Language Planning

Transcription

Language Planning

Mitglied der Leibniz‐Gemeinschaft
Language and Colonialism
German in the Pacific
Doris Stolberg, IDS Mannheim
HiSoN Summer School, Aug. 2013 , Metochi / Lesbos
Planned schedule
1. Introduction
2. Language planning and policy
3. Colonial linguistic encounters and their outcomes (language contact)
4. Language and colonialism: Discussion
1. Introduction
• Background: Geography, history, languages
• Current topics in (German) colonial linguistics:
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•
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Language contact and language change
Historiography of linguistics
Discourse linguistics
Language planning and policy
• Topics to be focussed on in this class:
• Colonial‐time language planning and policy
• Colonial language contact: (a) lexical borrowing; (b) pidgin and creole languages
1. Introduction
• Background: Geography, languages, history
•
•
•
•
MIKRONESIA
Common geographical
classification of Oceania
MELANESIA
POLYNESIA
MIKRONESIA
Gouv. German
New Guinea
POLYNESIA
MELANESIA
Gouv.
Samoa
Marianas
(1899)
Carolines (incl.
Palau Islands)
(1899)
Gouv. German
New Guinea
KaiserWilhelmsLand (1884)
BismarckArchipelago &
Northern
Solomones (1884)
Marshall
Islands (1885)
Nauru (1888)
Samoa (1900)
Gouv.
Samoa
German colonial administration: Pacific (1884/1900 -1914)
AUSTRONESIAN
(non-oceanic)
Languages and population,
early 20th cent.
AUSTRONESIAN
(oceanic)
Gouv. New Guinea:
Indigenous languages: c. 600-700
Population: c. 420,000
Germans: appr.1,600 (0,4%)
Gouv. Samoa:
Indigenous languages: 1
Population: c. 35,000
Germans: appr. 350 (1 %)
1. Introduction
•
•
•
•
Historiography of linguistics Discourse linguistics
Current topics in (German) colonial linguistics
• Language contact and language change
– Language contact in an asymmetric power relation
– Effects on L1 German:
• Lexical borrowing into German
• (Emerging) settler varieties (Samoa, Namibia)
– L2 varieties of German:
• Learner languages
• Pidgin German, Creole German
– artificially simplified German (“Kolonialdeutsch“)
• Historiography of linguistics
– critical re‐editions of colonial‐time language descriptions
– investigation of colonial‐time language ideologies and their modern continuations
Current topics in (German) colonial linguistics (2)
• Discourse linguistics
– colonial discourse(s): of politicians, in grammars, in print media
– language use reflecting (implicit) "colonial certainties" – language attitudes towards languages with a colonial origin (pidgins, creoles; e.g. Tok Pisin)
• Language planning and policy
– colonial‐time language policy and planning
– implementation of colonial‐time LPP: languages, actors, settings
Background of this research
• What:
– research project at the Institute of the German Language: "Lexical change under German colonial rule"
– http://www1.ids‐mannheim.de/lexik/lexikalischerwandel.html (in German)
• Who:
– Stefan Engelberg, Doris Stolberg
• With whom:
– cooperation with universities in Germany and Austria (Bremen, Wuppertal, Klagenfurt)
1. Introduction
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•
•
•
2. German in the Pacific:
Language planning
and language policy
Language Planning
Three main types of language planning:
• Status planning
– about uses of language
• Corpus planning
– about language
• Acquisition planning
– about users of language
(cf. Hornberger 2006)
Hornberger, N.H. (2006), Frameworks and models in language policy and planning. – In: Ricento, T.
(ed.), An Introduction to Language Policy: Theory and method. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
Status planning
• concerns the uses of a language
• e.g. selection of a language to fulfill specific functions (official language, language of education, etc.)
• related to and affecting the prestige of a language
Corpus planning
• about the language itself
• a prescriptive type of intervention, e.g. codification of a variety (setting up norms, grammars, dictionaries) and its elaboration (e.g. extension of the vocabulary to cover new semantic fields)
• often results in the standardization of a variety (can include its graphization)
Acquisition planning
• relates to the users of a language
• interventions seeking to encourage or manage the learning of a specific language / specific languages • involves the development of school curricula, the publication of teaching materials, providing teaching staff etc.
Language planning/policy actors:
• Government
– in Germany
– local colonial administrators
• Missions
– in their home countries (administrative centers)
– missionaries in the German colonial areas
• Other
– „colonial circles“ (politicians, interested lay persons)
– linguists (usually in academic positions, i.e., government-supported)
Language planning: German
Status planning
Corpus planning
Government
/ officials
• „Artificial German • Circular re. the
• Political discussions
Pidgins“:
teaching of German
regarding the status
„Kolonialdeutsch“
and use of German as
(1897)
(Schwörer 1916). • Government
the official language in
„the colonies“
„Weltdeutsch“
(boarding) schools
(Baumann 1916)
• Selection of German
• School curricula
as the language of
• Financial
administration, law
gratification for
and (higher) education
promoting German
(= high prestige
areas)
Missions
• German as the
• -mission language in
some local contexts
(cf. Mühlhäusler 2012)
• -(executing official
requirements re.
language teaching, to
variable degrees)
Language planning: Local languages
Status planning
Corpus planning
Government
/ officials
• -• Graphisation
(exception: Samoan • Word lists,
= administrative
dictionaries,
language in village
grammars
courts and to a
• Substantial financial
limited degree in
support for academic
other legal
linguistic research
contexts)
Missions
• Selection of
(certain) local
languages for
use in all
Christianreligious
contexts and in
schools
• Graphisation
• Word lists,
dictionaries,
grammars
→ Standardisation
• Infliction of loanwords
(primarily in Christianreligious contexts)
• (Local languages
accepted as the
medium of
instruction in
mission schools)
• reading and writing
local languages
• In some regions:
selection and use of
a local language as
a lingua franca that
has to be acquired
(e.g. Yabim)
Documented language planning activities/
language policies (government)
a.
b.
c.
d.
Legal documents (circulars, laws)
Establishment of schools
Remuneration / financial support
Human resources planning
The colonial “language question“
• Discussion: to spread German, or to prohibit its
use?
