George Washington

George Washington
President
This article is about the first President of the United logistics, and training. In battle, however, Washington
States. For other uses, see George Washington (disam- was repeatedly outmaneuvered by British generals with
larger armies. After victory had been finalized in 1783,
biguation).
Washington resigned as commander-in-chief rather than
and
George Washington (February 22, 1732 [O.S. February seize power, proving his opposition to dictatorship
[8]
his
commitment
to
American
republicanism.
11, 1731][lower-alpha 2][lower-alpha 3] – December 14, 1799)
was the first President of the United States (1789–97),
the Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War, and one of the
Founding Fathers of the United States. He presided over
the convention that drafted the current United States Constitution and during his lifetime was called the "father of
his country".[4]
Washington presided over the Constitutional Convention
in 1787, which devised a new form of federal government for the United States. Following unanimous election as President in 1789, he worked to unify rival factions in the fledgling nation. He supported Alexander
Hamilton's programs to satisfy all debts, federal and
state, established a permanent seat of government, implemented an effective tax system, and created a national
bank.[9] In avoiding war with Great Britain, he guaranteed
a decade of peace and profitable trade by securing the
Jay Treaty in 1795, despite intense opposition from the
Jeffersonians. Although he remained nonpartisan, never
joining the Federalist Party, he largely supported their
policies. Washington’s Farewell Address was an influential primer on republican virtue, warning against partisanship, sectionalism, and involvement in foreign wars.
He retired from the presidency in 1797, returning to his
home and plantation at Mount Vernon.
Widely admired for his strong leadership qualities, Washington was unanimously elected President in the first two
national elections. He oversaw the creation of a strong,
well-financed national government that maintained neutrality in the French Revolutionary Wars, suppressed the
Whiskey Rebellion, and won acceptance among Americans of all types.[5] Washington’s incumbency established
many precedents, still in use today, such as the cabinet
system, the inaugural address, and the title Mr. President.[6][7] His retirement from office after two terms established a tradition that lasted until 1940, when Franklin
Delano Roosevelt won an unprecedented third term.
While in power, his use of national authority pursued
Born into the provincial gentry of Colonial Virginia, his many ends, especially the preservation of liberty, reducand promotion of a spirit of
family were wealthy planters who owned tobacco planta- tion of regional tensions,
American nationalism.[10] Upon his death, Washington
tions and slaves which he inherited. He owned hundreds
and first in the
of slaves throughout his lifetime, but his views on slav- was eulogized as “first in war, first in peace,[11]
hearts of his countrymen” by Henry Lee.
Revered in
ery evolved. In his youth he became a senior British oflife
and
in
death,
scholarly
and
public
polling
consistently
ficer in the colonial militia during the first stages of the
ranks him among the top three presidents in American
French and Indian War. In 1775, the Second Continental Congress commissioned Washington as commander- history; he has been depicted and remembered in monuments, currency, and other dedications to the present day.
in-chief of the Continental Army in the American Revolution. In that command, Washington forced the British
out of Boston in 1776, but was defeated and nearly captured later that year when he lost New York City. After 1 Early life (1732–1753)
crossing the Delaware River in the middle of winter, he
defeated the British in two battles, retook New Jersey and
Further information: Ancestry of George Washington
restored momentum to the Patriot cause. This is known
The first child of Augustine Washington (1694–
as the Battle of Trenton.
1743) and his second wife, Mary Ball Washington
His strategy enabled Continental forces to capture two (1708–1789), George Washington was born on their
major British armies at Saratoga in 1777 and Yorktown Pope’s Creek Estate near present-day Colonial Beach in
in 1781. Historians laud Washington for the selection Westmoreland County, Virginia. According to the Julian
and supervision of his generals, preservation and com- calendar and Annunciation Style of enumerating years,
mand of the army, coordination with the Congress, with then in use in the British Empire, Washington was born
state governors and their militia, and attention to supplies, on February 11, 1731; the Gregorian calendar, adopted
1
2
1
EARLY LIFE (1732–1753)
Washington’s birthplace
in the British Empire in 1752, rendered a birth date of Arms of George Washington[19]
February 22, 1732.[12][lower-alpha 2][lower-alpha 3]
Washington was of primarily English gentry descent, especially from Sulgrave, England. His great-grandfather,
John Washington, emigrated to Virginia in 1657 and began accumulating land and slaves, as did his son Lawrence
and his grandson, George’s father, Augustine. Augustine
was a tobacco planter who also tried his hand in ironmining ventures.[13] In George’s youth, the Washingtons
were moderately prosperous members of the Virginia
gentry, of “middling rank” rather than one of the leading planter families.[14] At this time, Virginia and other
southern colonies had become a slave society, in which
slaveholders formed the ruling class and the economy was
based upon slave labor.[15]
Six of George’s siblings reached maturity, including two
older half-brothers, Lawrence and Augustine, from his
father’s first marriage to Jane Butler Washington, and
four full siblings, Samuel, Elizabeth (Betty), John Augustine and Charles. Three siblings died before adulthood:
his full sister Mildred died when she was about one, his
half-brother Butler died in infancy,[16] and his half-sister
Jane died aged of twelve, when George was about two.[17]
His father died when George was eleven years old and
his half-brother Lawrence became a surrogate father and
role model. William Fairfax, Lawrence’s father-in-law
and cousin of Virginia’s largest landowner, Thomas, Lord
Fairfax, was also a formative influence.
Washington spent much of his boyhood at Ferry Farm in
Stafford County near Fredericksburg. Lawrence Washington inherited another family property from his father, a
plantation on the Potomac River, which he named Mount
Vernon, in honor of his commanding officer, Admiral
Edward Vernon. George inherited Ferry Farm upon his
father’s death and eventually acquired Mount Vernon after Lawrence’s death.[18]
The death of his father prevented Washington from an education at England’s Appleby School, as his older brothers had received. He achieved the equivalent of an elementary school education from a variety of tutors, as
well as from school run by an Anglican clergyman in or
near Fredericksburg.[20][21] Talk of securing an appointment in the Royal Navy for him when he was 15 was
dropped when his widowed mother objected.[22] Thanks
to Lawrence’s connection to the powerful Fairfax family, at age 17 in 1749, Washington was appointed official surveyor for Culpeper County, a well-paid position
which enabled him to purchase land in the Shenandoah
Valley, the first of his many land acquisitions in western
Virginia. Thanks also to Lawrence’s involvement in the
Ohio Company, a land investment company funded by
Virginia investors, and Lawrence’s position as commander of the Virginia militia, Washington came to the notice
of the new lieutenant governor of Virginia, Robert Dinwiddie. Washington was hard to miss: At exactly six feet,
he towered over most of his contemporaries.[23]
In 1751, Washington traveled to Barbados with
Lawrence, who was suffering from tuberculosis, with the
hope that the climate would be beneficial to Lawrence’s
health. Washington contracted smallpox during the
trip, which left his face slightly scarred, but immunized
him against future exposures to the dreaded disease.[24]
However, Lawrence’s health failed to improve, and
he returned to Mount Vernon, where he would die in
1752.[25] Lawrence’s position as Adjutant General (militia leader) of Virginia was divided into four offices after
his death. Washington was appointed by Governor Dinwiddie as one of the four district adjutants in February
1753, with the rank of major in the Virginia militia.[26]
2.1
Braddock disaster 1755
3
During this period, Washington became a Freemason eral of the militia, appointed by the Lieutenant Goverwhile in Fredericksburg, although his involvement was nor himself only a year before. During his trip Washingminimal.[27]
ton met with Tanacharison (also called “Half-King”) and
other Iroquois chiefs allied with England at Logstown to
secure their support in case of a military conflict with the
2 French and Indian War (or French—indeed Washington and Tanacharison became
friends. He delivered the letter to the local French com'Seven Years’ War', 1754–1758) mander Jacques Legardeur de Saint-Pierre, who politely
refused to leave.[29] Washington kept a diary during his
Main article: George Washington in the French and In- expedition which was printed by William Hunter on Dinwiddie’s order and which made Washington’s name recdian War
[30]
See also: Military career of George Washington, Battle ognizable in Virginia. This increased notoriety helped
of Jumonville Glen, Battle of Fort Necessity and Forbes him to obtain a commission to raise a company of 100
men and start his military career.[31]
Expedition
The Ohio Company was an important vehicle through Dinwiddie sent Washington back to the Ohio Country
to safeguard an Ohio Company’s construction of a fort
at present-day Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. However, before he reached the area, a French force drove out colonial traders and began construction of Fort Duquesne. A
small detachment of French troops led by Joseph Coulon
de Jumonville, was discovered by Tanacharison and a few
warriors east of present-day Uniontown, Pennsylvania.
On May 28, 1754 Washington and some of his militia
unit, aided by their Mingo allies, ambushed the French in
what has come to be called the Battle of Jumonville Glen.
Exactly what happened during and after the battle is a
matter of contention, but several primary accounts agree
that the battle lasted about 15 minutes, that Jumonville
was killed, and that most of his party were either killed
or taken prisoner. Whether Jumonville died at the hands
of Tanacharison in cold blood or was somehow shot by
an onlooker with a musket as he sat with Washington or
by another means, is not completely clear.[32][33] He was
given the epithet Town Destroyer by Tanacharison.[34]
Washington’s map, accompanying his Journal to the Ohio
(1753–1754)
The French responded by attacking and capturing Washington at Fort Necessity in July 1754.[35] However, he
was allowed to return with his troops to Virginia. Historian Joseph Ellis concludes that the episode demonstrated Washington’s bravery, initiative, inexperience and
impetuosity.[36] These events had international consequences; the French accused Washington of assassinating Jumonville, who they claimed was on a diplomatic
mission.[36] Both France and Great Britain were ready
to fight for control of the region and both sent troops
to North America in 1755; war was formally declared in
1756.[37]
which British investors planned to expand into the Ohio
Valley, opening new settlements and trading posts for
the Indian trade.[28] In 1753, the French themselves began expanding their military control into the Ohio Country, a territory already claimed by the British colonies
of Virginia and Pennsylvania. These competing claims
led to a war in the colonies called the French and Indian
War (1754–62), and contributed to the start of the global 2.1 Braddock disaster 1755
Seven Years’ War (1756–63). By chance, Washington
Main article: Braddock Expedition
became involved in its beginning.
Robert Dinwiddie, lieutenant governor of colonial Virginia, was ordered by the British government to guard the
British territorial claims including the Ohio River basin.
In late 1753 Dinwiddie ordered Washington to deliver
a letter asking the French to vacate the Ohio Valley;[28]
he was eager to prove himself as the new adjutant gen-
In 1755, Washington became the senior American aide to
British General Edward Braddock on the ill-fated Braddock expedition. This was the largest British expedition
to the colonies, and was intended to expel the French
from the Ohio Country; the first objective was the capture
4
2
FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR (OR 'SEVEN YEARS’ WAR', 1754–1758)
of Fort Duquesne.[38] Washington initially sought from
Braddock an appointment as a major, but upon advice
that no rank above captain could be given except by London, he agreed to serve as a staff volunteer. During the
passage of the expedition, Washington fell ill with severe
headaches and fever; nevertheless, when the pace of the
troops continued to slow, Washington recommended to
Braddock that the army be split into two divisions – a
primary and more lightly, but adequately equipped, “flying column” offensive which could move at a more rapid
pace, to be followed by a more heavily armed reinforcing
division. Braddock accepted the recommendation (likely
made in a council of war including other officers) and
took command of the lead division.[39][40]
In 1758, Washington participated in the Forbes Expedition to capture Fort Duquesne. He was embarrassed
by a friendly fire episode in which his unit and another
British unit thought the other was the French enemy and
opened fire, with 14 dead and 26 wounded in the mishap.
