Medical English Fachbuch

Transcription

Reinhard Laun
Medizinische
Grundlagen
und
MEDICAL ENGLISH
für Beschäftigte
im
Gesundheitswesen
I
Inhaltsverzeichnis
Inhaltsverzeichnis ............................................................................................ II
1 Introduction to Medical Terminology .......................................................... 1
1 Introduction to the Human Body ............................................................... 33
2 The Integumentary System ........................................................................ 59
3 The Skeleton System .................................................................................. 64
5 The Muscular System ............................................................................... 81
6 The Cardio- Vascular System.................................................................... 88
7 The Digestive System ............................................................................... 106
8 The Urinary System .................................................................................. 112
9 The Respiratory System ........................................................................... 117
10 The Reproductive System ...................................................................... 121
11 The Nervous System.............................................................................. 138
12 The Sensory Organs .............................................................................. 146
13 Everyday words and phrases................................................................. 159
II
1 Introduction to Medical Terminology
Einführung in die med. Fachsprache (Terminologie)
Viele medizinische Fachbegriffe kommen aus dem Griechischen oder aus dem
Lateinischen. Man muss aber nicht perfekt griechisch oder lateinisch sprechen,
um die medizinischen Fachbegriffe „zu einem Wortgebäude zusammenbauen“
zu können. Meistens ist es viel einfacher, als man denkt!
Wir unterscheiden in der Hauptsache drei Typen von Wortteilen:
1. Wortstamm („word roots“)
2. Nachsilben („suffixes“
3. Vorsilben („prefixes“)
Beispiel:
Gelenk / schmerzen
Wortstamm
Nachsilbe
Arthr / algie
An diesem Beispiel sehen wir, dass die Wortendung „-algie“ immer die
Bedeutung Schmerzen hat. Wenn wir nun andere Wortstämme mit der Endung
„-algie“ kombinieren, bekommen wir entsprechende Wortkombinationen, die alle
auf „ - schmerzen“ enden, wie z.B.
Ceph / algie
Kopfschmerzen
Neur / algie
Nervenschmerzen
Lumb / algie
Lendenschmerzen
My / algie
Muskelschmerzen
1
Wir sehen also, dass die einzelnen „Wortteile“ der Schlüssel zum Verständnis
der medizinischen Fachausdrücke sind.
Word Parts are the Key
Word roots or combining forms usually, but not always, indicate the
involved body part. Word roots or combining forms contain the basic
meaning of the term.
Compound words can be formed when two or more word roots are
used to build the word.
Suffixes come at the end of a word. Suffixes usually, but not always,
indicate the disorder, the procedure or the disease.
Prefixes always come at the beginning of a word. Prefixes usually, but
not always, indicate location, number, status or time.
Combining Vowels are necessary to make the medical term easier to
pronounce. A combining vowel may be needed between the word root
and the suffix. The letter “o” ist the most commonly used combining
vowel.
Üben und studieren Sie nun gründlich die folgenden Beispiele für
„zusammengesetzte Fachbegriffe“!
For example:
hydrotherapy (hydr/o/therapy)
HYDR
word root
=
+
O
+
THERAPY
vowel
word root
HYDROTHERAPY
compound word
2
microscope (micr/o/scope)
MICR
word root
=
+
+
O
vowel
SCOPE
word root
MICROSCOPE
compound word
RULES FOR USING THE COMBINING VOWEL
Rule 1:
Do not place a vowel between a prefix and the word root.
Rule 2:
Do not place a vowel between a suffix and the word root when the suffix
beginns with a vowel.
For example: An often used suffix is “-itis” (= inflammation). When the
word root “neur/o” ( “neur” means nerve) is joined with the suffix “itis”,
the combining vowel is not used because “-itis” begins with a vowel.
neuritis (neur/itis)
NEUR
word root
+
ITIS
=
NEURITIS
suffix
word
3
Rule 3:
A combining vowel is used when the suffix begins with a consonant.
For example: When the word root “neur/o” ( “neur” means nerve) is
joined with the suffix “-plasty” (surgical repair), the combining vowel “o”
is used because “-plasty” begins with a consonant.
neuroplasty (neur/o/plasty)
NEUR
+
word root
=
O
+
PLASTY
vowel
suffix
NEUROPLASTY
word
encephalotomy (encephal/o/tomy)
ENCEPHAL
word root
+
O
+
TOMY
vowel
suffix
The ending that follows a word root is a suffix. You can change the meaning of
a word by putting another part after it.
4
For example:
gastroduodenoscopy (gastr/o/duoden/o/scopy)
+
GASTR
word root
O
+
vowel
DUODEN
+
+
O
word root
SCOPY
vowel
suffix
electrocardiography (electr/o/cardi/o/graphy)
ELECTR
+
word root
O
+
O
+
CARDI
vowel
word root
GRAPHY
vowel
suffix
appendectomy (append/ectomy)
APPEND
word root
+
ECTOMY
suffix
5
+
COMBINING FORMS, SUFFIXES AND PREFIXES
Here are some examples of combining forms, suffixes and prefixes that are
commonly found in medical terms.
COMBINING
MEANING
MEDICAL TERM
arthr/o
joint
arthritis
arthr/o
joint
arthrosis
arthr/o
joint
arthroscopy
arthr/o
joint
arthralgia
arthr/o
joint
arthrocentesis
arthr/o
joint
arthrodesis
arthr/o
joint
arthrography
arthr/o
joint
arthropathy
bi/o
life
biology
bi/o
life
biopsy
bi/o
life
biorhythm
FORM
6
GERMAN MEANING
carcin/o
cancer
carcinoma
carcin/o
cancer
carcinectomy
cardi/o
heart
cardiology
cardi/o
heart
cardiomegaly
cardi/o
heart
cardiologist
cardi/o
heart
cardiologist
cardi/o
heart
cardiomyopathy
cardi/o
heart
cardioplegy
cyst/o
urinary
cystoscope
bladder
cyst/o
urinary
cystolith
bladder
cyst/o
urinary
cystolithectomy
bladder
cyst/o
urinary
cystolithiasis
bladder
cyt/o
cell
cytology
7
cyt/o
cell
cytolysis
cyt/o
cell
cytoplasm
cyt/o
cell
cytotoxin
cyt/o
cell
cyturia
dermat/o
skin
dermatitis
skin
dermatic
skin
dermatosis
encephal/o
brain
encephalopathy
encephal/o
brain
encephalitis
encephal/o
brain
encephalo-graphy
enter/o
intestine
enteritis
enter/o
intestine
enterocentesis
enter/o
intestine
enterectomy
enter/o
intestine
enterocolitis
derm/o
dermat/o
derm/o
dermat/o
derm/o
8
enter/o
intestine
entero-gastritis
enter/o
intestine
enteromycosis
eryth/o
red
erythrocyte
eryth/o
red
erythrocyturia
eryth/o
red
erythrocyte-metry
gastr/o
stomach
gastroscopy
gastr/o
stomach
gastroscopy
gastr/o
stomach
gastroduo-denitis
gastr/o
stomach
gastrocolo-stomy
gastr/o
stomach
gastrotomy
gyn(a)ec/o
woman
gynaecology
9
gyn(a)ec/o
woman
gynaecologist
gyn(a)ec/o
woman
gynaecomastia
h(a)emat/o
blood
haematoma
blood
haemacytometer
blood
haemangioma
blood
haematocrit
blood
haematology
blood
haematuria
blood
haemoglobin
blood
haemoglobinuria
blood
haemomanometer
h(a)em/o
h(a)emat/o
h(a)em/o
h(a)emat/o
h(a)em/o
h(a)emat/o
h(a)em/o
h(a)emat/o
h(a)em/o
h(a)emat/o
h(a)em/o
h(a)emat/o
h(a)em/o
h(a)emat/o
h(a)em/o
h(a)emat/o
h(a)em/o
10
h(a)emat/o
blood
haemophilia
hepat/o
liver
hepatitis
hepat/o
liver
hepatic disease
hepat/o
liver
hepatalgia
hepat/o
liver
hepatocyte
hepat/o
liver
hepatologist
leuk/o
white
leukocyte
white
leukocyturia
leuk/o
white
leukaemia
nephr/o
kidney
nephrectomy
nephr/o
kidney
nephrecystitis
nephr/o
kidney
nephrolithiasis
nephr/o
kidney
nephrology
h(a)em/o
leuc/o
leuk/o
leuc/o
11
nephr/o
kidney
nephrologist
nephr/o
kidney
nephropathy
nephr/o
kidney
nephropyelitis
nephr/o
kidney
nephrouretercystectomy
neur/o
nerve
neurology
neur/o
nerve
neurologist
neur/o
nerve
neurasthenia
neur/o
nerve
neuritis
onc/o
tumor
oncologist
onc/o
tumor
oncogenesis
onc/o
tumor
oncotherapy
opthalm/o
eye
ophtalmo-scope
opthalm/o
eye
ophtalmalgia
opthalm/o
eye
ophtalm-ectomy
opthalm/o
eye
ophtalmia
12
opthalm/o
eye
ophtalmic surgery
opthalm/o
eye
ophtalmotonometry
oste/o
bone
osteoarthritis
oste/o
bone
osteoarthropathy
oste/o
bone
osteoarthrosis
oste/o
bone
osteochondritis
oste/o
bone
osteocyte
oste/o
bone
osteoectomy
oste/o
bone
osteoma
oste/o
bone
osteomalcia
oste/o
bone
osteomyelitis
path/o
disease
pathologist
path/o
disease
pathogenesis
path/o
disease
pathogen
path/o
disease
pathology
13
psych/o
mind
psychosis
psych/o
mind
psychoanalysis
psych/o
mind
psychology
psych/o
mind
Psychopathic
psych/o
mind
psychosomatic
psych/o
mind
psychotherapy
psych/o
mind
psychotonic
ren/o
kidney
renal
ren/o
kidney
renal
ren/o
kidney
renal failure
ren/o
kidney
renal pelvis
ren/o
kidney
renal
transplantation
ren/o
kidney
renal tubule
ren/o
kidney
renal scintigraphy
rhin/o
nose
rhinitis
14
rhin/o
nose
rhinalgia
rhin/o
nose
rhinopharyngitis
rhin/o
nose
rhinopharynx
rhin/o
nose
rhinoscopy
rhin/o
nose
rhinosinusitis
sarc/o
flesh
sarcoma
sarc/o
flesh
sarcoid
sarc/o
flesh
sarcosis
thromb/o
clotting
thrombocyte
thromb/o
clotting
thrombectomy
thromb/o
clotting
thromboangiitis
thromb/o
clotting
thromboembolus
thromb/o
clotting
thrombolysis
thromb/o
clotting
thrombophilia
thromb/o
clotting
thrombophlebitis
15
thromb/o
clotting
thromboplastin
time
thromb/o
clotting
thrombosis
thromb/o
clotting
thrombus
thromb/o
clotting
thrombocytopenia
SUFFIXES
MEANING
MEDICAL TERM
-al
pertaining to
neural
-al
pertaining to
anal sphincter
-al
pertaining to
oral cavity
16
GERMAN MEANING
-al
pertaining to
parenteral
feeding
-al
pertaining to
neural
-algia
pain
arthralgia
-algia
pain
neuralgia
-algia
pain
myalgia
-algia
pain
ostalgia
-algia
pain
gastralgia
-algia
pain
nephralgia
-cyte
cell
leukocyte
-cyte
cell
erythrocyte
-cyte
cell
thrombo-cyte
-cyte
cell
osteocyte
-cyte
cell
neurocyte
-cyte
cell
myocyte
-ectomy
removal,
nephrectomy
17
-ectomy
removal,
cholecystectomy
excision
-ectomy
removal,
coloproctectomy
excision
-ectomy
removal,
spleenectomy
excision
-gram
record
arteriogram
-gram
record
arthrogram
-gram
record
angiogram
-gram
record
electrocardiogram
-gram
record
encephalo-gram
-gram
record
electroencephalo-gram
-graphy
process of
encephalography
recording
-graphy
-graphy
process of
electrocardiograp
recording
hy
process of
radiography
recording
18
-graphy
process of
pyelography
recording
-ic
pertaining to
gastric
-ic
pertaining to
nephric
-ic
pertaining to
splenic
-ic
pertaining to
hepatic
-ic
pertaining to
epiglottic
cartilage
-ism
condition,
hypothyroidism
process
-ism
condition,
hypothymism
process
-ism
condition,
hyperthymism
process
-itis
inflammation
angiitis
-itis
inflammation
encephalitis
-itis
inflammation
menigitis
-itis
inflammation
osteitis
19
-itis
inflammation
nephritis
-itis
inflammation
myelitis
-itis
inflammation
arthritis
-itis
inflammation
chondritis
-itis
inflammation
rhinitis
-itis
inflammation
pansinusitis
-itis
inflammation
conjunctivitis
-itis
inflammation
hepatitis
-itis
inflammation
appendicitis
-logist
specialist in
neurologist
the study of
-logist
specialist in
cardiologist
the study of
-logist
specialist in
nephrologist
the study of
-logist
specialist in
pathologist
the study of
20
-logist
specialist in
gynaecologist
the study of
-logy
study of
gynaecology
-logy
study of
cardiology
-logy
study of
dermatology
-logy
study of
endocrinology
-logy
study of
gastroenterology
-logy
study of
haematology
-logy
study of
neurology
-logy
study of
oncology
-logy
study of
ophtalmology
-logy
study of
pathology
-logy
study of
psychology
-logy
study of
rheumatology
abnormal
-osis
condition
arthrosis
abnormal
-osis
condition
nephrosis
21
abnormal
-osis
condition
varicosis
abnormal
-osis
condition
hepatosis
instrument to
-scope
visually
coloscope
examine
instrument to
-scope
visually
rectoscope
examine
instrument to
-scope
visually
rhinoscope
examine
instrument to
-scope
visually
bronchoscope
examine
instrument to
-scope
visually
arthroscope
examine
instrument to
-scope
visually
colposcope
examine
process of
-scopy
visually
arthroscopy
examination
process of
-scopy
visually
otoscopy
examination
process of
-scopy
visually
amnioscopy
examination
22
process of
-scopy
visually
duodenoscopy
examination
process of
-scopy
visually
oesophagoscopy
examination
process of
-scopy
visually
laparoscopy
examination
process of
-scopy
visually
gastroscopy
examination
-sis
state of
prognosis
-sis
state of
diagnosis
-sis
state of
dysostosis
-sis
state of
psychosis
-sis
state of
arthrosis
-sis
state of
chondrosis
-sis
state of
hepatosis
process of
-tomy
cutting,
anatomy
incision
process of
-tomy
incision
duodenotomy
23
PREFIXES MEANING
MEDICAL TERM
a-, an-
no, not
anaemia
a-, an-
no, not
abacterial
a-, an-
no, not
anaesthesia
a-, an-
no, not
analgesia
a-, an-
no, not
amnesia
a-, an-
no, not
anorexia
a-, an-
no, not
anosmia
a-, an-
no, not
anoxia
a-, an-
no, not
anuria
aut/o-
self
autoclave
aut/o-
self
autopsy
aut/o-
self
autogenous
aut/o-
self
autodigestion
aut/o-
self
autoimmune
disease
24
GERMAN MEANING
aut/o-
self
autonomic
nervous system
aut/o-
self
autosuggestion
dia-
complete,
diabetes
through
dia-
complete,
diabetic coma
through
dia-
complete,
dialysate
through
dia-
complete,
diarrhoea
through
dia-
complete,
diathermy
through
dys-
bad, painful,
dysacousia
difficult
dys-
bad, painful,
dysaesthesia
difficult
dys-
bad, painful,
dysentery
difficult
dys-
bad, painful,
dysfunction
difficult
25
dys-
bad, painful,
dyshidrosis
difficult
dys-
bad, painful,
dyskinesia
difficult
dys-
bad, painful,
dysmenorrhoea
difficult
dys-
bad, painful,
dysmnesia
difficult
dys-
bad, painful,
dysostosis
difficult
dys-
bad, painful,
dyspepsia
difficult
dys-
bad, painful,
dysphoria
difficult
dys-
bad, painful,
dysplasia
difficult
dys-
bad, painful,
dyspnoea
difficult
dys-
bad, painful,
dystonia
difficult
dys-
bad, painful,
dystrophia
difficult
26
dys-
bad, painful,
dysuria
difficult
endo-
within
endocarditis
endo-
within
endocrine glands
endo-
within
endocrinology
endo-
within
endodontitis
endo-
within
endolymph
endo-
within
endometritis
endo-
within
endoparasite
endo-
within
endoplasmic
reticulum
endo-
within
endoscope
endo-
within
endoscopy
endo-
within
endotracheal
tube
exo-
outside
exophoria
exo-
outside
exophthalmus
27
exo-
outside
exotropia
hyper-
excessive,
hyperacousia
more than
normal
hyper-
excessive,
hyperactivity
more than
normal
hyper-
excessive,
hyperaesthesia
more than
normal
hyper-
excessive,
hyperalgesia
more than
normal
hyper-
excessive,
hyperchromasia
more than
normal
hyper-
excessive,
hyperchylia
more than
normal
hyper-
excessive,
hyperchylia
more than
normal
hyper-
excessive,
hyperextension
more than
normal
28
hyper-
excessive,
hyperglycaemia
more than
normal
hyper-
excessive,
hyperhidrosis
more than
normal
hyper-
excessive,
hyperkeratosis
more than
normal
hyper-
excessive,
hyperkinesia
more than
normal
hyper-
excessive,
hyperopia
more than
normal
hyper-
excessive,
hyperpyrexia
more than
normal
hyper-
excessive,
hypersensitivity
more than
normal
hyper-
excessive
hypertension
hyper-
more than
hyperthermia
normal
29
hyper-
excessive,
hyperventilation
more than
normal
hypo-
below, less
hypochromasia
than normal
hypo-
below, less
hypodermic
than normal
hypo-
hypo-
hypo-
below, less
hypodermic
than normal
injection
below, less
hypoglycaemic
than normal
shock
below, less
hypogonadism
than normal
hypo-
below, less
hypometropia
than normal
hypo-
below, less
hyposensitive
than normal
pro-
before
prodrome
pro-
before
proerythrocyte
pro-
before
prognosis
30
pro-
before
prolapse
re-
back
reanimation
re-
back
rebleeding
re-
back
rebreathing bag
re-
back
recalcification
re-
back
recall
re-
back
recidivism
re-
back
recurrent
re-
back
reposition
retro-
behind
retroflexion
retro-
behind
retrolisthesis
retro-
behind
retrosternal pain
sub-
under, below
subhepatic
sub-
under, below
sublingual gland
sub-
under, below
subconscious
31
sub-
under, below
subcutaneous
injection
sub-
under, below
subcutis
trans-
across,
transfusion
through
trans-
across,
transurethral
through
trans-
across,
transmitter
through
trans-
across,
transplantation
through
32
1 Introduction to the Human Body
33
Unser Körper ist ein Wunderwerk, eine geheimnisvolle Fabrik mit vielen
Abteilungen. Wir essen, schlafen, bewegen uns, atmen, denken, sprechen,
verdauen Speisen und vieles mehr. Dies ist alles nur möglich, weil jede
„Produktionsstätte“, jede einzelne „Fachabteilung“ -wir können auch
Organsystem dazu sagen- mit der anderen Fachabteilung eng
zusammenarbeitet. Je nachdem aus welcher Blickrichtung wir unseren Körper
betrachten, sehen und analysieren wir ihn.
