Encyclopaedia Of Markings and Decoration On Artillery Vol 1

MENDEL L. PETERSON
ENCYCLOPæDIA OF
MARKINGS &
DECORATION
ON ARTILLERY
VOLUME I
EDITED BY ROBERT P. A. STÉNUIT
“THE WEALTH OF NATIONS WAS MADE BY THE CANNON”.
FRONT COVER: Bronze, Spanish, “cañon largó” (long cannon). Cast in Manila, Philippines in 1749. Calibre: 14.2cm,
length: 2.80m, weight: 5,944 “libs”. (Toledo)
The 1st reinforce features the full coat of arms of Spain under King Fernando VI. On the 2nd reinforce, the circular shield,
under a bishop’s hat with cordons, with a long Latin inscription describing the merits and titles of Bishop-Governor Johannes
de Arecheda. The chase features two scrolls, bearing the words “VIOLATI FULMINA REGIS” (The offended King’s Thunderbolt) and separately, the name “EL RAYO” (The Lightning). Near the muzzle is a cartouche with the name of Santa Barbara,
the Patron Saint of artillerymen.
(Autorizada por el Museo del Ejército)
Cover Design and layout: Wendy Tucker and Craig Ferguson
Published in 2014.
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The purpose of the present publication is double: To present if belatedly, a record of the information that
existed and was available to the historians on the subject of ancient artillery, in the museums of the world,
during the lifetime of Mendel L. Peterson, and to inform the historians of what remains where, today, of
the material evidence he has seen, photographed and studied some fifty years ago.
The publication is in four parts:
Part One is a volume of introduction (printed in book form), that presents Mendel Lazear Peterson to the
reader and supplies a quantity of conveniently grouped background information to which the specialists
will be able to easily refer when working from Part Two – which consists in Part Two A and Part Two B –
and from Part Three.
Part Two (to be presented on the internet is the actual raw material gathered and used by Mendel Peterson:
His photo albums (the so-called LGAs or Large Green Albums with captions and notes) that contain the
photographs of the countless cannons he studied in countless museums in Europe (Part Two A) and in the
Western Hemisphere (US, Canada, Mexico, Caribbean) (Part Two B). The LGAs are presented in parallel
with a review of the present-day state of affairs in each of the same museums, when they still exist, in the
form of the so-called Editor’s Albums.
2
Part Three (to be presented on the Internet also, is his actual, never published yet, Encyclopædia Of Markings & Decoration On Artillery (the so-called SGAs or Small Green Albums), the result of his patient
examination and analysis of the most significant characteristics and details of the tens of thousands of
pieces of artillery present in museums in his day. In his mind, consulting his Encyclopaedia would have
given every underwater archaeologist – and so it will do now – the necessary clues to identify any newly
found wreck on the basis of the peculiarities of its artillery. But obviously, his unique corpus of specialized, expertly interpreted data will do much more than that. It will bring, in an unprecedented global
and handy form, invaluable information to all historians, who want to scientifically and measurably assess
the potential effect of artillery, the main “tool for power” that helped write the history of Europe and its
colonies all along the “Artillery Age”.
CO NT E NTS
____________________________________________________________________
3
MENDEL L. PETERSON
ENCYCLOPÆDIA OF
MARKINGS & DECORATION
ON ARTILLERY
CONTENTS OF PART ONE
____________________________________________________________________
(ONLY VOLUME TO BE PUBLISHED IN PRINT. THE FOLLOWING PARTS, TWO AND
THREE, WILL BE MADE AVAILABLE ON THE INTERNET ONLY AT WWW.BUEI.ORG. THE
PRESENT VOLUME IS TO SERVE AS THE KEY TO PARTS TWO AND THREE)
FOREWORD BY TEDDY TUCKER
A WORD FROM THE EDITOR (Ed)
THE LIFE AND TIMES OF MENDEL L. PETERSON (MLP), A SHORT BIOGRAPHY
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF MENDEL PETERSON
FILMOGRAPHY OF MENDEL PETERSON
BOOKS AND OTHER PUBLISHED SOURCES CONTAINING SIGNIFICANT REFERENCES
TO MENDEL PETERSON AND HIS WORK
“ULTIMA RATIO REGUM” – “THE LAST ARGUMENT OF THE KINGS”
ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF THE MLP ENCYCLOPAEDIA: MLP’S ARCHIVES
CONTENTS OF MLP’S ARCHIVES AND NOTES
• The so-called “Large Green Albums” (LGAs)
• The so-called “Small Green Albums” (SGAs)
• The other parts
ARTILLERY
ART OF GUN CASTING
TALKING OF CANNONS AND OTHER MEMBERS OF THE ARTILLERY FAMILY: WHO WAS
WHAT? (Or how to tell a pear from an apple?)
PROPOSED, COMPARATIVE ORDNANCE TYPOLOGY
TERMINOLOGY OF ANCIENT ARTILLERY (WITH AN ATTEMPT TO HAZARD A TRANSLATION IN FRENCH AND SPANISH)
PARTS OF A CANNON
4
PARTS OF A GUN CARRIAGE
TOOLS OF THE GUNNER
PROJECTILES
GUNNER’S VOCABULARY
ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE TEXT
ANNEXED DOCUMENTS
• Alphabetic list of Latin and other languages mottos on artillery pieces.
• List of the major European gun founders from the 15th to the 19th century. (As established
by MLP and completed by the Editor).
• List of American gun founders in the 18th and 19th centuries. (As established by MLP).
• Men in charge. A list of the Masters of Artillery (or equivalent royal officers) in England,
France and Spain.
• Line of succession of the royals, princes and lesser lords, etc.
• Major wars in the Age of Artillery.
• General bibliography on the history of ancient artillery: The main treaties and books, manuscript and/or printed, by English, Scottish, American, Portuguese, Spanish, French, Italian,
Dutch, Belgian, German, Austrian, Danish, Swedish and Norwegian authors. Russian and/or
oriental authors only if translated in English. Includes some important ancient and modern
artillery museum’s catalogues.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
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CONTENTS OF PART TWO
____________________________________________________________________
(PART TWO WILL BE MADE AVAILABLE ON THE INTERNET ONLY AT WWW.BUEI.ORG)
THE SO-CALLED LARGE GREEN ALBUMS (LGAs)
BEING ALL MENDEL PETERSON’S PHOTOGRAPHIC CATALOGUES OF THE MAIN COLLECTIONS OF CANNONS, MORTARS, HOWITZERS, ETC. IN EUROPEAN AND WESTERN
HEMISPHERE MUSEUMS, CASTLES, FORTS AND PRIVATE COLLECTIONS, AS THEY EXISTED BETWEEN 1950 - 2000
WITH CORRESPONDING, UPDATED EDITOR’S ALBUMS
CONSISTING OF ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTIONS OF THE SAME MUSEUMS, ETC. (EUROPEAN ONLY) AT THE STATE THEY WERE IN AT THE TIME OF PRINTING OR SCANNING.
THE EDITOR’S ALBUMS (EAs) ALSO INCLUDE NEW, RECENTLY OPENED MUSEUMS
INTRODUCTION TO THE GENERAL PICTORIAL SERIES (by Editor)
THE SO-CALLED LARGE GREEN ALBUMS (LGAs) WITH THE CORRESPONDING EDITOR’S
ALBUMS (EAs)
PART TWO - A (EUROPE)
THE PICTORIAL CATALOGUE – EUROPE
• Cannons in Portugal (Lisbon x 5 and miscellaneous small museums)
• Cannons in Spain (Madrid x 2, Barcelona x 2, Seville x 2, Toledo and miscellaneous smaller
museums)
• Cannons in France (Paris x 2, Toulon, Nice, Draguignan, Lorient, Port St. Louis, Rochefort),
also Monaco
• Cannons in Belgium (Brussels x 2 and miscellaneous smaller museums)
• Cannons in The Netherlands (Amsterdam x 3, Rotterdam, Leiden, Delft and miscellaneous
smaller museums)
• Cannons in England (London x 2, Windsor, Woolwich, Southampton)
• Cannons in Scotland (Edinburgh)
• Cannons in Switzerland (Basle, Bern, Geneva x 2, Zurich, Morges, Solothurn, La Neuveville
and smaller museums)
• Cannons in Italy (Turin x 2, Rome x 2, Venice x 2, Naples x 2, Florence)
• Cannons in Germany (Munich, Nuremberg x 2, Berlin and miscellaneous smaller museums)
• Cannons in Austria (Vienna x 3, Linz, Ebelsberg, Innsbruck, Graz)
• Cannons in Denmark (Copenhagen x 2, Elsinore x 2)
• Cannons in Sweden (Stockholm x 3 and smaller museums)
• Cannons in Norway (Oslo x 2, Horten and miscellaneous smaller museums)
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PART TWO - B (THE USA AND THE WESTERN HEMISPHERE)
INTRODUCTION
THE PICTORIAL CATALOGUE – THE LGAs FOR THE UNITED STATES OF NORTH AMERICA AND THE WESTERN HEMISPHERE
• Cannons in the United States (Annapolis, Newburg, Washington DC, Louisburg, Saint Augustine, others)
• Cannons in Canada (Ottawa, Toronto)
• Cannons in Mexico (Mexico City)
• Cannons in the Bahamas
• Cannons in Cuba (La Havana)
• Cannons in Jamaica
• Cannons in Haiti (Port au Prince, the “Forteresse du Roi Christophe”)
• Cannons in Santo Domingo
There are no EAs for the USA and the Western Hemisphere.
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CONTENTS OF PART THREE
____________________________________________________________________
(PART THREE WILL BE MADE AVAILABLE ON THE INTERNET ONLY AT WWW.BUEI.ORG)
MLP’S PHOTOGRAPHIC ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF MARKINGS AND DECORATION ON ANCIENT ARTILLERY PIECES
IN THE FORM OF:
THE SO-CALLED SMALL GREEN ALBUMS (SGAs),
being systematic key-lists for the identification and dating
of any given artillery piece
PLAN AND CONTENTS OF THE PHOTOGRAPHIC ENCYCLOPAEDIA
INTRODUCTION
THE SMALL GREEN ALBUMS (SGAs), THE LISTS OF TELLTALE CLUES ON SPECIFIC PARTS
OF THE PIECES OF ANCIENT GUNS, (ETC.) THAT CAN BE OF HELP FOR THEIR IDENTIFICATION, HAVE BEEN ORGANIZED AS ORIGINALLY ENVISIONED BY MENDEL PETERSON, AFTER OCCASIONAL REVIEW AND SIMPLIFICATION BY THE EDITOR.
IT IS AS FOLLOWS:
Particular physical features of the gun shown in the photographs:
- Handles (dolphins).
- Cascables, including breech mouldings or decoration, neck and breech button (or knob).
NB: Other parts of the gun, less significant for clear identification purposes, have been temporarily left
aside; they include the muzzle of the gun, its vent (or touch hole) with the eventual powder-pan, the sights
(hind sights and mouth sights) and the much less characteristic trunnions.
- Informative marks (on any of the piece’s parts) either in the form of digits (weight, calibre, serial number,
date of casting etc.) or in the form of letters (initials, cyphers, name of the founder, of the master of artillery, of the owner, proper name of the cannon, mottos, dedicatory texts (on presentation guns only), proud
commemorative comments etc.)
- Decoration (on any part of the gun), including the very eloquent portraits (of the King or ruler, usually),
with his crowned emblem and personal coat of arms, or the arms of a city, an admiralty, a large commercial
company, etc., and, also, decoration per se, for mere embellishment purpose. (The dividing line here is
often blurred.)
The captions generally include:
8
•
•
•
Type of metal (or other material)
Technique used (forged, cast, mixed techniques)
Country where gun produced
•
•
•
•
•
•
General type of the piece
Name of the founder and date
First owner of gun
All dimensions
Brief comments on the particularities, decoration, marks, etc.
Other comments if any: origin when relevant, peculiarities (such as erased coats of arms or
portraits and their meaning for instance, etc.)
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A WORD OF WARNING:
____________________________________________________________________
THE OCCASIONAL LIMITATIONS OF
THE PETERSON WRECK IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM
In various of his publications, Mendel Peterson has pointed out the occasional limitations to the method of
identifying a newly discovered wreck on the basis, only, of the cannons it was carrying. He himself studied,
in great detail also, all the miscellaneous artefacts that can be found in the wreckage of an ancient ship.
Possible sources of errors, he underlined, are:
1 – That cannons, for various reasons, may be lost on a site without the ship they came from actually sinking there, or sinking at all, for example:
• Stranded ships often jettison their guns, cargo or even anchors in the hope of floating away
with the next tide.
• Ships in danger of being captured may throw their guns overboard rather than risk seeing the
enemy going away with them as trophies.
• Ships in danger of sinking because they are bulging with water often leave a trail of jettisoned
guns on the bottom, which do not always lead to a wreck.
An early 17th century ex-voto commemorating the safe return to harbour of a ship, which was at one
time in such a danger of going down that the sailors had to jettison anchors and artillery. The underwater
archaeologists, who will find one day these anchors and cannons will look around in vain for a wreck (Collection of the Museo Navale of Venice)
2 - That the iron cannons carried on board any ship can be reformed old pieces used for ballast (although
in that case they tend to be carefully arranged head to tail in a row on the orlop deck and/or mixed with
the actual stone ballast of the vessel).
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3 – That ships can sometimes carry “wrong guns”, unexpected guns captured from enemy ships or guns
recovered from some wreck or guns purchased from wreckers or guns purchased from a local foundry at
some stop-over, etc.
4 – That pirate ships did carry any artillery piece they could lay their hands on.
5 – That warships in time of penury (and Spanish galleons in particular) often carried such guns as the
arsenal could supply at the time of their departure, not the theoretical, mandatory complement: Iron guns
for instance in place of scarcer bronze guns or guns of disparate calibres or smaller pieces than per regulation or old pieces that should have been long reformed, etc.
6 – That military transports can be carrying, from the motherland to faraway establishments in Asia or in
America, cannons destined to some fortresses or to overseas based squadrons, not in line with the type of
ships they are themselves.
7 – That merchant vessels may be carrying cannons as paying cargo.
And, finally, underwater, guns do not always survive long enough the destructive sea action to still be able
to tell their story.
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All that remains of the iron guns of the Dutch warship CURAÇAO (Admiralty of Amsterdam, 52 guns,
lost in June 1729 on the East coast of the Isle of Unst in Shetland). Only the brass swivel guns (two of
which are visible in front of the diver) were found well preserved. (Excavation by the Editor. Photo RS)
The above, however, is but a list of the exceptions that confirm the rule.
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PA RT O NE
____________________________________________________________________
14
FOREWORD BY TEDDY TUCKER
____________________________________________________________________
Mendel L. Peterson was a great, life-long friend. He was a master diver, an intrepid explorer of shipwrecks, a foremost authority on the Spanish Treasure Fleets and on underwater discoveries made in
Bermuda, the Mediterranean, Mexico, the Bahamas and other parts of the world. Amongst his many
accomplishments, Mendel was a world renowned numismatist, well versed in modern and ancient history and well published. When lecturing, as he did, worldwide, on many subjects, he captivated his
audience and brought history alive.
For twenty-five years Mendel was a principal member of the Smithsonian Institution, where he served
as Chairman of the Department of Armed Forces History and Curator of the Division of Historic Archaeology. We have the completion of a project begun by Mendel L. Peterson, in 1952 of photographs
and catalogues on the methods of marking and decorating early artillery. This book is related directly
to the importance of artillery, in identifying shipwreck sites, including iron, as well as bronze artillery
from all nations.
To Mendel, all finds were valuable, he was successfully reconstructing history and his attitude towards
underwater treasure was that of the historian. He was the founder of marine archaeology, which is the
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basic method used today. We taught marine archaeology in Bermuda, during the summers, as an accredited university degree. A cannon identified by me and confirmed by Mendel, sealed the identification of the wreck of the SEA VENTURE, 1609, (discovered by my friend, Edmund W. P. Downing).
Sir George Somers ship wrecked to the east of Bermuda and consequently settled Bermuda and became
a British colony.
I am deeply indebted to my friend and mentor for the generous use of his extensive library over the
years. This book is an outstanding source of information on artillery through the ages and will be of
great interest and tremendous value to historians and many generations of explorers.
Robert Sténuit, a friend of many years. Robert, a Belgian citizen, has carried out underwater archaeological excavations on wreck sites around the world, including the first wreck of the Spanish Armada
located off the coast of Northern Ireland. Mr. Sténuit is a Director of the “Groupe de Recherche Archéologique Sous-marine Post-médiévale” (GRASP), which studies shipwrecks lost from the 16th to the
19th century.
I had a great deal of pleasure contacting Robert and enquiring if he would complete this important
project, of a mutual friend. Thank you, Robert for your diligence in completing this valuable and
monumental project.
Edward B. “Teddy” Tucker, MBE
2013
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A WORD FROM THE EDITOR
____________________________________________________________________
I was enormously interested the first time my old friend, Teddy Tucker mentioned to me the existence of
the Mendel L. Peterson archives. Edward B. “Teddy” Tucker, at the time, was arranging with the family
the details of the removal to Bermuda of the massive collection of note-books, of manuscripts, of articles
and of prepared but yet unpublished scientific papers, of drafted books and finished books, of complete
photocopies of rate treaties on ancient artillery, of centenarian museum catalogues, etc. that “Pete” had
accumulated during most of his long life and illustrated with thousands and thousands of photographs of
cannons, mortars and artillery related militaria.
I knew that “the American father of underwater archaeology”, as Mendel Peterson, was called in the media
in the early days, had spent a large part of his diving career studying, among many others, the wrecks of
some of the countless ships that had been lost over the centuries on the reefs of Bermuda. And I knew that
Teddy Tucker, who knows these treacherous reefs like the palm of his hand, had found most of them and
had excavated many, often in the company of Pete.
I myself had had the privilege to meet Pete on a number of occasions, usually on board SEA DIVER, the
remarkable deep sea exploration and excavations vessel of the late Ed Link (I was, at the time, his Chief
Diver), and later in the company of common friends and divers, as well as at a series of underwater archaeology conventions and diving congresses in Europe or in the U.S. and on other social occasions.
But I was left speechless, on my next visit to King’s Point House, Mangrove Bay, Bermuda, the beautiful
home (with private dock) of Teddy and Edna, when they took me to the drawing room. It was more than
half filled by now, up to the ceiling, by filing cabinets and by a mountain of big cardboard boxed all bulging with books and folders, with photographs, albums with negatives and with papers and papers and papers. I glanced at some of the contents of the three boxes that had been opened by Teddy and I understood
at once that I was looking at a potential gold mine of information on a subject that had been the life-long
passion of Mendel Peterson and the passion of a good slice of my own life.
What Pete had done was to actually put together an unprecedented illustrated thesaurus of specialized in-
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formation on ancient artillery. What I was looking at was a mass of knowledge that had never been made
available elsewhere in any one location or in organized grouped form.
So, I was overjoyed when Teddy asked me, in the name of BUEI (Bermuda Underwater Exploration Institute, which he had been a founding member many years earlier), if I would consider editing and preparing
for publication the whole of Mendel Peterson’s archive. I did not hesitate one second before answering
that question.
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THE LIFE AND TIMES OF MENDEL L. PETERSON
A Short Biography
____________________________________________________________________
A bitter cold January morning. The Arlington National Cemetery is covered in snow and I am standing,
deep in thought, at the tomb of a great American, a Hemingwayan character, a friend long lost.
Mendel Lazear Peterson – the name was engraved in black on the white marble tombstone in front of me
– had not only been a friend and a guide (and I have had and have very few of either), he was someone
I had many reasons to admire and, looking at the ground that has received his bones, my thoughts were
playing with memories of his out-of-the-ordinary personality and mingling with the scientific legacy of
the inventor of American underwater historic archaeology. For so they called at the time the pursuit to
which he dedicated his whole adult life, a pursuit, by the way, which, on another continent, is mine also.
A great American, yes. But what makes a great American? I am not sure. What I know is that this particular one, this late friend of mine was – and I put first things first – full of humor, gifted with common
sense and as a consequence resolutely unconventional, straightforward, extremely intelligent, clever and
quick-witted, occasionally wild, brave when necessary, brilliant in conversation and in correspondence,
captivating as a lecturer, imaginative and inventive in the field (which in his case meant on the sea bottom)
and infrequently, they say, volcanic.
“Mendel” and “Lazear” are two uncommon given names. Both in fact are in line with the family history
and the family spirit. Mendel Lazear Peterson’s father, Dr. Hans Jordan Peterson (1887-1942 and same
name as his own father) was a college professor of psychology and, generally speaking, a man of a scientific
mind. He named his son, “our” MLP, after Johann Mendel, the Austrian monk (Gregor in religion), the
famous botanist and geneticist, and after Jessie William Lazear, an accomplished physician who died at age
34 from Yellow Fever, the very disease on which he was then doing advanced experimental research. In his
turn, “our” Mendel gave the same Christian names to his son (after which the genealogist becomes faced
with a MLP Sr. and a MLP Jr.). MLP was justifiably proud of his Danish ancestry, which could be traced
all the way to a Mads Hansen, born about 1741 in Denmark. Mendel L. Peterson Jr. has traced the details of his own lineage, generation after generation, up to a Hans Pederson (born 1807) whose name was
anglicized to Peterson when he immigrated to Utah. He was the great grand-father of “our” MLP. As for
the maternal side, his mother was Fanny Eilene Lish, a ranch girl, born 1895 in Mc Cammon, Bannock,
Idaho. The Lish family (anglicized from Loesch) immigrated from Germany on or before 1721. The family has been traced to a Jacob Loesch born about 1613 in Trebure, Palatinate, Germany, and it is a William
Seely Lish (born 1824) who was the historic Mormon pioneer who traveled across the plains by wagon and
entered the Salt Lake Valley in 1850 (there to found the present branch of the family).
Both of MLP’s parents – his daughter LaNelle confirms – were descendants of founding pioneers of the
American West. On his mother’s side of the family, he was a descendant of George Soule, who arrived in
Plymouth, Massachusetts, on the MAYFLOWER in 1620.
Mendel Peterson Sr. (Pete) was born in Moore, Butte County, Idaho, on March 8, 1918 and grew up in
Athens and Columbus, Ohio, where he attended the public schools and later, in Hattisburg, Mississippi
(from age 14 years to 19 years). In 1938 he graduated with honors from the Mississippi Southern College,
receiving a Bachelor of Science Degree.
At college, Pete had met the very attractive LaNelle Walker of Brookhaven, Mississippi. It was presumably
love at first sight for the two youngsters, who were soon married (July 5, 1938, in Purvis, Mississippi). He
was 20.
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He soon registered in the Vanderbilt University (of Nashville, Tennessee) to study History.
Pete had left his young pregnant wife at the home of her parents, in Brookhaven, while he worked on his
Master’s Degree. In May 1939, he had to ask permission to go home for the birth of his first child due on
May 9, who indeed was born LaNelle Hampton Peterson that very day.
In the same year (1939) he obtained his Masters of Arts Degree in History.
Once graduated, he started looking for a job. The story, as told by his son in later years, was that:
“… It was difficult, after but still within the pall of the Great Depression and Recession of 1937. The only job
he could find was a Civilian Conservation Corps (or CCC) opening. He was fortunate in fact to even get an interview, which was based on family connections. The interviewer told him that there were 2000 job applications
for the job. Intelligent and motivated as he no doubt was seen during the interview, his education and family
standing raised questions about working in a down-to-earth job with poor people in a rural, agricultural setting. To resolve any concerns (so the story continues as told by MLP Sr. to his son, MLP Jr.), the interviewer
handed to the applicant a piece of paper and asked him to get him a drink of water. Without hesitation, Dad
left the office, folded a sheet of notebook paper into a simple paper cup and quickly brought back a cup of water.
The interviewer said he was the first and only person to pass this simple test. Dad got the job… Dad told stories
about his work from 1939 to 1942 with the CCC. He taught the country boys how to build pig pens in such
a way that both pigs and pens were easily cleaned and the stock managed. (Pigs, we learn here, are not filthy
creatures, only treated that way.) He also taught how to build outhouses and to protect them from black widow
spiders. It was a long way from a Masters degree…”
And MLP Jr. concludes: “The story revealed a lot about Dad’s willingness to get down and do whatever was
needed, his creativity and his joy of working.”
In the years he was working for the CCC, the whole family lived in the country near Natchitoches, Louisiana (pronounce Nakadish, MLP Jr. recommends) about 250 miles north of New Orleans, in what Pete
called “the swamp” and where they occupied a little Victorian house painted pink, blue and white, appropriately nicknamed “The Birthday Cake”. It was so small, LaNelle used to say, “that we could heat the
house with the New Orleans Picayune”.
But building pig pens and keeping away black widow spiders from rural conveniences left him enough free
time to develop and perfect his knowledge of the domains that truly interested him.
His passion at the time, the earliest one, contracted in childhood and nurtured until his last days, was numismatics, an auxiliary science to history. So of course is archaeology, his future passion number 2.
He had begun collecting ancient coins at the age of 12 years.
“In so doing, he learned ancient history and foreign languages setting him on the path to a lifetime of independent
study. His first adventures were of his own mind. He traveled to distant lands imagining the people in their daily
lives. He envisioned the hand manufacturing of exquisite armor and artillery. He could see warriors setting out
to gather riches and conquer more lands for their emperor. He would dream of the architecture and building of
ancient cities, and wonder about the craft of producing the ancient coins he so loved”. (LaNelle Spence)
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His passion developed over the years and he actually made his Masters Thesis in History at Vanderbilt on
“The value to History of the study of coinage” (or words to that effect). He became a respected member of
several leading numismatists clubs and associations and gathered finally such a renown collection (classic
antiquity and “wreck coins” of the Americas principally) that, later on, a quotation at an auction “This coin
is pedigreed to the collection of Mendel Peterson”, would always send the price way over the going rate.
His second passion was for the colonial history of the Americas. The case was to become definitely incurable following a complication, rare at the time that he was to catch in his early thirties: an addiction to underwater archaeology. It was that condition that would lead him to devoting the better half of his lifetime
to the systematic study, all through Europe and the Americas, of “wrecks artifacts” and above all to the best
informed and most talkative of them all, the ancient naval gun. But we anticipate here…
Pete may have been somewhat isolated in “the swamps” but he always saw to it that the postman would
bring him twice a week books, manuals, specialized magazines and scientific journals. That, plus his coins
collection, soon absorbed a significant part of the family’s budget, his wife noticed. Then came “Little
Pete”, Mendel Lazear Peterson Jr., born in May of 1941 (back to Mississippi for his birth).
In the fall of he same year 1941, Pete’s daughter recalls, “the family moved from Natchitoches, Louisiana, to
Ft. Worth, Texas where Pete took a position as a young executive at Montgomery Ward, a large department and
catalog store. Upon returning home from his first day at work he discovered that his well-meaning wife had sent
all his suits to the Salvation Army, claiming: ‘An executive should be properly dressed, wearing fine, new clothes’.
Pete lasted only a short time in the job at Montgomery Ward, finding it unchallenging and boring. And further,
he felt guilty for not serving his country…”
In 1943, Pete enlists in the Navy and is sent to the Harvard Business School to prepare for service as
paymaster. He completes a nine month finance course in six months, then asks for sea duty and for the
whole of WWII he will serve in the Salomon Islands, the Marshall Islands, the Caroline Islands and the
Philippines. He is a Lieutenant whose official duties are as chief supply officer and paymaster aboard the
SS TUTUILA, which serves the Pacific Fleet as a kind of floating advanced base.
All over the war, his wife will write to him via the Red Cross and send photographic depiction of her
life in the US , especially the pictures of Little Pete and young LaNelle that she took of them, all dressed
up, every Sunday. As of this day, these photographs are kept in a “quality hand tooled and laced photo
album”, which he made himself over several week-ends in later years. On board ship during WWII Pete
had learned to use advanced specialty tools and had become a fine craftsman. He always enjoyed working
with his hands as much as with his ever active brain.
1945, the war is over. Lt. Peterson returns unscathed to the US and is reunited with his family.
At his request, he is then allowed to attend the US Naval Academy Graduate School at Lowell Technological Institute, in Lowell, Massachusetts, to where the whole family moves. In 1947, after receiving a Degree
in Textile Engineering, he is assigned for duty at the Navy Uniform Board in Washington DC.
In Washington, the first step on the Sunday sight-seeing program of the family – as he will have good
reasons to forever remember – is for the Smithsonian Institution (SI). One of the exhibits, he notices
and stores in his sharp photographic memory, is a display of Civil War hats, part of an ancient uniforms
exhibit. At his Navy desk, a few weeks later, Lt. Peterson hears that the Navy is planning to re-institute its
full dress uniform, complete with the traditional fore-and-aft hat. “Junior officer cringed and senior officers
were just resigned” he recalls and also that “an officer who owned one of the long stiff hats had to carry it about
in a special tin box.”
21
Lieutenant Peterson in 1943, as he was serving in the waters of the Pacific as
Pay-Master on board of the Supply and Repair Ship, TITUILA.
At that moment, Lt. Peterson remembered that military hat he had seen at the Smithsonian. Unlike the
pre-WWII Navy fore-and-aft, the antique hat, in use during the Civil War, could be folded flat. So flat it
could be packed in an ordinary suitcase. The practical advantages were obvious. “So,” Pete keeps telling
the story, “I told my Commander I could design a folding fore-and-aft. Then I saw the Curator at the Smithsonian for taking the hat out of the civil war collection to examine it. It is during that conversation that I learned
that two Curators were planning to retire from the Smithsonian…”
Pete jumped on the occasion. “The museum profession is quite peculiar” he later explained “there is no such
thing as a four year course in museum curating”. So, he hastily totted up his qualifications for a museum
post on a SI’s application blank, including his two Degrees in History, his impressive collection of ancient
and modern coins, and the titles of some articles he had written. Having sent his application form, he
went on to design a folding fore-and-aft hat for the Navy which was never used for the hat project was
“sensibly dropped”.
His next job for the Bureau of Supplies and Accounts in the US Navy Department includes designing foul
weather gear and safe clothing for the submarine crew members when navigating on the surface in cold
climates. For instance, as soon as the submarine had emerged, the gunners needed to quickly dress and
immediately man the cannon mounted on the wet, freezing deck.
22
Pete’s greatest yet adventure is about to start (December 1947 to February 1948). Let us him tell us about
it, just as he did in an article for the bimonthly Rocks and Minerals (of March-April 1952), under the title
“Rock Collecting in the Antarctic”:
“… I was happily plugging away at my work in the BSA when my superior called me and informed me that I
had been given a rare assignment: Staff Supply Officer with an expedition to the South Polar Area... I was to
travel almost 30,000 miles through all the climatic zones known to man, and was to be given the privilege of
testing cold weather clothing until I turned blue. We set sail from San Diego for Samoa on the 20th of November 1947... on the Navy icebreaker BURTON ISLAND1... Her hull was a round as a barrel and she began to
roll and continued to do so until we tied up in Tutuila, Samoa, in rendez-vous with the other icebreaker which
was to go with us. After refueling and taking on last minute supplies, we shoved off for Scott Island. As we approached the Roaring Forties, we rolled 20 degrees, as we entered the Forties, we rolled 30 degrees, and before we
left them, we were continuing rolling 35 to 45 degrees and, for a record, listed to 51 degrees...
On December 14, we sighted our first iceberg at 60° S. we entered the icepack the next day and by the 16 of
December, were stuck in the heavy ice, still many miles from Scott Island”.
Pete then tells in detail of their navigation in the icepack and towards Haswell Island, of his conversations
(“they talked to us in raucous squawks”) with the penguins and of his prospective on some yet unexplored
little islands not covered in snow. Where, under the guidance of the chief geologist of the expedition, Dr.
Apfel, he began to gather a new, personal collection: Samples of rocks (400 kilos of them actually, which
he stored under his bunk).
Pete says little about the main official missions of Operation Windmill, which consisted in exploring,
surveying and photographing some yet unmapped islands, establishing astronomical control stations, delivering – if need be – any research vessel icebound in the pack – one had to be so rescued – or escorting
supply vessels to a permanent British base on land. An accessory mission finally was to bring back seals
and emperor penguins for the Washington zoo. (The penguins lived a long peaceful life at the zoo but the
seals all died of seasickness on board.) But Pete rather concentrates on the geological prospection.
From the story he wrote, one would conclude that Pete has become overnight an expert geologist. And,
with his known facility to learn and memorize, he probably did. (Dr. Apfel, he later said, “taught me
enough, I was able to lecture on it coming back. People thought I was the graduate of a University.” Still, the
treasure hunter in him already pierces under the varnish of the scientific specimen’s collector: The day he
missed a sample collecting expedition on a particularly promising island, he wrote:
“I had suffered acutely with visions of them shoveling up garnets by the bushel, so it was rather a relief to find
that nothing in the way of gems existed there...
The 20th of January 1948, we set sail for the Ross Sea area and McMurdo Sound, on which is located Mt
Erebus, the best known active volcano in the Antarctic... In the Ross Sea we encountered head winds ranging up to 30 miles per hour and the lower parts of the ship were soon encased in an ice mantle festooned
with lace-like edges of icicles. These were the perfect conditions under which to test some of the gear I had
brought for experimental purposes. Soon, one of my storekeepers and I were encased in outlandish garments
and were standing on the fore peak of the ship, exposed to the wind and chilling water. Before long we were
cool, some time later cold, and a little after that practically frozen. That was when the experiment ended
1 Launched the previous year, 6,600 Tons and capable of breaking 3 feet of pack ice at 10 knots. The EDISTO was her
companion icebreaker during this operation, the US Navy “Second Antarctic Development Project”. It was later referred to
as “Operation Windmill”, on account of the extensive use of helicopters made by the group.
23
and we hurried below to thaw out”.2
And a few days later:
“I shall never forget the scenes of utter grandeur, which met our eyes in Murdo Sound… or the majestic bulk of
Mt Erebus first summit, some 13 thousand feet above us, or the snow covered mountains... or the gigantic triangular fins of the killer whales that appeared from the water as they emerged and sank back.”
Pete doesn’t miss any occasion to accompany shore parties formed by Dr. Apfel to collect geological specimens. As he is writing for specialists, he enters into minute details about local geology. On one occasion
he mentioned he found, on an unexplored island, a very large petrified tree “probably the first evidence of the
continent having been temperate in geological history. I showed it to Dr. Apfel and he almost fainted”.
Early in February they reach Peter I Island. Then to Marguerite Bay and Stonington Island where their
troop met members of a permanent British post.
“Stonington Island was a rock hound’s dream. Here was an ice free beach consisting of glacial drift material of
infinite variety and form. Glaciers had for eons scooped up rock from the surrounding lands and deposited it
on the little island, broken into sizes convenient for collecting. Further action of moisture in the rocks had split
them up into perfect cabinet specimens…”
It is on board the icebreaker USS BURTON ISLAND that he received by radio the news that he had been
hired for the position of “Acting Head Curator of History, Smithsonian Institution”.
He was 30, he was a historian, he was acquiring maritime experience, he always had had an inquisitive
mind and an adventurous spirit, and his deeper interest, it so happened, was now concentrating more and
more on a specific subject: The maritime and cultural history of the Americas in the colonial period.
He only had to put the ingredients together and he would start on the road that would eventually lead
him to becoming – as he would affectionately be called in later years – “the father of New World underwater archaeology”.
Such, I imagine, could have been his thoughts as the cruise of USS BURTON ISLAND proceeded.
They were now exploring a rocky island lying south of Adelaide Island, a place Pete seems to have particularly enjoyed:
“Here also was the home of hundreds of penguins and cormorants… That night, at 8.30 p.m… the sun was
shining very brightly over the ice field ... Off to our stern lay the cold mountainous wastes of Adelaide Island
and far off to port, the ranges of the Palmer Peninsula, lay in a tumbled white mass along the horizon. It was a
scene which few have been fortunate enough to see and which we shall never forget…”
Months had succeeded to months and the little icebreaker was now on her way back to the north “…
We encountered rough weather again in the Forties and for a week we rolled between 35 and 45 degrees... after
which the smooth, blue waters of the Humboldt current were a welcome sight. About the 7 of March we stopped
at some small rocks lying far off the coast of South America for a try at some fishing. Our luck was excellent
and several “whoppers” were taken. We proceeded northward and on the 12th of March entered Callao, the port
of Lima, Peru. Here we enjoyed the hospitality of a friendly people for five most interesting days. The shops of
Lima, loaded with native silver and leather work were a constant source of pleasure. The wines and food were
24
2 In a more serious moment, later, he told his son that he redesigned the suit based on the experience of the trip and that
in the end “the US N got their moneys worth”.
another. With Champagne selling for the equivalent of 85 cents a bottle in the best hotels, who couldn’t have fun?
After five days of shore leave, we shoved off for Panama... Four days later we entered the Canal and the 17th of
March, tied up in the dock of Norfolk, Virginia. The reunions with our families were indeed a joyful one. We
had been gone over five months.
Now, in my collection of Antarctic rocks, I have many nice specimens which represent the geological structure of
one of the most remote areas of the world. I shall treasure these mementos which will always be the reminders of
one of the most interesting adventures of my life.”
Pete always remained a nostalgic of Antarctica. He visited the continent again in 1963 “as a distinguished
guest”, at McMurdo Sound, the multinational research center and flew over the South Pole. To his last
days he took great pleasure in evoking his Antarctic souvenirs for his family.3
But surely, we do not want to leave the Antarctica latitude before demonstrating that a sense of humor is a
genetic trait. For it is MLP Jr. who has piously kept for posterity (even if some non-believers may nourish
suspicions of some added filial fabrication) the following Antarctic anecdotes:
“The crew called Peterson ‘Seagull’, which he appreciated as it connoted ‘soaring, ocean-faring and independent’,
all in his opinion appropriate for a Naval Officer. However when he learned the nickname was because of his
constant ‘eating, squawking and crapping’, he simply said: ‘I don’t give a coprolite!’ which was not understood
by anyone but Dr. Apfel.
Peterson created a suit for foul weather with an attached white, goose feather boa. It was seen as very festive and
greatly admired by the crew. However, the officers didn’t like it. He said in defense: ‘This is fowl weather gear’.
Peterson constantly tried to relieve the tension of the voyage. However, it was not appreciated when he ran
around the crew quarters at 2 a.m., carrying an electric drill yelling ‘This is a drill, this is a drill’.”
Under the subtitle “Prolific”, the next anecdote reads:
“Peterson claimed to get Father’s Day cards from all over the world.”
As for other examples of the Peterson family’s hereditary humor – such as for example the Peterson designed cold weather pajamas complete with a “lavender, foam rubber codpiece effective in preventing frostbite to the lower pelvic appendage” which was considered very desirable by the crew – perhaps it should
be best to leave them outside of the present publication.
And as a last, more serious footnote, it is as a result of this US Navy mission, Operation Windmill, that
“Peterson island” was officially named after him, “in recognition of his efforts” by the US Advisory Committee on Antarctic names. It is a rocky island two miles long, one of the Windmill Islands (which are west
of the Browning Peninsula). Its position is reportedly 66°28’S – 110°30’E.
As soon as he is ashore and on leave, Pete visits his future employers at the Smithsonian to reconfirm his
application, to arrange administrative matters and sign in.
26
3 Pete’s first wife, LaNelle W. Peterson, a biologist for the Smithsonian, later made two trips to Antarctica. In 1965, on the
RV ELTANIN, she identified and preserved for the SI the benthic creatures that the vessel was collecting in its deep ocean
trawls. The second trip, in 1970, was a pioneering eco-touristic cruise to, namely, Palmer Station, on the Antarctic mainland
on board the famous LINDBLAD EXPLORER.
27
Before his leave is over, he resigns from the Navy (but remains in the Naval Reserve where he will reach
the grade of Commander).
Here, for the non-American reader, an introduction to the most venerable Smithsonian Institution (SI) of
Washington DC may not be superfluous.
It was founded in 1846. It is, in their own words, “an independent establishment devoted to basic research,
care and documentation of collections, public education and national service in the domains of History, the Arts
and Science”. Its work is conducted in the United States and in many foreign countries. It is the world’s
largest museum complex, attracting – at the time Pete applied for a position – more than twenty million
visitors yearly to its museums, its galleries and its zoological park, on top of the additional millions who
crowd to view its traveling exhibition appearing across the United States and abroad and its annual folklife festival. As custodian of the national collections it possessed – at the time – more than seventy million
natural history specimens, artifacts and art objects, only a few percents of which were on public display.
The rest was and is available for scholarly study by the staff of the Institution and by many hundreds of
visiting students, scientists and historians every year. A wide range of programs and grant-supported
activities are conducted with other museums and similar institutions, with colleges and universities and
with Federal, State and foreign government agencies. Active education programs are conducted from the
elementary to the senior post-doctoral levels. Major museum buildings, laboratories, collections, spaces
and wild-life preserves provide facilities for such purposes. Basic scientific and historical research is the
foundation of the institution’s accomplishments and potential in its principal area of output: The preparation and dissemination of scholarly research works and educational exhibits. Studies of man in his natural
environment, his cultural and technical progress and his history in general are given high priority.
The position which Pete had applied for, was with the Department of Armed Forces History.
So, in 1948, Pete joins the SI, as Acting Head Curator of History. His daughter LaNelle remembers that
“when he called his mother to tell her he had landed a job at the Smithsonian Institution, she replied ‘Why,
Mendel, I always thought you would end up in an institution!’”.
There begins a 25 years long career, which will make him Curator of the Division of Military and Naval History (1948-1957), Head Curator of the Department of History (1951-1957), Head Curator and
Chairman of the Department of Armed Forces History (1957-1969) and, finally, until his retirement from
the Institution, Curator of the Division of Underwater Historic Archaeology (1969-1973). (That division
became extinct on his retirement in 1973.)
The field studies of the Smithsonian in “Underwater Historic Archaeology”, as this new, somewhat suspicious discipline – which he has so largely contributed to invent – was then officially called, begin in 1951
on Pete’s insisting initiative. At first, in fact, he goes and works on his underwater surveys and excavations
on his own time, during his summer vacations, even if the work is carried out under the auspices of the
Division of Military and Naval History. In 1969, a Division of Historic Archaeology will be officially established and it is in the framework of this new division that most of his further surveys and excavations of
shipwrecks in the Florida Straits, the Bahamas, Bermuda, the West Indies and the Caribbean, in general,
will be undertaken.
His first ever underwater survey takes place in the spring of 1951, when he joins the Looe Key expedition
with Ed Link (on his racing yacht, the BLUE HERON) and others.
28
Two men were to play a major role in the underwater career of Pete, which means, in his life: They are Edwin A. Link, “Ed”, whom we first meet here, and Edward B. Tucker, “Teddy”, whom we shall meet often
in the forthcoming pages. The reverse is equally true. In fact, these three, were people who could not, 
have met each other and, consequently, explore together, dive, search, survey, excavate, study, publish and
become very close friends. For meeting “Pete” also changed the life of Ed and Teddy as they began to look
more and more at the wrecks they were diving and working on and at their contents in a new, different
way. Under the learned but wisely reasonable guidance of Pete, Ed and Teddy were to be among the first
treasure hunters to emerge as marine archaeologists.
Edwin A. Link (1904-1981), who couldn’t stop working one minute and always said he “never worked one
day in his life”, was a remarkable man. Everything he ever did was motivated by his unending enthusiasm
which, over the years, took him in several quite different directions, but always with the same energy. As a
young man, in the mid-1920s, he had taken up flying. As his loving wife Marion was to write much later
(in her excellent book Sea Diver, New York, 1958):
“Those were the days when there were few flying schools; equipment was elementary, and so was the type of instruction it was possible to receive from the barn-storming pilots who eked out a precarious livelihood from the
grass airstrips scattered here and there about the country.
By the time Ed had learned to fly, he was well aware of the need for a better system of instruction. He designed
and built the first Link trainer, a simple creation intended to give the student pilot familiarity with handling the
controls of a plane before he left the ground. Throughout the years of the depression Ed made a meager living by
using this device as the center of a unique flying school which he established.
It took years before his invention at last caught hold and was adopted by the Army Air Force. Today the Link
trainer is world famous, its complicated electronic successors simulating the very latest developments in modern
aircrafts instrumentation.
Along with Ed’s interest in flight training came a lively interest in developing new and better methods of air
navigation, new types of aviation instruments and equipment… During World War II his small company mushroomed until he found himself at the head of a booming enterprise which played an important role in the success
of the whole Allied air effort.”
The carefully patented Link trainer also brought a fortune to its inventor and the consubstantial freedom.
(This editor has to say here that he has not very often met a very rich man who made so very wise a use of
his wealth as did Ed Link, his first patron.)
The Looe Key wreck diving expedition off Florida in 1951 was Pete’s first. That is certain. But the very
beginnings of his underwater career and his schooling, or lack of it, in the art and techniques of diving are
a matter of conjecture.
The following has been stated in an obituary published in the Institute of Nautical Archaeology Quarterly
some weeks after his death:
“During the war he had laid the ground work for his future career by diving on wrecks in the Pacific Theatre.
Those initial dives with old Navy equipment led him to apply for his first position with the Smithsonian…”
No source for the above, or reference, is quoted and the obituary is unsigned.
The Washington Post staff writer Bart Barnes had written earlier, in his MLP obituary: “During WWII
he served in the Solomon, Marshall, Caroline and Philippines Islands in the Pacific. It was there that Dr.
Peterson made his first sea dive, using old Navy gear, and his first look at the underwater world triggered a
lifelong interest”.
30
MLP Jr., in still another, family written and approved obituary, wrote:
“Mr. Peterson had a special interest in the field of Underwater Archaeology. During World War II, he made his
first dive in the Florida group of the Salomon Islands, using some old Navy gear for his first look at the underwater world, a view that gripped his imagination for the rest of his life…”
I myself do not remember Pete mentioning anything of the sort and such statements seem to be at odds
with what he himself has written about this, his first underwater survey off the Florida Keys in 1951. For,
later, in 1974, he wrote in retrospect: “There in Marathon I spent a day in a shallow swimming pool, learning
to use a diving mask and to breathe compressed air pumped from the surface. It seemed easy enough. But on the
wreck-site, when I jumped in – cotton ware clothes and all – I learnt that the open sea is not like a swimming
pool. I felt very insecure in that limitless, liquid world, and had to make a sustained mental effort for two years
before I overcame my fear and became a competent diver.” On the same subject, he also wrote, referring now
to the summers of 1953 and 1954 when he was working again in the Central Florida Keys with Ed Link: “I
had improved my diving by training with Scuba in the Navy’s Experimental Diving Unit tanks in Washington;
now I could work as well in water as I could on land. I still prefer the mask and hose for hard work in shallow
water. Without the bother of coming up for a new tank of air, I can work three hours stretches…” Strangely,
in the above statements he makes no reference to any previous diving experience, even with a complete
different type of gear. Had he felt safer with the protection of a copper hat and a thick rubberized canvass
suit – if that was indeed the gear he used? – And did he feel more vulnerable when skin diving? As a diver,
I doubt it and if his daughter LaNelle remembers well that:
“He was training with scuba in the Navy’s Experimental Diving Unit Tanks. He trained after his work day at
the museum”, she also writes: “He never mentioned to me any experience using the old copper helmet and the
canvas and rubberized suit”. On the same subject she also quoted her father more lightly: “The joke he always made about diving gear is he wished he had a barbed wire jock strap to protect the ‘family jewels’.”
In any case, underwater archaeologists do not need to be great divers since, with few exceptions; the wrecks
they are working on are shallow wrecks lost on a reef or at the foot of the rocks and their precise, methodical type of work is stationary and does not require great diving expertise or athletic capacities.
Back, to the story of Pete’s first expedition, the genesis of which is that in 1950, an amateur diver from
Marathon, Florida, Bill Thompson, in company with his friend, Dr. George Crile Jr., of Cleveland, had
discovered the wrecks of no less than three ancient ships lying on Looe Key and Delta Reef, a couple of
miles off the east coast of the Florida Keys. Bill Thompson was an old yachting acquaintance of Ed Link
and, the following year, the three men (together with their spouses) were diving on site. The then acting
Head of the Department of History at the Smithsonian had joined the expedition as a part of his summer
vacations, a consequence of his having been requested earlier to identify some of the artifacts recovered.
In early 1951 indeed, in his Washington office, he had been asked by a Mrs. Jane Crile from Cleveland,
the wife of a Dr. Crile, to please identify and kindly date a number of artifacts just recovered from several
shipwreck sites. He had recognized the artifacts and, as a result, he was immediately invited to join the
next expedition on the site. Pete accepted the invitation with delight and it was, as he later wrote, “that
trip which would mark the beginnings of archaeological work in North American waters and the beginning of
my career in that field”.
In the spring, he joined the Criles and friends of them in Marathon, about half way down the Keys, where
he was to meet Bill Thompson, the discoverer of one of the wrecks, “Art” McKee (Arthur McKee, a professional diver and owner of the Museum of Sunken Treasures in Plantation Key, Florida) and Edwin A. Link
on his racing yawl the BLUE HERON.
Bill Thompson owned and managed a marina. Art McKee, nicknamed “the grandfather of treasure hunt-
31
ing”, had found his first sunken treasure in 1937 and had since visited about three hundred wreck-sites
in the Florida Keys, the Caribbean and the Bahamas. He had eventually filled his “Florida Sunken Treasure Museum”, the first of its kind, with all the cannons, the pots and pans, the gold bars and the silver
coins and jewels he had collected over the years. Pete later wrote of him: “Art became my first underwater
teacher... I came to respect his practical knowledge of diving and recovery techniques”. He also wrote that it
is Art’s success in finding treasure and the nation wide publicity it received that was to spark, in following
years, the rush of searches by divers in Florida.
So, Pete’s first professional job in the field consisted at first in trying and identifying more of the material
brought up the previous year: coral encrusted cannon balls, a battered pewter cup and tanker, worn and
corroded coins, metal buttons, brass basins and cooking utensils, as well as yellowed and flaking ivory
tusks. Underwater, he brought order and method in the survey work and in the excavations procedures
(or lack of them) of his well meaning but overenthusiastic and excited team members.
Understandably, when he set off from the Smithsonian Institution to dive on his first undersea wreck, his
chief (for whom he always had a great affection) had said to him sternly: “Peterson, we don’t want this to be
a lark”.
It was not. His first undersea expedition was no joke and neither were any of the following ones. It was
hard work and consequently satisfying work, thanks to which, as he would write many years later, he “became intimate with his country’s past, not merely in terms of events but of human lives”.
The ill-assorted salvage flotilla included a chartered, sturdy LCT, a sport-fishing cabin cruiser and Ed’s sleek
and graceful sloop, the BLUE HERON. BLUE HERON, a delicate sailing ship, had never been meant
to raise large, coral encrusted cannons from the bottom of the sea and to bring them to shore alongside its
spotless hull. Still, using a boom and the anchor winch, Ed and Pete managed to raise one of the big guns
and to take it ashore. There, as they chipped away together the coral and the accretions that covered it, the
gun, a cast iron piece with four reinforce-astragals and fillets and tapering from its heavy breech to a narrow
muzzle, suddenly revealed to Pete, crudely cast in the metal, the inscription: “ANNO 1617”.
This was the first message delivered to him by a recovered cannon. It was clear, factual and fully reliable. It
came from the easiest to spot, quickest to raise and examine artifact of that wreck and of any wreck under
the sea. He got the message five by five and decided there and then that, as a nautical archaeologist, he
should concentrate, from then on, on learning the language of the cannons.
That first gun had been raised from the wreck on Delta Reef and Pete believed it to be Spanish. As for the
wreck on Looe Key, Pete was to confirm later by studying in detail recovered cannons and artifacts that
they had belonged to the very ship that had given her name to the reef, the wreck of HMS LOOE.4
For cannons talked again.
On the chase of the first cast iron gun they brought up from Looe Key, Pete found a crowned rose, the
insignia of the English monarchy in the 17th century. Other artifacts from the site, shots and grape shots,
a copper handle from a powder keg, bits of Chinese porcelain, a fine crystal unguent jar, a pewter mug,
some copper plates and utensils and a brass door knocker, all confirmed that early clue. So did later finds:
Salt glazed 18th century pottery, pieces of green glass rum bottles, clay pipes and several worn and corroded
coins of various nations, the oldest dated 1720.
32
4
Looe is a small harbour town on the south-west coast of England, in Cornwall.
The number and size of the cannons, together with the large amount of ammunition and the permanent
iron-bars ballast confirmed the warship theory. The absolute proof however, to the nationality of the wreck
was to be found on its 6-pound and 12-pound cannon balls, which were engraved with a broad arrow.
The broad arrow, as Pete knew very well, identified artifacts that were English Government property and,
especially, the property of the Ordnance Board. Pete also knew that the crowned rose insignia was not
used after the death of Queen Ann in 1714 and that the life of iron cannon at the time would have been
at the very most thirty-five years. So he figured that such a cannon would not have been on board the ship
later than 1750.
He was right. Back in Washington, at the Library of Congress, he searched through the published casualty lists of the Royal Navy and found the entry: “1743 (sic) Looe 44 guns, Capt. Ashby Utting. Lost in
America.” Further research in the British Navy archives allowed him later to slightly correct the date of the loss
and to learn of its circumstances. The frigate LOOE in fact had perished on February the 4th 1744, shortly after
midnight, “having found herself in the white breakers marking a small key which raises itself slightly above the
surface of the water…” A Spanish snow, had just been captured by Capt. Utting, also piled up on the reef,
a short distance to port, and soon broke up. The captain managed to save his crew and the crew of the
Spanish prize in the frigate’s boats and on board another Spanish sloop, which had innocently approached
the stranded English vessel and that he had sent his crew to capture. The captain ordered both ships to be
burnt down to floatation in order to prevent the Spaniards from salvaging them and all arrived safely at
Port Royal, Jamaica, and/or in New Providence, Bahamas.
As for the “Ivory Wreck” as they had called it (the one with a cannon cast in 1617), Pete assumed it had
been a vessel engaged in the slave trade. It was and remained of uncertain nationality.
It turned out that their collaboration on that early expedition in 1951 would be crucial in shaping both
the lifelong career of Mendel L. Peterson and the new, the second career of Edwin A. Link, as for Ed, in
the words again of his wife Marion, it was Pete who was “responsible of channeling Ed’s developing interest in
the underwater world into the field of marine archaeology for it was impossible to discover these ancient artifacts
without feeling a tantalizing curiosity as for their origin. What had started out to be merely a new sport soon
resolved itself into a consuming and enthralled interest in the past history of our part of the world”.
It is during the following winter that Pete, having understood, among the very first of his colleagues, the
crucial importance of preservation and conservation of the recovered artifacts (which, being left alone and,
with the exception of gold and lead objects, would rapidly deteriorate and disintegrate) begins to develop
the proper techniques and to install at the Smithsonian the necessary equipments and installations to safely
preserve sea water soaked organic material and ferrous metal artifacts, first during their transportation to
the conservation laboratory, and then for their permanent conservation. This latter part of the process
involves electro-chemical treatments and chemical processes that require constant attention and may last
many years.
Preservation and conservation was to occupy him for most of the winter, as a priority before recovering any
more historically valuable artifacts from more wrecks.
The beginnings of the Smithsonian’s conservation laboratories were not grand but modest. In the words
of his daughter LaNelle: “I remember his first preservation vat to be an old claw-footed bathtub filled with
water and cannon balls and a small cannon barrel, of all places, in his tower office in the Old Smithsonian
Castle building”.
But he will soon also obtain the help of a specially hired assistant, Alan Albright, who will become a close
friend, and he will assign to him the principal responsibility of supervising the SI’s conservation laboratory.
35
Meanwhile, Pete’s enthusiasm and the new exciting activities he is introducing in the routine of the more
traditionally minded Institution seem to be winning him the respect and affection of all his staff.
Pete’s office was then in the old red brick part of the museum, the old “Arts and Industries Building” now
aptly nicknamed “The Castle”. The Criles, who visited him in the fall of 1951, have described the place in
their amusing book Treasure Diving Holidays:
“We walked past the Wright Brothers Kittyhawk plane and Lindberg’s Spirit of St. Louis, past the inauguration
dresses of all the President’s wives and came upon our Looe Key cannon, fresh from its boiling bath in mossy zinc.
We climbed a rickety flight of winding stairs and found Pete in a loft, behind an enormous desk littered with
photostats, translations and pictures. Everything inside pertained to 17th and 18th century ships. The walls were
lined with book cases containing volume after volume of naval history. Here were the archives of the sea, tied
with bright red tape.”
It is also in 1951 or early 1952, shortly after the end of the Looe Key expedition, that Pete presumably
introduced his first official request on a ad hoc “Notice of Research Project” form to be allowed to carry on,
in the line of duty, his long term research on the means of identification of just discovered ancient naval
artillery pieces. I have not found the copy of this first document in the SI archives, but a surviving official
Smithsonian form dated “1-31-67” indicates that, fifteen years later, not surprisingly, he was far from finishing the Benedictine’s task he had undertaken. The form, another “Notice of Research Project”, reads5:
“Title of Project: Marking and decoration on muzzle-loading artillery”.6
The research project is originated by Mendel L. Peterson, Curator Division of Historic Archaeology:
“Summary of proposed work: Continuation (and hopefully conclusion) of a project begun in 1952 to photograph, catalogue and discuss the methods of marking and decorating early artillery. This program is related
directly to the importance of artillery in identifying shipwreck sites. There is only one similar study, which covers
German bronze guns only. This study will include iron as well as bronze pieces, and of all nations”.
The day his research project had first been accepted by SI, in May 1952, Pete had in fact secured the
necessary support of his employers to devote as much of his company time as necessary to his ambitious
project and obtained the green light to travel as much as necessary for his research worldwide and for the
photographic inventory of ancient cannons he was preparing. So, fifteen years later, he was in the saddle
again with salary and all expenses paid, for an additional five years. His first voyage on his renewed green
light will be from October 15 to November 20 of the same year 1967.
But we anticipate again.
Pete is actively preparing the next underwater survey campaign for 1952, relying a lot on his new friends
Ed and Marion Link. For Marion was to write later that:
“The Smithsonian curator who had kept us supplied all year with a constant bombardment of charts and records,
was as eager as we to locate some of the old wrecks and to dive upon them. He made great plans for developing the
marine archaeology section at the Smithsonian which had had its inception the previous year with the discovery
of the Looe and the other wrecks near Marathon. Together he and Ed had worked out an arrangement whereby,
5
36
See illustrations hereafter.
6 The restriction may seem surprising since breech-loading guns are sometimes decorated also and many are marked but
it is after they came out of fashion in most navies of the world that the decoration and marks on cannons which, at the time,
were almost exclusively muzzle-loaders and cast, became generalized. The technique of casting additionally allowed sculptors
to decorate the guns in relief with much greater refinement and freedom of inspiration.
with Pete’s knowledge and help, SEA DIVER would be used to search for and dive upon whatever wrecks the two
men might consider of historical value… collecting relics… to augment those from the previous expedition which
had already created a tremendous interest among the thousands who viewed them in the rotunda of the Smithsonian. Pete was young and enthusiastic, an inveterate collector of everything but specially interested in coins and
old armament. His head was packed with an impressive fund of historical facts and figures… In addition, we
found him to be a willing and helpful crew member and a most entertaining companion.”
This, I can confirm absolutely from personal experience.
As for Pete’s wife, LaNelle, or “Nellie”, Marion Link, who later befriended her as an occasional crew
member of SEA DIVER I, described her as “the plump pretty wife of Pete, a perfect member of our crew
and an excellent cook. LaNelle in fact was a specialist in Marine Zoology and she had successfully applied
for a job at the Smithsonian Museum of Natural History, so Pete and she did drive together every morning
to the museum.”
The 1952 underwater surveys with Ed and Art McKee were to be marred from the start by continuous
rough weather. They managed nevertheless to explore a cannon site on Sambo Reef, near Key Largo,
discovered by Art, where they found out that two different ships had been lost on the reef: an English
warship, whose armament indicates she was of the late 18th century, and a Spanish ship at least a century
older, which could not be identified but dated only thanks to one of her cannons that bore the date of
1657. With more and more rough weather and without sufficient digging equipment, nothing more could
be done. At least, one of the positive results of the season was the lease to Ed Link of a state-of-the-art
“magnetometer-gradiometer” that he and Pete had managed to obtain on loan from the Navy. But it was
ready to be tried at sea only after Pete and LaNelle left for home, the holiday period being over.
It is in the fall of the same year 1952, that Pete starts on the first of his many research trips to Europe – that
are part now of his official Smithsonian project, no more holiday benevolent work – where he will study
the history of naval artillery and learn “cannons language”.
He has indicated to his boss at the Smithsonian that he has about finished exploiting the historic information that can be obtained on the few ancient cannons present in the collections of the museums of America, Canada, Mexico and the Caribbean. It is time he should go and continue his studies at the source
of ancient artillery production, in Europe. (Most of the “cannons” extant in America are 19th and 20th
century massive, cast iron fortress pieces – or rather “fort pieces” in the case – unmarked and undecorated,
from which there is little to learn and that interested him little.)
It is probably no coincidence if his first pilgrimage in Europe is for Copenhagen, in the land of his ancestors who had given him, he was sure, his love for the sea. The Tøjhusmuseet, in the very old Copenhagen
arsenal will be his first Station of the Cross.
His field notes and negatives show that he photographs cannons in the “Tøjhusmuseet”, the Royal Danish Arsenal Museum in Copenhagen, under an agreement for publication with the director Egon Eriksen.
Their correspondence that lasts until mid-1953 indicates very friendly relations between the two men. His
photographs and close up photographs clearly show, already, his meticulous interest for any clue, any indication that can be derived from the careful observation of forms, sizes, dimensions, marks, coats of arms or
erased ones, mottos or other inscriptions molded or engraved, decoration, special features etc.
38
The request forms for photographic services (developing and printing) scattered among the massive Pete’s
personal records have often allowed me, as his biographer and as his posthumous editor, to follow his
travels step by step and year by year. Pete used to send these official forms by airmail every fortnight or
so, with his black and white exposed negatives, to the Photo Laboratory of the Smithsonian Institution
in Washington DC, where they were always printed in triplicate, and one copy sent immediately to him
wherever he happened to be in the world. Administratively, this routine procedure had been approved
by the Chairman of the Department of National and Military History, Edgar M. Howell, to whom he
reported. The costs came under the “Federal Accounts” heading.
In parallel, the carefully filled in traveling authorization forms of the Smithsonian Administration, now
kept in good order in the SI Archives, in Washington, have supplied the main story for his peregrinations
year after year.
During the winter 1952-1953, Pete spends much of his time busily gathering in Washington and in Florida the scant information available there concerning the destruction of two Spanish treasure fleets on the
Florida Keys: The “plata flotas” of 1715 and 1733, both victims of a hurricane that had overtaken them
on their way from Havana (Cuba) to Spain. Eventually, he will commission a professional researcher, who
will find mountains of information in the Archivo General de Indias, in Sevilla.