Washington was not involved in any other major fighting
on the expedition, and the British scored a major strategic victory, gaining control of the Ohio Valley, when the
French abandoned the fort. Following the expedition, he
retired from his Virginia Regiment commission in December 1758. Washington did not return to military life
until the outbreak of the revolution in 1775.[46]
In the Battle of the Monongahela the French and their Indian allies ambushed Braddock’s reduced forces and the
general was mortally wounded. After suffering devastating casualties, the British panicked and retreated in disarray; however, Washington rode back and forth across
the battlefield, rallying the remnants of the British and
Virginian forces into an organized retreat. In the process, despite his lingering illness, he demonstrated much
bravery and stamina—he had two horses shot from underneath him, while his coat was pierced with four bullets. In his report, Washington chiefly blamed the disaster on the conduct of the redcoats while praising that of
the Virginia contingent. Whatever responsibility rested
on him for the defeat as a result of his recommendation
to Braddock, Washington was not included by the succeeding commander, Col. Thomas Dunbar, in planning
subsequent force movements.[41]
2.3 Lessons learned
2.2
Commander of Virginia Regiment
Lt. Governor Dinwiddie rewarded Washington in 1755
with a commission as “Colonel of the Virginia Regiment
and Commander in Chief of all forces now raised in the
defense of His Majesty’s Colony” and gave him the task of
defending Virginia’s frontier. The Virginia Regiment was
the first full-time American military unit in the colonies
(as opposed to part-time militias and the British regular
units). Washington was ordered to “act defensively or offensively” as he thought best.[42] While Washington happily accepted the commission, the coveted redcoat of a
British officer as well as the accompanying pay continued to elude him. Dinwiddie as well pressed in vain for
the British military to incorporate the Virginia regiment
into its ranks.[43]
In command of a thousand soldiers, Washington was a
disciplinarian who emphasized training. He led his men
in brutal campaigns against the Indians in the west; in 10
months his regiment fought 20 battles, and lost a third of
its men. Washington’s strenuous efforts meant that Virginia’s frontier population suffered less than that of other
colonies; Ellis concludes “it was his only unqualified success” in the war.[44][45]
Although Washington never gained the commission in
the British army he yearned for, in these years the
young man gained valuable military, political, and leadership skills.[47][48] He closely observed British military
tactics, gaining a keen insight into their strengths and
weaknesses that proved invaluable during the Revolution. Washington learned to organize, train, drill, and
discipline his companies and regiments. From his observations, readings and conversations with professional
officers, he learned the basics of battlefield tactics, as
well as a good understanding of problems of organization and logistics.[49] He gained an understanding of overall strategy, especially in locating strategic geographical
points.[50]
He demonstrated his toughness and courage in the most
difficult situations, including disasters and retreats. He
developed a command presence—given his size, strength,
stamina, and bravery in battle, he appeared to soldiers
to be a natural leader and they followed him without
question.[51][52] However Washington’s fortitude in his
early years was sometimes manifested in less constructive
ways. Biographer John R. Alden contends Washington
offered “fulsome and insincere flattery to British generals in vain attempts to win great favor” and on occasion
showed youthful arrogance, as well as jealousy and ingratitude in the midst of impatience.[53]
Historian Ron Chernow is of the opinion that his frustrations in dealing with government officials during this
conflict led him to advocate the advantages of a strong
national government and a vigorous executive agency
that could get results;[47] other historians tend to ascribe Washington’s position on government to his later
American Revolutionary War service.[lower-alpha 4] He developed a very negative idea of the value of militia, who
seemed too unreliable, too undisciplined, and too shortterm compared to regulars.[54] On the other hand, his
experience was limited to command of at most 1000
men, and came only in remote frontier conditions that
were far removed from the urban situations he faced during the Revolution at Boston, New York, Trenton and
Philadelphia.[55]
5
3
Between the wars: Mount Vernon (1759–1774)
Custis; later the Washingtons raised two of Mrs. Washington’s grandchildren, Eleanor Parke Custis and George
Washington Parke Custis. George and Martha never had
any children together—his earlier bout with smallpox in
1751 may have made him sterile.[58][59] The newlywed
couple moved to Mount Vernon, near Alexandria, where
he took up the life of a planter and political figure.
Washington’s marriage to Martha greatly increased his
property holdings and social standing, and made him one
of Virginia’s wealthiest men. He acquired one-third of
the 18,000-acre (73 km2 ) Custis estate upon his marriage, worth approximately $100,000, and managed the
remainder on behalf of Martha’s children, for whom he
sincerely cared.[60]
A mezzotint of Martha Washington, based on a 1757 portrait by
Wollaston
In 1754, Lieutenant Governor Dinwiddie had promised
land bounties to the soldiers and officers who volunteered to serve during the French and Indian War.[61]
Lord Botetourt, the new governor, finally fulfilled Dinwiddie’s promise in 1769–1770,[61][62] with Washington
subsequently receiving title to 23,200 acres (94 km2 )
where the Kanawha River flows into the Ohio River,
in what is now western West Virginia.[63] He also frequently bought additional land in his own name. By 1775,
Washington had doubled the size of Mount Vernon to
6,500 acres (26 km2 ), and had increased its slave population to over 100. As a respected military hero and
large landowner, he held local office and was elected to
the Virginia provincial legislature, representing Frederick County in the House of Burgesses for seven years,
beginning in 1758.[64][lower-alpha 5]
Washington expanded the estate at Mount Vernon after his marriage.
On January 6, 1759, Washington married the wealthy
widow Martha Dandridge Custis, then 28 years old. Surviving letters suggest that he may have been in love at the
time with Sally Fairfax, the wife of a friend.[56] Nevertheless, George and Martha made a compatible marriage, because Martha was intelligent, gracious, and experienced Washington at age 40, 1772
in managing a planter’s estate.[57]
Together the two raised her two children from her pre- Washington lived an aristocratic lifestyle—fox hunting
vious marriage, John Parke Custis and Martha Parke was a favorite leisure activity.[65] He also enjoyed going
6
4 AMERICAN REVOLUTION (1775–1783)
to dances and parties, in addition to the theater, races,
and cockfights. Washington also was known to play
cards, backgammon, and billiards.[66] Like most Virginia
planters, he imported luxuries and other goods from England and paid for them by exporting his tobacco crop.[67]
Resolves" were adopted, which called for the convening
of a Continental Congress, among other things. In August, Washington attended the First Virginia Convention,
where he was selected as a delegate to the First Continental Congress.[75][76]
Washington began to pull himself out of debt in the mid1760s by diversifying his previously tobacco-centric business interests into other ventures[67] and paying more 4.1
attention to his affairs.[68] In 1766, he started switching Mount Vernon’s primary cash crop away from tobacco to wheat, a crop that could be processed and then
sold in various forms in the colonies, and further diversified operations to include flour milling, fishing, horse
breeding, spinning, weaving and (in the 1790s) whiskey
production.[67] Patsy Custis’s death in 1773 from epilepsy
enabled Washington to pay off his British creditors, since
half of her inheritance passed to him.[69]
Commander in chief
A successful planter, he was a leader in the social elite
in Virginia. From 1768 to 1775, he invited some 2000
guests to his Mount Vernon estate, mostly those he considered “people of rank”. As for people not of high social status, his advice was to “treat them civilly” but “keep
them at a proper distance, for they will grow upon familiarity, in proportion as you sink in authority”.[70] In 1769,
he became more politically active, presenting the Virginia
Assembly with legislation to ban the importation of goods
from Great Britain.[71]
4
American
1783)
Revolution
(1775–
Charles Willson Peale (American, 1741-1827). George Washington, 1776. Oil on canvas, Brooklyn Museum.
After the Battles of Lexington and Concord near Boston
Main articles: George Washington in the American in April 1775, the colonies went to war. WashingRevolution and Military career of George Washington
ton appeared at the Second Continental Congress in a
military uniform, signaling that he was prepared for
Washington opposed the 1765 Stamp Act, the first direct war.[77] Washington had the prestige, military experitax on the colonies imposed by the English Parliament ence, charisma and military bearing of a military leader
which included no representatives from the colonies; he and was known as a strong patriot. Virginia, the largest
began taking a leading role in the growing colonial resis- colony, deserved recognition, and New England—where
tance when protests against the Townshend Acts (enacted the fighting began—realized it needed Southern supin 1767) became widespread. In May 1769, Washington port. Washington did not explicitly seek the office of
introduced a proposal, drafted by his friend George Ma- commander and said that he was not equal to it,[78][79]
son, calling for Virginia to boycott English goods until the but there was no serious competition.[80] Congress creActs were repealed.[72] Parliament repealed the Town- ated the Continental Army on June 14, 1775.[81] Nomishend Acts in 1770. However, Washington regarded the nated by John Adams of Massachusetts, Washington was
passage of the Intolerable Acts in 1774 as “an Invasion then appointed as a full General and Commander-inof our Rights and Privileges”.[73] Washington told friend chief.[78][82][83] The British then articulated the peril of
Bryan Fairfax, “I think the Parliament of Great Britain Washington and his army—on August 23, 1775 Britain
has no more right to put their hands in my pocket with- issued a Royal proclamation labeling American rebels as
out my consent than I have to put my hands into yours traitors; if they resorted to force, they faced confiscation
for money.” He also said that Americans must not submit of their property. Their leaders were subject to execution
to acts of tyranny “till custom and use shall make us as upon the scaffold.[84]
tame and abject slaves, as the blacks we rule over with General Washington essentially assumed three roles dursuch arbitrary sway.”[74]
ing the war. First, in 1775–77, and again in 1781 he
In July 1774, he chaired the meeting at which the "Fairfax provided leadership of troops against the main British
4.2
Victory at Boston
7
and Colonel Alexander Hamilton - chief-of-staff. The
American officers never equaled their opponents in tactics and maneuver, and consequently they lost most of the
pitched battles. The great successes, at Boston (1776),
Saratoga (1777) and Yorktown (1781), came from trapping the British far from base with much larger numbers
of troops.[85] Daniel Morgan's annihilation of Banastre
Tarleton's legion of dragoons at Cowpens in February
1781, came as a result of Morgan’s employment of superior line tactics against his British opponent, resulting
in one of the very few double envelopments in military
history, another being Hannibal's defeat of the Romans
at Cannae in 216 b.c. The decisive defeat of Col. Patrick
Ferguson's Tory Regiment at King’s Mountain demonstrated the superiority of the riflery of American “over
mountain men” over British-trained troops armed with
musket and bayonet. These “over-mountain men” were
led by a variety of elected officers, including the 6'6”
William Campbell who had become one of Washington’s officers by the time of Yorktown. Similarly, Morgan’s Virginia riflemen proved themselves superior to the
British at Saratoga, a post-revolutionary war development
being the creation of trained “rifle battalions” in the European armies.
