wide,
flat body. This allows it to catch rainwater
during infrequent desert showers. The lizard
raises its tail and channels droplets down to
its mouth. Its bumpy, mottled appearance
helps it blend into its surroundings and avoid
detection by predators flying above.
Sticky TONGUES
This ant contain lots of chitin, which is
indigestible to a horned lizard. That
means the lizard must eat an awful lot of ants
to get enough nutrients to survive. Thankfully,
the lizard has a secret weapon—a long sticky
tongue, which it flicks out like a whip to gather
lots of ants.
Horny HEADS
The lizards are named for their
distinctive horns. These shapes break up
the outline of the lizards’ heads—making them
harder to spot in among the rocks and stones
of the desert. Their raised brow bumps help to
shield their eyes from the strong desert sun,
while thick eyelids protect their eyes from
stings of their ant prey.
53
Why did this woman
turn people INTO
?
STONE
In Greek mythology, Medusa was a
fearsome, snake-headed monster. Once a
beautiful woman, she was transformed
by the goddess Athena as punishment
for meeting the sea god Poseidon in
Athena’s temple. In some tales, not only
was her hair turned into a twisting mass
of hissing snakes, but her teeth also
became tusks and her skin was made
green and scaly. Anyone who looked at
her hideous form turned to stone.
Medusa was eventually slain by Perseus,
the mortal son of Zeus, king of the
gods. He did not look at Medusa
directly, but watched her reflection in
his metal shield before beheading her.
Even after she was slain, the head of
Medusa still had the power to turn
anyone who looked at it into stone.
Perseus returned it to the goddess
Athena, who attached it to her shield
and used it to scare her enemies.
54
H
W
EN
H
GERED
T
H
E AN
E
SH
G
O
D
S
EADED MO
H
NS
E
K
TE
A
N
R.
S
A
E
TH
USA MY
D
E
M
T
Perseus
holding the
head of
Medusa.
55
S TUR
N
A WA
E
D
US
I
N
ED
T
O
,M
In
search of the
flapping FROG
The LAKE TITICACA FROG is the largest
aquatic frog
12,500 feet (3,800 m) above
sea level, making it a very COLD environment to reside in.
in the world. The lake it lives in is
Brrr, it’s chilly!
The air is thin and freezing
cold so the Lake Titicaca
frog survives by living
permanently at the lake’s
bottom. The water here never
rises above 50°F (10°C).
The frog doesn’t usually
need to surface for air, since
it absorbs oxygen through
its skin. It has a lot of skin
with plenty of flaps and a
big surface area, enabling it
to breathe underwater.
The Lake Titicaca frog
can measure up to 20 in
(50 cm) long and weigh
up to 21⁄4 lb (1 kg).
It does push-ups in order to circulate the water surrounding its
body. This keeps its skin folds in contact with oxygenated water.
56
Lake Titicaca is located on the
border of Bolivia and Peru.
The Lake Titicaca frog breeds in shallow
Why does
this frog
exercise?
waters, where it lays about 500 eggs.
57
DEFENSE TEC
HNIQUES
Fearsome FRILLS
The frilled lizard (Chlamydosaurus kingii) has a
loose ruff of skin around its neck. Most of the time
it sits flat, like a cape around the lizard’s shoulders,
but when the lizard is threatened, the ruff expands
and the lizard lunges forward, attempting to startle
its attacker for just long enough to make its escape.
Clever DISGUISE
The best way to keep from being eate
n is not
to be noticed. The pygmy leaf-dropping
frog
(Afrixalus pygmaeus) has a very unglamor
ous way
to merge in with its surroundings—by
looking like
a bird dropping. It sits on leaves in full
view and
tries to escape attention by sitting very
still.
Tail TRICKERY
Some lizards have developed a startling form
of defense, dropping their tails and leaving them
wriggling on the ground to distract predators.
Skinks, geckos, and slow worms can all detach
their tails. Some can grow new tails, but these
are never as long as the original.
Playing DEAD
als that are
Many predators do not eat anim
can be an
already dead, so pretending to be dead
have very
es
snak
e
Som
.
excellent way to stay alive
e
writh
dramatic mock deaths where they
to lie still.
erratically, bite themselves, and fall back
open mouths.
Sometimes blood trickles from their
at a threat.
Some cobras spray or spit venom
mossambica)
The Mozambique spitting cobra (Naja
racy. This
can target its venom with pinpoint accu
g snakes
youn
that
ctive
spitting behavior is so instin
eggs.
their
will spit even as they are hatching from
Big and SCARY
To convince a predator that it is too big to
handle, the black rain frog (Breviceps fuscus) puffs
itself up to twice its original size. This sudden
growth spurt also makes it harder to dig the frog
out from its tunnel.
spit, rattle, trick, and scare their way to safety.
