Review Immunity, Inflammation, and Cancer Leading Edge Sergei I. Grivennikov,

Transcription

Leading Edge
Review
Immunity, Inflammation, and Cancer
Sergei I. Grivennikov,1 Florian R. Greten,2 and Michael Karin1,*
1Laboratory of Gene Regulation and Signal Transduction, Departments of Pharmacology and Pathology, School of Medicine, University
of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
22nd Department of Medicine, Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University Munich, 81675 Munich, Germany
*Correspondence: [email protected]
DOI 10.1016/j.cell.2010.01.025
Inflammatory responses play decisive roles at different stages of tumor development, including
initiation, promotion, malignant conversion, invasion, and metastasis. Inflammation also affects
immune surveillance and responses to therapy. Immune cells that infiltrate tumors engage in an
extensive and dynamic crosstalk with cancer cells, and some of the molecular events that mediate
this dialog have been revealed. This review outlines the principal mechanisms that govern the
effects of inflammation and immunity on tumor development and discusses attractive new targets
for cancer therapy and prevention.
Introduction
The presence of leukocytes within tumors, observed in the 19th
century by Rudolf Virchow, provided the first indication of
a possible link between inflammation and cancer. Yet, it is only
during the last decade that clear evidence has been obtained
that inflammation plays a critical role in tumorigenesis, and
some of the underlying molecular mechanisms have been elucidated (Box 1) (Karin, 2006). A role for inflammation in tumorigenesis is now generally accepted, and it has become evident that
an inflammatory microenvironment is an essential component
of all tumors, including some in which a direct causal relationship
with inflammation is not yet proven (Mantovani et al., 2008). Only
a minority of all cancers are caused by germline mutations,
whereas the vast majority (90%) are linked to somatic mutations
and environmental factors. Many environmental causes of
cancer and risk factors are associated with some form of chronic
inflammation. Up to 20% of cancers are linked to chronic infections, 30% can be attributed to tobacco smoking and inhaled
pollutants (such as silica and asbestos), and 35% can be attributed to dietary factors (20% of cancer burden is linked to obesity)
(Aggarwal et al., 2009).
Although it is now well established that the induction of inflammation by bacterial and viral infections increases cancer risk
(de Martel and Franceschi, 2009), recent work has shown that
in addition to being a tumor initiator by virtue of its high carcinogen content, tobacco smoke is also a tumor promoter because
of its ability to trigger chronic inflammation (Takahashi et al.,
2010). Likewise, obesity, whose prevalence is growing at an
alarming rate, promotes tumorigenesis in the liver (Park et al.,
2010) and pancreas (Khasawneh et al., 2009). Most solid malignancies appear in older individuals, and even old age (Ershler
and Keller, 2000) and cell senescence (Rodier et al., 2009) are
postulated to be tumor promoters that act through inflammatory
mechanisms. Along with its protumorigenic effects, inflammation also influences the host immune response to tumors and
can be used in cancer immunotherapy (Dougan and Dranoff,
2009) and to augment the response to chemotherapy (Zitvogel
et al., 2008). Yet, in some cases, inflammation can diminish the
beneficial effects of therapy (Ammirante et al., 2010). This review
is mainly focused on the protumorigenic effects of inflammation
but also touches on the relationship between inflammation and
antitumor immunity.
Types of Inflammation and General Mechanisms
Several types of inflammation—differing by cause, mechanism,
outcome, and intensity—can promote cancer development
and progression (Figure 1). Persistent Helicobacter pylori infection is associated with gastric cancer and mucosa-associated
lymphoid tissue (MALT) lymphoma. Infections with hepatitis B
(HBV) or C (HCV) viruses increase the risk of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), and infections with Schistosoma or Bacteroides
species are linked to bladder and colon cancer, respectively
(Karin, 2006; Wu et al., 2009a). The inflammatory response triggered by infection precedes tumor development and is a part of
normal host defense, whose goal is pathogen elimination.
However, tumorigenic pathogens subvert host immunity and
establish persistent infections associated with low-grade but
chronic inflammation. By contrast, acute inflammation induced
by certain microbial preparations was used by Coley with
some success to treat cancer in the 1890s, and one such preparation is currently used in the treatment of bladder cancer
(Rakoff-Nahoum and Medzhitov, 2009). What makes bladder
carcinoma uniquely sensitive to acute inflammation, even though
it is promoted by chronic inflammation, is currently unknown.
This is an important problem whose solution should reveal how
to successfully deploy inflammation in cancer therapy. Another
type of chronic inflammation that precedes tumor development
is caused by immune deregulation and autoimmunity. An
example is inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), which greatly
increases the risk of colorectal cancer (Waldner and Neurath,
2009).
However, not all chronic inflammatory diseases increase
cancer risk, and some of them, such as psoriasis, may even
reduce it (Nickoloff et al., 2005). It is not clear what makes IBD
or chronic hepatitis tumor promoting, in comparison with conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis or psoriasis, which do not
significantly promote tumorigenesis. One possibility could be
related to the exposure of the gastrointestinal tract and liver to
Cell 140, 883–899, March 19, 2010 ª2010 Elsevier Inc. 883
Box 1. Inflammation and Cancer—Basic Facts
Chronic inflammation increases cancer risk.
Subclinical, often undetectable inflammation may be as important in
increasing cancer risk (for instance, obesity-induced inflammation).
Various types of immune and inflammatory cells are frequently
present within tumors.
Immune cells affect malignant cells through production of cytokines,
chemokines, growth factors, prostaglandins, and reactive oxygen
and nitrogen species.
Inflammation impacts every single step of tumorigenesis, from initiation through tumor promotion, all the way to metastatic progression.
In developing tumors antitumorigenic and protumorigenic immune
and inflammatory mechanisms coexist, but if the tumor is not rejected, the protumorigenic effect dominates.
Signaling pathways that mediate the protumorigenic effects of
inflammation are often subject to a feed-forward loop (for example,
activation of NF-kB in immune cells induces production of cytokines
that activate NF-kB in cancer cells to induce chemokines that attract
more inflammatory cells into the tumor).
Certain immune and inflammatory components may be dispensable
during one stage of tumorigenesis but absolutely critical in another
stage.
dietary and environmental carcinogens, which never make their
way into joints or the skin. Chronic inflammation can also be
induced by environmental exposure. Particulate material from
tobacco smoke and other irritants can precipitate chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease, a condition associated with
higher lung cancer risk (Punturieri et al., 2009). Inflammatory
mechanisms account for the tumor-promoting effect of exposure to tobacco smoke on lung cancer in mice (Takahashi
et al., 2010). Inhaled asbestos or silica particles also give rise
to lung cancer but have no obvious mutagenic activity. Such
particles, however, can trigger inflammation through effects on
prointerleukin-1b (IL-1b) processing by the inflammasome
(Dostert et al., 2008), and this may mediate their tumorigenic
activity. Even obesity, which increases cancer risk by 1.6-fold
(Calle, 2007), can lead to chronic inflammation (Tuncman et al.,
2006) that promotes development of hepatocellular carcinoma
(Park et al., 2010). Accumulation of damaged DNA and cell
senescence can also give rise to tumor-promoting chronic
inflammation (Rodier et al., 2009; Zheng et al., 2007).
A completely different type of inflammation is the one that
follows tumor development. Most, if not all, solid malignancies
trigger an intrinsic inflammatory response that builds up a protumorigenic microenvironment (Mantovani et al., 2008). In addition
to cell-autonomous proliferation, certain oncogenes, such as
RAS and MYC family members, induce a transcriptional program
that leads to remodeling of the tumor microenvironment through
recruitment of leukocytes, expression of tumor-promoting chemokines and cytokines, and induction of an angiogenic switch
(Soucek et al., 2007; Sparmann and Bar-Sagi, 2004). All solid
malignancies at some point outpace their blood supply and
become oxygen and nutrient deprived. This results in necrotic
cell death at the tumor’s core and the release of proinflammatory
mediators, such as IL-1 and HMGB1 (Vakkila and Lotze, 2004).
The ensuing inflammatory response promotes neoangiogenesis
884 Cell 140, 883–899, March 19, 2010 ª2010 Elsevier Inc.
and provides surviving cancer cells with additional growth
factors, produced by newly recruited inflammatory and immune
cells (Karin, 2006).
Other tumors, for instance lung cancer, can promote inflammation through active secretion of molecules, such as the
extracellular matrix component versican, which activates
macrophages through Toll-like receptor (TLR) 2 (Kim et al.,
2009). Based on the continuous cell renewal and proliferation
induced by tumor-associated inflammation, tumors have been
referred to as ‘‘wounds that do not heal’’ (Dvorak, 1986). This
type of inflammation is largely a subverted wound healing and
tissue regenerative response. Even dominant oncogenes such
as v-Src or K-Ras are unable to induce cancer in adult animals
unless accompanied by injury and subsequent tissue regeneration (Guerra et al., 2007; Sieweke et al., 1990).