Der Biologe sieht vor allem die Milliarden von Körperzellen, die helfen, den
Körper wachsen, gedeihen und mit den verschiedenen Organen
zusammenarbeiten zu lassen. Der Chemiker sieht natürlich an erster Stelle die
unzählbaren Atome und Moleküle (Atomverbindungen), die in jeder Sekunde
unseres Lebens chemische Reaktionen eingehen. Der Physiologe untersucht
die grundlegenden Lebensprozesse (z.B. Enzymreaktionen, hormonelle
Regelkreise usw.). Für den Ernährungswissenschaftler ist der menschlichen
Körper eine Ansammlung von Proteinen, Kohlenhydrate, Eiweiße, Mineralien,
Spurenelemente usw..Für den Ingenieur ist der Körper wiederum eine
unglaubliche Biomaschine, die sich selbst kontrolliert und gegebenenfalls auch
selbst repariert.
Übungsaufgabe:
Beschreiben Sie auf deutsch die folgenden Abbildungen „vom Atom“ zum „Körper“:
Atom
Moleküle
Zellorganelle
Körperzelle
Gewebe
Organ
Organsystem
Körper
34
Levels of organization
The human body is highly organized from the single cell to the total organism.
35
The anatomy of the human body is composed of different levels of organization.
These levels represent a series of steps. Each level is a building step for the
next level.
Fill in the answer blanks with the correct terms for these increasingly
larger structures.
Using the following terms: cell, organ system, atoms, organism,
organelle, organ, molecules, tissue.
¬
__________________________
Þ
-
__________________________
Þ
®
__________________________
Þ
¯
__________________________
Þ
Ä
__________________________
Þ
±
__________________________
Þ
²
__________________________
Þ
³
__________________________
36
Was gehört zusammen? Bitte durch einen Strich verbinden!
prepares food molecules for use by
The integumentary system
the cells of the body.
sends signals throughout the body.
The skeletal system
transports substances to and from
The skeletal muscles
body cells.
distributes and exchanges gases
between the body and external
The nervous system
environment.
protects and regulates body
The central nervous system
temperature.
The glands of the endocrine
produces sex cells.
system
The circulatory system
consists of the brain and spinal cord.
The respiratory system
contract to produce body movements.
consists of the bones and the
The digestive system
articulations (joints).
secrete chemical messages called
The urinary system
hormones.
The male reproductive
controls the composition and volume
system
of the blood. It eliminates wastes.
37
Grundwortschatz
Für den nachfolgenden Text benötigen Sie einige neue Vokabeln. Bitte lernen
Sie die Vokabel auswendig bzw. übertragen Sie die deutsch-englischen
Begriffe in Ihr Vokabelheft und helfen Sie sich gegenseitig, indem Sie
untereinander in der Gruppe die Vokabeln abfragen.
Verben:
to be part of
to call
to circulate
to compose
to consist of
to contract
to display
to function
to include
to make up
to tend to
to work together
Substantive:
body movement
circulatory system
heart system
muscle cell
organ
organelles
organism
property
tissue
38
Adjektive:
same
several
Similar
small
smaller
smallest
Wenn Sie diesen Grundwortschatz gut auswendig gelernt haben, dürfte Ihnen
die folgende Übung nicht mehr schwerfallen!
Work with a partner
Complete the sentences using the nouns in the box.
Dictate the sentences to each other.
Molecules compose the parts of the cell called _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ .
The _ _ _ _ is the smallest unit displaying the properties of life. Cells tend to
specialize. Similar cells function together in a _ _ _ _ _ _ . Muscle cells work
together in the skeletal _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . These cells contract,
producing _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . Two or more tissues work together in an
_ _ _ _ _ . The _ _ _ _ _ consists of several tissue types. Organs with
related functions are part of the same _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ .
The heart and the blood vessels are organs of the _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ _ _ . They function to circulate the blood throughout the body. All
organ systems make up the _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . The organ systems of the
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ include the nervous, circulatory, respiratory
and digestive systems.
heart; human body; muscle tissue; body movement; cell; tissue;
organelles; organism; organ system; organ; circulatory system;
39
Vocabulary:
blood vessels
______________________________
body movement
______________________________
cells
______________________________
circulatory system ______________________________
digestive system
______________________________
heart
______________________________
human body
______________________________
molecules
______________________________
muscle cells
______________________________
muscle tissue
______________________________
nervous system
______________________________
organ
______________________________
organ system
______________________________
organelles
______________________________
property
______________________________
respiratory system ______________________________
similar
______________________________
to circulate
______________________________
to compose
______________________________
to consist of
______________________________
to contract
______________________________
to produce
______________________________
to specialize.
______________________________
unit
______________________________
40
Match the terms to the following figures.
[
] skin
[
] respiratory system [
A
[
] eye
[
] blood circulation
] urinary
[
] endocrine system
B
C
D
E
F
41
Was gehört zusammen?
Bitte durch einen Strich verbinden!
Physiology
A tendency of the body´ s system to maintain the
normal physiological states of the organism
The branch of medicine dealing with the essential
Anatomy
nature of disease, especially changes in body
tissues and organs that cause or are caused by
disease.
A branch of morphology that deals with the
Metabolism
structure of organisms; the art of separating the
parts of an organism in order to ascertain their
position, relations, structure, and function
The sum of the processes in the build up and
destruction of protoplasm; specifically : the
Homeostasis
chemical changes in living cells by which energy
is provided for vital processes and activities and
new material is assimilated
Pathology
The branch of biological science that studies and
describes how body parts work or function.
42
Verben:
to evaluate
to get pregnant
to note
to protect
to support
to transmitt
to use
Substantive:
airborne germs
birth control
blood glucose
body
breast
disease
examination
heart
lungs
medical assistant
physician
radiologist
relative
skeleton
tuberculosis
weight gain
43
Adjektive:
effective
ecessive
infectious
internal
Medical
nearest
plastic
Premeal
significant
various
44
Word formation: adjectives
Work with a partner
Complete the sentences using the adjectives in the box.
1. The skeleton supports the body and protects the _______________
organ, such as the heart and lungs.
2. The medical assistant noted an ________________________ amount
of blood glucose.
3. Your _______________ blood glucose should be between
90 mg/dl
and 130 mg/dl.
4. What is the name of your _______________ relative?
5. Have you noted any ______________ weight gain or loss?
6. Tuberculosis (TB) is an ______________ disease that is transmitted
from one person to another by airborne germs.
7. The result of the X- ray examination will be evaluated by a radiologist,
who is a physician specializing in ______________ diagnosis by X ray.
8. There are ______________ methods you may use if you do not wish to
get pregnant.
9. The pill is one of the most ______________ means of birth control
when taken correctly.
10.Before we take X-rays we need to compress your breasts as much as
possible between these ______________ plates.
effective, excessive, infectious, internal, medical,
nearest, plastic, premeal, significant, various,
45
Vocabulary:
activity
______________________________
biological science
______________________________
body parts
______________________________
body tissue
______________________________
branch
______________________________
chemical changes ______________________________
disease
______________________________
energy
______________________________
morphology
______________________________
organ
______________________________
organisms
______________________________
structure
______________________________
tendency
______________________________
to ascertain
______________________________
to assimilate
______________________________
to build up
______________________________
to deal
______________________________
to function
______________________________
to provide
______________________________
to study
______________________________
to work
______________________________
to describe
______________________________
vital process
______________________________
46
Richtungsbezeichnungen des menschlichen Körpers
anterior
distal
dorsal
fibular
inferior
kaudal
kranial
lateral
medial
median
palmar
plantar
posterior
proximal
radial
superior
tibial
ulnar
ventral
volar
nach vorne, zur Bauchseite
vom Rumpf weg
nach hinten zum Rücken hin
zum Wadenbein hin
zum Steiß hin
zum Steiß hin
zum Kopf hin
zur Seite hin
zur Mittelebene hin
in der Körpermittelebene
zur Handfläche hin
zur Fußsohle hin
nach hinten zum Rücken hin
zum Rumpf hin
zur Speiche hin
zum Kopf hin
zum Schienbein hin
zur Elle hin
nach vorne, zur Bauchseite hin
zur Handfläche hin
weitere Termini:
Abduktion
Adduktion
Pronation
Supination
Rotation
Torsion
das Abspreizen
Heranführen einer Gliedmaße an die Körperachse
Drehbewegung des Unterarms, sodass der Handrücken
nach oben kommt
Supination der Hand ist die Drehbewegung des
Unterarms ("Auswärtsdrehung"), durch welche die
Daumenseite nach lateral und der Handrücken nach
hinten gedreht wird. Eselsbrücke: "Supination ist die
Bewegung der Hand, mit der man Suppe löffelt."
Supination des Fußes ist die Hebung des medialen
Fußrandes bei gleichzeitiger Senkung des lateralen
Fußrandes, d.h. das "Abknicken" des Fußgelenks nach
außen
Drehung eines Körpers um eine Achse
Verwindung, Achsendrehung eines Organs, meist um die
Längsachse
47
Directional Terms
Directional terms are used in relation to one another to denote where
body parts are located.
The point of reference for the body is the anatomical position.
The body in the anatomical position is standing with the feet together,
arms at side, palms up.
SUPERIOR
CRANIAL
PROXIMAL
DORSAL
(posterior)
MEDIAL
LATERAL
VENTRAL
(anterior)
CAUDAL
DISTAL
INFERIOR
48
Term
Definition
Example
anterior /
Nearer to or at the front of the
ventral
body
contralateral
deep
On the opposite side of the
body
Ascending and descending colons
of the large intestine are
contralateral.
Away from the surface of the
Ribs are deep to the skin of the
body
chest.
Farther from the attachment of
distal
Sternum is anterior to the heart
an extremity to the trunk of a
structure
Phalanges are distal to the
carpals (wrist bones).
Away from the head or toward
inferior /
the lower part of the structure;
caudal
generally refers to structures in
Stomach is inferior to the lungs.
the trunk
Gall bladder and ascending colon
ipsilateral
On the same side of the body
of the large intestine are
ipsilateral.
lateral
medial
posterior /
dorsal
Away from the midline of the
body
Lungs are lateral to the heart.
Nearer to the midline of the
Ulna is on the medial side of the
body or a structure
forearm.
Nearer to or at the back of the
Esophagus is posterior to the
body
trachea.
Nearer to the attachment of an
proximal
extremity to the trunk or
Femur is proximal to the tibia.
structure
superior /
Toward the head or the upper
cephalic or
part of a structure; generally
cranial
refers to structures in the trunk
49
Heart is superior to the liver.
Was gehört zusammen? Bitte durch einen Strich verbinden!
refers to a part that is closer to the
Superior
back.
Inferior
trunk (torso) of the body.
means closer to the head.
Anterior
refers to a limb part that is further
Posterior
from the trunk (torso) of the body.
Lateral
front of the body.
refers to a part that is further from
Proximal
the midline.
means closer to the feet.
Distal
50
Die Körperebenen
Wir unterscheiden in der Hauptsache folgende drei Körperebenen:
1. Transversalebene,
2. Frontalebene,
3. Sagittalebene
Außerdem gibt es noch folgende Begriffe:
transversal: senkrecht zur Sagittalebene (rechts-links)
longitudinal: entlang der Körperlängsachse oder senkrecht zur
Transversalebene (oben-unten)
sagittal (sagitta „Pfeil“): parallel zur sagittalen Achse oder senkrecht zur
Frontalebene (vorne-hinten)
median: in der Medianebene
Transverse plane
The
transverse
plane, also called
horizontal plane,
cuts the body into
upper and lower
parts.
Frontal plane
These are known
as
The frontal
the
cranial
plane runs
lengthwise from
side to side,
dividing the
body into
Median sagittal plane
ventral and
dorsal (front
and back)
The sagittal plane runs
sections.
lengthwise from front to back and
divides the body into right and left
sides.
A median sagittal cut produces
two equal halves, each containing
51
an arm and a leg.
Die Körperhöhlen
Körperhöhlen sind mit Epithel ausgekleidete Hohlräume des Körpers. Sie
sowohl in sich geschlossen sein oder aber mit anderen Räumen, bzw. der
Umwelt in Verbindung stehen. Die wichtigsten Körperhöhlen sind:
1. die Peritonealhöhle (Cavitas peritonealis)
2. die Pleurahöhle (Cavitas pleuralis)
3. die Herzbeutelhöhle (Cavitas pericardii)
Außerdem gibt es noch
och weitere Körperhöhlen, wie z.B.:
4. die Gelenkhöhle (Cavum articulare)
5. die Nasenhöhle (Cavum nasi)
6. die Schädelhöhle (Cavum cranii)
7. die Brusthöhle (Cavitas thoracis, auch Thorakalraum)
Body Cavities
A body cavity is a space within the body that contains and protects the internal
organs.
cranial cavity
spinal cavity
thoracic cavity
diaphragm
abdominal cavity
pelvic cavity
52
There are two main cavities of the human body, the dorsal cavity and the
ventral cavity. Each cavity is divided into subcavities.
The dorsal cavity
spinal cavity
The ventral cavity
Cranial
pelvic cavity
thoracic cavity
abdominal cavity
The dorsal cavity protects the structures of the nervous system. The
dorsal cavity is divided into two parts:
The cranial cavity, located within the skull, protects the brain.
The spinal cavity, located within the spinal column, protects
the spinal chord.
The ventral cavity contains and protects many of the body organs. The
ventral cavity is divided into three parts:
The thoracic cavity, also known as the chest cavity, protects
the heart and the lungs. The diaphragm is a muscle that
separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities.
The abdominal cavity contains primarily the major organs of
digestion.
The pelvic cavity is the space formed by the pelvic.
The pelvic cavity contains primarily the organs of the
reproductive and excretory systems.
53
Was gehört zusammen?
Bitte durch einen Strich verbinden!
The dorsal cavity
is superior to the diaphragm.
The cranial cavity
contain the lungs.
is formed by the superior bones
of the skull.
The spinal cavity
It contains the brain.
consists of the cranial cavity
The ventral cavity
and spinal cavity.
is formed by a series of
vertebrae.
The thoracic cavity
It contains the spinal cord.
consists of thoracic and
The pleural cavities
abdominopelvic subcavities.
The mediastinum
is inferior to the diaphragm.
The abdominopelvic
is the space between the
cavity
pleural cavities.
54
Körperquadranten
Den menschlichen Torso können wir in vier Viertel (=Quadranten) einteilen:
1
2
3
4
Man kann den Bauch topografisch in drei Bauchabschnitte (Ober-, Mittel- und
Unterbauch) und 6 anatomische Regionen aufteilen.
Der Oberbauch oder das Epigastrium ist der der von Rippen eingefasste
Bauchbereich oberhalb des Bauchnabels: Er umfasst folgende Regionen:
Regio epigastrica
Regio hypochondriaca
Mittelbauch
Der Mittelbauch oder das Mesogastrium ist der freie Mittelbereich um den
Bauchnabel herum, der annähernd die Form eines schmalen Korsetts hat. Er
besteht aus:
Regio umbilicalis
Regio lateralis
Der Unterbauch oder das Hypogastrium ist der vom Becken eingefasste
Bauchbereich unterhalb des Bauchnabels. Er umfasst folgende anatomische
Regionen:
Regio pubica
Regio inguinalis
55
Divisions of the abdomen
Umbilicus
= Belly
Button
RUQ
LUQ
RLQ
LLQ
To describe where an organ or a pain is located, the abdomen is divided in four
quadrants.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Right upper quadrant (= RUQ)
Left upper quadrant (= LUQ)
Right lower quadrant (= RLQ)
Left lower quadrant (= LLQ)
56
Regions of the abdomen and the thorax
Another descriptive system divides the abdomen and lower portion of the thorax
into nine regions.
Right
Epigastric
hypochondriac
region
Right Iumbar region
Left
hypochondriac
region
Umbilical
Left Iumbar region
region
Right iliac region
Hypogastric
Left iliac region
region
Vocabulary:
a limb
anterior
caudal
distal
dorsal
frontal plane
horizontal plane
inferior
lateral
leg
lengthwise
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
57
posterior
______________________________
sagittal plane
______________________________
side
______________________________
superior
______________________________
the back
______________________________
the trunk
______________________________
transverse plane ______________________________
ventral
______________________________
abdominal cavity ______________________________
body cavity
______________________________
brain
______________________________
chest cavity
______________________________
cranial cavity
______________________________
cranial cavity
______________________________
diaphragm
______________________________
dorsal cavity
______________________________
heart
______________________________
internal organs
______________________________
lungs
______________________________
muscle
______________________________
nervous system
______________________________
organs of digestion ______________________________
organs of the excretory system ___________________
pelvic cavity
______________________________
skull
______________________________
space
______________________________
spinal cavity
______________________________
spinal chord
______________________________
spinal column
______________________________
thoracic cavity
______________________________
to protect
______________________________
to separate
______________________________
ventral cavity
______________________________
58
2 The Integumentary System
In diesem Kapitel beschäftigen wir uns mit der Haut. Wer meint, dass die Haut
„nur“ eine einfache „Hülle“ des Menschen sei, der irrt. Die Haut ist mit einer
Oberfläche von ca. 2 m² das größte Organ des Menschen und außerdem ein
lebenswichtiges Organ, das viele Aufgaben wahrnimmt.
Was bietet uns die Haut?
