limba engleză contemporană. sintaxa propoziţiei

UNIVERSITATEA “VASILE ALECSANDRI” DIN BACĂU
FACULTATEA DE LITERE
Catedra de Limbi şi literaturi străine
LIMBA ENGLEZĂ CONTEMPORANĂ.
SINTAXA PROPOZIŢIEI
Titular curs: Lector dr. Nadia Morăraşu
Titular seminar: Asist.drd. Mircea Horubeţ
A. COURSE UNITS
1. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
1.1. What is syntax?
1.2. The grammatical hierarchy
1.2.1.
1.2.2.
1.2.3.
1.2.4.
Clauses in grammatical hierarchy
Sentence across sciences
Sentence constituency
Constructions
1.3. Sentence structure
1.3.1. Phrases as clause elements
1.3.2. Syntactic functions in the phrase structure
1.4. Syntactic functions of clause elements
1.5. Semantic functions of clause elements
1.6. Coordination and subordination. Coordinators and subordinators (types and roles)
2. CRITERIA FOR TYPOLOGY OF SENTENCES
2.1. The criterion of structure/ composition
2.1.1. Simple vs. multiple sentences
2.2. Sentence types and discourse functions
2.2.1. Declaratives, interrogatives, imperatives and exclamatives
2.2.2. Discourse functions: statements, questions, directives, exclamations
2.3. The criterion of status and grammatical dependence
2.3.1. Independent vs. dependent clauses
2.3.2. Main vs. subordinate clauses
2.3.2.1. Functional classes of subordinate clauses
2.4. Morphological criteria
2.4.1. Finite clauses vs. nonfinite clauses
2.4.1.1. Structural classes of nonfinite verb clauses
2.4.2. Active and passive sentences
3. THE SUBJECT
3.1. Definition & characteristic features
3.2. Ways of expressing the subject
3.3. Classification of subjects
3.3.1. The criterion of semantic content
3.3.2. The criterion of structure/ composition
3.4. Semantic roles of the subject
3.4.1. Agentive, affected, and recipient roles
3.4.2. Subject as external causer, instrument, and affected
3.4.3. Locative, temporal, and eventive subjects
3.4.4. Prop IT subject
4. THE PREDICATE VS. THE VERB AS CLAUSE ELEMENT
4.1. Predicate in English grammar
4.2. The predicate in categorial logic
4.3. Predicate in semantics
4.4. Verb and its complementation
4.4.1.
4.4.2.
4.4.3.
4.4.4.
4.4.5.
4.4.6.
Definition and types
Verbs in intransitive function
Copular complementation
Monotransitive complementation
Complex transitive complementation
Ditransitive complementation
5. COMPLEMENTS
5.1. Predicative complements
5.1.1. Subject and object complements
5.1.2. Syntactic features and semantic properties
5.2. Subject complements
5.2.1. Ways of expressing complements
5.2.2. Nominal subject complement
5.2.3. Adjectival subject complement
5.2.4. Adverbial complement
5.2.5. Prepositional complement
5.3. Object complements
5.4. Semantic roles of complements
VI. OBJECTS
6.1. Definition & characteristic features of objects
6.1.1. Criteria for direct and indirect objects
6.1.2. Definition & characteristic features of prepositional objects
6.2. Ways of expressing objects
6.3. Classification of direct objects
6.4. Combinations of objects in complementation
6.5. Semantic roles of objects
7.
ADVERBIALS
vs.
ADVERBIAL
MODIFIERS.
SYNTACTIC
AND
SEMANTIC
FUNCTIONS OF ADVERBS
7.1. Adverbials
7.1.1. Characteristics and functions
7.1.2. Types of adverbials
7.2. Adverbial modifiers
7.2.1. Adverbial modifiers of time & adverbial clauses of time
7.2.2. Adverbial modifiers of manner & adverbial clauses of manner
7.2.3. Adverbial modifiers of comparison & adverbial clauses of comparison
7.2.4. Adverbial modifiers of concession & adverbial clauses of concession
7.2.5. Adverbial modifiers of condition & clauses of condition
7.2.6. Adverbial modifiers of cause/ reason & adverbial clauses of cause/reason
7.2.7. Adverbials of purpose
7.2.8. Adverbials of result
7.3. Syntactic and semantic functions of adverbs
7.3.1. Modifier of adjective
7.3.2. Modifier of adverb
7.3.3. Modifier of particle, prepositional adverb, and preposition
7.3.4. Modifier of pronoun, predeterminer, and numeral
7.3.5. Modifier of noun phrase
7.3.6. Adverb as complement of preposition
7.3.7. Functional relations and semantic functions of adverbial adjuncts
B. SEMINARS
1. Sentence constituents, clause structure and diagramming
2. Classification of sentences in terms of their communicative function (statement, question,
directive, exclamation)
3. Variations on basic sentence patterns (inversion, emphasis, ellipsis and substitution)
4. Coordination and coordinators
5. Subject-verb concord
6. Verb complementation (transitive vs. intransitive constructions)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Biber D.; Johansson, S.; Leech, G., Conrad, S. (2002): Longman Student Grammar of
Written and Spoken English, Longman (Pearson Education Ltd), London.
2. Chalker, Sidney (1992): A Student's English Grammar Workbook, Longman, London.
3. Cmeciu, Camelia (2007): Lectures on Concepts of English Syntax, Ed. EduSoft,
Bacău.
4. DeCapua, Andreea (2008): Grammar for Teachers. A Guide to American English for
Native and Non-native Speakers, Springer, New York.
5. Greenbaum, Sidney and Quirk, Randolph (1990): A Student's Grammar of the English
Language, Pearson Education Ltd.
6. Halliday, M.A.K. (1994): Functional Grammar, Arnold, London/ New York.
7. Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S, Leech, G, Svartvik, J. (1985): A Comprehensive Grammar of
the English Language, London, New York, Longman.
8. Biber D.; Johansson, S.; Leech, G., Conrad, S. (2002): Longman Student Grammar of
Written and Spoken English Workbook, Longman (Pearson Education Ltd), London.
9. Side, R., Wellman, G. (2001): Grammar and Vocabulary for Cambridge Advanced and
Proficiency, Longman.
10. Hewings, Martin (1999): Advanced Grammar in Use, Cambridge Univ. Press.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.
1. A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF SYNTAX
1.1.




1.2.

WHAT IS SYNTAX?
the part of grammar dealing with grammatical units such as words, phrases, clauses,
and sentences (Biber et al., 2002:13)
the description of how words, phrases, and clauses are constructed and combined in
a language (Biber et al., 2002:460).
“the study of the rules that govern the way words combine to form phrases, clauses,
and sentences.”1
Syntax deals with “the way in which words are combined to form sentences.”
(Quirk et al., 1985:43)
THE GRAMMATICAL HIERARCHY
Units of grammar may be placed in a hierarchy of potential size or extensibility as
follows:
◦ highest unit: sentences, which consist of one or more clauses, which consist of
one or more phrases, which consist of one or more words, which consist of one
or more lowest unit: morphemes.
◦
◦
◦
Morpheme = a minimum unit of form and meaning which may be a whole word
(forget), an inflection (forget + s) or a word-formation affix (un-forget-ful).
The word = the unit which primarily relates the grammar of a language to its
lexicon.
A phrase is represented by a group of words that form a grammatical unit or
constituent, e.g. noun phrase, verb phrase, adjective phrase.
1.2.1. Clauses in grammatical hierarchy
 Clause: a key structural unit of grammar, normally consisting of a verb phrase plus other
elements: subject, object, predicative, adverbial. (Biber et al., 2002:455)
 Clause = the smallest syntactic unit that has meaning and minimally consists of two
constituents, a noun phrase and a verb phrase. (DeCapua, 2008)
 A clause is a construction with one phrase constituent, typically a noun phrase that
bears the subject relation, and another constituent, the verb phrase, bearing a predicate
relation. (Jacobs, 1995: 49)
1.2.2. Sentence across sciences
 Grammatically, a sentence is:
◦ the highest-ranking unit of grammar (a grammatically autonomous unit – Quirk et
al., 1985);
◦ the highest grammatical unit that consists of one independent clause and two or
more related clauses (Downing and Locke, 1992/2006:272);
1
www.essex.ac.uk/linguistics/clmt/MTbook/HTML/node98.html.
1
◦


Sentences are structured into successive components, consisting of single words
or groups of words, called constituents (i.e. structural units);
◦ Some linguists use the term 'sentence' for a clause which is part of a sentence;
Semantically, a sentence (Hurford & Heasley, 1994:16) is any string of words put
together by the grammatical rules of a language.
Orthographically and rhetorically, it is that unit which starts with a capital letter and ends
with a full stop, question mark or exclamation mark (Downing and Locke,
1992/2006:272).
1.2.3. Sentence constituency
 In order to state general rules about the construction of sentences, we refer to units
smaller than the sentence itself: clause, phrase, word and morpheme.
 The relation between one unit and another unit of which it is a part is called
constituency. One way of indicating constituency is by bracketing; another is by a tree
diagram.
The evenings] [have turned] [very cold] [just recently]


unitary constituency: one unit may be the only 'part' into which another unit can be
analysed (e.g. simple sentences consist of one clause)
multiple constituency: a unit is divided into two or more immediate constituents
(complex or compound sentences, which include two or more clauses).
1.2.3.2. Constituents
 Constituents are structural units, which refer to any linguistic form, such as words or
word groups.
 A constituent is one of two or more grammatical units that enter syntactically or
semantically into a construction at any level.
 Constituents are the basic units of a sentence, including noun, adjective, adverb,
prepositional, and verb phrases.
 Sentence constituents are combined in meaningful ways to form sentences.
1.2.3.2.a. Immediate vs. ultimate constituents
• Sentences are hierarchies of interlocking constituents. After a sentence is cut into its
constituent elements, the two parts are called immediate constituents. An immediate
constituent becomes any one of the largest grammatical units that constitute a
construction.
•
The smallest grammatical unit obtained through division, or segmentation is the ultimate
constituent.
2
•
The segmentation of the sentence up into its immediate constituents by using binary
cuttings until its ultimate constituents are obtained is called Immediate Constituent
Analysis (IC Analysis). The analysis can be carried out in ways of tree diagrams,
bracketing or any other.
1.2.3.3. Constituent extensibility
1.2.3.3.a. Embedding
 The phenomenon of embedding accounts for the indefinite extensibility of certain units of
grammar.
 The noun phrase and the prepositional phrase may be immediate constituents of a
clause, as in:
E.g. Some students will be working late in their rooms.
Both units can consist of more than one word and are placed at the same position in the
hierarchy.


The indefinite length of noun phrases and prepositional phrases does not affect their
position in the grammatical hierarchy:
E.g. I have been talking to some students at the college on the other side of the
park at the north end of. . . They live on the top floor of a house in the corner of
the old square behind the church...
Embedding can be defined as the occurrence of one unit as a constituent of another unit
at the same rank in the grammatical hierarchy.
1.2.3.3.b. Subordination
 Another kind of embedding occurs when one clause is made a constituent of another
clause: subordination.
E.g. The weather has been remarkably warm since we returned from Italy last week.


Clauses which are embedded in other clauses (since we returned from Italy last week
are subordinate clauses, and they are often introduced by a subordinating conjunction
(since).
Subordination of clauses is not confined to clauses which are immediate constituents of
other clauses. There are also clauses (especially relative clauses) which are
constituents of phrases, and which are only indirectly embedded within a larger clause.
1.2.3.3.c. Coordination
 The principle of indefinite extensibility is also present in coordination, typically signalled
by a link-word termed a coordinating conjunction.
 This construction consists of two or more units of the same status on the grammatical
hierarchy which constitute a single unit of the same kind (respectively clauses, phrases,
and words).
◦ COORDINATION OF CLAUSES: [[It was Christmas Day,] and [the snow lay thick
on the ground]].
◦ COORDINATION OF PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES: You can go [[by air] or [by
rail]].
◦ COORDINATION OF NOUNS: His [[son] and [daughter]] live in Buenos Aires.

The essential principle of coordination is that units and structures may be duplicated
without affecting their position in the grammatical hierarchy.
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1.2.4. Constructions
 A construction is a relationship between constituents. Constructions are divided into two
types (Allerton, 1979:126-130):
◦ endocentric constructions (one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to
that of its constituents). A word or a group of words act as a definable center or
head.
◦ exocentric constructions (refer to a group of syntactically related words where
none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole). There is no
definable center or head inside the group.
1.2.4.1. Endocentric construction (headed)
 If the total construction (head plus modification, or modification plus head) has the same
distributional characteristics as the head constituent, it is usually called endocentric
construction.
They left because they were tied.
[Within this construction, They left is the head and because they were tired is its
modifier].
 Endocentric constructions can further be divided into the two types of embedding
introduced before: subordination and coordination.
1.2.4.2. Exocentric construction (nonheaded)
 An exocentric construction is any construction that does not contain any head element
that is capable of being a syntactically adequate substitution for the whole construction.
Examples of exocentric constructions2:
◦ Prepositional phrase (neither the component preposition nor the noun phrase
may substitute for the whole prepositional phrase).
◦ Clause (no single element of the clause may substitute for the whole).
1.3. SENTENCE STRUCTURE




One aspect of the syntactic structure of sentences is the division of a sentence into
phrases, and those phrases into further phrases…
The constituents which function as elements of sentence structure are either phrases or
subordinate clauses.
A phrase is represented by a group of words that form a grammatical unit or constituent,
e.g. noun phrase, verb phrase, adjective phrase.
The five formal categories of phrase are verb phrases, noun phrases, adjective phrases,
adverb phrases, and prepositional phrases.
1.3.1. Phrases as clause elements
Noun Phrases and prepositional Phrases
 In its most basic form, a noun phrase consists of just one word, a noun. The elements
that can occur in a complex noun phrase include determiners, modifiers, and
prepositional phrases.
 Determiners include articles, quantifiers, numbers, possessive adjectives, and
demonstrative adjectives.
2
http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsAnExocentricConstruction.htm.
4

The headword of the noun phrase may be modified by any number of modifiers.
Modifiers include determiners, other nouns, adjectives, and adverb-adjective
combinations.
 Noun phrases can also include prepositional phrases. Prepositional phrases are units of
words that begin with a preposition and include a noun phrase.
I read that book about dinosaurs. The boy from the shop is waiting at the corner.
Verb Phrases
 A verb phrase can consist of a single verb, a phrasal verb, auxiliary verbs + a main verb.
 Some grammarians expand the definition of verb phrase to include, a main verb + “to”
infinitive or a main verb + gerund. Finite verb phrases are marked for grammatical
categories (mood, tense, aspect, person, voice) and indicate the status of the
predication.
◦
Finite verb phrase: She must be telling the truth.
◦ Non-finite verb phrase: He is known to have won a gold medal.
Adjective and Adverb Phrases
 Adjective phrases include one or more adjectives. Adverb phrases include one or more
adverbs. Adverbs can modify verbs, adjectives, adverbs in a sentence.
◦ They are really enthusiastic. He opened it extremely easily.
1.3.2. Syntactic functions in the phrase structure



Determination = the function of words and phrases which, determine what kind of
reference a noun phrase has: definite (like the) or indefinite (like a/an), partitive (like
some) or universal (like all).
Modification = a largely optional function performed by adjectives in the noun phrase,
and by intensifying adverbs in the adverb phrase.
His (unexpected) arrival (in Warsaw) yesterday surprised us.
Complementation = the function of a part of a phrase or clause which follows a word,
and completes the specification of a meaning relationship which that word implies.
Complementation also overlaps with other functions, such as adverbials and modifiers.
He deceived his father – verb complementation
All sales are subject to tax. – adjective complementation
1.4. SYNTACTIC FUNCTIONS IN THE CLAUSE
 The traditional approach to syntactic function identifies constituents of the sentence,
states the part of speech each word belongs to, describes the inflexion involved, and
explains the relationship each word related to the others.
 According to its relation to other constituents, a constituent may serve a certain syntactic
function in a clause.
 There are five functional categories of clause constituents (Quirk et al., 1985: 49):
◦ Subject: the part of the sentence, usually a noun or noun phrase, that acts as
the agent, doer, or experiencer of the verb.
◦ A verb shows what a subject does, what the subject is, or what the subject is
like.
◦ Complement (subject or object complement): anything that comes after the
verb to complete a sentence.
◦ Object (direct or indirect object): A noun, pronoun, or noun phrase that
receives the action of the verb.
◦ Adverbial: a construction (adverb, adverb phrase, temporal noun phrase,
prepositional phrase or clause) that modifies, or describes, verbs.
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1.4.1. Central and peripheral elements of the clause