Spitting VENOM
off predators by
The rat tlesnake warns
tling sound with its tail.
making an intimidating rat
sec tions that clash
Its rattle is made of hollow
the snake shakes its tail.
against each other when
their enemies. They
Some frogs protect themselves by making
themselves poisonous to the touch. When this
marbled milk frog (Trachycephalus venulosus) feels
threatened, the poison glands that line its back
and neck start to release a toxic milky secretion.
Warning RATTLE
REPTILES and AMPHIBIANS use a variety of ways to defend themselves against
Toxic to the TOUCH
59
travel blog
The LEATHERBACK sea turtle loves
Departure time
Travel FACTS
Adult sea turtles spend their lives in the world’s oceans. They roam large
distances in search of food and mates. Adult females also make long excursions to
breeding beaches, usually where they were born, to lay their eggs. Experts are still
researching how sea turtles find their way back, but they believe sea turtles use
Earth’s magnetic field, the sea’s chemistry, and their memories.
Leatherback sea turtles are big travelers.
One leatherback was tracked over an
epic voyage of more than 12,500 miles
(20,000 km). Leatherbacks travel these long
distances to feed their appetite for jellyfish.
A built-in swimsuit
User PROFILE
The leatherback’s shell (known as a carapace) is made of a tough,
leathery, cartilage material, which gives the sea turtle its Latin name.
Leatherback sea turtle
(Dermochelys coriacea)
Leatherbacks are the
largest species of sea
turtle, and one of the
largest reptiles on Earth.
An adult leatherback can
weigh more than 1,000 lb
(450 kg).
Size: 4–8 ft (1.2–2.4 m)
Life’s a beach
Once the female leatherback has found a beach, she digs a small hole in
the sand using her back flippers. She then lays about 100 eggs and covers
them with sand. Sea turtles usually nest at night when it is safer.
Once a sea turtle hatchling makes it past any beach predators and into the
60
Leatherback sea turtle (Dermochelys coriacea)
Search
to travel and swims from warm tropical seas to cold, temperate waters.
Sea turtle SPECIES
A new journey
The eggs take about two months to incubate in the sand. The baby sea
turtles, known as hatchlings, can take days to dig their way out.
Hatchlings normally emerge at night and make the long journey
across the beach to the lapping waves. This is a dangerous time for a
hatchling, because they are vulnerable to predators such as birds and
crabs. About 90 percent of hatchlings never make it to adulthood.
•Hawksbill
•Green
Where to go?
The hatchlings use their
flippers to travel to the sea.
Experts believe they know
the right way to go because
of the light reflected from
the water (even at night)
and the slope of the beach.
•Loggerhead •Olive Ridley
•Kemp’s Ridley •Flatback
ocean, it sets out on a swimming frenzy. It will keep paddling for up to 48 hours.
61
LOST&
FOUND
WANTED
The Southern gastric-brooding frog
(Rheobatrachus silus) has not been seen in the
wild since 1981. After mating, the female
swallowed her eggs, switching off her digestive
system to allow the larvae to develop. After
6–7 weeks, the female regurgitated her young.
The golden toad (Incilius periglenes) fell prey
to climate change, with rising temperatures
and erratic rainfall. Fewer breeding pools
meant that frogs gathered in greater numbers
and this allowed disease to pass quickly
through the population.
WANTED
WANTED
The Darwin’s frog (Rhinoderma darwinii) has
an unusual snout. The male uses his vocal sac
to hold the tadpoles until they turn into young
frogs. Numbers are declining because the frog’s
habitat is being destroyed through drought
Last seen in 1955, the Hula painted frog
(Discoglossus nigriventer) was once found along
the eastern shore of Israel’s Lake Hula. When the
Hula marshes were drained in an attempt to
reduce the incidence of malaria and make way
for agricultural land, it also wiped out the species.
and deforestation.
62
WANTED
Certain AMPHIBIANS and REPTILES are declining in numbers or
being lost altogether. However, lots of
new species are being
found every year. Although they can’t replace the lost animals that
become extinct, they can give scientists hope for the future.
FOUND
In 2009, a survey found that 200 possible new species of frog were
living on the island of Madagascar. Statistics like these are exciting, since
they give scientists promise of finding new populations of other animals.
Earth contains so many surprises—scientists have to be willing to explore
remote places to find and identify new species, although every now and
then they’ll find them in places that have already been explored.
Occasionally, species new to scientists have been
known to locals for years. The bitatawa monitor
lizard (Varanus bitatawa) was found by scientists who
were walking across a field in the Philippines in 2010.
However, the locals had been hunting it for a long
time. Scientists missed it because it doesn’t come
down from the trees very often.
Discovered in Indonesia’s Foja Mountains during an
expedition in 2008, this little frog has a long,
Pinocchio-like inflatable nose that expands when the
male is calling out. He was seen sitting on a bag of
rice in the scientist’s campsite and is thought to be
one of about 150 species of Australasian tree frogs.
63
Is it a
bird
?
Is it a plane?
The Wallace’s flying frog (Rhacophorus
nigropalmatus) is also known as the
“parachute frog” and is one of the
few aerial amphibians. The
membranes between its toes and
the loose skin on its sides help it
to glide through the air,
although it doesn’t actually fly.
