- Sacramento - California State University

RAP MUSIC AND THE CODE OF THE STREET
A Thesis
Presented to the faculty of the Division of Criminal Justice
California State University, Sacramento
Submitted in partial satisfaction of
the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE
in
Criminal Justice
by
Christina McNamara
SPRING
2014
© 2014
Christina McNamara
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
ii
RAP MUSIC AND THE CODE OF THE STREET
A Thesis
by
Christina McNamara
Approved by:
__________________________________, Committee Chair
Daniel Okada, Ph.D.
__________________________________, Second Reader
Dimitri Bogazianos, Ph.D.
____________________________
Date
iii
Student: Christina McNamara
I certify that this student has met the requirements for format contained in the University
format manual, and that this thesis is suitable for shelving in the Library and credit is to
be awarded for the thesis.
__________________________, Graduate Coordinator
Yvette Farmer, Ph.D.
Division of Criminal Justice
iv
___________________
Date
Abstract
of
RAP MUSIC AND THE CODE OF THE STREET
by
Christina McNamara
An alienated street-culture exists in the inner-city and has rules regarding respect,
violence, retaliation, the drug trade, staging areas, families, the mating game, and hope,
i.e., ‘a code of the street’ (Anderson, 1999). These rules are themes that can be found in
rap music lyrics. Themes found in rap lyrics were compared to the properties and
practices of everyday life in the inner city, hence the code of the street. A systematic
random sampling strategy was used to collect data from over a thirty-one day period of
rap music accessed from the “Rap Radio” station on the Internet radio station Pandora.
The portion of the code pertaining to respect was found to be the most significant in the
lyrics analyzed. This supports Anderson’s (1999) argument that respect is at the heart of
the code of the street and indicates that rap music is influenced by the street-culture.
_______________________, Committee Chair
Daniel Okada, Ph.D.
_______________________
Date
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
List of Tables ............................................................................................................. viii
List of Figures .............................................................................................................. xi
Chapter
1. INTRODUCTION………..……..…………………………………………………1
Definition of Terms............................................................................................7
2. LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................................................................10
Introduction ......................................................................................................10
The Hip-Hop Generation: The Creation of Rap ..............................................10
Hidden Transcripts: The Meaning of Rap .......................................................20
The Code of the Street .................................................................................... 30
Theoretical Framework ................................................................................... 42
3. METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................... 47
Introduction ..................................................................................................... 47
Methods Overview .......................................................................................... 48
Setting and Population .................................................................................... 49
Sampling ......................................................................................................... 51
Content Analysis ............................................................................................. 54
Coding ............................................................................................................. 57
4. ANALYSIS ........................................................................................................... 62
vi
Limitations ...................................................................................................... 64
5. CONCLUSION ..................................................................................................... 75
Appendix A. Codebook and Data ............................................................................. 77
References ................................................................................................................. 103
vii
LIST OF TABLES
Tables
Page
1.
Total Number of Songs and Codes by Date….………………………………. 67
2.
Total Number of Themes Coded as “1” by Date……………………………...67
3.
Total Number of Themes Coded as “0” by Date……………………………...68
4.
Data Comparison For Each Theme on Wednesdays and Saturdays…………..70
5.
Data Comparison For Each Theme During the Day…………………………..71
viii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figures
Page
1.
Themes by Code and Number of Songs…….….………………………………69
2.
Pattern of Song Categories Coded as “1” Over Time………………………….72
3.
Pattern of Song Categories Coded as “0” Over Time………………………….72
4.
Linear Trend Line for Code “1” Over Time……….…………………………...73
5.
A Closer Look of the Linear Trend for Code “1” Without Respect……………73
6.
Linear Trend Line for Code “0” Over Time……….…………………………...74
ix
1
Chapter 1
Introduction
Money, money, money
It’s young Khalifa man
And I got money, hoes, money and hoes.
I got money, hoes, money and hoes.
Sick. Money and hoes.
(Wiz Khalifa, 2011)
Money, cars, clothes, hoes.
Money, cars, clothes, hoes.
(Lil’ Wayne, 2007)
In a preliminary analysis of rap music’s lyrical content; two artists, from two
different years deliver nearly identical messages. Here, rap music transcends a four-year
time period with similarities in the lyrics. One artist talks about “money and hoes” while
the other includes cars and clothes. Rap lyrics may be confusing to those who do not
regularly associate with the hip-hop culture or listen to rap music. Discovering these
parallels in lyrics is the intent of this exploratory study. Rap music or simply rap for the
purpose of this examination, is the language of the hip-hop culture that will be explored
(Elligan, 2004).
In many cases, rap is intentionally excluded from radio stations because it is
widely misunderstood (Forman, 2002). Also, according to Rose (1994), venue owners
are reluctant to book rap shows and insurance companies often refuse to underwrite these
acts because they are thought to be unprofitable or even dangerous. This perception is a
part of the social labeling phenomena that comes with what is thought to be an urban
crisis, reflecting a rampant drug culture, and gang violence (Rose, 1994).
2
The demonization of rap promotes the alienation of black youth who are
perceived to be hostile towards the very institutions and environments that in return, seek
to exploit them (Rose, 1994). This recognition also highlights the subcultures that exist
to reflect the traditions of the black community, some of which goes back to the time of
slavery (Anderson, 1999). Rap parallels the lines of black history and social
containment.
Rap and hip-hop are affiliated but are necessarily independent. Rap, in this
research, is music and a hip-hop culture is a place or as Forman (2002) suggests, a sense
of space. This means that a hip-hop culture exists within the inner-city and is identified
by four elements: b-boying or a style of dance, DJing, MCing, and graffiti (Chang, 2005).
Rap is listened to on boom boxes, car radios, or headphones. Rap can communicate a
relationship to hip-hop culture but listeners do not necessarily have to live in the innercity to be influenced by it.
According to Elligan (2004), rap is the music, the beats, and the rhyme of the
culture that is known as hip-hop. According to Powell (2006), hip-hop culture includes
entertainment, fashion, art, values, economics, communications, unique styles of relating,
mating, and parenting, and of course, rap. He suggests that rap is a means of expression
that originates from African oral poetry and West African rhythms. Keyes (2002)
concludes that rap artists are influenced by an old African practice that has been passed
down and adopted by families, churches, and cultures. She suggests that rap reflects
upon traditional African societies and performances of the bard through the use of a
musical instrument, such as the drum. According to Keyes, many Africans were
3
kidnapped, enslaved, and forced to learn a culture and language different from their own.
She argues that in the midst of institutional alienation experienced by blacks, rap emerges
to represent the foregrounding of these African-centered experiences.
According to Rose (1994), rap uses “sampling” (p. 73) which involves the use of
computers in order to digitally duplicate an existing sound. Run DMC used samples
from Aerosmith’s “Walk This Way” in their version of the song in 1986. They reconstructed a song that was popular in 1970 and made it creatively different, keeping the
music alive. Rose continues to say that few rappers are formally trained musicians and
have been criticized by mainstream experts for simply adding lyrics to the musical tones
and rhythms created by others. However, Rose argues that sampling is a musical time
machine that recalls songs from earlier times and resurrects old sounds into new ones.
Hip-Hop emerged as a response to the received harshness of ghetto-life during the
mid-1970s in the Bronx, New York (Elligan, 2004; Powell, 2006; Rose, 1994). Chang
(2005) suggests that rap is more akin to reggae. He correlates the history of the hip-hop
generation to Jamaica during the 1970s to Bob Marley’s music that promoted peace
during a time of a war. According to Forman (2002), rap mobilizes hip-hop that is
otherwise constrained and limited to the geographic environment of the “ghetto” or
“hood”.
Furthermore, rap can be understood as street vernacular that is recited and argot
loosely chanted over a musical soundtrack (Keyes, 2002). Rap has gradually evolved
away from the streets and into the musical mainstream. In doing so, rap has extended
beyond the uptown neighborhoods of the Bronx and into the corporate downtowns of
4
Manhattan (Chang, 2005). According to Chang (2005), rap may have its origins in a part
of a dying Bronx club scene that is highlighted by the emergence of the Sugar Hill Gang.
Prior to the release of “Rapper’s Delight”, it was believed that rap could not be
financially viable and so artists refused to meet with record label representatives. The
unexpected success of the Sugar Hill Gang, transformed the scene overnight with artists
and labels scrambling to cash-in on rap’s newfound popularity. Unlike the DJs and MCs
already rapping on the streets or at gigs in local clubs, the Sugar Hill Gang was
corporately crafted from three anonymous rappers who stepped into the studio with no
expectations to fulfill, no street reputation to maintain, no regular audience to please, and
with absolutely no consequences if they failed. Chang suggests that the rap game
changed when hip-hop vaulted from the streets and into the suites of pop music. He
argues that the tension between culture and commerce has become one of the main
storylines of hip-hop culture. Early street-level rap performers uprooted themselves and
their product, and shifted their focus towards an expressive “ghettocentricity” (Forman,
2002, p. 61) that accelerated its commercial appeal. Rap dramatically evolved from its
1970s genesis (Elligan, 2004).
Some research suggests that rap is now an enduring facet of hip-hop’s character
that influences the public’s perceptions of street life (Forman, 2002). Chang (2005)
suggests that in marketing terms, hip-hop now reflects the urban lifestyle. Hip-hop not
only sells records, but merchandise such as shoes, clothes, soda, beer, liquor,
videogames, movies, and more. Further, hip-hop defines its own generation where those
5
in the suburbs unite with ghetto-dwellers and even rural whites to learn to respect
blackness, not merely consume it (Chang, 2005).
Keyes (2002) defines street life as a subculture that operates according to its own
rules, economics, lifestyle, language, and aesthetics. Anderson’s (1999) code of the
street (here after referred to as The Code) describes the elements of social control that are
not influenced by the police but are instead replaced by personal responsibility for one’s
safety. The Code follows rules on respect, retaliation, violence, rampant drug use, family
and gangs, staging areas, the mating game, and hope. According to Anderson, many
inner-city blacks feel profound alienation from mainstream society, particularly those
youth who struggle to live a moral, crime-free life. The Code is a cultural adaptation and
response to the lack of faith felt in the police and judicial system.
Anderson’s model is exclusive to neighborhoods where crime is a way of life and
in some cases, a means to survival. The Code means that respect is both commanded and
campaigned for, scores are settled through retaliation, and the use or threat of violence
always prevails. The drug trade is a viable way for young people to earn a living, and
families or street gangs compete for protection and loyalty of one another. Meeting areas
are the playgrounds for The Code, the mating game reflects the sexual desires of young
people, and hope is both lost and held onto for the chance of survival on the streets. The
research question is, can the code of the street be found in rap music lyrics?
Exploratory research will assess any similarities in rap lyrics and determine
whether or not there are Code themes in rap. These themes may be easily identifiable
because rap has been linked to the ghetto or ‘hood where rap originated (Forman, 2002).
6
On the other hand, rap draws the attention of an audience that depicts a much wider base
than any preconceived notion might suggest reflects its listeners (Rose, 1994). There
may be other themes that have emerged in recent rap; none of which have to do with the
eight categories that describe The Code. Wiz Khalifa and Lil’ Wayne, artists quoted
here, are just two of the many popular rap artists who have created messages of violence,
sexual promiscuity, and rampant drug use. Much research overlooks the universe of rap
by analyzing fragmented lyrics then suggesting that its messages promote deviant
behavior for youth to emulate (Tanner, Asbridge & Wortley, 2009). Whether rap themes
are represented in a positive or negative light is not the intent of this study.
Rap’s influence is undeniable and Chang (2005) demonstrates this in retelling the
story of the band, Public Enemy. Known as the “Black Panthers of rap” (p. 270), Public
Enemy became leaders of the hip-hop generation. Chang argues that prior to the election
of the first African-American president, Public Enemy rapped about painting the White
House black and filling it with cultural icons such as Muhammad Ali and Aretha
Franklin. Chang suggests that the seriousness of rap’s influence on actual behavior
became evident when those listeners seemed to be asking for these things to become
reality. Chang argues that to call Public Enemy the Black Panthers of rap is one thing but
to replace the government is another. Rap artists are not politicians, yet they are
sometimes asked to not only mirror the people, but to be their leaders as well.
The universal concern of academic research on rap involves its content. North
and Hargreaves (2006) argue that rap influences criminal behavior among impressionable
youth. This correlation is difficult to prove without more intrusive research on rap as an
7
art form and interpretation from its stereotyped audiences. Rather, identifying the nature
of the problem with rap as the promoter of the hip-hop culture is another purpose of this
study. Research on the content of rap lyrics has yet to consider whether or not its themes
directly correlate to something tangible and obvious as the code of the street. Rap has
transformed street culture into an experiential environment (Forman, 2002) that
influences this research. Rather than conceptualize rap as being influenced by the streets,
this research will consider the influence of rap and its impact on the urban environment
itself (Forman, 2002).
Definition of Terms
B-boying: A unique dance style that involves eye-catching steps reflecting acrobatics,
yoga, ballet, and martial arts (Chang, 2005).
Decent Families: Refers to inner-city residents who work hard, save money for material
things, and raise a family (Anderson, 1999).
DJ: An abbreviation for the term disc jockey. DJs experiment with sound and supply a
beat, using records played on dual turntables (Keyes, 2002).
Female Dismemberment: A phrase coined by Rose (1994) that is used in the research to
describe a theme in rap that exploits womanly bodies or body parts.
Graffiti: An outlawed art form, typically using spray paint producing bubble-written
words. Graffiti writing is a way of gaining status in society by tagging property (Chang,
2005).
Hidden Transcripts: Disguised speech and codes that challenge power inequalities (Rose,
1994). Rap music is an example of a hidden transcript.
8
Hip-Hop: An urban perspective comprised of graffiti, emceeing, disc jockeying, and
breakdancing art forms. A street attitude displayed through gestures, stylized dress, and
language (Keyes, 2002).
‘Hood/Ghetto: An urban neighborhood (Forman, 2002). ‘Hood is used throughout this
research as a shortened term for neighborhood.
Hook: The chorus that is repeated a number of times throughout a song (Keyes, 2002).
Mainstream: Refers to the ideals of the dominant culture promoted by corporate
America. Mainstream music producers are concerned with making a profit (Asante,
2008).
MC: An abbreviation for the term emcee, or Master of Ceremony. MCs recite phrases,
provide commentary, and describe situations over a microphone while the DJ focuses on
creating musical mixes (Keyes, 2002).
Public Transcripts: Language that supports the established social order (Rose, 1994).
Rap: Refers to a music form emphasizing beat and lyric.
“Real versus Reel”: Refers to providing legitimate, truthful lyrics as compared to soft
commentary (Asante, 2008).
Sampling: Taking portions of music from previously recorded passages (Rose, 1994).
Scratching: The hand maneuver on a vinyl disc to produce sound performed by a DJ,
where the record is allowed to advance for several beats then forced back to the original
location.
The Code: Shortened to refer to the code of the street explained by Anderson (1999).
9
Underground: Refers to the behaviors and hidden transcripts found in inner-city
subculture. Underground music is not easily found in mainstream radio but rather in
digital non-corporate markets (Watkins, 2005).
10
Chapter 2
Literature Review
Introduction
Music radio stations often align their musical playlists to exclude rap with slogans
such as: “music you can understand” and “classics… without the rap” (Forman, 2002, p.
xvi). Isolating rap can successfully demonize a genre as controversial and perhaps
negatively influence listeners. Yet, rap’s popularity ensures that the issue goes beyond
misunderstanding the lyrics. It may be argued that rap speaks specifically to a culture at
society’s margins. In spite of this perception, Zillman et al. (1995) suggest that rap cuts
across ethnic lines and is enjoyed by diverse audiences.
Addressing the controversy produced by rap requires an in-depth analysis of its
origins as well as an examination of recent developments and controversies in its lyrical
transcripts. The Code supports the methodology used to address the research question.
Rose (1994) suggests that a subculture exists among listeners and artists of rap who resist
the rules of mainstream society because they do not benefit from them. Such feelings of
alienation are correlated to The Code and the efforts of criminal justice scholars in
identifying theoretical and criminogenic tendencies or behaviors (Anderson, 1999).
The Hip-Hop Generation: The Creation of Rap
In the earlier stages of rap, DJs experimented with sound and supplied a beat,
using dual turntables (Keyes, 2002). By the mid 1970s, MCs became marketable because
they could recite lyrical phrases over the music played by a DJ who could focus on
creating thematic mixes. According to Keyes, the confluence of the music provoking DJ
11
and the rhyming MC became the methodology for what would be recognized as rap.
According to Forman (2002), in the formative stages of rap, hip-hop DJs were regarded
as the main attraction at clubs and parties. When MCs became prominent, hip-hop
became more performance-oriented by engaging audiences and motivating dancing.
Prior to the use of digital sampling technologies, turntables were manipulated around
prerecorded album tracks by “scratching” actual vinyl disks. According to Keyes (2002),
a rap song must have a certain beat within the tempo in order for listeners to dance to it.
Rose (1994) suggests that authorship and individuality are important in rap therefore
lyrics are a critical part of a rapper’s identity. In addition to having a beat people can
dance to and creative lyrics, Rose concludes that the most powerful rappers will fix the
crowd’s attention with “impressive verbal dexterity and performance skills” (p. 55).
The roots of hip-hop have been traced back to the early 1970s to specific
neighborhoods in the Bronx, New York (Elligan, 2004; Keyes, 2002; Rose, 1994). Rose
(1994) identifies what led to the emergence of hip-hop culture during this time. She
states that working-class residents were faced with limited affordable housing and a
shrinking job market in cities that had lost federal funding for social services. The
poorest neighborhoods were the least protected from the greed of the privileged elite and
their strategies to reclaim and rebuild downtown businesses and tourist zones. During the
1970s, corporate development replaced industrial factories. These changes were felt
most intensely in New York, the hub for international capital and information services.