Schutz bei chemischen Schädigungen
Schutz gegenüber Druck, Stößen und Reibung
Schutz vor dem Eindringen von Mikroorganismen
Schutz vor dem Verlust von Wasser und Wärme
Schutz vor Kälte, Hitze und Strahlung
Schutz vor Überhitzung (Wärmeregulation z.B. durch
Schweißabsonderung
Verdunstungskälte)
7. Regulation der Körperwärme durch Änderung der Durchblutung
8. Größtes Sinnesorgan des Körpers ( mit Druck-, Schmerz-, und
Temperaturrezeptoren , Tastsinn)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Um die obigen Aufgaben erfüllen zu können, besteht die Haut aus
verschiedenen Haut- bzw. Zellschichten. Die drei wichtigen Hautschichten
heißen:
1. Oberhaut (Epidermis)
2. Lederhaut (Corium)
3. Unterhaut (Subcutis)
59
Grundwortschatz
Verben:
to be composed of
to carry
to contain
to cover
to keep out
to lie
to produce
to protect
to regulate
to secrete
Substantive:
appendage
blood vessels
body temperature
connective tissue
environment
epithelial tissue
hair follicles
integumentary system
nail
Pore
60
sebaceous gland
skin
strength
suppleness
surface
sweat gland
UV rays
waste product
Adjektive:
large
dray
elastic
harmful
horny
numerous
scaly
significant
thick
tough
various
61
Übungsaufgabe
Bitte übersetzen Sie den folgenden Text zum Thema „Haut“.
The Skin
The skin is the largest, thickest and most complex epithelial tissue in the body.
The skin has two parts: the horny outer epidermis and the soft inner dermis.
The skin carries four appendages: sweat glands, hairs, nails and sebaceous
glands. The functions of the skin are:
1. To regulate body temperature
2. To secrete waste products
3. To make us aware of our environment, as the organ of touch and other
senses
4. To keep out bacteria by its dray, scaly outer surface.
5. To secrete sebum.
6. To protect the body by its pigment from the harmful effects of the sun´ s
rays.
7. To produce vitamin D through the action of UV rays on the ergosterol it
contains.
Label the diagram
1
9
2
3
4
8
6
5
7
62
Arrector muscle
________
Dermis
________
Epidermis
________
Hair
________
Hair bulb
________
Pore
________
Sebaceous gland
________
Subcutaneous fat
________
Sweat gland
________
Work with a partner
The skin covers the entire _ _ _ _ _ _ _ area of the human body
and has a surface area of about 2 m².
The skin is composed of _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ , the epidermis and
the _ _ _ _ _ _ . The _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ is the _ _ _ _ _ _ _ of
the two layers, and serves as a tough, _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
________.
The dermis is the _ _ _ _ _ _ _ layer of skin, which
lies
protected
under
__________
the
epidermis.
It
is
composed
of
_ _ _ _ _ _ and has elastic and collagen
_ _ _ _ _ _ for suppleness and strength. The dermis contains a
rich supply of _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ , as well as numerous
sensory nerve endings. Lying within this layer are the _ _ _ _
_________
and the
_____
______
and the
_________ ______.
surface; thicker; dermis; epidermis; protective; covering; connective tissue;
blood vessels; fibers; sebaceous glands; two layers; thinner; hair follicles;
sweat glands
63
3 The Skeleton System
Wenn wir auf die Welt kommen, verfügen wir über ca. 350 Knochen. Durch
Verschmelzen einiger Knochen besitzt der Erwachsene noch ca. 206 Knochen.
Diese Knochen, sowie die dazugehörenden Knorpel und Bänder gehören zum
Skelett ( = passiver Bewegungsapparat).
Nach ihrer Form können wir die verschiedenen Knochen in Röhrenknochen
(z.B. Oberarmknochen, Schienbein, Wadenbein usw.), platte Knochen (z.B.
Brustbein) und kurze, unregelmäßige Knochen (z.B. Hand- und Fußwurzelknochen, Wirbel usw.) einteilen.
Das Knochengewebe besteht aus ca. 20% Wasser, 25% organischen
Substanzen und 55% anorganischen Salzen (z.B. Kalziumphosphat,
Kalziumkarbonat, usw.). Diese Knochensalze verleihen dem einzelnen Knochen
seine Festigkeit, während die organischen Substanzen für seine Elastizität
sorgen.
Das Knorpelgewebe zeichnet sich durch eine hohe Druckfestigkeit und
Elastizität aus. Am häufigsten findet man daher Knorpelgewebe an den
Körperstellen, wo hohe mechanische Belastungen auftreten (z.B. Bandscheiben
der Wirbelsäule).
Das Bindegewebe sorgt für hohe Zug- und Biegefestigkeit. Bindegewebszellen
und sogenannte kollagene Fasern finden wir daher vor allem in den Bändern
und Sehnen.
64
Verben:
Substantive:
65
Adjektive:
66
Bitte übersetzen Sie den folgenden Text:
The Skeletal System
The skeleton is the framework which gives the body its shape. The average
human adult skeleton has 206 bones.
The skeleton has two main parts:
the axial skeleton and
the appendicular skeleton.
The axial skeleton consists of the skull, the spine, the ribs and the sternum
(breastbone) and includes 80 bones.
The appendicular skeleton includes two limb girdles (the shoulders and pelvis)
and their attached limb bones. This part of the skeletal system contains 126
bones, 64 in the shoulders and upper limbs and 62 in the pelvis and lower
limbs.
The skeleton is not just a movable frame, however; it is an efficient factory
which produces for example red blood cells from the red bone marrow . The
bones are also a storehouse for minerals - calcium, for example- which can be
supplied to other parts of the body.
The bones are made up of several different tissues and have different shapes.
The tissues which form the bones are the following connective tissues:
bone tissue
fibrous tissue
cartilage tissue
adipose tissue
The skeletal system provides at least five functions for the human body:
1. Protection
2. Support
3. Movement
4. Mineral Storage
5. Blood Cell Formation
67
There are five kinds of bones that develop in the body:
1. Long bones are found in the arms (i.e. humerus)
2. Short bones include the Carpals (wrist) and tarsals (ankle).
3. Flat bones such as the sternum.
4. Irregular bones such as mandible (jawbone) and vertebrae.
5. Sesamoid bones are seed-shape, found in joints (i.e. patella).
Diaphysis
Red bone
marrow
Epiphysis
Compact bone
tissue
Periosteum
Diaphysis
Yellow bone
marrow
Cartilage tissue
VOCABULARY RELATED TO THE SKELATAL SYSTEM
Welche Bedeutung haben die folgenden englischen Fachbegriffe im Deutschen?
Bitte übersetzen Sie die folgenden Termini!
Arthrodesis
arthroplasty
arthroscopy
articulation
bursitis
calcaneus
cartilage
68
cervical vertebrae
clavicle
compact bone
diaphysis
epiphysis
femur
fibula
hallux valgus
humerus
kyphosis
ilium
joint
lordosis
lumbago
lumbar vertebrae
luxation
medullary cavity
orthopedist
ostectomy
osteitis
osteomalacia
Osteomyelitis
Osteonecrosis
osteoplasty
osteoporosis
patella
periosteum
periostitis
radius
red bone marrow
rheumatologist
69
rib
scapula
scoliosis
skull
spina bifida
spondylosis
spongy bone
symphysis
tibia
ulna
vertebrae
The human skeletal structure
Cranium
Maxilla
Mandible
Cervical Vertebrae
(first 7 vertebrae)
Clavicle
Sternum
Scapula
Thoracic Vertebrae
(next 12 vertebrae)
Humerus
Rib
Lumbar Vertebra
(last 5 vertebrae)
Radius
Ulna
Pelvis
Coccyx
Carpals
Metacarpals
Phalanges
Femur
Patella
Fibula
Tibia
Tarsals
Metatarsals
Phalanges
Calcaneus
70
Work with a partner
The _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ provides the framework of the body and it has several
functions. One function is that of protection, for example:
The _ _ _ _ _ protects the brain. The rib cage protects the _ _ _ _ _
and the lungs and the _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ protects the spinal
cord.
An other function is that of support, for example:
The vertebral column has four different _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ along its
length. These curvatures give the backbone a great _ _ _ _ _ _ _ to
support bodyweight. Others bones, such as the _ _ _ _ bones in the
legs and arms, contribute great mechanical _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ .
A third function is that of movement:
Skeletal muscles attach to the bones. As the _ _ _ _ _ _ _ contract
they pull on the bones and produce _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ .
The structures of the skeletal system include: bones, _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ,
ligaments, _ _ _ _ _ _ and bursa.
Bones are connected to _ _ _ _ _ _ _ that contract to move the body.
Joints are the spaces between bones. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ connect bones
to other bones. Tendons connect _ _ _ _ _ to muscles.
long; cartilage; spinal column; curvatures; bones; joints; skull; heart;
skeleton; movement; strength; ability; ligaments; muscles; muscles;
71
Label the diagram:
Human Skeletal Structure
1
2
17
3
18
4
19
20
5
21
22
6
23
7
24
25
8
26
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
72
What are the names for the parts of the body?
Work with a partner
Nr.
DEUTSCH
ENGLISCH
1
carpals
2
cervical vertebrae
3
Schlüsselbein
4
5
coccyx
Oberschenkelknochen
6
fibula
7
humerus
8
ischium
9
lumbar vertebrae
10
Unterkiefer
11
maxilla
12
metacarpals
13
metatarsals
14
Kniescheibe
15
16
pelvis
Fingerknochen, Zehenknochen
17
18
radius
Rippe
19
sacrum
20
Schulterblatt
21
Schädel
22
sternum
23
thoracic vertebrae
24
schienbein
25
ulna
73
Word association: partnerships
Link each word on the left with a term on the right to make
21 “partnerships”. The first one has been done for you as an example.
1
Skull
Backbone
2
Shoulder-blade
Humerus
3
Upper arm bone
Coccyx
4
Main forearm bon
Tibia
5
Lesser forearm bone
Radius
6
Vertebrae at tip of spine
Phalanges
7
Vertebrae at base of spine
Maxilla
8
Shin-bone
Zygomatic
9
Hell bone
Sacrum
10 Toe bones
Fibula
11 Ankle bones
Tarsals
12 Calf bone
Sternum
13 Kneecap
Scapula
14 Thigh-bone
Mandible
15 Hip-bone
Patella
16 Vertebrae of spine
Ulna
17 Breastbone
Calcaneus
18 Collar-bone
Femur
19 Lower jaw
Cranium
20 Upper jaw
Clavicle
21 Check bone
Pelvis
22 Forehead
Frontal bone
74
The Skull
The skull is comprised of the cranium (8 bones), the facial bones (14 bones),
the ossicles (6 bones) and the hyoid bone (1 bone).
Frontal bone
Parietal bone
Lacrimal
Temporal bone
Zygomatic
Maxila
Occipital bone
Sphenoid
Mandibula
Frontal bone
Nasal bone
Maxilla
Teeth
Mandibula
75
Body parts – categories
In this table there are 20 words for parts of the body and 6 categories. Decide
which category or categories each part belongs to. The first one has been done
for you as an example.
Head Torso Arm Hand Leg Foot
Ankle
X
Calcaneus
Calf
Chest
Ear
Elbow
Eye
Finger
Hip
Knee
Lip
Nail
Nose
Palm
Patella
Sternum
Thumb
Toe
Tongue
Wrist
76
Testen Sie Ihr Wissen
1.
The clavicle is a rod-shaped bone of the
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
2.
The area of the pelvis on which we sit is formed by
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
3.
true
[ ]
false
The vertebrae of the neck are kown as thoracic vertebrae.
[ ]
7.
pubic bones
vertebrae
the first two vertebrae
The three bones that form the pelvic bone are the pubis, ischium and
ilium.
[ ]
6.
lower leg bones
vertebrae
the first two vertebrae
The atlas and the axis are the names of
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
5.
two ischia
two pubic bones
the ilium and pubis
The coccyx and the sacrum are the names of
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
4.
pectoral girdle
pelvic girdle
lumbar vertebrae
true
[ ]
false
The spine is the central part of the skeletal system and It is made of 23
vertebrae.
77
[ ]
8.
[ ]
false
Bone is a dry dense tissue composed of approximately 10 % water,
45 % organic material and 45 % mineral.
[ ]
9.
true
true
[ ]
false
There are five classifications of bone ( long bones, short bones,
irregular bones, sesamoid bones and flat bones).
[ ]
true
[ ]
false
10. Softening of bone, causing deformities, pain and weakness
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
osteomalacia
osteoporosis
arthritis
11. Viewing of a joint
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
gastroscopy
arthoscopy
coloscopy
12. How many pairs of ribs do men have?
13. The ribs attach to which set of vertebrae?
14. What is the name of the vertebra that is attached to the skull?
15. The vertebral column has how many cervical vertebrae?
16. The bones that make up the wrist are collectively called …..
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
tarsals
metacarpals
carpals
[ ]
metatarsals
17. Which end of the clavicle attaches to the sternum, the medial end or the
lateral end?
78
Gelenktypen
A plain joint allows bones to slide past each
other.
Midcarpal and midtarsal joints are plain joints.
A pivot joint allows rotation around an axis.
Pivot joints are found in the neck and forearm.
A hinge joint allows extension and retraction of
an appendage.
Hinge joints are found in the knees, elbows,
fingers, and toes.
79
A condyloid joint is similar to ball and
socket but with less movement.
The wrist is a condyloid joint.
A ball and socket joint allows for radial
movement in almost any direction. Ball
and socket joints are found in the
shoulders and hips.
A saddle joint allows movement back and
fourth and up and down.
The only saddle joint in a human body is
the thumb.
80
5 The Muscular System
Während das Skelett zum passiven Bewegungsapparat gezählt wird, bildet die
Muskulatur den aktiven Teil des Bewegungsapparates.
Der menschlichen Körper besteht aus hunderten von Einzelmuskeln von
unterschiedlicher Größe und Form. Alle Muskeln besitzen die Eigenschaft , sich
auf entsprechende Nervenreize hin in Längsrichtung zusammenziehen zu
können (= Kontraktilität).
Grundsätzlich unterscheiden wir zwischen folgenden drei Muskelgewebearten:
1. Glattes Muskelgewebe, wie z.B. die Eingeweidemuskulatur.
Glattes Muskelgewebe ist nicht willkürlich beeinflussbar und spezialisiert
auf langandauernde, aber schwächere Leistung.
Glatte Muskulatur ist nicht ermüdbar.
2. Quergestreiftes Muskelgewebe, wie z.B. die Skelettmuskulatur.
Quergestreiftes Muskelgewebe ist willkürlich beeinflussbar, spezialisiert
auf kurzfristige, starke Leistung und relativ schnell ermüdbar.
3. Netzförmiges Muskelgewebe, wie z.B. die Herzmuskulatur.
Das Herzmuskelgewebe ist nicht willkürlich beeinflussbar und
spezialisiert auf relativ starke Dauerleistung. Das Herzmuskelgewebe ist
nicht ermüdbar.
Jeder Muskel kann durch seine Kontraktion (Zusammenziehung) sich aktiv nur
verkürzen. Für die Gegenbewegung benötigt jeder Muskel einen Gegenspieler
(Antagonisten).
Für seine Arbeit hat jeder einzelne Muskel einen großen Energiebedarf. Daher
durchziehen zahlreiche Blutgefäße (Kapillaren) die Muskulatur, um die
notwendige Sauerstoff- und Nährstoffversorgung zur Verfügung zu stellen.
Zu jedem Zeitpunkt befinden sich die Muskeln in kontrahiertem Zustand. Die
Muskelkontraktionen versetzen den Muskel in einen gewissen Spannungszustand (= Tonus) und geben dem Körper Halt .
81
Verben:
to attach
to be able
to bend
to carry out
to consist of
to decrease
to increase
to move away
to move toward
to pull on
to straight
Substantive:
abduction
adduction
angle
axis
extension
extensor
fiber
flexion
flexor
forearm
movable joints
movement
82
muscle
pivoting
posture
tendon
tissue type
Adjektive:
antagonsistic
important
large
spindle-shaped
83
The Skeletal Muscles
Work with a partner
Translate the sentences
The muscular system consists of a large number of muscles (over 600 skeletal
muscles in the human body).
The skeletal muscles carry out several important body functions (e. g.
movement, heat production, posture etc.)
A skeletal muscle consists of several tissue types.
Skeletal muscles attach bones by tendons. At movable joints (diarthroses),
a contracting muscle can pull on a bone to produce a movement.
There are one of the following motions (actions):
Flexion
bending, decreasing the angle at a joint
Extension
straightening out, increasing the angle at a joint
Abduction
moving a limb away from the midline of the body
Adduction
moving a limb toward the midline of the body
Rotation
pivoting a structure – the atlas (C1) and skull can rotate
on the axis (C2)
Lateral view of the biceps
Lateral view of the
flexing the forearm
triceps extending the
a
b
c
Anterior view of skull and neck muscles :
a) head is held stationary; b) rotated to its left and c) to its right
84
Types of muscles
There are three types of muscles:
a) Skeletal muscle, which covers and move the skeleton
b) Cardiac(heart) muscle, which pumps blood around the body
c) Smooth muscle, which is found in the walls of the digestive tract, blood
vessels and the genital and urinary tracts
a) Cardiac muscle
Short, branching, interlinked fibers form a
network within the wall of the heart
Cardiac muscles contract rhythmically and
continually without tiring
b) Skeletal muscle
This type of muscle is formed of long, strong,
parallel fibers.
Skeletal muscles are able to contract quickly
and powerfully, but can do so only for short
periods of time.
c) Smooth muscle
The fibers of smooth muscles are short,
spindle-shaped, and thinner than skeletal
muscle fibers.
Smooth muscle cells form sheets of muscle
that can contract for prolonged periods.
85
Flexors &
Extensors
FLEXORS
Muscle fibers consist of myofibrils,
mitochondria, an extensive endoplasmic
reticulum, and many nuclei.
A flexor muscle is a skeletal muscle
whose contraction bends a joint,
decreasing the angle between
components of a limb, such as
straightening the wrist. This action is
known as flexion.
EXTENSORS
The type of muscle that has the opposite
effect is the extensor muscle, which opens
a joint, increasing the angle between
components of a limb, like extending the
arm. Similar actions are called extension.
The biceps and triceps are an example of
an antagonistic pair of muscles.
Antagonistic pairs are responsible for the
movement of the entire skeleton.
BICEPS
TRICEPS
86
Superficial Anterior Muscles
Frontalis
Deltoid
Pectoralis
Biceps
Quadriceps
Tibialis anterior
87
6 The Cardio- Vascular System
Jeder Mensch besitzt einen großen und kleinen Blutkreislauf, der in sich
geschlossen ist. Der kleine Körperkreislauf – er wird auch Lungenkreislauf
genannt- besteht zwischen Herz und Lungen. Das mit Kohlendioxid (CO2)
beladenen Blut gelangt in die Lunge und nimmt dort Sauerstoff (O2) auf.
Der große Blutkreislauf –auch Körperkreislauf genannt- verteilt dann dieses
sauerstoffreiche Blut vom Herzen aus in die verschiedenen Körperorgane und
Körpergewebe. Überflüssige und schädliche Abfallstoffe werden vom
Blutkreislauf an den Ort ihrer Ausscheidung (z.B. Nieren) transportiert.