Lastly, a strong tumor-associated inflammatory response can
be initiated by cancer therapy. Radiation and chemotherapy
cause massive necrotic death of cancer cells and surrounding
tissues, which in turn triggers an inflammatory reaction analogous to a wound-healing response (Zong and Thompson,
2006). The net outcome of therapy-induced inflammation is
controversial, as on the one hand it can have tumor-promoting
functions just like the necrosis that accompanies rapid tumor
growth (Ammirante et al., 2010; Vakkila and Lotze, 2004), but
on the other hand it can enhance the cross-presentation of tumor
antigens and subsequent induction of an antitumor immune
response (Zitvogel et al., 2008). The latter and its importance
will be discussed below.
Immune Cells in Tumorigenesis
As a result of these different forms of inflammation, the tumor
microenvironment contains innate immune cells (including
macrophages, neutrophils, mast cells, myeloid-derived
suppressor cells, dendritic cells, and natural killer cells) and
adaptive immune cells (T and B lymphocytes) in addition to the
cancer cells and their surrounding stroma (which consists of
fibroblasts, endothelial cells, pericytes, and mesenchymal cells)
(de Visser et al., 2006) (Table 1). These diverse cells communicate with each other by means of direct contact or cytokine
and chemokine production and act in autocrine and paracrine
manners to control and shape tumor growth. It is the expression
of various immune mediators and modulators as well as the
abundance and activation state of different cell types in the
tumor microenvironment that dictate in which direction the
balance is tipped and whether tumor-promoting inflammation
or antitumor immunity will ensue (Lin and Karin, 2007; Smyth
et al., 2006). In established tumors, this balance is profoundly
tilted toward protumor inflammation, as without therapeutic
intervention advanced tumors rarely regress. Yet, it is difficult
to unequivocally assess the overall impact of immunity and
inflammation on early tumorigenic events, because direct
in vivo models for evaluating the effects of these phenomena
on initial tumor growth are missing. In addition, our current
knowledge is based on measurement of tumor load at a point
where malignant cells may have already escaped early surveillance mechanisms. However, it is safe to assume that tumorpromoting inflammation and antitumor immunity coexist at
different points along the path of tumor progression (Figure 2)
Figure 1. Types of Inflammation in Tumorigenesis and Cancer
Chronic inflammation associated with infections or autoimmune disease precedes tumor development and can contribute to it through induction of oncogenic
mutations, genomic instability, early tumor promotion, and enhanced angiogenesis. Prolonged exposure to environmental irritants or obesity can also result in
low-grade chronic inflammation that precedes tumor development and contributes to it through the mechanisms mentioned above. Tumor-associated inflammation goes hand in hand with tumor development. This inflammatory response can enhance neoangiogenesis, promote tumor progression and metastatic
spread, cause local immunosuppression, and further augment genomic instability. Cancer therapy can also trigger an inflammatory response by causing trauma,
necrosis, and tissue injury that stimulate tumor re-emergence and resistance to therapy. However, in some cases, therapy-induced inflammation can enhance
antigen presentation, leading to immune-mediated tumor eradication. Tumor-promoting mechanisms are in red and antitumorigenic mechanisms are in blue.
and that environmental and microenvironmental conditions
dictate the balance between the two (Bui and Schreiber, 2007;
Swann et al., 2008).
The most frequently found immune cells within the tumor
microenvironment are tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs)
and T cells. TAMs mostly promote tumor growth and may be
obligatory for angiogenesis, invasion, and metastasis (Condeelis
and Pollard, 2006), and high TAM content generally correlates
with poor prognosis (Murdoch et al., 2008). Mature T cells are
divided into two major groups based on the T cell receptors
(TCRs) they express: gd and ab. abT cells are further classified
according to their effector functions as CD8+ cytotoxic T cells
(CTLs) and CD4+ helper T (Th) cells, which include Th1, Th2,
Th17, and T regulatory (Treg) cells, as well as natural killer
T (NKT) cells. Importantly, T cells can exert both tumor-suppressive and -promoting effects, as determined by their effector
functions (DeNardo et al., 2009; Langowski et al., 2007; Smyth
et al., 2006). Increased T cell numbers, specifically activated
CTLs and Th1 cells, correlate with better survival in some
cancers, including invasive colon cancer, melanoma, multiple
myeloma, and pancreatic cancer (Galon et al., 2006; Laghi
et al., 2009; Swann and Smyth, 2007). Correspondingly, T cell
deficiency or disruption of specific cytotoxic mechanisms can
render experimental animals more susceptible to spontaneous
or chemical carcinogenesis (Shankaran et al., 2001; Swann
and Smyth, 2007). However, there is also evidence that many
of the T cell subsets found in solid tumors are involved in tumor
promotion, progression, or metastasis, including CD8+ T cells
(Roberts et al., 2007), IFNg-producing Th1 cells (Hanada et al.,
2006), Th2 cells (Aspord et al., 2007; DeNardo et al., 2009),
and Th17 cells (Langowski et al., 2006; Wang et al., 2009). The
only cells that lack a protumorigenic role, so far, are NK cells.
Similar to TAMs, the tumor-promoting functions of T lymphocytes are mediated by cytokines, whereas both cytokines and
cytotoxic mechanisms mediate the antitumorigenic functions
of T lymphocytes (Lin and Karin, 2007; Swann and Smyth, 2007).
Interestingly, Treg cells, which are presumed to act mostly in
a protumorigenic fashion through suppression of antitumor
Table 1. Roles of Different Subtypes of Immune and Inflammatory Cells in Antitumor Immunity and Tumor-Promoting Inflammation
Cell Types
Antitumor
Tumor-Promoting
Macrophages, dendritic cells,
myeloid-derived suppressor cells
Antigen presentation; production of cytokines
(IL-12 and type I IFN)
Immunosuppression; production of cytokines,
chemokines, proteases, growth factors, and
angiogenic factors
Mast cells
Production of cytokines
B cells
Production of tumor-specific antibodies?
Production of cytokines and antibodies;
activation of mast cells; immunosuppression
CD8+ T cells
Direct lysis of cancer cells; production of
cytotoxic cytokines
Production of cytokines?
CD4+ Th2 cells
Education of macrophages; production of
cytokines; B cell activation
CD4+ Th1 cells
Help to cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) in
tumor rejection; production of cytokines (IFNg)
CD4+ Th17 cells
Activation of CTLs
CD4+ Treg cells
Suppression of inflammation (cytokines and
other suppressive mechanisms)
Immunosuppression; production of cytokines
Natural killer cells
Direct cytotoxicity toward cancer cells;
production of cytotoxic cytokines
Natural killer T cells
Direct cytotoxicity toward cancer cells;
production of cytotoxic cytokines
Neutrophils
Direct cytotoxicity; regulation of CTL responses
immune responses (Gallimore and Simon, 2008), may also exert
an antitumorigenic function under certain circumstances by
virtue of their ability to suppress tumor-promoting inflammation
(Erdman et al., 2005). In breast cancer, the presence of tumorinfiltrating lymphocytes with high CD4+/CD8+ and Th2/Th1 ratios
is indicative of poor prognosis (Kohrt et al., 2005). Th2 CD4+
T cells stimulate mammary cancer progression and metastasis
by educating TAMs to produce proangiogenic and prometastatic factors (DeNardo et al., 2009). In colitis-associated cancer
(CAC), infiltrating T cells also appear to play a tumor-promoting
function (Waldner and Neurath, 2009). What makes the same
T cell subset antitumorigenic in one cancer and protumorigenic
in another remains largely unknown and may hold the key to
the development of successful immunotherapy.
The cytokine and chemokine expression profile of the tumor
microenvironment may be more relevant than its specific
immune cell content. Different cytokines can either promote or
inhibit tumor development and progression, regardless of their
source (Lin and Karin, 2007). Through activation of various
downstream effectors, such as NF-kB, AP-1, STAT, and SMAD
transcription factors, as well as caspases, cytokines control
the immune and inflammatory milieu to either favor antitumor
immunity (IL-12, TRAIL, IFNg) or enhance tumor progression
(IL-6, IL-17, IL-23) and also have direct effects on cancer cell
growth and survival (TRAIL, FasL, TNF-a, EGFR ligands,
TGF-b, IL-6).