Rose argues that the South Bronx is the home of hip-hop culture. In the 1970s, a
politically motivated project led by city planner Robert Moses resulted in the relocation
12
of people of color from different parts of New York into the South Bronx. The
subsequent ethnic and racial transition was not a gradual process but rather, a brutal
destruction of a community that was forced to live together in their mutual anger and
despair. Due to the wholesale demolition of buildings between the late 1960s and mid
1970s, the vacancy rates in the southern parts of the Bronx skyrocketed. Landlords sold
their properties and shopkeepers sold their stores and established business elsewhere.
According to Rose, Moses’ efforts supported the interests of the upper class, leaving the
South Bronx decimated with very few resources, limited political power, and no
leadership.
Rose suggests that hip-hop emerged as a social oasis for disenfranchised youth to
gain an alternative identity formation because their previous social networks and
institutions had been demolished. These alternative identities were forged in fashion,
language, street names, and neighborhood crews or posses. During this time, rapping
became a prominent element of hip-hop.
Forman (2002) challenges the territorial emphasis on rap of having originated in
the Bronx. He suggests that the academic coverage of hip-hop’s historical development
focuses on having a detailed description, rather than offering an analysis of its spatial
particulars. However, the logic in having to identify these geographical regions is to
better understand what was happening in the South Bronx that influenced hip-hop
culture. Locations and detailed descriptions provide insight into the people and
neighborhoods that were a part of the hip-hop culture and later became the founders of
rap. Further, analysis comes from being able to identify the spatial particulars and
13
reflecting on how they have changed or stayed the same over time. According to
Forman, these histories rely on a brief geographical explanation in order to establish its
environment as being defined by the Bronx. He argues that it is not solely the geography
of this borough that makes the historical narratives of rap’s emergence unique but more
importantly, how rap is related to the cultural practices of the blues and jazz from the
1920s and 1930s that precede it. This debate suggests that there is some disagreement
about the various displaced origins of hip-hop culture and the influence of the South
Bronx.
Forman reveals that residents of the other New York boroughs do not know
exactly where the South Bronx is, but they agree that it has a reputation for being tough
(as cited in Lewine, 1995). Chang (2005) argues that hip-hop was contained in a tiny
seven-mile circle during the mid 1970s. He counters Forman’s argument that the exact
location of hip-hop’s origin is unknown. According to Chang, the origins can be found
on a map of New York by pointing a compass at the heart of Crotona Park then tracing a
seven-mile circumference. Chang is able to name places and founders of the hip-hop
generation, such as DJ Kool Herc in Sedgwick Avenue, Cedar Park cipher and the Ghost
Yard. DJ Kool Herc was known for his innovative break beating; cueing two copies of
the same record and synchronizing the beginning of the break of one record just as the
other reached its end. DJ Kool Herc had noticed that party attendees would wait for
certain parts of the record to be played before they began dancing, so he would
accommodate his audience by timing the break. This was an instrumental insight into the
14
accidental discovery of dub; in which a DJ becomes the mixing engineer and experiments
with tones and volume levels, equalization, and effects to alter the feel of a root song.
Chang creates a visual account of the fires that occurred in the South Bronx
between 1973 and 1977. He uses the 1977 World Series baseball game in Yankee
Stadium versus the Los Angeles Dodgers to describe “the fires of abandonment” (p. 15)
and the racial tension against the team’s star black player, Reggie Jackson. The Yankees
did not sign Jackson until thirty years after Jackie Robinson broke the color line.
According to Chang (2005), Jackson’s teammates resented him for his higher salary and
manager Billy Martin, benched Jackson because he was opposed to signing him in the
first place.
In the game that Chang describes, the Yankees were down by four runs with little
hope of tying the score. Fights erupted throughout the stadium, smoke bombs were
thrown in the air, and fans dashed across the outfield, stopping play. Beyond the
stadium, an abandoned public school was set on fire. The game announcer told listeners
that the Bronx was on fire. Chang cites this moment as the birth of the hip-hop
generation. He argues that the discrimination against blacks, their anger and feelings of
abandonment, and America’s pastime was where it all began.
Asante (2008) highlights the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina to suggest that the
government continues to neglect the human rights of African-Americans. This can be
exemplified by the damage in New Orleans that was caused by the breaching of the
levees after the hurricane and not by Katrina itself. This means that stark examples of
inequality are still found in black communities in the twenty-first century, and still seem
15
connected with heavily white influenced politics. These feelings are reflected by a hiphop culture and in the language of rap.
Taylor and Austen (2012) compare contemporary black entertainment to
blackface theatrics. They note that blackface entertainment began in the nineteenth
century when white performers would paint their faces black and mock stereotypic
African-American behavior, language, and culture. Eventually, black performers began
to take leading roles in these performances and still wear blackface in their minstrel
shows. Taylor and Austen argue that black performers are modern-day blackfaces in the
eyes of mainstream media. They suggest that black actors such as Dave Chappelle, rap
artists like Flavor Flav, and film directors like Spike Lee, reflect ‘hood life in a familiar
manner as minstrels depicted being black and living on a slave plantation.
Asante (2008) suggests that the white corporate exploitation of black artists and
music is an example of the outright theft that dates back to these earlier forms of
entertainment. According to Asante, rap showed economic promise in the 1980s and
major record labels figured out a way to exploit black music. He argues that the
evolution of historic categorizations of black music is nothing less than larceny. Whites
have always enjoyed black entertainment but resented blacks who gain economic stature
by providing these experiences. He encourages the next generation of rap artists to take
back hip-hop by telling the truth about black oppression and exploitation.
Rose (1994) sees the correlation between rap and black history in a different way.
She suggests that rap is black cultural expression that highlights the social issues
pertaining to black life in America. Keyes (2002) suggests that many rap artists
16
themselves perceive West Africa as the birthplace of rap and identify with the role of the
African bard, the storyteller and singer of his nation’s history. According to Keyes, the
expressions, poetic abstractions, and rhythmic speech of the bard, prefigures rap. Rose
(1994) argues that rap’s rhythm and tempo are its most powerful effect, especially its use
of repetition and musical breaks that are elemental of African traditions and practices.
Rap centers on the quality and nature of the rhythm and beat.
Much like Asante (2008), Rose (1994) acknowledges how rap’s poetic voice can
be deeply political. It is therefore seen as an internal threat to dominant American culture
and social order. She too correlates rap to the centuries-long period of Western slavery.
She argues that the poor learn from experience and how to explicitly express their
discontent. According to Rose, contemporary laws and practices continue to constrain
black mobility in urban America. Both Asante (2008) and Rose (1994) encourage rap
artists to reveal the truth about the machines of oppression because their voices are louder
than the general black community. Rap is a way for artists to express themselves but it
can also be the language of communal resistance that mobilizes black politics.
Asante (2008) defines the hip-hop generation as a tag that typically represents
blacks and browns after the Civil Rights and Black Power movements. He describes the
essence of the rebellious, courageous, creative, and politically discontent teens of the
1980s and 1990s that has since evolved into a new classification, the post hip-hop
generation. According to Asante, putting hip-hop in its proper context means
understanding the link between black music and black life. He suggests the force that
propelled Malcolm X and Martin Luther King Jr. was the same energy that created hip-
17
hop by voicing the conditions of the oppressed. However, many young people, including
Asante himself, who were born into the hip-hop generation, report feelings of
misrepresentation by rap. Asante argues that the music on mainstream radio and
television is mainly negative and is not a complete representation of the hip-hop
generation. Mainstream rap is not all of rap and its commercial effect on aspiring emcees
has become overblown.
Asante (2008) differentiates between what is real and keeping it “reel” (p. 22):
with rap videos, movies, music, news, and advertisements that limit images of what
blacks can be. He suggests that rap artists are imprisoned by their own image, whereby
society’s stereotypes function as a form of social control. According to Asante, the post
hip-hop generation no longer controls what is real. Rap now serves the performance of
the reel and this image is not at all real. He adds that the ghetto in mass media is not the
real ghetto and therefore, it too is reel. Asante argues that the real ghetto is an urban
playground where people listen to music without examining the issues that allow such a
place to exist. He realizes that the new generation of hip-hop and rap has betrayed the
very people it was meant to represent.
According to Forman (2002), rap has undergone numerous transformations since
its commercial debut. He suggests that young rap artists represent a cultural voice that is
a departure from earlier voices of nationalism and black unity politics. Rose (1994)
argues that rap’s emphasis on posses and neighborhoods has brought the ghetto back into
public consciousness. She suggests that it satisfies young black’s desire to have their
geographies acknowledged and celebrated. According to Rose, few who live in the
18
ghetto are given the opportunity to speak and so their points of view are always
constrained by the testimony of rap. She argues that the ghetto is a central black popular
narrative but also another resource for whites to exploit.
The significance of authenticity in rap’s dialogue was fully realized in the early
1990s when white artist Robert Van Winkle, emerged on the rap scene as Vanilla Ice and
unsuccessfully attempted to falsify his ghetto credentials (Forman, 2002; Keyes, 2002;
Rose, 1994). According to Rose (1994), Vanilla Ice summoned the hip-hop community
by marketing himself as a white rapper with stories about having ties to the black, poor
community. Van Winkle had told the press that he came from a broken home in the
ghetto, hung around with blacks, and was nearly killed in a gang fight (as cited in
Tannenbaum, 1990). It was soon revealed that he actually came from a middle-class
family in suburban Dallas, Texas yet was attempting to validate his status as a rap artist
by manufacturing a personal history belying his white background. According to Rose,
the controversy surrounding Vanilla Ice hints to the degree to which ghetto-blackness is
critical to rap status.
Asante (2008) personifies the ‘hood by having a conversation with the ghetto. In
his fictitious interview, he reveals that the ghetto is a place where people have historically
been forced to live. In character, Asante asks the ghetto who it refers to and the ghetto
responds that our common denominator is being economically poor and AfricanAmerican. Black rap artists do not control hip-hop even though it is their creation. This
is due to corporate censorship of artists with a political agenda who insist upon
19
challenging the status quo. According to Asante, the ghetto provides the raw materials
needed to produce rap that is predominately purchased by white audiences.
Asante argues that the hip-hop genre is now politically, artistically, and
spiritually, dead. He suggests that rap experienced its final and most recent transition
when hardcore gangsta rap became passé on mainstream playlists. Rap artists who had
personified the past era of gangs, violence, rebellion, and urban expression went
underground or completely fell off the rap radio radar. According to Elligan (2004),
consumers wanted their music to be less political and more hopeful following the
September 11th terrorist acts on America. He says that several radio stations banned the
playing of certain songs because it was thought to “compromise the national healing
process” (p. 59). Keyes (2002) argues that in order for rap to continue to be a viable
force in the music industry, it must evolve. In support, Watkins (2005) believes that post
September 11th, the issues confronting urban America are no longer as poignant.
One of the issues according to Watkins, is that rap artists have become endorsers
for corporate America. They no longer focus or reflect on the struggle endemic to lower
class urban life like they used to. Keyes (2002) disagrees however, believing that rap is
capable of withstanding the test of time. She suggests that the rap industry has flourished
by surpassing other popular genres in record sales. Even though the foundation of rap is
reminiscent of African-expressive culture, non-black rap artists have adopted its
performance-practices as well, which contributes to the hybridity of rap. She suggests
that the success of rap is attributed to its chameleon-like appeal to young audiences.
20
Prior to 1984, rap singles were regarded as novel merchandise. This lasted well
into the 1990s, as very few rap artists could boast of having a deep catalog of recorded
material (Forman, 2002). According to Chang (2005), earlier DJs and MCs thought it
would be impossible to put hip-hop into a record until “Rapper’s Delight” was heard on
the radio. Thereafter, rap artists began to produce their own albums and gained
recognition because they were regarded by the popular music industry as an indicator of
cultural value and importance (Forman, 2002). According to Forman (2002), by the mid1990s, major label executives had fully recognized the market potential of rap and the
viability of the hip-hop lifestyle through the use of the media. He argues that in 2000,
hip-hop looked and sounded different. Moreover, it came to mean something different as
it evolved as a lifestyle for an entirely new generation and consumers.
Hidden Transcripts: The Meaning of Rap
In 1982, Grandmaster Flash & the Furious Five released “The Message” (Asante,
2008). It was the first rap song to address the desolate conditions and hardships of living
in the ghetto. According to Chang (2005), when approached by mainstream record
producers about releasing the song, Grandmaster Flash and other rappers declined,
believing that such an association would get them booed off stage. The assumption was
that fans went to a party in order to forget about their problems and corporate
endorsement was selling out. When the song was released, it reached number four on the
R&B charts and sixty-two on the pop chart (Watkins, 2005). So while “Rapper’s
Delight” could sell, Watkins (2005) suggests that “The Message” indicated that there was
also a place for socially conscious rap in the marketplace. Furthermore, it established an
21
expectation for some, in the movement towards rap being used as a forum of political
discourse.
Furthermore Rose (1994), contends that rap brings together the most complex
social, cultural, and political issues found in contemporary culture. She argues that
although rap is contradictory in its lyrical articulations, this should not be mistaken for
absent intellectual clarity. Watkins (2005) notes that rap artists are intellectuals who
articulate a wide range of ideas in a unique and energetic way. Rose adds that rap’s
dialogue represents a common feature of a community that offers more than one cultural,
social or political viewpoint. She says that for the most part, rappers craft stories that
represent the fantasies, perspectives, and experiences of racial marginality in America.
Such elaborate and creative stories include the abuse and domination of young black
women. Rose believes these tales of sexual domination serve to protect young men from
the reality of female rejection. While there may be a possible correlation, it would be
difficult to prove as the case for every rap song that sexually exploits women.
Rose (1994) adds that rather than view rap as an expression of long-standing
social and political inequalities, some suggest that rap is not a progressive movement for
black culture. Furthermore, Willis (1991) indicates that rap’s negative facets are points
of discontinuity with previous black cultural forms (as cited in Rose, 1994). Willis
(1991) argues that in order for black musical expression to take its place in the historical
continuum, rap must sort out its good and evil forces. Rose counters that vulgarity and
sexism found in rap have always been a part of jazz and blues lyrics as well as other nonblack cultural forms. She says that rap represents the contradictory elements of pleasure
22
and pain as natural forms of expression. Rap refuses to rest in the midst of political
discourse. To suggest otherwise, is to diminish the quest for untainted progressive
political cultural expression.
Powell (2006) disagrees with Rose that the mixed messages in rap are normal
expression of complex thought. He argues that the men and women of hip-hop are actors
playing a role because in real life, they are nothing like their musical persona. Powell
suggests there are five hypocrisies that contradict the “keeping it real” (p.10) message of
hip-hop. First he says rap artists are constantly changing the meaning of words such as
“pimp” and “nigga” (p. 47). According to Powell, the pimp of the past was not a role
model. He was someone to be avoided at all cost because he sold women’s bodies on the
street for money. However in rap, the pimp is glorified as a sexual predator with money,
having materialistic values, and having hordes of women surrounding him. Powell calls
this flipping the script; when words are used to confuse listeners into thinking that
something negative is a good thing. He further challenges the frequency of the use of
these words “nigger” and “nigga” used in rap and questions why it has become
acceptable to call one another these names.
To Keyes (2002), “nigga” is used as a term of endearment when referring to a
buddy, neighborhood friend or if spoken by a female rap artist, a male lover. Powell
(2006) argues that rap promotes a materialistic and lavish lifestyle however, the ‘hood it
claims to represent, is overcome by poverty and unemployment. Third, rap artists are
role models but their personas serve only the music industry. Rappers are dependent
upon the media and recording industry in order to get paid in the lucrative market place
23
that sells violence, misogyny, and drug consumption. Fourth, adult themes such as sex
and sexual appeal are found in rap in order to seduce the young audience. He suggests
that the hypocrisy in rap is that artists will deny their influence on the sexual behaviors
and attitudes of the young. This hypocrisy is supported by Watkins (2005) who calls rap
“hip-hop pornography” (p. 210). He argues that rap producers assert they are targeting
adult audiences but in reality, the music’s sexual entertainment is being consumed by
youth. Finally, Powell (2006) voices concern with the appreciation that rap artists show
to Jesus and God when they win awards, yet their lyrics promote themes of evil.
Rose (1994) notes that rap is a form of protest; not only in its lyrics but its use of
digital sampling, that extends beyond that which has been previously understood as
accepted musical construction. The content of a rap rhyme is specific to its creator and
the lyrics are a critical part of a rapper’s identity. Authorship and individuality are
important in rap. Furthermore, the use of sampling indicates the importance of collective
identities and group histories.
According to Rose (1994), social transcripts explain the dynamics of cultural and
political domination, resistance, and power. According to Scott (1990), “public”
transcripts support the established social order whereas “hidden” transcripts resist social
domination (as cited in Rose, 1994). Rose suggests that rap is a hidden transcript because
it uses disguised speech and codes that challenge power inequalities. Moreover, rap is
significantly engaged in the warfare of institutions and groups that oppress AfricanAmericans. Rose contends that rap is a contemporary stage for the theatre of the
powerless. A rapper’s resistive transcripts are articulated in both hidden and public
24
domains, making it difficult to confine or deny its significance. She suggests that black
youth are in conflict with the police. The hidden transcripts of rap will often represent a
contemporary African-American critique of police harassment and racial profiling.
Technological advances in music production and record distribution allowed
rappers to immediately respond to current events as well as local and national social
issues (Rose, 1994). Rap is defined as a hidden transcript because it uses “cloaked
speech and disguised cultural codes to comment on and challenge aspects of current
power inequalities” (p.100). These hidden transcripts emerge as an articulation of black
social protest. It uses lyrical expression to expose issues that are not addressed by the
public domain. Gramsci (1971) asserts that rap is a strong force in the discursive war of
power and positions that exist within and against dominant institutions (as cited in Rose,
1994). Rap has the potential to become the language of liberation due to its ability to
occupy public spaces and retain the expert testimony of black cultural politics.
