Natural enemies biocontrol

Natural enemies used in biological control
Dr. Mor Salomon
The Israel Cohen Institute for Biological control
The Plants production and
marketing board
What are Natural Enemies?
Organisms that kill or reduce the population of another organism
Biological control
Predators
Parasitoids
Nematodes
Pathogens
Development achieved by feeding on other organisms:
Predators
Parasitoids
Feed on another organism
many individuals
a singe individual
Free living
Bound to their host
Predators
Gambusia affinis
Mosquitofish
Mosquito larvae
Mayna
Acridotheres tristis
Grasshopper
Ducks
Green-rice leafhopper
Predators
Important natural enemies for applied biological control
are Insects & Mites
Feeding strategy
 Most predators are entomophagous insects
Entomophagy
Insects
Monophagous
feed on one type of prey (i.e. a specialist)
Rodolia cardinalis feeds
on Icerya purchasi
Phagein = Feeding
Monophagous predator
Phytoseiulus persimilis
Two-spotted spider mite
Tetranychus urticae
Oligophagous predator
Feeds on a limited range of prey
Chilocorus kuwanae
Coccinella septempunctata
Feeds on closely
related species of prey
Pea aphid
Euonymus scale
Polyphagous predator
Feeds on a broad range of prey
Aphids
Green lacewing
Thrips
Chrysoperla carnea
Leafminers
Whiteflies
Spider mite
Mouthparts
Predators can have either:
Biting mouthparts
1. Biting – chewing mouthparts
2. Piercing – Sucking mouthparts
Examples:
Mandibles cut & chew;
Maxillae manipulate the prey
Tiger beetle
Cicendela sp.
(Carabidae)
Green lacewing (Antlion; Neuroptera)
Mouthparts
Piercing & sucking mouthparts
 Elongated labium
 Mandibles & maxillae = stylet for piercing
Examples:
Anchor stink
bug
Cicendela sp.
(Pentatomidae)
Minute pirate bug
Orius sp.
(Anthocoridae)
Assassin fly
Velvet spider
Zosteria sp.
(Asilidae)
Stegodyphus lineatus
(Eresidae)
Coleoptera - Beetles
Beetles - Coleoptera
Cockchafer
Melolontha sp.
Family: Scarabaeidae
Order: Coleoptera
Bugs - Hemiptera
Stink bug
Nezara marginata
Family: Pentatomidae
Order: Hemiptera
Suborder: Heteroptera
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Coleoptera
Coleoptera - Beetles
Beetles - Coleoptera
Bugs - Hemiptera
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Coleoptera
Stink bug
Nezara marginata
Ground beetle
Family: Pentatomidae
Pasimachs elongatus
Order: Hemiptera
Family: Carabidae
Suborder: Heteroptera
Order: Coleoptera
Class: Insecta
Life cycle
Beetles life cycle
2-4 instars
Order: Coleoptera
Exarate pupa
(Free appendages)
Pterostichus melanarius
Family: Carabidae
Ground beetles
Class: Insecta
 Natural enemies in agroecosystems
Family: Carabidae
Order: Coleoptera
 Live and prey mostly on the ground
Gypsy moth larva
Colorado potato beetle larva
Clivinia fossor
carrot weevil
Pterostichus melanariu
Bird cherry-oat aphid
Class: Insecta
Ground beetles
Order: Coleoptera
Family: Carabidae
Fall armyworm
Bimidion quadrimaculatum
Black onion fly
Onion root
maggot
Black bean aphid
European corn borer
Class: Insecta
Ladybird beetles
Order: Coleoptera
Family: Coccinellidae
~5,000 species in the family
Most species eat primarily insects and mites
Aphid colony
Rodolia cardinalis prey on
The cottony cushion scale,
Icerya purchasi
California; 1,888
Feeding behaviour
 Adults & larva feed on the same prey
 Highly specific diet
 Many species feed on pollen, nectar and honeydew
 Some ladybirds are species-specific, others eat several species
 Ladybirds are not effective at low population levels
Class: Insecta
Order: Coleoptera
Family: Coccinellidae
Life cycle
Class: Insecta
4 instars
Order: Coleoptera
Family: Coccinellidae
Eggs laid in
clusters
Warning
colours
sucker
Chilocorini:
Partly exposed
Coccinellinae: Exposed pupa
Scymnini:
Completely covered pupa
Biological control
Cryptolaemus montrouzieri
Hippodamia convergens
Coccinella septempunctata
Stethorus punctilum
Scymnus sp.
