PART - View of Space

Transcription

VIEW OF SPACE :2320-7620
AN INTERNATIONAL REFEREED MULTIDISCIPLINARY
JOURNAL OF APPLIED RESEARCH
UGC SPONSORED NATIONAL SEMINAR ON
GENDER, EDUCATION AND CHILD LABOUR :
A SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
CHILD LABOUR ISSUE AND
REMEDIES
J. N. RANA
SHREE DEVMANI ART'S & COMMERCE COLLEGE-VISAVADAR
SUBJECT:
KEYWORDS:
ABSTRAC
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VOLUME-3 / YEAR – 3 / ISSUE – 11 / MARCH–2016
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Child labour means the employment of Children ( 5 to 14 years of age) in
gainful occupation, which are injurious to psysical mental Moral and Social development M.S.Subramanium.
"Child labour includes children prematurly leading adult lives, working
long hours for a low wages, under condition damaging to their health and to their physical
and mental development sometimes separated from their families frequently disproved of
meaningful education and trainingopportunitiesthere could open for them a better future.
- International Labour Organization.
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Child labour - A Sasio Economic Problem for india (Research
paper by Sanjay Mahapatra- Manusmita Deshs
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1)
Rural Development through decent work, ILO Paper, 2011.
2)
Cristopher Udry (2003). Child labour, centre discussion paper no. 856,
Yale University.
3)
Khan Mohammad Ali (2001) child labour in Dhaka city, Dhaka, Hakkani
Publishers.
4)
www.childlineindia.org.in/child-labour india.html
5)
www.tnchildlabour.tn.gov.in
WWW.VIEWOFSPACE.ORG
8
CHILD LABOUR ISSUE AND
REMEDIES
BHATU PRAVIN KESHURBHAI
ECONOMICS DEPARTMENT,SAURASHTRA UNIVERSITY, RAJKOT.
SUBJECT:
KEYWORDS:
ABSTRACT
When you realize how long problem of child labour has been around, anyone who
ventures into the terrain of remedies obviously needs a long memory and not a little
optimism. What have we tried? what has worked ? And what has not worked? to answer
these questions. We must first look at how we have diagnosed the problem. Some say that
the return of child labour is due to the present recession. Hard pressed businesses are
looking for cheap and cheaper labour. Swetshopes proliferate. When the recession
recedes, so will child labour. If it were that simple, we could all congratulate ourselves on
having conducted this enlightened symposium and go home without worrying much more
about the problem. The magic hand of the market, in due course will straighten in all out.
They are subjected to toilsome work and they are devoid of opportunity to grow.
1.
INTRODUCTION
The existence of child labour is a slur on a modern welfare state which seeks to
promote the all-round development of its citizens. Children are the future hope of the
society. They are like buds which need to be properly nursed and well taken care of, so
that they bloom fully and grow into able human-beings and contribute their worth to the
future development of the society. The children are subjected to work at a fender age,
when they require the utmost love, affection, care and proper education. They are the
direct victim of the existing exploitative self-up and due to denial of minimum basics they
are forced to join labour force.
In this paper, therefore, and attempt is made to analyse the meaning of child
labours, history of child labour, cause of child labour effects of child labour, extent of child
labour, educational status of child labour, workforce participation of child labour in the
rural economy of INdia, right of the child, health of children, laws protecting the child.
Policy prescriptions etc.
2.
DEFINITIONAL ASPECT OF CHILD LABOUR
The factories act, 1948 prohibits children below the age of 14 years from working
in any factory, the minimum age in the mines act (1952) is years and it is 12 years in the
plantatinos labour act (1951).
Article 24 of the constitution of India states : "No child below the age of 14 years shall b
employed to work in any factory or mine or enaged in any other hazardous employment."
The most recent lagislaton : "The child labour (prohibiton and Regulation) act, 1986,
defines child labour as a person who has not completed his fourteenth year of age."
M.S. Subramaniam (1991) defines chid labour thus : "Child labour means the
employement of children (5 to 14 years of age) in gainful occupations, which are
ingurious to their physical, mental, moral and social development.
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9
According to Indradeo Sharma (1941) "Child labour ineludes are those aged 14 years or
below, who are engaged in some productive work, whether paid or not, within the family
or outside."
3.
CHILD LABOUR ISSUE AND REMEDIES
The causes of child labour are many and varied. Thus, a variety of factors can be
attributed for the employment of child labour. (1) Easy availability of child Labour
without many obligations for employers. (2) Poverty: Poverty is the single important
reason for child labour. The poor parents in order to supplement their income allow the
children to work even on un-remunerative jobs. Abject poverty and un-employment
forces the children to take up un- remunerative jobs. Thus, “economic compulsions weigh
heavily on the consciousness of the poor parents and they would not mind colluding with
their children’s employers in violating the law and putting their children under the risks
of inhuman exploitation. Parents want their children to feud for themselves as early as
possible, much better, if they become a source of income to the family’. Since the child is
put to adult role at an early age, he/she also marries early and breeds early, thereby
increasing the liabilities of his/her family and also of the whole nation. A recent study
conducted in three big cities of Tamil Nadu by the students of Madras School of Social
Work revealed that 55% of the children employed belonged to families with the income
less than Rs.300/- per month and 72 per cent of total children had sought employment to
augment the family income. (3) Many employers prefer to engage children, because they
are cheap. Moreover, children tend to be less troublesome, more disciplined and highly
adaptable. (4) School drop¬outs. (5) Loss of an earning member of the family. (6) Absence
of any state sponsored scheme of family allowance in India. (7) Non-existence of any
general scheme of compulsory education upto a minimum age. (8) slow advance of
protective labour legislation. (9) The evasion of the existing laws for the protection of
children. (10) Introduction of the factory system. (11) Death of mother. (12) Death of
parents. (13) 111 habituated father spending money on drinking etc. (14) Illegality of
child. (15) Sometimes social structure of the society becomes responsible for child labour.
The social structure in our country is characterized by caste system. The members of low
castes and down-trodden communities are supposed to be for the services of the upper
castes. Thus, they are deprived of their aspirations. (16) Ignorance of the parents. Thus,
the problem of child labour in India is rooted in the exploitative socio-economic set-up
and poor and backward economy. Ignorance, Lack of job opportunities and other socioeconomic institutions perpectuate this evil. Mass awareness does not prevail in our
society which is also an important cause of child labour.
4.
EFFECTS OF CHILD LABOUR
While some healthy work in childhood may be social good and a national gain,
child labour in general is a great social ill and a national waste, as the economic necessity
for wage earning to support the family, deprives the child of an opportunity for education,
play and recreation, stunts his physical growth, interferes with the normal development
of child’s personality and thwarts his preparation for responsibility. The hazards suffered
by the child workers are of no one’s concern. Among the main hazards is the health
hazard which causes the following diseases in various occupations.
(a)
Tuberculosis and bronchitis
(b)
Muscle atrophy
(c)
Weakening and Malformation of bones
(d)
Eye diseases
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10
(e)
Stunted growth
(f)
Finger Arthritis
(g)
Damage to the finger nails
(h)
Excessive fatigue and mal-nutrition effects, functioning of endocrine glands.
Economic and Social Evils
(a)
Child labour gives birth to numerous economic problems such as the use of labour
at its lowest productivity implying thereby an in-efficient utilization of labour power.
(b)
The practice of employing children permits unfair competition with adult labour
with the result that there may be an excessive un-employment of adult labour, low wages
and less satisfactory working conditions.
(c)
Child labour tends to interfere with normal family life and encourages the breakdown of the social order. Child used to early economic independence starts an early sex
life acquiring veneral diseases and addition to intoxicants. Generally, he/she also marries
young and starts early procreation.
(d)
The wordst effect of child labour is that it interferes with their education and
minimizes the chances for their vocational development. They neither acquire any skill
nor do they receive any education thereby condemning them to a status of illiterate,
oppressed and trampled worker for the rest of their lives.
(e)
The effects of poor and unsafe working conditions in working children take the
form of fatal accidents or accidents that result in deformities.
The vulnerability of children is increased by the high incidence of mal-nutrition and
under-nourishment and making them less resistent to debilitating diseases.
(f)
Children in some work situations are explosed to physical and mental abuse. This
involves long and often permanent separation from parents and isolation, sometimes
amounting to virtual imprisonment and physical cruelty. Child participation in labour
force activity reduces the potential for schooling and educational development. Given the
low educational or skill content of many of the jobs in which working children are
involved, the possibilities for acquiring remunerative or satisfying skills become still more
remote, children, thus, find themselves locked in unskilled, low paying situations and
permanently disadvantaged in the labour market.
(g)
There are also other kinds of deprivations from which child labourers suffer,
including the absence of clear and written contractual agreements, the dearth of feeding
programmes, health care facilities and other welfare services and the lack of insurance
and social security. The regulation of employment of children by low covers only a fringe
of these occupations and even where regulation has been sought, the enforcement is
extremely half-hearted and tardy.
Unless a systematic evaluation is made from time to time in respect of jobs in
which children are employed and certain purposeful policy decisions are taken to meet
the deficiencies, the existing situation is not likely to undergo any dimensional, qualitative
or quantitative change.
5.
REMEDIAL MEASURES
1.
Medical and Health Support: In order to ensure good health of working children a
system should be evolved in such a way that every child worker is periodically checked. In
the organized industries health checking should be made compulsory by enacting proper
laws wherever it is not available. In case of unorganized sector, particularly in agriculture,
this could be linked with the National Health Scheme. A drive to keep working
environment hygienically clean and to provide airy working place particularly for child
workers should be attempted. The provision of supplementary feeding programmes for
WWW.VIEWOFSPACE.ORG
11
children should be given a primary place in efforts directed at enhancing the nutritional
status of children and the improvement of their working conditions.
2.
Proper housing facilities: Lack of proper housing facilities affects adversely not
only to the health and growth of children, but also drag them to join the group of
undesirable elements leading to delinquent behavior. Efforts should, therefore, be made
to provide housing facilities with necessary basic amenities both in the organized and
unorganized sectors. Attempts should also be made to provide library and reading
facilities which they can make use of in their leisure time.
3.
Research and Cultural activities: If facilities for recreation and cultural activities
are provided either at the place of work or at the place of residence, the workers can take
advantage of these facilities and rejuvenate themselves. This will help in keeping the
workers fresh and thereby increase their efficiency leading to increased production. This
could also be integrated with a counseling programme for providing guidance to the
working children.
4.
Family Planning: It is often found that large families exist in poor sections of the
society who are unable to bear the burden of a large number of dependents and therefore
the children are compelled to join the labour force early. This increases the number of
working children to a very large proportion. Therefore, a very well organized family
planning programme both in the organized and un-organized sectors is bound to give rich
dividends in the years to come.
5.
Role of media: Evils of child labour have so far been given a lip-sympathy. The
community has yet to feel its shocking implications on the national development in the
long run. There is a surprisingly high degree of ignorance about the consequences of child
labour in general and the ill-effects of unsafe working conditions in particular. Child work
is often accepted as part of the natural state of things, and the rights and needs of the child
are not always fully appreciated. A great deal of effort, therefore, needs to be made to
generate and promote public awareness of the consequences of child labour and the
rights of the working child to expose unacceptable conditions by mass media.
6.
Efforts should also be made by the voluntary organizations to involve the local
public and parents/guardians of child labour so that they become aware of the efforts
made by the Government for the upliftment of child labour.
7.
Trade Unions of child labour should be formed through which the child labour can
raise their voice and can represent their problems to the employer directly.
8.
At present there is no adequate and reliable information on the problem of child
labour. Therefore, there is an urgent need to set up a permanent Board to Study, identify
and establish and catalogue the nature and extent of child employment and also to focus
light on the needs and working conditions of children.
Moreover, the provisions of the Act prohibiting the employment of child labour should be
strictly followed. According to National Commission on Labour: “Quite often, it is the
feeling of sympathy rather than the desire to exploit which weighs with employers in
employing child workers. Ironically enough, it is the same feeling which makes the
inspecting officers to take a lenient view of broches of the legal provision in this regard.
6.
1.
2.
3.
REFERENCES
Mital A.C. (2002). Labour Economics, RBSA publisher, Jaipur.
Ashhad Ahmad (2004). Child labour in India, Kalpaz publications, Delhi.
J.C. Kukhreshtha (1978). Child labour in India, Ashish publishing house, New
Delhi.
WWW.VIEWOFSPACE.ORG
12
CHILD LABOUR AND ROLE OF
EDUCATION
PROF. MANISH N. VYAS
PSYCHOLOGY DEPARTMENT, SHRI M.P. SHAH ARTS & SCIRENCE COLLEGE SURENDARNAGAR
SUBJECT:
KEYWORDS:
INTRODUCTION
The complex issue of child labour is a developmental issue worth investigating.
The notion that children are being exploited and forced into labour, while not receiving
education crucial to development, concerns many people. India is the largest example of a
nation plagued by the problem of child labour. Estimates cite figures of between 60 and
115 million working children in India -- the highest number in the world (Human Rights
Watch 1996, 1).
What are the causes of child labour in India? How do governmental policies affect
it? What role does education play in regard to child labour in India? A critical analysis of
the answers to these questions may lead in the direction of a possible solution. These
questions will be answered through an analysis of the problem of child labour as it is now,
investigating how prevalent it is and what types of child labour exist. The necessity of
child labour to poor families, and the role of poverty as a determinant will be examined.
Governmental policies concerning child labour will be investigated. The current state of
education in India will be examined and compared with other developing countries.
Compulsory education policies and their relationship to child labour will be investigated
using Sri Lanka and the Indian state of Kerala as examples of where these policies have
worked. Finally, India’s policies concerning compulsory education will be assessed.
HOW MANY CHILDREN ARE INVOLVED
It is difficult to cite a current figure for the number of children engaged in child
labour. This difficulty is attributed to the fact that the Indian Government "has been
negligent in its refusal to collect and analyze current and relevant data regarding the
incidence of child labor. As of 1996, official figures continue to be based on 1981 census
figures" (Human Rights Watch 1996, 122). The 1981 Indian census reports that there
were 13.6 million child labourers in India (Census of India 1981 cited in Weiner 1991,
20). Indian government extrapolations of this 1981 data place the current number of child
labourers at between seventeen and twenty million (Human Rights Watch 1996, 122).
This extrapolation seems highly unlikely as "The Official National Sample Survey of 1983
[of India] reports 17.4 million child labourers, while a study . . . sponsored by the Labour
Ministry, concluded that the child-labour force was 44 million" (Weiner 1991, 20-21).
UNICEF "cites figures ranging from seventy-five to ninety million child laborers under the
age of fourteen" (Human Rights Watch 1996, 122). A universal difficulty in obtaining
accurate data may be that individuals fail to report child labour participation during
surveys, for fear of persecution.
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13
WHAT ARE CHILDREN DOING IN TERMS OF WORK?
The 1981 Census of India divided child labour into nine industrial divisions: I.
Cultivation, II. Agricultural Labour, III. Livestock, Forestry, Fishing, Plantation, IV. Mining
and Quarrying, V. Manufacturing, Processing, Servicing and Repairs, VI. Construction, VII.
Trade and Commerce, VIII. Transport, Storage and Communication, and IX. Other Services
(Census of India 1981 cited in Nangia 1987, 72). Table 1.1 shows the percentage
distribution of child workers by these industrial divisions in 1981. From this table it is
observed that the majority of rural child workers (84.29%) are employed in cultivation
and agricultural labour (divisions I and II). Urban child labourers are distributed
differently, as table 1.1 shows 39.16% of them are involved in manufacturing, processing,
servicing and repairs. Although more children are involved in agriculturally related jobs
(table 1.1 shows a total of 78.67% for divisions I and II), human rights organizations tend
to focus on the manufacturing types of child labour because most children in these
situations are bonded labourers. Bonded labour "refers to the phenomenon of children
working in conditions of servitude in order to pay off a debt" (Human Rights Watch 1996,
2). Estimates place the number of bonded child labourers in India at close to one million
(International Labour Organisation 1992, 15).
HOW NECESSARY IS CHILD LABOUR TO FAMILIES IN INDIA?
Child labour is a source of income for poor families. A study conducted by the ILO
Bureau of Statistics found that "Children’s work was considered essential to maintaining
the economic level of households, either in the form of work for wages, of help in
household enterprises or of household chores in order to free adult household members
for economic activity elsewhere" (Mehra-Kerpelman 1996, 8). In some cases, the study
found that a child’s income accounted for between 34 and 37 percent of the total
household income. This study concludes that a child labourer’s income is important to the
livelihood of a poor family. There is a questionable aspect of this study. It was conducted
in the form of a survey, and the responses were given by the parents of the child
labourers. Parents would be biased into being compelled to support their decision to send
their children to work, by saying that it is essential. They are probably right: for most poor
families in India, alternative sources of income are close to non-existent. There are no
social welfare systems such as those in the West, nor is there easy access to loans, which
will be discussed.
WHAT ROLE DOES POVERTY PLAY?
The percentage of the population of India living in poverty is high. In 1990, 37% of
the urban population and 39% of the rural population was living in poverty (International
Labour Organization 1995, 107). Poverty has an obvious relationship with child labour,
and studies have "revealed a positive correlation - in some instances a strong one between child labour and such factors as poverty" (Mehra-Kerpelman 1996, 8). Families
need money to survive, and children are a source of additional income. Poverty itself has
underlying determinants, one such determinant being caste. When analyzing the caste
composition of child labourers Nangia (1987) observes that, "if these figures are
compared with the caste structure of the country, it would be realised that a
comparatively higher proportion of scheduled caste children work at a younger age for
their own and their families’ economic support" (p. 116). Scheduled caste (lower caste)
children tend to be pushed into child labour because of their family’s poverty. Nangia
(1987) goes on to state that in his study 63.74% of child labourers said that poverty was
the reason they worked (p. 174).
WWW.VIEWOFSPACE.ORG
14
INDIAN GOVERNMENT POLICY ON CHILD LABOUR
From the time of its independence, India has committed itself to be against child
labour. Article 24 of the Indian constitution clearly states that "No child below the age of
fourteen years shall be employed to work in any factory or mine or employed in any
hazardous employment" (Constitution of India cited in Jain 1985, 218). Article 39 (e)
directs State policy such "that the health and strength of workers . . . and the tender age of
children are not abused and that citizens are not forced by economic necessity to enter
avocations unsuited to their age or strength" (Constitution of India cited in Human Rights
Watch 1996, 29). These two articles show that India has always had the goal of taking
care of its children and ensuring the safety of workers. The Bonded Labour System Act of
1976 fulfills the Indian Constitution’s directive of ending forced labour. The Act "frees all
bonded laborers, cancels any outstanding debts against them, prohibits the creation of
new bondage agreements, and orders the economic rehabilitation of freed bonded
laborers by the state" (Human Rights Watch 1996, 30). In regard to child labour, the
Indian government implemented the Child Labour Act in 1986. The purpose of this act is
to "prohibit the employment of children who have not completed their 14th year in
specified hazardous occupations and processes" (Narayan 1988, 146). ILO convention No.
138 suggests that the minimum age for employment should not be less than fifteen years,
and thus the Child Labour Act of 1986 does not meet this target (Subrahmanya 1987,
105).
A recent advance in government policy occurred in August of 1994, when thenPrime Minister Narasimha Rao announced his proposal of an Elimination of Child Labour
Programme. This program pledges to end child labour for two million children in
hazardous industries as defined in the Child Labour Act of 1986, by the year 2000. The
program revolves around an incentive for children to quit their work and enter nonformal schooling: a one hundred rupee payment as well as one meal a day for attending
school (Human Rights Watch 1996, 119-120). Where the funds for this program will come
from is unknown. The government needs eight and a half billion dollars for the program
over five years, and yet "about 4 percent of the five-year estimated cost was allocated for
child labour elimination programs in 1995-1996" (Human Rights Watch 1996, 120).
All of the policies that the Indian government has in place are in accordance with
the Constitution of India, and all support the eradication of Child Labour. The problem of
child labour still remains even though all of these policies are existent. Enforcement is the
key aspect that is lacking in the government’s efforts. No enforcement data for child
labour laws are available: "A glaring sign of neglect of their duties by officials charged
with enforcing child labor laws is the failure to collect, maintain, and disseminate accurate
statistics regarding enforcement efforts" (Human Rights Watch 1996, 131). Although the
lack of data does not mean enforcement is nonexistent, the number of child labourers and
their work participation rates show that enforcement, if existent, is ineffective.
EDUCATION AND ITS EFFECTS ON CHILD LABOUR
India’s state of education lacks effectiveness in yielding basic literacy in the
population. It has been observed that "the overall condition of the education system can
be a powerful influence on the supply of child labour" (Grootaert and Kanbur 1995, 193).
The 1991 Census of India shows that 64% of males and 39% of females are literate (The
World Bank 1995, 113) -- an increase of 17% and 14% respectively from the 1981 census
(Census of India 1981 cited in Weiner 1991, 11). These increases seem significant, but
India’s overall literacy rate of 40.8% lags behind other developing countries such as China
(72.6%), Sri Lanka (86.1%), and Indonesia (74.1%), all of which have Per Capita Incomes
WWW.VIEWOFSPACE.ORG
15
comparable to India’s (Weiner 1991, 161). India’s primary-school survival rate of 38.0%
is also lower than China’s rate of 70.0% and Sri Lanka’s rate of 90.8% (United Nations
Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization cited in Weiner 1991, 159). This
indicates that few students are reaching fifth or sixth grade, and dropout rates support
this conclusion. Dropout rates measured by the Department of Education show that 35%
of males and 39% of females dropout (Government of India cited in The World Bank
1995, 113). What is the reason for these high dropout rates and poor school survival
rates? One possible argument given by Nangia (1987) is that "the pressing need for the
child’s earnings as well as low perceived advantages of school" cause parents to withdraw
children from school and deposit them in the labour force (p.182). In this case, poverty
and the inadequacy of the school system play significant roles in causing child labour, but
also affect each other. Poverty forces high dropout rates, and thus no matter how good
schools are, school survival rates and literacy rates will still remain low.
COMPULSORY EDUCATION
The concept of compulsory education, where all school aged children are required
to attend school, combats the force of poverty that pulls children out of school. Policies
relating to compulsory education not only force children to attend school, but also
contribute appropriate funds to the primary education system, instead of higher
education.
An example of a country where compulsory education has worked to reduce child
labour is Sri Lanka. The Sri Lankan government decided to enforce compulsory education
in the 1920’s and 1930’s (Weiner 1991, 173). With this compulsory education policy,
school participation rates rose from 58 percent in 1946 to 74 percent in 1963 (Weiner
1991, 173). The literacy rate also increased from 58 percent in 1946 to 86 percent in
1984 (Weiner 1991, 172). The corresponding result has been that the employment rate of
children in the ten to fourteen age group has shown a substantial decline from 13 percent
in 1946 to 6.2 percent in 1963 (Weiner 1991, 174), and currently stands at 5.3% for
males and 4.6% for females (International Labour Organization 1995, 113). These trends
lead Weiner (1991) to the conclusion that "Sri Lanka has achieved a remarkably high
enrollment rate, high retention rate, and a corresponding decline in child labor" (p.175).
No correlation exists between expenditure on education and literacy when comparing
different countries because some countries, such as India, spend more funds on higher
education than primary education (Weiner 1991, 160). Kerala’s emphasis on primary
education has lead to a dropout rate of close to 0%, a literacy rate of 94% for males and
86% for females (The World Bank 1995, 113), and a low child work participation rate of
1.9% (in 1971) compared to the Indian average of 7.1% in 1971 (Weiner
CONCLUSION
Child labour is a significant problem in India. The prevalence of it is shown by the
child work participation rates which are higher in Indian than in other developing
countries.
The major determinant of child labour is poverty. Even though children are paid
less than adults, whatever income they earn is of benefit to poor families. In addition to
poverty, the lack of adequate and accessible souces of credit forces poor parents to engage
their children in the harsher form of child labour -- bonded child labour. Some parents
also feel that a formal education is not beneficial, and that children learn work skills
through labour at a young age. These views are narrow and do not take the long term
developmental benefits of education into account. Another determinant is access to
WWW.VIEWOFSPACE.ORG
16
education. In some areas, education is not affordable, or is found to be inadequate. With
no other alternatives, children spend their time working.
The Constitution of India clearly states that child labour is wrong and that
measures should be taken to end it. The government of India has implemented the Child
Labour Act in 1986 that outlaws child labour in certain areas and sets the minimum age of
employment at fourteen. This Act falls short of making all child labour illegal, and fails to
meet the ILO guideline concerning the minimum age of employment set at fifteen years of
age. Though policies are in place that could potentially reduce the incidence of child
labour, enforcement is a problem. If child labour is to be eradicated in India, the
government and those responsible for enforcement need to start doing their jobs. Policies
can and will be developed concerning child labour, but without enforcement they are all
useless.
WWW.VIEWOFSPACE.ORG
17
CHILD LABOUR IN SOCIO- ECONOMIC
PERSPECTIVE
PROF. HINA. D. SAVANT
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR, U. K. V. MAHILA ARTS AND HOME SCIENCE-KESHOD
SUBJECT:
KEYWORDS:
ABSTRACT
Child labor is a widespread phenomenon in the world, occurring predominantly in
develop ing countries. Recently, there has been renewed concern about the presence and
impact of child labor from politicians, activists and academics alike. Most of the popular
discussion has centered on misleading statistics, harmful effects of child labor and ways to
curtail its incidence. Much of the recent theoretical literature has focused attention on the
fact that the decision to send children to work is most likely made not by the children
themselves, but by households who do so out of dire need. Poverty is considered to be the
root cause of child labor. In fact, this is not true and literacy and household effect are even
bigger variables in the determination, and measurement of child labor in a society. This
raises the issue of the impact of literacy and schooling on child labor and vice versa.
Notwithstanding, a large and rapidly expanding literature on child labor, there is not
much empirical evidence on this issue since much of this literature has concentrated on
socially, anthropologically, or somewhat psychologically, analyzing the causes of child
labor rather than studying its consequences, especially for the impact of learning and
household. A multiple discriminant analysis is also conducted to develop a household
characteristics based yard stick to index households for their propensity towards child
labour. It also helps in identifying the potential entrants in this labour. In the end, a profile
is developed for a typical child labourer on the basis of accumulated data envisaging
different facets of his life. Such a profile is useful in understanding the life and miseries of
a child labourer and his household.
INTRODUCTION.
Child labour refers to the employment of children in any work that deprives
children of their childhood, interferes with their ability to attend regular school, and that
is mentally, physically, socially or morally dangerous and harmful. This practice is
considered exploitative by many international organisations. Legislation across the world
prohibit child labour.[4][5] These laws do not consider all work by children as child labour;
exceptions include work by child artists, family duties, supervised training, certain
categories of work such as those by Amish children, some forms of child work common
among indigenous Americanchildren, and others.
Child labour has existed to varying extents, through most of history. Before 1940,
numerous children aged 5–14 worked in Europe, the United States and various colonies of
European powers. These children mainly worked in agriculture, home-based assembly
operations, factories, mining and in services such as newsies. Some worked night shifts
lasting 12 hours. With the rise of household income, availability of schools and passage of
child labour laws, the incidence rates of child labour fell.
WWW.VIEWOFSPACE.ORG
18
In developing countries, with high poverty and poor schooling opportunities, child
labour is still prevalent. In 2010, sub-saharan Africa had the highest incidence rates of
child labour, with several African nations witnessing over 50 percent of children aged 5–
14 working. Worldwide agriculture is the largest employer of child labour. Vast majority
of child labour is found in rural settings and informal urban economy; children are
predominantly employed by their parents, rather than factories. Poverty and lack of
schools are considered as the primary cause of child labour.
Globally the incidence of child labour decreased from 25% to 10% between 1960
and 2003, according to the World Bank. Nevertheless, the total number of child labourers
remains high, with UNICEF and ILO acknowledging an estimated 168 million children
aged 5–17 worldwide, were involved in child labour in 2013.
CAUSES OF CHILD LABOUR.
Primary causes
International Labour Organisation (ILO) suggests poverty is the greatest single
cause behind child labour.[15] For impoverished households, income from a child's work is
usually crucial for his or her own survival or for that of the household. Income from
working children, even if small, may be between 25 to 40% of the household income.
Other scholars such as Harsch on African child labour, and Edmonds and Pavcnik on
global child labour have reached the same conclusion.
Lack of meaningful alternatives, such as affordable schools and quality education,
according to ILO, is another major factor driving children to harmful labour. Children
work because they have nothing better to do. Many communities, particularly rural areas
where between 60–70% of child labour is prevalent, do not possess adequate school
facilities. Even when schools are sometimes available, they are too far away, difficult to
reach, unaffordable or the quality of education is so poor that parents wonder if going to
school is really worth it.
Culltural causes
In European history when child labour was common, as well as in contemporary
child labour of modern world, certain cultural beliefs have rationalised child labour and
thereby encouraged it. Some view that work is good for the character-building and skill
development of children. In many cultures, particular where the informal economy and
small household businesses thrive, the cultural tradition is that children follow in their
parents' footsteps; child labour then is a means to learn and practice that trade from a
very early age. Similarly, in many cultures the education of girls is less valued or girls are
simply not expected to need formal schooling, and these girls pushed into child labour
such as providing domestic services.
Macroeconomic causes
Biggeri and Mehrotra have studied the macroeconomic factors that encourage
child labour. They focus their study on five Asian nations including India, Pakistan,
Indonesia, Thailand and Philippines. They suggest[59] that child labour is a serious
problem in all five, but it is not a new problem. Macroeconomic causes encouraged
widespread child labour across the world, over most of human history. They suggest that
the causes for child labour include both the demand and the supply side. While poverty
and unavailability of good schools explain the child labour supply side, they suggest that
the growth of low-paying informal economy rather than higher paying formal economy is
amongst the causes of the demand side. Other scholars too suggest that inflexible labour
market, sise of informal economy, inability of industries to scale up and lack of modern
WWW.VIEWOFSPACE.ORG
19
manufacturing technologies are major macroeconomic factors affecting demand and
acceptability of child labour.
ACTION AGAINST CHILD LABOUR IN INDIA
Child maid servant in India. Child domestic workers are common in India.
India has legislation since 1986 which allows work by children in non-hazardous
industry. In 2013, the Punjab and Haryana High Court gave a landmark order that
directed that there shall be a total ban on the employment of children up to the age of 14
years, be it hazardous or non-hazardous industries. However, the Court ruled that a child
can work with his or her family in family based trades/occupations, for the purpose of
learning a new trade/craftsmanship or vocation.
ELIMINATING CHILD LABOUR FROM INDIA.
Concerns have often been raised over the buying public's moral complicity in
purchasing products assembled or otherwise manufactured in developing countries with
child labour. However, others have raised concerns that boycotting products
manufactured through child labour may force these children to turn to more dangerous or
strenuous professions, such as prostitution or agriculture. For example, a UNICEF study
found that after the Child Labour Deterrence Act was introduced in the US, an estimated
50,000 children were dismissed from their garment industry jobs in Bangladesh, leaving
many to resort to jobs such as "stone-crushing, street hustling, and prostitution", jobs that
are "more hazardous and exploitative than garment production". The study suggests that
boycotts are "blunt instruments with long-term consequences, that can actually harm
rather than help the children involved."
According to Milton Friedman, before the Industrial Revolution virtually all
children worked in agriculture. During the Industrial Revolution many of these children
moved from farm work to factory work. Over time, as real wages rose, parents became
able to afford to send their children to school instead of work and as a result child labour
declined, both before and after legislation. Austrian School economist Murray
Rothbard said that British and American children of the pre- and post-Industrial
Revolution lived and suffered in infinitely worse conditions where jobs were not available
for them and went "voluntarily and gladly" to work in factories.
British historian and socialist E. P. Thompson in The Making of the English
Working Class draws a qualitative distinction between child domestic work and
participation in the wider (waged) labour market.[21] Further, the usefulness of the
experience of the industrial revolution in making predictions about current trends has
been disputed. Social historian Hugh Cunningham, author of Children and Childhood in
Western Society Since 1500, notes that:
"Fifty years ago it might have been assumed that, just as child labour had declined
in the developed world in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, so it would
also, in a trickle-down fashion, in the rest of the world. Its failure to do that, and its reemergence in the developed world, raise questions about its role in any economy,
whether national or global."
According to Thomas DeGregori, an economics professor at the University of
Houston, in an article published by the Cato Institute, alibertarian think-tank operating in
Washington D.C., "it is clear that technological and economic change are vital ingredients
in getting children out of the workplace and into schools. Then they can grow to become
productive adults and live longer, healthier lives. However, in poor countries like
Bangladesh, working children are essential for survival in many families, as they were in
WWW.VIEWOFSPACE.ORG
20
our own heritage until the late 19th century. So, while the struggle to end child labour is
necessary, getting there often requires taking different routes—and, sadly, there are
many political obstacles.
The International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC), founded
in 1992, aims to eliminate child labour. It operates in 88 countries and is the largest
program of its kind in the world. IPEC works with international and government agencies,
NGOs, the media, and children and their families to end child labour and provide children
with education and assistance.
CONCLUSION
1.
"The Life of the Industrial Worker in Nineteenth-Century England". Laura Del Col,
West Virginia University.
2.
The Factory and Workshop Act 1901
3.
"What is child labour?". International Labour Organisation. 2012.
4.
"Convention on the Rights of the Child". United Nations. Archived from the
original on 3 October 2006. Retrieved 2006-10-05.
5.
"International and national legislation - Child Labour". International Labour
Organisation. 2011.
6.
"Labour laws - An Amish exception". The Economist. 5 February 2004.
7.
Larsen, P.B. Indigenous and tribal children: assessing child labour and education
challenges. International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC),
International Labour Office.
WWW.VIEWOFSPACE.ORG
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COMMON CAUSES OF CHILD LABOUR
AND ITS POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS
DR. A.B.SAVJANI (M.COM., D.C.S., PH.D.)
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR & H.O.D. – ACCOUNTANCY DEPARTMENT,SHREE
K.H.MADHWANI ARTS AND COMMERCE COLLEGE, PORBANDAR (GUJ.) INDIA.
SUBJECT:
KEYWORDS: Child Labour; Human Capital; Poverty
ABSTRACT
What they feel within themselves? This is the constant question I ask myself
when I show a child working as a waiter in a guest house ? At present scenario we are
very much aware of child labour to reduce child labor, the government of India has
implemented a number of child welfare laws as well as Corporate word and number of
NGO’s involved even though we are not so lucky to reduce this level. So researcher are
interested to find and see the main causes behind this darkness.
INTRODUCTION
According to 1996 UNICEF and ILO sources, the number of child Labourers in
India may be anywhere between 14 to 100 million out of approximately a total 246
million Child workers in the World. Thus, one out of every six children in the world today
is involved in child Labour.
What are the reasons for this? Why this is a common Phenomena of the whole
world? The push factors include abject poverty, illiteracy, and lack of awareness, parents'
unwariness and a child un-friendly mindset in communities then there are socio-cultural
discrimination, gender bias, and denial of legal safeguards and thin outreach of
development benefits.
When we discuss about child labour, we know that it is a curse upon the God
gifted little ones on Earth. Child Labour, in general, means the employment of children in
any work with or without payment. Every child out of school in the age group of 5 to 14
years, children who are paid in work, children who work outside the homes or children
who in hazardous industries can be said to be child labourers.
DEFINITION
According to Stein and Davies, child labour means any work by children that
interferes with their full physical development, the opportunities for a desirable
minimum education and for their needed recreation.Child labour is the term used for the
employment of children in an industry or business, especially when illegal or considered
exploitative.
According to International Labour Organisation, “child labour” is often defined as
work that deprives children of their childhood, their potential and their dignity, and that
is harmful to physical and mental development. It refers to work that:

Is mentally, physically, socially or morally dangerous and harmful to children; and

Interferes with their schooling by:

Depriving them of the opportunity to attend school;

Obliging them to leave school prematurely; or
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
Requiring them to attempt to combine school attendance with excessively long
and heavy work.
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
Child labour is a serious problem and a challenge for many developing countries.
Many countries have enacted various laws and have taken serious initiatives to eradicate
child labour, but still the problem is very widespread throughout the world. This paper
critically examined the main causes of child labour in developing country.
CAUSES OF CHILD LABOUR IN INDIA :
Socio-Economic factors related to child labour .
Poverty as root cause.
There are several circumstances that affect child labour. Studies have
demonstrated that the most notable reason being poverty (Bhat& Rather,2009). Decisions
about child labour and schooling are generally made by parents. If the family live below
the poverty line, parents see children as part of contributor in their family income. Beside
poverty, many factors influence the incidence of child labour which can be listed in the
following points.
Family size.
Indeed, large poor households usually have more children involved in child labour
than children from smaller households, which demonstrates family size have an effect on
child labour. Parents oblige their children to work because they are not able to manage
the demands of a large size family.
Family condition .
A growing number of children who have either lost one or both the parents and
those impacted by HIV/ADIS or any other resions in the family, are forced to work in
order to support themselves and their siblings.
Traditional or cultural factor
Culture is another factor which is driving children into labour market. Different
cultures of many societies make children start work at very young age which are related
to traditions and cultural factors.
Corruption .
Corruption is the one of main reason for abusing resources, wherever there is
poverty; there is also corruption. According to United Nations Development
Programme(UNDP) “Corruption exacerbates poverty and inequality, undermines human
development and stability, encourages and sustains conflict, violates human rights, and
erodes the democratic functioning of countries.”
Urban migration .
Many rural families migrate to urban areas because of rural push and urban pull
factors. As a consequence of that, they are often forced to live and work in the street as
they lack access to basic requirements such as food, shelter etc. and these children
become street workers as vendors.
Many cities in developing countries have experienced rapid urbanization. This
means that the population is increasing in cities due to immigration and natural growth.
Urban poverty is a multidimensional phenomenon. Urban poverty in developing countries
faces many challenges in their daily lives.
Globalization .
Globalization is another cause of child labour. Globalization has positive and
negative impacts, nevertheless; globalization might give developing countries the
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opportunity to increase their gross domestic production (GDP) per capita via new trade
possibilities and ascend their foreign direct investment (FDI) inflows. Globalization also
has brought adverse impacts on child labour in developing countries. In recent years,
many international companies moved their production abroad. These companies often
indulge in hiring children as cheap labours as they are endurable, and carry out
commands given by their employers even if they’re abused and exploited .
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CHILD LABOUR, FAMILY INCOME AND EDUCATION
Lack of education or poor quality education is another factors that contribute to
high incidence of child labour. Education is considered one of the main alternatives to
abolish child labour. Practically family income affects children's education and poor
parents cannot afford to pay for children however, children are compel to work and are
less enrolled.
CHILD LABOUR AND SCHOOLING
Several studies and international organizations such as ILO UNICEF, UNESCO and
World Bank have confirmed that education can reduce child labour . As a result they
become uneducated or unskilled labour. A number of agencies such as IPEC-ILO, UNICEF,
UNESCO and World Bank are fighting against child labour by trying to provide access to
education to all children (UNICEF, UNESCO, 2008). They consider that education is a first
a priority. Thus UNICEF is working with other aid agencies, governments and UN agencies
to meet the UN Millennium Development Goals by 2015 to ensure primary education to
all children.
THE OPPORTUNITY COSTS OF EDUCATION
The cost of education is another problem amongst poor households. This has
contributed to the exploitation of children. Schools need to be affordable and accessible.
Parents consider sending their children to work instead of school because of the cost of
education , poor quality lack of teachers and school supplies or poor teaching.
POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS
Elimination of poverty, free and compulsory education, proper and strict
implementation of the labour laws, abolishment of child trafficking can go a long way in
solving the problem of child labour. The World Band, International Monetary Fund can
help in eradicating poverty by providing loan to the developing countries.
Various poverty elimination programmes have been introduced by our
Government as well for the cause. The most essential part in this regard is the effective
implementation of the policies and strict enforcement of the labour laws. The Government
must take strict measures against those employing child labourers in hazardous works
and other industries.
The NGOs also have a big role to play in this regard. Various NGOs are working for
the cause of child labour. MVF in Andhra Pradesh is a striking example. They have been
working for the welfare of children in various respects.
Compulsory education can help eradicating the problem of child labour up to a
large extent. Statistics also show that education has helped in reducing child labour in
Western Countries up to a large extent.
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REFERENCES:
www.childlineindia.org.in
www.tnchildlabour.tn.gov.in
http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com
Child Labour in India: Magnitude, Trends and Distribution, Suresh
Aggarwal, International Journal of Employment Studies 2008
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Chand
GENDER DISCRIMINATION: AN
ANALYTICAL EVALUATION OF
CONTEMPORARY INDO-ANGLICAN WOMEN
NOVELISTS
DR. ARCHANA DUBEY
FACULTY OF ENGLISH,SMT. K.S.N. KANSAGARAMAHILA ARTS COLLEGE- RAJKOT
SUBJECT:
KEYWORDS:
ABSTRACT
Gender discrimination originates from the patriarchal domination and male
chauvinistic approach of our society. All forms of oppression, suppression, subjugation
and exploitation of woman come in its parameter. Throughout the ages woman is treated
as a detached entity, a second sex, and a marginalizedbeast rather than as an individual
human being. She is sidelined, kept on periphery and ostracized in regard of sharing the
available opportunities for the fulfillment of their lives despite the fact the every woman
enslaves herself for the development of her family, her husband and children. Woman has
same mental power as a man but she is not getting due recognition. Her identity is at
stake and rather lost in the male dominated society. She can be a wife, mother, sister,
daughter, homemaker everything but a human being.
Right from the beginning, many great Indian writers of English have responded
sensibly, reasonably and judiciously towards this issue in their novels. Though male
writers bring out the problem of gender discrimination, they could not satisfy and do
justice up to the point as a woman writer can do. A woman writer can greatly elucidate
and illuminate her problem because she has a first hand knowledge of her experiences,
expectations and psyche as it may be her story or her sister’s or her mother’s. Women’s
quest for identity, struggle for individuality, search for self and voice against
discrimination, their problems and aspirations are inevitably more emphatically present
in women writers.
The present research paper is aim at to show how dexterously, deeply and
honestly, famous contemporary women novelist asShashiDeshpande, Arundhati Roy and
Anita Desai have portrayed aaccurate picture of today’s woman whose life is abused by
gender discrimination and prejudice. In this paper I will concentrate upon only those
novelsof these writers, which deal predominantly with the theme of gender
discrimination. So the focus will be on ShashiDeshpande’sThat Long Silence,Arundhati
Roy’s The God of Small Things and Anita Desai’s Fasting, Feasting.
The issue of sex and gender is the common phenomena and theory of postmodern
era in which the text is analyzed and evaluated on this ground. The gender becomes a
major division between a man and woman as the two different biological individuals, who
become two social categories of man and woman, having the different sociopsychologicalbehavior of their inherited genders. Thus gradually gender became a
cultural construct and instead of biological distinction of man and woman. And thus the
characteristic features of behavior were established according to this belief of
discrimination, which is not acquired one but inherited and wrongly delegated;
“….all human societies till date are not only divided on the lines of gender roles but their
roles have always been discriminating the attributes associated with male gender roles
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have been vitalized whereas the female gender roles have been pejorative. Therefore
gender does not simply symbolize difference it also symbolizes discrimination.”1
It is the male ego that has given the woman an inferior status and derogatory rank.
Man has relegated her to a second-class citizen and when she could no longer endure the
suppression and exploitation, her revolt grudgingly termed as immoral and sin. Though in
our mythological books, woman has been given an equal status to man and called
‘Ardhnarishwar’, but patriarchal chauvinists have degenerated her to ‘Adhonarishwar’
that implies subservient and servile to man.In the contemporary Indo-Anglican literary
world there are umpteen stalwart women writers who have got worldwide recognition
and appreciation for their honest, psychological delineation of gender discrimination.
First novel that I consider for the evaluation is, SashiDeshpande’sSahitya Academy
Award winning book, That Long Silence (1988), which unfolds the sufferings,
deprivations, anxieties and exploitations of a woman in a biased patriarchal society. Jaya
the protagonist of this novel is living a void, insignificant and hollow life with her husband
Mohan and two children. She is an intelligent woman with good academic qualification,
promising writing career and considerable amount of success but none of these attributes
would provide her a respectable position in the eyes of her husband, Mohan. Gender
discrimination and male supremacy make her vulnerable and silent. Though married for
long seventeen years there is no love, sacrifice and mutual trust as the relation has lost all
its freshness, vigor and vitality. Just like other protagonists of SashiDeshpande, Jaya’s
marriage too turns out to be just another enclosure in which she has to confine herself.
She has no freedom to assert herself, has to suppress all her emotions, wishes, aspirations
at the altar of marriage because her husband Mohan warns her, “My mother never raised
her voice against my father, however badly he behaved to her.”2Vanitamami advises Jaya
at the time of her marriage, “If your husband has a mistress or two, ignore it. …Remember
Jaya … a husband is a sheltering tree.”(31-32)Jaya appears to follow the precincts of the
traditional Indian woman whose supreme dharma is to silently follow her husband
whether right or wrong. In accepting everything mutely, she thinks she resembles Sita
and Draupadiand muses’ “…. No what have I to do with these mythical women? I can’t
befool myself the truth is simple. Two bullocks yoked together__ it is more comfortable to
move in the same direction. To go in different direction would be painful …”(11-12).
Jaya is a gifted creative writer but she has to give up her writing just because her
husband Mohan didn’t like it. Though her story won a prize but Mohan condemns her
imaginative talent as self-revelation. He asks, “How could you, how could you have done
it?.....They will all know that these two persons are us, they will think I am this kind of
man…. How can I look anyone in the face again? And you, how could you write these
things….”(119)Due to parochial mindset a creative woman’s skill is suppressed. Now Jaya
is caught in a dilemma, firstly trying to be a perfect wife to her husband and secondly
struggling to express the kind of emotions woman experiences, but seldom express in a
male biased society. In a world of man-woman relationship in marriage it is the man who
enjoys the supreme authority and the woman has to relinquish even herbasic rights.
Mohan is suspended from the job because of some misappropriations in the office
funds. Under the pressure of suspension, nervous irritation and humiliation, he holds Jaya
responsible for all the miseries of his life, “it was you and the children that I did this. I
wanted you to have a great life. I wanted the children to have all those things I never
had.”(9) As a good wife she has never asked Mohan how and why he managed to get the
job as she states: “If Gandhari, who bandaged her eyes to become blind like her husband,
could be called an ideal wife, I was an ideal wife too.”(61) The undeserving and untimely
accusation put Jaya into an unnatural insane position. Like any other woman Jaya too has
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fed Mohan and children with affection and love in all circumstances of life but even after
sacrificing all her comforts and aspirations at the altar of family she gets this callous
treatment and false accusation. Disillusioned by her husband’s behavior she goes in the
pursuit of self-knowledge, self-revelation and self-identity.
Meanwhile, the loyal, loving Jaya, the devoted wife of Mohan, comes closer to
Kamat, and with him she finds an echo of her inner voice.She feels a compulsive urge to
reveal her thoughts before him and needs his companionship to vent out her anger and to
be herself.He suggests her to express the real anguish in her writing, but she replies,
“because no woman can be angry. Have you ever heard of any angry young
woman?”(147)He instills confidence in her and warns her against ‘Women all the victim’
theory, her sense of self pity and insists her, “Take yourself seriously, women don’t sulk
behind a false name. And work if you want others to take you seriously”.(105) Eventually
she resolves to break the silence that has been the route of all troubles in life, “I will have
to speak, to listen, and I will have to escape the silence between us”. (192). She keeps on
scribbling and one day asks herself, “Well, I have achieved this, I am not afraid anymore.
The panic has gone. I’m Mohan’s wife, I had thought, and cut off the bits off me that had
refused to be Mohan’s wife.” (191) The introspection of Jaya makes her realize that she
need not hide and write and get them published as she did earlier and need not keep them
away when her husband felt hurt. Now she’s not going to stop her writing. She was in
‘panic earlier’, but not now. Earlier, she was ‘Suhasani’- Mohan’s wife without having her
own identity, but now she is Jaya- a conqueror of adversaries- a free individual. It doesn’t
mean that she is leaving Mohan but now she would like to look at herself as Jaya, the
writer rather than as Mohan’s wife. Thus, she raises her voice to become a full-fledged,
open and candid creative writer.
Next novel that I take for analysis is Internationally acclaimed, Arundhati Roy’s
Booker Prize winning novel, The God of Small Things that portrays a truthful picture of
gender discrimination as it deals with the plight of Indian women, their great sufferings,
cares and anxieties, their humble submission, persecution and undeserved humiliation in
todays male dominated society. Through the characters of Ammu, Mammachi,Rahel, Baby
Kochamma, and Margreta she depicts women’s marathon struggle for identity in an
entirely adverse, envious and biased society. Ammu, the central character of this novel is a
daughter of Pappachi andMammachi and sister of Chako. Since childhood days, she has
suffered severely due to gender discrimination. She has an early experience of male
chauvinism brutality through her own father, who used to beat her mother with iron
flower vase only to show his manly domination over a docile, submissive and
unprotesting wife. Her mother Mammachi is a mute, lifeless puppet in the hands of her
husband and right from the beginning of her married life she has been a silent sufferer. He
is a jealous and sadist man who wants to fling insult and abuse upon his wife without any
reason only to get pleasure and nothing else. Being a victim of gender discrimination in
this male dominated society when she is not allowed to pursue her higher studiesbecause
her father Pappachiconsideres the education of women an‘unnecessary expense’ and
‘corrupts a lady’. Whereas on the other hand, her brother Chako, being a male member is
sent to Oxford for further studies though he is a very average student.
In an extremely indifferent and callous atmosphere, she begins to feel captive in
her parental house at Ayemenem.Uncongenial atmosphere, antipathetic familial attitude,
denial of education and insipid household works make her frustrated and desperate. “All
day she dreamed of escaping from Ayemenem and the clutches of her ill-tempered father
and bitter long suffering mother. She hatchesseveral wretched little plans. Eventually one
worked. Pappachi agrees to let her spend her summer with a distant aunt who lived in
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Calcutta.”3 Here just after a very brief courtship of five days she married a Bengali man in
a fit of desperation as, “She thought that anything, anyone at all, would be better than
returning to Ayemenem.”(39). But soon her desires, dreams and expectations are
shattered when she falls a prey of routine violence. The man whom she loved so much
proved an alcoholic and chain smoker. Very inhumanely and ghastly he wants her to do
sexualfavor to his boss, Mr. Hollick.Ammu’s denial to her husband’s undue
demandaggravates her physical and mental torture. Her husband “ grew uncomfortable
and then infuriated by her silence. Suddenly he lunged at her, grabbed her hair, and then
passed out from that effort.”(42)
Extremely humiliated by this episode, she decides to leave him forever and comes
back to her parental house with her twins, Estha and Rahel. Her return brings another
misfortune, as her parents, brother and other inmates show their cold and unsympathetic
attitude towards her and twin kids, “Ammu left her husband and returned unwelcomed to
her parents in Ayemenem. To everything that she had fled from, only afew years ago.
Except that she had two young children and no more dreams.”(42). Both her husband’s
house and Ayemenem house are based on discriminatory principle. It is a great irony that
due to a male dominance a daughter, estranged from her husband is tortured and
traumatized at her parent’s house. At the age of only twenty-one, her life has come to a
standstill. At her home and in her family and in her society too she becomes virtually
untouchable. It is clearly seen in baby Kochamma’s words when she says, “ A married
daughter had no position in her parent’s home. As far a divorced daughter, she has no
position anywhere at all. And as for a divorced daughter from a love marriage, well words
couldn’t describe.”(45-46).
Here at this stage, she comes in contact with a ‘Paravan’ (an untouchable),
Veluthaand starts enjoying few happy intimate moments of life. But that does not last long
as parents objects and consequently locks her up in her room and Mammachi thought,
“She had defiled generations of breeding and brought the family to its knees. For
generations to come, forever, now people would point out at them at wedding and
funerals.” (258). Meantime, Velutha is arrested in a false allegation, tortured and brought
to death. This last hope of life in the form of Velutha is also taken away permanently from
Ammu’s life. She has been sexually assaulted, beaten, inhumanly treated at the police
station when she went to meet Velutha.
In the same house of Ayemenem, there is Chako, who is enjoying and flourishing
on emotional, financial, social, parental and educational fronts. After returning from
Oxford, he not only receives warm welcome but also becomes the rightful inheritor of the
family’s wealth and fortune. He asserts his position and cynically tells his sister, “ What is
your is mine and what is mine is also mine.” (57) When he flirts with a low woman, he is
encouraged by Pappachiin the name of ‘man’s need’.(68) Whereas the same behavior of
Ammu is termed as illicit, sinful and untraditional. Chako treats his divorced wife
Margaret in lovingly dignified way but his behavior for Ammu lacks all marks of decency.
Ammu is locked in a room and is beaten black and blue. Chako threatened her with dire
consequences and said, “ Get out of my house before I break every bone of your
body.”(225). The whole episode or rather the entire novel itself shows the double
standard and hypocritical attitude of patriarchal society.
In the end Ammu, the transgressor who had no ‘Locusts stand I’, no sympathy, no
support from anywhere left Ayemenem and pathetically died alone. Ammu is such a tragic
and marginalized character that even her last rite is not done properly with traditional
rituals. After church’s refusal she was sent to electronic crematorium where, “nobody
except beggars, derelicts and the police custody dead were cremated.”(162)The door of
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the furnace clasped shut and there were no tears. Through the character of Ammu,
Arundhati Roy lashes out at the hypocritical moral code of society, discriminatory attitude
of patriarchal society that differentiates between man and women. Throughout the life,
Ammu has been humiliated and cornered by her father, ill-treated and betrayed by her
husband, insulted by police, rendered destitute by her brother, each of them voiced the
patriarchal ideology and biasness, which commands that she should have no individual
right anywhere as daughter, wife, citizen or sister- but should rather be an object
desirably submissive.
Last novel that I take for critical appraisal is, Anita Desai’s, Booker Prize
nominated bookFasting, Feasting (1999) which shows how woman has to lead a life of
suffocation and undeserved sufferings both physically and mentally in a male dominated
patriarchal framework; how life in such a callous family trundles on at a slow pace under
the prying eyes of the parents; how a girl child craves for parental affection but in the end
gets nothing but frustration, isolation and unhomely treatment and above all, how the
neglected child slowly develops the horrible sense of trauma and other associated
psychosomatic diseases. Here Anita Desai returns to the central concern of her earlier
works that is women’s oppression, which is also gender related oppression.
Present novel is a story of Uma that captures her dreams and desires as well as her
frustrations and despairs. She is a woman who becomes the victim of a patriarchal society
where a woman is not allowed to hold her own. Repeatedly offs from the school and busy
routine at home never leave sufficient time for her studies so over and over again she
failed. But in spite of her failure in the exam and all other responsibilities, she still desires
to continue her studies. But Mama feels that going to school is a waste of time and money
as to quote the text, “You know you failed your exams again. You’re not being moved up.
What is the use of going back to school? Stay at home and look after your baby
brother….You will happier at home. You won’t need to do any lessons. You are a big girl
now. We are trying to arrange a marriage for you………She reached out her hand to catch
Uma’s. ‘I need your help, beti, she coaxed, her voice sweet with pleading.”4
A woman is never allowed to be a child right from her childhood. She is supposed
to act as a mother to her younger brothers and sisters. Since the birth of her younger
brother Arun, Uma has been trained to sacrifice her private pleasures at the altar of
familiar responsibilities. She is forced to nurse her kid brother even when she is herself a
child. She is not even allowed to take music lessons or to attend even the school functions.
They have confined her totally inside the home and don’t let any space open to her. Uma is
a caged bird in her own home, singing to the tunes of and at the order of Mama papa. Uma
is denied of a normal woman’s life, a life of her own and that even at the age of forty and
fifty. Uma’s story is the story of Indian girls and their miserable life caused by social evils
and gender bias. Her mother’s attitude is narrow and parochial. Her mother describes her
own girlhood, which shows second-class treatment of girls, a situation that has not
changed even in the second generation. She narrates, “In my days, girls in the family were
not given sweats, nuts, good things to eat. If something special had been bought from the
market, like sweats or nuts, it was given to the boys in the family.” (6)
The cherished dream of an Indian family seems to be the birth of a son as we see
in Uma’s family. Uma’s parents wish for son was fulfilled in their third child Arun who
gave a lot of pride and honour to Mama and Papa, “What honour, what status. Mama’s
chin lifted a little into the air…she might have been wearing a medal.”(31) ‘Papa, in his
elation, leaping over three chairs in the hall, one after the other, like a boy playing leap
frog…A boy : he screamed, ‘a bo-oy! Arun, Arun at last! (17)
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The girls Uma and Aruna are craving for parental love and affection but getting
none instead Arun feasts on the love and care of parents. Parents are more concerned
with the taste and comfort of their only son Arun. Papa is much anxious as, “It was
education for his son, the best, the most, the highest …. Tutors came in a regular sequence,
an hour allotted to each for tuition in maths, in physics, in chemistry, in Hindi, in English
composition…”(118) After schooling he is sent to America for higher education but in the
same house Uma, the elder daughter is not allowed to do even her matriculation.
Uma is oppressed not so much by the patriarch as by her mother. Mothers are
such strong influence in the lives of their daughters that they have the power to make or
mar the daughter’s personality. In a patriarchal world, however mothers instead of
protecting the interests of their daughters become instrumental in torturing them. Asha
Choubey has opined that, “Mother – Daughter relationship is one relationship where an
understanding and support are most expected but this sadly one relationship where these
ideas are lacking.”5She does not notice, does not bother to notice the wounds of Uma. She
is reduced to the status of a domestic help. An unmarried daughters existence is futile,
meaningless; she can bring significance to her only by proving useful at home. Again Asha
Choubey remarks, “Parental apathy – more precisely maternal indifference – destroys a
life full of possibilities. The indifference of her father could become bearable if only she
had her mother’s love and understanding.”6
Umais rejected by the boy’s families several times and undergoes two sad
experiences related to matrimony and finally remains unwed physically and mentally. In
the first case, the boy denied to get married and in the second case,the man has, “a wife
and children in Meerut where he ran an ailing pharmaceutical factory to save which he
had needed another dowry which has led him to marry again.”(93) When the truth is
revealed much to Uma’s dismay, her father brings her back. Now she is considered, “ill
fated by all”(96) to get married again, and thus they never try to settle her again as her
toil in the house makes the life of her parents comfortable. Friendless and without
optimism, she is now neither a divorcee nor a widow and nor a spinster. Wed yet unwed,
at home yet homeless. Her sense of being unloved and a sufferer of the greatest injustice
of the world torment her.
Uma is the most unfortunate member of the family. “Now definitely and finally
Salao, which is the worst form of unlucky”7 Her life is full of denials and frustrations, full
of “barks, howls and messages.” (61) She has nothing to call her own, not even her own
life. Her expectations of affection from Mama Papa, brother and sister, her need to go out
to meet people at least the nuns at church are all ended (murdered) by the cruel hands of
people. The home is no longer a place of security for Uma. She is stuck-up in a strange
human predicament. From this mire, she can’t pull herself out even if she so tries. All
doors shut tight against her. Life becomes a trap and fasting. She makes two attempts to
drown in the river, to escape from “the dreary outer world to an inner world, tantalizing
in its colour and romance. If only it could replace this, Uma thought hungrily” (40) she
wants to merge with the river when she goes along with Mira Masi on a ritual dip. Asha
Choubey analyses Uma’s eternal problems in these words, “Uma is like a catalyst whose
presence is never noticed, never appreciated and yet whose absence may make all the
difference…….She is expected to be an obedient daughter, an affectionate and loving sister
and everything but an individual.”8
Further we have Uma’s cousin Anamika, who is talented, beautiful and wins a
scholarship for further studies at Oxford, But her parents use the letter of acceptance as a
medal for enticing grooms rather than allowing for further studies. She is married to a
man, much older than her and all her scholarship, distinction, beauty and good behavior
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fall flat when she goes to the home of her husband. Her life at in-laws house becomes a
trauma because of her husband’s tacit support to his mother and the apathetic attitude of
her parents. After hearing of Anamika’s sorrow at her husband’s home, Uma wishes, “I
hope they will send her back. Then she will be home with Lila Aunty again, and
happy.”(71) But her mother, in a typical Indian woman’s vein rebuffs it violently and feels,
“How can she be happy if she is sent home? What will people say? What will they think?
(71) This fallacy, widely spread in the society proves to be the undoing factor for
Anamika, who meets a violent death. But what is more miserable and sad is that her
painful death is taken as fatalistic by her parents.
The novel indirectly hints at the starvation – emotional and intellectual.
Here the hunger is not for physical gratification but for attention, recognition,
independence and for love and care. There is neither ‘fasting’ nor ‘feasting’ but it is the
denial of the simple joys of life that is painful and suffocating for these characters. It is the
patriarchal form of society, based on gender bias and mistaken values that causes
sufferings and frustrations. Asha Choubey summarizes the theme of Fasting, Feasting, in
these words;
“Fasting, Feasting is an indictment against men who believe in holding their
women in their grip, it is a statement against women who take pride in their servility, it is
again an indictment against men who trade in marriages as a means of increasing money
and power, it is a strong criticism against women who like fish, devour their own frail
sisters, above all Fasting, Feasting is a plea from a women in favour of her less fortunate
counterparts. It is a strong statement against male chauvinism, female apathy and
reluctance and it is a woman’s voice for freedom and emancipation.”9
Jaya, Ammu and Uma all three protagonists of these novels are victim of
sociological prevailing curse of gender discrimination in a male controlled patriarchal
society. The degree, form and way of discrimination may be different but the
torments,oppressions, supression, anxiety, psycheic trauma, hunger and demands are the
same .It doesnot matter whether they belong to lower or middle class, living in village or
city ,having educated parents or uneducated their ordeal, tribulation,trail and trauma
arethe same. Whereas Jaya seeks her identity as a free writer , Ammu too wants to be a
master of her course of life and Uma, no exception to them, also strives for free will and
respite from perpetual drudgery. Their demands are honest, valid and legitimate but the
patriarchal chauvanists never agree to give them their due rights and privileges.
NOTES AND REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Moitra, Sefali; Feminist Thoughts (Kolkatta: Hawara Publishers,2002)p.8
Deshpande, Shashi; That Long Silence (New Delhi: Penguine, 1988) p. 104. All citations given
parenthetically are from this edition of the novel.
Roy,Arundhati;The God of Small Things(New Delhi: India Ink, 1997) p.38-39All citations
given parenthetically are from this edition of the novel.
Desai,Anita;Fasting Feasting (London: Vintage, U. K. Random House, 2000) p. 21-22. All
citations given parenthetically are from this edition of the novel.
Choubey, Asha; “Mothers and Daughters: A Comparative Critique of Fasting, Feasting and
Difficult Daughters”, Critical Responses to Anita Desai, ed. by Shubha Tiwari ( New Delhi:
Atlantic Publishers, Vol. II, 2004) p. 389.
Ibid, p.393
Hemmingway,Earnest;The Old Man and the Sea (Agra: Modern Publishers, 1990)p5.
Choubey,Asha “A Feminist Perspective on Anita Desai’s Fasting, Feasting”, Critical Responses
to Anita Desai, ed. by Shubha Tiwari (New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers, Vol. II ,2004) p. 88.
Ibid, p. 98.
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A MULTI-DIMENSIONAL PROBLEM OF
CHILD LABOUR IN INDIAN INDUSTRIES : IN
GARALA KHUSHBUBALA C.
(M.A.,M.ED.,PH.D CONTINUE )
RESEARCH SCHOLAR,
DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY
SAURASTRA UNIVERSITY- RAJKOT
DR B.B.VASAVA
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR,
SHRI M.M.GHODASARA MAHILA
COLLEGE, JUNAGADH
SUBJECT:
KEYWORDS: child labour, industries
ABSTRACT
Child labour in India and rest of the world, during 2003 in 10–14 age group, per
World Bank India with estimated 11%, is in green with 10-20% incidence levels, along
with countries in red (30–40%) and black (>40%). Child labour is the practice of having
children engage in economic activity, on part- or full-time basis. The practice deprives
children of their childhood, and is harmful to their physical and mental development.
Poverty, lack of good schools and growth of informal economy are considered as the
important causes of child labour in India. The 1998 national census of India estimated the
total number of child labour, aged 4–15, to be at 12.6 million, out of a total child
population of 253 million in 5–14 age group. Indian law specifically defines 64 industries
as hazardous and it is a criminal offence to employ children in such hazardous industries.
UNICEF estimates that India with its larger population, has the highest number of
labourers in the world under 14 years of age, while sub-saharan African countries have
the highest percentage of children who are deployed as child labour. International Labour
Organisation estimates that agriculture at 60 percent is the largest employer of child
labour in the world,[14] while United Nation's Food and Agriculture Organisation estimates
70% of child labour is deployed in agriculture and related activities Outside of agriculture,
child labour is observed in almost all informal sectors of the Indian economy
INTRODUCTION
Child labour is the practice of having children engage in economic activity, on
part- or full-time basis. The practice deprives children of their childhood, and is harmful
to their physical and mental development. Poverty, lack of good schools and growth of
informal economy are considered as the important causes of child labour in India. The
2011 national census of India found the total number of child labour, aged 5–14, to be at
4.35 million, and the total child population to be 259.64 million in that age group. The
child labour problem is not unique to India; worldwide, about 217 million children work,
many full-time.
Indian law specifically defines 64 industries as hazardous and it is a criminal
offence to employ children in such hazardous industries. In 2001, an estimated 1% of all
child workers, or about 120,000 children in India were in a hazardous job. Notably,
Constitution of India prohibits child labour in hazardous industries (but not in nonhazardous industries) as a Fundamental Right under Article 24. UNICEF estimates that
India with its larger population, has the highest number of labourers in the world under
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14 years of age, while sub-saharan African countries have the highest percentage of
children who are deployed as child labour.
DEFINITION
UNICEF in another report suggests, "Children’s work needs to be seen as
happening along a continuum, with destructive or exploitative work at one end and
beneficial work – promoting or enhancing children’s development without interfering
with their schooling, recreation and rest – at the other.
The Constitution of India in the Fundamental Rights and the Directive Principles
of State Policy prohibits child labour below the age of 14 years in any factory or mine or
castle or engaged in any other hazardous employment (Article 24). India has a federal
form of government, and labour being a subject in the Concurrent List, both the central
and state governments can and have legislated on child labour. The major national
legislative developments include the following:
The Factories Act of 1948: The Act prohibits the employment of children below the age
of 14 years in any factory. The law also placed rules on who, when and how long can preadults aged 15–18 years be employed in any factory.
The Mines Act of 1952: The Act prohibits the employment of children below 18 years of
age in a mine.
The Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act of 1986: The Act prohibits the
employment of children below the age of 14 years in hazardous occupations identified in
a list by the law. The list was expanded in 2006, and again in 2008.
The Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection) of Children Act of 2000: This law made it a
crime, punishable with a prison term, for anyone to procure or employ a child in any
hazardous employment or in bondage.
The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act of 2009: The law
mandates free and compulsory education to all children aged 6 to 14 years. This
legislation also mandated that 25 percent of seats in every private school must be
allocated for children from disadvantaged groups and physically challenged children.
CONSEQUENCES OF CHILD LABOUR
The presence of a large number of child labourers is regarded as a serious issue in
terms of economic welfare. Children who work fail to get necessary education. They do
not get the opportunity to develop physically, intellectually, emotionally and
psychologically.
To keep an economy prospering, a vital criteria is to have an educated workforce
equipped with relevant skills for the needs of the industries. The young labourers today,
will be part of India’s human capital tomorrow. Child labour undoubtedly results in a
trade-off with human capital accumulation.
Child labour in India are employed with the majority (70%) in agriculture some in
low-skilled labour-intensive sectors such as sari weaving or as domestic helpers, which
require neither formal education nor training, but some in heavy industry such as coal
mining.
According to the International Labour Organisation (ILO), there are tremendous
economic benefits for developing nations by sending children to school instead of work.
Without education, children do not gain the necessary skills such as English
literacy and technical aptitude that will increase their productivity to enable them to
secure higher-skilled jobs in future with higher wages that will lift them out of poverty.
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DIAMOND INDUSTRY
In the year 1999, the International Labour Organisation co-published a report
with Universal Alliance of Diamond Workers, a trade union. The ILO report claimed that
child labour is prevalent in the Indian diamond industry.
International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU) in a separate 1997
press release observed that child labour continued to flourish in India's diamond
industry. Not everyone agreed with these claims.
The South Gujarat Diamond Workers Association, another trade union,
acknowledged child labour is present but it is not systematic, is less than 1% and against
local industry norms. Local diamond industry businessmen too downplayed these
charges.[63]
A more recent study from 2005, conducted at 663 manufacturing units at 21
different locations in India's diamond and gem industry, claims incidence rates of child
labour have dropped to 0.31%.
FIREWORKS MANUFACTURE
The town of Sivakasi in South India, known for its fireworks and matchsticks
industries, has been reported to employ child labour in the production of fireworks. In
2011, Sivakasi, Tamil Nadu was home to over 9,500 firecracker factories and produced
almost 100 percent of total fireworks output in India.The fireworks industry employed about 150,000 people at an average of 15
employees per factory. Most of these were in unorganized sector, with a few registered
and organized companies.
In 1989, Shubh Bhardwaj reported that child labour is present in India's fireworks
industry, and safety practices poor. Child labour is common in small shed operation in the
unorganized sector.
Only 4 companies scaled up and were in the organized sector with over 250
employees; the larger companies did not employ children and had superior safety
practices and resources.
The child labour in small, unorganized sector operations suffered long working
hours, low wages, unsafe conditions and tiring schedules.
SILK MANUFACTURE