To describe the constituency of clauses, we need to deal with the basic elements of
clause structure: subject (S), verb (V), object (O), complement (C), and adverbial (A).
 The order of the clause elements is relatively fixed, in general following the sequence in the
designation of the clause types. The basic order is that of the canonical declarative clause.
 The verb element (V) is the most 'central' element, and it is preceded by the subject (S).
 Following the verb there may be one or two objects (O), or a complement (C), which
follows the object if one is present.
 The most peripheral element is the adverbial, which can occur either initially, medially or
finally.
1.5. SEMANTIC FUNCTIONS OF CLAUSE ELEMENTS
 Agentive participant is the most typical semantic role of a subject that has a direct object (the
participant which instigates/causes the happening denoted by the verb) (Quirk et al.,
1985:740-742):
Margaret is mowing the grass.
 Affected participant is the most typical role of the direct object (a participant directly involved
in some other way in the happening):
Many MPs criticized the Prime Minister. James sold his digital watch yesterday.
 Recipient participant: the most typical role of the indirect object (the animate being that is
passively implicated by the happening or state):
I've found you a place.
We paid them the money.
 Attribute is the typical semantic role of a subject complement and an object complement; it has
two subtypes of role:
IDENTIFICATION:
Kevin is my brother. They called their daughter Edna.
CHARACTERIZATION:
The operation seemed a success. I consider the operation a success.
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1.6. COORDINATION AND SUBORDINATION
In order to understand the relations within and across sentence and clause elements, we
shall first expand upon two concepts that are specific to syntactic analysis.
Both coordination and subordination involve the linking of units; but in coordination the units
are on the same syntactic level, whereas in subordination one of the units is a constituent
of a superordinate unit.
They are my neighbours, but I don't know them well. [independent clauses]
I don't know where they are staying. [the subordinate wh-clause is the direct
object of the sentence]
Similar semantic relationships may be expressed through coordination and subordination, as
in the concessive relationship expressed in the following sentences:
He tried hard, but he failed. [coordination with but]
Although he tried hard, he failed. [subordination with although]
He tried hard, yet he failed. [coordination through an adverb, such as yet]
1.6.1. COORDINATORS
Three conjunctions are clearly coordinators: and, or, but. And and or are central coordinators, and
but differs from them in certain respects. On the gradient between 'pure' coordinators and 'pure'
subordinators are or and so that (in the meaning 'with the result that').
Coordinators, subordinators, and conjuncts are all LINKERS. There are six features that apply to
the central coordinators and and or in connections between clauses.
1.6.1.1. SYNTACTIC FEATURES OF COORDINATORS
(a) Clause coordinators are restricted to clause-initial position
And, or, and but are restricted to initial position in the second clause:
John plays the guitar, and his sister plays the piano.
This is generally true of both coordinators and subordinators, but it is not true of most
conjuncts:
John plays the guitar; his sister, moreover, plays the piano.
NOTE There are three subordinators (as, that, and though) which are exceptional in that they can
occur non-initially: Though he is poor, he is happy. Poor though he is, he is happy.
(b) Coordinated clauses are sequentially fixed
Clauses beginning with and, or, and but are sequentially fixed in relation to the previous
clause, and therefore cannot be transposed without producing unacceptable
sentences, or at least changing the relationship between the clauses:
They are living in England, or they are spending a vacation there.
(c) Coordinators are not preceded by a conjunction
The coordinators and, or, and but and the subordinators/or and so that ('with the result that')
do not allow another conjunction to precede them. Other subordinators as well as
conjuncts can usually be preceded by conjunctions:
He was unhappy about it, and yet he did as he was told.
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(d) Coordinators can link clause constituents
And, or, and but may link constituents smaller than a clause, for example predicates:
I may see you tomorrow or may phone late in the day.
The exceptions are the conjunct yet and (in informal spoken English) the conjunct so and
the time adverb then ('after that'):
They didn't like it, yet said nothing.
They were tired, so left early.
They went home, then went straight to bed.
(e) Coordinators can link subordinate clauses
As well as linking two main clauses, and and or can link subordinate clauses:
I wonder whether you should go and see her or whether it is better to write to her.
Such linking is not possible for conjuncts or for the other conjunctions except but. But,
however, is restricted to linking a maximum of two clauses and even so it can link only
certain types of subordinate clauses.
She said that John would take them by car but (that) they might be late.
(f) Coordinators can link more than two clauses
And and or can link more than two clauses, and the construction may then be called one
of MULTIPLE COORDINATION. All but the final instance of these two conjunctions can be
omitted.
The battery may be disconnected, the connections may be loose, or the bulb
may be faulty.
Coordination of clauses and lesser constituents
But an important distinguishing characteristic of coordinators is that they can also be used to
link elements that are parts of clauses:
The weather will be cold and cloudy.
[1]
The warm but windy weather will continue for several more days.
[2]
In this respect, however, some linking words that are not coordinators resemble coordinators.
Certain concessive subordinators and conjuncts, in particular, are capable of replacing but in [2]
and in similar linkings of adjectives and other constituents:
Tim's squat yet ferocious bulldog could be heard growling on the patio.
I immediately recognized Sarah's bold if barely legible handwriting.
Martin was inclined to boast about his rich though disreputable ancestors.
THE USES OF COORDINATORS
The uses of and
indicates that there is some relation between the contents of the linked clauses. The relation can
generally be made explicit by the addition of an adverbial, as indicated in parentheses in
the examples:
(a) The event in the second clause is chronologically SEQUENT to that in the first:
I washed the dishes and (then) I dried them.
(b) The event in the second clause is a CONSEQUENCE or RESULT of the event in the first:
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He heard an explosion and he {therefore) phoned the police.
(c) The second clause introduces a CONTRAST:
Peter is secretive and (in contrast) David is open.
(d) The first clause has CONCESSIVE force:
She tried hard and (yet) she failed.
(e) The first clause is a CONDITION of the first:
Give me some money and (then) I'll do the shopping.
(f) The second clause makes a point SIMILAR to the first:
A trade agreement should be no problem, and (similarly) a cultural exchange could
be easily arranged.
(g) The second clause is a 'pure' ADDITION to the first:
He has long hair and (also) he often wears jeans.
(h) The second clause adds an appended COMMENT on, or EXPLANATION of, the first:
They disliked John - and that's not surprising in view of his behaviour.
There's only one thing to do now - and that's to apologize.
The uses of or
(a) Typically, or is EXCLUSIVE: it excludes the possibility that the contents of both clauses are
true or are to be fulfilled:
You can sleep on the couch in the lounge or you can go to a hotel.
Even when both alternatives are clearly possible, or is normally interpreted as exclusive:
You can boil yourself an egg or (else) you can make some sandwiches.
The exclusive meaning can be strengthened by the conjuncts else or alternatively.
(b) Sometimes or is INCLUSIVE. We can add a third clause that makes this inclusive meaning
explicitly:
You can boil an egg, {or) you can make some sandwiches, or you can do both.
And can replace or in its inclusive meaning.
(c) The alternative expressed by or may also be a restatement or a CORRECTIVE to what is
said in the first conjoin:
They are enjoying themselves, or (at least)/(rather) they apppear to be enjoying
themselves.
(d) In addition to introducing alternatives as indicated above, or may imply a NEGATIVE
CONDITION. Thus in:
Switch on the radio or we'll miss the news.
The conditional use of or is thus the negative analogue of the conditional use of and. Unlike
and, however, or typically follows a negative imperative clause:
Don't be too long, or you'll miss the bus.
In this case, the most appropriate paraphrase with an if-clause is positive instead of
negative:
If you are too long, you'll miss the bus.
In written varieties of the language where precision is required (e.g. in official instructions),
the third possibility can be explicitly included by the use of both coordinators (usually
written and/or):
If the appliance is defective, write directly to the manufacturer and/or complain to
your local consumer protection service.
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The uses of but
But expresses a contrast.
(a) The content of the second clause is unexpected in view of the content of the first:
John is poor, but he is happy.
In this use, but can be replaced by and yet.
(b) The second clause expresses in positive terms what the negation in the first clause
conveys:
Jane did not waste her time before the exam, but (on the contrary) studied hard
every evening.
I am not objecting to his morals, but (rather) to his manners.
In this use, but can be emphasized by the conjuncts on the contrary or rather. It normally
does not link two clauses, but two lesser constituents.
CORRELATIVES
Either... or, both ... and, neither... nor
The three pairs either or, both ... and, and neither... nor are correlatives. The first word is an
ENDORSING ITEM and the second is a coordinator.
Either . . . or emphasizes the exclusive meaning of or. The linked units may be
complete clauses or lesser constituents:
Either the room is too small or the piano is too large.
You may either stand up or sit down.
Either Sylvia or her sister will be staying with us.
Both . . . and emphasizes the additive meaning of and:
David both loves Joan and wants to marry her.
This new machine will both accelerate the copying process and improve the quality
of reproduction.
Both Mary and Peter washed the dishes.
The regulations are both very precise and very detailed.
It also singles out the segregatory meaning of and rather than the combinatory meaning:
Both David and Joan got divorced, [not from each other]
Neither... nor is the negative counterpart of both ... and. It emphasizes that the
negation applies to both units:
David neither loves Joan, nor wants to marry her.
Mary was neither happy nor sad. Neither Peter nor his wife wanted the
responsibility.
Unlike either . . . or, both . . . and and neither . .. nor cannot link complete clauses:
*Both Mary washed the dishes and Peter dried them. *Neither Peter wanted the
responsibility, nor his wife did.
Nor and neither as negative adverbs
Nor and neither, followed by subject-operator inversion, can be used without being a
correlative pair. They generally presuppose that a previous clause is negative either
explicitly or implicitly:
10
He did not receive any assistance from the authorities, neither did he believe their
assurance that action would soon be taken. (rather formal)
All the students were obviously very miserable. Nor were the teachers satisfied
with the conditions at the school. (formal)
The morphology of nor suggests that it is the equivalent of or plus not, but in fact both nor
and neither are nearer to being the equivalent of and… not:
All the students were obviously very miserable. And (also) the teachers were not
satisfied with the conditions at the school.
Not (only) ... but
The negator not/n't or the combination not/n't only may be correlative with a following but:
He didn't come to help, but to hinder us. ['but rather']
They not only broke into his office and stole his books, but (they) (also) tore up
his manuscripts.
Their status as correlatives is even clearer when the negative particle is moved out of its
normal position to make the two units parallel:
Not only did they break into his office and steal his books, but they also tore up
his manuscripts.
FORMAL INDICATORS OF SUBORDINATION
Subordination is generally marked by a signal in the subordinate clause. The signal may be
of various kinds:
 a subordinating conjunction;
 a wh-element, the item that;
 subject-operator inversion in declarative clauses;
 (negatively) the absence of a finite verb.
SUBORDINATORS
SUBORDINATORS (or, more fully, SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS) are the most important
formal device of subordination.
1. Single-word (simple) subordinators
after, although, as, because, before, lest (esp AmE), like (informal, esp AmE), once, since,
that, though, till, unless, until, when, whenever, where, whereas, whereupon, wherever,
while, whilst (esp. BrE)
2. Multi-word (complex) subordinators
A. ending with that: but that, in that, in order that, insofar that (informal, rare), in the event
that, save that (literary), such that
ending with optional that:
(a) participle form: assuming, considering, excepting, given, granting, provided, providing,
seeing, supposing that
b) others: except, for, all, now, so + (that)
B. ending with as: according as, as far as, as long as, as soon as, forasmuch as (formal),
inasmuch as (formal), insofar as, insomuch as (formal)
Others: as if, as though, in case
11
3. Correlative subordinators
as ...so
as/ so/ such …as
so/ such …that
less/ more (/-er) …than
no sooner than. . . than, when (informal)
barely/ hardly/ scarcely. . . when, than (informal)
the. . . the
whether/ if …or
There are also optional conjuncts that endorse the meaning of a subordinator that introduces
the preceding clause: although/ even if/ even though/ while …yet/ nevertheless, etc; if/
once/ unless …then; because/ seeing (that) …therefore.
Nonfinite clauses (except bare infinitive clauses) and verbless clauses may have the
subordinators with and without, which are required to introduce the subject:
Without you to consult, I would be completely lost.
With the mortgage paid, they could afford to go abroad for their vacation.
With you as my friend, I don't need enemies.
Bare infinitive clauses are limited to the two synonymous subordinators rather than and sooner
than:
He paid the fine rather than appeal to a higher court.
As a subordinator with infinitive clauses for is restricted to clauses with their own subject and
indeed is often obligatory:
It would be an absurd idea for them to move to another house at this stage of their
careers.
Marginal subordinators
There are also three types of borderline cases of multi-word subordinators:
 habitual combinations of a subordinator with a preceding or following adverb (eg: even if,
if only);
 temporal noun phrases (e.g.: the moment (that), every time (that)), but the following
clause is better analysed as a restrictive relative clause;
 prepositional phrases ending in the fact that (e.g.: because of the fact that, in spite of the
fact that), but the subordinate clause is better analyzed as in apposition to the preceding
noun phrase.
Other indicators of subordination
We now turn to other indicators of subordination apart from subordinators.
(i) WH-elements are initial markers of subordination in subordinate interrogative clauses
and subordinate exclamative clauses, in wh-relative clauses and in conditionalconcessive clauses.
(ii) The relative pronoun that, which can often replace wh-pronouns, is a subordination
marker in restrictive relative clauses.
(iii) Subject-operator inversion is a marker of subordination in certain clauses, particularly in
conditional clauses. It is typical of a literary and elevated style. The operators that permit
the inversion are had, were, should, and (less commonly) could and might:
Were she here, she would support the motion.
Inversion of a different kind- the fronting of the whole or part of the predication - may occur
with the subordinators as, though and that in concessive and reason clauses.
(iv)The absence of a finite verb is itself an indicator of subordination, since nonfinite and
verbless clauses are generally subordinate.
12
Bibliography
 Allerton, D.J. (1979): Essentials of Grammatical Theory: a Consensus View of Syntax
and Morphology, Routledge & Kegan Paul.
 Biber D.; Johansson, S.; Leech, G., Conrad, S. (2002): Longman Student Grammar of
Written and Spoken English, Longman (Pearson Education Ltd), London.
 Cmeciu, Camelia (2007): Lectures on Concepts of English Syntax, Ed. EduSoft, Bacău.
 DeCapua, Andreea (2008): Grammar for Teachers. A Guide to American English for
Native and Non-native Speakers, Springer, New York.
 Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G., Svartvik, J. (1985): A Comprehensive Grammar of
the English Language, London, New York, Longman.
 www.essex.ac.uk/linguistics/clmt/MTbook/HTML/node98.html.
 http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsAnExocentricConstructio
n.htm.
13
2. CRITERIA FOR THE TYPOLOGY OF SENTENCES
2.1. THE CRITERION OF STRUCTURE/COMPOSITION
2.1.1. SIMPLE AND MULTIPLE SENTENCES (Quirk et al., 1985:719)
2.1.1.a. A simple sentence consists of a single independent clause.

We use the term 'simple sentence' for a clause that does not have another clause
functioning as one of its elements. However, a simple sentence may have a clause
functioning within a phrase. In that case the complexity is at the level of the phrase, not at
the level of the sentence or clause.
You can borrow the car that belongs to my sister.
The simple declarative sentence is “the canonical form of sentence, in terms of which other
types of sentence, including both those which are more complex ('complex' and 'compound'
sentences) and those which are more simple ('reduced' sentences), may be explained by
reference to such operations as conjunction, insertion, inversion, substitution, and
transposition (“sentence processes”).” (Quirk et al., 1985:78)

A multiple sentence contains one or more clauses as its immediate constituents. Multiple
sentences are either COMPOUND or COMPLEX.

In a compound sentence the immediate constituents are two or more COORDINATE clauses.
The syntactical way of forming this sentence is by coordination (homogeneity), using
coordinating conjunctions.
Dan knew the truth, but he did not want to disclose it to us.

In a complex sentence one or more of its elements, such as direct object or adverbial, are
realized by a SUBORDINATE clause.
Even though Dan knew the truth, he refused to disclose the secret to us.

A complex sentence with one subordinate clause can be analysed once for the sentence as a
whole and once for the subordinate clause included within the sentence.
You can borrow my car if you need it.

A COMPLEX sentence is like a simple sentence in that it consists of only one MAIN clause,
but unlike a simple sentence it has one or more SUBORDINATE clauses functioning as an
element of the sentence. For example, [1] is a simple sentence in that the sentence
consists of one main clause without any subordinate clauses:
I reject her conclusions.
[1]

On the other hand, [2] is a complex sentence because the main clause contains a
subordinate clause functioning as an adverbial:
Although I admire her reasoning, I reject her conclusions.
[2]
14
Other grammarians consider that, sometimes, rather than joining two simple sentences
together, a coordinating conjunction joins two complex sentences, or one simple sentence
and one complex sentence. In this case, the sentence is called a compound-complex
sentence:
The package arrived in the morning, but the courier left before I could check the
contents.
Therefore, a compound-complex sentence contains at least two clauses and at least one
dependent clause (a combination of a compound and a complex sentence).
2.2. SENTENCE TYPES AND DISCOURSE FUNCTIONS
2.2.1. Simple sentences may be divided into four major syntactic types differentiated by their
form. Their use correlates with different discourse functions (Quirk et al., 1985:803-853).

declaratives are sentences in which the subject is present and generally precedes the
verb: Mary bought her sister a hat from Paris.

interrogatives are sentences which are formally marked in one of two ways:
o yes-no interrogatives: the operator is placed in front of the subject:
Did Mary buy her sister a hat from Paris?
o wh-interrogatives: the interrogative wh-element is positioned initially and there is
a general subject-verb inversion:
What did Mary buy her sister from Paris?

imperatives are sentences which normally have no overt grammatical subject, and
whose verb has the base form: Buy Mary a hat from Paris.

exclamatives are sentences which have an initial phrase introduced by what or how,
usually with subject-verb order: What a fancy hat she received from her sister!
Associated with these four sentence types are four classes of discourse functions (also
identified as semantic types):
 STATEMENTS are primarily used to convey information;
 QUESTIONS are primarily used to seek information on a specific point;
 DIRECTIVES are primarily used to instruct somebody to do something;
 EXCLAMATIONS are primarily used for expressing the extent to which the speaker is
impressed by something.
Although direct association between syntactic type and discourse class is the norm, the two do
not always match. For example, a rhetorical question is syntactically an interrogative, but
semantically a statement.
15
2.2.1.a. DECLARATIVE SENTENCES normally contain a verb phrase and at least one noun
phrase (Quirk et al., 1985:719).
He was of medium height, with curly hair and light-blue eyes.
Their degree of assertiveness depends on the presence of strengthening or emphatic adverbs
(certainly, undoubtedly). To express doubt or probability, there are used adverbial modifiers
such as probably, perhaps, maybe.
2.2.1.b. INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES require a strict word order in English. Questions can
be divided into three major classes according to the type of reply they expect:
1 Those that expect affirmation or negation, as in Have you finished the book? are YES-NO
QUESTIONS.
2 Those that typically expect a reply from an open range of replies, as in What is your
name? or How old are you?, are WH-questions.
3 Those that expect as the reply one of two or more options presented in the question, as
in Would you like to go for a WALK or stay at HOME?, are ALTERNATIVE questions.
A. YES/NO QUESTIONS
Form of yes-no questions
Yes-no questions are usually formed by placing the operator before the subject and giving the
sentence a rising intonation:
The boat has LEFT. ~ Has the boat LEFT?
If there is no item in the verb phrase that can function as operator, DO is introduced, as with
negation:
They live in Sydney. ~ Do they live in Sydney?
Again as with negation, main verb BE functions as operator; in BrE main verb HAVE often acts as
operator, but informally HAVE . . . got is more common:
Patrick was late. ~ Was Patrick late?
Positive yes-no questions
Like negative statements, yes-no questions may contain nonassertive items such as any and
ever. The question containing such forms is generally neutral, with no bias in expectation
towards a positive or negative response.
STATEMENT
QUESTION
Someone called last night.
Did anyone call last night?
The boat has left already.
Has the boat left yet?
Negative yes-no questions
Negative questions are always conducive. Negative orientation is found in questions which
contain a negative form of one kind or another:
Don't you believe me?
Have they never invited you home?
16
Hasn't he told you what to do? Has nobody called?
If a negative question has assertive items, it is biased towards positive orientation:
Didn't someone call last night? ['I expect that someone did.']
Hasn't the boat left already'? ['Surely it has.']
B. WH-QUESTIONS
Form of Wh-questions
Wh-questions are formed with the aid of one of the following simple interrogative words (or WHwords): who/ whom/ whose, what, which, when, where, how, why.
Unlike yes-no questions, wh-questions generally have falling intonation. There are two
principles governing the form and use of such questions:
1. the wh-element (ie the clause element containing the wh-word) comes first in the
sentence
2. the wh-word itself takes first position in the wh-element.
The main exception to the second principle occurs when the wh-word is within a prepositional
complement. Non-formal style generally requires that the wh-word comes first, but formal style
requires that the wh-element as a whole comes first.
On what did you base your prediction? (formal) What did you base your prediction on?
Function of wh-element
The following sentences exemplify the various clause functions in which the wh-element
operates:
Who is coming to the PARty? [wh-element: S]
What did you buy for your sister? [wh-element: Od]
Whose beautiful anTiQUES are these? [wh-element: Cs]
How wide did they make the BOOKcase? [wh-element: C0]
When will you be proMOTed? [wh-element: A]
Where shall I put the GLASses? [wh-element: A]
Why didn't you TELL me? [wh-element: A]
How did you MEND it? [wh-element: A]
How much does he CARE? [wh-element: A]
How long have you been WAiTing? [wh-element: A]
How often do you visit New YORK? [wh-element: A]
C. ALTERNATIVE QUESTIONS
They refer to the questions based on the presence of several possibilities, or one alternative at
least. They may be divided into:

limited/ finite questions. They give a finite set of possibilities, thus having the
nature of a closed list.
17
Would you like some WÍNE or some BEÈR? [the former term has a rising tone, while the
latter a falling tone]
Do you want to go by BÚS or by TRÀM?