Zum Körperkreislauf gehört neben den Blutgefäßen (Aorta, Arterien, Venen,
Kapillaren usw.) auch das Herz, das durch seine Pumpfunktion den Blutfluss
in Gang hält. Auch das Lymphsystem mit der Lymphe gehört zum
Kreislaufsystem.
Verben:
flow
play
propel
travel to
identify
Substantive:
88
Adjektive:
89
Circulation
Blood flows round and round through the body. This is called circulation. The
circulatory system consists of the heart, blood vessels, blood, lypmphatic
vessels and lymph.
These organs play a vital role in human physiology:
- the fluid in which materials are carried to
and from the tissues.
- the driving force, which propels the blood.
- the routes by which the blood travels to
and through the tissues, and back to the heart.
o The blood
o The heart
o The blood vessels
Blood Vessels (Arteries)
Ascending
aorta
Coronary
aorta
Aortic arch
Brachiocephalic artery
Right
subclavian
artery
Right
carotid
artery
Goes to the
right arm
Cerebral
arterial
circle
Goes to the
heart muscle
Left carotid
artery
Left subclavian
artery
Cerebral
anterial
circle
Goes
to the
left arm
Chart showing blood flow away from the heart
90
Descending
aorta
Goes to the
lower
extremities
Schematic drawing of the cardiovascular system
Identify each numbered structure and write its name in the corresponding
numbered space.
1
13
1: _____________________
2: _____________________
2
3: _____________________
3
12
4: _____________________
5: _____________________
6: _____________________
7: _____________________
11
10
9
4
5
8: _____________________
9: _____________________
10:_____________________
6
8
12: ____________________
13: ____________________
7
Key Choices
Blood vessels in digestive system - Blood vessels in head and upper limbs Blood vessels in left lung - Blood vessels in liver - Blood vessels in right lung Blood vessels in trunk and lower vessels - Inferior vena cava - Portal vein Pulmonary artery - Superior vena cava – Aorta - Heart pumps blood Pulmonary veins
91
Work with a partner
Arteries and veins
Arteries carry blood away from the heart and veins carry blood toward
the heart.
Most arteries contain brigth red, high-oxygen blood. But the pulmonary
arteries, which run from the heart to the lungs, contain dark reddish-blue
blood, which is low in oxygen.
Most veins contain blood that is low in oxygen, except for the pulmonary
veins, from the lungs to the heart, which contain oxygen-rich blood.
At any instant, three-quarters of our blood is in veins, one-fifth in arteries,
and one-twentieth in capillaries.
Arterial circulation
Carotid artery
Subclavian artery
Aorta
Heart
Renal artery
Iliac artery
Radial artery
Ulnar artery
Femoral artery
Tibial artery
92
The venous System
Superficial temporal vein
Internal jugular vein
Subclavian vein
Brachial vein
Cephalic vein
Inferior vena cava
Renal vein
Iliac vein
Femoral vein
93
Complete the following statements by inserting your answer in
the answer blanks.
Blood vessels which proceed from the _ _ 1 _ _ _ are known as arteries. They
generally carry _ _ _ _ 2 _ _ _ _ _ _ blood (the exception being the _ _ _ _ 3 _ _ _ _ _
artery). They are large, hollow, elastic tubes which gradually decrease in diameter as
they spread through the body. These smaller arteries finally become very fine hairlike
vessels known as _ _ _ _ _ 4 _ _ _ _ _ _ . Blood vessels which proceed towards the
heart are known as _ _ 5 _ _ _ . They generally carry _ _ _ _ _ 6 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ blood (the
exception being the pulmonary vein). They are elastic tubes with _ _ _ 7 _ _ _ which
prevent a backward flow of blood. The veins empty the deoxygenated blood into
the _ _ 8 _ _ _ _ _ 9 _ _ _ _ of the heart from the inferior and superior _ 1 0 _ _ _
_ 1 1 _ _ _ . The blood flows through the tricuspid valve to the right ventricle and is
pumped to the _ _ 1 2 _ _ _ via the pulmonary artery. This is the only artery in the body
to carry deoxygenated _ _ 1 3 _ _ _ . The blood is reoxygenated in the lungs and returns
to the _ 1 4 _ _ _ _ _ 1 5 _ _ _ _ of the heart through the pulmonary veins.
These are the only veins to transport oxygenated blood. The blood flows into the left
ventricle through the _ 1 6 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1 7 _ _ _ and is pumped to the body through the
__18___.
The aorta is the _ _ _ 1 9 _ _ _ _ _ _ 2 0 _ _ _ _ in the body. lt has two branches: the
ascending aorta, supplying the arms and _ _ 2 1 _ _ ; and the descending aorta,
supplying the lower part of the body. The descending aorta passes from the thorax
through the diaphragm to the abdomen, where it is called
the _ _ _ _ 2 2 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 2 3 _ _ _ . The coeliac axis, which branches off the abdominal
aorta, supplies the stomach, _ _ 2 4 _ _ _ and spleen. Below this the renal arteries
branch off to the _ _ _ _ 2 5 _ _ _ and the mesenteric arteries to the
intestines. Finally the abdominal aorta branches into two iliac arteries which run into the
_ _ 2 6 _ _ _ _ . The internal iliac artery supplies the reproductive organs while the
external iliac artery becomes the femoral artery which is the main artery of the lower
_ 2 7 _ _ _ . The femoral artery supplies the thigh muscles and becomes the popliteal
artery at the knee. This divides into the anterior and posterior tibial arteries. The
anterior tibial artery supplies the front of the leg and is continued to the foot as the
dorsalis pedis artery. The posterior tibial artery supplies the back of the leg and
reaches the sole of the foot as the _ _ _ 2 8 _ _ _ _ _ _ 2 9 _ _ _ which forms the
plantar arches. Two coronary arteries branch off the ascending aorta, which then
passes upwards as the innominate artery. This divides into the subclavian and
_ _ 3 0 _ _ _ _ _ arteries. The _ _ 3 1 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ artery passes behind the clavicle
and enters the armpit where lt becomes the axillary artery. The brachial artery
continues for the length of the upper arm until the _ _ 3 2 _ _ _ where it divides into the
radial and ulnar arteries, culminating in the palmar arches in the hand.
94
The carotid artery passes upwards to the neck and has _ _ 3 3 _ _ main branches, the
facial, temporal, occipital and ‚naxillary arteries.
Key choices:
abdominal aorta – aorta – blood – capillaries – carotid - deoxygenated - elbow - four –
head – heart – kidneys - largest artery - left atrium – limb – liver - lungs - mitral valve oxygenated – pelvis - plantar artery - pulmonary - right atrium - subclavian – valves –
veins - vena cava
Match the left column with the medical term on the right.
1.
Artery generally used to feel
the pulse at the wrist
Serves the heart
a) Aorta
c) Coronary artery
4.
5.
6.
7.
Artery generally auscultated to
determine blood pressure in
the arm
Vein that drains the kidney.
Largest vein below the thorax.
Vein that drains the liver.
Largest artery of the body
8.
Artery that serves the pelvis
h) Phrenic artery
2.
3.
b) Brachial artery
d)
e)
f)
g)
9.
Artery that supplies the
diaphragm
10. Vein that drains the ovaries or
the testes.
Gonadal vein
Hepatic vein
Inferior vena cava
Internal iliac
i) Radial artery
j) Renal vein
TRUE / FALSE
If the statement is true, write T on the line. If the statement is false, write F on
the line.
_____
a) The aorta is the main artery of those that carry deoxygenated
blood from the tissues of the body to the heart.
_____
b) The aorta arises from the upper part of the left ventricle and
passes upwards.
_____
c) The arch of the aorta has three branches (brachiocephalic
trunk, left common carotid artery, left subclavian arterty).
_____
d) Ovarian arteries supply the kidneys.
95
_____
e) The veins return venous blood to the heart.
_____
f) Veins of the head, neck, upper limbs and thorax all end in the
inferior vena cava.
Work with a partner
Artery structure
Arteries are elastic vessels that transport blood away from the heart. The
largest artery of the body is the aorta. The aorta originates from the heart and
branches out into smaller arteries. The smallest arteries are called arterioles.
These vessels connect with the venous system through capillaries. Arteries are
thick-walled, hollow tubes. The artery wall consists of three layers:
1. Tunica Adventitia – a fibrous outer covering
2. Tunica Media – a middle layer of muscle and elastic tissue
3. Tunica Intima – an endothelial layer made of squamous epithelial
tissue
3
2
1
Arterioles are smaller than those of arteries. They have a similar
structure.
Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels. Their walls are one cell thick
and porous, thus allowing the passage of gases like oxygen and carbon
dioxide and nutrients. The interstitial fluid carries food, vitamins, mineral
salts and hormones out to the tissues and collects waste products,
especially carbon dioxide and urea, from them.
96
TRUE / FALSE
If the statement is true, write T on the line. If the statement is false, write F on
the line.
_____
a) The aorta is the main artery of those that carry oxygenated
blood from the heart to the tissues of the body.
_____
b) The middle layer of the artery wall is called tunica intima.
_____
c) Arterioles are smaller than capillaries.
_____
d) A large amount of water filters out through the capillary walls.
This liquid is called interstitial fluid.
Vein structure
Schematic drawing of a vein
1
4
2
Veins have three-layer
ed walls. The walls of the veins are
much thinner and less muscular
than those of arteries.
Veins have thin, flexible walls that
can expand to hold large volumes
of blood.
3
Deoxygenated blood returning to
the heart through the veins is
circulating at low pressure.
The diameter of a vein is greater
than a corresponding artery.
Many veins have valves which
keep blood from flowing backwards.
numbered space below the figure.
_____ Fibrous layer of connective tissue
_____ Endothelial layer
_____ Smooth muscle and elastic layer
____ Valve flaps
97
Artery
Vein
1
2
3
lumen
lumen
Characteristics of
arteries
Characteristics of veins
Transport blood from
heart
Oxygenated blood (not
pulmonary)
Lumen (passage) is
small
Pumped by heart and
muscle tissue in artery
wall
Thick, muscular and
elastic walls
Arterial blood contains
a high concentration of
nutrients
Transport blood to the
heart
Deoxygenated blood (not
pulmonary)
Lumen (passage) is large
Pumped by skeletal
muscle pump and the
presence of valves
Thin walls, not muscular or
elastic
Venous blood contains a
high concentration of
wasteproducts
98
Match the left column with the medical term on the right.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Removal of an artery
Pulsate; carry blood away
from heart
Check blood pressure
here; locate inside arm
bend at the elbow
Connect arteries and
veins; for food and
oxygen exchange
In the neck
a) veins
b) inferior vena cava
Principal vein draining
the lower portions of the
body
Check pulse here
f) arteries
c) tunica intima
d) carotid artery
e) radial artery
g) capillaries
8.
Principal vein draining
the upper portions of the
body
9. An endothelial layer
made of squamous
epithelial tissue
10. Have valves to resist
backflow; carry blood
back to the heart;
appear dark blue
h) superior vena cava
i) arterectomy
j) brachial artery
99
Heart
The heart is the centre of the circulatory system. The figure below shows the
internal parts of the heart:
Übersetzen Sie bitte die folgenden Begriffe:
aorta
left atrium
left ventricle
mitral valve
pulmonary artery
pulmonary valve
right atrium
right ventricle
septum
superior vena cava
tricuspid valve
100
The heart is a hollow, muscular, cone-shaped organ.
It's located a little to the left of the middle of the chest. It lies between the
lungs in an area called mediastinum, behind the body of the sternum with
two-thirds of its bulk on the left side.
The circular base of the cone isd directed upwards and to the right and
the apex points downwards, forwards and to the left.
The heart measures about 12 cm from base to apex and about 9 cm in
width. The heart is about 6 cm thick.
The heart is approximately the size of its owner´s fist.
The heart muscle is special because of what it does. The heart sends
blood around the body. The blood provides the body with the oxygen and
nutrients it needs. It also carries away waste.
The heart is sort of like two pumps in one. The right side of the heart
receives blood from the body and pumps it to the lungs. The left side of
the heart does the exact opposite: It receives blood from the lungs and
pumps it out to the body.
Schematic drawing of the heart
numbered space below the figure.
1
2
9
2
8
7
3
6
5
4
101
Key choices:
Aortic arch - Bicuspid valve - Left atrium - Pulmonary arteries - Right ventricle
- Right atrium – Septum - Superior vena cava - Tricuspid valve
Deutsch
English
1.
____________________________
____________________________
2.
____________________________ ____________________________
3.
____________________________ ____________________________
4.
____________________________ ____________________________
5.
____________________________ ____________________________
6.
____________________________ ____________________________
7.
____________________________ ____________________________
8.
____________________________ ____________________________
9.
____________________________ ____________________________
The heart is made up of four different blood-filled areas, and each of
these areas is called a chamber. There are two chambers on each side
of the heart. One chamber is on the top and one chamber is on the
bottom.
The two chambers on top are called the atria. The atria are the
chambers that fill with the blood returning to the heart from the body and
lungs. The heart has a left atrium and a right atrium.
102
Work with a partner
The heart conduction system
1
2
3
4
5
Normalerweise schlägt das Herz ca. 75-mal pro Minute. Verantwortlich für die
Auslösung der Kontraktionen ist ein spezielles Reizbildungs- und Erregungsleitungssystem. Der natürliche Herzschrittmacher Nr. 1 ist der Sinusknoten (=1).
Er erzeugt elektrische Impulse, die an den AV-Knoten (=2) weitergeleitet
werden. Von dort geht die elektrische Erregung zum Hiss´schen Bündel (=3),
dann weiter in die Tawara- Schenkel (=4) und die Purkinje-Faser (=5),
103
die in den Herzwandungen liegen. Sobald ein elektrischer Impuls die einzelnen
Herzmuskelzellen erreicht, kommt es zur Muskelkontraktion.
Übersetzen Sie bitte den folgenden Text:
The sinoatrial node (SAN), located within the wall of the right atrium (RA),
normally generates electrical impulses that are carried by special conducting
tissue to the atrioventricular node (AVN).
Upon reaching the AVN, located between the atria and ventricles, the electrical
impulse is relayed down conducting tissue (Bundle of HIS) that branches into
pathways that supply the right and left ventricles.
Electrical impulses generated in the SAN cause the right and left atria to
contract first. Depolarization (heart muscle contraction caused by electrical
stimulation) occurs nearly simultaneously in the right and left ventricles 1-2
tenths of a second after atrial depolarization.
The entire sequence of depolarization, from beginning to end (for one heart
beat), takes 2-3 tenths of a second.
All heart cells, muscle and conducting tissue, are capable of generating
electrical impulses that can trigger the heart to beat. Under normal
circumstances all parts of the heart conducting system can conduct over 140200 signals (and corresponding heart beats) per minute.
The SAN is known as the "heart's pacemaker" because electrical impulses are
normally generated here. At rest the SAN usually produces 60-70 electrical
impulses a minute. It is the SAN that increases its' rate due to stimuli such as
exercise, stimulant drugs, or fever.
Should the SAN fail to produce impulses the AVN can take over. The resting
rate of the AVN is slower, generating 40-60 beats a minute. The AVN and
remaining parts of the conducting system are less capable of increasing heart
rate due to stimuli previously mentioned than the SAN.
The Bundle of HIS can generate 30-40 signals a minute. Ventricular muscle
cells may generate 20-30 signals a minute.
Heart rates below 35-40 beats a minute for a prolonged period usually cause
problems due to not enough blood flow to vital organs.
Problems with signal conduction, due to disease or abnormalities of the
conducting system, can occur anyplace along the heart's conduction pathway.
104
Abnormally conducted signals , resulting in alterations of the heart's normal
beating, are called arrhythmias or dysrrythmia.
Systole is…..
the rhythmic contraction of the
heart, especially of the
ventricles, by which blood is
driven through the aorta and
pulmonary artery after each
dilation or diastole.
ventricular systole is….
the contraction of the cardiac
ventricles by which blood is
forced into the aorta and
pulmonary artery.
Atrial systole is….
the contraction of the atria by
which blood is propelled from
them into the ventricles.
Diastole is ….
the phase of the cardiac cycle in which the heart relaxes between contractions;
specifically, the period when the two ventricles are dilated by the blood flowing
into them.
105
7 The Digestive System
Um funktionieren zu können, muss die „Biomaschine Mensch“ Energie in Form
von Nahrung aufnehmen. Durch komplizierte physikalische , chemische und
biologische Prozesse müssen die Kohlenhydrate, Fette und Eiweiße der
Nahrung vor ihrer „Verwertung“ in geeigneter Weise umgearbeitet werden,
damit sie vom menschlichen Organismus aufgenommen werden kann. Diesen
Prozess nennen wir Verdauung. Er lässt sich in 2 Phasen unterteilen: In der
ersten Phase wir die Nahrung mechanisch zerkleinert (z.B. im Mund mittels der
Zähne ). In der zweiten Phase stehen die biochemischen Prozesse im
Vordergrund. Verschiedene Drüsen im Verdauungsapparat mit ihren Sekreten
sorgen dafür, dass die Nahrung in Stoffe umgewandelt werden, die vom
Organismus aufgenommen werden können. Die Verdauung ist also ein Prozess
der ständigen chemischen Vereinfachung von aufgenommenen
Nahrungsmitteln.
Der Verdauungsapparat, der sich vom Mund bis zum After erstreckt ist ca. 12 m
lang und kann mit einem langen Rohr verglichen werden, dessen einzelne
Abschnitte sich in Form, Länge und Volumen unterscheiden.
Der erste Teil ist der Mund. Er beginnt an den Lippen und endet an der
Schlundenge. Der Schlund liegt an der Kreuzung zwischen Verdauungs- und
Atmungsapparat. Der nächste Abschnitt ist die Speiseröhre, die den Schlund
mit dem Magen, dem weitesten Teil des Verdauungsapparates, verbindet.
Durch den Pförtner, der von zirkulären Muskelfasern gebildet wird, steht der
Magen mit dem Darm in Verbindung. Der Darm gliedert sich in den ca. 6,8 m
langen Dünndarm und den ca. 1,8 m langen Dickdarm. Der Dünndarm wird
wieder unterteilt in Zwölffingerdarm, Leerdarm und Krummdarm. In den
Zwölffingerdarm geben zwei wichtige Organe ihr Sekret ab:
die Bauchspeicheldrüse und die Leber, aber auch zahlreiche andere Drüsen.
