Competitiveness Up, Anxiety Down Using a

JOURNAL OF SPORT & EXERCISE PSYCHOLOGY, 1993.15, 110-115
O 1993 Human Kinetics Publishers, Inc.
Competitiveness Up, Anxiety Down
Using a sample of British male collegiate track and field athletes, this article
examined the relationship between sport achievementorientation and state anxiety
as a competition approaches. As predicted, athletes who scored low on competitiveness (i.e., the desire to enter and succeed in sporting events) demonstrated
greater somatic and cognitive anxiety and lower self-confidence than athletes
with high competitiveness. The authors suggest that these findings may be due
to highly competitive athletes regarding competition as more positive, challenging, and stimulating. In contrast, low-competitiveness athletes may perceive
approaching competitions as more threatening and aversive. They conclude that
sport psychologists and coaches may need to implement and tailor precompetitive
preparation to the particular needs of high- and low-competitiveness athletes.
Swain, A., & Jones, G . (1992). Relationships between sport achievement orientation and competitive state anxiety. The Sport Psychologist, 6, 42-54.
Pressure Drive
Using archival data from the 1989 Major League baseball season, Davis and
Harvey attempted to determine whether increased arousal generated by batting
in pressure situations would have a detrimental effect on batting performance as
predicted by drive theory. They argue that getting a hit in major league baseball
is always a nondominant response, and therefore increased arousal caused by
batting late in close games, or by coming to the plate with runners on base and
two outs, will reduce batting efficiency. Both pressure situations and nonpressure
situations were identified for comparison purposes, and players' batting averages
and slugging averages were examined to determine whether differences in performance existed when players were performing in arousing or nonarousing situations. The authors' findings supported a drive-theory explanation, in that athletes'
batting and slugging averages were significantly lower in pressure situations than
in nonpressure situations. Further analysis suggested that the negative impact of
this increased arousal affected all players, regardless of age or experience.
Davis, M.H., & Harvey, J.C. (1992). Declines in major league batting performance
as a function of game pressure: A drive theory analysis. Journal of Applied Social
Psychology, 22, 714-735.
Girls PE: A Worldwide Decline
Despite the growth in numbers of students taking physical education as an
examination subject in Australia, the trend is toward fewer girls selecting physical
education as a viable option in late adolescent years. Browne (1992) found that
the decline in number of girls engaged in physical activity in Australia paralleled
findings from other research conducted throughout the world. Utilizing a survey
Sport Psychologist's Digest / 111
technique, Browne attempted to determine the reasons why girls in their 12th
year of school either enrolled or did not enroll in PE classes. She found that the
major reasons given for enrolling in Physical Education Studies were liking the
activity, fun, a break from the classroom, fitness, enjoyment of learning, liking
sports, and perceived high ability in PE. Alternatively, the major reasons students
gave for not enrolling in PE classes were that other subjects were more important,
PE wouldn't fit into the timetable, enough exercise could be gained outside of
school, too much competition was evident, not liking the theoretical component,
not being good at PE, and being embarrassed by their lack of skill. The author
suggests that secondary school teachers must take more responsibility if the
decline in enrollment is to be redressed.
Browne, J. (1992). Reasons for the selection or nonselection of physical education
studies by year 12 girls. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 11, 402410.
I'm Gonna Knock You Out
An elevated arousal level is often a predisposing condition to aggression. Competition and violence in sports have been linked to these heightened levels of arousal
and subsequent actions of aggression. Branscombe and Wann (1992) sought to
investigate the role of sport competition and violence on observers' arousal levels
as measured by blood pressure and cognitive responses. The extent to which
each subject identified with America was also judged and factored into the
analyses; this was incorporated due to the evidence that the more strongly one
identifies with a team or an individual representing a country or cause, the greater
the threat that is felt in the event of perceived loss or injustice. Female college
students (N=41) served as subjects and were categorized into approximately equal
groups based on their pride as Americans. They then watched a short film clip
from Rocky N viewing either the American winning or the American losing to
a Russian. Systolic and diastolic blood pressure were measured pre- and postfilm and cognitive assessment followed the clip in the form of rating the fight,
its participants, the outcome, Russians, and external attributions of the outcome.
Results indicated a tendency for the America-identifiers to experience elevated
levels of arousal and hostility toward the Russians, consequently setting the stage
for aggression toward specific targets that pose threats to valued entities.