In contrast, Watkins (2005) argues that the existence of white rap artists such as
Eminem threatens the very soul and survival of the hip-hop community. According to
Forman (2002), rap’s crossover success is transcultural and therefore compatible to the
tastes of a wider audience. Crossover involves the merging of intrinsic signs and codes
that are assumed to represent different races. Of significance is the recognition that rap is
primarily purchased by the white audience (Watkins, 2005), and so it appears that rap is
not exclusive or even hidden very well in its social transcripts for it to be so successful in
crossover appeal.
25
Rose (1994) cautions against simply reading the lyrics to a rap song. She
suggests that the rhythmic patterns and articulation of the artist must be heard in order to
understand the song’s meaning. Nonetheless, rappers are under close scrutiny by the
media and scholarly research often dissects lyrics in order to find consistent themes that
support their claims about rap (Chang, 2005). In 1992, police officers blamed Ice T’s
song, “Cop Killer” for inciting and causing the riots in Los Angeles (Elligan, 2004).
Kubrin (2005) examines the presence of firearms in rap lyrics as the tactical choice for
settling scores and correlates her findings with gang violence. Hansen (1995) argues that
many well-known rappers have been charged with violent crimes and this is a problem
because young people may seek to emulate these celebrities. According to Diamond,
Bermudez and Schensul (2006), rap can simultaneously reflect and promote shifting drug
trends in America. For instance, they assessed the use of Ecstasy among youth and
conclude that a relationship exists between hit songs released around the same time the
drug spread into urban areas.
Johnson (2011) notes that rap artist Lil’ Wayne is the most dangerous influence
on urban and African-American youth. Lil’ Wayne’s lyrics highlight the dangerous
environment in which he lived. Although, Johnson argues, that at age twelve, Lil’ Wayne
is unlikely to have experienced the things he rapped about. According to Johnson, Lil’
Wayne was the first viable child rap star to experience what is known as the “Peter Pan
syndrome” (p. 12): an emotional classification that refers to an older man whose
childhood has been taken away. Johnson argues that Lil’ Wayne’s musical success has
been from creating a world where he and others do what they want. This is similar to
26
Rose’s (1994) conceptualization of rap as a lurid fantasy involving cop killing, female
dismemberment and suggestions that whites are the devil’s disciples. Both researchers
have acknowledged that in rap, a world exists that is separate from most others’ reality.
Johnson (2011) argues that Lil’ Wayne’s 2005 album, Tha Carter 2 is overtly vile
with themes of sexual escapades, constant pursuit of money, and the disrespect of
enemies. Johnson reveals the hidden meaning of Lil’ Wayne’s misogynistic lyrics being
that he was sexually abused at a young age. He also analyzes the cover art of Lil’
Wayne’s album and argues that it is intended to appear inoffensive and attractive to
children. Using a picture of himself as a child but with the tattoos he now has as an adult
on his face, Johnson argues, is intended to lessen the seriousness of Lil’ Wayne’s lyrical
content. As a pastor, Johnson offers a spiritually biased perspective to assess Lil’
Wayne’s lyrical content and identity. He discovers lyrics where Lil’ Wayne claims to be
God, by matching scriptures of an earthquake that denotes the death of the Son of God.
According to Taylor and Taylor (2004), rap demands independence and is intolerant of a
hypocritical adult society. Therefore, it seems Johnson’s criticisms of Lil’ Wayne would
be unwelcomed by hip-hop culture.
Johnson identifies themes of personal insecurity to translate some of Lil’ Wayne’s
lyrics. According to Johnson, Lil’ Wayne is experiencing insecurity for three reasons.
First, he is defensive of his five foot, five inch height in one of his songs as he boasts of
his persona in standing figuratively taller than his competitors. Johnson argues that those
who suffer from various insecurities have difficulty accepting their own flaws. Second,
insecurity is reflective of an inability to enjoy silence and rest. Lil’ Wayne’s desire to fill
27
any void with no time for self-reflection was evident in his brief hiatus after completing
his successful 2002 album by immediately joining the mix-tape circuit performance.
Johnson suggests that the rapper’s workaholic spirit advanced his career, but was an overt
sign of his inability to enjoy being Dwayne Carter, not Lil’ Wayne. Finally, Johnson
argues that Lil’ Wayne’s humor and jesting indicates insecurity because an excessive
joker receives emotional reward when everyone laughs at his jokes. The use of humor in
rap lyrics is familiar to Zillman et al. (1995) who claim that rap is designed to titillate
audiences with the joke being on white audiences and rappers laughing all the way to the
bank. Furthermore, they suggest that rap is merely a beat to dance to and should not be
taken seriously.
Rap’s comedic flare is not unfamiliar to Keyes (2002) who lists many rap artists
from the 1980s whose posture and style are based on humor. The rap duo DJ Jazzy Jeff
and the Fresh Prince followed this comedic tradition with their rap song, “Parents Just
Don’t Understand”. Flavor Flav is known for his cartoonish appearance and the wearing
of a large clock as a necklace. According to Keyes, Flavor Flav parallels the trickster
figure that is common in black oral narratives. Although it is argued that rap is
pedestrian entertainment, other research indicates a more serious concern for its influence
on young audiences (Powell, 2006).
Johnson (2011) argues that the problems of urban culture can be directly traced
back to something that Lil’ Wayne has said in several songs. Johnson’s point is for
adults to be concerned with youth who are receiving Lil’ Wayne’s steady stream of
negative messages. He suggests that many young audiences who may be enamored with
28
Lil’ Wayne also live without any other kind of direction from an adult. Johnson predicts
the premature death of Lil’ Wayne due to his similarities with popular rap artists, Tupac
Shakur and Biggie Smalls. He argues that rappers like Lil’ Wayne, will plummet to their
death in moral depravity meanwhile, leading their fans to follow and do the same. There
is no evidence to suggest that Johnson’s ideas from a ministry position about fatalism are
accurate. His analysis does however effectively demonstrate the controversy that
surrounds rap. Johnson’s insight represents a part of the larger scale in rejection of hiphop culture and rap by mainstream society. This suggests that tensions exist between the
public domain and a smaller subculture. Johnson’s book is an example of a public
transcript because it represents the dominant social order whereas, Lil’ Wayne’s rap is a
hidden transcript.
Powell (2006) agrees with Johnson that rap is the enemy that comes against the
efforts of a network of providers who work with youth. Rap is a virus and a marketing
scheme, meant to deprive young people of their money and minds. According to Powell,
rap has made traditional education of African-American children extremely difficult. The
message in rap is to teach black males to kill one another and females to objectify their
own bodies. Others counter that rap can be used as a tool to promote greater insight and
self-awareness for many of life’s daily struggles. Elligan (2004) uses rap therapy to
challenge his inner-city clients to consider lifestyle choices that may lead to premature
death, such as rampant drug use. In his experience, many youth glorify the idea of living
a so-called “thug life” (p. 33) but rap therapy challenges and restructures these delusional
beliefs. In fact, many rap artists have worked hard to achieve success. He argues that rap
29
therapy educates youth about the perseverance and sacrifices that have contributed to the
successes of their favorite rap artists. Elligan dismisses Powell’s concern for the
hypocrisy found in materialistic rap by arguing that it exemplifies the brighter side of rap
as opposed to violence and is more compatible to mainstream America.
Watkins (2005) recognizes that hip-hop’s poetic presence and vivid imagination
can spark the creative minds of young people. Furthermore, rap is the vehicle that fights
against the difficulties that urban youth experience in a more formal classroom
environment. To Watkins, the current educational system leaves behind many black
students who suffer from low self-esteem. Asante (2008) encourages urban black youth,
to always take “two sets of notes” (p. 194) or seek outside knowledge as the current
educational system has made African-Americans and all non-whites, an ethnic footnote in
American and world history. Asante claims that the omissions made in academia
regarding the historical enslavement of African-Americans are affecting the way youth
view their ancestors and in turn, themselves. Asante encourages the post-hip-hop
generation to become active agents in their own education by searching for information
outside of the classroom environment.
According to Watkins (2005), the force that drives the hip-hop movement also
heightens the long-standing concern about who and what controls it. Furthermore, the
growing presence of the media and thrill-seeking consumers generates a severe public
anxiety about the meaning of rap. The controversy that surrounds rap is in its breech of
the public domain (Rose, 1994) and its capacity to influence youth (Forman, 2002). This
has occurred through the use of the Internet and digital underground- websites, chat
30
rooms, and Internet-based radio programs (Watkins, 2005). According to Forman
(2002), rap’s diversification has offered more options for marketing and promotion to a
wider range of consumers, although it appeals mostly to youth. The availability of rap,
along with its development as a more dynamic and political identity, has resulted in a
harsh scrutiny of the ways in which the hidden speeches and subliminal mores codes are
now influencing youth.
The Code of the Street
For Forman (2002), those who live within the attitudes and practices of hip-hop
have developed their own fashions, codes, mores, and systems of meaning. Chang
(2005) argues that rap is most profound when it centers on the strength of an artist’s street
knowledge. Rappers often claim to use the real language of the streets in order to
communicate with those who live there. However, Chang questions what it means to
keep rap real in terms of the street, and asks how the music can be preserved if it has
already changed with the flow of commercial exploitation. Watkins (2005) claims that
the bid for street credibility is part of the marketing strategy of hip-hop. He argues that
corporate entrepreneurs manage rap by generating the acclaim that surrounds hip-hop
fame. There is pressure in the hip-hop community to make all things street- street
culture, street philosophy, and street credibility.
Curtis Jackson’s (also known as 50 Cent) biography describes him as a petty drug
dealer, the death of his crack-addicted mother, his miraculous survival after being shot
nine times, all earned him the most important credential in hip-hop, street credibility
(Watkins, 2005). Meanwhile, the kinder and gentler thug-life persona of rap artist Ja
31
Rule has been criticized for not being street enough. On the other hand, Watkins (2005)
believes that popular rap artist Jay-Z has effectively balanced the demands of pop
celebrity and street credibility. Jay-Z has turned hip-hop into a mini-conglomerate
operation by parlaying his street-savvy ways, but this is not always a good thing. Chang
(2005) argues that rap artists, Jay-Z and Sean “P-Diddy” Combs became marketing
brands themselves by generating a lifestyle that is based on their own identities. For both
Jay-Z and “P-Diddy” Combs rejected what they had created by retiring or reinventing
themselves. Chang suggests the retired artists may have recognized that their excessive
brand messaging exhausted the possibilities of their art. Jay-Z has shown other artists
that rap no longer is just about street credibility or simply being the best rapper.
Rap masquerades as an art form when it is really about getting as much money for
the rap artists as is humanly possible. There is an ongoing tension between those who
view hip-hop as a source of profit and those who see it as a forum for street politics.
Rap emphasizes the everyday rhythms of inner-city life and is grounded in the ideology
of urban street culture. Rap artists affirm that their music is from the streets and
spectators must be from the streets in order to understand it (Keyes, 2002). Keyes
defines the street as a subculture of the urban environment that operates under its own
rules. She suggests that a major requisite for survival is learning how to communicate
effectively. The streets are an institution just as important as the church, school, and
family in African-American culture. Furthermore, the street is the primary reference for
inner-city African-Americans. Keyes further suggests that rap is rooted in street style.
32
She identifies five street personalities: the street man, hustler, pimp, working-class man,
and militant.
According to Anderson (1999), contemporary urban street culture for lower class
youth has evolved into a code, more, a set of informal rules that govern interpersonal
behavior. These rules have been established and accepted by the inner-city community.
Furthermore, everyone knows that if the rules that pertain to The Code are violated, there
will be consequences. Much like rap artists’ affirmation of their public identities (Rose,
1994), The Code revolves around self- representation and aggrandizement (Anderson,
1999).
Anderson claims that The Code dates back to Roman times and the early
American Old South. He suggests that The Code views the white man as an enigma
whose sole purpose is to oppress blacks and make them feel insignificant. Those who
live by this code cannot rely solely on the police or the formal judicial system to protect
them. He argues that inner-city residents view the police as representatives of the
dominant white society. The image of the Rodney King police brutality video, and
personal frequent reports of having called the police and receiving no response, only
heighten the mistrust that inner-city residents feel towards the police (Chang, 2005). This
sense of alienation and detachment from mainstream society manifests into a lost sense of
security and profound lack of faith in the police (Anderson, 1999). In its place, The Code
directs inner-city residents to take care of themselves.
Respect represents social capital and is the heart of The Code (Anderson, 1999).
Having respect means being treated “right” and being granted positive credit or “props”
33
(p. 33) that one demands. Anderson (1999) suggests that inner-city residents feel
defeated by forces beyond their control, believing they deserve respect, a vague and
problematic commodity. In street culture, respect is hard-won but easily lost, especially
among the young. Residents are constantly guarded and respect is interpersonally traded.
Identity and respect are crucial elements of The Code and are renegotiated through
profile, status, and reputation (Forman, 2002). Anderson suggests that individuals with
the most respect have security. They are not bothered in public and are less likely to face
physical danger. Thus, achieving and having respect is a means of survival for those who
live by The Code. Keyes (2002) suggests that rap conveys this often primitive, economic
reality.
The fundamental principle of The Code is respect. According to Anderson
(1999), one way to achieve respect is to command it with material possessions and body
language. A young man on the street must have expensive clothes in order to hang out
with certain crowds. Therefore, exhibiting material wealth increases levels of respect
through the presentation of self. Anderson suggests that physical appearance; including
clothes, jewelry, and grooming are important to those seeking respect. Those who are
unable to command respect must actively campaign for it.
One tactic towards respect acquisition is to take possession of the possessions of
others. Anderson (1999) suggests that ordinary objects may become trophies if they have
symbolic value such as one’s sense of honor, which can be seized through verbal insults.
He says that stealing material possessions such as a pistol or sneakers, fits into the pattern
for obtaining respect but taking someone else’s trophy such as their girlfriend, then
34
flaunting it, will also gain him/her respect for being the new owner of that thing. Raising
oneself by putting someone else down is the violent give and take of The Code. Having
the reputation for being willing and able to fight is another way to gain respect among
peers (Anderson, 1999).
According to Rose (1994), hip-hop remains a never-ending battle for status,
prestige, and group adoration. She says that fashion and style are a means of cultural
expression in hip-hop. Large, and usually fake, gold necklaces, diamond jewelry, and
imitation designer handbags mocks, yet affirms the gold fetish in Western trade (Rose,
1994). She argues that hip-hop is not authentic if it can be sold. Furthermore, hip-hop’s
focus on materialism and consumption has mischaracterized the movement into the
commodity market. Forman (2002) notes that material prosperity among rap artists
actually maintains a system of enslavement by the economic elite. According to Lusane
(1993) rap’s obsession with “getting paid” (p. 104) reinforces the desire for wealth and
all of its trappings (as cited in Forman, 2002).
Mass marketing strategies and advertising budgets plummeted until companies
such as Pepsi and Nike discovered that urban youth of color were a more brand-conscious
demographic (Chang, 2005). Keyes (2002) suggests that establishing a reputation
through a distinct style is valuable on the streets. According Gay (1987), hip-hop is
poetry in motion, which translates into the importance of rap artists having an original
style (as cited in Keyes, 2002). Rap artists carry to the stage, a street persona that implies
no matter how challenging a situation becomes, loss of cool is not cool. Keyes (2002)
argues that rhyme is a tool for demanding respect and this is often found in rap and
35
indicates the tension between two artists or a record industry that has wronged them.
According to Forman, in the mid-1990s, music magazine columns referred to the concern
among industry executives that rap was turning into an outlet for settling scores among
competitive rap artists and labels.
Scores are not always settled in a recording studio therefore violence is the second
rule of The Code. Morning is generally the safest time of day because after nightfall, the
possibility of violence increases (Anderson, 1999). Anderson says that as evening
approaches, the toughest, biggest, and boldest individuals prevail, under The Code. The
display of some predisposition to violence is a requirement of The Code. A subscriber
must be willing to demonstrate his/her fidelity to The Code by engaging in violence and
possibly even mayhem if the situation requires it. According to Elligan (2004), poor
communities are plagued by higher violence, crime, and mortality rates, which
contributes to a reduced life expectancy.
The reality of violence and crime that occurs in the inner-city is oftentimes
associated with the violent messages in rap. The fatal stabbing of a nineteen-year old
concertgoer at the Nassau Coliseum rap show on Long Island in 1987, prompted national
attention of rap concert-related violence (Keyes, 2002; Rose, 1994). Rose (1994) and
Keyes (2002) argue that the media continues to blame rap as being the catalyst for
general violent behavior ever since. The most explicit response to the media’s coverage
of rap-related violence has been the Stop the Violence movement which begun in 1988
that attempted to discourage black-on-black crime. This reform-oriented movement
failed because it accepted the false accusations of the media that stereotyped the violent
36
rap fan base, rather than address the real symptoms of race and economic inequality in
America.
According to Forman (2002), Tupac Shakur’s murder and the death of B.I.G.
further alarmed the music industry, implying that the violent themes in rap had deadly
results in reality. The public indiscretions of rap artists such as Sean Combs, who
allegedly assaulted a music executive with a champagne bottle, reaffirmed the view that
rap and the hip-hop lifestyle are sources for violent and antisocial behaviors (Forman,
2002). Rose (2008) disagrees that hip-hop glorifies, encourages and therefore, causes
violence. Rather, she argues that the correlation between consumption and action is
unsubstantiated.