• Different attitudes in Germany vs. in the colonies
• Circular on language instruction (1897): German = first foreign language in schools
• Variable financial support for German instruction
• Little assertive government action beyond that
Circular re. German language instruction
in [all] colonial schools, Feb. 27, 1897
„The Colonial Council recommends […] that, if in the schools (i.e., within the
German colonies) in addition to the indigenous language another language
is taught, the German language is to be included in the curriculum."
Deutsche Kolonialgesetzgebung IV 1898/99, Nr. 75.
Establishment of government schools
Mission schools and government schools
Samoa & New
Guinea
mission
government
schools
students students %
756
28643
98,1 %
5
550
1,9 %
Numbers acc. to
Schlunk, Martin (1914): Die Schulen für Eingeborene in den deutschen Schutzgebieten am 1. Juni
1911. Auf Grund einer statistischen Erhebung der Zentralstelle des Hamburgischen
Kolonialinstituts. Hamburg: Friederichsen & Co.
Some results of German instruction in government schools:
• government school at Garapan (Saipan/Mariana Islands)
– boarding school
– German = language of instruction
• "Weißt du, manchmal träume ich deutsch."
"You know, sometimes I dream in German." (former graduate of the school during an oral history interview at age 87; reported by Christmann 1986)
Marianas
(1899)
Gouv. German
New Guinea
Gouv.
Samoa
Government school, Saipan: "Lebenslauf"
• standard German (with very few deviations)
• simple, paratactic clauses (due to text genre?)
• length of German instruction not known (no more than 4 years)
• indication of solid knowledge of German (if the text was produced by the student himself without extra help)
Der Elefant.
Der Elefant ist ein Tier. Der Elefant
ist sehr groß. Der Elefant ist das größte Landtier. Der Kopf des Elefanten ist
sehr groß. Der Elefanten hat einen
Rüssel. Der Rüssel ist sehr lang.
Die Ohren des Elefanten sind sehr groß und lappig. Die Augen des Elefandten sind sehr klein. Die Stoßzähne
liefern das Elfenbein. Das Elfenbein
ist schön weiß und sehr teuer. Der Rumpf
des Elefanten ist sehr dick
und plump. Die Füße des Elefanten
sind sehr dick und etwas kurz. Der
Schwanz des Elefanten ist sehr kurz
Die Haut des Elefanten hat keine
Haare und ist schiefergrau. Der Elefant
gehört zu den dickhäutern. Der Elefanten wird auch als Haustier gehalten. Der Elefant ist ein sehr nützliches
und gelehriges Tier. Er frißt Gras,
Baumblätter und Früchte. Der Elefant
lebt in Afrika und Ostindien.
Der Elefant.
Der Elefant ist ein Tier. Der Elefant
ist sehr groß. Der Elefant ist das größte Landtier. Der Kopf des Elefanten ist
sehr groß. Der Elefanten hat einen
Rüssel. Der Rüssel ist sehr lang.
Die Ohren des Elefanten sind sehr groß und lappig. Die Augen des Elefandten sind sehr klein. Die Stoßzähne
liefern das Elfenbein. Das Elfenbein
ist schön weiß und sehr teuer. Der
Rumpf des Elefanten ist sehr dick
und plump. Die Füße des Elefanten
sind sehr dick und etwas kurz. Der
Schwanz des Elefanten ist sehr kurz.
Die Haut des Elefanten hat keine
Haare und ist schiefergrau. Der Elefant
gehört zu den dickhäutern. Der Elefanten wird auch als Haustier gehalten. Der Elefant ist ein sehr nützliches
und gelehriges Tier. Er frißt Gras, 28
Baumblätter und Früchte. Der Elefant
lebt in Afrika und Ostindien.
(„Lebenslauf“ and „Der Elefant“ in Dwucet, F. 1908
[gov.sch.Saipan] = text 545 in Spennemann 2004)
Population and school attendance (all schools) (1911)
Indigenous pop.
students
School attendance
Pacific colonial area
(total)
c. 617,500
19,315
3.1 %
Germ. New Guinea, Bismarck A., Solomon Is.
c. 530,000
14,377
2.7 %
Marshall Islands, Nauru
10,550
1,755
16.6 %
Western Carolines,
Palau, Marianas
18,494
1,159
6.3 %
Eastern Carolines
(Pohnpei,Chuuk)
c. 25,000 (1905)
2,024
8.1 %
c. 33,500
9,878
29.5 %
Samoa
Compiled from Schlunk 1914, StJbDR 1910/11:44ff.,48ff., and DKAJb 1905:18f.
Language policies (government):
Funding for the spread of the German language
1910
New Guinea
budget 12,000 M. (≈
50-55,000 €*)
Samoa
5,000 M. (≈
20-25,000 €*)
¾ to native students or government employees for exceptional
achievements in learning German
¾ to missions for successfully teaching German
(corresponding to no. of students passing a language exam)
¾ to settlers for efforts in language cultivation
¾ to German associations (e.g., the „Deutscher Militär-Verein“)
Article from the Samoanische Zeitung (June 5, 1909)
* http://fredriks.de/HVV/kaufkraft.htm
Language policies (government):
Subsidies to the missions
Example:
4,000 M. per year
(≈ 15-20,000 €)
to the German
Capuchins on the
Carolines and Palau
Islands for teaching
German
Human resources planning:
Mission schools and German speaking teachers
Students (S.) in German and non-German missions under German administration:
New Guinea
1911
Samoa
total
8400 S. / 44,6 %
1577 S. / 16,1 %
9977 S. / 34,8 %
Non-Gm.Mis. 10425 S. / 55,4 %
8241 S. / 83,9 %
18666 S. / 65,2 %
Gm. Missions
Teaching staff (T.) in schools of German missions under German administration:
1911
New Guinea
Samoa
total
Germans
155 T. / 46,5 %
21 T. / 21,6 %
176 T. / 40,9 %
Indigenous
178 T. / 53,5 %
76 T. / 78,4 %
254 T. / 59,1 %
C. 15% of school teaching in areas under German administration
was done by native speakers of German.