General George Washington at Trenton by John Trumbull, Yale
University Art Gallery (1792)
forces. Although he lost many of his battles, he never
surrendered his army during the war, and he continued to
fight the British relentlessly until the war’s end. He plotted the overall strategy of the war, in cooperation with
Congress.[85]
Secondly, he was charged with organizing and training
the army. He recruited regulars and assigned Baron von
Steuben, a veteran of the Prussian general staff, to train
them. The war effort and getting supplies to the troops
were under the purview of Congress,[86] but Washington pressured the Congress to provide the essentials.[87]
In June 1776, Congress’ first attempt at running the
war effort was established with the committee known
as “Board of War and Ordnance”, succeeded by the
Board of War in July 1777, a committee which eventually included members of the military.[86] The command structure of the armed forces was a hodgepodge
of Congressional appointees (and Congress sometimes
made those appointments without Washington’s input)
with state-appointments filling the lower ranks and of all
of the militia-officers. The results of his general staff were
mixed, as some of his favorites (like John Sullivan) never
mastered the art of command.[85]
Washington’s third, and most important role in the war
effort, was the embodiment of armed resistance to the
Crown—the representative man of the Revolution. His
long-term strategy was to maintain an army in the field at
all times, and eventually this strategy worked. His enormous personal and political stature and his political skills
kept Congress, the army, the French, the militias, and
the states all pointed toward a common goal. Furthermore, by voluntarily resigning his commission and disbanding his army when the war was won (rather than
declaring himself monarch), he permanently established
the principle of civilian supremacy in military affairs. Yet
his constant reiteration of the point that well-disciplined
professional soldiers counted for twice as much as erratic militias (clearly demonstrated in the rout at Camden,
where only the Maryland and Delaware Continentals under Baron DeKalb held firm), helped overcome the ideological distrust of a standing army.[88]
4.2 Victory at Boston
Washington assumed command of the Continental Army
in the field at Cambridge, Massachusetts, in July 1775,
during the ongoing siege of Boston. Realizing his army’s
desperate shortage of gunpowder, Washington asked for
new sources. American troops raided British arsenals, including some in the Caribbean, and some manufacturing
was attempted. They obtained a barely adequate supply
(about 2.5 million pounds) by the end of 1776, mostly
[89]
Eventually, he found capable officers, such as General from France.
Nathanael Greene, General Daniel Morgan - “the old Washington reorganized the army during the long standwagoner” that he had served with in The French and off, and forced the British to withdraw by putting artillery
Indian War, Colonel Henry Knox - chief of artillery, on Dorchester Heights overlooking the city. The British
8
4 AMERICAN REVOLUTION (1775–1783)
on November 16 with high Continental casualties. Biographer Alden opines that “although Washington was responsible for the decision to delay the patriots’ retreat,
he tried to ascribe blame for the decision to defend Fort
Washington to the wishes of Congress and the bad advice
of Nathaniel Greene.”[93]
Washington taking Control of the Continental Army, 1775
evacuated Boston in March 1776 and Washington moved
his army to New York City.[90]
Although highly disparaging toward most of the Patriots,
British newspapers routinely praised Washington’s personal character and qualities as a military commander.
These articles were bold, as Washington was an enemy
general who commanded an army in a cause that many
Britons believed would ruin the empire.[91]
4.3
Washington then continued his flight across New Jersey;
the future of the Continental Army was in doubt due to
expiring enlistments and the string of losses.[94] On the
night of December 25, 1776, Washington staged a comeback with a surprise attack on a Hessian outpost in western New Jersey. He led his army across the Delaware
River to capture nearly 1,000 Hessians in Trenton, New
Jersey. Washington followed up his victory at Trenton
with another over British regulars at Princeton in early
January. The British retreated to New York City and its
environs, which they held until the peace treaty of 1783.
Washington’s victories wrecked the British carrot-andstick strategy of showing overwhelming force then offering generous terms. The Americans would not negotiate for anything short of independence.[95] These victories
alone were not enough to ensure ultimate Patriot victory,
however, since many soldiers did not reenlist or deserted
during the harsh winter. Washington and Congress reorganized the army with increased rewards for staying and
punishment for desertion, which raised troop numbers effectively for subsequent battles.[96]
Defeat at New York City and Fabian
tactics
In February 1777, while encamped at Morristown, New
Jersey Washington became convinced that only smallpox
inoculation would prevent the destruction of his Army,
by using variolation. Washington ordered the inoculation
of all troops and by some reports, death by smallpox in
the ranks dropped from 17% of all deaths to 1% of all
reported deaths.[97]:47
Washington Crossing the Delaware, December 25, 1776, by
Emanuel Leutze, 1851
In August 1776, British General William Howe launched
a massive naval and land campaign designed to seize New
York. The Continental Army under Washington engaged
the enemy for the first time as an army of the newly independent United States at the Battle of Long Island, the
largest battle of the entire war. The Americans were
heavily outnumbered, many men deserted, and Washington was badly beaten. Subsequently, Washington was
forced to retreat across the East River at night. He did
so without loss of life or materiel.[92] Washington, heeding Greene’s recommendation to attempt a defense of Ft.
Washington, belatedly retreated further across the Hudson to Ft. Lee, to avoid encirclement, but thereby enabled
Howe to take the offensive and capture Fort Washington
Historians debate whether or not Washington preferred
a Fabian strategy[lower-alpha 6] to harass the British with
quick, sharp attacks followed by a retreat so the larger
British army could not catch him, or whether he preferred
to fight major battles.[lower-alpha 7] While his southern commander Greene in 1780–81 did use Fabian tactics, Washington did so only in fall 1776 to spring 1777, after losing
New York City and seeing much of his army melt away.
Trenton and Princeton were Fabian examples. By summer 1777, however, Washington had rebuilt his strength
and his confidence; he stopped using raids and went for
large-scale confrontations, as at Brandywine, Germantown, Monmouth and Yorktown.[98]
4.4 1777 campaigns
In late summer of 1777, British General John Burgoyne
led a major invasion army south from Quebec, with the
intention of splitting off rebellious New England; but
General Howe in New York took his army south to
Philadelphia instead of going up the Hudson River to
join with Burgoyne near Albany—a major strategic mis-
4.6
Sullivan Expedition
9
take. Meanwhile, Washington rushed to Philadelphia to
engage Howe, while closely following the action in upstate New York, where the patriots were led by General
Philip Schuyler and his successor Horatio Gates. The ensuing pitched battles at Philadelphia were too complex for
Washington’s relatively inexperienced men and they were
defeated. At the Battle of Brandywine on September 11,
1777, Howe outmaneuvered Washington, and marched
into the American capital at Philadelphia unopposed on
September 26. Washington’s army unsuccessfully attacked the British garrison at Germantown in early October. Meanwhile to the north, Burgoyne, beyond the
reach of help from Howe, was trapped and forced to surrender after the Battles of Saratoga.[99] This was a major
turning point militarily and diplomatically—the French
responded to Burgoyne’s defeat by entering the war, ally- General Washington and Lafayette look over the troops at Valley
ing with America and expanding the Revolutionary War Forge.
into a major worldwide affair.
Washington’s loss at Philadelphia prompted some members of Congress to consider removing Washington from
command. This movement, termed the Conway Cabal, failed after Washington’s supporters rallied behind
him.[100] Biographer Alden relates, “it was inevitable that
the defeats of Washington’s forces and the concurrent victory of the forces in upper New York should be compared.” The zealous admiration of Washington indeed inevitably waned. John Adams (never a fan of the southern
delegation to the Continental Congress) wrote “Congress
will appoint a thanksgiving; and one cause of it ought to
be that the glory of turning the tide of arms is not immediately due to the commander-in-chief nor to southern
troops. If it had been, idolatry and adulation would have
been unbounded...Now we can allow a certain citizen to
be wise, virtuous, and good, without thinking him a deity
or a savior.”[101]
4.5
Valley Forge
Main article: Valley Forge
Washington’s army of 11,000[102] went into winter quarters at Valley Forge north of Philadelphia in December
1777. Over the next six months, the deaths in camp
numbered in the thousands (the majority being from
disease),[103] with historians’ death toll estimates ranging
from 2000[103] to 2500,[104][105] to over 3000 men.[106]
The next spring, however, the army emerged from Valley
Forge in good order, thanks in part to a full-scale training program supervised by General von Steuben.[107] The
British evacuated Philadelphia to New York in 1778,[108]
shadowed by Washington. Washington attacked them at
Monmouth, fighting to an effective draw in one of the
war’s largest battles.[109] Afterwards, the British continued to head towards New York, and Washington moved
his army outside of New York.[108]
4.6 Sullivan Expedition
Main article: Sullivan Expedition
In the summer of 1779 Washington and Congress decided
to strike the Iroquois warriors of the “Six Nations” in a
campaign to force Britain’s Indian allies out of New York,
which they had used as a base to attack American settlements across New England.[110] In June 1779, the warriors had joined with Tory rangers led by Colonel William
Butler, using barbarities normally shunned, slew over 200
frontiersmen and laid waste to the Wyoming Valley in
Pennsylvania. Indeed, one British officer who witnessed
the Tory brutality said the redcoats on return to England
would “scalp every son of a bitch of them.”[111] In August of 1779 General John Sullivan led a military operation that destroyed at least 40 Iroquois villages, burned
all available crops. Few people were killed as the Indians fled to British protection in Canada. Sullivan later
reported that “the immediate objects of this expedition
are accomplished, viz: total ruin of the Indian settlements
and the destruction of their crops, which were designed
for the support of those inhuman barbarians.”[112]
4.7 Hudson River and Southern battles,
and a Traitor
Washington at this time moved his headquarters from
Middlebrook to New Windsor on the Hudson, with an
army of 10,000. The British, led by Howe’s successor,
Sir Henry Clinton made a move up the Hudson against
American posts at Verplanck’s Point and Stony Point and
both places succumbed, but a counter-offensive by the patriots led by General Anthony Wayne was briefly successful. Clinton was in the end able to shut off Kings Ferry but
it was a strategic loss - he could proceed no further up the
river, due to American fortifications and Washington’s
army. The skirmishes at Verplanck’s Point and at Stony
10
4 AMERICAN REVOLUTION (1775–1783)
Point demonstrated that the continental infantry had become quite formidable and were an enormous boost to
morale.[113]
The winter of 1779–1780, when Washington went into
quarters at Morristown, represented the worst suffering
for the army during the war. The temperatures fell to
16 below zero, the New York Harbor was frozen over,
and snow and ice covered the ground for weeks, with the
troops again lacking provisions for a time as at Valley
Forge.[114] In late 1779 Clinton moved his forces south
to Charleston for an offensive against the patriots, led
by Benjamin Lincoln. After his success there Clinton
returned victorious to New York, leaving Cornwallis in
the south. Congress replaced Lincoln with Gates, despite
Washington’s recommendation of Greene. When Gates
failed in South Carolina, he was then replaced by Greene.
The British at the time seemed to have the South almost
in their grasp. Despite this news, Washington was encouraged to learn in mid-1780 that Lafayette had returned
from France with additional naval assets and forces.[114]
General Washington and the comte de Rochambeau at
Yorktown, Virginia, 1781
$20,000 in French gold, delivered the final blow to the
British in 1781, after a French naval victory allowed
American and French forces to trap a British army in
Virginia, preventing reinforcement by Clinton from the
North.[119] The surrender at Yorktown on October 19,
1781, marked the end of major fighting in continental
North America.[120] Cornwallis failed to appear at the
official surrender ceremony, and sent General Charles
Oharrow as his proxy; Washington then assigned his role
to Benjamin Lincoln of equal rank.[121]
Washington was shocked to learn of the treason of Benedict Arnold, who had contributed significantly to the war
effort. Embittered by his dealings with Congress over
rank and finances, as well as the alliance with France,
Arnold joined the British cause; he conspired with the
British in a plan to seize the post he commanded at West
Point. Washington just missed apprehending him, but did
capture his conspirator, Major John Andre, a British intelligence officer under Clinton, who was later hanged by 4.9 Demobilization
order of a court-martial called by Washington.[115]
Though substantial combat had ended, the war had not,
Washington’s army went into winter quarters at New
and a formal treaty of peace was months away, creatWindsor in 1780 and suffered again for lack of supplies.
ing tension. The British still had 26,000 troops occupyThere resulted a considerable mutiny by Pennsylvania
ing New York City, Charleston and Savannah, together
troops; Washington prevailed upon Congress as well as
with a powerful fleet. The French army and navy destate officials to come to their aid with provisions. He
parted, so the Americans were on their own in 1782–
very much sympathized with their suffering, saying he
83. Money matters fed the anxiety—the treasury was
hoped the army would “continue to struggle under the
empty, and the unpaid soldiers were growing restive, alsame difficulties they have hitherto endured, which I canmost to the point of mutiny. At one point the mutineers
not help remarking seem to reach the bounds of human
forced an adjournment of the Congress from Philadelphia
[116]
patience”.
to Princeton. Washington dispelled unrest among officers by suppressing the Newburgh Conspiracy in March
1783, and Congress came up with the promise of a five4.8 Victory at Yorktown
year bonus.[122]
In July 1780, 5,000 veteran French troops led by the
comte de Rochambeau arrived at Newport, Rhode Island to aid in the war effort;[117] French naval forces then
landed, led by Admiral François Joseph Paul de Grasse.