Anderson (1999) asserts that the credible threat of vengeance is essential to The
Code. Therefore, retaliation is the third rule that holds perpetrators accountable by
promising an “eye for an eye” (p. 10) or payback for their transgressions. He says that
the Golden Rule is the law for those who live in socially isolated pockets of the innercity. Running away from the threat of violence is difficult in impoverished
neighborhoods. People often feel constrained to not only stand up for themselves or
resist an assault but also to seek revenge. Revenge may include use of a weapon or
getting relatives and friends involved. Furthermore, it is believed that the performance of
retaliation is directly related to the deterrence of future assaults.
Jacobs and Wright (2006) agree that criminals on the street cannot rely on formal
law to settle their disputes thus retaliation becomes a substitute for justice. They suggest
that retaliation derives from more than the simple search for security. Street actors are
37
judged by their ability to make things happen. This means that the most admired innercity residents are those who respond to an affront without regard for the consequences.
They suggest that offenders feel ‘mighty’ when catching and punishing those who have
wronged them.
Jacobs and Wright (2006) identify six typologies of criminal retaliation: reflexive,
calculated, deferred, sneaky, imperfect, and non-retaliation. Reflexive retaliation refers
to an immediate reaction to an assault or injury. Of all the forms of retaliation, this best
explains street justice. Reflexive retaliation is an outgrowth of the street culture that
emphasizes spontaneous action and instant gratification. Calculated retaliation involves
delayed retribution in order to cultivate the element of surprise. Deferred retaliation
results from not being able to immediately recognize that a grievance has occurred.
Deferred retaliation undergoes a period of incubation and often, the whereabouts of the
violators are unknown. According to Jacobs and Wright, ‘sneaky retaliation’ is an act of
revenge without having face-to-face contact in order to avoid detection. Imperfect
retaliation is known as vengeance from someone other than the person who wronged
them. Jacobs and Wright suggest that imperfect retaliation accomplishes one or more
goals of sending a message, loss recovery, and anger release. Finally, non-retaliation is
the conscious decision not to retaliate although street-oriented residents will be required
to justify their inaction and risk the loss of respect among peers.
The fourth rule of The Code, involves rampant drug use. The drug trade offers a
viable way for young people who live in inner-city communities to enhance their wealth.
Anderson (1999) suggests that drugs are organized around a code of conduct that has
38
accepted the recruitment of youth to work in the drug trade to make money. The caveat
is that it is not uncommon for the predator to become the prey in the drug trade. This
means that oftentimes, a drug dealer will become overwhelmed with the insatiable desire
to use the drug s/he is dealing. Anderson (1999) argues that the underground drug trade
is a result of race relations, unemployment, alienation, and dislocation from the
mainstream economy. In the inner-city drug dealing is recognized as work and the
addictive nature and rampant use of drugs are understood as a part of The Code.
The arrival of crack in the mid-1980s devastated many poor and working-class
communities (Watkins, 2005). The subsequent years of drug laws provided a fast track
of long-term prison sentences for the nation’s poorest urban communities. Asante (2008)
argues that the War on Drugs and mandatory minimum sentencing for possession of a
small amount of narcotics, was cruel and unusual punishment in violation of the 6th
Amendment. The disparity in federal sentencing laws; five grams of crack and five
hundred grams of powder both equating to five years in prison, is an example of the
social injustices that surround blacks (Bogazianos, 2012). According to Keyes (2002),
the crack cocaine problem paralleled the AIDS epidemic. She says that medical science
has connected the rise of AIDS with the rate of crack cocaine cases. According to
Cornish & O’Brien (1996), inner-city African-Americans have been exposed to the
environmental factors associated with poverty where crack cocaine is easily available (as
cited in Keyes, 2002).
Family by blood and families found on the streets are the fifth rule of The Code.
For the street-oriented, Anderson (1999) delineates that there is a distinct difference
39
between blood relatives and the family one finds on the streets. These families will often
compete for an individual’s loyalties and their commitments. Anderson suggests that the
code of the street dictates that blood is thicker than water. Furthermore, part of what
protects a person from danger is how many people and how quickly, he can depend on
them to watch his back. Many inner-city youth report not being afraid to go to jail
because they have family there. Rose (1994) argues that inner-city crews and posses are
types of families that are forged by intercultural bonds.
Much like the social formation of gangs, street families provide emotional and
physical support in a complex environment (Rose, 1994). Chang (2005) says gangs
provide shelter, comfort, and protection. He argues that gangs provide structure by
channeling energies, providing enemies, and warding off boredom by giving meaning to
the hours of the day.
According to Forman (2002), the posse is always explicitly acknowledged in rap.
Rap may describe the urban underground but it also communicates the value of the
people who help build the community within. Anderson (1999) identifies a place where
activities occur; either in front of people or in less conspicuous locations, as a “staging
area” (p. 22). Staging areas are where subscribers are given the opportunity to represent
themselves as they would like to be known in relation to one another. For example, a
school may be transformed into a staging area for youth who live in inner-city
neighborhoods. Furthermore, alleys and playgrounds are staging areas for where The
Code emerges. Anderson identifies these staging areas as places where fights usually
40
occur. He says they are hangout places for a wide mix of people who come together for
various reasons.
There are three types of staging areas. The first is local to the neighborhood, it
may be inside a house or apartment or outside on a street corner. The second is a
business strip that is alive with activity and draws people from other locales. Multiplex
theaters are the last type of staging area. Venues such as sporting events and concerts
where there is music, alcohol, and drugs attract code followers. According to Anderson
(1999), people come to staging areas to represent themselves as who they are and where
they are from. He argues that this is important because people are likely to assume that a
person who comes from a bad area is bad.
The sixth rule of The Code involves these staging areas. Forman (2002) suggests
that the ‘hood is an abbreviation of the word neighborhood. Furthermore, he says that the
‘hood is the home environment or territory that is geographically and socially particular
to a person’s social location. Space and place are reflected in rap through the naming of
actual streets and neighborhoods. The home territory of a rap artist or group is the
foundation for gaining a local reputation. According to Keyes (2002), rap artists proudly
salute their neighborhoods in their songs and rap video directors will look to film
backdrop locations that are endemic of the ‘hood.
The seventh principle of The Code involves the mating game. The problem of
teenage pregnancy in the inner-city is strongly affected by the lack of perceived options
for success. The sexual desires of young people follow the rules of a mating game that is
subsequently shaped by The Code. Anderson (1999) says that in the inner- city, young
41
boys are concerned with immediate gratification and want babies in order to establish the
perception that they can control a girl’s body and mind.
The mating game revolves around the efforts of a boy luring a girl with promises
of love and sometimes, marriage. When the girl submits, she often ends up pregnant.
While sexual urges are common in adolescence, inner-city youth do not see a future that
can be derailed by pregnancy hence they have very little to lose in having children out of
wedlock. Each sexual encounter in the mating game generally has a winner and a loser.
Girls have a dream and boys have a sexual desire. Furthermore, since boys know what
girls want, they can play that role to get sex and the act becomes an end in itself.
Anderson (1999) suggests that there is an ongoing contest going on for young men to
overcome a young woman’s sexual defenses. In pursuit of his game, a boy will often
feign love and concern by acting like a gentleman. Making dating plans and shopping
trips are elements of the mating game but are nothing more than a device to keep a girl
interested so that her sexual favors will continue.
The eighth and final rule of The Code involves hope. Most residents of poor
inner-city neighborhoods struggle financially and feel a certain amount of distance from
the rest of America (Anderson, 1999). However, not all of these families are streetoriented and follow The Code. Anderson (1999) says that there are some “decent
families” (p. 37) who can be identified as inner-city residents who maintain hope for the
future. Having hope means working hard, saving money for material things, and raising
a family. Those who reside in troubled areas often do not expect to live beyond the age
of twenty-five. Young men who live this existential life, feel hopeless and are not afraid
42
to die. Such true believers invoke the notion of fate, which can cause recklessness and
premature death. Even so, when a young person’s life is taken, there is a profound sense
of loss that is felt by the community. Anderson (1999) notes there is little hope for those
who are caught in the web of persistent urban poverty. Conversely, those who live in the
inner-city will generally get married out of love and this mind-set assumes a sense of
hope left for an economic future. The Code implies that inner-city residents both lose
and hold onto their hope for survival.
Theoretical Framework
The growing sense of nihilism in impoverished areas is the result of the economic
and political complexities that are beyond the control of its people (West, 1994). The
Code arises from persistent urban poverty and joblessness. The Code is an
institutionalized, oppositional culture that emerges as a reaction to the prejudices that
exist among the ruling class exemplified by police and judicial systems. Anderson
(1999) implies that many young people who embrace The Code have been raised in
socially disorganized home situations. Inner-city boys have limited or no personal
experience with a positive father figure and therefore, have very little on which to model
their own behavior. For these young men who are fortunate enough to come from intact
families, The Code dictates that they must still follow the rules of the street culture in
order to get along with their street-oriented peers. Therefore, prosocial children are
pressured to code-switch which Anderson (1999) characterizes as the ability to adopt one
set of behaviors on the inside but still appear to represent The Code on the outside.
43
Bandura’s social learning theory explains how imitation occurs through the
observation of models (Elligan, 2004). With decent family members absent and the
pressure to adapt to The Code, a young person’s model for behavior is limited (Powell,
2006). Johnson (2011) suggests there are thousands of youth who cling to the every word
of rap artists like Lil’ Wayne while imitating this gangster style. He is not alone in this
assessment of rap’s powerful hold over youth.
According to Powell (2006), many young people copy the behaviors of their
favorite rap artist. Elligan (2004) suggests that field theory explains the influence that
rap has on the socialization of urban youth. This implies that behavior is a function of the
person, as well as their environment. Elligan argues that rap is a stimulus modeled after
one’s surroundings, peers, and media images seen to reflect social narratives. Black
youth are highly conscious of their marginalized lives and alienation from mainstream
society (Rose, 1994). Thus, a street-oriented lifestyle develops as a subculture that
operates under its own rules (Keyes, 2002). The Code defines these rules such as the
economics of the drug trade and negotiations of respect among peers (Anderson, 1999).
The values and codes of a subculture are different from those in the general
culture (Einat & Herzog, 2010). The hip-hop culture is a subculture of mainstream
society. Equally, the inner-city is separate from the rest of the city, where the police are
trusted and called upon to enforce the laws. Rap artists are exulted as heroes because
they represent prosperity and success. To the average urban youth, rap is a symbol of
socioeconomic mobility. Rap artists express their prosperity by acquiring designer
fashion, expensive jewelry, and fast cars. Keyes (2002) argues that owning these
44
accessories signifies success. To rap fans however, the desire to acquire material
possessions may become an obsession that is not easily mollified.
The quest to achieve material success and wealth is explained by Merton’s (1957)
anomie strain theory. It suggests that individuals will experience strain or anomie if they
are unable to achieve culturally defined goals. There is intense pressure for streetoriented youth to emulate the financial success of rap artists despite their poverty-stricken
conditions. Strain theory explains an important component to The Code, such as material
possessions. Thus, anomie is heightened by the threat of violence if the appearance of
wealth and style are not successfully achieved.
Asante (2008) describes an encounter between his brother and another young man
at a street performance. He watches them lie to one another about their inflicted carnal
experiences and enemies they intended to assault. Asante observes them talking, neither
acknowledging that they are acting. Asante’s brother is a captive of image, whereby
society’s stereotypes function as a form of social control. He suggests that rap artists
experience the same imprisonment to conform to white consumerism. White teenage
boys are the primary consumers of rap music. They spend billions of dollars on images
and music produced by white corporations that reinforce these stereotypes (Asante,
2008).
A number of theories have emerged that suggest a governmental conspiracy to
eliminate African-Americans. Turner (1993) notes that such conspiracy theories are
grounded on rumors and legends about corporal control over black bodies (as cited in
Keyes, 2002). For example, some hip-hop advocates argue that AIDS and crack cocaine,
45
are governmental creations designed to eliminate African-Americans. Keyes (2002)
argues that these beliefs are more than just rumors. In examining rap narratives, there is a
real concern in the hip-hop community that AIDS was manufactured to be used as a
genocidal weapon.
Hip-hop first arrived in the 1970s and is associated with the desolate conditions of
the South Bronx in New York (Rose, 1994). During this time, inner-city residents were
all too familiar with feelings of alienation and abandonment from the dominant society
(Chang, 2005; Rose, 1994). These themes are still discussed today in terms of rap’s
racial tensions and the media’s scrutiny of its lyrical design (Rose, 1994). The discussion
on rap is between those who believe in keeping it mainstream or underground; or real
versus reel (Asante, 2008), and their transcripts being hidden or public (Rose, 1994) for
the purpose of political transmissions or profitable success. On the one hand, rap’s
crossover appeal (Forman, 2002) and its advertisement strategies that target a primarily
white audience have contributed to its enduring evolution (Keyes, 2002).
Chang (2005) argues that if rap had not found its way on the radio, it would not be
as popular a commodity in the entertainment business as it is today. However, the
success of rap has brought criticism of artists who became popular or dismissed their art
for a more profitable means in the advertisement business (Watkins, 2005). Hence, the
typical response that hip-hop and rap by association, is dead and needs to be revived by
the post hip-hop generation (Asante, 2008). Furthermore, rap and its artists face
accusations of hypocrisy and for negatively influencing youth (Powell, 2006). Then
46
again, it has also been looked at as an opportunity to communicate with young people
who associate with the hip-hop culture (Elligan, 2004).
This street culture exists only in urban inner-cities (Anderson, 1999). The laws
that apply to the dominant culture do not benefit inner-city communities. Thus, a series
of rules and norms have been adopted to take its place as a means of survival and sense of
belonging. The Code dictates the rules on respect, violence, retaliation, the drug trade,
blood relatives or street families, staging areas, the mating game, and hope. Rap is
closely related to these culturally sound theories that explain the existence of a street
culture. Themes of The Code can be found in rap lyrics.
47
Chapter 3
Methodology
Introduction
Rap is at the heart of hip-hop (Chang, 2005). Research recognizes that rap is
commercially appealing, politically powerful, and morally controversial. However, the
literature fails to address the uniformity of rap and whether or not all themes of The Code
are consistently found in rap lyrics. An exploratory research design addresses the
problem of limited information that has not yet been clearly defined. It seeks to answer
the question of whether or not The Code is found in rap lyrics. While previous research
may have determined that few elements of respect and violence are found in some rap
lyrics (Keyes, 2002; Rose, 1994), this research compares eight rules of the code of the
street to rap in order to assess the context of The Code.
It was discovered that a subculture exists in the inner-city that is detached from
the dominant society. The Code dictates the rules of the street regarding respect,
violence, retaliation, the drug trade, staging areas, families, the mating game, and hope
(Anderson, 1999). These rules are the categories that will be examined against rap lyrics.
Sellin’s (1938) culture conflict theory explains that separate cultures diverge from
the mainstream, establishing their own norms. When subgroups and the dominant culture
interact, conflict arises, as each is likely to be protective of their rules and codes. This
explains the general public’s resistance to rap and hip-hop’s desire to remain
underground. The mainstream wishes to protect its youth from rap’s influence while the
street culture demands that its message of poverty and oppression that continues to exist
48
in urban communities be heard and acknowledged. These two distinct cultures come
together through the media. Their conflict is clearly demonstrated in the literature
(Chang, 2005).
Methods Overview
Garfinkel’s (1967) ethnomethodology seeks to remedy the properties of complex
expression by examining the meaning of cultural differences in language and conduct.
Ethnomethodology is the study of the ways in which ordinary people construct a stable
social world through their words and actions. Rap requires an investigation of its
properties and practices of everyday life in the inner-city, hence the need for The Code.
According to Garfinkel, there are three characteristics of ethnomethodology: using
common sense situations of choice, following coding instructions, and common
understanding. This research will focus on producing a coding strategy, in order to
interpret the meaning of rap lyrics. The lyrics will be analyzed for content and the data
documented to create a codebook.
Basic content analysis uses a set of procedures to make inferences from text.
Qualitative content analysis best serves the purpose of this study, which is intended to
engage in some degree of interpretation from the text, then to arrive at a meaning from
the data collected (Schreier, 2012). Qualitative methodologies allow for original data
collection (McShane & Williams, 2008), freedom of research design, and developing a
coding strategy for lyrical interpretation in rap.
49
Setting and Population
Pandora is a popular Internet radio station that launched in the year 2000.
According to its website www.pandora.com, Pandora is based on what is called the
Music Genome Project. It uses musical information and distinct tonal characteristics to
find the identity of each song. These qualities are then categorized in order to understand
the musical preferences of Pandora listeners and to create a listener profile. Pandora
claims to use human analysts with a four-year college degree in music theory. The Music
Genome Project’s database uses defined terminology, redundant analysis, and quality
control to ensure the integrity and reliability of the data. Pandora’s music database is
constantly updated to include the latest music releases, emerging artists, and expansive
collection of catalog titles. It claims to offer a more personalized radio experience by
responding to an individual’s taste in music.
A search for the name of a favorite song, artist, or genre will scan Pandora’s
comprehensive collection of analyzed music for more songs that are similar to the
original search. However, not every song or artist is recorded in the library. The
personalization of the chosen radio station comes from the ability to like or dislike a
specific song. The thumbs down icon will skip the song and never play it again whereas
the thumbs up icon helps Pandora select future songs that are similar to the liked song.
There is a limit of six skipped songs per hour for every radio station, and up to twentyfour skips per day. According to Pandora’s website, this avoids having to pay royalties
on songs that are not being heard. Another feature of Pandora is allowing for a song to
be skipped when it has already been heard by clicking the “I’m tired of this track” button
50
in the menu. This allows the song that is being played to be filed away, but not in the
same way that choosing the thumbs down icon will personalize the track list.