A 2003 Human Rights Watch report, claims children as young as five years old are
employed and work for up to 12 hours a day and six to seven days a week in silk industry.
These children, claims, are bonded labour; even though the government of India
denies existence of bonded child labour, these silk industry child are easy to find in
Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu, claims Children are forced to dip their hands in scalding
water to palpate the cocoons and are often paid less than Rs 10 per day.
In 2010, a German news investigative report claimed that in states like Karnataka,
non-governmental organisations had found up to 10,000 children working in the 1,000
silk factories in 1998.
CARPET WEAVING
Siddartha Kara finds about 20% of carpets manufactured in India could involve
child labour. He notes, "determining the extent to which the hand-made carpet supply
chain from India to the U.S.A. is tainted by slavery and child labour requires an additional
exercise in supply chain tracing." Kara's study also finds variation in child labour practices
between ethnic and religious groups. Kara and colleagues report highest level of child
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labour in Muslim community carpet operations, and the presence of debt bonded child
labourers in Muslim villages.
DOMESTIC LABOUR
Official estimates for child labour working as domestic labour and in restaurants
is more than 2,500,000 while NGOs estimate the figure to be around 20 million. The
Government of India expanded the coverage of The Child Labour Prohibition and
Regulation Act and banned the employment of children as domestic workers and as
workers in restaurants, dhabas, hotels, spas and resorts effective from 10 October 2006.
INITIATIVES AGAINST CHILD LABOUR IN INDIA
In 1979, the Indian government formed the Gurupadswamy Committee to find
about child labour and means to tackle it. The Child Labour Prohibition and Regulation
Act was enacted based on the recommendations of the committee in 1986. A National
Policy on Child Labour was formulated in 1987 to focus on rehabilitating children
working in hazardous occupations. The Ministry of Labour and Employment had
implemented around 100 industry-specific National Child Labour Projects to rehabilitate
the child workers since 1988.
Many NGOs like Bachpan Bachao Andolan, ChildFund, CARE India, Talaash
Association, Child Rights and You, Global march against child labour, RIDE India, Childline
etc. have been working to eradicate child labour in India.
REFERENCES
1.
"National Child Labour project". Ministry of Labour and Employment, Government
of India. Retrieved 12 September 2011.
2.
Age Structure And Marital Status India Census 2001
3.
"Child Labour - ILO". ILO, United Nations. 2011.
4.
"Constitution of India". Vakilno1.com. Government of India.
5.
."THE STATE OF THE WORLD’S CHILDREN - 2011" (PDF). UNICEF. 2012.
6.
Burra, Neera. "Child labour in rural areas with a special focus on migration,
agriculture, mining and brick kilns" (PDF). National Commission for Protection of
Child Rights. Retrieved 19 October 2009.
WWW.VIEWOFSPACE.ORG
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WOMEN ENTREPRENEURSHIP
DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA
SHIR H. R. PADIYA
SHRI A. K. DOSHI MAHILA COLLEGE ,JAMNAGAR
SUBJECT:
KEYWORDS:
ABSTRACT
Women entrepreneurship development is an essential part of human resource
development. The development of women entrepreneurship is very low in India,
especially in the rural areas. Entrepreneurship amongst women has been a recent
concern. Women have become aware of their existence their rights and their work
situation. However, women of middle class are not too eager to alter their role in fear of
social backlash. The progress is more visible among upper class families in urban
cities.
This paper focuses on women entrepreneur. Any understanding of Indian
women, of their identity, and especially of their role taking and breaking new paths, will
be incomplete without a walk down the corridors of Indian history where women have
lived and internalized various role models.
1. INTRODUCTION
The Indian economy has been witnessing a drastic change since mid -1991, with
new policies of economic liberalization, globalization and privatization initiated by the
Indian government. India has great entrepreneurial potential. At present, women
involvement in economic activities is marked by a low work participation rate, excessive
concentration in the unorganized sector and employment in less skilled jobs.
Any strategy aimed at economic development will be lop-sided without involving
women who constitute half of the world population. Evidence has unequivocally
established that entrepreneurial spirit is not a male prerogative. Women entrepreneurship
has gained momentum in the last three decades with the increase in the number of
women enterprises and their substantive contribution to economic growth. The industrial
performance of Asia-Pacific region propelled by Foreign Direct Investment, technological
innovations and manufactured exports has brought a wide range of economic and social
opportunities to women entrepreneurs.
In this dynamic world, women entrepreneurs are an important part of the global
quest for sustained economic development and social progress. In India, though
women have played a key role in the society, their entrepreneurial ability has not been
properly tapped due to the lower status of women in the society. It is only from the Fifth
Five Year Plan (1974-78) onwards that their role has been explicitly recognized with a
marked shift in the approach from women welfare to women development and
empowerment. The development of women entrepreneurship has become an important
aspect of our plan priorities. Several policies and programmes are being implemented for
the development of women entrepreneurship in India.
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There is a need for changing the mindset towards women so as to give equal rights
as enshrined in the constitution. The progress towards gender equality is slow and is
partly due to the failure to attach money to policy commitments. In the words of president
APJ Abdul Kalam "empowering women is a prerequisite for creating a good nation, when
women are empowered, society with stability is assured. Empowerment of women is
essential as their thoughts and their value systems lead to the development of a good
family, good society and ultimately a good nation."
When a woman is empowered it does not mean that another individual becomes
powerless or is having less power. On the contrary, if a women is empowered her
competencies towards decisionmaking will surely influence her family's behavior.
In advanced countries, there is a phenomenon of increase in the number of selfemployed women after the world war 11. In USA, women own 25% of all business, even
though their sales on an average are less than two-fifths of those of other small business.
In Canada, women own one-third of small business and in France it is one- fifth.
2. CONCEPT OF ENTREPRENEUR
An entrepreneur is a person who combines capital and labor for production.
According to Cantillion "entrepreneur is the agent who buys means of production at
certain prices, in order to sell at prices that are certain at the moment at which he commits
himself to his cost". According to P.F Drucker " he is one who always
(1) searches for change
(2) responds to it
(3) exploits it as an opportunity."
3. CONCEPT OF WOMEN ENTREPRENEUR
A woman entrepreneur is a woman who starts and owns and enterprise by
investing at least 51% in an enterprise.
4.
*
*
*
*
*
CATEGORIES OF WOMEN ENTREPRENEURS
Women in organized & unorganized sector
Women in traditional & modern industries
Women in urban & rural areas
Women in large scale and small scale industries.
Single women and joint venture.
5. CATEGORIES OF WOMEN ENTREPRENEURS IN PRACTICE IN INDIA
* First Category
Established in big cities
Having higher level technical & professional qualifications
Nontraditional Items
Sound financial positions
* Second Category
Established in cities and towns
Having sufficient education
Both traditional and nontraditional items
Undertaking women services-kindergarten, crèches, beauty parlors, health clinic etc
* Third Category
Illiterate women
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42
Financially week
Involved in family business such as Agriculture, Horticulture, Animal Husbandry,
Dairy, Fisheries, Agro Forestry, Handloom, Power loom etc.
6.
SUPPORTIVE MEASURES FOR WOMEN”S ECONOMIC
ANDENTREPRENEURSHIP
* Direct & indirect financial support
* Technological training and awards
* Federations and associations
6.1 Direct & Indirect Financial Support
Nationalized banks
State finance corporation
State industrial development corporation
District industries centers
Differential rate schemes
Mahila Udyog Nidhi scheme
Small Industries Development Bank of India (SIDBI)
State Small Industrial Development Corporations (SSIDCs)
6.2 Technological Training and Awards
Stree Shakti Package by SBI
Entrepreneurship Development Institute of India
Trade Related Entrepreneurship Assistance and Development (TREAD)
National Institute of Small Business Extension Training (NSIBET)
Women's University of Mumbai
6.3 Federations and Associations
National Alliance of Young Entrepreneurs (NAYE)
India Council of Women Entrepreneurs, New Delhi
Self Employed Women's Association (SEWA)
Association of Women Entrepreneurs of Karnataka (AWEK)
World Association of Women Entrepreneurs (WAWE)
Associated Country Women of the World (ACWW)
6.4 Women Work Participation
Country
India (1970-1971)
India (1980-1981)
India (1990-1991)
India (2000-2001)
USA
UK
Indonesia
Sri Lanka
Brazil
6.5 Some Examples
Mahila Grah Udyog – 7 ladies started in 1959
Percentage
14.2
19.7
22.3
31.6
45
43
40
35
35
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43
ACTIVITIES
Lizzat Pappad, Lakme – Simon Tata Shipping corporation – Mrs. Sumati Morarji Herbal
Heritage– Ms.
Shahnaz Hussain Balaji films- Ekta Kapoor
Kiran Mazumdar - Bio-technology
7. PROBLEMS OF WOMEN ENTREPRENEURS IN INDIA
Women in India are faced many problems to get ahead their life in business. A
few problems can be detailed as;
1 The greatest deterrent to women entrepreneurs is that they are women. A kind of
patriarchal – male dominant social order is the building block to them in their way
towards business success. Male members think it a big risk financing the ventures run by
women.
2.
The financial institutions are skeptical about the entrepreneurial abilities of
women. The bankers consider women loonies as higher risk than men loonies.
3. The women entrepreneurs are suffering from inadequate financial resources and
working capital. The women entrepreneurs lack access to external funds due to their
inability to provide tangible security. Very few women have the tangible property in hand.
4. Women's family obligations also bar them from becoming successful entrepreneurs in
both developed and developing nations. "Having primary responsibility for children, home
and older dependent family members, few women can devote all their time and energies to
theirbusiness" (Starcher, )
5.
The business success is depends on the support the family members. The
interest of the family members is a determinant factor in the realization of women folk
business aspirations.
8. WAYS TO DEVELOP WOMEN ENTREPRENEURS
1. Consider women as specific target group for all developmental programmers.
2. Better educational facilities and schemes should be extended to women folk from
government part.
3.
Adequate training program on management skills to be provided to women
community.
4. Encourage women's participation in decision-making.
5. Vocational training to be extended to women community that enables them to
understand the production process and production management.
9. CONCLUSION
Entrepreneurship among women, no doubt improves the wealth of the nation in
general and of the family in particular. Women today are more willing to take up activities
that were once considered the preserve of men, and have proved that they are second to
no one with respect to contribution to the growth of the economy. Women
entrepreneurship must be moulded properly with entrepreneurial traits and skills to
meet the changes in trends, challenges global markets and also be competent enough to
sustain and strive for excellence in the entrepreneurial arena.
10. REFERENCES
[1]Dhameja S K (2002) , Women Entrepreneurs : Opportunities, performance,
problems, Deep
public[2]
Rajendran N (2003) , "Problems and prospects of women
Entrepreneurs"
WWW.VIEWOFSPACE.ORG
44
SEDME, Vol. 30 no.4 Dec.
[3]Rao Padala Shanmukha (2007) "Entrepreneurship Development among Women :
A case
study of self help Groups in Srikakulam District, Andhra Pradesh" The Icfai Journal of
Entrepreneurship Development Vol.1V No. 1
[4]Sharma Sheetal (2006) “Educated Women , powered, women" Yojana Vol.50, No.12
[5]Shiralashetti A S and Hugar S S " Problem and Prospects of Women
Entrepreneurs In
North Karnataka District: A case study" The Icfai Journal of Entrepreneurship
Development Vol.
1v No. 2
[6] Web Sites- www. Googlee.co. in, www. Wikipedia.comations (p) Ltd, New Delhi, p 11
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45
WOMEN ENTREPRENEURSHIP
IN INDIA
DR. JITESH K. KHETIA,
PRINCIPAL,SHRI M. J. GORIYA COLLEGE, JAM-KHAMBHALIYA.
SUBJECT:
KEYWORDS:
ABSTRACT
In India, concept of women entrepreneurship is of recent origin. Women have
become aware about their rights and situations and entered in different fields of business.
They have established their own successful business empires. They are contributing
towards the growth of economy and development of their socio-economic conditions.
The need to improve the status of women and the promotion of women's roles in
development are no longer seen merely as issues of human rights or social justice.
Investments in women are now widely recognized as crucial to achieving sustainable
development. Economic analyses now perceive that low levels of education and training,
poor health and nutritional status, and limited access to resources not only repress
women's quality of life but limit productivity and hinder economic efficiency and growth.
Therefore, the development of opportunities for women is imperative, not only for
reasons of equity but also because it makes economic sense and is "good development
practice".
1. INTRODUCTION
Globally, women represent 49.6 percent of the total population, but only 40.8
percent of the total workforce in the formal sector. Women perform 66 percent of the
world’s work, produce 50 percent of the food, but earn 10 percent of the income and own
1% of the property. Since ages India has been men-dominated country. But, time is
changing now. Women in India have outraged the fact that since hundreds of years they
had been following the orders of men. They now know their rights and duties and with
the spreading awareness amongst the women they are now no less than the men. They
are walking with men at the same pace in each and every field. In former days, for women
there were 3 Ks- Kitchen, Kids, Knitting, then came 3 Ps-Powder, Papad, Pickles and now
at present there are 4 Es- Electricity, Electronics, Energy, Engineering.
Today, many women have established their own economy i.e., entrepreneurial
empire and are now ruling their world as they wished to. The hidden entrepreneurial
potentials of women have gradually been changing with the growing sensitivity to the role
and economic status in the society. Skill, knowledge and adaptability in business are the
main reasons for women to emerge into business ventures. When a woman is empowered
it does not mean that another individual becomes powerless or is having less power. On
the contrary, if a women is empowered her competencies towards decisionmaking will
surely influence her family's behavior.
2. CONCEPT OF ENTREPRENEUR
An entrepreneur is a person who combines capital and labor for production. According to
Cantillion "entrepreneur is the agent who buys means of production at certain prices, in
WWW.VIEWOFSPACE.ORG
46
order to sell at prices that are certain at the moment at which he commits himself to his
cost". According to P.F Drucker " he is one who always
(1) searches for change
(2) responds to it
(3) exploits it as an opportunity."
3. CONCEPT OF WOMEN ENTREPRENEUR
A woman entrepreneur is a woman who starts and owns and enterprise by
investing at
least 51% in an enterprise.
4.
●
●
●
●
●
CATEGORIES OF WOMEN ENTREPRENEURS
Women in organized & unorganized sector
Women in traditional & modern industries
Women in urban & rural areas
Women in large scale and small scale industries.
Single women and joint venture.
5. CATEGORIES OF WOMEN ENTREPRENEURS IN PRACTICE IN INDIA
● First Category
► Established in big cities
► Having higher level technical & professional qualifications
► Nontraditional Items
► Sound financial positions
● Second Category
► Established in cities and towns
► Having sufficient education
► Both traditional and nontraditional items
► Undertaking women services-kindergarten, crèches, beauty parlors, health clinic etc
● Third Category
► Illiterate women
► Financially week
►
Involved in family business such as Agriculture, Horticulture, Animal
Husbandry, Dairy,
Fisheries, Agro Forestry, Handloom, Power loom etc.
6.
SUPPORTIVE
MEASURES
FOR
ACTIVITIESANDENTREPRENEURSHIP
● Direct & indirect financial support
● Technological training and awards
● Federations and associations
6.1 Direct & Indirect Financial Support
► Nationalized banks
► State finance corporation
► State industrial development corporation
► District industries centers
► Differential rate schemes
► Mahila Udyog Nidhi scheme
► Small Industries Development Bank of India (SIDBI)
WOMEN”S
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47
ECONOMIC
►
6.2
►
►
►
►
►
6.3
►
►
►
►
►
►
State Small Industrial Development Corporations (SSIDCs)
Technological Training and Awards
Stree Shakti Package by SBI
Entrepreneurship Development Institute of India
Trade Related Entrepreneurship Assistance and Development (TREAD)
National Institute of Small Business Extension Training (NSIBET)
Women's University of Mumbai
Federations and Associations
National Alliance of Young Entrepreneurs (NAYE)
India Council of Women Entrepreneurs, New Delhi
Self Employed Women's Association (SEWA)
Association of Women Entrepreneurs of Karnataka (AWEK)
World Association of Women Entrepreneurs (WAWE)
Associated Country Women of the World (ACWW)
7. CHARACTERISTICS OF WOMEN ENTREPRENEURS
► Women entrepreneurs tend to be highly motivated & self directed, they also exhibit a
high internal locus
of control & achievement. Researchers contend that women business owners possess
certain specific characteristics that promote their creativity and generate new ideas and
ways of doing things.
► Did you know that women-owned businesses are one of the fastest growing segments
of our economy,
according to the Small Business Administration. If you have been considering starting
your own business, nows a good time to get started.
► Starting your own business takes a lot of know how starting with planning. You also
have to know about
preparation, financing and marketing. Add to that, is the importance of keeping an open
and positive frame of mind. You have to believe you can succeed in order to make it a
reality.
► One key characteristic of all successful entrepreneurs is that they have vision. They
find a niche in a
particular market and find a way to fill it. They give life to their vision/business and
either personally or finding a way to make it happen. This “vision” keeps them focused
and able to bring product or service to the market.
► Entrepreneurs are also very self-motivated. They don’t wait for someone to tell them
to get to work.
They are self-propelled and do the work because they want to. They know that it takes
discipline and self-sacrifice to make their dreams come true.
► This is especially true when your business is still fledgling. At this stage it may be up to
you to oversee
and implement all aspects of the business. To make it work, you have to have an unfailing
believe in yourself and your ideas.
► Times will get hard. It’s likely that your business won‟t be an instant success. Most
new businesses
fail in the first few years, so it takes courage to know that and still give it a go. The ones
that do succeed know that it takes perseverance to make it happen.
► Ladies, dont let others discourage you from living your dreams. Sure, you will suffer
setbacks and face
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hardship but you will also be richly rewarded if you stick with it. You will be able to be
your own boss and see your ideas come to fruition. That’s something most of us never
experience. It’s a comfort and a challenge to know that much of your success depends
on what effort you expend.
► Think hard before you decided to quit your present job and start your own business.
It’s doable but not
without many sacrifices. Still, the rewards can be great if you are willing to put in the
effort.
1. Sharp Communication skills.
2. Good interpersonal skills
3. Consensus building competencies
4. Very High level of Emotional Quotient.
5. Good decision making capabilities.
8.1 Women Entrepreneurship in India’s States
No of Units
No of Women
States
Percentage
Registered
Entrepreneurs
Tamil Nadu
9618
2930
30.36
Uttar Pradesh
7980
3180
39.84
Kerala
5487
2135
38.91
Punjab
4791
1618
33.77
Maharashtra
4339
1394
32.12
Gujarat
3872
1538
39.72
Karnataka
3822
1026
26.84
Madhya Pradesh
2967
842
28.38
Other States & UTS 14576
4185
28.71
Total
57,452
18,848
32.82
8.3 Women Work Participation
Country
Percentage
India
31.6
USA
45
U.K
43
Indonesia
40
Sri Lanka
45
Brazil
35
9. SUCCESSFUL INDIAN BUSINESS WOMEN
9.1 INDIRA NOOYI
This brilliant corporate women started her career in Boston Consulting group. She
joined Pepsi Company in 1994,she turned the company into a bold risk taker. In 1998
Pepsi acquired Tropicana.In 1997 Pepsi started its own fast food chain. She became the
president of Pepsicola in 2001. Wall street journal included her name in the top
fifty Women to watch in 2005.Simultaneously Fortune Magazine also declared her
11th most powerful Women in business.
9.2 DR KIRAN MAZUMDAR SHAW
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She is the chairman & managing Director Biocon Ltd.Who became India’s
richest Women in 2004.She founded Bicon India with a capital of Ten thousand in her
garage in 1978.The initial operation was to extract an Enzyme from Papaya. Her
applications for loans were turned down by banks-on three counts-Biotechnology then
was a new word, the company lacked assets ,and women Entrepreneurs were still a
rarity. Today her Company is the biggest Biopharmaceutical firm in the country.
9.3 NAINA LAL KIDWAI
She was the first Indian Women to graduate from Harvard business school.
Fortune magazine listed Kidwai among the worlds top fifty corporate women from
2002- 2003.According to the Economic times she is the first women to head the
operations of Foreign Banks in India. Also she was awarded the Padmashree.
9.4 VAIDYA MANOHAR CHHABRIA
Chairman of Jumbo Group The wife of a late Manohar Rajaram Chhabria is
now leading Jumbo Group, a Dubai based Dollar 1.5 billion business conglomerate .
She was ranked 38th most powerful women by the Fortune Magazine in 2003.
9.5 NEELAM DHAWAN
Managing Director Microsoft India. She is well known figure in IT Industry of
India. Before joining Microsoft, she worked in almost all the top IT Companies.
9.6 SHAHNAZ HUSAIN
She is another successful Women entrepreneur of India. She popularized
herbal treatments for beauty and health problems. Her company Shahnaz Husain
Herbals was the largest of its kind in the world and had a strong presence in over
hundred countries, from the US to Asia.
9.7 LALITA GUPTE & KALPANE MORPARIA
Joint Managing Directors of ICICI Bank, have made immense contribution to the
banking sector in India.
9.8 EKTA KAPPOR
Who is popularly known as the „soap queen, Creative Director of Balaji Telefilms is
credited for bringing about a revolution in the Indian small screen industry. She is a rare
combination of beauty and brain and a great inspiration for budding entrepreneurs.
10. POLICIES AND SCHEMES FOR WOMEN ENTREPRENEURS IN INDIA
Growth of women has been a policy objective of the government since
independence until the 70s the concept of women’s development was mainly welfare
oriented. In 1970s, there was a shift from welfare approach to development approach that
recognized the equally reinforcing nature of the process of development. The 80s adopted
a multi-disciplinary approach with an importance on three core areas of health, education
and employment. Women were given priorities in all the sectors including SSI sector.
Government and non government bodies have paid increasing attention to women’s
economic contribution through self employment and business ventures.
In India, the Micro, Small & Medium Enterprises development organizations,
various State Small Industries Development Corporations, the Nationalized banks and
even NGOs are conducting various programmes including Entrepreneurship Development
Programmes (EDPs) to cater to the needs of potential women entrepreneurs, who may
not have sufficient educational surroundings and skills. The Office of DC (MSME) has also
opened a Women Cell to provide coordination and support to women entrepreneurs
facing specific problems. There are also several other schemes of the government at
central and state level, which provide assistance for setting up training-cum-income
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generating activities for needy women to make them economically independent. Small
Industries Development Bank of India (SIDBI) has also been implementing special
schemes for women entrepreneurs. In addition to the special schemes for women
entrepreneurs, various government schemes for MSMEs also provide certain special
incentives and concessions for women entrepreneurs. For example, under Prime
Minister’s Rozgar Yojana (PMRY), preference is given to women beneficiaries. The
government has also made several relaxations for women to facilitate the participation of
women beneficiaries in this scheme. Similarly, under the MSE Cluster Development
Programme by Ministry of MSME, the contribution from the Ministry of MSME varies
between 3080% of the total project in case of hard involvement, but in the case of clusters
owned and managed by women entrepreneurs, contribution of the M/o MSME could be
up to 90% of the project cost. Similarly, under the Credit Guarantee Fund Scheme for
Micro and Small Enterprises, the guarantee cover is generally available up to 75% of the
loans extended; however the extent of guarantee cover is 80% for MSEs operated and/ or
owned by women. Some of the special schemes for women entrepreneurs implemented
by the government and allied institutions are provided below.
At present, the Government of India has over 27 schemes for women operated by
different departments and ministries. Some of these are:
►Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP)
►Khadi And Village Industries Commission (KVIC)
►Training of Rural Youth for Self-Employment (TRYSEM)
►Prime Ministers Rojgar Yojana (PMRY)
►Entrepreneurial Development programme (EDPs)
►Management Development progammes
►Women^,s Development Corporations (WDCs)
►Marketing of Non-Farm Products of Rural Women (MAHIMA)
►Assistance to Rural Women in Non-Farm Development (ARWIND) schemes
►Trade Related Entrepreneurship Assistance and Development (TREAD)
►Working Women„s Forum
►Indira Mahila Yojana
►Micro & Small Enterprises Cluster Development Programmes (MSE-CDP)
►National Banks for Agriculture and Rural Development„s Schemes
The efforts of government and its different agencies are capably supplemented by
NGOs that are playing an equally important role in facilitating women empowerment.
even though the concerted efforts of governments and NGOs there are certain gaps. Of
course we have come a long way in empowering women yet the future journey is difficult
and demanding.
11. WOMEN ENTREPRENEUR ASSOCIATIONS
The efforts of government and its different agencies are supplemented by NGOs
and associations that are playing an equally essential role in facilitating women
empowerment. List of various women associations in India is provided below.
● Details of Women Entrepreneur Associations in India
►Federation of Indian Women Entrepreneurs (FIWE)
►Consortium of Women Entrepreneurs(CWEI)
►Association of Lady Entrepreneurs of Andhra Pradesh
►Association of Women Entrepreneurs of Karnataka (AWAKE)
►Self-Employed Women's Association (SEWA)
►Women Entrepreneurs Promotion Association (WEPA)
►The Marketing Organization of Women Enterprises (MOOWES)
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►Bihar Mahila Udyog SanghBihar Mahila Udyog Sangh
► Mahakaushal Association of Woman Entrepreneurs (MAWE)
►SAARC Chamber Women Entrepreneurship Council
►Women Entrepreneurs Association of Tamil Nadu (WEAT)
►Tie Sree Shakti (TSS)
►Women Empowerment Corporation
12. PROBLEMS OF WOMEN ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN INDIA
Definitely, there are a number of problems regarding women entrepreneurship in
India, researchers having identified issues relating to social aspects, economic life, skill
problems, problems of family support, courage etc.
12.1 Absence of Balance between Family and Career Obligations
As Indians, most of the women are very serious about family obligations but they
do not equally focus on career obligations. Indian women devote their lives to take care of
their family members but they are not concerned with their self-development. Many
women have excellent entrepreneurial abilities but they are not using their abilities to
create additional income sources for their families, which would go hand in hand with
boosting their self-reliance. Sometimes they are not even aware of the concept of selfreliance. Moreover the business success depends on the support the family members,
extended to women, in the business process and management.
12.2 Poor Degree of Financial Freedom
In Indian families, the degree of financial freedom for women is very unfortunate,
especially in lower educated families and rural families. In these families women can’t
take any entrepreneurial resolution without the consideration of the family members as
well as considering social ethics and traditions. Due to the financial need, a woman can’t
start any business or any economic activity to become independent. Therefore, this has
become a cruel circle of dependency for women in India.
12.3 No Direct Ownership of the Property
No doubt, the right of property is given as a legal provision in India, but it raises
one of the most important questions regarding the right to property for women. There are
very few women having on paper the right of property because, firstly, they are not aware
of this right. They only become aware when problems are created in their families due to
family disputes. Otherwise, women are not enjoying their right of property, being treated
as second-class citizens, which keeps them in a pervasive cycle of poverty.
12.4 Problems of Work with Male Workers
Many women have good business skills but they do not want to work with male
workers and sometimes male workers are not ready to work with women entrepreneurs.
According to Shruti Lathwal, 2011, most of women entrepreneurs argued that semieducated or uneducated class of workers cannot visualize a "female boss" in their field of
work.
12.5 Lack of Professional Education
The poverty and illiteracy are the basic reasons of the low rate of women
entrepreneurship in our country. The educational level and professional skills also
influence women participation in the field of enterprise. We are providing education to
the women but not providing professional education. If we look in the professional
schools we find that there is a very few number of women students. If we analyze rural urban ratio of enrolled women in professional education we realize that there are very
few rural female students enrolled it this type of education. Even parents are not ready to
send their daughters for undergoing professional education. Sometimes it happens,
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however, that many women taking the training by attending the entrepreneurial
development programme do not have an entrepreneurial bent of mind.
13. WAYS TO DEVELOP WOMEN ENTREPRENEURS
► Believe that women as specific target group for all developmental programmers.
► Better educational amenities and schemes should be extended to women folk from
government part.
► Sufficient training program on management skills to be provided to women
community.
► Give confidence to women's participation in decisionmaking.
Professional training to be extended to women community that enables them to
understand the production process and production management
14. CONCLUSION
According to the study it has been observed that Women are very good
entrepreneurs, and prefer to choose the same as they can maintain work life balance.
Even though we have many successful Women Entrepreneurs in our country, but as we
have a male dominated culture there are many challenges which women entrepreneurs
face from family & Society.
Entrepreneurship among women, no doubt improves the wealth of the nation in
general and of the family in particular. Women are very good entrepreneurs, and prefer to
choose the same as they can maintain work life balance. Even though we have many
successful Women Entrepreneurs in our country, but as we have a male dominated
culture there are many challenges which women entrepreneurs face from family &
Society. Women today are more willing to take up activities that were once considered the
preserve of men, and have proved that they are second to no one with respect to
contribution to the growth of the economy. Women entrepreneurship must be mounded
properly with entrepreneurial personality and skills to meet the changes in trends,
challenges global markets and also be competent enough to sustain and strive for
excellence in the entrepreneurial arena.
15. REFERENCES
1. Usharao,N.J.: Women in a Developing Society, Published by Ashish Publishing House. New
Delhi 1993.
2. Shejwalkar P.C.Entrepreneurship Ameya, Prakashan, Pune, 1996.
3. Sood, S.K,Arora Renu, “Women Entrepreneurs”, fundamentals of Entrepreneurship & Small
Business.
4.
DhamejaS. K(2002) Women Entrepreneurs, Opportunity ,Performance, Problems, Deep
Publications(P) Ltd.
New Delhi.
5. Sharma Sheetal (2006) “Educated Women, Powered Women” Yojana Volume 50.
6. Reddy P.N.Industrial Entrepreneurship in Small Scale Industries. Delta Publishing House,
New Delhi
1998.
7 .Brush, C.G. (1992), Research on women business owners, past trends, a new perspective and
future dimensions; Entrepreneurship Theory & Practice as in Fenwick T. Women Entrepreneurs:
A critical review of literature.
8 Caputo R.K. and Dolinsky Arthur (1998), “Women’s Choice of Pursue Self-Employment: The
Role of Financial and Human Capital of Household Members’’, Journal of Small Business
Management, Vol. 36
(2), pp. 8-18
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57
GENDER DISCRIMINATION: CAUSES AND
MEASURES OF GUJARAT GOVERNMENT
PROF. DR. DIVYESH D. SANGHANI
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR (COMMERCE),M.B. ARTS AND COMMERCE COLLEGE, GONDAL
SUBJECT:
KEYWORDS:
ABSTRACT
Term Gender is a common for only the for women, because females are the
only victims of gender discrimination. Half of the population is female but their
representation in public life is very low. This study deals with gender discrimination
causes and measures of Gujarat government.
INTRODUCTION
Sex refers to the biological differences between men and women, boys and girls. It
is defined as the property by which organisms are classified as males or females based on
reproductive organs and functions Biological and physiological differences between males
and females are represented by sex such as reproductive organs, chromosomes and
hormones etc. distinguish men and women, boys and girls.
Gender describes socially constructed differences between men and women, boys
and girls etc. Gender is defined on the basis of social norms, behaviors, activities,
relationship, responsibilities which are assigned by the society as appropriate for male
and female Understanding of gender varies in different races, nations, castes, ethnic
groups, religions. The gender equality means that both men and women, as human being,
have equal rights and opportunities irrespective of gender. It also refers that all people
(men and women) must have equal right to develop their personal abilities and free to
make personal choices. State or society will not discriminate between men and women on
the basis of gender. Moreover, gender equality emphasis that natural or biological
difference between men and women will not lead to difference in status and rights in all
sphere of life between men and women.
According to World Bank (2012), “Gender refers to the social, behavioral, and
cultural attributes, expectations and norms that distinguish men and women. Gender
equality refers to the extent to which men’s and women’s opportunities and outcomes are
constrained—or enhanced-solely on the basis of their gender”. Gender discrimination
against girls anywhere in the world is a social ill and violation of human rights
which must be stopped. Gender describes the socially construed roles, activities and
responsibilities assigned to women and men in a given culture, location or time.
Gender is defined as a social construct of the set of qualities and behaviors
expected from male and female, while an individual’s sex does not change. Gender roles
are socially determined and change over the time period. A child's sex is determined
before birth but gender is learned. The present study try raise the concept of gender
discrimination and causes and also analyses about initiate taken by the Gujarat
government for remove the gender discrimination.
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REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Sonalde Desai (1994) observed that parents reluctance to educate daughters has
its roots in the situation of women. Parents have several incentives for not educating their
daughters. Foremost is the view that education of girls brings no returns to parents and
that their future roles, being mainly reproductive and perhaps including agricultural
labor, require no formal education.
Anna-Maria Lind (2006) stated that India’s population still leads traditional lives
in rural areas. Religious laws and traditions still determine the lives of many people,
particularly women. Even if women are formerly entitled to own land and resources
social and religious factors make many women refrain from this right in order not to
cause distortions within the family. The preference for having sons permeates all social
classes in India, which sets the standard for girls throughout their entire lives.
Rashmi Sharma, S Mukherjee(2011) It was a population based cross
sectional study done with the objective of comparing some parameters (attitude &
practice) of gender discrimination (GD) in rural and urban areas of Ahmadabad
district. A population of 963 (446 urban & 517 rural) showed alarmingly adverse sex
ratio (SR) as low as 562 among urban preschoolers. GD was prevalent in both study
areas but manifested differently. Preference of male child by both partners an
indicator of gender discrimination was seen in both areas, It correlated with
female literacy, their low mean age at marriage and first conception. While urban
areas showed more adverse sex ratio coupled with awareness and use of
Ultrasonography (USG) for sex determination and poor employment status, rural areas
exhibited (along with adverse sex ratio) poor literacy and employment status of females
and poor contraceptive use.
OBJECTIVES
The study has in ground the following objectives:
1.
To analyze concept of gender discrimination.
2.
To evaluate causes of gender discrimination broadly.
3.
To raise measure taken by the gujarat government for remove gender
discrimination.
DISCUSSION
This secession of study is described objectively. The first part in which evaluate
causes of gender discrimination broadly and letter part in which raise the initiative taken
by the gujarat government for the problem of gender discrimination.
CAUSES FOR GENDER DISCRIMINATION
Son preference
The lesser valuation of females can be observed at birth, manifested in the
prevalence of son preference. For every 100 girls born at least 9 are “missing” – never
born or somehow disposed of shortly after birth. Part of this is due to modern technology
that allows prenatal sex determination and consequent abortion of a fetus of the
unwanted sex, an option apparently used with frequency in India and China.
Education
Over the past four decades there have been large and successful efforts to extend
primary education to all children, including girls. In the developing countries as a whole,
the average school years for girls (boys) has increased. In the countries that the United
Nation Development Program classifies as having low human development, female
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59
literacy rate ranges between 10-85% with a typical gender gap of around 20. The higher
the national income and development the smaller the gender gap has been reduced by
more than five percent, with the greatest reduction occurring in low-income countries.
Employment and total work
Women have become an increasing part of the labor force over the past years.
According to the World Bank statistics women’s labor force participation as a ratio of
men’s has Increased from about 50 percent to about 80 percent in the high-income
countries. In the low-income countries this ratio has also increased, from 60 to 70
percent, while remaining stable at about 60 percent in middle-income countries. In terms
of total working hours, including both the market and the household work, there is a
widespread belief that women work more than men in the most developed countries.
Economic development seems to be associated with more equal sharing of working time,
even if the earnings gap has not equalized even in the richer countries.
Decision making power
Until relatively recently, women have been afforded less decision making power
and fewer legal rights than men in all social arenas. In developing countries laws of
inheritance and ownership generally disfavor women more than in developed countries,
which may be a significant factor affecting the financial resources women have at their
disposal. At the political level women also have less voice.
Others