TAMs are one of the most important players in the inflammation and cancer arena and an important source of cytokines
(Mantovani et al., 2008). Analogous to Th1 and Th2 T cells,
macrophages can be classified into M1 and M2 types (Sica
et al., 2008). M1 macrophages, activated by IFNg and microbial
products, express high levels of proinflammatory cytokines
(TNF-a, IL-1, IL-6, IL-12 or IL-23), major histocompatibility
Production of cytokines, proteases, and ROS
complex (MHC) molecules, and inducible nitric oxide synthase
and are capable of killing pathogens and priming antitumor
immune responses. By contrast, M2 or ‘‘alternatively’’ activated
macrophages, which are induced in vitro by IL-4, IL-10, and
IL-13, downregulate MHC class II and IL-12 expression and
show increased expression of the anti-inflammatory cytokine
IL-10, scavenger receptor A, and arginase. Most TAMs are
considered to have an M2 phenotype while promoting tumor
angiogenesis and tissue remodeling (Sica et al., 2008). However,
most confirmed tumor-promoting cytokines are ‘‘M1 cytokines,’’
whereas IL-10, an M2 cytokine, may be tumor suppressive as
shown in colorectal cancer (Berg et al., 1996; Lin and Karin,
2007). Furthermore, unlike Th1 and Th2 cells, M1 and M2 macrophages are plastic and their phenotype is defined by their gene
expression prolife rather than by deterministic differentiation
pathways and lineage choices.
Other immune cells also affect tumorigenesis (Table 1). Neutrophils can play both tumor-promoting and tumoricidal functions,
depending on their differentiation status and the presence of
TGF-b (Fridlender et al., 2009). B lymphocytes and mast cells are
also important contributors to immune-mediated tumor growth
(Ammirante et al., 2010; Andreu et al., 2010; de Visser et al., 2006;
Soucek et al., 2007), and conventional macrophages and dendritic
cells are important for antigen presentation and T cell activation
during antitumor immunity as well as for cytokine production
and immunosuppression in established tumors (Table 1).
Inflammation and Tumor Initiation
Tumor initiation is a process in which normal cells acquire the
first mutational hit that sends them on the tumorigenic track by
providing growth and survival advantages over their neighbors.
In most cases, however, a single mutation is insufficient and
many cancers require at least four or five mutations (Fearon
and Vogelstein, 1990; Hanahan and Weinberg, 2000). It is also
imperative that each mutation be transmitted to the cell’s
progeny, and in cancers that arise within rapidly renewed
epithelia (intestinal and skin cancers), oncogenic mutations
must occur in either long-lived stem cells or transient amplifying
cells rather than within differentiated cells, which are rapidly eliminated before the next mutation can strike. Alternatively, oncogenic mutations can occur within differentiated epithelial cells,
such as hepatocytes, which are capable of proliferation and are
sufficiently long lived to allow subsequent mutational hits.
It has been suggested that an inflammatory microenvironment
can increase mutation rates, in addition to enhancing the proliferation of mutated cells. Activated inflammatory cells serve as
sources of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen
intermediates (RNI) that are capable of inducing DNA damage
and genomic instability (Figure 3A). However, it is not clear
whether ROS and RNI produced and released by neutrophils
or macrophages (mainly during acute inflammation) are sufficiently long lived to diffuse through the extracellular matrix, enter
epithelial cells, cross their cytoplasm, enter the nucleus, and
react with DNA packaged into chromatin. Alternatively, inflammatory cells may use cytokines such as TNF-a to stimulate
ROS accumulation in neighboring epithelial cells (Figure 3A). It
has therefore been debated whether immune-mediated mechanisms as opposed to dietary and environmental mutagens are
the critical driving forces behind tumor initiation (Hussain et al.,
2003). Nonetheless, p53 mutations, presumably caused by
oxidative damage, were found in both cancer cells and in inflamed, but nondysplastic, epithelium in CAC, suggesting that
chronic inflammation causes genomic changes (Kraus and
Arber, 2009). Chronic inflammation triggered by the colonic irritant dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) may induce DNA damage
that gives rise to colonic adenomas (Meira et al., 2008). However,
on its own DSS is a poor carcinogen (Okayasu et al., 1996).
Inflammation-induced mutagenesis may also result in inactivation or repression of mismatch repair response genes, and
ROS can also cause direct oxidative inactivation of mismatch
repair enzymes (Colotta et al., 2009; Hussain et al., 2003).
Once the mismatch repair system has been dismantled, inflammation-induced mutagenesis is enhanced and several important
tumor suppressors, such as Tgfbr2 and Bax, which harbor microsatellite sequences, may be inactivated (Colotta et al., 2009).
Another mechanism linking inflammation to oncogenic mutations is upregulation of activation-induced cytidine deaminase
(AID), an enzyme that promotes immunoglobulin gene class
switching by catalyzing deamination of cytosines in DNA
(Okazaki et al., 2007). In addition to B cells, where it was discovered, AID is overexpressed in many cancers of diverse origins,
and its expression is induced by inflammatory cytokines in an
NF-kB-dependent manner or by TGFb (Okazaki et al., 2007).
AID induces genomic instability and increases mutation
Figure 2. The Multifaceted Role of Inflammation in Cancer
Inflammation acts at all stages of tumorigenesis. It may contribute to tumor
initiation through mutations, genomic instability, and epigenetic modifications.
Inflammation activates tissue repair responses, induces proliferation of
premalignant cells, and enhances their survival. Inflammation also stimulates
angiogenesis, causes localized immunosuppression, and promotes the forma-
tion of a hospitable microenvironment in which premalignant cells can survive,
expand, and accumulate additional mutations and epigenetic changes. Eventually, inflammation also promotes metastatic spread. Mutated cells are
marked with ‘‘X.’’ Yellow, stromal cells; brown, malignant cells; red, blood
vessels; blue, immune and inflammatory cells. EMT, epithelial-mesenchymal
transition; ROS, reactive oxygen species; RNI, reactive nitrogen intermediates.
Figure 3. Role of Inflammation in Tumor Initiation and Promotion
(A) Tumor initiation. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen
intermediates (RNI) produced by inflammatory cells may cause mutations in
neighboring epithelial cells. Also, cytokines produced by inflammatory cells
can elevate intracellular ROS and RNI in premalignant cells. In addition, inflammation can result in epigenetic changes that favor tumor initiation. Tumorassociated inflammation contributes to further ROS, RNI, and cytokine
production.
(B) Tumor promotion. Cytokines produced by tumor-infiltrating immune cells
activate key transcription factors, such as NF-kB or STAT3, in premalignant
cells to control numerous protumorigenic processes, including survival, proliferation, growth, angiogenesis, and invasion. As parts of positive feed-forward
loops, NF-kB and STAT3 induce production of chemokines that attract additional immune/inflammatory cells to sustain tumor-associated inflammation.
probability during error-prone joining of double-stranded DNA
breaks, a process found to introduce mutations into critical
cancer genes, including Tp53, c-Myc, and Bcl-6 (Colotta et al.,
2009). AID contributes to formation of lymphomas and gastric
and liver cancers (Okazaki et al., 2007; Takai et al., 2009). Other
mechanisms of inflammation-induced mutagenesis have also
been suggested, including effects of inflammation on nonhomologous recombination and NF-kB-mediated inactivation of p53dependent genome surveillance (Colotta et al., 2009).
In Gia2 knockout mice, which develop spontaneous colonic
inflammation and cancer, enterocytes selectively lose expres-
sion of components involved in mismatch repair, namely MLH1
and PMS2, as a result of histone deacetylase- and DEC-1-mediated epigenetic repression of the Mlh1 promoter (Edwards et al.,
2009). Other findings implicate epigenetic mechanisms,
including microRNA-based silencing and DNA methylation, in
inactivation of tumor suppressors, such as INK4a and APC, and
other changes that accompany tumor initiation (Cooper and
Foster, 2009). Recently, inflammation has been connected to
epigenetic reprogramming by the JmjC-domain protein Jmjd3,
which is encoded by an NF-kB target gene (De Santa et al.,
2007). In inflammation-associated intestinal cancer in Gpx1/2
knockout mice, inflammation induces DNA methyltransferase
(DNMT)-dependent DNA methylation and silencing of a large
cohort of Polycomb group target genes, some of which are also
silenced by methylation in human colon cancer (Hahn et al.,
2008). However, it remains to be shown that any of these inflammation-induced epigenetic mechanisms actually make a critical
contribution to tumor initiation, either in a suitable mouse model
or through prospective analysis of human specimens.
Another mechanism through which inflammation may
enhance tumor initiation is the production of growth factors
and cytokines that can confer a stem cell-like phenotype upon
tumor progenitors or stimulate stem cell expansion, thereby
enlarging the cell pool that is targeted by environmental mutagens. Indeed, STAT3 is linked to both stem cell reprogramming
and stem cell renewal (Chen et al., 2008), whereas NF-kB can
enhance Wnt/b-catenin signaling in colonic crypts (Umar et al.,
2009). The proinflammatory cytokine TNF-a promotes nuclear
entry of b-catenin during inflammation-associated gastric
cancer in the absence of any mutations in Wnt/b-catenin
pathway components (Oguma et al., 2008).