When selecting “I’m tired of this track”, a pop up will appear that says “Ok, we’ll
put it on the shelf for a while”. The same rules apply to this feature, only six “I’m tired
of this track” selections are allowed per hour. When attempting to skip more songs, a
command will appear saying, “Sorry, our music licenses force us to limit the number of
tracks you may skip”. Other features of Pandora include the ability to change the
volume, pause, play, skip, view the lyrics on most songs, and read the discography
information of the artists when available. While a song is being played, it will show the
name of the artist, the song’s title, and the album from which it was selected. There is
also a scrolling feature that allows users to view prior songs heard from the station
playlist. By selecting the image of the album’s cover, the information will be displayed
but the song that is currently playing will not stop. In fact, these songs will not have the
option to be played again once they have already been heard or skipped. Much like any
other radio station, Pandora randomly selects the music to be played but produces
playlists based on the most popular songs that are requested.
Pandora was selected as the data source for this study because of guidance from
the literature on rap, which suggests that the Internet is a growing force in the world of
music (Watkins, 2005). According to Watkins (2005), a deep catalog of rap exists on the
Internet that goes beyond the influence of corporate-financed media outlets. Keyes
(2002) suggests that the Internet is an alternative avenue for advertising and distributing
rap in lieu of radio airplay. The debate that surrounds digital media however is that those
51
who do not come from affluent and well-educated households do not have access to the
Internet (Watkins, 2005). According to Watkins, the future of rap has always relied upon
evolving parallels to the advancements made in technology. Thus, he argues that the hiphop community is in fact, very techno-savvy.
According to Watkins (2005), rap distribution changed during the year 2001.
This is when the Internet took over because music consumer habits began to evolve, as
they no longer needed to go into a ‘brick and mortar’ record store to purchase an album.
Technology has made rap easier to perform and reach a broader audience (Elligan, 2004).
Conducting a content analysis for data collection proposed will best assess the message
of rap. Pandora meets the needs of this research by having the “most sophisticated
taxonomy of musical information ever collected” (www.pandora.com). Additionally,
Pandora’s availability on the Internet through the use of a computer and smart phone
device, indicates there may be more listeners and a greater correspondence to the hip-hop
community who are connected to these popular avenues of music and technology.
Sampling
A new Pandora account was created for the purposes of this research and not
accessed for any other reason during the collection of data. Program options to like or
dislike a song were also not manipulated while listening to music on this account. This
was to ensure that bias would not be introduced to the songs that Pandora randomly
selected and personal infliction that could affect the data was avoided. Pandora allows
for listening at no user cost but comes with frequent advertisements. A monthly
subscription was purchased for $3.99 to avoid these commercials and have continuous
52
play instead. The station from which the data (songs) were collected on Pandora is found
by using the program search box, typing “Rap”, then selecting “Rap Radio” under the
genre heading. Upon entering this command, the “Rap Radio” station will begin to play
rap music.
A type of probability systematic sampling strategy was used for the collection of
data over a period of one month. For one month, or thirty-one days, rap from the “Rap
Radio” station on Pandora was listened to twice a week on Wednesdays and Saturdays
for a total of four hours per day, and eight hours per week. Five weeks of listening for
forty total hours during the times of: 8:00am-9:00am, 11:00am-12:00pm, 5:00pm-6:00pm
and 11:00pm-12:00am per day, on ten separate occasions.
The total number of songs available on Pandora’s “Rap Radio” station is
unknown because the catalog of songs are frequently updated. Additionally, it is
unknown if Pandora plays different types of rap whether underground or mainstream
music, in the morning as opposed to the evening or if it differs on a weekday as opposed
to a weekend. Therefore, data collection in the morning, afternoon, evening, and late
night, time periods increase the likelihood that a representative scale of all rap typologies
would be selected. During each one-hour session, listening always began at the
beginning of a song but at times, ended in the middle even though the hour had already
passed. All songs that were still playing during this final hour were included as data. At
the end of the hour, Pandora was paused at the end of the song that was finishing.
Rap underwent a transition over the last ten years by reinventing itself to be more
mainstream (Watkins, 2005). MP3s and Internet radio stations became more popular and
53
a source for consumers to listen to music without having to go to the record store
(Elligan, 2004). The reason for not coding songs released prior to 2004 was to best
reflect the most recent trends in popular culture and the world of music. However, these
songs were still entered into Excel although not included in the analysis. They were not
skipped unless they had been heard before and were already coded.
All songs are documented by their title, name of artist, and year released onto an
Excel spreadsheet (see Appendix A/ Codebook and Data). The name of the song and
artist are available on Pandora however, in order to find the year that the album was
released, a web search using Amazon.com was performed for every song. Amazon.com
tracks dates for the MP3s and albums that are displayed on Pandora. The month and year
of release for the album was available on Amazon.com and the release year was entered
into the spreadsheet. In some cases, an image of the album was not available on Pandora
but the name was clear and easy to locate on Amazon.com.
Every hour was given a new countdown that was restarted upon each data
collection timeframe. The hours and days were added then songs released prior to 2004
were deleted from the final totals. Some hours or timeframes contain more songs coded
than others. This is due to a variety of reasons. First, some songs are longer or shorter in
length than others. Second, some songs were repeated, which meant the “I’m tired of this
track” option had to be used. This skips the song and brings up the next one. Third, if
six skips had already been used within the hour, the songs could not be skipped and had
to be heard but were not coded into the data set. In order to ensure that there would not
be duplicate songs on the spreadsheet, the “find” feature on the Excel document was used
54
for every song title. Pandora’s “I’m tired of this track” option was used if it was
discovered that a song title had already been entered into Excel. The time it took to
discover repeats was also taken into account for the differing songs collected within the
hour.
Content Analysis
Once the information: title, artist, and year, was entered while the songs were
playing, a content analysis was performed. There was never an issue with failing to
collect this information in time because Pandora displayed all songs that were played
within the hour. This meant that information about the song is always available and
could be retrieved if it was missed during play. The independent variable is The Code,
while the dependent variable are the rap lyrics. The research interest is in knowing if The
Code affects rap.
Every song will be analyzed for the eight themes that Anderson (1999) suggests
pertain to The Code: respect, violence, retaliation, the drug trade, blood and street
families, staging areas, the mating game, and hope. The chorus or what is referred to in
rap as ‘the hook’ is the primary measure for detecting themes. Oftentimes, the hook is
repeated a number of times throughout the song and is considered to be the most
prominent indication of meaning. Whichever theme is represented in the hook, will be
the deciding factor for cases in which rap lyrics have multiple themes. Still, all lyrics will
be read to interpret meaning while the song is playing using Pandora’s lyrics feature.
When the lyrics are not available on Pandora, the website rapgenius.com will be accessed
to search lyrics by song title. In those few cases where lyrics are not available on either
55
Pandora or rapgenius.com, and the lyrics could not be readily understood, that song will
be excluded from the data set. Being unable to easily find lyrics indicates that Pandora
has to access rap that is aired less frequently with more skips and is less popular.
According to Anderson (1999), one of the first rules of the code of the street is to
obtain respect by either commanding or campaigning for it. He says that commanding
respect is accomplished through appearance: having expensive clothing, jewelry and
other material possessions. If one cannot command respect, they must campaign for it by
stealing the possessions or trophies of others. Rap that highlights money, cars, and
clothes are songs about respect. Furthermore, songs that boast of the artist’s celebrity
reputation, as being the best rapper alive for example, are also considered ways to
command or campaign for respect. This signifies the importance of self-presentation in
order to be respected in the street culture.
Having a certain predisposition to violence is also a part of the code of the street.
This involves sending an unmistakable message that the subscriber of The Code is
capable of violence if the situation requires it. Rap that discusses the use of a gun or
weapon to inflict serious injuries or death upon someone are songs about violence. Songs
that detail the ways in which a rap artist plans to kill his or her enemy, such as by
breaking their jaw, are considered violent songs.
Another component of The Code involves retaliation, which means holding
perpetrators accountable for their transgressions by performing acts of revenge
(Anderson, 1999). Songs that indicate the artist intends to seek payback for a
wrongdoing are songs about retaliation. Dealing drugs and its rampant use among inner
56
city residents are a noted part of The Code. It is common for dealers to become addicted
to the drug they are trying to sell. This is why rampant drug use has been assigned as an
all-inclusive theme that entails both dealing and using. Thus, rap that talks about drugs,
either using or selling, are songs about rampant drug use.
Blood relatives or family, and street families or gangs are often times found in
rap. These families are depended upon for protection in the inner-city. Rap that
recognizes or addresses family members associated by street or blood, or represents a
specific gang affiliation, are songs about family and gangs.
Staging areas are the locales found in The Code where subscribers are given the
opportunity to represent themselves as they would like to be seen by others (Anderson,
1999). Rap that recognizes or shouts out to the artist’s geographic space using specific
street names, places, or locations are songs about staging areas.
The mating game entails the efforts made by a boy to lure a girl into bed with
promises to love and take care of her. Making plans with a girl and enticing her with
shopping trips are tactics used in the mating game. Rap that is intended to charm and
persuade a girl with material possessions and promises of love and marriage are songs
about the mating game. Finally, hope is often lost for those who live in the inner-city due
to their life expectancy while living on the streets. It is also what keeps decent families
from a life of crime and dishonesty. Therefore, both having and losing hope is a part of
The Code. Rap that talks about the premature death of a loved one or having hope for
change in the future are songs about hope.
57
Forman (2002) suggests that DJs and MCs originally performed live shows in
order to maintain a party atmosphere. Keyes (2002) argues that times demand that rap
artists no longer pursue party-oriented lyrics. The hip-hop community has become more
aware of its critical relevance and the necessity of unifying their perspective with the
influence of rap. Furthermore, technology has reduced the importance of live shows and
artists pay less attention to the underground party scene and more towards encroaching
the mainstream music market that will provide them a profit (Chang, 2005). Thus, rap
that discusses being at a party or encouraging people to party are songs about partying
and are not associated with The Code.
Some rap describes a problem with an interpersonal relationship, either a breakup
or having been cheated on. Anderson (1999) does not discuss relationship problems as
being of importance to the inner-city community. Therefore, these songs were
categorized as relationship problems and not a part of The Code. Finally, female
dismemberment is a term that Rose (1994) uses to discuss one of the inflammatory
aspects of rap. She suggests that rap’s sexually explicit lyrics contribute to the moral
panic of society. For the purposes of this study, the term female dismemberment is used
to describe a theme in rap that exploits womanly bodies or body parts. It literally means
the detachment of a female body part; her breasts or buttocks, was the main focus of the
song. Female dismemberment is not related to The Code.
Coding
In order to interpret every song as either belonging to The Code or not, a coding
frame will be used. When coding, Schreier (2012) recommends first distinguishing
58
between relevant and irrelevant parts of the research material. Irrelevant data will not
have a bearing on the research question. Therefore, the numeric order, song title, and
artist’s name will be considered irrelevant because these categories are not important to
the research question. The year and theme however, are considered to be relevant for
songs released prior to 2004, which will not be used.
According to Schreier (2012), after the material has been selected, the next step is
deciding the structure of the coding frame. She suggests that there are three ways to do
this: in a concept-driven way, in a data-driven way, and by combining the two strategies.
A concept-driven, deductive strategy will be used by assessing what is already known
about The Code.
One way to work with conceptual knowledge is to make use of the research
conducted by others. Schreier suggests that the procedure for coding is to first look at the
main categories and subcategories in the coding frame and determine which categories fit
into the material; then to add any other important aspects that are not covered by the
original coding frame (as cited in Boyatzis, 1998).
Schreier (2012) suggests that the next step in deciding on what the coding frame
will look like is to define what is meant by the categories and subcategories. Category
definitions are the rules for assigning data segments. Defining the rules used for coding
is a crucial step in qualitative content analysis so that both the coder and reader know
what is meant by the category names. A category has four parts: a name, a description of
what is meant by the name, examples, and decision rules. The twelve category names
are: respect, violence, retaliation, rampant drug use, staging areas, families, the mating
59
game, hope, dance, partying, relationship problem, and female dismemberment. These
are convenient labels for referencing to the category and are not overly long descriptions
or definitions. Their meaning has already been described earlier to provide the indicators
or points of references for the features of each category of The Code.
Providing typical examples that illustrate the category is also important.
However, when dealing with concept-driven categories, suitable examples may not be
available. In this case, Schreier (2012) argues that it is legitimate to come up with
hypothetical examples. Some hypothetical examples were used in the content analysis
section such as if the hook of a rap song discusses the intent to break someone’s jaw then,
the song would be categorized under violence. Another example is if the lyrics focus
exclusively on a woman’s buttocks in a sexually explicit manner, then this song is
categorized as female dismemberment.
Finally, Schreier (2012) suggests including decision rules for coding frames that
relate to the same main category, this will prevent uncertainty for definitions that overlap.
Decision rules will instruct the coders which of the two overlapping categories to use.
The first rule for content analysis and determining categories is that the chorus of the
song takes precedence over all other lyrics. This means that whatever was said in the
intro, outro, or verse is not as important as the message in the hook. For example, if a
song begins with a man telling a woman how much he loves and respects her then, it is
assumed to be about the mating game. However, if the hook, the most repeated and
remembered part of the song, discusses how he is hurt because she broke up with him,
then the song is categorized as relationship problems.
60
The possible overlapping categories are: violence and retaliation, partying and
dance, and relationship problems with the mating game and female dismemberment. In
order to prevent uncertainty, the rules for each are specified as what not to include in
these categories. Violence and retaliation are mutually exclusive of one another.
Violence does not entail rap lyrics that discuss a prior transgression performed and the
intent to inflict payback. Retaliation may involve violence but it is only considered to be
retaliation if a specific harm has been inflicted that requires revenge and is talked about
as such in the song.
Rap lyrics that use the term partying or suggest the artist is at a party where there
may be dancing is to be categorized as partying and not dance. In this case, dancing is
secondary to the party that the rap artist is at or referring to. Meanwhile, rap lyrics that
give instructions for a dance move or tell someone to get up and dance are songs about
dancing. Not to be confused with the dancing that occurs in a strip club in which a rap
artist talks about throwing money at a woman to see her dance naked. This would instead
be categorized as female dismemberment because the woman is being asked to expose
her body for cash. Furthermore, the rules for female dismemberment, the mating game
and relationship problems are outlined. Female dismemberment does include rap songs
about charming or persuading a woman to bed. It may involve sex but not in an
affectionate or loving way. Female dismemberment is used for songs that degrade
women whereas the mating game may also be humiliating but is considered less so.
Relationship problems do not involve either charming or degrading a woman. This
category is reserved for songs about a man and a woman having a history and conflict in
61
their relationship. Possibly violent conflict and maybe even cheating that would require
retaliation but these songs are ultimately categorized as relationship problems because
that is the main issue.
The units of analysis are the songs being listened to. Schreier (2012) suggests
that the final step to the coding frame is selecting the units of coding. Categories or
themes that represent The Code will be coded as “yes” and assigned “1”. Categories or
themes that do not represent The Code will be coded as “no” and assigned “0”. Finally,
categories or themes that are missing information because the rap songs were released
prior to the year 2004, will be assigned “N/A” to signify the information was not
applicable to the research question.
62
Chapter 4
Analysis
According to Kraska and Neuman (2012), reliability in qualitative research means
having dependability or consistency. However, replication is very rare for a coding
process such as content analysis that changes over time. They suggest that qualitative
research accepts that sometimes different researchers, or in this case, coders, using
alternative measures will get different results. Nonetheless, Kraska and Neuman also
acknowledge the desire for the major findings of the research to provide similar
conclusions. Therefore, in order to achieve consistency at the highest possible level, an
inter-coder reliability method was used. This was accomplished by reading the rules to
the second coder with examples and decision-making instructions for overlapping
themes. The 12 themes were written down as a visual reference. The sample selection
process yielded a dataset of 568 songs (n= 568). Of these 568 songs, a systematic
random sample of every 50th song was selected for analysis. The lyrics from these songs
were printed out and read from rapgenius.com for the second coder. The first coder had
already read and listened to the same lyrics. If the lyrics were not available or the song
was released prior to 2004 and could not be accessed, the next song on the list was used.
This resulted in 11 song lyrics assessed by the second coder. He was then asked which
theme best fit each song. In ten instances, the second coder chose the same theme that
the first coder had already selected for that song therefore, suggesting reliability.
The percentage of agreement was calculated as: the number of units of coding on
which the coder agrees, divided by the total number of units of coding, multiplied by 100
63
(Schreier, 2012). The coefficient of agreement over 12 categories was 91%. The
percentage of agreement is more impressive given the higher number of categories
available from which to choose. According to Schreier (2012), the reason for
disagreement among coders must be considered when testing for reliability. She suggests
that the coding frame be revised if the coder reported uncertainty in selecting which code
to assign. However, she also recommends that if the coder is fatigued or differed in
interpretation of the material, the coding frame would not need to be revised. It is
believed that the second coder did not choose the same theme due to a misinterpretation
of the song’s lyrics. The second coder believed that the song’s reference to killing had
implied violence. A closer look at the lyrics however, reveals that the rap artist was
suggesting metaphorically killing his artistic competition. Therefore, the appropriate
theme for this song was respect, not violence. The second coder did not report being
conflicted when selecting categories. This happened in only one case.
The coding frame that was used can be consistently applied but it is equally
important to determine the validity of the research. Kraska and Neuman (2012) note that
validity in qualitative research means truthfulness. The essence of validity is the accurate
interpretation of meaning. They suggest that accuracy of the research adheres to the core
principle of being truthful and avoiding false accounts. The phrases of categories for the
themes in rap were clear and direct with concrete indicators and examples provided with
definitions. Furthermore, the categories remained consistent throughout the study and
their meaning never changed.
64
According to Babbie (2007), construct validity is based on the logical relationship
among variables. The research on rap and The Code relies upon construct validity. It
successfully developed a theoretical expectation for the relationship between two
variables. The method of research has true validity as rap reports consistency to The
Code.