In 1953 also, his 35mm still camera captures the guns of Fort Frederica (Sea Island, Georgia), then of St.
Augustine and, in July, of the USNR building, in Georgetown SC.
Later in the same year (1953), we find him off Florida again, diving with Ed Link and Art McKee on the
wreckage of some of the galleons and naos lost with the “plata flota” of 1733. This time, the lack of digging
equipment that had marred their earlier efforts has been remedied, partly remedied, they will find out…
They operate from Ed’s new diving vessel SEA DIVER, a sturdy Florida shrimp trawler that has replaced
the lovely 43 feet yawl, BLUE HERON (lovely but useless for wreck diving). Marion was a bit sad and
used to complain about the smell of gazoil and shrimp. I distinctly remember however how, aboard SEA
DIVER, Ed once told me, with a smile to his wife that the had bought the boat brand new and that no
shrimp or fish had ever been hauled aboard, except if deep frozen in plastic and just from the supermarket.
Mendel’s and Ed’s operations with Art McKee concentrate on the site of what was probably the wreck of
the galleon nicknamed RUI (after his owner?). So would seem to indicate a chart prepared by a Spanish
navigator at a time when the wrecks or parts of them were still visible. The site, as he wrote later, was “a
virtual submerged museum… Every aspect of the working and defense of the ship and life aboard, as well was
as the treasures and the cargo carried was represented”. They recovered heavy cast iron guns from the main
battery of the vessel, hand weapons, including the standard 0.70 caliber military musket, boarding axes,
pistols with the Spanish Miquelet lock (flintlocks) and of course the typical Spanish swords. The ammunition included the standard solid iron shot, the fixed-bar shot and iron hand grenades. Every single part
of the rigging seemed to be represented, as well as, on the other hand, every artifact that had been used to
cook and to eat: pewter plates, dishes of Majolica and red ware bowls in which – as could be deduced from
identifiable bones – beef, pork and fish had been prepared and served before coffee and chocolate. All
kinds of small personal objects were recovered, coming no doubt from the chests of the passengers. The
cargo had included cochineal, indigo, tanned leather, mahogany billets, children toys, dishes of Guadalajara ware and Chinese porcelain from the Manila galleons trade. The treasure had been largely salvaged by
the Spaniards after the disaster. Still, there remained a quantity of scattered “cobs” (of 2, 4 and 8 reales), a
small number of gold coins and some gold jewelry. Of the large number of silver bars that were listed in
the manifest, none were found, and it is believed that the Spaniards recovered them all.
Perhaps the most valuable items recovered and the most exciting surely for numismatist Peterson, were two
39
of the very rare “pillar dollars”7 of the new design bearing the date 1732, the first year when pieces of eight
were actually milled and no longer struck, in Mexico. Coins of that year were and still are rare precisely
because nearly all of them were lost in the 1733 hurricane disaster.
Over the years, Pete was to assist and advise Arthur McKee in his recoveries on several more wreck-sites of
the 1733 fleet. Besides Art McKee, the “grand-father of all American treasure hunters”, he would also meet
and befriend in these years all of the most successful ones: characters like Bob Marx, Willard Bascom, Kip
Wagner, Mel Fisher, Bob “Frog Foot” Weller, Burt Weber, Jack Kelley, Craig Hamilton, Alex Storm and
a few others no doubt. Pete knew them well (I have had myself the privilege to meet most of them); he
worked with some, helped them all and, in his own words, learnt a lot from them in return.
Among the divers who were working with Pete, not all were to remain treasure divers, as Art McKee did.
The reason, as I found out myself at about the same period, is simple. Excavating a wreck intelligently,
that is correctly and according to the basic rules of archaeology, is more fun than just quickly picking up
“the goodies”. Granted, a gold bar has a friendly touch in the hand, and an intact olive jar looks nice on
the mantel piece. But that is only the first part of the reward. Understanding all the marks and stamps
and numbers on your gold bar and learning from that all it means in terms of its actual economical significance or realizing what could be the political results of a drying up of the flow of gold from the Americas
to Spain – if only for the King to be able at least, or not, to pay the tercios in Flanders –, that is the real
reward for all the calories spent in the water and the chronic tennis elbow. And so it is when you become
able to identify an olive jar at first sight (there are so many varieties).
One of the early divers who worked with Pete in those years is a case example. His name is Donald G.
Geddes III. As he himself was kind enough to write to me much later8 , he considered Pete “his mentor”
in the early days of marine archaeology.
His involvement with Pete goes back to the early 1950s when (I am now quoting him):
“I moved to Washington DC, to attend George Washington University. I met him at a lecture he was giving. He
was showing underwater scenes of the HMS LOOE… I was immediately startled as some of my Rollins College
friends had been diving there with me in early 1949. We had been on that very wreck-site. I recalled jumping
up from my seat and saying: ‘My God, that’s my wreck’. Mendel stopped speaking, came over to me, waved away
a guard who became alarmed at my outburst and said: ‘We’ll talk after I finish’. Thus began a long friendship
and I became quite involved with Pete, Ed Link, Art Mc Kee and others.”
That Pete was a good mentor, is probably reflected in the fact that diver Geddes later joined the ranks of
the Institute of Nautical Archaeology (founded by George Bass at Texas A & M University, College Station, Texas) where he spent thirty-eight years as a INA Board Member and participated with George in
7 The “pillars” and waves on the coin’s reverse were the “pillars of Hercules”, symbolizing the Strait of Gibraltar. The motto
“Plus ultra” on a scroll reminded everyone that it had been the Spanish kings, who had discovered and conquered a whole
new world beyond what had always been the end of the world for the ancients. It is the scroll joining the two columns that
became the symbol of the modern American dollar.
8
As I was writing this biography, in March 2013.
41
the exploration of many Ancient World and New World shipwrecks.9 Donald Geddes eventually became
Chairman of the INA, a post from which he recently retired. Donald Geddes is now 82 years old (March
2013) and I can’t resist quoting the last lines of his latest letter:
“Pete was a fascinating character with a razor-sharp mind, a volatile temperament and a wild sense of humor.
He should have been cloned – they don’t make many men like that anymore”.
In those, the early years of his underwater explorations off the Florida Keys, Pete, also dived with his friend
Art McKee on a wreck that he identified as HMS WINCHESTER. The WINCHESTER, an English
man-of-war of sixty guns had set out from Jamaica in 1695 as part of a homeward bound convoy sailing
through what were still largely Spanish waters. She didn’t go further than the Florida Keys for that is where
she struck a reef and went down. The recovered items provided detailed information concerning everyday
life aboard but did not give any clue about the manner of her death. On this occasion again, Pete, completing information gathered under the sea with information gathered from ancient archives, managed to
answer the question. Much later, in the British Admiralty Records, in what was still at the time the Public
Record Office, he found the log of the ship for the year 1695. It had been transferred to another ship at the
last moment and was ultimately returned to England. It ended the day after she met her end. The cause
of the loss of the ship was as simple as dreadful: scurvy. The captain, in a shaky writing, explained that he
had been forced by Admiralty orders to continue his voyage whilst his crew was practically dying for lack
of the citrus food that could have been obtained ashore. When the WINCHESTER struck the reef, she
was virtually adrift among shoal waters with a largely incapacitated crew. The final irony of the story was
supplied by an artifact recovered from the wreck by Art: a Royal Navy lime juicer.
It is in the same period that I first met Pete, board SEA DIVER I remember, in the company of Art McKee,
and later at the home of common friends in Florida, namely at Bob Marx’s place. Pete was a strongly built
man, who occupied the space in such a way that he invariably ended up being the center of the company’s
attention. His strong, virile voice helped of course to first catch the attention of everyone around but the
stories he used to tell and his abrasive sense of humor that could be at times – to the delight of the ladies
present – extremely non conformist, guaranteed him continuing success with any audience.
The publication, in the “Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collection”, in 1955, of his first paper The Last Cruise
of H.M.S. Looe, brought him and the new discipline he was pioneering, the respectful attention of the
academic world and the interested attention of the treasure hunters. His personal papers and the SI archives show that he now begins to receive almost every day mail queries from amateur divers, who have
just discovered a cannon or some artifacts on a wreck off Ireland and want to be told that they have found
a Spanish Armada wreck or, in the North Sea, the wreck of John Paul Jones’s 40 guns ship, the BONHOMME RICHARD or, off Miami Beach, the richest capitana galleon yet in the Western Hemisphere or,
in California, a returning Manila galleon in and how many million dollars worth of gold and silver were
on board exactly? Although he tends to discourage his correspondents (“Oh, but mind that the Spaniards
42
9 George F. Bass, Ph.D., is today the Chairman Emeritus of the Institute of Nautical Archaeology, the non-profit organisation he helped found in 1973. The INA is generally recognized as the leading nautical archaeology group worldwide. Dr.
Bass, who started scientifically practicing underwater archaeology in the 1960’s, some ten years after Mendel Peterson had
begun his own pioneering excavations in Florida, has been specializing in the underwater study of the most ancient wrecks
known – mostly in the waters of Turkey – including a wreck from the Bronze Age. Just as Mendel Peterson, who had immediately understood the importance of collaborating with treasure hunters in Florida – the people who did actually find wrecks
(not a job that the archaeologists anywhere ever succeeded to do) – George Bass became familiar with the local hard-hat
sponge-divers who, generation after generation, had discovered most of the ancient wrecks lying on the shores of the Mediterranean down to a depth of 200ft or so. This wisdom has been imitated by some other archaeologists (namely by Australian
archaeologists) but it is a wisdom which seems nowadays to be more and more lost to the ethically correct prejudices of the
day with, much too often, tragic results for science.
and their Indian divers were very good at salvage at the time…”) he answers all queries in detail with obvious
interest, often asking for further information in order to enrich his notebooks. In short, he is becoming
the American treasure hunter’s trusted guru.
It is also in the early or mid-1950’s that Pete began to try and persuade his boss at the Smithsonian that
the Institution badly needed to create what he was then calling an “Office of Underwater Exploration”.
A first project (undated) was discussed with the higher authorities at the SI. It was the opinion of Mr.
Ewers at the time “that your project as presented in your attached prospectus was written some time ago and
requires a complete re-writing as of the present into more concise form to include what has been accomplished in
the interim”. His boss, also suggested that the rewriting would begin by a brief statement of the proposal,
followed by justifications, namely:
“1. The important contributions underwater exploration can make to history through the story of dated materials
of early date etc.; 2. the role assumed by the Smithsonian Institution in establishing scientific methods of underwater exploration and 3, a brief summary of our accomplishments to the present.”
Pete was further advised that an exposition of the proposed expanded program should follow for field and
laboratory work and a budget for the program to include personal, additional space, travel and field investigations. Potential sources for financing the latter should be indicated.10
Next recommendations: “copies of some of the letters attesting to the value of the program may be attached.”
A final piece of fatherly advice from the writer of the memorandum to his green, younger colleague terminated the memo: “It is important to present this program in the most effective manner, with an eye constantly
on the effect of the proposal on the reader for whom it is intended”.
Pete’s new version of the proposal plodded along for some time around “The Castle” – this after all was
something quite unheard of in academic circles – but eventually a fine and healthy “Department of Underwater Archaeology” was born to the Smithsonian Institution and it grew up over the years in strength
and in wisdom.
There were however preliminary precautions to be taken and I cannot resist in quoting Donald Geddes
when he tells about Pete’s “common training in scuba diving” in the pressure tanks of the Experimental
Diving Unit on the banks of the Anacostia river in the Navy Yard of Washington. (I have mentioned already these “training sessions” as they were lightly told by his daughter LaNelle).
Donald Geddes and Pete had become by then close collaborators. Donald had been researching the details of a number of treasure wrecks and the two men had combined their efforts. So it was decided that
Donald would be part of the next summer diving program on board Ed Link’s SEA DIVER. This was in
late 1952.
Then, as Donald Geddes writes:
“James Wetmore, who was then head of Smithsonian, was all in favor of the efforts but he expressed serious reservations about safety and possible liability. Thus Pete and I were forced to go to the Anacostia Naval Station
to sit in a tank of water under air pressure, with a half dozen round thick glass portholes, where they simulated
various depth levels in the training of Navy ‘hard-hat’ or helmet divers. Both of us were fitted with Desco full
44
10 It has always been the policy of the SI to heartily welcome outside financing for as many of their projects as possible. In
fact, the early underwater excavations of Mendel Peterson, were financed mostly by Ed Link and/or the National Geographic
Magazine.el
face masks, each with an air hose and attached to an exterior air compressor and we sat in this huge tank with
two heavy divers in helmets and rubber suits. We went through a test of compression, then decompression, and
finally we exited this over ground pressure vessel. Both Pete and I were glad to get out of it because it was terribly claustrophobic and a bit weird, looking at the Navy divers in full dress while we wore t-shirts and bathing
trunks. After this experience Pete and I both went home and in the middle of the night we were awakened to
learn that one of the Navy divers in the tank with us had experienced the bends and we were told the Navy was
coming to get us and we would have to spend time in a recompression chamber, which we did for about four to
five hours with the two men from the tank. It seems the pressure tank operator had put too much pressure into
the tank and took us to an equivalent of over 120 feet when we were only to be pressurized to 65 to 70 feet. I
recall after we emerged from the recompression chamber Pete muttering how Wetmore was trying his best to do
us both in. At any rate, in was an unnerving experience.”
It is in the following year, in mid-May 1953, that Donald and Pete drove together to Miami to join Ed
Link on board his SEA DIVER I and dive on a number of wrecks in company with Art McKee.
Donald recalls:
“While diving on the wreck of the INFANTE we had two scary incidents – one involved my sighting of a huge
hammerhead shark while I was putting an armload of artifacts into a huge shrimp basket suspended from the
SEA DIVER about a meter from the sandy ocean floor. The water was slightly murky that morning and this
shark, swinging its head from side to side came towards us. I dropped everything climbed into the basket, and
began shouting in my face mask to get Pete and Ed’s attention. They were both blasting sand away with the fire
hose from around the INFANTE’s pile of ballast rocks and they couldn’t hear me. The shark swam by me and
it was immense, about 5 meters in length.11 Somehow Pete sensed its presence and he swung around with the
nozzle of the hose which blew sand into the shark’s eyes. Startled, the hammerhead suddenly turned and fled. Its
movement was so violent that it nearly knocked Pete and Ed over and it sent me twirling around in the basket.
We all surfaced and decided not to go back down that day.
On another occasion Pete was blasting away with the fire hose at an area in the INFANTE’s ballast pile and
Ed was behind him helping to control the hose which was kind of like wrestling with a python. At one point,
Pete blasted water into a thick section of ballast stones and out bolted an immense giant grouper (also known
as a jewfish). It must have weighed at least 150 kilos and it was literally the same color as the ballast, except
that when it was hit with the blast of water it flushed a pink color, rushed out, flattened Pete, then sat on him.
Pete lay on his back, this huge fish on top of him. Ed was knocked aside, lost his grip on the hose which began
thrashing around like a wounded serpent. Realizing Pete was in distress Art and I, then Ed captured the hose
and blasted the grouper off Pete. The grouper flared its fins and opened its great mouth as if to threaten us, then
lifted off Pete and slowly cruised back into its cave in the ballast. We were careful to leave him alone after this
incident. Afterwards Pete quipped: ‘I always suspected there was something fishy about this expedition!’.”
*
* *
In those and in following years, Pete will travel a lot to study and photograph cannons, mortars and
howitzers. His requests for photographic work from his copies of the official Smithsonian forms and
the countless “Authorizations of Official Travel” forms continue to be invaluable for the biographer who
painstakingly tries to follow the perpetual running around of this indefatigable man. They have allowed
me to follow his travels month by month, together with the cardboard mounts of his Ektachrome color
slides which all bear the date of processing (Kodachrome color slides are not so dated). But, failing these
official forms (for a number of them seem to have gone astray), it is hard sometimes to exactly follow Pete
11
Sic, in Donald’s memory…
45
in his almost continuous pilgrimages from fortress to museums, from mediaeval castle to naval base and
from royal palace to historic sailing ship for there are periods during which he seems to be enjoying the
gift of ubiquity.
At one time, so the negatives show, the cannons-chasing globe trotter is at the Quebec Museum but there
is no date and then his notes on slides mounts show he is in Naples, Italy, but also at Fort George USA.
Then he is in San Juan de Puertorico, photographing guns at the National Guard Military Museum. He
works there with an assistant. His wife? Notes on the mount of transparencies are in green ink and not in
his handwriting. A slide of Fort Lucea, Jamaica, bears both his writing and someone else’s on the mount
(his wife again?). He is also at Cara Blanca, at Kingston, in order to take photographs at Rock Fort (his
writing on several slides), at Fort Montego, in Annapolis, in Washington DC (photographs at the Gun
Factory) and in Charleston, SC.
Being still the “Head Curator and Chairman of the Department of Armed Forces History, US National
Museum, Smithsonian Institution”, he must have spent also some of his time at the office (in wintertime
preferably, no doubt) for, with his staff of sometimes up to thirty, he is responsible for the museums attractive (and famous) displays of recovered early warships and merchantmen (or parts of ), of models of old
sailing vessels, of guns with their appurtenances and specific tools, of miscellaneous artifacts and treasure
recovered from the sea bottom, of firearms and edge arms, of cavalry items, of uniforms and hats etc. etc.
In 1955, for a period of two and a half month, Pete forgets all about ancient artillery and goes on a cruise
with Ed Link, aboard SEA DIVER, on a quite different tack. Ed, whose positive mind has never allowed
difficulties to refrain him in his enterprises, had decided that it would be quite exciting to retrace the real
route of Columbus at the time he approached and discovered the New World, with his journal as a guide
and Pete had progressively become involved in the project in parallel with his growing interest.
He had helped him to gather whatever information could be found in the US. The whole story, they
concluded, was fraught with uncertainty. Columbus, in the journal of his first voyage to the west, has
described the first land he set foot on in the New World as “the island known to the Indians as Guanahani”, which he called San Salvador. But which island was it? In spite of a great deal of controversy as to
its identity, the general consensus nowadays was that his first landfall occurred upon Watling Island. The
question, however, as Pete soon found out, is far from settled. Several modern, credible, well documented
theories have concluded that Columbus had first set foot on the island of Caicos, further to the south-east,
whereas in another interpretation of Don Cristobal’s journal by another respected naval historian, a radically different course is suggested for Columbus, through the Bahamas to Cuba. Earlier Spanish and other
19th century historians who had been first to study the available original or ancient documents had selected
Grand Turk island as Columbus San Salvador. Still, other historians had decided upon Cat Island whilst
one had selected Hatwood Island. Most of these “experts” however had based their theories only on the
reading of Columbus journal and on a study of ancient, perfectly unreliable charts that they had compared
to modern charts. Ed Link decided that with the help of Pete, he would have a fresh look at the question,
not only on the base of historical documents and charts but also, and for the first time, as seen mile by mile
from the sea by a seaman, on his SEA DIVER.
46
From the beginning, the team received the help of Captain Weems, a retired US Navy officer, and an old
friend of Ed, who was recognized as n°1 in navigation and navigation systems in America. It is Captain
Weems who had first suggested that it wouldn’t be a bad idea, as they were at it, “to also find the wreck of
the SANTA MARIA” (lost somewhere on the north coast of Haiti on Christmas night 1492). The idea,
as Marion Link said later when telling the whole story, “fairly took our breath away”. But Captain Weems
continued explaining that rear-admiral Samuel Morison, in his book Admiral of the Ocean Seas, which tells
his version of the Columbus voyage, claimed to have picked out the exact reef where he thinks the SANTA
MARIA sank, and had indicated it on a map in the book.
Exciting as the idea was, Pete pointed out that Columbus caravel had actually never sunk but had stranded
on a reef at night, from where she could not be moved again. Columbus had salvaged every reusable part
from the wreck down to floatation, plus what they could get from the water filled holds, in order to build
a fort on shore – he called it Navidad – where he would have to leave most of his crew, for there was no
room on the NIÑA and the PINTA to return to Spain with everyone. Still, Pete said, the ballast of the
SANTA MARIA could just possibly be findable, even covered in coral more than four centuries old, together with the keel, keelson and the part of the ship’s bottom that the ballast would have protected from
the teredo worms. And if they should really find the mound of the stone ballast, metal detectors could
possibly indicate any iron object or two that might have been dropped in it and missed. One might even
be optimistic enough to dream of recovering a couple of nails from the ship’s bottom. Those nails would
be as precious as the nails of the Holy Cross.
The story of the several months long SEA DIVER expedition on her triple quest – for a third purpose was
to develop – has been told in detail by Marion Link in her book Sea Diver.
To make a long story short, the ballast pile of the SANTA MARIA was not found but one result of the long
unsuccessful search was the discovery of what everyone agreed to call “a Columbus-type ancient anchor”
(or part of it) that was found on a not too unlikely reef and officially delivered later to M. le Préfet de Cap
Haitien in the presence of His Excellency USA Ambassador Davis.
Pete and Ed and everyone else knew that there is also, in the Port-au-Prince Museum another ancient anchor, found in the 18th century in Grande Rivière which is said “to have come from the SANTA MARIA”.
Ancient anchors in general are difficult to date accurately. Pete carefully compared, measured and auscultated the two anchors and – allowing for one being covered with an inch and a half of rusty accretions
whilst the other, found in river mud, was very well preserved – he delivered the opinion that both anchors
could be of the right period, were very similar and could have come from the same ship. Later analysis,
made in a US laboratory, has shown that both were actually made of a similar type of iron and at the same
period. But a nagging question continued to bother Pete and Ed. The broken anchor they had recovered
was not found in situ. It was covered with sand-based accretions and lying flat and free, in plain sight, on
top of a coral reef. The explanation proposed was that it had been broken off from some coral reef at some
time in the past by a fisherman, who had used it for some time as a weight for some of his fish traps before
one day loosing it.
As for the search for the exact landfall of Columbus, it has been carefully summarized by the Links as follows:
“Unless additional original material or charts should be turned up in the future, we concluded there could never
be positive knowledge of Columbus exact road; but we have proved – to our own satisfaction at least – that he
landed first at Caicos and from there followed a course from Mayaguana to Samana to Long Island, and from
there to Crooked Island, the Ragged Islands, the Columbus Bank and Cuba.”
Pete did not disagree with such a careful statement.
From the start, it had been also, Ed’s idea to look, during the same voyage, for the remains of the NUESTRA SEÑORA DE LA CONCEPCIÓN, the richly laden Spanish almiranta lost in 1659 on the Silver
Bank (north of the Republic of Santo Domingo) the very wreck that the famous 17th century salvor William Phipps had largely salvaged two hundred and sixty eight years earlier, in 1687, making his fortune
with the 26 tons of silver he brought back and acquiring so the resulting full respectability.
48
The search for this wreck, in which Pete was not directly involved, is another story. The many weeks that
SEA DIVER and its crew of friends of Ed spent on the Silver Shoals, alias the Ambrosian Bank, in the
course of successive visits, did not allow them to locate any wreck that by any stretch of imagination would
have looked like the lost Almiranta of 1659.
But Pete, as he was in Haiti anyway, made sure he measured, fondled and photographed all the cannons in
the Port-au-Prince Museum and studied the various bronze pieces that at the time graced the city squares.
Of course he also climbed (or rode, one hopes) all the way up to the “Citadelle du Roi Christophe”, near
Cape Haitien, there to examine and photograph the countless big guns that never fired a shot, in the huge,
absurd citadel that was never attacked because there could never be a reason to.
1955, still. The third man in the famous trio now enters the scene. He will play a leading role and the
location will become Bermuda for many years. That third man is Edward Bolton Tucker, better known
as “Teddy”.
The Tuckers have been in Bermuda, forever. The first colonial governor of the island, appointed in 1616,
was a Capt. Daniel Tucker. He was succeeded by his brother and the Tuckers grew and multiplied ever
since over the centuries.
Teddy’s father was a naval architect from the ship building yards of Harland and Wolff (in Belfast, and
present in every other major harbor in the world), famous for having built the most magnificent steam
powered ocean liners in their days, including, of course, the TITANIC. Teddy has wondered if the fascination he feels for the structure of ships and its study could be an inherited trait. As a child, his occupations
involved paddling around on a fir log, beach combing and, as a summer job, cleaning the glasses of the
exhibit tanks at the Bermuda Aquarium or going out to the reefs in the collecting boat for live specimens.
More important yet, in order to collect fish or coral specimens or to inspect the moorings of the aquarium’s
boat, he had the occasion to discover and get used to the then fashionable diving apparatus, a simple helmet resting on the diver’s shoulder and supplied with air from the surface by means of a man-operated two
cylinder air pump. He later wrote:
“That gave me confidence, awakened my excitement and an adventurous passion for diving that has lasted all
my life… And so I also learnt to dive more or less freely, without any kind of diving suit, years before scuba was
even invented. Indeed there was no turning back. Those little underwater walks with that clumsy copper helmet
on my head ... were the first steps into sixty years of looking for shipwrecks and studying life forms in many of
the world’s oceans”.
In 1941, at the age of 16, Teddy went to sea as a deckhand on a four-masted schooner owned by a cousin.
“I was well looked after” he recalls “and gained experience sailing the ocean”.
In 1942 he enlisted in the Royal Navy. He served on many different Naval ships and went to many foreign
ports, from the Arctic to the Antarctic and saw action on the Eastern theatre. He was eventually demobilized in 1947, unscathed, in spite of having experienced “his share of bombs and torpedoes and being shot at
a few times”.
He returned to Bermuda with the firm intention of making a living in and from the sea.
Which is exactly what he did, all by himself at first and then with the help of MLP and the support of the
SI later.
Pete had met him briefly for the first time in 1955 in his home in Bermuda, a lovely old house on a rocky
49
point all surrounded by the ocean, that his father had purchased and rebuilt in 1911. He had come to see
with his own eyes some incredible artifacts of which Teddy had sent him color slides, requesting identification and a date.
On a coffee table he was shown a “dazzling array”. There was of course “the Tucker Cross”, a late 16th century gold bishop’s cross studded with seven large, perfect, cabochon emeralds that probably once contained
between its two separable faces an ancient relic or perhaps an Agnus Dei. Pete declared it “the most valuable
artifact ever found in the Western Hemisphere, at the time” it became world famous when Life Magazine published its photograph. It was eventually stolen12 at some time either from the Bermuda Maritime Museum
(or when it had been transferred from the Bermuda Aquarium Museum after the entire SAN PEDRO collection was sold to the government in 1963). Later, more of the collection was stolen from the Bermuda
Maritime Museum. None of the treasure has been recovered. But there were also on the table a number of
gold ingots and gold bars marked with all the telltale identification marks and inscriptions of the Spanish
colonial “Real Hacienda” (the fiscal administration), there were delicate gold buttons set with pink conch
pearls and other jewelry and silver coins, mostly pieces of eight. All this had come from a wreck, which
he had discovered in 1951, together with his brother-in-law, Bob Canton, in some shallow holes (depth
25 feet) on the western reef. He had returned to the site on a whim four years later, at which time he had
found the treasure now lying on the coffee table.
Pete, when he eventually dove on the site with Teddy, for three long weeks in 1957, in order to fully identify
and study the wreckage, found out that the ship’s ballast had consisted of flint stones which, in agreement
with the dated coins, confirmed that the ship had been lost about 1600 at the latest for, after the invention
of the flintlock musket and similar fire starting devices (which the Spaniards called the “Miquelet”), flint
had become too valuable to be used as ballast. All the artifacts generally further pointed to a date in the
late 16th century. Pete’s subsequent research confirmed that the wreck was the one of a Spanish nao, the
SAN PEDRO that was bound from Cartagena in the Nuevo Reino de Colombia to Cadiz, in Spain, in
late 1595 and never arrived.
As he later wrote: “Even more important, I found Teddy to be an intelligent, skilful observer. The hours together
underwater began a long friendship that led to our dozen or more annual archaeological dives for the Smithsonian Institution.”
It is Pete, who first coined the formula “a time capsule of history” to describe the wreck of a sunken ship
with all its interconnected, preserved contents and to underline the importance of scientifically approaching its excavation in order to be able to recover every bit of information in the capsule, an expression which
has now become common place. It is Pete also, with his special knack for luminously formulated definitions that, in one of his articles, compared every shipwreck to “a combination lock, a unique set of tumblers
to be arranged in proper sequence for access to the vault of knowledge within”. Teddy himself has dubbed
ancient wrecks “windows on history”.
At the time he had first appraised Teddy’s treasures in 1955, Pete, had also inspected his full collection
of recovered artifacts. “There were swords” he wrote “and some encrusted steel breast plates and a dagger…
graceful brass dividers used to chart a ship’s progress and a finely made brass case for an hour-glass, fragments of
Chinese porcelain brought by the Manila galleon… leg irons for disciplining the crew or some reluctant slaves in
12 When Queen Elisabeth II visited Bermuda some years later Teddy Tucker was officially invited by the Bermuda Government who had purchased the treasure, to show the “Tucker Cross” to the Queen. Moments before the Queen arrived; he
entered the display area and noticed, to his horror, that the cross had been replaced with a plastic replica. Scotland Yard and
Interpol were alerted, but as of today the cross has not been discovered.
50
the cargo. Medical instruments, Carib Indians wooden bows and a chief ’s club or staff of office, home souvenirs
from the New World bought by some anonymous Spaniards, etc., etc.”
During eleven following summers, on the reefs of Bermuda, Teddy and Pete, aided by the latter’s assistants
at the Smithsonian, Alan Albright and James Mahoney with other divers, were to survey many of the one
hundred or so wreck-sites of all periods located by Teddy and to test various new methods of search, underwater survey and recovery operations in between.
One of the most intriguing cases they were to investigate was a double shipwreck. It is recorded that the
large store ship LA VIGA and her tender (and scout and “aviso”), the “patacha” or patach EL GALGO (the
Greyhound) were part of an “Armada de la Guardia de la Carrera de las Indias” that returned to Spain in
1639, escorting a fleet of fourteen sails (which included the SANTA MARGARITA, the SAN DIEGO, the
SANTA PAULA, a ship nicknamed RUBY and another LA VICTORIA) when they were lost in the dark
of the night on the reefs, south-west of Bermuda and sank. The rest of the fleet, warned by the immediate firing of two cannons by the crew of LA VIGA was able to veer off and escape. According to routine
procedures, the crew of LA VIGA manned the pumps, cut down the masts and threw the guns overboard.
When daylight came, they recognized Bermuda and sighted their tender EL GALGO, ashore also “half
a league ahead, a stepping stone to shore”. Both ships were abandoned in good order with the interested
help of the Bermudan authorities and of a swarm of wreckers, who filled their boats with everything they
could pry off the ship or find in the cabins (as reported in detail in a Spanish account by the “mestre”
of the VIGA). The survivors and passengers eventually were able to leave the island with the help of the
governor, but without their valuables, which remained on the island, in the hands of the wreckers or of the
administration officers.
Teddy Tucker had a good idea of the location of the two wrecks. In the late 1950s, he decided with Pete to
identify a site he knew of, on the south-western reef, which was completely buried, with just a few ballast
stones visible, in a large sand hole. A trace of large granite pebbles coming from the top of a reef in seven
feet of water was leading to that sand hole.
Exploratory excavations were started with the help of an airlift (which the divers, at the time, called “a
compressed air sand-gun”). Two feet below the surface of the sand, a layer of olive jar sherds appeared,
with pieces of Majolica, broken pottery and the usual ship fittings. Probing deeper, they uncovered a major portion of the bottom of a ship, completely buried in the sand hole. The datable ceramics allowed Pete
to determine the estimated date of the wreck: the mid-1600s.
As Teddy Tucker wrote later: “This new wreck-site was to become a major project with the involvement of the
Smithsonian Institution in developing the principles of marine archaeology, perfecting the grid system and the
radial arm”. Supplementary methods used for recording the wreck included photography and drawings
of the structural remains.
LA VIGA had been thirty feet wide at the waterline and about a hundred feet long. From a sawed off
section of her lower hull, it could be seen that she was recently built when lost. The outer hull planks had
only been caulked once, so she could not be older than four or five years at the maximum. There was scant
evidence of shipworm (teredo navalis) damage and, after the ballast was removed, the inner planking in the
bilges was found to be in excellent condition, showing very little wear from shifting and/or replacement
of ballast due to any careening. The dowels of treenails, on the other hand, that fastened the planks to the
vessel’s frame showed no evidence of extra fastening having been added at a later date. Nor was there any
patching inside or outside of the hull section that was removed and, in general, no traces of wear and tear.
The complete absence of personal effects on a ship transporting seventy to one hundred people at the time
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of her loss was the clearest clue. No buttons or buckles, no medallions, beads or jewelry and, likewise,
no eating utensils, forks, spoons, cups or personal pewter bowls or plates, all of which were normally carried on large ships of the period. The only evidence that anyone on board might have had some personal
wealth (a passenger?) consisted of fragments of nine pieces of oriental porcelain and of Mediterranean type
Majolica, plates and bowls. But who could tell if such pieces were the property of a passenger sailing on
that fatal ship, or if they were broken items discarded in the bilge on a previous voyage.
Eventually, Pete sent a sawed off cross section of the hull to the Smithsonian, where it was preserved and
used for educational projects and in an exhibit. Pete marveled at the care with which the ballast, in between the huge frames of the wreck, had been fitted with large pebbles placed on the bottom of the hull
and small pebbles packed carefully in by hand, thereby fully filling the spaces between the larger stones.
In the unusually large amount of pottery that was found, he found the remains of assorted jars ranging
from round squat jars as generally used in the 16th century (the so-called “olive jars”) to more elongated
ones, made in Peru (the so-called “peruleras”). Large, open mouth redware jars would have been used for
storing oil or water. Surely, such an assortment and quantity of containers indicated a supply ship such as
LA VIGA that had been heavily loaded to accompany a large fleet. Also found were numerous barrel staves
of various dimensions from eighteen to forty-eight inches in length. The largest ones were of oak, charred
on the inside and would have been part of wine or water barrels. The smaller ones were made of pine and
fir, probably used for sugar, grain or other dry stores. Barrels of resin still showed remains of their contents
in the inside and so did small kegs or covered buckets that had contained indigo, as well as a number of
chests, or fragments of chests, bearing traces of the dye.
Pete took special interest in cast iron mercury jars that were found mixed in with the ceramics and other
material in the bilge for they were probably taken back to be reused. Or, perhaps, passengers or crew
members had found another use for them and recycled them.
Teddy, who always had a particular interest for Majolica, was delighted to find quantities of fragments of
red and yellow wares from which he identified thirty different pieces of tableware, Spanish and Portuguese,
in origin. But neither pewter plates nor drinking and other vessels that were common on Spanish ships of
this size for the use of officers and passengers were found. (It is unlikely that there would have been silverware on a simple supply ship). The absence of tools, of small arms and of anything easy to be taken away
was also a reminder of the major salvage operations at the time of the shipwreck. As for the harquebuses
and muskets of the two stranded ships, the contemporary account of the “mestre” had specified that they
had all been brought ashore in good order “with their powder flasks”.
The stranded ships must have remained intact for a long time to mark the site and to allow the locals to fish
for the jettisoned artillery. No cannons either and very few cannon balls were found. Surely the cannons
of LA VIGA were not lost for everyone.
Half a league away from LA VIGA, Teddy subsequently discovered a ballast pile with many broken olive
jars and salted meat bones in a position that corresponded exactly with the written account of the “mestre”.
It was to turn out indeed to be part of the lost GALGO.
The GALGO had been well armed for a simple “patacha”. (Heavy cannons, twelve swivel guns and a
variety of small arms for the crew, as indicated in the written account of the inquiry into her loss held in
Cadiz in 1641). But no part of her artillery was to be found in her wreckage, surely the final confirmation
of her identity.
From the bottom of the GALGO’s hull, a fifty foot section of the keel and a section of the portside of the
53
ship’s bottom, seven feet wide, were exposed and studied. She was a heavily constructed ship for her size.
Pete had the oak used in the construction of both ships later submitted to scientific examination and to
micro-constituents analysis. A comparison was made through a similar analysis of oxides, minerals and
metals present in the soil of the forests of the north coast of Spain. The conclusion suggested that the two
ships might have been built in the same Biscayan shipyard.
Finally, what made the wrecks of LA VIGA and EL GALGO particularly interesting for the excavators was
their close relationship. They may well have been built by the same hands, in the same shipyard or with
wood from the same forest. They had sailed together and were lost together on the same mission, with
complementary duties although separately. “In the light of the contemporary accounts of the shipwreck, of the
records in Bermuda and of the legal proceedings documents in Cadiz, their wreckage” the excavators wrote as a
conclusion “actually brings to light the reality of the past”.
Except for the usual cannons photographs in the US comparatively little is known – to me, that is – of the
activities of Pete, in 1956, except that he spent some time in the Turks and Caicos Islands (nothing seems
to have transpired on the purpose and results of this voyage) and that he made in Port Royal, Jamaica, a
first reconnaissance with Ed Link that was to prepare their joint important expedition of 1959.
The next Smithsonian-MLP expedition on the reefs of Bermuda was aimed at the remains of yet another
large Spanish vessel, discovered by Teddy Tucker in 1957. An important site, it will be explored and excavated over a three year period (1958-1960) and, as a result, an authentic picture of a mixed return cargo
of those days will slowly emerge that will furnish the archaeologists with, namely, new evidence of the
importance of the export of simple everyday goods to the economy of the Spanish American settlements.
The bulk proved to be tobacco wrapped in bundles, cochineal (the dye stuff made with the dried bodies
of millions of small insects) carried in the olive jars which were at the time standard containers and indigo
dye in rectangular chests (of which only the deep blue bottom remained for, as explained in one of the
Peterson’s publication, “the original green color of the raw dye had been oxidized to the deep blue of the finished
product by the oxygen in the sea water”). There were also bundles of tanned leather, dyed and cut thin for
the binding of books or covering of boxes and furniture, or left thick and worked into shoe soles (adults
and children sizes). Small logs of lignum vitae were scattered over the site, the wood as sound as when it
slid into the ocean. In the cargo were also a number of tortoise shells, very valuable at the time since it is
from this bright, brown and yellow, partially translucent or transparent material, which commanded high
price in Europe, combs, snuff boxes and spectacle frames were fashioned. Also found were Portuguese
and Chinese ceramic, a large quantity of cowrie shells (well identified by Pete, as of the variety cypraea
moneta, the small, white attractive shells native from the Indian Ocean basin) which have been used since
the stone age as currency in West Africa where they are highly valued by the natives. The Spaniards at that
time imported them massively from the Far East through Manila, Acapulco and Vera Cruz in order to use
them in the then flourishing slave trade (at one time, just a few of them would have bought a healthy adult
slave). Pete was puzzled to find, amid the coral, small billets of copper about half an ounce in weight. He
assumed they served the same purpose as the cowries and were used as a form of currency in West Africa,
where small ingots of the metal continue to serve as a form of currency.
Spanish majolica and Moresque serving ware also littered the area, mixed with trade beads, combs, and
crucifixes, all kinds of tools and utensils and even simple pins.
54
Pete was mostly interested in recording the remaining ordnance, including some of the carriage guns of
the main battery and “a uniquely contrived and wired musket shot”, a one of a kind projectile that Teddy
Tucker suspected to be the work of an ingenious ship’s armorer. Much of Teddy’s diving time was devoted
to excavating the keel of the vessel which, he was shocked to discover, was a laminated keel and therefore
guilty of a grave anachronism since that technique was not in general use until the late 19th century whereas
every indication pointed with certainty towards an early 17th century ship, probably to a Portuguese “nao
de flota”.
In the end, the wrecked ship was to be definitely identified by Pete, as the SAN ANTONIO (owner: Dom
Fernandino da Vera) that had set sail from Cartagena de Indias late in the summer of 1621. The ship,
separated from the rest of the fleet during a storm, had run aground on the south-west reefs of Bermuda
on September 13. She ran on the reef at night and remained high and dry. There were no casualties but
within hours the wreck was swarming with Bermudan wreckers looting everything they could put their
hands on, including any treasure they managed to find or to “obtain” from the helpless survivors. Gold
in small cakes or ingots, silver in bars or in “plata labrada” (i.e. silverware and silver everyday use artifacts),
coins and jewelry.
Could Teddy’s ancestors have missed part of the treasure? Teddy indicated he had checked.
Additionally to the commercial products typically exported from the New World to the old one, the wreck
proved to have contained also, overlooked by the 17th century local wreckers, a cross section of the type of
treasure that came at the time from Spanish America: silver pieces of eight struck in Potosi under the reign
of King Phillip III, a gold ring set with three precious stones, a ruby, an emerald and a diamond, engraved
inside in abbreviated Spanish with words translating as, “Yours, now and forever”. Two gold, crystal and
pearl earrings, a set of gold buttons and a gold medallion representing “Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe”,
a collection of gold finger rings set with semi-precious stones, including sardonyx and a number of gold
nuggets and gold chains.
For much of the two following years, again I have lost part of Pete’s peripatetic trace. That is except for a
brief photographic trip at Fort Ticonderega, NY (and perhaps at Fort George) and for the weeks he excavated, with Teddy, the historically highly important wrecks of the SEA VENTURE, the EAGLE and the
VIRGINIA MERCHANT.
The SEA VENTURE, a ship of the Virginia Company, Captain Somers, which foundered on the coast of
Bermuda in 1609, led to the first settlement of that island (and, incidentally, furnished William Shakespeare with the theme for The Tempest). She had sailed from England with colonists and supplies for the
English settlements on the coasts of Virginia and Massachusetts, direct through the dangerous waters of the
North Atlantic as the English routinely did. After battering for days against adverse winds and battering
seas, she finally drifted onto the Bermuda coast with, in the words of Pete, “a hold full of water and about
two hours of buoyancy left”. By some kind of a miracle, the ship got stuck between two coral heads which
held her upright, enabling the crew and the passengers to get ashore safely after the seas had subsided.
It took about a year for the crew and passengers to build boats in Bermuda and to finally reach their destination, in Virginia. But some of them remained and started a colony, who have has hung on tenaciously
ever since. It is from that time that Bermuda, now settled permanently, became the port of call, albeit a
dangerous one, on the final leg of the journey to the coast of North America.
56
The wreck of the SEA VENTURE was first located in 1958 by an American diver, Edmund Downing.
It yielded evidence that was considered compatible with the meager historical records on the subject of
Somers’ ship, but the news of the discovery was met with controversy. In order to help settle the matter,
Downing, Pete and Teddy undertook to carefully clear and measure what remained of the hull, part of
which was still fastened to a long section of the keel. The general dimensions of the remains and the way
the ship was built confirmed the identification along with the discovery of early 17th century pewter ware,
pottery, sherds and a telltale iron gun, enough to satisfy most experts as to the ship’s identity.
The EAGLE was another supply ship of the Virginia Company, bringing to the colony her regular cargo
of supplies and more emigrant families. Unable to reach the entrance to Castle Harbor, on the north-east
tip of Bermuda, she crashed on the coral reefs nearby and sank in relatively deep water, between two coral
banks. The year was 1658.
The wreck was eventually found by Teddy in rather deep water, in between a group of sharp, barely emerging coral reefs. When it was excavated it was identified as the remains of the EAGLE. Interestingly, a large
part of the cargo had consisted of wheat, sent as seeds to be planted in Virginia or Massachusetts, to feed
the colonists.
The following year saw the loss of the VIRGINIA MERCHANT which had also come from England with
immigrants and supplies for Virginia and, as was now the rule had repaired in Castle Harbor, Bermuda,
for refreshments. Shortly after leaving the harbor, the ship was struck by a storm which threw her on the
rocky south coast of the island. There she broke up, spreading on the reef her ballast, heavy cargo and the
iron guns of her main battery. Incredibly, the seas carried part of the superstructure ashore. It is said that
the bowsprit “almost entered the door of a house”. But although they were within hailing distance of the
shore, most of the crew and colonists aboard died, maimed on the knife-like rocks or drowned. A dozen
or so drifted into a sandy beach in a small bay and managed to save themselves.
Teddy Tucker had found in 1962, a group of large cannons lying in a hole some three hundred yards off
the shore, as well as iron fittings from a ship’s rigging and tools which, from the beginning, appeared to be
compatible with the wreck of the VIRGINIA MERCHANT.
In subsequent years, further explorations in which Pete always participated would furnish a complete picture of the cargo and equipment of this type of large vessels that served the English colonies in America in
the middle of the 17th century. The cargoes included all the kinds of tools that were of vital importance
for the emergent colony craftsmen on the fringe of an unfriendly wilderness: weapons, axes for woodsmen,
blacksmith tools, hammers, moulds, pulleys and thongs, etc. Lead settings also, for window frames and
small luxuries such as silverware, china, fine pottery and ivory combs for the ladies or ivory handled knives.
There were quantities of lead shot, swan and duck shots, that reminded the divers of the vital importance
of hunting in keeping the struggling colony fed. At the same time, cannon balls, small arms and general
military supplies underlined the real dangers of attack that the colony was still facing from unfriendly
savages and, further south, from hostile Spaniards. For Pete, the sherry on the archaeologist’s cake was
a brass button with the caricature of the King of England, no doubt the possession of a supporter of the
Commonwealth government of Cromwell, now displaced by the restoration of Charles II to the throne.
The long list of Pete’s expeditions and his obvious dedication to research and post-excavation studies
may give the impression that he was a man interested only by his work. Not true, according to his family: “he always managed to find the time to be with us”. When Mendel Jr. once asked his wife and children
“how would you describe your husband or father or grand-father in one or two words”, the list began with
“family-centered, good provider, generous, protective, tender, caring and fatherly”. Mendel Jr. has shared
with me an anecdote which is part of the family lore and happened at about the time this life story of
his father has reached:
“When I graduated from college and started to work, my father bought me two new suits and gave me his blessing:
‘Don’t take yourself too seriously,
never loose your sense of humor,
don’t wear your feelings on your sleeve,
one good speech is worth a year of hard work, and,
don’t dip your pen in company ink’.”
58
As a friend and as a biographer, I have deeply meditated on such wise pieces of advice and it seems to
me that they explain a lot about Pete’s way of life in general and on the success of his personal and professional itineraries.
Down in Florida in the meantime (1958), wreck-hunting was becoming frantic. Another treasure hunter
and friend of Peterson, Tom Gurr, had located another ship of the 1733 returning “plata flota” during a
magnetometer search. She was identified as the SAN JOSE on the basis of the same 18th century Spanish
navigator’s chart already mentioned and Pete managed to find the time to go and assist Mr. Gurr in his
salvage work. He helped to identify most of the artifacts recovered, which included gold rings, a large
number of silver coins, glass amulets, pots and figurines of black ceramic ware, probably from Mexico, as
well as fragments of blue and white porcelain. Most interesting to him were cast iron cannons, some of
which formed part of the armament of the SAN JOSE, others being used as ballast, as well as part of the
hull timbers which he carefully studied.
In 1959, Pete’s new adventures will pull him away again from his beloved Bermuda. Ed Link and Pete had
made a quick reconnaissance together in Port Royal, Jamaica, in 1956 and it was now to bear fruit.
The island of Jamaica had become an English colony in 1655 after Admiral Penn and General Venables
were ordered by Oliver Cromwell, the Lord Protector of England, to capture bases in the West Indies from
which the English could bleed the treasure routes from the Spanish Indies to Spain. A first attack on Santo
Domingo was victoriously repelled by the Spanish garrison. As a second best, the English commanders
decided to attack the island of Jamaica which was only lightly defended. They succeeded in capturing the
capital Santiago de la Vega (now called Spanish Town) and in completely routing the few Spanish troops
on the island.
Well aware that their intrusion in the Spanish West Indies did represent a threat for the whole of the
Spanish Main that the Consejo de Indias and His Majesty could not tolerate, the English fortified the
tip of a peninsula, which forms the southern shore of the present harbor of Kingston. There they built
their settlement, using the natural defenses of the place and planting three forts around the end to cover
attacks by sea. Then they put a palisade across the peninsula, cutting off the land approaches. In later
years, a waterside battery was installed down the beach, commanding the channel that led to the harbor.
This was done by orders of Governor Henry (Harry) Morgan, the reformed, pardoned and knighted archbuccaneer. Under Morgan, the city now called Port Royal thrived and became the major center of operations against the Spanish trade in the West Indies and on both Americas, not only the operations of the
English Navy, but worst, the repeated murderous attacks on the Spanish harbors and inland cities, and the
thriving chase made by the buccaneers, at the height of their power, after the Spanish pay-ships (that carried the “situado”13 to the islands) or after the mouth watering passing treasures of Peru and Mexico. The
great wealth amassed by the exploits of the buccaneers, attracted merchants, craftsmen, inn keepers and
prostitutes to the town in great number. Soon the place became known as “the wickedest city on earth”.
The activity sent the real estate prices skyrocketing. In view of the high price of land and the limited area
of the town, merchants built houses of three stories all along the docks. These houses however were built
on a very unstable shelving beach of sand, gravel and rotten mangrove trees.
On June 7, 1692, between 11.30 a.m. and 12 noon, disaster struck. One of the worst earthquakes in the
western hemisphere dumped much of the harbor-front of the town into the sea and demolished most of
the rest of the city. In two or three minutes Port Royal had been submerged or brought down and more
than two thousand people, out of the five thousand population, were drowned or crushed under the ruins.
13 The “situado” was the amount of money, usually in Mexican pieces of eight, needed according to each island’s annual
budget to pay the military, naval and administrative personnel and all running expenses.
59
Fort James and Fort Carlisle tumbled into the harbor, and only part of Fort Charles remained standing.
That is the site that, in 1956, had been explored by Ed Link and Pete, in order to determine local conditions and to make plans for a future expedition.
When they started planning, Pete, and Ed Link agreed that powerful mud digging equipment would be
essential. That would call for a new salvage vessel, better equipped to handle all the specific problems encountered on this type of underwater sites. The result was to be SEA DIVER II, which Pete, described as
“the finest vessel of its type engaging in exploring historic underwater sites… She can support eight divers, has
all types of electronic gear for searching underwater, can lift loads weighing up to 6 tons and offers comfortable
air conditioned accommodation and she can range 7000 miles. The ship has special gear to assure ease of maneuvering and anchoring over sites to be explored. Special water jets in the bow, invented by Mr. Link14, add to
the ease of handling the 164 ton vessel.”
Designing the steel hulled SEA DIVER II from the keel to the mast tops for one sole purpose, underwater
archaeological, search and excavation, building her at Quincy (Massachusetts) and equipping her took
years. The vessel was launched and ready for trials in early 1959. In the same year, Ed Link resigned the
Presidency of General Precision Inc., in order to devote his full time to his new passion
So, in the summer of 1959, an expedition organized and sponsored by Link, the National Geographic
Society and the Smithsonian Institution assembled in Port Royal, based on SEA DIVER II. The captain
is Ed Link, the purser is Marion Link, and the chief archaeologist is Mendel Peterson.
After a fuller survey of the site, Ed and Pete, decide to begin the digging behind Fort James, on some of
the brick buildings indicated on old charts, next to the King’s warehouse. The overburden of mud, sand,
coral and debris, is 4 to 5 feet thick and it takes days to cut exploratory trenches through it. Then the
archaeological level is reached and the airlift begins to uncover clay pipes, pottery, bricks, roof tiles and
miscellaneous evidence of a building. It is a brick building which had a fireplace, not therefore a common
home since in the tropical climate of Port Royal, cooking was done in small cookhouses separate from the
dwelling. It soon became clear through the location of the fireplace and the uncovering of cooking utensils, pewter spoons, plates and platters, that the building had been one such cookhouse and, according to
a pre-earthquake chart of the lots of the town, had probably belonged to the dwelling of a Mr. Littleton.
In the meantime, a team of Navy divers were going over the area with a metal detector. The first signal
proved, after a short period of airlifting, to have been produced by a battered brass pot in which animal
bones were found (later identified as those of a cow and a turtle). Pete observed red bricks from the interior of a fireplace and concluded that since the earthquake had struck just before noon, Mr. Littleton’s
chef had been cooking a beef and turtle stew in the fireplace, when the chimney collapsed, crushing the
pot and its contents.
Quantities of building materials were recovered, including flat clay roof tiles, bricks, plaster fragments etc.,
which all confirmed the pre-earthquake descriptions of the buildings of the whole town that Pete, had
gathered during the previous winter. Other sites near the Littleton house produced a collection of iron
artifacts, including a steel yard with weights and a collection of iron tools, which indicated the site of a supply house or of a ship’s chandler. Near the site of Fort James, the Navy team, consisting of six expert UDT
men (Underwater Demolition Teams) – diving in reality more in liquid mud than in water since the silt on
the bottom was stirred up by the salvage operations –, were bringing up bar shots and solid lead shots and
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14 Not quite true. Bow thrusters had equipped for some time tugs and drilling ships, but it was the first time an archaeological research vessel was equipped with such a refinement.
a 24-pounder iron tube, the largest gun in the defenses of Port Royal. The cannon weighed 5,000 pounds
and in Peterson’s opinion, was probably cast between 1660 and 1690. It bore the conventional crowned
rose and the weight mark according to the English system.
On the site of the “chandler’s house”, the divers also turned up a wrought-iron, breech loading swivel gun,
a late 15th or 16th century piece, almost an antique when the earthquake struck the town. It still must have
been in service since its breech blocks were found with it.
Although a small portion only of the submerged city could be explored in the time available, the expedition recovered hundreds of objects that illustrate everyday life of the civilians and the military of Port Royal
and constitutes “a valuable cross section of the material culture of an important city of the New World”.
But the most eloquent artifact found was a watch. A watch in a brass case with silver dials.
Inside it was signed “Paul Blondel” (a French watch maker known to have been working before 1686 in
the Netherlands). On Pete’s suggestion, Ed had an X-ray plate made of the face of the watch, which was
covered with the usual coral and sand crust and stained with iron oxides. It revealed distinct lines where
the steel hands had been. This showed the time when the watch stopped to have been seventeen minutes
to twelve. Thus, the exact time of the earthquake was recorded on the timepiece of one of the victims.15
Typically, and confusingly to a point, what remains of Pete’s notes show that in the same year 1959, he has
visited, among other places, Cabana Fort, Havana, Chapultepec and Mexico DF, where he did photograph
– guess what? – cannons and mortars.
Mexico now? Confusing? Yes and the more I progressed in my writing of Pete’s biography, the more I felt
the need for complete, sequential, solid, official original information.
Would the Smithsonian Institution Archives (in Washington DC) provide that? Of course, as I had
expected from day one, they proved invaluable. They provided the backbone, a direction and a precise
chronology to what had been up to then, I sometimes felt, a piecemeal life-story haphazardly gathered
from the four points of the compass.
In the SI Archives, the wind of adventure that Pete’s passage raised through the venerable Institution and
that blew hard for a quarter of a century, is officially translated in administrative language as follows:
“NATIONAL MUSEUM OF HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY, DIVISION OF HISTORIC ARCHAE
OLOGY  AGENCY HISTORY
The study of underwater historic archaeology at the Smithsonian was begun in 1952 by Mendel Peterson. The
work was first carried out under the auspices of the Divisions of Military and Naval History. A Division of Historic Archaeology was officially established in 1969. Studies of shipwrecks in the Florida Straits, the Bahamas
and the West Indies were undertaken. On Peterson’s retirement in 1973 the Division was formally abolished.
Divisional staff consisted of Mendel Peterson, Associate Curator and Curator of the Divisions of Military and
Naval History, 1948-1957; Head Curator of the Department of History, 1951-1957; Head Curator and
Chairman of the Department of Armed Forces History, 1957-1969; and Curator of the Division of Historic
Archaeology, 1969-1973.”
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15 The excavation of the part of the city of Port Royal that slid into the sea was continued in later years on a much large
scale by Robert Marx, acting for the Government of Jamaica. Mendel Peterson has given Marx great credit for the quality of
his work and the importance of his finds.
The first records I greedily went through during a week of research in the Smithsonian Archives, at their
new premises of 600 Maryland Avenue, S.W., were the official papers of the divisions and departments
that Pete had curated or chaired, in particular the Budget Records, the Project Records, the Annual Records, the Publications Records, the Correspondence and Memoranda, and his Biographical File. The
whole was contained in fourteen big and very heavy boxes and meticulously organized. In those boxes,
I found a complete list of all Pete’s travels in the States and abroad, year by year and month by month,
in the form of budgetary requests, subsequent grants, travel arrangements etc. Also, notes on his publications and on the lectures he delivered in the line of duty, the study of the first organization of the
“Underwater Historical Archaeology Department” (yes, that suspicious new activity – or was it perhaps
just a pastime? – was still placed between quotation marks), which later became the Underwater Archaeology Department, and the development, which he pioneered, of the resulting exhibits in the museum’s
underwater archaeology rooms.
But besides this official, SI created records and additionally to Pete’s own mountains of private papers,
documents and photographs that he either took with him on his retirement or constituted afterwards, I
found also a large collection of his own papers that he had left in the office of the Division of Naval History, when he retired.
On February 22, 1982, nine years after his retirement, the SI Assistant Archivist writes:
“Dear Mr. Peterson,
In addition to preserving administrative records, the Smithsonian Archives is also interested in documenting
the careers of its administrators, historians and scientists. Our holdings include the papers of Smithsonian
Secretaries, Curators, etc. These collections are as valuable and historically important as the permanent records
of the Institution.
Upon your retirement from the Smithsonian, you left in the Division of Naval History several file drawers of
research material, including correspondence, notes and photographs concerning your study of underwater exploration for your book ‘History under the Sea’. The division has indicated a willingness to turn this material over
to the archives. Considering your long record of valuable service to the Smithsonian as an Administrator and a
Curator, we feel that your personal papers will be an important addition to our holdings.
In addition, we would be interested in material which you may have taken with you or have currently generated
from your research. Of interest would be diaries, research notes, films and correspondence…”
The alluded above personal papers that Pete, left in the Division of Naval History are now in the SI Archives and I have been through them with great interest. As for the material later generated from Pete’s
research, that was the contents of all the mountains of boxes and photo albums that I had already been
through in Bermuda, thanks to Teddy Tucker’s earlier initiative. It is in part from the global study of it all
that the present biography has been nourished.
The part of Pete’s everyday official correspondence now kept at the SI Archives in his nominal file was
perhaps the most interesting to me. It is professionally organized, like the rest of the archives, and kept in
perfect good order. A true pleasure for the investigator who has previously sweated and labored through
the miscellaneous shoe boxes, envelopes, files, batches, bundles and wads, etc. which, as said before, hold
Pete’s – eh hem – “otherwise organized” correspondence in his personal archive.
To me, the correspondence Pete exchanged over many years with John S. Potter Jr. was especially interesting. The two men had met in Washington in 1960, had similar interests apparently, and Pete had endorsed
John’s book The Treasure Diver’s Guide.
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John had founded the “Atlantic Salvage Company Ltd.” with the sole purpose to organize an expedition
that would recover the famous treasures of the Spanish galleons sunken in battle in Rande, at the tip of
Vigo Bay in Galicia (northern Spain) in 1702, by a combined English-Dutch fleet.
I happen to have been, when very young, a modest shareholder of that company and one of its divers for
several seasons.
John and Pete had been exchanging letters and information from 1956 to 1968. Pete had been polite
enough to write (September 26, 1956): “The area in which you are working is one of the most interesting
underwater sites in the world and you should have a great deal of success in your project.” (As a matter of fact,
we did not.)
He was helping John with advice, addresses, contacts and tips and, namely, in trying to identify cannons,
spikes, bar-shots and “marks” on cannon balls recovered by our team from an unidentified wreck I had
come across near the Cies islands. It was a “wrong wreck”.
We were based in Bayona de Galicia by then, looking full time for the wreck of the NUESTRA SEÑORA
DE MARACAIBO, a Spanish armed merchantman that had been captured by HMS MONMOUTH in
Rande during the famous battle and that sank, a prize, as she was sailing out of the bay, towards England.
John at the time had begun to work on his first book, The Treasure Divers of Vigo Bay, for which he had
requested from Pete, who gladly obliged, lots of miscellaneous information and a “good, clear detailed
photograph of the large silver bar” that the SI had purchased earlier from Art McKee.
John’s correspondence also refers to the visit of Pete’s friend, Edwin A. Link, in Vigo Bay, to meet his fellow
wreck diver Potter as he was on his way to the ancient harbor of Cesarea in Israël. It is on that occasion
that I first had the privilege to meet Ed and to hear about his early plans for saturation diving experiments.
I did not loose much time in volunteering to play any part he would give me in the program. Eventually,
this encounter allowed me, as the chief diver of the Man-In-Sea Project to be the first person, in 1962, off
Villefranche, France, to live and work in saturation at 72 meters under the sea for about 26 hours and, in
1964, to carry (with John Lindberg, the son of Charles Lindberg) what was again the longest deepest dive
ever: 2 days and 2 nights at 132 meters in and out of a “House under the Sea”, actually an inflatable dwelling anchored on the sea bottom in the Bahamas.
I was particularly amused when I discovered a letter from Edwin A. Link “Aboard SEA DIVER, Monaco,
August 31, 1962”, to “Dear Pete”, that first refers to an article in the Herald Tribune (Foreign Edition), that
told of the success of his own first dives in shallow saturation with the Link cylinder and continues: “A
young Belgian, Robert Sténuit, has volunteered to make the prolonged two-days dive at 200 feet and I believe I
shall let him do it…”
In other letters, Ed thanks the Smithsonian and Pete for their help, in particular for Pete’s “valuable aid
with the US Navy” (the US Sixth Fleet was active at the time in the Mediterranean) thanks to which “we
received the helium, 30 bottles of it in plenty of time for our preliminary test, and now I have just received another 50 bottles…”. In those bottles was the very helium that I was to breathe on the bottom for 26 hours
and for part of my long days of desaturation on deck, still in the Link cylinder.
In another file, in the SI Archives, a collection of yellowed press clippings and carbon copies of miscellaneous correspondence on the subject of the Man-In-Sea Project revealed to me the extant of Pete’s personal
interest in saturation diving. He clearly explained the reasons of such an interest in a letter dated November 20, 1962, to Pr. Lionel Casson of New York University:
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“I suppose by now you have heard of Ed’s breakthrough in deep diving techniques. We are looking to great things
under water in the coming years through the use of these techniques. I feel they open up a completely new world
to the investigator of historic underwater sites. Imagine what must rest at 800 to 1,000 feet in the ancient seas
and in the oceans of the New World as well…”
Yes, at the same time, his future biographer was looking forward to the same “great things under water to
come in the coming years” and, yes, he was imagining very clearly “what must rest at 800 to 1,000 feet in
the ancient seas and the oceans of the New World…”
History has proven both of us to be wrong. The kind of money that would have been necessary to make
Pete’s and my dreams come true has been made available to the off-shore oil industry and to the Defense
Department of several great powers but not to underwater archaeologists. And in any case, with all
their money and perhaps wisdom, the decision makers in the off-shore oil industry have, from the start,
privileged Machines-in-the-Sea and surface operated instrumentation over Man-in-the-Sea. But that is
another story…
As a footnote, the long correspondence between Pete and John Potter continued in the following years as
he was living in Hong-Kong and preparing the second, the revised edition (1972) of his famous Treasure
Divers Guide. I had, years earlier, brought my modest contribution to the first edition, and John now was
gathering stories of sunken treasure and information from his fellow treasure divers of all over the world
to complete his forthcoming revised guide. I observed that if Pete had been, as usual, generous and helpful in his earlier correspondence, he had gradually become more reserved and, in 1968, finally declined to
become involved in Potter’s new book on the ground that “I am writing a book on the same sort myself and
do not believe it would be smart to compete with myself”. There were other reasons too, but, anyway, their
friendly correspondence continued for some time, on different matters.