Though it was Washington’s hope initially to bring the allied fight to New York and to end the war there, de Grasse
was advised by Rochambeau that Cornwallis in Virginia
was the better target. de Grasse followed Rochambeau’s
advice and arrived off the Virginia Coast. Washington
immediately saw the advantage created, made a feinting
move with his force towards Clinton in New York and
then headed south to Virginia.[118]
With the initial peace treaty articles ratified in April, a recently formed Congressional committee under Hamilton
was considering needs and plans for a peacetime army.
On May 2, 1783, the Commander in Chief submitted
his Sentiments on a Peace Establishment [123] to the Committee, essentially providing an official Continental Army
position. The original proposal was defeated in Congress
in two votes (May 1783, October 1783) with a truncated
version also being rejected in April 1784.[124]
By the Treaty of Paris (signed that September), Great
Britain recognized the independence of the United States.
Washington disbanded his army and, on November 2,
Washington’s Continental Army, also newly funded by gave an eloquent farewell address to his soldiers.[125] On
11
General George Washington Resigning His Commission by
John Trumbull, Capitol Rotunda (commissioned 1817)
Scene at the Signing of the U.S. Constitution by Howard Chandler Christy, 1940
November 25, the British evacuated New York City,
and Washington and the governor took possession. At
Fraunces Tavern on December 4, Washington formally
bade his officers farewell and on December 23, 1783,
he resigned his commission as commander-in-chief, saying “I consider it an indispensable duty to close this last
solemn act of my official life, by commending the interests of our dearest country to the protection of Almighty
God, and those who have the superintendence of them,
to his holy keeping.”[126] Historian Gordon Wood concludes that the greatest act in his life was his resignation
as commander of the armies—an act that stunned aristocratic Europe.[127] King George III called Washington
“the greatest character of the age” because of this.[128]
ing a court decision heard in Washington, Pennsylvania
in 1786.[131]
After much reluctance, he was persuaded to attend
the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia during
the summer of 1787 as a delegate from Virginia,
where he was elected in unanimity as president of the
Convention.[132] He held considerable criticism of the
Articles of Confederation of the thirteen colonies, for the
weak central government it established, referring to the
Articles as no more than “a rope of sand” to support the
new nation.[133] His participation in the debates was minor, although he casted his vote when called upon; his
prestige facilitated the collegiality and productivity of the
delegates. After a couple of months into the task, Washington told Alexander Hamilton, “I almost despair of seeing a favorable issue to the proceedings of our convention
and do therefore repent having had any agency in the business.” In the end agreements were hatched however, and
Washington thought the achievement monumental.[134]
Washington later submitted a formal account of the expenses he had personally advanced the army over the eight
year conflict, of about $450,000. It is said to have been
detailed regarding small items, vague concerning large
ones and included the expenses incurred from Martha’s
visits to his headquarters, as well as his compensation Following the Convention, his support convinced many,
for service, none of which had been drawn during the but not all of his colleagues, to vote for ratification. He
war.[129]
unsuccessfully lobbied Patrick Henry, saying that “the
Historian John Shy says that by 1783 Washington was “a adoption of it under the present circumstances of the
mediocre military strategist but had become a master po- union is in my opinion desirable;" he declared that the
litical tactician with an almost perfect sense of timing and only alternative would be anarchy. Nevertheless, he did
a developed capacity to exploit his charismatic reputa- not consider it appropriate to cast his vote in favor of
tion, using people who thought they were using him”.[130] adoption for Virginia, since he was expected to be nominated president thereunder.[135] The new Constitution was
subsequently ratified by all thirteen states.[136] The delegates to the convention designed the presidency with
Washington in mind, allowing him to define the office by
5 Constitutional Convention
establishing precedent once elected.[137]
Main article: Constitutional Convention (United States)
Washington’s retirement to personal business at Mount
Vernon was short-lived. Making an exploratory trip to the
western frontier in 1784, he inspected his land holdings in
Western Pennsylvania that had been earned decades earlier for his service in the French and Indian War.[78][131]
There, he confronted squatters, including David Reed
and the Covenanters, who vacated, but only after los-
6 Presidency (1789–1797)
Main article: Presidency of George Washington
The Electoral College unanimously elected Washington as the first president in 1789,[lower-alpha 8] and again
1792;[139] He remains the only president to receive the totality of electoral votes.[lower-alpha 9] John Adams, who re-
12
6 PRESIDENCY (1789–1797)
majestic names proposed by the Senate.[144]
Washington proved an able administrator, and established
many precedents in the functions of the presidency, including messages to Congress and the cabinet form of
government.[7] Despite fears that a democratic system
would lead to political violence, he set the standard for
tolerance of opposition voices and conducted a smooth
transition of power to his successor.[6] An excellent delegator and judge of talent and character, he talked regularly with department heads and listened to their advice
before making a final decision.[145] In handling routine
tasks, he was “systematic, orderly, energetic, solicitous
of the opinion of others ... but decisive, intent upon
general goals and the consistency of particular actions
with them.”[146] After reluctantly serving a second term,
Washington refused to run for a third, establishing the
tradition of a maximum of two terms for a president,
which was solidified by Thomas Jefferson and James
Madison.[147]
6.1 Domestic issues
Lansdowne portrait, painted by Gilbert Stuart in 1796
ceived the next highest vote total, was elected Vice President. On April 30, 1789 Washington was inaugurated,
taking the first presidential oath of office on the balcony
of Federal Hall in New York City.[140] The oath, as follows, was administered by Chancellor Robert R. Livingston: “I do solemnly swear that I will faithfully execute the Office of President of the United States, and will
to the best of my ability, preserve, protect and defend
the Constitution of the United States.” Historian John R.
Alden indicates that Washington added the words “So
help me God.”[141]
The 1st United States Congress voted to pay Washington a salary of $25,000 a year—a large sum in 1789, valued at about $340,000 in 2015 dollars.[lower-alpha 10] Washington, despite facing financial troubles then, initially declined the salary, valuing his image as a selfless public
servant. At the urging of Congress, however, he ultimately accepted the payment, to avoid setting a precedent whereby the presidency would be perceived as limited only to independently wealthy individuals who could
serve without any salary.[142] The President, aware that
everything he did set a precedent, attended carefully to
the pomp and ceremony of office, making sure that the
titles and trappings were suitably republican and never
emulated European royal courts.[lower-alpha 11][143] To that
end, he preferred the title "Mr. President" to the more
George Washington by Rembrandt Peale, De Young Museum
(ca. 1850)
See also: Whiskey Rebellion
Washington was not a member of any political party and
hoped that they would not be formed, fearing conflict that
would undermine republicanism.[148] His closest advisors
formed two factions, setting the framework for the future First Party System. Secretary of Treasury Alexander Hamilton had bold plans to establish the national
credit and build a financially powerful nation, and formed
6.2
Foreign affairs
the basis of the Federalist Party. Secretary of the State
Thomas Jefferson, founder of the Jeffersonian Republicans, strenuously opposed Hamilton’s agenda, but Washington typically favored Hamilton over Jefferson, and it
was Hamilton’s agenda that went into effect. Jefferson’s
political actions, his support of Philip Freneau's National
Gazette,[149] and his attempt to undermine Hamilton,
nearly led George Washington to dismiss Jefferson from
his cabinet.[150] Though Jefferson left the cabinet voluntarily, Washington never forgave him, and never spoke to
him again.[150]
13
ful action proved the new government could protect itself. This represented the premier instance of the federal
government using military force to exert authority over
the states and citizens[154] and is also the only time a sitting U.S. president personally commanded troops in the
field.[155]
6.2 Foreign affairs
In early 1790 Hamilton devised a plan with the approval
of Washington, culminating in The Residence Act of
1790, that established the creditworthiness of the new
government, as well as its permanent location. Congress
had previously issued almost $22 million in certificates of
debt during the war to suppliers; some of the states had incurred debt as well (more so in the north). In accordance
with the plan, Congress authorized the “assumption” and
payment of these debts, and provided funding through
customs duties and excise taxes. The proposal was largely
favored in the north and opposed in the south. Hamilton
obtained the approval of the southern states in exchange
for an agreement to place the new national capitol on the
Potomac River. While the national debt increased as a
result during Hamilton’s service as Secretary of the Treasury, the nation established its good credit. Many in the
Congress and elsewhere in the government profited from
trading in the debt paper which was assumed. Though
many of Washington’s fellow Virginians, as well as others, were vexed by this, he considered they had adequate
redress through their Congressional representatives.[151]
The Revenue Act authorized the President to select the
specific location of the seat of the government on the Potomac; the President was to appoint three commissioners
to survey and acquire property for this seat. Washington
personally oversaw this effort throughout his term in office. In 1791, the commissioners named the permanent
seat of government “The City of Washington in the Territory of Columbia” to honor Washington. In 1800, the
Territory of Columbia became the District of Columbia
when the federal government moved to the site according
to the provisions of the Residence Act.[152]
In 1791, partly as a result of the Copper Panic of 1789,
Congress imposed an excise tax on distilled spirits, which
led to protests in frontier districts, especially Pennsylvania. By 1794, after Washington ordered the protesters to
appear in U.S. district court, the protests turned into fullscale defiance of federal authority known as the Whiskey
Rebellion. The federal army was too small to be used, so
Washington invoked the Militia Act of 1792 to summon
militias from Pennsylvania, Virginia, Maryland and New
Jersey.[153] The governors sent the troops, with Washington taking initial command. He subsequently named
Henry “Lighthorse Harry” Lee as field commander to lead
the troops into the rebellious districts. The rebels dispersed and there was no fighting, as Washington’s force-
Miniature Portrait of Washington by Robert Field (1800)
In February 1793 the French Revolutionary Wars broke
out between Great Britain and its allies and revolutionary France, and engulfed Europe until 1815; Washington, with cabinet approval, proclaimed American neutrality. The revolutionary government of France sent diplomat Edmond-Charles Genêt, called “Citizen Genêt”, to
America. Genêt was welcomed with great enthusiasm,
and began promoting the case for France using a network
of new Democratic Societies in major cities. He even
issued French letters of marque and reprisal to French
ships manned by American sailors so they could capture
British merchant ships. Washington denounced the societies and demanded the French government recall Genêt,
which they did.[156]
Hamilton formulated the Jay Treaty to normalize trade
relations with Great Britain, remove them from western forts, and resolve financial debts remaining from the
Revolution;[157] John Jay negotiated and signed the treaty
on November 19, 1794. Jeffersonians supported France
and strongly attacked the treaty. Washington listened to
both sides then announced his strong support, which mobilized public opinion and was pivotal in securing ratification in the Senate by the requisite two-thirds majority.[158]
14
7 RETIREMENT (1797–1799)
The British agreed to depart from their forts around the
Great Lakes and the United States-Canadian boundary
had to be re-adjusted; numerous pre-Revolutionary debts
were liquidated, and the British opened their West Indies colonies to American trade. Most importantly, the
treaty delayed war with Great Britain and instead brought
a decade of prosperous trade with the British. The treaty
angered the French and became a central issue in many
political debates.[159] Relations with France deteriorated
after the treaty was signed, leaving the succeeding president, John Adams, with the prospect of war.[160][161]
7 Retirement (1797–1799)
6.3
Map of the Mount Vernon plantation and lands
Farewell Address
After retiring from the presidency in March 1797, WashMain article: George Washington’s Farewell Address
ington returned to Mount Vernon with a profound sense
Washington’s Farewell Address (issued as a public letof relief. He devoted much time to his plantations and
other business interests, including his distillery which
produced its first batch of spirits in February 1797.[165] As
Chernow (2010) explains, his plantation operations were
only minimally profitable. The lands out west yielded
little income because they were under attack by Indians and the squatters living there refused to pay him
rent. Most Americans assumed he was rich because of
the well-known “glorified façade of wealth and grandeur”
at Mount Vernon.[166] Historians estimate his estate was
worth about $1 million in 1799 dollars, equivalent to
about $19.3 million in 2012 purchasing power.[167]
Washington’s Farewell Address (September 19, 1796)
By 1798, relations with France had deteriorated to the
point that war seemed imminent, and on July 4, 1798,
President Adams offered Washington a commission as
lieutenant general and Commander-in-chief of the armies
raised or to be raised for service in a prospective war. He
accepted, and served as the senior officer of the United
States Army from July 13, 1798 until his death seventeen
months later. He participated in the planning for a Provisional Army to meet any emergency that might arise,
but avoided involvement in details as much as possible;
he delegated most of the work, including leadership of
the army, to Hamilton.[168][169]
ter in 1796) was one of the most influential statements of
republicanism. Drafted primarily by Washington himself, with help from Hamilton, it gives advice on the necessity and importance of national union, the value of
the Constitution and the rule of law, the evils of political parties and the proper virtues of a republican people.