Limitations
There are limitations to performing a sampling strategy for an unknown
population size that changes overtime. However, the method of data collection provides
a substantial representation of Pandora’s music taxonomy. This does not necessarily
mean that the songs on Pandora are a true representation of rap. Pandora only plays the
music it chooses and the catalog is restricted to the Internet radio station’s specific
guidelines. The songs that are available for play on Pandora underwent a process of face
validity analysis in order to decide to which category each song belonged. There are
many potential problems with Pandora’s music selection process including the
elimination of songs that do not belong to its tonal characteristic categories.
Furthermore, songs to be played on Pandora must be presented to the Internet radio
station in order to be reviewed and played. This means that a song will not make it on
Pandora unless it has a music entity or label to support the use of the song. However,
while these concerns may be perceived as shortcomings, they do not represent a
deficiency.
At first, the songs appeared to be played at random, but over time, and as the
researcher became more aware and sophisticated, it was acknowledged that the beat and
65
style of the music changed, and the lyrics were more difficult to categorize using the
researcher’s resources. This suggests the possibility of having accessed a less
mainstream rap catalog but this is difficult to prove and will be addressed later.
Furthermore, the music’s discography and lyrics became less obvious using Pandora but
this pattern was never originally documented as part of the coding frame. A restriction in
interpreting rap lyrics using qualitative content analysis is in not being able to represent
the beat and feeling of a song. Another limitation of the research is that only two of the
seven days in a week were targeted for the purpose of content analysis. The potential for
gathering different songs on other days was lost upon the data that were collected on
Wednesdays and Saturdays only.
The literature review significantly influenced the research question but some of
the information has been published earlier. Rose (2008) argues that the vision of hip-hop
in the early 1990s no longer dominates the airwaves or is as popular today. Furthermore,
the research does not include songs that were released prior to 2004 because of
suggestions about the significance of the Internet, however, the use of Anderson’s code to
interpret the meaning of these songs is still valuable. There is no evidence to suggest that
the changes in popular culture greatly affects The Code.
According to Keyes (2002), most social scientists would agree that the identity of
the researcher affects the outcome of the fieldwork experience. The researcher can
assume the role of an outsider or insider by investigating a group of people from a
different or similar cultural background. Keyes (2002) argues that having an insider
perspective is the most often preferred method by social scientists. Whether an insider or
66
outsider, there are a variety of personal, social, and political constraints (Keyes, as cited
in Burnim, 1985). The research will not use the same fieldwork that is referred to
however, a review of the literature on African-American history and the attempt to
interpret rap lyrics using The Code, would qualify the researcher as an outsider.
Not all songs on Pandora’s “Rap Radio” station were songs about The Code.
Four themes were discovered in rap lyrics during content analysis as: dance, partying,
relationship problems, and female dismemberment. These themes were not considered to
be associated with Anderson’s (1999) code and are assigned “0”. According to Holman
(1984), rap was initially associated with dance music but it no longer holds the same
appeal for the evolving hip-hop culture as it did for club goers (as cited in Forman, 2002).
Rap about a specific dance move or dancing in a club were categorized as having a dance
theme and not a part of The Code
Descriptively, Table 1 shows the coding assignment of the 568 songs sampled
beginning randomly on Wednesday, November 13th, 2013 and ending on Saturday,
December 14th, 2013 during the prescribed sampling frame. Of these, 18 were coded as
“N/A”, 108 as “0” and 442 as “1”. This means that 18 were not included in the analysis
as they had release dates prior to 2004. Of the 550 songs that were analyzed with a
release date on or after 2004, 19.6% (n=108) were coded “0” meaning they did not
belong to The Code and 80.4% (n=442) were coded “1” meaning they did reflect The
Code. Tables 2 and 3 separate codes “1” and “0” by theme and calculates the total for
each category.
67
Table 1
Total number of songs and codes by date
Date
Total # of Songs
Code “N/A”
11.13.13
58
4
11.16.13
52
4
11.20.13
57
4
11.23.13
56
0
11.27.13
57
2
11.30.13
58
0
12.4.13
57
2
12.7.13
59
1
12.11.13
57
0
12.14.13
57
1
Total
568
18
550
Code “0” No
16
11
6
12
12
13
10
10
11
7
108
108/550
Code “1” Yes
38
37
47
44
43
45
45
48
46
49
442
442/550
Table 2
Total number of themes coded as “1” by date
Date Respect Violence Retaliation
2013
11.13
11.16
11.20
11.23
11.27
11.30
12.4
12.7
12.11
12.14
Total
18
17
20
26
22
19
19
27
22
28
218
4
1
4
4
4
4
3
3
2
4
33
2
2
1
0
2
1
1
3
2
1
15
Family
&
Gangs
1
4
3
0
5
1
1
0
2
2
19
Rampant
Drug Use
Staging
Area
Mating
Game
Hope
3
2
4
3
2
5
7
9
7
4
46
4
3
2
3
1
2
6
1
2
2
26
2
4
3
4
4
9
6
2
5
5
44
4
4
10
4
3
4
2
3
4
3
41
68
Table 3
Total number of themes coded as “0” by date
Date
Dance
Partying
11.13.13
11.16.13
11.20.13
11.23.13
11.27.13
11.30.13
12.4.13
12.7.13
12.11.13
12.14.13
Total
2
4
1
2
3
2
2
2
0
0
18
8
2
1
4
2
4
4
1
3
4
33
Relationship
Problems
2
4
1
1
0
3
0
1
2
1
15
Female
Dismemberment
4
1
3
5
7
4
4
6
6
2
42
Table 2 indicates that for the songs reporting as “1” or yes The Code is present,
respect was the most often reported theme with 218 out of 442 or 49.3% total followed
by rampant drug use, mating game, hope, violence, staging area, family and gangs, and
retaliation. Table 3 shows that female dismemberment was the highest theme coded as
“0” or no the code is not present, followed by themes about partying, dance and
relationship problems. When Tables 2 and 3 are combined, respect is still the most
frequently coded theme followed by rampant drug use and the mating game. Female
dismemberment is fourth overall, coded as “0”, with rap themes about hope following
closely behind. Partying and violence have an equal number of reports. Staging area,
family and gangs, dance, relationship problems, and retaliation are less frequent with
totals under 30. Figure 1 shows all 12 themes combined in relation to one another
excluding songs coded as “N/A”.
69
250
Number of Songs
200
150
Code "0"
100
Code "1"
50
0
Themes
Figure 1. Themes by code and number of songs.
As seen in Figure 1, all categories of rap reached a number below 50 reports other
than respect. In fact, respect can be seen as having more than quadrupled the reports of
rampant drug use, the second highest theme. Table 1 shows that there were more songs
coded as “1”, Table 2 demonstrates the amount of songs coded as “1” or yes within each
theme and Table 3 indicates there were less songs coded as “0” or no. Figure 1 shows the
significance of respect as the primary theme in rap lyrics. Furthermore, it suggests that
the number of songs coded as “0” were similar to the number of songs coded as “1” when
the category of respect is excluded.
It is unknown whether or not these data offer different types of rap, either
mainstream or underground, on the weekday, weekend, or at different times of the day.
No matter, all songs were categorized as rap, as defined by the data source. Table 4
shows the data collected on Wednesdays in comparison to Saturdays and Table 5
70
analyzes the morning, afternoon, evening, and late night patterns for each theme. Table 4
indicates there were no noticeable changes in the rap that Pandora played on a weekday
as opposed to a weekend. Of the 550 songs given a theme and belonging to either code
“1” or “0”, 49.82% (n=274) were found on five Wednesdays and 50.18% (n=276) on five
Saturdays. Although some themes such as relationship problems and family and gangs
varied, the overall experience is an even representation of rap played during the week.
Table 5 indicates the same, with a range of 143 to 133 total songs in all themes and no
noticeable variations during the day.
Table 4
Data comparison for each theme on Wednesdays and Saturdays
Theme
Wednesdays
Saturdays
Respect
101
117
Violence
17
16
Retaliation
8
7
Family & Gangs
12
7
Rampant Drug Use
23
23
Staging Area
15
11
Mating Game
20
24
Hope
23
18
Dance
8
10
Partying
18
15
Relationship Problems
5
10
Female Dismemberment
24
18
Total
274
276
71
Table 5
Data comparison for each theme during the day
Theme
Morning Afternoon
Respect
54
50
Violence
4
9
Retaliation
1
2
Family & Gangs
8
2
Rampant Drug Use
9
14
Staging Area
10
9
Evening
54
11
7
5
9
5
Late Night
60
9
5
4
14
2
Mating Game
14
9
9
12
Hope
7
14
11
9
Dance
Partying
7
15
3
9
5
2
3
7
Relationship Problems
4
1
5
5
Female Dismemberment
Total
10
143
14
136
10
133
8
138
The last concern of the analysis involves the noticeable change in the style and
beat of rap towards the last days of the listening period. This shift indicates an entry into
the underground rap market because the mainstream songs were being told; “I’m tired of
this track”, meaning they had already been heard. Figures 2 through 6 explore the
possibility that this shift can be traced without having originally documented the change
when it was observed. The data suggest that the music did in fact change as suspected.
72
30
Number of Songs
25
Respect
20
Violence
15
Retaliation
10
Family & Gangs
Rampant Drug Use
5
Staging Area
0
Mating Game
Hope
Date of Listening
Figure 2. Pattern of song categories coded as “1” over time.
9
8
Number of Songs
7
6
5
Dance
4
Partying
3
Relationship Problems
2
Female Dismemberment
1
0
Date of Listening
Figure 3. Pattern of song categories coded as “0” over time.
73
30
Number of Songs
Respect
25
Violence
Retaliation
20
Family & Gangs
15
Rampant Drug Use
10
Staging Area
5
Mating Game
Hope
0
0
2
4
6
Number of Days
8
10
Figure 4. Linear trend line for code “1” over time.
10
9
Violence
Number of Songs
8
Retaliation
7
6
Family & Gangs
5
4
Rampant Drug Use
3
Staging Area
2
Mating Game
1
Hope
0
0
2
4
6
Number of Days
8
10
Figure 5. A closer look of the linear trend for code “1” without respect.
In Figures 4 and 5, the categories of songs in respect, rampant drug use and the
mating game increased while retaliation and violence remained constant. Hope exhibited
a significant decline as well as family and gangs, also trended downward. Figure 6
below, indicates that all categories that were not representative of The Code, had
74
decreased in frequency over time except for female dismemberment which reports an
upward trend
9
8
7
Number of Songs
6
5
Dance
4
Partying
3
Relationship Problems
2
Female Dismemberment
1
0
0
2
4
6
Number of Days
Figure 6. Linear trend line for code “0” over time.
8
10
75
Chapter 5
Conclusion
Rap can be confusing to mainstream listeners but it is the usual vernacular in the
inner-city. The controversy in rap is related to the conflict that arises when subgroups
interact with the dominant culture; both are protective of their rules and codes. The Code
dictates the rules of the inner-city that can be defined by twelve distinct categories.
These rules, as well as other themes that can be found in rap, were analyzed in many
songs on an Internet radio station. According to Anderson (1999), respect is the heart of
The Code.
In this exploratory research, respect was found to be the heart of assessed rap
music. Most rap lyrics contained a street code element that is frequently found in the
category of respect and increased in the underground market. The analysis supports this
theory. The twelve concepts defined in the methodology section as being areas of
interest developed its focus on the core category of respect. The theory suggests a rate of
reoccurrence in respect and rap that is supported by the data. Furthermore, the theory
relies significantly on Anderson’s (1999) understanding of The Code as well as what is
said about culture conflict theory (Sellin, 1938) that explains why The Code exists in the
first place.
The implications for the research suggest a pattern of themes and language in rap
that is understood by all audiences. The concern in the literature has been for youth who
frequently listen to rap and are influenced by its messages. However, the rate of songs
(nearly half) that are categorized as elements of respect, having influence on youth, to
76
pursue respect by either commanding or campaigning for it, is not a recommendation for
future research. Rather, rap’s meaning is representative of The Code. This means that
the messages conveyed in rap are the hidden transcripts of the inner-city by 80.4%.
Inner-city residents are already practicing The Code therefore rap artists will convey this
in their lyrics. Rap having any kind of influence on audiences that are not subscribers of
The Code is not verified.
Future research should examine the twelve categories of The Code more closely.
When coding for categories under respect, future research may wish to separate respect as
either being commanded or campaigned for. This research only identified rap that
referenced respect but a continuation of this qualitative design could include more
categories. For example, if a rap artist references money, cars and clothes, but having to
steal it, the song would be categorized as respect by campaigning for it. This is different
from an artist suggesting they already have these things and command others to take
notice. The different types of retaliation were discussed and could be broken down as
more categories of The Code. Further, the relay of hope that is lost versus hope that
remains in a song would be an interesting distinction to make for future research on rap
lyrics.
77
Appendix A
Codebook and Data
Wednesday, 11.13.13 Morning 8:00am-9:00am
#
Song Title
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Party Like a Rockstar
Dance (A$$)
Berzerk
Look at Me Now
Bitches Loves Me
Heartless
No Sleep
Tipsy
Rich As Fuck
HYFR (Hell Ya Fucking Right)
Till I Collapse
Snap Yo Fingers (Street)
No Hands
Young, Wild & Free
Kush
Drop It Like It's Hot
16
Artist
Year
Theme
Code
Shop Boyz
Big Sean
Eminem
Chris Brown
Lil Wayne
Kayne West
Wiz Khalifa
J-Kwon
Lil Wayne
Drake
Eminem
Lil Jon
Waka Flocka Flame
Wiz Khalifa feat. Snoop Dogg
Dr. Dre
Snoop Dogg
2007
2011
2013
2011
2013
2008
2011
2004
2013
2011
2002
2006
2010
2011
2010
2004
15
Partying
Female Dismemberment
Partying
Respect
Family & Gangs
Relationship Problems
Partying
Partying
Respect
Respect
N/A
Dance
Dance
Partying
Rampant Drug Use
Respect
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
1
N/A
0
0
0
1
1
6
Artist
Eminem
Wiz Khalifa
Eminem
2 Chainz
Lil Wayne
Drake
T.I.
Wiz Khalifa
Year
2010
2011
1999
2012
2008
2010
2010
2008
Theme
Hope
Respect
N/A
Violence
Respect
Hope
Staging Area
Partying
Code
1
1
N/A
1
1
1
1
0
Wednesday, 11.13.13 Afternoon 11:00am-12:00pm
Song Title
Not Afraid
Black and Yellow
My Name Is
No Lie
Got Money
Over
That's All She Wrote
Say Yeah
78
#
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
So Good
Superman
Lollipop
Muthafucka Up
Gotta Have It
Forgot About Dre
Candy Shop
15
B.o.B
Eminem
Lil Wayne
Tyga
Kayne West & Jay-Z
Dr. Dre
50 Cent
2012
2002
2008
2012
2011
2001
2005
12
Mating Game
N/A
Female Dismemberment
Violence
Staging Area
N/A
Female Dismemberment
1
N/A
0
1
1
N/A
0
9
Wednesday, 11.13.13 Evening 5:00pm-6:00pm
#
Song Title
Artist
32
MegaMan
Lil Wayne
33
Work Hard, Play Hard
Wiz Khalifa
34
Faded
Tyga
35
Started From The Bottom
Drake
36
Niggas In Paris
Kayne West & Jay-Z
37
Mercy
Kayne West, Big Sean, Pusha T & 2 Chainz
38
Forever
Drake
39
6 Foot 7 Foot
Lil Wayne
40
Strange Clouds
B.o.B
41
Right Above It
Lil Wayne
42
When I'm Gone
Eminem
43
It's Goin' Down
Yung Joc
44
Live Your Life
T.I.
13
Year
2011
2012
2012
2013
2011
2012
2009
2011
2012
2010
2005
2006
2008
13
Theme
Violence
Respect
Female Dismemberment
Respect
Respect
Retaliation
Respect
Respect
Partying
Respect
Hope
Staging Area
Hope
Code
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
11
Wednesday, 11.13.13 Late Night 11:00pm-12:00am
#
Song Title
45
Bugatti
46
So Far…
Year
2013
2013
Theme
Respect
Staging Area
Code
1
1
Artist
Ace Hood
Eminem
79
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
Totals
A Milli
Bad Guy
Fuckin' Problems
Swimming Pools (Drank)
Ooh Kilem
Pursuit of Happiness
Watch My Shoes
Run This Town
I Don't Really Care
All I Do Is Win
Shots
Yeah!
14
58
2008
2013
2013
2012
2013
2012
2009
2009
2012
2010
2010
2006
14
54
Respect
Retaliation
Relationship Problems
Rampant Drug Use
Violence
Rampant Drug Use
Respect
Respect
Respect
Respect
Partying
Mating Game
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
12
38/54
Artist
Drake
Wiz Khalifa
Trey Songz
Baby Bash
Chris Brown
Jamie Foxx
French Montana
Machine Gun Kelly
DJ Khaled
Kayne West, Jay-Z & Big Sean
B.o.B.