Harmonia axyridis
Adalia bipunctata
Lacewings / Antlions
Green lacewing
Larva: predator
Adult: honeydew, nectar, pollen
Order: Neuroptera
Brown lacewing
Families: Chrysopidae
Hemerobiidae
All predators
Prey: Aphids
Aphids, whiteflies, thrips, spider mites, moth eggs, spider mites, mealybugs
Class: Insecta
Digger wasps
Order: Hymenoptera
 25% of species in the order are predators
 Ants control ground-dwelling insects
 Wasps paralyze insects
Family: Sphecidae
Vespidae
Biological control of
leaf-eating insects
Great golden digger wasp
Sphex sp.
Polistes humilis
Class: Insecta
Digger wasps
Order: Hymenoptera
 25% of species in the order are predators
Family: Sphecidae
 Ants control ground-dwelling insects
 Wasps paralyze insects
Vespidae
Biological control of
leaf-eating insects
reduced caterpillar
numbers in cabbages
Great golden digger wasp
Impractical in
agriculture
White cabbage butterfly
Polistes humilis
Hoverflies
500 eggs
 Resemble bees, but only one pair of wings
 Feed on aphids
Released
in pepper
Esiyrphus balteatus
Marmalade hoverfly
crops
Class: Insecta
Order: Diptera
Family: Syrphidae
Big-eyed bugs
 Most bugs are vegetarian
 Some important predators
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera (bugs)
Family: Lygaeidae
 Prey: Lepidopteran eggs
Plant bugs
Whiteflies
Mites
aphids
 Crops
(e.g.):
 Cotton
 Ornamentals
 Strawberries
 Vegetable crops
Geocoris sp. feeding
on whitefly nymph
Assassin bugs
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera (bugs)
 Ambush predators
Suborder: Heteroptera (True bugs)
 Thin neck ; Strong piercing rostrum
Family: Reduviidae
 Highly polyphagous, including honeybees & spiders
 Crop (e.g.): sunflower, cotton
 Good control in cotton
Helicoverpa sp.
(Lepidoptera
Pristhesancus plagipennis
Creoniades sp.
Miridae
(Grundy 2007)
Order: Hemiptera
Flower bugs
 Polyphagous predators
Suborder: Heteroptera
 Actively search for prey
Family: Anthocoridae
 Important in many agricultural crops
The common flower bug
Anthocoris nemorum
Minute pirate bug
Pear Psylla
Orius sp.
Order: Hemiptera
Flower bugs
 Polyphagous predators
Suborder: Heteroptera
 Actively search for prey
Family: Anthocoridae
 Important in many agricultural crops
Prey: greenfly
red spider mite
Crop: Hedgerows
Agri. crops
Wild plants
Pear orchards
The common flower bug
Anthocoris nemorum
Pear Psylla
Order: Hemiptera
Minute pirate bug
Suborder: Heteroptera
 3 main species used as BCA: Orius laevigatus
O. Majusculus
O. insidiosus
Family: Anthocoridae
Order: Hemiptera
Minute pirate bug
Orius laevigatus
Suborder: Heteroptera
O. majusculus
 Prey: Thrips
Aphids
Whiteflies
Mites
Moth eggs
 Omnivorous
Introduced the most
Mediterranean
Flowers
Europe
Whole plant
Family: Anthocoridae
Egg
Orius life cycle
 Hemimetabolus
Adult
Order: Hemiptera
Suborder: Heteroptera
Family: Anthocoridae
Egg: embedded in the leaf
Nymph: yellowish
wing buds at 5th instar
found on leaves
Adult: brown / black
5 nymphal stages
occupy flower head
All instars feed on soft-bodied insects
O. insidiosus nymph
Order: Hemiptera
Zoophytophagus plant bugs
Suborder: Heteroptera
Family: Miridae
 Most mirids are pests
Lygus sp.