German instruction in mission schools
• For example:
an American mission society under German administration
American Board of Commissioners for Foreign
Mission (Boston, USA)
• protestant mission society, based in the USA; cooperated with the Central Union Church, Hawaii (Honolulu), and the London Missionary Society (LMS)
• missionary activities in the Pacific since 1810
• first training school in the Marshall Islands in 1852
• well established in various island groups (Caroline Islands, Marshall Islands, Nauru, Gilbert Islands)
• ABCFM missionaries from the USA and native teachers
(educated in ABCFM schools) worked together
Dealing with language policies
• Problems with the requirement of teaching German
– lack of teachers
– insufficient language competence
– students from different parts of the Pacific (some under British rule)
– increasing pressure to teach German
• Some solutions for teaching German:
– Ph. & S. Delaporte (Nauru): native speakers of German; German as a subject and sometimes medium of instruction; 1899 ‐ 1915
– A. Jagnow (Chuuk): native speaker of German; German as a subject of instruction; c. 1903 ‐ 1906
– L. Wilson (Kosrae): limited competence in German, acquired as need arose; German as a subject of (very) basic instruction
"An effort has been made to use the German Readers […], but as you realize to become a teacher of German means
that one must be familiar with the German language." (Wilson, 136/1902)
"[…] the Board have ignored the government‘s request to
have a native German sent to Kusaie […] I fully expect to
know the German language well before I die. I do not expect
however to so absorb the German customs and history as to
be able to breath forth these high virtues unconsciously as a German does. We must have the real thing." (Hoppin, 114/1914)
The Conflict and its outcome
• Problems that remained unsolved:
−
−
−
−
large regions to attend to (time, transportation)
local teachers in small islands
lack of qualified teachers of German
insufficient support on the organizational level of the mission
society (ABCFM)
• Proposed solutions:
− (a) cooperation with German mission societies (e.g., Liebenzeller Mission)
− (b) transfer of the field to a German mission society
• Missionaries are language mediators between different positions and requirements:
– political conditions (colonial government)
– organizational (non‐)responsiveness
– pragmatic necessities: holding church, teaching
– individual linguistic competence, motivation, capacity (in time and energy)
Colonial government
Mission society
Language attitudes
Missionary
Language functions
as a language
mediator
Language attitudes
Pragmatic needs
& necessities
Individual
linguistic
competence
Symbolic value
of language
German loanwords in local languages:
Results of language policy and planning?
• Semantic fields / ontologies (and their problems)
• Loanwords as indicators of contact zones
German loanwords in Oceanic languages and
the Loanword Typology Project
(Haspelmath / Tadmor 2009; http://wold.livingsources.org/)
Loanword Typology Project (Max-Planck-Institute Leipzig):
•
•
•
•
Documentation of loanwords
41 languages
1,460 meanings
22 semantic fields
religion and belief
modern world
food and drink
quantity
time
animals
spatial relations
speech and language
the house
agriculture and vegetation
the physical world
warfare and hunting
clothing and grooming
sense perception
cognition
the body
law
motion
miscellaneous function words
emotions and values
basic actions and technology
possession
social and political relations
personal names and place names of…
occupations and tools
school-room terms
transport
administrative terms, titles
social function words
health and medicine
music, games, sports
0
ontological
classification of
loanwords
categories according
to Haspelmath‘s
Loanword Typology
Meaning List
further categories
20
40
60
80
100
120
Ontological class: animals
Etyma: Biene, Büffel, Esel, Frosch, Gans, Hund, Kakerlake, Kalb, Kamel, Katze, Kuh,
Lamm, Laus, Löwe, Ochs, Rindvieh, Ross, Schaf, Schlange, Taube, Wachtel, Ziege
one ontological class but probably different types of borrowing situations:
transfer process in connection with
religious instruction / mass
Etyma of loans found in religious texts
/ bible translations by German
missionaries: Esel ‘donkey‘, Kamel
‘camel ‘, Löwe ‘lion‘, Schaf ‘sheep‘,
Schlange ‘snake‘, Taube ‘pigeon‘, …
transfer process: native speaker of SL
with knowledge of TL
possibly an effect of
missionary corpus
planning
transfer process in connection with other contact situations
(agricultural work, work around mission stations or in German households)
Etyma not occurring in German bible translations: Gans ‘goose‘, Kakerlake
‘cockroach‘, Katze ‘cat‘, Laus ‘louse‘, Rindvieh ‘cattle [used as an insult]‘
Etyma rarely occurring in German bible translations: Biene ‘bee‘, Büffel
‘buffalo‘, Wachtel ‘quail‘
transfer process: possibly native speaker
of TL with knowledge of SL
possibly an effect of
acquisition planning
Effects of language planning activities on
quality and quantity of loanwords
a. Effects of status planning
b. Effects of corpus planning
c. Effects of acquisition planning
Effects of status
planning:
Many German loans
in domains where
German had official
status
(administration, law,
politics)
German etymon
Amt
Amt
Amtmann
Dolmetscher
Hauptmann
Kantine
Kindergarten
Kommissar
Landeshauptmann
Offizier
Post
Post
Schutzmann
Gefangene(r)
Kerker
Strafe
Strafe
Deutscher
Fürstentum
Kaiser
Kaiser
Kaiser
Kaiser
Kaiser
Kaiserin
Kaiserin
kaiserlich
König
Königreich
Majestät
Stadt
Vogt
loanword
meaning
target language
chamt
office
Palauan
am, qaam
office
Yapese
ametimani, 'ametimani
bailiff
Samoan
dolmérs, dolmers
translater
Palauan
hauman
captain, officer
Tok Pisin
kaantiin
lunchroom
Woleaian
kinter
nursery
Puluwatese
komja, komdja, kómdja
commissar
Marshallese
Landeshauptmann
governor
Nauruan
'ofisia
officer
Samoan
bost
post
Palauan
poseta
post
Samoan
sutman
constable
Tok Pisin
Amen iat gefängniss
prisoner
Nauruan
kerker
jail
Nauruan
strafe, strafim
penalty
Tok Pisin
stafe, sitiraf, sataraff
penalty
Yapese
doits-tamo
German
Bongu
Fürstentum
principality
Nauruan
kaisera
emperor
Bongu
Kaiser
emperor
Nauruan
Kaisa
emperor
Samoan
kaisa
emperor
Tok Pisin
kaiser
emperor
Woleaian
Agen Kaiser
empress
Nauruan
Kaisarina
empress
Samoan
kaisalika
imperatorial
Samoan
kuinig
king
Bongu
Königreich
kingdom
Nauruan
maiesitete
majesty
Samoan
Stadt
town
Nauruan
voketia
reeve, steward
Samoan
Effects of corpus
planning:
Many (inflicted)
loans in the
religious domain
were established
via (Christian)
religious instruction
or in mass given in
the indigenous
languages by
German
missionaries.