64
Found in Malaysia
and Borneo
4 in (10 cm)
I’m a nocturnal creature so I
remain still during the day. I rely on my
brown skin with barklike markings to
allow me to blend in with the trees. My
ability to camouflage myself means I can
remain undetected.
7–8 in (18–20 cm)
Southeast Asia
I am a Kuhl’s flying gecko
(Ptychozoon kuhli) and I love jumping
from trees! My strong, webbed feet help
me glide through the air. The flaps of skin
along my flanks and my flattened, frilly tail
also help to control my descent.
Kuhl’s flying gecko
is a reptile that lives in
tropical forests. It’s one of
several lizards that “fly”
through the forest and
jump from trees when
escaping danger.
When I’m resting on
a tree, I often face
head-down. This allows
me to take off quickly if I
need to. I’m always ready
to jump and glide.
65
Don’t
LOOK UP
The paradise tree snake is capable of gliding among high trees in
tropical forests. It dangles from the end of a branch and decides on its
direction of travel. It then pushes its body away from the tree, pulls in
its stomach, and flares out its ribs so that it is twice as flat as normal.
It glides through the air in a motion of lateral undulation (wavelike
movements that propel it forward) in line with the ground so that it
can land safely. It can glide distances of up to 330 ft (100 m).
It’s considered to be the most adept of the flying snakes.
Watch out for that
snake. It’s flying!
The PARADISE TREE SNAKE has a slender body and
a long tail. It can MEASURE up to
66
3 ft (0.9 m).
It’s a daytime
hunter and lives on a diet of lizards, frogs,
bats, and birds. Its TOXICITY is not dangerous to humans.
67
frogs’ legs
shock SCIENCE?
How did
In 1771, a chance discovery on professor Luigi Galvani’s
experiment table led, eventually, to the invention of the first
battery—without which our lives today would be very different.
So how did one small hop for an amphibian become a giant
leap for science?
In further
experiments,
Galvani made
the legs hop
right across
the table!
Luigi Galvani was a
biologist at the University
of Bologna, Italy. He was
experimenting with frogs’
legs and static electricity
when his metal scalpel
touched the brass hook
that held the legs.
Suddenly, the
legs twitched!
68
Volta termed Galvani’s discovery Galvanism.
Luigi Galvani
Jumping to conclusions
Galvani realized that electricity had made the
legs twitch, but where did it come from? He
mistakenly concluded that the frog’s bodily
fluids must have been a source of electricity,
which he called “animal electricity.”
A shocking discovery
Just after Galvani’s accidental
discovery, it happened again. In a
separate experiment, Galvani’s assistant
touched the frog’s sciatic (spinal cord)
nerve with his scalpel while he was
taking a spark of static electricity from
a storage jar. Galvani wrote, “Suddenly
all the muscles of its limbs were seen to
be so contracted that they seemed to
have fallen into tonic convulsions.”
Science owes a
lot to Galvani,
including the
study of
bioelectricity
(electricity in a
body’s nervous
system) and the
process of
“galvanizing” (or
coating) metal to
protect it.
One thing leads to another
Galvani published his ideas in 1791, when
scientist Count Alessandro Volta read
them. Convinced that Galvani was wrong,
Volta repeated the experiments and found
that electricity did not come from the
frog—but that wet tissue in the legs
allowed electricity to flow between the
metal instruments holding the legs. This
gave Volta an idea: a pile of copper and zinc
disks with layers of wet cardboard between
them would not only conduct electricity,
but could also store it. This “Voltaic pile”
was the first battery.
Today, this area of science is electrophysiology.
69
n
a
e
v
i
v
r
u
s
o
t
w
o
a
H
h
t
i
w
r
e
t
r
n
o
u
t
o
a
c
g
i
l
en
l
a
n
a
or
e
l
i
d
o
c
o
r
c
70
The jaws of CROCODILIANS are so strong
1. Do your research and keep an eye out!
Swim in designated areas only. Alligators and
crocodiles tend to hunt at dusk or at night so
don’t go swimming at those times. Crocodilians
often only show their eyes and nostrils above the
water, so you probably won’t spot them easily.
2. Give them space!
You should not get too close to crocodiles and
alligators—15 ft (4.5 m) is usually enough
room to keep between you and them.
3. Catch me if you can!
The average adult can outrun a crocodile or
alligator on land. The fastest land speed for a
crocodilian is only 10 mph (17 kph).
4. Don’t scare them!
Steer clear of the riverbank if you’re on a boat
coming around a bend. Crocodilians like to bask
on the banks and will react in self-defense if you
scare them. If you spot a crocodile or alligator,
try to let them know you’re there by slapping the
water with your oars or by blowing a whistle.
5. Get help as soon as you can
If a crocodilian is defending its young or its
territory it might bite its opponent quickly and
then let go. However, it is more likely to bite its
prey and not release it. If you manage to get
away from its grip then you should seek
medical help immediately.
they can CRUSH bones when they close!