Der letzte Anteil des Dünndarmes, der Krummdarm, steht über die sogenannte
Bauhinsche Klappe (Ileocoecalklappe) mit dem Dickdarm in Verbindung, der mit
dem Blinddarm beginnt. Der Dickdarm zieht an der rechten Bauchseite als
Colon ascendens (aufsteigender Dickdarm) nach oben, als Colon
transversum (Querteil des Dickdarms) zieht er von der Leberunterseite nach
links, an der linken Bauchseite als Colon descendens (absteigender
Dickdarm) nach unten. Auf ihn folgt nach einem s-förmigen Dickdarmteil
(Sigma) der Mastdarm. dieser öffnet sich mit dem Afterschließmuskel nach
außen. Die Innenseite des gesamten Darms wird von einer für den Darm ganz
spezifischen Schleimhaut gebildet, die zur Nahrungsaufnahme fähig ist. Die
wichtigsten Funktionen des Dickdarms sind die Synthese von Vitaminen (z.B.
Vitamin K) und Abbau von Nahrungsbestandteilen. Der Stuhl, der über den
After ausgeschieden wird, enthält nicht nur Nahrungsmittelrückstände, sondern
vor allem abgeschilferte, überalterte Darmschleimhaut sowie auch
Darmbakterien.
106
Digestion
Most molecules in the human diet are too large to be used in metabolism. The
digestive system prepares food molecules for use in the body. It accomplishes
this through physical digestion and chemical digestion.
Physical digestion begins in the oral cavity with mastication.
Chemical digestion occurs when the chemical makeup of dietary
molecules is changed.
Throughout the digestive tract, organic catalysts, called enzymes, accelerate
these chemical changes.
107
Salivary Glands
create mucus
to aid in
digestion
Tongue
Uses for
speaking
and chewing
Esophagus
Path to
Stomach
Stomach
stores and
breaks down
ingested food
Liver
produces bile
Gall Bladder
stores bile,
which aids in
digesting
Pancreas
produces
digestive enzymes
and bicarbonate
solution
Small Intestine
(duodenum, jejunum,
and ilium) digests
carbohydrates, fats,
and proteins and
absorbs nutrients
Large
Intestine
absorbs the
water and ions
108
Ordnen Sie bitte die folgenden Texte den entsprechenden Nummern der
folgenden Zeichnung zu!
Nr.
The digestive tract opens
out of the body at the anus.
The throat is connected to
the stomach by this
muscular tube, wihich is
closed at the top except
during swallowing.
This organ is a J-shaped
bag that secretes 3 liters of
gastric juice each day. It
leads to the small intestine.
This organ is the largest
internal organ. Each day it
produces up to 1 liter of the
digestive juice bile.
This passage, commonly
called the throat, connects
the mouth to the esophagus
and trachea.
This tube is 1,5 m long: It is
connected to the small
intestine and consists of the
cecum, colon, and rectum.
In the colon, undigested
food is formed into feces.
This tube is 5 m long. It
connects the stomach to the
large intestine and consists
of the duodenum, and ileum.
Three pairs of salivary
glands secrete 1,5 liters of
saliva into the mouth each
day.
6
7
5
4
8
3
2
1
109
The liver
Die Leber ist die größte Drüse des menschlichen Körpers. Sie ist
lebensnotwendig und erfüllt vielfältige Aufgaben:
Übersetzen Sie bitte den folgenden Text:
The liver has a variety of important
functions in addition to the
production of bile:
Storage of sugar as
glycogen
Formation of blood plasma
proteins
Modification of fats to
promote their usefulness in
the body
Detoxification of harmful
substances such as alcohol
and certain drugs
Storage of some vitamins
and iron
110
Portal system:
The liver and lower intestinal
tract with portal system
transporting blood from
intestines to the liver to be
cleaned.
Digestive System Diseases
Disease
Description
Cholelithiasis
Stones formed from the substances in bile that have
potential to block common bile duct and cause pain
Chronic scarring of the liver
Hard, dry stools that are difficult to pass
Loose, watery stools
Inflamed, bleeding pink tissue around teeth
Engorged and enlarged rectal veins due to increased
intra-abdominal pressure
Inflammation of the liver that may be life threatening;
Hepatitis A caused by fecal-food contamination
,Hepatitis B and Hepatitis C caused by blood and body
secretions
Bowel is overly sensitive to stress; pain, diarrhea, weight
loss, and rectal bleeding
Thickened white patches in the mouth
Erosion of the mucous membrane of the esophagus,
stomach, or duodenum due to smoking, NSAIDS (=Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs are drugs with
analgesic, antipyretic and, in higher doses, antiinflammatory effects - they reduce pain, fever and
inflammation., alcohol, aspirin), or helicobacter pylori
Hardened, narrow lumen of the pyloric sphincter
prohibits food from entering small intestine; symptoms
include projectile vomiting, poor feeding, and weight loss
Cirrhosis of liver
Constipation
Diarrhea
Gingivitis
Hemorrhoids
Hepatitis A, B, C
Irritable bowel
Syndrome
Leukoplakia
Peptic ulcer
Pyloric stenosis
111
8 The Urinary System
Im Normalfall besitzt der menschliche Organismus zwei Nieren (Ren), die in
der Lendengegend neben der Wirbelsäule liegen. Beide Nieren sind von
bohnenförmiger Gestalt, dunkelbraunrot gefärbt und haben eine glatte
Oberfläche. Sie bestehen aus einer Rindenschicht (Cortex), die von Millionen
von Nierenkörperchen (Nephrone) gebildet wird, und aus einer Markschicht
(Medulla), in der sich zahlreiche Harnkanälchen (Tubuli) befinden. Jeweils in
der Nierenmitte treten sowohl die Nierenarterie in die Niere als auch die
Nierenvene aus der Niere. Auch jeweils im Nierenbecken (Pelvis) entspringt ein
Harnleiter (Ureter), der den Harn bis zur Harnblase (Vesica urinaria) leitet. In ihr
wird der Harn vorübergehend gespeichert und durch die Harnröhre (Urethra)
abgegeben.
Die kleinste funktionelle Arbeitseinheit der Nieren sind die Nierenkörperchen.
Sie liegen in der Nierenrinde. Jeder Mensch besitzt etwa 2 bis 3 Millionen
Nierenkörperchen (= Nephrone). Jedes einzelne Nephron besteht aus einem
Blutkapillarknäuel (= Glomerulum), das von einer Kapsel (=Bowman´sche
Kapsel) umschlossen wird. An diese schließt sich ein feines Harnkanälchen in
Form eines vielfach gewundenen Röhrchens an (= proximaler Tubulusapparat
Henle´sche Schleife
distaler Tubulusapparat)).
Die Harnbildung beginnt in den Nierenkörperchen bzw. in den Nierenkanälchen. Wenn das Blut (ca. 1500 l Blut pro Tag) durch das Blutkapillarknäuel
fließt, werden im Nierenkörperchen Wasser und darin gelöste Stoffe, wie
Traubenzucker, Harnstoff, Salze, aus dem Blut ausgeschieden. Diese
Flüssigkeit nennt man Ultrafiltrat oder Primärharn und fließt von der Kapsel in
Richtung Tubulusapparat weiter. Da die Kapillarwände äußerst feine Poren
besitzen, können Stoffe, die größer als die Poren sind (z.B. Eiweiße, rote
Blutzellen), nicht ausgefiltert werden. Es werden ca. 150 l Primärharn pro Tag
gebildet. Er enthält außer Eiweiß nahezu alle im Blut gelösten Stoffe. Durch die
sogenannte Rückresorption werden ca. 148,5 l Primärharn in den mehrfach
gewundenen Harnkanälchen (= Tubulusapparat) der größte Teil des Wassers
und der Stoffe wieder dem Blut zugeführt.
Aus den Harnkanälchen gelangt der Sekundärharn oder Endharn (Urin) in
kleine Sammelröhrchen, die wiederum in das Nierenbecken münden.
Von dort aus tröpfelt der Harn Tag und Nacht in den Harnleiter, einen etwa 30
cm langen Schlauch, dessen Muskeln den Harn abwärts zur Harnblase
befördern. Diese füllt sich allmählich und speichert zeitweise den Harn. Die
Muskeln der Blasenwand pressen den Harn dann durch die Harnröhre aus dem
Körper. Die männliche Harnröhre führt gemeinsam mit dem Samenleiter als
Harnsamenröhre durch den Penis und ist etwa 20 cm lang. Die weibliche
Harnröhre ist dagegen nur 4 cm lang.
112
Adrenal Glands
Renal Cortex
Kidney
Renal Pelvis
Medulla
Calyces
Ureter
Bladder
Uretha
the urinary system
113
Übersetzen Sie bitte die folgenden Fachbegriffe:
adrenal glands
bladder
calyces
kidney
medulla
renal cortex
renal pelvis
ureter
urethra
Übungsaufgabe
Bitte an der richtigen Stelle einsetzen:
Ureters | nephrons | infection | permeable | destroy | lithotripsy | red | glucose |
excretory | women | dehydration | blood | pus | men | balance | pressure |
albumin | stones | painful | metabolic | male | Urinarybladder | disorders |
Kidneys | enter | Urethra | small | loop | Urination | ADH |
The urinary System
eliminates _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ waste from the body
maintains appropriate levels of water
regulates the acid-base _ _ _ _ _ _ _ (pH), blood _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ , and
_ _ _ blood cell production.
It is assisted by other systems having _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ functions such
as the digestive, respiratory, and integumentary systems.
The urinary System consists of only four organs:
1.
_______
2.
_______
3.
_______ _______
4.
_______.
114
The organs are the same in both _ _ _ _ and female. Urine is formed by
millions of _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ located in the kidneys. The nephron has a portion
shaped like a "C" (called the Bowman's capsule) where the water and waste is
filtered from the _ _ _ _ _ .
Molecules _ _ _ _ _ enough to pass through the glomerulus and the cells of
the Bowman's capsule leave the blood and _ _ _ _ _ the renal tubule.
Before its elimination as urine, the glomerular filtrate must be concentrated or
too much water would be lost, resulting in _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . The pituitary
hormone _ _ _ causes the proximal convoluted tubule, distal convoluted
tubule, and _ _ _ _ of Henle to become more _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ so that more
water is reabsorbed.
The kidneys process up to 150 liters of filtrate each day to create about 1,5
liters of urine.
The ureters drain the urine from the kidney to the holding area—the bladder.
The urethra carries the urine to the urinary meatus for excretion.
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ (micturition, voiding) is controlled by an involuntary internal
sphincter muscle and a voluntary external urethral sphincter.
Urinary tract infections or UTIs affect _ _ _ _ _ 10 times more often than
_ _ _ . This is because the urethra is approximately 4 -5 cm for women and 20
cm for men—but more so because of the proximity of the female urethra to the
anus.
Other urinary _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ include glomerulonephritis, which may result
from an inadequately treated strep
_________
and presents with
abnormal constituents in urine such as _ _ _ _ _ _ _ (albuminuria), _ _ _
(pyuria), _ _ _ _ _ _ _ (glycosuria), or blood (hematuria). Kidney _ _ _ _ _ _
are formed from excessive calcium or oxylates. They may cause _ _ _ _ _ _ _
blockages in the ureters. The process to _ _ _ _ _ _ _ kidney stones is called
___________.
115
Label the diagram:
3
2
1. __________________
2. __________________
1
3. __________________
4
4. __________________
5. __________________
6. __________________
5
6
116
9 The Respiratory System
Jede einfache Kerze benötigt Luftsauerstoff zum Verbrennen. So ergeht es
auch dem menschlichen Organismus:
Ohne Sauerstoffzufuhr kein „Verbrennungsvorgang“ in der „Biomaschine“
Mensch.
Der Atemapparat besteht aus all jenen Organen, die diesen Verbrennungsvorgang ermöglichen. Der Atemapparat führt dem Körper durch das Einatmen
von Luft Sauerstoff (O2) zu und durch die Ausatmung Kohlendioxid (CO2)
ab. Beim Atmungsvorgang unterscheiden wir zwischen der Inneren und der
äußeren Atmung.
Die Atmungsorgane der äußeren Atmung umfassen:
die oberen Luftwege (Nase mit Nasennebenhöhlen,
die mittleren Luftwege (Rachen) und
die unteren Luftwegen (Kehlkopf, Luftröhre, Bronchien und Lunge)
Die »äußere Atmung« wird gekennzeichnet durch die Tätigkeit der Lunge.
Der Sauerstoff gelangt über die Atemwege in die Lunge. Hier diffundiert er
aus der Atemluft ins Blut, gleichzeitig wird Kohlendioxid aus dem Blut an die
Atemluft abgegeben.
Der Gastransport zwischen Lunge und Körperzellen geschieht auf dem
Blutweg.
Im Gegensatz zur oben beschriebenen »äußeren Atmung« versteht man unter
der »inneren Atmung« die Atmung der Körperzellen (Gewebeatmung), die mit
Hilfe des Sauerstoffs in den Zellen abläuft.
Im Rahmen der Stoffwechselvorgänge wird Energie „umgesetzt“.
Zur Aufrechterhaltung der Lebensvorgänge benötigen alle Körperzellen ständig
Sauerstoff bzw. Energie.
Als Abfallprodukte entstehen Wasser und Kohlendioxid. Das Kohlendioxid
wird dann im Rahmen der »äußeren Atmung« auf dem Blutweg zur Lunge
transportiert und dort abgeatmet.
Neben der Einteilung in obere, mittlere und untere Luftwege unterscheidet man
auch die luftleitenden Atmungsorgane (z.B. Nase mit Nasennebenhöhlen,
Rachen, Kehlkopf, Luftröhre und Bronchien ) von der dem Gasaustausch
dienenden Lunge mit ihren Lungenbläschen (Alveolen).
117
Übersetzen Sie bitte den folgenden Text zum Themenbereich „Atmungssystem“
The Respiratory System
The respiratory system maintains the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in
the lungs and tissues. It helps regulate the body's acid-base balance.
The upper respiratory tract consists primarily of the nose, mouth,pharynx, and
larynx. The upper respiratory system warms and humidifies inspired air, is
responsible for taste, smell, and the chewing and swallowing of food.
The air enters the body through the nostrils (nares). In theses nares, small hairs
(vibrissae) filter out dust and large foreign particles. The air then passes into the
two nasal passages, which are separated by the septum cartilage forms the
anterior walls of the nasal passages .
Conchae warm and humidify air before it passes into the nasopharynx.
Four paranasal sinuses are located in the frontal, sphenoid, and maxillary
bones. Sinuses provide speech resonance.
The larynx contains the vocal cords and connects the pharynx with the trachea.
Lower respiratory tract consists of the trachea, bronchi, and lungs
The conducting airways contain the trachea and bronchi and hHelp facilitate
gas exchange.
The trachea extends from the cricoid cartilage at the top to the carina (also
called the tracheal bifurcation).
The trachea is protected by C-shaped cartilage rings that reinforces it and
prevents it from collapsing.
The primary bronchi begin at the carina. The right mainstem bronchus is
shorter, wider, and more vertical than the left; supplies air to the right lung.
The left mainstem bronchus delivers air to the left lung.
As bronchi become smaller, they fast lose cartilage, then smooth muscle until,
finally, the smallest bronchioles consist of just a single layer of epithelial cells
Each bronchiole includes terminal bronchioles and the acinus.It is the chief
respiratory unit for gas exchange.
The respiratory bronchioles terminate in clusters of capillary-swathed alveoli
called alveolar sacs. The alveoli are the site of gas exchange.
118
The tiny area between the visceral and parietal pleural layers is called pleural
cavity. It contains a thin film of serous fluid. This fluid has two functions:
1. Lubricates the pleural surfaces so that they slide smoothly against each
other as the lungs expand and contract
2. Creates a bond between the layers that causes the lungs to move with
the chest wall during breathing.
The area surrounded by the diaphragm (below), the scalene muscles and
fasciae of the neck (above), and the ribs, intercostal muscles, vertebrae,
sternum, and ligaments (around the circumference) is called thoracic cavity
The Space between the lungs, the mediastinum, contains:
- Heart and pericardium
- Thoracic aorta
- Pulmonary artery and veins
- Venae cavae and azygos veins
- Thymus, lymph nodes, and vessels
- Trachea, esophagus, and thoracic duct
- Vagus, cardiac, and phrenic nerves
119
Respiration
The respiration is composed of two processes:
1. Inspiration—an active process
2. Expiration—a relatively passive process
Both actions rely on respiratory muscle function and the effects of pressure
differences in the lungs
During normal respiration, the external intercostal muscles (located between
and along the lower borders of the ribs) aid the diaphragm (major muscle of
respiration).
The diaphragm descends to lengthen the chest cavity, while the external
intercostal muscles contract to expand the anteroposterior diameter
This coordinated action causes inspiration.
Rising of the diaphragm and relaxation of the intercostal muscles causes
expiration
Inspiration
Exspiration
120
10 The Reproductive System
In jeder Sekunde unseres Lebens entstehen Millionen neuer Zellen. Sie
wachsen, vermehren sich und sterben wieder ab. Durch die sogenannte
Fortpflanzung wird schließlich ein Organismus bzw. ein menschlicher Körper
durch einen anderen ersetzt. Beim menschlichen Organismus geschieht die
Fortpflanzung auf sexuellem Wege. Das neue Leben entsteht aus einer
einzigen Eizelle (Ovum), die durch ein Spermium befruchtet wird und dadurch
zur befruchteten Eizelle (= Zygote) wird. Die Produktion dieser Keimzellen und
die Befruchtung übernehmen die männlichen und weiblichen Fortpflanzungsbzw. Geschlechtsorgane. Die Fortpflanzungsorgane gehören zum
sogenannten Genitalsystem.
Das Genitalsystem hat drei wesentliche Aufgaben:
1. Fortpflanzung
2. Bildung der Geschlechtshormone
3. beim Mann auch Harnweg
Beim Genitalsystem unterscheiden wir zwischen den
a) Primären Geschlechtsmerkmale (= innere + äußere Geschlechtsorgane)
und
b) Sekundären Geschlechtsmerkmale ( = Brüste, Achsel
Schambehaarung
Bartwuchs, Stimmbruch, Geschlechtsspezifisches Verhalten, Beckenentwicklung, Skelettbau usw.)
Die inneren Geschlechtsorgane dienen der Produktion von
Keimzellen und Sexualhormonen. Bei der Frau dienen die inneren
Geschlechtsorgane zusätzlich der Versorgung und Geburt des
Keimlings.
Die äußeren Geschlechtsorgane dienen der geschlechtlichen
Vereinigung (Koitus).
Die weiblichen Geschlechtsorgane
Zu den inneren Geschlechtsorganen der Frau gehören:
die Eierstöcke (= Ovarien),
die Eileiter (= Tubae uterinae),
die Gebärmutter (= Uterus) und
die Scheide
Zu den äußeren Geschlechtsorganen, die in ihrer Gesamtheit als Vulva
bezeichnet werden, gehören
die großen Schamlippen und die kleinen Schamlippen,
der Kitzler (= Clitoris) und
die Vorhofdrüsen (Bartholin'sche Drüsen)
121
Die Ovarien sind paarige, etwa pflaumengroße Organe, in denen die weiblichen
Keimzellen, die Eizellen, und die weiblichen Sexualhormone gebildet werden.