He referred to morality as “a necessary spring of popular
government", and said, “Whatever may be conceded to
the influence of refined education on minds of peculiar
structure, reason and experience both forbid us to expect
that national morality can prevail in exclusion of religious 7.1
principle.”[162]
The address warned against foreign influence in domestic affairs and American meddling in European affairs,
and as well against bitter partisanship in domestic politics;
he also called for men to move beyond partisanship and
serve the common good. He cautioned against “permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world”,[163]
saying the United States must concentrate primarily on
American interests. He counseled friendship and commerce with all nations, but advised against involvement in
European wars and entering into long-term “entangling”
alliances. The address quickly set American values regarding foreign affairs.[164]
Comparisons with Cincinnatus
During the Revolutionary and Early Republican periods of American history, many commentators compared
Washington with the Roman aristocrat and statesman
Cincinnatus. The comparison arose as Washington, like
Cincinnatus, remained in command of the Continental
Army only until the British had been defeated. Thereafter, instead of seeking great political power, he returned
as quickly as possible to cultivating his lands.[170][171] Remarking on Washington’s resignation in December 1783,
and his decision to retire to Mount Vernon, poet Philip
Freneau wrote: Thus He, whom Rome’s proud legions
sway'd/Return'd, and sought his sylvan shade.[172] Lord
15
Byron's Ode to Napoleon also lionized Washington as “the of his total blood content was removed over the course of
Cincinnatus of the West”.[173]
just a few hours.[174][177][178] Recognizing that the bloodletting and other treatments were failing, Dr. Dick proposed performing an emergency tracheotomy, a procedure that few American physicians were familiar with at
8 Death
the time, as a last-ditch effort to save Washington’s life,
but the other two doctors disapproved.[174][179]
Washington died at home around 10 p.m. on Saturday, December 14, 1799, aged 67. In his journal, Lear
recorded Washington’s last words as being "'Tis well.”[180]
The diagnosis of Washington’s final illness and the immediate cause of his death have been subjects of debate
since the day he died.[174][178][181] In the days immediately
following his death, Craik and Dick’s published account
stated that they felt his symptoms had been consistent
with "cynanche trachealis", a term of that period used to
describe severe inflammation of the structures of the upper airway.[178][179][182] Even at that early date, there were
accusations of medical malpractice, with some believing
that Washington had been bled to death.[178][179] Various
modern medical authors have speculated that Washington
probably died from a severe case of epiglottitis which was
complicated by the given treatments (all of which were
accepted medical practice in Washington’s day)—most
notably the massive deliberate blood loss, which almost
certainly caused hypovolemic shock.[lower-alpha 12]
Throughout the world, men and women were saddened by
Washington’s death. In France, First Consul Napoleon
Bonaparte ordered ten days of mourning throughout
the country; in the United States, memorial processions
were held in major cities and thousands wore mourning clothes for months.[183][184] To protect their privacy,
Washington’s tomb at Mount Vernon, Virginia
Martha Washington burned the correspondence they had
exchanged; only five letters between the couple are known
On Thursday, December 12, 1799, Washington spent to have survived, two letters from Martha to George and
several hours inspecting his plantation on horseback, in three from him to Martha.[185][186]
snow, hail, and freezing rain; later that evening he ate his
On December 18, 1799, a funeral was held at Mount Versupper without changing from his wet clothes.[174] That
non, where his body was interred.[187] Congress passed a
Friday he awoke with a severe sore throat and became
joint resolution to construct a marble monument in the
increasingly hoarse as the day progressed, yet still rode
planned crypt below the rotunda of the center section of
out in the heavy snow, marking trees on the estate that he
the Capitol (then still under construction) for his body, a
wanted cut. Sometime around 3 a.m. that Saturday, he
plan supported by Martha. In December 1800, the House
suddenly awoke with severe difficulty breathing and alpassed an appropriations bill for $200,000 to build the
[174]
most completely unable to speak or swallow.
A firm
mausoleum, which was to be a pyramid with a 100-foot
believer in bloodletting, a standard medical practice of
(30 m) square base. Southern representatives and senathat era which he had used to treat various ailments of entors, in later opposition to the plan, defeated the measure
slaved Africans on his plantation, he ordered estate overbecause they felt it was best to have Washington’s body
seer Albin Rawlins to remove half a pint of his blood.
remain at Mount Vernon.[188]
A total of three physicians were sent for, including WashIn 1831, for the centennial of his birth, a new tomb
ington’s personal physician Dr. James Craik[175] along
was constructed to receive his remains. That year, an
with Dr. Gustavus Brown and Dr. Elisha Dick. Craik
unsuccessful attempt was made to steal the body of
and Brown thought that Washington had "quinsey" or
Washington.[189] Despite this, a joint Congressional com“quincy”, while Dick, the younger man, thought the conmittee in early 1832, debated the removal of President
dition was more serious or a “violent inflammation of the
Washington’s body from Mount Vernon to a crypt in the
[176]
By the time the three physicians finished
throat”.
Capitol, built by architect Charles Bulfinch in the 1820s
their treatments and bloodletting of the President, there
during the reconstruction of the burned-out structure afhad been a massive volume of blood loss—half or more
16
9
LEGACY
The Constable-Hamilton Portrait by Gilbert Stuart, Crystal
Bridges Museum of American Art, Bentonville, Arkansas (1797)
greatest in American history.[lower-alpha 13] Congressman
Henry “Light-Horse Harry” Lee, a Revolutionary War
comrade, famously eulogized Washington:[192]
Published regulations for the funeral procession in honor of
Washington (in New York City)
ter the British set it afire in August 1814, during the
"Burning of Washington". Southern opposition was intense, antagonized by an ever-growing rift between North
and South. Congressman Wiley Thompson of Georgia
expressed the fear of Southerners when he said, “Remove
the remains of our venerated Washington from their association with the remains of his consort and his ancestors,
from Mount Vernon and from his native State, and deposit them in this capitol, and then let a severance of the
Union occur, and behold the remains of Washington on a
shore foreign to his native soil.”[188]
His remains were moved on October 7, 1837 to the new
tomb constructed at Mount Vernon, presented by John
Struthers of Philadelphia.[190] After the ceremony, the inner vault’s door was closed and the key was thrown into
the Potomac.[191]
9
Legacy
First in war—first in peace—and first in
the hearts of his countrymen, he was second to
none in the humble and enduring scenes of private life; pious, just, humane, temperate, and
sincere; uniform, dignified, and commanding,
his example was as edifying to all around him
as were the effects of that example lasting. To
his equals he was condescending, to his inferiors kind, and to the dear object of his affections exemplarily tender; correct throughout,
vice shuddered in his presence, and virtue always felt his fostering hand; the purity of his
private character gave effulgence to his public virtues. His last scene comported with the
whole tenor of his life—although in extreme
pain, not a sigh, not a groan escaped him; and
with undisturbed serenity he closed his wellspent life. Such was the man America has
lost—such was the man for whom our nation
mourns.
Lee’s words set the standard by which Washington’s overwhelming reputation was impressed upon the AmeriMain article: George Washington’s legacy
can memory. Washington set many precedents for the
As Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army, hero national government, and the presidency in particular,
of the revolution and the first president of the United and was called the "Father of His Country" as early as
States, George Washington’s legacy remains among the 1778.[lower-alpha 14][7][193][194] Washington’s Birthday, is a
9.2
Monuments and memorials
17
federal holiday in the United States.[195]
After Yorktown, his service as Commander in Chief
brought him election as a Fellow of the American
Academy of Arts and Sciences.[196]
The Federalists made him the symbol of their party but
for many years, the Jeffersonians continued to distrust
his influence and delayed building the Washington Monument. As the leader of the first successful revolution against a colonial empire in world history, Washington became an international icon for liberation and
nationalism.[197]
During the United States Bicentennial year, George
Washington was posthumously appointed to the grade of
General of the Armies of the United States by the congressional joint resolution Public Law 94-479 passed on
January 19, 1976, with an effective appointment date
of July 4, 1976.[78] This restored Washington’s position as the highest-ranking military officer in U.S. history.[lower-alpha 15]
See also: Historical rankings of Presidents of the United
States and Cultural depictions of George Washington
9.1
Cherry tree
Washington Monument
See also: Parson Weems § The cherry-tree anecdote
Perhaps the best known story about Washington’s childhood is that he chopped down his father’s favorite cherry
tree and admitted the deed when questioned: “I can't
tell a lie, Pa.” The anecdote was first reported by biographer Parson Weems, who after Washington’s death
interviewed people who knew him as a child over a
half-century earlier. The Weems text was very widely
reprinted throughout the 19th century, for example in
McGuffey Readers. Adults wanted children to learn
moral lessons from history, especially as taught by example from the lives of great national heroes like Washington. After 1890 however, historians insisted on scientific research methods to validate every statement, and
there was no documentation for this anecdote apart from
Weems’ report that he learned it in an interview with an
old person. Joseph Rodman in 1904 noted that Weems
plagiarized other Washington tales from published fiction
set in England, but no one has found an alternative source
for the cherry tree story.[198][199]
symbol of the Federalist Party; furthermore, the values
of Republicanism seemed hostile to the idea of building
monuments to powerful men.[200] Further political squabbling, along with the North-South division on the Civil
War, blocked the completion of the Washington Monument until the late 19th century. By that time, Washington had the image of a national hero who could be celebrated by both North and South, and memorials to him
were no longer controversial.[201] Predating the obelisk
on the National Mall by several decades, the first public memorial to Washington was built by the citizens of
Boonsboro, Maryland, in 1827.[202]
Today, Washington’s face and image are often used as
national symbols of the United States.[203] He appears
on contemporary currency, including the one-dollar bill
and the quarter coin, and on U.S. postage stamps. Along
with appearing on the first postage stamps issued by the
U.S. Post Office in 1847,[204] Washington, together with
Theodore Roosevelt, Thomas Jefferson, and Lincoln, is
depicted in stone at the Mount Rushmore Memorial. The
Washington Monument, one of the best known American
landmarks, was built in his honor. The George Washing9.2 Monuments and memorials
ton Masonic National Memorial in Alexandria, Virginia,
Starting with victory in their Revolution, there were many was constructed between 1922 and 1932 with voluntary
bodies of the
proposals to build a monument to Washington. After his contributions from all 52 local governing
[205][206]
Freemasons
in
the
United
States.