Branscombe, N.R., & Wann, D.L. (1992). Physiological arousal and reactions
to outgroup members during competitions that implicate an important social
identity. Aggressive Behavior, 18(2), 85-93.
Success in athletic competition involves cooperation of technical and physical
aspects as well as psychological dynamics. In fact, according to the author,
one's ultimate performance cannot occur without having a grasp of these mental
"keys." Managing preperformance jitters is at the head of the list of aspects
within the psychological realm. The author discussed (without naming) the Drive
Theory, the Inverted-U Theory, and an Indirect Drive Theory of arousal. According to a synopsis of these three possible models, the jury is still out on one
112 / Sport Psychologist's Digest
universally accepted theory. Consequently, arousal manipulation is left at an
individual and situational level. The goal of all competitors should be to identify
individualistic optimal function levels and attempt to repeat these consistently.
Ellickson, K.A. (1992). Psyching for performance. Scholastic Coach, 62(1), 20.
Right In the Thin of It
Eating disorders and obsessive weight watching have been noted in specific
populations of dancers, models, cheerleaders, and athletes. The primary assumption is that the issue is strictly a female one as well. The current study attempted
to learn the prevalence of weight concerns, weight control techniques, and eating
disorders among a select athletic population. The authors noted that swimmers
may be a population, among other athlete groups, that have a higher prevalence
for these problems than the norm. Most such studies have been conducted with
college-age students. This study used adolescent male and female swimmers (N=
85, age=9-17). The instrument employed consisted of three sections: (a) dieting
behavior and demographics, (b) Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI), and (c) weight
control motivations and frequency of weight control methods. Previous findings
were challenged by the results of this study in that the female swimmers were
not found to be any more likely to develop an eating disorder or employ a weight
control technique than a male. Participation in competitive swimming was not
found to be a predisposing vulnerability. These challenges are possibly attributable
to the younger age of the subject pool and the lower level of competition. The
gender differences that were expected were not identified beyond the expectation
to see more of a tendency in females to desire weight loss.
Taub, D.E., & Benson, R.A. (1992). Weight concerns, weight control techniques,
and eating disorders among adolescent competitive swimmers: The effect of
gender. Sociology of Sport Journal, 9(1), 76-86.
Concentration Busting
Tennis psychologist Jim Loehr discusses how tennis players may avoid distractions and maintain their concentration while playing tennis. Loehr suggests that
the ability to keep concentrational focus is easier when athletes enjoy what they
are doing, in other words, when attention is not forced. He suggests that when
tennis players get anxious, bored, or negative, concentration problems may occur.
Loehr identifies five common reasons why tennis players lose their concentration.
The "concentration busters" are too much stress, over- or under-arousal, low
blood sugar, and lack of physical fitness. A method or tactic for dealing with
each of these concentrational situations is given.
Loehr, J., & Hahn, C. (1992). How to keep your mind on the game. Tennis,
27(1 I), 93.
Espaiiol Sport Psychology at the Summer Olympics
The focus of this article is the use of sport psychology by Spain in preparation
for the summer Olympics. Psychologist Guillermo Perez directs the Sport Science
Division of the Centre d'Alt Rendiment (CAR-High Performance Center) where
Sport Psychologist's Digest / 113
around 200 Spanish Olympic athletes may come in contact with a sport psychology team of three psychologists and two interns. The CAR also houses a cafeteria,
classrooms, training facilities, and dormitories. The general services provided to
the Olympic athletes include assistance with concentration enhancement, selfconfidence, stress management, and motivation. The psychologists have worked
with a variety of Olympians in sports such as kayaking, rowing, boxing,
speedwalking, field hockey, high jumping, pole vaulting, and nmning. The psychologists analyze each sport, assess the athlete, and then develop a program for
each particular situation. Perez states that sport psychology has gained more
acceptance in Spain, as is shown by the increase in the number of individual
athletes seeking psychological services from 16 in 1984 to 84 in 1991. The article
states that research is also performed at the CAR. One current project is the
validating and developing of norms for a Spanish version of the Test of Attentional
and Interpersonal Styles.
Bazar, J. (1992). Psychology performs at summer Olympics. The APA Monitor,
23(8), 56-57.
Speak of the Peak
Experiencing peak moments in sport is the focus of this thought-provoking
literature review. Four models of peak performance are discussed with an emphasis on the unique and similar factors involved in such experiences. Problems
with definitions and past research of "in-the-zone" experiences are mentioned.