Caste

Religious beliefs

Culture

On the name of family history

Customs and beliefs

Races

Unemployment

Society

Family situation

Attitudes
Female plays important role in the family and national development. But her
contribution is not recognized by the male dominant society.
MEASURES OF GUJARAT GOVERNMENT
Gandhian Principles
Gandhiji said, “If one boy is educated, a child becomes literate but if a girl is
educated, the whole family gets literacy”. The Government believes in reforming lives and
brings revolutionary change in the mindsets of people for edu-socio-economical growth.
Gender Equity Policy
The guiding philosophy of Gujarat’s Gender Equity Policy (GEP) is that, women
and men have equal rights and opportunities to contribute to the well- being of a society.
The State of Gujarat envisions a welfare society that does not discriminate on the basis of
caste, creed or gender, a society where citizens’ needs are met and human rights
protected.
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), the Government of India's flagship programme for
achieving the universalisation of elementary education, has a "special focus" on female
education. SSA is a partnership between the central, state, and local governments and
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60
implementation strategies are largely determined at the state level. The causal
relationship between SSA and associated programmes and the reduction in the gender
gap has not been adequately analyzed, but the association is compelling. Gujarat is an
example of a state where economic gains have not translated to social gains in the case of
improving gender parity in basic education.
Gaurav Nari Niti
The Government of Gujarat decided to formulate the Nari Gaurav Niti (GEP). The
State has sanctioned and announced the state policy for Gender Equity as ‘Nari Gaurav
Niti’. Gujarat Government formulated the Nari Gaurav Niti Policy with a view to create
awareness in all its Administrative Departments on the socio-economic-educational and
developmental sector of women and benefit them through the policy by active
involvement of departments for timely modus operandi. It consists of action plans and
monitoring mechanisms and addresses public as well as private sectors. The autonomous
Gender Resource Centre provides technical inputs in implementation and monitoring of
the policy at State level. Working groups are formed and a series of deliberations take
place on all aspects of gender equity and equality.
Kishori Shakti Yojna
An intervention for adolescent girls (11-18 years) the Kishori Shakti Yojana (KSY)
was launched in as part of the ICDS scheme. Kishori Shakti Yojana being implemented
through Anganwadi Centres in both rural and urban areas. The scheme aims at breaking
the intergenerational life-cycle of nutritional and gender disadvantage and providing a
supportive environment for self-development. The objectives of the Scheme are to
improve the nutritional and health status of girls in the age group of 11- 18 years. A group
of ten girls in a batch, who would be expectant mothers in future, are given Health Check
up by Anganwadi centres. They are also provided required literacy and numeracy skills,
stimulation to social exposure and knowledge to help them improve their decision making
skills.
CONCLUSION
To solve the gender discrimination problem the E4SD factor would be very useful. They
E4SD factors are Education, Employment, Economic Independent, Empowerment, Selfconfidence and Decision making. A nation or society, without the participation of women
cannot achieve development. If we eliminate gender discrimination, women will deliver
all the potentials, skills, knowledge to develop the family, the nation and the whole world.
REFERENCES:Amar Purani (2015), A socio-legal study on Gender inequality in Elementary education in
Gujarat , Available online at: www.rhimrj.com, Volume-2, Issue-7, July-2015
 Anne Mikkola(2007) Development and Gender Equality: Consequences, Causes, Challenges
and Cures, HECER Discussion Paper No. 159
 Rashmi Sharma, S Mukherjee(2011) Comparative Study Of Selected Parameters Of Gender
Discrimination In Rural Versus Urban Population Of Ahmedabad, Gujarat, National Journal Of
Community Medicine 2011 Volume 2 Issue 1.
 Shahnaj Parveen (2007), Gender Awareness of Rural Women in Bangladesh, Journal of
International Women’s Studies Vol. 9 #1 November 2007.
 Archana Srivastava, Dr. Ajay Goswami, (2011), Gender Discrimination in Education.
 Desai, Sonalde, (1994), Gender Inequalities and Demographic Behaviors: India, New York,
The Population Council, Inc.
 Anna – Maria Lind, (2006), “Struggle and Development: Approaching
Gender bias in Practical International Development Work”, Orebro, Orebro University.