Pest in cotton, strawberry etc.
Zoophytophagus plant bugs
 Most mirids are pests
Order: Hemiptera
Suborder: Heteroptera
Family: Miridae
 Efficient natural enemy of Tuta absoluta
Nesidiocoris Tenuis
Tomato leafminer; Tuta absoluta
Order: Hemiptera
 Omnivore
 Wide range of prey
Suborder: Heteroptera
Family: Miridae
 Effective in controlling
whiteflies
 Used commercially
 Tomato (tunnel & glasshouse)
Macrolophus caliginosus
Order: Hemiptera
Stink/Shield bugs
Suborder: Heteroptera
 Eject foul smell when disturbed
 Most species are pests
Family: Pentatomidae
Spined soldier bug
Anchor bug
Polyphagous predator
e.g. mexican bean beetle
Low abundance
Low contribution to
biological control
Stiretrus anchorago
Podisus maculiventris
Polyphagous predator
e.g. gypsy moth, corn borer, armyworm sp. etc.
Classical biological control (e.g. Russia)
Predatory mites
The most introduced NE
Used commercially worldwide
1st used on cucumber by Koppert 1960’s
Phytoseiulus persimilis
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Arachnida
Subclass: Acari
Order: Mesostigmata
Family: Phytoseiidae
Subclass: Acari
Spider mites
Order: Trombidiformes
 Pests in many crops around the world
 Two-spotted spider mite is the most important
Family: Tetranychidae
 All stages feed on plant tissue and sap
 Adults & nymphs produce webs
Difficult for predators to penetrate
Tetranychus urticae
Tetranychus urticae
Subclass: Acari
Phytoseiulus persimilis
 Highly specific to spider mites
Egg
Order: Mesostigmata
Family: Phytoseiidae
Larva
Adult
2 nymph
stages
doesn’t eat
eat all stages,
but adults
 Highly population growth than T. urticae
 Disadvantage: No alternative prey
Cannibalism
Population decline
Subclass: Acari
 Above 30⁰C, P. persimilis growth declines
Order: Mesostigmata
Family: Phytoseiidae
Neoseiulus californicus
 Prefer the larval & nymphal stages of T. urticae
 Consume less prey than P. persimilis, but more
effective at low densities
 Generalist predator
 Used commercially in fruit
& ornamental crops
Panonychus ulmi
Tomato rust mite
Aculops lycopersici
Fruit spider mite
Neoseiulus californicus
Iphiseius degenerans
 Native to the mediterranean
 Feeds on spider mites, thrips & pollen
 Not effective against T. urticae because of the web
 Used particularly in pepper crops
 Can survive and reproduce only on pollen
Subclass: Acari
Order: Mesostigmata
Family: Phytoseiidae
Subclass: Acari
Amblyseius swirskii
Order: Mesostigmata
 Native to the mediterranean
 Suited for warm (25-28⁰C) and humid (60-70%) conditions
 Generalist predator: 1-2 instar thrips
Eggs, 1st larvae whitefly
spider mites
 Can survive & reproduce on pollen
 Used commercially to control whiteflies
 Establish well in the crop
Family: Phytoseiidae
Phylum: Arthropoda
Spiders
Class: Arachnida
 Most dominant predator in agro-ecosystems
Consume many prey
in short time
 Most BCA are specialists
Order: Aranea
Survive at low pest
population
Family: Linyphiidae
Gnaphosiidae
Theriididae
 Spiders are generalist predators
 Spider BC = conservation of spiders (e.g. selective spraying)
 3 main families in desert agro-ecosystems of wheat
(Gavish et al. 2008)
Gnaphosidae
Linyphiidae
Theridiidae
Parasitoids
An organism that live in or on another animal (host), exploiting and killing it
Aphytis melinus, a parasitoid of the
Encarsia formosa, parasitoid of
California red scale
whitefly nymphs
Occupy a host during development
Adult is free-living
Parasites
An organism that live in or on a host, exploiting but not killing it
Blacklegged tick
Occupy a host at all life stages
Ectoparasitoid
A parasitoid that lives on the external surface of
its host, feeding on it and killing it in the process.