Back to Pete’s wanderings in the year 1959. The SI Archives told me the main reason for his trip to Mexico. Pete in fact had been invited by Pablo Bush Romero to come, assess and evaluate the large collection of
archaeologically important artifacts recovered from the now famous wreck off Punta Matanzeros, Yucatan.
It had been discovered two years earlier and first excavated by Bob Marx, the flamboyant American treasure
hunter and adventurer and Clay Blair Jr., a journalist and author. Local rumors – they had found loads of
gold bars, uncounted chests of gold coins and piles of glittering jewels (the usual in term of local rumors) –
forced the Aduana, the local Customs, to stop their diving operations, recognizing in private that they were
not acting illegally, but pointing out, perhaps wisely, that it was in everyone’s interest in view of the excitement of the locals against the “malditos gringos who were shamelessly pillaging the country’s gold and
national heritage”. The major article written by Clay Blair in the Saturday Evening Post16 had not helped.
Pablo Bush Romero, 54 was, in the words of Clay Blair “a suave Mexico city socialite… and a business
tycoon”. He was a sports car amateur, a big game hunter in Africa, etc… He was very popular in the
high circles of the Mexican government and was, among other things, President of CEDAM, the “Club
de Exploraciones y Deportes Aquaticos de Mexico”. He did not object to being called “The Mexican answer to Capitaine Cousteau”. When Pablo Bush Romero learned of the wreck off Punta Matanzeros, he
quite naturally concluded that the site was a job for Mexican nationals working under the jurisdiction of
CEDAM. He petitioned the government and high-jacked the operation. In the end, Bob Marx and Clay
Blair, the original discoverers of the wreck, had no choice but to join forces and work under him. The correspondence between Clay Blair and the American Ambassador in Mexico first, with the American Consul
later, indicates that the interest shown in the wreck by the Smithsonian (lead by Mendel Peterson) had
16 Clay Blair Jr., the following year, published an excellent book on the story: Diving for Pleasure
and Treasure (Cleveland, Ohio, 1960).
65
been a positive factor in the final possibility of collaboration. For Clay Blair, after each of his early trips
and first recoveries at Punta Matanzeros Point, had rushed to Pete’s office to show him photographs of the
finds, most of which he had buried in the sand near the beach. Pete, from the beginning, had underlined
the great archaeological importance of the find.
The inevitable had been accepted by the discoverers and in the following years a joint Mexican-American
diving team continued the excavation at Punta Matanzeros.
The excavation consisted in fact in breaking large chunks of coral from the reef and taking them to shore
in order to break them in small pieces so as to reveal the very well preserved artifacts around which the
coral had been growing for two centuries. The twelve thousand artifacts recovered consisted in hundreds
of devotional medals, three thousand small crucifixes, three thousand buckles (twenty sizes and twelve different designs), mostly for shoes, mostly in silver of gilt brass, two thousand metal buttons, six hundred
silver dipped brass spoons and forks, thirty-one pewter plates (in three sizes), intact and broken drinking
glasses, metal buttons by the thousands, knife handles, two thousand beads in metal settings and a collection of rum, wine and whisky bottles.
The mirrors in the cargo were all in pieces, Mediterranean coral beads were scattered all over, and so was
the pottery.
Having professionally examined and appraised the vast collection of recovered artifacts he reported:
“Through the courtesy of Pablo Bush Romero and CEDAM, I was able to go to Mexico City and examine a
complete collection of objects from the Matanceros Wreck. That examination convinced me that this is the richest
merchant ship wreck yet discovered in the Western Hemisphere. While, the ship contained little “treasure” in the
classical sense of the word. It has produced a ‘capsule of history’ of great worth to historians of commerce and to
the antiquarian… While the ship was probably British, we know that the merchant owners drew their trading
cargo from Germany, France, Great Britain and, probably, from Italy. The labels and seals confirm the first
three sources, while the workmanship of a cross and medals indicates an Italian origin… We can assume that
the wreck was coming from Europe via Jamaica to Mexico or Cuba, for purposes of trade… According to present
evidence, the ship went down in 1740. The collections taken from the site becomes a most valuable reference by
which historians may accurately date similar objects found on land sites. The Matanceros find is indeed a rich
‘slice’ of 18th century commercial history which enhances our knowledge of that important period.”
The ship, originally believed to have been an English merchantman in view of part of her cargo – that
included many bales of English fabrics and garments found with their lead or tin maker’s seals, etc – was
finally identified from numerous original documents found in the Archives of the Indies in Seville. She
had been in fact the “navio” NUESTRA SEÑORA DE LOS MILAGROS, alias EL MATANZERO,
built in Matanzas, Cuba, hence her nickname. She was the property of the Marques de Casamadrid, Capt.
Cristobal Montaño had left Cadiz in late 1740 with the Flota de Nueva España. Punta Matanzeros had
thus been named after the nickname of the ship that was lost on it.
In Washington in the early 1960s, most of Pete’s work and the work of all his colleagues, consisted in
preparing the transfer of the Department’s collections to the new building of the National Museum
of American History, on Constitution Avenue, where a huge, squat, bunker-like building was nearing
completion. In a letter he wrote on February 12, 1962, he, the Head Curator of the Armed Forces History, briefly describes his plans to the President of the “International Association of Arms and Military
History Museums”:
66
“The new exhibit halls to be opened by the Department in the fall of 1963 will have 30,000 square feet of space
devoted to the military and naval history of the United States. The largest exhibits in this area will illustrate a
chronological history of the United States Army, Navy, Marine Corps and Air Force from the earliest period to
the present time.
The exhibition will content hundreds of original objects, prints, paintings, photographs and maps. The complete
history of the development of ordnance will be illustrated in another series which will contain several hundreds
of fire arms and weapons from the earliest time to the present.
Another hall will be devoted to military heraldry.
Yet another hall will be devoted to the subject of underwater exploration and the salvage of wreck-sites of naval
and merchant ships. This exhibition will also contain a short history of diving.”
Perhaps the most important single specimen exhibited in this entire area, a tangible relic of the American
War of Independence, was to be the gundelo17 PHILADELPHIA. A single English 24-pound shot had
sent her to the bottom of Lake Champlain on October 11, 1776, on the first day of the Battle of Valcour, lost by the outnumbered General Benedict Arnold. There she remained intact and upright for the
next 159 years. This gunboat, along with a collection of 700 associated objects, had been received by the
museum in 1965, by the bequest of the late colonel L. F. Hagglund of Middlebury, Vermont, the salvage
expert, who had found and raised it in 1935 and displayed it since as a tourist attraction. The continental
gundelo PHILADELPHIA is in reality the oldest surviving, intact, American man-of-war. The hull and
decks were exceptionally well preserved in the fresh waters of the lake and safe from teredo worms and so
was much of her ground tackle, mast, yards and cruise equipments, as well as the three guns and carriages
of her main battery, and one of her eight swivel guns.
The last time I visited the National History Museum, the gunboat PHILADELPHIA seemed to be the
most crowded exhibit and most of the week-end viewers were young to very young.
Early in 1961, Pete received a letter from Sir Arthur C. Clarke, C.B.E. The famous science-fiction writer
and Oscar nominee for “2001: A Space Odyssey”, the inventor of Geostationary satellite communications,
had long settled in Ceylon (Sri Lanka). He had taken up diving and, one day in 1961, as he was searching
an underwater reef, part of the Great Basses Reef, (near the south-east point of the island) for a convenient
location for an underwater movie he had in mind, he discovered cannons and then a wreck. The wreck
turned out to be the later-to-be-so-called “TAJ MAHAL WRECK” and it had been carrying a very heavy
load of silver rupees indeed.
Pete, obviously was the expert – who else? – Whom Sir Arthur did call on for help and advice and in the
same year, he gladly undertook to identify the coins. These had evidently been packed in coin sacks, 250
years ago, (about 1,000 coins per sack), which were in turn packed several sacks to a wood chest. The coins
were found solidly concreted together in lumps, in the shape as they had once been transported in the
original coin bags that had long rotted away. The coins in the middle of the lumps were found in perfect
mint condition (they all seem to have been uncirculated coins) and the outer coins proved to have one side
perfectly preserved also.
Pete reviewed and assessed the recovered specie and identified the coins as Surat rupees minted during the
reign of Muhammad Aurangzeb Alamgir (who ruled from 1658 to 1707, European style), better known
as the “Aurangzeb period”.
Even for Pete, identifying and assessing such exotic coins was no easy job. Aurangzeb, he discovered, had
used, during his reign, forty-seven different mints and had also introduced a new style of coins. During
17
Or gondola (sic), a gunboat.
67
his 48 years on the Moghul’s throne, the Surat mint alone had issued forty-six varieties of rupee coins, on
which of course all inscriptions were in Arabic, and all names highly conventional and laudatory in meaning; all dates were Islamic (or AH, “after the Hegira”). At the end of the year 1961, a grateful Arthur C.
Clarke presented Mendel Peterson with a fine selection of his rupees, together with a lump of 600 coins
amalgamated together “in recognition of his research assistance regarding the treasure”. Additionally, the
Smithsonian Institution was sent a bigger lump yet, containing an estimated 1,000 silver rupees, which is
described in the SI Archives as follows:
“Accession record 239761 – December 7, 1961.
Donated by Mr. Arthur C. Clarke.
A cluster of approximately 1,000 silver rupees dated 1702, found off Great Basses Reef, Ceylon, by Mr.
Mike Wilson.”
(Mike Wilson was the co-discoverer of the wreck with Arthur C. Clarke. The lump was exhibited for a
long time in the Underwater Exploration Hall of the N.M.A.H.)
A final precision is perhaps necessary: the wrecked ship, a 24 guns Indian trader, is unrecorded and its
belated christening as “THE TAJ MAHAL WRECK” was strictly for commercial promotional purposes,
the connection being tenuous. It is Shar Jahan who, in 1628, built the Taj Mahal mausoleum for his wife
Mumtaz Mahal. The said Shar Jahan was the father of Emperor Aurangzeb or, Shar Aurangzeb Alamgir, the last great Moghul Emperor under whose reign the coins of the great Basses Reef wreck had been
coined. There ended the connection.
An additional refinement of the marketing yarn, worded by a later retailer, had it that these were “special”
silver rupees which were being sent “to the Orient” there to purchase exotic silks, furnishings and the like
for the Taj Mahal Palace… Pete always steered away from such lovely stories and was careful to keep himself retired on his own numismatic hard ground.
Annotated photographs again help to establish that, in April 1962, he visited the Mariner’s Museum of
Newport News, VA. It was his habit to combine several such visits in one trip and, surely, he went to other
museums of the East Coast on the same occasion.
*
*
*
As a biographer, I have been incredibly lucky in receiving the help and contributions of Pete’s children:
Mendel Jr. whom I have quoted several times already, and LaNelle. It is thanks to their irreplaceable inputs
that I am able to make Pete alive, or so I hope, as a human being in flesh and blood, not only as a Curator,
diver, numismatist and archaeologist but as a man who loved classical music (that he listened on WGMSWashington The Good Music Station), that I can report his preference for reading the Evening Star News,
specially the comic strip “Pogo”, which always gave him a good laugh (it was not funny his daughter
thinks), as Smokey, his black Cocker Spaniel sat next to him on the sofa, that I can hear from here – and
so do my readers I hope – his bursts of loud laughter as he would read Samuel Pepys Diary (he loved Pepys
and remarked that so much history could be learned from reading old diaries) and that I have to marvel at
his having read all of Shakespeare, which, it is said, he accomplished in just a few evenings. He would read
all of Sherlock Holmes or endless books about Roman and Greek coins. “I think – his daughter continues
– he could comprehend a whole page at a glance, remembering everything he had read, and then tell us all about
it at our next dinnertime as if he were talking about the adventures or our aunties, uncles and cousins.”
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On the other hand, Pete, an unconventional man, as we have had occasions to notice, was not a religious
person: “When Dad’s mother – his daughter writes – our Grandmother Peterson, came to dinner she could get
him to fairly flip his lid by asking, ‘Mendel, why don’t you join the church?’ Meaning the Mormon Church. He
would then go into a tirade about organized religion, any religion. He believed children should not be allowed
to go to church until they were at least sixteen years old so they wouldn’t be brainwashed and warped.”
Married life of course is a more serious; a deeply personal, enormously important part of anyone’s life and,
again, it is to Pete’s daughter that I owe the following lines:
“Dad and mother were both passionate and brilliant people. They made it through WWII and their years together at the Smithsonian. The storms would come and go. Mother fought him toe to toe. They could cut each
other to ribbons with their razor sharp tongues then make up and appear to be crazy about each other. They
loved, they laughed and they fought to the death of their marriage. He always loved her… Afterwards, mother
carried on at the Smithsonian, never remarried, spent quality time with her children, her grandchildren, and
her many friends. She died of cancer in 1971.”
So, Pete now divorces and remarries (the dates are May 16, 1962 and August 19, 1962). His new wife is
a charming little brunette by the name of “Trudy”. Trudy was born Gertrude Auvil, in McLean, Virginia.
She will give him a daughter, Victoria or “Vicky” (later Victoria Peterson Weitzel of Laurel, Maryland).
The Cannon Hunters’ Association of SEATTLE
In the early 1960s, Mendel Peterson became member of CHAOS, joining a number of his friends, all of them members of the Club of “Cannoneers”, including Ed Link, Art McKee, the Criles, Pablo Bush Romero and Teddy Tucker.
(Teddy Tucker was cannonized in early 1963 by the Great Guns of CHAOS for “his recovery of an old cannon from
a historic shipwreck as featured in Life Magazine”.
CHAOS was born on April 13, 1949, when Seattle, Washington, was badly shaken by an earthquake. During the
bumping, creaking and general disorder, a unique organization was born – Cannon Hunter Association of Seattle
– which soon had “membership in most parts of the civilized world and in many uncivilized spots”. When the
founder, Donald H. Clark, and his journalist son, Donald R. Clark, wrote on the name they selected, they found
that the initials spelled “CHAOS”!
At the time Mendel joined the association, there were 1,150 members, scattered “from Heller, Kentucky, to Brekke,
Norway”. Since then, CHAOS has flourished on many of the Pacific islands, including Tonga, Samoa and Pitcairn,
and in Africa, Burma, Australia, South Vietnam, Honduras, Bermuda, England and Scotland, Turkey and dozens
of other foreign countries.
The major activity of the members – sorry, I mean the “Cannoneers” – are proceeding to chaotic recoveries of old
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cannons. When he joined, Pete learned that at that moment members had reported the “recovery” of 473 old cannons in various places around the world. In the June 1963 CHAOS Annual Report (that issue is stamped with the
following note: “This edition was written in June and published in October. That’s CHAOS!) We read: “We have
reasons to believe that many of these were procured by legitimate means”. The same report further assured its readers that “Although we do not dictate the morals of our members, we state emphatically that none of our Cannon
Hunters are presently incarcerated in any prison, jail or penitentiary – to the best of our knowledge!”
The hierarchy in the association goes from “Great Guns” to “Head Hunters” to mere members, the “Cannoneers”.
(CHAOS has always been proud to point out that as an organization they have more members in the Explorer’s
Club in New York City than any other known organization.)
The headquarters of CHAOS were at Cannon House, Lawton Wood, Seattle 99, Washington (where, by the way,
members – and members only – could purchase “the famous CHAOS Patch in gold and silver thread on a red velvet
background”. Official occasions included “Chaotic Dinners” and occasional awards of cannonizations (for instance
for recovering a fine cannon from a junkyard where it was in great danger to be melted for metal), or of CH. D.
degrees, or of the Order of the Purple Lanyard by the Honor’s Committee. Private activities on the other
end included “Chaotic Weddings”, involving two (only) Cannon Hunters in good standing. When such
wedding ceremonies are perpetrated, they involve obviously the firing of several guns. (A modern variation
in a way of the long known “Shot Gun Wedding”.)
Mendel and LaNelle had been an extremely sociable couple. They had created the tradition of a yearly
event at their home in Virginia: The “Annual Meeting of the Glubbers” or Members of the Glub Club.
Mendel Jr. vividly remembers his mother, an outstanding cook, “endlessly cooking for the event”. The event
had started in the late 1950s and after Mendel and LaNelle’s divorce, the annual event was successfully
continued by Trudy. There were usually 20 to 25 diving notables attending, Mendel Jr. remembers: the
Tuckers, the Links, the Criles, the Albrights, the Ellis, Mel Fisher, and Dr. Carmichael from the Smithsonian wouldn’t miss one meeting.
From the annotated invitations in Pete’s records, it appears that the attendance at the meetings of 1963
and 1965 also included the top brass of the National Academy of Science (Life Science Division) and of
National Geographic (including Mel Paine and Louis Marden), leading underwater physiologists, and at
least two Admirals.
On a typical invitation card, the program of a meeting reads:
“Meeting comes to disorder: 7:00 PM
Rushing the bar / Heavy to moderate drinking: 7:00-9:00 PM
Emergency rations: 9:00-10:00 PM
Rest period (illustrated): 10:00-11:00 PM
Bushing the Bar / Occasional bursts of conversation: 11:00-12:00 PM
Contingency: 12:00 PM -??????”
At about the same period, Pete was also an eminent member of the CHAOS Association, an international
society of demonstrably insane cannon lovers whose idea of fun was to gather at each other’s place or in
some muddy open field in order to shoot, in great ceremony, the cannons in their collections, strictly
following ancient drill and regulations and barking the right successive commands for cleaning, loading,
aiming and firing each piece. A number of museum’s Curators from the UK and the continent were active
members, I remember, of the club. So was Teddy Tucker.
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Pete, has been working hard for the last ten years – and very methodically on this occasion, as the Mendel
Peterson archives of the SI reveal – on his “Manual for Underwater Exploration”, to be titled History under
the Sea. Now, in 1965, he is ready to publish the first edition of his ground breaking book (Smithsonian
Publications, n°4538). No such book had ever been written. Up to that time, as he wrote “the serious
underwater explorer would find no serious volume to which he may have turned for instruction on exploration,
recovery and preservation techniques, and for identification of artifacts”. The purpose of his book was to meet
that need “at least partially”, he modestly wrote.
The introduction of the book is a classic and it needs to be quoted in part because it reveals so much about
Pete’s personality and concerns:
“For most of his life on this planet man has been a traveler... As simple commerce developed, he traveled land
trails and ventured timorously along rivers or coastlines in search of trade. With the beginning of the ancient
civilizations in the Mediterranean basin, he began to put to sea in ships and to venture to far-off lands to conduct
war or to search for exotic products with which to make his life more comfortable or more interesting.
Man is not only a traveler but is also a changer, user and destroyer. He converts the products of nature to
forms which make them of utility; he uses objects and in so doing frequently breaks them, wears them out, or
looses them. He attacks his enemies, looting them of their goods and destroying what he cannot carry. And
because man is a changer of nature, he is the untidiest of God’s creatures. The course of his migrations across
the world’s land masses may be traced in a line of broken buildings, broken tools and dishes, and the refuse
of his kitchens.
It is indeed fortunate for the archaeologist and historian that man is such a slovenly being. Had he been neat
and orderly, had he swept up his trash and burned it, and carefully ground up his broken pots to use the material
for other purposes, we would be in almost complete ignorance of him. One can only speculate on the unfortunate
archaeologist of 500 years hence who will be investigating a civilization which knew the use of the great incinerator that reduced all matter to a shapeless mass.
As man scattered his untidy remains across the continents, so did he scattered them in the shallow waters fringing
those continents. When he ventured along the coasts in pursuits of trade, he exposed himself to sudden disaster by
stranding or storm. From the earliest days of maritime navigation the wrecks of ships began to pile up in coastal
waters and more rarely in the deep waters of the open sea when traders began to venture there. The very suddenness of such disasters has made these underwater shipwreck sites, in effect, accidental time capsules. Thus, there
is deposited in the waters of the world a mass of material – dating from the earliest historical times to the present
– capable of being located, recovered, identified, and preserved. Such a mass of material will give historians and
archaeologists a priceless collection of objects that can be identified accurately as to period and that will in turn
furnish an index to the material remains of Western man from the beginnings of his culture.
Until the 20th century even the shallow waters fringing the land masses of the world remained largely “lost”
to archaeologists and historians. These waters now are easily accessible to divers using equipment perfected
within the past 25 years.... Students now may go beneath the sea to recover the remains of ships and sunken
land-sites which promise to be of the utmost importance in the study of historic archaeology and naval and
commercial history.
Another and darker side to the picture exists. The very accessibility of these underwater sites has made them
vulnerable to destruction by divers who are not informed on the techniques by which a site may be systematically
explored and by which objects from it may be recovered, preserved, and identified. In the past 10 years many
sites have been destroyed or poorly and improperly explored. Thousands of artifacts from them have been allowed
to disintegrate. This has not, in general, been the fault of the divers but rather is owing to a lack of information
which could have prevented this loss. There is no single volume to which a serious underwater explorer may turn
for instruction on exploration, recovery, and preservation techniques, and for the identification of artifacts. ... It
is the purpose of this book to meet that need – at least partially…”
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Partially? In actual fact, incomplete as it had to be, the book opened the eyes of a generation of wreck divers and, today, nearly half a century later, there is hardly a word to be changed.
The carefully illustrated text deals with all aspects of the underwater exploration and the archaeology of
ancient ships. It tells of the search techniques, the recording techniques, the condition of underwater sites,
the recovery techniques, the preservation and conservation of organic and non organic materials recovered
from the sea, the ways of identifying a shipwreck site through the internal evidence, of its cannons mainly,
but also of its coins, the ship’s fittings, the hull sheeting, the nails, the ceramic material, the smoking pipes,
the glass bottles and other objects, the wood of the hull, the treenails and the ballast. Most of it is the
result of his own personal experience over the years and, additionally, he gives advice on how and where to
obtain whatever external evidence may exist. His bibliography also was at the time a godsend for amateurs,
professionals and academic divers and historians alike.
History under the Sea was, in a way, in part, the embryo of the magnum opus of Mendel Peterson,
the “Encyclopedia” that he never could publish, but being short and much wider in scope it was
necessarily superficial.
As a result anyway, Pete is now enthroned as the greatest expert around on wreck artifacts, particularly on
coins and on cannons identification.
The book went through a number of successive re-editions and the archives of the Department of Armed
Forces History of the SI are, literally, replete with letters of divers and historians, who inquire desperately
about the often out-of-print book.
History under the Sea was dedicated “To Edwin A. Link, inventor and underwater pioneer, who’s financial
support and kindly guidance have made possible the experience upon which this publication is based”. I, myself,
am the proud owner of several, kindly inscribed, much worn out and annotated successive editions.
*
* *
In 1965 also, as History Under the Sea was published, and beginning selling briskly, the matter of publishing Pete’s work on the marks and illustrations on artillery pieces arouse as the next publication project.
An exchange of memorandums (April 28 to May 14) between a number of colleagues and bosses of Pete,
clearly explains the position of each one.
In early April, Pete has sent an early draft of his incomplete work on artillery to John S. Lea, who is in
charge of publications at the US National Museum (that is in fact at the Smithsonian). The same John Lea
then sends a memorandum to two colleagues, who are one way or another involved in the decision making
process, a Mr. Bedini and a Mr. Pineau. The date is April 28, 1965, the subject:
“Acceptance of Art on Artillery for Publication as a Bulletin of the U.S. National Museum”.
(At the time, such was the title chosen by Pete for the mammoth work which he later came to title An
Encyclopaedia of Marks [or he sometimes wrote “of Marking” or “of Markings”] and Decoration on muzzleloading Artillery Pieces.)
John Lea begins by giving his personal opinion as the would-be in-house publisher of the work he
has perused:
“It is at once evident that Mr. Peterson has put a great amount of work into Art on Artillery. Nevertheless, in
his Introduction he calls it a preliminary report, and he tells me that it represents his review of only part of the
75
collections available in museums here and abroad. To complete this task, he estimates, will take several years.
If this work is, as I believe, worthy of Smithsonian publication, it is worth whatever further time and effort is
necessary to make it a definitive monograph – one that will immediately be accepted as an essential and respected
research tool for the historian and collector. The author should be highly commended for the thoughtful effort
already expended, but more importantly, he should be encouraged and assisted in every possible way to complete
it expeditiously.
The following analysis accepts the present text for what it is – a first draft – and is intended only to indicate the
extent and direction of the work needed to complete Art on Artillery…”
John Lea then switches to the practical matters involved:
“… the text itself is not complete… lacking are the necessary front matter, descriptive introduction for some
sections and legends for many of the plates… additional foot noting also needed… plates reproducible in their
present condition but their arrangement can be considerably improved…”, etc.
The following lines might have, I suspect, sounded ominous to Pete, to whom a carbon copy was sent:
“When the book designer has worked out the pages size and arrangement, the individual photos can then be
turned over to a professional lay out artist for sizing, cropping and mounting. Only in this way can a truly
professional book design be obtained.”
Surely, these lines must has sent shivers down the spine of Pete who didn’t care much, if at all, to produce
a pretty book, who most certainly didn’t think much of “book designers” or of “professional lay out artists
and stylists”, and who knew that he was the only one able to sensibly size, crop and mount the photographs
that he had selected with great care and no doubt after many hesitations. Obviously, what Pete wanted was a
serious book, an informative, useful manual, a teaching tool and not a posh coffee-table conversation piece.
In the next paragraph, the author of the memorandum raises the flag:
“… In preparing the final draft, every effort should be made to develop in text and illustrations any Smithsonian
connections to the subject. None are at present evident.”
This was the easy part. It sufficed to point out that it was the SI who had paid for a good part of the project
from the beginning and would continue to finance more work on it, that the Institution had showed its
usual foresight again in the occasion, as well as its wideness of mind in selecting the field of research that it
allowed his collaborators to specialize in etc., etc. All that would have been absolutely true.
But then came another disquieting note:
“Before the final typing of the edited manuscript… E & P [?] should have an opportunity to review it again for
design considerations…”
After which the last lines of the memo certainly brought solace to Pete,:
“This work is representative of the sort of publication we are uniquely equipped to prepare and publish. With
your office and ours cooperating to help the author get his research into print, we should have a book that will
reflect credit on all concerned particularly Mr. Peterson, who has worked so long and against such odds to get the
manuscript to its present state of completion.”
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A number of behind-the-scene conversations – of which I have found no trace – no doubt took place and
Pete, surely said what he had to say in his usual direct way. One echo of it is to be found in a “Memo
Routing Slip” dated May 10, 1965, signed Roger Pineau, and sent to Mr. Bedini and Mr. Ewers:
“I agree with Lea comments and would like to have your views since Pete is edgy about this and might be given
to dropping it entirely. The work has high potential, could be authoritative.”
77
This Editor has no doubt about the origin of the “edginess” of Pete when reading in the above mentioned
memorandum about the part that it was planned to reserve to the initiatives of “the book designer” or
to “a professional lay out artist” and plans for “sizing, cropping and mounting” photographs that he had
been very careful to size, crop and mount himself. Obviously, Pete did not care much about design and
considered that his own lay-out was good enough. It is not difficult to guess that if Pete was “edgy”, an
euphemism, no doubt, and threatened “to drop the project entirely”, it is because he realized that any attempt to modify the Large Green Albums as he had so carefully prepared them, could only be a scientific
disaster and a source for innumerable mistakes.
The next memorandum, dated May 14, was written by John C. Ewers, to Mr. Silvio Bedini and Mr. Roger
Pineau. (Although his exact position in the authority ladder in SI is not known by this Editor, it appears
that John Ewers was very much to be the decider in the case.)
“Subject: Mr. Peterson’s Manuscript Art on Artillery.
The important thing for us to determine is whether or not the research Mr. Peterson has done to date represents
a contribution to its field which would be valuable reference work for students of Armed Forces History. If so, it
would not be necessary for us to wait another “several years” to complete a comprehensive and definitive monogram – years during which students would be denied access to the work already completed by this pioneer effort.
If the “several years” were no more than one year, I would agree with Mr. Lea that we should wait for the definitive work”.
Of course, the “several years” were to be much “more than one year”. The research, by then, had been
going on in America and in Europe for thirteen years and it was still funded for 2 more years. (And as a
matter of fact, when those two more years were up, an additional five years of research were to be funded
in 1967).
John Ewers then goes on:
“I do think that should we go ahead with the publication of the work done to date, the manuscript should be
rounded out in detail as a Mr. Lea has suggested…” and he ends up: “The introduction could be rewritten to
tell more about the basis for this monograph, the collections that were studied, etc., as well as to indicate the need
for further study in the field.”
There is no doubt that Pete clearly and strongly indicated indeed the need for further study in the field.
The end of the discussion is not to be found in the SI records or in Pete’s own files, but the fact is that the
project to print a nice looking, well designed, prettily laid out brief summary of what had been planned
from the beginning as an exhaustive encyclopaedic scientific work, was dropped for the time being.
More perhaps than writing, Pete, a master communicator, had always visibly enjoyed lecturing. He often
spoke at the Explorer’s Club in New York, at the Washington Club in Washington DC, at Adult Education Programs and at History and/or Underwater Archaeology conventions everywhere. His favorite subjects, with ad hoc variations, were the stories of the past that ancient coins can tell so well, in confidence,
to the curious numismatist, and the revealing tales told by naval guns, or by most wreck artifacts, to the
open-eared diving archaeologist. Simple starting points, from where he quite naturally developed in clear,
precise and simple words a living picture of a whole period of history and, most important to him, of the
people who lived in it.
The people! Pete’s words and writings have often brought to my mind the often quoted words of Sir Mortimer Wheeler, the late great English archaeologist: “Archaeologists do not make holes in the ground looking
for old stones, what they are after is man”. Mutatis mutandis, the two men had the same motto.
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Pete, spoke without notes, showing lots of color slides, and his audiences were invariably delighted with his
unconventional personality, his enthusiasm and his crazy brand of humor. Actually, he once lectured on
the subject of “Humor in the American Revolution” (at the 7th International Conference on Underwater
Archaeology, Philadelphia, 1976). “People enjoyed his ‘machine gun fire’ delivery of the facts and his ability to
make events of the past seem like current village life. He could tell a story about an ancient battle, arms waving,
eyes bulging and voice rising that made you want to run for cover” (daughter LaNelle).
In the US, as the SI’s Annual Records show, he delivered an average of two official Smithsonian Lectures
a month, in the line of duty, and he was always literally drawing crowds. One example is a lecture he delivered in 1966, at the Smithsonian. In the presentation of the speaker (he was co-presented by the Naval
Historical Foundation), the official program read:
“Study of naval ordnance on sunken ships.
In his presentation, Mr. Peterson will succinctly present the history of early marine salvage and illustrate
the evolution of techniques in underwater archaeology currently employed in locating and recovering naval weaponry from shipwreck sites.”
The subject was news to many and reservations were pouring in but red lights were blinking all over the
Smithsonian as internal memos flew between organizers and stewards in preparation for the massive attendance expected.
Example:
“Memorandum December 1, 1966
Subject: Lecture by Mendel L. Peterson December 16, 1966 MHT.
Dr. Lundeberg18 thinks there may be an overflow crowd for Mr. Peterson’s speech at 8:00 on Friday, December
16, in the auditorium of the MHT. Therefore we will have to set up in B-1048 with Mr. Peterson’s voice amplified and also the buzzer to change the slides. There will be a duplicate set of slides to be shown in B-1048.
Please, set the room up for as many as it can hold, with yellow and orange chairs.”
Outside the US also, Pete, is now becoming one of the star guest-speakers at the conventions, symposia
and conferences of the most important military associations, archaeological or historical societies, diving
clubs, federations and confederations. I have had on several occasions the pleasure to meet him again, in
Europe, in such reunions, to listen to his always remarked speeches and to exchange with him stories of –
yes– wrecks, treasure and cannons at the bar until the wee hours of the night.
I remember in particular a convention of the British Subaqua Club in London, where we both were speaking and where he was to deliver, as the star speaker, an evening address before a black-tie banquet attended
by the cream of the world’s diving community’s VIPs. He was to be introduced, in traditional British
fashion, by a tall, pompous, wide shouldered Master of Ceremonies, resplendent in his gold covered, fancy
red uniform. Stiff as a sergeant at arms, the Master of Ceremonies loudly announced, in an exemplary
Oxford-like accent and articulating every syllable to perfection, “the evening address by the next speaker, Mr.
Peter Mendelson”. The roar he got from Pete, literally crushed the poor man to dwarf size. As for the talk
that followed, it was typical Peterson. Pete was always “talking big” and straight “in senatorial tones”19
and his English hosts, being experts in the field, were absolutely delighted indeed by his highly particular
brand of humor.
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18
Pete’s boss.
19
His son dixit.
In the following winters, his notes show how his ever deepening interest for the study of cannons, their
inscriptions, their many telltale marks and their decoration is turning to obsession. He sees cannons as
perhaps the best building material for those who write maritime history. His personal researches in naval
history and underwater archaeology take him more and more often to the dust of the naval archives and
to the maritime museums of Europe with their specialized libraries. He increasingly sees the history of
artillery not only as an invaluable key for the dating and identifying of newly discovered, ancient wrecks
but also as a passkey for the understanding of the hidden side of the geopolitics of the half last millennium.
The firepower of the artillery of a nation’s armies is a major component of History being made and it can
be scientifically measured!
The artifacts fished up by his treasure hunters friends of Florida begin to appear at auction. With his Hall
of Underwater Explorations exhibits in mind, Pete purchases for the Smithsonian a representative sampling of Kip Wagner’s finds on a 1715 wreck. The Press had dubbed Kip’s recovered material “The greatest
cache of sunken Spanish Treasure ever found off the Atlantic coast”. Pete’s selection (at the Parke-Bernet
sale of February 4, 1967), included two plumb lines, forks and spoons, gold ingots, a golden chain, gold
coins and a silver cannula nozzle.
But come summer and Pete heads back to Bermuda, where he now begins to trail around a borrowed magnetometer, an instrument that Teddy never trusted too much. He prefers his locally developed technique
which consists in being towed behind a boat at the end of a rope and watching the bottom until you see
some sign of a wreck or sometimes the telltale hollow, the “cradle” left into the coral on the top of the reef,
one or several hundred years ago, by the hull of a ship that has been stranded on it for some days and that
the next high tide or gale has refloated or pulled away either to be pushed inside of the outer reef, there
to stay for ever, or to be pushed back and lost in deeper water (or else, in very rare cases, to sail again, all
pumps manned).
The two men had called the magnetometer “the great sniffer” and with it, they found the WARWICK
site in 1966, as well as, later, several 19th century wrecks. The WARWICK was an English barque owned
by the Earl of Warwick that had brought Governor Butler to the island with a miscellaneous cargo of
supplies. She was wrecked during a gale, in Castle Harbour in November 1619. The first two days of digging in the silt of the harbor brought up timber fragments and Pete could determine that half of the hull
was lying beneath them. By measuring that half, they were able to reconstruct on paper the whole vessel.
The WARWICK was extensively excavated later and some of its cargo and remains are now on show at the
Bermuda Underwater Exploration Institute’s Museum in Hamilton, part of one of the largest collections
of carefully documented shipwreck’s artifacts on display in the world.
In 1966 also, Pete, learned of a site, off Highborn Key in the Exumas (a chain of islands 30 miles south-east
of Nassau, Bahamas), where spear-fishermen had noticed unusual shapes on the 25 feet deep bottom, had
found a cluster of encrusted cannons and an anchor. Pete joined them and on that occasion he officially
advised the Permanent Secretary of the Bahamas on the right procedures and equipment and reassured
him that “It is my intention to be present at the beginning of the operation and at least one more time during
its progress”.
In 1967, with Teddy’s boat, he joined the team that had continued to work the site for three months in the
late winter and spring and brought up ship’s fittings, two bombards and a dozen of long iron swivel guns,
breech loaders complete with their breech blocks. No other artillery or tools or ship fitting or personal
belongings or portable artifacts were found. Two anchors were found 300 feet away and seaward of the
wreck and Pete concluded that the ship probably began sinking at anchor and was cleaned out before going down. The remaining traces of timber allowed him to sketch a sharp prowed 200 ton ship, built light
for speed, but heavily armed nevertheless (the position of the two bombards on the bottom indicated they
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were bow-chasers). A typical example, he summarized, of an early pirate or privateer ship sailing and lost
some time between 1550 and 1580.
A wreck that never was identified, but brought to Mendel Peterson and Teddy Tucker the surprise of their
life, first appeared in the form a few ballast rocks on the face of a coral head, found by the usual, favorite
method of Teddy: towing two divers behind his small boat on the likeliest parts of a shallow reef. It smelled
of a buried wreck.
Excavations of the site were conducted in two stages, first with Teddy’s and his friends’ limited financial
and technical means, and, later, with the funding and full support of the Smithsonian Institution, on a
wider scale.
Shortly after discovering the ballast rocks, Teddy started to pump sand in the deep gullet between two coral
heads where his experience was telling him that the wreck, if there really was one, should be waiting for
him. On the second day of digging, he uncovered part of the ballast pile. A fine pewter tankard was sitting
on top of it and from that time on, the ship was known as the “TANKARD WRECK”.
Before displacing the pile of ballast under which, he was satisfied, the remains of the ship had to be found,
and he began by digging a trench around the outside of the pile, down to the hardpan. His objective was
twofold: To check if any artifact could have been lost between the reef where the ship has first hit and her
final resting place, and also to clear a space for the material that would eventually have to be lifted off the
wreck before the hull structure could be examined. Little was found, except broken ceramics and pieces
of ground wood, obviously the result of the ship being pounded on the reef when aground. All artifacts
and fragments were found mixed in with the top layers of the ballast pile “as if they had been churned in
a cement mixer”. Fired bricks were found grouped together, suggesting the position of the ships stove or
firebox. But next came a large number of unusual, half round stucco tiles with small holes drilled at each
of their four corners. Some still had twists of brass wire threaded through the holes. Then, as the dug to
uncover a wooden section that was still fairly intact with more of these tiles wired together through the
wooden structure, it became clear that what they had found was one half of the roof of some sort of deck
house, most likely of the galley. So, the unusual tiles were not part of the cargo.
The artifacts delivered by the wreck in the following weeks and months dated it back to the mid-17th
century. So, for instance, were the many clay pipes or fragments which were a perfect match with other
smoking pipes he had found on a number of English ships of the mid-17th century. Pete and Teddy were
surprised to find large quantities of Majolica which was not familiar to them. With their distinctive design, consisting of a feather motif, a shell and a spider web, composed of mechanical lines all connecting
with one other, they were later identified as having been made in Santo Domingo, the only New World
Majolica that was considered worthy of being taken back to Europe. So, Teddy understood why the decoration of this Majolica had employed pigments and colors unlike those he knew from European, Spanish
or Portuguese ceramics.
More common pieces of heavy green glazed cups, mugs and plates of the type known as “Iberian green
glaze” were easily, if not precisely datable: early 16th century until late 19th century. There were fragments
of Venetian glass, mostly from perfume phials or for pharmaceuticals and bowls or dishes and decanters.
Venetian glass, valuable at the time, indicated that there was on the returning ship at least one important
and wealthy passenger. Was the refined tableware his? It included thirty-six different plates, cups, saucers
and bowls of Chinese porcelain, soap stone carvings and fragments of jade. And also the remains of a very
complete collection of shells from all shores of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans that were uncovered?
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No “treasure” was found on the wreck if one excepts small gold disks about the size of a thumb nail, which
puzzled Pete and Teddy for thirty years until they were identified as “pressure nuggets” or flakes of gold that
had been naturally squeezed between boulders moved by flooding rivers or streams in Central America.
The Indians of the region where these nuggets came from treasured them as sacred objects of religious
significance. They fitted with all other Indian objects recovered on the wreck-site: stone axe heads, arrow
heads, spear points and some small still mysterious rectangular pieces of flat polished granite.
Teddy’s and Pete’s main interest as ever was the history of the ship herself and the way she had been built.
When they were able to inspect the perfectly cleared cross section of the hull, on the inside and in part
from underneath, a number of surprises greeted them. First, there were deep axe cuts in the large frames
of the topsides of the ship, which indicated that after the shipwreck the Bermudians had removed the outer
planking to get at the main frames and chop out the iron drift pins and nails for their iron contents (really valuable in Bermuda since there was no other source then of metal and imports were expensive). This
indicated that the topsides of the ship had been out of the water for a considerable amount of time and
were accessible before she broke apart.
But the real surprises were several features about the hull that seemed as unusual to Teddy as they seemed
strange to Pete. The builders had used very few nails; the planks were mostly fastened with wooden treenails. Also, the ship was built of soft wood, almost solely of pine and fir, with only the laminated keelson
in oak. Strangely, it appeared that the peculiar construction of the ship would indicate that she had been
built in separate sections that were later assembled. This was unheard of again. And the ship had been
built with, actually, an absolutely flat bottom.
The overall design, as Teddy mentioned to me later, seemed completely unsuitable for any type of sailing
ship yet known to him. It seemed that she would have been entirely incapable of sailing to windward or
even broadside to the wind.20 Such a hard to believe kind of ship building, he had never seen before, even
on drawings. She was of extremely heavy construction though, sheeted – against ice? – from the turn of
her bilge to about two feet above the waterline, and there was evidence of many internal cross bracings,
indicated by tapered slots chiseled out of the top of her keelson.
As more and more interesting features of her extraordinary hull were unfolded, Pete, who had already concluded that she was simply too big and too bulky to have been constructed in the New World, decided to
have a micro-constituents analysis of the wood made.
The results of the micro-constituents analysis (which can be compared to “the DNA of the wood”) revealed to Pete that it had come from the north of the Baltic Sea, meaning at the time from Sweden. During that period there was an embargo, he knew, on the use of oak in merchant ships. Only royal ships
were built of oak. The confirmation came when they found a plank next to the keelson which had been
left unfastened to allow for the cleaning of the ship’s bilge and for letting the bilge water run freely to the
pump well, that was marked with the letters “HIIN”, an archaic Swedish word translated as “removable”.
But except for that, none of the many artifacts recovered could tell them where the ship was from, where
she was heading, who was traveling on board or how she was wrecked, not to mention her name.
All these features of the hull were carefully drawn by a Smithsonian Institution colleague and friend of
Mendel Peterson, Peter Copeland, and they show indeed a surprisingly, unheard of type of a hull. (Some
of these drawings were published in Teddy’s fascinating self-biographical book Treasure!).
If only there had been cannons to help identifying her, Pete kept repeating, but these were probably the
20 If she had had lateral, wing-like, pivoting external “side-keels” – that could be lowered down and raised up at will –,
as featured on so many flat bottomed Dutch boats, there remained no trace of them or of their attachment points on the
gunwalls (Editor).
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first objects salvaged by the Bermudans after the ship was wrecked. Neither were there any small arms or
tools left, no personal effect, no clue about her owner, just conflicting echoes of many places: timbers from
Sweden, firewood that had grown in southern Cuba, in Hispaniola and Puerto Rico, artifacts from France,
Spain, Portuguese, China and South America, all of which added more veils to the ships identity.
The excavations were temporary halted but Pete, was approached in 1970 by a group of educators who
were thinking of using wreck-sites as scientific platforms on which to train college and university staff in
the teaching of marine archaeology. First-choice sites would be well preserved wrecks dating from the days
before ship building plans were in use, that is to say before the mid-17th century.
Pete recommended that the Smithsonian should fund an initial grant for a six weeks expedition in the
summer of 1972 (it was to develop eventually into a three years project after he had “retired”). Fourteen
students and staff started to work under the guidance of Mendel Peterson as director, his colleague Peter
Copeland as exhibits artist, photographer Peter Stackpole and Alan Albright, also from the Smithsonian
and with two more divers. Teddy Tucker, on his diving boat, was supplying tanks, compressors and the
excavating equipment.
The first year project was highly successful. The students learned all about the radial arm, a device that
Pete had developed to precisely locate on a plan the scattered remains of a wreck, and of the grid system
of measurement.
But when the last of the three seasons of work of the second stage of the excavation ended, the situation
was still that Pete and Teddy knew with certainty where the ship had been built and where she was coming
from when lost but nothing else, no indication in particular why she was wrecked. Strangely enough, there
is no reference at all to that particular shipwreck in the otherwise reasonably complete Bermuda official
archives. To her identity there was no clue.
The TANKARD WRECK was left gathering dust again in the “Unsolved Mysteries of the Sea category”
until, in January 1990, forty-four years after its discovery, Teddy happened to attend a “Symposium of the
Sea” at the Soviet Academy of Science in Moscow. As he was talking with some of the world’s leading marine scientists, he met the director of the shipyard of Turku, Finland. In the middle of a conversation about
various methods of ship building past and present, he mentioned his work on the TANKARD WRECK
and the unusual method of construction that had been used. The Finnish ship builder immediately recognized the method and told him that the ship had been built on the ice during the winter months, as it was
easier then to fell the nearby timbers and cheaper to build the ship nearby. The keel would be put on thick
ice blocks taken from the same frozen river or creek, and the framing built, and then the keelson was put
into place, section by section, and the framing and the outer planking. Ships, he believed, were built in
sections, first the middle section and then the bow and stern later. When assembled, the ship was caulked
and painted, and ready to float when the spring and warm weather would begin to gradually melt the ice,
lowering the ship gently down to the water level of the river or creek. No shipyard necessary, no launching
structures and no fuss. The ship was ready to be masted and the sails fitted.
The philosophical conclusion of Teddy was that: “The learning process never ends. Just as you think you have
gleaned all the information there is available, new details emerge that add to what you have already acquired”.
Back to chronology. The year 1967 had seen the grand opening to the public at the National History
Museum of the Hall of Underwater Exploration, the long time project and brain child of Pete. As summarized in the Annual Report of the Department of Armed Forces History: “the hall discusses the exploration of historic underwater sites in the Western hemisphere, including trade routes, Spanish-American treasure,
the history of diving, modern methods of diving, locating wrecks, surveying, measuring and recovery techniques.
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Collections of objects from sites dating from 1595 to 1838 are displayed. The use of diving techniques in the
other disciplines and new deep diving research is presented in photographs and models.”
It is unfortunate that I have not been able to find any photographs of Pete’s now extinct Hall of Underwater Exploration.
In late 1967, Pete’s post-excavation research and his long term program of photographic study of ancient cannons take him to Europe again. An (already mentioned) “Authorization of official travel”, dated
10/10/67 allows him to go:
“To London, England, to study and research documents in the Public Record Office and Archives, pertaining to
wreck-sites in the Bahamas and Bermuda, to visit museums and collections in England, including the Woolwich
Artillery Museum, where a survey will be made, measuring and photographing all artillery specimens in the
Woolwich collections.”
He is “to depart on October 15 and to return on November 20”. The activity is “chargeable to National Geographic Funds”.
His preparatory notes contain a list of places to go and things to do and Curators or experts to meet that
includes seven army, maritime or historical museums – he has forgotten none – and, additionally to the
Public Record Office, all the specialized maritime libraries of the UK.
He will send batches of negatives to the SI Photo-Lab in Washington from London, Woolwich, Southampton and Salisbury. His personal archives also keep a request by Alan Albright for photographic processing at the Lab (six rolls taken in Woolwich at that time). Albright, a Smithsonian aide and a friend,
was thus traveling and working with him at the time as his assistant.
The next adventure of Pete – we are now in 1968 – was atypical and, to me, surprising. It had, I believe,
no connection with the Smithsonian.
It was a reconnaissance trip to Lake Guatavita, in Cundinamarca, the high plateau around Bogotá (capital
of the Republic of Colombia), that is a trip to the sacred lake of the Golden One, the famous “el Dorado”,
the cacique and Lord of Bacata (the name was hispanized later in Bogotá). Such an expedition was surprising because Pete, surely, must have known the complete story as everyone else did in treasure circles
and as I knew it myself, years earlier, when I went to have a swim in the same laguna of Guatavita (I have
fond remembrances of the delightful perfume of the water-lilies that blossom on the surface of the lake).
The Guatavita story has been told in detail by several reliable chroniclers of the conquest of what was to
become the Nuevo Reino de Granada, and its early history.
Juan Rodrigues Freile:
“I was born in this city of Santa Fé de Bogotá seventy years ago. My parents were among the first conquistadors
who settled in this new Kingdom of Granada. Among my many friends was a Don Juan, cacique and Lord of
Guatavita, the very nephew of the one that the conquistadors found on the throne at the time they arrived in
these parts. He told me what follows: ‘The heir and successor to the caciquate had to be his maternal nephew, he
had to fast for six years in a designated cave, during which time he couldn’t have any contact with women or eat
meat or salt or garlic, or see the sun. He could leave the cave only during the night. After such a fast, the first
trip he was allowed to do was to go to the laguna of Guatavita there to make his offerings and a sacrifice to the
devil, whom he worshipped as his Lord and God.’
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The ceremony that took place then consisted in this: a large raft was built with rattan and rush. Four braseros
were put in it, in which a quantity of “moque” (which is the incense of those people) was burnt with many types
of perfumes. All around the laguna were countless Indians, men and women, wearing lots of plumes, pendants
and gold crowns. So much incense was burning all around that the smoke would obscure the light of day. Then
they would undress the heir to the caciquate, and once he was stark naked, they proceeded to anoint him with a
sticky type of earth and to throw on his body so much gold dust that he would be fully covered with this metal.
He then boarded the balsa and a big pile of gold and emeralds was placed at his feet so he could offer them to his
god. Four caciques, the most important of his subjects, would board the balsa with him, all covered in plums,
gold, crowns, bracelets, pendants and ear rings, all of it in gold. They were naked also and everyone was bringing
an offering. When the balsa would proceed away from the bank, music rose and immense vociferations would
rise from the crowds which filled mounts and valleys, until such time as the raft had reached the exact center of
the laguna. A flag was waved. Silence was immediate. The golden Indian then made his offering by throwing
in the water all the gold he had at his feet and the other caciques who had accompanied him did the same with
their own pile of gold. It is from that ceremony by which the new Lord was consecrated, that was born the name
“Eldorado” which has cost so many lives and so many fortunes…”
Another chronicler, Padre Pedro Simon, wrote:
“They would offer to the lake of Guatavita gold, jewels, food and many things in the course of the following
ceremony: they would take two ropes which could cross the lake and having crossed them, the place where they
would meet allowed them to know the exact center of the lake. That is where the chief would go on raft with the
persons, who make the offerings and that is where they threw their offerings. “
Still another chronicler, Father Zamora, mentions the same ceremony in about the same terms and so do
several compilers, including Antonio de Herrera, who adds:
“The way they bury their dead consists in throwing them into the water in some very big lakes. If the dead Indian
is a man of high quality, the body is put in a gold coffin and in the coffin they put, with the body, as much gold
and emeralds that will fit and they throw the coffin in those lakes in the deepest part.”
And Fernandez de Oviedo:
“In Bogotá they bury the head cacique, the Lord of the Lords, by throwing him in a great lake, with the golden
coffin in which they put him”
and, a little further:
“They open the belly of the dead man to take out the bowels, and then they fill the space with gold disks and precious stones… The body is put in a gold coffin which they call ‘cataure’ and they bring it to the lakes which they
consider as sacred places. Once there, they throw in the depths the defunct and, after him, all the gold and the
precious stones, and all the jewels he had owned.”
Surely, Pete had read all that and more and surely he knew that the Guatavita story was not unique, for
there were at least five such sacred lakes in Cundinamarca only, including the laguna of Guasca “which they
call now of Martos since he tried to recover from it the great sanctuary and the great treasure which it contained,
so they say, but his cupidity resulted only in him spending huge amounts of money and he was not the only one
for he has had many successors… Another one was the laguna de Tausaca, which also holds a great treasure for,
they say, it contains two solid gold caimans, not to mention the other jewels and sacred statuettes and many have
been the greedy ones who wanted to have a taste of it. But the lake is deep and the bottom very uneven. The fifth
sanctuary was the laguna of Ubacue which they call today the laguna of Cariega because, so they say, he lost his
life trying to extract the gold it hides and he has today no lack of competitors of his.”
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Well aware of all that, Pete had read also, no doubt, the following pages of El Carnero Bogotano, the 17th
century chronicle of Juan Rodrigues Freile already quoted in part:
“… In all those lagunas it has always been said that there is much gold and in particular in the lake of Guatavita where there is a huge treasure. For that reason, Antonio Sepulveda entered into contract with the Majesty
of Philip II to dry out this laguna and it is in that process that he made the first drying up, of which the trace
is still quite visible today. And I may say that only from the edges of the laguna where the water level had been
lowered, he had taken at the time gold for well over twelve thousand pesos. Some time later, he wanted to continue draining the lake but he couldn’t do it and he finally died poor and very tired. I have known him well and
I have helped to bury him in the church of Guatavita.
Many others also have tried and have had to abandon because it is an endless task. The laguna is extremely deep
and much silted up and it would take a lot of people to do the work and huge amounts of money.”
I personally had been careful, by the way, at the time I was interested in the matter, to check in the contemporary records if the reported twelve thousand pesos worth of gold, jewels, tunjos and babbles had really
been found. Yes, they had. The accounts of the “Real Hacienda” are clear; the King actually was paid his
full royal fifth, the “real quinto” of the gold recovered from the laguna of Guatavita.
But still another thing that Pete definitely had known before traveling to the sacred lake (the later written
story mentions “stories of hardening mud”) was that in the 19th century, a foreign commercial company
had again drained the laguna and found next to nothing because as soon as the mud had been exposed to
the air it had dried up and become as hard as concrete. And that was not at or near the very bottom but
on the upper levels of the sloping sides of the lake.
I knew that too because I had made the same basic inquiries, years earlier, taking advantage of a professional stay in Bogotá (National Library, National Historical Archives and Records of the Bogotá mint).
That is when I had taken a Sunday off and gone – by bus and afterwards on a pleasant stroll – all the way
to the laguna, where I had a refreshing bath. So, what was Pete doing in Guatavita knowing all he knew?
He was there in fact with old friends of him, John and Mary Ellis, another couple of these wealthy “holiday treasure hunters” who gravitated around him and whose motto was “For treasure or pleasure”. They,
I suspect, had enticed him to join them in such an adventure. A nephew of his, by the name of Terry
Kneebone, had also accompanied Pete, as a bodyguard and, presumably, as a sherpa, for they would have to
carry to the water’s edge two inflatable kayaks, bunches of solid planks and lots of rope to build a raft and
also (judging from the photographs) wet suits and a “hookah-type” (surface supplied) breathing apparatus
that must have required some kind of an air pump.
The story of this “expedition” has been very briefly written down later by the Ellis in a humoristic manner.
The results were:
“The famous Pete,… plunged into zero visibility and groped about for sacrificial offerings and we got back with
no loot but lots of nice memories”.
Perhaps I, as an editor, should have included this episode in a separate chapter to be titled “Pete’s jolly
holidays” or else “Pete’s most secret dreams”.
By 1970, diving activities had taken such an extent in the official duties of Smithsonian Institution employees (mostly Pete’s assistants, not only Alan Albright but a number of underwater photographers and/
or draughtsmen) that it had become necessary to edict the “Smithsonian Institution Diving Regulations”.
Pete, I suspect, supervised it all for the rules were kept reasonable. At the time also, the Smithsonian was
routinely purchasing tanks, regulators and wetsuits and had arranged for a formal training course for his
unprepared employees through the “Oceanography and Limnology Program”. Pete, however, must have
found it difficult to refrain from a smile when preparing some footnotes to the regulations, one of them
having it that “employees diving below 20 ft on a given day shall be entitled to hazardous duty pay for that
day”. And perhaps also on the day when a “Smithsonian Diving Committee” was constituted.
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It is in 1970 also that he resolves to take a sabbatical year in order to continue his non-stop travels all
through Europe, visiting war museums, army museums, artillery museums, naval museums and historical
museums and, underway, researching the story of “his” wrecks in the various National or Navy Archives.
He prepares his travels well. He writes around to friends and acquaintances in England for advice. He
needs to rent a nice little cottage, outside of London but not far, so Trudy will not be too bored, and close
to a good school for Vicky, who is now 7. The family crosses the Atlantic in the autumn – a pleasant
crossing over on the QUEEN ELIZABETH (September 16 to September 22) – and, from Southampton,
travels and settles in Surrey.
From England, Pete sent a surprising letter to his friend Pr Richard R. Fagen, of Stanford University, part
of which seems confidential, although the letter is not so marked. The missive is dated October 26, 1970,
and reads in part:
“I am over here on a sabbatical working on three books and several papers relating to underwater exploration. I’ll
be back in August or early September, 1971 and then just 1 1/2 years after that I plan to retire and go it alone.
You’ll be getting a nice little engraved announcement saying I am available as a consultant on matters relating
to underwater exploration, grilled lobsters and the good life in general. Meanwhile, I hope we can get together
and bat the breeze about our mutual interests…”
The most important of the books he is working on in London is A History of Seafaring based on Underwater
Archaeology (George Bass general Editor, London, 1972) to which he contributed a major chapter titled
“Traders and Privateers across the Atlantic: 1492-1733”. The London Publishers, Thames and Hudson,
are then in the midst of preparing publication. But the letter is surprising because it contains the first
mention of his plans for early retirement. After all, he was only 52. As for his interest in “the good life” in
general, it will come to no one as a surprise. (The part about the grilled lobsters refers to a paper just sent
to him by Pr Fagen on the subject of the Cuban lobster industry.)
Mendel is a family man at heart we learn from another letter: “… In 1969, I bought a car on the continent
and traveled the highways for five weeks.” He has no intention however to do tourism in England, not driving on the wrong side of the road with his family.
In February of 1971, he has about finished his research in the UK. From his rented cottage of Breamwater
Gardens at Ham, Richmond, Surrey, he writes to his boss and friend, Dr. Philip Lundeberg (head of the
Division of Naval History, at the MHT) to keep him informed of his progress:
“Things are going well… finding a lot of good material. A lot on iron founding and cannon at the Library of
the Science Museum… same at the Naval Library. I am hitting the Library of the Royal Artillery Institution
and went through the Scott Collection at the Royal Institute of the Royal Architects finding many good things…
We went to Edinburgh about January 1 and after thirty-five years I finally saw ‘Mons Meg’21. I performed a
photographic and measuring ritual which seemed to amaze the visitors to the castle. I explained that I belong to
a rare sect, who worships iron cannons of the 15th century...”
Reading Pete’s correspondence, by the way, often shows how dangerously contagious his sense of humor
could be. The assistant-editor of National Geographic, his friend Bill Graves, writes to: “The Right Reverend Mendel Peterson, S.J.”. He addresses him as “Your Holiness”, reports that he is referred to as “the
greatest living (sic) authority” and finishes his letters with a private joke: “Yours in the dearest design of
industry”. The line is by Shakespeare, of course – as my learned daughter and assistant-editor immediately
21
A famous iron bombard of the 15th century, one of the biggest and earliest ones known.
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pointed out – and out of Loves Labours Lost, Act 4, Scene 1, where it ends a very moving, intercepted love
letter sent by Don Adriano de Armado to his fairer than fair adored flame. “Thine in the dearest design of
industry” would be worded today: “Yours in the tendrest assiduity to serve you”.
His colleague and friend Alan Albright writes that he has just recommended him to a colleague as “An
expert on ancient cannons, on coins, and on other things better left unsaid”. A letter from Peter Stackpole
(the great underwater photographer who worked with him in Bermuda) concludes on a letter ending consisting in two anthology level sentences that are, regrettably, unquotable in these pages.
Parenthesis closed, in February, Pete, Trudy and Victoria leave England for Portugal where his first visit will
be for the Lisbon Museu da Artilharia.
It is one of the very richest artillery museums of Europe, has the best organized exhibition spaces and,
above all, it remains delightfully anchored in nineteenth century museological tradition. It is one of my
favorite museums.
At the end of April, Pete, arrives in Turin, in Northern Italy, for further performances of his photographic
and measuring rituals. From his scribbled personal notes, dated April 29, 1971, we get a fascinating glimpse
on the way he was preparing his photo-sessions, when allowed to, in order to obtain the best possible photographs of his beloved guns, all-over views and close-ups of all marks or decoration or particular features.
He has written ahead to a Dr. Rafaelli and has been in touch before his arrival with the General Director
who is General Pietro Roggiero and he has obtained the authorizations to make his photographs using
either flash or flood lights (and yes, he may plug in all museum rooms). He is authorized to use talcum
powder to make the inscriptions and engravings more readable and has promised to clean up afterwards.
He is authorized to bring with him a ladder – so he will not photograph his shoes or be obliged to use a
wide angle lens that would cause barrel-like deformations to the tubes – and yes, he may leave it in the
museum overnight. He will start on the afternoon of April 29 and plans to be working for at least two days
(result: 435 photographs). (He also makes a note that he must send a batch of his books and scientific
publications to General Roggiero at his private address.)
Obtaining such collaboration from the Keepers or Directors of most museums is not always easy and it
tells a lot about Mendel’s already international reputation that he was permitted to work the way he did.
Later in the course of the same year (1971), we find him working in Venice and in Rome, in Naples in
May and in Munich in June. At some time (?) he is in Salzburg, in Heidelberg, in Amsterdam, in Hoorn
and in Brussels. Then in Zurich, in Basle and Geneva (where photographs show him relaxing with his wife
during a cruise on the lake) and afterwards in Bern and after that in Nice, France (more photographs of
a smiling Mrs. Peterson and of young Victoria!) Later notes of his, now in the file, dated July 26 indicate
his presence in Oslo at the Akershus Fortress. Then, in August, he is laboriously photographing a selection
of the cannons (I later counted 530 of them) of the “Heeresgeschichtliches Museum” in Vienna (23 rolls
of films) and, later in the same month, he is at work in Seville, Spain (dated photographs of the Torre del
Oro) and probably, in Madrid.
He is back in the US at the end of the year. His position in the Smithsonian Institution has become “Curator of the Division of Historic Archaeology”. Administrative documents tell us that his office is room
n°4601 in the NMHT building (National Museum of History and Technology) and his phone number
5124. But he doesn’t spend too much of his time in the office for his field notes demonstrate that he has
been shooting several films in the late part of the year in White Park, Florida, and some more, God alone
knows where. And in the middle of all that, he also managed to find the time to do his Naval reserve duty,
which he enjoyed, until he reached the rank of Captain and finally retired from the Navy.
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In the later years of his career at the Smithsonian, Mendel Peterson was involved on two occasions in inspecting and identifying quite another kind of historical treasures: sunken artifacts from the days of “les
voyageurs”, drowned cargo lost by Frenchmen in Canada along the beds of mainland rivers and streams.