Ähn-lich einem Trichter liegen ihnen die ebenfalls paarigen Eileiter an.
Die Eileiter sind bleistiftdünne Muskelschläuche, die mit einem Flimmerepithel
ausgekleidet sind und die die Eizellen zur Gebärmutter transportieren.
Im Eileiter erfolgt gegebenenfalls die Befruchtung der Eizelle.
Die Eileiter münden in die Gebärmutter. Sie ist ein birnenförmiges, muskulöses
Hohlorgan und nimmt gegebenenfalls die befruchtete Eizelle auf. Außerdem
beteiligt sich die Gebärmutter am Aufbau des Mutterkuchens und dient am
Ende der Schwangerschaft durch Kontraktionen der Muskulatur (=
Geburtswehen) der Austreibung des Kindes.
An der Gebärmutter unterscheiden wir: den Gebärmutterkörper (= Corpus
uteri) und den Gebärmutterhals (= Cervix uteri). Den Eingang zum Gebärmutterhals bezeichnet man als Muttermund (= Portio vaginalis).
Die Wand der Gebärmutter besteht aus drei Schichten:
Außen ist sie vom Bauchfell überzogen; diese Schicht heißt Perimetrium. Es
folgt nach innen die glatte Muskulatur = Myometrium. Innen ist die Gebärmutter mit Schleimhaut = Endometrium ausgekleidet. Die Scheide (= Vagina)
ist ein ca. 10 cm langer, mit Schleimhaut ausgekleideter Muskelschlauch, der in
dem unteren Abschnitt durch eine ringförmige Hautfalte, das Jungfernhäutchen (= Hymen), teilweise verschlossen ist. Beim ersten Geschlechtsverkehr reißt dieses Häutchen ein (Defloration). Die Scheide ist das
Kopulationsorgan der Frau. Sie nimmt die Samenzellen des Mannes auf, die
dann selbständig durch die Gebärmutter in die Eileiter wandern müssen. Ein
säurehaltiges Sekret, an dessen Bildung hier ansässige Bakterien - die sog.
Scheidenflora - beteiligt sind, schützt die inneren Geschlechtsorgane vor aufsteigenden Krankheitskeimen. Die großen Schamlippen entsprechen dem
Hodensack des Mannes; sie schützen den Scheidenvorhof. Die Clitoris und - in
viel schwächerem Maße - die kleinen Schamlippen - sind sexuelle Reizorgane.
Die Bartholin'schen Drüsen schließlich halten den Scheidenvorhof feucht.
Die männlichen Geschlechtsorgane
Die äußeren Geschlechtsorgane des Mannes sind der Penis mit
Schwellkörpern, Vorhaut, Eichel und Harnsamenröhre .
Zu den inneren männliche Geschlechtsorganen gehören die Geschlechtsdrüsen
des Mannes (Hoden), die ableitenden Geschlechtswege (paarig: Nebenhoden,
Samenleiter, Spritzgänge; unpaarig: Harn, Samenröhre) und die sogenannten
akzessorische Geschlechtsdrüsen ( Bläschendrüsen, Bulbourethraldrüsen,
Prostata).
Die Hoden liegen im Hodensack. Sie sind die Keimdrüsen des Mannes. Sie
sind etwa pflaumengroß, haben eine ovale Form und liegen in einer Hauttasche, dem Hodensack (Skrotum). Unmittelbar auf den Hoden sitzen die
Nebenhoden (Epididymis). Die Nebenhoden (Epididymis) sind kleine Organe,
die auf den Hoden sitzen und als Samenspeicher dienen.
122
Um die Nebenhoden vollständig zu leeren, bedarf es mehrerer aufeinanderfolgender Samenergüsse (Ejakulationen) im Zeitraum von 24 Stunden.
Der Penis hängt vor dem Hodensack. Er ist ungefähr sechs bis zwölf
Zentimeter lang und von Mann zu Mann unterschiedlich dick. Am Ende des
Penis sitzt die Eichel (Glans penis). Die Eichel ist normalerweise von der
Vorhaut (Praeputium) verdeckt. Viele Nervenendigungen in der Eichel machen
sie zu einem sehr empfindlichen und auch sehr erregbaren Organ. Besonders
am äußeren Rand ist die Eichel sehr sensibel. Unter der Vorhaut liegen kleine
Drüsen, die ein weißliches Sekret produzieren. Dieses Sekret, Smegma
genannt, sollte regelmäßig bei der Hygiene entfernt werden. Ist dies nicht
möglich, weil sich die Vorhaut nicht zurückschieben lässt, liegt eine
Vorhautverengung (Phimose) vor, die unter Umständen operiert werden muss.
In manchen Ländern und in bestimmten Religionen wird die Vorhaut durch eine
Beschneidung entfernt. Dies hat keine negativen Auswirkungen auf die sexuelle
Funktion des Penis. Der Penis besitzt 3 Schwellkörper, in deren Mitte die
Harnröhre verläuft. Durch diese tritt der Urin und beim Geschlechtsverkehr /
Ejakulation das Ejakulat (Sperma) aus. Bei sexueller Erregung füllen sich die
Schwellkörper mit Blut, wodurch sich der Penis aufrichtet, hart und groß wird. In
erigiertem Zustand ist der mit Blut gefüllte Penis dann zwölf bis zwanzig
Zentimeter groß. Er nimmt meistens sowohl im Durchmesser als auch in der
Länge zu. Sperma ist die weißlich/gräuliche, kastanienartig riechende
Samenflüssigkeit, die beim Samenerguss (Ejakulation) aus der Harnröhre
(Urethra) austritt. Sperma besteht aus Spermien (Samenfäden oder
Spermatozoen) sowie zum überwiegenden Anteil aus Flüssigkeiten
verschiedener männlicher Drüsen. Normalerweise enthält das Sperma einige
Millionen Spermien pro Milliliter. Prostata und Samenbläschen produzieren
etwa 95 Prozent der Samenflüssigkeit, lediglich fünf Prozent kommen aus den
Hoden.
123
Work with a partner
Determination of sex
Whether a human being is female or male is already determined at the time of
conception. All human cells have 23 pairs of chromosomes, one of these pairs
being the sex chromosome.
In women the sex chromosomes are an identical pair (XX), but in men one of
the two is smaller (XY). When reduction division occurs in the germ cells of the
ovaries and testes, the pairs are split. Thus all ova will have 22+X
chromosomes, as will half the spermatozoa, but the other half will have
22 +Y, and when one of these unites with a 22 +X ovum a male embryo results.
x x
x
x
x y
x
y
124
The female reproductive system
Organs
Clitoris
Labia majora
Labia minora
Description
Function
Rounded projection at the
upper part of the pudendal
cleft, sheathed by a prepuce
Provides feeling of pleasure
during sexual stimulation
Two longitudinal folds of skin
that extend from the mons pubis
to the perineum;
separated longitudinally
by the pudendal cleft
Form margins of pudendal
cleft; enclose and protect
other external
reproductive organs
Two longitudinal folds of skin
medial to the labia majora;
separated longitudinally
by the vaginal vestibule
Mammary
glands
Composed of lobes within
the breasts
Ovaries
Primary sex organ;
upper pelvic cavity an
both lateral sides of uterus
Form margins of vestibule;
protect openings of vagina
and urethra
Produce and secrete milk
for nourishment
of an infant
Produce of ova
and female sex hormones
Open-ended tubes that
extend from the ovaries
to the uterus
Convey ova toward uterus;
site of fertilization;
convey developing
blastocyst to uterus
Uterus
Hollow organ shaped like an
inverted pear; maintained in
position within the pelvic cavity
by muscles and ligaments
Site of implantation; sustains
life of embryo and fetus
during pregnancy;
plays active role
in parturition
Vagina
Hollow organ positioned
between the urinary bladder
and urethra anteriorly and
the rectum posteriorly
Conveys uterine secretion
to outside of body; receives
erect penis and semen
during coitus; passageway
for fetus during parturition
Subcutaneous within the wall
of the vaginal opening
Secrete lubricating fluid into
the vestibule and vaginal
opening during coitus
Uterine tubes
(fallopian
tubes)
Vestibular
glands
125
Identify the structures of the female reproductive system
in the illustration below
9
8
1
7
6
2
5
4
3
126
Nr.
Terminus
deutscher Begriff
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Übungsaufgabe
follicles | bloodstream | menstruation | bean | ovaries | pituitary | corpusluteum |
ovum | luteinising | testes | pelvis | menopause | infancy | activates | oestrogen |
wall | puberty | second | influence | new | progesterone |
The ovaries, ovulation and menstruation
The female equivalents of the _ _ _ _ _ _ lie inside the _ _ _ _ _ _ . The size
of a _ _ _ _ , they are supported by ligaments and are touched by the
fronded ends of the Fallopian tubes, the ducts for the passage of ova to the
uterus.
The _ _ _ _ _ _ _ are the source of female germ cells (ova) and the female
hormones _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ and progesterone. Ova are produced from
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . These are minute spherical structures, precursors of which
are present from _ _ _ _ _ _ _ , but which begin to mature only at
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ . While up to 400,000 precursors are present in childhood, only
one a month matures between the onset of menstruation and the time of
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ — a total of perhaps 400.
The maturing ovarian follicle secretes oestrogen, which enters the
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . Release of the _ _ _ _ from the follicle occurs in most
women in the _ _ _ _ _ _ week after a menstrual period. After release, the
_ _ _ _ of the mature follicle thickens and its cells multiply, forming the
127
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ , which manufactures _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ as well
as oestrogen.
Menstruation, the shedding of the glandular lining of the uterus, is the result of
cyclical change of hormone secretion. Under the _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ of
oestrogen alone (that is, in the first part of the month, before ovulation) the
lining thickens, its capillaries multiplying and glands enlarging. Then, when
progesterone is secreted, greater thickening occurs. Just before
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ the corpus luteum degenerates; the supply of
hormones is cut off and the uterine lining starts to slough. This continues for a
few days by when another follicle is maturing and a _ _ _ cycle has begun.
Ovarian hormone production is under the control of the _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ,
which triggers sexual development at puberty. One pituitary hormone (folliclestimulating hormone) is active in the first half of the cycle; increasing blood
oestrogen suppresses it and elicits secretion of _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ hormone,
which _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ the corpus luteum.
Pituitary gland
g
in
at
l
u
im
t
-s
le
ill c
Fo
Lu
e
on
rm
ho
tei
Ovum
gh
orm
on
e
Corpus luteum
Progesteronn
Oestrogen
Day 5
nis
in
Day 14
Day 28
128
Work with a partner
The male reproductive system
The purpose of the organs of the male reproductive system is to perform the
following functions:
1. to produce, maintain and transport sperm (the male reproductive
cells) and protective fluid (semen)
2. to discharge sperm within the female reproductive tract during sex
3. to produce and secrete male sex hormones responsible for
maintaining the male reproductive system
Unlike the female reproductive system, most of the male reproductive system is
located outside of the body.
These external structures include
a) the penis,
b) the scrotum, and
c) the testis.
Penis
Testis
Scrotum
129
The Penis
The penis is the male organ used in sexual intercourse.
It has 3 parts:
1. the root, which attaches to the wall of the abdomen;
2. the body, or shaft; and the glans, which is the cone-shaped part at the
end of the penis.
3. The glans, also called the head of the penis, is covered with a loose layer
of skin called foreskin.
The opening of the urethra, the tube that transports semen and urine, is at the
tip of the penis. The penis also contains a number of sensitive nerve endings.
The body of the penis consists of 3 circular shaped chambers. These chambers
are made up of special, sponge-like tissue. This tissue fill with blood when the
man is sexually aroused. As the penis fills with blood, it becomes rigid and
erect, which allows for penetration during sexual intercourse.
Semen, which contains sperm (reproductive cells), is expelled (ejaculated)
through the end of the penis when the man reaches sexual climax (orgasm).
The Scrotum
The scrotum is the loose pouch-like sac of skin that hangs behind the penis. It
contains the testicles (also called testes), as well as many nerves and blood
vessels. The scrotum acts as a "climate control system" for the testes. For
normal sperm development, the testes must be at a temperature slightly cooler
than body temperature. Special muscles in the wall of the scrotum allow it to
contract and relax, moving the testicles closer to the body for warmth or farther
away from the body to cool the temperature.
The testes
The testes (testicles) are oval organs about the size of large olives that lie in
the scrotum, secured at either end by a structure called the spermatic cord.
Most men have two testes.
The testes produce and store millions of tiny sperm cells.
The testicles are also part of the endocrine system because they produce
hormones, including testosterone.
Testosterone is a major part of puberty in men, and as a man makes his way
through puberty, his testicles produce more and more of it. Testosterone is the
hormone that causes guys to develop deeper voices, bigger muscles, and body
and facial hair, and it also stimulates the production of sperm.
130
Lückentext:
sperm | fluid | epididymis | penis | blood | penis | body | sperm | pubic | scrotum |
external | behind | walnut | urethra | responsible | prostate gland | ejaculatory ducts |
tubes | vas deferens | manufacture |
The Male Reproductive System
The _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ genitalia are those parts of the reproductive tract that are
visible in the _ _ _ _ _ region, which in a male comprise the _ _ _ _ _ _ _
and the _ _ _ _ _ . The scrotum is a loose bag of skin and connective tissue
that holds the paired testes suspended within it. The penis consists mainly of
erectile tissue, which becomes engorged with
_____
during sexual
arousal. The _ _ _ _ _ _ _ , through which urine and _ _ _ _ _ pass, runs
through the center of the Penis. About the size of a large _ _ _ _ _ _ and
surrounded by a tough fibrous capsule, the _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ lies just
under the bladder, encircling the upper part of the urethra. The gland is closely
attached to the base of the bladder, with its rounded anterior (front) surface
lying just _ _ _ _ _ _ the pubic bone. The prostate gland forms a vital part of
the male reproductive system because it provides an enzyme-rich _ _ _ _ _
that helps to activate _ _ _ _ _ and forms up to one-third of the total volume of
seminal fluid. This fluid is secreted by cells in the prostate gland and passed
through _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ , which open into the urethra.
The
structures
that
make
up
the
male
reproductive
tract
are
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ for the production of sperm and seminal fluid and their
passage out of the body. The paired testes lie suspended in the scrotum
outside the _ _ _ _ , and they are responsible for the _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ of
sperm, which then travel through a complex network of _ _ _ _ _ and ducts.
The coiled _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ receives the sperm from the testis, from where
it passes to the _ _ _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ , a long muscular tube that passes
through two glands, the seminal vesicle and the prostate gland, both of which
add fluid to the sperm. On leaving the prostate gland, the urethra becomes the
central core of the _ _ _ _ _ .
131
Organs
Description
Function
Bulbourethral
glands
Pea-sized glands inferior to the
prostate; empty into the
membranous urethra
Secrete fluid that
lubricates urethra and
end of penis
Ductus (vas)
deferentia
Ducts extending from the
epididymides to the ejaculatory
ducts
Store spermatozoa;
transport spermatozoa
during ejaculation
Ejaculatory
ducts
Receive spermatozoa
Short ducts between the ductus
deferentia and the prostatic urethra and additives to produce
seminal fluid
Epididymides
Penis
Prostate
Scrotum
Seminal
vesicles
Testes
Mass of tubules attached to the
posterior surface of the testes
Pendant organ anterior to the
scrotum and attached to the
pubis
Walnut-sized gland at the base of
the urinary bladder, surrounding
the prostatic urethra
Site of sperm maturation;
store spermatozoa
Convey urine and seminal
fluid to outside of body;
organ of coitus
Secretes alkaline fluid
that helps neutralize
acidic environment of the
Vagina; enhances motility
of spermatoza
Pouch of skin; posterior to the
penis
Club-shaped glands posterior
to the prostate, attached to the
ejaculatory ducts
Encloses and protects
testes
Secrete alkaline fluid
containing nutrients and
prostaglandins
Primary sex organs; posterior to
the penis within the scrotum
produce spermatozoa and
testosterone (male sex
hormone)
132
Label the structures indicated on the figure below
2
1
3
13
12
11
10
9
8
4
5
7
6
Nr.
Terminus
deutsche Bezeichnung
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
133
Match
Match the structure with its function.
Clitoris
encloses testes
Epididymis
transports semen
Interstitial cell
contains erectile tissue
Ovarian follicle
stores spermatozoa
Prepuce
produces testosterone
Scrotum
nourishes spermatozoa
Sustentacular cell
secretes estrogens
Urethra
transports ova
Uterine tube
secretes a lubricant
Vestibular gland
protective sheath
134
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Amnion
Fluid-filled sac that surrounds a developing embryo/fetus.
Bulbourethral
Glands located underneath on either side of the prostate
gland in males that secrete fluid that becomes part of semen.
Cervix
Lower necklike portion of the uterus leading into the vagina.
Chromosomes
Threadlike structures found in the nucleus of cells that carry
the genetic material or genes that determine heredity.
Clitoris
Small protruding mass of erectile tissue at the top of the labia
minora.
Corpus luteum
Yellowish remains of a burst ovarian follicle that secretes
progesterone.
Ductus deferens
Passageway that carries sperm from the epididymis to the
ejaculatory duct.
Ejaculation
Sudden ejection of semen from the penis.
Endometrium
Inner layer of the uterus that provides nourishment for a
developing embryo and fetus and that sloughs off during the
regular menstrual cycle.
Epididymis
Portion of the male reproductive duct system in which sperm
mature or fully develop.
Estrogens
Female steroid hormones secreted by the ovaries that bring
about the secondary sex characteristics and regulate the
female reproductive cycle.
Fallopian tube
Tube connecting an ovary to the uterus and through which an
ovum is transported.
Fimbriae
Fingerlike projections at the end of a fallopian tube that
partially surround an ovary.
Follicle-stimulating
Gonadotropic hormone produced by the anterior pituitary
hormone
gland that stimulates the development of follicles in the
ovaries of females and sperm in the testes of males.
135
Genitalia
External organs of the reproductive system.
Gonad
Sex organ in which reproductive cells develop.
Hymen
Thin membrane partially covering the external opening of the
vagina.
Hysterectomy
Surgical removal of the uterus.
Labia majora
Outer skin folds of the vagina.
Labia minora
Inner skin folds of the vagina.
Luteinizing
Gonadotropic hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary that
hormone
stimulates, in women, ovulation and the release of estrogens
and progesterone by the ovaries and, in men, the secretion of
testosterone by the testes.
Menarche
Beginning of menstruation or the first menstrual period.