Drake
Driicky Graham
Year
2010
2011
2010
2007
2011
2010
2013
2012
2011
2012
2013
2011
2012
Theme
Family & Gangs
Mating Game
Partying
Dance
Relationship Problems
Respect
Respect
Staging Area
Respect
Family & Gangs
Partying
Respect
Respect
Code
1
1
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
80
Saturday, 11.16.13 Morning 8:00am-9:00am
#
Song Title
1
Up All Night
2
Roll Up
3
Bottoms Up
4
Cyclone
5
Deuces
6
Winner
7
Aint Worried About Nothin
8
Lace Up
9
Lace Up
10
Clique
11
We Still In This Bitch
12
The Motto
13
Snapbacks & Tattoos
Lil Wayne
Eminem
ASAP Rocky
Kendrick Lamar
Meek Mill
Kid Cudi
Lil Wayne
Jay-Z
Waka Flocka Flame
DJ Khaled
Lil Jon
Usher
13
Saturday, 11.16.13 Afternoon 11:00am-12:00pm
#
Song Title
14
Get Low
15
I Tried
16
Runnin'
17
Lose Yourself
18
Put On
19
Bandz A Make Her Dance
20
On My Level
21
Headlines
22
She Will
23
25 To Life
24
Thrift Shop
25
All Me
26
Wild Boy
13
Saturday, 11.16.13 Evening 5:00pm-6:00pm
#
Song Title
27
We Own It
28
In Da Club
29
Dead and Gone
30
Make Me Proud
31
Stronger
32
Rack City
33
Remember The Name
34
Up Up And Away
35
No Love
13
9
Artist
Lil Jon & The East Side Boyz
Bone Thugs-N-Harmony
Machine Gun Kelly
Eminem
Young Jeezy
Juicy J
Wiz Khalifa
Drake
Lil Wayne
Eminem
Macklemore & Ryan Lewis
Drake
Machine Gun Kelly
Year
2002
2007
2012
2002
2008
2013
2011
2010
2011
2010
2012
2013
2011
11
Theme
N/A
Hope
Hope
N/A
Staging Area
Dance
Rampant Drug Use
Respect
Female Dismemberment
Relationship Problems
Respect
Respect
Staging Area
Code
N/A
1
1
N/A
1
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
1
8
Artist
2 Chainz & Wiz Khalifa
50 Cent
T.I.
Drake
Kayne West
Tyga
Fort Minor
Lil Wayne
Eminem
Year
2013
2003
2008
2011
2007
2012
2005
2011
2010
Theme
Family & Gangs
N/A
Hope
Mating Game
Mating Game
Respect
Respect
Rampant Drug Use
Retaliation
Code
1
N/A
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
81
36
37
38
39
I'm Back
Racks
The Next Episode
Disco Inferno
13
Saturday, 11.16.13 Late Night 11:00pm-12:00am
#
Song Title
40
Cinderella Man
41
Can't Tell Me Nothing
42
Battle Scars
43
Blunt Blowin
44
Cashin' Out
45
Gold Digger
46
Who Gon Stop Me
47
Donald Trump
48
Coming Home
49
Love The Way You Lie
50
How We Do
51
Bill Gates
52
Pop, Lock, And Drop It
13
Total
2010
2011
2001
2005
11
Respect
Respect
N/A
Dance
1
1
N/A
0
10
Artist
Eminem
Kayne West
Lupe Fiasco
Lil Wayne
Ca$h Out
Kayne West
Kayne West & Jay-Z
Mac Miller
Diddy & Dirty Money
Eminem
The Game
Lil Wayne
Huey
Year
2010
2007
2012
2011
2012
2005
2011
2011
2010
2010
2005
2010
2006
13
Theme
Respect
Retaliation
Relationship Problems
Violence
Respect
Mating Game
Respect
Respect
Hope
Relationship Problems
Family & Gangs
Respect
Dance
Code
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
0
10
52
Wednesday, 11.20.13 Morning 8:00am-9:00am
#
Song Title
Goodbye
President Carter
Phone Numbers
Down on Me
48
37/48
Artist
Year
Theme
Code
Wiz Khalifa
Lil Wayne
Wiz Khalifa
Jeremih
2009
2011
2011
2010
Respect
Respect
Respect
Mating Game
1
1
1
1
82
1
2
3
4
T.I.
Lil Wayne
Dr. Dre
50 Cent
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Ice Cream
Thugz Mansion
Young Forever
Up Up & Away
Written In The Stars
Cudi Zone
Days And Days
The Prayer
Lay You Down
13
2009
2002
2009
2009
2010
2009
2013
2008
2012
12
Respect
N/A
Hope
Hope
Respect
Rampant Drug Use
Respect
Hope
Retaliation
1
N/A
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
12
Artist
T.I.
Lil Wayne
Young Jeezy
Eminem
Machine Gun Kelly
Tyga
Lil Wayne
Drake
Kid Cudi
Lil Wayne
Lupe Fiasco
Kid Cudi
Eminem
Kid Cudi
Young Money
D4L
Year
2008
2011
2005
2000
2012
2012
2009
2009
2008
2007
2011
2009
2004
2009
2009
2005
15
Theme
Mating Game
Violence
Respect
N/A
Staging Area
Female Dismemberment
Staging Area
Respect
Respect
Respect
Hope
Hope
Hope
Rampant Drug Use
Dance
Female Dismemberment
Code
1
1
1
N/A
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
12
83
Wednesday, 11.20.13 Afternoon 11:00am-12:00pm
#
Song Title
14
Whatever You Like
15
Gucci Gucci
16
Soul Survior
17
The Real Slim Shady
18
Save Me
19
Make It Nasty
20
Swag Surf
21
I'm Goin In
22
Dat New 'New'
23
I'm Me
24
The Show Goes On
25
Alive (Nightmare)
26
Mockingbird
27
Day 'N Nite
28
Bedrock
29
Laffy Taffy
16
Lil Wayne
2Pac
Jay-Z
Kid Cudi
Tinie Tempah
Kid Cudi
Lil Wayne
Kid Cudi
Tyga
Wednesday, 11.20.13 Evening 5:00pm-6:00pm
#
Song Title
30
Drop The World
31
PMW (All I Really Need)
32
What You Know
33
Birthday Sex
34
Trigger Finger
35
Bombs Away
36
Molly
37
I Need A Doctor
38
Stan
39
Feds Watching
40
Everything On Me
41
We Be Steady Mobbin'
42
Beware
43
Waiting
14
Wednesday, 11.20.13 Late Night 11:00pm-12:00am
#
Song Title
44
The Way I Am
45
Soundtrack 2 My Life
46
Brand New
47
Initiation
48
Ima Boss
49
Let's Go
50
The Way We Ride
51
A Million Lights
52
Back Back
Artist
Lil Wayne
ASAP Rocky
T.I.
Jeremih
Lil Wayne
B.o.B.
Tyga
Dr. Dre
Eminem
2 Chainz
T.I.
Lil Wayne
Big Sean
Young Jeezy
Year
2010
2013
2006
2009
2013
2012
2013
2011
2000
2013
2010
2009
2013
2011
13
Theme
Hope
Respect
Respect
Mating Game
Violence
Hope
Rampant Drug Use
Family & Gangs
N/A
Respect
Female Dismemberment
Violence
Relationship Problems
Respect
Code
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
N/A
1
0
1
0
1
11
Artist
Eminem
Kid Cudi
Lil Wayne
Wiz Khalifa
Meek Mill
Trick Daddy
T.I.
DJ Khaled
Juvenile
Year
2000
2009
2007
2012
2012
2004
2012
2011
2009
Theme
N/A
Hope
Family & Gangs
Family & Gangs
Respect
Violence
Respect
Respect
Respect
Code
N/A
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
84
53
54
55
56
57
Bout Ya'll
Still On
Celebration
House Party
Smoke A Nigga
14
Total
57
Saturday, 11.23.13 Morning 8:00am-9:00am
#
Song Title
1
Party Rock Anthem
2
2 Reasons
3
Rock Yo Head
4
Going Through Changes
5
Defend Dade
6
Better Not Fight
7
It's Time
8
We Be Getting Money
9
Hold Up
10
Shoulder Lean
11
What's Wrong With Them
12
Maybe
13
305 To My City
Wiz Khalifa
Paul Wall
Slim Thug
Meek Mill
Juicy J
Artist
LMFAO
Trey Songz
Tech N9ne
Eminem
DJ Khaled
Lil Boosie
Big Sean
Juvenile
Chamillionaire
Young Dro
Lil Wayne
Rocko
Drake
Paperbond
Headband
Miss Me
Year
2011
2012
2012
2010
2008
2010
2013
2009
2013
2006
2010
2010
2013
1
1
1
0
1
12
47/53
Theme
Partying
Partying
Dance
Hope
Staging Area
Staging Area
Staging Area
Respect
Respect
Dance
Relationship Problems
Respect
Mating Game
13
Code
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
8
Artist
Year
Theme
Code
Wiz Khalifa
B.o.B
Drake
2012
2013
2010
Respect
Female Dismemberment
Mating Game
1
0
1
85
14
15
16
Respect
Hope
Respect
Partying
Rampant Drug Use
53
13
Saturday, 11.23.13 Afternoon 11:00am-12:00pm
#
Song Title
2009
2010
2010
2012
2013
13
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
Women Lie, Men Lie
Curtains
Crazy
Welcome To The World
Magic (Remix)
I Just Wanna Party
Wake Up
Start It Up
We'll Be Fine
Hold Up
Bet I
14
2009
2013
2011
2010
2012
2010
2011
2010
2011
2010
2010
14
Respect
Female Dismemberment
Respect
Hope
Rampant Drug Use
Partying
Respect
Respect
Mating Game
Violence
Rampant Drug Use
1
0
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
11
Artist
T-Pain
T.I.
Bun B
Wiz Khalifa
T-Pain
Wiz Khalifa
Wale
T-Pain
B.o.B
T.I.
Gucci Mane
Wale
Wiz Khalifa
T.I. feat Rocko
Year
2013
2010
2010
2012
2011
2011
2011
2011
2012
2007
2009
2011
2012
2010
14
Theme
Female Dismemberment
Respect
Respect
Respect
Rampant Drug Use
Respect
Hope
Respect
Respect
Violence
Violence
Mating Game
Respect
Female Dismemberment
Code
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
12
86
Saturday, 11.23.13 Evening 5:00pm-6:00pm
#
Song Title
28
Up Down (Do This All Day)
29
Yeah Ya Know
30
Trillionaire
31
Bluffin'
32
Bottlez
33
When I'm Gone
34
Focused
35
Bang Bang Pow Pow
36
Ray Bands
37
Raw
38
Stupid Wild
39
Bad Girls Club
40
The Bluff
41
I Can't Help It
14
Yo Gotti
Lil Wayne
Gorilla Zoe
T.I.
Future
YelaWolf
Wiz Khalifa
Lloyd Banks
Drake
Lil Wayne
B.o.B
Saturday, 11.23.13 Late Night 11:00pm-12:00am
#
Song Title
42
On My Way
43
Just Like That
44
Chain Music
45
My Swag
46
D-Boyz
47
My Life Your Entertainment
48
This Plane
49
Fat Cat
50
King Of The Streets
51
You Deserve It
52
No More
53
Bring The Money Out
54
Don't Hate Tha Playa
55
Gonorrhea
56
Party No Mo'
15
Total
56
Wednesday, 11.27.13 Morning 8:00am-9:00am
#
Song Title
1
Trippy
2
Till I'm Gone
3
I'm Back
4
Get Rich
5
I'm Out Chere
6
Just Chill
7
I Just Landed
Artist
DJ Khaled
Bun B
Wale
T.I.
DJ Drama & Rich Boy
T.I.
Wiz Khalifa
Ice Cube
Ace Hood
Future
Gucci Mane
DJ Khaled
Tyga
Lil Wayne
Ludacris
Year
2010
2010
2011
2007
2006
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2010
2013
2010
2010
15
56
Theme
Respect
Respect
Respect
Respect
Respect
Hope
Respect
Respect
Respect
Respect
Respect
Respect
Female Dismemberment
Violence
Partying
Code
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
0
13
44/56
Artist
Lil Wayne
Tinie Tempah
Webbie
Tyga
Juvenile
Slim Thug
Young Dolph
Year
2013
2010
2013
2013
2009
2013
2012
Theme
Rampant Drug Use
Hope
Respect
Respect
Respect
Female Dismemberment
Respect
Code
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
87
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Go Shorty Go
Fuck You
Loyalty
Ova
My Nigga
Star
Sookie Now
Throw It Up
15
Wednesday, 11.27.13 Afternoon 11:00am-12:00pm
#
Song Title
16
When Ya On
17
N.B.A.
18
Lolly
19
Pop That Pussy
20
1800
21
All My Jewellery
22
I'm Off That
23
Boss Life
24
Triller
25
Babylon
26
We Up
27
I Luv Dem Strippers
28
Chevy
29
Another One
30
It's Nothin'
15
Travis Porter
Max B
Birdman
Roach Gigz
YG
Rocko
Big Krit
Tyga & DJ Mustard
2010
2011
2006
2012
2013
2011
2011
2013
15
Mating Game
Violence
Family & Gangs
Partying
Family & Gangs
Respect
Staging Area
Partying
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
0
12
Artist
Chamillionaire
Joe Budden
Maejor Ali
Waka Flocka Flame
Snoop Dogg
Gucci Mane
Pitbull
Slim Thug
Bun B
DJ Quik
50 Cent
2 Chainz
Trick Daddy
Slice 9
Wiz Khalifa
Year
2011
2013
2013
2013
2009
2009
2012
2013
2013
2011
2013
2012
2009
2013
2012
15
Theme
Hope
Respect
Female Dismemberment
Female Dismemberment
Rampant Drug Use
Respect
Respect
Respect
Violence
Respect
Respect
Female Dismemberment
Respect
Respect
Respect
Code
1
1
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
12
88
Wednesday, 11.27.13 Evening 5:00pm-6:00pm
#
Song Title
Artist
Year
Theme
Code
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
Every Chance I Get
Gin And Juice
Whatever I Say
Jaw Jackin
First Day Of School Fresh
GangBang
So Much Money
500 Degrees
No Games
Bounce That
My Moment
Clappers
Cost To Be
Priceless
T.I.
Snoop Dogg
Piles
V.I.C.
Kia Shine
Wiz Khalifa
Juicy J
Tyga
Rick Ross
Gucci Mane
DJ Drama
Wale
Boss Hogg Outlawz
Flo Rida
2008
1993
2010
2008
2010
2011
2013
2013
2013
2009
2012
2013
2008
2008
Respect
N/A
Family & Gangs
Violence
Respect
Family & Gangs
Respect
Female Dismemberment
Retaliation
Dance
Hope
Female Dismemberment
Respect
Respect
1
N/A
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
1
14
Wednesday, 11.27.13 Late Night 11:00pm-12:00am
#
Song Title
We Can Get It On
Drop And Gimme 50
Dump Dump
Without Me
Mula Remix
Pronto
Money Machine
Shone
Concrete
Aww Yea
10
Artist
Year
Theme
Code
Yo Gotti
Mike Jones
ASAP Ferg
Eminem
Big Sean
Snoop Dogg
Birdman
Flo Rida
Boss Hogg Outlawz
Travis Porter
2011
2007
2013
2002
2013
2009
2009
2009
2011
2012
Mating Game
Dance
Retaliation
N/A
Family & Gangs
Dance
Respect
Mating Game
Violence
Female Dismemberment
1
0
1
N/A
1
0
1
1
1
0
89
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
13
55
56
57
Ain't Tellin A Thang
Watch Me
I Know Why
13
Total
57
Saturday, 11.30.13 Morning 8:00am-9:00am
#
Song Title
1
Thank Me Now
2
Porn Star
3
Shutterbugg
4
Blowing Me Kisses
5
Let's Make A Movie
6
Powder
7
Come On
8
Mona Lisa
9
Rap God
10
My Own Planet
11
Stepped On My J'z
12
I Made It
13
Hood Famous
14
Spend The Night
15
I Don't Wanna Care Right Now
J. Stalin
Bee
Gucci Mane
Artist
Drake
T.I.
Big Boi
Soulja Boy
Maino
Slim Thug
Berner
Big Sean
Eminem
Royce Da 5'9''
Nelly
Kevin Rudolf
Mack 10
Cam'ron
Lupe Fiasco
I'm Raw
That Ain't Me
Break The Chain
Year
2010
2008
2010
2010
2009
2009
2013
2013
2013
2011
2008
2010
2009
2009
2011
1
1
1
9
43/55
Theme
Respect
Mating Game
Partying
Mating Game
Mating Game
Rampant Drug Use
Staging Area
Female Dismemberment
Respect
Respect
Respect
Hope
Mating Game
Mating Game
Partying
15
Code
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
12
Artist
Year
Theme
Code
Fabolous
Lil Wayne
Lupe Fiasco
2010
2010
2011
Violence
Hope
Hope
1
1
1
90
16
17
18
Mating Game
Respect
Respect
55
15
Saturday, 11.30.13 Afternoon 11:00am-12:00pm
#
Song Title
2012
2009
2007
12
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
Don't Get Caught Slippin
I Can't Tell
Switch Up
We Do This
Bounce, Rock, Skate
Outta Control
Money Round Here
Anything
I'm Illy
Get Dis Money
Addicted To Balling
100k
15
2009
2009
2013
2007
2010
2009
2009
2006
2008
2011
2010
2013
15
Violence
Retaliation
Family & Gangs
Respect
Rampant Drug Use
Dance
Respect
Mating Game
Respect
Respect
Respect
Rampant Drug Use
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
14
Artist
Piles
Fabolous
Gucci Mane
Lloyd Banks
Joe Budden
Chief Keef
Donnis
Rick Ross
Awolnation
Ace Hood
Roscoe Dash
Rocko
Yo Gotti
T-Pain
Year
2010
2010
2009
2010
2013
2012
2009
2008
2011
2011
2011
2011
2012
2011
Theme
Respect
Violence
Mating Game
Respect
Female Dismemberment
Relationship Problems
Rampant Drug Use
Respect
Hope
Mating Game
Mating Game
Relationship Problems
Respect
Dance
Code
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
0
91
Saturday, 11.30.13 Evening 5:00pm-6:00pm
#
Song Title
31
Awesome
32
The Wake
33
Get Low (Like a Lambo)
34
Any Girl
35
Top Of The World
36
No Tomorrow
37
Gone
38
Speedin'
39
Sail
40
Body 2 Body
41
Sidity
42
How Could You Be Mad
43
Single
44
Look At Her Go
Ace Hood
Cyhi Da Prynce
Big Sean
T.I.