D. isaea pupae
Diglyphus isaea
Parasitoid of the vegetable leafminer
Endoparasitoid
A parasitoid that lives inside the body of its host,
feeding on it and killing it in the process.
 Don’t cause immediate death of the host
 Feed on the essential tissues only at the
end of development
 Protected inside the host
Ageniaspis citricola
parasitoid of the citrus leafminer
Types of parasitoids
Idiobiont : prevent further development of the host after initial
parasitization
attack an immobile life stage (e.g. an egg or pupa)
mostly ectoparasitoids
Koinobiont : the host continues to develop after prasitization and is
only killed when the parasitoid reaches maturity
attack any life stage
Both ecto- and endoparasitoids
Life-stages attacked
Egg parasitoids
Complete their development in the egg stage of the host
Halyomorpha halys
Brown stink bug
Trissolcus halymorphae
Life-stages attacked
Egg-larval parasitoids
Attack the egg, but complete development at the larval stage
Adult parasitoid emerge from the larva
e.g. Chelonus annulipes attack the EU corn borer
Egg-pupa parasitoids
Chelonus sp.
EU corn borer
Attack the egg, but delay development and kill the host before pupation
Adult parasitoid emerge from the pupa
e.g. Fopius arisanus attack fruit fly eggs (e.g. ceratitis capitate)
Life-stages attacked
Larva parasitoids
Complete their development in the larval stage of the host
Cotesia rubecula (Baraconidae)
Parasitize
1st
instar
Pieris rapae
Small cabbage white butterfly
Life-stages attacked
Larval-pupal parasitoids
Deposit it’s egg in or on the host larva
Parasitoid larva completes development in host pupa
Adult parasitoid emerge from the larva
e.g. Diachasmimorpha kraussi attack the fruit fly
Larval-adult parasitoids
Deposit it’s egg in or on the host larva
Bactrocera
latifrons
Parasitoid larva completes development and kills host adult
*rare in nature
Picture by Yoav Gazit
Life-stages attacked
Pupal parasitoids
Complete their development in the host pupa
Plutella xylostella
Diadromus collaris (Ichneumonidae)
Diamondback moth
Parasitoids as natural enemies
Hymenoptera
Chalcidoidae
Ichneumonidae
Aphelinidae
Braconidae
Trichogrammatidae
Encytidae
Mymaridae
Eulophidae
Diptera
Tachinidae
Leopidoptera
Epipyroptera
Phylum: Arthropoda
Parasitoids as natural enemies
Class: Insecta
Hymenoptera
Chalcidoidae
Ichneumonidae
Trichogrammatidae
Braconidae
Order: Hymenoptera
Super-Family: Chalcidoidea
 More than 30 species
Aphelinidae
 Important for biological control
Encytidae
aphids
Mymaridae
Eulophidae
Egg parasitoids
whiteflies
Phylum: Arthropoda
Parasitoids as natural enemies
Class: Insecta
Hymenoptera
Order: Hymenoptera
Chalcidoidae
Ichneumonidae
Trichogrammatidae
Braconidae
Super-Family: Chalcidoidea
mealybugs
Aphelinidae
Encytidae
aphids
Mymaridae
Eulophidae
Egg parasitoids
whiteflies
Armoured scale insect
Order: Hymenoptera