The connection between inflammation and tumor initiation is
not a one-way street, and there is also evidence that DNA
damage can lead to inflammation and thereby promote tumorigenesis. One of the best examples is provided by the model of
hepatocellular carcinoma induced by the carcinogen diethylnitrosamine (DEN), in which DNA damage contributes to necrotic
cell death, resulting in an inflammatory reaction that promotes
tumor development (Maeda et al., 2005; Sakurai et al., 2008). A
number of oncoproteins (Ras, Myc, RET) can activate signaling
pathways that drive production of proinflammatory cytokines
and chemokines (IL-6, IL-8, IL-1b, CCL2, CCL20) (Mantovani
et al., 2008). Genotoxic stress can also induce expression of
NKG2D family members, which serve as ligands for NK and
gdT cell receptors (Strid et al., 2008), resulting in either elimination of stressed cells or a local inflammatory response. In the
same vein, mosaic deletion of the DNA repair gene ATR and
Tp53 in the skin results in recruitment of CD11b+Gr1+ myeloid
cells, as a part of a prototypical immune response to ‘‘altered
self’’ (Ruzankina et al., 2009). Defective DNA repair caused by
a deficiency of the Fen1 exonuclease also results in a tumorpromoting inflammatory response that is driven by damaged
DNA, most likely through activation of a pattern recognition
receptor (Zheng et al., 2007).
Inflammation and Tumor Promotion
Tumor promotion is the process of tumor growth from a single
initiated cell into a fully developed primary tumor. Initial tumor
growth depends on increased cell proliferation and reduced cell
death, both of which are stimulated by inflammation-driven
mechanisms. In fact, many of the enhancing effects of inflammation on cancer are exerted at the level of tumor promotion, and
most known tumor promoters, for instance phorbol esters, are
potent inducers of inflammation (Karin, 2006). Inflammationinduced tumor promotion may occur early or late in tumor development and can lead to activation of premalignant lesions
that were dormant for many years. The mechanisms through
which inflammation affects tumor promotion are numerous
and, in addition to increased proliferation and enhanced survival,
can also involve the so-called angiogenic switch, which
allows a small dormant tumor to receive the blood supply necessary for the next growth phase (Lewis and Pollard, 2006).
Mechanisms of inflammation-driven tumor promotion are
discussed below.
Tumor-Promoting Cytokine Signaling
Production of tumor-promoting cytokines by immune/inflammatory cells that activate transcription factors, such as NF-kB,
STAT3, and AP-1, in premalignant cells to induce genes that
stimulate cell proliferation and survival is a major tumorpromoting mechanism (Figure 3B). Initial evidence for inflammation-mediated tumor promotion came from mouse models of
skin, colon, and liver cancer. Although counterintuitive at the
time, TNF-a was found to be required for two-stage skin carcinogenesis (Moore et al., 1999). TNF-a activates both AP-1 and
NF-kB transcription factors, but in the skin its tumor-promoting
effects are mediated by AP-1 (Eferl and Wagner, 2003), which
was identified as a transcription factor whose activity is stimulated by the classic tumor promoter tetradecanoyl phorbol
acetate (TPA) (Angel et al., 1987). By contrast, NF-kB inhibits
the development of skin cancer (Zhang et al., 2004). Thus,
although a given cytokine may activate several transcription
factors, its tumor-promoting activity may be mediated by only
one of them and antagonized by another. As discussed below,
a similar situation may apply to liver cancer. Among the different
transcription factors that are part of this mechanism, NF-kB and
STAT3 are activated in the majority of cancers and act as
nonclassical oncogenes, whose activation in malignant cells is
rarely the result of direct mutations, and instead depends on
signals produced by neighboring cells or more rarely on mutational activation of upstream signaling components. NF-kB and
STAT3 activate genes that control cell survival, proliferation,
and growth, as well as angiogenesis, invasiveness, motility, chemokine, and cytokine production (Grivennikov and Karin, 2010;
Yu et al., 2009).
Oncogenic transcription factors can also be activated through
pattern recognition receptors by components of bacteria and
viruses (Rakoff-Nahoum and Medzhitov, 2009). However, the
overall contribution of pattern recognition receptors on epithelial
cells versus those expressed by immune/inflammatory cells to
tumor promotion is far from being clear and will require the analysis of cell-type-specific knockout mice. Even the specific
agonists that activate these receptors in cancer are not defined.
Nonetheless, the role of the cytokines that are produced in
response to danger-associated (DAMP) or pathogen-associated
(PAMP) molecular patterns in tumor development is more
firmly established. For example, AP-1 activation in skin cancer
is largely dependent on TNF-TNFR1 signaling (Balkwill, 2009),
whereas STAT3 activation in cancer cells is largely dependent
on a plethora of growth factors and cytokines, including IL-6,
IL-11, IL-22, HGF, and EGF, and on oncogenic tyrosine kinases,
such as c-Met and Src (Bollrath et al., 2009; Grivennikov et al.,
2009; Naugler et al., 2007; Yu et al., 2009).
The first critical genetic evidence for inflammatory cells as
a source of tumor-promoting cytokines was obtained in a mouse
model of CAC, where inactivation of NF-kB in myeloid cells
reduced tumor growth and blocked production of IL-6 and other
cytokines in response to colitis (Greten et al., 2004). Subsequent
work demonstrated that the effect of immune cells (macrophages, T cells) on CAC growth is mediated through IL-6,
IL-11, TNF-a, and IL-1b (Becker et al., 2004; Bollrath et al.,
2009; Grivennikov et al., 2009; Popivanova et al., 2008), as well
as other cytokines, such as IL-23. IL-11 plays a similar role in
gastric cancer (Ernst et al., 2008), in which IL-1b is also a tumor
promoter (Tu et al., 2008). TNF-a also promotes HCC in mice
lacking the P-glycoprotein Mdr2, which develop cholestatic
inflammation followed by hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC)
(Pikarsky et al., 2004). HCC can also be promoted by another
member of the TNF family, lymphotoxin b (Haybaeck et al.,
2009). TNF-a along with IL-6 contributes to obesity-mediated
tumor promotion in HCC (Park et al., 2010). The latter
effect correlates with the ability of TNF-a and IL-6 to promote
hepatosteatosis and steatohepatitis (Park et al., 2010). One of
the most critical tumor-promoting cytokines in HCC is IL-6.
Mice deficient in IL-6 develop much less HCC in response to
the chemical procarcinogen DEN, and the gender-biased
production of IL-6 accounts for the much higher HCC load in
males (Naugler et al., 2007). High levels of circulating IL-6 are
associated with HCC risk factors, including hepatosteatosis,
obesity, and liver cirrhosis, and are the best predictors of
rapid progression from viral hepatitis to HCC in humans (Wong
et al., 2009).
In CAC and HCC, the tumor-promoting effect of IL-6 is mainly
exerted via STAT3, whose cell-type-specific inactivation in
hepatocytes and enterocytes inhibits the development of these
malignancies in mice treated with DEN or azoxymethane
(AOM) and DSS, respectively (Bollrath et al., 2009; Grivennikov
et al., 2009; Park et al., 2010). Development of CAC in mice is
also dependent on IKKb-mediated NF-kB activation in enterocytes, whose major function in this model is increased survival
of premalignant cells (Greten et al., 2004). A similar role was
proposed for NF-kB in HCC development in mice deficient in
Mdr2 and in lymphotoxin-transgenic mice, both of which exhibit
chronic liver inflammation (Haybaeck et al., 2009). However, in
the DEN model of HCC and Helicobacter-driven gastric cancer,
NF-kB promotes hepatocyte and epithelial cell survival and acts
as an inhibitor of tumor development (Maeda et al., 2005;
Shibata et al., 2010). Most likely, the diverse effects of NF-kB
in different models are determined by the mechanism of tumor
induction and the type of inflammatory response involved in
tumor promotion. Mdr2 knockout and lymphotoxin-transgenic
mice exhibit a very low level of normal hepatocyte death, which
is not enhanced by the absence of NF-kB (Haybaeck et al., 2009;
Pikarsky et al., 2004). In these mice, NF-kB in hepatocytes is
mainly responsible for propagating inflammation through induction of chemokines, which recruit immune/inflammatory cells
into the liver. By contrast, DEN-treated mice exhibit an acute
inflammatory response triggered by IL-1a release from necrotic
hepatocytes (Sakurai et al., 2008). IL-1a induces IL-6 production
by Kupffer cells, and this response drives the compensatory
proliferation of surviving hepatocytes (a type of a wound-healing
response); the greater the amount of cell death, the greater the
regenerative response. By suppressing accumulation of ROS
and preventing hepatocyte necrosis, NF-kB inhibits HCC induction in DEN-treated mice (Maeda et al., 2005).