The 18th and 19th century trappers and fur traders had been driving their heavily loaded freight canoes
far into the Canadian wilderness and many met with disaster, usually in rapids. In the mid-1970s, Pete,
was invited by the Toronto’s Royal Ontario Museum and the Minnesota Historical Society in St. Paul to
inspect what he called “fascinating samples of cheap trade goods for which the Indians of North America
once bartered away their furs and, eventually, their lands”. The artifacts, recovered at the bottom of the
rivers, included nested brass cooking kettles with removable handles for easy stacking, axe heads, tools and
knives, wire snares and miscellaneous traps for the use of the trappers or mirrors, etc., for bartering with
the Indians and, as well as, of course, a good supply of flintlock, muskets with ball shot destined to the
hostile Indians and bird shot to fill the cooking pot.
For the year 1972, a project of a trip to Florida, announced in a letter, is all we know about his voyages or
his expeditions. It must be remembered here that the five years extension of 1967 to the original, fifteen
years long allowed funding for his cannon research, worldwide traveling included, is coming to an end.
In 1973, after twenty-five years with the Smithsonian, Pete, retires. His last official photographic trip has
been to St. John, New Brunswick, apparently to fill a last hole in his magnum opus.
So, now that he was retiring, would the SI Archives give me the answer to the question I had been asking
myself for a long time?
Why was his magnum opus – that the SI had enthusiastically supported for twenty years and that was
finally done or nearby completed – not published by Smithsonian?
I have found no official Smithsonian document and no line written by Pete that precisely answers that
question but, in my well informed opinion, several reasons may be guessed at.
Administratively, the first step for a would-be Smithsonian author who wishes to have one of his books
published by Smithsonian Publications (as were Pete’s early papers and his book History under the Sea) is
to pass the judgment of an informal evaluation committee that has to decide whether the book’s interest,
quality and originality warrant the publishing effort. The answer of the committee of course could only
have been fully positive. It so was already in 1965, eight years earlier, when Pete, had submitted what he
then called “A preliminary report” on his Art on Artillery book, which later became his Encyclopaedia of
Markings and Decoration on Artillery.
The next step for the Smithsonian was to secure the funds for the actual publication, either from outside
(from private or corporate, or academic sponsors) or to allocate part of the next year’s budget to it.
This was never done.
If one replaces oneself in the year 1973 that is at a time when publishing meant printing on paper, one
will understand that the sheer size of the publication project may well have frightened away from the start
whoever was responsible for the final say.
Publishing Mendel Peterson’s Encyclopedia of Marks and Decorations on Muzzle-loading Cannons would
have meant printing, for the so-called “Large Green Albums”22 over 15 bound volumes, each the size of
the Washington DC plus Metropolitan-Area telephone book (white pages and yellow pages together) and
22
See explanations and comments about the albums in following chapters.
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illustrated with probably over 8,000 photographs altogether. Plus about as many volumes for the so-called
“Small Green Albums”. The resulting publication would have covered some four meters on the library
shelves of whoever would have bought it and it would have weighed more than several dead donkeys.
Imagining the many editing problems, the printing, the binding, the storage and the distribution of such
a mammoth publication may well have terrified the decision makers at the top.
Today, fifty years later, the situation as we all know has changed radically. It would perhaps remain economically out of the question to print Pete’s encyclopaedia on paper, but a digital publication of it, on disk
or on-line, is no frightening prospect anymore.
But then, could not the possibility exist that there were also other reasons. Reasons perhaps having to
do with in-house politics? A document, a letter in fact, written about thirty years later by Pete’s boss and
friend Philip Lundeberg, suggests that possibility.
What exactly happened at the Smithsonian just before and shortly after Mendel Peterson’s retirement at the
Department of Armed Forces History is not clear. What is clear is that, immediately after his departure,
his brain-child and most personal achievement, the Underwater Exploration Hall in the National Museum
of American History, was closed down. Why exactly? Neither his personal records nor the files in the SI
Archives explain why. Neither is it explained why the Department of Underwater Archaeology which he
had wanted for many years and created and animated, was equally suppressed23. Had Mendel’s personality taken too much air in the institution for too many years? Were smaller people suddenly relieved and
from then on trying to also breathe? No tangible evidence exists. From the records, no “suspect” can be
identified today but isn’t the spirit of revenge ever present in the corporate and institutional world and isn’t
history full of that sort of things?
Whatever the case, it is made clear by his activities when retired that, after the Smithsonian authorities had
either decided or “regretfully concluded” that the results of Mendel Peterson’s “great amount of work”, in
spite of having been judged “worthy of Smithsonian publication” and called “a valuable reference work”
would not be published by the Smithsonian, Pete decided to temporarily turn the page. For if that is what
he did, he let it transpire in his later correspondence (1979) that he still “hoped to publish” his Encyclopaedia.
Once “retired”, Pete seems to have begun to work harder than ever.
In 1973 and 1974, Pete and I co-authored a book published by the Special Publication Division of the
National Geographic Society. The title: Undersea Treasures. Pete wrote two chapters, I wrote two that was
half the book and half the illustrations. For him, it was but a hors-d’oeuvre after which he concentrated
on finishing his major book The Funnel of Gold. The Trails of the Spanish Treasure Fleets. It was published
in 1975, by Little Brown, in Boston. A serious book and at the same time an entertaining tale, it was and
will remain a sum of all aspects of his subject. Reviewers and readers loved it. It had great success in the
USA and in the English speaking world.
In the meantime, Pete was called upon to appraise and help divide the collection of artifacts and treasure
that Robert Marx and his associate, the oceanographer Willard Bascom, had recovered in 1972, from the
Spanish almiranta galleon NUESTRA SEÑORA DE LAS MARAVILLAS, lost on the Gran Bahamas
Bank in 1656. “Disagreements over salvaging procedures (as Pete, explains in the prudent terms that befit a
man in his position) and over custody of the valuables brought a suspension of the lease that Marx’s company,
Sea Finders Inc., had obtained from the Bahamian Government”. There were also “disagreements” between
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23 In later years a new “Diving for History” programme was reinvented at the SI. Since then, members of the staff of the
National Museum of American History have been since making hundreds of dives every summer in order to study and record
wrecks sunken in American waters. The high quality of their work certainly is a tribute to Mendel Peterson’s memory. Their
work on the wreck of the INDIANA, sunken in Lake Superior in 1858 (see photographs) is but one example.
divers and a succession of groups and companies that had been working the site. In April 1974, after two
years of discussions, Peterson was called upon. “During several visits to Nassau” he writes “I sat in the vaults
of the Royal Bank of Canada and examined a ton or so of treasure: Silver bars weighing up to 90 pounds, gold
and silver coins, some with unique markings, silver utensils and a variety of ship fittings. With another season or
two of excavating the MARAVILLAS will be recognized I think as the most valuable wreck ever found.” Further
excavations indeed by other groups – one with the help of this editor – have demonstrated the wisdom of
his prediction.
Year after year, in the process of calendaring the professional and personal activities of Pete, after his retirement, this biographer has come across all the major underwater finds of his lifetime, with few exceptions,
as he continues to be consulted from all over the world on everything found underwater and Pete carefully
assembles and keeps for his personal documentation all the news that reach his ears (or desk) concerning
every new underwater discovery.
In 1975, Pete, was asked to take the direction of the complete excavation of an unidentified wreck that
had been discovered by chance the previous year, not far from Walker’s Kay, in the northern Bahamas, by
a lobster fisherman named Rick Magers. Magers had noticed “a dark-shadowy mass” on the sandy seafloor
around which there was a surprising number of turtles, jacks, barracudas, rays and other kinds of fish. The
depth was thirty feet.
He came back with a friend and scuba equipment. His friend dived and came up reporting that he had
seen “a big pile of pipes down there, all piled up on top of each others, with a lot of rocks”. Magers put
on a tank, dived and found himself, as he recalls, “staring into the coral encrusted muzzle of an ancient
cannon… Piled over each other in a big mass about ten feet high was a mass of old guns”.
Subsequent dives showed that there was nothing else visible in a hundred feet radius around the center of
the cannons pile (except a lonely iron anchor with a mahogany stock, half sunk into the sand, found three
hundred yards south-west from the wreck). Had the ship must sunk intact? Without breaking up in the
process? It seemed so and furthermore, the site appeared undisturbed.
When the two fishermen-divers set to work with an airlift, they rapidly uncovered, beneath the sand, parts
of a massive ship’s hull, including wooden hull sheeting coated with hair or fiber and pitch. Majolica was
found and fragments of rough ceramic. Under the pile of guns – that was measured to be eighty feet long
by thirty feet wide and stood about ten feet off the seafloor – were the remains of a large old ship.
Magers contacted the owner of a luxury fishing resort at nearby Walker’s Kay, Robert Abplanalp, asking for
funds and equipment to start a serious search of the site. Rick then inquired around for the best possible
expert in the field of underwater archaeology and was immediately directed to a certain Mendel Peterson.
The salvage boat AVENTURA of Fort Lauderdale, Florida (a battered old shrimper), skipper Reg Vaughn,
was chartered and, in December 1975, the full survey of the wreck-site began.
Under Pete’s direction some preliminary work had already been done from an island fishing yacht, the SEA
LION. Peter Copeland, an outstanding underwater draughtsman and an old friend and colleague of Pete,
at the Smithsonian had joined him and, under Pete’s direction, went down and produced a series of precise
perspective drawings of the piled up cannons. When completed, the five separate, original sketches were
assembled in the form of a five foot long drawing, showing forty-one guns interspersed between ballast
rocks, encrusted together with coral. Most of the guns were neatly lying in a row, and often head to tail.
Pete was eager to bring up a number of the cannons in order to examine them, clean them from their rust
and coral accretions and read the kind of clues that cannons had so often revealed to him. As soon as the
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drawings were finished, double-checked and confirmed by a photographic mosaic, Pete had several guns
of different calibers raised from various parts of the wreck and placed on the deck of the AVENTURA.
He first removed the coral crust from the trunnions, the button and the top of the breech of each gun,
searching for identifying markings or decoration? There was none. No weight marks, no date mark, no
maker’s mark and no coat of arms. This was not really unexpected, iron guns of the time, as he well knew,
are seldom marked. He carefully measured the bore, the length and all characteristic parts of the cannons,
examining the base ring and the molding lines at the breech and determined that the cannons – the larger
one being a 18-pounder, the smaller ones of various sizes – were typical of a 18th century warship. He
established that the taper of the trunnions of some of the cannons, which were offset, and also the mould
marks and the shape of the cascable indicated guns made in the middle or late middle 17th century, possibly
Dutch, or Swede, or Dane. He pointed out also that Spanish ships could of course have carried guns made
in the Netherlands, in England or in Scandinavia. Eventually, Pete and Copeland dived on all the cannons on the wreck that were accessible in the pile and beat the coral crust from their trunnions, in search
of telltale marks. But few cannons proved accessible to their hammer and these were not marked at all.
An early conclusion which Pete, prepared from the list of evidences gathered, read that the wreck was “that
of a large warship forty-five to fifty-five guns, of period c. 1650-1690, probably not English” (since large English warships of this period carried iron ballast). “The unmarked iron guns, the redware, the Majolica, the
fragments of tortoise shell, the cochineal and the stone ballast are”, he wrote,” typically Spanish but, alas, could
be of another nationality”.
A “mailbox”, was brought in, i.e. a funnel-like metallic contraption attached behind the ship’s propeller at
a steep angle so as to deflect downwards the full stream of the screw. The mailbox can blow deep holes or
trenches in a sandy or soft ocean floor and, when carefully used, can do so without damaging too much
fragile artifacts. More iron fittings were uncovered; pieces of redware, of olive jars and other containers, of
serving platters and cooking pots, and more ships timbers and a number of rectangular yellow bricks such
as would have been used to line a floor of a galley. A clay pipe stem bore marks that brought it to the 17th
century. Many of the fragments of Hispanic Majolica in white and blue patterns that were found were of
the type produced in Santo Domingo in the 17th and 18th centuries. There were fragments of Chinese porcelain and at least one intact olive jar. Iron ships fittings were spread all over and, surprisingly, rectangular
“galley bricks” were found at each end of the wreck-site, making Pete wonder if they had been put to more
purposes aboard than merely lining the galley and the oven.
With two salvage vessels now on the site, the AVENTURA and EL TORO, almost all the guns were raised
in order to uncover the whole lower hull area of the wreck for detailed study. It immediately appeared that
the ship had been burnt out considerably inside. Burn marks on the butt of the mainmast indicated that
fire had been deliberately set to inside her whilst she was still afloat, probably by her own crew for, had she
been in a sinking condition, Pete theorized, the fire could never have burnt so deep in her hull.
When he had finished cleaning and examined twenty-one cannons that had been brought ashore, Pete
obtained, from all his cleaning work, one inscription only that seemed to be a number 57 on the base ring
of one of the 18-pounders. But the remainder of the base ring and breech of this particular gun had been
badly damaged by the fire, the iron reduced almost to graphite, the best evidence so far of burning.
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Theories on the date, nationality, and identity of the lost ship and of the circumstances of her loss flourished from all parts. Bob Abplanalp had invited to Walker’s Kay some of the most famous treasure divers
in America to view his laudable efforts. Mel Fisher and his wife Dolores, Robert Marx, Arthur McKee,
successively arrived at Walkers to give their opinion in conference with Peterson. All agreed with him that
the clues were pointing to a Spanish ship of the late 17th or early 18th century. But what was particularly
intriguing was the absence in the recovered fragments and artifacts of any evidence of standing or running
rigging (no block sheaves, no block chocks or iron straps, no deadeyes, no fairleads or fragments of line), as
well as the absence of any personal items such as buttons, buckles, knives, candlesticks, shoe soles, combs,
etc., and the absence of tableware, such as knives, forks, spoons, cups, bowls and dishes. No clay pipes
either, or only broken fragments and, more puzzling yet than anything else, no bronze or brass items at all
and no coins.
The consensus was that the wreck, surely, had been abandoned in good order and salvaged in its own time.
The key to the mystery was finally provided by Dr. Eugene Lyon, an American researcher who had been
working for years at the Archivo General de Indias in Sevilla and in the Archivo General de Simancas. On
the request of Bob Abplanalp, in the summer of 1976, Eugene Lyon began a systematic research in the
Spanish records and eventually provided the answer to the mystery. The lost ship had been Spanish, yes,
a naval frigate of about 400 tons, the SAN JUAN EVANGELISTA, Captain Don Juan Alverto de Insola
that had sailed from Cadiz to the New World in 1712 and cruised in the West Indies for two years on her
watchdog mission. She had left Havana on October 24, 1714, bound for Puerto Rico, Santo Domingo
and various military posts in the Windward Islands, carrying over three hundred thousand silver pesos, the
“situado” to be delivered to the various garrisons in those places. When sailing she was carrying eleven of
her guns mounted in carriages, both 8 and 12-pounders, and carrying another fifty-seven guns (8, 12 and
18-pounders) in her hold as ballast. There were three hundred people aboard, including crew, soldiers and
passengers. On November 4, 1714, the SAN JUAN EVANGELISTA was battered by a violent southern
storm, lost her rudder, her three masts and her bowsprit and was blown through an opening inside of the
reefs that surround the little Bahama Bank. The captain anchored his paralyzed ship in the shallow water
where he had been pushed, near a sandbank, “six leagues from land”. He then sent the ship’s longboat to
Havana, under the orders of the chief-officer who bore with him two letters to the governor, one from the
captain of the ship, the other from the “mestre”. The letters were outlining the predicament of the vessel
and requested urgent help. Perhaps to make sure that assistance would be promptly sent from Havana, the
captain did not fail to mention the three hundred thousand pesos of treasure carried aboard the vessel. A
fleet of six shallow draft vessels almost immediately left Havana for the northern Bahamas. In command
of the little fleet was a Captain Luis Perdomo, who after long conferences with Captain de Insola, agreed
that the ship could not be saved and that the largest part of the cannons, the ones used as ballast, were not
worth saving. The treasure was saved, then as much of the ship’s equipment as possible, and the relief vessels sailed back to Havana with the full crew, abandoning the SAN JUAN EVANGELISTA where she was.
Eugene Lyon was “sufficiently convinced that the wreck… was indeed the one of the SAN JUAN EVANGELISTA burned and sunk after having been salvaged in the year 1715”.
The dreams of treasure of Bob Abplanalp and of the divers had been blown away but Abplanalp, in a very
elegant and rare gesture, felt “that the swarms of fish and turtles that had lived in the cannon pile when the
wreck was found had been dispossessed and that now that we have satisfied our curiosity, we owe it to the marine
life of the area to restore their home to them.” Except fourteen of the cannons – which had been cleaned and
were being preserved to be later remounted in reconstructed naval carriages and exhibited on the island
next to a recovered anchor and selected objects – all the guns were returned to the wreck-site.
As an ABC TV crew was filming the last sequence of the operation, the guns were put back into the sea
and, later, carefully replaced, as far as possible, in their original positions.
Years later, when I had myself the occasion to dive on that remarkable site, the sea had retaken full possession of the wreck and it looked as undisturbed as if I had been the first discoverer. The turtles were there,
huge all of them, and looking very old, the back of their shell reddened and eroded by the rust of the big
iron cannons under which they were sheltering.
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Back again to Bermuda, where the longer lasting archaeological excavations that Mendel Peterson and
Teddy Tucker ever carried together on a single wreck-site had been going on over a period of seven seasons.
That wreck had been discovered in 1983 by diving friends of Teddy. The ship was soon identified as the
UNION, a French ship under the command of a Captain Michel Bressinot, lost at night on a Bermuda
reef in November 1776, while en route from Cap François, Haiti, to Dunkirk in France. She was a cargo
carrying passenger ship, loaded at the time with coffee, huge quantities of mahogany boards, all cut to a
length of eight feet (for the furniture trade), lignum vitae, indigo and miscellaneous merchandises.
The hull appeared to have been some one hundred and thirty feet long and probably twenty-eight feet
wide, as they could estimate after having pumped about 4,000 cubic yards of sand out of the pocket and
lowered the level around the wreck by seven feet. Lighter parts of the cargo had spread widely around.
Among the debris were numerous buttons, beads and small pewter crucifixes of European design, probably
trade goods shipped from Europe and being returned, not having been disposed of in the New World.
Also scattered along was a large quantity of pewter utensils, mostly tableware. But the most interesting
part of the inventory in the eyes of Pete and Teddy were some five hundred wooden artifacts ranging from
small drinking cups to wood hammock spreaders and many other items, as well as over a hundred items of
rigging equipment which had not belonged the ship’s own rigging but were transported in the hold and in
pristine condition. The ship’s cannons were found under he sand, as well as a completely intact, perfectly
preserved gun carriage, the only intact gun carriage that Teddy ever saw during his diving career.
With so many hundreds of wooden artifacts, tools and rigging parts, the preservation and conservation
problems that arose were unprecedented for Teddy. Following the advice and guidance of Pete, he had set
a “wet lab” in his warehouse and ended up having thirty-eight large plastic tanks around, complete with
fresh running water. When the excavations were terminated, in 1990, the collection, one of the most important of its kind yet discovered and of unique interest for Bermuda seafaring history, was offered to the
then director of the Bermuda Maritime Museum. The director declined to accept the collection for, he
said, “its conservation would be too expensive”. In due course, the artifacts were officially released to Teddy
Tucker and the problems and costs of conservation became his. When informed, Dr. Margaret Rule (the
archaeologist that directed the excavation and raising of the MARY ROSE, the flagship of King Henry
VIII which sank in 1545) immediately offered to solve the difficulty by putting the full resources of the
Conservation Laboratory of the Marv Rose Trust in Portsmouth, England, at his disposal for the conservation of the whole collection. After a long period of treatment in Portsmouth, the collection was returned
to Bermuda. The preservation and restoration process was a huge success and so had been the locally made
conservation of all ferrous and non ferrous objects.
It is at the same time that the impulse to establish in Bermuda a Museum and Research Center aiming
at educating the public about the ocean and to present, explain and encourage oceanic research, began to
take form. The Bermuda Underwater Exploration Institute (BUEI) opened its doors in July 1997. Teddy
is a Founding Trustee of the Institute which is in great part his brain-child. The BUEI, a not-for-profit
entity, which is affiliated with other research centers, museums and educational facilities internationally,
has received worldwide recognition. It is managed by trustees and international advisors24, all experts in
their various fields. Its official mission is “To advance the understanding, appreciation and knowledge of the
ocean and to encourage the protection and preservation of the marine environment”.
From day one, the collection of the artifacts from the UNION has been one of the major attractions of the
BUEI Museum, together with Pete and Teddy’s finds from many other shipwrecks.
In 1977, Pete, wrote the leading article of the December issue of National Geographic (Vol. 152, n°6). In
it, he evokes a number of his underwater discoveries during his long career and shows their importance for
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24
This editor is honoured to be one of them.
our knowledge of what he called (he had a knack for coining such evocative expressions) “the Reach for the
New World”. The text of this long article was necessarily popular but the illustrations were outstanding
and so was the large size folding map that supplemented that issue. Titled “Colonization and Trade in the
New World”, it traces and comments the historic routes of the galleons and the principal ports of Spanish
America and, on the reverse side, depicts a Spanish armed nao both above and below decks, with her cargo
and contents. The map (for which he was Principal Consultant) remains an outstanding introduction to
the subject.
One point that Pete, insisted in making in this long article is how often throughout his career he has been
struck by a singular tragedy: “the wholesale loss of original native treasures from the New World. (He was
referring to the long ago “vandalism of the Spaniards who deliberately conversed what we look at today
as priceless historical and artistic relics into units of currency for a supposedly more civilized world”.) He
particularly lamented what he calls “one of the greatest losses undoubtedly occurred when Cortez men
melted down much of the royal treasure of the Aztec emperor Montezuma in 1520, objects which to them,
at the time, were devoid of any cultural value and, part of which, to the horror of the Friars in the Cortez
gang, could even have been idols of the wrong gods adored by these savages.
The notion of retirement is a relative notion. In 1978, on the day of his sixtieth anniversary, Mendel Peterson is diving on an 18th century Spanish wreck off the coast of Hispaniola (the eastern part, which is
now called the Dominican Republic) and, typically, in July and August he is shooting 3 rolls (at least) of
Kodachrome slides at the Istanbul “Cannon Factory”.
One thing at a time.
In Santo Domingo, he had joined a team of divers led by Tracy Bowden on the salvage vessel HICKORY
as an advisor to his company, Caribe Salvage SA. The company has obtained an excavation permit from
the Dominican government that involves a fair repartition of the recovered artifacts between the State
and the salvors (that is with the exception of any unique object of exceptional cultural value which
would go straight to the Santo Domingo Museum). Pete’s mission here is double: to identify, evaluate and appraise the finds and, on the other hand, to advise the divers on excavation techniques and
on preservation.
The target here was two big Spanish ships lost near Samana Bay while on their way from Spain to Vera
Cruz via Havana. For Pete it is a great occasion to study, for once, not the wreck of another ship bringing colonial products and treasure from Tierra Firme, New Spain or the West Indies to Spain, but on the
contrary ships bringing from the mother country all that was necessary for the colonies industry and for
the well being of their Spanish inhabitants.
The targeted ships were named the NOSSA SEÑORA DE GUADALUPE and the CONDE DE TOLOSA. Both had repaired at Puerto Rico for fresh food and water and were on their way to Havana in the
night of August 24, 1724, sailing off the north coast of the present day Dominican Republic, when they
were struck by a hurricane and thrown on the reefs at the eastern entrance to Samana Bay. Of the TOLOSA’s six hundred souls, mostly passengers with their families, fewer than forty people managed to jump
in the ship’s boats and everyone else perished but seven sailors who miraculously survived for thirty-two
days, perched on the maintop of one of the masts that had remained standing above the fully submerged
hull. As for the GUADALUPE, a bigger, more strongly built ship, her timbers held as she ran onto a reef
and for the next two days, until the storm abated. So five hundred and fifty people out of the six hundred
and fifty passengers and crew could be ferried ashore in the ship’s pinnace and boats.
For different reasons, Pete and Captain Bowden – who had found the two wrecks after long magnetometer
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searches – were greatly interested in the main cargo, a total of four hundred tons of mercury, or quicksilver.
Mercury was necessary to the Spanish silver and gold mine operators, as vitally important for the amalgamation of gold and silver from the crushed mineral in the refineries of Mexico and Peru. Four hundred
tons of quicksilver were enough to supply the royal mines for a full year. Pete was curious to find out
how the Spaniards were carrying mercury at sea in the 18th century. Mercury is an extremely heavy type
of cargo, which is irretrievable when spilt. The Spaniards, the Dutch, the English had tried all kinds of
containers when exporting the valuable liquid to the Americas or to India (where the mines of the Moghul
were another hungry market) but no really satisfactory container, in fact, was to be devised until specially
made squarish steel bottles were successfully experimented much later.
It turned out that, just as in some drawings he had found, the Spaniards had packed their mercury in small
leather sacks, secured at the top with thongs and stored singly in small wooden casks or in wooden boxes.
The divers looked at the cargo of mercury differently: intrinsically, it was worth at the time about three
million dollars. They could not recover it however. The leather bags and the boxes had not survived the
centuries, the heavy but very fluid liquid metal had seeped or percolated through the containers, the ship’s
bottom and finally through the sand and the dead coral. Having examined and sounded the sea floor,
looking but in vain alas for a hypothetical nice, providential layer of solid bedrock, conveniently hollow in
shape, not far below the sand and coral on which the mercury could be lying like in a pool, just waiting
to be pumped out. In the end, Captain Bowden agreed with Pete, no, there was no chance to find or to
recover the cargo since, yes, it was irretrievably scattered and lost.
But there was to be a compensation, later for the missing main cargo: a dazzling treasure and valuable
exquisite artifacts.
The CONDE DE TOLOSA yielded exactly the kind of cargo that Peterson was anxious to see, the countless utensils, artifacts and babbles that the Spanish colonists were taking with them or expecting in Mexico
to grace their life overseas. It had always been Mendel Peterson’s view “that human detail was an important
key to history”. “Through their own possessions” he felt, “some splendid and others ordinary, those who left the
comfort of a familiar world for the challenge of an unknown one, offer unique insight into a momentous chapter
in our past”.
When he wrote this, his daughter LaNelle wonders, was he possibly thinking of his ancestor George Soule,
another such adventurer who arrived on American soil in Plymouth, Massachusetts, on the MAYFLOWER in 1620?
On the GUADALUPE, which was found first and on which the divers kept working for over a year whilst
Pete, alternated between the wreck-site and work in the Casas Reales Museum in Santo Domingo, studying and appraising the collection of artifacts, the flow of historical finds and treasures never slowed down.
Additionally to the lost mercury, the GUADALUPE had carried a huge cargo of iron ship fittings in her
hold. These, Pete understood at once, were destined for the construction of a large vessel, probably in
Cuba, where the local mahogany allowed the Spaniards, which had by then practically destroyed their own
forests at home, to build excellent, everlasting ships, for the thick grain of the heavy West Indies mahogany
discourages the teredo worms.
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To Pete of course, the most valuable part of the GUADALUPE contents was the detailed painting that its
contents produced of 18th century colonial life. The variety of goods astonished him. After all, this was
sent to a supposedly frontier society, but the goods included gold jewelry and coins, buttons, crockery,
silver and pewter flatware, polished jars, scissors with brass handles, Delftware, a bracket clock made by
the renowned London firm of Windmills, beautifully crafted and beautifully preserved, brass and silver
lanterns and a quantity of religious medals, virtually everything to be found in a fashionable European
household of the period. He was thrilled in particular by the exquisite quality of the more than 400 crystal
drinking glasses that were recovered intact, most of them engraved. There were shot glasses, tumblers, wine
bottles, decanters and jugs. “Made in Bohemia” he decided or “made in Germany” and further engraved
with typical German hunting scenes or else with the distinctly Chinese patterns that were frequently copied from the Chinese porcelain that reached the Old World via the Manila galleon across the Pacific and
then by transshipment overland through Mexico to the Atlantic trade. The style was familiar to the New
World colonists. Of course, he pointed out to the divers, more than a half of the GUADALUPE’S cargo
was smuggled goods, since they were not of Spanish origin, but that was no surprise to anyone. Such laws
were at the time safely winked at.
More than the elegant tableware, plates, silver knives (the blades missing), forks and spoons, fine crockery
and silver candlesticks, one item in particular retained his attention for its social significance. He called it,
in an article that he wrote for National Geographic about the excavations (Vol. 156, n°6, December 1979),
“a dandy’s delight”. The object was an ivory cane handle, plain looking but containing a second, smaller
jewel inlaid handle, he found out, that nested neatly in the larger one and, as he wrote, “out of the covetous
side of street ruffians”.
Now to Istanbul.
The trip, in July and August of the same year 1978, was a combined family cruise (Pete, Trudy and Miss
Vicky) through the Greek islands and a photographic session at the Istanbul “Cannon Factory”. An amusing story later written by his daughter and illustrated with her photographs of her father disguised as a
short-sighted Zeus for the last night party reveals how playful and young at heart he had remained. (The
photographs of the Istanbul cannons will be found with the LGA’s DVD.)
Return to Santo Domingo.
Having worked on the GUADALUPE for over a year and produced a precise scale diagram of the wreck,
overseen and approved by Peterson, the divers moved on and began a search for the other wreck, the
CONDE DE TOLOSA, which their magnetometer eventually found for them seven and a half miles
away.
The search took time. It was helped by the historical research of Jack Haskins, an old friend of Pete’s, in
the Archivo General de Indias in Sevilla and, at last, in June 1977, a clear magnetic anomaly caused by the
TOLOSA’s massive cannons revealed her whereabouts. On that wreck again, which they believed to be
the TOLOSA but, in the early weeks, without definite proof, they recovered pewter ware, glassware and
pottery. Then, the final proof was uncovered by the airlift among the sanded up timbers of the wreck in
the form of a small cask. Tracy Bowden carefully vacuumed away the sand inside and, at the bottom; he
found a last remaining crescent of small silvery globules.
The artifacts recovered from that second wreck were also, mostly, passenger’s property, some similar to the
objects found on the GUADALUPE, others exceptional, such as an instrument fashioned of ivory plates,
a pocket calculator, that consisted of a vertical sundial, an horizontal sundial and a compass. The instrument, dating from the 16th century, was at the time already an antique.
Pete had had few occasions to dive on the wreck of the GUADALUPE but he spent much of his time in
1978 diving on the TOLOSA, studying and drawing her hull, which by then had been fully exposed by
the work of the divers, the anchors and her artillery. Thirty-three of the heavy iron cannons that she had
carried were visible inside the hull or close by. There were boxes of hand grenades also and a collection of
miscellaneous heavy ammunition.
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He also found out that one of the two massive sheet anchors was still aboard when the ship was lost. The
crew of the TOLOSA had put one of the two anchors over the side during the night of the storm but the
coral reef had soon “eaten” the cable. Why did they not use the second one?
Countless clay jars were recovered, ranging from the small ever present olive jar to the huge oil jars. Other
such containers had contained water, wine or pine-pitch.
Diving day after day on the wreck of the TOLOSA, Pete watched the divers uncovering with the airlift
impressive finds of ceramics and glassware, brass and pewter implements (including a chamber-pot) and
the occasional coins or piece of jewelry. Among the jewelry were a number of religious and chivalry emblems: a quadrifoiled delicate gold cross indicated the presence aboard of a member of the Holy Inquisition. A gold medallion bearing the portrait of the Virgin Mary and the caption “Mater Salvatoris” was
encircled with large lacelike filigree. An adoration scene, one of four hundred brass and bronze religious
medals that littered the wreck had been struck in Italy. Pete knew that such cheap medals were to be distributed to parishioners and to new converts in the West Indies. A small bronze crucifix, a pendant, was
fitted with a rear compartment to serve as a reliquary. The rarest of the sacred items were the extremely
rare seals of two bullae bearing the name “Innocentius XIII Papa”, the Pope who had sent his two directives to his bishops overseas.
There was aboard, among the passengers, a Doña Antonia Franco, for her name was found inscribed inside
of an otherwise plain silver bracelet, but the name of the richest man on board, apparently, has not yet
been established. That man had been a Knight of Santiago for along his riches – that were found grouped
together in the last days of the excavation – was a gold medallion bearing the Cross of that Order, framed
by twenty-four diamonds and a simpler gold, heart shaped medallion bearing a plainer version of the
Cross of Santiago. A superb broach, which may have belonged to his wife, was encrusted with thirty-seven
fine diamonds and a small cross of hers, a pendant, was decorated with eight emeralds and twenty-two
diamonds. The still nameless wife of the Knight whose life was taken by the 1724 hurricane, was also the
owner of a most magnificent pearl necklace, or necklaces, for the divers of Caribe Salvage recovered in the
same small area about one thousand intact beautifully selected round pearls, some of them white, some
others gray or black, but all pierced, which must have constituted, in the lady’s personal casket, the most
magnificent jewel or jewels.
This was in 1979. At the end of the same year, Pete, will be instrumental in keeping in the United States,
a truly unique 16th century cannon that was in great danger of leaving the country for the UK. That story
is worth being told in detail for two different reasons.
This gem of a gun happens to have been brought back from the Philippines by American troops in the 19th
century. (In what circumstances was this piece, a falcon, “obtained” by the Spaniards and taken to their
Philippines establishment is a much written about question that remained unanswered.) With the advent
of the Spanish American War in any case, the US Army had occupied most of these islands. During the
Philippines insurrection of 1899-1902, the US Army and the US Marine Corps were on Samar to root out
the Filipino Insurrectionists. It was reportedly a bloody, vicious war, marked by atrocities committed by
both sides. In October 1901, two companies of Marines retaliated on one of the worst attacks and, during
that particular operation, the cannon was captured from an insurrectionist strong-hold by a company of
the Eleventh Infantry Regiment. The Eleventh Infantry also took the church’s bells (that were recognized
guilty of having rung as the signal for the revolt) and the whole was sent back to the United States where
it had remained unnoticed to this day, exhibited on the parade ground of the Francis E. Warren Air Force
Base in Wyoming.
110
The piece is a bronze muzzle-loading falcon cast in 1557 by Robert Owen, a member of a famous English
gun founder’s family. The falcon was “rediscovered” in 1979 by experts of the Office of Air Force History,
its rarity was recognized, precautions were suddenly taken to bring it inside, away from rain and shine, and
to submit it to some conservation treatment, although it was in a very good state of preservation. Army
historians came to inspect the piece and photographs were sent to the Master of the Armories in the Tower
of London for final advice. The answer of the Deputy Master confirmed the uniqueness of the piece:
“The inscription on your cannon reads ‘Robert Owyne made thys favcon Anno DNI 1557’, in other words, ‘Robert Owen made this falcon in Anno Domini 1557’. Robert Owen was one of three brothers who lived near London, casting bronze cannons from about 1530 to the end of the 16th century… A falcon was normally 7 ft long,
of 2 1/2 – 2 3/4 in caliber… I know of no historical event which could account for its presence on the island
of Samar. Your cannon is of particular interest to us in England and in the Armories as it bears the monogram
‘MR’, Maria Regina, for Queen Mary. I can think of no other example of a cannon bearing her monogram,
which leads me to suggest that while I appreciate its significance to you as a regimental trophy, we would find it
an even more honored place in the Tower of London, next to a cannon of her husband’s making (Philip of Spain).
Needless to say a gift would be handsomely acknowledged and would form a memorial in itself…
H.L.B…. Deputy Master of the Armories.”
The story then turns into an epistolary confrontation between three generals, shall we call them General
X, General Y and General Z. General X, who always has had the cannon under his command, has decided
that “it should be sent to where it belongs, that is to England”. However, he writes in his correspondence
with another General, the commanding officer of another army base near Washington (General Y) that
he wishes to do that “without the top guys in Washington being involved”. In clear, a little personal glory
here would be welcome. General Y is not so sure. He takes advice at the best possible address: he writes
Mendel Peterson and mentions his doubts about the matter:
“Dear Mr. Peterson,
… [On the basis of] the enclosed slides… and copies of correspondence with my recommendation for its disposition, would you be willing to write a brief analysis of the authenticity of the cannon and a recommendation as
of its disposition for my use?
Sincerely…
Major General US Air Force, Chief Office of Air Force History.”
In the enclosed copies of correspondence, the Major General Y, writing to General Z, gives a brief outline
of the facts and states:
“The cannon is genuine… It is the only 16th century cannon in existence in the United States and probably in
North America. The British… have numerous 16th century cannons. For this fact, I recommend the cannon not
be given to the British.”
And further on:
“I think that the Air Force Museum, if the cannon were given to them, would probably loan the piece to the
Smithsonian Institution… They would be delighted to have this cannon, which would become the corner stone
of their exhibit of 16th and 17th century exploration and discovery.
In short, this is a one-of-a-kind historical treasure, unique to this country, and would be, if given to the British, one among many other treasures in Great-Britain. Kept in this country it will be a boost into the image of
strategic air command and a supporter and preserver of our cultural heritage.
P.S.: I have kept the ‘bureaucrats’ out of the loop. How can I assist you?”
112
Having examined the slides and read the above letter, Pete, not surprisingly answers:
“The Robert Owen Falcon is the only one I know which has Queen Mary cypher. The piece certainly is unique.
I can see why the Tower of London would like to have the piece, however I would like to see it remain in this
country. They have pieces by Owen but as far as I know, there are no others in the U.S.”.
And then, in the second paragraph of the same letter, Mendel unexpectedly opens his heart to General Y
– the second reason why this anecdote has been told in so much detail – and writes:
“For the past 28 years I have been researching the markings on bronze and iron cannon and have examined every
major collection in the world with the exception of Leningrad. The Owen piece is one of the most desirable I have
seen. I have collected some 4000 photographs of marks and all-over shots and am taking the liberty of adding the
shots of the Owens piece to my files. One day, if I ever get some clerical help, I hope to publish an encyclopaedia
of markings and decoration on muzzle-loading artillery. With my life-long interest in old artillery you can see
why I believe the Owens piece should remain in this country where we have no other example of his work.”
The piece has remained in the US (see photograph).
Editor’s comment: The figure of 4,000 photographs is puzzling. Even if Pete was thinking only of the
cream of the cream, of a mere selection of the photographs he wanted to publish, there would have been
many times more. Has he forgotten a digit before the 4 of 4,000?
*
* *
Winter after winter Pete, always an avid collector, continues to amass coins and 18th century English
furniture. “He also amassed a fine antique bottle collection, antique pottery, pre-Columbian figurines, Bronze
Age weapons, 17th and 18th century nautical paintings and antique prints. He had a wider and varied interest, considering himself not the owner but rather the custodian of his collections, valuing things for their beauty
and craftsmanship and their connection to the past. Some time after 1978 or so, he opened a small shop in an
antique co-operative in Alexandra, Virginia. This endeavor afforded him the opportunity to deal in ancient
coins, meet other collectors, add to his collections, and to have exciting exchanges with others who were interested
in gaining knowledge…” (His daughter, LaNelle)
And clearly, retired or not, Pete’s obsessive (and contagious) passion for ancient cannons, for all the messages they can deliver to divers and historians and for the joy they give to whomever beholds their superb
decoration, that passion continues to burn and over the years his still camera continues to click. “To him
– his daughter LaNelle writes – the decoration on cannons was far superior to that on any fine jewelry”.
In 1980, he is back in Paris shooting color slides in the “Musée de l’Armée” at the Invalides. These slides,
I suspect, were made for one of his minor pet projects: a coffee-table book on the subject of “Cannons as
works of art” which he never completed.
In 1983, Pete, is hired as a consultant for the “Deep Quest Recovery Project” of Inner Ocean Services Inc.,
a Houston based company the president of which has become deeply interested in treasure-hunting. First
and foremost, that recovery project (pending a hoped-for contract with the local government) concerned
the wreck of the famous SAN JOSE, in the waters of the Republic of Colombia.
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The galleon SAN JOSE (64 guns) was the capitana of the combined 1708 returning flota of Tierra Firme
and Honduras. She blew up in the night of June 8, 1708, during a battle against an English squadron
under Commodore Wager and sank. The wreck is laying on a reportedly 250 meters deep bottom, some
19 miles south of Cartagena de Indias, near Isla de Baru. The warship had taken aboard in Portobelo
(Panama) a treasure of gold and silver in the form of bars and specie, the present value of which has been
estimated by some would-be salvors – not by Pete! – at the most astronomic fantasy figures (the whimsical
amount of 10 billion dollars (sic) has been quoted in print!) As of this day and in spite of occasional wild
rumors, the treasure is still in the bottom, the Colombian authorities having proven in the circumstances
to be as “difficult” when talking contracts as their reputation has always suggested.
But the project soon seemed to extend to other wrecks on the coasts of the same country and, on paper
at least, to the lake of Guatavita (yes, again, the gold of El Dorado, of the Golden One, and that surely
brought memories to him!) Pete, originally hired as a consultant in charge of coordinating the research, advising on such things as conservation, on-board laboratories, salvage vessels and the like, was soon asked to
recommend alternative rich targets to be listed on the company’s ambitious search and recovery program.
The locations he obligingly suggested in a preliminary document as “theatre of diving operations” were
widely spread: The Turks and Caicos islands, Jamaica, Bahamas, the Florida Straits, the Caiman island,
Central America (in general!), the northern coast of South America, the reefs of the Caribbean Sea, Mexico, the Philippines islands, the Mariana islands etc. It was part of his job also to recommend for each
theatre of operation the most promising historical sources and the location of the archive repositories most
likely to contain information that could lead them to the wrecks.
I have found however no indication at all of any successful recovery in any of his several cardboard filing
cabinets full of copies of correspondence, brochures and miscellaneous documents that Pete, had – for
once – carefully filed in that period with the label “Deep Quest Recovery”.
Pete, now seems to be involved in any major underwater discovery made anywhere in the world, either as
a researcher, an Excavation’s Director or consultant, or as “the eminent expert”.
In 1985, he advises Duncan Mathewson, the Archaeological Director to Mel Fisher’s company “Treasure
Salvors Inc”. Mel has finally found the wreck of the Spanish galleon NUESTRA SEÑORA DE ATO
CHA after a twenty years long search, half of it on the wrong side of Florida. The ATOCHA was the 20
guns almiranta of the returning combined Tierra Firme Flota and Armada de la Guardia de la Carrera de
las Indias (28 sails all together). She was lost in a full hurricane together with the SANTA MARGARITA
on the night of September 5, 1622. The treasure of the ATOCHA was monumental, fabulous, dream-like
(Mel had always been, and very aptly so, nicknamed “the dream weaver”).
Pete appears, from his correspondence, to have been mostly interested in the gun carriages of the ship,
some of which had been recovered almost intact and were to be reconstructed by Duncan under his guidance. But who could have been unimpressed by the hundreds of thousands of silver coins, the thousands
and thousands of gold coins, the tons of big silver bars and the dozens and dozens of gold bars, gold chains,
gold crosses studded with emeralds, by the engraved gold cups and gold plates, by the silver church vessels
and the bucketfuls of loose emeralds that kept coming to light every day?
Pete continued to assist the group when they found the SANTA MAGARITA, lost nearby. His files keep
as to this day yellowed press clipping reporting on the auction at Christie’s New York of June 1988 where
Mel Fisher and various of his investors decided to test the market by selling just 400 of the hundreds of
thousands of artifacts his divers had recovered, the bids that reached the auction room, by museums and
collectors from all over the world, were over 2.9 million dollars.
In 1989 Pete’s daughter LaNelle and her husband Gerry traveled to Bermuda with him to visit Teddy and
Edna Tucker at their home at King’s Point: “We spent one whole day on Teddy’s boat recording Dad and Teddy
as they recalled their days of diving and discovery. It was a perfect day engaging with our dear old friends in
storytelling and laughter. Dad took his last dive on that same day at age seventy-one years.”
When Pete, retired, he continued to lecture widely. In the words of his son: “Dad has always loved giving speeches and being center stage”. Now he often lectures aboard cruise ships, sailing to Brazil via the
Caribbean, occasionally to Panama and once at least to South Africa. He apparently enjoyed life aboard
very much. He had always had, as his friends could soon notice, a keen eye for the ladies and a constant
appetite for all the good things in life in general. His son also describes him as “foody”. Could that have
115
been the reasons? In any case he will become a popular figure on the circuits. The big blue boxes in his
personal papers that are filled with the notes and inquiries he made in preparation for his talks (that usually
concerned the history of the places the cruise ship would visit) attest that he took his lecturing aboard as
seriously as everything he ever did professionally.
Perhaps, his son later wondered, perhaps he was too good a lecturer for the jolly holiday makers in
his audiences.
Mendel Jr.: “I know Dad always wanted to teach and enflame excitement in history… he found a few kindred
spirits at his [cruises] lectures. However, I don’t believe most passengers cared. Dad did not suffer fools lightly and
I know at one point, after several voyages, he gave it up in frustration with a lot of sparks flying on the last cruise.”
But the years that are going by leave their mark on all of us. Illness had not spared Pete, and its progresses
can perhaps be seen in the evolution of his handwriting, which becomes shaky and harder and harder for
me to read. Pete’s handwriting, as said already, was never an example for the class to begin with. It could
be fairly good when he calmly sat down, to write a nice dedication to me for instance on the first page of
his books and articles, or to carefully pen captions for his photographs albums but his writing was always
messy when he scribbled notes and measurements in a hurry, during his photographic sessions, on any odd
piece of paper he could find around.
Undaunted, Pete keeps writing serious papers for specialized journals and he continues also to work as a
consultant in his field. In 1994 for instance, it is in Nicaragua that he is called. He is to verify if the recently discovered remnants of a ship that sank on Roncador Reef, 260 miles east of Nicaragua, are, or are
not, the wreckage of the famed USS KEARSARGE (which, under the orders of Capt. Winslow, sank the
even more famous Confederate privateer-raider, the ALABAMA, captain Semmes, in 1864, after a fierce
artillery battle off Cherbourg, France). Yes, the wreck was the KEARSAGE’S.
Age takes it unavoidable toll on his body. He tires more easily but the years seem unable to slow down his
mind or to dampen his spirit and year after year, in the process of calendaring his professional and personal
activities, this biographer has in fact reviewed all the major underwater finds of the period, without exceptions apparently. For Pete, continues to be consulted from all over the world on every cannon, cannon ball
or ship’s nail found under the seven seas and, ever the foreseeing squirrel, carefully continues to store and
keep for his files every bit of information that reaches him.
July 1997. Pete has open-heart surgery (four by-passes) after a near collapse, his first time ever in a hospital
at age 79. After his recovery, he spent his 80th birthday March 8, 1998 in Santa Barbara, California, with
family and friends. “On the occasion – his daughter remembers – he presented gold coins from his collection
to all in attendance, speaking of each coin with his passionate sharing of history laced with his particular sharp
humor and spirited presence”.
Pete and Trudy live in Virginia. His children regularly fly from Utah or from California to come and be
with him a few days. He has six grandchildren and seven great-grandchildren.
“In the fall of 1999 – his daughter writes – he was diagnosed with cancer… He was put on chemotherapy and
underwent successful surgery during the summer of 2000… I would visit and Pete Jr. would visit. We would
talk about Dad’s childhood. Teddy and Edna would visit and reminisce about their adventures. They always
brought joy and laughter and Dad would rally for a while.”
116
MLP Jr. much enjoyed the long talks he had with his father – whose memory was sharp as ever – when
visiting him in his last years:
“One day, in November 2000, I asked him to tell me about the fondest recollections he had of his expedition to
Antarctica. At one point Dad sat back and said: ‘I remember standing on the flying bridge in the spray as we
plunged through the ice. I have Danish blood and a love for the open sea’.”
It seems that, after his retirement, Pete had chosen to keep at a distance from the Smithsonian and, as far
I could find out, he never commented the possible reasons.
Now, belatedly, what happened in this institution after his departure is alluded to in a letter dated “1
March 2002”, received from his old friend and former boss Philip Lundeberg.
The first part of the letter deals with the Oral History Archives of the SI, to the one sidedness, in Lundeberg’s opinion, of the choice of interviewees and of the perspective of their recorded views. The letter
reminds Pete how, in the mid-fifties, he was on the pioneering brain-storming committee charged with
developing the formal justification of the future MHT.25 Dr. Lundeberg had listened to the five volumes
of interviews of F.A.T. (not a friend, clearly, of him or of Pete):
“T… Indicated that you represented the History side of the house, while [he] took charge of Science and Technology in subsequent deliberations.” (Refers to 1955)
Phil Lundeberg’s letter continues:
“In the last three years there have been a couple of articles on the early years of MHT, written almost entirely from
the perspective of the historians of Sciences and Technology.”
The letter then reminds him of the internal dissentions inside of the Smithsonian organization and how
W.W. was “run out of MHT” by B.M. and how in consequence, W.W. is missing from the SI Oral History
interviews and how the memory of H.C., their late friend, has also been erased.
So, was then Mendel Peterson on the loosing side, the side of History, at the time he retired from Smithsonian? And were there perhaps traces of hidden jealousy? Too many voyages to sunny islands or to
swinging Paris or to romantic Vienna? Or just too much success and too much prestige? And could that
explain, in part, why his “Encyclopaedia of Decoration and Marks on ancient Artillery Pieces” was never
published by the SI? Or why, immediately after his departure, his brain-child, the Hall of Underwater
Exploration, disappeared?
Dr. Lundeberg in any case was obviously on the same side as Pete for he further writes:
“This is quite relevant to current efforts to overhaul the current American History Museum which seems to be
going from bad to worst. For the sake of longtime perspective, I plan to give an Oral History Interview with the
idea of indicating the role that Armed Forces History had in the early years of the museum. I hope that history,
if not the current befuddled administrators and consultants,26 will get some idea of why you and F… conceived
that our national history does indeed include the history of our Armed Forces…. Meanwhile, Eleanor and I wish
you and Trudy smooth sailing as we all navigate the ‘Golden Years’. Cheers. Phil.”
On Wednesday July 30, 2003, surrounded by his family, Mendel Peterson died at his home in McLean,
Virginia, from heart failure.
25 The then future Museum of History and Technology which was to be formed and to succeed to the old Art and Industries Smithsonian Museum, aside from the various Museums of Arts and of the Museum of Aviation History. The Armed
Forces History Department, which was to be formed later and curated by Pete, was to be part of the National American History Museum, itself part of the M.H.T.
118
26
The letter is not marked “confidential” or “personal”.
According to the long obituary published in the Washington Post, he had heart disease, diabetes and cancer.
Surely, with his life-long passion for shipwrecks combined with his sharp sense of humor, Pete must have
fully appreciated the cold self-diagnostic of General De Gaulle watching with severity the slow decay of his
body in the very last years of his life: “La vieillesse est un naufrage”, “Old age is a shipwreck”.
Mendel Peterson was buried at Arlington National Cemetery on September 4, 2003.27
– Editor
For their invaluable contribution in helping me to assemble precise, true information concerning Pete’s
life and for correcting inaccuracies in my early drafts, I am greatly indebted to Mendel Peterson’s lifelong
friends, Edna and Teddy Tucker and to Mendel’s family: Mendel Lazear Peterson Jr. and LaNelle Spence.
The books and articles by my late patron Ed Link and by his wife Marion have been one of my most
trusted sources also, as well as Teddy’s monumental book “Treasure”! The first hand memories of Donald
Geddes have brought lively, amusing touches in the story. As for my basic sources of information in general they have been, of course, all the published and unpublished writings and private correspondence by
Pete himself, including his hardly readable field notes plus the rich Peterson archives and the records of the
Departments of which he was the Curator, now kept at the Smithsonian Institution Archives in Washington, DC, (where Ellen Alers was extremely helpful). My vivid personal memories of our meetings over the
years have completed the picture.
27
Where his wife, Trudy, joined him in 2007.
119
THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF MENDEL L. PETERSON
____________________________________________________________________
Published books and booklets:
Peterson, M. L., History under the Sea, Underwater Exploration of Shipwrecks, The Smithsonian Institution,
Publ. 4174, Washington D.C., 1954
Peterson, M. L., The Last Cruise of H.M..S. “Loo”, Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, Vol. 131, n°2,
The Smithsonian Institution, Publ. 4224, Washington D.C., 1955
Peterson, M. (ed.), The Journals of Daniel Noble Johnson: 1822-1863, United States Navy, Smithsonian
Institution Publications, Washington, 1959
Peterson, M. L., History under the Sea. A Handbook for Underwater Exploration, Smithsonian Institution
Press, Washington D.C., 1965 (soft cover edition)
Peterson, M. L., History under the Sea. A Handbook for Underwater Exploration, Smithsonian Institution
Press, Washington D.C., 1969 (clothbound edition, featuring an expanded bibliography and a reorganization of the illustration material)
Peterson, M. L., Traders and Privateers across the Atlantic, 1492-1733, in A History of Seafaring (George
Bass ed.), London, 1972 (a chapter)
Peterson, M. L., Pioneers in the Search for Gold, in Undersea Treasures, National Geographic Society, 1974
(chapter 2)
Peterson, M. L., Diving for new World Wrecks, in Undersea Treasures, National Geographic Society, 1974
(chapter 6)
Peterson, M. L., The Funnel of Gold, The Trails of the Spanish Treasure Fleet, Little Brown, Boston, 1975
Peterson, M., Treasure of the Concepción (an exhibition catalog), © John G. Shedd Aquarium, Chicago,
1980
Peterson M. L., History under the Sea. A Handbook for Underwater Exploration, published by the author,
Alexandria, Virginia, s.d.
Scientific papers:
Peterson, M., Rock Collecting in the Antarctic, Rocks and Minerals Magazine, March-April 1952, 115-126
Peterson, M. L., Ordnance Material Recovered from an Early Seventeenth Century Wreck Site, Military
Collector and Historian, Washington D.C., Fall 1961, Vol. XII, 69-82
Peterson, M., Cut Coin in the United States, The Numismatist, Vol. 75, 3, May 1962, 582-585
Peterson, M. L., An Early Seventeenth Century Wreck, The Numismatist,……..
Peterson, M. L., The Condition of Materials Found in Salt Water, Diving Into the Past, edited by J.D. Holmquist and A.H. Wheeler, The Minnesota Historical Society, St. Paul., 1964, 61-64
Peterson, M. L., Wired Balls for small Arms, 1594-1715, Journal of the Company of Military Historians,
fall 1966, 84-86
120
Peterson, M., Exploration of Historic wreck sites on the Bermuda reefs. North Atlantic Currents in Colonial Times, The 19th Annual Williamsburg Antiques Forum, January 22-February 3, 1967, 43-44
Peterson, M., Ordnance Materials Recovered from a Late Sixteenth Century Wreck Site, Military Collector
& Historian, Vol. XIX, n°1, spring 1967, 1-8
Peterson, M., Lost Gold from the Sea, Jewelers Circular Keystone, June 1967
Peterson, M., Marine Archaeology, Oceanology International, June 15, 1967
Peterson, M., Magnetic Search for Bermuda Wrecks, Explorer Journal, Vol. XLVI, 4, December 1968
Peterson, M., Treasure Hunting. Fact and Fancy, Underwater Currents (Technical Newsletter, Committee
on Man’s Under Water Activity, Marine technology Study), June 1969
Peterson, M. L., Bermuda Underwater Expedition, 1965, National Geographic Society Research Reports,
Washington D.C., 1971, 203-211
Peterson, M. L., Bermuda Underwater Expedition, 1966, National Geographic Society Research Reports,
Washington D.C., 1972, 213-218
Peterson, M. L., Underwater Archaeology, in Thomas Y. Crowell, Exploring the Ocean World, New York,
1972, 196-231
Peterson, M. L., Material from Post Fifteenth-Century Sites. In Underwater Archaeology: A nascent
Discipline, Museum and Monuments 13, UNESCO, Paris, 1972, 243-256
Peterson, M. L., Exploration of a 16th-century Bahamian Shipwreck, National Geographic Society Research
Reports, Washington D.C., 1974, 231-242
Popular feature articles:
Peterson, M. L. et al, Richest Treasure Trove. The Significance of Tucker’s Find, Life, January 9, 1956
Peterson, M. and John Ellis, Bermuda’s History under the Sea, Oceans, Vol. 1, 2, February 1969
Peterson, M. L., Mille et un Trésors sous la Route des Galions, Le Courrier de l’UNESCO, May 1972 (XXVth year), 23-27
Peterson, M. L., Reach for the New World, National Geographic, December, Vol. 152, n° 6, Washington
D.C., 1977, 724-767
Peterson, M. L., Graveyard of the Quicksilver Galleon, National Geographic, December, Vol. 156, n° 6,
Washington D.C., 1979, 850-876
Miscellaneous:
The foreword to: Link Edwin E. and Link Marion C., A new Theory on Columbus’s Voyage through the Bahamas, Smithsonian Miscellaneous Publications, Vol. 135, n°4, Washington D.C. 1958
121
THE FILMOGRAPHY OF MENDEL PETERSON
____________________________________________________________________
Most of the films shot by Mendel L. Peterson (MLP) or under his guidance concern early underwater
archaeological excavations in the waters of Bermuda, often on the vessel of Teddy Tucker, or in the waters
of the Caribbean (Haiti, Jamaica), the Bahamas and Florida, often on board SEA DIVER I, the Research
Vessel of the late Edwin A. Link.
These films have been created for the Armed Forces History Department (founded by MLP), a division
now extinct of the National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington DC.
They constitute today, the “Smithsonian Underwater Archaeology Film Collection”.
The collection consists of approximately fifty reels of black and white 16mm film (a volume of approximately 4 cubic feet). The films are on reels, some in cans.
There are also two short colour films dealing, more specifically, with conservation of ancient, sea water
soaked artefacts.
Most of the films in the collection have been made in the 1960’s, when MLP was “Curator of Underwater
Archaeology in the Division of Armed Forces History”.
There is some footage that was made for a project sponsored by the Explorers Guild and it includes the
negative of and a complete film narrated by MLP.
Finding aids, consist of a preliminary inventory of the reels.
The films have been transferred (in June 1987) from the Division of Armed Forces History of the Smithsonian Institution, to their present location in the Archives Center of the Smithsonian Institution, National
Museum of American History.
Parties interested in the films – or in the SI Archives in general – should call ahead: 202-633-5902 for an
appointment with the Keeper of the collection, or send a facsimile message to: 202-633-927, or e-mail:
[email protected].
The address is:
The Smithsonian Institution Archives
Capital Gallery Building
600 Maryland Av., SW
Suite 3000 – 3rd Floor
Washington DC 20024
USA
122
SOME BOOKS AND ARTICLES THAT CONTAIN SIGNIFICANT REFERENCES
TO MENDEL PETERSON AND HIS WORK
___________________________________________________________________
Books :
Blair, C. Jr., Diving for Pleasure and Treasure, The World Publishing Company, Cleveland Ohio, 1960
Crile, J. & B., Treasure Diving Holidays, Collins, Fontana Books, London and Glasgow, 1956
Hoek, S. van (with Link, M. Clayton), From Sky to Sea. A Story of Edwin A. Link, Best Publishing Company, Flagstaff, 1993
Link, M. Clayton., Sea Diver, Rinehart & Company, Inc., New York Toronto, 1958 (A reprint by University of Miami Press, Coral Gables, 1964)
Marx, R., Shipwrecks of the Western Hemisphere: 1492-1825, Best Publishing Company, New York, 1971
Potter J. S., The Treasure Diver’s Guide, Doubleday & Company Inc., New York, 1971
Price, B., Into the unknown. Twentieth century Explorers in action
Tucker, T., Treasure! A Diver’s Life, Capstan Publications, Hamilton, Bermuda, 2011
Journals, Magazines and Newspapers:
An., Richest Shipwreck. 200-Year Old Ruins produce Rare Historical Jackpot, Life, July 27, 1953, p. 27
An., Eighteenth Century Spanish Shipwreck explored by S.I., The Numismatist, October 1953
An., Haiti now has Two Anchors from Columbus Flagship, The Haiti Sun, June 5, 1955, 1-2
An., Smithsonian Curator Here to Review CEDAM “Booty”, The News, Mexico, D.F., September 1, 1959
An., Smithsonian Curator calls Salvaged Items “Fabulous”, News Daily, Mexico, D.F., September 3, 1959
An., Camera Explore Sunken Pirate City, Bermuda Recorder, December 5, 1959
An., The Expert back in Bermuda for New Quests, Bermuda News Pictorial, August 4, 1962, 2-3l
An., Alexandria Man Dives for Wrecks, N. Va Shopping News, November 15, 1962, 12
An., Smithsonian is Seeking to raise Spanish Wreck, The Washington Post, October 27, 1963
An., 400 Years Old Wreck here will Yield Old Ship Building Lore, The Royal Gazette (Bermuda), August
15, 1964
An., Discovery of New Cache of Underwater Artifacts in the Reefs Revealed, The Royal Gazette (Bermuda),
September 18, 1964
An., Obituary, Pendleton Times, September 31, 2003
An., In Memoriam. Mendel L. Peterson 1918-2003, The INA Quarterly, Vol. 30.3, Fall 2003
Barnes, B., Smithsonian’s Mendel Peterson Dies, The Washington Post, August 28, 2003
Buel, M. S., Historian in a Diving Mask, The Washington Star Sunday Supplement, 1955
Heller, D. A., Finding History under the Sea, Natural History, November 1955, 492-495
International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 2, n°2, 1973 (Reference to MLP’s lecture titled “Early
American Trade and Treasure”, for the “4th International Conference on Underwater Archaeology” at St.
Paul, Minnesota)
International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 5, n°3, 1976, 263 (A report on the “7th International
Conference on Underwater Archaeology” of the 7-11 January 1976 in Philadelphia, mentioning MLP’s
lecture titled “Humour in the American Revolution”)
Jones, B., A Folding Navy Dress Hat Lured Him to Probe Deep, Northern Virginia Sun, November 27,
1959
Jones, B., Secret of the ‘Looe’ Unlock Undersea by Historian Diver, Northern Virginia Sun, November 28,
1959
Kent, J., Teddy’s Wrecks Detective Friend Dies, Mid-Ocean News, Bermuda, August 29, 2003
123
Laybourne, R., Mendel Peterson (Obituary), The Torch, October 2003, 2 (Monthly newspaper for Smithsonian Institution Staff)
Link, M., Exploring the Drowned City of Port Royal, The National Geographic Magazine, Vol. 117, 2,
February 1960, 151-183
Lorant, M., Earliest Identifiable Shipwreck in the Western Hemisphere, The Nautical Magazine (UK), May
1964, 283-284
Rosenfeld, S., “Columbus” Anchor given Smithsonian, Washington Post & Times Herald, August 5, 1960
Smith, O. J., Treasure Hunters Make New Finds off Florida Keys, Washington Post & Times Herald, June
1, 1953
124
ULTIMA RATIO REGUM
(The Last Argument of the Kings)
____________________________________________________________________
“Cannons literally point to a wreck-site…”
When he wrote these words, very early in his career, at a time he was mostly interested in the wrecks of
ships of the colonial period, lost in the waters of the Americas, Mendel Peterson was focusing on his own
early reasons for forming plans to study every cannon or mortar exhibited in all Army or Naval museums
in the world.