The authors discuss the differences and similarities between peak performance,
peak experience, and flow. They also present discussions of seven factors (absorption, detachment, emptiness, ecstasy, larger energies, altered perceptions of time,
and a sense of unity) that occur in at least two of the three classifications. The
difficulty in researching such elusive phenomena is mentioned along with personal
factors and optimal conditions necessary to produce these enjoyable moments.
McInman, A.D., & Grove, J.R. (1991). Peak moments in sport: A literature
review. Quest, 43(3), 333-351.
Social Physique Anxiety and Exercise Behavior
The Social Physique Anxiety Scale was developed by Hart, Leary, and Rejeski
in 1989 to assess the extent to which individuals become anxious when others
observe or evaluate their physiques. It was anticipated by these researchers that
this form of apprehension or anxiety would impact the physical activity patterns
of individuals in social settings. The present study tested the relationship between
levels of social physique anxiety and involvement in various exercise settings
among 37 physically active female nursing students. Results of the study confirmed the hypothesis that individuals with high levels of social physique anxiety
prefer more private, and less public, settings for exercise. The author concluded
that concerns over physical appearance may serve as a disincentive for certain
individualsto become involved in physical activity or to exercise in social settings.
Spink, K.S. (1992). Relation of anxiety about social physique to location of
participation in physical activity. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 74, 1075-1078.
114 / Sport Psychologist's Digest
SyberVision Anyone?
The commerciallyproduced SyberVision videotapes are designed to enhance skill
acquisition through observational learning processes. Sport-specific SyberVision
tapes include both slow-motion and regular-speed performance of skills performed
by well-known athletes. The purpose of this study was to determine whether
viewing a SyberVision tape would assist beginning golf students in learning the
golf swing. Twenty university students in an introductory golf class served as
subjects. In addition to the regular class sessions, students in the experimental
group viewed the SyberVision tape on 10 occasions outside of class, while the
control group completed a book report on golf instruction. The quality of the
students' golf swings was rated by two highly competent golfers blind to the
subjects' group status. Although pretest and posttest improvement occurred for
the students as a whole, no significant differences emerged according to group
status (SyberVision vs. no SyberVision). The authors suggested that this outcome
should not necessarily be regarded as an indication that SyberVision is not
beneficial, since subject numbers and duration of the study were both limited.
Furthermore, advanced learners are more likely to benefit from visual modeling
than are beginners since they are capable of selecting and attending to relevant
cues.
Austin, S., & Miller, L. (1992). An empirical study of the Sybewision golf
videotape. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 74, 875-881.
Performance Norms and Cohesiveness
It has been proposed that group cohesiveness is linked to the extent to which
group members share group-performancenorms, specifically those attitudes about
desired level of achievement (Canon, 1988). The purpose of this study was to
assess the relationship between teams' performance norms and cohesiveness.
Subjects were 1972 male and female athletes from 114 Japanese high school
teams. Subjects were administered the Group Environment Questionnaire (GEQ)
and a sport-specificquestionnaire assessing performance norms. Results indicated
a significant and positive relationship between group performance norms and
each of the four dimensions of g r ~ u pcohesion.
Kim, M.Y., & Sugiyama, Y. (1992). The relation of performance norms and
cohesiveness for Japanese school athletic teams. Perceptual and Motor Skills,
74. 1096-1098.
Tai Chi and Emotional Stress
Tai Chi is a type of moving meditation originally developed in China. Because
Tai Chi is commonly prescribed as a stress management technique, this author
attempted to examine the processes mediating its stress-reduction effect. Ninetysix males were assigned to four treatment groups: Tai Chi, brisk walking, meditation, and reading. Heart rate, blood pressure, and salivary cortisol levels were
measured before and after each treatment. During treatments Tai Chi and mild
exercise produced similar cardiovascular response. After all treatments cortisol
levels dropped significantly and mood was improved. The author concluded that
expectancy effects could have confounded the Tai Chi results.
Sport Psychologist's Digest / 115
Jin, P. (1992). Efficacy of Tai Chi, brisk walking, meditation, and reading in
reducing mental and emotional stress. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 36,
361-370.
Digest Editor
Charles J. Hardy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Digest Compilers
Steve Boutcher, University of Wollongong, Australia
Robert Brustrad, Portland State University
Kevin Burke, Northern Illinois University
Howard Hall, Bedford College, England
Jim Taylor, Nova University
Mark Thompson, University of Texas at Arlington
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