Another tumor-promoting cytokine is IL-23 (Langowski et al.,
2006). IL-23 is mostly expressed by TAMs in a manner dependent on STAT3 and NF-kB (Kortylewski et al., 2009). IL-23
blockade with neutralizing antibodies or genetic inactivation
of the IL-23p19 gene dramatically decreases tumor multiplicity
and growth in the two-step model of skin carcinogenesis
(Langowski et al., 2006). In part, the protumorigenic effects
of IL-23 may be mediated by IL-17 and IL-22 production by
Th17 cells, but other effects of IL-23 on CTLs, Tregs, and
myeloid cells should not be discounted. A close relative of
IL-23 is IL-12, which shares with IL-23 the IL-12p40 subunit
and is involved in Th1 differentiation, IFNg production, and
activation of antitumor immunity (Trinchieri et al., 2003). Secretion of IL-23 and IL-12 is reciprocally regulated, and the switch
from IL-12 to IL-23 production may be an important tumorpromoting event. STAT3 activation, PGE2, ATP, and lactic
acid increase IL-23 production by TAMs (Kortylewski et al.,
2009; Shime et al., 2008). The latter two agonists link cancer
cell necrosis (induced by hypoxia or therapy) and the Warburg
effect (the switch from oxidative phosphorylation to glycolysis)
to IL-23 production, thereby shifting antitumor immunity to
tumor promotion.
A similar circuit can be executed by myeloid-derived
suppressor cells (MDSC) that produce arginase1 and indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase, which are enzymes that dampen antitumor immunity through interference with T cell activation (Gabrilovich and Nagaraj, 2009). Taken together, tumor-associated
inflammation drives tumor growth and angiogenesis and can
perpetuate itself through an extensive network of cytokines
and chemokines, which are produced by immune, stromal, and
malignant cells in response to diverse signals (Figure 3B).
Given that several cytokines (IL-1, TNF, IL-6, IL-23) and transcription factors (AP-1, NF-kB, STAT3) are critical for both
inflammation and tumor growth, they control hubs of protumorigenic signaling that may be targeted to curtail both tumorassociated inflammation and tumor growth (see below). Pharmacological interference with cytokine signaling decreases
tumorigenesis as well as cancer growth (Becker et al., 2004;
Grivennikov et al., 2009; Hedvat et al., 2009) and may therefore
serve as a basis for preventive and therapeutic approaches.
Altogether, cytokine production by immune and inflammatory
cells is an important tumor-promoting mechanism that provides
malignant cells with a continuous supply of growth and survival
signals in an initially hostile microenvironment. In most cases,
tumor-promoting cytokines act in a paracrine manner, yet
several types of cancer cells produce their own cytokines,
including IL-6, to achieve the same effect (Gao et al., 2007).
Inflammation and Angiogenesis
Growth of large tumors requires an increased intratumoral blood
supply. This is triggered by tumor hypoxia, which promotes
angiogenesis and increases the probability of metastasis. In
addition to hypoxia, tumor angiogenesis depends on recruitment
of TAMs, which sense hypoxic signals and in turn produce
chemokines and proangiogenic factors. Recruitment of TAM
precursors is largely dependent on angiogenic mediators such
as angiopoetin 2 and vascular endothelial growth factor
(VEGF). Important proangiogenic genes, such as IL-8, CXCL1,
CXCL8, VEGF, and hypoxia-inducible factor 1 alpha (HIF1a),
are directly regulated by NF-kB, STAT3, and AP-1 in TAMs,
MDSCs, and other cell types (Kujawski et al., 2008; Rius et al.,
2008).
Under hypoxic conditions, HIF-1a stimulates expression of
CXCL12, which activates and recruits endothelial cells in
a CXCR4-dependent manner (Sica et al., 2008). Formation of
new lymphatic vessels is regulated by VEGF-C and VEGF-D,
whereas VEGF-A facilitates the recruitment of monocytes, which
activate lymphoangiogenesis (Murdoch et al., 2008). VEGF-A
produced by myeloid cells also inhibits pericyte maturation
and endothelial coverage of newly formed blood vessels, and
its conditional ablation accelerates tumorigenesis (Stockmann
et al., 2008). The recruitment of Gr1+ myeloid cells (presumably
MDSC and TAM precursors) into tumors curtails the effects of
anti-VEGF therapy, presumably bypassing the requirement for
local VEGF production by cancer cells for recruitment of TAM
precursors (Shojaei et al., 2007). As most growing tumors
contain some areas of hypoxia, it is not clear whether hypoxia
is the direct driver of tumor angiogenesis or whether hypoxic
stimuli generate inflammatory signals that drive angiogenesis.
Inactivation of NF-kB or STAT3, neutralization of CCL2 or
CXCL12, or TAM depletion unequivocally results in disrupted
angiogenesis and decreased tumor growth, underscoring the
critical role of inflammatory mediators in tumor angiogenesis
(Joyce and Pollard, 2009; Kujawski et al., 2008).
Target Genes that Mediate Tumor Promotion
Most of the genes that mediate the tumor-promoting functions of
NF-kB, STAT3, and AP-1 have not been fully defined, and most
likely the protumorigenic effects of these transcription factors
are exerted through multiple effectors. Some targets may be
controlled by more than one transcription factor and may be
more important in one cell type than in another. The expression
of the antiapoptotic proteins Bcl-2 and Bcl-XL, for instance, is
promoted by both NF-kB and STAT3, as is the expression of
c-IAP1, c-IAP2, Mcl-1, c-FLIP, and survivin (Karin, 2006; Yu
et al., 2007). Whereas Bcl-XL may be the most prominent antiapoptotic gene in enterocytes (Greten et al., 2004), c-FLIP seems
to fulfill the same function in hepatocytes (Chang et al., 2006).
Both NF- kB and STAT3 interfere with p53 synthesis and attenuate p53-mediated genomic surveillance, representing another
potential tumor-promoting mechanism (Colotta et al., 2009).
STAT3 controls expression of cyclins D1, D2, and B, as well as
the proto-oncogene c-Myc, and through them it may stimulate
cell proliferation (Bollrath et al., 2009; Yu et al., 2007). Although
cyclin D and c-Myc are also thought to be regulated by NF-kB,
inactivation of IKKb in enterocytes does not interfere with cell
proliferation (Greten et al., 2004), and in Ras-transformed keratinocytes (Zhang et al., 2004) or DEN-initiated hepatocytes
(Maeda et al., 2005) NF-kB inhibition actually enhances cyclin
D expression and cell proliferation. The AP-1 protein c-Jun
cooperates with STAT3 in repression of Fas expression by tumor
cells, thereby attenuating their sensitivity to instructive apoptosis
(Eferl and Wagner, 2003). Additional NF-kB and STAT3 targets
control cell and tissue resistance to stress and injury and include
antimicrobial proteins (RegIIIb, RegIIIg, Tff3), heat shock
proteins, and antioxidants, such as superoxide dismutase 2
(SOD2) and ferritin heavy chain (FHC) (Bollrath et al., 2009; Karin,
2006).
Lastly, another category of target genes that promote tumorigenesis are chemokines and cytokines that act in autocrine or
paracrine manners to ensure the continuous recruitment of
inflammatory cells into the tumor microenvironment. The perpetuation of chronic inflammation is largely achieved through positive feedback loops, which include inflammatory cells producing
cytokines that induce chemokine synthesis in malignant and
stromal cells leading to prolonged recruitment of inflammatory
cells into the tumor microenvironment (Figure 3). TAMs, MDSCs,
Tregs, and Th17 cells are the most critical immune cell subsets in
this respect. Recruitment of myeloid cells is governed by multiple
pathways, including CCL2-CCR2, CCL1-CXCR2, S100A
proteins-RAGE, and IL-1-IL-1R interactions (Bonecchi et al.,
2009). Signaling through CCR6 is critical for Th17 infiltration,
whereas Treg cells are attracted mostly through CCR4 and
CCR7 (Bonecchi et al., 2009). In some cases, the critical chemokines are not produced by cancer cells but are induced in tumorassociated fibroblasts upon interaction with carcinoma cells
(Liao et al., 2009; Orimo et al., 2005; Orimo and Weinberg, 2006).