71
WORKING WITH
amphibians and reptiles
PER looking after
Animal KarEeE
for
responsible
ers
phibian and
Animal keep
parks. The am
e
lif
ild
w
d
os an
gists. They
animals in zo
t herpetolo
er
p
ex
e
b
t
the wild,
ers mus
imals live in
reptile keep
an
e
es
th
w
hat
w about ho
need, and w
need to kno
exercise they
h
uc
m
w
.
e
ho
t,
to liv
what they ea
ns they need
light conditio
d
an
e
ur
at
temper
Exotic animal BR
HER
PHOTOGRAP
rld
hers get to travel the wo
rap
Successful animal photog
lot about their subjec t to
ful
aw
an
w
kno
to
and have
perfec t photo. It’s also not
track it down and get the
ent in
—carrying heavy equipm
always a comfor table job
all
are
g in remote locations
difficult terrain and campin
par t of the challenge.
72
EEDER
Reptiles and amph
ibians are fascinat
ing animals and
many people like
keeping them as
pe
ts. Taking animals
from the wild ca
n be bad for wild
po
pulations, so
specialized breede
rs supply the pet
tra
de by rearing
animals like frogs
, snakes, and lizar
ds in captivity.
You want to be a what?
A HERPETOLOGIST
Zoology is the name given to the study of animals.
Herpetology is a branch of zoology and is the study of reptiles
and amphibians. A herpetologist is an expert on these animals.
GEONh animals
R
U
S
y
r
a
in
Veter e specially trained to deal wit ts about
y know lo
Some vets ar
hibians. The
p
am
to
d
an
s
le
res and how
such as repti
these creatu
f
o
s
le
ty
it
es
w
d lif
orking h
the health an
in captivity. W
r
o
ild
w
e
in th
n, since a bite
care for them
us professio
o
rd
za
ha
a
dog.
s can be
one from a
large reptile
serious than
re
o
m
is
r
o
at
from an allig
Snake HAN
DLER
If you’ve got
a snake pro
blem, who ar
Professional
e you going
or voluntee
to call?
r
snake handle
to remove sn
rs can be ca
akes from ho
lled in
uses and oth
they can co
er places whe
me into cont
re
ac t with peo
escaped pet
ple. These m
s or wild sn
ay
be
akes living w
be—looking
here they sh
for shade in
ouldn’t
the summer
months.
Biomedical RESEARCHER
Some species of amphibian and
reptile produce toxins
and poisons. Biomedical research
ers study these
chemicals and look at ways in
which they can be of use
to humans. More than 200 che
micals produced by
amphibians and reptiles have bee
n found to be of use in
human medicines.
73
How does
this lizard walk
?
on water
The green basilisk lizard is often referred to as the “Jesus Christ
lizard” because it appears to walk on water. How it actually manages
this “miracle” is by running short distances using its hindlegs. Its toes
have fringes of skin that open out to create more surface area.
74
These
curious and strange-looking lizards gain
their name from Greek mythology. Made up of parts of a
basilisk was able to kill a
man just from one look. The name basilisk means“little
king” in Greek, which seems appropriate
snake, rooster, and lion, the
considering the crests on its head, back, and tail.
23–30 in (60–75 cm)
Found in Central America
75
RECORD
Most POISONOUS
BIGGEST Snake
SMALLEST Reptile
The Colombian golden poison frog (Phyllobates
terribilis) is the most poisonous frog, and the most
poisonous vertebrate, in the world. It holds enough
poison to kill 20 humans or 20,000 mice.
The Asian reticulated python (Python reticulatus),
which can grow to 311⁄2 ft (9.6 m), is the longest.
The heaviest snake is the green anaconda,
weighing up to 550 lb (227 kg).
This title is shared by two geckos, both
measuring just over ½ in (1.6 cm) as full-grown
adults: the Virgin Gorda least gecko
(Sphaerodactylus parthenopion) and the dwarf
gecko (Sphaerodactylus ariasae).
LONGEST FANGS
FASTEST
MOST EYES
The Gaboon viper (Bitis gabonica) is a venomous
snake found in sub-Saharan Africa. The largest of
the vipers, it can reach over 7 ft (2 m) in length and
has huge fangs, measuring up to 2 in (5 cm) long.
The black spiny-tailed iguana (Ctenosaura
similis) can run at a top speed of 22 mph
(35 kph)—making it the world’s fastest
reptile. The fastest snake, the black mamba,
can move at 12 mph (19 kph).
Tuataras and many of the lizards have three
eyes. The third eye is made up of light sensitive
cells just under the skin on the top of the head.
This “eye” can detect light and dark but can’t
make out shapes.
RECORD SPIT
BIGGEST clutch of eggs
STRANGEST life cycle
Spitting cobras have a special type of fang with
a small hole through which the venom is
injected at high pressure. The Mozambique
cobra can spray its venom over distances of
5½–8¼ ft (2–3 m).