German etymon
Altar
Amen
Amen
Apostel
Betstunde
Christ
Engel
Engel
Gnade
Gott
Hades
Himmel
Hölle
Katechismus
Katholik
Katholik
katholisch
Kreuz
Krippe
Missionare
Myrrhe
Ostern
Paradies
Priester
Prophet
Satan
Taufe
taufen
Tempel
Tempel
Weihnachten
Weihrauch
Wunder
loanword
altar
Amen
Amen
Apostolo
Stunde it tetaro
ki’ris
Engel
Engelen
gnade
got, Got-Tamen
ades ‘Hölle’
Himmel
Hölle
kategismus
Katolik
katolika
katholik
kruz
krippe
Misionare
myrrhe
'Oseta
Paradies
prister
profet
Satan
taufe
taufeei
Tempel
tempel
beinag
vairau
Wunder
meaning
target language
altar
Nauruan
amen
Yakamul
amen
Yapese
apostle
Kuanua
devotional
Nauruan
Christian
Gedaged
angel
Nauruan
angel
Yapese
mercy, grace
Yakamul
God
Yakamul
hell
Takia
heaven
Nauruan
hell
Nauruan
catechism
Bongu
catholic
Kuanua
catholic
Yapese
catholic
Nauruan
cross
Yapese
manger
Nauruan
missionaries
Tumleo
myrrh
Nauruan
Easter
Samoan
paradise
Nauruan
priest
Palauan
prophet
Yapese
satan
Nauruan
baptism
Nauruan
baptize
Nauruan
temple
Nauruan
temple
Yapese
Christmas
Ulithian
incense
Tok Pisin
miracle
Nauruan
Effects of acquisition
planning:
Difficult to assess because …
A) the large number of
loans in connection with
schooling (school
utensils, words in the
domains of school
subjects, time and
measure expressions)
might partly be
introduced by speakers
of German independent
of German lessons or
German as a second
language.
German etymon
Bleistift
Brief
Buch
Griffel
Griffel
Heft
Kreide
malen
malen
Papier
Schule
Schwamm
Tafel
Tafel
Tafel
Tafel
Tinte
zeichnen
Januar
Montag
Montag
Montag
Sommer
Sonntag
Uhr
Woche
Ar
Fünfer
Kilogramm
Liter
Mark
Meter
Null
Pfennig
ABC
Grammatik
loanword
meaning
target language
balaistip, blaistik
pencil
Tok Pisin
beríb, briib, blil a briib
letter
Palauan
Buch
book
Nauruan
grifi
slate pencil
Wampar
grifel
slate pencil
Yapese
heft
(note)book
Yapese
karaide, kraide
chalk
Tok Pisin
malen
draw, paint
Marshallese
malen
draw, paint
Tok Pisin
babyoor
paper
Nguluwan
shule
school
Kuman
schwamm
sponge
Nauruan
taafen
blackboard
Chuukese
tabér
blackboard
Palauan
tafel
blackboard
Tok Pisin
tafe
blackboard
Wampar
tinte
ink
Wampar
chaeyhinen ‚Zeichnung’
drawing
Yapese
Januar
January
Nauruan
montak
Monday
Wampar
Montaag
Monday
Woleaian
moontaag
Monday
Yapese
Sommer
summer
Nauruan
sonta
Sunday
Yabem
ur
clock
Valman
woke
week
Yabem
ara
are
Samoan
fumfa
(currency)
Samoan
kkino
kilogram
Chuukese
lita
liter
Samoan
maak
(currency)
Woleaian
meeter
meter
Puluwatese
nuul
null
Yapese
fenika
(currency)
Samoan
abese
ABC
Tok Pisin
kramatik, gramatik
grammar
Palauan
Effects of acquisition
planning:
Difficult to assess
because …
B) borrowing
processes in some
domains require
explanatory context
rather than
bilingualism
(tools, basic
commodities).
German etymon
Amboss
Beißzange
bohren
Bügeleisen
Draht
Gabel
Glas
Grammophon
Gummi
Gummi
Gummi
Gummi
Hammer
Hammer
Hammer
Hammer
Hammer
Hobel
Keil
Klammer
Koffer
Lampe
Leinwand
Maschine
Meißel
Säge
Schere
Schloss
Schloss
Schraube
Schubkarre
Spaten
Thermometer
Wasserwaage
loanword
meaning
target language
amepose, 'amepusa
anvil
Samoan
beisange
pliers
Wampar
borim
drill
Tok Pisin
bigelaisen
pressing iron
Tok Pisin
diraht
wire
Pohnpeian
kapel
fork
Marshallese
kilahs
glass
Pohnpeian
karmoból
phonograph
Palauan
kkumi
rubber
Chuukese
kumi
rubber
Marshallese
gumi
rubber
Palauan
komi, kumi
rubber
Pohnpeian
amar
hammer
Nauruan
ama
hammer
Pohnpeian
hama
hammer
Wampar
hama
hammer
Tok Pisin
hama, qaamaa
hammer
Yapese
hobel
planer
Wampar
kail, kailim
wedge
Tok Pisin
klama
clip, clamp
Tok Pisin
kiiwúfer
suitcase
Chuukese
lamp
lamp
Yapese
leinwand
linen (cloth)
Nauruan
mesíl, masil
machine
Palauan
maisel
chisel
Yapese
sege
saw
Yabem
sere
scissors
Tok Pisin
Schloss
lock
Nauruan
slos
lock
Tok Pisin
seráub
screw
Palauan
supkar, supka
wheelbarrow
Tok Pisin
spaten
spade
Takia
temometa
thermometer
Samoan
wasawage
water level
Tok Pisin
Effects of acquisition planning
•
results of a study (Engelberg
2006):
in particular the use of German
as the language of instruction
in local schools promotes the
integration of German loans into
the local language.