For cannons do not point only to a wreck-site, they point also to the identity of the wreck and to its history.
And too much more.
Often, cannons are the only visible evidence that a wreck exists. Once it is discovered, it is the cannons
again that help salvors or archaeologists to establish the size, type and approximate date of the ship. Of
course, there are today other ways of identifying and dating, sometimes more precisely, a just discovered
wreck. But at the time Peterson began his underwater career, the chronological typology of glass bottles, of
smoking pipes and of other datable artefacts was not what it has become, for he, himself, was to be largely
responsible for establishing and publishing that kind of information.
More important yet, such objects are usually found either broken in many pieces and eroded by the sand
or, if intact, at the very bottom of cracks in the rocks, deep under a layer of sand, or mud that will take
weeks to remove. Cannons, on the contrary, are usually on top of the pile and easily recovered for examination by whoever can understand the marks and clues.
Of course, coins can be the other prime informers, since they are always either dated or easily datable and
the “key coin” sets once and for all, a terminus ad quem. But again, it is invariably the case that the coins
are either embedded in hard-as-rock accretions, or deeply buried in sand or mud, or stuck deep in some
crack or crevice, so that they are found in the last days only of the excavation and after weeks or months of
digging and searching on, possibly, the wrong wreck.
Or else, the alternative case is that the coins, if unprotected on a sandy bottom, will turn out to be completely corroded, erased and made unreadable for having been shuffled around as dead leaves in the wind,
during several centuries of perpetual heavy surf and occasional strong gales.
But cannons – naval guns or field guns – as Mendel soon understood, have an immensely wider historical
significance. They are more than tellers of wreck stories, they can tell us a lot also about History, in general
and that is why, for a good thirty years, Mendel Peterson learned the finer points of their language.
It is our cannons that made our history. Charles de Gaulle wrote: “L’Histoire de la France s’est faite par
l’épée” but he was a poet and what he really meant was “The History of France was made by the cannon”.
(Cannons that in his military philosophy of the time and as explained in his early books should have been
on the turrets of the tanks of the armoured divisions that he had tirelessly and unsuccessfully advocated in
the years before WWII.)
Cannon are “Ultima Ratio Regum”, “The Last Argument of the Kings”, the argument that settles it all,
between enemy rulers or between commercially competing nations after everything else has failed: Diplomacy, bribery and negotiations, influence and shoulders swaying, threats and ultimatums.
And what could tell History better than the instrument that made it?
125
ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF THE
MENDEL L. PETERSON
ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF ARTILLERY
____________________________________________________________________
A WORD OF ADVICE
The following pages ARE NOT required reading for the casual reader or for the diving archaeologist intent
only on identifying, quickly, a just discovered naval cannon. Neither are these pages immediate required
reading for the serious student or expert. The purpose of the following pages, in the name again of the allimportant respect of the sources, is to leave a permanent trace of the way the Mendel L. Peterson’s (MLP’s)
archives were physically “conditioned” at the time they reached this Editor’s hands in Bermuda.
That way, it must be pointed out, is not necessarily the exact way, in which MLP had organized his archives
in his own office or library, before they had to be moved from Virginia, USA, to Bermuda. Unavoidably,
any complicated removal process creates disturbances. Neither is it, perhaps, the way he would have
wished them to remain permanently organized after his days.
Furthermore, the physical arrangement of the MLP’s archives upon their arrival and as described in the
pages hereafter, has had to be considerably modified by this Editor in the process of preparing the documents for publication.
The following pages in conclusion will provide some trace at least of the general, early organization of
MLP’s archives as chosen by him – with the restrictions as explained above. This is done, as one does, for
the benefit of any editor or exegete of the future, who would wish to proceed to a deeper, more thorough
study of the material, in view of a “reinterpretation” of the MLP’s archives.
*
* *
The reader will find in the biography of Mendel Peterson, the story of the genesis of the very idea to
produce an Encyclopaedia or illustrated dictionary of the marks and decoration that can be found on a
cannon. Originally, as we have seen, the purpose was to identify a newly discovered wreck by way of identifying its cannons through their peculiar inscriptions, symbols and decoration, etc. But very soon, as we
have seen also, the importance of cannons, as informants has grown exponentially in MLP’s mind as he
was realizing that artillery is also one of the best indicators of the forces that caused History to be what it
has been in the whole world, during the age of artillery.
For those, who have not yet read the biography, it should be briefly explained also that the MLP’s Encyclopaedia is the quintessence of the Mendel Peterson’s archives, which themselves are the product of the
life-long interest of a brilliant and enterprising scholar for artillery history. The artillery of the “ships of
force” (or armed vessels) as found on the wrecks of such ships (at a time where every merchant ship of
importance had to be armed like a warship), was his favorite subject. Not being an office man, but rather
an adventurer, MLP became one of the very first diving archaeologists.
In early 1980, Mendel Peterson wrote:
127
“For the past 28 years I have been researching the markings28 on bronze and iron cannons and have examined every major collection in the world, with the exception of Leningrad… I have collected some 4,000
photographs of marks and all-over shots… one day, if I ever have some clerical help; I hope to publish an
Encyclopaedia of marking and decoration on muzzle loading artillery…”
Mendel never saw his hopes realized, but his friends have realized his hopes, as a tribute to his memory.
What we shall call “The Peterson archives and notes” are but a part of the information resulting from his
fifty years (and more) of study of marks and decoration on cannons and mortars, etc., they are the part
that he constituted at his home from the beginning and the part that he took away with him when he left
his Smithsonian office. There remains in the archives of the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, DC a
comparably voluminous amount of material, which however, is less directly concerned with the history of
artillery and more generally referring to all the other artefacts that can be found on a wreck and that could
help to identify it, as well as, naturally, with his administrative work as a Museum Department Curator.
The Editor, obviously, has made use of all documents contained in both sources.
When first brought to my scrutiny in Hamilton, Bermuda, the material, which constitutes today the “Peterson archives and notes” had been packed for transportation from Virginia, USA, in 23 cardboard boxes
(sizes from large to extra-large) and various types of other packages.
The boxes contained the following raw material:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
A large number of green cloth-bound, loose-leaf albums of captioned black and white
photographs.
A number of gray cardboard filing cabinets containing file cards with or without a photograph, and/or photographs pasted on captioned envelopes.
Field notes and lists of rolls of negatives with a systematic reference system linking each roll
with a batch of photographs.
Countless more loose photographs, often with their negative and a number of duplicates, as
well as hundreds of loose color slides.
A number of large, yellow Kodak photo-printing paper boxes (reused) containing a number
of loose and/or carefully prepared series of photographs. These were apparently prepared in
view of publication.
Numerous books on the subject of ancient artillery and catalogues of artillery, naval and military museums.
Miscellaneous documents, some having little connection with artillery.
Etc.
Generally speaking, the state of conservation of the photographs and the documents was very good. There
was no damage due to water or dampness, with very few exceptions, and no damage at all due to rodents,
worms, etc. The photographs are all of good, publishable quality, and sharp (with very few exceptions).
The first action taken by the Editor was to refrain from any hasty attempt at reclassification or at putting
some kind of order in what appeared at first sight to be in disorder. On the contrary, the Editor’s main
concern was to respect his sources and to maintain, as far as at all possible, the original organization and
classification (or apparent lack of it) of the documents as decided for reasons of his own by the person
128
28 Mendel Peterson appears to have used indiscriminately the words “marking” and “mark”. This Editor prefers to call
“marking” the process during which “marks” are made on any material support such as cannons, or on any abstract notion,
etc.;
who produced and/or gathered and organized them. One exception was the reclassification of some obviously misplaced items, such as books and/or groups of photographs, which were quite obviously put in the
wrong box, at the time of the last packing for the removal, in order to take advantage of the last available
space. The Editor, has thought himself authorized, to group in special boxes, previously scattered books on
ancient artillery, complete sets of photographs and photocopies (texts and plates) of a number of extremely
rare, hard to find treaties of artillery. As well as combining, a fine collection of catalogues of museums and
of artillery collections, which were previously spread haphazardly, obviously, as a result of the latest move
of the archives.
Finally, a small number of documents totally unrelated to artillery, underwater archaeology, or history have
been extracted and put aside.
THE CONTENTS OF THE MLP ARCHIVES AND NOTES
The contents, which are hereafter described in some detail, were found to include the following types of
documents in the following type of presentation, temporarily filed, packed, or wrapped, as explained:
The so-called “Large Green Albums” (LGAs)
•
•
•
•
•
•
These are 16 green cloth, bound cardboard albums about 4 to 8 cm thick and 22 x 27cm,
containing black and white photographs of artillery pieces. In most cases photographs are
captioned and dated, with either summary or, sometimes, detailed notes and comments.
The photographs were made in or gathered in some 20 countries and show the collections of
over 52 museums, fortresses, forts, barracks, public places, squares, ramparts, etc.
The photographs show all or, probably, most of the significant cannons at each location, regardless of their country of origin. They consist in overall shots and close-ups of any mark,
decoration or peculiar detail, which could constitute a clue to the identification of the piece.
MLP obviously, wherever he went, took great care to enable the future reader of his work to
locate the guns in the place where they were on display.
The photographs are of small size (6 x 6 to 9 x 12cm.) and glued to the removable pages (with
three perforations), which are made of a light cardboard.
There are from 80 to 150 photos or more in each album. There are also pages with only notes
and descriptions of some other cannons with the mention in that case: “no photograph”.
The photographs in the green albums constitute a pictorial inventory of the collections that existed in the
following countries, at the time MLP visited the museums29 :
BOX 1– USA30
• USA NORTH (1 vol.) – The volume appears complete.
• USA SOUTH (1 vol.) – As above.
• WEST POINT + NEWBERRY (1 vol.) – As above. The reasons why these two collections are
separate from the above category are unclear. The original distinction has been maintained.
• WASHINGTON DC (2 vol.) – As above. These two volumes contain original field notes that
have been used to complete or double check the captions.
• CANADA (1 vol.) – As above.
29 In the present description, the albums of photographs are not presented in any particular order but as they have been
packed for transportation before delivery to Bermuda.
30 As explained above, the photographs in this album show not only cannons made in America or used by the American
Army or Navy, but guns of all provenances now kept in the area.
129
•
•
•
•
•
•
WEST INDIES + MEXICO (1 vol.) – These two collections are in all respect unconnected.
They seem to have been put together in one volume to make full use of a folder’s space. They
have been, exceptionally, separated in two volumes by this Editor.
WEST INDIES (1 vol.) – Under this title are photographs from Haiti (black and white photographs + color postcards), a rather large number of photographs, which are made all the more
valuable because many of those cannons, no longer exist. The metal value of the bronze being
what it is and Haiti being what it is, the bronze cannons that were once in public squares and
some at least of the cannons of the Citadel of King Christophe, are no more.
CUBA (1 vol.) – Black and white photographs mostly, from the Castle of El Morro and the local
museum.
JAMAICA (1 vol.) – Black and white photographs, often with much detailed notes concerning
the origin of the pieces. Includes detailed information concerning the provenance of a number
of cannons, which have been recovered from known or unknown wrecks.
MEXICO (1 vol.) – Some white and black photographs.
BAHAMAS + JAMAICA (2 vol.) – For the sake of simplification, the series of photographs,
showing the guns currently in Jamaica, have been moved by this Editor to the West Indies volume. The photographs of the Bahamas part of this volume come with a number of negatives.
BOX 2
• SWITZERLAND
• Geneva + Basle (1 vol.) – Contains also, original field notes and negatives.
• Zurich (1 vol.) – As above.
• Bern (1 vol.) – As above.
• GERMANY
• Munich + Nuremberg (1 vol.) – Contains also, field notes and negatives.
• DENMARK
• Copenhagen (3 vol.) – Vol. 1 as above. Vol. 2, as above. Vol. 3 contains: nil.
• NORWAY
• Oslo (1 vol.) – Contains also, notes and negatives.
• SWEDEN
• Stockholm31 (3 vol.) – Vol. 1: Army Museum. Contains photographs, but, no notes or negatives. Vol. 2: Army Museum. Contains notes and negatives. Vol. 3: Maritime Museum.
Contains notes and negatives.
BOX 3
• UK
• Woolwich (3 vol.) – Under this title are all the photographs taken in the “Rotunda Museum”
and on the nearby grounds in the open. Vol. 1: Black and white photographs, postcards,
etc., also, 136 contact prints from 35mm negatives and some 100 black and white photographs without captions, notes or negatives. Vol. 2: Photographs without notes or negatives.
Vol. 3: Contains field notes.
• Tower of London (2 vol.) – Vol. 1: Contains no notes or negatives. Vol. 2: As above.
• England + Scotland (1 vol.) – Contains also, field notes and spare prints. Under the title
“England and Scotland” were only photographs apparently coming from mostly other UK
collections.
• FRANCE
• Paris “Hotel des Invalides” (1 vol.) – Contains no field notes or negatives. The MLP volume
31 There are also a number of separately organized photographs and documents concerning the wreck of the VASA and its
artillery.
131
•
•
on the cannons in France appears to be the weakest of them all. Indeed it contains no photographs of any of the main naval museums of France: The Musées de la Marine of Paris, Brest,
Rochefort-sur-Mer and Toulon (+ in MLP’s days the one in Bordeaux). There are only a few
photographs of cannons in Nice (at the Bellanda Tower or “Tour des Ponchettes”).
BELGIUM
• Brussels (1 vol.) – Photographs from the former “Musée de la Porte de Hal” and the “Musée
de l’Armée (Musées Royaux du Cinquantenaire)”. Contains notes and negatives.
ITALY
• Venice (1 vol.) – Navy Museum + Museo Correr. Contains also, field notes and negatives.
BOX 4
• ITALY (continuation of BOX 3)
• Turin (formerly in Savoy) (2 vol.) – Most photographs from the “Museo Nazionale
d’Artigleria”. Contains photographs + black and white postcards. Vol. 1: contains notes
and negatives. Vol. 2: As above.
• Rome - A few disorganized photographs, some pasted, no captions, no notes, no negatives.
• Naples – As above.
• SPAIN
• Barcelona (1 vol.) – Contains also, negatives and field notes.
• Madrid (2 vol.) – Vol. 1: “Museo del Ejercito Español”. Contains, no negatives or field
notes. Vol. 2: “Museo del Ejercito Español”. As above.
• PORTUGAL
• Lisbon “Museo Militar” (4 vol.) – Vol. 1: Contains also field notes. Vol. 2: Contains, no
field notes or negatives. Vol. 3: As above. Vol. 4: The captions are completed by the pages
extracted from the then museum catalogue and pasted next to the corresponding photographs.
• Lisbon Marine Museum (sic for the Belem Marine Museum) + The St John Castle (1 vol.) –
Contains negatives + field notes.
BOX 4 BIS
• AUSTRIA
• Vienna - The numerous photographs from Austria, in fact from Vienna only, are of exceptional interest. The photographs are not organized and pasted in an album, contrary to most
other cases, but they are well ordered and ready to be pasted in an album.
Also 3 large yellow Kodak boxes referred to hereafter as “yellow boxes”. The collection here consists of
thousands of excellent black and white photographs of great interest + the corresponding rolls of negatives,
some of which are identified on the back with a letter and a number referring to the rolls of negatives.
Unfortunately there are no field notes to otherwise explain the correlation system. There is no catalogue
of the museum.
132
BOX 4 TER (Contains more green albums)
• ALBUM 1 - HEAVY ORDNANCE GREAT GUNS - Contains nothing of the sort in spite
of the title. Contains photographs of miscellaneous ordinary cannons, carriages, etc.
• ALBUM 2 - Contains a collection of original pages of The Illustrated London News (19th century). These have been selected for the plates, being engravings with miscellaneous military
and/or artillery related subjects.
• ALBUM 3 – More pages of The Illustrated London News + photocopies and notes on miscellaneous army related subjects.
• ALBUM 4 – A number of photographs + captions and notes from the Venice Arsenal, the
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Brussels “Porte de Hal” Museum, from Basle, from the Paris “Musée des Invalides”, etc. These
photographs have been possibly selected and made ready to be used to complete existing albums (?)
ALBUM 5 – More original pages from The Illustrated London News, also from the Graphic
(both 19th century), artillery and army related subjects.
ALBUM 6.1 - Contains photographs, correspondence and miscellaneous illustration material
concerning bar-shot and sliding short, chain-shot and the like.
ALBUM 6.2 - As above + a number of loose notes, illustrations and photos related sometimes
to the above subjects.
ALBUM 7 – CANTON “MALPAS SITE” (refers to a wreck located in Bermuda, by the Bermudian divers, Donald Canton and Brian Malpas) BERMUDA 1577. GUNS – Contains a
series of photographs not clearly identified.
ALBUM 8 – CAPTAIN COOK’S CANNONS – This concerns the guns of the ENDAVOUR
lost on Great Barrier Reef, Australia. It consists of photographs, correspondence, explanatory
notes and a résumé of the history of the discovery of the wreck.
ALBUM 9 – This album should have been filed next to the other Italian museums, Naples
and Museo St. Martin. It contains photographs, envelopes + field notes and negatives.
ALBUM 10 – Contains photographs of plates of the Grande Encyclopédie concerning gun
founding.
ALBUM 11 – FOUNDERS AND FOUNDRIES – Contains inter alia a list of gun founders
(typed), 14th to 19th century, worldwide. This would appear to be an original compilation,
but there are also photocopies of a number of published books on the subject of gun foundries
and gun casting.
BOX 5
• THE NETHERLANDS
• Amsterdam (1 vol.) – Contains uncaptioned photographs with cryptic references in the back;
no field notes or negatives.
• Leiden (1 vol.) – Contains, next to the photographs, a large amount of field notes and negatives.
• ITALY (Continuation of ).
The following green albums do not contain any more geographically arranged collections of photographs
of cannons, but refer to miscellaneous collections or miscellaneous subjects:
• N°132 - Miscellaneous collections of photographs of guns and gun marks (not in a green album, but in a white box) – Contains numerous photographs, drawings, photographs and engravings and/or scale drawings of miscellaneous types of guns of miscellaneous provenances.
Also, notes on British gun founders and especially on their marks and correspondence (19331968) on the subjects with various experts and/or retired officers. Also, contains notes on the
French guns at Annapolis.
• N°2 – This and all following numbers of BOX 5 refer to green albums - Green folder marked
“MISCELLANEOUS 2” not otherwise numbered or titled. Also, contains more illustrations
and photographs from the Graphic referring to artillery.
• GUN FOUNDERS – The so titled green album is the first one of a series of similar folders and brown boxes concerning gun founders and gun founding in general and mostly the
bronze gun foundry of the Board of Ordnance of the Royal Navy at Woolwich near London.
This is a massive series, which contains over 1,200 pages of carefully selected extracts of the
“Minutes of the Board of Ordnance Woolwich”. These minutes reflect the everyday activities of
32
This internal numeration is the Editor’s not MLP’s.
133
the members of the Royal Navy Board of Ordnance at Woolwich and in particular the events
concerned with the gun foundry and the daily activities of the members of the Board of Trade,
in connection with gun founding.33
BOX 5 contains also miscellaneous documents and correspondence on various aspects of the same subject:
• N°4 Part 2 – MINUTES OF THE BOARD OF ORDNANCE, WOOLWICH 1775-1786
– Contains, namely, a list of 32 Royal Navy ships and copies of correspondence relating to
their armament. Important and original information.
• N°5 – As above with lists of the same ships corresponding to the same period. In great part,
a duplicate of the above.
• N°6 – Refers to various subjects - Contains copies of correspondence and also of several articles or papers, research notes and copies of the “Calendar of State Papers” for the same period.
Very much unorganized.
BOX 6
This box contains 7 thick brown cardboard folders (5 to 6cm.) containing numerous photocopies or copies
of the daily records and correspondence of the Board of Ordnance (Minutes, 1772 to 1783).
BOX 7
Contains 3 more brown light cardboard boxes filled with hundreds of pages of more copies of more
entries from the daily records of the Board of Ordnance (the Minutes of the BO) for the last quarter of
the 18th century.
The same box also contains a number of smaller size (14 x 23cm.) green albums of photographs (no connection with the BO) on the following subjects as originally titled. These are what we shall call the “Small
Green Albums” or SGAs34. They concern:
• CANNON MARKING – Being inscriptions or devices with date and sometimes mention
of the name and nationality of the cannon’s founder. Mostly close-up photos. This seems to
be classified according to the various features considered as means of the identification of the
cannons on which they appear.
• CANNON WEIGHT MARKS – BARREL NUMBERS.
• CANNON MARKS – COATS OF ARMS.
• CANNON DATE MARKS – Classified on this occasion by nationality.
• CANNON BREECH AND MUZZLE PROFILES.
• CANNON SPECIAL DECORATIVE EFFECTS.
• CANNONS LETTERS AND INSCRIPTIONS ON GUNS.
• MISCELLANEOUS – The complete, original chapter “Fonderie des Canons” with the 25
plates and their captions, the explanations and the general introduction from “L’Encyclopédie
ou Dictionnaire Raisonné des Arts et des Métiers” of Denis Diderot. These are actually original
pages torn from an original copy of the original “Encyclopédie”.
• A REPORT ON THE EXCAVATION OF PORT ROYAL JAMAICA – Refers to the work
of Ed Link to which MLP was closely associated.
BOX 8
Contains a very valuable collection of catalogues of military, naval and artillery museums.
33
134
The eventual publication on Internet of this important mass of selected information is being considered for the future.
34 These SGAs are of the greatest interest since they indicate how MLP was actually planning to one day publish his Encyclopaedia of Cannon marks, etc., as a specific tool for cannon identification to be used by students and researchers.
BOX 9
•
•
•
BOX 10
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
TURIN (1 big yellow Kodak box) – Contains about 200 black and white photographs carefully marked and related to the corresponding negatives. Same correlation apparently used
also on field notes to relate photographs to field notes.
LISBON (1 big yellow Kodak box) – As above. Several hundred photographs, details of guns
and miscellaneous artillery related subjects.
COPENHAGEN (1 big yellow Kodak box) – As above.
WOOLWICH GUNS (2 big yellow Kodak boxes).
TOWER OF LONDON GUNS (2 big yellow Kodak boxes).
GUNS IN VARIOUS PLACES + miscellaneous related subjects (1 big yellow Kodak box).
SYMBOLS ON GUNS, INSCRIPTIONS ON GUNS, MISCELLANEOUS FEATURES
USEABLE FOR IDENTIFICATION (1 grey cardboard filing box hereafter to be called
“grey box”) - Contains photographs.
COPENHAGEN. CONTACT PRINTS (1 grey box) - A mass of loose photographs some
taped together and marked.
NUMERALS MADRID (1 grey box) – All the photographs inside the box actually loose,
scattered, unmarked and of difficult identification since they are totally un-referenced. It
appears however that these may be in part or mostly duplicates of photographs, which are
identified in other places (?).
2 brown Manila envelopes, one marked ILLUSTRATIONS (sic) containing each, hundreds
of 6 x 9cm. photographs unmarked or un-referenced.
2 more large brown Manila envelopes containing photographs of one or several of SEA DIVER I’s expeditions and showing Ed and Marion Link in action in Haiti, on the Silver Shoals,
in the Florida Keys and apparently at Port Royal, Jamaica (early 1950s). More of the same
showing Ed and Marion link, their sons, the SEA DIVER, the place where they worked,
other divers, underwater operations with diving gear of the time and metal detectors, as well
as some recovered guns or artefacts. With some short-hand written identification marks by
Marion Link.
CONTACT COPENHAGEN. LAST SHOTS (another Manila envelope) - Contains photos and prints. Some prints however from the TOWER OF LONDON(?)
STOCKHOLM. (1 grey box, a card filing box used here for its original purpose) – Contains
prints and negatives. Several hundred photographs, contents, as per label.
MOULDINGS (OF IRON GUNS) AND OTHER IDENTIFYING MARKS (another
similar grey box) – Contains index cards and/or envelopes with photographs pasted on the
cover, referring to the subject. About 80 photos in well identified envelopes.
FISHES OF Pa (1894) (another Manila envelope) – Contains in fact photographs of all kinds
of guns and artillery-related subjects, mostly un-referenced or referenced under a code yet to
be understood.
BOX 11
• VENICE. (1 envelope) – Contains several dozens of photographs (9 x 12cm.) not identified or
referenced.
• Some loose, completely estranged field notes.
• A grey box not labeled – Contains well organized and identified photographs on various
aspects of gun identification (examples of guns inscribed with their metal composition for
instance, or with their own name or the owner’s name, or the motto of the owner, etc.). Also
many filing cards, cards prepared with descriptions of guns identifiable particularity but no
photographs attached. NB: This box is organized as the true filing box, which it is.
135
•
•
•
•
•
About 100 large size Manila envelopes with a photo pasted on the cover and containing
prints, duplicates and/or negatives. The references are both to places or museums for which
there already exists a “finished” album such as Haiti, Mexico, etc. and on the other hand,
places like Rome or Naples for instance, for which, no album had been made by MLP.
Groups of photographs carefully clipped together, which appear to be prepared pages for
forthcoming albums for places as Monaco, Rome, Florence and Salzburg, many being
planned additions to existing albums (probably the case of Woolwich) or prepared photographs that have been in the end eliminated.
An envelope with about 100 photographs from Paris.
An envelope with photographs of cannon small scale models. (There are other series of photographs of small scale cannon models, including one from the Museo Correr in Venice.)
Hundreds of Woolwich negatives + duplicated prints (a large Kodak box).
BOX 12 (Miscellaneous box)
• Contains a bit of everything, including prepared pages for albums of various places, countless
loose photographs and/or color slides, mostly un-referenced, tracings of marks, drawings, correspondence, miscellaneous notes, inquiries made and/or received, photographs identified as
from Leiden, Basle, Oslo, etc. Also, numerous excellent photographs of plates (engravings),
or of un-referenced ancient treaties on artillery.
• Filing cards with descriptions of cannons but without photographs or concerning individual
gun founders or gun founding companies (1 grey box).
• Clipped or bundled and identified photographs of guns at Southampton, Nice, Monaco,
Oslo, etc. (1 grey box).
• Filing cards and no photos, concerns exclusively guns that are dated (1 grey box).35
• EVOLUTION OF NAVAL ARTILLERY (1 reused brown box) – Slides from, apparently, a
lecture. Includes some tracings, etc. of marks on canons with notes.
• About 600 color slides (1 red box) – The colors well preserved36, all well described, concerning
naval artillery.
• SHIPS SUNKEN OR LOST IN THE GREAT LAKES (Canada/USA) (1 grey box) – An
alphabetical cardboard file of well-organized filing cards. This piece of work seems to be carefully done and looks impressive. Its originality or accuracy has not been checked. May be a
copy of some existing list (?)
• TUBE PROFILES OF BRONZE CANNONS (1 grey box) - An important collection of
photographs, all clearly described, dated and identified. The profile of the tube is considered
here, as one of the first important features of any yet to be identified piece of artillery.
BOX 13
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ART ON ARTILLERY- The manuscript of an unpublished book by MLP (2 blue boxes) - This
book project seems to be one of the other interests of Peterson: The decoration on cannons
not seen any more, as an identification tool, but as an art form. It is apparently a final draft.
A bit of everything (1 blue box) - Color slides + black and white photographs, prepared album
pages, notes, photocopies of all possible kinds of documents concerning all possible aspects of
artillery and small arms. The slides are precisely identified and referenced. The photographs
are not.
Miscellaneous papers, notes, correspondence, etc. (1 blue box) – Concerns all aspects
of artillery.
Very useful.
36 It is well known that the Kodachrome color slides keep their original colors for a very long time whereas the Ektachrome color slides do not and become purple after a few years.
BOX 14
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Some 600 color slides well described and identified (1 red box) – Concerns naval artillery
(might have been prepared for a lecture or a series of lectures?)
•
The 18 x 24cm. excellent photographs of apparently all the plates of the excellent Treaty ARTIGLERIA VENETA, Venice, 1779. (1 Kodak yellow box)
A number of photographs of Indian made bronze mortars (well referenced).
Dozens of loose or bundled, but un-referenced photographs of miscellaneous cannons or
mortars, ancient and/or 19th century.
“GUN MARKS, FILMS AND PRINTS TO BE SORTED” (1 Kodak yellow box) – Contains in fact 41 large Manila envelopes with only black and white 35mm. negatives, the provenance of which is indicated. The provenance is from everywhere, including some of the cities
to which the ready albums are devoted.
A large number of 9 x 12cm. photographs of a trip to Spain (1 Kodak yellow box) – Includes
a personal voyage, Madrid to Bilbao. Photographs are of guns, fortresses and/or of tourist
interest only.
Miscellaneous photographs of guns with details of same.
300 more photographs not identified and some marked MARINER’S MUSEUM.
Photographs of artefacts recovered from the wreck, L’HERMINIE.
A group of field notes and photos marked NAPLES.
A number of important photos of gunner’s tools.
2 small Kodak 35mm., cylindrical metal negative boxes marked, MADRID AND ANNAPOLIS, but empty.
An important letter by MLP to Major John W. Huston (already referred to) containing important information on an extremely rare English gun, perhaps the oldest identified gun
known in American collections (the Owen’s gun).
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BOX 15
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BOX 16
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A number of original pages taken from The Illustrated London News and the Graphic, all featuring plates with artillery or military subjects.
A publication (illustrated) on THE BURMESE GUNS FROM MANDALAY (anecdotic but
interesting).
NEGATIVES + “PHOTOS TO SORT” (1 Kodak yellow box) – Contains in fact a number
of negatives and black and white photos, clearly identified and referenced, from all over the
world, as well as some field notes referring to the same. The same box contains also, Turin
negatives.
A large number of 9 x 12cm. photographs, some bundled and identified, others not.
Some color photographs of details of marks and decoration of guns.
An additional large number of A4 Manila envelopes (as in BOX 11) with photos posted on
the cover and negatives and duplicates inside.
Miscellaneous letters and field notes relative to guns, with photos.
A carbon copy of an alphabetical list of GUN FOUNDERS 14TH-15th CENTURIES, which
may possibly be, in parts, just a copy of the already mentioned similar list.
TUBE PROFILES OF IRON GUNS, OF SWIVEL GUNS, OF MORTARS AND OF
HOWITZERS + DETAILS OF TRUNNIONS AND CARRIAGES (1 grey box) - Numerous envelopes with descriptive inscriptions and photographs inside, as well as many envelopes
so inscribed, but empty. A box well organized, but the work left unfinished. The missing
photographs are possibly to be found in some of the other, disorganized bundles…
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BOX 17
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BOX 18
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BOX 19
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FOUNDER’S MARKS – INSCRIPTIONS (1 grey box) – Some system of organized information as above in large size Manila envelopes. It is a well-organized filing box; the work here
is well advanced. Half of the inscriptions relate to the subject on the label, but there is also
another alphabetical, filing of PROOF MARKS AND INSPECTOR’S MARKS (bronze +
iron) and another titled FOUNDER’S MARKS AND SIGNATURES (bronze). These refer
to all countries indistinctively. There are some empty envelopes, but many descriptive filing
cards are already prepared although not associated to an envelope.
NUMBERS (1 grey box) – System of filing as above. This box contains sub-categories,
such as DATES (iron and bronze), RATE MARKS, CALIBRE MARKS, POUNDAGE, also
RANGE MARKS, TUBES (OR BATTERY) NUMBERS, SERIAL NUMBERS, and finally
OTHER NUMBERS. This work has been interrupted while in progress, since there are
many filing cards not yet related to any photos.
Hundreds of 6 x 9cm. black and white photos (1 green box) – Well organized, referenced and
the subject clearly described with the provenance: TOWER OF LONDON, ANNAPOLIS,
WP (for West Point presumably), COPENHAGEN and MADRID.
BADGES AND COATS OF ARMS (1 green box) – Contains large Manila envelopes, with
photographs of coats of arms of Kings and Princes, badges of officials, government bodies
coats of arms (alphabetically ordered), etc. There are no empty envelopes here, indicating that
this part of the work was well advanced or nearly finished.
DECORATION, HANDLES, CASCABLES (1 green box) – very well organized. Contents
as per the label and referring to both iron and bronze artillery. However, other subjects include vents (i.e. touch-holes). Contains a carbon copy of a list of GUN FOUNDERS.
A number of small, flat color slides Kodak boxes (1 light blue box) – The slides, which are Kodachrome, are well conserved, the colors bright as new and have not turned purplish, as most
of the Ektachrome do. They are of guns from St. Augustine, Florida, marked 1781, from Salt
Lake City, and from Quebec and Louisbourg, Canada.
Photographs marked CANNONS CHAS. S.C. 1981.
5 loose slides well identified (US and Canada cannons).
A few black and white 9 x 12cm. photographs, many of them being duplicates, and negatives
of miscellaneous guns in some museums.
A roll and black and white negatives marked FROM MARCO.37
About 300 medium size Manila envelopes 13 x 18cm. (1 large yellow box) – Some are prepared and labeled but still empty the others contain photographs of details for identification
of cannons. In this case all photographs are carefully identified and referenced on their envelope. There are all types of marks, inscriptions, decoration, parts of the canon, etc., with the
provenance of the gun and its date. Very valuable information.
C. 250 envelopes as above (1 large yellow box) – Contain more of the same.
Labelled “CANNON PHOTOS. MISCELLANEOUS. TO SORT” (1 large yellow box) –
c. 100 similar envelopes containing more of the same, but also a few envelopes marked “TO
IDENTIFY”, but bearing the origin of the photographed guns.
PHOTOS UNDERWATER OBJECTS, ETC. “TO SORT” (1 yellow box) – Contains hundreds of photos of artefacts, many of which are duplicates. Some photographs bear the name
Marco Marin was at one time hired by MLP as a photographer. In 1973, he sent a postcard from Florence.
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of the wreck on which the artefacts have been found. Example: SAN ANTONIO + Some
bundles identified as HARRY COX. COPPER POINT SITE PLUS TREASURE SITE C
155038 + A series of high quality reproductions in small format photographs of underwater
operations on various wrecks excavated by Mel Fisher, Teddy Tucker or at Port Royal, etc.,
also a number of artefacts from the same origin, also many duplicates and captioned photos from a wreck museum (?)39. Two photographs of Edwin Link. Some photos marked
NATIONAL MUSEUM of Port Royal. Loose photographs, some summarily identified as
MADRID. Several batches of photos showing iron guns and objects being treated for conservation. A number of 6 x 6cm. negatives on miscellaneous subjects. Not all photographs in
this box are related to artillery.
CANON MARKS PHOTOS (1 large yellow box) – Contains another 200 well identified
envelopes with photos inside.
“TO SORT” (1 large yellow box) – Means in this case that the photographs concerned are
to be sorted between named series of identification material such as cascables, coats of arms,
touch-holes, numbers, etc., all of which subjects are represented in the box. Probably some
planned addenda to the SGA’s.
BOX 20
SAN JOSE PROJECT (1 blue plastic filing cabinet box) – Contains 8 blue sub-files with correspondence,
etc., concerning the Deep Quest Project, also files concerning tools, conservation, the Colombian government policy concerning wreck-hunters, diver’s orientation, objects recognition, etc. Also a National
Geographic article by George Bass, at al., titled NEW TOOLS FOR UNDERWATER ARCHAEOLOGY
(1968). Also a collection of documents concerning the battle of May 28, 1708 between Cdr. Wager squadron and the Spanish galleon SAN JOSE (with flota) off Cartagena.
BOX 21
SAN JOSE PROJECT (another blue plastic filing cabinet box) – Contains general information and documentation on some 40 wrecks “still to be found”, dating from the 17th to the 19th century. Also some
shipwrecks narratives and photographs of wreck artefacts of the 19th century that are not identified (some
photographs bear the mention “Bertrand”?).
BOX 22
More books, papers and photocopies of ancient treaties on artillery, etc. Also of books about conservation
of iron, about metallurgy, as it refers to gun founding, etc. To be part of a future MLP’s library.
BOX 23
As above. Contains books the subjects of which are not related to artillery but to other interests of MLP,
including identification of all artefacts from wrecks, even artefacts not related to artillery, such as bottles
and the like. Subjects also include the anchors of the SANTA MARIA (the lost caravel of Christopher
Columbus), reports on excavations at Port Royal, the conservation of iron, the iron industry in general,
etc. To be included in a future MLP’s library.
Final comment on the MLP’s archives:
Having made a first inventory of the contents of Mendel Peterson’s archives, as above described and having
glanced, briefly, while doing so, at some of the documents that constitute the archives, it was my opinion
as a would-be Editor (at the time), that the work of Mendel Peterson was of high quality, high scientifichistorical value and consequently of considerable importance.
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38
Harry Cox is a famous Bermudian treasure hunter.
39
Probably McKee’s museum in the Florida Keys.
The main reason being that the whole of it, globally, constitutes an unprecedented and invaluable thesaurus of reliable information not made available elsewhere previously in any one location or in grouped
published form.
My personal conclusion was that the work of MLP absolutely needed to be published that such a publication would result in the creation of a new, very useful research tool for a wide range of investigators and
that such a research tool would be a fitting monument to the memory of a remarkable man and his passion.
141
ART AND TECHNIQUES OF CASTING IRON OR BRONZE ORDNANCE PIECES
14TH  18TH CENTURY
____________________________________________________________________
The following pages were written by Mendel Peterson as part of the introduction of the first draft of his
Encyclopaedia, which at the time (1965-1966) still went by the title of Art on Artillery. It is this very text
that he would have used, with only possibly minor modifications, had he had the opportunity to publish
his magnum opus in his life-time. Hence its belated publication today:
“As a background to the study of tube marks and decorations, it is useful to understand how guns were
cast. The production of such an elaborate piece of bronze, often with intricate handles and cascabel rings
attached, involved the highest skills of the founder. The actual methods, by which, such masses of metal
were cast and finished may be surmised from illustrated works on the subject, which appeared in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
They furnish fine detail on all phases of the process. Other earlier accounts describe methods, which prove
that these processes were the accumulated experience of the previous centuries and that the earlier methods
were similar in principle if not in detail.
The first step in the casting of the gun was the preparation of the materials for making the pattern. The
clay, both for the pattern and the mold, was selected for fine texture and body. In a manuscript by a Greek,
Kritoboulos, dated 146740 the proper type of clay is described:
“They take a quantity of very fat clay, the purest and lightest possible, which they make plastic by kneading it for
several days. The mass is knit together and prevented from breaking by the intermixture of linen, hemp and other
shreds and the whole worked up and well mixed in such a manner as to make one tough and compact mass”.
By the late eighteenth century, Monge41 described the mixture used for the pattern and the mold as mixture
of clay, hair, and horse dung. In the eighteenth century, and probably earlier, the pattern was prepared by
winding a tapered core of wood with ropes of straw. Over this was smeared the mixture of clay, while the
core was revolved. This process was repeated until the pattern had been built up to sufficient diameter.
The moldings of the piece were formed by holding against the revolving cylinder of clay a strickle board
of the sort used by workers in ornamental plaster. The pattern was then dried to hardness over a fire. The
other details such as coats of arms, floral ornaments and other ornaments in relief were formed of wax or
clay and added to the tube pattern.42 The trunnions of clay or wood, and a cascabel form of clay or wood,
were fastened in place with pins and the forms of the “dolphins” or handles in wax were added.43
This pattern was painted with a mixture of black lead or hog fat to prevent the mold from sticking and thus
facilitate the removal, after the mold had set. The pattern was then covered to a depth of several inches
with the same type clay and fiber mixture. This was rammed on until the whole of the pattern except the
40 Translated by Dr Detier for Major General Lefroy and printed in Arch. Jour., Vol. XXV, quoted by Ffoulkes, The Gun
Founders of England, p. 13.
41
Monge Gaspard, Description de l’Art de Fabriquer des Canons, Paris, 1795.
42 Patterns were also made from wood; this must have been true in the earlier period when the cross section of the piece
was polygonal or fluted.
142
43 It is also possible that the hollow form for the handle was secured lightly to the tube and permitted to remain in the
mold when the tube form had been withdrawn.
tip of the muzzle was covered. The mold for the cascabel was generally made separately. The mold was
then reinforced with bands of iron wound around and run lengthwise of the outside and hooked at the
center line of the mold. After the mold was firm, the wooden spindle inside the pattern was removed. The
hay and clay form were removed piecemeal and the mold for the cascabel and gun handles were attached
on, then the entire mold was slowly dried over a smoldering fire. It was, of course, extremely important
that every trace of moisture be removed from the mold otherwise it could explode with great violence
when the metal was poured into it.44
A group of molds, two, four or perhaps six or more, the number being determined by the production
requirements and capacity of the furnace, were set endwise into a pit with the muzzle end uppermost.
Around the molds earth and brick were securely packed to furnish additional strength to the molds. When
the molten metal was at the proper temperature and was thoroughly alloyed, iron plugs in the bottom of
the furnace receptacle were pulled and the metal was run into the molds. The metal was usually run to
the top of a reservoir over the muzzle to provide weight to assure that the interstices of the mold would be
filled and to provide an area where bubbles and dross could gather outside the gun itself. After the metal
had set and cooled, the molds were dug out and removed from the pit and opened. The extra metal which
projected from the muzzle, called the “gunhead”, was then sawed or chiseled off and the piece was ready
for boring.
Until the eighteenth century guns were cast around a core which was inserted in the mold and held at
the breech end by iron pins. When the piece had cooled, the pins were cut and the core removed. Pieces
of this period, often show these pins imbedded in the tube forward of the vent ring in the first reinforce.
Brass tubes of this type, which have been recovered from sea water, have holes where the iron pins were
destroyed by electrolysis. Pieces cast on a core were reamed out to complete the bore. By the first half of
the eighteenth century it became evident that a better tube would result if the gun could be cast solid and
then bored out. The invention is usually attributed to Maritz, a Swiss gun founder. Foulkes mentions that
boring tools were known earlier and that solid casting and boring might have been practiced by Fuller in
England as early as 1713. Starker suggests an even earlier date. As the boring engines were perfected the
practice became general throughout Western Europe. In 1747, the British government ordered all guns
cast solid and bored and soon after it became standard practice. The earlier boring mills consisted of a
frame in which the gun was suspended vertically, muzzle down. The boring tool was turned by horse or
water power and bit into the gun as it was lowered onto the tool. Horizontal boring mills using water
power were later developed, Monge even suggesting that they be mounted on a barge anchored in a fast
river, so the current could turn the water wheels.45
After boring or reaming, the vent was drilled and the tube was minutely inspected internally to reveal any
defects in the casting. This was accomplished by using the “searchers”, long tools with small metal “feelers” which were run down the bore to the end of the chamber. If a rough spot were found, another tool
was pushed in to take a wax impression of the defect to determine its extent. The piece also was inspected
visually using a lamp, a candle, or mirror to light the bore. Norton describes the process in the seventeenth
century:
“That done, then may he with a common search upon a staff, having two or three round Pease poynted springs
that bear out, unlesse they be forced close put into the concaue Cillinder vnto the bottome, all along to examine
her within whether there be any flawes, crackes, hony-combes, pynne-holes, sinders, or other faults may bee
44 A case in point was the disaster of the Moorfields foundry in England, May 10, 1716; several distinguished persons had
assembled on invitation to see guns cast from trophies captured by the Duke of Marlborough during the War of the Spanish
Succession. When the metal was run in, moisture in the molds caused them to explode killing several of the officials and
seriously wounding many of the distinguished guests.
45
Norton illustrates a horizontal mill but this was strictly speaking a reamer for cleaning bores cast on a core.
143
therein most easily discerned; or else in close weather or roomes, a Wax or other Candle lighted, being fastened
upon the end of a Cane, Staffe, or halfe Pyke, her faults may bee spyed, if the same bee put into her hollow
Cillinder, and carefully looked for all along, the Gunners eye being therefore imployed diligently at the mouth
of the Peece.”46
After passing the visual inspection of the bore, the piece was ready for proof. This consisted in firing it
with increasing loads up to a prescribed limit and rapid firing over a period of time. After the test firing,
the bore was again minutely inspected to determine if any damage had occurred. When the piece passed
this proof, it usually was given a proof mark and was ready for finishing.
Using files, chisels, punches, burnishers, and engraving tools, skilled craftsmen finished the moldings,
handles, coats of arms and other ornamentation. In the finishing, the piece assumed its real beauty
as an example of metal sculpture and the skill in finishing the piece determined the final quality of
its ornamentation.
Thus completed, the piece was normally signed by the foundry master, usually on the base ring. It might
also bear the name of the officials of ordnance or the princely owner. In the case of royal tubes, a cipher or
coat of arms with inscription was almost always included. Finally the piece was weighed and the weight
indicated on the end of one of the trunnions with graver chisel or dies.”
144
46
Norton, The Gunner, 1628, pp. 74-75
ARTILLERY
____________________________________________________________________
The word “artillery” is or should be generally defined as: “the means or art of hurling offensive missiles
too heavy to the thrown by hand to a distant target”. Early “ingenious machines” were in use in the 8th
century BC on the walls of Jerusalem, so the Scriptures say. These, which probably obtained their power
from twisted ropes made of hair, hide or sinew, were the predecessors of the “ballistas” (which were in fact
very large cross-bows – spanned with a windlass or a screw jack – mounted on a massive tripod) and fired
arrows, darts or stones, the predecessors, also, the catapult that could throw huge stones (up to fifty kilos
or more) five hundred yards away, in a high arc, as a modern mortar would do, to strike the enemy behind
his fortifications, during the Middle Ages. The catapult evolved into the “trebuchet”, which now worked
on the seesaw principle (weights up to several tonnes on the short arm, to swing the long throwing arm)
and no longer on the spring system.
These early machines continued to be used in Western Europe for half a century, next to the appearing modern “artillery”, consisting in “non-personal offensive weapons in which gas pressure derived from the
combustion of a propellant charge ejects a missile” (definition by O.F. G. Hogg). The propellant now is, of
course, black powder.47
In these pages, the word “artillery” is used only in this, the second, restricted sense.
It is generally admitted that the explosive mixture, we call black powder or gun powder (a finely ground
mix of saltpeter, charcoal and sulphur) was invented by the Chinese who used it mainly for festive fireworks. It was brought to the knowledge of the Europeans via the Arabs, sometime around the Crusades,
perhaps about 1250 and the Europeans were the first to understand how to – or perhaps to wish to – exploit the motive power of the black powder in guns48 and the like.
Contemporary documents and chronicles indicate that guns, in Western Europe, were occasionally used
as early as the 12th century (at Saragosa, by the attacking Moors in 1118) and certainly in the 13th century
and all over the Reconquista, by the Spaniards (from the siege of Cordoba in 1280 on).
In England, the Grafton’s Chronicles mention the first use of cannons in the field during the reign of
Henry III (1216-1272) and it is well known that artillery played a major role during the Hundred Years
War (between France and England), when it came into general use. Guns at the time were laid directly
on the ground, with muzzles elevated by mounding the earth. Precise aiming was not attempted on the
battlefield, the effect of very early artillery in battle being mostly psychological. There are examples of
well-trained companies of archers or veteran footmen disbanding and running away at the first shot of a
deafening, smoking gun. Early bombards, however, were quite useful in a siege, when systematically used
to bring down fortifications.
In Northern Europe, at the same time, cannons were in use on land (earliest indication 1360) and on
board ships (battle in the Sound in 1362 between the Danes and a Lübeck fleet).
47 For full details concerning the history of the artillery, the reader is referred to the specialized bibliography in the Annexed Documents at the end of this volume. The reader will do well to begin his further studies by perusing Albert Manucy’s
Artillery Through the Ages and Oliver F. G. Hogg’s English Artillery 1326-1716, two simply presented, excellent first readings
on the subject (neither author however seems to be much preoccupied with the marks and decoration on cannons).
48 For a long time, artillery pieces would be called in general “guns”, the word “cannon” describing only one particular
type of gun.
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The earliest known representation of a piece of ordnance in England is an “iron pot” or “fire pot” found in
the lower margin of a page of an illuminated manuscript of Walter de Milemete49 dated 1326. That early
piece of artillery, apparently made of iron, is shaped like a vase and the gunner, holding what appears to
be a red hot iron stick, is about to prime the charge. The piece is loaded with a bolt or dart, the shaft of
which is probably carefully wrapped in leather to be kept solidly in place until the firing of the piece. It is
aimed at the door of a fortification.
In Italy, a detail (lower left) of a chiaroscuro fresco in the cloister of the San Leonardo monastery of Lecceto
(near Sienna) very clearly shows a large bombard on its massive stock, demolishing a wall of a besieged
castle. It was painted – and paid to Paolo del Mastero Neri – in the year 1343. The bombard is raised at
an angle of 45° in a mortar-like fashion.
In France, perhaps the earliest representation of an artillery piece is a short bombard, apparently a muzzleloader (?), fixed to a comparatively massive base that has a swiveling elevation system (Ms Le Champion
des Dames, Library of Burgundy, 14th century). The earliest representation of a French wheeled piece of
ordnance on a carriage may be a detail of the Chronicles of St. Denis, 14th century (Sloane Mss 2433 at the
BM) showing a three foot long muzzle loading tube, and a detail of another illustrated, anonymous 14th
century manuscript, featuring a short, massive breech-loading bombard on a heavy wooden carriage with
plain wheels.
As for naval guns, one of the clearest drawings (not the very earliest one,) of a permanently artilleryarmed ship of force, shows, about 1485, three large pieces mounted in the waist on each side (there are
no port-holes). There were very light pieces also (haquebusses) in the fighting top on the mainmast and
also archers, and more archers and men at arms on the bow castle and on the stern castle (Ms The Pageant
of Richard Beauchamp, Cotton Mss, BM). Port-holes begin to appear in the naval iconography around
1480-1490.
*
* *
In most West European countries, the earliest method of manufacture fell in two parts: The era of the
wrought-iron guns and the era of the cast guns, during which guns were first traditionally cast in iron and,
later on, in bronze (which at the time was called “brass”). Such “eras” were not clearly defined and the old
method of gun manufacturing survived everywhere for a long time, next to the new one.
The first wrought-iron guns were the bombards. Their method of construction was simple. Any village
smith, who had access to a forge, a big hammer, a mandrill, some iron and supplies of water for quenching
his metal, could build a bombard. The technique was not unlike barrel-making.
The mandrill could be a tree trunk of convenient size. Rods of wrought-iron were bound very closely
round its circumference and over these, passed a series of white hot rings, which would hold the iron bars
in a vice-like grip when shrunk onto the rods by chilling. The closer the rings, the stronger the cannon.
The resulting tube was of course open at both ends. It was not known at the time how to make a barrel
without a mandrill and it was necessary, therefore that a chamber portion should be forged out of solid
iron with a tapered end to fit the breech part and a simple locking system, plus a wedge. Interstices did
often remain between the longitudinal forged rods and these in order to obtain greater airtightness would
then be filled by pouring melted lead.
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49 Milemete, an English scholar, wrote for the young Prince Edward, later King Edward III, a sort of treatise of Kingship
titled De Nobilitatibus, Sapientis et Prudentis Regnum. The “pot de fer” illumination unfortunately is not commented or captioned and bears no direct relation to the text.
Breech-loading guns had several movable chambers, which could be prepared ahead of the battle (i.e. filled
with gun powder and wadded and primed with fine powder) so that the gun could fire as often and as
rapidly as the heating of the tube would allow.
By the middle of the 15th century, the average bombard would have efficiently tossed a two pound shot to
no more than 70 meters, in the general direction of the enemy or of the door of a castle. Some so-called
bombards, comparable to a shortened harquebus, were still smaller and lighter and could be hand-carried.
The “gunner”, of course, would need to rest his weapon on some solid support for firing or to stick its stock
in the ground.
By contrast, giant bombards were built, some of which have survived up to this day. The giant bombard
known by the name of “Dulle Griet”, (“Mad Meg”) now in Ghent, built in 1382, has a calibre of 25 inches
and fired a 700 pound granite ball. The equally famous “Mons Meg” now in Edinburgh Castle threw a
19.5 inch iron ball, 1,400 yards or a stone ball, 1.5 miles.
Some of the most formidable bombards that ever were made were used by the Turks at the siege of Constantinople in 1453. One of such monsters weighed 19 tonnes and shot a 300 kilo stone ball, at the walls
of the fortified city, seven times a day. It served its purpose well: Constantinople was taken and since that
date a piece of Europe remains occupied by the Turks.
In Asia, the record seems to belong to the “Malik-e-Maidan” or the “King of the Battlefield”, 4.40 meters
long and claimed to weigh 55 metric tonnes, cast in bronze in the 17th century in Ahmadnagar. It took ten
elephants and 400 bullocks to haul it 240 kilometers to Bijapur (in Karnataka, West-Central-India) where
it still stands today atop of a city bastion. Its decorated muzzle shows a lion clenching an elephant in his
teeth. The blast of that monstrous piece was so loud, so say some accounts of the time that the gunners had
to jump into a nearby pool of water after lighting the fuse in order to protect their eardrums.
And the absolute largest caliber bombard on record appears to be the so-called “great mortar of Moscow”.
It was built around 1525, had a calibre of 91.5 centimetres and was 5.4 metres long. Its stone projectiles
weighed a tonne.
Such huge pieces were of limited use on account of their weight and the difficulty and time necessary to
transport them. Once in action, they would destroy the castle of any Baron, who had rebelled against
his Prince. That is until the old time, high-built, stone strongholds gave way to the earthwork protected
fortifications of the Renaissance in which cannon balls would simply sink without effect. At that time, the
huge bombards became obsolete and were replaced by much lighter mortars, which could shoot explosive
or firing devices above the fortifications and into the heart of the castle or city.
During the 14th century, gun casting in iron or in “gunmetal” (meaning any alloy of copper with either tin
or zinc and lead, etc.) appeared and slowly replaced gun forging.
The cannon makers now, were no longer smiths, but mostly bell founders. So, standardization remained
a totally unknown notion and each cannon manufacturer continued to produce pieces at his whim. The
first sort of system that was introduced into the industry appeared in Tudor times and was limited to the
calibres of the pieces which, of course, whether the shot be made of stone or of iron, determined the required weight of the shot, which determined the class of the gun.
By its very nature, gun founding, as a method of manufacture, necessarily produced muzzle-loading pieces
with all their drawbacks, mainly for sea.
It is not until the late 17th or early 18th century that true standardization became the rule in the casting
175
of artillery. At the same time, the first permanent corps of artillerymen was formed in France and England, replacing the small units of non-military, sometimes hired “artists”, which followed the armies in
earlier times.
In France, it is in the second half of the 17th century that the marquis de Louvois (1641-1691) introduced
drastic reforms in the artillery and in the army. The new “bouches à feu” of the Keller brothers, gun founders, which he had masterminded became the “classic French cannons” from 1666 on. Vauban owed them
his greatest victories.
The first, fully organized “Corps d’Artillerie” appeared in France under Louis XIV, at the same time as
the French “Systèmes”, 50 which were to finally bring such efficient order, method and standardization in
France that all the nations of Europe quickly imitated them, to begin with Savoy, Prussia, and Denmark.
They were the “Système Vallière” from 1732 on, reformed by the “Système Gribeauval” from 1764 on and,
by the “Système Valée” (1825 and 1831).
In Spain, the French “Systèmes” were exported and imposed, exactly as they were, by the first Bourbon,
Phillip V (1700-1746).51
In England, the first corps of artillery, which soon took over everything concerned with gun making and
artillery tactics was authorized by Royal warrant, in 1716. It was at the time, a regimental establishment
of two companies; it was and has been called ever since “The Royal Artillery”.52
176
50
For full details of the various French “Systèmes”, see the Editor’s album for the “Musée des Invalides” in Paris, France.
51
See Editor’s album for the “Museo del Ejército” Toledo.
52
See Editor’s album for the “Tower” and for Woolwich.
WHO WAS WHAT?
THE TYPOLOGY
THE TERMINOLOGY
____________________________________________________________________
The terminology of ancient artillery is confused and so ridden with discrepancies that it is nearly impossible, until the 18th century, to make sense of the vocabulary. This is true even within one single language
if one reads correspondence or treaties written in different provinces of a single country, or in different
centuries. The difficulty is compounded by the fact that the same is true for most contemporary units of
weights and lengths (even, again, within one same country) which, should they have been more or less
standardized, could have helped to clarify the definitions.
General confusion or at best imprecision is found to a comparable degree if one attempts to study the
typology of the most ancient artillery pieces. Few of the cannons that were once designated by the same
name in one particular language were really similar and never identical. The reason is simple: Very early
wrought-iron artillery pieces were made by village blacksmiths that followed their own idea of what a
cannon should be. Later, when it was the Lord or the “Seigneur” or the Master of Artillery, who decided
on calibres, on thickness of the tube etc., everyone had his own idea again. When guns began to be cast,
not wrought, anymore, nothing changed. Church bells and statue founders began to cast iron or bronze
cannons as they, the experts in matters of foundry, thought best. So the cannons, continued to reflect the
whims of the founder or, later, the personal ideas of the customer. And furthermore, the moulds served
once only.
It is only in the 18th century, when royal authority imposed some general administrative unity on army
and navy all over Europe, when permanent armies became the rule in Europe and when artillery corps
was formed, as distinct from the various infantry corps (each had its own cannons) and from the cavalry,
that uniformity and standardization were introduced. The advantages were obvious: Same calibres for
same sizes of cannon balls and/or projectiles to be cast and transported, same quality of black powder, in
same diameter cartridges, same carriages with same spare parts, same gunnery tools, same artillery drill,
etc.
For identical reasons, most guns until the 18th century (except the very large and heavy siege guns and
mortars, the “fortress pieces”) were made indifferently for field artillery or naval artillery. In France and the
Mediterranean countries, an exception was the specific, lighter artillery made for the galleys.
An additional contribution to the imbroglio has been supplied by some museum curators who, when
writing the catalogue of their collection of guns or the individual notices posted on the support of each
exhibited piece, have tended to name the piece according to their own idea rather than quoting – when
known – the original name of the cannon as known in its place of origin and period.
In such a situation there is only one sensible, useful way of describing a piece of artillery that is to mention
the ratio between its calibre and the length of its tube (measured, usually but not always, from the tip of
the last muzzle moulding to the base ring). The system is not precise but it allows one to describe some
“families” of artillery pieces. The culverin family for instance includes (or should include) only pieces that
are 26 to 36 calibres long, in the cannon family, a piece is or should be 18 to 24 calibres long and in the
perrier family, it should be 16 calibres or less. It is also the case for mortars.
Comparable pieces which are not members of the immediate family are described by the same name with a
modifier. “Extraordinary” will mean a member of the family which is longer than most (the case happens
177
most often in the culverin family). On the other hand, a “bastard” cannon would have a calibre almost
but not quite within the theoretical range and usually would be shorter. So a culverin could be either a
“bastard culverin”, too short for its calibre, or an “extraordinary culverin”, longer than it should. The same
would apply to a cannon, etc.
The classification of guns by only the weight of their shot, which appeared in the 17th century, became
general only after the first quarter of the 18th century, in England at least. It gives obviously a partial definition only of an artillery piece.
Since establishing a precise table of correspondence with the hope of being able to reliably name a Spanish
piece for example in other European languages, would be a nearly impossible task, this Editor has only
attempted:
1. To trace in prudent words and schematic drawings a very general outline of the main families
and types of artillery pieces made and used in Europe until the 19th century.
2. To outline, for the three main European countries that were deeply involved both in land wars
and in sea warfare during the age of artillery, a fully un-guaranteed cross-chronological list of
approximate equivalences (with comments when necessary).
This editor is well aware of the shortcomings of the list and table and anticipatively apologizes to
the reader.
178
A PROPOSED, COMPARATIVE ORDNANCE TYPOLOGY
SIMPLIFIED TRILINGUAL 1
____________________________________________________________________
Each piece of ordnance type hereafter mentioned is identified by its corresponding ratio (or R.) being the
number of calibres in the length of the tube (length as measured from the edge of the muzzle, the face, to
the back of the base ring) and/or by the weight of its shot in pounds (stone shots for bombards and all “pedreros”, iron shots, most often, for other pieces). Ratios and weights of shot are a general average between
existing conflicting sources, when possible. A number of cases defy any meaningful average calculation,
see notes.
The table hereafter is incomplete, open to endless controversy and to be treated with reserve. The chronology is approximate; the switch from wrought iron to cast iron to bronze was progressive, the old techniques
survived everywhere for a long time, next to the new ways.
England
France
Spain
From c. 1350 to c. 1500 (wrought-iron guns at first, cast iron pieces later on)
For direct firing
Bombard (in 14th century)
Veuglaire
Bombarda
1
Bombard (any calibre, any length)
Bombarde
Bombarda
Lombarde
Cannon royal or Carthoun or Curtowe or Curtall: 48 to 60
Courtaut
Curtalde
pounder
3/4 Cannon: 36 pounder
1/2 Carthoun: 24 pounder
1/2 Courtaut
Patterero
Organ gun: A piece with 2 or more tubes.
Came in many different calibres and lengths.
Blow gun
Minion: 6 pounder
Falcon2
Falconet: R.48. 1.5 pounder
Pierrier
Ribaudequin
– 1 to 3 pounder
Robinet: 1 pounder
Culverin: R.28. 18 pounder
1/2 Culverin: R.32. 9 pounder
Sarbacane
Emerillon
Faucon
Fauconneau
Fauconet
1/2 Curtalde
Bombardeta
Pedredo
Cañon de organo
Ribadoquin3
Cerbatana
Esmeril
Falcon
Falconete
Pasavolante
Couleuvrine
Culebrina
1/2 Couleuvrine 1/2 Culebrina
For indirect firing
Bombard
1
Bombarde
Bombardemortier
Mortier-pierrier
After Hogg and a number of English, French, Spanish and other sources, ancient and modern.
Bombarda
Bombarda
mortero
Mortero pedrero
179
From c. 1500 to c. 1600 (bronze, brass or any copper alloy, being “gunmetal”)
For direct firing
Basilic
Basilico
Basiliske3
Culverin: R.28. 20 pounder
Culeuvrine
Culebrina
Demi-culverin or Verse: R.30. 10 pounder
1/2 Couleuvrine
1/2 Culebrina or Verso
(Berço)
Saker or Sacre: R.36. 6 pounder
1/3 de Couleuvrine 1/3 Culebrina or Sacre
Quarter culverin: 5 pounder
1/4 de Couleuvrine 1/4 Culebrina
Double curtowe or courtaut: 80 pounder
Double courtaut
Double curtalde
Curtowe or Courtaut: 50 pounder
Courtaut
Curtalde
For indirect firing
Mortar
Mortier
Mortero
17th century (mostly bronze pieces)
For direct firing
Cannon royal: R.12
Cannon: R.16
Demi-cannon: R.20
1/3 Cannon(?): R.15
Cannon-perrier: 8 pounder
Serpentine4
Robinet: 1 pounder.