open/ unlimited questions. The number of possibilities is larger than those listed.
When would you like to come? On MÓnday, on TÚEsday or some other DÀY?
According to Quirk et al. (1985), there are two types of alternative questions. The first resembles
yes-no question, and the second a wh-question:
Would you like CHOcolate, vaNilLa, or STRAwberry (icecream)? [1]
Which ice-cream would you LIKE? CHOcolate, vaNiLla or STRAwberry? [2]
The first type differs from yes-no question only in intonation; instead of the final rising tone, it
contains a separate nucleus for each alternative: a rise occurs on each item in the list, except
the last, on which there is a fall, indicating that the list is complete.
A: Shall we go by BUS or TRAIN?
B: By BUS.
The second type of alternative question is really a compound of two separate questions: a whquestion followed by an elliptical alternative question.
D. DISJUNCTIVE QUESTIONS OR TAG-QUESTIONS
For the most common types of tag question, the tag question is negative if the statement is
positive and vice versa. The tag question has the form of a yes-no question consisting of merely
an operator and a subject pronoun, the choice of operator and pronoun depending on the
statement. The nuclear tone of the tag occurs on the operator and is either rising or falling.
Below are the four main types of tag questions, which vary according to whether the statement
is positive or negative, and whether the tag question is rising or falling:
POSITIVE STATEMENT + NEGATIVE TAG
(i) RISING TONE on tag
(iii) FALLING TONE on tag
He likes his JOB. DOEsn't he?
He likes his JOB, DOESn't he?
NEGATIVE STATEMENT + POSITIVE TAG
(ii) RISING TONE on tag
(iv) FALLING TONE on tag
He doesn't like his JOB, DOES he? He doesn't like his JOB, DOES he?
The meanings of these sentences, like their forms, involve a statement and a question; each of
them, that is, asserts something, then invites the listener's response to it.
There is a further, less common, type of tag question in which both statement and question are
positive: Your car is outsiDE, is it? You've had an Accident, HAVE you?
18
D. OTHER TYPES OF QUESTIONS
Rhetorical questions are interrogative in structure, but have the force of a strong assertion. An
answer is not generally expected. A positive rhetorical yes-no question with a rising tone
resembles a strong negative assertion, while a negative question seems a strong positive one.
(Quirk, 1985: 825-826).
Do you see him HÉre? [the implication: Surely you don’t see him here.]
Didn’t you PHone him? [the implication: Surely you didn’t]
Who SMÔKED in here? [A negative subject is implied – Nobody smoked here.]
What can HÊ do for me? [the implication: It is not he/ him who will do something for me.]
Exclamatory questions are interrogative in structure, but have the force of an exclamatory
sentence. They resemble a yes-no question with a final falling tone. The meaning of these
questions is positive, inviting the hearer to agree to a statement on which the speaker has
strong feelings. (Quirk, 1985: 825)
Isn’t he GÒrgeous!
Wasn’t it a wonderful PÀRty!
Echo questions/utterances repeat part or all of what has been said.
Replicatory echo questions do so as a way of having their content confirmed:
A: The Browns are emigrating. B: Emigrating?
A: He's a dermatologist.
B: WHAT is he?
A: I'll pay for it.
B: You'll WHAT?
Explicatory echo questions, which are always wh-questions, ask for clarification. They have a
falling tone on the wh-word:
A: Take a look at this!
B: Take a look at WHAT?
A: He's missed the bus again.
B: WHO'S missed the bus?
2.2.1.c. IMPERATIVE SENTENCES, in their typical form, contain no subject or operator: they consist
simply of a predication with an imperative verb, ie a verb in its base form:
Be quiet!
Search the room carefully!
Since an imperative normally refers to some future action which the hearer is urged to perform, its
subject is semantically predictable, and therefore dispensable, while the verb phrase is required to
make no distinctions of tense, number, and person (Quirk et al., 1985:87).
In Modern English, the subject – expressed by the personal/ indefinite pronoun you/
everybody, or by a proper name/ common noun – is used when it is emphasized, in order to
avoid any confusion, or with an emotive function:
I can't manage this, you try!
19
You, Cynthia, fetch the flowers, and you, Paul, the chairs!
Have a good time everybody!
Nobody move!
Boys and girls, hurry up! It's getting late, let's go home!
Verbless sentences have the effect of brusque commands or requests:
- adverbials: Here!; Slower!; This way!; Back to work!
- noun phrase + adverbial: Everybody outside! Children on the floor! Hands up!
-
-
adverbial + with-phrase: Out with you! [get out!]; Off with her head! [‘cut off
her head’]; Up with the Liberal Party! [approval]; Down with the Democrats!
[disapproval]
noun phrases: Taxi!; Shears!; A loaf of bread, please! [a polite request]
Negative imperatives
To negate imperatives, one simply adds an initial Don't or Do not, replacing assertive by
nonassertive items where necessary:
Open the door.
Don't open the door.
Get some wine.
Don't get any wine.
You open the door.
Don't you open the door.
Someone open the door.
Don't anyone open the door.
Do with positive imperatives
A positive imperative can be made more persuasive or insistent (esp. in BrE) by adding do
before the verb (when the subject is absent or when let's is present):
DO have some more tea.
DO let's go for a walk.
2.2.1.d. EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES
The means of expression (Quirk, 1985:833-834) for an exclamatory sentence as a formal
category are wh-element and how-element. Unlike wh-question or how-question, there is no
subject-operator inversion.
1. as subject: What a smell came off!
2. as object: What a meal he ate!
3. as complement: How careless he might be!
4. as adverbial: How he loathed her!; How carelessly he drove!
The subject or the operator can be omitted in exclamatory sentences:
What a fool! How depressing! [the ellipsis of the subject and the operator ‘to be’]
They denote two types of attitudes:
- positive/ superlative attitudes: admiration, joy, enthusiasm, happiness, satisfaction;
- negative attitudes: horror, terror, disgust, sadness, grief.
Exclamatives as a formal category of sentence are restricted to the type of exclamatory
utterance introduced by what or how. The WH-element is fronted, but in contrast to whquestions there is no subject-operator inversion:
20
What a time we've had today!
How delightful her manners are!
How quickly you eat!
How I used to hate geography!
When the WH-element is the complement of a preposition, the preposition is normally left in final
position: What a mess we're in!
2.2.1.e. IRREGULAR SENTENCES
IRREGULAR sentences do not conform to the regular patterns of clause structures or to the
variations of those structures in the major syntactic classes.
A. Sentences with optative subjunctive
The formulaic (or 'optative') subjunctive, one use of the base form of the verb, survives in a few
fossilized expressions. It is combined with subject-verb inversion (induced by the initial adverb)
in, for example:
Long live the Republic!
So help me God.
It is found without inversion in, for example:
God save the Queen!
God forbid!
A less archaic formula (with subject-verb inversion) for expressing wishes has may in front:
May the best man win!
May you always be happy!
B. Irregular Wh-questions
There are several kinds of irregular wh-questions, which occur mainly in conversation, for
example:
How about another kiss? What about coming to my place? How come you're so late?
Why listen to him? Why all the noise? What if it rains?
C. Subordinate clauses as sentences
Several kinds of subordinate clauses are used as sentences, generally with exclamatory force:
That I should live to see such ingratitude! To think that you might have been killed! Well,
if it isn't Susan! ['It is indeed Susan!'] If only I'd listened to my parents!
D. Aphoristic sentences
Many proverbs have an aphoristic sentence structure, in which two short constructions are
balanced against each other:
The more, the merrier.
First come, first served.
Waste not, want not.
2.2.1.f. BLOCK LANGUAGE
Block language appears (especially in writing) in such functions as labels, titles, newspaper
headlines, headings, notices, and advertisements.
21
A. Simple block-language messages often consist of a noun phrase in isolation:
Entrance
50 mph limit
English Department
The New York Times
For Sale
No dogs without leash
B. Newspaper headlines commonly contain block language because of pressure on space,
and they are imitated on radio and television news broadcasts: PRESIDENT CALLS FOR CALM
[SVA]
C. Elliptical sentences are common in conversation and in written dialogue; they respond to,
comment on, or question previous sentences spoken by another speaker:
A: Is your daughter at home?
B: Probably. [A -She is probably at home.]
A: Who sent you?
B: The manager. [S - The manager sent me.]
D. Abbreviated sentences are typical in instructional writing
In informal conversation many types of phrases occur as complete utterances:
The things they get up to!; You and your ideas!; Of all the stupid things to say!;
Taxi!; More coffee?; Your name?; No news.
2.2.1.g. NONSENTENCES
Nonsentences, usually but not exclusively noun phrases, occur frequently in speech, mostly in
informal conversation.
The things they get up to! Attention! Taxi!
In addition there are many formulae used for stereotyped communication situations; for
example: Good morning; Goodbye; How do you do?; Thanks; Happy Birthday.
Interjections are purely emotive words which do not enter into syntactic relations. Among the
common interjections are Ah, Boo, Oh, Ouch, Sh, Wow.
22
2.3. THE CRITERION OF STATUS AND GRAMMATICAL DEPENDENCE
This criterion refers to the status of dependence or independence and to the position of some
constituents in relation to the others.
2.3.1. Independent vs. dependent clauses
Independent clauses are isolated simple sentences: It will rain. He is coming.
Independent clauses are also part of a compound sentence. They are linked together by
coordinating conjunctions, but without being dependent on each other, thus preserving their
equal status.
There were not so many carts now 1/ and very few on foot 2/, but the old man was still
there 3/.
According to Biber et al. (2001:248-249), independent clauses are used to perform speech-act
functions. There is a general correspondence between four basic speech-act functions and the
structural types of independent clauses.
Major classification of independent clauses
speech-act functional
clause
structural
informing statement
declarative clause
SV structure
eliciting
question
interrogative clause VS structure
example
It's strong
Is it strong?
wh-word + VS structure
wh-word structure
directing command
imperative clause
V structure (no S)
expressing exclamation exclamative clause wh-word + SV structure
Where is she?
Who was there?
Be strong.'
How good she
is!
Dependent clauses are clauses which cannot stand alone without another clause, called the
main clause (Biber et al., 2001:31)
I hate to see that. We have 30 men who are working.
2.3.2. Main vs. subordinate clauses
Main clauses are also called head clauses, being the elements that rank first in the hierarchy
established as part of a complex sentence. This means that they have subordinate clauses and
regent clauses in their subordination.
Regent clauses have a twofold nature:
o of governing, when the complex sentence is more diversified;
o of being subordinated to the main clause.
If you can make it 1/, there are trucks on the road 2/ where it forks for Tortosa. 3/ (E.
Hemingway – Old Man at the Bridge)
23
Subordinate clauses cannot stand on their own as sentences. Besides the main clauses, they
represent the compulsory element in any complex sentence.
I cannot think 1/ what will become of others 2/.
Jacobs (1995:65, apud Cmeciu, 2007) differentiates between:

Embedded clauses function either as subjects or as objects of regent clauses, meaning
that they are obligatory elements. The clauses that contain embedded clauses are called
container or matrix clauses.
For Mary to lie about her whereabouts1/ will be a real disaster2/.
They didn’t realize 1/ that Mary had been lying to them 2/.

Subordinate clauses function as adjuncts, namely as optional elements in a clause.
The role of subordinators such as because, when, while, after, if etc. is to assign the
clauses a lesser grammatical status. That is why the clause to which it is attached is
called superordinate clause.
I will give him the money 1/ if he returns it some day 2/.
He raised his hand 1/ to pull the bell 2/.
Functional classes of subordinate clauses
On the basis of their potential functions, we distinguish several major categories of subordinate
clauses. The functional classification resembles to some extent that of subclausal units such as
noun phrases and adverbs.

NOMINAL CLAUSES have
functions that approximate to those of noun phrases: subject, object,
complement, appositive, and prepositional complement. Every nominal clause may function
in some or all of these functions. Unlike noun phrases, however, nominal clauses may also
function as adjective complementation without a preposition:
I'm not sure that lean remember the exact details.

ADVERBIAL CLAUSES
function mainly as adjuncts or disjuncts. In those functions they are
like adverb phrases, but in their potentiality for greater explicitness, they are more often
like prepositional phrases:
We left after the speeches ended. We left after the end of the speeches. We left
afterwards.

generally function as restrictive or nonrestrictive modifiers of noun
phrases and are therefore functionally parallel to attributive adjectives.
Compare: a man who is lonely ~ a lonely man
But they are positioned like postmodifying prepositional phrases: tourists who come from
RELATIVE CLAUSES
Italy ~ tourists/raw Italy

COMPARATIVE CLAUSES
resemble adjectives and adverbs in their modifying functions:
He's not as clever a man as I thought. I love you more deeply than I can say.
Semantically, the comparative clauses together with their correlative element (eg: more,
as, -er) are equivalent to degree adverbs.
24
2.4. MORPHOLOGICAL CRITERIA
2.4.1. Finite vs. nonfinite clauses
There is another parameter (morphological) that we take into account when analysing
sentences/clauses: finiteness.

Clauses that have either modal auxiliaries or verbs indicating past, present or future
tenses are finite clauses (independent or dependent).
They should have come by now.
He behaves as if he had known everything.

Nonfinite clauses refer to those clauses where the verb is not finite (infinitives, gerunds
or participles).
It is necessary 1/ for Tom to study 2/. He was afraid 1/ of smoking in here2/.
Coming home1/, I realized 2/ I had forgot to buy bread 3/.
For Quirk et al. (1985:150), “a clause with a finite verb phrase as its verb element is called a
'finite verb clause' or, more tersely, a 'finite clause'. Similarly, a clause with a nonfinite verb as
its verb element is called a 'nonfinite (verb) clause'”.
In some grammars, nonfinite constructions (which have a nonfinite verb as their verb element) are
considered phrases rather than clauses. Nonfinite clauses themselves are intrinsically subordinate
and therefore do not constitute simple sentences in the canonical forms.
FINITE CLAUSE:
a clause whose verb element is finite (such as takes, took, can work, has
worked, is writing, was written):
I can't go out with you because lam studying this evening.
NONFINITE CLAUSE: a clause whose verb element is nonfinite (such as to work, having worked,
taken):
Knowing my temper, I didn't reply.
VERBLESS CLAUSE: a clause that does not have a verb element, but is nevertheless
capable of being analysed into clause elements:
Although always helpful, he was not much liked.
Structural classes of nonfinite verb clauses
The nonfinite clause may be with or without a subject. The classes of nonfinite verb phrase
serve to distinguish four structural classes of nonfinite verb clauses:
(i) TO-INFINITIVE
without subject: The best thing would be to tell everybody.
with subject:
The best thing would be for you to tell everybody.
The infinitive clause with to plus a subject is found characteristically in constructions
with anticipatory it, for being used to introduce the subject: It would be better for you
to tell everybody.
25
(ii) BARE INFINITIVE
without subject: All I did was hit him on the head.
with subject:
Rather than you do the job, I'd prefer to finish it myself.
The bare infinitive is found characteristically in pseudo-cleft sentences, where the
infinitival to is optional:
What they did was (to) dig a shallow channel around the tent.
(iii)
-ING PARTICIPLE
without subject: Leaving the room, he tripped over the mat.
with subject:
Her aunt having left the room, I asked Ann for some personal help.
When the subject of -ing clauses is expressed, it is often introduced by a preposition:
With the audience turning restive, the chairman curtailed his long introduction.
(iv) -ED PARTICIPLE
without subject: Covered with confusion, they apologized abjectly.
with subject: The discussion completed, the chairman adjourned the meeting for half
an hour.
2.4.2. Active and passive sentences
Rearranging noun phrases in a sentence changes the referent of the predication the verb
phrase asserts. Specifically, exchanging the direct object noun phrase (the money) for the
subject noun phrase (Dan) creates a passive sentence out of an active sentence.
Dan stole the money from his partner. (active)
The money was stolen by Dan from his partner (passive)
There is a systematic correspondence between active and passive clauses in that the direct or
indirect object of an active clause becomes the subject of a passive clause while the subject of the
active clause is either omitted or made the complement in a by-agent phrase:
My son [S] has prepared lunch [O] today [active]
~ Lunch [S] has been prepared by my son today [passive]
Bibliography

Bantaş, Andrei (1996): Descriptive English Syntax, Institutul European, Iasi.

Biber D.; Johansson, S.; Leech, G., Conrad, S. (2002): Longman Student Grammar of
Written and Spoken English, Longman (Pearson Education Ltd), London.

Chalker, Sidney (1992): A Student's English Grammar Workbook, Longman, London.

Cmeciu, Camelia (2007): Lectures on Concepts of English Syntax, Ed. EduSoft, Bacău.

Greenbaum, Sidney and Quirk, Randolph (1990): A Student's Grammar of the English
Language, Pearson Education Ltd.

Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G., Svartvik, J. (1985): A Comprehensive Grammar of
the English Language, London, New York, Longman.
26
EXERCISES
Identify the following sentences in terms of structure/ composition/ form:
While the present century was in its teens, and on one sunshiny morning in June, there
drove up to the great iron gate of Miss Pinkerton's academy for young ladies, on Chiswick Mall,
a large family coach, with two fat horses in blazing harness […]. A black servant, who reposed
on the box beside the fat coachman, uncurled his bandy legs as soon as the equipage drew up
opposite Miss Pinkerton's shining brass plate, and as he pulled the bell at least a score of
young heads were seen peering out of the narrow windows of the stately old brick house.
(W. Thackeray – Vanity Fair)
Identify the following sentences in terms of status and grammatical dependence:
Hester Prynne, therefore, did not flee. On the outskirts of the town, within the verge of the
peninsula, but not in close vicinity to any other habitation, there was a small thatched cottage. It
had been built by an earlier settler, and abandoned, because the soil about it was too sterile for
cultivation, while its comparative remoteness put it out of the sphere of that social activity which
already marked the habits of the emigrants. It stood on the shore, looking across a basin of the
sea at the forest-covered hills, towards the west. A clump of scrubby trees, such as alone grew
on the peninsula, did not so much conceal the cottage from view, as seem to denote that here
was some object which would fain have been, or at least ought to be, concealed. In this little
lonesome dwelling, with some slender means that she possessed, and by the licence of the
magistrates, who still kept an inquisitorial watch over her, Hester established herself, with her
infant child. A mystic shadow of suspicion immediately attached itself to the spot. (N. Hawthorne
– The Scarlet Letter)
27
3. THE SUBJECT
3.1. DEFINITION & CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES
The main difficulty in circumscribing the area of reference of the term “subject” resides in the
diversity of sciences/studies which use it as a key concept.
SUBJECT n [sʌbdʒɪkt]
1. the predominant theme or topic, as of a book, discussion, etc.
2. (Social science / Education) any branch of learning considered as a course of study;
3. (Grammar) a word, phrase, or formal expression about which something is predicated
or stated in a sentence;
4. a person or thing that undergoes experiment, analysis, treatment, etc.
5. (Government, Politics & Diplomacy) a person who lives under the rule of a monarch,
government, etc.
6. (Arts) an object, figure, scene, etc., as selected by an artist or photographer for
representation;
7. (Philosophy) a. that which thinks or feels as opposed to the object of thinking and
feeling; the self or the mind; b. a substance as opposed to its attributes;
8. (Music) a melodic or thematic phrase used as the principal motif of a fugue;
9. (Logic) a. the term of a categorial statement of which something is predicated; b. the
reference or denotation of the subject term of a statement. The subject of John is tall is
not the name John, but John himself;
10. an originating motive1.
In syntax, the subject is one of the clause elements for which we can find the greatest number of
characteristic features:
a. the subject is typically a noun phrase;
b. it normally occurs before the verb in declarative clauses and after the
operator in yes-no interrogative clauses;
c. it determines the number and person, where relevant, of the verb;
d. in finite clauses, it requires the subjective form for pronouns that have
distinctive case forms.
1
Collins English Dictionary – Complete and Unabridged 6th Edition 2003. © William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd
1979, 1986 © HarperCollins Publishers 1991, 1994, 1998, 2000, 2003.
28
In functional grammar, the notion of subject got several interpretations. Halliday (1994:
30) mentions the following interpretations:
1. a psychological subject (the concern of the message). It is the element that the
speaker selects for ‘grounding’ what (s)he is going to say.
2. a grammatical subject (something is being predicated). It was seen to determine
different grammatical features (case of the noun or pronoun, its agreement of person
and number with the verb).
3. a logical subject/actor (the doer of the action). It has to do with the relations
between things.
The children
showed us their toys
Psychological, grammatical, logical
subject
The toys
we
Psychological
subject (theme)
Grammatical
subject
(subject)
were shown by
the children
Logical subject
(actor)
In the latter clause, ‘the toys’ is the psychological subject because it is the concern of the
message. It is the point of departure when producing the clause.
‘We’ is the grammatical subject because it is the one of whom the statement is predicated.
According to it, the clause is valid or not.
‘The children’ is the logical subject because it is the doer of the action, the one who is said
to have carried out the process that the clause represents.
3.1.1. SUBJECT CHARACTERISTICS
1. FORM
The subject can be:

a noun phrase (NP); the head of any noun phrase may be a common noun
(common to a class of referents), a proper noun (names of particular persons,
individually or as a group; the referent is defined experientially) or a (personal)
pronoun (unique reference as proper nouns).
 a subject clause (finite clauses or nonfinite clauses) (Quirk et al., 1985:724-726).
The case that a subject is assigned is nominative.
29
2. POSITION
According to the type of sentence in which the subject is used, it can be placed before
the verb (declarative sentences), after the operator/ auxiliary (interrogative sentences).
They [S] strolled [V] along the riverbank. [declarative sentence]
Did [op] they [S] stroll along the riverbank? [interrogative sentence]
3. SYNTACTIC FUNCTION
A subject is a compulsory element in finite clauses. In imperative sentences it is absent,
but semantically it is implied.
- The subject triggers the subjective forms (nominative case) for pronouns that have
distinctive case forms in English.
He [S] sat in sullen silence and refused to eat his lunch.
- The subject determines the number and person in finite clauses.
She [S] loves [V] life.
She [S] is [V] my best friend.
- The subject determines the number and the gender of the subject complement [Cs]
when that is a noun phrase.
Johnny and Alice [S] are my grandchildren.
- The subject determines the number, person and gender of the reflexive pronoun as
direct object (Od), indirect object (Oi), subject complement (Cs), or prepositional complement/
object (Cp)
Peter [S] considers himself [Od] a poet.
They [S] had a terrible temper and they [S] were afraid of themselves [Cp].
- There is a systematic correspondence between active and passive clauses: the direct
object and the indirect object of an active sentence can become the subject of the passive
sentence.
He [S] can repair your tyre [Od]. – Your tyre [S] can be repaired by him.
- A subjectless nonfinite clause has an implied subject which is identical with the subject
of the regent clause.
After having glared at her, / he left the room. / [after having glared at her =
subjectless nonfinite subordinate clause, adverbial clause of time]
4. SEMANTIC PROPERTIES

The subject is typically the theme (or topic) of the clause.

It typically refers to information that is regarded by the speaker as given.