Loanwords from German:
Palauan: more than 50
Kosraean: none
babíer ‘paper, letter, book’ < Papier
bénster ‘window’ < Fenster
beríb ‘letter’ < Brief
bilt ‘holy picture’ < Bild
blasbabiér ‘sandpaper’ < Blase (?) + Papier
blok ‘pulley’ < Block (am Flaschenzug)
bost ‘post office’ < Post
chamt ‘government, aministration’ < Amt
chausbéngdik ‘know thorougly,
memorize’ < auswendig
desér ‘diesel’ < Diesel
Doits ‘German’ < deutsch
dolmérs ‘interpreter’ < Dolmetscher
hall (interj.) ‘Halt!, Stop!, Wait!’ < halt
kabitéi ‘captain’ < Kapitän
Stefan Engelberg, Ineke Scholz & Doris Stolberg (2012): Interaktionszentren des Sprachkontakts in DeutschNeuguinea: ein sprachkartographisches Projekt. – Engelberg, Stefan & Doris Stolberg (eds.): Sprachkontakt
und Sprachwissenschaft in den früheren deutschen Kolonien. Akten der 2. Tagung zur Deutschen
Koloniallinguisik. Berlin: Akademie-Verlag.
Effects of language planning
in the German colonial context
• Status planning (German): Language planning measures
were not reinforced strongly by the government
• Corpus planning (local languages; dictionaries, grammars):
materials not widely accessible to L1 speakers; some effect
(loanwords)
• Corpus planning (German): too late → no effect
• Acquisition planning (German): Government relied mainly
on missions for the education-based spread of German;
diverging focus between government and missions
In a nutshell:
German colonial language policy and planning in
the Pacific (1884 - 1914/16):
– a relatively short time-span
– a variety of colonial agents and agendas (e.g.
government, missions)
– development of local, small-scale solutions for
interaction and communication
→"semi-causal" links between language policy /
planning and borrowing
3. Colonial linguistic encounters
and their outcomes
• German borrowings in local languages: Nauru
• Colonial borrowings in German: Samoa
• Pidgin and creole languages: Tok Pisin, Unserdeutsch, Ali Pidgin
Gouv. German
New Guinea
Nauru (1888)
Gouv.
Samoa
Nauru
• under German colonial control 1888 – 1914
• two mission societies (Protestant, Catholic)
• German‐speaking missionaries
– language descriptions (word lists, dictionaries, grammar)
– written documents (original texts, translations; mainly Christian‐religious contents)
• Protestant Mission:
Nauru
– American Board of Commissioners of Foreign Missions (ABCFM), Boston / USA
– in the Marshall Islands since 1852
– missionary in Nauru: Delaporte
•
•
•
•
1867 ‐ 1928
German‐born (Worms) / native speaker of German
to the US at age 16
to Nauru in 1899; first German‐Nauruan dict.: 1907
http://colnect.com/de/stamps/stamp/306263‐Pastor_P_A_Delaporte‐Christmas‐Nauru
Nauru
• Catholic mission:
– Mission of the Sacred Heart (MSC) (Issoudon (F)/Hiltrup (G))
– most important missionary in Nauru: Alois Kayser
•
•
•
•
1877‐1944
born in the Alsace / native speaker of German
to Nauru in 1904
first Nauruan grammar (1936/1993)
http://steine.helga-ingo.de/2009/07/page/5/
Mission language planning: lexical elaboration
• different options
– borrowing from German, from Latin
– creating new words; reinterpreting existing lexemes
• symbolic value of language choice:
– new Christian terminology: use of loanwords
– new life J new language
– „Through Gospel teaching and pr[e]aching and the spirit of God, the Nauru native has become a new creature, a new creature in Christ Jesus.“ (Ph.A.Delaporte, Nauru, 043/1914:9)
• Nauruan data:
− identify German loanwords (up until 1915)
− identify English loanwords (1934)
• Why were these items borrowed?
• Where they actually used by L1 speakers of Nauruan?
Colonial borrowings in German: Samoa
• Attitudes towards colonial varieties of German
– in Germany
– in the colonies
• Colonial German
– L1 German
– L2 German
Gouv. German
New Guinea
Samoa (1900)
Gouv.
Samoa
Samoa
• Under German colonial control 1900 – 1914
• Tutuila (American Samoa): under US‐
American control since 1900
• (German) colonial center: Apia (Upolu)
• only few Europeans on Savai'i
• Trading contacts between Samoa and Germany started in 1856
http://richardwillisuk.files.wordpress.com/2009/09/samoa‐islands‐map2.gif
Local and German expatriate population
in the German colonial area in the Pacific (1911)
Local population
German
population
New Guinea (incl. Bismarck
Archipelago)
c. 530,000
578 (0.1%)
Carolines with Palau;
Marianas, Marshall Islands
c. 54,0001
194 (0.4%)
Samoa
total
c. 33,500
c. 617,500
284 (0.85%)
1,056 (0.17%)
Administrative area
1 Numbers for Eastern Carolines (Kusaie/Kosrae, Ponape/Pohnpei, Truk/Chuuk, Lukunor etc.: 25,000) for 1905, for the remaining areas for 1911 (Western Carolines, Palau, Marianas, Marshall Islands: 28,976).
(StJbDR, 1910/11:24‐33, 44ff.; DKAJb 1905:18ff.)