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61
LEGISLATIVE PROTECTION
FOR CHILD LABOUR
HEMANTKUMAR LAXMANBHAI PARMAR,
PH. D. RESEARCH STUDENT, ECONOMICS
VEER NARMAD SOUTH GUJARAT UNIVERSITY,SURAT.
SUBJECT:
KEYWORDS: Child Labour, Legislative Protection, Child Labour Law
ABSTRACT :
In India, as in other industrialized countries, including those in the west, the
present structure of labour legislation was developed from attempts to provide legal
protection for the children, who, so to say, constitute the section of the wage earning
population, least able to defend itself. Extended first to women workers, labour legislation
now covers all workers and is based on the conviction that it is one of the principal duties
of the state to guard and promote the well-being of its citizens. The pace of labour
legislation in our country including protective legislation for children has been influenced
by the various conventions and recommendations adopted by the international Labour
Organisation, the pressure of public opinion and the findings of the various commissions
and committees. A brief review of the provisions of the various Acts is given in this paper.
In India, as in other industrialized countries, including those in the west, the
present structure of labour legislation was developed from attempts to provide legal
protection for the children, who, so to say, constitute the section of the wage earning
population, least able to defend itself. Extended first to women workers, labour legislation
now covers all workers and is based on the conviction that it is one of the principal duties
of the state to guard and promote the well-being of its citizens.
The directive principles of state policy embodied in the Constitution of India
reaffirm the policy of protection of children against exploitation in the following term :
"The State shall, in particular, direct its policy towards securing …. that the health and
strength of workers, men and women, and the tender age of children are not abused and
that citizens are not forced by economic necessity to enter avocations unsuited to their
age or strength; that childhood and youth are protected against exploitation and against
moral and material abandonment."
Article 24 of the Constitution lays down that "no child below the age of 14 years
shall be employed to work in any factory or mine of engaged in any other hazardous
employment."
The pace of labour legislation in our country including protective legislation for
children has been influenced by the various conventions and recommendations adopted
by the international Labour Organisation, the pressure of public opinion and the findings
of the various commissions and committees. A brief review of the provisions of the
various Acts is given below
[A]
Minimum age of employment :
Child is defined in all the Acts similar as not completed his/her age of 14.
Employment of Children Act, 1986 does not allow the children below the prescribed age
to work, or to be employed in the Scheduled employment. Parallel provisions are there in
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other Acts, viz., Factories Act, 1948 (Sec. 67); Beedi and Cigar Worker's Act, 1966 (Sec.
24); Apprentices Act, 1961 (Sec. 3(a)); Mines Act, 1952 (Sec. 45); Indian Merchant
Shipping Act. 1958 (Sec. 109), Motor Transport Worker's Act, 1951 (Sec. 21).
Certain exceptions are in Mines Act, Merchant Shipping Act, that they allowed the
children in a training ship, in a ship in which all persons are employed are members of
one family. Plantation Labour Act, 1951 allows the children after 12 years of age.
[B]
Hours of Work :
There is no uniform maximum hours of work prescribed for the Children.
Factories Act, 1948, provides 4½ hours, same under the Minimum Wages Act, 1948;
where as Shops and Establishments Act provides 5 to 7 maximum hours of work. And for
the adolescent employees under Motor Transport Workers Act, 1961 (Sec. 14) not more
than 6 hours a day including rest interval of half an hour; between the hours of 10 p.m.
and 6 a.m.; Plantation Labour Act, 1951 under Sec. 19, provides not more than 27 hours-aweek. Night work, i.e. between 6 a.m. to 7 p.m. prohibited under Sec. 25. Factories Act,
1948, Sec. 71 prohibits the children to be employed during night i.e. between 10 a.m. to 6
a.m.
[C]
Holidays :
Every working child under the Factory Act. 1948, Mines Act. 1952, Motor
Transport Workers Act. 1961, and Beedi Workers, (condition of employment) Act is
entitled to a weekly holiday.
[D]
Safety :
Under the Factory Act, children are not allowed to work on pressing cotton where
cotton opener is at work. Further the Act disallows the young person to clean, lubricate or
adjust any part of a prime-mover or of any transmission machinery while the primemover or transmission machinery is in motion or to clean, lubricate or adjust any part of
any machine if it is likely to expose her or him to risk or injury from the part.
[E]
Leave :
The annual leave with wages is available to the working children who have
worked form more than 240 days or more during a calendar year at the rate of one day
for every 15 days of work performed by them under the Factory Act. 1948, the Plantation
Labour Act, 1951. The Motor Transport Workers Act, 1961 and the Beedi and Cigar
Workers (condition of employment) Act, 1966. Provisions are different in different states
for children working in the Shops and Commercial establishments.
[F]
Wages :
Wages of the child workers are governed by the Minimum Wages Act, 1948, and
payment of Wages Act, 1936. The child labour is cheaper than the adult, although they are
employing similar labour, number of work to adult, some where they are giving same
output as adult, but quality may be some what poor. As against these the child labour are
paid half of the adults. "Otherwise Minimum Wages Act, 1948 prescribe that when the
children's are employed in the scheduled factory or establishment where the minimum
wages are fixed for prescribed numbers of hours they are to be paid 80% of prescribed
wage with other allowances fixed for adults. But they are not paid according to the Act.
[G]
Medical Examination and Certificate :
Child workers who has completed the age of fourteen but not eighteen they are
not adult but adolescent. They are legally allowed to work as an adult worker subject to
their fitness for the respective job. And fitness certificate is to be taken from prescribed
medical surgen, required under the Factories Act, 1948 (Sec. 69); Mines Act, 1952 (Sec.
43); Motor Transport Workers Act, 1951 (Sec. 22); Plantation Labour Act, 1951 (Sec. 27).
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63
This certificate will remain in the custody of the employer and the child or
adolescent will carry a token giving a reference to such certificate. The examination of the
children is not prescribed in detail viz. x-ray of chest, blood. It is necessary because
children coming from that section of society where rate of nutrition is very poor.
[H]
Pledging of child labour :
The Children (Pledging of Labour) Act, 1933, declares an agreement, written or
oral, express or implied, to pledge the labour of children (persons below 15) whereby the
parent or guardian of a child, in return for any payment or benefit to be received,
undertakes to cause of allow the services of a child to be utilized in any employment to be
void. However, an agreement made without detriment to the child and not made in
consideration of any benefit other than reasonable wages to be paid for the child's
services and terminable at not more than a week's notice is not deemed to be an illegal
agreement.
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64
GENDER DISCRIMINATION: A SOCIAL
EPIDEMIC REFLECTED IN
MAHESH DATTANI’S TARA
DR. PRIYANKANT VED
SUBJECT:
KEYWORDS:
ABSTRACT
Violation of women’s right has become a social epidemic. Every year
thousands of women are tortured and killed in different circumstances and millions of
women throughout the country live on abject deprivation. The most importation factor in
women’s subordination is seen because of India’s patriarchal society where men
are superior and women are thought as inferior. Mahesh Dattani ‘a fresh arrival’ in
the domain of English drama in the last decade of the 20th century is one of the India’s
best and most serious contemporary playwrights in English. His play Tara , circles around
the severe and traditional issues of gender biasing prevailed in Indian society. Through
this play he has succeeded to touch the hearts of his audience as well as his readers.He
attributes Tara an identity who is suffering from identity crisis in this modern gender
biased society.
Human rights are intrinsic to all human beings irrespective of nationality, place,
sex, colour, caste, religion or any other position. But, unfortunately, violation of
women’s right has become a social epidemic. All most all the countries of the world,
irrespective of their advanced or backward socio-economic conditions have not been free
from this malpractice. Every year thousands of women are tortured and killed in different
circumstances and millions of women throughout the country live on abject deprivation.
To look at this, the Government of India has taken many steps to improve the position of
women in India . Many amendments are provided to secure the position and status of
them like the Domestic Violence Act, the indecent representation of Women Act, Sexual
Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention Act)etc. But no fruitful result is seen
throughout the country. Today the ground reality is that women are suffering from
severe discrimination as manifested in India’s Sex Ratio 940/1000. (Census,
2011) Gender inequality really becomes the foremost issue of violation of women’s
rights in India today. The most importation factor in women’s subordination is seen
because of India’s patriarchal society where men are superior and women are thought as
inferior. All the traditional literature, all social rules and regulations of World- wide from
ancient times to now generally have been framed from male perspective. This leads to
the neglect of women’s rights and their problems. Freedom is attributed to boy but
severe restrictions are given to girls, curb on all opportunities for growth and fear
instilled to them not to ‘cross boundaries’.
Mahesh Dattani ‘a fresh arrival’ in the domain of English drama in the last
decade of the 20th century is one of the India’s best and most serious contemporary
playwrights in English.Besides prolific and prominent Indian playwright, writing in
English, Mahesh Dattani is also well- known as a film maker, stage director, screen writer
with several scripts and productions to his credit. His plays have been anthologized in
single volume called Collected Plays by Penguin. Most of his plays have been translated
and performed in regional languages of India and have been included in the syllabus of
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several Indian and foreign Universities and schools.Success has become darling for
Dattani, after he has turned the first playwright in English to receive the Sahitya Academy
Award for his collection Final Solution and Other Plays in 1998.This highest award for
long literary work in the country has opened a new door for debate, analysis and critical
appraisal of dramas in the spectrum of Indian English Literature. Dattani, after receiving
the prestigious award, speaks:
“Well I think this has been really a kind of endorsement that Indian English
Theatre in the country has been looking for, because until now it seems as if it belonged to
a fringe section of society and that it was seen as not quite theatre, not quite art, that it
was more of a kind of theatre club of thing. And perhaps justifiably so. I am not saying that
it is not entirely unwarranted that feeling and opinion. But I think since so much has
actually happened and there has been a serious attempts to, you know, have a kind of
movement in this direction. Because there are English speaking people and there enough
people who want to do theatre and sight in the language, so this has been a kind of
endorsement of that efforts.”(1)
Besides being a dramatic artist, Dattani is a sociologist who raises some
prominent issues concerning the various maladies, contaminating the healthy tissues of
the Indian society. He has created images, characters and plots echoed with the reality of
today and bares life to bones and acts as a spokesman for all marginalized people. His
main intention is to expose the malicious, ugly and unhappy things of life. He makes
places into the group of writers who advocate the cause of true art from theory, universal
in taste and essence, appealing to all sections of society, never bound to any caste, class
and creed. So, daring and innovative, Dattani has made Indian drama in English, a major
genre of social critique today. The theme of his plays bear the testimonial of varying tone,
temperament and treatment which are heavily charged with socio-political, emotional
and psychological issues like HIV positive, eunuch, physically challenged people, gay,
lesbian, gender- identity, revelation and the pressure of the past, the hollowness of middle
class life in urban India, Hindu- Muslim hostility, catching up in the current of capitalism
etc. He has an ability to amalgamate the traditional beliefs with ultra- modern disposition
and conviction through his stage plays, radio and screen plays. The theme of the family
covers a large chunk of his plays where its members are found to be struggling and
wrestling with one another. The best example of such play is Tara which circles around
the severe and traditional issues of gender biasing. The play is contextual and pertinent in
the light of the escalating incidents of foeticide and widening gap in the sex ratio of male
and female child. On the question of what gave him idea for the play, Tara, Mahesh Dattani
said:
“Well basically, it began with, you know, reading an article in a medical
journal about Siamese Twins being separated, and of course, they were invariably of the
same sex and there was this thing about a fused leg and which had the qualities of both
left and right so there had to be some careful consideration as to which twin was
supplying the blood to the leg and the journal went into the detail because obviously it
was a very unique operation and separation. Although that was the inspiration but I think
by then having written Dance Like A Man, I was prepared to take on the gender issue head
on, and I think that was a powerful metaphor. Again, you know, the play is misread and,
you know, people tend to focus on the medical details but that’s really not what the
play is about. It’s a metaphor either for being born equal as male and female and
sharing so much more and with the surgical separation comes a cultural distinction and
prejudices as well, but on another level, it could also deal with the individual having the
male or female self and half of the female self is, whether your gender is male or female, is
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definitely given the lower priority”.(2) Women and gender discrimination is a
violation of women’s right becomes a global phenomenon. Dattani has presented this
bizarre reality of the women who are playing second feddle to men through his play
Tara. One of Dattani’s best loved plays the world over, Tara addresses questions of
gender through ‘bias against girl child’. In an interview with Lakshmi Subramaniam,
Dattani has himself made a statement- “I see Tara is a play about male self and female
self, and the male self being preferred in all cultures. The play is about the separation of
self and the resultant angst”.(3)
In these lines of Dattani, it becomes amply clear that this play is being enacted as a
microcosm of practices and psyche of the society. History has been witnessed to a cruel
and inherent bias against its female members since ages. Many changes are seen in
societies, but the politics of gender have never been completely erased from its face.
Invariably, it is the society which assumes a deterministic role over the life of a girl, which
ordains tenets for their existences. As human being, every couple has a desire to be
blessed with child. But unfortunately, most of the Indians no longer consider it a blessing,
if the child happens to be a girl, because the trends of son preference is a welldocumented fact which is deeply imbedded in most of the parts of the Indian society for
centuries. An Indian proverb expresses this disdain for daughter more colourfully
‘raising a daughter is like watering a shady tree in someone else’s courtyard.’ Even,
many parents, while going through abortion have been heard to say to unborn girl ‘We
donot need you; send your brother’. They expect that son will provide emotional
and social care to parents in their old age. This preference for son over daughter is driven
by the mentality of the most of the Indian parents and how a girl child has to face
unnecessary sufferings by her physical deformity given by the family is reflected in
Dattani’s Tara. Thewhole drama is circling round one dark secret and its exposure.The
twin: Tara and Chandan are successfully operated and separated by Dr. Thakkar. They
have three legs between them and the third leg is supplied by Tara’s blood system.
The probability of the leg’s survival is greater with Tara. But Bharati (Tara’s
mother) and her influential father have decided to join the third leg to Chandan. In the
pursuit of acquiring this nasty design, the doctor is bribed with plot of land in Bangalore
by Bharati’s powerful and political father. Patel, the father of the children could not
object muscularly enough and he also ultimately has become accomplice of this mean
conspiracy. The leg that has survived only for two days with Chandan could have been
accompanied with Tara forever, but Tara is divested. The only fault of her is that
‘she is a girl’.
Indian society has been rapidly changing and people are coming out fast from
their homes to earn independently, yet the socio-economic conditions of India have not
been altogether altered. Still, man appears to be better placed than women in every
position. Dattani has very deftly dealt with the fate waiting, for the girl child. The social
norms, economic standard and cultural factors, combine to create the social norms in
which the girl child has to live and die. Tara is killed by this social system, which controls
the minds and actions of the people .Her potentiality is sacrificed at the altar of gender
discrimination by this revelation that has been ultimately done by her own parents and
grand father. This decision is not on the basis of medical ground but due to gender
biasness which is deeply rooted in our society.
In this play, Dattani plays with the idea of female infanticide and hegemonic
patriarchy that are prevailed among the Gujratis, when he exposes the grandfather’s
indulgence for Chandan by leaving his property after his demise and not a single amount
to Tara. What an irony the grand father is playing. He himself a social reformer, but he
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discriminates his own grand-daughter.His thinking is a testimony of the kind of treatment
that is meted out to girls in Indian society.
Mr. Patel: (father of Tara) and Chandan are talking: Patel: He (Grand father) left you a lot
of money. Chandan: And Tara?
Patel: Nothing.
Chandan: Why?
Patel: He could do what he wanted to do.( 4)
Patel, the father has also played a negative attitude towards his daughter in
someway. He thinks that son should obviously given the greater chance than his daughter.
So, he continuously favours Chandan for higher education in abroad, and to have a bright
career, though, Tara is more sincere in her studies. No plan is made for her future
career.What an irony! A great gap! A step-motherly treatment! Even today, inspite of
fundamental improvement in women’s status, in India, the conservative and
supersticious mind of large number of people are against the higher education of girls.
Bharati tells Chandan:
“I wish your father would pay more attention to Tara. He is more worried about your
career than hers.”(5) Tara is dearly loved by her father, but he has lofty expectation
from his son. He insists
Chandan to join him at his office and says a big “No”, when Chandan says: “ We’ll
both come with you”.(6).
It shows that Tara is worthy of some human consideration and compassion but
nothing beyond that .This ethos is articulated in a powerful dialogue by Bharati’s
address to Chandan—“It’s all very cute and comfortable when she makes witty
remarks .But let her grow up. Yes Chandan, the world will tolerate you. The world will
accept you-but not her!”(7)
Chandan also knows that Tara is capable of facing the world on her own way.
Therefore he says -“She’ll make a greater business woman”(8).
But no consideration is given for her feelings that what she wants. Really, Tara is
the victim of this collective social system. Elucidating the context of gender discrimination
in the drama, Dattani speakes in an interview:
“Well, I think it is the revelation in the end about, you knows, Tara’s love for
her mother which until then was unquestionable. She suspected her father for having
done something, you know, was in someway, but she had no idea what it was, but her
love, her mother’s love was unquestioned and she did not question that, so when she
comes to know of the truth of what we, I mean, we only have the father’s version. We
don’t know whether that is the real truth or no again, but it does sort of break her away
like a shooting star from the mother, and I think with that she –that’s tragedy, she dies,
but we know that’s the end of Tara, and I think that’s somehow all the attitudes
towards Tara and relationship between her mother, her father and her brother, which we
see through the play. In hindsight you can see where it was coloured or where it was
blinkered or where it was being compensated for.”(9)
Bharati, the mother exhibits hollow sympathy and empathy towards Tara and
does all attempts to bring ill repute for Patel in the eyes of her daughter. But when Tara
learns from her father about the true account of her separation from her brother, her
mind swings too ther extent.Love for her mother turn into hatred. She says:‘And she
called me her star!’(10).
Being a mature girl, now Tara gradually learns that her friends consider her status
as secondary. At their hands she feels humiliated. She has started to realize that she can
do nothing but live as parasites as burden to others. In an emotional speech she tells to
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Chandan: “ Oh, what a waste! A waste of money. Why spend all the money to keep me
alive? It cannot matter whether I live or die. There are thousands of poor on the roads
who could be given care and attention, and I think I know what I will make of
myself………………… May I can start an institution that will do all that. Or I could join
Mother Terrasa and sacrifices myself to a greater cause.”(11)
This above statement shows that Tara is an energetic girl who has all the qualities
of a normal girl. If she has been given moral support by her parents, she might have
shown like a star as her name signifies. Unfortunately, she feels her life becomes a burden
on this earth. At the end, Tara, the bright star dies. Her complete life could have done
wonders and she would have scored the limits which her brother Chandan could have
.But her potentiality is sacrificed under the cruel hands of gender biased society.
It is noteworthy that is discrimination against Tara continues after her death
also.Chandan, who has always interest in writing has come to England for higher studies.
He transferred himself into a Don and has started to write his own tragedy by apoliging
Tara for doing this-“Forgive me Tara.Forgive me for making it my tragedy.”(12 )
Through this play, Dattani shows an overwhelming relevance to contemporary
reality .It is important to make an overview in this context that what significant is it to use
of medium of theatre to deliver the massages which are strong and need to be thought
properly. In an interview about Tara,Dattani clearly mentions that evoking sympathy
about Tara’s Character is not only focusing this writing exercise but also caste light on
the feminine sensibility of males, which when expresses is met disappointment. It is a
system of discrimination against women.
In this journey, Dattani makes comment to one of the burning topics of the 21st
century which is perceived in our cultural milieu .Through this play he has succeeded to
touch the hearts of his audience as well as his readers. He attributes Tara an identity who
is suffering from identity crisis in this modern gender biased society.
REFERENCES :
1. Angelie Multani-A Conversation with Mahesh Dattani,the Journal of the School of
language,Literature & Cultural Studies (JSL),IV,p-130.
2. Ibid.
3. Subramanyam, Lakshmi,(Ed),Muffled Voices: Women in Modern Indian Theatre, New
Delhi, Shakti, 2002
4. Mee, Erin, Collected Plays by Mahesh Dattani, Penguine Books.New Delhi.p- 360.
5. Ibid, p-348.
6. Ibid, p-328.
7. Ibid, p-328.
8. Ibid, p-328.
9. Angelie Multani-A Conversation with Mahesh Dattani,the Journal of the School of
language,Literature & Cultural Studies (JSL),IV,p-130.
10. Mee, Erin, Collected Plays by Mahesh Dattani, Penguine Books,New Delhi. p-379.
11. Ibid, p-370.
12. Ibid, p-380.
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72
ECONOMIC’S AND CHILD LABOUR
DR. KALPESH DHIRAJLAL KANJARIYA
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR(DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMICS)
S.S.P.JAIN ARTS & COMM.COLLEGE DHRANGADHARA
SUBJECT:
KEYWORDS:
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HM.V[P

UZLAL 38F0JF DF8[GF 5|ItG SZJF HM.V[P

AF/DH]ZL YL lX1F6 TZO PPPPP
 AF/DH]ZL ZMSJF DF8[ VF56[ X] SZL XSLV[ mPPPPP
 HIFZ[ 56 SM. AF/SG]\ XMQF6 YT] VF56[ HM.V[ TM T[GL jIlSTUT DNN SZJLP
 AF/SMGL ;]Z1FF DF8[ SFI"ZT ;\U9GM DF8[ ;DI lGSF/JMP
 SFZBFGF VG[ jIF5FZLVMG[ H6FJ] S[ T[VM AF/SM 5F;[ SFI" SZFJX[ TM T[GL J:T]VM SM.56 jIlST
BZLNX[ GlCP
 VF56F ;UFv;A\WLVMGF 3Z[ SM. AF/DHZ] CMI TM T[GF 3Z[ YL VF56[ RFv5F6L GM tIFU SZJM
HM.V[P
 SFZBFGFVM DF\ SFD SZTF SD"RFZLVM DF8[ HFU'TTF SFI"S|DM SZM H[YL T[ T[GF AF/SMG[ DH]ZL SZJFG[
AN,[ XF/FV[ DMS,[P
 VF56[ SM. HuiFFV[ SFD SZTF CMI TM tIF AF/DH]Z CMI TM T[G[ D]ST SZFJJM HM.V[PVG[ SM. JI:S
jIlST G[ SFD[ ZFBJM HM.V[P
 !_ VMS8MdAZ Z__& YL 3ZMDF\ VG[ Z[:8MZg8DF\ AF/DH]ZL SZJL V[ V5ZFW K[P T[J] ,MSMG[
;DHFJJ] HM.V[P
VFD VF56[ p5Z D]HA HMI] S[ AF/DH]ZL GL ;D:IF V[ B}AH U\ELZ ~5 WFZ6 SI}" K[PVG[ T[GF DF8[
36F SFZ6M HJFANFZ K[PVG[ T[GL ;LWL V;Z N[XGF VY"T\+5Z VG[ VFlY"S l:YlT 5Z 50TL CMJFGF
SFZ6[ VF ;D:IF G[ h05YL 38F0JF DF8[ p5ZNXF"J[, p5FIM VG[ T[ p5Z\FT lJlJW p5FIM XMWL VF
;D:IF G[ ZMSJL HM.V[ VG[ N[XGL VFlY"S l:YlT G[ ARFJJL HM.V[ VG[ AF/SMG[ DH]ZL V[ HTF ZMSL VG[
XF/F DF\ HTF SZJF HM.V[P
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76
EFZTDF\ AF/DH}ZL VG[ A\WFZ6LI
HMUJF>VM
0MP NLl%TAF lSXMZl;\C UMlC,
D},FSFTL jIbIFTF4ZFHIXF:+ lJEFU4XFD/NF; VF8"; SM,[H4V[DPS[PALP I]lGJl;"8L4EFJGUZP
SUBJECT:
KEYWORDS:
;FZF\X
AF/DH}ZLV[ lJSF;XL, VG[ V<5lJS;LT V[D AgG[ N[XMGL lJS8 ;D:IF K[P EFZTDF\
AF/DH]ZLGL ;D:IF lJSZF/ :J~5 WFZ6 SZTL HFI K[P V[S V\NFH 5|DF6[ VFH[ VF56F N[XDF\ H[8,F
AF/DH]ZM K[ T[8,L >hZFI, H[JF N[XGL S], J:TL 56 GYLP AF/DH]ZLG[ DFGJ ;HL"T ;D:IF SCL XSFIP
AF/D]HZLGL ;D:IF SIF SFZ6MYL pNEJ[ K[ m SIF H]YGF AF/SMG[ DH]ZL SZJF HJ]\ 50[ K[ m AF/DH]ZM
DF8[ A\WFZ6DF\ X]\ HMUJF>VM K[ m BZ[BZ JF:TlJS 5lZl:YlT X]\ K[ m AF/DH]ZL lGJFZJF X]\ SZL XSFI m
VF ;DU|G]\ lR\TG VFJxIS U6FIP
AF/DH}ZM DF8[GL A\WFZ6LI HMUJF>VM o
EFZTDF\ ;DIF\TZ[ AF/zD p5Z 5|lTA\W D}SLG[ AF/;]Z1FF DF8[ lJlJW HMUJF>VM SZJFDF\ VFJ[,L K[P
H[D S[4
 ,W]¿D J[TG WFZM 1948
 SFZBFGF VlWlGID 1948
 AULRF zD VlWlGID 1952
 JFCGjIJCFZ SFDNFZ VlWlGID 1951
 N]SFG VG[ ;\:YF VlWlGID 1953
 JCF6J8F jIF5FZL VlWlGID 1958
 V[5|[lg8; V[S8 19614 lXX] VlWlGID 1961 s;\XMlWT 1978f AF/SMG[ BTZGFS SFI" 5Z 5|lTA\W
 V6]pHF" WFZM 1962
 AL0L VG[ l;UZ[8 SFDNFZ sZMHUFZLGL XZTMf VlWlGID 1966
 BTZGFS DXLG lGIDG VlWlGID 1983
 ZB0TFvE8STF VG[ lGZFWFZ AF/SM DF8[ S[g§ ;ZSFZ[ H]J[GF>, Hl:8; V[S8 1983 DF\ VD,L
AGFjIM K[P
 AF/zD VlWGID 1986. EFZTDF\ VF lGID VgJI[ 14 JQF"YL GLR[GF AF/SMG[ 70 H[8,F HMBDL
jIJ;FIDF\ SFD[ HMTZJF p5Z 5|lTA\WP
 AF/zlDS VlWlGID 1996 sVf VlWlGIDMDF\ AF/SM DF8[ HMUJF>P
 AF/zD VlWlGID 2006 s1986 GM ;]WFZMfP VF VlWlGIDDF\ EFZT ;ZSFZ[ WZ[,]\ GMSZ TZLS[
AF/SG[ ZFBJF T[DH RFv5F6LGL N]SFGM4 Z[:8MZg84 CM8[,4 ZL;M8"; VYJF DGMZ\HG :Y/M 5Z
AF/SMG[ SFD[ ZFBJF 5Z 5|lTA\W D]S[, K[P
VF p5ZF\T AF/DH]ZMGL l:YTLDF\ ;]WFZM ,FJJF EFZTDF\ lJlJW ;lDlTVM VG[ SlDXGMGL ZRGF SZJFDF\
VFJ[, H[DF\ D]bItJ[
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77

W ZMI, SlDXG VMG ,[AZ 1929

,[AZ >gJ[:8LU[XG SlD8L 1944

G[XG, SlDXG VMG ,[AZ 1966

U]~5NF:JFDL ;lDlT 1979

;GT DC[TF ;lDTL
8]\SDF\ AF/DH]ZL V[SFV[S N]Z G SZL XSFI 5Z\T] VF56[ V[S HJFANFZ GFUlZS TZLS[ ;ZSFZGL ;FY[ ZCLG[
9M; VG[ GSSZ 5U,F EZJF 50X[P VF56L HFU'TTF VG[ ;ZSFZGL S8LAwWTF T[DF\ V;ZSFZS E}lDSF
EHJL XS[P
AF/DH}ZLV[ lJSF;XL, VG[ V<5lJS;LT V[D AgG[ N[XMGL lJS8 ;D:IF K[P EFZTDF\
AF/DH]ZLGL ;D:IF lJSZF/ :J~5 WFZ6 SZTL HFI K[P V[S V\NFH 5|DF6[ VFH[ VF56F N[XDF\ H[8,F
AF/DH]ZM K[ T[8,L >hZFI, H[JF N[XGL S], J:TL 56 GYLP AF/DH]ZLG[ DFGJ ;HL"T ;D:IF SCL XSFIP
AF/D]HZLGL ;D:IF SIF SFZ6MYL pNEJ[ K[ m SIF H]YGF AF/SMG[ DH]ZL SZJF HJ]\ 50[ K[ m AF/DH]ZM
DF8[ A\WFZ6DF\ X]\ HMUJF>VM K[ m BZ[BZ JF:TlJS 5lZl:YlT X]\ K[ m AF/DH]ZL lGJFZJF X]\ SZL XSFI m
VF ;DU|G]\ lR\TG VFJxIS U6FIP
AF/DH}ZLGL lJEFJGF VG[ T[GF 1F[+M o
V,UvV,U N[X4 ZFHI VG[ 5|N[X 5|DF6[ AF/DH]ZLGL jIFbIFDF\ TOFJT HMJF D/[ K[P EFZTDF\
A\WFZ6GL SM,D 24 D]HA SM>56 jIlST H[ 14 JQF"YL GLR[GL p\DZGM K[ T[G[ AF/S U6JFDF\ VFJ[ K[ VG[
T[GL 5F;[ SZFJJFDF\ VFJTL DH]ZLG[ ‘AF/ DH]ZL’ SC[JFI K[P ;DU| EFZTG[ ,FU] 50TF 1986 GF
AF/DH]ZL slGI\+6 VG[ lGIDGf GF SFINGFDF\ 56 VFH AFAT ,FU] 50[ K[P CMd; SMS;GF DT[
“AF/DH]ZL V[8,[ AF/SM £FZF SZFJDF\ VFJTM zD S[ H[ T[GF\ ;\5}6" XFZLlZS lJSF;DF\ T[DH T[DGL >rKF
5|DF6[G]\ VMKFDF\ VMK]\ lX1F6 D[/JJFDF\ VJZMWS AG[ K[P AF/DH]ZMGF DH]ZL SZJFGF 1F[+MDF\ 56 J{lJwI
HMJF D/[ K[P B[TL4 AF\WSFD4 GFGFvDM8F pnMUM4 CM8[,4 Z[:8MZg84 ZL;M8";4 GFGFvDM8F XM5L\U DM,4
XMv~54 U[Z[H4 DGMZ\HGGF :Y/M JU[Z[ HuIFV[ DM8F 5|DF6DF\ AF/DH]ZMGM p5IMU SZJFDF\ VFJ[ K[P
36L JBT S[OL N=jIMGL C[ZFO[ZLDF\ AF/SMGM p5IMU SZFJDF\ VFJ[ K[P H[ ElJQIDF\ AF/ V5ZFWG[ HgD
VF5[ K[P
AF/DH]ZLGF SFZ6M o

UZLAL

A[SFZL

lGZ1FZTF

S]8]\A,1FL IMHGFGM VEFJ

V7FGTF

5Z\5ZFUT J,6M

J:TLJ'wWL
AF/DH}ZMGL ;D:IFVM o

SFDGF AN,FDF\ VMK]\ J[TG

XMQF64 ;,FDTL4 VG[ ;]Z1FF jIJ:YFGM VEFJP

SFDGL BZFA 5lZl:YTL
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78

lGZ1FZTF

S}5MQF6 VG[ GA/]\ :JF:YI

jIJ;FI DFl,SMGM AF/DH}ZM ;FY[GM BZFA jIJCFZP

ZMHUFZLGL VlGlüTTF

V;CI SFI"AMH

jI;GM VG[ S}8[JMGM EMU
AF/DH]ZM VF lJlJW ;D:IFVMGM ;FDGM SZ[ K[P
EFZTDF\ AF/DH]ZL
EFZTDF\ K[<,F 50 JQF"DF\ AF/ DH]ZMGF VF\S0FVM VF 5|DF6[ K[P
JQF"
AF/DH]ZMGL ;\bIF
1971
1,07,53,985
1981
1,36,40,870
1991
1,12,85,349
2001
1,26,66,377
2011
43,53,247
p5ZMST VF\S0FSLI DFlCTL 5|DF6[ 2001 YL 2011 GF ;DIUF/F NZlDIFG AF/DH}ZMGL ;\bIFDF\
83,13,130 GM 38F0M YIM K[P EFZTDF\ VF\W|5|N[X VG[ pTZ5|N[XDF\ AF/DH}ZMGL ;\bIF ;F{YL JW] HMJF
D/[ K[P TYF S[gN=XFl;T 5|N[XMDF\ ZFHIMGL ;ZBFD6LDF\ AF/DH]ZM VMKF K[P
AF/DH}ZM DF8[GL A\WFZ6LI HMUJF>VM o
EFZTDF\ ;DIF\TZ[ AF/zD p5Z 5|lTA\W D}SLG[ AF/;]Z1FF DF8[ lJlJW HMUJF>VM SZJFDF\ VFJ[,L K[P
H[D S[4
 ,W]¿D J[TG WFZM 1948
 SFZBFGF VlWlGID 1948
 AULRF zD VlWlGID 1952
 JFCGjIJCFZ SFDNFZ VlWlGID 1951
 N]SFG VG[ ;\:YF VlWlGID 1953
 JCF6J8F jIF5FZL VlWlGID 1958
 V[5|[lg8; V[S8 19614 lXX] VlWlGID 1961 s;\XMlWT 1978f AF/SMG[ BTZGFS SFI" 5Z 5|lTA\W
 V6]pHF" WFZM 1962
 AL0L VG[ l;UZ[8 SFDNFZ sZMHUFZLGL XZTMf VlWlGID 1966
 BTZGFS DXLG lGIDG VlWlGID 1983
 ZB0TFvE8STF VG[ lGZFWFZ AF/SM DF8[ S[g§ ;ZSFZ[ H]J[GF>, Hl:8; V[S8 1983 DF\ VD,L
AGFjIM K[P
 AF/zD VlWGID 1986. EFZTDF\ VF lGID VgJI[ 14 JQF"YL GLR[GF AF/SMG[ 70 H[8,F HMBDL
jIJ;FIDF\ SFD[ HMTZJF p5Z 5|lTA\WP
 AF/zlDS VlWlGID 1996 sVf VlWlGIDMDF\ AF/SM DF8[ HMUJF>P
WWW.VIEWOFSPACE.ORG
79
 AF/zD VlWlGID 2006 s1986 GM ;]WFZMfP VF VlWlGIDDF\ EFZT ;ZSFZ[ WZ[,]\ GMSZ TZLS[
AF/SG[ ZFBJF T[DH RFv5F6LGL N]SFGM4 Z[:8MZg84 CM8[,4 ZL;M8"; VYJF DGMZ\HG :Y/M 5Z
AF/SMG[ SFD[ ZFBJF 5Z 5|lTA\W D]S[, K[P
VF p5ZF\T AF/DH]ZMGL l:YTLDF\ ;]WFZM ,FJJF EFZTDF\ lJlJW ;lDlTVM VG[ SlDXGMGL ZRGF SZJFDF\
VFJ[, H[DF\ D]bItJ[