In a clause that is not passive, the subject is agentive if the agentive role is expressed in
the clause.
30
3.2. MEANS OF EXPRESSING THE SUBJECT
The noun can be expressed in several ways:
A. NOUNS
1. common nouns
The noun phrase as a whole must be considered as a subject. This means that the
determiners and modifiers are parts of the respective noun phrases. The semantic features of
this category may include: [+/- animate], [+/- human],
[+/- concrete], [+/- abstract].
My wife gave birth to twins. ([+animate, + human])
Love was in the air. [+ abstract]
The room reeks of tobacco. [+ concrete]
The blind fought for their rights. (substantivized adjective)
2. proper names
Billy broke off, forgetting in the intensity with which he continued to look.
Is London the unhealthiest city in the world?
3. substantivized past or indefinite participle
The dying wanted his nephew next to him. (the man who was dying)
My beloved is Mary’s elder sister.
The aged must be helped.
4. a fixed group of words (noun phrases that are names of novels, institutions etc.)
Big Ben struck seven.
Pall Mall is a fashionable street in London.
B. PRONOUNS
1. personal pronouns
We ourselves were certain of the facts.
2. possessive pronouns
My house has a wooden roof, theirs has a thatched roof.
3. demonstrative pronouns (Demonstrative and personal pronouns function as deictic
elements because they specify a subset of the semantic thing that is rendered morphologically
as a noun and syntactically as a subject)
This is my cat, these are my tools.
4. interrogative pronouns (They appear in interrogative sentences.)
Who has been wearing these shabby clothes?
What drove me here?
5. relative pronouns (They appear in declarative sentences and they introduce relative
clauses, subject clauses or other types of clauses that, together with the main clauses form a
complex sentence.)
31
The visitor1/ who had come yesterday 2/slept in this room1/. (2 = relative clause)
Who did this1/, can never be forgiven. 2/ (1 = nominal THAT clause)
6. indefinite pronouns can include either quantitative (much, all) or numerical (many, more,
most, several)
All is well, when it ends well. (subject, indefinite quantitative pronoun)
Some people received money, some got building materials. (subject, indefinite
numerical pronoun)
7. generic pronouns can be subdivided into absolute (one, you, he, everyone, anybody),
limited (they). The sentences including generic pronouns as subjects, must be interpreted
as general statements.
He who laughs last, laughs best.
You must not give up whenever you get grief-stricken.
Everyone has rights under the law, but they don’t always know them.
8. negative pronouns
None dared to do this.
Nothing remains of the old house but the cellar hole.
C. NUMERALS
1. cardinal numerals
One stood up for the rights of the group.
2. ordinal numerals
Only the first had the courage to fight back.
D. ADVERBIAL FORMS AS SUBJECT
In certain restricted contexts (all informal) prepositional phrases, adverbs, and adverbial clauses - all
of which normally realize the adverbial element in the clause - function as subject.
Two conditions allow this use of adverbials:
(i) the adverbial is a fragment of an understood clause;
(ii) the sentence can be related to one with prop it:
Slowly is exactly how he speaks. Sunday will be fine.
Will after the show be soon enough? Because Sally wants to leave doesn't mean that
we have to.
E. NONFINITE VERBS
1. infinitive constructions
To go abroad with no passport 1/ is not a wise thing2/.
He 1/seemed2/ to have lied to us1/. [Nominative + Perfect Infinitive – ‘It seemed
that he had lied to us’. It is used after intransitive verbs – to seem, to appear, to
happen, to turn out –.]
32
They are unlikely to come. [‘It is unlikely that they will come’. The Nominative +
Infinitive construction is a subject clause. It is triggered by adjectives such as
(un)likely, sure, certain, easy, tough, difficult, (im)possible]
2. gerundial constructions. Unlike the Infinitive in the subject position, rendering the
speaker’s opinion or theory, the Gerund implies the speaker’s or the addressee’s personal
experience of the action or a habit (Martinet & Thomson, 1969: 158):
Swimming in the sea 1/ is great fun2/. [Either the speaker or the addressee has
tried to swim in the sea and he/ she reached the conclusion that ‘swimming in
the sea is great fun’.]
It’s no good1/ talking to him 2/; he never listens. [The construction with the
introductory anticipatory it is common with any/ no good; any/no use; worth/
worthless]
Seeing is believing. [saying]
Rebuilding the city 1/took years 2/. [rebuilding – Gerund, no definite article]
The rebuilding of the city took years. [rebuilding – Verbal Noun. Whereas a
Gerund has the features of a verb (tense, voice, adverbs and direct/
prepositional objects), a Verbal Noun presents the features of a noun (definite/
indefinite article; adjectives; plural number; the prepositional genitive)]
3. finite verbs (Subject Clauses)
What was done 1/ can’t be undone2/. [1 = nominal clause; it includes a finite verb;
Indicative Mood, Past tense simple, passive voice]
What Tom washed 1/ was his shirts2/. [1 = nominal clause; this type of sentence
is typically English and it bears the name of pseudo-cleft sentence. Its
function is to highlight a string of words. The structure is the following: WH-item
+….+ form of be + FOCUS]
3.3. CLASSIFICATION OF SUBJECTS
3.3.1. The criterion of semantic content (the meaning a subject conveys). There are three
types of subjects: grammatical subjects, logical subjects and impersonal subjects.

Grammatical subjects are directly connected with the predicate. They determine the
agreement with the predicate. They are also known under the name of formal subjects.
A hot sun is glaring down on the desert.

Logical/ real subjects refer to the doer of the action, and it bears the name of agent.
33
Usually the grammatical subject coincides with the logical subject, but there are two cases
which are interpreted as exceptions:
A. Passive constructions
He was struck by thunder. [The grammatical subject does not coincide with the
-
logical subject. Semantically, the grammatical subject is the sufferer of the
action, thus it is a patient. The logical subject is rendered by a prepositional
object of agent.]
B. Introductory constructions
Introductory anticipatory “it”. It has no syntactical function because it is used instead of
the real subject. The subject of the complex sentence is, actually, a subject clause (with a
nonfinite verb: perfect infinitive). The meaning of the respective sentence is given by the
subject clause and the predicative.
It was rude of him to have left us in the middle of the road. [The main clause
includes either verbs, such as to seem, to appear, to turn out, to look like or
constructions such as it’s necessary, (im)possible, nice/ rude, important etc.]
It was said that he had broken into my shop. [The verb in the main clause is
rendered through the passive voice of a verb of communication: to say, to tell,
to announce, to inform etc.]
There was lying the village of my childhood. [“There” shows either existence or
absence of the real subject.]
-
-
Announcing or exclamatory element. Its role is to put an emphasis on the real subject
which is to be mentioned. The construction resembles a sort of interjection and the
emphasis is put rather on the subject, than on the predicate.
There you go.
Here comes dad.
Emphatic constructions. Their role is to put an emphasis on a particular part from the
sentence. The respective sentence is also called cleft sentence; they are typical
English constructions and their purpose is to highlight a particular string of words. The
structure of cleft sentences is the following (Aarts, 2001: 226):
IT + form of be + FOCUS + who/ that ….
It was Tom who had kicked me. [the real subject is singled out]
It is you who I despise. [the direct object is singled out]
It was to her that I had given that book. [the indirect object is singled out]
It was on Billy that we had wanted to rely. [the prepositional object is singled
out]
34
It is gently that he spoke to me. [the adverbial modifier of manner is singled
out]
It was in the market that we had met. [the adverbial modifier of place is
singled out]
It is at nine o’clock that the phone rang. [the adverbial of time is singled out]

Impersonal subjects refer to time and weather, distance or the state of things in
general.

time (hours, parts of the day, dates, days, months etc.)
It was getting into the evening. It’s almost nine. It’s dawn.

lapse of time
It’s years since we last went for a swim.

weather & natural phenomena
It is really hot. It has been drizzling for some hours. It’s snowing.

distance
It’s two miles to that remote village. It’s a long way to obtain success.
3.3.2. The criterion of structure/ composition
There are four types of subjects: simple subjects, compound subjects, coordinated subjects
and complex subjects.

Simple subjects are expressed by one word (a noun phrase or a noun equivalent)
The girl started and laid her hand upon the rifle at her side.

Compound subjects are expressed by two or several elements, the predicate
agreement is singular.
Chip and Dale is the best cartoon ever seen.

Coordinated subjects refer to two or more elements joined by coordinating
conjunctions. The predicate agreement is in the plural.
There were two women and six men in the bus.
Rage and humiliation have been tormenting his soul for some minutes.

Complex subjects can be expressed either through finite or nonfinite verb phrases.
To admit her fault 1/would mean 2/to acknowledge her weakness.3/
Their booing 1/was really annoying. 2/ [their booing - gerund]
The victory 1/was likely2 /to be decided by them1/. [the victory + to be
decided = nominative + infinitive, passive voice]
Jack 1/was seen2/ regarding him from the back of his room1/. [Jack +
regarding = nominative + present participle]
35
The fact that cats know 1/how to look after themselves2/ was all the good
luck3/ that the old man would ever have. 4/
What you told me1/ is a secret with me2/.
When he arrives1/ is not your cup of tea. 2/
3.4.
SEMANTIC ROLES OF THE SUBJECT
3.4.1.Subject as agentive
The most typical semantic role of a subject in a clause that has a direct object is that of the AGENTIVE
participant: that is, the animate being instigating or causing the happening denoted by the verb:
Margaret is mowing the grass.
3.4.2. Subject as external causer, instrument, and affected
The subject sometimes has the role of EXTERNAL CAUSER; that is, it expresses the unwitting
(generally inanimate) cause of an event:
The avalanche destroyed several houses.
It may also have the role of INSTRUMENT; that is, the entity (generally inanimate) which the agent
uses in order to perform an action or instigate a process:
A car knocked them down.
With intransitive verbs, the subject also frequently has the AFFECTED role elsewhere typical of
the direct object:
Jack fell down (accidentally). The pencil was lying on the table.
But we can make some further distinctions according to whether the subject complement as
attribute identifies or characterizes.
Kevin is my brother. [identified subject]
Martha was a good student. [characterized subject]
There is sometimes a regular relation, in terms of clause function, between transitive verbs
expressing CAUSATIVE meaning and corresponding intransitive verbs or adjectives. In the last
group, the company and my dog as object arc affected but as subject are agentive.
1.
2.
3.
SVO
SV
The frost has killed the flowers. The flowers have died.
Fred is waving the flag. The flag is waving (in the breeze).
SVO
SVC
They have dimmed the lights.
The lights became dim.
The sun (almost) blinded him.
He (almost) went blind.
SVO
SV
The sergeant paraded the company.
The company paraded.
I am exercising my dog.
My dog is exercising.
36
3.4.3. Recipient and experiencer subjects
The subject may have a recipient role with verbs such as have, own, possess, benefit (from),
as is indicated by the following relation:
Mr Smith has given his son a radio. [So now his son has a radio.]
The perceptual verbs see and hear require an experiencer subject, in contrast to look at and
listen to, which are agentive.
The other perceptual verbs taste, smell, and feel have both an agentive meaning
corresponding to look at and an experiencer meaning corresponding to see:
I want you to taste the soup. [agentive]
I can taste the pepper in my soup. [experiencer]
The soup tastes good. [affected]
Verbs indicating cognition or emotion may also require an experiencer:
I thought you were mistaken. I liked the play.
3.4.4. Positioner subject
The subject may have the role of POSITIONER with intransitive stance verbs such as sit, stand,
lie, live ['dwell'], stay, remain, and with transitive verbs related to stance verbs such as carry,
hold, keep, wear.
The transitive verbs are causative and the direct objects that follow them have an affected role.
In this positioner role the participant is in control, but the situation is not resultative in that no
change is indicated in the positioner during the period in which the situation lasts:
I have lived in London most of my life. The hijacker was holding a revolver. They are
staying at a motel.
He kept himself upright.
3.4.5. Locative, temporal, and eventive subjects
The
subject may have the LOCATIVE role of designating the place of the
state or action, or the TEMPORAL role of designating its time:
Los Angeles is foggy. ['It's foggy in Los Angeles.']
This jar contains coffee. [There's coffee in this jar.']
Yesterday was a holiday. ['It was a holiday yesterday.']
An important role of the subject is EVENTIVE. The noun at the head of the noun phrase is
commonly deverbal (ie derived from a verb) or a nominalization:
The match is tomorrow.
The Norman invasion took place in 1066.
37
3.4.6. Prop it subject
Prop it has also been termed 'ambient' it, in accordance with the view that it has some
generalized reference to the environment in a given context.
Another term for prop it is 'expletive' if, the term indicating the view that this it merely fills a syntactic
gap (that of subject) and is otherwise meaningless.
There are clauses in which no participant is required. In such cases, the subject function may
be assumed by the 'prop' word it, which has little or no semantic content.
Prop IT mainly occurs in clauses signifying (a) time, (b) atmospheric conditions, and (c)
distance:
(a) It's our wedding anniversary next month.
(b) It's getting dark.
(c) It's not very far to York.
Bibliography

Biber D.; Johansson, S.; Leech, G., Conrad, S. (2002): Longman Student Grammar of
Written and Spoken English, Longman (Pearson Education Ltd), London.

Chalker, Sidney (1992): A Student's English Grammar Workbook, Longman, London.

Cmeciu, Camelia (2007): Lectures on Concepts of English Syntax, Ed. EduSoft, Bacău.

Greenbaum, Sidney and Quirk, Randolph (1990): A Student's Grammar of the English
Language, Pearson Education Ltd.

Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G., Svartvik, J. (1985): A Comprehensive Grammar of the
English Language, London, New York, Longman.

Collins English Dictionary – Complete and Unabridged 6th Edition 2003. © William Collins
Sons & Co. Ltd 1979, 1986 © HarperCollins Publishers 1991, 1994, 1998, 2000, 2003.
EXERCISES
I. Identify the types of subjects. Mention the ways in which they are expressed
(morphological categories).
1. Around many a dusky neck hung curiously coiled strands of wire, while several were
further ornamented by huge nose rings. (Burroughs, Edgar Rice, Tarzan of the Apes)
2. Nothing succeeds like success.
3. The man who held out against the Church vanished away, and none knew whither he
had gone or what had befallen him. (Doyle, Sir Arthur Conan , A Study In Scarlet)
4. The two were inventors and proverbially poor business men, though they had amassed
a fortune. (Appleton, Victor, Tom Swift In The Land Of Wonders )
5. He seems to have rung.
6. We protested against the cruel shooting of the bears.
7. We protested against shooting the bears cruelly.
38
II. Identify the semantic roles of the subject.
London is crowded.
Mary has given her sister a new hat
My friend is sitting in a chair near the door.
It's ten o'clock precisely.
The children are picking up flowers.
The computer has solved the problem.
Is it raining?
The dispute over the inheritance lasted a decade.
The electric shock killed him.
The pencil was on the table.
Today is my birthday.
It's just one more stop to Toronto.
Tom is cooking the dinner.
39
4. THE PREDICATE vs. THE VERB AS CLAUSE ELEMENTS
4.1. THE PREDICATE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR
In traditional grammar, a predicate is one of the main parts of a sentence (the
other being the subject, which the predicate modifies). The predicate provides
information about the subject (what the subject is doing or what the subject is like) 1.
The predicate must contain a verb which requires, permits and precludes
other sentence elements to complete the predicate (objects, predicatives2 and
adverbials).
She dances. (verb only predicate)
John read the book. (verb + direct object)
John’s mother gave me a present. (verb + indirect object without a preposition)
She listened to the radio. (verb + prepositional object)
They elected him president. (verb + predicative/object complement)
She met him in the park. (verb + adverbial)
She is in the park. (verb + obligatory adverbial)
Quirk et al. (1985:78-79)
acknowledge that simple sentences are traditionally divided
into two major parts, a SUBJECT and a PREDICATE. This means that, in terms of clause
elements, the subject (S) is distinguished from the other elements (V and combinations
of O, C, and A) which follow it:
SUBJECTPREDICATE
Julie
Tigers
buys her vegetables in the market.
are carnivorous.
The subject is often described as the constituent defining the topic of the sentence – that
which the sentence is 'about' and which it presupposes as its point of departure,
whereas the predicate is that which is asserted about the subject.
The division subject-predicate has more to do with the statement as a logical
category than with the structural facts of grammar; hence, descriptive grammars prefer
the term verb as clause element to that of predicate.
The syntactic properties ascribed to the predicate are:

It is typically affected by clause negation;

It may be omitted through ellipsis;

It may be replaced by a pro-form (do so which substitutes for a predicate or a
1
The information draws on the article from Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predicate_(grammar).
Predicative is identified by some grammarians as “the clause element use element that characterizes the
referent of some other clause element, either the subject (subject predicative) or the object.” (Biber et al.,
2002:459) The corresponding term in the terminology that we have adopted is that of complement (subject
complement or object complement).
2
40
predication):
She hoped that he would search the room carefully.
and he searched the room carefully/ and he did so.
The main subdivisions of the predicate are the operator (or first auxiliary performs
an “operational” function in relating a positive declarative structure to another major
structure in the language) and the predication. Not all simple statements have an
operator, but when it occurs, it is normally the word which directly follows the subject.
He had given the girl an apple. [predicate made up of auxiliary and operator had +
predication give the girl an apple]
Two predications can be joined by coordination:
You should eat regularly and take more exercise.
Someone has broken into the house and stolen the money.
The division of a clause into subject, operator and predication cuts across its division
into S, V, O, C and A; this entertains two alternative constituent analyses of the
same structure.
For Biber et al. (2002:459-460), the predicate also represents the 'logical
center of a clause, consisting sometimes of a verb, and sometimes of a copular verb
plus predicative: / thought he was there.
4.2. THE PREDICATE IN CATEGORIAL LOGIC
In order to understand how the subject and verb are understood in logic, we need to
define first categorical propositions in which they are used as terms. The categorical
proposition is any statement of the form:
[quantifier: “all” or “some”] P [copula-phrase: “are” or “are not”] Q
P and Q are predicates, that is, expressions that denote concepts. The first
predicate (P) is the subject term of the proposition and the second predicate (Q) is
the predicate term.
SUBJECT TERM The subject term of a categorical proposition is the categorical
term that occurs first in the proposition.
All men are mortal. – the predicate “all men” is the subject term.
PREDICATE TERM The predicate term of a categorical proposition is the term that
occurs second in the proposition.
All men are mortal. – the predicate “is mortal” is the predicate term.
41
4.3. PREDICATES IN SEMANTICS
The semantic analysis of simple declarative sentences reveals two major
semantic roles played by different subparts of the sentence. These are the role of
predicator and the role(s) of argument(s), played by the referring expression(s).
Juan is Argentinian.
Juan arrested Pablo.
predicator: Argentinian, argument: Juan
predicator: arrest, arguments: Juan, Pablo
Juan took Pablo to Rio. predicator: take, arguments: Juan, Pablo, Rio
Simple
declarative
sentences
typically
contain
one
or
more
REFERRING
EXPRESSIONS (any expression used in an utterance to refer to something or
someone (or a clearly delimited collection of things or people), i.e. used with a
particular referent in mind.
The PREDICATOR of a simple declarative sentence is the word (sometimes a
group of words) which does not belong to any of the referring expressions and
which, of the remainder, makes the most specific contribution to the meaning of the
sentence.
Intuitively speaking, the predicator describes the state or process in which the
referring expressions are involved.
Mummy is asleep. [asleep is the predicator and describes the state Mummy is in]
The white man loved the Indian maiden. [love = predicator which describes the
process in which the two referring expressions the white man and the Indian maiden
are involved]
Jimmy was waiting for the downtown bus. [predicator wait for describes the
process involving Jimmy and the downtown bus]
The predicators in sentences can be of various parts of speech:

adjectives (red, asleep, hungry, whimsical);
The man who lives at number 10 Lee Crescent is whimsical.
I am hungry.

verbs (write, stink, place);

prepositions (in, between, behind);
The Royal Scottish Museum is behind Old College.
Joe is in San Francisco.

nouns (crook, genius).
The Mayor is a crook.
Despite the obvious syntactic differences between these different types of words,
semantically they all share the property of being able to function as the predicators of
sentences. Words of other parts of speech, such as conjunctions (and, but, or) and
articles (the, a), cannot serve as predicators in sentences.
42
Practice In the following sentences, indicate the predicators and arguments:
(1)
Dennis is a menace
predicator: ......................................
(2)
Fred showed Jane his BMW
Predicator: ......................................
(3)
Donald is proud of his family
predicator: ......................................
(4)
The hospital is outside the city
predicator: ......................................
argument(s): ...................
argument(s): ...................
argument(s): ...................
argument(s): ...................
The semantic analysis of a sentence into predicator and argument(s) does not
correspond in most cases to the traditional grammatical analysis of a sentence into
subject and predicate, although there is some overlap between the semantic and the
grammatical analyses.
How does the concept of predicate in the semantic sense differ from the concept of
grammatical predicate?
The term ‘predicate’ in a semantic sense is similar to the one developed within Logic.
A PREDICATE is any word (or sequence of words) which (in a given single sense) can
function as the predicator of a sentence. Example hungry, in, crook, asleep, hit, show,
bottle, are all predicates; and, or, but, not, are not predicates.
A simple sentence only has one predicator, although it may well contain more than
one instance of a predicate:
A tall, handsome stranger entered the saloon.
This sentence has just one predicator, enter, but the sentence also contains the
words tall, handsome, stranger, and saloon, all of which are predicates, and can
function as predicators in other sentences:
John is tall.
He is handsome.
He is a stranger.
That ramshackle building is a saloon.
To conclude, ‘predicate’ and ‘predicator’ in semantics are terms of quite different
sorts.