Kurupt
Baby Bash
C-Ride
Jay-Z
T.I.
Meek Mill
Paper Route Gangstaz
Nelly
14
Saturday, 11.30.13 Late Night 11:00pm-12:00am
#
Song Title
45
Been Doin' This
46
Diamonds
47
Tipsy In Dis Club
48
I Do It
49
Hey Hey Hey
50
Champion
51
I'm Bad
52
Trap Like Mine
53
Please Jack
54
Sky High
55
King Kong
56
Rotation
57
Thug Section
58
Gucci Mayne
14
14
Artist
Bow Wow
Chingy
Pretty Ricky
Gorilla Zoe
J-Money
B.G. & DJ Drama
Lil Ru
Paper Route Gangstaz
The Jacka
Wiz Khalifa
Curren$y
Wale
Piles
ForteBowie
58
Wednesday, 12.4.13 Morning 8:00am-9:00am
#
Song Title
1
Cuban Link
2
Focus
3
Chairman Of The Boards
4
Blowin Cake
5
Faded
6
A-Town
Year
2009
2010
2009
2011
2013
2008
2009
2010
2011
2009
2010
2013
2009
2013
14
10
Theme
Respect
Respect
Partying
Staging Area
Violence
Respect
Respect
Female Dismemberment
Female Dismemberment
Respect
Respect
Rampant Drug Use
Partying
Relationship Problems
58
Code
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
9
45/58
Artist
Year
Theme/Message
Code
Soulja Boy
Big Kuntry King
Donny Goines
Lil Keke
Red Café
Drama
2013
2008
2013
2010
2011
2009
Family & Gangs
Respect
Respect
Respect
Rampant Drug Use
Staging Area
1
1
1
1
1
1
92
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Show Me
Money To Blow
E.B.A.H.
Bounce It
Money Ova Here
Atlanta Zoo
Hood Clap
Body Work
Keyshia Cole
15
Wednesday, 12.4.13 Afternoon 11:00am-12:00pm
#
Song Title
16
London City
17
I'm Fresh
18
Gotta Get That
19
Interstate Hustlin
20
All Around The World
21
Sucka For Nuthin
22
Gangsta Luv
23
W.T.P
24
Girls
25
Hands In The Air
26
We Been On
27
Out Here Grindin
28
Come To Me (Remix)
29
Trunk Muzik
14
Kid Ink
Birdman
Tech N9ne
Juicy J
Ace Hood
Gucci Mane
Gorilla Zoe
Pusha T
Paper Route Gangstaz
2013
2009
2012
2013
2008
2010
2009
2011
2010
15
Mating Game
Respect
Hope
Dance
Respect
Staging Area
Staging Area
Violence
Rampant Drug Use
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
14
Artist
Devlin
Drama
B.G. & DJ Drama
Lil Keke
Mac Miller
B.G. & DJ Drama
Snoop Dogg
Eminem
DJ Laz
Wiley
Rich Gang
DJ Khaled
Diddy
YelaWolf
Year
2010
2009
2008
2010
2011
2008
2009
2010
2008
2013
2013
2008
2006
2010
14
Theme
Staging Area
Respect
Respect
Respect
Partying
Respect
Mating Game
Partying
Female Dismemberment
Respect
Partying
Respect
Mating Game
Staging Area
Code
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
0
0
1
0
1
1
1
10
93
Wednesday, 12.4.13 Evening 5:00pm-6:00pm
#
Song Title
Artist
Year
Theme
Code
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
My Sub
Off That
Ain't That Some Shit
Ride
Smokin' On
Space Jam
Lookin At Me
I Run
Scholarship
Lights Out
Freak Though
I Like The Way She Do It
Of The Soul
Big Krit
Jay-Z
J. Cole
Lil Ru
Snoop Dogg & Wiz Khalifa
Audio Push
Mase
Slim Thug
Juicy J
Fabolous
T.I.
G-Unit
Mac Miller
2011
2009
2013
2009
2011
2013
1997
2009
2013
2010
2004
2008
2011
Respect
Respect
Respect
Respect
Rampant Drug Use
Dance
N/A
Staging Area
Female Dismemberment
Violence
Mating Game
Female Dismemberment
Hope
1
1
1
1
1
0
N/A
1
0
1
1
0
1
13
Wednesday, 12.4.13 Late Night 11:00pm-12:00am
#
Song Title
Wasted
Get Away
Look Like
Aston Martin Music
F'N Right
At It Again
I Do
On The Wall
6 In The Morning
Confused
I Ain't Playing
9
Artist
Year
Theme
Code
Gucci Mane
YelaWolf
Piles
Rick Ross
John Connor
Johnny Richter
Roscoe Dash
Brisco
Sean Garrett
Gucci Mane
Bow Wow
2009
2011
2010
2010
2013
2010
2011
2010
2008
2013
2009
Rampant Drug Use
Rampant Drug Use
Respect
Mating Game
Retaliation
Rampant Drug Use
Respect
Female Dismemberment
Partying
Rampant Drug Use
Mating Game
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
94
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
12
54
55
56
57
Honest
Runnin Back (Getting Fat)
Cocky And Confident
On The Grind
15
Total
57
Saturday, 12.7.13 Morning 8:00am-9:00am
#
Song Title
1
Ugh
2
We Hustle
3
Gangsta
4
Tipper Love
5
Da Dopeman
6
How I'm Raised
7
Becky
8
On Top Of The World
9
Get It Girl
10
Tom Ford
11
Top Of The Line
12
No. 1
13
Milf
14
I Am (Interval)
15
2 Step
Future
Gucci Mane
Juvenile
Nelly
Artist
Berner
Swindoe
Slim Thug
Drama
T.I.
Ace Hood
Piles
B.o.B
Mann
Jay-Z
Juvenile
Rick Ross
Big Sean
Chipmunk
T-Pain, Jim Jones, E-40
Remember Me
Turn My Swag On (Remix)
Year
2013
2010
2010
2009
2007
2013
2010
2008
2011
2013
2009
2010
2013
2009
2007
1
1
1
N/A
12
45/55
Theme
Female Dismemberment
Respect
Respect
Female Dismemberment
Rampant Drug Use
Respect
Female Dismemberment
Respect
Mating Game
Respect
Respect
Respect
Female Dismemberment
Respect
Dance
15
Code
0
1
1
0
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
0
10
Artist
Year
Theme
Code
T.I.
Greg Street, Soulja Boy, Keri Hilson
2009
2009
Hope
Respect
1
1
95
16
17
Respect
Respect
Violence
N/A
55
15
Saturday, 12.7.13 Afternoon 11:00am-12:00pm
#
Song Title
2013
2009
2009
2002
14
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
Ballin
25 Bucks
Ayoo
Number 23
O Let's Do It
Look
Pussy
Flawless
See Me On Top
The Definition
Jelly
Poppin' Bottles
14
2013
2013
2013
2010
2009
2013
2013
2008
2010
2011
2013
2010
14
Respect
Hope
Retaliation
Respect
Rampant Drug Use
Respect
Female Dismemberment
Mating Game
Respect
Respect
Respect
Rampant Drug Use
Artist
B.o.B
Lil Boosie
Ace Hood
Lil Boosie
DJ Khaled
Fat Joe
B.o.B
Baby Bash
Roscoe Dash
Wale
Paul Wall
Piles
DJ Khaled
Ice Cube
Year
2012
2010
2009
2007
2010
2008
2008
2011
2010
2011
2010
2009
2008
2000
Theme
Violence
Retaliation
Retaliation
Respect
Respect
Rampant Drug Use
Dance
Respect
Respect
Staging Area
Respect
Female Dismemberment
Violence
N/A
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
13
Code
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
1
N/A
96
Saturday, 12.7.13 Evening 5:00pm-6:00pm
#
Song Title
30
Out Of My Mind
31
Devils
32
Mine
33
Wipe Me Down
34
Rockin All My Chains On
35
Cocababy
36
Pop
37
Intro
38
Show Out
39
Miami Nights
40
Round Here
41
Nasty Girl
42
Go Hard
43
Nigga Of The Century
Starlito
Danny Brown
Rich Homie Quan
Dorrough
Waka Flocka Flame
League Of Starz
The Dream
V.I.C.
Big Krit
Layzie Bone
Andre Nickatina
T.I.
44
45
Intro (Everyday Street Gangsta)
Put It Down
16
Sunday, 12.7.13 Late Night 11:00pm-12:00am
#
Song Title
46
Ain't No Coming Down
47
In My Head
48
Medicated
49
Leanin' On Dat Butter
50
Bitches & Bottles
51
I'm Geekin
52
Trickin' Off
53
Whole Thing
54
Karate Chop (Remix)
55
Ready Or Not
56
U Disqualified
57
Make U Wonda
58
Go Live
59
No Church In The Wild
14
Total
2009
2010
15
Respect
Respect
1
1
13
Artist
Juicy J
Young Jeezy
Wiz Khalifa
Mike Jones
DJ Khaled
Ace Hood & Juicy J
Triple C's
Young Chop
Future
Meek Mill
Yo Gotti & Wale
Busta Rhymes, Rocko & Future
Piles
Kayne West & Jay-Z
Year
2013
2013
2012
2012
2012
2012
2009
2013
2013
2012
2012
2012
2010
2011
14
Theme
Rampant Drug Use
Respect
Rampant Drug Use
Respect
Partying
Rampant Drug Use
Respect
Rampant Drug Use
Rampant Drug Use
Respect
Relationship Problems
Respect
Violence
Hope
Code
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
12
59
Wednesday, 12.11.13 Morning 8:00am-9:00am
#
Song Title
Boom, Boom
Tear Da Roof Off
All About The Money
Fuck Her So Long
FuckWithMeYouKnowIGotIt
58
48/58
Artist
Year
Theme
Code
J-Money
Ace Hood
Gucci Mane
Mistah F.A.B.
Jay-Z
2010
2011
2009
2013
2013
Female Dismemberment
Partying
Respect
Female Dismemberment
Respect
0
0
1
0
1
97
1
2
3
4
5
E.S.G.
Bun B
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
My Partna Dem
Who I Am
Switch Lanes
Harder
Dope Boy
600 Benz
White Walls
Boss Chick
Type Of Way
Buck Swagger
15
Wednesday, 12.11.13 Afternoon 11:00am-12:00pm
#
Song Title
16
Hijack
17
Before The Rollie
18
All I Know
19
Pretty Boy Swag
20
Go Again
21
Oh My (Remix)
22
Pill Pop'n
23
Live It Up
24
Neighborhood Stars
25
M.O.E
26
Rooftops
27
Do The Fool
28
Piss Test (Remix)
29
Let It Go
14
The Rich Kidz
Pusha T
Tyga
Yo Gotti
Gorilla Zoe
Wale
Macklemore & Ryan Lewis
S.Fresh
Rich Homie Quan
Young Buck
2009
2013
2013
2012
2009
2011
2012
2010
2013
2009
15
Staging Area
Respect
Respect
Respect
Female Dismemberment
Respect
Respect
Mating Game
Respect
Respect
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
11
Artist
Tyga
Ace Hood
Piles
Soulja Boy
G. Battles
DJ Drama
The Dayton Family
Kid Ink
J. Stalin
Tyga
Wiz Khalifa
T-Rock
A-Trak
ASAP Ferg
Year
2013
2013
2010
2010
2013
2011
2011
2011
2010
2013
2011
2009
2012
2013
14
Theme
Respect
Family & Gangs
Respect
Respect
Female Dismemberment
Mating Game
Rampant Drug Use
Partying
Respect
Rampant Drug Use
Respect
Rampant Drug Use
Rampant Drug Use
Violence
Code
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
12
98
Wednesday, 12.11.13 Evening 5:00pm-6:00pm
#
Song Title
Artist
Year
Theme
Code
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
Grillz
I'm So Blessed
Fly Rich
Fell Out
I Ain't Gotta Say Shit
Get Around (The H)
Paranoid
Tatted Like Amigos (Remix)
Daddy's Lambo
Crack
Slide Thru Killeen
Get Loose
I Just Wanna Be With You
Nelly
DJ Khaled
Rich Gang
Gucci Mane
Young Chop
E.S.G.
Ty Dolla $ign
Kap G
YelaWolf
2 Chainz
Green City
Tyga
STS
2005
2012
2013
2013
2013
2009
2013
2013
2010
2012
2008
2013
2011
Violence
Hope
Respect
Relationship Problems
Retaliation
Respect
Relationship Problems
Family & Gangs
Mating Game
Rampant Drug Use
Staging Area
Rampant Drug Use
Partying
1
1
1
0
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
0
13
Wednesday, 12.11.13 Late Night 11:00pm-12:00am
#
Song Title
Active Kings
Speakin My Language
Kemosabe
All The Above
Exhale
Through My Eyes
Last Day
FDB
Still Gon Ball
Boarding Pass
Stupid
10
Artist
Year
Theme
Code
New Boyz
Lil' Flip
T.I.
Maino
Jet Life
The Game
Joe Budden
Young Dro
Andre Nickatina
Wiz Khalifa
Young Savage
2011
2008
2012
2009
2011
2009
2013
2013
2011
2009
2012
Mating Game
Respect
Respect
Hope
Rampant Drug Use
Female Dismemberment
Hope
Female Dismemberment
Respect
Respect
Respect
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
0
1
1
1
99
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
13
54
55
56
57
1 Up
Hood Documentary
South Wave
Thug
15
Total
57
Saturday, 12.14.13 Morning 8:00am-9:00am
#
Song Title
1
Who Want Some
2
Gunwalk
3
Ain't Thinkin' Bout You
4
Satellites (HPG Remix)
5
What Girls Like
6
Lemonade Delight
7
Roof Back
8
Grove St. Party
9
Bruh Bruh
10
Hustlin
11
Posse
12
23
13
Drunk & Stupid
14
Beatin Down Your Block
15
I Get It In
League Of Starz
Young Buck
Max B
Slim Thug
Artist
T.I.
Lil Wayne
Bow Wow
Kevin Gates
Smokey
Big Scoob
Cali Swag District
Waka Flocka Flame
Piles
Wiz Khalifa
Big Kuntry King
Mike Will Made It
Big Scoob
Gucci Mane
Ike Nice
Amazing
Apex Predator (My Gun Go)
Year
2012
2013
2010
2013
2010
2011
2011
2010
2010
2011
2008
2013
2011
2006
2011
1
1
1
1
13
46/57
Theme
Violence
Violence
Relationship Problems
Mating Game
Mating Game
Rampant Drug Use
Respect
Partying
Family & Gangs
Respect
Family & Gangs
Respect
Rampant Drug Use
Repect
Respect
15
Code
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
13
Artist
Year
Theme
Code
Kayne West
Crooked I
2008
2013
Hope
Violence
1
1
10
0
16
17
Retaliation
Respect
Hope
Mating Game
57
15
Saturday, 12.14.13 Afternoon 11:00am-12:00pm
#
Song Title
2013
2010
2011
2009
15
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
Super Throwed
Party Up (Up In Here)
My Chick Bad
Champagne & Bright Lights
Yella Diamonds
All On The Floor
That's Right
Loose As A Goose
Long Time
The Way
I Did It For The Game
13
2013
1999
2010
2011
2009
2008
2008
2009
2013
2009
2009
12
Rampant Drug Use
N/A
Female Dismemberment
Respect
Respect
Partying
Partying
Partying
Respect
Respect
Staging Area
Artist
ASAP Ferg
T.I.
Drake
Rick Ross
Slim Thug
Ace Hood
Philthy Rich
Tech N9ne
Riff Raff
T-Rock
J. Stalin
Pastor Troy
Yung LA
DJ Khaled
Kurupt
Year
2013
2013
2013
2008
2009
2013
2013
2011
2012
2009
2010
2013
2008
2011
2010
Theme
Hope
Respect
Retaliation
Staging Area
Respect
Respect
Respect
Respect
Respect
Respect
Respect
Respect
Respect
Respect
Rampant Drug Use
1
N/A
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
1
1
8
Code
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
10
1
Saturday, 12.14.13 Evening 5:00pm-6:00pm
#
Song Title
29
Fergivicious
30
Wit Me
31
Worst Behavior
32
Reppin My City
33
Around The Way
34
We Outchea
35
Get Ya Money
36
He's A Mental Giant
37
Freeze Dried
38
Doin' It (Remix)
39
H.N.I.C.
40
This For You
41
Ain't I
42
Money
43
I'm Burnt
The Game
DMX
Ludacris
J. Stalin & Young Doe
Gucci Mane
Pastor Troy
Big Kuntry King
Lil Boosie
Gucci Mane
Alejon
Tone Trump
15
Saturday, 12.14.13 Late Night 11:00pm-12:00am
#
Song Title
44
Ghetto Commandments
45
1 Mile
46
Tell 'em I Said That
47
Hate Me Or Love Me
48
Spend It
49
Get Kutt
50
The Boss
51
Bring It Back
52
Survival
53
Amnesia
54
Go Ahead
55
Friendly
56
I Know
57
Embrace the Martian
14
Total
57
15
Artist
T-Pain
Taylor J
T.I.
Cassidy
2 Chainz
Kutt Calhoun
Rick Ross
Birdman
Eminem
Kevin Gates
DJ Khaled
Wiz Khalifia
Jay-Z
Crookers
Year
2010
2013
2007
2010
2011
2010
2008
2009
2013
2013
2008
2009
2007
2009
14
56
15
Theme
Respect
Respect
Respect
Respect
Respect
Violence
Respect
Respect
Respect
Female Dismemberment
Mating Game
Mating Game
Mating Game
Hope
Code
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
13
49/56
10
2
103
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