Minion or Sakeret: R.30. 8 pounder
Saker or Sacre: R.36
Mortar
Canon
1/2 Canon
1/3 Canon
Canon pierrier
Serpentine
Minión
Sacre
For indirect firing
Mortier
Cañon
1/2 Cañon
1/3 Cañon
1/4 Cañon or Pedrero
1/8 Cañon or Serpiente
Sacabuche
Minion
Sacro
Mortero
18th century (bronze)
For direct firing
The Age of “the Systems”. Precise characteristics of
In France for example, after the “canon claseach calibre imposed by a succession of Royal
sique français” (2nd half of the 17th century)
Ordnances (France, Denmark, UK, Austria, etc.)
came in succession the “Système Vallière”,
“Système Gribeauval”, “Système Valée”. See
Editor’s Album for the “Musée de l’Armée at
the Hôtel des Invalides”, Paris, France. 5
In Spain, all new pieces were cast in a standardized, mandatory way following the
French “Systèmes” imported by the first
Bourbon, Philip V.
180
Carronade (at the end of the 18th century)
Caronade
Carronada
For indirect firing
Mortars of standardized calibres
Mortar
Hanging mortar
Trunnion mortar
Foot mortar
Howitzer
Mortier
Mortier suspendu
Mortier à tourillon
Mortier à semelle
(or à talon)
Obusier
Mortero
Mortero de horquilla
Mortero de muñones
Mortero de placa
Obús
(Footnotes)
1 Mediaeval bombards came in all sizes. Some could be carried by two men; exceptional ones did weigh up to 19 tonnes.
Their ratio would be about 2 or 8 or 10 or 15 or whatever. These pieces could be called anything from 10-pounders to
300-pounders.
3
In Spanish, the word “ribadoquin” can also designate a smaller or medium size normal gun (gun with one tube).
2 4 A particularly vague name for an ill-defined type of gun. The ratio could have been anything from 26 to 42 and the weight
of the shot anything from 2.5 to 6lb.
3 Another unclassifiable gun. The reported ratio of so-called basiliskes or “basilicos” could vary from 14 to 63, their shots
from 10 to ?lbs.
4 Came under the most different sizes and calibres. Known ratios from 18 to 48(!). Shots from 1 to 4 pounds or more.
5 See also, passim, the LGAs and EAs for Copenhagen, Vienna and London.
181
SIMPLIFIED TERMINOLOGY OF ARTILLERY PIECES
____________________________________________________________________
In alphabetic order
Name in English – Name in French – Name in Spanish
Definition
Amusette – Amusette – Amusetta
A very light field-gun (derisively so named as it was capable only of “amusing” the enemy).
Apostle – No reliably correct translation extant – No reliably correct translation extant
A piece in use in the early 16th century, a 20 pounder (shots of iron).
Base – No reliably correct translation extant – No reliably correct translation extant
A short light wrought-iron cannon, from the period 1400-1600.
Basilic or Basiliske – Basilic – Basilico
A long and big bronze cannon, the type and caliber of which vary following the countries and the periods.
Bastard – Bâtard – Bastardo
An adjective that applies to a gun that is not in full conformity with the standards of its type. Example:
A “bastard culverin” would have a lower than conventional “ratio” (number of calibres in length of tube).
Blow gun – Sarbacane – Cerbatana
An aptly named long and very thin piece.
Blunderbuss – Tromblon – No reliably correct translation extant
A short musket of wide bore with expanded muzzle to scatter shot, bullets, or slugs at close range.
Bombard – Bombarde – Bombarda
The earliest kind of gun, of various lengths and calibres (most often from 3cm. to 20cm.), originally throwing a stone ball. Some exceptional bombards used in the 15th century could propel stone balls weighing
from 200 to 500 pounds. They were fired at high angles and, in consequence of the slow burning of the
powder of the time; the balls projected by the bombard had little velocity and poor accuracy. The very first
bombards were made of wood banded with wrought-iron, then of sheet-iron strengthened by hoops and
brazing, both techniques being rather the exception. The typical bombard of the 14th and 15th centuries
were made of longitudinal cast iron bars, connected together and/or welded together and hooped, like the
staves of a cask.
Bow-chase(r) – Canon de chasse – Pieza de caza
A gun placed at the bow of a vessel. Used when chasing another vessel.
Brass – Laiton or “Cuivre jaune” – Latón
Or “yellow copper”. An alloy made of red copper (mostly) and zinc (33%), used to make modern cartridges. The word is sometimes used in a general way in the “artilleristic” lingua franca to describe any
copper based alloy; it is in that case synonymous to “gunmetal”. The word brass was used in the 16th and
17th centuries to designate bronze.
182
Breech-loader (or BL) – Canon à boîte or Canon à chargement par la culasse – Cañon de retrocarga
A type of weapon loaded through its open breech, by means of a separate “powder chamber” or “breechblock” that was inserted and locked and further secured in place with a wedge, right after the shot has been
introduced (also by the breech end). In the 15th-16th century and mostly wrought-iron pieces.
Bronze – Bronze – Bronce
An alloy made of red metals and later copper (mostly) and tin, used (since the 16th century) to cast durable, solid cannons. Sometimes, mistakenly referred to as Brass.
Camelete – Camelet (Petit chameau) – Camelete
A Portuguese bronze gun, a muzzle-loader, firing stone shots of 10 to 13 pounds.
Camelo – Chameau – Camelo
A Portuguese bronze gun, a muzzle-loader, firing shots of 18 to 24 pounds. The tube sometimes decorated
with a stylized camel.
Cannon – Canon – Cañon
A general name for large pieces of ordnance, as distinguished from those pieces that can be hand carried.
Also the name of a particular type of gun (different in various countries and periods, but always a big
gun).
Cannon perrier – Canon pierrier – Cañon pedrero
A generic name for a number of bastard pieces (16th century).
Carronade – Caronade – Carronada
A short range, howitzer-like gun firing iron shots that appeared, in the last years of the 18th century.
Mostly naval pieces. It is a short piece with a wide muzzle. Its bore has no chamber. The trunnions are
often replaced by an iron thimble making corpse with the cannon. There is often a screw-like elevation
device. The carronades are: 8, 12, 18, 24, 30 or 36-pounders (also 42 for the English carronades). In the
19th century, on board ships or on a fort, they were usually made part of a rotating base.
The name comes from “Carron”, the Scottish village where the first carronade foundry, the Carron Company, was settled, in the late 18th century.
Cast iron – Fonte – Hierro fundido
A hard, brittle, impure form of iron, obtained by re-melting pig-iron with limestone. It was un-bendable,
but strong and rugged. Cast iron was used in the production of artillery weapons and of projectiles.
Chase gun – Canon de chasse – Pieza de caza
See Bow-chaser.
Culverin – Couleuvrine – Culebrina
A kind of long, thin cannon used in the 16th and 17th centuries. It is defined in theory (as all guns are)
by the ratio between the size of its bore or calibre and the length of its tube. The ratio must be about 30
calibres. It can be either a breech-loader or a muzzle-loader, in bronze or in iron. It fires light or medium
size iron shots, a great distance and with greater precision than shorter pieces.
Curtowe or Carthoun or Curtall – Courtaut – Curtalde
A large, short, heavy muzzle-loader cannon of the 15th and 16th centuries (36 or 48-pounders).
183
No reliably correct translation extant – Espingole – No reliably correct translation extant
This word, that once designated, principally, a small swivel gun, has been so misused by by the uninformed,
as to have become totally meaningless. It has been and is being used – in literature only – to describe any
type of small piece of ordnance.
Falcon – Faucon – Falcón
A small light cannon in use from the 15th to the 17th century.
Falconet – Fauconnet or Falconet or Fauconneau – Falconete
A short light cannon of small calibre (1 or 2 pounder usually).
Flanker – No reliably correct translation extant – No reliably correct translation extant
An uncommon mid-16th century piece. Characteristics are unknown today.
Foot mortar – Mortier à semelle or à talon or à plaque – No reliably correct translation extant
An iron or bronze mortar cast in one solid piece, with its massive flat base or support (no trunnions, no
own elevation device, the “built-in” elevation being 45°).
Gun – Canon – Cañon
A firearm in general. In its limited, “artilleristic” sense: A non-personal weapon, being any ordnance
piece or “bouche à feu” or “pieza” that is long and shoots projectiles with a high muzzle velocity, on a near
horizontal trajectory.
Gunmetal – No reliably correct translation extant – No reliably correct translation extant
See Brass.
Hanging mortar – Mortier suspendu – No reliably correct translation extant
A mortar with trunnions placed on the chase reinforce. The said trunnions were held in a “bed”, somewhat comparable to a cannon’s carriage. The piece could be made to pivot vertically for the adjustment of
the wanted trajectory of the shot.
Howitzer – Obusier – Obús
A short piece with a large powder chamber, intermediate between the cannon and the mortar. Howitzers
were lighter and fired shells at higher elevations with smaller powder charges than guns of the same calibre,
but had shorter ranges.
Iron – Fer – Hierro
Metal used in the manufacturing of projectiles and cannon tubes, as well as certain carriages (19th century). Iron, for tube manufacturing, was less expensive than bronze and was more capable of sustaining
heavy siege firing with larger charges of powder. Conversely, iron was heavier and less tenacious than
bronze.
Minion or Sakeret – No reliably correct translation extant – Minion
Small bronze or iron gun, belonging to the culverin family, usually shooting iron shots of 3 to 4 pounds.
184
Mortar – Mortier – Mortero
A very short piece used for high, curved trajectory firing that comes in many sizes and calibres. The mortar uses a small powder charge. The powder chamber of a mortar was specially designed to concentrate
the charge in a small area, so the projectile could receive as much of the explosion’s propulsive strength as
possible. Mortars would shoot stone balls, solid iron shots, or incendiary devices above fortress walls, also
bombs the fuse of which would be set so as to explode while still high in the air and to rain fragments down
on the enemy soldiers. (See also Foot mortar, Hanging mortar and Trunnion mortar.)
Murtherer – No reliably correct translation extant – No reliably correct translation extant
A generic name for any small anti-personal (land or naval) gun, usually a swivel gun that is or can be loaded
with scattering shot, shrapnel or red hot nails, etc. Comes in various sizes.
Muzzle-loader (or ML) – Canon à chargement par la gueule – Cañon de carga por la boca
A cannon in which the powder charge (or later the cartridge), the shot and the tampion are to be introduced by the muzzle. Most cast cannons were muzzle-loaders.
Novemburgh – No reliably correct translation extant – No reliably correct translation extant
A little known ordnance piece of the early 16th century, probably a 20 pounder (iron shot).
Organ gun – No reliably correct translation extant – No reliably correct translation extant
See Ribauldequin.
Patterero – Pierrier – Pedrero
In a general sense, any gun shooting only or mostly stone balls or, if used as a specific term, the type of
stone-throwing gun that happened to be used at the time in that particular country to shoot stone shots.
Pounder – Calibre exprimé en “livres de balle” – Calibre designado por el peso en libras de la bála
An adjective that qualifies a gun that discharges a shot of a specified weight in pounds (e.g. a 6 pounder).
Ribauldequin – Ribaudequin – Ribadoquin
Also known as a rabauld, ribault, ribaudkin, or organ gun. Was a mediaeval and later contraption made
with many small caliber iron barrels set up flat, parallel, in a circle, or sometimes in a fan-like manner, on a
common carriage or platform, which, when fired, were somewhat akin to a modern machine gun. When
the weapon was fired in a volley, it created a shower of iron or lead shots. Organ guns were employed,
specifically, during the early 15th century, and continued serving, mostly, as defensive anti-personnel gun.
Similarly, there have been, until the 18th century, heavier pieces that consisted in two or three mediumsize cannon tubes cast together and mounted on a common carriage. The tubes could be fired separately
or together.
Robinet – No reliably correct translation extant – No reliably correct translation extant
A small piece, often a half-pounder, calibre: 2.5cm. and weighing some 130 kilos only.
Saker – Sacre – Sacro
A long cannon close to the culverin family, but ill-defined over the centuries and locally. A muzzle-loader.
May have been firing iron shots of widely different weights and may have had widely different ratios.
Serpentine – Serpentine – Serpiente
A long, small calibre, cast iron or bronze gun. Used from the 15th to the 17th century, of various shapes
and dimensions. Usually a muzzle-loader.
Shrimp – No reliably correct translation extant – No reliably correct translation extant
An uncommon mid-16th century piece. Characteristics are unknown today.
Sling – No reliably correct translation extant – No reliably correct translation extant
An uncommon name, for an ill-defined piece of ordnance (mid-16th century).
185
Steel – Acier – Acero
A metal composed of iron alloyed with various small percentages of carbon. Steel was categorized as hard,
medium, or soft, according to its carbon content and it could be alloyed with other metals to produce
variations in hardness, strength and malleability. Steel has a finer grain than cast iron and makes stronger,
lighter cannons.
Sternpiece – Canon de retraite – Guarda timon
A gun placed at the stern of a vessel, usually one on each side of the rudder. Used when being pursued by
another vessel.
Suspended mortar – See Hanging mortar.
Swivel gun – Pierrier à fourche or à chandelier – Pedrero de horquilla or, later, Cañon de horquilla
A small anti-personal cannon, in use either on a ship or on a fortified entrenchment, in iron or bronze,
a 1/2 or 1 pounder usually that was mounted on an iron pivot with swivel on which it could easily be
pointed in all directions. The pivot was itself fixed in the hull of the ship or on the bow. In use from the
15th to the 18th century. At the beginning, fired mostly stone shots, hence its name in French and Spanish. The system was occasionally generalized for heavier guns in the 17th and 18th centuries.
True – Vrai – Legitimo
An adjective that designates a type of gun exactly corresponding to its theoretical characteristics, mostly
the exact ratio, length to calibre. Example: “a true culverin” with a ratio of 30.
Trunnion mortar – Mortier à tourillons bas – Mortero de horquilla
A mortar having its trunnions at the bottom of the powder chamber or under it, and the trunnions engaged on a flat, separated bed where the piece swivels for range adjustment.
Verse – Berce (?) – Verso or Berço
Another vague and changing name, for a light or medium size piece, often an intermediary between the
culverin and the saker.
No reliably correct translation extant – Veuglaire – No reliably correct translation extant
A 14th century type of bombard, a short and strongly built breech-loader (ratio about 5).
186
PARTS OF A CANNON
____________________________________________________________________
Name in English – Name in French – Name in Spanish
Definition
Apron – Platine, Tablier – Planchada
A piece of sheet lead used to cover the vent of a cannon as a protection against the elements. It was later
replaced by the vent cover.
Astragal – Astragale – Astragalo
The small convex moulding (sometimes cut into the form of a string) used in the ornamental work of the
cannon tube. It was usually connected with a fillet or flat moulding.
Backsight – Viseur – Hondedura de apuntar
The hindmost sight on a cannon.
Barrel – Tube du canon – Cañon
The tube of a gun.
Bed – Coussin or Chevet or Semelle – Almohada
The support for an early wrought-iron cannon (14th to 16th century) made of a hollowed out oak trunk.
Also, if square and made of either thick, solid wood or heavy metal, the base or support for a mortar.
Bore – Âme – Anima
The bore includes all the drilled out portion of the tube including the chamber (if there is one), the conical
or spherical surface connecting the chamber to the cylinder and the cylinder itself.
The bore diameter is measured at the muzzle from wall to wall in a smoothbore tube and from land to land
in a rifled tube.
The bore length is the entire length measurement inside the tube including the powder chamber, if any.
Breech – Culasse – Culata
In general, the rear part of a gun. In the ancient breech-loaders, it consisted in a separate, interchangeable
breech block containing the powder and a tampion. In a muzzle-loader it was, precisely, the section from
the rear of the base ring to the vent.
Breech block – No reliably correct translation extant – No reliably correct translation extant
See Powder chamber.
Breech button – Bouton de culasse – Cascabel
See Button or Grape or Knob.
Breeching – Brague – Braga
The breeching of a gun or carronade is a strong rope by which the recoil of the piece is checked at such a
point that the muzzle is brought wholly within the port-hole, where the gunners can sponge and reload it.
Also a harness adapted to the wheel-horses of gun carriages, near and off, for the purpose of facilitating the
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stopping of a gun in motion. Breechings near and off, are strengthened with a lay of leather.
Breech mouldings – Reliefs de culasse or de la plate-bande de culasse or du cul de lampe – Molduras de
la faja de la culata
The mouldings decorating the face of the breech of a cannon. They can be part of the representation of
the same subject as the neck and knob (example: the wings of a bird).
Bush or Bushing – Bague or Chemise – Camisa
A thin cylinder of hard metal used to line the wall of the vent from the touch-hole to the powder chamber
of a gun. Its purpose is to protect the wall of the vent against the damages caused by heat and explosions
and so to avoid an unwanted widening of the vent hole. The bushing was sometimes added after wear and
tear had appeared, as a corrective measure, or it could be stuck in place into the mould previous to casting.
Button or Grape – Bouton de culasse – Cascabel
The swelled part, at the very end of the cascable neck, at the very rear part of the breech of a gun. It was
often decorated; it could be replaced by a ring or a half ring, etc. It was used to fix the ropes of the tackle
used to limit the recoil, also to facilitate the handling of the pieces once dismounted.
Calibre – Calibre – Calibre
The calibre of a gun is equal to the diameter of its bore minus 1/25, i.e., minus the windage. Anciently
expressed in inches, it was one of the two ways a gunner would describe his piece: “a calibre 5 culverin”.
The older designation referred to the weight of the solid shot (expressed in pounds) corresponding to it:
“a 6 pounder”.
Cascable – Cul de lampe – Faja de la culata
That part of the cannon tube in the rear of the base ring. It was composed of the mouldings of the breech,
the neck and the knob.
Chase of a gun – Volée d’un canon – Balada
Conventionally (and for pieces made that way) the section of the tube, which extends from the second
reinforce to the muzzle.
Chase ring – Moulure de volée – Faja de la caña
Moulding at the rear end of the chase. In bronze guns the chase ring was often replaced with an astragal
and fillets.
Curve – Courbe – Curva
The portion connecting the first reinforce to the chase, which features the trunnions. (It is therefore another name, not very much in use, for “second reinforce”.) It is made somewhat thicker than necessary to
further resist the pressure of the powder, in order to serve as a proper point of support for the trunnions
and to compensate for certain defects of metal liable to occur in the vicinity of the trunnions, arising from
the unequal cooling of the different parts.
Dolphins – Dauphins – Delfins or Asas
Ears or handles placed at or near the center of gravity of the piece and used to assist in mounting, dismounting or handling the piece. The origin of the name is that in most early guns these handles, when
present, were ornamented and cast to represent dolphins. They did appear also in various other forms, as
elephant’s heads and trunks, dragons, ropes, birds or other animal or human figures, etc. Plain from about
the 19th century on.
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Fillet – Filet – Filete
A narrow and flat architectural ring or raised band of metal on a cast cannon tube, which served as a reinforce mostly and/or decoration.
Knob – Bouton de culasse – Cascabel
See Button.
Muzzle – Bouche or Gueule – Boca or Brocal
The mouth, or opening, of the bore of a cannon tube and the face that surrounds it. Also the front part of
the chase of a muzzle-loading gun. The muzzle opening was chamfered, or bevelled, to prevent abrasion
and to facilitate loading.
Muzzle astragal – Astragale de volée – Astragalo de brocal
The decorative convex moulding on the muzzle was often between two fillets.
Muzzle swelling – Tulipe – Joya
The thicker, reinforced conical tip of the tube.
Neck – Collet (du bouton) – Cuello
The smallest part of the piece ahead of the muzzle astragal.
Also, at the other end of the gun, the narrow part, the “peduncle” of the cascable, joining the breech
mouldings to the button when any.
Ogee – Plate-bande – Media-ogiva
The short tapering part that connects two parts of the cannon of different diameters (such as between the
first reinforce and the second or between the second reinforce ring and the the chase girdle, for example).
Powder chamber – Chambre à poudre or Boîte à poudre – Recamara or Servidor
In a breech-loader: The powder chamber or breech block is a cylindrical tankard-like container open at
one end, separate from the gun and usually with a handle. It is to be locked in place and secured with a
wedge before firing.
In a muzzle-loader: The chamber is the bottom part of the bore, which holds the propelling charge, especially when of different diameter than the rest of the bore. All mortars featured such a powder chamber.
Powder pan – Coquille de lumière, Canal de lumière or Bassinet – Copa de fogón or Casoleta de fogón or
Pulverin
A small hollowed part around the touch-hole which was filled with additional priming powder. Often
decorated in the form of a sea-shell or otherwise.
Reinforce – Renfort – Refuerzo or Resalte
The thickest part of the body of a gun, the breech part, the role of which was to resist the explosion of the
powder. If there was more than one reinforce, the one next to the breech was called the first reinforce and
the other, on both sides of the trunnions, was the second reinforce.
Rimbase – Embase – Refuerzo de muñon
The short cylinder, or shoulder, which (on some cannons) united the trunnion with the body of the cannon. Its purpose was to provide extra strength at the trunnion junction and to limit any sideways movement in the trunnion beds.
189
Rose – Bouton de culasse – Cascabel
See Button.
Sight – Mire – Mira
The foresight of a cannon is a cast button-like mark on the middle of the highest part of the top of the
muzzle. It is the “bouton de mire” or “botón de mira”. The backsight is a slot at the center of the top of
the bas-ring; it is the “visière” or “viseur” or “visera”. Both had to be in line to allow the gunner to take
correct aim at his target. Not all guns had sights.
Swivel – Fourche – Horquilla
The fork-like pivoting support of a swivel-gun, the stem of which (or “chandelier”) would be stuck in the
ship’s railing or in a strong vertical beam.
Tail – Queue or Manche – Rabiza
Handling bar on the hind part of a swivel-gun, used for pivoting and for setting the elevation.
Tampion or Tompion – Tape or Tapon or Tampon – Corcho
A cork or stopper, used to block the muzzle of a cannon. Usually in cork or in wood on large cannons, in
iron or brass on smaller ones. Used to prevent spray, humidity, or dust getting in.
Also the wooden bottom in a grape shot or a case shot.
Touch-hole or Vent – Lumière – Fogón or Oido del cañon
The small-size hole pierced in the vent field of a cannon or in the back of the mobile powder chamber,
which received the easily flammable priming powder or “pulverin” that once touched with a burning wick
would cause the main charge to explode. The internal diameter had to be and remain very small because
too much gas would otherwise escape through it and cause a misfire or lower velocity fire. A bushing was
often used to that effect.
Trunnion – Tourillon – Muñon
One of the two symmetrical, short cylindrical branches of a cannon, protruding on both sides, slightly
ahead of the gravity center (or point of equilibrium) with the purpose to support the piece when placed on
a gun carriage in such a way that it could be swung with little effort.
Tube – Tube – Tubó
The cannon barrel. Most tubes were made of either, wrought-iron, cast iron, steel, or bronze. Exceptionally, some were made of pure copper, some of wood (a drilled through tree trunk with iron bands for reinforcement) and some in leather (with wood and/or iron reinforcements or straps).
Vacant cylinder – Volée – Caña
The part of the bore, which does not contain powder and shot.
Vent – No reliably correct translation extant – No reliably correct translation extant
See Touch-hole.
Vent cover – Protège-lumière – Tapafogón
A leather strap, with a brass or copper pin attached, fastened across the breech of the tube in order to protect the vent or touch-hole. The pin entered the vent hole to keep the strap from slipping.
Or a solid brass, protective piece hinged on a tenon, on one side of the vent and locking (or being secured)
on the opposite tenon.
190
Vent field – Champ de lumière – No reliably correct translation extant
The section between the vent astragal of the first reinforce astragal and the ogee of the base ring.
Or the section where the vent has been pierced (if on top of the tube).
Windage – Vent – Viento de las balas
The difference between the diameter of the shot and the diameter of the bore. It was necessary to figure
windage in order to make allowance for a piece becoming foul due to incrustation of rust, of black powder
soot, etc., for a not perfectly round cannon ball or for the expansion of a shot by heat, etc. Reducing windage increased the accuracy of the shooting and gave a more extensive range of fire, at a risk.
The windage was generally of 1/25 of the bore diameter.
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GUN CARRIAGE
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Name in English – Name in French – Name in Spanish
Definition
Bout of the axle-tree – Fusée ou Museau de l’essieu – Pezon del eje
The end of the axle–tree of a gun carriage.
Brackets – Flasques – Gualderas
The two main pieces forming the sides of the carriage of a gun, assembled by the axle-trees and by the
various cross-pieces.
Breeching – Brague – Braga
The breeching of a naval gun or carronade is a strong rope by which the recoil of the piece is checked at
such a point that the muzzle is brought wholly within the port-hole, where the gunners can sponge and
reload it.
Also, a harness adapted to the wheel-horses of gun carriages, near and off, for the purpose of facilitating the
stopping of a gun in motion. Breechings near and off, are strengthened with leather.
Capsquares – Plates – bandes – Sobremuñoneras
Large iron strips, which embrace, contain and cover the trunnions of a cannon on the brackets of its
carriage. They secure the gun to the carriage.
Carriage or Gun carriage – Affût (de canon) – Cureña
A wooden carriage, on which a gun is solidly mounted to be secured and moveable and aimed correctly.
Casemate carriage – Affût de casemate – Cureña de casemata
A traverse carriage in a fort casemate. The gun fired through an “embrasure” or loophole in the wall.
(Examples: the Gribeauval battery carriage).
Cheeks – Flasques – Gualderas
The sides of a gun carriage, which support the trunnions. See Brackets.
Chin bolt – Cheville à clavette, à mentonnet – Betica
A type of bolt, a cotter pin, was used to secure the hinged cap squares to the top of the brackets.
Galloper carriage – No reliably correct translation extant – No reliably correct translation extant
A gun carriage for a small field piece, of which the trail forms poles for a single horse.
Gun tackle – Palan de retraite (ou de côté) – No reliably correct translation extant
The blocks and pulleys affixed to the side of the hull, by which a gun carriage is run to and from the gun
port.
Hoop – Virole – Virola
A rigid, circular band of metal, placed around the bout of the axle-tree.
Mike – No reliably correct translation extant – No reliably correct translation extant
Forked gun carriage from the 1500s, in use in Denmark.
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Mortar bed – Base de mortier – Plancha de mortero
A base for a land mortar (no wheels and heavy).
Notches – Degrés – Escaleretas
The “steps” on both sides of the cheeks of the carriage.
Rope breechings – Brague ou drague – Braguero
A thick and strong rope passed into the two sides of a gun carriage and fixed to the ship’s hull, on both sides
of the cannon’s embrasure, in order to limit the recoil of the cannon when fired.
Sole – Semelle – No reliably correct translation extant
The bottom of the carriage (when there is a full, solid bottom, not always the case).
Stock – No reliably correct translation extant – No reliably correct translation extant
A hollowed oak trunk in which the early cannons or bombards were solidly embedded (c. 1400-1600).
Trail – No reliably correct translation extant – No reliably correct translation extant
The backward part of the gun carriage.
Transom – Entretoise – Teleron, Calestrín
Horizontal beam joining the cheeks of a gun carriage.
Truck – Roue – Rueda
The wheel of a gun carriage.
Wedges – Coins – Espreses
Wooden wedges, of various thicknesses, to be placed between the lower part of the cannon’s breech and the
upper side of the trail in order to set the elevation of the piece.
Wheel lock – Esse de roue – Sotrozo
A strong wrought-iron, flat pin, driven through the end of the wheels axle in order, to prevent the wheel
slipping off.
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TOOLS
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Name in English – Name in French – Name in Spanish
Definition
Bed – Coussin, Chevet – Almohada
A wood support for a mortar or a howitzer, either rectangular or in the shape of a truncated pyramid. It
is used for aiming the gun.
Breeching – Brague – Braga
The breeching of a gun is a strong cable by which the recoil of the piece is checked at such a point that the
muzzle is brought wholly within the port-hole, where the gunners can sponge and reload it.
Calibre compass or Gunner’s rule – No reliably correct translation extant – Compas de medir balas
A variety of the callipers, specially designed for measuring cannon balls and engraved with precise
information referring to each calibre. The weight of the shot was read off at the head. On the reverse, the
weight of powder charges necessary and other informations such as range, etc., were given.
Callipers – Compas d’épaisseur – Calibrador
The callipers were used to measure lengths of time fuzes, fuze plugs, diameter of shot, and calibre of
cannons. It was made of hinged sheet brass with steel points. A graduated scale along the side was set up
in inches and divisions. See also “Calibre compass” or Gunner’s rule”.
Charger – Chargeoir, Chargeur – Cuchara de cañon, Cargador
A simple spoon-like instrument at the end of a shaft used to put the shot into the muzzle.
Crusher – No reliably correct translation extant – No reliably correct translation extant
Apparatus for measuring the pressure of the powder gas in the bore of a cannon.
Fuze or Fuse – Mèche, Fusée – Mecha
A tube filled with combustible matter, used to ignite the charge of a bomb or a shell.
Gauge – Lunette or Passe-balle – Pasa bala
The gauge is a metal circle (usually made of copper), with or without a handle, that is used to check the
exact calibre of a cannon ball or of other projectiles. The operation takes two gauges, the one with an
opening, slightly larger than the other. Each of the cannon balls, which are checked for exact diametre
must pass through the first one from all sides and be stopped by the second, also from all directions under
which it is presented. Each gauge usually bears the engraved mention of its internal diametre.
Grommet – Estrope – Estrovo, Estribo, Gaza
A rope ring used as a wad to hold a cannonball in place in the tube.
Hand-spike – Anspect – Espeque de cabra
Wooden crow-bar with one extremity covered of iron, inserted under the base ring of the cannon in order
to raise it sufficiently to introduce the wooden wedges in order to correct the elevation of the piece.
196
Haversack – Musette – Mochila
In artillery service, a leather bag, with a leather flap affixed, used in the field to carry the powder cartridges from
their safe storage box to the piece in order to prevent mishaps while the cartridges were being transported.
Ladle – Cuiller – Cuchara
Used to put powder in the cannon or to remove projectiles from pieces, when firing was no longer desired.
The ladle was made of sheet brass affixed to a wooden head and adapted for a shaft. It was designed to be
shoved under the projectile and withdrawn from the tube.
Also, an iron ring used for carrying shot or hot shot, to the artillery piece. It had one to three handles,
depending on the size of the shot being transported. A large shot required two or three men to transport.
Also called a shovel.
Lighted match – Bâton à mèche – Palo de mecha
A stick prepared to burn at an even rate, used to fire cannon, gunpowder, etc.
Lintstock – Boute-feu – Botafuego
Small wooden stick, open on one side in order to receive the lighted extremity of a match, the rest, is
turned around the stick. It was used to hold a slow match for igniting the powder in the vent. One end
of the lintstock was tipped with an iron point so that, between firings, it could be inserted in the ground
or, on a ship, in a prepared safe hole.
Mandrel – Mandrin – Mandril
A metal bar, used as a core around, which metal may be forged or otherwise shaped.
Mant(e)let – Mantelet – Mantilla
A bullet-proof shield made of wood, rope matting, or metal used to protect cannon crews at the embrasures.
Match – Mèche – Mecha
Means of ignition made in a rope-like form and impregnated with a mixture of fine powder and tar.
Partisan lin(t)stock – No reliably correct translation extant – No reliably correct translation extant
Spear with match holders.
Plummet – Fil à plomb – Plomada
A lead or iron weight suspended by a string. Used for levelling gun carriages and platforms. Also known
as line-and-bob.
Port-fire – Porte-feu – No reliably correct translation extant
Paper tube filled with a fine priming mixture.
Powder-horn – Corne d’amorce – Cebador
Ox horn filled with gun powder. The extremity is usually equipped with a small spring allowing, when
pressed, to let the priming powder run.
Priming horn – Corne d’amorce – Cebador
See Powder–horn.
Priming iron or wire – Dégorgeoir, Epinglette – Saca-filasticas
Copper wire pointed at one end with a circular or 8-shaped loop at the other. It was inserted through the
vent in order to pierce the cartridge bag seated in the chamber. This allowed the flame from the primer to
reach the propellant charge.
Quoin – Coin de mire – Cuña de punteria
A wedge placed under the breech of a gun to fix its elevation.
197
Rammer or Ramrod – Refouloir – Atacador
A wooden cylinder made of elm, poplar, maple, or similar wood used in muzzle-loaders. The rammer was
attached to a wooden staff, usually the opposite end of the sponge. The centre of the rammer was slightly
concave to avoid contact with the fuse. It was used to drive the powder cartridge and projectile to the base
of the bore in preparation for firing.
Rope breechings – Brague ou drague – Braguero
A thick and strong rope passed into the two sides of a gun carriage and fixed to the ship’s hull, on both sides
of the cannon’s embrasure, in order to limit the recoil of the cannon when fired.
Shot locker – Parc à boulets – Chillera, Balero
A wooden shelf on the side of a ship, pierced on the upper surface with hemispherical cavities aimed to
house the shots that must be kept at hand during a fight.
Also a square or triangular frame in the free space between the cannons for storing shots.
Shovel – Pelle – Pala
See Ladle.
Sight – Mire – Mira
System Equipment and/or implements used to align a weapon for accuracy before firing. Could have been
cast as part of the cannon or could be portable and installed on the piece before the battle (more elaborate
and fragile implements).
Spunge – Ecouvillon – Lanada
Wooden cylinder fixed at the extremity of a long stick, used for cleaning the inner part of a gun. The
cylinder is surrounded by a sheep skin; the friction dries the humidity, due to the explosion of the powder.
Tackle – Brague ou Drague – Cable
See Rope breechings.
Tampion screw – No reliably correct translation extant – No reliably correct translation extant
A cork-screw-like implement on a long handle for drawing out the remains of a tampion.
Wad – Bourre, Valet – Taco
A stopper made of natural fibres, tightly winded into a ball, which is pushed on top of a cannon shot in
order to block it and to seal the charged cylinder of the piece.
Wadhook or Worm – Tire-foin, Tire-bourre – Sacatrapos
A tool formed like a corkscrew at the end of a long pole, for drawing out remains of the charge in a
muzzle-loader.
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PROJECTILES, ETC.
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Name in English – Name in French – Name in Spanish
Definition
Bar-shot – No reliably correct translation extant – Bala enramada, Bala de palanqueta
A projectile formed like a dumb bell. Some were solid, others sliding (with double bar), all were meant to
start swirling round once in the air so as to destroy sails, cut the ship’s rigging and cables and sailor’s necks.
Bomb – Bombe – Bomba, Bala hueca
An explosive projectile, a hollow cast-iron ball, filled with gunpowder and “shrapnel” of any kind, with a
fuse to produce delayed detonation.
Canister – Charge à mitraille – Tarro de metralla
A canvas cylindrical bag or a can made of light metal and filled with small sharpened missiles that will
scatter after leaving the gun. Canisters were designed to be used at close range against enemy troops with
the desired effect being that of a huge shotgun blast. See also Grape shot.
Cannonball – Boulet de canon – Bala de cañon
Stone or iron (copper, exceptionally, in colonial Chile) spherical projectile for use in any type of piece. A
solid shot or a round shot.
Cartridge or Cartouch – Cartouche, Gargousse – Cartucho
A bag or case holding a prepared, pre-weighed powder charge for putting into a cannon.
The cartridge may be made of parchment, textile, strong paper or thin sheet-iron.
Cartridge case or box – Garde-feu, gargoussier – Guarda cartucho
A leather or light wood, cylindrical case or bag, containing and protecting from fire the cartridge of gun
powder. This case or bag was to be seated between the bottom of the bore and the base of the projectile.
The bag was punctured by the priming wire through the vent, and fine priming powder was then inserted
in the vent to allow the transfer of the spark to ignite the charge.
Case-shot – Mitraille – Pomo de metralla
Small shots or lead balls, contained in a canvass, wooden, tin or iron-sheet cylindrical case or in netting.
Will scatter upon firing. See also Shrapnel.
Chain-shot – Boulet à chaîne, Balle à l’ange – Bala de cadena
A projectile consisting of two shots or two half shots, linked by a chain. Will start swirling when in the
air. Was used to cut masts and rigging of naval vessels, to shear sails and/or to maim enemy personnel.
Cross-bar shot – Boulet ramé – Bala de palanqueta, bala enramada
A projectile consisting of two cannon balls, linked by a strong iron shaft. This shot, when fired, begins to
swirl and cuts masts and rigging of enemy ships.
Double headed shot – Boulet ramé – Bala enramada
A projectile consisting of two lenticular portions, i.e. two half-balls, linked by an iron shaft.
See Cross-bar shot.
199
Grape shot –Grappe de raisin – Saquillo de metralla
A cylindrical case of light wood, canvas or netting, holding a number of balls, nails or stones, etc., to be
fired out of any artillery piece. The small iron balls, etc., which will scatter upon firing are arranged like
grapes around a wooden stick stuck in the wooden bottom part.
Grenade – Grenade – Granada
Small hollow ball to be thrown by hand filled with “artifices” and ignited by an exterior fuse. It was at first
made of glass or earthenware and of iron from the 17th century on.
Gun powder – Poudre à canon – Polvora de cañon
Black powder is an explosive mixture, made of saltpetre (potassium nitrate), sulphur and finely grounded
charcoal, used as a propellant in cannons, in shells and cartridges, for blasting, etc. The Chinese who
invented it, it is said, used it only for fireworks. It was introduced in Europe through Egypt, it is also said,
in the first half of the 14th century and quickly put to a different use.
Hot shot – Boulet rouge – Bala roja
A solid shot projectile, which has been heated white- or red-hot in a specially constructed furnace and has
to be handled by the gunner with special tools. An incendiary projectile used in mortars, siege cannons
and also at sea.
Langrel or Langrage – Mitraille – Metralla
Pieces of iron of various sizes, used as case-shot. Sometimes gathered in a bag called a langrel-bag.
Magazine – Magasin – Almacén
A safe storage area for prepared explosive projectiles and gunpowder on land (in forts), often part of the
arsenal.
Palisade shot – Boulet de palissade – Bala de dos puntas
Round shot on the middle of an iron bar in the form of two spikes.
Petard – Pétard – No reliably correct translation extant
Bell-shaped mine, in iron or bronze, filled with powder and fused for bursting the wooden door of a city
gate, etc., (when solidly secured to it).
Powder-room – Soute aux poudres, Sainte Barbe – Pañol de la polvora
The part of the hold, where the powder is stored on a ship.
A very commonly used denomination but technically incorrect. See further on, under “Sainte-Barbe”.
Prime-cartridge – Etoupille – No reliably correct translation extant
Small pipe filled with powder, which is placed in the vent. It then replaces the priming powder or pulverin.
There are ordinary prime-cartridges and percussion prime-cartridges.
Priming powder – Pulvérin – Ceba
A specially prepared, extra fine powder that is laid in the vent field in order to communicate the fire to the
main charge in the cannon.
to Ram – Refouler, Bourrer – Atacar, Piconear
To force a charge into a firearm.
200
Red-hot ball or shot – Boulet rouge – Bala roja
See Hot-shot.
Round shot – Boulet rond – Bala común
A spherical, solid shot of stone, lead, cast-iron, steel or exceptionally copper.
Saint Barbara – Sainte Barbe – Santa Barbara
The Patron Saint of all artillery men, gunners, etc. on land or at sea. Her feast day is on December 4th. On
French ships, her name often designated the powder-room. Erroneously so, according to Jean Boudriot.
He writes : “The Sainte Barbe was a space situated under the main cabin, that is at the level of the first battery for
the ships-of-the-line, and at the level of the ‘false bridge’, next to the ‘carré de l’Etat-Major’ or staff headquarters,
this also aft, in the frigates”. “One must avoid mistaking the Sainte Barbe – Boudriot further writes – with the
powder room. The Sainte Barbe does not contain powder or inflammable items but only tools and implements
such as match tubs, empty cartridges, lintstocks, priming powder horns or pulverins, spring plates, etc. On board
the ships-of-the-line the master gunner has a small room for his own use in the Sainte Barbe.”
Shell – Obus –Obús
The artillery projectile of the 20th century, with a powder-filled case or cartridge (with bottom firing cap)
crimped on it. May be solid or explosive and then is tipped with a contact firing device.
Shot – Boulet – Bala
The basic, solid projectile, non-explosive. May be in stone or in iron (exceptionally in copper).
In English, the word also designates the action of shooting (as in “killed by the first shot”).
Shot locker – Soute aux boulets – Pañol de las balas
The main storage place for the ship’s cannon balls, usually a big, strong cubical box located on the lower
deck and just behind the main mast.
Shot rack – Ratelier à boulets – Chillera, Balero
Some kind of wooden shelf on the side of a ship, pierced on the upper surface with hemispherical cavities
made to house the shots that must be kept at hand during a fight.
Also a square or triangular frame in the free space between the cannons for storing shots.
Shrapnel – Shrapnel – No reliably correct translation extant
The lead or iron balls, any sharp or heavy small items that can kill or maim people when shot in a hollow
projectile, so filled or in an explosive bomb. A word used since the 19th century only in that sense. In
WWI and WWII the word also designated the fragments of an explosive shell. For earlier periods, see
Case shot.
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GUNNER’S VOCABULARY
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In English – In French – In Spanish
Definition
to Aim a gun – Pointer un canon – Apuntar un cañon
To point a gun.
Artillery piece – Pièce d’artillerie – Pieza de artillería
Refers in the most general way to cannons (with flat trajectories) and howitzers and mortars (with curved
trajectories).
Ballistics – Balistique – Balística
The science of dealing with the motion and trajectory of projectiles.
Bastard – Bâtard – Bastardo
An adjective that designates a gun of any type, which is not exactly cast according to the theoretical ideal
length to calibre ratio. Example: “A bastard culverin”: Is a “long gun” the length of which is less than 25
times its calibre or more than 35 times its calibre, the theoretical figures for a “true culverin” being 28 to
32 times.
Brass – Laiton – Latón
Or “yellow copper”. An alloy made of red copper (mostly) and zinc (33%) or lead, used to make modern
cartridges. In English, the word is sometimes misused for bronze.
Broad-side – Bordée – Descarga de cañonazos
A simultaneous discharge of all the guns on one side of a warship.
Bronze – Bronze – Bronce
An alloy made of copper (mostly) and tin, used (since the 16th century) to cast durably solid cannons.
Bushing – Bague – No reliably correct translation extant
A close-fitting section of a pipe inserted in a cylinder in order to reduce its diameter (by example in a
touch-hole, in a vent).
Calibre – Calibre – Calibre
Diameter of a cannon’s bore, expressed in inches, or in the weight of the solid shot corresponding to it.
to Calibrate a gun – Calibrer, régimer un canon – Calibrar
To determine the correct range (for an artillery gun, mortar, etc.) by observing where the fired projectiles
hit the ground for each particular elevation and a fixed charge of powder.
Cannon shot – Portée de canon – Tiro de cañon
The range of a cannon.
Cannonade – Canonnade – Cañoneo
A continued discharge of cannon.
202
to Cannonade – Canonner – Cañonear
To attack continuously with cannon.
Canteen – Cantine – Cantina
A box fitted with compartments, in which officers on foreign service pack spirit bottles, knives, forks, etc.
Also, a tin vessel used by the soldiers to carry water or other drinkables in.
Casemate – Casemate – Casamata
A vault or chamber in a rampart, with embrasures for artillery.
An armoured enclosure for guns in a modern warship (20th century).
Chief gunner – Maître canonnier – Sargento artillero (o de batería)
An artillery officer in charge of supervising all the cannons of a small vessel or one or a part of the guns of
one gundeck (or one side of it) on a large ship of the line.
Depression – Dépression – Depresión
The angle, which the axis of the bore of a gun is lowered under the horizontal plane.
Discharge of cannon – Décharge de canon – Descarga de cañon
The firing of a gun.
to Dispart a gun – Calibrer un canon – Probar el calibre de un cañon
To measure the dispart of a gun, the dispart being the difference of a gun’s internal diameter, measured at
the muzzle and the base ring. (In order to check the quality of the founder’s work or to check wear and
tear on an old gun.)
Elevation – Elévation – Elevación
The angle at which the axis of the bore of a gun is raised above the horizontal plane.
Embrasure – Embrasure – Tronera
An opening through, which a cannon can be discharged.
Enfilade – Enfilade – Enfilada
A fire of musketry or artillery, made in the direction of the length of a line of troops, or a line of rampart.
Evening-gun – Coup de canon de retraite – No reliably correct translation extant Signalling the end of the
day’s work (in peacetime).
to Fire a gun – Tirer le canon, un coup de canon – Disparar un cañonazo
To discharge a gun.
(Cannon or gun) Founder – Fondeur (de canons) – Fundidor (de cañones)
A founder (or caster), who makes cannons (and often, in the early days, church bells, statues, etc.).
Founding House – Fonderie – Taller de fundición
Cannon foundry.
Gun-boat – Chaloupe canonnière – Cañonera
Light vessel carrying ordnance, manoeuvred with oars. (For operations in large rivers, estuaries or in inside
waters, in the Baltic Sea for instance.)
203
Gunmetal – No corresponding word in French – No reliably correct translation extant
Any metal or alloy used in making a gun, iron excepted.
Gun port – Sabord – Porta, Tronera
An opening in a ship’s hull through which a cannon’s muzzle is run out for firing.
Gun-shot – Portée de canon – Tiro de cañon
The distance that a shot is able to cover when the cannon is fired.
Gunnage – Du port de x – De a x piezas
A naval term for the number of guns carried by a ship-of-war.
Gunner – Canonnier, Artilleur – Artillero
The member of an artillery crew, who is responsible for giving the orders for cleaning, loading, and firing
the cannons.
to House the guns – Serrer les canons, Mettre les canons à la serre – Batiportar la artillería
To lash and secure the guns on the bulwark (in case of rough weather), so that their mouths touch with
the top of the port.
to Lay a gun – Pointer un canon – Apuntar un cañon
To aim or point a gun.
to Load the gun – Charger le canon – Cargar el cañon
To insert the charge of powder and the projectile into the gun.
Mant(e)let – Mantelet – Mantilla?
The vertically hinged door that closes the gun ports.
Morning-gun – Coup de canon de la diane – No reliably correct translation extant
The cannon shot off in military harbours or on commanding ships at dawn. It announces the end of the
night rest and the beginning of the day’s work.
to Mount a gun – Monter un canon – Montar un cañon
To place a gun on its carriage.
A naval term indicating how many guns were carried on a ship (e.g. “the ship mounts seventy-four guns”).
to Nail up a gun – Enclouer un canon – Enclavar un cañon
To intentionally render an artillery piece unserviceable in order to avoid its capture and use by the enemy.
Various means were used to accomplish this. A nail or small rod could be driven through the vent hole;
a shot could be wedged in the bottom of the bore with the use of iron wedges driven in with the rammer;
shells could be caused to burst in the bore, or broken shot fired from the tube with a high charge; two
weapons could be fired at each other, muzzle to muzzle; the trunnions could be broken off, or busted by
firing heavy charges full of shot at great elevations.
Ordnance – Ordonnance – Artillería
Generic term which, for the artillery, encompassed all types of cannons and projectiles for sea or land
service, all gun carriages, mortar beds, caissons, and travelling forges, with their equipment, all other
apparatuses, tools and machines required for the service and manoeuvres of artillery, together with the
materials for their construction, preservation and repair.
204
Piece – Pièce – Pieza
A gun in the widest possible description.
to Point the gun – Pointer le canon – Apuntar un cañon
To lay or train a gun.
Point blank – A bout portant – A quema ropa
Refers to a shot fired by any type of fire weapon from very close by, almost at contact.
Port-cell – Seuillet – Batiporte
The piece of wood lining the lower edge of the opening of a porthole.
to Pound – Pilonner – Martillear a cañonazos, Batir a cañonazos
To strike repeatedly with grouped cannon shots.
Pounder – Calibre (exprimé en “livres de balle”) – Calibre, peso en libras
A gun that discharges an iron shot of a specified weight in pounds (e.g. “a 6-pounder”).
Powder-room – Sainte-Barbe ou Soute aux poudres – Santa Bárbara orPañol de polvora
The room or part of hold where the gun powder is stored on a ship. It is lined with copper sheets and the
barrels are wood in order to avoid any possibility of a spark. It is lighted through a glass window with the
lantern in the next hold.
to Prime the gun – Amorcer le canon – Cebar el cañon
To insert priming powder or a priming tube in the vent of the cannon.
to Prove the gun – Faire l’épreuve d’un canon – Probar un cañon
To test a new gun just received from the foundry.
Range – Portée– Alcance
The maximum horizontal distance at which a gun can hit its target.
Recoil – Recul – Retroceso
The backward movement of a cannon immediately after being discharged, due to the sudden pressure of
the explosion.
Round – Volée, Bordée – Bordada
A discharge of all the guns on one side, of one gundeck.
Sailing-gun – Coup de canon de partance – No reliably correct translation extant
The cannon shot fired at intervals in order to announce the imminent departure of a ship of a squadron.
Salvo – Salve – Salva
A simultaneous discharge of the artillery of one or several ships, against one target.
to Scale or Seal a gun – Souffler un canon – Limpiar un cañon
To burn a small quantity of powder into the bore of a gun, in order to empty and clean it.
205
to Seize the breechings – Braguer les canons, Aiguilleter, Briguer, Amarrer – Amarrar Trincar, Aprezar
los cañones
To fix the guns and carriages with strong cables in order to minimize the recoil when they are fired and/or
to secure them in rough weather.
to Shoot blank, at the mark – Tirer à blanc – Tirar la prueba
To shoot with powder and no projectile (for signals or for salutes).
to Shoot off the gun – Tirer le canon – Tirar el cañon, Disparar un cañonazo
To discharge a cannon, to fire a shot.
to Shot the gun – Charger le canon – Poner la bala en el cañon
To put the shot inside the gun.
Sight – Mire – Mira
The equipment or the implements used to accurately aim a weapon before firing.
to Spike a gun – Enclouer un canon – Enclavar un cañon
See to Nail up.
to Train a gun – Pointer un canon – Apuntar un cañon
To aim or point a gun.
Trajectory – Trajectoire – Trayectoria
Curved path taken by a projectile in its flight through the air. The trajectory is affected by the elevation
of the tube, the weight of the projectile and the amount of gunpowder used (and to a lesser degree by the
wind). It can be ruined, also, by a last-second movement of the ship in choppy seas.
True – Vrai – Legitimo
An adjective that designates a type of gun, exactly corresponding to its theoretical characteristics, mostly
the exact ratio, length to calibre. Example: “a true culverin” with a ratio of 30.
to Unload the gun – Décharger un canon – Descargar un cañon
To shoot off a cannon.
206
ABBREVIATIONS USED IN TEXT
____________________________________________________________________
For the captions of the illustrations in the Large Green Albums and Small Green Albums (LGAs and
SGAs), the Editor has used either MLP’s references or new abbreviations referring to the museums where
the cannons can actually been seen today.
The references used by MLP in his SGAs may refer either to his personal photo numbers, to museum’s
numbers (exhibit numbers), to entries in museum’s catalogues or to the museums where the cannons could
be seen at his times.
A
AC
AGI
AHM
Akershus Slot
Akershus Slot Museum
Albany
Altes Zeughaus
Amsterdam
Amsterdam Scheepvaart
Armémuseum
Bangsbo
Basle
Bayerisches Nationalmuseum
Bayerisches Armeemuseum
Belém
Belfast
BM
Borgia Apts
Brest
Brussels, MRA
Brussels Porte de Hal
BUEI
C
CG
Chapultepec
Char S.C.
DAK
Delft
DG
DHM
Doordrecht
Dover Castle
Draguignan
EA
EIC
Elburg
Annapolis, U.S. (MLP ref )
Mariner’s Museum, Newport News, Virginia; U. S. (MLP ref.)
Archivo General da Indias, Seville, Spain
Amsterdams Historisch Museum, The Netherlands
Arkershus Castle, Oslo, Norway (outside)
Arkershus Castle, Oslo, Norway (inside)
Albany, U.S. (MLP ref.)
Kantonales Museum Altes Zeughaus, Solothurn, Switzerland
Probably for Rijksmuseum Amsterdam, The Netherlands (MLP
ref.)
Het Scheevaart Museum, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Armémuseum Stockholm, Sweden
Bonsgbomuseet, Frederilshavn, Denmark
Historisches Museum, Basle, Switzerland
Bayerisches Nationalmuseum, Munich, Germany
Bayerisches Armeemuseum, Ingolstadt, Germany
Museu da Marinha, Belém, Lisbon, Portugal
Ulster Museum, Belfast, Northern Ireland
British Museum
Borgia Appartements, Vatican, Italy
Musée National de la Marine, Brest, France
Musée Royal de l’Armée, Brussels, Belgium
Musée de la Porte de Hal, Brussels, Belgium
Bermuda Underwater Exploration Institute.
The Cannon Hall, Guide to the Royal Danish Arsenal Museum,
Copenhagen 1948, Denmark (MLP ref.)
Capitán General
Chapultepec Castle, Mexico City, Mexico D.F. (MLP ref.)
Charleston, South Carolina (MLP ref.)
Danske Asiatisk Kompagni (the Danish Asiatic Company)
Army Museum of the Netherlands, Delft, The Netherlands
Director General
Deutsches Historisches Museum, Berlin, Germany
Doordrecht Nederlands voor Geschiedenis en Kunst, Netherlands
Castle of Dover, England
Musée de l’Artillerie, Draguignan, France
Editor’s album
See HEIC
Elburg Museum, The Netherlands
207
Enk
Enkuizen City Hall
Firepower
FMU
Fort Douglas
Ft. Niagara
Ft. William Henry, NY
Geneva
Gibraltar
GNM
GRASP
208
Enkuizen Museum, The Netherlands
Enkuizen City Hall, The Netherlands
Firepower Museum, Woolwich, England
Forsvarsmuseet, Olso, Norway
Fort Douglas, Salt Lake City, Parade Ground; U.S. (MLP ref.)
Fort Niagara, U.S. (MLP ref.)
Fort William Henry, New York, U.S. (MLP ref.)
Ancien Arsenal, Geneva, Switzerland
Alameda Gardens, Gibraltar
Germanisches Nationalmuseum, Nuremberg, Germany
Groupe de Recherche Archéologique Sous-marine Post-médievale
(Group for Underwater Post-Mediaeval Archaeological Research)
Graz
Landeszeughaus, Graz, Austria
GWIC
Geoctroyeerde West Indische Compagnie (the Chartered West
India Company, the full name)
H
Havana, Cabana Port, Cuba (MLP ref.)
Havana, P. D. Armas
Havana…, Cuba (MLP ref.)
HEIC
Honourable East-India Company (English). Often called “The
East India Company”
HGM
Heeresgeschichtliches Museum (Army History Museum, Vienna)
HMSO
Her Majesty’s Stationary Office
Horten
Martinemuseet, Horten, Denmark
IG
Inspector General
IMM
Internationales Maritimes Museum, Hamburg, Germany
Invalides
Catalogue du Musée de l’Artillerie de Hôtel des Invalides, Paris,
1889, France.
Inv.
Musée de l’Armée at the Invalides, Paris, France
Kaiserburg
Kaiserburg Museum, Nuremberg, Germany
Kronborg
Maritime Museum, Kronborg, Denmark
Kronborg Slot
Kronoborg Castle at Elsinore, Denmark
La Neuveville
Musée d’Histoire de la Neuveville, Switzerland
Leiden
Leiden, The Netherlands (MLP ref.)
LGA
One of the so-called “Large Green Albums”
Lisbon, Castelo São Jorge
St. George Castle in Lisbon, Portugal
Lisbon or Lisbon MM
Catálogo do Museu Militar (Antigo Museu da Artilharia), Lisboa,
1930, Portugal (MLP ref.)
Lisbon Marinha
Museu Marinha, Lisbon, Portugal
Lisbon, Museu do Combatente Museu da Liga dos Combatentes in Lisbon, Portugal
M
Catálogo General del Museo de Artillería, Madrid, 1909, Spain
(MLP ref.)
MA
Musée de l’Armée, Paris (Army Museum, Paris, at the “Invalides”)
Madrid
Catálogo General del Museo de Artillería, Madrid, 1909, Spain
(MLP ref.); or Museo de Artillería Madrid, Spain (no longer
exists)
MAH
Musée d’Art et d’Histoire, Geneva, Switzerland
MES
Marie-Eve Sténuit (assistant Editor)
MHG
Museum für Hamburgische Geschichte, Hamburg, Germany
MLP
Mendel Lazear Peterson
NMN
Norsk Maritimt Museum, Oslo, Norway
MM
Mariner’s Museum, Newport News, Virginia, U.S.
MNMP
Musée National de la Marine, Paris, France
MNF
Museo Nazionale, Florence, Italy
Monaco
Monjuïc
MPP
Munic or Munich
Palais Princier, Monaco
Museu Militar del Castell de Monjuïc, Barcelona, Spain
Museo Poldi Pezzoli, Milan, Italy
Munich (MLP ref.), probably the today Bayerisches
Nationalmuseum, Germany
Nassau Water Tower
Bahamas (MLP ref.)
Newburg or Newburg NY
Newburg, New York, U.S. (MLP ref.)
Nice
Musée National de la Marine, Nice, France
NMA Edinburgh
National Museum of Antiquities, Edinburgh, Scotland
NMN
Norsk Maritimt Museum, Oslo, Norway
No MLP ref.
Means that a photo of the inscription has been found in the MLP’s
archives, but was not referenced and the editor has not been able
to identify the cannon that bears it
Nurnburg
Nuremberg, Germany (MLP ref )
NWP
Naval Weapon Plant (Gun Factory), Washington D.C.
Oslo
Oslo, Norway (MLP ref.)
P
Paris, Hôtel des Invalides, France (MLP ref.)
P au P
Port au Prince, Haiti (the Citadel) (MLP ref.)
PNY
Portsmouth, Va. Navy Yard, U.S. (MLP ref.)
Port-Louis
Musée National de la Marine, Port-Louis, France
PRO
Public Record Office
Q
Quebec, Canada
RA
Royal Armouries (at the Tower of London)
Rijksmuseum
Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Rochefort
Musée National de la Marine, Rochefort, France
Rome
Museo della Infanteria, Roma, Italy
Rotunda, Woolwich
Official Catalogue of the Museum of Artillery in the Rotunda,
Woolwich, London, 1906, England
Royal Danish Arsenal Museum The Cannon Hall, Guide to the Royal Danish Arsenal Museum,
Copenhagen 1948 (sometimes erroneously referenced by MLP as
“Royal Danish Artillery Museum”), Denmark
RS
Robert Pierre André Sténuit (Editor)
SAMA
Revue de la Société des Amis du Musée de l’Armée (the Magazine
of the Society of the Friends of the Army Museum, Paris, issued
since 1909)
Saratoga
Saratoga, U.S. (MLP ref.)
Segovia
Museo Espécifico de la Academia de Artillería, Segovia, Spain
Sevilla, MHMR
Seville, Museo Histórico Militar Regional, Spain
SFHM
Statens Forsvarshistoriske Museum / Orlog Museum, Germany
SGA
One of the so-called “Small Green Albums”
SI
The Smithsonian Institution (Washington DC)
Solothurn
Artillerie Museum, Solothurn, Switzerland
SPM
Shockland Polder Museum, The Netherlands
St. Augustine
Castillo de San Marcos in St. Augustine, Florida
St. George, Bermuda
St. George Fort in Bermuda (MLP ref.)
Stockholm
Sjöhistoriska Museet (Maritime Museum), Stockholm, Sweden
TG
Teniente General
Ti or T
Ticonderoga, U.S. (MLP ref.)
Tøjhmuseet
Tøjhmuseet (National Museum of Military History), former
Royal Danish Arsenal Museum, Copenhagen, Denmark
Toledo
Museo del Ejército in Toledo, Spain
Torre del Oro
Museo Marítimo Torre del Oro, Seville, Spain
209
Toulon
Tower
TT
Tudor House
Turin
UEI
USMA
USMR Coll.
USNM
Vasamuseet
Vaud
Venice or Venise
Vienna
Vincennes
VOC
W or Woolwich
WGF
WIC
Windsor
WP or West Point, NY
Yorktown
Zurich
210
Musée National de la Marine, Toulon, France
The White Tower, also called “The Keep”, which houses the Royal
Armouries, The United Kingdom’s National Museum of Arms
and Armours, London, England
Teddy Tucker (Edward B. Tucker)
Tudor House Museum, Southampton, England
Museo Nazionale d’Artiglieria, Torino, Italy (MLP ref.)
English United East India Company. The East India Company,
as it was commonly called, was officially chartered by Queen
Elisabeth I in 1600 as “The Governor and Company of Merchants
of London Trading into the East Indies”. This Company, in
1709, merged with a competitor, another company trading to the
East, to form “The United Company of Merchants of England
Trading to the East Indies”, the official name until 1858, when
the “India Act” put the whole of India in the British Empire and
saw the end of the Company. The “East India Company” was also
called “The Honourable Company” and, more commonly, “John
Company” (origin of the nickname uncertain but note that the
Dutch United East India Company, the VOC, was commonly
called “Jan Compagnie”).
US Military Academy Museum : Catalogue of the US Military
Academy Museum, West Point – New York, 1944 (MLP ref.)
?, U.S. (MLP ref.)
National Museum Collection, Washington, DC, U.S. (MLP ref.)
Vasamuseet, Stockholm, Sweden
Musée Militaire Vaudois – Château de Morges, Morges,
Switzerland
Venice Historic Naval Museum, Italy (MLP ref.)
Heeresgeschichtliches Museum, Vienna, Austria
Service Historique de la Défense, Vincennes, France
Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie, the Dutch United East
India Company (full name: “Geoctroyeerde Nederlandsche
Vereenichte Oost-Indische Compagnie”)
Official Catalogue of the Museum of Artillery in the Rotunda,
Woolwich, London, 1906, England (MLP ref.)
Washington Gun Factory, Washibngton DC, U.S.
West Indische Compagnie (the West India Company)
Windsor Castle, England
Collections of the US Military Academy Museum at West Point,
U.S. (MLP ref.)
National Historical Park, Yorktown, U.S.
Schweizerisches Landesmuseum, Zurich, Switzerland
MOTTOS ON CANNONS
____________________________________________________________________
In alphabetic order
A D V
Victory for God (Bern)
A R  V
For the King (of Spain) and for Victory
A R  S A
Under the Auspices of the King and Senate of England (motto of the The English United
East India Company)
C E   
Charles (of England) hath established/imposed Edgar’s Sceptre on the Waters
C U    
Charles (the First of Spain) is Unique and has no Second
C V
City of Veere (in the Northern Netherlands)
C  
I crown the Fight with Glory
D  J C
For God and Just Cause (motto of Frederik VI of Denmark)
D  P
God and Fatherland (motto of Christian VIII of Denmark)
D  P
For God and the People (motto of Christian VI of Denmark)
D M
[Jehovah] do Lead Me (motto of Christian IV of Denmark)
D  A
The Lord be my Helper (motto of Frederik IV of Denmark)
D / D P
The Lord be my Providence (motto of Frederik III of Denmark)
212
F ,   
The Brave may fall, but never yield (motto around the arms of the Earl of Drogheda,
England, late 18th c.)