Hawksbill turtles (Eretmochelys imbricata) can
lay over 200 eggs in a single clutch. During the
turtles’ breeding season, which runs from July to
October, female turtles may create 3–5 nests,
each with a separate clutch of eggs.
One contender for this title has to be Labord’s
chameleon (Furcifer labordi). This reptile spends
most of its life (up to 7 months) as an egg,
weathering the desert droughts. It lives for only
a few months after hatching.
76
What is the largest amphibian?
“co-kee”
The LOUDEST
The MOST TEETH
The OLDEST
The couqui frog (Eletherodactlus) is a small
Puerto Rican tree frog, measuring just 11⁄2 in
(4 cm) in length. For something so small, it is
incredibly loud, and its distinctive “co-kee” call
has been measured at over 100 decibels.
American alligators have between 70 and 80
teeth. The teeth are long and pointed but
gradually wear down, to be replaced by new
teeth. An alligator can go through 2,000 to
3,000 teeth during its lifetime.
The oldest vertebrate (animal with a
backbone) is thought to be a Seychelles giant
tortoise nicknamed Jonathan. Historians
believe that he is now at least 178 years old.
Best SENSE OF SMELL
Biggest LEAPS
LONGEST TONGUE
Komodo dragons (Varanus komodoensis) will
readily feed on rotting meat. They smell with
chemical detectors on their tongues and can
sense dead animals up to 6 miles (10 km) away.
Komodo dragons are the world’s largest lizard.
Most frogs can leap over distances of 10 times
their own body length and some species can
jump up to 50 times their body length. The
largest frog in the world, the Goliath frog
(Conraua goliath), can jump almost 10 ft (3 m).
Chameleons can have tongues that are as long, or
even longer, than their bodies. It takes them less
than a second to shoot their tongues out, and the
sticky saliva on the tongue’s clublike tip traps its
insect prey.
MOST DIFFICULT to eat LARGEST REPTILE
MOST
One contender for this title must be the armadillo
girdled lizard (Cordylus cataphractus). This lizard
is covered in thick and spiked, armorlike scales. It
can roll up into a ball, making itself even more
unappealing to potential predators.
Sea snakes are the most poisonous snakes in
the world. The beaked sea snake (Enhydrina
schistosa) can produce enough venom in a
single bite to kill 50 people.
The saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus)
is the world’s largest reptile, growing to more
than 23 ft (7 m) in length. Not only the largest,
but also the heaviest, saltwater crocodiles can
weigh over a ton.
POISONOUS Snake
The Chinese giant salamander.
77
GLOSSARY
adapt to change, becoming suited to a
new place or a new use.
extinct a species that has declined and
disappeared entirely from the planet.
nervous system the network of nerve
cells in an animal’s body.
amphisbaenian wormlike, legless
reptile found in tropical climates.
eyespot skin marking that looks like
the eye of another animal. Eyespots are
there to fool predators or prey.
predator an animal that kills and eats
other animals.
animal breeder someone who
organizes the birth of baby animals in
captivity and looks after them until
they find a new home.
fertilize when male and female cells
join together to produce a new life.
animal keeper someone who looks
after animals in a zoo or wildlife park.
fins flat projections on fish or
mammals that help them propel or
guide their bodies through water.
antidote a remedy that counteracts
the effects of a poison.
gills organs used to breathe
underwater.
antivenom a medicine that treats
poisoning from a snake, spider,
or insect.
hatch when a new animal
breaks out of an egg
or pupa.
aquatic describes anything growing
or living in water.
herbivore an animal
that eats plants.
bask to lie resting in the sunshine.
hibernate to go into a deep
sleep for long periods.
biomimetics science that copies
nature.
captivity when animals are kept
confined and looked after by people.
incubation to keep eggs warm so they
develop properly.
insectivore an animal that eats
insects.
carnivore an animal that eats meat.
cold-blooded describes animals whose
body temperature is controlled by the
temperature around them.
retract to draw in or back. Retractable
claws can be pulled back into an
animal’s feet.
scales small, overlapping plates that
protect the skin of reptiles or fish.
sixth sense the five senses are
hearing, touch, smell, sight, and taste.
A “sixth sense” refers to anything in
addition to the five senses.
snake handler someone who is
familiar with snakes and knows a lot
about them.
species a group of living things that
can breed together in the wild.
static electricity a still electrical
charge as opposed to a current, which
moves.
thermal relating to temperature,
especially warmth.
toxic poisonous.
lateral undulation wavelike body
movements that move an animal (such
as a snake) along.
transparent clear; see-through.
crocodilian one of the order of reptiles
that includes crocodiles, alligators,
caimans, etc.
life cycle the pattern of changes that
occur in each generation of a species.
tropical describes anything that
comes from (or is like) the hot region
of the Earth near the equator.
ybppreview|gobiqa|1312394299
coma a state of deep unconsciousness.
invertebrate an animal without a
backbone.
prey an animal that is hunted, killed,
and eaten by another animal.
markings areas of color on an
animal’s skin or fur.
vertebra a small bone in the spine, or
backbone.
mate when male and female animals
come together during reproduction.
vertebrate an animal with a backbone.
endangered species animals that are
at risk of extinction (no longer existing
on Earth).
electrophysiology the study of the
electrical properties of living tissues
and cells.
estivation a kind of deep sleep that
animals fall into, sometimes called
“summer sleep.”
evolve to change gradually.