Encarsia formosa
Super-family: Chalcidoidea
Family: Aphelinidae
 Used in BC of whitefly since 1972
 Skilled in finding whitefly patches
 Faster development than that of
whiteflies (27 vs. 32 days)
Encarsia formosa
Preferred species
Bemisia tabaci
Trialeurodes vaporariorum
Greenhouse whitefly
Tobacco whitefly
Encarsia formosa
o Females prefer to oviposit
in 3rd – 4th instar nymphs
o Larva develops in the 4th
instar of the host
o Dark parasitized pupa
o Adult emerge from the pupa
Larval-pupa parasitoid
o Adult feed on honeydew
& larvae, i.e. host feeding
Super-family: Chalcidoidea
Family: Aphelinidae
Order: Hymenoptera
Eretmocerus eremicus
Super-family: Chalcidoidea
 Used in BC of whitefly since 1994
Family: Aphelinidae
 Ectoparasitoid
 Female may lay eggs under already
parasitized larvae (super-parasitism)
E. eremicus
 More efficient than E. formosa
Eretmocerus Mundus
Bemisia tabaci
Tobacco whitefly
 Native to the mediterranean
 Exclusively parasitize B. tabaci
 Used in BC of whitefly since 2002
E. mundus
Trialeurodes vaporariorum
Greenhouse whitefly
Aphelinus abdominalis
Order: Hymenoptera
 Endoparasitoid of various sp.
Family: Aphelinidae
Super-family: Chalcidoidea
 The egg is injected to
the underside of the aphid
 Wasp larvae develops inside
the aphid and kills it when it pupates
Macrosiphus sp.
 Host feeding on small nymphs
Potato aphid
 Used in BC since 1993
Aphid mummies
Order: Hymenoptera
Leptomastix dactylopii
Super-family: Chalcidoidea
Family: Encyrtidae
 Specialist parasitoid
 Endoparasitoid
 Female oviposit in 3rd instar
 Larva consume the mealybug
 Pupate inside the dead mealybug
 Efficient searching behaviour
 Control pest at low densities
Citrus mealybug
Planococcus citri
Trichogramma brassicae
 Egg parasitoid of moths
 2-3 eggs are laid
in each moth egg
 Wasp larva pupate
inside the moth egg
 Used against the corn borer
Order: Hymenoptera
Super-family: Chalcidoidea
Family: Trichogrammatidae
Anagrus atomus
 Family of egg parasitoids
Order: Hymenoptera
Super-family: Chalcidoidea
Family: Mymaridae
 Parasitize leafhopper eggs
 Enters the glasshouse naturally
 Not sufficient for effective control
Empoasca vitis
Order: Hymenoptera
Diglyphus isaea
Super-family: Chalcidoidea
Family: Eulophidae
 Ectoparasitoid
 Parasitize many sp. of leafminers
 Egg laid near paralayzed
leafminer larva
 Larva pupates in the dead mine
 Host feeding
 Released to control leafminers
in glasshouses, used since 1984
Tomato leafminer Liriomyza bryoniae
Order: Hymenoptera
Aphid parasitoids
Super-family: Ichneumonoidea
3 important Aphidius species
A. colemani
A. ervi
Aphis spp.
Aulacorthum solani
Myzus spp.
Family: Braconidae
A. matricariae
Aulacorthum spp.
Macrosiphum euphobiae
Commercially used for biological control
Efficient at low densities
Aphelinus abdominalis
Myzus persicae
Occur
naturally
Macrosiphum spp.
Myzus spp.