The
term
‘predicate’
identifies
elements
in
the
language
system,
independently of particular example sentences.

The term ‘predicator’ identifies the semantic role played by a particular word
(or group of words) in a particular sentence. In this way, it is similar to the
grammatical term ‘subject’: one can talk of the subject of a particular
sentence, but it makes no sense to talk of a list of ‘the subjects of English’:
similarly, one can talk of the ‘predicator’ in a particular sentence, but not list
‘the predicators of English’.
43
4.4. VERB COMPLEMENTATION
4.4.1. DEFINITION AND TYPES
COMPLEMENTATION3 Is 'part of a phrase or clause which follows a word, and completes the
specification of a meaning relationship which that word implies'.
Verbs may be classified into various types (transitive, intransitive, copular, etc) according to their
complementation. Where no complementation occurs, the verb is said to have an INTRANSITIVE
use.
Types of verb complementation and their variants (Quirk et al., 1985: 1170-1171)
[A] Copular: John is only a boy.
[B] Monotransitive: I have caught a big fish.
[C] Complex transitive: She called him a hero.
[D] Ditransitive: He gave Mary a doll.
3
The term 'valency' (or 'valence') is sometimes used, instead of complementation, for the way in which a verb
determines the kinds and number of elements that can accompany it in the clause. Valency, however, includes the
subject of the clause, which is excluded from complementation.
44
4.4.2. VERBS IN INTRANSITIVE FUNCTION
Three types of verb may be mentioned in this category:
1. 'PURE' INTRANSITIVE VERBS, which do not take an object at all (or at least do so
only very rarely): appear die
lie
wait
John has arrived.
2.
fall happen
rise come
digress
go
Your views do not matter.
VERBS WHICH CAN ALSO BE TRANSITIVE WITH THE SAME MEANING,
and without a
change in the subject-verb relationship. Informally, such verbs can be described
as having an 'understood object': approach drive help pass win drink
enter leave
play
write
He smokes (a pipe).
3.
I am reading (a book).
VERBS WHICH CAN ALSO BE TRANSITIVE,
but where the semantic connection
between subject and verb is different (from affected subject in intransitive to
agentive in transitive):
Examples: begin close
unite work
increase
turn
walk
The door [affected subject] opened slowly.
door.
The car stopped.
change
drop
move
Mary [agentive] opened the
He stopped the car.
This type also includes intransitive verbs with MUTUAL PARTICIPATION, as in:
I have met you. ~ We have met.
The bus collided with the car. ~ The bus and car collided.
There are also intransitive phrasal verbs such as:
fall out ['quarrel'] pass away ['die']
pass out ['faint']
through ['fail']
make up ['end a quarrel'] pull up ['stop']
45
fall back ['retreat']
come to ['become conscious']
fall
4.4.3. COPULAR COMPLEMENTATION
[A1-A2] Adjective and noun phrase as subject complement
A verb has COPULAR complementation when it is followed by a subject complement or a
predication adjunct and when this element cannot be dropped without changing the
meaning of the verb.
Such verbs are
common of which is the copula be.
COPULAR
(or linking)
VERBS,
the most
Copular verbs fall into two main classes, depending on the role of the subject
complement:
CURRENT ATTRIBUTE:
RESULTING ATTRIBUTE:
The girl seemed very restless.
The girl became very restless.
The most common copular verbs are listed below. Those that are used only with
adjective phrases are followed by '[A]':
CURRENT copulas: appear, be, feel, look, seem, smell [A], sound, taste [A]
RESULTING copulas: become, get [A], go [A], grow [A], prove, turn
After certain copulas (appear, feel, look, seem, sound), both AmE and BrE prefer an
infinitive construction with to be rather than simply a noun phrase: It appears to be the
only solution.
Some copulas are restricted as to the words that may occur in their complement. Here
are some examples, with typical adjective complements: fall (silent), plead (innocent),
rest (assured), run (wild), spring (open).
[A3] Complementation by adverbials
The principal copula that allows an adverbial as complementation is be. The
adverbials are mainly space adjuncts {e.g.: The kitchen is downstairs) but time
adjuncts are common with an eventive subject (e.g.: The party will be at nine) and
other types of adjunct are possible too (e.g.: She is in good health). Two other
copula verbs that occur with space adjuncts are get (e.g.: How did you get here?) and
keep (e.g.: They kept out of trouble).
With intransitive verbs such as live, come, go, lie, remain, stand, and stay, the
adverbial is not always clearly obligatory:
My aunt lives in Toronto. They are staying nearby. Come over here.
The verbs seem, appear, look, sound, feel, smell, and taste may be complemented by
an adverbial clause beginning as if or as though: It seems as if the weather is improving.
Behave is complemented by a manner adverbial (He behaved badly) and last and take by
a duration adverbial (The course lasted (for) three months).
46
4.4.4. MONOTRANSITIVE COMPLEMENTATION
Monotransitive verbs require a direct object, which may be a noun phrase, a
finite clause, or a nonfinite clause. We include in this category, for our present
purposes, type I prepositional verbs such as look at and type I phrasal-prepositional
verbs such as put up with.
[B1-B2] Noun phrase as direct object
Direct objects are typically noun phrases that may become the subject of a
corresponding passive clause:
Everybody understood the problem. ~ The problem was understood (by everyone).
Some common examples of the numerous monotransitive verbs that may be used in
the passive: believe, bring, call, close, do, enjoy, feel, find, get, hear, help, keep,
know, lose, love, make, need, receive, remember, see, take, use, win.
A few stative monotransitive verbs (some in particular senses) normally do not
allow the passive. These MIDDLE VERBS include have, fit, suit, resemble, equal, mean
('Oculist' means 'eye doctor'), contain, hold (The hall holds over three hundred
people), comprise, lack.
They have a large house. ~*A large house is had (by them).
There are also monotransitive phrasal verbs which take a direct object and can be
used in the passive: bring about, put off.
Noun phrase as prepositional object
The prepositional object of prepositional verbs and phrasal-prepositional verbs
resembles the direct object in accepting the passive (though often with some
awkwardness in style) and in being elicited by a pronoun in questions:
The management paid for his airfares. ~His airfares were paid for by the
management. ~ What did the management pay for?
Your sister has checked up on me. ~/have been checked up on by your sister. ~
Who(m) has your sister checked up on?
47
COMPLEMENTATION BY A FINITE CLAUSE
[B3] THAT-clause as object
The conjunction that in that-clauses functioning as object is optional, as in I hope
(that) he arrives soon; but when the clause is made the passive subject, the
conjunction is obligatory. The normal passive analogue has // and extraposition, that
being again to some extent optional:
Everybody hoped (that) she would sing. ~That she would sing was hoped by
everybody.~It was hoped by everybody (that) she would sing.
We distinguish four categories of verbs that are complemented by that-clauses:
A. Factual verbs
FACTUAL
verbs are followed by a that-clause with an indicative verb: They agreed that
she was misled.
There are two subtypes:
 Public factual verbs (consist of speech act verbs introducing indirect
statements): admit, agree, announce, argue, bet, claim, complain, confess,
declare, deny, explain, guarantee, insist, mention, object, predict, promise,
reply, report, say, state, suggest, swear, warn, write.
 Private factual verbs (express intellectual states and intellectual acts that are
not observable): believe, consider, decide, doubt, expect, fear, feel, forget,
guess, hear, hope, know, notice, presume, realize, recognize, remember,
see, suppose, think, understand.
B. Suasive verbs
Examples of suasive verbs: agree, ask, command, decide, demand, insist, intend,
move, order, prefer, propose, recommend, request, suggest, urge.
SUASIVE
verbs
are followed by:
 a that-clause either with putative should (preferred in BrE) or with the
subjunctive;
 a that-clause with an indicative verb, occurs, though more commonly in
BrE:
People are demanding that he leave/we should leave/ leaves (esp BrE) the
company.

A common alternative to the that-clause for some suasive verbs is an infinitive
clause:
They intended that the news be suppressed/ should) be suppressed.
C. Emotive verbs are followed by a that-clause with either the indicative or
putative should:
I regret that she worries about it. It surprises me that he should worry about it. This
group of verbs includes annoy, concern, marvel, rejoice, regret, surprise,
48
wonder, worry.
D. Hypothesis verbs comprise wish, suppose (in the imperative), and the modal
idiom would rather or its contraction 'd rather:
I wish (that) she were here.
Complementation by an extraposed subject THAT-clause
The to-clause in examples like It seems (that) you are mistaken is an extraposed
subject, not an object of the verb. It resembles other that-clauses in previous
sections in that the conjunction is optional and the clause is obligatory. The verb in
the THAT-clause is indicative: It appears (that) you have lost your temper.
Common verbs in this pattern include seem, appear, and happen, and the phrasal
verbs come about ['happen'] and turn out ['transpire'].
[B4] Wh-clause as object
Many of the factual verbs which can take a that-clause as object can also take a whinterrogative clause.
I don't know if we can get there in time. Have you heard whether she's coming with
us? I doubt whether the flight has been booked.
The use of the wh-interrogative clause (which generally implies lack of knowledge on
the part of the speaker) is particularly common where the superordinate clause is
interrogative or negative. But verbs that themselves express uncertainty, such as ask
and doubt, occur without this nonassertive constraint.
Examples of verbs taking the WH-interrogative clause: ask, care, decide, depend,
doubt, explain, forget, hear, know, mind, notice, prove, realize, remember, say, see,
tell, think, wonder.
NONFINITE CLAUSES AS DIRECT OBJECT
[B5-B9] We distinguish five types of nonfinite clauses that function as direct object in
monotransitive complementation:
(1)
TO-infinitive clause: The Curies discovered how to isolate radioactive
elements.
(2) subjectless infinitive clause: Ruth prefers to go by bus.
(3) subjectless -ing participle clause: They like talking about their work.
(4) To-infinitive clause with subject: Charles wants you to stand for election.
(5) -ing participle clause with subject: I hate them/ their gossiping about our
colleagues.
49
When the nonfinite clause has no subject - as in (1), (2), and (3) - its implied subject
is usually identical with that of the superordinate clause.
The status of these clauses as direct object is confirmed when they are replaced
by a coreferential pronoun it or that; for the example sentence in (1): The Curies
discovered that. Another indication of their status is that they can be made the focus
of a pseudo-cleft sentence: What Ruth prefers is to go by bus.
Many monotransitive verbs take more than one type of nonfinite complementation.
Common verbs are listed below for the five types:

decide, discuss, explain, forget, know, learn, remember, say, see, tell,
think.

ask, dislike, forget, hate, help, hope, learn, like, love, need, offer. prefer,
promise, refuse, remember, try, want, wish.

(can't) bear, dislike, enjoy, forget, hate, (can't) help, like. love, (not) mind,
miss, need, prefer, remember, (can't) stand, start, stop.

(can't) bear, dislike, hate, like, love, prefer, want, wish.
Where both infinitive clauses - (2) and (4) - and participle clauses - (3) and (5) -are
admitted, several factors influence the choice. The infinitive is biased towards
potentiality and is therefore favoured in hypothetical and nonfactual contexts (Would
you like to see my stamp collection?), whereas the participle is favoured in factual
contexts (Brian loathed living in the country). For the three retrospective verbs forget,
remember, and regret this potentiality/performance distinction is extended into the
past:
I remembered to fill out the form. [I remembered that I was to fill out the form and
then did so.']
I remembered filling out the form. [I remembered that I had filled out the form.']
[a] Monotransitive prepositional verbs are found in all five types. The preposition is
optionally omitted in (1) and obligatorily omitted in (2):
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
I couldn't decide (on) which bicycle to buy.
She decided to buy a bicycle.
She decided on buying a bicycle.
We longed for the lesson to end.
(5)
Don't count on their helping you.
[b] For the verbs deserve, need, and require in type (3), the implied object of the
participle is identical with the subject of the superordinate clause: Your shoes need
mending (Your shoes need to be mended).
50
4.4.5. COMPLEX-TRANSITIVE COMPLEMENTATION
[C1-C2] In
COMPLEX-TRANSITIVE
complementation, the two elements following the
complex-transitive verb have a subject-predicate relationship:
She considered her mother a sensible woman.
[1]
She considered her mother to be a sensible woman.
[2]
The relationship between the elements her mother and a sensible woman in [1] and
[2] is equivalent to the same elements in the subordinate finite clause in [3]:
She considered that her mother was a sensible woman. [3]
Yet the passive suggests that the two elements in [1] and [2] are not a single
constituent, since the first element- as direct object- is separated from the second
element and becomes the passive subject:
Her mother was considered (by her) < to be) a sensible woman.
Direct object and object complement
In the clausal pattern SVOC, object complement is an adjective phrase or a noun
phrase.
The attribute role of the object complement may be
RESULTING, as in [3] and [4]:

CURRENT,
The secretary left all the letters unopened.
[1]
I have often wished myself a millionaire.
The long walk made us all hungry.
[2]
[3]
The committee has elected you its chairman.
[4]
as in [1] and [2]. or
The direct object can be made the passive subject:
All the letters were left unopened (by the secretary).
[la]

Many verbs admit both adjective phrases and noun phrases as object
complements. The most common verbs for this construction are listed below.
Those used only with adjective phrases are followed by '[A]', and those used
only with noun phrases are followed by '[N]': appoint [N], believe, call, choose
[N], consider, declare, elect \N],find, get [A], like [A], make, name [N], prefer
[A], think, want [A].

For some verbs, the object complement is optional; eg: elect in The committee
has elected you (its chairman).

Prepositional verbs, mainly with the preposition as, take a prepositional object
complement; eg: They described her as a genius; He took me for a fool.
Sometimes the preposition is optional; eg: They elected me (as) their leader.
51
Common examples of these prepositional verbs follow, with those taking an
optional preposition listed first: choose (as), consider (as), elect (as) [N], make
(into) [N]; accept as, define as, intend as [N], mistake for, regard as, see as, take
as/for, treat as, use as.


The SVOC pattern includes a number of verb-adjective collocations; for
example: boil (an egg) hard, buy [N] cheap, freeze [N] hard, paint [N] red/blue ...,
knock (someone) senseless. The adjectives open, loose, free, and clean are
particularly common: push [N] open, shake [N] loose, set \N]free, wipe [N] clean.
The object is generally postposed by extraposition if it is a that-clause, and
an anticipatory it then precedes the object complement: I think it very odd that
nobody is in.

The collocations make sure and make certain are followed by an object thatclause without anticipatory it:
Please make sure that you enclose your birth certificate.
[C3] Direct object and adjunct
In the SVOA pattern, the complex-transitive verb is complemented by a direct object
followed by a predication adjunct. The adjuncts are characteristically prepositional
phrases of direction or metaphorical extensions of the notion of direction:
I slipped the key into the lock.
Take your hands out of your pockets.
May I see you to your seat ['escort you . . .']
He stood my argument on its head.
Space position adjuncts also occur in this construction:
Always keep your eyes on the road when driving. The attackers caught us off our
guard.
The passive of this construction is exemplified for this last sentence: We were caught
off our guard (by the attackers).
Adjuncts of other semantic types are less common, but they include a manner
adjunct with treat (Her parents treated her badly).
[C4] Direct object and to-infinitive clause
Some of the verbs taking a direct object and /o-infinitive clause in complex-transitive
complementation correspond to the factual verbs that take a that-clause with an
indicative verb:
The police reported the traffic to be heavy, (formal) = The police reported that the
traffic was heavy.
John believed the stranger to be" a policeman, (formal) = John believed that the
stranger was a policeman.
52
In such cases, the infinitive clause normally contains a verb used statively, especially
be. The finite clause is preferred in normal usage, but the infinitive clause provides a
convenient passive form: The traffic was reported to be heavy.
Common factual verbs: believe, consider, expect, feel, find, know, suppose.
Nonfactual verbs include verbs of intention, causation, modality, and purpose:
They intended Maria to sing an aria. The meeting elected her to be the next
treasurer. My contract allows me to take one month's leave. Our teachers
encouraged us to think for ourselves.
Common nonfactual verbs: allow, appoint, cause, compel, condemn, dare, get, help,
intend, mean, permit, require.
Some verbs in this construction occur only in the passive: rumour, say, see.
The field marshal was said to be planning a new strategy.
Others occur chiefly in the passive: repute, dunk. The verb get is not found in the
passive.
Examples of multi-word verbs in this pattern are the prepositional verbs count on,
depend on, rely on; the phrasal verb make out: and the phrasal-prepositional verb
keep on at.
[C5] Direct object and bare infinitive clause
Two small groups of verbs take this pattern of complex-transitive complementation:
three causative verbs (have, let, make) and some perceptual verbs of seeing and
hearing (feel, hear, notice, observe, overhear, see, watch). In addition, help and
<esp. BrE> know may occur with the bare infinitive or the to-infinitive.
They had me repeat the message.
You shouldn't let your family interfere with our plans.
We must make the public take notice of us.
Did you notice anyone leave the house!
The crowd saw Gray score two goals.
Sarah helped us (to) edit the script.
The passive normally requires a To-infinitive: John must be made to take notice of
us.
Certain verbs in this pattern do not occur in the passive: feel, have, let, watch. There
is an apparent passive in let fall and let go (They were let go/fall), but these are fixed
expressions. Only let has a passive of the infinitive clause (They let themselves be led
away). Corresponding passives of the infinitive clause with verbs of perception require a
copula, usually being (The crowd watched two goals being scored), see also admits a
passive construction formed with the -ed participle without be (The crowd saw two goals
scored), which is the only passive if the verb is have (They had the message repeated).
53
[C6] Direct object and -ing participle clause
Three small groups of verbs take this type of complex-transitive complementation:
perceptual verbs, many of which also occur with the bare infinitive (feel, hear, notice,
observe, overhear, perceive, see, smell, spot, spy, watch), verbs of encounter
(catch, discover, find, leave), and the two causative verbs get and have.
This complementation pattern differs from the monotransitive pattern in that the
noun phrase following the superordinate verb cannot take the genitive case:
I saw him lying on the beach.
*I saw his lying on the beach.
The passive with this pattern is regular:
We could hear the rain splashing on the roof. ~The rain could be heard splashing on
the roof.
A teacher caught them smoking in the playground. ~They were caught smoking in
the playground (by a teacher).
[C7] Direct object and -ed participle clause
Three small groups of verbs occur with this type of complex-transitive
complementation: perceptual verbs (see, hear, feel, watch), volitional verbs (like,
need, want), and the two causative verbs get and have:
Someone must have seen the car stolen. I want this watch repaired immediately. She
had the car cleaned.
For some verbs there are corresponding constructions with an infinitive copular verb,
generally be: I want this watch to be repaired immediately. Since the participle clause is
passive, the superordinate clause is not normally in the passive: The car must have
been seen stolen.
54
4.4.6. DITRANSITIVE COMPLEMENTATION
[D1] Noun phrases as both indirect and direct object
Ditransitive complementation in its basic form involves two object noun phrases: an
indirect object, which is normally animate and positioned first, and a direct object,
which is normally inanimate:
He gave the girl a doll
S
V
Oj
Od
Most ditransitive verbs can also be monotransitive. The indirect object can often be
omitted: She may give (us) a large donation. With a few verbs (eg: ask, pay, teach,
tell, show) either object can be omitted:
He taught us physics. ~ He taught us. ~ He taught physics.
Some ditransitive verbs have two passive analogues, which we distinguish as 'first'
and 'second': The girl was given a doll.
[FIRST PASSIVE] A doll was given the girl.
[SECOND PASSIVE]
Of these two, the first passive, in which the indirect object becomes subject, is the
more common. The prepositional paraphrase is more usual. as an alternative, than
the second passive: A doll was given to the girl. We list ditransitive verbs together
with their prepositional paraphrases.
[D2] Object and prepositional object
There are numerous ditransitive verbs that take a prepositional object as the second
object:
We addressed our remarks to the children.
[1]
We reminded him of the agreement.
[2]
Ditransitive verbs with prepositional objects normally have only the first passive:
Our remarks were addressed to the children.
[la]
He was reminded of the agreement.
[2a]
Here are examples of ditransitive prepositional verbs:
accuse of
advise about
charge with
introduce to
persuade of
prevent from
compare with
congratulate on
deprive of
explain to
protect from
punish for
sentence to
suspect of
inform of
interest in
thank for
treat to
55
Some verbs allow more than one preposition. The different possibilities provide a
means of achieving different end-focus:
Sidney provided Justin with a Danish apple pastry. ~ Sidney provided a Danish apple
pastry for Justin.
Most ditransitive verbs that take two noun phrases as objects can also be
paraphrased with a prepositional object equivalent to the indirect object.
Robert read me a chapter. ~ Robert read a chapter to me.
I gave Justin some of my shirts. ~ I gave some of my shirts to Justin.
We list some common ditransitive verbs that allow both possibilities. Those in list (1)
take the preposition to and those in list (2) take the preposition for.
(1)
bring, deny, give, hand, lend, offer, owe, promise, read, send, show,
teach, throw;
(2)
find, make, order, save, spare
A few ditransitive prepositional verbs (e.g.: pay, serve, tell) take one of two prepositions.
In one the prepositional object is equivalent to the indirect object, in the other to the
direct object: Doris told David her version of the events. ~ Doris told her version of the
events to David. ~ Doris told David about her version of the events.
A few other verbs (eg: envy, excuse, forgive) have a prepositional object (introduced
by for) that is equivalent to the direct object:
Matthew envied me my video-recorder. ~ Matthew envied me for my video-recorder.
[b] Ask takes the preposition of to introduce a prepositional object that is equivalent
to the indirect object:
Robert asked Benjamin a favour. ~ Robert asked a favour of Benjamin.
[c] A few ditransitive verbs do not have prepositional paraphrases: allow, charge. fine,
refuse.
[D3] Indirect object and that-clause object
Some ditransitive verbs take as direct object a that-clause: Natalie convinced Derek
(that) she was right.
[1]
Only the first passive is acceptable: Derek was convinced (by Natalie) (that) she was
right.
[la]
With some verbs, including convince, the indirect object cannot be omitted.
If the that-clause introduces an indirect statement, it contains an indicative verb:
Ava told Jack that dinner was ready.
56
If it introduces an indirect directive, there are several options: the verb may be
indicative or subjunctive, and often contains putative should or another modal
auxiliary:
A dozen students petitioned the college chef that he provides/ should provide/ might
provide them with vegetarian meals.
The indirect directive construction is rare and formal in comparison with the
equivalent infinitive construction: A dozen students petitioned the college chef to provide
them with vegetarian meals.
We list common verbs that take an indirect object and (a) a that clause object as
indirect statement: advise, bet, convince, inform, persuade, promise, remind, show,
teach, tell, warn, write: (b) a THAT-clause as indirect directive: ask, beg, command,
instruct, order, persuade, tell.
Prepositional object and that-clause object
Some ditransitive prepositional verbs take a prepositional object and a that-clause:
Estelle mentioned (to me) that her daughter was getting married. Philip
recommended (to me) that I buy Harrods malt whisky.
As shown by the parentheses, the prepositional phrase is optional. Some of the
ditransitive verbs listed can be optionally followed by a preposition: Jonathan wrote
(to) me that he was going to a summer camp this year.
Unlike the verbs, ditransitive prepositional verbs allow the THAT-clause to become
subject of a corresponding passive clause, more acceptably with extraposition:
That David was innocent has been proved by Jonathan. ~It has been proved (by
Jonathan) that David was innocent.
We list examples where (a) the THAT-clause is an indirect statement, and (b) it is
an indirect directive:
(a) admit, announce, complain, confess, explain, mention, point out, prove, remark,
report, say, write (to) ;
(b) ask (of), propose, recommend, suggest.
[D4] Indirect object and wh-clause object
The second object may be a finite wh-clause:
Martin asked me what time the meeting would end. Wendy didn't tell me whether she
had phoned earlier.
Besides ask and tell, the verbs used in this construction are those listed in group (a).
A preposition, usually optional, may precede the wh-clause: Would you remind me
(about) how we start the engine?
57
Some of the verbs also take a to-infinitive clause as second object: She advised us
what to wear for the party.
Prepositional verbs also appear in this pattern: Could you please suggest to me which
museums to visit?
[D6] Indirect object and to-infinitive clause object
This pattern is used with verbs that introduce indirect directives. Only the indirect
object can be made subject of the corresponding passive construction:
I persuaded Mark to see a doctor.
[1]
Mark was persuaded to see a doctor.
[la]
The subject of the superordinate clause (/in [1]) refers to the speaker of a speech
act, and the indirect object refers to the addressee (Mark in [1]). The implied subject
of the infinitive clause is generally identified with the indirect object (I persuaded Mark
that he should see a doctor).
Here is a list of common verbs used in this pattern: advise, ask, beg, command,
entreat, forbid, implore, instruct, invite, order, persuade, remind, request,
recommend, teach, tell, urge.
With some superordinate verbs, the infinitive clause may be replaced in rather formal
style by a THAT-clause containing a modal or a subjunctive:
I persuaded Mark that he should see a doctor.
The verb promise is exceptional in that the implied subject of the infinitive clause is
the superordinate subject: I promised Howard to take two shirts for his father (I promised
Howard that I would take two shirts for his father').
BIBLIOGRAPHY