Attitudes towards colonial varieties of German: Homeland positions
• Pro German:
– against (Pidgin) English; to mark political position
– to be able to move labor force between colonies
• Contra German:
– “Herrensprache” – maintain social distance
– Divide and conquer (to minimize danger of rebellion)
– fear of “degeneration” of standard language
Pro German
“Zu den allgemein menschlichen, kulturellen kommen auch nationale
Gründe, die zu der Forderung treiben: ‘In den deutschen Kolonien die deutsche Sprache!‘ Das Englische dringt in den britischen, das Französische in den französischen Schutzgebieten immer weiter vor, teils von selbst, teils mit Hilfe der Regierungen; da können wir nicht
zurückstehen.“
(Sembritzki 1913)
(In addition to general humanitarian, cultural reasons there are
national ones that require postulating: The German language in German colonies! The English [language] advances in the British protectorates, the French [language] in the French one, partly by itself, partly through governmental support; in this situation, we can no
longer stand back.)
Contra German
“[…] so viele verschiedene Sprachen gibts. Das erschwert die Erschliessung des Landes sehr, gibt aber wieder eine Sicherheit für die Europäer, denn solange die Schwarzen sich nicht verstehen können, können sie sich nicht zusammenrotten zu Aufständen.“
(Nolde 2008: 64, 66)
([…] there are so many different languages. This makes
exploring/conquering the country a lot more difficult but means
also safe conditions for the Europeans, because as long as the
blacks cannot understand each other, they cannot band for
rebellion.)
Positions in the colonial areas
• Traders:
– use (Pidgin) English for pragmatic reasons
• Settlers:
– keep German to themselves, OR adjust to local habit
• Missionaries:
– instruct in the local native language (as much as possible)
– implement German for financial support and/or to
avoid administrative problems
Diverging Attitudes (Settlers)
• „Jeder Junge, der in meinem Hause Deutsch spricht, erhält eine Maulschelle. Das wäre ja noch schöner wie schön, wenn jedes unbedachte Wort durch die Kanaker von einem Platz zum andern getragen würde!“ (Friederici 1911: 98)
• „Ich habe oft gesehen, wie schwarze Diener von ihren Herren geohrfeigt wurden, weil sie deutsche oder englische Befehle nicht sogleich richtig ausführten.“ (Sembritzki 1913: 128)
(Some) settlers: Samoa
• What is needed to make Samoa more German:
“[…] wenn jeder Deutsche deutsch spricht, wo und wann er nur irgend kann, wenigstens aber nicht englisch, denn nur von dem Englischen droht uns hier Gefahr […]”
(if every German speaks German wherever and whenever possible, but at least not English because only from English we are threatened)
(Samoanische Zeitung, July 8, 1911, p. 2)
(Some) settlers: Samoa
“Oder glaubt vielleicht irgend jemand, dass einer, der einer anderen Kultursprache, nicht aber der deutschen mächtig ist, jemals innerlich deutsch fühlen wird und kann? Das ist ganz ausgeschlossen, wenigstens wenn diese andere Kultursprache die englische ist.” (p.1) [emphasis mine, DS]
(Or does possibly anyone at all believe that somebody who, though competent in another culture language, but not in German, will ever feel and be able to feel thoroughly German? This is completely impossible, at least if this other culture language is English.)
(Samoanische Zeitung, July 8, 1911, p. 2)
Nation state and language
• Constructing an opposition between English and German – Base: contemporary shared knowledge of the specific political and colonial situation
• Explicit link between this opposition and language
competence
Colonial German in Samoa
• Effects on L1 German:
– Lexical borrowing into German
– (Emerging) settler varieties (Samoa, Namibia)
• L2 varieties of German:
– learner languages, pidgin German?
– NB! So far no data available
– some German seems to have entered the precursor of Tok Pisin on Samoan plantations (cf. Mühlhäusler)
Question: Is there a distinct variety of German in colonial Samoa?
… so wäre es die Pflicht eines jeden Deutschen, ...ein reines, gutes Deutsch zu pflegen.
Statt dessen kann man aber oft ein im Vaterlande unverständliches Kauderwelsch hören, das an Lächerlichkeit dem berüchtigten Amerikanerdeutsch nicht viel nachgiebt [sic].
Samoanische Zeitung, 26. Juli 1913: 1 (my emphasis)
'… as such, it would be the duty of each German, … to maintain a pure good German.
But instead you will often hear a gibberish, unintelligible in the fatherland, that is close to the notorious America‐German.'
L1 colonial German
• Samoan (c. 30) and English (c. 40) borrowings
in German (Samoanische Ztg., archive materials, travel reports)
• Little difference in flagging
• Difference in integration (E more integrated)
• Difference in perception
• Difference in effects on comprehension
Sources
•Primary sources:
− Archival documents; Samoanische Zeitung (1901‐1914, ca. 700 issues)
•Secondary sources:
− Published travel reports, diaries etc. •Problem:
− Norm effects of written register
− amelioration: focus on letters to the editor (different writers), informal texts where available; also, travel reports/diaries sometimes report oral conversations that may be closer to actual language use
L1 colonial German
If he became pulenuu in Ulutogia, one could get rid of him in Lotofaga
where he wanted to be faamasimo. By the way, in Ulutogia he showed
that he has good intentions and pule.
Letter of a German settler in Samoa to the (German) governor of Samoa regarding
problems with straying pigs (April 22, 1905).
Samoan borrowings in German
Obwohl Ulutogia nur klein ist (etwa 10 matais), koennte vielleicht die Belohnung in Gestalt einer tofiga fuer Ulutogia gewaehrt werden. Sagapolu ( Fianē ) strebt schon lange nach einer solchen. Wenn er pulanuu wuerde in Ulutogia , waere man ihn in Lotofaga, wo er faamasino werden wollte, los.Uebrigens hat er in Ulutogia gezeigt, dass er guten Willen & pule
hat .
L1 colonial German
• English interference of dubious authenticity:
a long time
islands
happened (has) / new
buggy
raffled [auslosen]
tickets / sold
-sale- / tickets
Samoanische Zeitung, Apia, Dec. 1901 (one of two texts of this kind)
You can find a partly sorted list of English and Samoan loanwords in your hand‐out.
So, was there a Samoan German variety?
•
Morphology
–
•
Syntax
–
•
so far no evidence for (systematic)deviation
Few indications of structural influence from English (idiolectal? Attrition?)