Menopause
Period in a woman's life when menstrual activity ceases.
Menstruation
Also known as menses, periodic (monthly) discharge of
blood, secretions, tissue, and mucus from the female uterus
in the absence of pregnancy.
Mons pubis
Fatty, rounded area at the top of the vulva.
Myometrium
Outer layer of the uterus composed of interwoven smooth
muscle cells.
Ovaries
Female gonads in which ova (eggs) are produced and that
secrete estrogens and progesterone.
Ovulation
Release of a mature ovum from an ovary.
Oxytocin
Hormone produced by the hypothalamus and stored in the
posterior pituitary that stimulates contraction of the uterus
during childbirth and secretion of milk during nursing.
Penis
Male organ of reproduction and urination.
Placenta
Temporary organ that provides nutrients and oxygen to a
developing fetus, carries away wastes, and produces
hormones such as estrogens and progesterone.
Prepuce
Also called foreskin, the fold of skin over the glans or tip of
the penis.
136
Progesterone
Female steroid hormone secreted by the ovaries that makes
the uterus more ready to receive a fertilized ovum or egg.
Prolactin
Gonadotropic hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary that
stimulates the mammary glands to produce milk.
Prostate gland
Muscular gland in males that surrounds the first inch of the
urethra and secretes a fluid that becomes part of semen.
Scrotum
External sac enclosing the testes.
Seminal vesicles
Glands in males located at the base of the bladder that
secrete fluid that becomes part of semen.
Sperm
Mature male sex or reproductive cell.
Testes
Male
gonads that produce
sperm
cells
and
secrete
testosterone.
Testosterone
Hormone secreted by the testes that spurs the growth of the
male reproductive organs and secondary sex characteristics.
Uterus
Also known as the womb, the hollow organ in females that
receives, retains, and nourishes a fertilized ovum or egg.
Vagina
Muscular tube in women that extends from the cervix of the
uterus to the vaginal opening.
Vulva
Female external genital organs.
Zygote
Fertilized ovum
137
11 The Nervous System
Die Nachrichtenübermittlung im menschlichen Körper erfolgt in Form von
elektrischen Signalen, die sich in hoher Geschwindigkeit (bis zu 120 m/s) über
die Nervenbahnen fortpflanzen. Alles was wir riechen, hören, sehen, fühlen,
schmecken usw. wird als „Informationspaket“ in elektrische Impulse
umgewandelt und über die Nervenbahnen zur Verarbeitung zum Gehirn
weitergeleitet. Umgekehrt werden die Befehle und Anweisungen vom Gehirn als
elektrische Signale (= Nervenimpulse) an den Körper weitergeleitet. Zum
Nervensystem gehören u.a.
Gehirn und Rückenmark sowie
das periphere Nervensystem, das alle Nerven umfasst, die vom
Zentralnervensystem - kurz ZNS - ausgehen.
Zum Schutz des Nervensystems vor Beschädigungen sind der Schädel und
die Wirbelsäule da! Gehirn und Rückenmark bilden zusammen das
Zentralnervensystem - die zentrale Schaltstelle des gesamten Nervensystems.
Das wichtigste Organ des Zentralnervensystems ist das Gehirn, eine
Kontrollinstanz aus über zehn Milliarden Nervenzellen, von denen jede einzelne
wiederum mit bis zu 10.000 anderen Nervenzellen verbunden ist.
Die verschiedenen Regionen des Gehirns übernehmen jeweils bestimmte
Funktionen. Das Gehirn ist für sämtliche unserer Aktivitäten verantwortlich,
sowohl bewusste als auch unbewusste. Es kann als "Sitz der Persönlichkeit"
eines Menschen bezeichnet werden - mit all seinen Gefühlen, Gedanken und
Fähigkeiten.
Drei Häute umgeben das Gehirn schützend:
1. die harte Hirnhaut,
2. die Spinnwebhaut und
3. die innere Hirnhaut.
Entzündete Hirnhäute sind die Ursache der Krankheit Meningitis.
Man unterscheidet bei den Gehirnregionen
Kleinhirn, Hirnstamm,
Großhirn, Großhirnrinde,
Zwischenhirn,
Thalamus und
Hypothalamus.
138
Zentralnervensystem (ZNS) u. Peripheres Nervensystem (PNS)
Anatomisch (=strukturell) sind Zentralnervensystem (ZNS) und peripheres
Nervensystem (PNS) zu trennen. Zum ZNS werden Gehirn und Rückenmark
gerechnet, die verbleibenden, dem Gehirn und Rückenmark entspringenden
Nerven(-wurzeln) mit ihrer Fortsetzung in Form einzelner Nerven bilden das
PNS.
Nach funktionellen Gesichtspunkten können wir das Nervensystem in das
sogenannte sensomotorische System, welches im weitesten Sinne für den
"Bezug zur Umwelt", und das vegetative Nervensystem, welches für die
Aufrechterhaltng von Körperfunktionen zuständig ist, einteilen.
Das Sensomotorisches System
Das sensomotorische System besteht aus einem sensibel-sensorischen Teil,
welcher Sinneseindrücke von der Umwelt empfängt und sie zur zentralen
Verarbeitung weiterleitet und aus einem motorischen Teil, welcher für die
Bewegungsäußerungen des Körpers zuständig ist.
Zum sensorischen Bereich des Nervensystems zählen verschiedene
Rezeptoren , welche jeweils für unterschiedliche Sinneseindrücke zuständig
sind wie z.B. für Temperatur, Schmerz, Berührung, aber auch Geruch,
Geschmack, Bewegung und Lage des Körpers und seiner Gliedmaßen, Hören
und Sehen. Als Rezeptoren dienen spezifsche Strukturen am Ende von
Nervenzellfortsätzen. Sie sind in der Lage, wie zum Teil auch freie
Nervenendigungen, bestimmte Reize in Nervenaktionspotentiale ( = elektrische
Signale, elektrische Impulse) umzuwandeln.
Die wichtigste Aufgabe des motorischen Systems ist es,Muskelbewegungen
durchzuführen.
Das vegetative Nervensystem
Während das sensibel-sensorische Nervensystem Zustände der Umwelt
übermittelt und das motorische Nervensystem dem Verhalten in der Umwelt
dient, werden ebenfalls beständig Informationen über Funktionszustände des
Körpers, des sogenannten Inneren Milieus registriert, verarbeitet und in
Reaktionen umgesetzt. Einen großen Teil dieser Aufgaben übernimmt das
vegetative Nervensystem (VNS). Auch das vegetative Nervensystem lässt sich
in einen peripheren und einen zentralen Anteil gliedern.
Das vegetative Nervensystem innerviert die glatte Muskulatur aller Organe, das
Herz und die Drüsen. Nach funktionellen Kriterien lassen sich zwei
komplementäre Anteile des vegetativen Nervensystems ausmachen, den
Sympathicus und den Parasympathicus. Im Bereich des Rückenmarkes auf
Höhe vom BWS und LWS –Bereich finden wir die Nervenzellen des
vegetativen Nervensystems in den sogenannten Seitenhörnern der grauen
Substanz. Ihre Fortsätze verlassen das Rückenmark über die vorderen Wurzeln
139
um zum Teil gleich darauf in beidseits des Rückenmarks gelegene
Zellansammlungen einzumünden. Diese Zellansammlungen (Ganglien) finden
sich auf der Höhe des jeweiligen Rückenmarkssegmentes und sind
untereinander nach oben und unten verbunden, so dass rechts und links vom
Rückenmark jeweils ein perlschnurartiges Gebilde entsteht, der Grenzstrang.
Viele innere Organe werden sowohl vom Sympathikus als auch vom
Parasympathikus innerviert.
Beide wirken auf das jeweilige Organ antagonistisch.
Eine Reizung des Sympathicus führt z.B. zur Zunahme von Herzfrequenz und
Herzschlagvolumen, zur Abnahme der Darmtätigkeit und zur Erschlaffung der
Gallenblase, während der Parasympathicus Herfrequenz und Schlagvolumen
verringert, die Darmmotilität anregt und eine Kontraktion der Gallenblase
auslöst.
Organ
Funktion
Sympathikus
Parasympathikus
Auge
Pupille
erweitert
verengt
Sekretion
zäh, wenig
viel, wässrig
Frequenz
beschleunigt
verlangsamt
Koronargefäße
erweitert
verengt
Durchmesser
erweitert
verengt
Sekretion
vermindert
vermehrt
Magen-
Peristaltik
gehemmt
beschleunigt
Darmtrakt
Sekretion
vermindert
vermehrt
Blase
Schließmuskel
kontrahiert
erschlafft
Nebenniere
Sekretion
vermehrt
-
Gefäße
verengt
-
Schweißsekretion
wenig, zäh
viel, wässrig
Tränen- und
Speicheldrüsen
Herz
Bronchien
Haut
140
Work with a partner
The nervous system
1
The nervous system is divided into the
peripheral and central nervous System.
The brain and spinal cord make up the central
nervous System.
1: _____________________________
2
2: _____________________________
3: _____________________________
3
The central nervous System is divided into the
voluntary System and the autonomic or
involuntary System.
The autonomic nervous System provides a
rapid response to a threat where we may need
to be able to run or defend ourselves.
The brain is the
command center of the
body. It receives
information from the
world, processes it, and
sends out a response.
It is composed of two
hemispheres of
convoluted tissue.
The right hemisphere
controls the left side of
the body and the left
hemisphere controls the
right side of the body.
The two hemispheres
are joined by tissue
called the corpus
callosum. There are four
main parts to the brain:
the cerebrum,
141
cerebellum, brain stem, and diencephalon.
The cerebrum is primarily for thinking and emotion. Both the right and left side
can be broken down into frontal lobe, temporal lobe, occipital lobe, and parietal
lobe. Each lobe manages special functions as listed in the table below:
Lobes
Special Functions
Frontal
Emotions and personality
Parietal
Math and logic
Temporal
Processing spoken word
Occipital
Processing visual information
142
The autonomic System is made up of the sympathetic and parasympathetic
Systems. The sympathetic nervous System is responsible for a release of
glucose from the liver, increased heart rate, increased blood pressure,
increased respiration, and decreased genitourinary action.
These physiological changes help humans to "fight or flight" in a dangerous
Situation.
143
The parasympathetic nervous System creates the reverse responses to help
slow the body down.
144
A Comparison of Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activity
Organ or
gland
Heart
Skin
Skeletal muscles
Sympathetic
stimulation
Parasympathetic
stimulation
Increased rate rate and
Decreased rate and
strength of contraction
strength of contraction
Vasoconstriction (adrenergic),
vasodilation, blushing
(cholinergic)
Vasoconstriction (adrenergic),
vasodilation (cholinergic)
None
None
Dilation in a few
Blood vessels
Mostly constriction
Viscera
Vasoconstriction (adrenergic)
Vasodilatation
Reproductive
organs
Vasodilation (cholinergic)
Vasodilation
organs(e.g., penis)
Contraction and erection of
Hair
None
hair
Bronchioles
Dilation
GI tract
Decreased activity and tone
Gallbladder and
ducts
Inhibition
Stimulation
Anal sphincter
Closing stimulated
Closing inhibited
Urinary bladder
Muscle tone aided
Contraction
Ciliary muscle
of eye
Relaxation
(for far vision)
Contraction
(for near vision)
Iris of eye
Dilation of pupil
Constriction of pupil
Sweat glands
Stimulation of secretion
(cholinergic)
None
Nasal, lacrimal,
salivary, gastric,
Vasoconstriction and inhibited
secretion
Pancreatic islets
Decreased secretion of insulin
Liver
Stimulation of glycogen
hydrolysis with release of
glucose into blood
145
Constriction
Increased activity
(peristalsis) and tone
Vasodilation and
stimulated secretion
Increased secretion
None
12 The Sensory Organs
Alle Organe( z. B. Auge, Ohr usw.) mit deren Hilfe wir Informationen aus
unserer Umwelt aufnehmen, sind Sinnesorgane und gehören zum sensorischen
System des Körpers. Unser sensorische System ist ein Teil des
Nervensystems, das für die Verarbeitung der sensorischen Informationen
verantwortlich ist. Bestandteile eines sensorischen Systems sind z.B. die
sensorischen Empfänger (= Rezeptoren), sensorische Nervenbahnen und die
entsprechenden Gehirnregionen, die die ankommenden elektrischen Signale
und Informatioen entsprechend weiter verarbeiten. Die Reize, die bei den
Rezeptoren die elektrischen Impulse auslösen, können von unterschiedlicher
Art sein.
Die folgende Tabelle zeigt die Reizart und das dazugehörende Sinnesorgan:
Reizart
Sinnesorgan
Auge mit seinen lichtempflindlichen
Lichtreize
Zellen (Stäbchen und Zapfen)
Haarzellen in der Hörschnecke
Schallreize
im Innenohr
Kälte- und Wärmerezeptoren
Temperaturreize
in der Haut und Schleimhaut
Druck- und Tastrezeptoren
Druck- und Tastreize
in der Haut und Schleimhaut
Riechsinneszellen im Riechfeld
Chemische Reize
der Nase usw. und empfindliche
Zellen auf der Zunge
Schmerzreize
Schmerzrezeptoren
Reize, die von der Schwerkraft
Lage- und Drehsinnrezeptoren
ausgeübt werden
im Innenohr
146
Das Auge
Der Augapfel liegt geschützt in einem Fettpolster in der knöchernen
Augenhöhle. Seine Wand wird durch verschiedene Häute gebildet.
Außen liegt die weiße undurchsichtige Lederhaut. Diese geht vorn in
die durchsichtige Hornhaut über.
Die mittlere Haut ist die Aderhaut. Sie ist reich an Blutgefäßen.
Im vorderen Bereich geht die Aderhaut über in
a) den Strahlenkörper und b) die Regenbogenhaut.
Strahlenkörper
Im Strahlenkörper befindet sich glatte Muskulatur. Am Strahlenkörper ist
der Aufhängeapparat der Linse befestigt. Durch Veränderung der
Muskelkontraktion im Strahlenkörper wird die Linse über den
Aufhängeapparat stärker oder schwächer gewölbt.
Regenbogenhaut (Iris)
Die Iris enthält ebenfalls ringförmig angeordnete glatte Muskulatur.
Dadurch kann die Pupille je nach Lichteinfall enger oder weiter gestellt
werden.
Netzhaut
Die Netzhaut bildet die innerste Haut des Augapfels. In der Netzhaut
liegen die Sinneszellen, die aus den "Stäbchen" und den "Zäpfchen"
bestehen. Die Stäbchen dienen dem "Schwarzweißehen" und die
Zäpfchen dem "Farbsehen".
Weitere Teile des Augapfels sind:
Linse
Die Linse befindet sich zwischen der Iris und dem Glaskörper. Sie ist
durch den Aufhängeapparat am Strahlenkörper befestigt. Sie kann für das
Nahsehen stärker gewölbt und für das Fernsehen stärker abgeflacht werden
(unterschiedliche Brechkraft der Lichtstrahlen bzw. unterschiedliche Brennweite
der Linse). Die Verstellung erfolgt über die "Strahlenbänder" durch die
unterschiedlich starke Kontraktion der Muskulatur im Strahlenkörper.
Der Glaskörper besteht aus einer gallertartigen durchsichtigen Masse und
füllt den Raum hinter der Linse aus.
Der blinde Fleck befindet sich am Augenhintergrund an der Stelle, an der
der Sehnerv aus dem Augapfel heraustritt. in diesem Bereich befinden sich
keine Sinneszellen.
Der gelbe Fleck ist die Stelle des schärfsten Sehens. In diesem Bereich
befinden sich besonders zahlreiche Zäpfchen (Sinneszellen für das
Farbsehen).
147
Augenwasser befindet sich in der vorderen Augenkammer (zwischen
Hornhaut und Iris) und in der hinteren Augenkammer (zwischen Iris und Linse).
Es wird von bestimmten Zellen des Strahlenkörpers ständig neu gebildet und
wird über den sogenannten Schlemm' schen Kanal abgeleitet. Bei einer
Störung der Ableitung entsteht ein zu hoher Augeninnendruck.
Der Sehsinn
Die durch das Sehloch (die Pupille) einfallenden Lichtstrahlen werden im
normalen Auge durch die Linse so gebrochen, dass sie sich auf der Netzhaut
im Augenhintergrund zu einem scharfen Bild vereinigen. Von den
lichtempfindlichen Sinneszellen der Netzhaut werden die Impulse über die
Sehbahn dem Gehirn übermittelt und treten als Sehwahrnehmung ins
Bewusstsein.
Beim normalsichtigen Auge treten die Lichtstrahlen durch das Sehloch ein und
werden durch die Linse so gebrochen, dass sie ihren Brennpunkt genau auf der
Netzhaut im Augenhintergrund haben. Die Pupille regelt durch Enger- oder
Weiterstellung die Menge des einfallenden Lichtes (Schutz vor grellem Licht
usw.).
Die Bewegung jedes Augapfels erfolgt über sechs Augenmuskeln (4 gerade
Augenmuskeln, 2 schräge Augenmuskeln).
(Schielen kann durch falsche Längen der Augenmuskeln verursacht werden).
Tränendrüsen
Die Tränendrüsen liegen im oberen äußeren Winkel der Augenhöhlen (zum
oberen äußeren Lidrand hin). Die Tränenflüssigkeit, die durch den Lidschlag
verteilt wird, dient zur Befeuchtung der Hornhaut, die nicht austrocknen darf.
Überschüssige Tränenflüssigkeit wird aber den Tränennasengang zur Nase hin
abgeleitet
Die Augenlider dienen zur Befeuchtung und zum Schutz der Hornhaut. bei
Berührung der Hornhaut durch einen Fremdkörper schließen sich die Lider
durch Reflex sofort. Die Innenseiten der Lider sind mit der zarten Bindehaut
ausgekleidet, die auf den Augapfel übergeht.
Die Wimpern und die Augenbrauen sollen das Auge vor Staub, Fremdkörpern und herabrinnendem Schweiß schützen.
148
Work with a partner
The eye
149
Retina
Photorezeptor neurons
(rod and cone cells)
light waves
Bipolar neurons
Ganglion
neurons
The eyes are specialized organs of sight designed to detect patterns of light.
Like the camera, the eye collects and focuses light on to a sensitive surface.
Its lens are transparent, yellowish and gelatinous.
Relaxation of these ligaments is produced by contraction of the ciliary muscle at
the back of the iris — this allows the lens to bulge and makes nearby objects
come into focus.
The pupil is the aperture of the iris, which is an automatic diaphragm opening
and closing in response to changes of lighting.
Behind the lens the eyeball is filled with a sticky, jelly-like substance, at the back
of which is the retina.