78
membrane thin, flexible sheet or layer
that covers, lines, or connects animal
organs or cells.
metamorphosis major change in an
animal’s body during its life cycle, as
when a tadpole changes into a frog.
veterinarian (sometimes called
a vet) a doctor who is specially trained
to care for animals instead of people.
warm-blooded describes animals that
can control their body temperature.
INDEX
A
alligators 8, 70–71
eggs 24
young 25
amphibians 64–65, 72–73, 76–77
camouflage 65
colors and markings 16–17
eggs 24–25
habitat 18–19
parental care 24–25
tadpoles 24
amphisbaenians 8
animal keeper 72
B
biomedical researcher 73
biomimetics 42
C
carnivores 20, 46
chameleon 77
southern dwarf chameleon 17
Labord’s chameleon 76
cold-blooded 8, 28–29
colors 16
crocodile 9, 22–23, 24, 70–71
breathing 22–23
Nile crocodile 39
saltwater crocodile 38, 77
crocodilian 8, 71
E
electrophysiology 69
exotic animal breeder 72
F
frog 10, 12–13, 14–15, 62–63
African clawed frog 19
Amazon horned frog 20–21
American bullfrog 31
arms 15
black rain frog 59
bone 10
breathing 12–13, 23
bronze frog 30
carnivore 46
Colombian golden poison frog 76
common big-headed frog 30
couqui frog 77
Darwin’s frog 25, 62
Dumeril’s bright-eyed frog 30
dwarf frog 31
eggs 14, 21, 33, 36
eyes 10, 21, 30–31
eyespot 30–31
gills 15
glass frog 32–33
gold frog 18
golden toad 62
goliath frog 26–27, 77
head 15
high-casqued chameleon 2
hula painted frog 62
Izecksohn’s Brazilian tree frog 47
Lake Titicaca frog 56–57
largest 26–27
legs 10, 15, 68–69
life cycle 14–15
long-nosed horned frog 31
marbled milk frog 59
markings 30
Monte Iberia frog 27
mossy frog 30
mouth 20
Mozambique spitting cobra 76
nervous system 10
Pacific tree frog 17
poison dart frog 38, 47
poisonous tree frog 31
pygmy leaf-folding frog 58
red-eyed tree frog 16, 18, 30, 31
skin 12–13
smallest 27
smoky jungle frog 30
Southern gastric-brooding frog 62
strawberry poison dart frog 17, 18
tadpole 7, 14–15, 21, 33
teeth 15
tree hole frog 18
Wallace flying frog 64
water-holding frog 36–37
wood frog 19
G
Galvani, Luigi 68–69
H
herpetologist 72–73
I
insectivore 46
L
lizard 8, 28–29, 46, 74–75
armadillo girdled lizard 77
bitatawa monitor lizard 63
collared lizard 17
frilled lizard 58
green basilisk lizard 74–75
gecko 8, 42–43, 58
egg 25
feet 34–35, 42–43
Madagascan giant day gecko 8
sandstone gecko 9
stickybot 42
gila monster 46
horned lizard 52–53
iguana 8
green iguana
8, 46
black spiny-tailed iguana 76
komodo dragon 39, 77
sinai agama 46
skink 24, 58
slow worm 19, 58
N
newt 44–45
axolotl 44–45
gills 45
regeneration 45
R
reptiles 8–9, 16–17, 28–29, 72–73, 76–77
eggs 8, 24–25
habitat 18–19
hibernation 29
parental care 24–25
scales 8, 9
S
Salamander 16, 48–49
Chinese giant salamander 48, 49
fire salamader 16
Japanese giant salamander 48, 49
Snake 8, 11, 40–41, 54–55
albino royal python 40
Asian reticulated python 76
Australian brown snake 38
backbone 11
beaked sea snake 51, 77
black mamba 39
black tiger snake 51
Brahminy blind snake 41
coastal taipan 50
common boa constrictor 9, 41
death adder 50, 51
diamondback rattlesnake 39
faint-banded sea snake 77
fer-de-lance 39
gaboon viper 76
green anaconda 41
heart 11
hog nose viper 50
Indian python 41
inland taipan 38, 51
jaws 11
lateral undulation 66
milk snake 16
Mozambique cobra 59, 76
neck 11
Northern water snake 19
paradise tree snake 66–67
pit viper 40
puff adder 39, 41
python 40
rattlesnake 59
regal ring-neck snake 16
ribs 11
royal python 40
sea snake 23
scales 11
skin 11
skull 11
Texas coral snake 16
vertebra 11
vine snake 41
yellow-bellied sea snake 19
snake handler 73
spine 11
T
toad 7, 18, 25
Couch’s spadefoot toad 18
male midwife toad 25
tortoise 18, 24, 77
desert tortoise 18
egg 24
Seychelles giant tortoise 77
tuatara 8, 9, 76
turtle 22, 24, 47, 60–61, 76
breathing 22
egg 24
flatback 61
green turtle 61
hawksbill turtle 19, 47, 61, 76
Kemp’s Ridley 61
leatherback turtle 47, 60–61
loggerhead turtle 47, 61
migration 60–61
Olive Ridley 61
sea turtle 47, 60–61
V
vertebrate 10
veterinary surgeon 73
Volta, Count Alessandro 68, 69
79
CREDITS
The publisher would like to
thank the following for their
kind permission to reproduce
their photographs:
(Key: a-above; b-below/bottom; c-center;
f-far; l-left; r-right; t-top)
Alamy Images: 19th era 2 62br; Heather
Angel/Natural Visions 48br, 49tl;
blickwinkel/McPhoto/PUM 28b; blickwinkel/
Woike 18cla; Rick & Nora Bowers 53br;
Bernard Castelein/Nature Picture Library
5cr, 16tc, 16br, 29b; Stephen Dalton/
Photoshot Holdings Ltd 17tc, 64cr; E.R.