Biber D.; Johansson, S.; Leech, G., Conrad, S. (2002): Longman Student Grammar of
Written and Spoken English, Longman (Pearson Education Ltd), London
Cook, Roy T. (2009): A Dictionary of Philosophical Logic, Edinburgh, Edinburgh
University Press
Greenbaum, Sidney and Quirk, Randolph (1990): A Student's Grammar of the English
Language, Pearson Education Ltd

Hurford, James; Heasley, Brendan; Smith, Michael (2007): Semantics. A Coursebook,
New York, Oxford University Press

Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G., Svartvik, J. (1985): A Comprehensive Grammar of
the English Language, London, New York, Longman
Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predicate_(grammar)

58
5. COMPLEMENTS
In grammar, the term complement is used with different meanings. The primary meaning is a
word, phrase or clause which is necessary in a sentence to complete its meaning.
We find complements which function as sentence elements and complements which exist within
sentence elements.
5.1. PREDICATIVE COMPLEMENTS
In linguistics, complement refers only to the predicative complement1. The term predicate
complement refers to the fact that the predication depends on the attribution of a subject and its
predicator.
The predicative complement consists of few contrasting varieties:

Object complement (common complement);

Predicative noun or nominal predicative complement (nominal, pronominal that follows a
linking verb and explains or identifies the subject of the sentence; common in SUB or
OBJ complement);
o George is king of England.

Predicative adjective (or adjectival following a linking verb that describes the subject and
is connected with it; common in subject complement);
o Jenny is attractive. Roses are red.

Predicative adverb (or adverbial, common in intransitive predication);

Predicative adjunct (optional complement).
5.1.1. Subject and object complements
These are the types of complements expanded upon in Quirk et al. (1985) and the ones that we will
be dealing with in this course unit. Both complements are in a copular relationship with another clause
element.
The subject complement relates to the subject, and the verb is copular.
My glass is empty.
Their daughter has become an accountant.
The object complement relates to the direct object:
We find them very pleasant.
Carol made Joshua and Peter her assistants.
The implied relationship between the object and the object complement can be expressed by means
of a corresponding SVC sentence with a copular verb (be if the object complement is a current attribute
and become if it is a resulting attribute):
They are very pleasant. Joshua and Peter became her assistants.
1
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complement_(linguistics).
59
5.1.2. Syntactic features and semantic properties
a)
FORM
The complement is normally a noun phrase or an adjective phrase, but it may also be a nominal
clause. It is a defining characteristic of complements, in contrast to objects, that they may be
adjective phrases.
b)
POSITION
The subject complement normally follows the subject and the verb. The object complement
normally follows the direct object.
c)
SYNTACTIC FUNCTION
(i) If it is a noun phrase, the subject complement normally has concord of number with the subject,
and the object complement normally has concord of number with the direct object.
(ii) If it is a reflexive pronoun, the subject complement has concord of number, person and, where
relevant, gender with the subject:
She is not herself 'today.
(iii) Unlike the object, the complement cannot become the subject of a corresponding passive
clause. There is no corresponding passive clause for the SVC type. With the SVOC type, the direct
object can of course be made the subject of a passive clause:
His friends call him Ted. [Ted is C0] ~ He is called Ted by his friends. [Ted is Cs]
(iv) If the subject complement is a pronoun, there is a distinction between subjective and objective
forms; the subjective form is more prevalent in formal use (especially in AmE):
This is he. <formal>
That's him.
d)
SEMANTIC PROPERTIES
The complement typically identifies or characterizes the referent of the clause element to which it is
related. With some verbs, object complements can be omitted:
We appointed her our delegate to the convention.
~ We appointed her.
They have named their baby Roger.
~ They have named their baby.
The object complement cannot be the normal reflexive pronoun, but it can have a corresponding
form with self/ selves:
I did not find them their usual selves.
60
5.2. SUBJECT COMPLEMENTS
A subject complement tells more about the subject by means of the verb. In the examples below
the sentence elements are (SUBJECT + VERB + COMPLEMENT)
Mr. Johnson is a management consultant. (nominal)
She looks ill. (adjectival)
In grammar, a subject complement is a phrase or clause that follows a linking verb (copula)
and complements, or completes, the subject of the sentence by:
1) renaming it by a noun which is a way of mirroring the subject;
2) describing it by a describing adjective.
Subject complements are used with linking verbs or copulative verbs, of which to be is the most
common. They are not affected by the action of the verb, and they describe or explain the
subject.
The lake was a tranquil pool. [was is a linking verb that links the subject complement
tranquil pool to the subject lake]
5.2.1. The subject complement can be expressed by the following parts of speech:
1) a noun phrase (nominative/ genitive case)
She is a dark-haired woman.
The house is my father’s.
2) predicative adjectives
a) exclusively predicative adjectives:
- “adverb-like” adjectives prefixed by “a-“: ablaze, afloat, afraid, akin, alike, alone, asleep:
There are some kids who are afraid of the dark.
- “prepositional adjectives”:
Over the years we've grown very fond of each other. (* fond people)
Some plants are very prone to disease. (* prone plants)
b) “pseudo-adjectives” (depending on the type of noun they determine, some adjectives can be
used in a predicate position or not).
She gave a very civil answer. – Her answer was very civil.
He specializes in civil engineering. – *The engineering is civil.
c) from present/ past participles of attitudinal verbs (to please, to frighten, to puzzle, to horrify)
Driving in big cities can be frightening for many people.
I was frightened of being left by myself in the house.
d) compound –en adjectives (prefixed by adverbs) that cannot be traced back to active sources:
well-behaved, ill-behaved.
He has been ill-behaved since his mother left.
3) personal, possessive, indefinite or interrogative pronouns
It was me calling about the advertisement.
61
This house is mine.
This is indeed something.
What are the charges against him?
4) prepositional phrase
I was out of breath.
His father is of a sound mind.
This dress was (of) the right size.
This building is (from) 17th century.
5) cardinal/ ordinal numeral
They were nine. I was the second in my class.
6) finite verb phrase
The idea is1/ that they have been living in this house for ages. 2/ (1 = main clause,
subordinate clause, introduced by the conjunction that)
His departure means 1/ what we all wanted. 2/ (1 = main clause; 2 = subordinate clause,
introduced by the relative pronoun what)
7) nonfinite verb phrase, infinitival construction
The problem is1/ to convince him 2/ to come with us. 3/ (1 = main clause; 2 = clause,
nonfinite verb: infinitive; 3 = adverbial clause of purpose)
8) non-finite verb phrase, gerundial construction
His dream was1/ wandering through the world. 2/ (1 = main clause; 2 = predicative
clause, nonfinite verb: gerund)
5.2.2. Nominal subject complement
The verb be is the principal copula used in this pattern:
William is my friend.
Oslo seems a pleasant city.
It appears the only solution.
~ It appears to be the only solution.
There is also, especially in informal Am. E., a tendency to prefer a construction in which a copular verb
is followed by like:
It seems like the only solution.
CURRENT
RESULTING
(i) be (my friend)
(iv) become (an expert)
(ii) appear (the only solution)
end up (her slave)
feel (a fool)
look (a fine day)
prove (his equal)
turn out (a success/ a disaster)
seem (a genius)
sound1 (a reasonable idea)
(iii) remain (good friends)
62
Notes
[a] With a noun phrase compIement feel has the meaning 'have the sensation of being...'; but
with an adjective complement, it has not only this meaning (as in She fell ill), but also the
meaning of 'cause a sensation...', as in The table felt rough.
[b]The noun phrase following act as, count as, pose as, pass for and similar combinations is in a
copular relation with the subject, and these combinations may be reasonably described as
'copular prepositional verbs' on the analogy of intransitive and transitive prepositional verbs.
Corresponding to these constructions with current meaning are resulting copular prepositional
verbs such as change into, grow into, and turn into, with the general meaning of 'become'. Note the
near-synonymy of He turned traitor and He turned into a traitor.
[c] One or two verbs such as make and part can appear with a noun phrase complement, but not
with an adjective phrase complement:
They parted the best of friends.
They make a charming couple.
5.2.3. Adjectival subject complement
Copular verbs fall into two main classes, according to whether the subject complement has the
role of CURRENT ATTRIBUTE or of RESULTING ATTRIBUTE. The distinction is illustrated below with an
adjectival complement:
CURRENT:
The girl seemed very restless.
RESULTING: The girl became very restless.
The following is a fairly full list of verbs regularly used in this pattern, together with typical
adjectival complements:
CURRENT
(i) be (friendly) [N]
RESULTING
(iv) become (older) [N]
(ii) appear (happy) [N]
feel (annoyed) [N]
look (pretty) [N]
seem (very restless) [N]
come (true)
end up (happy) [N]
Set (ready)
SO (sour)
smell (sweet)
sound (surprised) [N]
taste (bitter)
grow (tired)
Prove (rather useful) [N]
turn (cold) [N]
remain (uncertain) [N]
keep (silent)
stay (motionless) [N]
turn out (fortunate) [N]
End up, turn out, and wind up are copular phrasal verbs. The verbs marked [N] in the list also occur
with a noun phrase complement.
63
Some examples are given below, with typical adjective complements:
CURRENT
(v) burn (low)
stand up (straight)
loom (large)
play (rough) [N]
plead (innocent)
rest (assured)
stand (firm) [N]
RESULTING
(vi) blush (bright red)
fall (silent)
fall down (dead)
freeze (solid)
run (wild)
slam (shut)
spring (open)
5.2.4. Adverbial complement
Adverbials are usually adjuncts (i.e. they can be removed and a well-formed sentence remains).
If, however, an adverbial is a necessary sentence element, then it is an adverbial complement.
Adverbial complements often occur with a form of the copula be acting as a clause's main verb.
The structure of the sentence below is (SUBJECT + VERB + ADVERBIAL COMPLEMENT)
The milk seems off. ['sour'] <informal>
The performance is over.
In technology we are ahead.
I am behind in my rent.
The television is still on.
He imagined himself ahead.
I declare this meeting over.
They let us off.
5.2.5. Prepositional complement
As complementation of a verb or an adjective, the preposition is more closely related to the
preceding word (look at, sorry for), which determines its choice, than to the prepositional
complement.
We were looking at his awful paintings.
I'm sorry for his parents.
That-clauses can often become in effect prepositional complements through the use of an
appositive construction with a 'general' noun such as fact often resulting in a rather clumsy
expression:
They convinced him of the fact that they needed more troops.
The distinction between obligatory adjunct and complement is not clear-cut for all prepositional
phrases.
64
Some prepositional phrases are semantically similar to adjective or noun phrases functioning as
complement:
They were out of breath.
That is of no importance.
He is under suspicion.
She is in good health.
They are not at ease.
More importantly, such prepositional phrases can be coordinated with, or placed in apposition with,
adjective phrases that undoubtedly function as complement:
She is young and in good health.
They were out of breath and extremely tired.
They are not at ease, ie not relaxed.
Here are other examples of prepositional phrases functioning as subject complement:
They are in love.
We're over the worst.
The demonstration got out of hand.
He feels at home.
That child seems in trouble.
I don't feel up to it.
The house seems in good condition.
He sounds in great danger.
We similarly find prepositional phrases functioning as object complement:
They put me at my ease. ['I'm at my ease.']
I don't consider myself at risk.
He didn't feel himself at home.
She didn't want me in any danger.
He imagined himself on the point of death.
I found him in trouble.
65
5.3. OBJECT COMPLEMENTS
An object complement tells us more about the object by means of the verb. In the examples
below the sentence elements are (SUBJECT + VERB + OBJECT + COMPLEMENT). Object
complements can often be removed leaving a well-formed sentence, thus the use of the term
complement is slightly illogical.
We elected him chairman.
We painted the house red.
An object complement can be a noun, pronoun, or adjective that follows and modifies a direct
object. It can describe, clarify, re-name, or show completion of a process. It is most often used
with verbs involving judgment, nomination, or creation.
My son painted his room blue. (Blue modifies the direct object room.)
The clown made the children very excited. (The participle excited describes children.)
Prepositional phrases functioning as object complement:
They put me at my ease. ['I'm at my ease.']
I don't consider myself at risk. She didn't want me in any danger.
He didn't feel himself at home.
I found him in trouble.
Object complement following prepositional verb
The preposition as designates a copular relation, particularly in specifying a role or status associated
with the direct object:
The church condemned the relic as a fraud.
Following a complex transitive verb and a direct object, the prepositional complement may be
termed a 'prepositional object complement' in the same way as the noun phrase following a
transitive prepositional verb is called a prepositional object:
He was considered a genius/ to be a genius./
We considered him as a genius/ to be a genius.
Consider as, like regard as, class as, etc, therefore exemplifies a type of prepositional verb followed by
a prepositional object complement rather than a prepositional object. Occasionally the preposition
for occurs in this copular function, instead of as:
He took these words as evidence.
He took me for a fool.
Most verbs can also introduce an adjective phrase in the function of prepositional object
complement:
The experts rated his paintings (as) poor but representative of their class.
They classed Jane as partially sighted.
A more acceptable construction is obtained by adding the word being before the adjective phrase,
and thereby converting the prepositional complement into a nominal -ing clause:
The media described the situation as being hopeless.
66
5.4. SEMANTIC ROLE OF COMPLEMENTS
The word "attribute" can refer to:

In philosophy, property, an abstraction of a characteristic of an entity or substance;

In art, an object that identifies a figure, most commonly referring to objects held by saints
- see emblem;

In social sciences, a characteristic of a variable;

In linguistics, a syntax unit, either a word, phrase or clause, that modifies a noun.
The typical semantic role of a subject complement and an object complement is that of ATTRIBUTE. We
can distinguish two subtypes of role for the attribute:
IDENTIFICATION:
Kevin is my brother.
Brenda became their accountant.
His response to the reprimand seemed a major reason for his dismissal.
Henry's room is the one next to mine.
CHARACTERIZATION:
Dwight is an honest man.
The soup is too hot.
Martha was a good student.
Daniel remains helpful.
The operation seemed a success.
Three syntactic features are associated with this semantic distinction:
(a)
Only identification attributes normally allow reversal of subject and complement without affecting
the semantic relations in the clause, if the copula is BE:
Kevin is my brother.
~ My brother is Kevin.
(b) Only characterization attributes can also be realized by adjective phrases.
(c) Identification attributes are normally associated with definite noun phrases. Noun phrases used
as characterization attributes are normally indefinite.
I made Maurice my assistant. ~ Maurice is my assistant. ~ My assistant is Maurice.
IDENTIFICATION:
They called their daughter Edna.
She considers Susan her role model.
We made John our representative.
CHARACTERIZATION:
The teacher called their daughter a good student.
I consider the operation a success.
She made them comfortable.
67
We can further subdivide attributes into current or existing attributes (normally with verbs used
statively) and resulting attributes, resulting from the event described by the verb (with verbs used
dynamically).
Here are examples of the distinction for both subject and object complements:
CURRENT
ATTRIBUTE
He's my brother.
He seems unhappy.
She remained silent.
I want my food hot.
We lay quiet.
We felt cold.
I prefer my coffee black.
They consider me their closest friend.
RESULTING
We became restless.
He turned traitor.
He felt ill.
ATTRIBUTE
They elected him president.
The heat turned the milk sour.
He drives me mad.
Notes
[a] If the identification attribute is a noun phrase with an optionally omitted determiner,
subject-complement reversal cannot occur:
Joan is president of the company. Contrast:
Joan is the president of the company. ~ The president of the company is Joan.
[b]
A subject complement may be realized by a genitive noun phrase:
That writing must be Tom's.
[subjective genitive – agentive role]
That newspaper is mine.
The idea was Kathy's.
[possessive genitive – recipient]
[genitive of attribute – recipient]
[c] The notion of characterization extends to various measure and extent phrases:
Now she is thirteen (years old). The paperback is three dollars.
He is six foot (tail).
The envelope is one ounce.
Similar to these are expressions that denote time or period:
It's five o'clock.
I'm your age.
The house is seventeenth century ['seventeenth-century style'].
Bibliography






Cmeciu, Camelia (2007): Lectures on Concepts of English Syntax, Ed. EduSoft, Bacău.
Greenbaum, Sidney and Quirk, Randolph (1990): A Student's Grammar of the English Language,
Pearson Education Ltd
Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G., Svartvik, J. (1985): A Comprehensive Grammar of the English
Language, London, New York, Longman
Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complement
http://www.ldc.upenn.edu/Catalog/docs/LDC2006T01/manuals/en/t-layer/html/ch06s10s01.html
http://www.ldc.upenn.edu/Catalog/docs/LDC2006T01/manuals/en/t-layer/html/ch06s10s02.html
68
6. OBJECTS
6.1. DEFINITIONS & CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF OBJECTS
In grammar, the object denotes somebody or something involved in the subject's
"performance" of the verb.
Objects fall into three classes: direct objects, prepositional objects, and nonprepositional indirect objects1.