Inflammation and Lymphoid Malignancies
Chronic inflammatory conditions are also associated with
lymphoid malignancies. An excellent example is provided by
mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) lymphomas, which
occur in the context of chronic inflammation caused by infectious agents, such as Helicobacter pylori (the most commonly
found gastric lymphoma), Chlamydia psittacii (ocular adnexal
MALT lymphoma), and Borrelia burgdorferi (cutaneous MALT
lymphoma) (Ferreri et al., 2009). Another example is EpsteinBarr virus (EBV), which is responsible for large B cell lymphoma
in immunocompromised patients, Burkitt’s lymphoma, and
Hodgkin’s lymphoma (Ferreri et al., 2009).
It has been proposed that repeated antigenic stimulation,
autoimmunity, and inflammation are risk factors for chronic
lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), the most common hematopoietic
malignancy that accounts for 30% of all leukemias (Chiorazzi
et al., 2005). One mechanism through which such stimuli
promote CLL development is induction of B cell activating factor
(BAFF), a member of the TNF family, recently shown to accelerate development of CLL-like disease in mice (Enzler et al.,
2009). Cytokines (such as IL-4 and VEGF), chemokines (such
as SDF-1), and interactions with bone marrow stromal cells
support CLL expansion and suppress apoptosis through upregulation of Bcl-2, survivin, and MCL-1 (Granziero et al., 2001;
Pedersen et al., 2002). This occurs in lymph node pseudofollicles
and bone marrow clusters where leukemic cells interact with
components of the inflammatory microenvironment that
support their survival. Another example for the role of inflammation in lymphoid malignancies are the lymphomas that appear in
GM-CSF- and IFNg-deficient mice, which are caused by
infections and regress upon treatment with antibiotics (Enzler
et al., 2003).
A similar situation may occur in multiple myeloma. Through
secretion of IL-6, IGF-1, VEGF, TNF-a, SDF-1, and BAFF,
stromal elements promote the survival and migration of
neoplastic plasma cells and also confer drug resistance (Kastritis
et al., 2009). IL-6 is of particular importance, as it acts both in
paracrine and autocrine manners, and IL-6-deficient mice are
resistant to induction of multiple myeloma (Hodge et al., 2005).
Despite constitutive NF-kB activation, multiple myeloma
remains dependent on extrinsic factors, and drugs targeting
IL-6 are being evaluated in combination with the proteasome
inhibitor bortezomib for the treatment of this malignancy (Kastritis et al., 2009).
Inflammation and Metastasis
From a clinical perspective, metastasis is the most critical aspect
of tumorigenesis, because over 90% of cancer mortality is
caused by metastasis. Recent studies unambiguously show
that metastasis requires close collaboration between cancer
cells, immune and inflammatory cells, and stromal elements.
The process of metastasis can be grossly divided into four major
steps. The first step is represented by epithelial-mesenchymal
transition, in which cancer cells acquire fibroblastoid characteristics that increase their motility and allow them to invade epithelial linings/basal membranes and reach efferent blood vessels or
lymphatics (Kalluri and Weinberg, 2009). Loss of E-cadherin
expression is envisioned as a key event in the epithelial-mesenchymal transition. In the second step, cancer cells intravasate
into blood vessels and lymphatics. Inflammation may promote
this through production of mediators that increase vascular
permeability. This is followed by the third step, in which metastasis-initiating cells survive and travel throughout the circulation.
It has been estimated that only about 0.01% of cancer cells that
enter the circulation will eventually survive and give rise to micrometastases (Joyce and Pollard, 2009). Next, integrin-mediated
arrest allows the extravasation of circulating cancer cells. Finally,
single metastatic progenitors interact with immune, inflammatory, and stromal cells and start to proliferate (Polyak and Weinberg, 2009). Some of these cells may already be targeted to the
premetastatic niche in response to tumor-generated inflammatory signals prior to the arrival of metastasis-initiating cancer
cells (Kaplan et al., 2005). One of these inflammatory signals is
the extracellular matrix component versican, which leads to
macrophage activation and production of the metastasispromoting cytokine TNF-a (Kim et al., 2009). However, it has
been difficult to determine whether versican production by metastatic cancer cells conditions the future metastatic site prior to
their arrival.
TGFb is an anti-inflammatory cytokine produced by cancer
cells, myeloid cells, and T lymphocytes. TGFb signaling is an
important regulator of the epithelial-mesenchymal transition
and metastasis, and elevated TGFb is often associated with
poor prognosis (Yang and Weinberg, 2008). TGFb activates
SMAD transcription factors and MAPKs, which control expression of other regulators of the epithelial-mesenchymal transition,
such as Slug (Yang and Weinberg, 2008). TGFb, however, also
suppresses epithelial cell proliferation and early tumor growth,
causing some tumors to acquire inactivating mutations in
TGFb signaling components (Yang and Weinberg, 2008).
Despite the defects in TGFb signaling, such tumors can still
metastasize. These opposing effects of TGFb at different stages
of tumor development await mechanistic explanation. Disruption
of TGFb signaling in cancer cells also results in upregulation of
the SDF1 (CXCL12)-CXCR4 and CXCL5-CXCR2 chemokinechemokine receptor pairs and induces rapid recruitment of
MDSCs that promote metastasis and dampen antitumor immune
responses (Yang et al., 2008). Inactivation of TGFb signaling was
proposed to result in elevated local TGFb concentrations that
inhibit antitumor T cell responses and induce differentiation of
tumor-promoting Th17 cells (Langowski et al., 2007).
Another critical regulator of the epithelial-mesenchymal transition is Snail, a repressor of E-cadherin transcription in epithelial
cells. Recent findings suggest that Snail is stabilized in response
to TNF-a signaling, a process that is critical for cancer cell migration and metastasis (Wu et al., 2009b). Other mechanisms
through which proinflammatory cytokines can affect the epithelial-mesenchymal transition is via STAT3-mediated induction of
Twist transcription and NF-kB-mediated induction of both Twist
and Kiss (Yu et al., 2009). However, these mechanisms remain to
be confirmed in vivo, and a recent report suggests that STAT3 is
a negative regulator of adenoma-carcinoma transition in colon
cancer (Musteanu et al., 2010).
Cancer cell invasion requires extensive proteolysis of the
extracellular matrix at the invasive front. Inflammatory cells are
important sources of proteases that degrade the extracellular
matrix. In a model of invasive colon cancer, CCR1+ myeloid
cells, whose recruitment is driven by the chemokine CCL9
produced by cancer cells, promote invasiveness through secretion of the matrix metalloproteinases MMP2 and MMP9
(Kitamura et al., 2007). IL-1, TNF-a, and IL-6 promote MMP
expression, invasiveness, and metastasis via NF-kB and STAT3
(Yu et al., 2007).
A different metastatic mechanism dependent on IKKa operates in prostate and breast cancers. As these cancers progress,
their malignant cells progressively accumulate activated IKKa in
their nuclei (Luo et al., 2007). In prostate cancer, accumulation of
activated nuclear IKKa correlates with reduced expression of
maspin, an inhibitor of metastasis (Luo et al., 2007). IKKa activation in metastatic prostate and mammary cancer cells is mediated by members of the TNF family, namely lymphotoxin and
RANKL, and its repressive effects on maspin transcription are
NF-kB independent (Luo et al., 2007). How these lymphocytes
are recruited into progressing breast and prostate tumors is still
unknown. Recruitment of such cells may be a consequence of
tumor necrosis, but as mentioned above certain carcinomas
actively secrete factors that upregulate fibronectin and cause
migration of VEGF receptor 1 (VEGFR1)-positive hematopoietic
progenitors to the premetastatic niche (Kaplan et al., 2005).
However, the premetastatic niche concept is somewhat mysterious as it is not clear how primary tumor cells direct inflammatory cells to such sites.
Alternatively, a small number of metastatic cells can interact
with and activate different myeloid cell types through secreted
factors such as versican (Kim et al., 2009). Breast cancer cells
use CSF1 and CXCL12 to induce the recruitment of TAMs,
which in turn produce EGF receptor (EGFR) ligands (Joyce
and Pollard, 2009). These cytokines may also mediate a physical
interaction between TAMs and carcinoma cells (Condeelis and
Pollard, 2006). TAMs can be also ‘‘programmed’’ by tumor-infiltrating T cells, particularly Th17 cells (Wang et al., 2009) and
Th2 cells (DeNardo et al., 2009). IL-13 and IL-4 produced by
tumor-infiltrating CD4+ T cells stimulate the M1 to M2 transition
of TAMs and thereby support pulmonary metastasis of mammary cancer cells (DeNardo et al., 2009). Depletion of TAMs
(Joyce and Pollard, 2009) or CD4+ T cells (DeNardo et al.,
2009) dramatically reduces metastasis of mouse mammary
cancer.