death, Congress authorized a suitable memorial in the national capital, but the decision was reversed when the Re- Many places and entities have been named in honor of
publicans took control of Congress in 1801. The Repub- Washington. Washington’s name became that of the nalicans were dismayed that Washington had become the tion’s capital, Washington, D.C., one of two national cap-
18
itals across the globe to be named after an American
president (the other is Monrovia, Liberia). The state of
Washington is the only state to be named after a United
States President.[207] George Washington University and
Washington University in St. Louis were named for
him, as was Washington and Lee University (once Washington Academy), which was renamed due to Washington’s large endowment in 1796. Washington College in
Chestertown, Maryland (established by Maryland state
charter in 1782) was supported by Washington during
his lifetime with a 50 guineas pledge,[208] and with service on the college’s Board of Visitors and Governors
until 1789 (when Washington was elected President).[209]
According to the US Census Bureau’s 1993 geographic
data, Washington is the 17th most common street name
in the United States,[210] and the only person’s name so
honored.[lower-alpha 16]
10 PERSONAL LIFE
• Mount Washington in New Hampshire, the tallest
mountain in the Northeastern United States at 6,288
ft (1,917 m)
• The flag of Washington state
9.3 Papers
Main article: The Papers of George Washington
The serious collection and publication of Washington’s
documentary record began with the pioneer work of
Jared Sparks in the 1830s, Life and Writings of George
Washington (12 vols., 1834–1837). The Writings of
George Washington from the Original Manuscript Sources,
1745–1799 (1931–44) is a 37 volume set edited by John
There are many “Washington Monuments” in the United C. Fitzpatrick. It contains over 17,000 letters and docuStates, including two well-known equestrian statues, one ments and is available online from the University of Vir[217]
in Manhattan and one in Richmond, Virginia. The first ginia.
statue to show Washington on horseback was dedicated The definitive letterpress edition of his writings was bein 1856 and is located in Manhattan’s Union Square.[211] gun by the University of Virginia in 1968, and today
The second statue is known as either the Virginia Wash- comprises 52 published volumes, with more to come. It
ington Monument or as the George Washington Eques- contains everything written by Washington, or signed by
trian Statue[212] and was unveiled in 1858.[212][213] It him, together with most of his incoming letters. Part of
was the second American statue of Washington on the collection is available online from the University of
horseback[213] but figures prominently in the official seal Virginia.[218]
of the Confederate States of America.[212][214]
A marble statue of Washington was made from life by
sculptor Jean-Antoine Houdon, and now sits in the Rotunda of the State Capitol in Richmond, Virginia. A duplicate, one of 22 bronze exact replicas,[215] was given to
the British in 1921 by the Commonwealth of Virginia and
now stands in front of the National Gallery at Trafalgar
Square.[216]
9.3.1 Personal property auction record
On June 22, 2012, George Washington’s personal
annotated copy of the “Acts Passed at a Congress of the
United States of America” from 1789, which includes the
Constitution of the United States and a draft of the Bill
of Rights, was sold at Christie’s for a record $9,826,500,
In 1917, the 886 Washingtonia asteroid was named in his with fees the final cost, to The Mount Vernon Ladies’ Ashonor.
sociation. This was the record for a document sold at
auction.[219]
• Hover over each photo to view label detail
• The first Washington Monument, in Baltimore,
Maryland
10 Personal life
Along with Martha’s biological family, George Washington had a close relationship with his nephew and heir,
Bushrod Washington, son of George’s younger brother,
• National Masonic Memorial in Alexandria, VirJohn Augustine Washington. The year before his unginia, the second-tallest memorial tower of Washcle’s death, Bushrod became an Associate Justice of the
ington
Supreme Court of the United States. George, however,
apparently did not get along well with his mother, Mary
• Jean-Antoine Houdon's statue at the State Capitol in
Ball Washington (Augustine’s second wife), who was a
Richmond, Virginia has been widely copied
very demanding and difficult person.[220]
• Washington Monument in Washington, D.C.
• Lieutenant
General
George
Washington, As a young man, Washington had red hair.[221] A popular myth is that he wore a wig, as was the fashion among
Washington Circle, Washington, D.C.
some at the time. However, Washington did not wear
• George Washington’s likeness under construction on a wig; instead, he powdered his hair,[222] as is repreMount Rushmore
sented in several portraits, including the well-known, un-
10.1
Slavery
19
the portraits painted while he was still in office,[230] including the one still used on the $1 bill.[223][lower-alpha 17]
10.1 Slavery
Main article: George Washington and slavery
Washington was the only prominent Founding Father to
arrange in his will for the manumission of all his slaves
following his death.[231] He privately opposed slavery as
an institution which he viewed as economically unsound
and morally indefensible. He also regarded the divisiveness of his countrymen’s feelings about slavery as a
The Washington Family by Edward Savage, painted between potentially mortal threat to the unity of the nation.[232]
1789 and 1796, shows (from left to right): George Washington Yet, as general of the army, president of the ConstituParke Custis, George Washington, Eleanor Parke Custis, Martha
tional Convention, and the first president of the United
Washington, and an enslaved servant: probably William Lee or
States, he never publicly challenged the institution of
Christopher Sheels.
slavery,[233][234] possibly because he wanted to avoid provoking a split in the new republic over so inflammatory
[235]
finished Gilbert Stuart depiction called the “Athenaeum an issue.
Portrait.”[223]
Washington had owned slaves since the death of his faWashington’s height was variously recorded as 6 ft (1.83 ther in 1743, when at the age of eleven, he inherited 10
m) to 6 ft 2 in (1.88 m),[222] and he had unusually great slaves. At the time of his marriage to Martha Custis
physical strength that amazed younger men. Jefferson in 1759, he personally owned at least 36 slaves, which
called Washington “the best horseman of his age”, and meant he had achieved the status of a major planter (hisboth American and European observers praised his rid- torians defined this in the Upper South as owning 20
ing; the horsemanship benefited his hunting, a favorite or more slaves). The wealthy widow Martha brought at
hobby. Washington was an excellent dancer and fre- least 85 "dower slaves” to Mount Vernon by inheriting a
quently attended the theater, often referencing Shake- third of her late husband’s estate. Using his wife’s great
speare in letters.[224] He drank in moderation and pre- wealth, Washington bought more land, tripling the size of
cisely recorded gambling wins and losses, but Washing- the plantation at Mount Vernon, and purchased the additon disliked the excessive drinking, gambling, smoking, tional slaves needed to work it. By 1774, he paid taxes
and profanity that was common in colonial Virginia. Al- on 135 slaves (this figure does not include the “dowers”).
though he grew tobacco, he eventually stopped smoking, The last record of a slave purchase by him was in 1772,
he later received some slaves in repayment of
and considered drunkenness a man’s worst vice; Wash- although
debts.[236] Washington also used some hired staff[165] and
ington was glad that post-Revolutionary Virginia society
a rewas less likely to “force [guests] to drink and to make it white indentured servants; in April 1775, he offered[237]
ward for the return of two runaway white servants.
[225]
an honor to send them home drunk.”
Washington suffered from problems with his teeth Washington came to oppose slavery on both moral and
throughout his life. He lost his first adult tooth when economic grounds. Before the American Revolution, he
he was twenty-two and had only one left by the time he had expressed no moral reservations about slavery. But
became President.[226] John Adams claims he lost them by 1779, he would tell his manager at Mount Vernon
when the war ended, if
because he used them to crack Brazil nuts but mod- that he wished to sell his slaves [238]
He concluded that
the
Americans
were
victorious.
ern historians suggest the mercury oxide, which he was
maintaining
a
large,
and
increasingly
elderly, slave popgiven to treat illnesses such as smallpox and malaria,
ulation
at
Mount
Vernon
was
no
longer
economically
probably contributed to the loss. He had several sets of
profitable,
and
that
people
who
were
compelled
to work
false teeth made, four of them by a dentist named John
[239]
would
never
work
hard.
Washington
could
not
legally
[226]
Contrary to popular belief, none of the
Greenwood.
sell
the
“dower
slaves”,
and
because
they
had
long
insets were made from wood. The set made when he betermarried
with
his
own
slaves,
he
could
not
sell
his
came President was carved from hippopotamus and elewithout breaking up families, which he wanted to
phant ivory, held together with gold springs.[227] Prior to slaves [240]
In 1786, Washington wrote to Robert Morris,
avoid.
[228]
these, he had a set made with real human teeth,
likely
saying,
“There
is not a man living who wishes more sinones he purchased from “several unnamed 'Negroes,' precerely
than
I
do,
to see a plan adopted for the abolition of
[229]
Dental probsumably Mount Vernon slaves” in 1784.
[241]
slavery.”
lems left Washington in constant pain, for which he took
laudanum.[230] This distress may be apparent in many of As president, following the transfer of the national cap-
20
ital to Pennsylvania in 1790, Washington brought eight
enslaved people to work for him in the President’s House
in Philadelphia, where state law would have automatically
granted freedom to any slaves who had resided in the state
for more than 6 months. He circumvented that provision
of the law by maintaining that he was not a Pennsylvania resident and ensuring that neither he nor any of his
slaves stayed in the state for more than six months at a
time.[242] When one of the slaves, Oney Judge, a personal
attendant to Martha, escaped, Washington complained
that the slave had fled “without the least provocation,”
and he secretly sent agents to hunt her down. Washington
could not legally free Judge, since she was Martha’s dower
slave. Martha urged Washington to advertise a reward
for her capture, and the ad was placed in the Pennsylvania Gazette on May 24, 1796. When the escaped former
slave was spotted in New Hampshire, she said that she
would agree to return out of affection for the Washington
family, but only if they would guarantee her freedom, a
proposal the Washingtons refused. They were still trying,
surreptitiously, to recapture her two years later.[243][244]
Another slave, Hercules, who served as Washington’s
chef in the Presidential House in Philadelphia, managed
to escape from Mount Vernon despite Washington’s suspicions that he had been planning it.[245][246] Washington would eventually replace the slaves at the President’s
House with immigrant German indentured servants.
By 1794, as he contemplated retirement, Washington began organizing his affairs so that in his will he could free
all the slaves he owned outright.[247] As historian Gordon
S. Wood writes in his review of Joseph Ellis' biography of Washington, “He did this in the teeth of opposition from his relatives, his neighbors, and perhaps even
Martha. It was a courageous act, and one of his greatest
legacies.”[239] At the time of Washington’s death in 1799,
317 slaves lived at Mount Vernon: 123 were owned by
Washington himself, 154 were held by his wife as “dower
slaves”, and 40 others were rented from a neighbor.[248]
Washington’s will provided for all of his slaves to be
unconditionally freed upon the death of his widow, his
heirs being expressly forbidden from selling or transporting those slaves out of Virginia. Hercules, who had earlier escaped Washington, was freed and no longer a fugitive slave. The will also provided for the training of the
younger former-slaves in useful skills and for the creation
of an old-age pension fund for the older ones.[249] George
and Martha emancipated no slaves of their own during
their lifetimes and when Martha died on May 22, 1802,
all of the slaves she was legally responsible for were not
freed. Her human property Elisha went to her grandson
George Washington Custis,[250] the slaves from her first
husband’s estate—the dower slaves as well as the slaves
she held in trust—went to his inheritors.[234]
10 PERSONAL LIFE
10.2 Religion
Main article: George Washington and religion
The exact nature of Washington’s religious beliefs has
been debated by historians and biographers for over two
hundred years. For his entire life he was affiliated with
the Anglican Church, later called the Episcopal Church.