Commercially used for
biological control
Host feeding
A. solani
Glasshouse
potato aphid
M. euphobiae
Potato Aphis gossypii
aphid
Cotton
aphid
Aphedius colemani
Order: Hymenoptera
o Rapid population growth
Family: Braconidae
Super-family: Ichneumonoidea
o Female lay >300 eggs
Egg
o Parasitize nymphs & adult
o Cocoon inside the aphid cuticle
Wasp
emerge
Wasp presence
Secretion of warning substance
larva
Drop to the ground
Some aphids die
Adds to Biological control
mummy
with pupa
Aphid mummy
Order: Hymenoptera
Hyper-parasitoids
Super-family: Ceraphronoidea
o Parasitoids on aphid parasitoids
Family: Megaspilidae
o Serious threat to aphid control
Dendrocerus carpenteri
Ectoparasitoid of 4th instar larva or pupa
D. carpenteri
D. Carpentri larva eats Aphidius larvae
lay the egg next
from the outside & pupates
to Aphidius larva
Hyper-parasitoid emerge
from the mummy
Alloxysta spp.
lay the egg inside the
Aphidius larva
Aphidius larva
Opius pallipes & Dacnusa sibirica
Order: Hymenoptera
 Endoparasitoids of leaf-miners
Family: Braconidae
Super-family: Ichneumonoidea
 Fast population growth than leaf-miners
 Egg-pupa parasitoids (prefer 1st, 2nd instar)
 Larva reach full development after leaf-miner pupation
 Super-parasitism occur,
only 1 wasp will emerge
O. pallipes
D. sibirica used commercially
D. sibirica
Family: Braconidae
Opiinae
Subfamily: Opiinae
o Endoparasitoids of fruit-flies (Tephritidae)
o Fruit fly egg is laid inside the fruit,
Fopius arisanus
the larva develop within,
pupate on the ground
Ceratitis capitata
o Wasps lay egg inside the egg or larva
Bactrocera tryoni
o Wasp larva develop in the larva & pupa
o Adult wasp emerge
from the fly’s pupa
Introduced & established in IL
Not sold commercially
Diachasmimorpha kraussii
Order: Diptera
Parasitoid flies
Family: Tachinidae
 Large family of parasitoid flies
 Attack larvae of Lepidoptera & Coleoptera
Egg deposited next to the host
Voria ruralis
Maggot ingested with the
leaf by caterpillar
Maggot develops inside
Pupate inside the host, killing the caterpillar
Adult fly emerge
maggot
Entomopathogenic nematodes
Phylum: Nematoda
Class: Chromadorea
 Nematodes are simple round-worms
Order: Rhabditidae
Colourless, un-segmented, lacking appendages
Free-living, predaceous or parasitic
Microbial
pathogens
Entomopathogenic
Predators
nematodes
Parasitoids
 Lethal to many insect pests, but safely applied
 Kill pest within 24-48 hours
Photo: Y. Wang
Nematode life cycle
2 genera used in BC: Steinernema
Heterorhabditis
 Juvenile search for host
 Penetrate through body cavity
 Release symbiotic bacteria
 Feed on bacteria & liquefied host
 Develop & reproduce in the host
 Infective juveniles emerge
Nematode-Bacterium complex
Symbiotic relationship with bacteria
Bacterial Chamber
Infective Juveniles
Heterorhabditis Bacteriophora
Curtesy of Roy Kaspi
Donald Danforth Plant Science Center
Biological control
 Marketed world wide, against a broad range of pests
Steinernema carpocapsae
 Effective against lepidopteran & coleoptera larva
 Sit-&-wait forager, called Ambusher
 Effective against highly mobile surface insects
Heterorhabditis bacteriophora
 Active forager, called Cruiser
 Effective against sedentary insects
White grub (larva of June beetle)
Photo: Ganpati Jagdale
Conclusion
 Many groups are involved in biological control
 Efficient BCA are both generalists and specialists
 Effective biological control is cheap, safe
and may hold for many years
 Success depends on understanding the
pest-natural enemy interactions
Acknowledgments
Photo: Y. Gazit
Dr. Roy Kaspi
Prof. Moshe Coll
Yaniv, Assaf & Ayala
for babysitting
Most material taken from:
Malais, M.H. & Ravensberg, W.J. Knowing and recognizing, the biology
of glasshouse pests and their natural enemies. Koppert Biological Systems