Once metastatic cells enter the circulation, they need to
survive in suspension and resist detachment-induced cell death
or anoikis. The survival of circulating cancer cells is affected by
inflammatory mediators released by immune cells in response
to cancer-derived or pathogen-derived stimuli (Kim et al.,
2009; Luo et al., 2004). Some of these effects depend on activation of NF-kB in either inflammatory cells or cancer cells. A
variety of cytokines present in the tumor microenvironment,
including TNF-a, IL-6, and epiregulin, can promote the survival
of circulating metastatic seeds (Nguyen et al., 2009). In addition
to NF-kB and STAT3 activation, some of these cytokines can
physically link cancer cells to TAMs, allowing them to travel
together throughout the circulation (Condeelis and Pollard,
2006). On the other hand, single metastatic cells, which are no
longer present within an immunosuppressive environment,
may be targeted again by immunosurveillance. Indeed, in
some cases, infiltration of tumors by activated T cells decreases
the rate of metastasis (Galon et al., 2006; Page`s et al., 2005). The
interaction of circulating cancer cells with platelets or macrophages may protect them from NK cell-mediated killing, thereby
overcoming immunosurveillance (Palumbo et al., 2007).
Intravasation is regulated by prostaglandins (which are
produced in a COX2-dependent manner and act on the epithelium), by cytokines (such as epiregulin, which increases cancer
cell survival), and by MMPs (which clear the way for the latter
to migrate into capillaries) (Nguyen et al., 2009). The migration
of metastasis-initiating cells is not random and is directed by
chemokine gradients sensed via CXCR4, CCR4, CCR7, CCR9,
and CCR10 (Bonecchi et al., 2009).
The journey of the circulating metastatic seed ends upon integrin-dependent arrest on the endothelium, followed by extravasation. Molecules like ANGPTL4, which is regulated by TGFb,
facilitate extravasation into lungs by mediating contact between
malignant and endothelial cells (Nguyen et al., 2009). Systemic
inflammation enhances attachment of circulating cancer cells
to hepatic sinusoids, and this process is governed by neutrophil-dependent upregulation of adhesion molecules (McDonald
et al., 2009). Several proinflammatory cytokines that are elevated
in the circulation of cancer patients upregulate expression of
adhesion molecules on the endothelium or in target organs and
thereby increase the probability of metastatic cell attachment
(Mantovani et al., 2008).
Immunity and Tumorigenesis
As discussed above, in tumors that arise in the context of underlying inflammation or in advanced tumors containing inflammatory infiltrates, the net effect of the immune system (both innate
and adaptive) is stimulation of tumor growth and progression.
However, cancer cells represent an ‘‘altered self’’ and express
‘‘non-self’’ antigens in the context of stress and danger signals
that can promote antigen presentation. Thus, even growing
tumors may be subject to immunosurveillance and killing by activated T and NK cells (Dunn et al., 2004). It is likely that immunosurveillance and tumor-promoting inflammation can coexist
even in the same tumor (Bui and Schreiber, 2007) (Figure 4A).
According to the immunosurveillance hypothesis, NK cells and
CTLs engage in tumor killing (via perforin, granzyme B, TRAIL, or
FasL-dependent mechanisms), whereas Th1 (by virtue of IFNg
production) and in some instances Th17 cells (via production
of IL-17A) provide important help that boosts cytotoxic immunity
(Dunn et al., 2004, 2006; Martin-Orozco et al., 2009). On the other
hand, Tregs suppress antitumor immune responses and are
therefore protumorigenic (Dunn et al., 2004). NKT cells can
also be involved in surveillance of hematopoietic and chemically
induced tumors (Crowe et al., 2005; Smyth et al., 2000; Swann
et al., 2009). Other critical components of this system are
dendritic cells and macrophages, which present antigens and
respond to danger and stress signals, as well as immunoregulatory and cytotoxic cytokines, such as type I IFN, IFNg, FasL,
TRAIL, GM-CSF, and IL-12 (Palucka et al., 2007; Smyth et al.,
2006; Swann and Smyth, 2007).
The first experimental demonstration of tumor immunosurveillance came from analysis of Rag2-deficient mice, which lack
mature lymphocytes. These mice show enhanced development
of a variety of spontaneous cancers by 14–16 months of age
(Shankaran et al., 2001). However, even in immunocompromised
mice, tumor development occurs in their postreproductive
period, suggesting that the mammalian immune system is not
subjected to substantial evolutionary pressure to improve tumor
recognition and elimination. Yet, in virally or bacterially promoted
cancers, the immune system provides considerable protection
through its ability to recognize and eliminate microbes (Smyth
et al., 2006). Inactivation of various components of the immunosurveillance system, such as perforin, granzyme, and interferon
signaling, renders mice susceptible to tumorigenesis (Bui and
Schreiber, 2007; Dunn et al., 2004). Mice lacking cytotoxic cytokines, such as membrane-bound forms of FasL or TRAIL, also
show enhanced development of sarcomas and other tumors
(O’Reilly et al., 2009; Smyth et al., 2003).
More evidence for tumor immunosurveillance and immunoediting comes from the presence of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (both T and B lymphocytes) that recognize tumor antigens
and the favorable prognosis for some patients whose tumors
display increased infiltration with activated T cells (Dunn et al.,
2004). Such infiltration is even more noticeable in tumors that
develop microsatellite instability or have a ‘‘mutator’’ phenotype
and therefore express tumor antigens that exhibit greater differences from normal counterparts (Buckowitz et al., 2005; Guidoboni et al., 2001). Additional but indirect evidence for antitumor
immunity includes various cases of spontaneous tumor regression accompanied by increased infiltration of activated cytotoxic
Figure 4. Immunosurveillance, Tumor-Promoting Inflammation, and
Therapy-Induced Inflammation
(A) Balance between immunosurveillance and tumor-promoting inflammation
in the tumor microenvironment. Tumor-promoting cytokines act on immune
and malignant cells to tilt the balance toward tumor promotion. Tumorpromoting immunity dampens immunosurveillance, which otherwise inhibits
tumor growth.
(B) Therapy-induced inflammation. Various forms of therapy induce death
(necrosis) of malignant cells resulting in the release of necrotic products and
DAMPs that activate cytokine-producing inflammatory cells. These cytokines
activate prosurvival genes in residual cancer cells, rendering them resistant to
subsequent rounds of therapy. However, in some cases, therapy-induced
inflammation augments the presentation of tumor antigens and stimulates
an antitumor immune response that improves the therapeutic outcome.
cells and presence of antibodies and T cells that recognize tumor
antigens (Swann and Smyth, 2007). The latter suggests that
B and T lymphocytes have been activated by tumor-specific
antigens but does not necessarily mean that these cells are
responsible for tumor regression. Additional evidence is provided by the increased risk of lymphomas (of viral and nonviral
etiology) and some solid tumors in immunosuppressed patients
(Swann and Smyth, 2007).
Nonetheless, in the vast majority of established tumors, the
presence of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes is insufficient for curtailing tumor growth. Such considerations have given rise to
a revised version of the immunosurveillance theory called immunoediting (Dunn et al., 2004; Smyth et al., 2006). According to
this concept, cancer cells constantly edit and modulate the
host antitumor immune response and the host immune response
shapes tumor immunogenicity and clonal selection. During this
process the balance between antitumor and tumor-promoting
immunity can be tilted in favor of tumor growth. Before a tumor
undergoes immune escape, it may be maintained at an ‘‘equilibrium’’ between tumor growth and immune destruction, and this
may account for decades of tumor dormancy (Koebel et al.,
2007). To tilt the balance in its favor, it is proposed that the
cancer cell edits its repertoire of tumor antigens toward lower
immunogenicity and also reshapes the tumor microenvironment
to become immunosuppressive. Consistent with this hypothesis,
cancers that have evolved in alymphocytic mice are more
immunogenic than cancers grown in immunocompetent mice
(Shankaran et al., 2001).
Therapy-Induced Inflammation—Friend or Foe?
Surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation are currently the major
options for cancer treatment. All three induce local or systemic
inflammation triggered by tissue injury and cancer cell death.
Surgery results in activation of infection- or stress-sensing pathways, whereas chemo- and radiotherapy kill cancer cells mostly
through necrosis, a proinflammatory form of cell death (Vakkila
and Lotze, 2004). Inflammatory mediators released by necrotic
cells include danger-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs)
such as ATP, nucleic acids, heat shock proteins (Hsp70),
HMGB-1, S100 calcium binding proteins, and the cytokine IL1a. A key question is whether therapy-induced inflammation
stimulates the regrowth of residual malignant cells or whether
it improves the therapeutic outcome (Figure 4B). In support of
the first possibility, inhibition of autophagy in apoptosis-deficient
tumors stimulates tumor growth through induction of necrosis
and tumor-associated sterile inflammation (Degenhardt et al.,
2006). Tumor growth may also be stimulated in response to
hypoxia-induced necrosis in the tumor’s core (Figure 4B). It
has also been found that castration-induced death of
androgen-dependent prostate cancer, despite resulting in initial
tumor regression, triggers an inflammatory response that accelerates the regrowth of castration-resistant cancer (Ammirante
et al., 2010). Hence, inhibition of therapy-induced inflammation
may improve the treatment of prostate cancer and provide the
patient with several more years of tumor-free survival.