Degginger 50br; Jason Edwards/National
Geographic Image Collection 19cla; Richard
Ellis 3fcra (turtle), 47cra (turtle); Emily
Françoise 4cl, 47cla (turtle); Eddie Gerald
46c (sinai agama); Alex Haas/Image Quest
Marine 18cl; David Hancock 73cra; Tom
Joslyn 62 (background), 63 (background);
Thomas Kitchin & Victoria Hurst/First
Light 19cra; MaRoDee Photography 18c
(frame); MichaelGrantWildlife 41ftr;
Michael Patrick O’Neill 41fcr; Mihir Sule/
ephotocorp 40t; Stuart Thomson 4tl, 39bl;
Kymri Wilt/Danita Delimont 56fbl, 57fbr;
Todd Winner 70-71. Ardea: Ken Lucas 48b;
Pat Morris 49b. Biomimetics and
Dexterous Manipulation Lab Center for
Design Research, Stanford (BDML): 43,
43cra. CGTextures.com: 46c (leaves), 46cr
(leaves), 46-47t (background), 58-59;
Richard 46bl, 46-47c, 47bl, 47fcrb; César
Vonc 46cla, 46bc, 47tr, 62cl (paper), 62cr
(paper), 62bl (paper), 62br (paper), 63c.
Corbis: Bryan Allen 60-61; Bettmann 55c,
68cr (background); Milena Boniek/
PhotoAlto 29clb; Alessandro Della Bella/EPA
27fbr, 76tr (finger); Reinhard Dirscherl/
Visuals Unlimited 22-23; DLILLC 42fbl;
DLILLC/PunchStock 18cra; Macduff
Everton 55 (mosaic); Michael & Patricia
Fogden 51fclb; Jack Goldfarb/Design Pics
16tl, 16crb, 17tl, 17c; Clem Haagner/Gallo
Images 61bl; Mauricio Handler/National
Geographic Society 77br (sea snake); Chris
Hellier 76br (chameleon); HO/Reuters 63clb;
Wolfgang Kaehler 77tr (tortoise); Jan-Peter
Kasper/EPA 44cl, 44-45; Thom Lang 60tl;
Wayne Lynch/All Canada Photos 59tr,
60crb; Thomas Marent/Visuals Unlimited
76tl (frog), 77c (frog); Joe McDonald 22cb;
Micro Discovery 42bl; Ocean 7ftr, 16clb,
70bl, 80crb; Rod Patterson/Gallo Images
76bl (cobra); Jerome Prevost/TempSport
80
73bc; Kevin Schafer 77tl (frog); Brian J.
Skerry/National Geographic Society 60cl,
60fcrb; Kennan Ward 60cr, 61c; Ron Watts/
All Canada Photos 17cb; Jim Zuckerman
16bl. Dorling Kindersley: BBC Visual
Effects—modelmaker 11br; Mike Linley 3fbl
(frog); Natural History Museum, London
3ftl, 11bl, 24c, 24clb, 24cb, 24fclb, 46fcra
(african dwarf crocodile egg), 46fcra (indian
python egg), 46fcra (nile monitor lizard
egg); Oxford University Museum of Natural
History 10bl; Jerry Young 3bc (crocodile),
39tl, 46fcra (gila monster), 50-51t, 73tr;
David Peart 19cl, 61cr. Dreamstime.com:
3d renderings 66bc. FLPA: Ingo Arndt/
Minden Pictures 61cl; Michael & Patricia
Fogden/Minden Pictures 62cr, 62bl; Thomas
Marent/Minden Pictures 30bl, 31bl; Colin
Marshall 47cr (red barrel sponge); Mark
Moffett/Minden Pictures 47fbl; Cyril Ruoso/
Minden Pictures 70cr, 77tc (crocodile).