W ZMI, SlDXG VMG ,[AZ 1929

,[AZ >gJ[:8LU[XG SlD8L 1944

G[XG, SlDXG VMG ,[AZ 1966

U]~5NF:JFDL ;lDlT 1979

;GT DC[TF ;lDTL
AF/DH]ZL lGJFZJFGF p5FIM o
AF/DH]ZLGF ZF1F;G[ GFYJF DF8[ GSSZ VG[ ;RM8 p5FIMG]\ VD,LSZ6V[ JT"DFG ;DIGL TFTL H~ZLIFT
K[P VF DF8[_

AF/SMGL S<IF6SFZL IMHGFVMGM ACM/M O[,FJM SZJMP

;ZSFZGL IMHGFVM VG[ SFINFVMGF VD,LSZ6DF\ ;DFHGM ;\5}6" ;CIMU D[/JJMP

SFINF VG[ XF;G £FZF T[VMGL l:YlT ;]WFZJF ,F\AFUF/FGF 5U,F ,[JFP

UZLAL4 A[SFZL N]Z SZJLP DOT VG[ OZlHIFT lX1F6GM R}:T VD, SZFJJMP

J:TLJ'lwWV[ AF/DH]ZLG]\ VUtIG]\ SFZ6 CMJFYL 17 H],F> S]8]\A lGIMHG lNGGL pHJ6L SZLG[
J:TL lGI\+6GL ;O/TF DF8[ 5|ItG SZJMP

lGZ1FZTF 56 AF/DH]ZL DF8[ HJFANFZ CMJFYL 8DL ;%8[dAZ lJ`J ;F1FZTF lNGG[ pHJLG[
BZFVY"DF\ lGZ1FZTF lGJFZLG[ AF/DH]ZL lGJFZL XSFIP

19 DL VMS8MAZ DG]QI UF{ZJ lNG pHJLG[ AF/S DH]ZLG[ N}Z SZJFDF\ 5|ItG SZL XSFIP

20 DL GJ[dAZ VF\TZZFQ8=LI AF/ VlWSFZ lNGG[ pHJLG[ AF/SMG[ BZFVY"DF\ T[DGF VlWSFZM
VF5LG[ AF/DH]ZL GFA}N SZL XSFIP
8]\SDF\ AF/DH]ZL V[SFV[S N]Z G SZL XSFI 5Z\T] VF56[ V[S HJFANFZ GFUlZS TZLS[ ;ZSFZGL ;FY[ ZCLG[
9M; VG[ GSSZ 5U,F EZJF 50X[P VF56L HFU'TTF VG[ ;ZSFZGL S8LAwWTF T[DF\ V;ZSFZS E}lDSF
EHJL XS[P
:J{lrKS ;\:YFVMGL DNN ,> XSFIP EFZTDF\ 36FBZF ZFHIMDF\ VFJL ;\:YFVM 5|tI1F S[ 5ZM1F ZLT[
AF/DH]ZL N}Z SZJFGF SFI"ÊDM CFY[ WZ[ K[ AF/DH]ZMGM X{1Fl6S lJSF; SZJM4 VFZMuIGL ;\EF/ VG[
5MQFS VFCFZ 5]ZM 5F0J4 jIJ;FlIS TF,LD VF5JL4 TYF AF/DH]ZLGF ;\NE"DF\ ;FDFlHS HFU'lT
lJS;FJJFG]\ SFI" T[VM SZ[ K[P VF p5ZF\T ;ZSFZGF UZLAL4 A[SFZL4 lGZ1FZTFGF lJlJW SFI"ÊDMDF\ 5ZM1F
ZLT[ 56 :J{lrKS ;\:YFVM 5MTFGM OF/M VF5TL CMI K[P EFZTDF\ VFJL W6L :J{lrKS ;\:YFVM K[ H[D S[4