Lexicon:
–
–
English and Samoan loanwords: overall low numbers
Some loanwords seem to be an established part of the
variety of German spoken in Samoa (e.g., Natives, taupou)
Pidgin and Creole languages
• Tok Pisin
• Unserdeutsch
• Ali Pidgin
Tok Pisin
• one of the national languages & the most important lingua franca of
Papua New Guinea • ca. 3 mio. speakers (mainly L2 speakers; 122,000 L1 speakers, according to census data of 2000)
• an English‐lexifier pidgin/creole language, developed out of the
Pacific trade jargon/pidgin that originated in the Pacific area during
the 19th century
• Lexifier languages of Tok Pisin:
– English (77‐79%), Tolai/Kuanua (11%), other New Guinean languages
(6%), German (4%), (Latin (3%)), Malay (1%)
Mühlhäusler 1985:179; Tryon/Charpentier 2004:385f.
German words
in Tok Pisin dictionaries
The (original) research question:
What was the lexical influence of German on Tok Pisin
at the time and in the contact area of German missions
and under German colonial rule in New Guinea ?
J What (and how many) German-origin lexemes were in
use in Tok Pisin and when?
J What (and how many) German-origin lexemes are
recorded in Tok Pisin dictionaries?
Gouv. German
New Guinea
Bismarck-Archipel
& northern
Salomones (1884)
Gouv.
Samoa
The contact setting
• German colonial claims in the Pacific (1884-1914)
• German missionaries in New Guinea (from 1886)
• roughly 700 languages > German was established as
mission lingua franca
– most influential: Societas Verbi Divini, in GNG from
1895/6
& Tok Pisin was developing and used for (horizontal and
vertical) communication
The contact setting: Lexical outcome
• Estimate of German-origin lexemes in Tok Pisin: up to 200 (Romaine 2001)
(Mühlhäusler 1985)
The variety: Tok Pisin et al.
• A changing variety (different stages, Mühlhäusler 2003) and a continuum
• Terms used in the investigated dictionaries:
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
¾
–
–
Beach-la-mar / Jargon / Trade Speech (1911)
Pigeon English / Bichelamar (1913)
Tokboi (1926)
Melanesian Pidgin English (1943f.)
Pidgin English (1943)
Neo-Melanesian (1957)
Pisin (1969)
Melanesian Pidgin (1971)
PNG gained independence from Australia in 1975
New Guinea Pidgin (1978)
Tok Pisin (New Guinea Pidgin) (1985+)
The study
• The focus:
lexical / linguistic & methodological (& etymological, historical, sociolinguistic)
• The items:
– 14 lexemes of (possibly) German origin, attested by several
authors in secondary literature
• The dictionaries/word lists (29):
– 1911 – 2008+
– handwritten / in print / on‐line
• List of items:
Items & dictionaries
Alkohol alcohol, Ananas pineapple, beten pray, Flagge flag, Mast
mast, Meter (unit) metre/meter/(yard), Pause break, Pflaster bandage, Pudding (sweet) pudding, raus out, Ring ring, Rucksack backpack, Strafe punishment, vorbei over, past
• Time distribution of dictionaries:
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1910-19
1920-29
1930-39
1940-49
1950-59
1960-69
1970-79
1980-89
1990-99
2000-09
”Complications“
• Language‐related problems:
– Identification of relevant items
• Methodological problems:
– Limited comparability of sources
– Locating specific lexical items
Language‐related problems:
Identification of relevant lexemes
• Three types of lexical items (from this perspective):
(1) clearly German origin: raus, bros/brus ‘chest’, popeia
(2) ambiguous origin (E/G): ring, house/haus, ros ‘rust’
(3) clearly non‐German origin (i.e., English or other): diwai ‘tree’
• Multiple etymologies
• “transitivity of contact” (indirect language contact via other languages > secondary borrowings)
Identification of relevant lexemes
• group (1): fairly easy (word form+semantics)
• group (2): interesting but difficult
• multiple etymologies (cf. Mühlhäusler 1985, 2003:26, etc.)
– Example: sanga ‘fork in a branch, tongs, open jaws of a crocodile, catapult’
< (B)English shanghai (slingshot) + German Zange ‘pliers’ + Malayan tjang ‘forked branch’
• group (3): not relevant here
Identification of relevant lexemes (2)
– Time & context of integration into Tok Pisin
• Example: ananas (Dutch/German) 'pineapple‘
> decisive: time of first appearance; introduced 'before 1870' J needs more (historical/agricultural) investigation
Methodological/lexicographical problems (I):
Limited comparability of sources
• Differences in focus
– e.g., sports dictionary, New Testament dictionary, medical
terminology
• Differences in approach
– time of compilation, geographical area, length of study, L1 of lexicographer
• Differences in spelling:
‐ etymological (English‐based)
‐ L1‐based (English, French, German)
‐ standardized
Methodological/lexicographical problems (II):
Locating specific lexical items
…can be difficult because (of):
• unusual spelling
• variation in entries between directions of translation
• item is not listed as a lexeme but “hidden“ within
another entry
J Examples …
Locating specific lexical items
• Unusual spelling
• rouse ‚out‘ /raus (Churchill 1911)
• tèke maout ‚arracher‘/‘pull out, take out‘ (Pionnier 1913)
• Variation in entries
• E pineapple – TP ananas, painap
TP ananas – E pineapple (Murphy 1966)
• “Hidden“ item
• no entry for mas(t) ’mast(pole)‘
but: plakmas (under the entry plak ’flag‘) (Baing et al. 2008)
To get a rough idea, take a look at the two
excerpts from Melanesian Pidgin English word
lists in your hand‐out.