Some grammarians apply the term 'object' exclusively to the first (or only) object;

Others apply the term 'direct object' to an indirect object if it is the only object (e.g.:
you in I'll show you or his children in He's teaching his children);

Likewise, the term 'indirect object' is applied to the corresponding prepositional
phrases (e.g.: for me in Pour a drink for me), though it seems more reasonable to
use the term 'prepositional object' for such phrases.
6.1.1. Criteria for direct and indirect objects
a. Form
The direct object can be a noun phrase (NP) or a clause (finite clauses or nonfinite clauses).
b. Position
A direct object, being an obligatory element for a transitive verb, is placed next to this type of verb
(Quirk, 1995: 724-726).
He had made firm rebellion against her proposal.
I gave him [Oi] my address [Od].
i) The object function requires the objective form for pronouns that have distinctive case forms:
They amuse me [Od]. I amuse them [Od].
They gave me [Oi] some chocolate. I gave them [Oi] some chocolate.
ii) If an object is coreferential with the subject, it usually requires a reflexive pronoun which
agrees with the subject in person and, where relevant, in number and gender. Similar agreement
is required for an emphatic genitive (my own, etc) within the object:
You [S] can please yourself [Oi].
I [S] have given myself [Oi] a treat.
They [S] type their own letters [Od].
iii) The object of an active clause may generally become the subject of the corresponding passive
clause:
We have finished the work [Od]. ~ The work [S] has been finished.
1
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object_(grammar).
69
If both objects are present, it is often possible to make either the subject in a corresponding passive
clause:
We sent Jack [Oi] a copy of the letter [Od].
~ Jack [S] was sent a copy of the letter [0d].
~ A copy of the letter [S] was sent to Jack [Oi].
[1]
[2]
Instead of the retained indirect object in [2], the prepositional paraphrase is more usual:
A copy of the letter was sent to Jack.
[2a]
iv) The indirect object generally corresponds to a prepositional phrase, which is generally placed
after the direct object:
I'll send Charles another copy. ~ I'll send another copy to Charles.
Pour me a drink. ~ Pour a drink/or me.
v) The indirect object can generally be omitted without affecting the semantic relations between
the other elements:
David saved me a seat. ~ David saved a seat.
Hence, if there is only one object present, it is generally the direct object. But with a few verbs that are
normally ditransitive, the indirect object may be retained while the direct object is omitted. In that case
the only object present is the indirect object:
Bob is teaching the older children.
You can pay me instead.
c. Semantic properties
i) The direct object typically refers to an entity that is affected by the action denoted in the clause:
Norman smashed a window in his father's car.
ii) The indirect object typically refers to an animate being that is the recipient of the action. It also
applies to retained indirect objects in passive clauses:
No reply has been given to me.
The identity of the direct object can be tested in an independent declarative clause through a whquestion with who or what; fronting of the wh-item and subject-operator inversion are required:
The buzzer signals the end of the game (Od). ~ What [Od] does [op] the buzzer [SI
signal?
6.1.2. Definition & characteristic features of prepositional objects
“The prepositional object can be defined as a secondary part of the sentence completing the
meaning of a verb in the sentence, of a noun or of an adjective and consisting of a noun or of a
noun-equivalent preceded by a preposition.” (Bantaş, 1977: 146)
The prepositional object is closely connected with verbs or adjectives that take obligatory
prepositions.
I was in the kitchen all day long. [in the kitchen = adverbial modifier of place]
I succeeded in convincing him. [in convincing = prepositional object]
I was afraid of his rude attitude. [of his rude attitude = prepositional object]
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Prepositional verbs
Examples of prepositional verbs used with noun phrases as prepositional object are:
account for
consent to
preach about/on
add to
adjust to
contribute to
deal with
provide for
quarrel about/with
admit to
agree with/on/to
decide on
dwell (up)on
read about
refer to
aim at/for
allow for
apply for
concentrate on
conform to
enlarge rely on
object to
part with
pay for
pray for
run for
speak about/ on
take to
think about/of
wish for
Phrasal-prepositional verbs
PHRASAL-PREPOSITIONAL VERBS also take a prepositional object. Such verbs can occur in the
passive (eg: She dealt with the problem ~ The problem was dealt with).
The verbs marked [P] can fairly readily occur in the passive:
break
in
on
(someone's
come down with (a cold)
look out for ['watch for']
conversation)
keep away from ['avoid']
cut down on (expenses)
look up to ['respect'] [P]
(someone's conversation)
keep up with (the Joneses)
do away with ['abolish'] [P]
catch up on (my reading)
put up with ['tolerate'] [P]
look down on ['despise'] [P]
face up to ['confront'] [P]
catch up with ['overtake']
get away with (a crime)
look forward to ['anticipate with
get down to (serious talk)
turn out for (a meeting)
pleasure']
Prepositional objects have a close connection with the preceding verb:
Mary stood looking at herself in the mirror.
He thinks too much of himself.
They take too much upon themselves.
We also have prepositional phrases following a noun
which refers to
art, a story, etc:
Every writer's first novel is basically a story about himself.
Rembrandt painted many remarkable portraits of himself.
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a work of
6.2. WAYS OF EXPRESSING OBJECTS
6.2.1. Direct and indirect objects
a. Noun phrases
Object noun phrases are expressed by an indirect object, which is normally animate and positioned
first, and a direct object, which is normally concrete.
He gave the girl a doll
S
V
0i
Od
Direct objects are typically noun phrases which may become the subject of a corresponding passive
clause:
You stole the money.
Tom caught the ball. ~ The ball was caught (by Tom).
We can divide verbs with one object into semantic groups according to the kinds of subject and
object that they take:
(i) Typically animate subject + typically concrete object (carry , cover, examine, see, win, clean, eat,
stop, watch, write):
Professor Dobbs won the prize. ~ The prize was won (by Professor Dobbs).
(ii) Typically animate subject + either concrete or abstract object (abolish
define
explain
invent report utter cover discuss forget lose rule):
Everybody understood the problem. ~ The problem was understood (by everybody).
(iii) Typically animate subject + typically animate object (admire despise hug kiss reject ridicule flatter
kill meet respect support):
Mrs. Wood liked the new neighbours. ~ The new neighbours were liked (by Mrs. Wood).
(iv) Typically concrete or abstract subject + animate object (affect
bother fascinate satisfy trouble
deceive grieve please surprise):
The news shocked our family. ~ Our family was shocked (by the news).
The following is a sample of monotransitive phrasal verbs with typical objects.
back up ['support' someone] let down ['disappoint' someone]
make up (a story)
break (negotiations)
bring about (a change)
burn down (a house)
put across (an idea)
put off (an appointment)
fill out (a form)
knock down (someone)
turn off (the light)
win over ['convince' someone]
b. substantivized adjective or past participle
We should help the blind. He kissed his beloved on the cheek.
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c. Pronouns
I would have given that to him.
They saw him in the distance, but ignored him.
He would say nothing about her secret.
I’ll tell you1/ what I know2/.
d. Finite verb phrases
He told me1/ that he had brought us presents. 2/
He asked me1/ what my opinion about his departure was. 2/
e. Fonfinite verb phrases
- Gerundial constructions:
I don't remember 1/ putting it in my pocket again 2/.
- Infinitival constructions:
1. Accusative + Infinitive
The major verbal triggers of the Accusative + Infinitive construction are:
- causative verbs: to get, to let, to make, to have, to cause (cause uses the pattern verb
+ NP + to-infinitive)
They let 1/ me set foot on their property. 2/
He made1/ her beg forgiveness. 2/
- verbs of physical perception: to see, to hear, to listen, to watch, to feel. The
construction with the Infinitive expresses a completed action, whereas the
construction with the Participle shows an action in progress.
They heard1/ me sing that song. 2/ [‘They heard that I sang that song.’]
I saw 1/John open the gate. 2/
- verbs of propositional attitude (mental perception): to assume, to believe, to consider,
to judge, to feel, to find.
We considered him to have been the traitor. [Accusative + Perfect Infinitive].
- verbs of liking and disliking: to want, to like, to love
I wanted him to have brought me something from his trip.
I hate slaves to be tortured. [Accusative + Passive Infinitive]
2. FOR-TO constructions
The major triggers of the For-to Infinitive construction are:
- verbs of liking and disliking: to love, to hate, to prefer etc.
I would like for my sister to stop lying to everybody.
- exercitive verbs: to plead, to pray, to ask, to call, to shout
We pleaded for him to be let off.
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6.2.2. Ways of expressing the prepositional object
a. Nouns (common, proper nouns)
He got interested in that topic.
They have been waiting for the guests for several hours.
She thought of her childhood when she saw the movie.
b. Pronouns
They have been fighting against each other. (indefinite pronoun)
I was afraid of him. (personal pronoun)
I was ashamed of nothing. (negative pronoun)
c. Finite verb phrase
They prevented us 1/ from what could have been a disaster.2/
I’m looking forward 1/to what he promised. 2/
d. Nonfinite verb phrase
- Gerund
I was satisfied 1/ with Rob’s/ Rob accepting our generous offer. 2/
I’m afraid 1/ of his having brought only nuisance to his family. 2/
- Infinitive
He was afraid1/ to utter any word. 2/
I was pleased 1/ to have seen him after so many years. 2/
6.3. CLASSIFICATION OF DIRECT OBJECTS
The criterion of structure/ composition
1. Simple direct objects are expressed by a single word, determined by attributes or by a
relative clause:
He lifted his sparkling eyes up towards the sky.
2. Coordinated direct objects are two or several nouns or noun-equivalents in the
accusative case connected by conjunctions. (Bantas, 1977: 119)
The Hungarian was given top-boots, cigars and resin to make the ends of his
moustache stiff.
3. Compound direct objects are similar in structure and function to coordinated objects
but dissimilar in that the two or several nouns refer to only one person, object or abstract notion:
They offered me bed and breakfast. I invited my friend and confessor.
4. Complex direct objects refer to finite and nonfinite verb phrases.
I consider 1/ him my enemy. 2 /
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6.4. COMBINATIONS OF OBJECTS IN COMPLEMENTATION
Alongside combination based on direct and indirect object patterns, two main prepositional
patterns may be distinguished:
Indirect object + direct object.
[1]
Direct object + prepositional object.
[2a]
Indirect object + prepositional object.
[2b]
The indirect object is normally animate, and is the recipient or beneficiary of the process described by
the verb. Unlike ditransitive verbs of category (eg: give), ditransitive verbs with prepositional objects
normally have only one passive:
We addressed our remarks to the children. [2a] ~ Our remarks were addressed to the
children.
We reminded him of the agreement. [2b] ~ He was reminded of the agreement.
Some verbs have all three possibilities of construction in the active; many have two; for others there
is only one possibility (in some cases the alternatives are not identical but very similar in meaning):
tell
[1 + 2a + 2b]
Mary told only John the secret.
Mary told the secret only to John.
Mary told only John about the secret.
[1 ]
[2a]
[2b]
offer [1 + 2a]
John offered Mary some help.
John offered some help to Mary
[1 ]
[2a]
envy [1 + 2b]
She envied John his success.
She envied John for his success.
[1]
[2b]
wish [1]
They wished him good luck.
[1 ]
blame[D2n + 2b]
Helen blamed the divorce on John.
Helen blamed John for the divorce.
[2a]
[2b]
say
Why didn't anybody say this to me?
[2a]
Mary warned John of the dangers.
[2b]
[D2a]
warn [D2b]
THAT-cIause as object
The conjunction in THAT-clauses which function as object may be zero, as in:
/ hope he arrives soon.
Indirect object + THAT-clause object
For some ditransitive verbs, the direct object is a that-clause:
John convinced me (that) he was right. ~ I was convinced (by John) (that) he was right.
75
Ditransitive verbs followed by a THAT-clause may be divided into a subtype introducing an indirect
statement, and a subtype introducing an indirect directive.
INDIRECT STATEMENT: May I inform you that your order is ready for collection?
INDIRECT DIRECTIVE: (might be "] She petitioned the king that her father < should be [pardoned.
Prepositional object + THAT-clause object
For most verbs which permit a prepositional object, the preposition is to:
He wrote to me...
He reported to me that... etc
Exceptions are ask and beg, which (in somewhat formal usage) are followed by the preposition of:
I ask/ beg of you that you will keep this secret. <formal>
Indirect object + finite THAT-clause object
This pattern of complementation is primarily found with the verb ask, which introduces a
reported question:
John asked me what time the meeting would end. ~ I was asked (by John) what time the
meeting would end.
Indirect object + infinitive clause object
There are some complementation patterns with verbs that introduce Wh-clause objects (advise,
ask, instruct, remind, show, teach, tell, warn) or with verbs which introduce indirect directives
The instructor taught us how to land safely.
They advised him what to wear in the tropics.
I told/ advised/ persuaded Mark to see a doctor. ~ Mark was told (advised) I persuaded
to see a doctor.
The equivalent prepositional verb pattern is illustrated by suggest to, recommend to:
Could you please suggest to the visitors which museums to visit!
PREPOSITIONAL VERBS WITH TWO OBJECTS
There is an opposition applied both to phrasal and to prepositional verbs, depending on their
possibility of taking or not an object: TYPE I (without Od); TYPE II (with Od)
PHRASAL VERB Please drink up. Please drink it up.
PREPOSITIONAL
He invested in property.
He invested his money in property.
VERB
Type II prepositional verbs are followed by two noun phrases, normally separated by the
preposition: the former is the direct object, the latter the prepositional object. Three subtypes may
be distinguished:
TYPE IIa
The gang robbed her of her necklace.
He deprived the peasants of 'their land.
Jenny thanked us for the present.
76
TYPE IIb:
They ha.ve made a (terrible) mess of the house.
Did you make (any) allowance for inflation?
Mary took (good) care of 'the children.
TYPE IIc
Suddenly we caught sight of the lifeboat.
Give way to traffic on the major road.
I have lost touch with most of the family.
The first and most numerous type has a passive of the regular kind, the direct object becoming
subject of the passive verb phrase:
She was robbed of her necklace (by the gang). The peasants were deprived of 'their land.
With Type IIb, there are two possible passives: the regular passive in which the direct object
becomes subject (1), and a less acceptable passive construction in which the prepositional object
becomes subject (2):
(1)A (terrible) mess has been made of the house.
(2)(?)The house has been made a (terrible) mess of.
(1)Has (any) allowance been made for inflation?
(2)?Has inflation been made allowance for?
In Type IIc, on the other hand, the only acceptable passive is the irregular passive in which the
prepositional object becomes subject:
The lifeboat was suddenly caught sight of.
Traffic on the major road should always be given way to.
PHRASAL-PREPOSITIONAL VERBS WITH OBJECTS
There is a further major category of multi-word verbs which will be called PHRASAL-PREPOSITIONAL
verbs, because they contain, in addition to the lexical verb, both an adverb and a preposition as
particles.
There are three binary contrasts, expressed in the formula:
verb + direct object + adverb + preposition
These combinations are largely restricted to informal English:
We are looking forward to your party on Saturday.
He had to put up with a lot of teasing at school.
He thinks he can get away with everything.
The prepositional passive with such verbs is not too common, and is liable to sound cumbersome.
Examples such as the following, however, are normal and acceptable:'
These tantrums could not be put up with any longer.
['tolerated']
Such problems must be squarely faced up to. ['confronted']
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6.5. SEMANTIC ROLES OF OBJECTS
The most typical role of the direct object is that of the AFFECTED (PATIENT and OBJECTIVE)
participant: a participant (animate or inanimate) which does not cause the happening denoted by the
verb, but is directly involved in some other way:
Many MPs criticized the Prime Minister. James sold his digital watch yesterday.
The most typical role of the indirect object is that of the RECIPIENT participant (DATIVE): ie of the
animate being that is passively implicated by the happening or state:
I've found you a place.
We paid them the money.
Resultant objects
A RESULTANT (or 'effected’ or ''object of result') object is an object whose referent exists only by
virtue of the activity indicated by the verb:
Baird invented television.
They are designing a new car.
Contrast:
She cooked a meal [resultant]
I'm digging the ground
She cooked some carrots [affected] I'm digging a hole.
Cognate objects
A COGNATE object is similar to a resultant object in that it refers to an event indicated by the
verb:
Chris will sing a song for us.
She lived a good life.
The noun head is semantically and often morphologically related to the verb, and its function is
merely to repeat, wholly or partially, the meaning of the verb.
Eventive object
A frequent type of object generally takes the form of a deverbal noun
preceded by a common verb of general meaning, such as do, give, have,
make, take. This EVENTIVE object is semantically an extension of the verb and bears the major
part of the meaning. Compare:
They are arguing [verb only]
They are having an argument [verb + eventive object]
I gave them some advice.
Sarah is doing her homework.
Instrumental object
The object may occasionally be instrumental:
We employ a computer for our calculations.
She is playing the piano.
Occasionally, the notion of instrument is incorporated into the verb:
He headed the ball into the goal. ['He hit the ball with his head ...']
He kicked the ball into the goal. ['He hit the ball with his foot...']
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Locative object
The direct object may have a LOCATIVE role with such verbs as walk, swim, pass, jump, turn,
leave, reach, surround, cross, climb:
We walked the streets. ['We walked through the streets.']
She swam the river. ['She swam across the river.']
He passed a cyclist. ['He passed by a cyclist.']
The horse jumped the fence. [The horse jumped over the fence.']
Though these objects may seem to be adverbials with an omitted preposition (cf: We stayed
three days), their status as objects is clear, however, from their ability to assume subject role in
a corresponding passive clause.
The fence was jumped by the horse.
We should include here locative objects after such verbs as occupy and inhabit, where no
preposition can be inserted:
We occupy a spacious apartment.
They had inhabited the island for over a century.
Eventive object
A frequent type of object generally takes the form of a deverbal noun preceded by a common verb
of general meaning, such as do, give, have, make, take. This EVENTIVE object is semantically an
extension of the verb and bears the major part of the meaning.
Compare:
They are arguing [verb only]
They are having an argument [verb + eventive object]
The more frequent eventive object can sometimes be related to a cognate object in that it substitutes
for the major lexical meaning of the verb whereas the cognate object repeats the lexical meaning.
Compare:
They fought for a long time [verb + adverbial]
They fought a long fight [verb + cognate object]
They had a long fight [verb + eventive object]
Affected indirect object
The indirect object normally takes the role of recipient. It occasionally takes an affected role with a
few of the verbs that combine with an eventive object. The most common verb in the latter
construction is give:
She gave me a push. ['She pushed me.']
We gave the baby a bath. ['We bathed the baby.']
I should give the car a wash. ['I should wash the car.']
Give the car a push. ['Push the car.']
Judith paid me a visit. ['Judith visited me.']
79
Bibliography
Cmeciu, Camelia (2007): Lectures on Concepts of English Syntax, Ed. EduSoft, Bacău.
Greenbaum, Sidney and Quirk, Randolph (1990): A Student's Grammar of the English
Language, Pearson Education Ltd.
 Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G., Svartvik, J. (1985): A Comprehensive Grammar of the
English Language, London, New York, Longman.
 Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object_(grammar).