;[JF

lN<CL SFplg;, OMZ RF><0 J[<O[Z

lN<CL BFT[G\] S[YMl,S 0[J,5D[g8 ;[,

5|EFTFZF v SFD SZTF AF/SM DF8[GM 5|MU|FD

lYI[8Z V[SXG U'5

>lg0IG SFplg;, OMZ RF><0 J[<O[Z
WWW.VIEWOFSPACE.ORG
80

A8Z O,F>h s:8=L8 lR<0=G DF8[GF 5|MU|FDf
VFJL lAG;ZSFZL ;\:YFVMGF ;CIMUYL AF/DH]ZL N]Z SZJF lGQ9F5}J"S 5|ItG SZJF ZCIFP
;\NE”;}lR
(1)
0F"P >,F V[DP D[SJFG ccAF/DH]Z V[S ;DFHXF:+LI VwIIGcc 5F`J" 5la,S[XG4 VDNFJFN4
2007 5'v13, 14
(2)
0F"P ClQF"NF V[RP NJ[ cc;FDFlHS ;D:IFVMcc I]lGJl;"8L U\|YlGDF"6 AM0"4 VDNFJFN4 2000 5'104
(3)
0F"P SFgTF DL6F ccAF,zDo HGHFTLI XMQF6 S[ ;FDFlHS VFlY"S VFIFDcc VFlN 5la,[SXG4
HI5]ZP 2011 5'-150
(4)
IVA George “Child Labour and Child Work” Ashish publishing house,
New Delhi 1990
(5)
cIMHGFc D[U[hLG V[l5|, 2011 5'-19
(6)
cIMHGFc D[U[hLG GJ[dAZ 2011 5'-30, 31
(7)
cIMHGFc D[U[hLG GJ[dAZ 2012 5'-37
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81
;D:IF5|WFG GJ,SYF vcA+L; 5}T/LGL
J[NGFc
5|FP 0F"P µlD",F V[GP 58[,
zL V[RP V[GP NMXL VF8;" V[g0 zL VFZP V[GP NMXL SMD;"” SM,[H4 JF\SFG[Z4 TFPJF\SFG[Z
SUBJECT:
KEYWORDS:
;FZF\X
U]HZFTL ;FlCtIDF\ GJ,SYF 1F[+[ .,F VFZA DC[TFG]\ GFD 56 GM\W5F+ AGL ZC[ K[P .,F VFZA
DC[TFGL cA+L; 5}T/LGL J[NGFc DF\ I]UMYL 5]Z]QF5|WFG ;DFHDF\ NAFTL4 SR0FTL4 5L0FTL VFJ[,L4 5]Z]QFMGF
H],D4 VtIFRFZ4 VgIFIGM ;NF EMU AGTL VFJ[,L GFZLGL J[NGFG[ JFRF VF5JFGF pN[X ,[lBSFV[ VF
ZRGFG]\ VF,[BG SI"] K[P
5|:T]T S'lTGF lGJ[NGDF\ H ,[lBSFV[ :5Q8 SI"] K[ T[D cc H[ ;DFHDF\ 5ZFS|DM OST 5]Z]QFMGF\ CMI4
l;\CF;GM OST 5]Z]QFM DF8[ CMI4 G[ :+LVM HIF\ S[J/ l;\CF;GGL XMEF JWFZGFZL 5}T/LVM CMI tIF\ HM V[
5}T/LVM 5MTFGL J[NGGFG[ JFRF VF5[ TM ;HF"I K[ cA+L; 5}T/LGL J[NGFc V[ ZLT[ HMTF\ VF S°lT
pN[X5|WFG K[P GFZLHLJGGL lRZ\TG ;D:IF V[GF S[g§DF\ K[ VG[ V[ pN[X l;wW SZJFDF\ ,[lBSFG[ ;O/TF
D/L K[P VF GJ,SYFGF ,UEU A+L; H[8,F\ GFGFDM8F\ GFZL5F+MGF VF,[BG äFZF ,[lBSFV[
GFZLHLJGGL GJL ;D:IF VG[ jIYFSYFG]\ VF,[BG SI] K[P 36L BZL GFZLVM 5MTFGF NFdItIHLJGGL V[
;D:IFVMGM4 jIYFvJ[NGFGM 5MTFGL VF5;]hYL pS[, ,FJJFGM 56 5|IF; SZ[ K[P V\lTD 5|SZ6DF\
GF8SGF GFZL 5F+M 5]Z]QF5|WFG ;DFHZRGF ;FD[ H[ lJãMC SZ[ K[ T[ 56 V[ ;D:IFGM H V[S pS[, K[P
VG]ZFWF4 lJEFJZL4 KFIF4 Z[BF4 lJGMlNGL H[JF 5F+MGL R[TGF lJ:TZ[ K[P VG[ T[VM ;DFHDF\ NAFI[,F4
SR0FI[,F\4 5L0FTF\ DFGJLVMGL ;[JFDF\ GFZLHLJGGL ;FY"STF HMTF\ YFI K[P jIlSTGL A/A/TL J[NGF
;DlQ8GF ;[JFGF R\NG,[5YL XLT/ YFI K[P lJGMNGL4 Z[BF4 VG]ZFWF JU[Z[G[ V[ ;D:IFGM V[ pS[, ,FW[ K[P
cc ,[lBSFG]\ HLJG NX"G VF ;D:IF5|WFG GJ,SYFDF\ DM8[ EFU[ GJ,SYFGL XZT[ YI[,]\ V[8,[ V[ VF:JFn
AGL ZC[ K[P
U]HZFTL ;FlCtIDF\ WLZ]AC[G4 S]\NlGSF SF5l0IF4 ;]CF; VMhF4 ;ZMH 5F9S4 JQFF"” V0F,HF JU[Z[
,[lBSFVM V[DGF GJ,SYF ,[BGYL wIFG B[\R[ K[P T[DF\ .,F VFZA DC[TFG]\ GFD 56 GM\W5F+ pD[ZM AGL
ZC[ K[P S]\NlGSF SF5l0IF4 WLZ]AC[G 58[,4 ;ZMH 5F9S SZTF\ 56 .ITFGL NlQ8V[ VF ,[lBSFGL
GJ,SYFVM V[GL ;\bIFDF\ Rl0IFTL K[P
S]\NlGSF SF5l0IFGL c ;FT 5U,F\ VFSFXDF\ c A°CN GJ,SYFGL IFN VF5[ T[JL .,F VFZA
DC[TFGL cA+L; 5}T/LGL J[NGFc DF\ I]UMYL 5]Z]QF5|WFG ;DFHDF\ NAFTL4 SR0FTL4 5L0FTL VFJ[,L4 5]Z]QFMGF
H],D4 VtIFRFZ 4 VgIFIGM ;NF EMU AGTL VFJ[,L GFZLGL J[NGFG[ JFRF VF5JFGF pN[XYL ,[lBSFV[ VF
ZRGFG]\ VF,[BG SI]" K[P
XFD/GL c A+L; 5}T/LGL JFTF" c GF .,FAC[GG[ T[DGL GJ,SYFGF cA+L; 5}T/LGL
J[NGFc DF\ 5|IF;G[ XLQF"SYL ZRGFGF J:T]G[ pN3Fl8T SZL NLW]\ K[P XFD/GL JFTFDF\ TM 5}T/LVM ;FR[ H
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PSYCHOSOCIAL IMPACTS ON CHILD
LABOUR
PROF. I. J. SAIYAD
DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY,SHREE JASANI ARTS & COMM.COLLEGE RAJKOT
SUBJECT:
KEYWORDS:
ABSTRACT
Child labour is the most visible type of child abuse and neglect in India. In spite of
contra-legislation, it continues unabated. The enforcement machinery is inadequate. This
paper is a discussion of why child labour is a form of child abuse and neglect. Definitions
of child labour and child abuse and neglect are presented. These are followed by a report
on the extent of child labour in India and the industries employing children, set within a
description of the legislative context. The causes of child labour and their consequences
are also discussed. There is a dearth of Indian research on the psychological consequences
of child abuse, and of child labour in particular. Only the physical consequences of child
labour in a few industries in India have been documented. Research findings from the
developed nations are touched upon for a discussion of the psychological sequelae.
EFFECTS OF CHILD LABOR
Childhood is perhaps the most blessed stage in a human life. It is that phase of life
where, children are not really aware of any form of worldly responsibilities, they are free
from all the tensions and they can learn a whole lot of new things. No wonder, people
keep having this wistful desire of going back to their childhood and relive all those
beautiful memories. But there is other side to this phase and in that, many children are
forced to work in inhumane conditions. This phase is also known by “child labor” where a
child is full of tensions and burdens and he has to perform the tough job of being primary
earning member of the family. Such children lose their innocence to satisfy the needs and
wants of their family. The problem of child labor is huge and is faced by many countries in
the world.
Child labor is not a recent phenomenon. Throughout human history, children have
been made to work under hazardous and unhealthy conditions. In other words, child
exploitation has remained an integral part of our culture and despite the advances made
by us in last few centuries; we haven’t been able to eradicate this menace. Children are
made to work in factories, mining, agriculture, on streets and as domestic helps. Child
labor is an attack on basic rights of the children. Leave alone lack of educational
opportunities to them, most of these children are malnourished and treated like animals.
Child labor practices causes damage to a child’s physical and mental health apart from
depriving him of his basic rights to education, development, and freedom. Unfortunately,
the number of underage children working in unfavorable working conditions has kept on
increasing.
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India has one of the largest populations of child laborers. These children work in
unsafe environments where there is a constant danger of fatal accidents. Children
employed as laborers spend most of their waking hours working. They are condemned to
a life of poverty, illiteracy, and prolonged misery with no end in sight. They are required
to perform grueling and physically demanding tasks and in return receive only meager
wages. Poor working conditions cause severe health problems to such children. A child
labor not just suffers physical and mental torture but also becomes mentally and
emotionally mature too fast which is never a good sign.
As children are sensitive to influences of toxics, chemicals, noise, pollution, heat
and accidents, as a result of which many children develop lifelong health complications in
worst cases, even lose their lives. A large number of child laborers are employed in
mining, manufacturing, transportation and construction sectors where chances of fatal
injuries are quite high. Because of the environmental influence, underage children suffer
from permanent psychological scars. They do not possess confidence or self esteem. It is
hard to imagine, how we as a country are going to prosper when a significant population
of the nation suffers from such huge problems. It is not just duty of the government to
take appropriate measures to rectify the situation but it is also the responsibility of the
Indian citizens to contribute their bit in getting rid of barbaric practice of child labor.
CHILD ABUSE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
“In recent decades some extreme forms of violence against children, including
sexual exploitation and trafficking, female genital mutilation (FGM), the worst forms of
child labour and the impact of armed conflict, have provoked international outcry and
achieved a consensus of condemnation, although no rapid remedy. But in addition to
these extreme forms of violence, many children are routinely exposed to physical, sexual
and psychological violence in their homes and schools, in care and justice systems, in
places of work and in their communities. All of this has devastating consequences for their
health and well-being now and in the future.”
Child Abuse
“Child abuse is not simply any harm that befalls children. Children throughout the
world suffer from a multitude of harms- malnutrition, starvation, infectious disease,
congenital defects, abandonment, economic exploitation, the violence of warfare, to name
a few. Not all harm that befalls children is child abuse.” (2) Child abuse is harm resulting
from intentional human action. The most fundamental attribute of child abuse is that it is
harmful to the child and detrimental to his/her well-being. There is also an important
difference between unintentional and intentional harm. “It has been observed that what is
so destructive about child abuse and neglect (as opposed to other forms of injury) is that
the betrayal of the child’s trust leads to defective socialization.” Child abuse is correlated
with unemployment and poverty. “Rates of abuse and neglect can be thought of as
indicators of the quality of life for families, and maltreatment can be viewed as a
symptom, rather than a cause, of difficulties in family and individual functioning.” Thus,
overall rates of child abuse are higher in regions characterized by a higher proportion of
low-income families and in regions with unusually high rates of unemployment.
There are four main categories of child abuse: physical abuse, emotional abuse,
neglect, and sexual abuse
Physical Abuse
Studies from countries around the world suggest that up to 80 to 98 % of children
suffer physical punishment in their homes, and it is estimated that 57,000 children under
the age of 15 die as a result of physical abuse per year Physical abuse can range from
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minor bruises to severe fractures or death as a result of punching, beating, hitting,
shaking, or otherwise harming a child. One of the most common types of physical abuse in
infants includes Shaken Baby Syndrome.
Emotional Abuse and Neglect
Emotional abuse is behavior that impairs a child’s emotional development or
sense of self-esteem. It may include threats, constant criticism, as well as withholding
love, support, or guidance. Neglect is a pattern of failing to provide for a child’s basic
physical and emotional needs. Neglect is a very common type of child abuse, and
according to Child Welfare Information Gateway, more children suffer from neglect than
from physical and sexual abuse combined.
Sexual Abuse and Child Prostitution
Sexual abuse of a child is any sexual act between an adult and a child which may
include sexual intercourse, incest, rape, oral sex, sodomy, inappropriate touching, or
kissing. “An overview of studies in 21 countries (mostly developed) found that 7-36% of
women and 3-29% of men reported sexual victimization during childhood, and the
majority of studies found girls to be abused at 1.5-3 times the rate for males. Most of the
abuse occurred within the family circle.”
Child prostitution “involves offering the sexual services of a child or inducing a
child to perform sexual acts for a form of compensation, financial or
otherwise.” Worldwide, approximately 1 million children are forced into prostitution
every year, and it is estimated that the total number of child prostitutes is as high as 10
million. “Generally children do not commit child prostitution but the adults who engage in
prostitution or offer a child’s sexual services to others force them. It is estimated that at
least 1 million girls worldwide are lured or forced into this scandalous form of child
exploitation. Child prostitution is more frequent in developing countries such as Brazil
and Thailand where more than 200,000 children are exploited.” Child prostitution is not
only a cause of death and high morbidity for millions of children, but also a gross violation
of their rights. Prostitution negatively affects children’s sexual health, causes
psychological harm, and puts them at risk for enduring increased violence.
Sexual Health: Child prostitutes are at a high risk of contracting HIV. HIV infection
rates in prostituted children range from 5% in Vietnam to 17% in Thailand. One study
reports that 50-90% of children rescued from brothels in Southeast Asia are infected with
HIV. Prostituted children are also at a high risk of acquiring other STDs. For example, one
study found that child prostitutes have STD rates in Cambodia of 36% and in China of
78%, compared to the 5% yearly incidence of STDs in adolescents worldwide.
Psychological Harm: Child prostitution also causes serious long-term
psychological harm, including anxiety, depression, and behavioral disorders. Prostituted
children are at a high risk of suicide and post-traumatic stress disorder. A study
conducted in the U.S. found that 41% of pregnant prostituted adolescents reported having
seriously considered or attempted suicide within the past year
Violence: Prostituted children are at a high risk of enduring injuries and violence. The
children may be physically and emotionally abused into submission, while girls may be
beaten to induce miscarriages. A study of 475 child prostitutes in five countries found that
73% of participants had been physically assaulted while working as a sex worker, and
62% reported having been raped.
REFERENCE
(1) “World Report on Violence and Health.” The World Health Organization. (2002).
Accessed on 11 February 2011.
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(2) Finkelhor, D., and Korbin, J. “Child abuse as an international issue.” Child Abuse &
Neglect. 12 (1988). Accessed on 8 February 2011.
(3) Blyth, M. “Child Abuse and Neglect in Developing Countries.” Accessed on 14 February
2011.
(4) Steinberg, L., Catalano, R., and Dooley, D. “Economic Antecedents of Child Abuse and
Neglect.” Child Development. 52.3 (1981). Accessed on 14 February 2011.
(5) Finkelhor, D., and Korbin, J. “Child abuse as an international issue.” Child Abuse &
Neglect. 12 (1988). Accessed on 8 February 2011.
(6) “Rights of the child.” UN General Assembly. (2006). Accessed on 11 February 2011.
(7)“Child Abuse and Dangers for Children Worldwide.” Accessed on 14 February 2011.
(8) Ibid.
(9)“Child Abuse and Dangers for Children Worldwide.” Accessed on 14 February 2011.
(10) “Rights of the child.” UN General Assembly. (2006). Accessed on 11 February 2011.
(11) Willis, B., and Levy, B. “Child prostitution: global health burden, research needs, and
interventions.” Lancet. 359.9315 (2002). Accessed on 8 February 2011.
(12) Yadav, S., and Sengupta, G. “Environmental and Occupational Health Problems of
Child Labour: Some Issues and Challenges for Future.” J. Hum Ecol. 28.2 (2009). Accessed
on 10 February 2011.
(13) Willis, B., and Levy, B. “Child prostitu
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SUBJECT:
KEYWORDS:
cH[D BMZFSDF\ lGDS4 V[D JFTRLTDF\ SC[JTMPPP H}GF VFZAM SC[TF CTFP SC[JTM SIFZ[ X~ Y.4
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SC[JTM 36L JFZ WD"U|\YM S[ 5]ZF6MGF EFJFY[" 56 CMI K[P SM. JFZ SM. 5|Rl,T ;H"SGL 5|l;â
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SUBJECT:
KEYWORDS:
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5Z\T] V[ AF/DH}ZL H SCL XSFIP
3P lGZ1FZTF o U|FdI lJ:TFZDF\ DFTFvl5TF lGZ1FZ CMI K[P lX1F6G]\ DCtJ ;DHTF GYL p\R] ÒJG WMZ6GM
bIF, GYL H[YL DFTFvl5TF AF/SMG[ 56 E6FJJFG]\ J,6 V5GFJTF GYLP 5MT[ lXl1FT GCL CMJFYL
AF/SG[ 56 lX1F6 VF5JFG]\ lJRFZTF GYLP XF/F KM0FJL N[JFDF\ VFJ[ K[ WMZ6 10 YL 12 ;]WLG]\ lX1F6
AF/S D[/J[ K[ T[ 5KLYL AF/S SFD SZLG[ VFJS D[/JJF TZO J/[ K[P
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4. S[8,FS jIJ;FIDF\ AF/SMG[H pt5FNG SFI"DF\ ZFBJFDF\ VFJ[ K[P VFJF pnMUM AF/SMGL lJlXQ8
VFJ0T p5Z VFWFlZT CMI K[P H[JF S[ CFYJ6F8 H[JF GFGF SFDM H[DF\ AF/SMGL GFGLvGFGL VF\U/LVMGM
p5IMU YTM CMI tIF\ AF/DH}ZMGL 36L DF\U ZC[ K[P VFJF jIJ;FIMDF\ AF/SM JUZ pt5FNG SZL XSFT]\
GYLP p5ZF\T VGFY AF/SM :JEFlJS ZLT[ H AF/DH}ZL TZO J/TF CMI K[P lX1F6 D[/JJFGM SM.
VJSFX GCL ZC[TF VFJF AF/SM AF/DH}ZL TZO J/TF CMI K[P
5P U|FdI lJ:TFZDF\ DM;DL VG[ 5|rKgG A[SFZL JWFZ[ CMI K[P DF8[ DFTFvl5TF äFZF AF/SMG[ ZMHUFZL
D[/JJF DF8[ XC[ZMDF\ DMS,JFDF\ VFJ[ K[P XC[ZMDF\ VFJF jIJ;FIM CMI K[ S[ H[DF\ AF/SM äFZFH SFD
SZFJL XSFI K[P p5ZF\T XC[ZMDF\ GFGL ;\:YFDF\ 3ZSFDDF\ 56 AF/SM DM8L ;\bIFDF\ SFD SZ[ K[ H[DF 10
JQF"GF AF/SG[ 14 JQF"GM ATFJL N[JFDF\ VFJ[ K[ VG[ AF/S[ AF/ DH}ZL SZJL 50[ K[P
6P EFZTDF\ AF/DH}ZL ;\A\lWT SFINF jIJ:YF AGFJJFDF\ VFjIF K[ 5Z\T] VF SFINFVMGF VD, DF8[
lX1F6 TYF T5F;GL IMuI jIJ:YFG]\ 5|DF6 VMK] K[ VG[ AF/DH}ZLG[ 5|Mt;FCG D/[ K[P AF/SMG[ SFINFYL
;EFG SZFJJF Sl9G K[P
7P ,FZL4 N]SFGMDF\ AF/SG[ GÒJL ZMHUFZL VF5L SFD VF5JFDF\ VFJ[ K[ SFZ6 S[ VFJ] SFI" AF/S Z;YL SZ[
K[ p5ZF\T ZMHUFZL JW] R}SJJL 50TL GYL VG[ AF/S lX1F6YL J\lRT ZCL HFI K[P VG[ SFIDL WMZ6[
AF/DH}ZLDF\YL DH}Z AGL HFI K[P VG[ GLRF ÒJG WMZ6[ ÒJG ÒJJ]\ 50[ K[P ;FY[ JFZ;FDF\ 56 DH}ZGM H
HgD VF5[ K[P
AF/DH}ZLGL ;D:IFGF p5FIM
VF56F N[XDF\ VG[S ;D:IFVMDF\ AF/DH}ZLG[ GHZ V\NFH SZL XSFI GCL\
1P SFINFG]\ ;\5}6" VD,LSZ6 o EFZTDF\ AF/DH}ZLGL ;D:IFGF lGJFZ6 DF8[ SFINFSLI jIJ:YFVM
SZJFDF\ VFJL K[P H[JL S[ SFZBFGF V[S8 1922, SFZBFGF V[S8 1934, BF6 V[S8 1952, AF/ V[S8
1933, AF/ZMHUFZ V[S8 1938 JU[Z[ SFINF AGFJJFDF\ VFjIF K[P VF SFINFVMGF VD, DF8[ T5F;
VG[ lGZL1F6 jIJ:YF AGFJFI V[ H~ZL K[P HM SFINFVMG]\ p<,\3G YT]\ V8SFJJFDF\ VFJ[ TM AF/DH}ZLGL
;D:IF 36L VMKL Y. HX[P
2P AF/DH}ZMGF S]8]\AGL VFlY"S 5lZl:YlT ;]WZ[ T[JF 5|IF;M YJF HM.V[P NFPTP ;ZSFZ[ ,MG4 ;A;L0L
UZLA S]8]\AGF lJSF; DF8[ VF5JL H[YL DFTFvl5TFG[ AF/SMG[ ZMHUFZL 5Z DMS,JFGL OZH GCL 50[ VG[
AF/S lX1F6 D[/JJF TZO J/[P H[YL ElJQIDF\ AF/S lX1F6DF\ VFU/ JWL XS[P U|FdI lJ:TFZGF ,MSM
VG]SZ6 SZL lX1F6G]\ :TZ p\R] ,FJL XS[P
3P VGFY AF/SMG[ DF8[ VFzD jIJ:YF JWFZJLP EFZTDF\ VGFY VFzDM SFI"ZT K[P T[D KTF 36F VGFY
AF/SM Z:TFVM 5Z ELB DF\UTF HMJF D/[ K[P VF AF/SM VgI SM. jIJ:YF GCL D/TF DH}ZL TZO J/[
K[P H[YL U|FdI lJ:TFZDF\ VGFY AF/SM DF8[ VFzDGL jIJ:YF 5}ZL 5F0JFDF\ VFJ[ TM AF/SM VFzDDF\
ZCL lX1F6 D[/JL XS[ VG[ AF/DH}ZLG]\ 5|DF6 38L XSX[P
4P TFH[TZDF\ AF/DH}ZL V8SFJJF X[ZL GF8SM4 XF/FVMDF\ 5M:8Z :5WF"4 UFDGF S'lQFD[/F H[JF SFI"S|DMDF\
AF/DH}ZL V8SFJJF 36F lJlXQ8 VlEIFGM VG[ SFI"S|DM V5GFJJFDF\ VFJL ZCIF K[P H[DF\ ;DFH ;lS|I
ZLT[ EFU ,[ V[ H~ZL K[P ;ZSFZGF DF+ 5|IF;M 5}ZTF GYL 5Z\T] ;DFHGL HFU~STF 56 DCtJGL K[P
;DFH AF/DH}ZL V8SFJJF HFU'T AGX[ TM AF/DH}ZL GFA}N SZL XSX[P
5P AF/DH}ZL V8SFJJF DF8[ DFTFvl5TFG]\ IMUNFG ;F{YL z[Q9 K[ HM DFTFvl5TF lX1F6 5|tI[ HFU'T AGX[
TM AF/SM G[ lX1F6 TZO JF/X[ VG[ AF/ DH}ZL 38X[P
6P ;DFHDF\ AF/ VlWSFZM V\U[GL HFU'lT ,FJJF 5|IF;M SZJF HM.V[P
7P AF/zD VFWFlZT SFZBFGFVMDF\ IF\l+SZ6 äFZF pt5FNG XSI AG[ T[JF 5|IF;M SZJF HM.V[P
8P J:TL lGI\+6 DF8[ S]8]\AlGIMHGGL V;ZSFZSTF JWFZJL HM.V[P
9P AF/zD ZMSJF 5|FYlDS lX1F6 OZÒIFT VG[ lGoX]<S H~ZL K[P
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10P HF6LTF VY"XF:+L 5|FP NF\TJF,FV[ H6FjI]\ K[ S[ UZLAM pt5FNS AGX[ TM H UZLAL GFA}N YX[ VF
ãlQ8V[ UZLAM DF8[GF ZMHUFZL SFI"S|DMG]\ VFIMHG DF+ ;\3 pt5FNS IMHGF DF8[ SZJ]\ HM.V[P H[DF\ GFGL
l;\RF.GF SFDM4 J'1FFZM564 H/;\RI IMHGFG[ ;JM"rR VU|TF VF5JL HM.V[P UZLAL GFA}NL SFI"S|DGL
;DU| ZSD UZLAMGF lB;F ;]WL 5CM\R[ T[JL jIJ:YF SZJL HM.V[ H[YL UZLAL N}Z YTF AF/SM lX1F6 TZO
J/X[P
11P J:TL J'lâ VG[ S]8]\AMGF DM8F SNG[ SFZ6[ ;HF"TL ;D:IFVMGL HF6SFZL ;DFHG[ 5}ZL 5F0JLP
12P AF/ DH}ZL V8SFJJF N[XDF\ AF/DH}ZL V\U[GF G}TG SFINFGF 5|J[X JQF"DF\ 26 DL l0;[dAZ[ 2006
GF VF56F 85F, lJEFU äFZF “AF/zDZMSM” lXQF"S[ RFZ BF; ACZ\UL 85F,vl8lS8MGM V[S ;]\NZ ;[8
ACFZ 5F0IM CTMP 5|tI[S 5F\R ~l5IF D}<IGL VG VF0F VFSFZGL VF :8[d5; 5Z NMZ0F 5Z B[, NXF"JTF4
BE[ 5FJ0M GFBL HTF4 SL8,LDF\YL u,F;DF\ RF Z[0TF VG[ DFY[ UD[,] p5F0L SRZM ,. HTF AF/ zlDSMGL
5|lTSFtDS T;JLZM NXF"JJFDF\ VFJL CTL H[GM C[T] AF/DH}ZL ZMSJFGM CTMP
p5;\CFZ o
EFZTN[XDF\ 14 DL GJ[dAZ GM lNJ; V[ ‘AF/lNG’ TZLS[ pHJFI K[P AF/SM SM.56 ZFQ8=GL D}<IJFG
;\5l¿ K[P SM.56 ;DFHG]\ ElJQI T[GF AF/SM K[P T[DG[ lJSF;GL 5}ZTL TSM VF5JL V[ ZFQ8=GF lJSF;
DF8[ H~ZL K[P
;\NE" ;}lR o
1P U|FdI lJ:TFZGL D],FSFT
2P IMHGF D[ 2008
3P VY";\S,G
4P VF{nMlUS VY"XF:+
5P ;\N[X 5[5Z
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AF/ DH]ZM GL DGM ;FDFlHS H~ZLIFTM VG[
;D:IFVM GM V[S VeIF;
0MP HI[XS]DFZ VFZP AFDZM8LIF
VF8"; V[g0 SMD;" SM,[HvD[\NZ0F
SUBJECT:
KEYWORDS:
EFZTDF\ AF/ DH]ZL VG[ AF/ SFDNFZ ;DU| N[XGL B]A H jIF5S ;D:IF K[P AF/ DH]ZL YL
AF/SGF VlWSFZM4 :JT\+TF4 lX1F64 VFZMuI ;\EF/4 ;DFG DGM ;FDFlHS l:YlT4 5{T'S ;\EF/4 5|[D VG[
,FU6LGL ÛlQ8ŸV[ DFGJ lJSF; GL JFD6L ~5Z[BF TZLS[ HMJFDF\ VFJ[ K[P VG[S SFG]GL Z1F6 VG[ T[GF äFZF
YTL AF/ DH]ZM G[ DNN T[G]\ lX1F6 VG[ T[GF DGM ;FDFlHS lJSF; VFH[ B]A H lR\TFG]\ SFZ6 AgI]\ K[P T[DF\
56 AF/ DH]ZM DF\ KMSZLVM S[ SgIFVM T[DF\ HM0FI K[ T[JL SgIFVM ,UEU 60% YL 70% K[ VG[
T[VMGL ;D:IFVM JWFZ[ U\ELZ :J~5 GL HMJF D/[ K[P H[JL S[ T[VM V;]Z1FLT4 lGZ1FZTF4 IMuI VFZMuI
;\EF/ YL J\RLT T[DH jIlSTUT T[DH ;FDFlHS HJFANFZLVMYL B]A H NAFI[,L HMJF D/[, K[P
5|:T]T VeIF; H]GFU- XC[Z DF\ J;TL AF/ DH]ZL SZTL SgIFVM G[ ;C[T]S lGNX" TZLS[ 5;\N SZL
G[ SZJFDF\ VFjIM tIFZ[ p5ZMST 5lZ6FDM HMJF D/[, CTFP
;NZ ;\XMWG GF C[T] G[ wIFG DF\ ZFBL G[ ;J["1F6 5wWlT TYF D},FSFT VG];]lR 5wWlT äFZF
DFlCTL V[S+LT SZJFDF\ VFJL CTLP
VF56F ZFQ8= GF ;JF"UL lJSF; DF8[ VFJL AF/FVM G]\ Z1F6 SZJ]\ V[ VF56L OZH AG[ K[P T[YL
T[GL ;D:IFVMGL HF6SFZL GM V[S 5|IF; VF ;\XMWGDF\ SZJFDF\ VFjIM CTMP
5lZRIov
EFZT N[XDF\ AF/ SFDNFZGL ;D:IFVM V[S jIF5S ;FDFlHS ;D:IFG]\ :J~5 WFZ6 SZ[ K[ VG[
T[GL lJSF; IF+FDF\ V[S XF5 ~5 ;FALT YT]\ HFI K[P AF/SMGF VWLSFZM G[ ;]Z1FLT HFC[Z SZTL IMHGFVM
56 36L JBT JFD6L 5}ZJFZ YFI K[P KMSZFVM VG[ KMSZLVM JrR[ ZC[,L ;FDFlHS ;ZBFD6L GL BF.
B]A H p\0F. ;]WL lJ:TZ[,L GHZ[ 50[ K[P VF AF/SM G]\ YT]\ VFlY"S XMQF64 VFZMuI GL ;\EF/ 5ZtJ[
HFU'TTF4 DGM ;FDFlHS pK[Z GL 5wWlT4 lX1F64 :JT\+TF JU[Z[ AFATM ZFQ8= DF8[ TYF ;DFH DF8[ T[DH
jIlSTUT H~ZLIFTM G[ wIFG[ ZFBL G[ W6L JBT HMBDL T[DH U\ELZ AFATM TZO lNXF lGN["X SZ[ K[P
HFlTUT lEgGTF\ VG[ T[GF pK[ZDF\ YTL VF\TZ lS|IFVM 56 V[S V;CGLI JF:TlJSTF G]\ NX"G SZFJ[ K[P
VFJL jIlSTUT T[DH ;FDFlHS 5lZl:YlT DF\ XFlZlZS4 DFGl;S4 ;FDFlHS4 VFwIFltDS VG[ G{lTS
lJSF;GL RRF"VM 36L JBT V:YFG[ ,FU[ K[P
VFH[ lJ`JDF\ KMSZFVM VG[ KMSZLVM G[ ;DFG U6JFDF\ VFJ[ K[P 5Z\T]\ VlCGF VeIF;DF\ O,LT
YTF 5lZ6FDM 5Z GHZ GFBTF\ HMJF D/[ K[ S[ IMuI VFZMuI ;\EF/4 lX1F6 VG[ DGM ;FDFlHS ;\TMQF
5ZtJ[ B]A H ,F\AF UF/[ VF56F ZFQ8=GF lJSF;4 5|UlT VG[ ;D'lwW GF ;JF"UL lJSF; 5Z RF{SS;
GSFZFtDS V;Z 5F0X[ TM T[DF\ GJF. GYLP S]8]\AGL VFlY"S l:YlT4 DFTFvl5TFG]\ D'tI]4 DFTFvl5TFGF OZL
YL ,uG4 lGZ1FZTF JU[Z[ H[JF SFZ6M G[ 5lZ6FD[ VFJF AF/SM 5MTFGF ;MG[ZL AF/56 G]\ A,LNFG VF5TF
HMJF D/[ K[P
AF/ DH]ZL AF/56 DF\ AF/SM ZMHUFZL GM ;\NE" 5MTFGL ZLT[ 5;\N SZ[ K[ S[ SM. GF NAF6G[
JX Y. G[ ZMHUFZ GF S[ VFlY"S p5FH"G GF ;FWG TZLS[ 5MTFGL 1FDTFVM ;FY[ NB, SZLG[ SZ[ K[ tIFZ[
T[GM pNŸEJ YFI K[P tIFZ[ T[ XFlZlZS4 DFGl;S4 ;FDFlHS4 G{lTS BTZGFS 5]ZJFZ YTL HMJF D/[ K[P VF
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5|YF G[ 36F VF\TZ ZFQ8=LI ;\U9GM XMQF6 TZLS[ H VM/BFJ[ K[P VG[ T[GF 5Z ;DU| lJ`J DF\ 5|lTA\W
,NFI[,M K[P AF/ DH]ZL GF .lTCF; DF\ GHZ GFBTF\ H6FI K[ S[ T[GL D]bI HGGL S'lQF VFWFZLT ZMHUFZL
CTL 5Z\T]\ VF{nIMULS S|F\lT V[ 56 T[DF\ DCtJ5}6" E}lDSF EHJL CTLP TM ALHL AFH] AF/ J[TGG]\ 5|DF6
56 V[S VUtIG]\ 5lZA/ K[ 5|YD VlWlGID AF/ SFDNFZ lGIDG lA|8G DF\ 1803 5;FZ SZJFDF\
VFjIMP HIFZ[ EFZTDF\ 1924 DF\ 5;FZ SZJFDF\ VFjIM VG[ tIFZ AFN 1986 DF\ T[DF\ O[ZOFZ SZL T[G[
5|Mt;FCG VF5JFDF\ VFjI]\P
VF\TZZFQ8=LI zD ;\U9G GF D\TjI D}HA UZLAL V[S ;F{YL DCtJG]\ AF/ DH]ZL DF8[G]\ 5lZA/
K[P TNŸp5ZF\T G 5ZJ/[ T[J]\ lX1F6 VG[ T[GL 5|6F,L TYF U]6JTF lX1F6 GM VEFJ ElJQI GF ZMHUFZL GF
lJS<5M GM VEFJ H[JF\ 5|FYlDS SFZ6M G[ HJFANFZ U6L XSFIP
VUtIGL XaN jI\HGFVMov
AF/ DH]Zo V[JM AF/S S[ H[VMGL pDZ 17 JQF" YL lGR[ K[P H[VM 5MTFGF 5Z\5ZFUT jIJ;FIDF\
GlC 56 VgI jIJ;FIDF\ VYM"5FH"G DF8[ HM0FI[, K[P T[JF AF/SMG[ AF/ DH]Z TZLS[ VM/BJFDF\ VFJ[,
K[P VlC lE1FFJ'lT ;FY[ HM0FI[, AF/SMGM ;DFJ[X AF/ DH]Z DF\ SZJFDF\ VFJTM GYLP
DGM ;FDFlHS H~ZLIFTo
S]\8]\A ;FY[ EFJFtDS HM0F64 ,FU6L4 DFG;LS VFZMuI4 lJSF;,1FL ;D:IFVM GM VEFJ4 VFNX"
D},S ;FDFlHS E}lDSFVM GL 5ZL5}6"TF4 G}SXFG SFZS ,FU6LVM GM VEFJ4 S]\8]\AGF ;eIM ;FY[ GF
jIJCFZ4 DFG;LS H~ZLIFTM4 GF6F\lSI T6FJ4 VMKL VFJS4 VFZMuI ;\EF/ DF8[ BR" JU[Z[ AFATM DF\YL
pt5gG YTL l:YlT JU[Z[ AFATM GM ;DFJ[X YFI K[P
;D:IFVMo
5|:T]T VeIF; DF\ AF/ DH]Z AF/FVMGL DFTFvl5TF TZOGL S[ TZOYL pt5gG YlT ;D:IFVM4
3Z[,]\ lC\;FGL ;D:IF4 BZFA IFNMGL ;D:IFVM VG[ T[GL DGMJ{7FlGS 5|lTlS|IFVM XFlZlZS ;D:IFVM S[
XF/FlSI ;D:IFVM H[JL ;D:IFVM G[ wIFG DF\ ZFBL G[ SZJFDF\ VFjI]\ K[P
VeIF; GF C[T]VMov
v
AF/ DH]Z AF/FVMGF SFDGF :Y/ VG[ T[GL 5lZl:YlT GL HF6SFZL D[/JJLP
v
AF/ DH]Z AF/FVMGM DGM ;FDFlHS H~ZLIFTM V\U[ HF6SFZL D[/JJLP
v
AF/ DH]Z AF/FVMGL ;D:IFVM V\U[ DFlCTL D[/JJLP
DFlCTL V[S+LSZ6 GL 5wWlTo
5|:T]T VeIF;DF\ DFlCTLG]\ V[S+LSZ6 SZJF DF8[ ;J["1F6 5wWlT TYF D},FSFT 5wWlT äFZF
J6"GFtDS DFlCTL D[/JJFDF\ VFJL VG[ tIFZ AFN D},FSFT DF\ VG};}RL GM p5IMU 56 SZJFDF\ VFjIM
CTMP
GD]GFGL 5;\NUL VG[ 1F[+o
;NZ VeIF; DF8[ ;C[T]S GD]GFGL 5;\NUL SZJFDF\ VFJL CTL H[DF\ H]GFU- XC[Z 5]ZT]\ H
DIF"lNT SFI" 1F[+ ZFBJFDF\ VFjI]\ CT]\P H[DF\ S], Z_ AF/VMGL 5;\NUL SZJFDF\ VFJL H~Z D}HA T[VM
BF; SZLG[ Z:TF GF TYF AC]DF/L DSFGGF AF\WSFD ;FY[ HM0FI[,F AF/ DH]ZM CTFP T[DF\ S'lQF ;FY[ ;\,uG
SM.56 AF/ DH]Z GM ;DFJ[X YTM G CTMP TNŸ p5ZF\T T[VM SFI" GF :Y/[ 5MTFGF SFD R,Fp ZC[9F6DF\
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ZC[TF CTF VG[ H[ AF/ DH]Z GL V\NFHLT pDZ 17 JQF" SZTF\ VMKL CTL T[VM G[ ;\XMWG GD}GF TZLS[ 5;\N
SZJFDF\ VFjIF CTFP
DFlCTLG]\ lJ`,[QF6o
5|F%T YI[, J6"GFtDS DFlCTLG[ VFWFZ[ VG];}lR DF\ YI[, GMW G[ VFWFZ[ T[GL VFJ'lT VG[
8SFJFZL DF\ NXF"JJFDF\ VFjIF K[P VFD T[DG[ ;\bIFtDS ZLT[ ATFJJFDF\ VFjIF K[P
5lZ6FD RRF"o
;ZN ;\XMWG G[ VFWFZ[ 5|F%T DFlCTL GF VFWFZ 5Z lGR[ 5|DF6[ RRF" SZJFDF\ VFJL K[P
SMQ8Sv! AF/ DH]Z AF/FVMGL SFI" 5lZl:YlT NXF"JT] SMQ8SP
S\.
H
S|D SFI" 5lZl:YlT
CF
@
GF
@
@
GlC
! 5]ZTM 5F{Q8LS BMZFS
07 35.00 12
60.00 01
05.00
Z AC]lJW SFI" EFZqSFI" 5|SFZ
16 80.00 04
20.00 00
# V5]ZTM VFJF;
15 75.00 03
15.00 02
10.00
$ V5DFG HGSqGFDMXLEI]" JT"G 13 65.00 05
25.00 02
10.00
5 XFZLlZS lC\;F
08 40.00 09
45.00 03
15.00
& DF{lBS lC\;F
13 65.00 04
20.00 03
15.00
* HFlTI N]jIJCFZ
0.00 14
70.00 06
30.00
90
80
70
cCFc 5|lTlS|IF
60
@
50
cGFc 5|lTlS|IF
40
@
30
cRF{SS; GlCc 5|lTlS|IF
20
@
10
HFlTI N]jIJCFZ
DF{lBS lC\;F
XFZLZS lC\;F
V5DFG
HGSqGFDMXLEI]"
JT"G
V5]ZTM VFJF;
AC]lJW SFI"
EFZqSFI" 5|SFZ
5]ZTM 5F{Q8LS
BMZFS
0
OX = SFI"5lZl:YlTGF 38SM
OY= 8SFJFZL
SMQ8S G\AZ ! 5Z YL HMJF D/[ K[ S[ AF/ DH]Z AF,LSFVM VF pDZ[ 5F{Q8LS BMZFS 56 5]ZTF 5|DF6 DF\
p5,awW YTM GYLP 60% GD]GF DF\ ,LW[,L pTZMNFTFVM G[ N}W4 XFSEFHL4 ;DTM,LT VFCFZ H[JL
J:T]VM 5|IM%T DF+FDF\ D/TF GYLP HIFZ[ 35% AF/ DH]ZM G[ 5MQ8LS VFCFZ 5|F%T YFI K[P VFJF 5|SFZ
GL 5lZl:YlTDF\ VFJF AF/SM XFlZlZS J'lwW VG[ lJSF; YL J\lRT ZC[TF CMI K[P
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HIFZ[ T[DG[ SFI" lJX[ 5]KJFDF\ VFjI]\ TM T[D6[ H6FjI]\ S[ T[DFYL 80% AF/SMG[ SFI"EFZ ~5[
H6FT]\ CT]\ VFJF AF/SMG[ SFD GL 5;\NUL GF 5;\NUL H[JL J:T]VM S[ 5lZl:YlTVM G]\ lGDF"6 YI]\ H G CT]\P
SFI" T[DG[ V[ AMH ,FUTM CTM T[DGF SFI" SZJFG]\ DF/B]\ 56 l:YZ G CT]\ T[DG[ UD[ tIFZ[ UD[ T[ SFI"
SZFJJFDF\ VFJT]\ CT]\ T[DGF D]bI DH]Z GL C]SDXFCL lGR[ VFJF AF/ DH]ZMG[ SFD SZJFG]\ YT]\ CT]\P T[GF
J;JF8 GF :Y/[ 56 J;JF8 GF ,3]TD WMZ6GM VEFJ HMJF D?IM CTMP 75% AF/ DH]ZM G[ V5]ZTM
VFJF; K[ T[J]\ H6FI]\ CT]\ HIFZ[ 15% AF/SMG[ V5]ZTM VFJF; K[ T[J]\ G ,FUT]\ CT]\ SFZ6 S[ VFJF AF/SM
DM8F EFU[ H[ GJL .DFZT G]\ AF\W SFD YT]\ CT]\ tIF\ J;JF8 SZTF CTFP
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;\NE" (References)
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Best J.W. and Khan : Research in Edu.
(1995) Prentice Hall of India New Delhi
Gonsalves, Lina : Women and Human Rights
(2008) New Delhi, APH Pub.
Kothari C R : Research Methodology (2004)
New Age Pub. New Delhi
Sharma P : Child Labour (2010)
Lal book Depal Meerut.
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Kalyani Pub. New Delhi
What is Child labour? International labour Organisation-2012
Hugh Hindman (2009) The world of child labour
WWW.VIEWOFSPACE.ORG
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PERSPECTIVES ABOUT CHILD LABOR:
IDEOLOGY, SUBJECTIVITY AND
WORKER'S HEALTH
DR.RAJESH.K.DODIYA
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, PSYCHOLOGY ,BAHAUDDIN ARTS COLLEGE, JUNAGADH.
SUBJECT:
KEYWORDS:
ABSTRACT
In this paper, we present some reflections concerning child labor, focusing on
three topics: ideologies; subjectivity of the child and the adolescent who are Involved in
child labor; and child health workers. The theoretical framework That We use is the Bioecological Theory of Human Development. The concept of child labor is based on the
definition of the International Labor Organization (ILO): activity does not allow a child to
live his / her childhood, to express his / her potential and to have dignity. Concerning the
ideological perspective, some question support child labor are Analyzed, beyond
economic factors. The subjectivity approach attempts to understand the impact of child
labor on the development of children and adolescents. The topic of child health workers
systematizes the risks and Consequences of child labor. Initial scientific production on
this matter in Brazilian Psychology is underlined.
INTRODUCTION
The child labor has become a prominent theme international National, especially
because of the impact of this activity child development and health of children and
adolescents. It also draws attention to the fact that the involvement. Early in economic
activities is associated with contexts poverty, violence and poor housing conditions.
Given our research work with the populations at social risk, the Study Centre
Psychological on Street Boys and Girls (CEP-RUA),next to Psychology Institute of the
Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (Porto Alegre, Brazil), was a Core Studies and
Research Work. The core, which aims to the promotion of studies that take the work
category as central to the process of human development, has sought investigate and
discuss the psychological, social and economic permeating child labor, with emphasis in
public policy, family and social, rights child and adolescent, impacts on health and wellbeing. In this article, we present some reflections respected to the child labor, pointing
different perspectives on the subject. Although we have no claim to exhaust the different
points of view and approaches such thematic may raise, we will discuss three main topics:
ideologies that underpin early work; subjectivity children and adolescents in work
situation and health child laborer. The theoretical perspective that sustains our Look and
articulates these three approaches is the approach Bio-ecological Human Development, a
conceptualist theory and international, according to which the processes take place
within contexts through interactions at various levels of different systems
(Bronfenbrenner, 2005; Koller & Narvaz, 2004).Therefore, our view of the development of
children and adolescent workers considered necessarily their family and social contexts,
as well as the proximal processes more establishing over time. The term child labor can
refer to many activities, remunerated or not, with different degrees of risk and diver
sectors and contexts. Understanding child labor guides this study is grounded in the
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definition proposed by the International Labour Organization - ILO (2004), may be
characterized as one that deprives children of their childhood, potential and dignity, being
harmful to their development. In this sense, it refers to work that is physically, mentally,
socially or morally harmful to the child and interferes with their schooling, especially
when prevents to attend school prematurely abandoning school or even demanding that
the child reconciles school activities heavy with long working hours. Furthermore, ILO
(2004) recognizes that certain forms of Work may be considered positive, since it does
not inter am in school and do not affect the health and development of children and
adolescents. This is the case of small aid parents with household chores or family
businesses, as- but as the involvement in paid activities aimed personal spending and held
outside school hours. That type of work is not the target of eradication programs, that it
can contribute to children's well-being and their families, facilitating the acquisition of
skills and in the development process and future integration into job market. Therefore,
we reiterate the view child labor recommended by the ILO and emphasize the importance
to consider the context of children and adolescent performing any work activity. Risk
analysis involved in child labor should assess on a case, the factors positive that this
activity can potentially offer. In this sense, we share the view of Fukui, Sampaio and
Brioschi (1985), according to which not all forms of child labor should be abolished.
There are situations where the execution of certain activities may be appropriate to
maturity physical and emotional ity of the child, allowing the development of
responsibility and socializing. In Brazil, child labor has been an issue have been largely.
They debated in the media and in the social sphere. The activities that exploiting labor,
child labor are agriculture and in the area urban, activities on the streets, fairs and
garbage dumps. Second the last ILO report (2006), Brazil is the country of the Americas
and the Caribbean more reduced child labor, especially in its worst forms, in recent years.
The age range of 10 at 17 had a decrease of 36.4% from 1992 to 2004: the about 7.5
million to about 4.8 million. At the group of children from five to nine years, the fall was
even higher, 60.9%, and of 636,248 reduced to 248,594.In 2006, 12,458 children and
adolescents involved in work Early him were taken of these occupations (ILO, 2006; ILO,
2006). The introduction of the Child and Adolescent - ECA, in 1990 (Brazil, 1990), is a
milestone in Brazilian law with regard to ensuring the rights of children and adolescents.
According to the ECA, Article 60, shall be prohibited work under fourteen, unless
provided apprentice. The legislation also establishes guidelines on the teen labor
protection and emphasizes education. The ECA has been a legal instrument of extreme
relevance support the implementation of programs and policies aimed at eradicating the
worst forms of child labor in Brazil. Despite the reduction of the worst forms of child labor
conceived in recent years, there is still a large number of children and adolescents who
participate in activities economic, including those involving drug trafficking and sexual
exploitation. In addition to economic factors, the complexity theme is permeated by
cultural and ideological issues ,which are closely associated with the difficulty of
eradication of child labor and the change of behavior necessary for this purpose. Next, we
this, highlighting the historical construction of the practice of child- labor from the
Modern Age, and ideological issues Contributing to its maintenance today.
IDEOLOGIES AND EARLY WORK
Throughout the history of human civilization, social and economic crisis
Economic, poverty and rising unemployment reaching a important part of the population
appear to a combined Social transformation of ample proportions in which emerge
technological development, border and the disappearance an income concentration. This
WWW.VIEWOFSPACE.ORG
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is the scenario in which they move working children and adolescents, although the prework scratch is not only a problem in poor countries and subleased. According to ILO
estimate (2006), there the world more than 246million children and adolescents workers
aged between five and 17 years. Of these, more 100 million have no access to any kind of
education and, for most; time to play is a luxury that is not the reach. In fact, there are
considerable differences in scale and focus of child labor among developing countries, as
It is the case of Brazil and other developing countries. In developed nations, child labor
appears in smaller scale and little associated with truancy, while the sub- developed this
theme undermines development sustainable and tends to be more widely applied. Despite
these differences, from a century old, the perception of children in the labor market is
knowledge public and world. Marx (1867/1996), in his work The Capital, comments on
the exploitation of labor, child labor and various analyzes processes related to the work of
children and adolescents in factories. One relates to the fact that the use of children was a