He served as a vestryman and as church warden for both
Fairfax Parish in Alexandria and Truro Parish,[251] administrative positions that, like all positions in Virginia
while it had an official religion, required one to swear they
would not speak or act in a way that did not conform to
the tenets of the Church. Numerous historians have suggested that theologically, Washington agreed largely with
the Deists. However, he never made a statement one way
or the other. He often used words for the deity, such as
“God” and “Providence,” while avoiding using the words
“Jesus” and “Christ.” In his collected works, they appear
in an official letter to Indians that might have been drafted
by an aide. At the time, Deism was a theological outlook, not an organized denomination, and was compatible
with being an Episcopalian. Historian Gregg Frazer argues that Washington was not a deist but a "theistic rationalist.” This theological position rejected core beliefs of
Christianity, such as the divinity of Christ, the Trinity and
original sin. However, unlike the deists, the theological
rationalists believed in the efficacy of prayer to God.[252]
Historian Peter A. Lillback argues that Washington was
neither a deist nor a “theistic rationalist” but a Christian
who believed in the core beliefs of Christianity.[2]
Washington, as commander of the army and as president, was a vigorous promoter of tolerance for all religious denominations. He believed religion was an important support for public order, morality and virtue. He
often attended services of different denominations. He
suppressed anti-Catholic celebrations in the Army.[253]
Washington frequently accompanied his wife to church
services. Although third-hand reports say he took
communion,[254] he is usually characterized as never or
rarely participating in the rite.[255][256] He would regularly leave services before communion with the other noncommunicants (as was the custom of the day), until, after
being admonished by a rector, he ceased attending at all
on communion Sundays.[257]
Chernow, in a 2010 podcast, summed up Washington’s
religious views:
There has been a huge controversy, to
put it mildly, about Washington’s religious beliefs. Before the Revolutionary War he was
Anglican—Church of England—which meant
after the war, he was Episcopalian. So, he was
clearly Christian ... He was quite intensely religious, because even though he uses the word
Providence, he constantly sees Providence as
an active force in life, particularly in Ameri-
10.3
Freemasonry
21
can life. I mean, every single victory in war
he credits to Providence. The miracle of the
Constitutional Convention he credits to Providence. The creation of the federal government and the prosperity of the early republic,
he credits to Providence ... I was struck at
how frequently in his letters he’s referring to
Providence, and it’s Providence where there’s
a sense of design and purpose, which sounds
to me very much like religion ... Unfortunately, this particular issue has become very
very politicized.[1]
Michael Novak and Jana Novak suggest that it may have
been “Washington’s intention to maintain a studied ambiguity (and personal privacy) regarding his own deepest religious convictions, so that all Americans, both
in his own time and for all time to come, might feel
free to approach him on their own terms—and might
also feel like full members of the new republic, equal
with every other”.[258] They conclude: “He was educated
in the Episcopal Church, to which he always adhered;
and my[sic] conviction is, that he believed in the fundamental doctrines of Christianity as usually taught in
that Church, according to his understanding of them; but
without a particle of intolerance, or disrespect for the
faith and modes of worship adopted by Christians of other
denominations.”[259]
10.3 Freemasonry
Washington was initiated into Freemasonry in 1752.[260]
He had a high regard for the Masonic Order and often praised it, but he seldom attended lodge meetings.
He was attracted by the movement’s dedication to the
Enlightenment principles of rationality, reason and fraternalism; the American lodges did not share the anticlerical perspective that made the European lodges so
controversial.[261] In 1777, a convention of Virginia
lodges recommended Washington to be the Grand Master of the newly established Grand Lodge of Virginia;
however, Washington declined, due to his necessity to
lead the Continental Army at a critical stage, and because
he had never been installed as Master or Warden of a
lodge, he did not consider it Masonically legal to serve
as Grand Master.[262] In 1788, Washington, with his personal consent, was named Master in the Virginia charter
of Alexandria Lodge No. 22.[263]
11 Postage and currency
See also: U.S. presidents on U.S. postage stamps and
History of Virginia on stamps
George Washington appears on contemporary U.S. currency, including the one-dollar bill and the quarter-dollar
coin (the Washington quarter).
Washington, along with Benjamin Franklin, appeared on
the nation’s first postage stamps in 1847. Since that time
Washington has appeared on many postage issues, more
than all other presidents combined.[204]
Washington’s victory over Cornwallis at the Battle of
Yorktown was commemorated with a two-cent stamp on
the battle’s 150th anniversary on October 19, 1931.[264]
The 150th anniversary of the signing of the Constitution with George Washington as presiding officer was
celebrated with a three-cent issue on September 17,
1937, was adapted from the painting by Julius Brutus Stearns.[265] Washington’s presidential inauguration
at Federal Hall in New York City was celebrated on its
150th anniversary on April 30, 1939.[266]
• Hover over each photo to view label detail
• Washington center, flanked by Gen. Rochambeau
& Adm. DeGrasse
Battle of Yorktown, 1781
1931 issue
The George Washington
Alexandria, Virginia
Masonic
National
Memorial,
• Washington, president of the Constitutional
Convention, 1787
1937 issue
• Washington’s presidential oath, 1789
1939 issue
22
13 NOTES
• Washington,
issue of 1862, 24c
• Washington,
issue of 1895, 2c
• Washington-Franklin Issues
of 1908–1923, 5c
• Washington at Prayer, Valley Forge,
issue of 1928, 2c
• Washington Before Boston Medal voted for George
Washington by Second Continental Congress,
March 25, 1776.
• Washington is on the front of all newly minted U.S.
quarter dollars
• Washington on the obverse of the first Presidential
$1 Coin
[2] Contemporary records, which used the Julian calendar and the Annunciation Style of enumerating years,
recorded his birth as February 11, 1731. The provisions of
the British Calendar (New Style) Act 1750, implemented
in 1752, altered the official British dating method to the
Gregorian calendar with the start of the year on January 1
(it had been March 25). These changes resulted in dates
being moved forward 11 days, and for those between January 1 and March 25, an advance of one year. For a further explanation, see: Old Style and New Style dates.
[3] Engber, Daniel (January 18, 2006). “What’s Benjamin
Franklin’s Birthday?". Slate. Retrieved May 21, 2011.
(Both Franklin’s and Washington’s confusing birth dates
are clearly explained.)
[4] Ellis and Ferling, for example, do not discuss this stance in
reference to Washington’s French and Indian War service,
and cast it almost exclusively in terms of his negative experiences dealing with the Continental Congress during the
Revolution. See Ellis (2004, p. 218); Ferling (2009, pp.
32–33, 200, 258–272, 316). Don Higginbotham places
Washington’s first formal advocacy of a strong central government in 1783. Higginbotham (2002, p. 37).
• A 1928 United States one-dollar bill. Note it is
identified as a "United States Note" rather than a
Federal Reserve Note.
[5] Though largely absent from the election while serving on
the Forbes Expedition, he plied the voters with 170 gallons of rice punch, beer, wine, hard cider and brandy. See
Alden (1993, p. 71)
• Washington depicted on a 1861 Confederate $50
banknote
[6] The term comes from the Roman strategy used by General
Fabius against Hannibal’s invasion in the Second Punic
War.
12
See also
• American gentry
• Conotocaurious (Town Destroyer), a nickname
given to Washington by Iroquois Native Americans
• List of federal judges appointed by George Washington
• List of notable Freemasons
• List of Presidents of the United States, sortable by
previous experience
• List of slave owners
• Where’s George?, a website that tracks the circulation of American paper money
13
Notes
[1] March 4 is the official start of the first presidential term.
April 6 is when Congress counted the votes of the Electoral College and certified a president. April 30 is when
Washington was sworn in.
[7] Ferling and Ellis argue that Washington favored Fabian
tactics and Higginbotham denies it. Ferling (2010, pp.
212, 264); Ellis (2004, p. 11); Higginbotham (1971, p.
211).
[8] Under the Articles of Confederation, Congress called
its presiding officer “President of the United States in
Congress Assembled”. The position had no executive powers, but the similarity of titles has confused
some into thinking there were other presidents before
Washington.[138]
[9] The system in place at the time, dictated that each elector cast two votes, with the winner becoming president,
and the runner-up vice president. All electors in the elections of 1789 and 1792 cast one of their votes for Washington; thus it may be said that he was elected president
unanimously. James Monroe would be reelected, unopposed, in 1820, however, a faithless elector cast a single
vote for John Quincy Adams, depriving Monroe of unanimous election.
[10] The Coinage Act of 1792 sets the value of $1 USD equal
to 24.1g of silver. With the price of silver at $15.95/oz as
of June 13, 2015, the value of 25,000 in silver dollars in
1792 value (24.1g/$1) is $338,750.
[11] Washington was aware that his actions would set precedents for later American presidents. He wrote to James
Madison: ""As the first of everything in our situation will
serve to establish a precedent, it is devoutly wished on
my part that these precedents be fixed on true principles.”
23
Washington to James Madison, May 5, 1789, cited by
Unger, 2013, p. 76.
[12] At least three modern medical authors (Wallenborn
(1997), Shapiro 1975, Scheidemandel 1976) concluded
that Washington most probably died from acute bacterial
epiglottitis complicated by the administered treatments.
These treatments included multiple doses of calomel (a
cathartic or purgative), and extensive bloodletting (with
at least 2.365 total liters of blood being taken, which is
slightly less than half of a normal adult’s blood volume).
• See Vadakan (2005, Footnotes) for Shapiro and
Scheidemandel references. Vadakan’s article also
directly quotes Doctors Craik and Dick’s account
(as published in the Times of Alexandria newspaper) of their treatment of Washington during his fatal illness.
[13] Historians Jay A. Parry and Andrew M. Allison declare
that Washington “was the dominant personality in three
of the most critical events in that founding: the Revolutionary War, the Constitutional Convention, and the first
national administration. Had he not served as America’s
leader in those three events, all three likely would have
failed. And America as we know it today would not exist.” Parry, 1991, p. xi.
[14] The earliest known image in which Washington is identified as the Father of (His/Our/the) Country is in the frontispiece of a 1779 German-language almanac. With calculations by David Rittenhouse and published by Francis
Bailey in Lancaster County Pennsylvania, Der Gantz Neue
Nord-Americanishe Calendar has Fame appearing with an
image of Washington, holding a trumpet to her lips from
which the words "Der Landes Vater" (translated as “the
father of the country” or “the father of the land”) comes
forth.
had a set of false teeth inserted, which accounts for the constrained expression so noticeable about the mouth and lower part of
the face. Houdon’s bust does not suffer from
this defect. I wanted him as he looked at that
time.” Stuart preferred the Athenaeum pose
and, except for the gaze, used the same pose
for the Lansdowne painting.[230]
14 References
[1] Chernow, Ron (October 18, 2010). Ron Chernow on
George Washington (MP3). We The People Stories (Podcast) (Philadelphia: National Constitution Center). Retrieved December 29, 2011.
[2] Lillback, Peter; Newcombe, Jerry (2006). George Washington’s Sacred Fire (1st ed.). Bryn Mawr, Pa.: Providence
Forum Press. ISBN 978-0978605261.
[3] Encyclopedia Of The Enlightenment Ellen Judy Wilson,
Peter Hanns Reill, 2004 p. 148, retrieved April 26, 2012
[4] Grizzard (2002, pp. 105–107)
[5] Chernow (2010)
[6] Michael Kazin, eds; et al. (2009). The Princeton Encyclopedia of American Political History. (Two volume set).
Princeton University Press. p. 589. ISBN 1400833566.