However, in the case of more conventional chemotherapy,
therapy-induced inflammation has been found to stimulate
antigen presentation by tumor-infiltrating dendritic cells and to
induce production of cytokines that stimulate adaptive antitumor immunity (Apetoh et al., 2007a; Zhang et al., 2007)
(Figure 4B). Curiously, the inflammatory trigger for this beneficial
response is also the necrotic death of cancer cells, resulting in
the release of HMG-B1 and ATP, which together activate
TLR4 and the inflammasome to stimulate production of IL-1b,
which is critical for adaptive antitumor immunity (Ghiringhelli
et al., 2009). Interestingly, genetic polymorphisms in the TLR4
and P2X7 (the ATP receptor) loci affect the outcome of chemotherapy (Apetoh et al., 2007a; Apetoh et al., 2007b). What makes
tumor necrosis either immunostimulatory or immunosuppressive (Vakkila and Lotze, 2004) is not yet clear. Furthermore,
therapy-induced antitumor immunity is only seen with certain
drugs, including etoposide, oxaliplatin, and doxorubicine, but
not with others (Apetoh et al., 2007a; Ghiringhelli et al., 2009).
As these drugs can also kill infiltrating immune and hematopoietic stem cells, which are necessary for a functional immune
response, effective therapy-induced antitumor immunity
requires the use of small doses of chemotherapy to avoid
immunosuppression. Conversely, by causing the death of
tumor-promoting immune/inflammatory cells, chemo- and
radiotherapy may be used to destroy the tumor-promoting
inflammatory microenvironment.
Anti-inflammatory Drugs in Cancer Therapy
The findings described above provide an improved understanding of the molecular etiology of cancer and lay the foundations for the use of anti-inflammatory drugs in cancer prevention
and therapy. One advantage of targeting the inflammatory
microenvironment is that the normal genome of inflammatory/
immune cells, which, unlike the cancer cell genome, is not
subject to mutational and epigenetic changes that result in
drug resistance. However, in most cases, anti-inflammatory
therapy is not cytocidal on its own and needs to be combined
with more conventional therapies that kill cancer cells.
Despite such limitations, several anti-inflammatory drugs have
been found to reduce tumor incidence when used as prophylactics, as well as to slow down progression and reduce mortality
when used as therapeutics, particularly in the case of sporadic
colon cancer (Gupta and Dubois, 2001). Such drugs include
COX2 inhibitors, aspirin, and anti-inflammatory steroids, such
as dexamethasone. In addition to its well-documented preventive effects in colon cancer, aspirin reduces the incidence of
breast cancer (Gierach et al., 2008) and reduces prostate cancer
risk, but only in individuals that carry a particular polymorphic
allele at the lymphotoxin a locus, which specifies high lymphotoxin production (Liu et al., 2006). Such findings are of general
importance because nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
(NSAIDs), such as aspirin, are not very specific and usually
have side effects that preclude their long-term administration
except in high-risk individuals. Thus, prescreening for individuals
with high cancer risk that are more likely to benefit from such
preventive strategies should greatly improve the efficacy and
utility of cancer prevention.
Tumor-promoting inflammation can be targeted in several
different ways: (1) inhibition of signal transducers and transcription factors that mediate survival and growth of malignant cells in
response to inflammatory cytokines; (2) sequestration of chemokines and cytokines that recruit and sustain inflammatory cells in
the tumor microenvironment; (3) reducing (or augmenting) the
inflammation that follows anticancer therapy; (4) depletion of
immune and inflammatory cells that promote tumor development and progression, while sparing cell types and effector functions that support protective immune responses; (5) selective
inhibition of tumor-promoting cytokines without an effect on
expression of antitumorigenic cytokines.
In a few cases, a therapy targeting inflammation may be effective as a single agent. For instance, constitutive NF-kB or STAT3
activation in certain lymphoid tumors suggests that inhibitors of
these transcription factors can be used as cytocidal agents in
such cancers. However in most cases such therapy is likely to
be effective only in combination with more conventional
approaches. Furthermore, as genotoxic therapies often lead to
NF-kB activation in remaining malignant cells, it makes sense
to combine genotoxic drugs with NF-kB inhibitors as a way to
overcome drug resistance. However, prolonged NF-kB inhibition
can result in a severe immune deficiency and may even lead to
neutrophilia and greatly enhanced acute inflammation due to
enhanced IL-1b secretion (Greten et al., 2007). Such complications as well as increased propensity for liver damage have
hindered the clinical development of NF-kB and IKKb inhibitors.
Another attractive target is the STAT3 transcription factor and
the signaling pathway that leads to its activation (Kortylewski
et al., 2005; Yu et al., 2009). Several STAT3 and JAK2 inhibitors
have been described and shown to inhibit the growth of various
cancers that exhibit STAT3 activation (Hedvat et al., 2009;
Lin et al., 2009). So far, none of the complications associated
with NF-kB inhibition have been reported for STAT3 or JAK2
inhibitors.
Even fewer complications should be expected from drugs that
inhibit receptor binding of protumorigenic cytokines or chemokines. Several anticytokine drugs are already in use for the treatment of chronic inflammatory diseases or are under clinical
development for such usage. Although cytokine inhibitors alone
are unlikely to cause cancer cell death, several phase I/II clinical
trials currently evaluate the efficacy of anti-IL-6 and anti-TNFa drugs as single agents in various cancers (Balkwill, 2009).
The effects obtained so far include disease stabilization and
partial responses, but by and large the therapeutic effects are
modest and underscore the necessity of evaluating such drugs
in combination with conventional therapy. Antichemokine drugs
are also being evaluated, including receptor antagonists and
blocking antibodies, targeting CCR2, CCR4, and CXCR4
(Balkwill, 2009). IL-1 inhibition in multiple myeloma slows tumor
growth and leads to a chronic disease state, thereby preventing
progression to active myeloma (Lust et al., 2009).
Metastasis presents another important application and challenge for drugs that target tumor-associated inflammation.
Recently, an anti-RANKL antibody, which was developed for
the treatment of osteoporosis, has been found effective in inhibition of bone metastasis in prostate cancer (Hurst et al., 2009).
Other experiments done in mice have shown that NF-kB inhibition in metastatic cancer cells or neutralization of TNF-a can
convert inflammation-promoted metastatic growth to inflammation-induced tumor regression, dependent on IFN-induced
TRAIL expression (Luo et al., 2004). Such findings illustrate
how manipulation of cytokine expression can be used to convert
tumor- and metastasis-promoting inflammation to a strong antitumor response.
nisms by which cancer and inflammation intersect, and the
time is right to translate much of the basic knowledge gained
thus far and use it to add new armaments to the arsenal of cancer
therapeutics. Only by targeting every single aspect of cancer
biology can we expect to make real gains in the fight against
these currently incurable diseases. In addition to a combination
of anti-inflammatory approaches that target the tumor microenvironment with more sophisticated and selective tumoricidal
drugs, future therapies should also take notice of the natural
genetic variation that affects inflammation and immunity. Such
considerations are extremely important in the design of new
preventive approaches to the reduction of cancer risk that
need to be applied to large populations composed of relatively
healthy individuals. Indeed, one of the major lessons learned
from investigating the relationships between inflammation and
cancer is that most cancers are preventable. Prevention is
a much better and more economical way to fight cancer than
treating an already advanced and often intractable disease, as
is done at the present.
Conclusions and Perspective
Inflammation can affect every aspect of tumor development and
progression as well as the response to therapy. In the past ten
years, we have learned a great deal about the different mecha-
Balkwill, F. (2009). Tumour necrosis factor and cancer. Nat. Rev. Cancer 9,
361–371.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank E. Koltsova for help with figure preparation. This work was supported
by a Research Fellowship Award from the Crohn’s and Colitis Foundation of
America (CCFA #1762) to S.G; by grants from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, Deutsche Krebshilfe, and the Association for International Cancer
Research to F.R.G.; and by the National Institutes of Health and the American
Association for Cancer Research to M.K., who is an American Cancer Society
Research Professor.
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Review Immunity, Inflammation, and Cancer Leading Edge Sergei I. Grivennikov,

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