F      D 
Flee all away from me for I act upon the Order of my Lord
G  A P
Glory through the Love of Fatherland (motto of Christian VII of Denmark)
H   
Fidelity hath won these Honours for our Race (motto of the Townshend family, England,
1778)
I.H.S.
Contraction of “Ihsouz” (Jesus in Greek)
I
Invincible
I V D N    
I shall remain undefeated by Bravery in the Name of God by whom I have been created
J D C M
Lord, lead my Heart (motto of Christian IV of Denmark)
L O
By the Benevolence of the Best One
L  E
I fight and I triumph
N P I
Not an equal match for numbers (motto of “The Sun King”, King Louis XIV of France)
N M I L
Nobody defies me without impunity
N    J  
I bring not only the Rays of the Sun but the Thunder of Jupiter
N  
I nourish and extinguish (motto of King of France François I)
P S
Save the weak Persons
P A  A
Though Difficulties to the Stars
P  J
With Piety and Justice (motto of Christian V of Denmark)
213
P N I
Equal to no Others
P  L
Light after Darkness (above arms of the Geneva Republic on guns 17th-18th centuries)
   
For Glory and Fatherland (motto of Frederik II of Prussia, 1740-1786)
P  C
By Prudence and Constancy (motto of Frederik V of Denmark)
Q  
Whiter/Wherever the Fates call/Whiter Destiny takes me (motto of the Earl of Romney,
Master of Ordnance, 1695, England)
R. F. P. = R F P
Piety strengthens the Realms (motto of Christian IV of Denmark)
R   H
To drive back the Enemy, not to attack him.
R P C C
With Concord small Things grow great
S B, C B
Saint Barbara, Universal Barbara
S.P.Q.P. = S P P
The Senate and the People of Palermo
S I
On the (Spanish) Empire’s Service
S A
Let us be judged by our Acts
S P  A
The Hope for Peace in the Arms (on the city of Bern coat of arms)
T B C T
Finally the Good Cause is Victorious (motto of the gun foundry of Frederiksværk, Denmark)
T   
Three joined in One
U  
The Final Argument of Justice.
Found on a gun cast for Dom Pedro, Prince and, at the time, Regent of Portugal.
214
U  
The Final Argument of the King.
Found on some guns made for King Frederik II (1740-1786) of Prussia.
U  
The Final Argument of the Kings.
First moulded on the bronze guns of Louis XIV (of France), then of all successive reigns.
Also on guns of the Dukes of Savoy (17th-18th centuries).
V V D
Contemplate the Truth of the Lord
V.D.M.I.Æ. = V D M I Æ
The Word of God lasts for ever
V M D
See the Wonder of the Lord
V D C
Watch yourself and Trust in God
V F R
The offended King’s Thunderbolt
V  N 
A Reward for Bravery at Namur (refers to the capture of Namur by William III of England
in 1695)
215
LIST OF MAJOR EUROPEAN AND AMERICAN CANNON FOUNDERS
____________________________________________________________________
In alphabetic order
Name
Function, place(s) and period of practice; date of some attested
or surviving cannons
Abasce, Khuda
Achamer, Johann
Adams, Jacob
Adant, Jacob
Agar or Agaut or Hagard
Agniel(s), Claude
Agostini or Agostino Nicolo
Aker works
Gun-founder, England; 1747
Gun-founder in Vienna; 1710
Gun-founder in Woolwich active in 1779
Gun-founder in Damme; 1431
Master founder to Henri III, France, 1574-1585
Gun-founder in Lyons 1521-1527
Gun-founder to Pius II in Piacenza 1461-1462 (or 1469?)
A foundry in Sweden, active in the 18th and 19th centuries,
owned by Gustav Kierman. Furnished guns for the Danish
Navy.
Master founder to the Duke of Mantua, in Casale and Ferrara
1588-1601 (pupil of Jean of Bologne), cast also the doors of
Ferrara Cathedral
Albenga, Giorgio
216
Albergetti or Alberghetti
– Alberghetto I de Dandoli
– Alberghetto II
– Alberghetto III
– Alessandron
– Antonio
– Antonio Angelo
– Battista (Zuanne)
– Camillo
– Carlo I
– Carlo II
– Carlo III
– Carlo IV
– Cesare
– Domenico
– Emilio
– Ercole
– Fabio
– Francesco
– Galeacius or Galeazzo
– Geronimo or Hieronymus
– Giacomo
– Gian Francesco
– Giovanni (Zanin)
– Giovanni
– Giovanni Battista I
Gun-founder in Ferrara 1487-1497
1510-1541
1578
?
Gun-founder in Venice; 1684
1788
Gun-founder to the Grand Duke of Tuscany 1549-1609
Gun-founder; 1527
Gun-founder in Venice 1669-1671
Gun-founder in Venice; 1695, 1699
1720
1782
1547-1603
?
1542
1565
1522
1829
1522
Gun-founder; 1543, 1565
1792
1672
1507
1573
?
– Giovanni Battista II
– Giovanni Battista (III?)
– Giulio
– Giust Emilio I
– Giust Emilio II
– Giust Emilio III
– Ippolito
– Orazio
– Orazio Antonio
– Paolo
– Sigismondo I
– Sigismondo II
– Sigismondo III
– Sigismondo IV
– Sigismondo V
– Virginio
Aldgate, William of
Algei(e)r, Valentin
Alonzo, Felipe
Amelle, de Luchon
Ammeroy, Cornelius
Ancher, Erich
Anciola, D. Manuel de
Andrieu, Simon
Anes, Francisco
Anselot
Anthonisz., Coenraad
Antoine, Maximilien
Anton & Waern
Appenzeller, Hans
Aran, Johann von
Aranha, Francisco José
Arcanis or Arcana Cesenen de
– Arcanus (= Archangel?)
– Archangel or Arcangelo
– Franciscus
– Raphael
Armstrong, Sir W.G. & C°
Arnoldus, Fredericus
Artis, Savarse
Astarita, Dominico
Atkinson
Gun-founder in Venice; 1708, 1709, 1711
1770-1803
Gun-founder in Venice, 1616
?
1666-1755
1722
?
1599
1700
1567
1487-1550
1534-1610
Gun-founder in Venice, came and studied artillery in England,
author of Artilleria Veneta; 1636, 1684
1702
1722
1570
Gun-founder in London 1353-1360
Gun-founder in Ulm 17th century
Gun-founder in Spain, worked with Bernardo Antonio
Guerrero; 1781
See Luchon
Gun-founder in the Netherlands, active in 1602
Owner of the gun foundry of Moss Iron-Works (with Waern),
Norway, 1750-1760; 1755, 1760
Owner of an iron foundry in Tagollaga (near Hernani, in the
Province of Guipuscoa); maker of wrought-iron pieces; 1767,
1769
Gun-founder in Lille 1467; 1473
Gun-founder in India, a Portuguese; 1515
Gun-founder in Cambrai; 1401
Gun-founder in The Hague 1591-1616; 1592
Gun-founder in Namur; 1744
Owners of the Moss Work in Norway; 1756, 1760, 1761
Gun-founder in Innsbruck 1499, introduced new methods of
casting
Gun-founder in Augsburg 14th century, cast 20 pieces of brass
with hollow iron bullets
Gun-founder in Lisbon 19th century
Gun-founder family to Henry VIII in Salisbury place, south of
Fleet Street, London, 1523-1542
Gun-founder; 1542
Gun-founder; 1542
Gun-founder, Inspector of Mines in 1523; 1529, 1535
Gun-founder
Gun-founder in England, active 1864
Gun-founder in Germany (Fulda); 1630
Gun-founder in London; 1514
Gun-founder in Naples; 1692, 1693
See Muir & Atkinson
217
Aubert, André
Babel, Pierre
Bacon, Anthony
Bader, Michel
Bagala
Bagley, Matthew
Bagot, Guillaume
Baghshaw
Baier, Michael
Bailey Pegg & Company
Bajar, Jean
Baker, John
Baker, Sir Richard
Bakers (brothers)
Bal(l)ard, Laurent
Baldnerus, Oswaldus
Ballesteros
– Fernando
– Francis
– Sebastianus
Balthasard, Jean
Balthazar (= Herold Balthasar?)
Bande, Jorge
Baptista or Baptiste
Barbafaut
Barbara, Alonzo
Barbet, Jehan
Barnola, Joseph
Barre, Pierre
Barrozzi, Giacinto
Bartels, C. E.
Bartolomeo or Bartolomeus
Baude, Jean
Baude, Pierre or Peter
(alias Bawood)
218
Baum, Moller v.
Bauzon, André de
Beckmann, Lukas
Bedford, John
Bennin(c)k or Benningk
Gun-founder in Angers; 1488
Gun-founder in Amiens; 1516
Gun-founder in Woolwich in 1774-1782
Gun-founder in Stockholm; 1494
Gun-founder in Spain; 1520
Gun-founder under Queen Ann, England, from a family of
bell-founders at Chacombe, Northants, Director and owner of
the foundry at Moorfields, London, (killed by the bursting of
a gun mould in May 1716) ; 1706
Gun-founder in Paris, Artilleur to François I; 1537
Worked with Harrison & Co
Gun-founder in Nuremberg 1566-1575
A gun-foundry in London, active 1812-1840
Gun-founder in Mons; 1741
Active in 1574 in England
Active in 1574 in England
Gun-founders in Mayfield, Sussex 1617-1664
Gun-founder in Brisach; 1676
Gun-founder in Nuremberg; 1557
Gun-founder in Lisbon; 1604, 1625
Gun-founder in Malaga; 1622
Gun-founder in Malaga; 1609
Gun-founder in Nancy; 1556
Gun-founder in Vienna in 1681
Gun-founder from Luxembourg, worked in Liérganes (Spain);
1629 and in La Cavada (Spain); 1640
Gun-founder in Arbe and Ragusa 1506-1537, Director of the
Ragusa Arsenal; 1524
Gun-founder in Abbeville; 1438
Gun-founder in Spain; 1477
Gun-founder in Lyons, “Canonnier du Roi”; 1507
Gun-founder in Barcelona 1738-1774; 1738, 1742, 1743,
1744, 1746, 1750, 1756, 1762, 1772, 1774
Gun-founder in Paris, “Canonnier du Roi”; 1536
Gun-founder in Vignola 1555-1581, inventor of a seven-barrel
gun weighing 500lb.
Gun-founder in Hanover; 1788, 1794
Gun-founder in Malaga c. 1560
Director of the foundry of the French Army in Narbonne, then
Master founder for the French Navy in Toulon 1669; 1670,
1677
Gun-founder at Houndsditch, London 1528-1546, also a bellfounder (Sutton Place, Woking 1530)
Master of Gunnery of Hamburg (one of five); 1662
Gun-founder in Nîmes (iron guns); 1363
Master of Gunnery of Hamburg (one of five); 1721
Gun-founder in England (iron guns), c. 1780
– Albrecht
– Gerdt
– Hermann
– Mattias
Bento Afonso, Fr.
Beradine, Pierre
Bercan, Anthoine (alias
Berquen), Anthony
Berchner, Ulla
Berenger
– Claude de la Falize
– François Simon
– J.
– Jean Theophile de la Periere
– Jean-François
– Nicolas
– T.
Berger or Borgerinck or
Berguerinqx or Borguerinck or
Bergherinck, Lambert(o)
Berinc(?), J.
Bernadon
Bernard
– Claude
– Guillaume
Bernardino, Antonio
Berquen, Anthony
Berti, Carlo Francesco
Besche, Abraham
Beseler
Betem, Martin
Beten, Martin
Bevyn, Hubert
Bianco
– Biaggio
– Francesco
– G. Antonio
– Gian Battista
Royal gun-founder in Lübeck 1662-1685 then in Copenhagen
1692-1695; 1662, 1679, 1687, 1692
Gun-founder in Dantzig; 1617
Gun-founder in Denmark and in Lubec (1643), may have
worked at Amsterdam and Hamburg as well; 1643, 1662
Gun-founder in Lübeck; 1564
Gun-founder in Portugal; 1750
Gun-founder in Bourg-en-Bresse; 1448
Gun-founder in Breisach 1691, then in Strasbourg 1714-1737,
Commissioner of the King’s foundry; 1714, 1730, 1735, 1737
Owner of the gun foundry of Stafsiø (his personal mark, “VB”,
used long after his death); 1691, 1694, 1695, 1697, 1699,
1705, 1731, 1804
Gun-founder in Douai, Commissioner of the King’s foundry
1696; 1702, 1704, 1706, 1708, 1714, 1716
Gun-founder in Douai 1738-1795, Commissioner of the
King’s foundry, remoulded the Strasbourg Arsenal 1757,
installed hydraulic forge at Douai 1793, dismissed by the
Revolutionary Tribunal 1793, reinstated 1795
Gun-founder in Douai; 1755, 1757, 1759, 1779, 1788
Gun-founder in Douai 1801-1819, last Commissioner of the
King’s foundry; 1807, 1813
Son of François-Simon, gun-founder in Strasbourg; 1756,
1758
Gun-founder in Douai 1723-1738, Commissioner of the
King’s foundry
Gun-founder in Douai; 1756
Gun-founder in Dunkirk 1656; 1638. Also in
Brussels; 1672
Gun-founder for the French India Company, 18th century
Gun-founder in St. Malo; 1495
Gun-founder in Paris 17th century
Gun-founder in Dijon; 1521
Gun-founder in Florence 1497-1512
See Bercan
Gun-founder; 1711
Gun-founder in Burgundy 1666-1671
Caster in Rendsburg, Denmark; 1756
Gun-founder in Malines; 1538
Gun-founder in Hesse 1525-1547
Gun-founder in Ypres; 1583
Gun-founder in Pavia; 1808, 1809, 1810
Gun-founder in Turin; 1793
Gun-founder in Turin; 1785
Gun-founder in Genoa; 1780
219
Blakely, Theophilus Alexander
Boca(r)ro (see also Dias-Boccaro)
– Manuel Tavares
– Jeronymo Tavares
Bolwerk Nucella & Co
Borchardt
– ? & Steen
– Johan
Borchart
Borgerinck, Lamberto
Borgognoni/e
– Annibale
– Oderico
Borchartsen, Rolf
Borthwick, Robert
Botch, Christophe
Both family
– Gerard
– Thomas
– Willem
Bouverie, Joseph
Bouchard (brothers)
Bouchart
Boug(n)ero or Bouquero
Bourne & Co
Boury, Smith
Bowen, William
Bowling
Bow(y)er, John & Henry
Boyarro, Manuel Tavaris
(+ Boccaro?)
Brazier, John
Brézin, Michel
Bright, Richard
Brodie, Alexander
220
Browne
– George
– George
– John
A Captain, designer of muzzle-loading cannons for the British
army, also used by the Confederate States of American during
the American Civil War; 1861, 1863
Gun-founder in Macau (1625-1664), a Portuguese; 1640,
1647, 1681
Master founder in 1674. The son of Manuel Tavares
Gun-founders in Sweden c. 1759
(See Steen)
Gun-founder; 1715
Royal gun-founder 1588-1603 in the old St. Klara Monastery
in Møntergade, Denmark; 1604, 1609
See Berger
Gun-founder in Ferrare 16th century; 1555, 1560, 1561, 1565,
1580
Founder, brother of Annibale
Royal gun-founder in Denmark 1616 (or 19?)-1624; 1623
Gun-founder in Edinburgh c. 1470, Master of Artillery to
James IV of Scotland, cast train of guns called “Seven Sisters”
Gun-founder in Tyrol; 1570
Gun-founders active in Utrecht from 1590 to 1825
Gun-founder in Utrecht; 1600
Gun-founder in Utrecht 1570-1584; 1584
Gun-founder in Utrecht
Gun-founder in Namur; 1734
Gun-founders in Tours and Orleans 1417-1451, cast great
bombards of 370lbs. to 1,067lbs.
Gun-founder in 1604
Gun-founder, Commissioner of the King’s foundry in Douai
1793-1795 then in Turin 1803-1808; 1795 (An III), 1807,
1808
Gun-founders in England active in1774-1775
Gun-founder (?) in Lyons; 1793
Gun-founder in Woolwich 1742-1764; 1742, 1756, 1760,
1761, 1764
Gun-founder in England 1800-1820 (iron)
Gun-founders in Hartfield, Sussex 1513-1538
Gun-founder in Portugal; 1647
Gun-founder in Cornhill, London 1361
Director of the foundry of the Arsenal in Paris in 1796; 1812
Gun-founder in England, active in 1778
Gun-founder on the river Severn, England, active early 19th
century
Gunner at the Tower, London 1517, maker of iron shot
King’s gun-founder in Horsmonden, Kent 1613-1681
King’s gun-founder under Charles I in Brenchley, Kent, and
– Thomas
– William
Bruges, Peter of
Bullen, George
Burgerhuys
– Johannes
– Michael
Burkart or Burcharts, Rudolph
(same as Borrchartsen, Rolf ?)
Burting
– Peter
– C.
Bustindui, José Ignacio
Butler, John
Byker, William
Calabrese, Angelo
Calleffi, Ercole
Caltoff, Caspar
Cambier, Jehan
Campi
– Bartolomeo
– Jacopo
Capon, Lesteur
Car(r)on works
Carpenter, John
Casses, Frances
Castellano, Diego de
Castner, Johann Michael
Castronova or Castronomo or
Costronoma or Costronovo
– Francis or Francesco
– Hieronimus or Jerome
– Vincenzo
Cauthals (family)
– Bartholome(w)
– J[e]an II and II (Father & son)
– Seghers
Cebrano or Cebranus
– A. (or Gian) Battista
– Fran. Ant.
Cenni,
– Cosimo or Cosma
Imbhams, Surrey 1613; 1638, 1640
Gun-founder in Ashurst, Sussex 1589-1613
Gun-founder in London; 1512
Gun-founder in Bruges in 1346, Master Armourer to Edward
III, provided guns for the English at Tournai
Active in 1574 in England
Gun-founder in Middelburgh (?-1679), worked with Arent
Vander Put; 1616, 1678
Gun-founder in Middleburgh; 1616, 1630
Gun-founder in Denmark 1623-1644; 1623
Owner of the Fossum Iron-Works 1669-1702; 1692
Owner of the Fossum Iron-Works after 1702
Examining master (“maestro examinador”) and founder in
Spain; 1840
Gun-founder in Fernhurst, Sussex 1762-1776
Gun-founder in London 1382-1388, “Artillator” and maker of
guns in the Tower
Gun-founder in Ferrara; 1535
Gun-founder to François II, in Italy c. 1680
See Kaltoff
Gun-founder in Mons and Tournai 1438-1439 and 1451
Gun-founder in Pesaro 1557-1558
Gun-founder in Florence 1555, produced a great gun that
could be taken to pieces for transport
Gun-founder in Avignon 1790-1806
Falkrik 1759-present day, produced iron guns, 3-to 41-pounders
and the famous “Carronade”
Active in 1574 in England
Founder in Spain; 1679
Gun-founder in Lisbon; 1589
Gun-founder in Vienna 1731-1739
Gun-founder in Naples and Palermo 1741-1759; 1741
Gun-founder in Naples; 1736, 1745, 1757, 1759
Gun-founder in Palermo; 1718
Beside guns, this family produced fine bronze work, including
the Crucifix on the Great Bridge at Malines
Gun-founder in Malines 1694-1722 (or 1661-1721?)
Gun-founders in Malines 1607-1686; 1643, 1647, 1683
Gun-founder in Malines; 1689
Gun-founder in Italy; 1740, 1741, 1758, 1759
Gun-founder in Italy; 1736
Gun-founder to the Grand Duke of Florence, produced, inter
221
– Ioanis Mario or Giovanni
Maria
Censori or Censon
– Anchise
– Giovanni Battista
– Hieronymus
Challoner Nynyan
Chaspel or Chaspal
Chatellan or Chatelet
Chauvin, Pierre
Chollet
– Jehan
– Nicolas
Churchill
Classen, General J.F.
Claus, Meister
Collard, Joseph
Collebaut Colart
Collen
– Peter van
– Thomas
Colleng, William
Collins, Stephen
Conti (di)
– Francesco I
– Francesco II
– Iacopo
– Marco I
– Marco II
– Marc’Antonio I
– Marc’Antonio II
– Nicoló I
– Nicoló II
– Nicoló III
– Tomaso
– Vincenzo
– Zuan Marco
Cookson, John
Cordeiro, Luis Candido
Cordwell, Samuel
222
Cornel(l)is, John
Cornwall, John
Costa
– Bartholomeu da
– Salvador
alia, over 12 half-culverins from 1619 to 1670; 1643
Gun-founder to the Grand Duke of Florence; 1657, 1664,
1670
Gun-founder in the Italian Peninsula, 17th century
Gun-founder in Bologna and Ferrare; 1579, 1617
Gun-founder in Naples; 1736, 1745
Active in 1574 in England
Gun-founder in Vienna; 1761
Gun-founder in Montauban; 1795
Gun-founder in Courtray (?) in 1401
Master of the Artillery of Louis XI, in Chartres; 1478
Gun-founder in Chartres
Gun-founders at Woolwich active 1756-1762
Founder general in Frederiksværk, Denmark 1756-?; 1757,
1762, 1764, 1766
Gun-founder c. 1600
Gun-founder in Dinant in 1389
Gun-founder in Binche 1406-1408
Gun-founder in Cologne and London; 1543, associated with
Peter Baude, introduced explosive shells
Active in 1574 in England
Gun-founder in Woolwich, active 1782-1783
Active in 1574 in England
1480
?
Gun-founder in Venice; 1536
Gun-founder in Venice; 1538
?
?
1680
1556
?
1702
1537
?
?
Gun-founder at Woolwich, active 1776-1783
Gun-founder in Portugal; 1771
Gun-founder in London 1636, the King’s gun-stone and
gunpowder maker
Gun-founder in London; 1571
Gun-founder in London in 1361
Engineer, gun-founder, a Portuguese; 1773
Gun-founder in Portuguese colonies 17th century?
Cupito, Gioanni Maria
Curtius, Jean (alias Curcio, Juan)
Coulson
Coutur or Coltura, Giovanni
Crans
– Adrianus
– Cyprianus or Cipriaen Iansz
Crantz, Jan
Cranz or Crans
– Jan
– Cornelis
Crawshay, Richard
Craymer, Henry
Crewz, Mathias
Crowe, Sir Sackville
Crowley & Co
D
Daneels, Robrecht
Dartein (d’Artein or Dartien)
– I. Felix III
– Jean Baptiste
d’Auxy
Debio
Derck, Jan Nicolaas
Devalens, Barnard
Dias
– João
– Lucas Manoel
Dias-Boccaro (family)
– Francisco
– Pedro
Dietrich
– Kasper
– P.F. or F.F
Dinant, Gilles de
Dinckelmaier, Hans
Djafer or Diafer
Dobler, Michel
Donicourt de Roucourt, Beranger
Dorino, Ioardo
Gun-founder from Messina; 1610
From Liège, created and worked in the foundry of Liérganes
(Spain) 1616-1629
See Jukes
Gun-founder from Avignon, worked for the Duke of Farnese
1555-1560
Master gun-founder at The Hague 1730-1745; 1734
Gun-founder in Amsterdam; 1736, 1740, 1743, 1748
Master founder at the Great Gun Foundry at The Hague 1724?
Master founder at The Hague foundry 1754-?
Master founder at The Hague 1745–1754; 1748
Gun-founder in England, active 1784
Gunner at the Tower (died 1509), succeeded by Humphrey
Walker
Gun-founder in Vienna; 1747
Gun-founder at Maresfield Furnace, Sussex 1620-1627
Gun-founders at Woolwich active 1756-175
Gun-founder in England (iron guns); 1781
Gun-founder in Ghent; 1606
General Commissioner of the Foundries of Strasbourg; 1782
Gun-founder in Strasbourg, Superintendent of the Foundries
of the Artillery in Paris 1778; 1767, 1769, 1773, 1775, 1777,
1778, 1779, 1781, 1782, 1786, 1794
Flemish family, owner of gun foundry in Mons, active in the
late 15th century
Gun-founder in Palermo; 1570
Gun-founder in Hoorn (1690-c.1764); 1765
Gun-founder at St. Katherine’s, London; 1540
Gun-founder; 1549
Gun-founder in Lisbon; 1659
A dynasty of Portuguese gun-founders working in the
Portuguese colonies in India and China, 16th –17th century
The son of Francisco Dias. Gun-founder (died 1587)
The son of Francisco Dias Boccaro). Master founder in Goa
from 1588 to 1640; 1594, l623
Gun-founder in Ingolstadt; 1556
Gun-founder in Malines; 1760, 1761, 1765, 1795
Gun-founder in Brussels in 1381
Gun-founder in Vienna in 1594
Gun-founder, instructor in Algiers in 1581
Gun-founder in Vienna
Gun-founder in The Hague (1738-1807),
Commissioner of the foundries Douai; 1746
Gun-founder from Genova, worked in Italy in 1553
223
Dormea, Segurano
Dorpfer, Georg
Dreffet
Duffyld, John
Dupont
– François
Dycke, Thomas
Eade & Wilton
Eardley-Wilmott, F.M.
Ehrencreutz, Jesper
Er(h)endal works
Elingen, Berthold von
Ellys, Thomas
El-Mu’allim, C’afer
Elvyngton, Edward
Emery, Martin
Endorfer
– Alexander
– Georg
Endtfelder, Hans Wolf
English & Co
Ernst
– A. B.
– Johannes Baptista
Escartim or Escartin,
Lucas Mattias
Este, Alfonso di
Everhard, Michael
Everysfylde, John
Falize de la (see Bérenger)
Farcy, Michel
Faulkener, John
Faure
Favereau, Jehan
Ferkyn, John
Fermer or Farmer, Alexander
Ferrera Gomes, Mel[chior?]
Figar(i), Giacomo Maria
224
Figueiras, Petrus Georgius
Fispong works
Gun-founder in Genoa; 1586
Gun-founder in Nuremberg; 1694
Gun-founder, active in 1813 (Switzerland?)
Active in 1574 in England
Student gun-founder of the King of France in Rochefort; 1773.
Gun-founder in Algiers; 1775.
Superintendent of the foundries in Rochefort; 1790
Active in 1574 in England
Gun-founders in England (iron), active 1756-1781
Gun-founder in England (or the name of a Company?); 1857,
1859
Founder of the Erendhal Iron-Works in Sweden from 1689
Foundry in Sweden, active in the 18th century Furnished guns
for the Danish Navy
Gun-founder in Metz; 1473
Active in 1574 in England
Gun founder in Algiers; 1581 (= Djafer?)
Active in 1574 in England
Gun-founder from Colovray (or Colovrex); 1680
Gun-founder in Innsbruck, associated to Leonhard Maght;
1515
Gun-founder active in Austria in the 15th c., one of the earliest
gun-founders in bronze; 1404 or 1487 (?)
Gun-founder, 1603
Gun-founders in England, active 1771-1774
Gun-founder in Munich; 1731
Gun-founder in Lindaw; 1708
Gun-founder in Lisbon; 1651, 1652, 1661, 1671
Duke of Ferrara 1563-1597, called “Bombardiere”, made a
gun named “Giulia” from debris of the statue of Pope Julius II
by Michel Angelo, preserving only the head
Gun-founder in Middelburg (Zeeland); 1764
Active in 1574 in England
Gun-founder in Dunkirk; 1643
Active in 1574 in England
Gun-founder in Perpignan; 1750
Gun-founder in St. Omer; 1438
Gun-founder in London; 1411
Gun-founder in Hamsel, Sussex 1567-1573 (or 1581)
Gun-founder in Portugal; 1676
An Augustinian priest, gun-founder (?) active in Douai in the
18th c., credited with the invention of the triple guns made by
Berenger
Gun-founder in Portugal; 1578
Gun-foundry in Sweden, active in the 19th century,
Flete, Simon
Flicher, Elias
Follaire, Pierre
Fossum works
Fowl(l)e, Nicholas
Framyme or Fremyme, G.
Franciscus
Fransquin
– Jacques
– Lambert
Frederic, Charles
Fr[e]isleva, Cristobal
Fremy, Claude
Frèrejean, frères
Frey, Martin
Fuchs, Felix
Fuller John and family
Füssli or Fuesli
– Hans III
– Moriz
G (for?)
Gamst, Hans Christensen
Gardyner, John
Gaschlin, Lewis
Gascoigne, Charles
Gedani, B. B.
Gerardo, Juan
Gerber, Abraham
Gielis, Simon or Sijmoe
Giles, Arnold
Gilpin, Richard
Giordani, Innocent
Giovanni, Antonio di
Giovardi, Vincenzo
manufactured guns for the Danish Government.
Gun-founder in London 1407, Keeper of the Wardrobe and
Artillery
Gun-founder 17th century, worked in Poland
Gun-founder in Basle; 1445
Gun-foundry in Norway, owned by Peter Burting, active 16691702.
Gun-founder in Mayfield and Riverhall, Sussex 1573-1634
Gun-founder in Hungary; 1685
Gun-founder in Barcelona; 1737
Gun-founder in Luxembourg 1729-1734
Gun-founder in Luxembourg and/or in Malines 1729-1744
Inspector 1683-1689, under-master 1689-1690 at Copenhagen
Arsenal, Denmark
Gun-founder in Ricla; 1557, 1565
Gun-founder in Amsterdam; 1685
Gun-founders in Pont-de-Vaux and Rouen; 1794
Gun-founder in Bavaria (Munchen) under Maximilian, 17th
century
Royal gun-founder in Copenhagen, Denmark 1626-1637;
1633
Gun-founders at Waldron and Heathfield then in Brightling
c. 1650-1787. They also made guns for Ireland, Sardinia and
Naples (the Fuller mark was J.F. upon the trunnions); 1745
A dynasty of founders from Zurich, attested from 1450 to
1840
(1616-1684) Gun-founder in Zurich; 1678
Gun-founder in Zurich; 1679, 1680, 1681
Probably a founder’s signature. Cast around touch hole on
French cannons of the time of King Louis XII (r. 1498-1515)
and of François I (r. 1515-1547)
Gun-founder in Denmark; 1769
Active in 1574 in England
From Douai, worked at Woolwich with Schalch, his uncle,
1716-1772
Gun-founder in Falkirk 1769, co-inventor of the carronade
(first called “Gasconade”). Manager at Carron 1769-1779.
Founded gun foundries in Russia for Catherine the Great,
Knight of the Order of St. Vladimir, General in the Russian
Army and Counsellor to the Empress
Gun-founder, worked in Poland; 1716
Gun-founder in Sevilla; 1661
Gun-founder in Bern 1st quarter of 18th century
Gun-founder in Malines (and in Francort?); 1517, 1520, 1528
Gun-founder in St. Olaves, London 1541-1571
Gun-founder in Woolwich; 1756, 1760, 1762, 1770
Gun-founder in Naples; 1607, 1642
Gun-founder in Florence 1496-1500
Gun-founder from Genova, worked for the Republic of Lucca
225
Glydd, Thomas
Gnole Company
Godefroy, Gautier
Gomes de Oliveira, Luis
Gomez, Diego
Gor
– Jacques
– Pierre
Gott, Samuel
Gotz, J.U.
Gratwicke
– Roger
– Thomas
Grave
– Antonies
– Heyndrick de
– Jean Albert de
– D.
Gresham, Sir Thomas
Guerrero, Bernardo Antonio
Guillaume
Guindertal, Johannes
Hall J & E
Hallil, Leopold
Hallut, Remy or Remigi de
Harivel
Harrison
Harrison & Bagshaw
Harrison & Co
Harrison and Legas
Harscamp, Henry de
Haubner, Christ
Hauptmann
Haye, Thomas
Heban
Heins, Johann Martin
Henckle James & Co
226
Henkell, James Jr
Hennequin, Jean-Baptiste
Herman, Jacquere
Herold, Balthazar
Heroldt, Andreas
Heuwin
– Georges
– Obert
– Philippes
1589-1618
Active in 1574 in England
Active in Woolwich; 1776
Gun-founder in Liège; 1576
Gun-founder in Lisbon; 1699, 1707
Gun-founder in Spain; 1676
Commissioner of the King’s foundry in Perpignan; 1738
Commissioner of the King’s foundry in Paris; 1750
Gun-founder in Bayham and Lamberhurst, Kent 1654-1700
Gun founder in Basle; 1756.
Active in 1574 in England
Active in 1574 in England
Gun-founder in Denmark; 1559
Gun-founder in Ghent; 1685
Gun- and bell-founder in Amsterdam 1690-1720; 1720
Gun-founder in Amsterdam; 1725
Gun-founder in Mayfield, Sussex; 1573, 1574
Gun-founder in Spain, worked with Felipe Alonzo; 1781
Gun-founder in Laon; 1358
Gun-founder at the Havre de Grâce; 1636
Gun manufacture in Dartford, active in 1844 (for Mexico)
Gun-founder in Vienna; 1714, 1717, 1723, 1726
Gun-founder in Malines 1534-1562, married the widow of
Poppenruyter and became Director of the Malines foundry;
1547, 1551, 1553, 1561
Gun-founder in Modena; 1751, 1752
Gun-founder in Robertsbridge, Sussex 1734-1746
Gun-founders active at Woolwich (iron) in 1755-1756
Gun-founders at Woolwich 1760-1784; 1783
Gun-founders in Lamberhurst, Kent c. 1750
Gun-founder in Namur; 1620
Gun-founder; 1689
Gun-founder in Switzerland; 1792
Active in 1574 in England
Gun-founder under the French Revolution
Gun-founder in Hamburg; 1680
Gun-founders at Wandsworth, London, active early 19th
century
Gun-founder at Wandsworth 1783 (same as above?)
Gun-founder in Dunkirk; 1643
Gun-founder in Ghent Castle; 1550
Gun-founder in Nuremberg and Vienna 1615-1663
Gun-founder in Dresden; 1650
Gun-founder in Bourbourg; 1588
Gun-founder in Bourbourg; 1588
Gun-founder in Bourbourg; 1588
Hilger (von Breibergk), Martin
or Merten
Hirder (zu Neupurg), Sebolt
Hod(g)son Robert
Hoereken, Jehan
Hogge
– Bryan
– Ralph
Holloway, Farrett
Holtzmann
– Friedrich
– J. B.
Hoobrecht, Cornelis
Hopkins, Will
Hornhaver
– Heinrich
– J.P.
Houwe, Pierre
Hubert, de Saint
Hubrecht
Hueber, Wolfgang Lothar
Huebrecht
Hugget
Humphrey & Co
Hussein, Mohamed
Hutchinson, G.
Iacobi or Jacobi, Johann
Iordan or Jordan, Christophori
Iordani, Joseph and Santoni
Isted, Thomas
James or Tames
Jarre
Jeffrey, Bartholomew
Johnson
– Cornellis
– Harry
– John
– Thomas
Jones, Jones
Journe, Martin
Jukes, George
Gun-founder in Graz; 1579, 1580
Gun-founder in Germany (Nuremberg); 1524, 1534, 1546
Gun-founder in Pownsley, Sussex 1573-1574
Gun-founder in Luxembourg; 1458
Maker of gunpowder, Sussex; 1562
Gun-founder in Sussex 1543-1588, gun-stone maker to the
Queen and gun-founder to the Privy Council. Was associated
with Peter Baude in casting the first iron gun in England
Gun-founder in Salehurst, Sussex; 1711
Royal gun-founder in Copenhagen under Christian V; 1696,
1708
Royal gun-founder in Copenhagen under Christian VI; 1735,
1742
Gun-founder in Ghent; 1539
Gun-founder at the Tower of London; 1571
Gun-founder in Frederiksværk, Denmark, 1764-1768
Gun-founder in Frederiksværk, Denmark, 1794-1804
Gun-founder in Château l’Ecluse; 1404
Gun-founder, in charge of the foundry of Rochefort; 1702,
1703
Gun-founder in Ypres; 1484
Gun-founder in Tyrol for Maximilian I; 1536
Gun-founder in Bruges 1421-1425
Gun-founder at the Huggets Furnace, Mayfield, Sussex 1543
(= Hogge?)
Gun-founders in England; 1779
Gun-founder in Ahmednugger; 1664
Gun-founder working in Fort William and Cossipore (India);
1833, 1838, 1839
Gun-founder in Prussia (1661-1726), active in Berlin from
1697 to his death; 1706, 1708
Gun-founder in Naples; 1594
Gun-founders in Naples; 1650, 1675
Active in 1574 in England
Gun-founder in England; 1777
Master of Gunnery of Hamburg (one of five); 1662
Active in 1574 in England
Gun-founder (?) at the Tower of London 1514-1540
Master gunner in Calais and St. Botolph’s, London 1536-1541
Gun-founder in Buxted, Sussex, covenant servant to Peter
Baude; 1543
Queen’s gun-founder in Combe, Kent; 1576
Gun-founder of Bristol, active 1774-1777
Gun-founder in Malines; 1469
Gun-founder in Robertsbridge, Sussex 1734-1746, associated
227
Jukes Coulson & Co
Kaltoff, Kaspar
Karim, Ahmed
Kastner, Johann Michael
Katelare, Jacques de
Keir, James
Keller von Steinbock
– Jean-Jacques
– Hans Johan-Balthazar
Kemmer, Hans
Kiermann, Gustav
King
– Henry & Cornelius
– John (or I° or F) & Henry
Kinman, Francis K.
Klett, Valentin
Knott, George
Kollman, Daniel
Koster(us)
– Andraus
– A(s)sverus
– Gherhard(us)
Lafuente, Francisco
Laignel, Claude
Laire, Symon
Lambard, John (alias Gardiner)
Lambert, William
228
Lambillon (alias Leleu), Lambert
Lampre Giovanni (alias
Lamprecht Zovane or Ioannes)
Langenbeck, G.
La Puente, Francisco de
Latterellus, Philip
Lee, Francis
Lefevre
– Adrien & Clement
– Williame
with Harrison
Gun-founders in England, active 1780 (iron guns)
Gun-founder in Holland and Vauxhall 1628-1664, assisted the
Marquis of Worcester in his experimental work at Vauxhall
Gun-founder; 1770
Gun-founder in Vienna; 1731, 1733, 1737, 1739
Gun-founder in Bruges; 1431
Gun-founder in England, active in 1786
Gun-founder in Besançon, Neubrisach and Pignerol, then
Commissioner of the Royal foundry of Douai 1660-1694;
1674, 1679, 1681, 1683, 1684, 1685, 1688
First commissioner of the Royal foundry of Douai 1694
worked with his brother Jean-Jacques
Royal gun-founder in Elsinore, Denmark; 1625
Owner of the Åker gun foundry until 1766; 1764
Gun-founders at the Royal Brass Foundry at Woolwich; 1813,
1814, 1816
Master founder and assistant founder at the Royal Brass
Foundry at Woolwich 1785-1813, Government founders
1788; John was also storekeeper at Upnor Castle in 1790;
1785 to 1813
Gun-founder at Woolwich 1782-1817; 1794, 1796, 1798,
1807, 1808, 1817. Worked also for King of Portugal João VI;
1818
Gun-founder in Suhl (steel pieces); 1610, 1611, 1616
Gun-founder at Woolwich (iron), 1780-1783
Master Keeper of the Arsenal of Vienna; 1678
Gun-founder in the Netherlands c. 1640
Gun-founder in Amsterdam; 1624, 1628, 1633, 1642, 1643
Gun-founder in Amsterdam (1627-1679); 1653, 1660
Gun-founder in Portugal; 1588
Gun-founder in Marseilles; 1525
Gun-founder in Bruges; 1433
Active in 1574 in England
Gun-founder 1647-1675, to the Marquis of Worcester at
Vauxhall, then at the service of the King of Spain during the
Interregnum, then returned to Vauxhall in 1665
Gun-founder in Malines; 1469
Gun-founder to the Duke of Ferrare 1576-; 1584
Master of Gunnery of Hamburg (one of five); 1662
Gun-founder from Castile; 1588
Decorator of guns, Venice and/or (?) Malta; 1773
Gunpowder maker at Bedruth, Cornwall 1562-1578
Gun-founders in Binche; 1414
Gun-founder in Namur; 1477
Legas
Legrand, François
Le Gros
Lehnmeyer, Johann
Leiminger, Pieter
Leleu, Lambert
Le Moine, Guillaume (alias
Guglielmo Monaco)
Lespine, Jacques or Jacquemin de
Leu(w), Samuel
Levett, Parson
Loeffer or Löffler
– Gregory
– Hans Christopher
Luchon, Amelle de
Luis, Joh. H.
Lütckens
Luytens, Heyndric
McKenzie, John
Maestri, Adriano di
Maght, Leonhard
Malines, Jehan de
Mangles, Robert
Manton, Joseph
Manuel, D.
Mareschal, Jehan
Marhoffer, Leopold
Maritz
– Jean or Johannes I
– Jean II
– Jean III
– Jean IV
– L. & J.
– Samuel
Maron, Guillaume
Marr, Valentin
Marselius, Christian
Martin, Claud[e]
See Harrison
Gun-founder in Tournai 1552-1554
Gun-founder at Rochefort; 1743
Gun-founder in Glückstad, Denmark; 1687
Gun-founder in Innsbruck; 1507
See Lambillon
Founder in Naples, created bombards from 1453 on
Gun-founder in Luxembourg; 1458
Gun-founder in Geneva; 1721
Owner of the gun foundry at Oatlands, near Buxted 15431549, Commissioner to oversee ironworks in Sussex 1546
Gun-founder in Augsburg 1542-1558; 1534, 1542, 1543,
1545, 1550, 1558
Gun-founder in Innsbruck; 1569, 1579, 1583, 1586, 1594
Gun-founder in Noyon; 1417
Master of Gunnery of Hamburg (one of five); 1721
Master of Gunnery of Hamburg (one of five); 1662
Gun-founder in Ghent; 1580
Gun-founder in England (iron), active 1778
Master of Artillery in Florence; 1499
Gun-founder in Innsbruck, associated to Alexander Endorfer;
1515
Gun-founder in Malines 1466-1474, “Canonnier” to the Duke
of Burgundy; 1420, 1474
Gun-founder in England (iron), active 1777-1779
Gun-founder in London; 1790
Gun-founder in Anciola in Tagollaga; 1769
Gun-founder in St. Omer; 1438
Gun-founder in Vienna; 1537
Gun-founder, Superintendent of the foundries of the Artillery
of France, Commissioner of the King’s foundry in Strasbourg;
1725, 1742
Gun-founder, Director of the foundry of Strasbourg 1740,
Lyon and Douai, Director General of gun foundries 1755 (son
of Jean I); 1745
Gun-founder in Strasbourg, Seville, Barcelona 1768 and
Master gun-founder of the Heavy Ordnance Brass Foundry at
The Hague 1770; 1773, 1776, 1780, 1783, 1785, 1788, 1792,
1798, 1813
Gun-founder in Strasbourg and Commissioner of the King’s
foundry in Douai
Gun-founders at The Hague; 1807, 1823
Gun-founder in Bern and Strasbourg; 1752, 1754, 1769
Gun-founder in Binche; 1440
Gun maker, armourer at the Copenhagen Arsenal 1759-1775
Gun-founder, worked in Russia; 1675
Major and gun-founder (?) in Luknow
229
Massaroli, Nicolo
Mather
Matsen, Laurits
Matthews, George
Matthews & Co or
Matthews & Homfray
May, Thomas (= Mayo?)
Maye, George
Mayer
–?
– Hans
– John
Mayo, John & Thomas
Mazo, Gregorio Simon del
Mazzaroli(s)
– Francisco
– Giovanni or Johannis or Ioane
Meissner or Meissmer, Hans
Melville, Lieut. General Robert
Memmersdorfer, Georg
Mente, Korte
Meurer
Meurs or Muers, Enricus
Meyer
– Fridrich or Frederich
– Giovanni or Johan or Gerhardt
– G. S.
Middeldorp, Karsten
Middleton (family)
Migonus, Ioannes
Milleme, Hubert de
Mir, Francisco
Mohamed or Muhamad,
son of Hamzat
Mollance
Moller, Johann Valentin
Mollyng, John
Moltzfelt, Herman
Monaco, Guglielmo
Moniot, Guillaume
Mons
Monteith, James or Jacobus
230
Montoya, Justo
Montserrat, Bernart de
Moreau
Gun-founder in Venice
Gun-founder (?) in Toulouse; 1833
Gun-founder in Copenhagen; 1541
Gun-founder at Woolwich, active 1782-1786
Gun-founders in England (iron), active 1779-1783
Active in 1574 in England
Active in 1574 in England
Gun-founder in France; 1706
Gun-founder in Lietzen; 1659, 1667
Gunner at the Tower, London 1516, in succession to Humphrey
Walker, deceased
Gun-founders at the time of Queen Mary, London; 1554
Gun-founder in Spain; 1704
Gun-founder in Venice; 1669
Gun-founder in Venice; 1686, 1708
Gun-founder in Bavaria (Landshut); 1543, 1544
Co-inventor of the “Carronade” with Gascoigne, LieutenantGovernor of Guadeloupe 1763-1770
Master hammersmith in Nuremberg (steel); 1694
Master Founder in Denmark; 1539
Master of Gunnery of Hamburg (one of five); 1662
Gun-founder in Amsterdam; 1600, 1604, 1613, 1668
Royal gun-founder in Oslo 1681-89; 1681, 1685
Gun-founder in Stockholm; 1669, 1708, 1771
Gun-founder in Stockholm; 1788, 1795
Gun-founder in Reval (Estonia); 1559
Gun-founders in Sussex 1574-1649
Gun-founder; 1778
Gun-founder in Ypres; 1503
Gun-founder in Barcelona 1735; 1737
Gun-founder in Cairo; 1530
See Mons
Gun-founder in Hamburg; 1721
Gun-founder in Cornhill 1382-1396, made “great brass
cannons” of 181, 234 and 266lb.
Gun-founder in Poland; 1602
See Le Moine
Gun-founder in Namur; 1620
A blacksmith, the supposed constructor of the famous “Mons
Meg” bombard, 15th century
Gun-founder in Edinburgh; 1641, 1642, 1647, 1652, 1653,
1657
Gun-founder (iron) in Oñate; 1837, 1838, 1839
Gun-founder in Caen, made carts gun weighing 2000 lb; 1375
Gun-founder in Namur; 1734
Morel, Juan
Moreni or Morenus, Andrea
– Sons of
Morgan, Robert
Muers (see Meurs)
Muir or Mure & Atkison
Mullenbeck, Andrew
Muller, Nicolaas
Muluh, Pieter
Mün(i)ch, Georges
Munir, Ali
Murad, son of Abdu’llah
Musarra, Fidericus
Myddleton, Arthur
Mylton
Nalda, Diego de
Narp, Arnaud de
Neidhar(d)t, Wolfgang
Nel(l)e, William
Neubert, Johann Zacharia
Neuwert, Jacob
Newlyn, William
Nie(u)port, Johannes
Nieuwenhuyse, Gerard
Norenbarch, Matias
North, W.
Nourenbergh, Hance de
d’Olive, Pierre
Oliver, G. & J.
Orban
Oudermeulen, Paul
Ouderogue or Ouderogge or
Ouwerock
– Cornel(l)is or Cornely
– Dirk Jansz.
– Jo[h]annes
Owen or Owyn
– John & Robert
– Thomas
Oxsen van Husem, Lourens
or Laurens
Gun-founder in Seville; 1563
Gun-founder in Florence; 1746
Gun-founders in Florence c. 1745-1765; 1746
Gun-founder in England (iron), active 1758-1764
Gun-founders in Woolwich; 1776, 1779, 1780
Gun-founder in London 1531-1571
Gun-founder in Amsterdam; 1734
Gun-founder in Germany for the Elector of Saxe; 1523
Gun-founder (from Dresden), working in Geneva, also founder
of the Marquis de Breteuil, minister of Louis XV; 1725
Gun-founder in Adrianople; 1464, 1470
Chief gunner in Adrianople; 1524
Gun-founder in Spain; 1552
Active in 1574 in England
Gun-founder at Hugget’s Furnace, Mayfield, Sussex; 1573
Gun-founder in Spain; 1589
Gun-founder in Bordeaux 1398, sent to England for service
under Richard II
Gun-founder in Augsburg 1603-1609; 1603
Gunner at the Tower of London; 1484
Gun-founder in Warsaw; 1781
Gun-founder in Berlin (d. 1669); 1646
Gun-founder (“Magister gunnorum”) in Calais 1377
Gun-founder in The Hague; 1681, 1694, 1702
Gun-founder in Malines, brother-in-law of Poppenruyter and
succeeded him as head of the Malines foundry in 1568; 1578
Gun-founder; 1558
Gun-founder in London or Woolwich c. 1790-1827; 1827
Gun-founder in Malines; 1467
Gun-founder in Bruges; 1441
Gun-founders at Wapping, London, 19th century
See Urban
Gun- and bell-founder in the Spanish Netherlands; 1632
Gun-founder in Amsterdam (before 1625), then in Rotterdam,
also a bell-founder, cast statue of Erasmus by Henrik Keyser at
Rotterdam; 1649, 1660, 1666
Gun-founder in Rotterdam
Gun- and bell-founder in Rotterdam, cast several guns for
England; 1676, 1682
Gun-founders in Houndsditch and Calais 1529-1553; King’s
gun-founders in 1546, England; 1537, 1538, 1557
Brother to the above, Queen’s gun-founder in 1546-1571;
1550, 1571
Gun-founder (from Schleswig-Holstein) worked in Batavia for
the VOC 1654-1670; 1660, 1669
231
Palar, John
Paquet, Gilles
Par(r)izot
Pastenae(c)ker
– Corneille
– François
Pauli, Joh. Ulrich
Paz, Francesco de la
Peck, Peter
Pelham (family)
Pender, Hans
Perdrix or Pedry, Jacques
Perger, Jorg
Perigerus or Peringer Leon(h)ardt
or Lienhard
Perrier or Périer
– Jacques-Constantin
– Augustin
Petit, Arnold
Petrini, Antonio
Phillips
– John
– Richard
Pit or Pitt (family)
– Henry
– William
Plasencia y Farinas
Pögl, Zebald
Poitevin, F.
Pole, Howard de la
Pope, Nicholas
Poppenruyter, Hans (alias Van
Nuermerkt Jean)
Posson
Pourier, Jeak(?)
Presgrave, D.
Pryce, Thomas
Puckle, James
232
Quemsel or Quennel, Peter,
Active in 1574 in England
Gun-founder in Ghent Castle; 1550
Gun-founder in Turin 1790-1813
Gun-founder in Malines 1552-1556
Gun-founder in Malines; 1554
Master of Gunnery of Hamburg (one of five); 1721
Gun-founder in the Philippines; 1688
Gun-founder in Munich; c. 1550
Iron founders at Waldron, Sussex 1574-1715
Gun-founder in Siegen; 1538
Gun-founder in Cambrai and Valenciennes 1616-1672
Gun-founder in Nuremberg; 1543
Gun-founder in Bavaria (Landshut); 1554, 1566
Gun-founder in Paris 1793-1794
Gun-founder, creator of the “Fonderie de Chaillot”, Paris, in
1778
Worked with his brother; 1791, 1793
Gun-founder in Ghent; 1600
Gun-founder in Florence, author of Arte Fabrile, inventor of a
double-barrel cannon; 1642
Gun-founder in England; 1587
Gun-founder in Houndsditch (died 1633); 1601
Gun-founders in Houndsditch 1535-1639, associated with the
Owen brothers in 1535 and working up to the reign of James I
Gun-founder in Houndsditch under Queen Elizabeth; 1580,
1590, 1591
Gun-founder under Henry VIII (1491-1547), England
Gun-founders in Spain; 1874
Harquebus maker in Austria, c. 1465-1528, from Thörl, in
Styria (Southern Austria), worked for Emperor Maximilian I;
c. 1500
Gun-founder in Vienna 1767-?; 1767, 1776, 1781
Gun-founder in London; 1514
Gun-founder(?)
Gun-founder in Malines 1490-1534; worked in England made
over 144 pieces for Henry VIII, including the heavy siege train
called “The Twelve Apostles”, produced also a large number of
guns for Margaret of Austria
Gun-founder in Liège; 1740
Gun-founder in Ghent; 1591
Gun-founder working in Cossipore (India); 1839
Gun-founder in England (iron), active 1759
Designer of guns, author of The Club, inventor of a flint-lock
revolving gun patented July 25 1718, took out the patent for
the manufacture of cannons of London 1718-1732
Thomas & Robert
Quinkelberger, Johann Christian
Raby, Edward or (& masters) or
Raby & Rogers
Ransart, Pierre
Raynold, Robert
Regnault, Louis-François
Reig, Medard(us)
Reimão or Reimon
Relfe, William
Remnant
Reynsberger, Thomas
Reysinger, Hans
Ribot or Rivot, Petrus
Richier de Metz, Antoine
Rivas or Ribas, Antonio de
Riz, David
Robertson, John
Rocca
– Aloyxius
– Giacomo or Jacobus
– Luigi
Roebuck, John M.D.
Roen or van Roen, Franciscus
Roth, C. F.
Rotispen, Arnold
R(o)uelle
Round, John
Rulant, Rutger
Ruppertinoe, P.
Rutter, John
Sagen, Jacques
Salamanca, Gutierrez de
Sautray, Guillaume
Schalch, Andrew
Schön, Hans
Schulths, Jacob
Schultz, Heinrich
Schumaker, Captain
Gun-founders in Imbhams, Surrey 1575-1650
Gun-founder in Switzerland; 1638
Gun-founders in Woolwich 1758-1760 and at the Warren
Furnace, Sussex 1761-1771
Gun-founder in Cambrai; 1616
Active in 1574 in England
Gun-founder, worked in France, Bavaria and Germany, 19th
century
Gun-founder in Graz 1684-1698; 1684, 1688, 1698
Gun-founder in India, a Portuguese; 1533
Active in 1574 in England
Gun-founder in Woolwich 1727-1750, agent for John Fuller,
established a shot-foundry near the river to the north of the
Arsenal
Gun-founder in Valenciennes; 1552
Gun-founder in Germany c. 1620
Gun-founder in Barcelona 1718-1720; 1718, 1720, 1724,
1726, 1727
Gun-founder in Luxembourg; 1445
Gun-founder in Peru, a Spanish; 1660, 1666
Gun-founder in England, active 1778-1785
Gun-founder in England; 1782
Gun-founder in Genoa; 1747
Gun-founder in Genoa; 1706, 1710, 1725
Gun-founder in Genoa, worked with Giacomo, before 1750
Gun-founder in Falkirk, originator of the Carron Company;
1759
Royal gun-founder at Glückstadt 1641-1677 (or 1635-1660?);
1650, 1653, 1655, 1660, 1673
Gun-founder in Forckheim; 1707
Gun-founder in London, inventor of “a new method for
making guns”; 1626
Gun-founder in France; 1797
Gun-founder in London; 1639
Master of Gunnery of Hamburg (one of five); 1721
Gun-founder under Charles II, England; 1671
Gun-founder in London 1514-1516
Gun-founder in Perpignan; 1691
Gun-founder in Spain; 1793
Superintendent of the Foundries in Lyons; 1706
Worked at the Fonte Nationale at Douai, then organizer and
first Master founder at the Royal Brass Foundry at Woolwich
1716-1770; 1726, 1732, 1733, 1739, 1743, 1748, 1756
Gun-founder in Vienna; 1608
Gun-founder in Vienna; 1630
Gun-founder in Berlin; 1669
First chief of the Rocket Corps (special arm of service 18161842), inventor and constructor of the “espingols”
233
Scorer, Robert
Scott
– Charles
– Robert
Seest
– Pieter
– Christian
Segurano
Seguro, Francesco
Seiser, Konrad or Conrad
Sennar, T.
Senningk or Semminck, Gerdt
Sewolt, Hider
Seymour, Lord Thomas
Siegfriedt, Ludolf,
Simon or Sijmoen
Sithof(f ) or Silhof
– Albert
– Jan or Johannes
Skoclege, Richard
Sohn, Joh.
Solano
– Mattias
– José
Sone & Stephens
Sowyn, James
Splinter, Everard
Spreckelsen, Johan von
Stace, John
Stafiso
Stanes, William
Steen & Borchardt
Stephenson
Steylart, Adrien
Storch, I (or J.). F. A.
Størning, Gert
234
Stott or Scott, Charles
Struve, Otto
Stumm, Andreas Philipp
Sumaripe, Francesco
Shot-founder at Parrock and Hartfield, Sussex; 1513
See Stott
Descendant from the Barons of Bawerie, Scotland. Invented
leather guns for Gustavus Adolphus and was Quarter-MasterGeneral of the Swedish Army, then took service in the Danish
Army and became General of Artillery and member of the
Privy Council. (Died in 1631)
Gun-founder in Amsterdam; 1764, 1770, 1771, 1781, 1786(?)
Gun-founder in Amsterdam and in Liège; 1786(?), 1800
Gun-founder in Genoa; 1586
Gun-founder in the Royal Foundry of Naples; 1795
Gun-founder in Graz; 1652
Gun-founder in France (?); 1746
Gun-founder at Danzig; 1623
Gun-founder in Nuremberg; 1546
Owned ironfields and gun-foundries at Worth, Sussex, Admiral
of the Fleet 1544, executed for high treason in 1549
Gun-Founder in Oldenburg; 1646
See Gielis
Gun-founder in Malines; 1638
Gun-founder in Brussels 1623-1634, then in Malines 16341638; 1623, 1631
Gun-founder in London; 1514
Master of Gunnery of Hamburg (one of five); 1721
Gun-founder to the King of Spain 1720-1746 and before, in
Panama (1719); 1719, 1732, 1733, 1737, 1746
Successor of Mattias Solano; 1756, 1762, 1773
Gun-founder in England, active 1755-1758
Gun-founder in London; 1529
Gun-founder in Enkhuizen. Worked also for Christian IV of
Denmark; 1629, 1640
Master of Gunnery of Hamburg (one of five); 1662
Active in 1574 in England
The Stafsio Foundry in Sweden, which cast guns for the Danish
Navy. First owner Gert Stroning. Active in the 19th century
Purveyor of gunpowder; 1347
Gun-founders in Enkhuizen; 1765, 1757
Gun-founder in London, 18th century
Gun-founder in Malines 1578-1579
Gun-founder in Munich; 1788
First owner of the Swedish gun foundry Stafsiø 1666- ; 1670,
1691
Gun-founder in England, active 1779
Gun-founder in Hamburg; 1704
Gun-founder in Nuremberg; 1759
Gun-founder c. 1550
Tanner, David
Thomas
– Williams
Thorpe, John
Thury
Tiavsky, Franz
Tolhuys
– Johan
– Wilhelm
Torschell M. K.
Toussaint, Mélotte de Dinant Jean
Treadwell, Daniel
Tremy, Claude
Triebel
– Jacob
– Caspar
Trigance, Francis
Triultio, Giovanni Battista
Utenwenst, Joes
Urban or Orban
Valderstero, Ferdinando de
Val[l]ette
Van den Bergh
Van den Ghein, Petrus
Van der Beke, Mathieu
Van der Brugghen, Cornelis
Van der Hart, Koster Asverus
Van der Loe, Henri
Vander Oudermeulen
Vander Put, Arent or Arend(t)
Van (den) Nieuwenhuyse
– Gaspard
– Jasper
– Peter
Van Norenbarch, Matias
Van Nuermerkt, Jean
Van Seest, A.
Van Trier or Treuren, Jean
Velasco
Verbruggen
– Jan or John
Gun-founder in England (iron), active1779-1786
Gun-founder in England, worked with Francis Kinmans,
1781-1786
Active in 1574 in England
Gun-founder in Paris during the French Revolution; 1793
Gun-founder in the Royal Foundry of Naples; 1795
Gun-founder in Utrecht 1552-1560
Gun-founder in Haarnem; 1533
Private brass and bell founder in Copenhagen
Gun-founder in Malines; 1744
An American inventor, perfected a method for making cannons
with wrought-iron and steel in 1835
Gun-founder in Amsterdam; 1682
Gun-founder in Zell c. 1730-1750
Gun-founder 18th century, Germany
Gun-founder in Turin; 1769
Gun-founder at the service of Duke Vittorio Anedro II 1699-?
Gun-founder in Malines; 1633
Gun-founder in Adrianople c. 1540-1550, cast guns of 25 in.
calibre and over for Mohamed II; he is described by Holinshed
as a Dane and by other writers as a Hungarian (?)
Gun-founder in Spain; 1623
Gun-founder in Strasbourg and Metz; 1805, 1809
Gun-founder in Malines; 1467
Gun-founder; 1561
Gun-founder in Antwerp; 1477
Gun-founder in Ghent; 1650
Gun-founder in Amsterdam, delivered cannons to Denmark
and Norway during the period 1612-1659, then Royal gunfounder in Copenhagen 1672-1692; 1643, 1673, 1680, 1683
Gun-founder in Malines; 1388
Gun-founder in Malines
Gun-founder in Rotterdam; 1616, 1618, 1623, 1673
Gun-founder in Malines; 1574
Gun-founder in Malines 1590-1634
Gun-founder in Malines; 1603
Gun-founder in Denmark 1558; 1559
See Poppenruyter
Gun-founder in Amsterdam; 1764
Gun-founder in Antwerp 1584 and in Brussels 1589
Gun-founder (?) working in Spain in 1874
Master founder at the bell and cannon foundry of Enkhuizen
1746-1754, then at the National Heavy Ordnance Foundry at
The Hague 1755-1770, then came from The Hague to succeed
Schalch at Woolwich 1770-1781; 1752, 1759, 1760 and 1774,
235
– Pieter or Peter
Veri, Raymondo de
Verti, Gilles
Vitalis, Hieronymus
Voie-I-Abet or Voye-Y-Habet,
Bernardo or Barnardo
Von Dam, Claus
Von Guntheim, Jörg
Von Mandern
Von Sydow
Vries, Gilles de
Vte (for Vicente?), Ioanes
Waerck, Fridrics
Waern, Mathias
Wagner, Peter
Walker
– Humphreys
– John or Joshua
– Samuel & Co
Walpole, William
Walter, Abel
Warner (family)
– Williamson
Webb William
Wegewaert or Wegtwaert or
Wegwoert
– Co(e)nraet
– Kylinaus
Weinberger or Weinperger
Weinholt, Johann Gottfridt
Weis, Urban
Wellens, Peter
Wemis, John
236
Wergeland works
Western(e)
– Thomas
1775, 1776, 1777, 1778, 1779 (with Pieter)
Son of Jan. Master founder at the Royal Brass Foundry at
Woolwich 1770-1786; 1774, 1775, 1776, 1777, 1778, 1779,
1780, 1783 (all with Jan), 1782, 1785 (alone)
Gun-founder in Majorca; 1728
Gun-founder in Lille; 1438
Gun-founder in Cremone; 1571
Gun-founder, in charge of the gun foundry at Seville; 1719,
1720, 1724, 1726, 1736
Gun-founder in Hamburg, then Royal gun-founder in
Denmark 1638-1655; 1643, 1644
Gun-founder of Strasbourg. Worked for Emperor Maximilian,
the Council of Basle, the King of Aragon and the King of
England among others; 1514
Gun-founder in Denmark c. 1630
Gun-founder; 1827
Gun-founder in Ghent; 1550
Gun-founder in Portugal; 1537
Gun-founder in Denmark 1759-1802
Owner of the gun foundry of Moss Iron-Works (with Ancher),
Norway, 1750-1760; 1755, 1760
Gun-founder; 1646
Gunner at the Tower, London 1509-1517, maker of the
bombard “Basilicus”, also maker of the railings around the
tomb of Henry VII at Westminster Abbey
Gun-founder at Woolwich, active 1784-1786
Gun-founders at Woolwich, active 1774-1786, also in
Roterham, early 19th century; 1800
Active in 1574 in England
Gun-founder at Sowley in Hampshire, active 1757-1758
Gun-founders in Parrock, Surrey 1518-1547
Gun-founder at St. George’s, London 1551-1571
Active in 1574 in England
Gun-founder in The Hague 1614-1664, Director of the
National Foundry at The Hague, maker of breech-loaders;
1639, 1643, 1650, 1659
Gun-founder in Campen; 1640
Gun-founder in Vienna 1785-1797; 1790, 1797
Gun-founder in Dresden 1733-1769; 1733, 1741, 1769
Gun-founder inn Vienna, 1550
Gun-founder at Bridge Without, London; 1571
Gun-founder in London 1622, Master gunner of England,
inventor of a new way of making light ordnance
A Swedish gun works active in the 17th century
Gun-founder at Ashburham in Sussex (1669-1688), then in
– Maximilian
Weston, Michael
Whiteman, Richard and Philip
Whitworth, Sir Joseph
Wiard, Norman
Wichtendal, Ludwig
Wiedemann, Colonel
Wightman Philip
Wilkinson, John & Co
William “the Founder”
Wilson, James
Wimme, François
Winhoffer, Michael Franz
Witlockx, Guillaume
Woert, Conrad Wegl
Wolf, Kaspar
Wolff, J. J.