List of items
Documentation in 29 dictionaries/word lists (selected lexemes)
- sorted by continuity of documentation - (black: German; blue: German or English)
Non-straightforward findings
• Same item with different spelling
• Hidden information
• Background / etymological knowledge
required
Example: Hidden information
• Ananas
ananas
„ (d.Eingeb.)
blume
(…)
Blume
flauer, palawa
• Gruß
…….
zB. gutbai (…)
gris God
(Gruß der Katholiken im Vorbeigehen)
(van Baar 1930)
Example:
Background / etymological knowledge
• puy ‘naked‘
< missionaries‘ use of G pfui! (expression of
disapproval/disgust) ‘tut!‘ (Mühlhäusler 1979)
• didiman (pl. didiman) ‘agricultural officer‘
< Dr. Bredemann (senior curator of the Rabaul
Botanical Gardens, prior to WW I)
or Mr. Dietmann (German surveyor who laid out the
original Rabaul Botanical Gardens) (Godbold 2010:v fn.1)
The (original) research question:
What was the lexical influence of German on Tok Pisin at
the time and in the contact area of German missions and
under German colonial rule in New Guinea ?
J What (and how many) German-origin lexemes were in use
in Tok Pisin and when?
J What (and how many) German-origin lexemes are
recorded in Tok Pisin dictionaries?
Results: Can (lexical) effects of colonial-time
contact be traced in dictionaries?
• Yes -in the recorded existence of lexical items at
different times (lexical traces)
• Yes -in the attitudes that are revealed by the selection
of lexemes and by translations / interpretations
(traces of a Eurocentric perspective)
How to deal with the (lexical/methodological)
limitations of the data sources
• Dictionaries / word lists record and judge Tok Pisin at the same
time
J if working with them, it is essential to tease these two aspects
apart
• They are time- and context-bound historical documents:
– offering a time-specific record of the variety at one given point
– not providing objective linguistic information
– reflecting a subjective view from a historical perspective we cannot
reconstruct without these sources.
German‐based contact languages
• Ali Pidgin (Ali Island, New Guinea)
• Unserdeutsch (Rabaul, New Britain)
Gouv. German
New Guinea
Bismarck-Archipel
& northern
Salomones (1884)
Gouv.
Samoa
11 Pidgins und Kreolsprachen
Deutschbasierte Pidginund Kreolvarietäten
Deutsche Pidgins
und Kreolsprachen
Ali Pidgin German
Unserdeutsch
(RabaulCreole German)
11 Pidgins und Kreolsprachen
Ali-Pidgin
Ali Pidgin (New Guinea):
- 1901: founding of an SVD mission station on
Ali Island (off the coast near Aitape)
- German selected as the mission language
- sound recordings: 1970s (P. Mühlhäusler)
- relexified Tok Pisin (to a considerable
degree)
Ali Pidgin German, a German-based Pidgin
(1) Ja früher wir bleiben. Und dann Siapan kommen. Wir
muss gehen unsere Boot. […]
Yes earlier [= first] we stay. And then Japan coming. We must go our
boat. […]
(2) Siapan nicht gute Mann. Wir gehen verstecken. Wir alle
bleiben Paup. Aber nicht gute Platz wir bleiben. […]
Japan not good man. We go hiding. We all stay [Paup]. But not good
place we stay. […]
Mühlhäusler, Peter (1979): Bemerkungen zur Geschichte und zum linguistischen Stellenwert des
"Pidgindeutsch". – Auburger, Leopold und Heinz Kloss (Hg.): Deutsche Sprachkontakte in Übersee.
Nebst einem Beitrag zur Theorie der Sprachkontaktforschung. Tübingen, Narr: 59-87.
Unserdeutsch (New Guinea/New Britain)
• developed around 1900
– in a Catholic orphanage / school (Sacred Heart Mission) in
Vunapope (near Rabaul)
– German = language of instruction and (only) common language
• children with different mothertongues
– some of them very young -> L1 not fully acquired
• clear influence from Tok Pisin
• after PNG independence (1975):
– main part of speech community moved to Australia
– subsequent linguistic assimilation
• acc. to Ethnologue: dying language
– 1981: c. 100 speakers (C. Volker)
http://www.goethe.de/ges/spa/prj/sog/ver/pjs/udt/zta/de4748209.htm
Unserdeutsch speaker Harry Hoerler (*1943)
http://www.dw.de/popups/mediaplayer/contentId_4264200_mediaId_43
15522
Eh du, Alfons, du geht wo?
Eh you, Alfons, you go where?
(…)
Orait, Alfons, du geht. Wenn du ferti, du komm seh mi da
oben. (…)
Alright, Alfons, you goes. When you done, you come see me up there.
http://www.goethe.de/ges/spa/prj/sog/ver/pjs/udt/zta/de4748209.htm
Unserdeutsch, a German-based creole language
(1) I (hat) gelesen Buch. ‘Ich las das Buch / habe das Buch gelesen.’
I (have) read book.
(2) Du has mi fi das gefragen; I wird geben du nachher.
‘Du hast mich danach gefragt; ich werde es dir später geben.
You have me for that asked; I will give you later.
(3) Alle Knabe sind weggegangen fi holen etwas.
‘Die Jungen sind weggegangen um etwas zu holen.’
All boy are gone away for getting something.
(4) Alle Kinder muss ni geht schwimmen.
‘Die Kinder dürfen nicht schwimmen gehen.’
All children must not go swimming.
(5) Der Chicken war gestohlen bei alle Raskol.
‘Das Huhn wurde von den Ganoven gestohlen.’
The chicken was stolen by all rascals.
Volker, Craig (1989): Rabaul Creole German Syntax. Working Papers in Linguistics. Honolulu:
University of Hawaii at Manoa, Department of Linguistics, 153-189.
Marianas
(1899)
Carolines (incl.
Palau Islands)
(1899)
Gouv. German
New Guinea
Bismarck-Archipel
& northern
Salomones (1884)
Marshall
Islands (1885)
Nauru (1888)
Samoa (1900)
Gouv.
Samoa
Discussion
• What are the research interests in colonial linguistics?
– What should be in focus?
– Why?
• Who carries out the research?
– Who recognizes whose research?
• How to avoid the perpetuation of colonial structures in colonial
linguistics?
– privilege of interpretation (of data, of settings, …)
– (a‐)symmetric word choice (e.g. ‘indigenous’)
– ideologies: concepts of ‘language’, of ‘standard/national/… language’, etc.

Language Planning

Transcription

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