EXERCISES
I.
II.
Provide objects for the verbs to dream, to die, to press, to eat, to dig, to light.
Identify the constructions:
He sees us fighting with him.
His fighting cruelly annoyed us. – His cruel fighting annoyed us.
While fighting, he broke his leg. – On fighting, he broke his leg.
The fighting man was my uncle.
I believe Tom to have fought against the French.
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7. ADVERBIALS vs. ADVERBIAL MODIFIERS
SYNTACTIC AND SEMANTIC FUNCTIONS OF ADVERBS
7.1. ADVERBIALS
Adverbials are the most diverse of the clause elements, and we therefore distinguish several
major types.
7.1.1. Characteristics and functions
7.1.1.1. Form
The adverbial is normally an adverb phrase, prepositional phrase, or adverbial clause. It may
also be a noun phrase.
Adverbials can take the following forms:

simple adverb (or adverb phrase): everywhere, always, very…

noun phrase: (We go) every day.

prepositional phrase: (Come) into the garden.

verbless clause: If possible, ...

nonfinite clause: Thinking about it ….

finite clause: When I realized …
7.1.1.2. Position
In general, the adverbial is capable of occurring in more than one position in the clause.
Constraints on its mobility depend on the type and form of the adverbial.
The adverbial in the SVA type normally follows the subject and verb, and the adverbial in the
SVOA type normally follows the direct object. Other predication adjuncts normally appear at the
end of the clause.
7.1.1.3. Syntactic function
a) Except for the obligatory adverbial in the SVA and SVOA types, adverbials are optional: they
may be added to or removed from the clause without affecting its acceptability and without
affecting the relations of structure and meaning in the rest of the clause.
b) Other syntactic potentialities depend crucially on the type of adverbial. At the most general
level, the adverbial may be characterized negatively: it does not have the syntactic features
listed for the other clause elements.
7.1.1.4. Semantic properties
The adverbial refers to the circumstances of the situation (adjunct and subjunct), comments on
the form or content of the clause (disjunct), or provides a link between clauses (conjunct). A
more specific semantic characterization relates to the semantic subtypes of adverbials. The term
'adjunct' is sometimes applied by others to all types of adverbial.
81
7.1.2. TYPES OF ADVERBIALS
7.1.2.1. ADJUNCTS and SUBJUNCTS are relatively integrated within the structure of the clause. By
contrast, disjuncts and conjuncts have a more peripheral relation in the sentence.
ADJUNCT is a type of adverbial indicating the circumstances of the action. Adjuncts may be
obligatory or optional. They express such relations as time, place, manner, reason,
condition, i.e. they are answers to the questions where, when, how and why.
He lives in Brazil (place adjunct).
She was walking slowly (manner adjunct), since she was in no hurry
(adjunct of
reason).
Slowly they walked back home. He spoke to me about it briefly.
We apply the term SUBJUNCTS to adverbials which have, to a greater or lesser degree, a
subordinate role in comparison with other clause elements. They are semantically
subordinate either to a clause or a sentence or to a part of the clause. Examples of subjuncts:
We haven't yet finished.
Would you kindly wait for me.
Semantically, DISJUNCTS are evaluative; they express the speaker's judgement of the truth
of the utterance (modal disjuncts, e.g. probably, certainly, maybe), the speaker's evaluation
of a fact (fact-evaluating disjuncts, e.g. fortunately, actually, to my surprise), the speaker's
comment on his/her own wording of the sentence (e.g. briefly, in other words, to tell you the
truth), or the speaker’s comment on the subject referent (subject-evaluating disjuncts, e.g.
Wisely, she spent the money = 'she was wise to spend the money'). We identify disjuncts with
the speaker's authority for, or comment on, the accompanying clause.
Frankly, I'm tired.
Fortunately, no one complained.
They are probably at home.
She wisely didn't attempt to apologize.
bind together sentences, and express the speaker's assessment of the relation
between two linguistic units: contrast (however, on the other hand), similarity (likewise,
CONJUNCTS
similarly), continuation (furthermore, moreover), digression/change of topic (anyway),
sequence (first, to begin with, secondly, finally, to conclude). Conjuncts can also be
described as text organizers, in that they guide the hearer/reader through the text, showing
how the different pieces hang together, and where they belong in the text.
She has bought a big house, so she must have a lot of money.
We have complained several times about the noise, and yet he does nothing about it.
All our friends are going to Paris this summer. We, however, are going to London.
If they open all the windows, then I'm leaving.
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7.1.2.2. Obligatory adverbials: subject-related and object-related adverbials
Obligatory adverbials are a subclass of predication adjuncts that belong to the SVA and SVOA
types and represent central elements of the clause.
They may be adverb phrases, prepositional phrases, or adverbial clauses. Some obligatory
adverb phrases and prepositional phrases may be analysed as complements, belonging to the
SVC and SVOC types.
Obligatory adverbials are commonly required as complementation for the verb BE in the SVA
type, but they are also found as complementation for other verbs. The adverbials in this type are
subject-related. Many are space adjuncts that designate the position of the referent of the
subject:
Your children are outside.
Our car isn't in the garage.
We are now living in a small village.
The plane's off the ground.
Dorothy is remaining at Oxford.
Sam is staying at a nearby motel.
Your scarf is lying on the floor.
Some express other types of space relations:
We got off the train.
We all got into my car.
All roads lead to Rome.
The lawn goes all the way around the house.
The hills extend from here into the next county.
Time adjuncts commonly co-occur with an eventive subject:
Their holiday extended through the summer.
The next meeting is on Monday.
The last performance was at eight o'clock.
The play lasts for three hours.
On the conditions for omitting the prepositions in the last three examples. We briefly exemplify
other semantic types of obligatory adverbials in:
The two eggs are for you.
[recipient]
The drinks ate for the journey. [purpose]
If fruit prices are higher this year, it's because [reason] of the bad harvest.
Transport to the mainland is by ferry. [means]
Entrance was by special invitation only. [means]
Payment is by cash only.
[means]
Melvin's main interest is in sport.
[stimulus]
Jack and Nora are with me. [accompaniment]
The painting was by an unknown artist. [agent]
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The connection of subject-related adverbial with subject is parallel to that of subject complement
with subject:
Ronald is off cigarettes. [S V A]
Ann is happy. [S V C]
Similarly, the connection of object-related adverbial to direct object parallels that of object
complement with direct object:
We kept Ronald off cigarettes. [S V Od A]
We kept Ann happy. [S V Od C]
Here are examples of object-related adverbials:
I put the kettle on the stove. ['The kettle is now on the stove.']
They are placing the blame on us.
I'm keeping most of my money in the bank.
I stuck the wallet in the drawer.
He set the typewriter on the table.
He directed his speech at the workers.
She wants the payment in dollars.
7.2. ADVERBIAL MODIFIERS
Whereas direct objects and prepositional objects are considered obligatory elements,
adverbial modifiers are identified as adjuncts because they have an optional relation with the
verb. They modify another part of the sentence, expressed by a verb, an adverb, an
adjective etc. The main classes of adverbial modifiers and clauses are:
7.2.1. Adverbial modifiers of time & adverbial clauses of time
Adverbial modifiers of time can be subdivided into:
- adverbial modifiers of definite time expressed by adverbs (yesterday, tomorrow,
-
today) and adverbial phrases (last week, three days ago, three days before).
adverbial modifiers of indefinite time expressed by adverbs (just, recently, lately) and
adverbial phrases (in recent time, in the last time).
-
adverbial modifiers of frequency expressed by adverbs (usually, generally, always,
often, seldom etc.). They are used with present tense simple or past tense simple,
expressing habitual actions or habitual actions in the past.
I usually reject proposals coming from this man.
As usual, I slept late that Saturday morning.
- Adverbial modifiers of time can be introduced by connective adverbs or conjunctions
(when, whenever, while, as, till, until, after, as soon as, before, since).
- Adverbial clauses of time can be expressed by:
1. finite verb phrases
I shall speak to you1/ when I come back.2/
I shall speak to you1/ after I have come back.2/
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2. nonfinite verb phrases
Before sitting down, 1/ we took our coats off. 2/ (1 = adverbial clause of time,
expressed by a present participle)
Having received the exam results, 1/ he was very happy. 2/ (1 = adverbial
clause of time, expressed by a perfect participle)
On receiving his letter, 1/ he saw 2/ that he was accepted at Yale. 3/ (1 =
adverbial clause of time, introduced by the preposition on and expressed by a
gerund.)
7.2.2. Adverbial modifiers of manner & adverbial clauses of manner
A distinction can be drawn between adverbial modifiers of manner proper and adverbial
modifiers of degree.
He has been eating slowly.
He was absolutely/ very/ completely honest.
Adverbial modifiers of degree show the degree, extent, measure, intensity of an adjective or
another adverbial modifier.
- adverbial clause of result/ manner (the action expressed by the Present Participle is
a part of the one expressed in the main clause or is a result of it):
He rushed out, slamming the door.
- adverbial clause of manner
He was lying in the grass watching the people passing by.
7.2.3. Adverbial modifiers of comparison & adverbial clauses of comparison
The adverbial modifier can be interpreted as a simile. It can also be used in
constructions with a degree of comparison.
He is as cool as a cucumber.
His house is bigger than mine.
- Adverbial clauses of comparison are introduced by conjunctions (as, so, than, more than):
She was slender 1/ as a willow shoot is slender. 2/
He draws quite differently 1/ than she does. 2/
7.2.4. Adverbial modifiers of concession & adverbial clauses of concession
Adverbial modifiers of concession can be introduced by prepositions, such as despite, in
spite of.
Despite my apologies, they have never forgiven me.
In spite of his rude attitude, he turned out to be a nice man.
Adverbial clauses of concession show a certain contradiction between them and the main
clauses. They are introduced by conjunctions (although, though, in spite of, despite the fact
that), connective adverbs (however, however long, no matter how), by indefinite pronouns
(whoever, whichever, whatsoever, whoever).
Whoever comes 1/ will be welcomed. 2/
The first part was easy; 1/ the second, however, took hours. 2/
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Despite of my being late, 1/ I could finish the exam. 2/
Try as he might,1/ he will never succeed2/ in passing this exam. 3/
The conjunctions as if, as though introduce adverbial clauses that have a twofold
interpretation: a comparison and the contradiction of reality through concession which show
their hypothetical nature.
7.2.5. Adverbial modifiers of condition & clauses of condition
Adverbial modifiers of condition can be introduced by conjunctions and conjunctive
phrases expressing a positive condition (if, supposing that, on condition that, in case, as long
as) and by conjunctions and conjunctive phrases expressing a negative condition (unless, in
case not)
Adverbial clauses of condition can be expressed by:
1. finite verb phrase
If I were rich, 1/ I would go on a world cruise. 2/
As long as he had arrived, 1/ we would have gone. 2/
2. nonfinite verb phrase
Given time, 1/ he will be too late. 2/ (given = past participle)
All being well, 1/ Ann shouldn’t come. 2/
Weather permitting, 1/ we shall go on a trip. 2/
3. noun
But for her help, 1/ we wouldn’t have succeeded 2/ in getting that job. 3/
7.2.6. Adverbial modifiers of cause/ reason & adverbial clauses of cause/reason –
express the motivation of an action
Because of this rain, our car skidded.
Adverbial clauses of reason are introduced by conjunctions such as since, because, as or
when. This type of adverbial clause imposes the first element in the relation of cause to
effect.
(When) seeing that, 1/ he decided 2/ to leave the house. 3/
Being late, 1/ she decided 2/ to take the bus. 3/
7.2.7. Adverbials of purpose show the idea of finality. They are introduced by conjunctions
or by conjunctional phrases (so that, for fear that, lest, for the purpose that, etc.)
They called Jim1/ so that he may break into that rich woman’s house2/.
He went there1/ in order to patch things up. 2/
She went on tiptoe1/ lest the guard should hear her2/.
7.2.8. Adverbials of result – show the consequence, the result of a certain action. The
adverbial clause of result is introduced by conjunctions (so + adjective/ adverb + that), by
conjunctional phrases (so that)
So popular has the show been 1/ that it isn’t going to close after all. 2/
Such a popularity has the show had 1/ that it isn’t going to close after all. 2/
He was so exhausted1/ so that he turned in2/ the minute the arrived home3/.
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7.3. SYNTACTIC AND SEMANTIC FUNCTIONS OF ADVERBS
There are two types of syntactic functions that characterize traditional adverbs (as lexical word
classes), but an adverb need have only one of these:
a) clause element adverbial:
He quite forgot about it.
An adverb may function in the clause itself as adverbial, ie as an element distinct from subject,
verb, object, and complement. As such, it is usually an optional element and hence peripheral to
the structure of the clause:
Perhaps my suggestion will be accepted.
John always loses his pencils.
They may well complain about his appearance.
I spoke to her outside.
b) premodifier1 of adjective and adverb:
They are quite [happily] married.
The adverb may itself be modified, in which case the adverb phrase as a whole functions as
adverbial or premodifier:
John nearly always loses his pencils.
They may very well complain about his appearance.
The typical functions of the adverb are those of modifier:

of an adjective:
They are very happy.
It was a remarkably good show.
He is stupid enough to do it.

of another adverb:
She drives too fast.
They play so very well.
He gave a far more easily acceptable explanation.
However, not all adverbs that modify adjectives also modify adverbs, and some adverbs may
modify phrases, e.g. noun phrases and prepositional phrases. The most conspicuous example of
an adverb that functions only as a modifier of adjectives and adverbs, and not as a clause
element, is very.
1
The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language (2002): a modifier is an optional element in phrase
structure or clause structure; the removal of the modifier typically does not affect the grammaticality of the
construction. Modifiers can be a word, a phrase or an entire clause. Semantically, modifiers describe and
provide more accurate definitional meaning for another element. A premodifier is a modifier placed before the
head (the modified component). A postmodifier is a modifier placed after the head.
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7.3.1. Modifier of adjective
An adverb may premodify an adjective. Most commonly, the modifying adverb is a scaling
device called an intensifier, which co-occurs with a gradable adjective. We first distinguish
two sets of intensifiers: amplifiers and downtoners.
(a)
AMPLIFIERS scale upwards from an assumed norm, eg 'a very funny film', as
compared with 'a funny film'.
absurdly fussy
amazingly calm
awfully sorry
deeply concerned entirely free
highly intelligent
irretrievably lost
extremely dangerous
perfectly reasonable
sharply critical
too bright
terribly nervous
strikingly handsome
unbelievably smart
(b)
DOWNTONERS have a generally lowering effect, usually scaling downwards from an
assumed norm:
a bit dull
a little extravagant
barely intelligible fairly small
almost impossible
hardly noticeable
nearly dark
rather late
quite normal
somewhat uneasy
pretty rare
relatively small
As in the treatment of adjectives, it may be possible to distinguish another class of adjective
modifiers called EMPHASIZERS, which add to the force (as distinct from the degree) of the
adjective:
She has a really beautiful face.
The play is very good indeed.
He looked all confused.
Unlike intensifiers, emphasizers co-occur with nongradable adjectives, but the effect is often
similar to that of intensifiers:
You are certainly welcome. ['You are very/most welcome.']
The function of many emphasizers is similar to that of disjuncts.
I'm frankly surprised at your behaviour [emphasizer]
Frankly, I'm surprised at your behavior. [disjunct]
Adjunct adverbs are sometimes converted into premodifiers of adjectives. In this position, they
tend to retain their general meaning of manner, means, etc. though they also acquire some
intensifying effect:
an easily debatable proposition ['a proposition that can be easily debated']
his quietly assertive manner
a readily available publication
On the other hand, disjunct adverbs tend to become intensifiers:
surprisingly good
unnaturally long
incredibly beautiful
unusually easy
Apart from intensifiers, premodifying adverbs may be 'viewpoint' subjuncts: politically expedient
['expedient from a political point of view']; artistically justifiable; economically weak; theoretically
sound; technically possible.
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7.3.2. Modifier of adverb
An adverb may premodify another adverb. Similar sets of intensifiers are used for adverbs and
adjectives:
I expect them pretty soon.
They are smoking very heavily.
He spoke extremely quickly.
He played surprisingly well.
As with adjectives, the only postmodifiers are enough and indeed:
He spoke clearly enough ['sufficiently clearly']
She spoke clearly indeed.
Adverbs modifying other adverbs can only be intensifiers.
7.3.3. Modifier of particle, prepositional adverb, and preposition
A few intensifying adverbs, particularly right and well, can premodify particles in phrasal verbs,
as well as prepositions, or (perhaps rather) prepositional phrases:
He knocked the man right out.
They left her well behind.
The nail went right through the wall.
7.3.4. Modifier of pronoun, predeterminer, and numeral
Intensifying adverbs (including downtoners) can premodify:
a)
indefinite pronouns:
Nearly everybody came to our party.
b)
predeterminers:
They recovered roughly half their equipment.
He received about double the amount he expected.
Virtually all the students participated in the discussion.
c) cardinal numerals:
They will stay fully ten weeks ['for ten full weeks']
I paid more/less than ten pounds for it.
As many as fifty candidates had applied for the post.
d) Noun phrases with the indefinite article can be intensified when a(n) is equivalent to the
unstressed cardinal one:
I didn't have more than a dollar on me. ['I had no more than...']
They will stay for about a week.
Nearly/almost (a thousand demonstrators) attended the meeting.
e) With the ordinals and superlatives, a definite determiner is obligatory for premodification:
We counted approximately the first thousand votes.
She gave me almost the largest piece of cake.
f) Modification can also apply to larger units, eg:
The acceleration fell to less than <ten metres per second>.
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7.3.5. Modifier of noun phrase
A few intensifiers may premodify noun phrases and precede the determiner in doing so. The most
common of these among adverbs are quite and rather (esp BrE):
We had quite a party.
They will be here for quite some time.
He was quite some player. They were quite some players.
Some disjunct adverbs and conjunct adverbs occasionally appear within the noun phrase, not
modifying the noun phrase but related to a modifying adjective phrase:
A cure has now been found for this fortunately very rare disease. ['a disease that is
fortunately very rare']
He wrote an otherwise extremely good paper ['a paper that was otherwise extremely good']
Similarly, subjunct adverbs expressing viewpoint appear after the noun phrase and relate to the
premodifying adjective within the phrase:
A <good> paper editorially can also be a good paper commercially.
The more usual form for the sentence is:
An editorially good paper can also be a commercially <good> paper.
Postmodifying adverbs
Postmodifying time adverbs appear to be limited to those denoting time position or time
duration:
TIME:
the meeting yesterday the day before
the meal afterwards their stay overnight
PLACE:
the way ahead
your friend here
his trip abroad
the sentence below
his return home
the players offside
In other cases, both positions are available:
the downstairs hall ~ the hall downstairs
the backstage noise ~ the noise backstage
his home journey ~ his journey home
Many of these postmodifying adverbs can be used predicatively with be:
The noise is backstage. The sentence is below.
The meeting was yesterday.
Premodifying adverbs
The meal was afterwards.
Only a very few adverbs premodify nouns within the noun phrase. There is, for example, an inside
job ['a robbery done by someone connected with the place which has been robbed'], which is not
the same as a job inside.
an away game
in after years inside information
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the then chairman
7.3.6. Adverb as complement of preposition
A number of adverbs signifying place and time function as complement of a preposition. Of
the place adverbs, here and there take the most prepositions
Come over here.
Do you live near here?
Yes, I live over there.
Other prepositions that take here and there as complements are:
along
around
down from
in on round throughunder up
The other place adverbs are restricted to the preposition from, eg:
You've got a letter from abroad.
Other adverbs that function as complement of from are:
behind above/ below/ beneath/ underneath downstairs/upstairs
inside/outside
indoors/ outdoors
within/without
The time adverbs that most commonly function as complement of a preposition are shown in
the figure below.
PREPOSITIONS
ADVERBS
7.3.7. Functional relations and semantic functions of adverbial adjuncts
Adverbial adjuncts establish circumstances for the nuclear constituents of a sentence, which
can be classified as following2:
Temporal adjuncts establish when, for how long or how often a state or action happened or
existed.
He arrived yesterday. (time point)
He stayed for two weeks. (duration)
2
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjunct_(grammar).
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She drinks in that bar every day. (frequency)
Locative adjuncts establish where, to where or from where a state or action happened or
existed.
She sat on the table. (locative)
Modicative adjuncts establish how the action happened or the state existed, or modifying its
scope.
He ran with difficulty. (manner)
He stood in silence. (state)
He helped me with my homework. (limiting)
Causal adjuncts establish the reason for, or purpose of, an action or state.
The ladder collapsed because it was old. (reason)
She went out to buy some bread. (purpose)
Instrumental adjuncts establish the instrument of the action.
He wrote the letter with a pencil.
Conditional adjuncts establish the condition in which a sentence becomes true.
I would go to Paris, if I had the money.
Concessive adjuncts establish the contrary circumstances.
Lorna went out although it was raining.
Bibliography




Cmeciu, Camelia (2007): Lectures on Concepts of English Syntax, Ed. EduSoft,
Bacău.
Greenbaum, Sidney and Quirk, Randolph (1990): A Student's Grammar of the
English Language, Pearson Education Ltd.
Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G., Svartvik, J. (1985): A Comprehensive
Grammar of the English Language, London, New York, Longman.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjunct_(grammar).
Exercises
Pick out the adverbials in the following passage (22) and group them according to the parts
of speech they are expressed by.
Analyse the adverbs in the following text as clause element adverbials and modifiers.
There were piles of papers on the stairs and piles everywhere in the room. He kicked a tidy
heap with his toe. 'That pile,' he said, 'has been there for ten years. The trouble is I work all
the time. There i sn' t time to sort things. I would get around to buying cupboards if I could be
bothered. Somehow life is full of objects that suddenly take over. One week the place is tidy;
and the next week it is too late. Now I can't throw things out.'
Hearing his explanation, I just smiled. I have always thought that it is best, whenever
possible, not to criticize other people. And there was something very impressive about all
that chaos.
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