Fotolia: Dark Vectorangel 76-77 (trophy);
Jula 76tl, 76tc, 76tr, 76cl, 76c, 76cr, 76bl,
76bc, 76br, 77tl, 77tc, 77tr, 77cl, 77c, 77cr,
77bl, 77bc, 77br. Getty Images: Altrendo
Nature 70cl; Apic/Hulton Archive 69tl,
69br; Creativ Studio Heinemann 16cb;
Digital Vision 59bc; Digital Vision/Michele
Westmorland 77cl (komodo dragon); Flickr/
Ricardo Montiel 46crb (sparrow); Gallo
Images/Dave Hamman 39br; Iconica/Frans
Lemmens 25br; The Image Bank/Art Wolfe
2; The Image Bank/Kaz Mori 73cla; The
Image Bank/Mike Severns 23tr; National
Geographic/George Grall 20-21; National
Geographic/Jason Edwards
31cla, 36-37, 71cr; National
Geographic/Tim Laman
63crb, 67; National
Geographic/Timothy Laman
64l; Photodisc/D-Base 12bl;
Photodisc/Lauren Burke
44l, 45r; Photodisc/Nancy
Nehring 76c (iguana);
Photographer’s Choice/
Cristian Baitg 12br;
Photographer’s Choice/Grant
Faint 48-49t; Photographer’s Choice/Jeff
Hunter 47c (yellow sponge); Photographer’s
Choice RF/Peter Pinnock 61crb; Photonica/
David Trood 1clb; Purestock 41fbr; Robert
Harding World Imagery/Gavin Hellier 56c
(hat); Oli Scarff 72cla; SSPL 68cla, 68c;
Stone/Bob Elsdale 12-13, 23tl; Stone/Keren
Su 48ca, 49t (background); Taxi/Nacivet
40-41; Heinrich van den Berg 17ca, 80tl;
Visuals Unlimited/Joe McDonald 53cr; Ian
Waldie 72cra.
iStockphoto.com:
Brandon Alms 64fbr;
craftvision 68tr, 68br, 68fcl; kkgas 68cr
(ink), 69tr, 69ftr. Kellar Autumn
Photography: 34-35. Thomas Marent:
32-33, 33br. naturepl.com: Miles Barton
77bl (lizard); John Cancalosi 53tr; Claudio
Contreras 5tr, 47fcr (turtle); Nick Garbutt
18cr; Tim Laman 65tl, 65r; Fabio Liverani
58tr; Tim MacMillan/John Downer Pr 65l,
66tl; George McCarthy 58br; Pete Oxford
21tr, 56bl, 56br, 57t, 57bl, 57br;
Premaphotos 58bc; Robert Valentic 36br;
Dave Watts 58tc. NHPA/Photoshot: A.N.T.
Photo Library 36tr, 51cl, 51br, 53crb, 62cl;
Anthony Bannister 59br; Stephen Dalton
45cr, 64crb; Franco Banfi 77bc (crocodile);
Nick Garbutt 76tc (snake); Daniel Heuclin
26-27, 27tr, 30br, 76cl (snake); David
Maitland 31br; Mark O’Shea 51c; OceansImage/Franco Banfi 47cr (yellow sponge);
Haroldo Palo Jr. 59tc; Gerry Pearce 51tc;
Jany Sauvanet 31clb. Photolibrary: Olivier
Grunewald 61fcl; Joe McDonald 74-75;
Oxford Scientific (OSF)/Emanuele Biggi
72bc; Oxford Scientific (OSF)/Michael
Fogden 64tr; Peter Arnold Images/Kevin
Schafer 18c. PunchStock: Stockbyte 18ca
(frame), 18clb (frame), 19cra (frame), 19cl
(frame). Science Photo Library: 69cra;
Suzanne L. & Joseph T. Collins 17tr;
Georgette Douwma 28cl; Dante Fenolio
33tr; Fletcher & Baylis 41fcra; Pascal
Goetgheluck 40bl; Alex Kerstitch/Visuals
Unlimited 33cr; Edward Kinsman 41cl;
Thomas Marent/Visuals Unlimited 30cla,
30clb, 31cra, 31crb; Nature’s Images
30crb; Dave Roberts 10c; Sinclair
Stammers 30cra; Karl H. Switak 16cr;
T-Service 41tl. Igor Siwanowicz: 8bl, 42r,
52-53. Paul Williams/Iron Ammonite:
Arkive 49tr. Brad Wilson, DVM: Dr. Luis
Coloma 56c (frog).
Jacket images: Front: Corbis: Nikolai
Golovanoff c; Sprint cl, cr. Back:
Corbis: DLILLC cl. Getty
Images: Photonica/David Trood
br. Spine: Corbis: Ocean b. Getty
Images: Photodisc/Adam Jones t.
All other images © Dorling Kindersley
For further information see:
www.dkimages.com