Woodward, William
Woody, Robert
Wright & Prickett or Wright
& Co
Wyss,
– Daniel P.
– H. Ant.
Wytyld, Robert
Young, Heldryke
Zechenter, Anton
Zhdanov
Zumbrack, William
Zuriarrain, Juan José
London, until 1690
Son of Thomas, gun-founder in Noorfields, London 16841704, succeeded to his father in 1690
Gun-founder in Cowden, Kent 1567-1573
Gun-founders in London; 1687
British engineer and industrial (1803-1887), inventor of large
rifled breech-loading gun (patented in 1855) used during the
American Civil War
Inventor of the Wiard rifle, a semi-steel light artillery piece. 60
pieces (6- and 12-pounders) were produced at the O’Donnell’s
Foundry of New York between 1861 and 1862; 1861
Gun-founder in Danzig; 1625
Not a real gun-founder, “his art consisted in hammering and
chasing in brass” (made a brass-covered lead cannon which
burst at proof in Windsor Park in April 1749); 1751
Gun-founder in England; 1695, 1696
Gun-founders at Woolwich, active 1760-1779
Gun-founder in London 1385, cast 12 cannons for Richard II
of Dover
Gun-founder in England, active 1779
Gun-founder in Ghent; 1564
Gun-founder in Hermannstadt; 1722
Gun-founder in Malines 1723-1733
See Wegtwaert
Gun-founder on Pressburg; 1692
Gun-founder in Southampton; 1842
Gun-founder in London 1382-1388, made 73 guns and one
great multi-barrel gun for Richard II
Active in 1574 in England
Gun-founders in England (iron), active in 1771-1784
Gun-founder in Switzerland; 1721
Gun-founder in Switzerland 18th century
Active in 1574 in England
Gun-founder at St. Katherine’s, London 1540
Gun-founder in Ofen 1724-1756; 1731
Gun-founder in St. Petersburg, 18th century
Gun-founder in England, active 1781
Gun-founder in Vedia, Biscay (forged iron); 1838
Source: The above list relies mostly on a similar list established over the years by Mendel L. Peterson. It has
been completed by the Editor from the cannons themselves, from museum’s catalogues and from a variety
of books specifically devoted to gun-founders (see bibliography).
237
A NOTE ON FRENCH FOUNDRIES
____________________________________________________________________
In the late 17th century, two foundries were created in order to supply the French Navy with bronze guns.
The main one was in Rochefort and produced for the “Ponant” (i.e. the Atlantic harbours, Channel
included) from 1669 to 1840, and the other one was installed in Toulon, supplying the “Levant” (the
Mediterranean) from 1667 until the beginning of the 19th century. They both belonged to the State.
Before that, the Navy used to work with the master founders of Lyons, Saintes, Le Havre, etc.
For the iron pieces, on the other hand, the Navy worked with private foundries. In the middle of the
18th century and the beginning of the 19th century for instance, the following houses were working for the
King: Ruelle (which became royal property in 1776), Plancheurnier, Estoüards, Lescanaux, Rancogne,
Lamothe, Bonrecueil, Jomelière, Ans, Plazac, la Mouline, Pontrouche, Bigorry, Saint-Gervais, Putanges,
Pontrouchaud, de Firbay, de Lavalade, Indret (1777-1827), Creusot (from 1792 on), Nevers (from the
Revolution until 1850), Liège (in Belgium, from 1803 to 1813).
(From Boudriot, L’artillerie de Mer de la Marine Française 1674-1856, Triton n°85 (supplement to
Neptunia 90, 1968, p. 11)
238
THE MEN IN CHARGE
____________________________________________________________________
(15th-19th century)
The Masters-General of Ordnance
The “Maîtres Généraux et Grands Maîtres de l’Artillerie”, the “Amiraux de France” and the “GrandsMaîtres de la Navigation”
The “Capitanes Generales”, “Inspectores” and “Directores Generales” etc “de la Artilleria”
NB: The following lists are made from:
1) the names cast on the actual pieces of artillery, photographed all over Europe by MLP and/or
by the Editor;
2) from a number of museums catalogues and/or museums notices or signs;
3) from a number of books, articles and miscellaneous publications, sources on the subject of
ancient ordnance, of the history of the various artillery corps and artillery departments in Europe
(which are all to be found in the general bibliography).
It is believed that, regrettably, none of the following lists is absolutely complete or absolutely correct.
Nevertheless it is believed that they will be found useful.
239
The men in charge in England and later, in Great Britain
____________________________________________________________________
The Masters of Ordnance and the early organization of the King’s Artillery
The first Master of the Ordnance was appointed in 1414 by King Henry V, he was Sir Nicholas Merbury,
and succeeded to the twelfth Keeper of the Privy Wardrobe at the Tower, who had, until his appointment,
been in charge of not only the artillery at the Tower and elsewhere in England, but of all kinds of weapons
and military equipment in general.
From the beginning of the Age of Artillery in England, the organization of the production and use of
ordnance pieces had been conspicuous by its absence. For most of the 14th century gunners, were civilian
artificers, following their trade just like any other craftsmen. They made cannons and manned their pieces
in action for a fee during military campaigns overseas or in the defence of fortifications, usually on the
coast. The permanent garrisons of such fortifications were extremely small and the matters of artillery were
under the responsibility of provincial Master Gunners, the ancestors of the later Master of the Ordnance.
The first attempt at a central organization of artillery at the national level occurred with the designation of
the first Masters of the Ordnance or Chief Gunners or Chief Cannoner.
As an example, the patent of Patrick de la Meyte in 1484, when appointed as the first Chief Gunner, read:
“March 11 1484. Grant for life to Patrick de la Mote, Canoner of the office of Chief Cannoner or Master
Founder and Surveyor and Maker of all the King’s cannons in the Tower of London and elsewhere etc…”1
Very soon, the Master of the Ordnance became responsible for the founding, probing, surveying and
transporting artillery pieces to the army in the field, or in fortifications, as well as to the Navy. His
duty included organizing the production and distribution of ammunition, powder and all necessary tools,
implements etc., including field carriages (and the horses and personnel to pull them) and naval carriages.
They had an organization, which having been called the Office of Armory became the Office of Ordnance
under Henry VIII in 1544 and the Board of Ordnance in 1597. The Master General was Head of the
Ordnance and had under him a Lieutenant General of the Ordnance and a Surveyor General of the
Ordnance. The Ordnance Office was totally independent from the military and until the establishment
of a permanent Army and Navy it was the only permanent military department in England. The growing
importance of the job is reflected in the growing importance of the people, who held it.
The name of the Master General of the Ordnance was not systematically engraved or cast on bronze
cannons made under his authority, but it become more customary from the late 17th century on and
during the 18th and 19th century.
240
1
From Hogg, English Artillery, 1962, p. 147.
A list of the Masters-General of Ordnance2
____________________________________________________________________
In alphabetic order
Ambrose, 1st Earl of Warwick
Audeley, Thomas
Beresford, William Carr, 1st Viscount Beresford
Berkeley, William, 1st Baron Berkeley
(in commission with Sir John Duncombe
and Thomas Chicheley)
Bigod, Sir Rauf
Blount, Charles, 1st Earl of Devonshire
Blunt, Mountjoy, 1st Earl of Newport
Browne, George, Colonel
Cadogan, William, 1st Earl of Cadogan
Campbell, John, 2nd Duke of Argyll
Carew, George, 1st Lord Carew, 1st Earl of Totnes
Chicheley, Sir John
(in commission with Sir William Hickman
and Sir Christopher Musgrave)
Chicheley, Thomas, Knight
(in commission with Sir John Duncombe
and William Berkeley)
Chicheley, Thomas, Knight
Churchill, John, 1st Duke of Marlborough
Clifford, Sir Robert
Compton, Sir William
Cornwallis, Charles, Marquess Cornwallis
Devereux, Robert, 2nd Earl of Essex
Dudley, Ambrose, 3rd Earl of Warwick
Dudley, Ambrose, 3rd Earl of Warwick, jointly
with Sir Philip Sidney
Dudley, Ambrose, 3rd Earl of Warwick
Duncombe, Sir John
(in commission with William Berkeley
and Thomas Chicheley)
Fauroner (or Falconer), Richard
Gargave, Sir John, Knight
Gargave, Sir Thomas, Knight
Glaucestre, William (in Normandy and in France)
Grandby, John, Marquess
Gyleford (or Guilford), Sir Richard
Hamilton, James, 4th Duke of
Hampton, John
Hardinge, Henry, 1st Viscount Harding
1560-1589
1482-1483
1828-1830
1664-1670
1483-1485
1603-1606
1634-1661
?-1702
1722-1725
1725-1740 and 1742
1608-1629
1679-1682
1664-1670
1670-1679
1702-1711 (or 12?) and 1722
1495-1508
1660-1663
1795-1801
1597-1601
1560-1585
1585-1586
1586-1590
1664-1670
1506-?
–
–
1435
1763-1770
1485-1494
1712
?-1450
1852
2 Includes the early Masters of the Ordnance and the Chief Gunners, who held the office of Chief Cannoner or Master
Founder and Surveyor and Maker of all the King’s cannons in the Tower of London and elsewhere (15th-16th century) and
similarly worded charges in England and in Great Britain.
241
242
Hastings, Francis Rawdon, 2nd Earl of Moira
Henry, 1st Lord Percy of Alnwick
Hert, Thomas
Herveys, Philip
Hickman, Sir William, 2nd Bt.
(in commission with Sir John Chicheley
and Sir Christopher Musgrave)
Hobby, Sir Philip
John, 1st Earl of Peterborough
Jud(d)e, John
Kempt, Sir James
La Rochefoucauld, François de la,
Marquess de Montendre
Lee, Sir Henry
Legge, George, Colone, later 1st Lord Dartmouth
Lennox, Charles, 3rd Duke of Richmond
Ligonier, John, 1st Viscount Ligonier
Malborough, John, 1st Duke of
Manners, Marquess of Granby
Merbury, Nicholas
Montagu, John, 2nd Duke of Montagu
Montjoy, 1st Earl of Newport
Morris (or Marys of Morice), Sir Christopher
Mote (or Meyte), Patrick de la
Murray, Sir George
Musgrave, Sir Christopher
(in commission with Sir William Hickman
and Sir John Chicheley)
Newport, William
Norton, Sir Sampson
Paget, Henry William, 1st Marquess of Anglesey
Par, Gilbert
Pendleburry, James
Phipps, Henry, 1st Earl of Mulgrave
Pitt, John, 2nd Earl of Chatham
Ralph, 1st Lord Hopton of Stratton
Savage, Richard, 4th Earl Rivers
Schomberg, Frederick, 1st Duke of Schomberg
Seymour, Sir Thomas (afterwards 1st Lord
Seymour of Sudeley)
Sidney, Sir Philip (joint master)
Sidney of Sheppey, Henry, 1st Earl of Romney
Skeffington, Sir William
Somerset, Fitzroy James Henry, 1st Baron Raglan
Southwell, Sir Richard
Spencer, Charles, 3rd Duke of Marlborough
Stafford, Sir Thomas (acting)
Sturgeon, John
Townshend, George, 4th Viscount Townshend
Vaughan, Thomas
Vere, Horace, 1st Lord Vere of Tilbury
Vivian, Sir Richard Hussey, 1st Bt.
1796-1807
1644
1526-1527
1461-1463
1679-1682
1547-1554
1642
1456-? (died 1460)
1830-1834
1725
1590-1597
1682-1689
1782-1783 and 1784-1795
1759-1763
1702-1712 and 1714-1722
1763-1770
1415-1420
1740-1742 and 1742-1749
1634-1642
1536-1543
1484-?
1834-1835 and 1841-1846
1679-1682
?-1506
1494-1495 and 1511
1827-1828 and 1846-1852
1437-?
1710-1731(?)
1810-1819
1801-1806 and 1807-1810
1644-1649
1712(?)
1689-1690
1543-1547
1585-1586
1693-1702
1515-1536
1852-1855
1554-1560
1755-1758
1629-1634
1477-1482
1772-1782 and 1783-1784
1450-1456 and 1460
1629-1634
1835-1841
Wallys, Bernardyne de
Wellesley, Arthur, 1st Duke of Wellington
Willoughby, Henry
Wode, John
1536
1819-1827
1513
1463-1477
Note: The position was vacant from 1601 - 1603, 1606 - 1608, 1690 - 1693, 1745 - 1755, 1758 - 1759,
1770 – 1772 and 1855 - 1904).
243
THE MEN IN CHARGE IN FRANCE
____________________________________________________________________
The “Maîtres Généraux et Grands-Maîtres de l’Artillerie”, the “Amiraux de France” and the
“Grands-Maîtres de la Navigation”
In France, the charge of “Grand-Maître de l’Artillerie” and similarly named functions remained largely
honorary since the fabrication of cannons and their use on the field was for a long time left in private
hands, very much like in England. Charles VII and later Louis XI were the first to try and organize the
production and maintenance of ordnance and their use on the battle field and the charge of “Grand-Maître
de l’Artillerie” and similarly named functions became progressively better organized. It is only under
Louis XIV, however that the first actual Artillery Regiments were created, to be exclusively in charge of the
production and use of the artillery.
The charge of “Grand-Maître de l’Artillerie” in France was by and large comparable to the corresponding
position in England, with the important exception that in France the guns to be made for and used by
the army were the responsibility of the “Grand-Maître de l’Artillerie”, whereas the naval guns were to be
produced, maintained, distributed and supplied with their ammunition, implements, carriages, etc., by
the “Amiral”.
As for the “Amiral de France”, it was a title that was for a long time considered in France as a dignity
belonging to the Crown and was frequently given to a “prince de sang”. The “Grand Amiral de France”
ruled the whole of the Navy, including naval justice and naval police, including both the Navy and the
Merchant Marine, which was also under the direct control of his administration. The “Grand Amiral”
was giving the Captain’s commissions, his passport, and his substitutes signed all the everyday paperwork
in the French trading harbours. All the “Ordonnances du Roy sur la Marine” was bearing the signature
of the “Grand Amiral de France”.
The dignity was suppressed by Louis XII in 1627, but Louis XIII re-established it in 1669. The Assemblée
Nationale after the Revolution suppressed it again, but it was re-established by Napoléon and confirmed
by Louis XVIII. The title of “Grande Amiral” was suppressed forever after the 1830 Revolution, but it
was replaced under Louis Philippe by three charges of “Amiral”, ranking with the “Maréchaux de France”.
The name and coat of arms of the “Grand Amiral de France” often features on naval guns from the time
of Louis XIV on.
Between 1626 and 1669, the charge of “Amiral de France” changed name. A new charge, the one of
“Grand-Maître, Chef et Surintendant Général de la Navigation et du Commerce de France” was created
by the all powerful minister of Louis XIII, Cardinal de Richelieu, who meant to unify under his own
authority the whole of the naval command. In 1627, he managed to have the charge of “Amiral de France”
suppressed. He became “Amiral de Provence” or “Amiral des Mers du Levant” in 1631, as well as “Amiral
de Bretagne”. In 1635, he also acquired the charge of “Général des Galères” (the galleys based in Toulon
were traditionally a separate corps, not under the direct authority of the naval command). The Cardinal
also had concentrated in his hands all the powers of the former “Secrétaire d’Etat” in charge of the Navy.
Little by little, he managed to bring under his authority a number of separate jurisdictions. In 1627, he
had created the “Conseil de Marine”, the Marine Council, whose function it was to examine the prizes of
the privateers and also to prepare the maritime regulations as decided by the “Grand-Maître”. After his
death, in 1642, the charge continued to be exercised, until its suppression in 1669.
244
A LIST OF THE “MAÎTRES-GÉNÉRAUX”, “GRANDS-MAÎTRES DE L’ARTILLERIE”,
“AMIRAUX DE FRANCE” AND “GRANDS-MAÎTRES DE LA NAVIGATION”
_____________________________________________________________________
In alphabetic order
“Maîtres-Généraux de l’Artillerie” (1461-1512):
Bastet de Crussol, Louis, Lord of Crussol and of Florensac
Bournel, Guillaume, Lord of Lambercourt
Bureau, Jean
Busserade (or Benserade), Paul de, Lord of Crépy
Cadiot, Gobert
Cholet, Jean, Lord of La Choletière
Guyot de Lauzières, Guy, Lord of Montreuil
La Grange, Jean de, Lord of Vieil-Châtel
Le Groing, Hélion
Picart, Guillaume, Lord of Etelan
Ricard de Genouillac, Jacques Galiot
Silly, Jacques de, Lord of Lonrai
1469-1472
1473-1477
1439-?
1504-1512
1472-1473
1477-1479
1493-1495
1495-1501
1469
1479
1479-1493
1501-1504
“Grands-maîtres de l’artillerie” (from 1512 to 1755):
Babou, Jean, Lord of La Bourdaisière
Béthune, Maximilien de, Baron, then Marquess of Rosny,
then Duke of Sully
Béthune, Maximilien II de, Marquess of Rosny, Prince of
Henrichemont
Bourbon, Louis Ier Auguste de, Duke of Maine
Bourbon, Louis Charles, Count of Eu, Duke of Aumale
Coëffier de Ruzé, Antoine, Marquess of Effiat
Cossé, Charles Ier de, Count of Brissac
Crevant, Louis de, Duke of Humières
Daillon, Henry de, Count then Duke of Lude
D’Espinay, François, Lord of Saint-Luc
D’Estrées, Antoine IV, Marquess of Coeuvres
D’Estrées, Jean, Count of Orbec
Gontaut, Armand de, Baron of Biron
La Porte, Armand-Charles de, Duke of La Meilleraye,
Mayenne and Rethelois-Mazarin
La Porte, Charles de, Marquess, then Duke of
La Meilleraye
Philibert, Lord of La Guiche
Ricard de Gourdon de Genouillac, Jacques Galiot,
Lord of Acier
Taix, Jean de, Lord of Taix
1567-1569
1599-1610
1610-1629
1694-1736
1736-1755
1629-1634
1547-1550
1685-1694
1669-1685
1596-1597
1597-1599
1550-1567
1569-1578
1646-1669
1634-1646
1578-1596
1512-1546
1546-1547
245
Note: The charge is suppressed in 1755.
“Lieutenants généraux”:
Chabot, Claude, Marquis de Saint Maurice in 1708
“Amiraux de France”:
d’Amboise de Chaumont, Charles II
d’Annebaut, Claude, Baron of Retz and La Hunaudaye
d’Artois Louis-Antoine, Duke of Angoulême
Batarnay de Joyeuse, Anne de, Baron of Arques,
Duke of Joyeuse
Baudin, Charles
Beauvoir de Chastellux, Greorges de
Bourbon, Louis de, Count of Roussillon
Bourbon, Louis de, Count of Vermandois
Bourbon, Louis Alexandre de, Count of Toulouse
Bourbon, Louis Jean Marie de, Duke of Penthièvre
Bracquemont, Robert de, said “Robinet”
Brancas, André de, Lord of Villars
Bréban, Pierre de, known as “Clignet”
Brichanteau, Antoine de, Marquis of Nangis
Bruat, Armand Joseph
Bueil, Jean V de
César, Duc de Vendôme et de Beaufort
Chabot, Philippe, Count of Charny
Charner, Léonard Victor
Châtillon, Jacques 1er de, Lord of Dampierre
Coëtivy, Prigent VII de, Lord of Rais
Coligny, Gaspard II
Courtenay, Edouard de
246
Culant, Louis de, Lord of Cullant and Châteauneuf
Duperré, Victor
d’Estaing, Charles Henri
Gontaut-Biron, Charles de
Gouffier de Bonnivet, Guillaume
Hamelin, Ferdinand
La Trémoille, Louis II de, Viscount of Thouars,
Prince of Valmont
Lorraine, Charles de, Duke of Mayenne
Mackau, Ange-René-Armand de,
Maillé, Armand de, Duc de Fransac, Marquis de Brézé
Mallet de Graville, Louis
Montauban, Jean de
Montfort de Laval de Lohéac, André de
Montmorency, Henri II de
Montmorency-Damville, Charles de, Duke of Damville
Murat, Joachim
Noailles, Antoine de
Nogaret, Bernard de
1508-1511
1543-1547
1814-1830
1582-1587
1854
1420
1466-1486
1669-1683
1683-1737
1737-1791
1417-1418
1594-1595
1405-1408
1589-1590
1855
1450-1461
1650-1655
1525-1543
1864
1408-1415
1439-1450
1552-1572
1439-14?? (appointed by
Henri VI)
1421-1437
1830
1792
1592-1594
1517-1525
1854
1517
1578-1582
1847
1643-1646
1486-1508 and 1511-1516
1461-1466
1437-1439
1612-1626
1596-1612
1805-1814
1547-1552
1589-1592
Nogaret de La Valette, Jean Louis, Duke of Epernon
Parseval-Deschennes, Alexandre Ferdinand
Poix, Jean de, or de Tyrel
Pole, William de la, Duke of Suffolk
Recourt, Charles de, Viscount of Beauvoir
Rigault de Genouilly, Charles
Romain-Desfossés, Joseph
Roussin, Albin-Reine
Savoye, Honorat II de, Marquis of Villars
Tréhouart, François Thomas
Truget, Laurent
Vendôme, François de, Duc de Beaufort
1587-1589
1854
1418
1424-1437 (appointed by Henri VI)
1418-1419
1864
1860
1840
1572-1578
1869
1831
1651-1669
Note: Between 1627 and 1669, the charge was called “Grand-Maître, Chef et Surintendant Général
de la Navigation et du Commerce de France” (it was created by and to the benefit of the Cardinal of
Richelieu and suppressed after the death of the Duke of Beaufort, in 1669):
Armand, Jean du Plessis, Cardinal Duke of Richelieu
Anne d’Autriche, Queen Regent
César, Duke of Vendôme
Maillé-Brézé, Jean Armand de, Duke of Fronsac
Vendôme, François de, Duke of Beaufort
1627-1642
1646-1650
1650-1665
1642-1646
1665-1669
247
A LIST OF THE “TENENTES GENERAIS DA ARTILHARIA DO REINO”
____________________________________________________________________
In alphabetic order
IN THE ARMY OF PORTUGAL
Andrade, Manuel de
Andrade, Manuel de
Carvalho e Silva, Manuel Gomes de
Carvalho e Silva, Manuel Gomes de (son)
Chaves, Duarte Texeira
Chegaray, Fernando de
Correa Lucas, Rui
Cunha d’Eça, João da
Cunha d’Eça Telles de Menezes, José Xavier
Fuguereido, Gomes Diogo de
Figuereido, Henrique Henriques de
Macedo e Vasconselos, Amaro de
Macedo e Vasconselos, José Antonio
Rebelo, Manuel Perreira
Saldanha de Albuquerque de Matos Coutinho
e Noronha, João de
Sampaio, Manuel Barreto de
Soares, Diogo Luiz Ribeiro
Villa Verde, Bartolomeu Ferreira
248
1659-1662
1667-1673
1748-1754
1754-1781
1698-1704
1716-1721
1640-1659
1781-1788
1788-1792
1673-1684
1662-1663
1721-1746
1746-1748
1684-1698
1704-1709
1663-1667
1709-1715
1715-1716
LIST OF THE “CAPITANES GENERALES”, “INSPECTORES” AND “DIRECTORES
GENERALES”, ETC., “DE LA ARTILLERIA”
____________________________________________________________________
In alphabetic order
IN THE ARMY OF SPAIN1
Acuña y Vela, Don Juan de, CG de Artillería
Alava, Don Francisco de, CG de Artillería
Alava, Don Miguel de, TG de Artillería
Alva de Liste, Count of, CG de Artillería
Alvarez de Sotomayor, Don Martin, CG y IG de Artillería
Aragon, Don Pedro de, CG de Artillería
Aranda, the Count of, first General Director del
Real Cuerpo de Artillería
Avila Fuente, the Marquess of, CG de Artillería
Barbara, Alonso and Tomas, Maestros Lombarderos
for the Catholic Kings
Campilo, Don José, one of the interim CG de Artillería
during the period 1737, 1754
Campo de Alange, the Count of, CG de Artillería
ad interim
Cienfuegos, Don José, TG de Artillería
Coloma, Don Manuel, Marquess of Canales, CG
de Artillería
Cornel, Don Antonio, IP ad interim
Eguía, Don Francisco de, DG ad interim
Eslaba, Don Sebastian de, IG ad interim
Expeleta, the Count of, DG y Coronel General
de Artillería
Garcia y Loygorri, Don Martin, DG de Artillería
ad interim
Gazola, the Count of and de La-Croix, Don Maximiliano,
together IGs de Artillería
Gazola, the Count of, sole IG del Real Cuerpo de
Artillería
Godoy, Don Manuel, Principe de la Paz, Jefe Superior
de Artillería and Navarro y Sangran, Don José, Teniente
Coronel de Artillería
Grimaldo, Don José de, CG de Artillería ad interim
Guzman, Don Diego Felipe de, Marquess of Leganés,
CG de Artillería
Ibarra, Don Joaquin de, Subinspector ad interim del
Cuerpo de Artillería
1586-1609
1580-1586
1823
1660-1670(?)
1795-1797
1670-1676
1756-1758
1650-1655
1477
1740(?)-1750(?)
1793-1795
1823-1825
1711-1713
1799 and, again, 1809-1810
1810
c. 1753-1754
1808
1810-1812
1761-1763
1763-1780
1803-1808
1805-1808
1713-1732(?)
1630-1645
1825
1 From Salas, Ramon de, Memorial Historico de la Artillería Española, Madrid, 1831, the reader is referred for more details,
and other sources.
249
Lacy, the Count of, IG de Artillería
Lozcana, the Marquess of, CG de Artillería
Mariani, the Count of, first TG, also IG de Artillería
Massones, Don Jayme, DG ad interim
Maturana, Don Vicente Maria, Coronel General y
Director de Artillería
Megia, Don Diego, CG de Artillería
Mendoza, Don Julio de, Marquess of San German and
of La Hinojosa, CG de Artillería
Montemar, the Duke of, TG y IG de Artillería ad interim
Morla, Don Tomas de, Director y Coronel General de
Artillería
Munarriz, Don Juan Manuel, Subinspector del Cuerpo
de Artillería
Nuño de Tavora, Don Juan, CG de Artillería
O-Donell, Don Carlos, TG de los Reales Ejercitos
O-Farril, Don Gonzalo, Director y Coronel General
de Artillería
Ramirez, Francisco, Maestro Bombardero of the
Catholic kings
Revilla-Gigedo, the Count of, IG de Artillería
Rey, Don Juan del, IG de Artillería
San Esteban, Conde of, CG de Artillería
Somodevilla, Don Cenon, Marquess of the Ensenada,
IG ad interim
Urrutia, Don José de, Inspector y Commandante General
del Real Cuerpo de Artillería
Ustariz, the Marquess of, IG de Artillería ad interim
Zacarias, Micer Domingo, Maestro mayor de la Artillería
Española for the Catholic Kings
1780-1793
1645-1650
1732-1737
1758-1761
1808-1809
1627-1630
1609-1627
1737-?
1808
1822-1823
1678-1711
1825-1830
1808 (March 21 to April 6)
1489-?
1797-1799
1754-1756
1660-1670
c. 1750(?)
1799-1803
c. 1740(?)
1475-1477
Note: From April 9, 1655 to 1660, the charge of CG de Artillería was held by a group of three members
of the “Consejo Supremo de la Guerra”.
NB: The above list concerns the “old” Kingdom of Spain and does not include the other Spanish Kingdoms
and possessions where Spanish guns were cast also, under the authority (and occasionally bearing the name)
of the local Captain General of the Artillery, such as the Vice Royalties of Peru and New Spain (Mexico),
the Kingdom of Naples, the Duchy of Milan, the County of Flanders (considerable gun-founding activity).
250
IN THE ARMY OF FLANDERS (1567-1707)
Agurto y Salcedo, Francisco Antonio de, Marquess of
Gastañaga, Knight of the Order of Alcántara (1662)
Berlaymont, Charles de, Baron of Hierges,
Count of Berlaymont
Blois, Louis II de, Lord of Trélon, Craigne and
Fresnoy
Borja y Velasco, Iñigo de, Knight and Commander of
Santiago
Brimeu, Charles de, Count of Megem, Lord of
Humbercourt
Cantelmo, Andrea, previously CG del Ejercitó de
Aragón
Fontaine, Paul-Bernard de, Count of S.R.I., Lord of
Fougerolles, Maestre de Campo General del Ejercitó
de Flandes
Gamarra y Contreras, Esteban de, Knight of Santiago
(1624)
Henin, Pierre de, Third Count of Boussu, Lord of Brevy
La Cueva-Benavides y Enriquez, Isodro Melchior de,
Fifth Marquess of Bedmar, Knight of Calatrava and of
the Saint-Esprit, Commander of the Order of Santiago
Leiva, Antonio Luis de, Fourth Prince of Ascoli, Fourth
Marquess de Atella, Count of Monza
Licques, Jacques de, Lord of la Cressonnière
Longueval, Charles de, Count of Bucquoy, Knight
of the Golden Fleece
Longueval, Charles Albert de, Count of Bucquoy, Baron
of Vaulx, Knight of the Golden Fleece (1650), CG de la
Caballería del Ejercitó de Flandes
Mansfeld-Friedeburg, Charles de, CG of Luxemburg
ad interim
Mejía Felipez de Guzman, Diego, Marquess of Leganes,
CG de la Caballería del Ejercitó de Flandes
Pardieu, Valentin de, Count of La Motte
Pignatelli, Nicolo de, Sixth Duke of Bisaccia, also
General del Reino de Napoles, Coronel del Regimiento
de Fusileros de la Artillería
Procope, François
Rye de la Palude, Claude de, Baron of Balançon and
Romange, Lord of Vuillefans
Rye de la Palude, Philibert de, Count of Varax and
of La Roche, Lord of Balançon
Sfondrati, Sigismondo, Marquess of Montafia, Knight
of Calatrava (1621) and of the Golden Fleece (1650),
Commander of Montemolin (1633) and of Santiago
Solis y Vargas Carvajal, Fernando de, Knight of
Santiago (1644)
1679-1682
1577-1579
1574-1577
1621-1622
1567-1572
1642-1643
1638-1642
1652-1653
1597
1682-1690
1582-1585
1572-1573
1603-1621
1644-1645
1585-1590
1622-1625
1590-1595
1695-1705
1705-1707
1631-1638
1595-1597
1646-1652
1653-1658
251
Van den Berg-S’Heerenberghe, Hendrik, Count of Berg,
Lord of Boxmeer etc
Varas, Conde de, CG de Artllería
Vega, Pedro Alvarez de, Fifth Count of Grajal, Third
Marquess of Montaos, Lord of Villafuerte, Cervantes,
Neira etc, Maestre de Campo General del Ejercitó de
Flandes
Velasco y Alvear, Francisco Marcos de, First Marquess
de Pico de Velasco, Knight of Santiago (1661)
Velasco y Henin, Fitfh Count of Salazar, Fourth Marquess
of Belveder, Knight of the Golden Fleece (1673)
Velasco y Velasco, Luis de, Marquess of Belvedere
(1616), Second Count of Salazar (1621), CG de la
Caballería Ligera del Ejercitó de Flandes
Villalpando y Enríquez de La Carra, José Funes de,
Third Marquess of Osera and of Castañeda, Count of
Ablitas
1625-1631
1574
1690-1695
1678-1679
1568-1574
1598-1603
1674-1678
IN THE ARMY OF LOMBARDY (1535-1707)
252
Aguayo, Diego Manrique de, First Marquess of Santaella
(1649), Knight of Santiago (1624)
Aragón y Tafella, Martín de, Knight of Santiago, member
of the Secret Council of Milan, CG de la Caballería Ligera
del Estado de Milan
Brancaccio, Frey Giuseppe, Knight of the Order of Malte
Brancacho, Juan Bautista, CG de la Artillería in Naples
Cárdenas y Manrique de Lara, Juan de, Knight of
Santiago and Commander of Villarubia
Cardona, Ramón de,
Colmenero y Gattinara, Francisco, Count of Colmenero
and of S.R.I. (1715-1719)
Córdoba Figueroa y Pimentel, Francisco Fernández de,
Knight of San Juan de Jerusalem, Commander of Poyos
y Peñalén (1702), Baillif of Lora (1719), CG de la
Caballería Extranjera del Estado de Milan
Corella y Moncada, Jerónimo, Ninth Count of Cocentaina,
Second Marquess of Almenara, Knight of Alcántara
(1606)
Dell Valle y Miranda, Pedro González, Maestre de Campo
General del Ejército del Reino de Nápoles, member of
The Secret Council of Milan (1650-1657)
Della Rena, Geri, Marquess of S.R.I., later General de la
Artillería del Ejército de los Pinineos (1637), also
Governor of the Arms of Rosellón (1638), member of the
Secret Council of Milan
Fuentes, Conde de, CG de la Artillería in the States
of Milan
1635
1636-1638
1658-1665
1693
1624-1633
1552-1555
1702-1706
1691-1693
1623
1656-1657
1635-1636
early 17th century
Garay de Rada y Otañez, Juan de, Marquess of Villarubia
de Langre, Knight of Santiago (1629), Commander of
Villarubia de Ocaña (1643), also Governor of Perpignan
La Cueva y Velasco, Pedro de, Lord of Torregalindo
y el Portillejo, Knight of Santiago (1518) and of Alcántara
(1531), Commander of the Queen in the Order of Santiago
and Commander General of the Order of Alcántara, also
CG de la Artillería de España,
Laguna, Juan Bravo de, Count of Montecastello (Consort),
member of the Secret Council of Milan
Lara, Juan Manrique de, Lord of San Leonardo de Yagüe,
Honria etc, Knight of Calatrava (1524) and of Clavero
(1550)
Lara y Briceño, Jorge Manrique de, Count of Settimo and
Desio, a member of the Secret Council of Milan
Lara y Sousa, Gaspar Manrique de, Knight of Santiago
(1653), Maestre de Campo general del Ejército de
Lombardia
Luján y Manrique, Fadrique Enriquez de, Lord of the
House of Los Lujanes, Knight of Alcántara (1613),
Commander of Heliche and Castilleja
Luna y Perez de Lugo, Manuel de, Knight of Santiago
(1543), also Governor of Asti and of Cremona
Maggi, Cesare, Count of Annone, nicknamed “Cesaro
di Napoli”
Medici, Gian Giacomo de, Marquess of Marignano,
nicknamed “el Medeghino”
Monsoriu, Vicente, Maestre de Campo General del Reino
de Nápoles (1648), Knight of Santiago (1637), member
of the Secret Council
Moscoso y Montemayor, Cristóbal de, Count of Las
Torres de Alcorrin, Duke of Algete and Marquess of
Cullera, later Second Maestre de Campo General del
Ejército de Lombardia (1702) and CG del Ejército del
Reino de Valencia (1705)
Mújica Butrón y Valdés, Rrodrigo de, Lord of Araboyana
de Mogica (1662), Maestre General de Campo del Reino
de Sicilia
Napoles, César de, CG de la Artillería in Naples
Orilla, Don Marcio, Marquess of Arillano, CG de la
Artillería in Naples
Padilla y Gaitán, Francisco de
Pedro ???
Ravenna, Benedetto di, TG de la Artillería de España
Serra, Giovanni Francesco, Second Marquess of Strevi,
First Marquess of Almendralejo (1641), Maestre de
Campo General del Ejército del Milanesado, Knight
of Santiago (1640), member of the Secret Council
Sotello y Peinado, Antonio Arias, Knight of Santiago
(1639)
1638-1639
1536-1541
1620-1623
1545-1550
1575-1620
1688-1691
1634-1635
1551-1552
1555-1568
1543-1545
1648-1655
1693-1702
1646-1648
1573
1693
1609-1620
1568-1574
1542-1543
1642-1646
1639-1642
253
Valdés, Fernando González de, from 1676 on, shared the
Charge with the General de la Caballería, also a Maestre
de Campo General
Velandila Arce y Arellano, Frey Iñigo de, Marquess of
Tejada de San Llorente, Knight of the Order of San Juan
de Jerusalem (1627), Baillif of Lora and Grand Prior of
Castilla (1668), CG de la Caballería del Estado
Visconti, Vercellino Maria, Marquess of San Alessandro,
Decurión and member of the Secret Council of Milan,
Superintendent of the Fortifications of the State
1671-1687
1665-1670
1655-1656
IN OTHER SPANISH POSSESSIONS
Sanchez de Moya, Francisco, CG de la Artillería in Cuba
Silva, Don Géronimo de, CG de la Artillería in the
Philippines
254
1606
1622
LINES OF SUCCESSION ON THE THRONES OF EUROPE
DURING THE AGE OF ARTILLERY 14TH-19TH CENTURY
____________________________________________________________________
Kings of Portugal
Kings of Spain
Kings of France
Kings of England (and, from 1707 on, of the United Kingdom)
Kings of Scotland
Kings of Denmark
Kings of Norway
Kings of Sweden
Rulers in the Spanish (Southern) Netherlands
Rulers in the Independent (Northern) Netherlands
Rulers in Switzerland
Rulers and ruling bodies in the States that have later become part of Italy
Kings of Italy
Rulers in Austria
Rulers in Germany
Rulers and ruling bodies in the German States
Emperors of Germany (or rather “Emperors of the Holy Roman German Empire”)
The most frequent marks and/or inscriptions cast on artillery pieces are the name or coat of arms or motto
or symbol of the King that was on the throne at the time the gun was cast for his army or navy.
It is therefore of great importance that the reader find easily, the period during which the said King or ruler
or ruling body was in power.
The following pages are meant to answer that need.
It will be noted that the above countries are NOT in alphabetical order, but in geographical order, in the
same order that is, as the order of presentation of the MLP’s LGAs and of the EAs.
The reason is history. A number of the Kings or rulers of the countries of Europe during the “Age of
Artillery” (that is from the 14th century on) have at times reigned or ruled over several adjacent countries,
the result being that the cannons they have had cast were bearing the name, coat of arms or motto of one
same King in two or three “countries”, which had been earlier or would later become different separated
entities. One example is Portugal (ruled by a Spanish monarch, for dynastic reasons, from 1580 to 1640).
Also the multiplicity of crowns traditionally worn by the King of Spain, who at times ruled on part of
what is now France: Burgundy, Franche-Comté, Flanders, as well as on part of Savoy and most of what is
now northern and southern Italy, plus Sardinian and Sicily. Napoleon and Co., once ruled Spain and large
parts of present-day Italy, Belgium and the Netherlands. Furthermore, at least one King of Spain, called
himself “King of England” and inversely, several Kings of England, called themselves “King of France”, all
this for real if tenuous residual historical reasons. But the claim is cast in bronze, for ever, on their cannons,
as also in gold or in silver on their coinage. Traditionally also, a number of Austrian-German Emperors
(Holy Empire) were Kings of Spain or of royal blood. What is now Belgium has been in turn Burgundian,
Spanish, Austrian, French and Dutch. The mix-up of the three Scandinavian dynasties over the centuries
requires long explanations, etc…
Studying the production of artillery by such “polycrowned” Kings in close geographical, West to East, and
historical association brings much light to a complicated subject.
255
Kings of Portugal
Joanine or De Avis Dynasty:
D. João I (1383-1433)
D. Duarte I (1433-1438)
D. Afonso V (1438-1481)
D. João II (1481-1495)
D. Manuel I (1495-1521)
D. João III (1521-1557)
D. Sebastião I (1557-1578)
D. Henrique I (1578-1580)
Second Interregnum 1580 (in Açores until
1583):
Governors:
D. J orge de Almeida
D. João de Mascarenhas
D. João Tello de Menezes
D. Diogo Lopes de Sousa
D. Francisco de Sá Menezes
D. Antonio I (1580-1583)
Philips Dynasty:
D. Felipe I (1580-1598)
D. Felipe II (1598-1621)
D. Felipe III (1621-1640)
De Bragança Dynasty:
D. João IV (1640-1656)
D. Afonso VI (1656-1667)
D. Pedro, Principe Regente (16671683)
D. Pedro II (1683-1706)
D. João V (1706-1750)
D. José I (1750-1777)
D. Maria I (1777-1816) with her
husband and uncle, Pedro III
D. João, Principe Regente (1799-1816)
D. João VI (1816-1826)
D. Pedro IV (1826-1828)
D. Miguel I (1828-1834)
D. Maria II (1834-1853)
D. Pedro V (1853-1861)
D. Luís I (1861-1889)
D. Carlos I (1889-1908)
Kings of Spain
Ferdinand and Isabel (1504-1516)
Felipe I (1504-1506)
Jeanne I (1504-1516)
Carlos I (1516-1555) (called
Carlos V since 1519)
Felipe II (1555-1598)
Felipe III (1598-1621)
Felipe IV (1621-1665)
Carlos II (1665-1700)
Bourbon Dynasty:
Felipe V (1700-1746)
Luis I (1724)
Fernando VI (1746-1759)
Carlos III (1759-1788)
Carlos IV (1788-1808)
256
Imposed by France:
José Napoleon (1808-1813)
Return of the Bourbons:
Ferdinand VII (1808-1833, in exile
until 1814)
Isabel II (1833-1868)
Carlos IV (1833-1840) Pretender
Provisional Government (1868-1871)
Amadeo I (1871-1873)
1st Republic (1873-1874)
Carlos VII (1872-1875) Pretender
Alfonso XII (1874-1885)
Regency (1885-1886)
Alfonso XIII (1886-1931)
Kings of France
Valois Dynasty:
Philippe VI (1328-1350)
Jean le Bon (1350-1364)
Charles v (1364-1380)
Charles VI (1380-1422)
Charles VII (1422-1461)
Louis XI (1461-1483)
Charles VIII (1483-1498)
Louis XII (1498-1515)
François I (1515-1547)
Henri II (1547-1559)
François II (1559-1560)
Charles IX (1560-1574)
Henri III (1574-1589)
Bourbon Dynasty:
Henri IV (1589-1610)
Louis XIII (1610-1643)
Louis XIV (1643-1715)
Louis XV (1715-1774)
Louis XVI (1774-1792)
First Republic:
Convention (1792-1795)
Directory (1795-1799)
Consulate: Napoleon, Consul (17991804)
First Empire:
Napoleon I, Emperor (1801-1814)
Les Cent Jours (Napoleon 1815)
Restoration (Bourbons):
Louis XVIII (1814-1824)
Charles X (1824-1830)
July Monarchy (Bourbons-Orleans):
Louis Philippe I (1830-1848)
Second Republic:
Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (18481852)
Second Empire:
Napoleon III, Emperor (1852-1870)
Third Republic (1871-1940)
Kings of England (and, from 1707 on, of the United Kingdom)
Edward II (1307-1327)
Edward III (1327-1377)
Richard II (1377-1399)
Henri IV (1399-1413)
Henri V (1413-1422)
Henri VI (1422-1461)
Edward IV (1461-1483)
Edward V (1483-1483)
Richard III (1483-1485)
Tudor Dynasty:
Henri VII (1485-1509)
Henri VIII (1509-1547)
Edward VI (1547-1533)
Mary I (1553-1558)
Elizabeth I (1558-1603)
Stuart Dynasty:
James I (1603-1625)
Charles I (1625-1649)
Commonwealth:
Cromwell (1649-1660)
Stuart Dynasty:
Charles II (1660-1685)
James II (1685-1688)
William III (1689-1702)
Anne (1702-1714)
Hanover Dynasty:
George I (1714-1727)
George II (1727-1760)
George III (1760-1820)
George IV (1820-1830)
William IV (1830-1837)
Victoria (1837-1901)
257
Kings of Scotland
James I (VI) (1567-1625)
Charles I (1625-1649)
Charles II (1649-1685)
James II (VII) (1685-1689)
William and Mary (1689-1694)
William III (II) (1694-1702)
Anne (1702-1709)
Kings of Denmark
Christian I (1448-1481)
Hans I (1481-1513)
Christian II (1513-1523)
Frederik I (1523-1533)
Christian III (1534-1559)
Frederik II (1559-1588)
Christian IV (1588-1648)
Frederik III (1648-1670)
Christian V (1670-1699)
Frederik IV (1699-1730)
Christian VI (1730-1746)
Frederik V (1746-1766)
Christian VII (1766-1808)
Frederik VI (1808-1839)
Christian VIII (1839-1848)
Frederik VII (1848-1863)
Christian IX (1863-1906)
Kings of Norway
Danish until 1814
Swedish until 1905
Kings of Sweden:
Part of the Scandinavian Confederation
(1397-1520) and therefore under the
Danish Crown. Then independent.
Gustav I Vasa (1523-1560)
Erik XIV (1560-1568)
Johan III (1568-1593)
Sigismund III Vasa (1592-1599)
Karl IX, Regent (1595-1604)
Karl IX (1604-1611)
Gustav II Adolf (1611-1632)
Kristina (1632-1654)
Karl X (1654-1660)
258
Karl XI (1660-1697)
Karl XII (1697-1718)
Ulrica Eleanora (1718-1720)
Frederik I (1720-1751)
Adolf Frederik (1751-1771)
Gustav III (1771-1792)
Gustav IV Adolf (1792-1809)
Karl XIII (1809-1818)
Karl XIV Johann (1818-1844)
Oscar I (1844-1859)
Karl XV (1859-1872)
Oscar II (1872-1907)
Rulers in the (Southern) Netherlands (approximately present-day Belgium)
Burgundian domination (Dukes of):
Philippe le Bon (the Good) (14211467)
Charles le Téméraire (the Bold) (14671477)
First Austrian domination (1477-1506):
Mary of Burgundy x Maximilien of
Habsburg (1477-1482)
Philippe le Beau (the Fair) (1482-1506)
Spanish domination (House of Austria):
Charles V (1506-1555)
Felipe II (1555- 1598); with
Governors: Marguerite of Parma
(1559-1567), the Duke of Alba (15671573)
Albert and Isabelle (1598-1621)
Felipe IV (1621-1665)
Charles II (1665-1700)
Felipe V (1700-1712)
Second Austrian domination (1714-1795):
Archduke Charles; as Charles III,
Pretender to the Spanish Throne
(1703-1711); as Charles VI,
Emperor (1711-1740)
French domination (1795-1806)
Louis Napoleon (1806-1810)
Napoleon I (1810-1814)
Dutch domination (1815-1830)
Independent (as Kingdom of Belgium) (1830
to today).
Rulers in the Independent (Northern) Netherlands (approximately present-day Holland)
Stadhouders:
William I of Nassau, Prince of Orange
(1559-1567 and 1572-1584)
Frederic-Henri of Nassau, Prince of
Orange (1625-1647)
William II of Nassau, Prince of
Orange, (1647-1650)
William III of Nassau (1672-1702)
Kings:
William I (1815-1840)
William II (1840-1849)
William III (1849-1890)
Wilhelmina (1890-1948)
Rulers in Switzerland
Appenzel:
Independent (1377-1411)
Divided in two Cantons: AusserRhoden (Protestant) and Inner-Rhoden
(Catholic)
Both joined to the Canton of Santis
(1797-1803)
Independent (1803)
Basel (Basilea):
Johann Franz von Schonau (16511656)
Johann Conrad von Roggenbach
(1656-1693)
Johann Conrad II von ReinachHirzbach (1705-1737)
Johann Sigismund von Roggenbach
(1737-1793)
Bern:
Imperial City (1218)
Canton (1353)
Chur:
Johann V Flugi von Aspermont (16011627)
259
Joseph Mohr von Zernetz (1627-1635)
Johann VI Flugi von Aspermont
(1636-1661)
Ulrich VI von Mont (1661-1692Ulrich VII von Federspiel (1692-1728)
Joseph Benedikt von Rost (1728-1754)
Bishop Johann Anton, Freiherr von
Federspiel (1755-1777)
Einsiedlen:
Batus Kuttel, Abbot (1780-1808)
Fischingen:
Franz Troger (1688-1728)
Freiburg (Friburg, Fribourg, Freyburg):
In the Swiss Confederation from 1481
on
Changed name during the Helvetian
Republic period (became Sarine et
Broye)
Change name back to Freiburg in 1803
Geneva:
Canton and city, independent (15301798)
Occupied by France (1798-1813)
Independent (1813)
Joined to the Swiss Confederation
(1815)
Graubunden:
Canton from the 14th century
Joined the Swiss Confederation (1803)
Haldenstein:
Thomas I (1609-1628)
Julius Otto (1628-1666)
Georg Philip (1666-1695)
Johann Lucius von Salis (1701-1722)
Gubert von Salis (1722-1737)
Thomas III von Salis (1737-1783)
Luzern (Lucerne):
Joined the Swiss Confederation (1332)
Muri:
Placidius von Zurlauben (1684-1723)
Neuchatel:
Henri II (1695-1663)
260
Jean Louis (1663-1671)
Charles Paris (1671-1673)
Marie de Orleans-Nemours (1672-1707)
Friedrich I von Prussia (1707-1713)
Friedrich Wilhelm II, of Prussia (17861797)
Friedrich Wilhelm III, of Prussia (17971806)
Alexandre Berthier, Prince (1806-1814)
Friedrich Wilhelm III (1814-1840)
Obwalden:
Part of the Canon of Unterwalden
Reichenau-Tamins:
Johann Rudolf (1709-1723)
Thomas Franz (1723-1740)
Johann Anton (1742-1765)
Rheinhau:
Gerold II von Zurlaben (1697-1735)
St. Gall (St. Gallen):
Beda Angehrn Von Hagenwijl, Abbot
(1767-1796)
Schaffhausen:
Joined the Swiss Confederation (1501)
Schwyz (Schwytz, Suitensis):
One of the three first Cantons of the
Swiss Confederation (1291)
Sitten:
Hildebrand (1565-1604)
Franz Friedrich am Buel (1760-1780)
Solothurn (Solodornensis, Soleure):
Joined the Swiss Confederation (1481)
Unterwalden (Subsilvania):
One of the three first Cantons of the
Swiss Confederation (1291)
Uri (Uranie):
One of the three first Cantons of the
Swiss Confederation (1291)
Zug (Tugium, Tugiensis):
Joined the Swiss Confederation (1352)
Zurich (Thicurinae, Thuricensis, Tirurinae,
Tiricensis):
Joined the Swiss Confederation (1351)
Rulers and ruling bodies in Switzerland
Independent Confederation (1648-1798)
French Occupation (1798-1803), Helvetian Republic imposed by the Directory
Independent (1815)
Rulers and ruling bodies in the Italian States
Arquata:
Filippo Spinola (1641-1667)
Giulio Spinola, Marquis (1661-1691)
Gerardo Spinola (1682-1694)
Bardi:
Federico Landi (1590-1627)
Belgiojoso:
Antonio I Barbiano (1769-1779)
Belmonte:
Anthony Pignatelli (17??-17??)
Bozzolo:
Giulio Cesare Gonzaga (1593-1609)
Scipione Gonzaga (1609-1670)
Cagliari:
Felipe V of Spain (1700-1714)
Carlos III of Spain, Pretender (17341759)
Campi:
Carlo Centurioni (1654-1663)
Giovanni Battista Centurione (16631715)
Casale:
Vicenzo I Gonzaga (1587-1612)
Francesco IV Gonzaga (1612)
Ferdinand Gonzaga (1612-1626)
Vicenzo II Gonzaga (1626-1627)
Carlo I Gonzaga (1627-1637)
Carlo II Gonzaga (1637-1655)
Ferdinand Carlo Gonzaga (1665-1708)
Castiglione dei Gatti:
Hercules and Cornelius Pepoli (or
Peopli)
Alessandro and Sicinius Peopli (17031713)
Cartiglione delle Stiviere:
Francesco Gonzaga (1593-1616)
Ferdinand Gonzaga (1616-1678)
Carlo (1678-1680)
Ferdinand II (1680-1723)
Cispadne Republic:
1796-1797
Cisterna:
Giacomo Dell Pozzo (1670-1696)
Correggio:
Camillo (1597-1605)
Sirus (1605-1630)
Desana:
Antonio Maria Tizzone (1598-1614)
Carlo Giuseppe Francesco Tizzone
(1641-1676)
Emilia (Emilia-Romagna):
Under nominal control of the Papacy
until 1796
Incorporated in the Italian Republic and
the Kingdom of Napoleon (1796-1814)
Returns to the Papacy (1815)
Gazzoldo:
Francesco Ippoliti (1616-1632)
Hannibal Delgi Ippoliti (1632-1666)
Genoa:
Republic in the Middle Ages
Remodelled into the Ligurian Republic
by Napoleon (1798)
Incorporated in the Kingdom of
Napoleon (1805)
Incorporated in the Kingdom of Sardinia
(1815)
Guastalla:
Ferrante II Gonzaga (1575-1630)
Livorno:
261
Ferdinand II Medici (1621-1670)
Cosimo III Medici (1670-1723)
Giovanni Gastone Medici (1723-1737)
Loano:
Giovanni Andrea Doria I (1560- 1606)
Giovanni Andrea Doria II (1622-1640)
Giovanni Andrea Doria III (16541737)
Lombardy-Venetia:
France (until 1814)
Austria (until 1859 and 1866)
Lucca (Luca, Lucensis, Lucca and Piombino):
Republic (1369-1799)
Felix and Elisa Bonaparte, Prince and
Princess (1805-1814)
Maria Luisa di Borbone, Duchess
(1817-1824)
Carlo Lodovico di Borbone, Duke
(1824-1847)
Maccagno:
Giacomo III Mandelli (1618-1645)
Giovanni Francesco Mandelli (16451668)
Mantua (Mantova):
Vincenzo I Gonzaga (1587-1612)
Francesco IV Gonzaga (1612)
Ferdinand Gonzaga (1612-1626)
Vincenzo II Gonzaga (1626-1627)
Carol I Gonzaga (1627-1637)
Carol II Gonzaga (1637-1665)
Ferdinand Carol Gonzaga (1665-1707)
Austria (1708-1797)
Cisalpine Republic (1797-1802)
Italian Republic (1802-1805)
Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy (18051814)
Austria (1814-1866)
Massa di Lunigiano:
Alberico I Cybo Malaspina, Prince of
Massa (1568-1623)
Carlo I Cybo Malaspina (1623-1662)
Alberico II Cybo Malaspina (16621690)
Messerano:
262
Francesco Filiberto Ferrero Fieschi
(1584-1629)
Paolo Besso Ferrero Fieschi (16291667)
Francesco Ludovico Ferreo Fiecshi
(1667-1685)
Carlo Besso Ferrero Fieschi (16851690)
Milan:
Spain (until 1714)
Austria (until 1796 and 1814-1859)
France (until 1814)
Italia (1859-1946)
Mirandola:
Alexander I (1602-1637)
Alexander II (1637-1691)
Modena (Mutina):
Cesare d’Este (1598-1628)
Francesco I d’Este (1629-1658)
Alfonso IV d’Este (1658-1662)
Francesco II d’Este (1662-1694)
Francesco III d’Este (1737-1780)
Ercole (Hercuils) III d’Este (17801796)
Napoleon Kingdom of Italy (17961813)
The House of Austria-Este (from 1814
on)
Naples & Sicily (Two Sicilies):
Spain:
Felipe IV of Spain (1621-1665)
Carlos II (1665-1700)
Felipe V of Spain (1700-1713)
Bourbons:
Carlo III (1734-1759)
Ferdinando IV, 1st reign (17591799)
Neapolitan Republic (1799)
Ferdinando IV, 2nd reign (17991805)
Joseph Napoleon (1806-1808)
Joachim Murat (Gioacchino
Napoleone) (1808-1815)
Ferdinando IV, restored in Naples
(1815-1816)
Ferdinando IV, as King of the Two
Sicilies (1816-1825)
Two Sicilies :
Francesco I (1825-1830)
Ferdinand II (1830-1859)
Francesco II (1859-1869)
Parma:
Ranuccio Farnese I (1592-1622)
Odoardo Farnese (1622-1646)
Ranuccio Farnese II (1646-1694)
Francesco Farnese I (1694-1727)
Filippo di Borbone (1737-1765)
Ferdinando di Borbone (1765-1802)
Marie Luigia, Duchess (1815-1847)
Carlo II di Borbone (1847-1849)
Carlo III di Borbone (1849-1854)
Roberto di Borbone (1854-1858)
Piacenza (Placentia):
Ranuccio Farnese I (1592-1622)
Odoardo Farnese (1622-1646)
Maria Theresa, as Duchess of Piacenza
(1740-1744)
Carlo Emmanuel III of Sardinia, as
Duke of Piacenza (1744-1745)
Felipio di Borbone, as Duke of Parma
and Piacenza (1748-1765)
Ferdinando di Borbone (1765-1802)
Piombino:
Niccolo Ludovici (1634-1665)
Giovanni Baptiste Ludovici (16651669)
Pisa:
Ferdinand I de Medici (1595-1608)
Cosimo II de Medici (1608-1620)
Ferdinand II de Medici (1620-1670)
Cosimo III de Medici (1670-1723)
Gian Gastone (1723-1737)
Francesco I Lorraine (1737-1765)
French occupation (1807-1814)
Porcia:
Hannibal Alfonso Emmanuel (1704)
Retegno (Trivulzio):
Hercules Teodoro Trivulzio (16561664)
Antonio Teodoro Trivulzio (16761678)
Antonio Gaetano Trivulzio-Galilo
(1679-1705)
Antonio Tolomeo Trivulzio-Galilo
(1707-1767)
Ronco:
Napoleone Spinola (1647-1772)
Carlo Spinola (1699-1720)
San Georgio:
Giovanni Dominic Milano (17311740)
Giacomo Francesco Milano (1740)
Sardinia:
Carlo Emmanuele I (1580-1630)
Vittorio Amedeo I (1630-1637)
Francesco Hyacint, under Regency of
his mother Maria Cristina (16371638)
Carlo Emmanuele II (1638-1675);
under Regency of his mother Maria
Cristina (1639-1648); under
supposed Regency of Maurice and
Thomas (1639-1641); alone as
Duke (1641-1675)
Vittorio Amedeo II (1675-1730);
under Regency of his mother Maria
Giovanna Battista (1675-1680);
alone as Duke (1680-1713); as King
of Sicily (1713-1718); as King of
Sardinia (1718-1730)
Carlo Emmanuele III (1730-1773)
Vittorio Amedeo III (1773-1796)
Carlo Emmanuele IV (1796-1802)
Vittorio Emmanuele I (1802-1821)
Carlo Felice (1821-1831)
Carlo Alberto (1831-1849)
Vittorio Emmanuele II (1849-1878)
Sicily:
Carlos II of Spain (1665-1700)
Felipe V of Spain (1701-1713)
263
Victor Amadeus II of Savoy (17131720)
Carlos III (IV of Austria) (1720-1734)
Carlo III (Charles Bourbon) (17341759)
Ferdinando III (1759-1825) (became
Ferdinando I in 1816 as King of
Two Sicilies)
Ferdinando II (1830-1859)
Solferino:
Carlo Gonzaga (1640-1678)
Soragna:
Niccolo Meli-Lupi (1731-1741)
Tassarolo:
Agostino Spinola (1604-1616)
Filippo Spinola (1616-1688)
Trent:
Pietro Vigilius (1776-1800)
Tresana:
Guglielmo II Malasina (1613-1651)
Tuscany (Etruria) (Capital Florence):
Cosimo I de Medici (1537-1574)
Francesco I de Medici (1574-1587)
Ferdinando I de Medici (1587-1609)
Cosimo II de Medici (1609-1621)
Ferdinand II de Medici (1621-1670)
Cosimo III de Medici (1670-1723)
Giovanni Gaston de Medici (17231737)
Francesco III (1737-1746)
The same as Francesco I, Emperor
(1746-1765)
Pierto Leopoldo (1765-1790)
The same as Leopoldo II, Emperor
(1790-1792)
Ferdinando III (1791-1801)
Louis I (1801-1803)
Charles Louis, under Regency of his
mother Maria Louisa (1803-1807)
Annexed to France (1807-1814)
Ferdinando III restored (1814-1824)
Leopoldo II (1824-1848, 1849-1859)
Provisional Government (1859)
264
United to Italian Provisional
Government (1859-1861)
Urbino:
Francesco Maria II (1574-1624)
Vasto:
Cesare d’Avalos (1704-1729)
Venice (Venezia):
Marino Grimani (1595-1605)
Leonardo Dona (1605-1612)
Marco Antonio, Memmo (1612-1615)
Gianni Bembo (1615-1618)
Niccolo Dona (1618)
Antonio Priuli (1618-1623)
Francesco Contarini (1623-1624)
Gianni Cornea (1625-1629)
Niccolo Contarini (1630-1631)
Francesco Erizzo (1631-1646)
Francesco Molin (1646-1655)
Carlo Contarini (1655-1656)
Francesco Corner (1656)
Bertuccio Valier (1656-1658)
Gianni Pesaro (1658-1659)
Dominico Contarini (1659-1674)
Niccolo Sagredo (1675-1676)
Alois Contarini (1676-168