[7] Unger (2013, pp. 236–237)
[8] Unger (2013, p. 18)
[9] Unger (2013, p. 236)
[15] In Bell (2005), William Gardner Bell states that when
Washington was recalled back into military service from
his retirement in 1798, “Congress passed legislation that
would have made him General of the Armies of the United
States, but his services were not required in the field and
the appointment was not made until the Bicentennial in
1976, when it was bestowed posthumously as a commemorative honor.” How many U.S. Army five-star generals
have there been and who were they? states that with Public
Law 94-479, President Ford specified that Washington
would “rank first among all officers of the Army, past and
present. “General of the Armies of the United States” is
only associated with two people...one being Washington
and the other being John J. Pershing.
[10] Cayton, Andrew (September 30, 2010). “Learning to Be
Washington”. The New York Times. Retrieved September
30, 2010.
[16] The rest of the Top 20 street names are all descriptive
(Hill, View and so on), arboreal (Pine, Maple, etc.) or
numeric (Second, Third, etc.).
[15] Peter Kolchin, American Slavery, 1619–1877, New York:
Hill and Wang, 1993, p. 28
[17] The Smithsonian Institution states in “The Portrait—
George Washington: A National Treasure” that:
Stuart admired the sculpture of Washington
by French artist Jean-Antoine Houdon, probably because it was based on a life mask
and therefore extremely accurate. Stuart explained, “When I painted him, he had just
[11] O'Brien (2009, p. 19)
[12] “Bible Record for Washington Family”. The Papers of
George Washington. University of Virginia. Archived
from the original on January 1, 2008. Retrieved January
26, 2008.
[13] Alden (1993, pp. 3–4)
[14] Dorothy Twohig, “The Making of George Washington” in
Hofstra (1998)
[16] “Burials at George Washington Birthplace National Monument”. George Washington Birthplace National Monument. National Park Service. Archived from the original
on June 23, 2008. Retrieved January 29, 2011.
[17] “George Washington’s Family Chart”. Mount Vernon
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[241] Washington, George (April 12, 1786). “Letter to Robert
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Morris”. The Papers of George Washington: The Confederation Series, Volume 4. University of Virginia. Archived [261] Chernow (2010, pp. 27, 704)
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15 Bibliography
For a list of written works, see George Washington
bibliography.
• Alden, John R. (1993). George Washington, a Biography. Norwalk: Easton Press.
30
• Anderson, Fred (2000). Crucible of War: The Seven
Years’ War and the Fate of Empire in British North
America, 1754–1766. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
ISBN 978-0-375-40642-3.
• Anderson, Fred (2005). The War That Made America: A Short History of the French and Indian War
(abridged ed.). New York: Viking. ISBN 978-0670-03454-3.
• Bell, William Gardner (2005) [1983]. Commanding
Generals and Chiefs of Staff, 1775–2005: Portraits
& Biographical Sketches of the United States Army’s
Senior Officer. Washington, D.C: Center of Military
History, United States Army. pp. 52–53, 66–67.
ISBN 0-16-072376-0. CMH Pub 70–14.
• Boller, Paul F. (1963). George Washington & Religion. Dallas: Southern Methodist University Press.
OCLC 563800860.
• Boller, Paul F. (1995). Not So!: Popular Myths
About America from Columbus to Clinton. New
York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19509186-8.
• Brookhiser, Richard (1996). Founding Father: Rediscovering George Washington. New York: Free
Press. ISBN 0-684-82291-1.
15 BIBLIOGRAPHY
• Ellis, Joseph J. (2004). His Excellency: George
Washington. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN
1-4000-4031-0.
• Espinosa, Gastón (2009). Religion and the American Presidency: George Washington to George W.
Bush with Commentary and Primary Sources. New
York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0231-14332-5.
• Ferling, John E. (2000). Setting the World Ablaze:
Washington, Adams, Jefferson, and the American
Revolution. New York: Oxford University Press.
ISBN 0-19-513409-5.
• Ferling, John E. (2009). The Ascent of George
Washington: The Hidden Political Genius of an
American Icon. New York: Bloomsbury Press.
ISBN 978-1-59691-465-0.
• Ferling, John E. (2010) [1988]. First of Men: A Life
of George Washington. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-539867-0.
• Fischer, David Hackett (2004). Washington’s Crossing. Oxford, England; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-517034-2.
• Buchanan, John (2004). The Road to Valley Forge:
How Washington Built the Army That Won the Revolution. Hoboken, N.J: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN
978-0-471-44156-4.
• Fishman, Ethan M.; Pederson, William D.; Rozell,
Mark J., eds. (2001). George Washington, Foundation of Presidential Leadership and Character.
Westport, Conn: Praeger. ISBN 0-275-96868-5.
• Bumgarner, John R. (1994). The Health of the Presidents: The 41 United States Presidents Through 1993
from a Physician’s Point of View. Jefferson, N.C:
McFarland & Co. ISBN 0-89950-956-8.
• Flexner, James Thomas (1965). George Washington: the Forge of Experience, 1732–1775. Boston:
Little, Brown. OCLC 426484.
• Carp, E. Wayne (1990) [1984]. To Starve the Army
at Pleasure: Continental Army Administration and
American Political Culture, 1775–1783. Chapel
Hill: University of North Carolina Press. p. 220.
ISBN 978-0-8078-4269-0. Retrieved November
13, 2011.
• Chernow, Ron (2010). Washington: A Life. New
York: Penguin Press. ISBN 978-1-59420-266-7.,
Pulitzer Prize
• Cunliffe, Marcus (1958). George Washington, Man
and Monument. Boston: Little, Brown. OCLC
58007859.
• Dalzell, Robert F., Jr.; Dalzell, Lee Baldwin (1998).
George Washington’s Mount Vernon: At Home in
Revolutionary America. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-512114-7.
• Elkins, Stanley M.; McKitrick, Eric (1995) [1993].
The Age of Federalism. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-509381-0., standard
political history of 1790s
• Flexner, James Thomas (1974). Washington: The
Indispensable Man. Boston: Little, Brown. ISBN
0-316-28605-2.
• Freeman, Douglas Southall (1948). George Washington, a Biography 7 v. New York: Scribner.
OCLC 732644234.
• Freeman, Douglas Southall (1968).
Harwell,
Richard Barksdale, ed. Washington. New York:
Scribner. OCLC 426557.
• Gregg, Gary L., II; Spalding, Matthew, eds. (1999).
Patriot Sage: George Washington and the American
Political Tradition. Wilmington, Del: ISI Books.
ISBN 1-882926-38-2.
• Grizzard, Frank E., Jr. (2002). George Washington:
A Biographical Companion. Santa Barbara, Calif:
ABC-CLIO. ISBN 1-57607-082-4.
• Grizzard, Frank E., Jr. (2005). George!: A Guide to
All Things Washington. Buena Vista, Va: Mariner
Pub. ISBN 0-9768238-0-2.
31
• Higginbotham, Don (1971). The War of American
Independence: Military Attitudes, Policies, and Practice, 1763–1789. New York: Macmillan. OCLC
142627.
• O'Brien, Conor Cruise (2009). First in Peace:
How George Washington Set the Course for America.
Foreword by Christopher Hitchens. Cambridge: Da
Capo Press. ISBN 978-0-306-81619-2.
• Higginbotham, Don (1985). George Washington
and the American Military Tradition. Athens: University of Georgia Press. ISBN 0-8203-0786-6.
• Parry, Jay A.; Allison, Andrew M. (1991). The
Real George Washington: The True Story of America’s Most Indispensable Man. United States: National Center for Constitutional Studies. ISBN 9780-88080-014-3.
• Higginbotham, Don, ed. (2001). George Washington Reconsidered. Charlottesville: University Press
of Virginia. ISBN 0-8139-2005-1.
• Higginbotham, Don (2002). George Washington:
Uniting a Nation. Lanham, Md: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 0-7425-2208-3.
• Hirschfeld, Fritz (1997). George Washington and
Slavery: A Documentary Portrayal. Columbia: University of Missouri Press. ISBN 0-8262-1135-6.
• Hofstra, Warren R., ed. (1998). George Washington and the Virginia Backcountry. Madison, Wis:
Madison House. ISBN 0-945612-50-8.
• Hughes, Rupert (1926). George Washington... New
York: W. Morrow & Co. OCLC 17399028.
• Jensen, Merrill (1948). The Articles of Confederation: An Interpretation of the Social-Constitutional
History of the American Revolution, 1774–1781.
Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. OCLC
498124.
• Johnson, William (1919). George Washington, the
Christian. New York: The Abingdon Press. OCLC
19524242. Retrieved December 29, 2011.
• Ketchum, Richard M. (1999) [1973]. The Winter Soldiers: The Battles for Trenton and Princeton.
New York: Henry Holt. ISBN 0-8050-6098-7.
• Lancaster, Bruce; Plumb, John H. (1985). The
American Revolution. New York: American Heritage Press. ISBN 0-8281-0281-3., heavily illustrated
• Lengel, Edward G. (2005). General George Washington: A Military Life. New York: Random House.
ISBN 1-4000-6081-8.
• Mann, Barbara Alice (2005). George Washington’s
War on Native America. Westport, Conn: Praeger.
ISBN 0-275-98177-0.
• Middlekauff, Robert. Washington’s Revolution:
The Making of America’s First Leader (2015), the
revolution from General Washington’s perspective
Excerpt
• McCullough, David (2005). 1776. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-7432-2671-2.
• Randall, Willard Sterne (1997). George Washington: A Life. New York: Henry Holt & Co. ISBN
0-8050-2779-3.
• Rasmussen, William M. S.; Tilton, Robert S.
(1999). George Washington-the Man Behind the
Myths. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia.
ISBN 0-8139-1900-2.
• Unger, Harlow Giles (2013). “Mr. President”
George Washington and the Making of the Nation’s
Highest Office. Boston: Da Capo Press, A Member of the Perseus Book Group. ISBN 978-0-30682241-4.
• Vadakan, Vibul V., M.D. (Winter–Spring 2005).
“A Physician Looks At The Death of Washington”.
The Early America Review (DEV Communications)
6 (1). ISSN 1090-4247.
• Wallenborn, White McKenzie, M.D. (November
5, 1997). “George Washington’s Terminal Illness:
A Modern Medical Analysis of the Last Illness
and Death of George Washington”. The Papers of
George Washington. University of Virginia.
• Wiencek, Henry (2003). An Imperfect God: George
Washington, His Slaves, and the Creation of America. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN
0-374-17526-8.
• Wood, Gordon S. (1992). The Radicalism of the
American Revolution. New York: A.A. Knopf.
ISBN 0-679-40493-7.
16 External links
• George Washington at DMOZ
• “Dec. 14, 1799: The excruciating final hours of
President George Washington” (PBS)
• American President: George Washington (1732–
1799) at the Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia
• George Washington: A Resource Guide at the
Library of Congress
• George Washington Resources at the University of
Virginia Library
32
16
• Original Digitized Letters of George Washington
Shapell Manuscript Foundation
•
• The Papers of George Washington at the Avalon
Project
• The Papers of George Washington, subset of
Founders Online from the National Archives
• George Washington’s Mount Vernon Estate, Museum & Gardens
• Discover the Real George Washington: New
Views from Mount Vernon, a traveling exhibit
• George Washington Birthplace National Monument, Virginia from the National Park Service
• Copies of the wills of General George Washington:
the first president of the United States and of Martha
Washington, his wife (1904), edited by E. R. Holbrook
• Rediscovering George Washington at PBS
• “What Made George Washington a Good Military
Leader?". EDSITEment: Lesson Plans. National Endowment for the Humanities.
• Works by George Washington at Project Gutenberg
• Works by or about George Washington at Internet
Archive
• Works by George Washington at LibriVox (public
domain audiobooks)
EXTERNAL LINKS
33
17
17.1
Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses
Text
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17.2
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17.2
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38
17
TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
• File:Great_Seal_of_the_United_States_(obverse).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Great_Seal_
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• File:Scene_at_the_Signing_of_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States.jpg Source:
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