The retina is made up of three layers of nerve cells. In order in which they
conduct impulses, they are the rod and the cone cells, bipolar neurons and
ganglion neurons.
The rods and cones are the extensions of small neurons, and they convert light
into nerve impulses which are passed to the brain along the fibres of the optic
nerve.
Where the optic nerve leaves the eye there are no receptors : this "blind spot"
is slightly off the axis of vision.
Fovea
centralis
Retina
Lens
Light waves
Cornea
Optic
nerve
Sclera
Vitreous cavity
"Blind spot"
The centre of the retina possesses
only cones connected to nerve
fibres in a 1 :1 ratio.
The proportion of rods increases
away from the centre and receptors
converge onto fewer fibres.
Since rods work at low light
intensity (they contain an easily
bleached pigment — rhodopsin —
derived from vitamin A) the
periphery of the retina is adapted
for sensitivity in dim light, the centre
for detailed, daylight vision.
Blind spot
Fovea centralis
Retina
150
Übersetzen Sie bitte die folgenden Termini bzw. den englischen Fachtext!
Eye Disease
Astigmatism
Description
Irregular curvature of
lens
Cataracts
Cloudy lens
Chalazion
Small, painless,
localized swelling of
eyelid
Redness and itching of
Conjunctivitis
conjunctiva; "pink eye"
Diplopia
Double vision
Glaucoma
Accumulation of fluid
pressure and poor
drainage of aqueous
humor
Purulent staph
infection of hair follicle
of eyelid
Farsighted; cannot see
Hordeolum
Hyperopia
up close
Keratitis
Inflammation of cornea
Myopia
Nearsighted; cannot
see objects in the
distance
Nystagmus
Presbyopia
Repetitive and
involuntary movement
of eye
"Old eye," lens loses
elasticity
Strabismus
"Crossed eyes,"
unable to focus
independently of
one another
151
Translation
Matching
Was gehört zusammen? Verbinden Sie mit Strichen die einander
entsprechenden Begriffe.
Match the structure to its function.
Auditory tube
secretes ear wax
Basilar membrane
Ceruminous gland
vibrates in response to sound
waves
transmits sensory impulses
Ciliary body
refracts light rays
Cornea
equalizes air pressure
Fovea centralis
secretes an oily substance
Lacrimal gland
secretes lacrimal fluid (tears)
Optic radiation
secretes aqueous humor
Suspensory ligament
provides a sharp visual image
Tarsal gland
attaches to lens capsule
Labeling
Label the structures indicated on the figure to the
1 __________________________
left.
2 __________________________
3 __________________________
4 __________________________
5 __________________________
6 __________________________
7 __________________________
8 __________________________
9 __________________________
10 __________________________
11 __________________________
12 __________________________
13 __________________________
152
Das Ohr
Das Gehörsystem des Menschen umfasst
a) das äußere Ohr,
b) das Mittelohr und
c) das Innenohr, die Hörbahnen, sowie die im Großhirn und im
Stammhirn liegenden auditiven Reizverarbeitungszentren.
Das äußere Ohr
Das äußere Ohr besteht aus der Ohrmuschel und dem leicht gebogenen
äußeren Gehörgang. Letzterer wird auch als «Ohrkanal» bezeichnet. Er weist
eine durchschnittliche Länge von 23 Millimetern und einen Durchmesser von 6
bis 8 Millimetern auf. In seinem äußeren Drittel befinden sich die
Ceruminaldrüsen. Diese produzieren das Ohrenschmalz, dessen Aufgabe es
ist, das Ohr vor eindringenden Schmutzpartikeln zu schützen.
Das Mittelohr
Zwischen dem Gehörgang und dem Mittelohr befindet sich das Trommelfell,
welches einen Durchmesser von ca. 10 Millimetern aufweist und als Empfänger
der Schallwellen dient. Mit dem Trommelfell fest verbunden ist der Hammer, ein
Knöchelchen, das zusammen mit dem Amboss und dem Steigbügel für eine
Übertragung der Schallwellen zum Innenohr sorgt.
Die Gehörknöchelchen sind winzig klein; der Steigbügel als deren kleinstes
weist knapp die Größe eines halben Reiskorns auf. Zwischen dem Mittelohr und
dem Rachenraum besteht eine direkte Verbindung – die Eustachischen Röhre
– die für einen permanenten Druckausgleich im Mittelohr sorgt
Das Innenohr
Die Fußplatte des Steigbügels wiederum ist mit der Ohrschnecke (= Cochlea) –
verbunden. Dabei handelt es sich um eine spiralenförmig gewundene Röhre
von ca. 32 mm Länge und zweieinhalb Windungen Steigung. Die Röhre wird
durch zwei Membrane in drei «Schläuche» unterteilt, die mit zwei
unterschiedlichen Flüssigkeiten (= Endolymphe und Perilymphe) gefüllt sind.
153
Das Cortische Organ
Auf der in der Mitte der Röhre verlaufenden Basilarmembran befindet sich das
Cortische Organ mit seinen rund 20 000 Haarzellen, die in einer inneren und
drei äußeren Reihen angeordnet und in 24 Gruppen unterteilt sind. Jede dieser
Haarzellen-Gruppen spricht auf die Töne einer bestimmten Frequenz – bzw.
eines bestimmten Frequenzband-Abschnitts – an. Töne hoher Frequenzen
werden dabei im vorderen, solche tieferer Frequenz im hinteren Teil der
Cochlea wahrgenommen.
Die Haarzellen
Die Haarzellen – deren Aufgabe es ist, mechanische Reize in bioelektrische
Impulse umzuwandeln – sind äußerst sensible und verletzliche Organe, die
durch Überstrapazierung schwer geschädigt werden können. Die meisten Fälle
von Schwerhörigkeit sind auf eine Schädigung der Haarzellen durch zu laute
und zu lange Lärm-Einwirkung auf das Ohr zurückzuführen.
Der Hörnerv
Die von den Haarzellen produzierten und weiter gegebenen bioelektrischen
Impulse werden vom Hörnerv aufgenommen – einer komplexen, aus rund
30 000 Fasern bestehenden Nervenbahn, die das Innenohr mit dem
Hörzentrum im Gehirn verbindet.
Der Gleichgewichtsapparat
Zum Innenohr gehört auch der Gleichgewichtsapparat, der aus zwei kleinen
Bläschen – dem Sacculus und dem Utriculus – sowie drei Bogengängen
besteht. Sacculus und Utriculus enthalten winzige Kalksteinchen, deren
Position sich – bedingt durch die Schwerkraft der Erde – analog zur Lage des
Kopfes verändert. Die Bogengänge wiederum reagieren auf FlüssigkeitsBewegungen, die durch die Drehbewegungen des Kopfes ausgelöst werden.
154
Work with a partner
The ears and hearing
Sounds are a series of invisible compression waves that moves through air or
other materials. Although it is commonly associated in air, sound will readily
travel through many materials such as water and steel. All sound waves are
created by the vibration of some object. Because sound is the vibration of
matter, it does not travel through a vacuum or in outer space.
All sound waves are detected when they cause a detector to vibrate.
Our eardrum vibrates from sound waves to allow us to sense them.
Sound has the standard characteristics of any waveform. But sound waves
different than light waves.
The visible light waves, the invisible ultraviolet (UV) light and the x-rays
are electromagnetic radiation. They are completely different than sound,
which is vibration of matter. Electromagnetic waves are related to
electrical and magnetic fields and readily travel through space.
The back-and-forth vibration of an object creates the compression waves
of sound. This is different than the up and down or transverse motion of a
electromagnetic wave.
The ear
The ear is the organ of hearing and equilibrium. It consists of three principal
regions:
1. The outer ear
2. The middle ear
3. The inner ear
The ears provide us with two different senses:
a) hearing and
b) balance
Sound waves detected by the ears provide essential information about
our external surroundings and allows us to communicate, such as
speech and music.
155
In addition, our ears contribute to our sense of balance, the largely
unconscious understanding of the body´s orientation in space that allows
us to maintain an upright posture and move without falling over.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
11
10
9
8
Identify the structures of the ear
auditory ossicles
Gehörknöchelchen
auditory tube
Eustachische Röhre, Ohrtrompete
auricle
Ohrmuschel
cochlea
Hörschnecke
cochlear window
ovales Fenster
external auditory canal
äußerer Gehörgang
middle ear
Mittelohr
semicircular canals
Bogengänge
tympanic cavity
Paukenhöhle
tympanic membrane
Trommelfell
vestibulocochlear nerve
Hör-Gleichgewichtsnerv
156
Work with a partner
sound - eardrum - cochlea – inner - balance - malleus border -three - external - ear - entering - hairs - cartilage ossicles - cerumen - pharynx - channels - Corti - incus
The
___
can be
anatomically divided
into
_____
parts: the
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ and middle ear, which gather and transmit sound, and the
_ _ _ _ _ ear, which is the organ of hearing and _ _ _ _ _ _ _ .
The external ear consists of the visible part (the pinna), which is made up of
skin and _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ , and the external auditory meatus, which channels
_ _ _ _ _ waves toward the middle ear. Inside the external meatus are tiny
_ _ _ _ _ and ceruminous glands that secrete _ _ _ _ _ _ _ (wax). This
combination of wax and hairs helps prevent dust and foreign bodies from
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ the ear.
At the inner end of the meatus is the tympanic membrane, or _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ,
which vibrates in response to sound waves and marks the _ _ _ _ _ _
between the external and middle ear.
Beyond the tympanic membrane (eardrum) is the middle ear, an air-filled cavity
that helps transmit sound to the inner ear and is connected to the
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ (throat) via the auditory (eustachian) tube.
Within the middle ear are three tiny bones called _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ that are
linked together in such a way that movements of the eardrum are transmitted
across them to the oval window at the entrance to the inner ear.
The first bone, the _ _ _ _ _ _ _ , is attached to the inner surface of the
eardrum at one end, and to the second bone, the _ _ _ _ _ , at the other. The
stapes is the third ossicle and is connected both to the incus and to the oval
window. All three ossicles are held in place by tiny ligaments.
The inner ear contains the organs of balance and hearing. The inner ear has
two divisions: the outer bony labyrinth is a system of _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ and has
157
three regions called the vestibule, the semicircular canals, and the
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ ; the inner membranous labyrinth consists of a series of linked
sacs or ducts contained within the bony labyrinth.
The vestibule is the central part of the bony labyrinth and contains two
membranous sacs, the saccule and the utricle, which provide information about
head position, while the semicircular canals contain receptors that detect head
movements.
The cochlea is a bony, spiral canal that houses the organ of hearing, known as
the organ of _ _ _ _ _ .
The following illustration shows the auricle ossicles.
See if you can name them!
1:
_______________________________________________
2.
_______________________________________________
3. _______________________________________________
158
13 Everyday words and phrases
Work with a partner
General Conversation
1
Come in please!
___________________________________
2
Did you come alone?
___________________________________
3
Good afternoon!
___________________________________
4
Good evening!
___________________________________
5
Good morning!
___________________________________
6
Hello!
___________________________________
7
How are you feeling?
___________________________________
8
How are you?
___________________________________
9
How old are you?
___________________________________
10
My name is _____________ .
___________________________________
11
What day is it?
___________________________________
12
What is the date?
___________________________________
13
What is your address?
___________________________________
14
What is your name?
___________________________________
15
What time is it?
___________________________________
16
Where are you?
___________________________________
17
Where do you live?
___________________________________
18
Where were you born?
___________________________________
19
Who brought you?
___________________________________
20
Who is the patient?
___________________________________
21
Are you divorced?
___________________________________
22
Are you married?
___________________________________
23
Are you separated?
___________________________________
24
Are you single?
___________________________________
159
25
Are you widowed?
___________________________________
26
Did you have any children?
___________________________________
27
Did you live alone?
___________________________________
28
Did you live with your aunt?
___________________________________
29
Did you live with your cousin?
___________________________________
30
Did you live with your father?
___________________________________
31
Did you live with your friend?
___________________________________
32
Did you live with your mother?
___________________________________
33
Did you live with your parents?
___________________________________
34
Did you live with your son?
___________________________________
35
Did you live with your uncle?
___________________________________
36
Did you go to school?
___________________________________
37
Did you go to college?
___________________________________
38
Where do you work?
___________________________________
39
Do you work outside your
___________________________________
home?
40
What type of work do you do?
___________________________________
41
What was your first job?
___________________________________
42
How long have you worked
___________________________________
there?
43
What other jobs have you had?
___________________________________
44
Why did you change jobs?
___________________________________
45
Are you happy in your work?
46
Did you work with animals?
47
Did you work with birds?
___________________________________
48
Did you work with chemicals?
___________________________________
49
Did you work with drugs?
___________________________________
50
Did you work with lead?
___________________________________
51
Did you work with paints?
___________________________________
52
Did you work with radiation?
___________________________________
53
Did you use any precautionary
___________________________________
measures?
160
54
Do you enjoy carpentry?
___________________________________
55
Do you enjoy gardening?
___________________________________
56
Do you enjoy movies?
___________________________________
57
Do you enjoy music?
___________________________________
58
Do you enjoy painting?
___________________________________
59
Do you enjoy reading?
___________________________________
60
Do you enjoy sports?
___________________________________
61
Do you enjoy theatre?
___________________________________
62
Do you play an instrument?
___________________________________
63
Do you belong to groups of the
___________________________________
school?
64
Do you belong to groups of
___________________________________
sports?
65
Do you belong to groups of the
___________________________________
church?
66
Do you have life insurance?
___________________________________
67
Do you have hospital
___________________________________
insurance?
68
Do you have accident
___________________________________
insurance?
69
Are you privately insured?
___________________________________
70
Do you have any health
___________________________________
insurance?
71
How did the accident come
___________________________________
about?
72
How old are you?
___________________________________
73
What happened to you?
___________________________________
74
What is bothering you the most?
___________________________________
75
What kind of complaints do you
___________________________________
have?
76
What kind of problems do you
___________________________________
have?
161
77
When is your birthday?
___________________________________
78
Which company are you insured
___________________________________
with?
79
Who admitted you to the
___________________________________
hospital?
80
Who is your family doctor?
___________________________________
81
Who is your general
___________________________________
practitioner?
82
Why have you been admitted?
___________________________________
83
Why have you come to see your
___________________________________
doctor?
84
Why have you come to the
___________________________________
hospital?
85
Could you repeat that a little
___________________________________
slower, please?
86
Do you have any questions?
___________________________________
87
Do you have time?
___________________________________
88
Do you speak English?
___________________________________
89
Do you understand me?
___________________________________
90
Excuse me, please.
___________________________________
91
I am __________________.
___________________________________
92
I didn’t understand you.
___________________________________
93
I would like to ask you some
___________________________________
questions about your disease.
94
I would like to ask you some
___________________________________
questions about your condition.
95
I´ am a medical assistant
___________________________________
student, studying in the third
year.
96
Please go into the waiting room.
___________________________________
97
Please sign here!
___________________________________
162
98
What do you think is the matter
___________________________________
with you?
99
Tell me why you have come in
___________________________________
today.
101
Have you been having some
___________________________________
problems at home?
101
Have you ever had any serious
___________________________________
illness in the past?
102
Have you ever had an
___________________________________
operation?
103
Have you ever been in hospital
___________________________________
before?
104
Have you ever had any injuries?
___________________________________
105
Is there anything else you´
___________________________________
would like to tell me?
106
Are you allergic to anything?
___________________________________
107
Have you any allergies?
___________________________________
108
Are you taking any medicine or
___________________________________
drugs?
109
Where does it hurt?
___________________________________
110
Does the pain extend to other
___________________________________
parts of your body?
111
To where does the pain extend?
___________________________________
112
I would like to know whether it
___________________________________
hurts a lot or a little.
113
Please describe your pain?
___________________________________
114
What is your pain like?
___________________________________
115
How long have you had the
___________________________________
pain?
116
What day did the pain begin?
___________________________________
117
Did it begin suddenly or
___________________________________
gradually?
163
118
Did it begin little by little?
___________________________________
119
When did it start?
___________________________________
120
How often does it hurt?
___________________________________
121
Does it hurt once a week, or
___________________________________
every day, or every hour or
always?
122
What were you doing when it
___________________________________
started?
123
What makes the pain better?
___________________________________
124
What helps you?
___________________________________
125
What makes the pain worse?
___________________________________
126
Have you noticed that it hurts
___________________________________
more when you do something in
particular?
127
Have you tried something to
___________________________________
make the pain better?
128
Have you taken any medicines
___________________________________
to lessen the pain?
129
How often does your neighbour
___________________________________
come in to help you?
130
Are you still able to work?
___________________________________
131
Do you have any pets at home?
___________________________________
132
What´ s your cat´ s name?
___________________________________
133
Who is feeding Bonnie?
___________________________________
134
How do you spend your free
___________________________________
time?
135
Have you any hobbies?
___________________________________
136
Do you like to watch TV or listen
___________________________________
to music?
137
Do you see the nurse at home?
___________________________________
164
138
Do the nurses come in
___________________________________
everyday?
139
What illnesses or medical
___________________________________
problems have you had?
140
Where does the pain radiate to?
___________________________________
141
When did your doctor first tell
___________________________________
you that you had that disease?
142
What treatments have you
___________________________________
received?
143
Have you had similar symptoms
___________________________________
before?
144
What diagnosis was made at
___________________________________
this time?
145
Have you had surgery before?
___________________________________
146
Have you ever been
___________________________________
hospitalized before? [AE]
147
Have you ever been
___________________________________
hospitalised before? [BE]
148
Do you suffer from any chronic
___________________________________
disease?
149
Do you suffer from any
___________________________________
contagious disease?
150
151
Do you suffer from any
malignant disease?
___________________________________
Have you been abroad in the
___________________________________
last three months?
152
Do you have an immunisation
___________________________________
card? [BE]
153
Do you have an immunization
___________________________________
card? [AE]
154
Is there anything that eases or
___________________________________
aggravates the pain?
165
155
What does the pain feel like?
___________________________________
156
Since when have you had this
___________________________________
pain?
157
How did the pain start?
___________________________________
158
Do you smoke?
___________________________________
159
Since when do you smoke?
___________________________________
160
How many cigarettes do you
___________________________________
smoke per day?
161
Do you drink alcohol?
___________________________________
162
How much alcohol do you drink? ___________________________________
163
Are you addicted to drugs?
___________________________________
164
Have you had any change in
___________________________________
your eating habits?
165
Have you lost weight?
___________________________________
166
Have you gained weight?
___________________________________
167
Did you gain considerable
___________________________________
weight in the last few months?
168
Did you lose considerable
___________________________________
weight in the last few months?
169
Do you sleep well?
___________________________________
170
Do you have problems falling
___________________________________
asleep or staying asleep?
166

Medical English Fachbuch

Transcription

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