way to raise profit rates, as labor, child labor was inexpensive. Furthermore, children
They were seen as more docile and capable of undergoing domination than adults, and
certainly many of them also made part of the army of wars seasons booking and economic
crises around the world. As in England, industrialization of history in Brazil was also
marked by use of labor, child labor (ILO, 2006). The dominant mode of production at any
given time history, which coexists with other modes of production subordinated
determines the organization and execution of processes work and their technical
organizations, product social relations. The exploitation of labor, child labor is linked to
this circuit, sometimes incorporates the children the labor market, while on the other
hand, there is hand labor adult surplus (Oliveira, 1987; Assumption & Dias, 2002). the
child labor phenomenon can be understood through the intrinsic mechanism of
capitalism, which generates poverty and create the conditions for the reproduction of the
phenomenon early integration of children at work (Campos, 2001).The socio-historical
context in which the individual is inserted the surrounds so that their attitudes and
thoughts They can not be separated from this environment. Ideologies that pervade the
work are modified throughout history and traverse the same human. Fields and Alverga
(2001) point to important changes in the design work, a perspective that leads to idleness
and contemplation to a reasoned perspective on the work ethic and good formation of the
subject. The latter logic came to dominate Western culture, as pointed out by Weber
(2004). In between- Therefore, this work ethic perspective lent itself also discrimination
between classes, since the nobles was intended intellectual work and the poor manual,
factory work, craft, agriculture etc., with indignity status. In this sense, the understanding
of the work ethic directed thousands of children to the English capitalist industry under
protection logic that extolled the moral formation of Poor families rented their children
to factories, centered in the pursuit of profit. This perspective took proportions law for
the first time in 1854 by Regulation of Primary and Secondary Education of the
Municipality Neutral to defend on the creation of professional organizations for "the boys
poor and destitute from the 12 who roamed the Streets "(Campos & Alverga, 2001).
Follows the ideological discourse discrimination, that children understand how the
children of the nobility, and as "minor", the boys living on the streets. The exploitation of
child labor persists in contemporary due to a combination of factors such as the condition
misery and vulnerability of families, the absence of public policies and poor income
distribution in Brazil (Marques, Neves & Neto, 2002). In this scenario, the child sees
forced to work to ensure their own livelihood or your family. It is not uncommon that
child labor is granted received as a complementary part of family responsibilities,
followed and the logic of obligations that characterizes relations in needy families (Sarti,
WWW.VIEWOFSPACE.ORG
112
1996). According to Barros and Santos (1996) child labor is one of the international
transmission mechanisms Generational poverty, especially because, in general, parents of
working children also performed this activity In your childhood. However, in addition to
economic issues, it is also true That certain cultural factors are imbricate in the forms of
family organization. Such factors express am if the relations between adults and children,
in the design of genders and ages and forms of reciprocity present in the family group.
Reflect on discourses and practices Produced in Brazil about the work in the nineteenth
century, considering to the fact that they are often rooted in institutions responsible for
the socialization of children working, such as family and school. A study by Feitosa and
Dimenstein (2005) exemplifies this aspect. The research was conducted with focus
groups, whose participants were mothers children who study and work in the cultivation
of gardens morezinho (Natal, Brazil). For these mothers, child labor is It is seen as an
integral part of family farming activity. Often themselves introduce children in the world
work, taking their children from babies to the gardens of so they can now learn from the
production - besides not where they let the kids. Work activities are initiated amid jokes,
taking, over time, ca rater of obligation. On the other hand, is concerned with the spare
time of their children, realizing the lack of conditions to offer other possibilities to
children, such as leaving the son enjoy games or computer courses and languages. The
only alternative to fill the idle time of children was to work. Moreover, the discourse of
mothers revelation that the insertion work is immersed in its ideology educational
practices. Thus, mothers act as breeding a work experience for the children. Thus, child
labor is presented as a practical reinforced also by the family, which is also pointed out by
others (Campos & Alverga, 2001). Aspects subjectivism Beware of the subjects involved,
therefore, they should be taken into consideration because often the beliefs, patterns and
signified data for these families to child labor intensify this practice. Feitosa and
Dimenstein (2005) corroborate this idea to note that, even with various policies of
eradication of child labor, the family is one of the drivers of early entry into work. It is
clear, then, how ideology work is present in the discourses and practices of the subjects.
Although for some mothers work experience has been sad and painful, this experience is
so present in their live that often is the knowledge that can transmit transgenerationally
for their children. This shows the as work experience is defining their identities, as well
as the identities of their children, early inserted of the world of work. In this sense, it is
evident the perspective of subjectivity, which can enhance understanding The
phenomenon of child labor, exposed below.
SUBJECTIVITY CHILD AND ADOLESCENT IN WORK SITUATION
Psychology can expand its research area about theme of child labor by
introducing the perspective of subjectivity, which seeks to understand the impact of this
situation in the establishment and development of children and adolescents. It is
understood here subjectivity as "expression social and relational contexts in which the
subject is ensilaged and the subjective sense that they assume "(Martinez, 2001 p.238),
not just being a product of social interaction and biological, but a whole range of complex
relations which the person participates in their multiple contexts. Perspective this also
results from our gaze from bio-ecological approach to human development (Narvaz &
Koller, 2004). In this sense, the working relationship contributes to the constitution of
the psychological world of the individual, it as generating activity of the conditions that
possibility explain the qualitative leap for the animal psyche the human psyche (Albornoz,
1994; Codo, 1997). In view of the impact on the formation of subjectivity, the treat-
WWW.VIEWOFSPACE.ORG
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child labor limits the participation of small workers in the most favorable relational
spaces for the development to desirable subjective resources such as family, school and
the time to play. On the other hand, to look at the ways with children and adolescents
internalize their experiences work it is possible to question the absoluteness that assume
certain statements about the psychological consequences of child labor, such as the
commitment of physical, cognitive and emotional development, cancellation life projects
and disruption of the children's world. With if that these statements apply to experience
many children and adolescents workers, however, do not apply to the experiences of
others. For example, Martinez (2001) points out an exploratory study with adolescent
workers in Brasilia (Federal District, Brazil) in which they perceive their work experience
as liberating allowing them to follow their life projects, while the school is experienced as
duty space. Forastieri (1997) highlights the contribution of labor to prescient as a person
or citizen, incorporating feelings self-esteem and fulfillment to your personality, since
compatible and balanced with its potential. A study carried of Oliveira, Fischer, Amaral,
Teixeira and Sá (2005) identified other positive aspects of the work: identify growth
functions, human development, stimulated tion of creativity and social approval arising
from this activity in. In addition, money and sense of responsibility also appear as direct
or indirect positive consequences. Another study carried out in Minas Gerais by Marques,
Ne ves and Neto (2002), identified the pleasure in the act of playing the work in various
lines of working children: many transform trade carts (working tools) in recreational
objects. Although the working child can to present serious and quiet, adopting an adult
posture early child shows up especially to open spaces the joke in his work (Bonamigo,
1996). While paid and learning activity of a trade, the work is of a sense of acquiring a
social quantity for young people and their families (Heilborn, 8:00 pm). The work
provides, according to Gouveia (1983) Status in the family. The child or young worker
feels more Safe to react when subjected to disciplinary treatment more severe in the
family and, at the same time demonstrates sense ment of self-realization, showing pride in
work. The work functions as a disciplining mechanism and how way insertion socially
acceptable in the world The inclusion of children in the labor market causes mediations in
relation to the family. Several authors (Gouveia1983; Vogel & Mello, 1996) cite and
discuss such trans training in the dynamics of the family group. Through the work, the
child acquires the value of the achievements by their own efforts, certain family relative
independence, differentiated status and possibility of having goods that their parents
could not provide. She is often seen as more responsible, calm, polite, satisfied,
independent, less demanding and quarrelsome (Vogel & Mello, 1996). The family then
realizes that the child, the work takes adult life, and she in turn, finds that is most heard
and less punished by the family.
A study by Bonamigo (1996) showed that less workers perceive their work as
something that generates suffering and, at the same time satisfaction. Sets out a
ambiguous relationship: on the one hand, there is appreciation of the work by acquisition
of positive characteristics and distance in relation to marginal activities. On the other,
suffering the hard reality living. It is the ambiguity of emotions and feelings (pleasure
versus pain) in relation to the work that denotes the importance of considering it in its
positive aspects and negative, in view of its role in the constitution of psycho working
children and adolescents. Job research and intervention programs with this population
should listen to the speech of little workers in order to understand the meaning of work in
their lives, so as aimed at building other senses, favoring the promotion of their health.
WWW.VIEWOFSPACE.ORG
114
CHILD WORKER HEALTH
There is a recognition of the importance of work in human life and its
development over life cycle. However, the work activity requires maturity physical,
mental and moral for its implementation, so that the treat is meant promoter and
pleasure for the worker. From these assumptions, it is the concern about the early work
impacts on the health of children and adolescents ado- workers, especially when it comes
to the worst forms of child labor (forced labor, drug trafficking, armed conflict, sexual
exploitation, unhealthy activities and dangerous, among others). Children tend to be more
vulnerable to diseases and accidents, both to develop them to form prescripts and with
greater severity. This is due to a number of factors, among which we can mention:
immaturity and in expericiency, distraction and curiosity own age, little physical less
motor coordination (the lower age) lack of labor risks, inappropriate tasks its capacity,
local and tools designed adult (Assumption & Dias, 2002; Franklin et al . , 2001).
Moreover, it is not uncommon that children and adolescents are taken to perform duties
that are considered unsafe to even for adults. We can not lose sight of that population is
in the growth phase and development, with capabilities, limitations and organic
reactionsadults of different tronic (Asmus, Raymundo, Barker, Pepe & Ruzany, 2005). In
this sense, working conditions, general are contradictory with the employee development
Children (Asunción & Dias, 2002). Asmus et al. (2005) draw attention to the fact that
existing It has critical periods in deter- development stage mined functional structures,
which would be more likely to suffer injuries because of labor risks. Furthermore,
deistical that some damage may not be immediately obvious, manifesting only in later
stages of life. the exhaustion and fatigue resulting from workloads excessive associated
with poor nutrition, are described by Asmus et al. (2005) as the main causes for the
emerge cement of diseases among adolescents who attend Health Program Adolescent
Worker, linked to State University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The ILO (2004) points to
several risks and consequences related the different activities performed by workers
children and adolescents pain. The risks involve machinery and hand tools mints without
protection, noise, vibration, exposure to product chemical and biological agents, exposure
to extreme temperatures but heavy loads, awkward postures, repeated movements
titivos, among others, in the agricultural and industrial sectors. How much to work on the
streets, the risks involve exposure to drugs, violence, prostitution, traffic accidents,
participation in offenses, among others. A study by the Brazilian Institute of Geo spelling
and Statistics - IBGE (2003) points out that approximately half of the children and utibusy Brazilian adolescents chemical, machine, tool or instrument job. An even larger
share was observed among those who they worked in agricultural activities. The list of
risk factors is extensive and allows us to have a notion of dangerousness, unhealthiness
and painfulness involved of child labor, being not only on factors causing illnesses and
accidents, but also in attacks the dignity of children and adolescents. As richest to the
health consequences, the ILO (2004) points to a diversity damage, among which we can
cite: fractures, cuts, amputations, hearing loss, brain and eye injuries, infections,
poisonings, burns, musculoskeletal disorders study queleticos, respiratory diseases, drug
addiction, fatigue, malnutrition, AIDS and other sexually transmitted diseases,
graunwanted Videz, social stigma attached to the crime, between others. Death is also
reported as a possible quencesciency of early work. Assumption & Dias (2002) point out,
Moreover, sleep deprivation, which commonly occurs among children and adolescent
workers. Involved in long journeys work and sometimes need to reconcile them with
other tasks, such as school and household responsibilities, children and Teenagers have
their seriously impaired development due to the cumulative effects of lack of sleep and
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fatigueIt also points out the social and mental health issues involved in early work. The
child's relationship and adolescents with their environment has peculiarities that the
clearly differ from the adult. If, on one hand, seek preserve their ability to play among the
la- requirements borais, on the other hand, its sensitivity and vulnerability to
environmental damage are markedly higher.
Beyond addition, the duties and
responsibilities imposed on children and teenagers in the early work hinder their process
learning, preventing contact and exploitation of others environments, development
potential, the relationship with other children and significant others. Assumption & Days
(2002) show tolerance to this dehumanization in most of the production processes:
coercive rules and disciplin rigid, leaving little room for the mechanisms self-regulation of
the human being; neglect of the mechanisms collective protection against the risk factors,
lack of comfort, encouragement of competition, etc. The effects of these factors the
mental health of children and adolescents can be diver, among which one can think of
cognitive limitations, imagination and creativity block and impoverishment social and
emotional relationships.
CHILD LABOR AND SCIENTIFIC PRODUCTION IN PSYCHOLOGY
The scientific production on child labor under the Brazilian Psychology is still
scarce, as opposed to imports theme. We conducted a survey of publications in national
journals in the Virtual Health Library - Psychology (http://www.bvs-psi.org.br). The
lifting of the number Of published works generated 16 results. After analysis of materials,
problem atlases themes are categorized and the research methods used by the authors.
The year 2001 It stood out due to the increased number of publications per year seven,
which coincides with the publication of a special dossier on the subject in one of the
national newspapers. This number publications can be considered very low compared
the total number of articles published in the field of psychology as a all in Brazil every
year. The topics problem in found items involve, particularly, the effects of the work on
the development to children and adolescents, political and social actions of rottenness of
child labor and characteristics and concepts this phenomenon. The methods basically
involve literature and only six articles are studies descriptive exploratory presenting
children and adolescents workers as direct participants. These data reveal that despite
the great worldwide movement against child labor children, this issue has not received
due attention area of psychology in Brazil. The small number of publications It points out
that this phenomenon needs more investment scientific and social.
FINAL CONSIDERATIONS
In order to contribute to the understanding of the subject, this paper aims to add
to the issue of child labor perspective ideological conceptions that permeate this practice,
the subjectivity and health of child workers. We understand that the issue should be
looked at globally, due to the complexity of the aspects involved: ideological, cultural,
economic etc. Government programs that purport to a social problem can take these three
perspectives abased on the organization of their actions, so that the same become more
effective and efficient .An important finding of this study is that the prospect of working
children and adolescents is almost never considered side red, giving priority to the adult
point of view. By promoting eradication actions must ask ourselves to be human It is
forming from that work experience? What values are being built? Studies can hear the
child has to say about the work as it is a being with active voice. Giving voice to children
and adolescents can be also the basic educational programs with children and their
families. We came back; too, look at the ideological aspects, a trying to understand the
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socio-historical and cultural forces involving the theme of child labor. This perspective
help us in understanding the logic that keeps exposure of these children and adolescents
to work early,Either by the family or other institutions They go through their agents.
Finally health problems related to work make us have a sense of the negative impacts of
work him juvenile. Regarding physical health, it is conversable quinces, who denounce the
gravity of the situation. Per Further more, issues related to mental health, just for not
being explicit and immediate, need more in research. It would be advisable, for example,
develop study longitudinal studies that follow the development of children and
adolescents workers in different sectors occupational. In addition to the negative risks
and consequences, one global understanding of the phenomenon should also seek to
know the positive aspects of the work, in view of own children and adolescents, as well as
the potential that these workers can develop.
SUMMARY
In this article, we present some reflections on the treat juvenile, addressing three
topics: ideologies support early work; child's subjectivity and teenager in work situation
and worker health child. The theoretical perspective that holds our gaze is Biological
approach Human Development. The com child labor hold is grounded in the definition of
International Labour Organization, and one that deprives children of their childhood,
potential and dignity. in perspec tive Ideological, pointed out some issues that underpin
the practice of child labor, in addition to economic factors waistband. The look on
subjectivity seeks to understand the impact of this situation in the development of
children and adolescents. The topic of health of child workers, in
Time systematizes the risks and consequences of early work.It finalizes highlighting the
incipient scientific production of Psycho Brazilian logy about the theme.
REFERENCE Albornoz, S. (1994). What is work? 6.ed. Sao Paulo: Brasiliense.
 Asmus, IFRC, Raymundo, CM, Barker, SL, Pepe, CCCA, &Ruzany, MH (2005).
comprehensive health care for adolescents
 work situation: lessons learned. Science and Public Health,10 (4), 953960.Asuncion, AA, & Dias, EC (2002). Early work: possible effectson the
development of children and adolescents. Journal Decome: schizoanalysis and
their meetings, 1 (2), 39-60.
 Barros, PR & Santos, EC (1996). Long-term consequencesearly work. In Fausto A.
& R. Cervini (Eds.), Work andStreet: Children and adolescents in urban Brazil
80(Pp.56-61). 2. ed. Sao Paulo: Cortez.
 Bonamigo, R. L. (1996). The work and the construction of identity: Astudy of
working children in the street. Psychology: Reflection andCritical, 9, (1), 129-152.
 Brazil (1990). Statute of Children and Adolescents - Federal Law8069/1990.
Brasilia.
 Bronfenbrenner, U. (2005). The bioecological theory of human development. In U.
Bronfenbrenner (Ed.), Making Human Beings Human:Bioecological perspectives
on human development (pp. 3-15).
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MANY FACETS OF WOMEN CHARACTERS
IN MAHABHARAT
DR.SUNANDA.A.PATEL
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR,JASANI COLLEGE,RAJKOT.
SUBJECT:
KEYWORDS:
INTRODUCTION :
A woman plays different role as a wife, mother, sister, mother in law, daughter in law and
grandmother and so on. In the Hindu society, the position of women is so essential that
without her, in fact, among the four ashram no ashram is complete. For instance, for a
house dweller only for livelihood. Devoid of a wife, a house dweller cannot offer alms to
the needy. According to Hindu religion, a man cannot perform a religious rit without a
wife. So, the home without a wife is an utter be wilderness –
"Na gruham gruhamityahuhu grihini gruhamuchyate" (M.S.)
Manusmriti mandates that the highest respect and regard must be extended and full
protection should be given to women thoughout the life.
"Yatra naryastu pujyante ramante tatra devataha.
Yatraitastu na pujyante sarvastaafala kriyaha." (M.S. 3.56)
Mahabharat, one of the greatest Indian epics is often referred to as an example of
righteousness and what happens between the good and the evil and the consequences.
Here are some of the women characters in the epic, who were modern in their thinking
and actions. They did not flinch ones before raising their voices against patriarchy. The
women are the true leaders of the epic. The three women in particular who wielded
power in more than one form were Sathyavati the dusky fragrant fisher girl who became
the queen. Pritha the fair maiden who reluctantly became the mother of five sons and
Krishna, daughter, of the fire Draupadi. The epic is inter woven with their remarkable
sagacity in exercise of their power and leadership. Some say the epic in a way is study in
use and abuse of power.
Rituals and Customs about women:
Every woman in Mahabharat, makes an entry as some man's mother, wife,
daughter or sister. She does not enjoy the individual identity of a kind Queen / brave
warrior / great disciple / wise teacher/administrator etc. Long before Mahabharat, men
and women were free to have sex relationships with anybody they pleased. Sage
Shwetaketu stopped this practice. Still later women had no right to divorce. And by
Mahabharat times she had lost her last freedom, the right to remain unmarried.
We see Drupad, Pandu, Satyavati, Hidimba, Madhavi etc. all awaiting the birth of a
son. No yagnya was performed, for the birth of a daughter in the family. Yet, a female child
was welcome. And female infanticide was not practised.Those who did'nt have son had
options like adopting daughter's son, adopting any male child, niyog or even buying a son.
These options provided by the society were practised very regularly.
Mahabharat does not mention the number of daughters born to any charater.
Dhruturashtra for example has only 1 daughter Dushila and 100 sons. (Dushilla is
mentioned as she is Jayadrath's wife.) Ganga had 8 sons, Madri had 2, Kunti had 3,
Hidimba had 1, Subhadra had 1 son etc. None of them had daughters? Draupadi gave birth
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to 5 sons from 5 Pandavas. Madhavi bore 4 sons to 3 kings and sage Viswhamitra. I
believe, Draupadi & Madhavi had daughters too, but having a son was a religious matter,
and they had to give at least one son to each father.
Education: Women from the Kshatriya class did not receive any formal education. They
did receive education in arts such as dancing and singing (Uttara). We do see Kshatriya
warrior women like Satyabhama and Shikhandi. The girls from Brahmin class did get to
learn along with the other students. Like Krupi and Devayani. (Krupi is mentioned by MB
as a very intelligent woman.)
Marriage: Kshatriya women had the right to choose her husband in a Swayamvar. This
practise had limitaions like - father decided whom to invite or she had to mary the one
who passed a test.
Dushyant and Bheeshma mention 8 types of marriages. Kidnapping the bride
(Amba, Ambika, Ambalika), paying bride fee (Gandhari), mutual consent (Shakuntala), etc.
Though the Asuri vivah (kidnapping, bridal fee etc.) were condemmed by the texts, those
were practiced commonly.
It was the father's duty to see to it that his daughter gets married at the right age.
We see the fathers of Seeta and Savitri worried as they had'nt found a suitable boy. If this
was the case with the Kings, I wonder what was the condition of the common man?
Wife: As a wife, woman enjoyed a religious status equal to that of a man. He could not
perform any religious activity without her. Wives generally managed the finance and
inventory at home. She owned her jwellery and had the right to dispose it as she wished.
Her long list of duties as a wife, are narrated by Draupadi to Satyabhama.
Remarriage: During Mahabharat times the Brahmin & Kshatriya women did not marry
after the death of their husbands. They did continue to live with their in-laws, in a
respectful & dignified manner. In the earlier Ramayan times, a widow married her
brother-in-law. (Tara, Mandodari) But this practice had stopped by Mahabharat times.
The pratice of 'Sati' came into being in quite recent times. Mahabharat does not mention
'Sati'. Upanishidic texts encourage a widow to stop grieving and to look after children.
In Mahabharat times, a childless widow had the right to have 3 sons
by Niyog. They were mostly fathered by a brother-in-law, generally choosen by the elders
of the house. This pratice is still followed in some tribes.
Divorce and remarriage seemed to be common among the other two classes.
Vanaprastha: Women generally accompanied their husbands to retire to the forests (like
Gandhari, Draupadi). But they had the option to stay with their children (like Subhadra).
We also see widows like Satyavati, Ambika, Ambalika, Satyabhama retiering to spend the
rest of their lives in forest.
FACET OF WOMEN CHARACTER IN MAHABHARAT : In this epic, four women play
crucial parts in the course of events.
Satyavati: Satyavati who was the daughter of the chieftain of fishermen. As a young
maiden, while ferrying sage Parasara across a river, he fell in love with her. She bore him
a son, Vyasa. He was brought up as an ascetic sage, but before he returned to forest
life, he promised his mother he would come and help her whenever she faced
difficulty.Later, the emperor Santanu fell in love with her. Her father consented to the
marriage only on condition that her children would inherit the throne. Santanu’s older
son, the crown prince Bhishma, not only voluntarily relinquished his right but also took
the vow that he would remain celibate so that he could not have any children who might
lay claim to the throne in the future.After Santanu passed away, Satyavati’s two sons died
young. The older one was unmarried, and the younger had two wives, Ambika and
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Ambalika, who were childless. This created a crisis for there was no legal heir to the Kuru
throne. Bhishma did not relent from his vow because he considered it sacred.
At this juncture, Satyavati sent for her son Vyasa, who promptly responded per his
earlier promise. Satyavati said the problem could be solved by his fathering a child
through each of the two young widows. The son borne by Ambalika was Pandu who
became the future emperor. The son through Ambika was Dhritarashtra who was born
blind. As time passed, Satyavati sensed the animosity between the sons of Pandu and the
sons of Dhritarashtra, and she foresaw a struggle for power with tragic consequences.
She voluntarily retired to the forest.After the Kurukshetra war was over, the Pandavas
ruled for a short time and then handed over the kingdom to the only survivor, Parikshit,
who was the grandson of Arjuna and the son of Abhimanyu. Parikshit ruled wisely and
well until he was bitten by a poisonous snake and had eight days to live. During this time,
it was to Parishit that Suka, Vyasa’s ascetic son, narrated the Srimad Bhagavatam, the
great book on bhakti, the path of devotion.Hence, it can be seen that Satyavati kept the
Kuru lineage intact and unbroken, and also that she was responsible, though indirectly,
for the Srimad Bhagavatam, a great scripture available for posterity.
Gandhari: Gandhari was the wife of King Dhritarashtra and mother of the Kauravas. She
was the daughter of King Subala, ruler of a vast area west of the river Sindhu (now called
the Indus) extending to Kabul, Afghanistan. The main city was Gandhar (modern
Kandahar).Grandsire Bhisma sent a proposal seeking her hand in marriage for
Dhritarashtra. Subala knew that Dhritarashtra was blind, but thinking that an alliance
with the powerful Kuru clan would be in the larger interest, agreed to the proposal.
Gandhari accepted her father’s decision as a dutiful daughter. She wanted to experience
blindness and share it with her husband. Showing great strength of mind and in a spirit of
personal sacrifice, she voluntarily forewent her sense of sight after marriage by tying a
scarf over both her eyes.Gandhari was a votary of Lord Siva. Pleased with her devotion, he
granted her a boon that she would be the mother of a hundred sons. Gandhari had been
jealous of her sister-in-law. Kunti, who had given birth to two sons. The boon caused her
to conceive, but strangely, the pregnancy lasted two years. Out of frustration, she struck
her abdomen with an iron rod and surprisingly delivered a congealed mass. Sage Vyasa
called for one hundred and one clay jars, carefully divided the flesh into the jars, filled
them with ghee, and had them closed. In time, the jars broke, and Gandhari became the
mother of one hundred sons and one daughter.The boys grew up and had their training in
the martial arts under Dronacharya. Gandhari, however, noticed that her husband did not
restrain the arrogant behavior of his oldest son, Duryodhana, and brought it to his
attention on appropriate occasions. On the eve of the great war, when Duryodhana came
to seek her blessings, she said, “Let victory accrue to the righteous.” After the war, she
was sorely aggrieved that all her sons had been killed, and she wanted to pronounce a
curse on the Pandavas. Sage Vyasa, sensing her intention, reminded her of her words. He
said that victory had indeed accrued to the righteous as the Pandavas had fought for a
righteous cause. Gandhari, however, could not forgive Lord Krishna whom she held
responsible for all the tragic events. She cursed him saying that the whole of his clan of
Yadavas would die fighting one another. Her words came to be true. After the war, she
retired to the forest with her husbandand sister-in-law, Kunti, where they perished in a
forest fire.
Kunti: Kunti was the wife of Emperor Pandu and mother of the Pandavas. She was the
daughter of King Surasena, father of Vasudeva, Krishna’s father. Her father gave her in
adoption to his brother-in- law, King Kuntibhoja, and hence she was called Kunti. Her
name at birth was Pritha, and therefore, one of the names of her son, Arjuna, is Partha.A
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large part of Kunti’s character has already been considered earlier when studying Karna
in the Mahabharata: how she invoked the Sun God, abandoned the newborn out of a sense
of shame because she was not married, how she met Karna again on the eve of the battle
and revealed to him for the first time his divine birth.Kunti accompanied her sons during
their first period of exile, having escaped from the arson of the house of combustible
material (lac), a dastardly attempt by the evil-minded Duryodhana.
When roaming through the forest, Bhima killed a rakshasa, Hidamba. Hidamba’s
sister, Hidambi, fell in love with Bhima and wanted to marry him. Kunti gave her consent,
and a child, Ghatotgacha, was born. As this boy grew up, Kunti repeatedly told him, “You
are the first-born grandchild in the family. It is your duty to come to our help whenever
the occasion demands.” Ghatotgacha was gigantic in stature, strong, and powerful. He
kept his word and fought valiantly in the Kurukshetra war. He paid the ultimate price by
sacrificing his life while causing tremendous havoc in the Kaurava army.During the period
of exile, the Pandavas were sheltered by a hospitable Brahmin family in a small town,
Ekachakra. Bakasura, an evil giant, was tormenting the people of the town by making
demands for cartloads of food and human flesh to be supplied tohim every day. Kunti
came to know of this when she overheard a conversation between her host and his wife.
She showed her gratitude to them and her compassion for the defenseless townspeople
by persuading her son Bhima to challenge and fight the rakshasa. Bhima succeeded in
killing him.
One of the great qualities of Kunti was her impartiality. The youngest two
Pandavas, Nakula and Sahadeva, were her stepchildren, having been born to Pandu’s
other wife, Madri. They were entrusted to her care when Madri died along with Pandu.
She treated her two stepsons as she did her own children.This led to a rather strange
incident. When Arjuna won the hand of Draupadi by his skill in archery at her
swayamvara (marriage by choice), the Pandavas brought her to their house in Ekachakra.
Approaching the house, they shouted with joy, “Mother, see what we have brought for you
today!” Kunti was busy, and thinking it was food, replied, “Share it equally among you.”
A mother’s word is in the nature of an order to be strictly obeyed. This is how Draupadi
became the wife of all the Pandavas.
Draupadi:
Draupadi was the daughter of King Drupada, ruler of Panchala. She was born
along with her brother, Drstadyumna, from the great sacrifice their father performed for
progeny to kill Acharya Drona who had insulted him. She was also known as Panchali, or
sometimes Krishna because she had a dark complexion.Draupadi is the most notable
among the women in the Mahabharata, and has a stellar role in the second half of the epic.
She was considered the most beautiful among women in her time. How Arjuna won her at
the svayamvara and how she became the wife of all the Pandavas have been described in
an earlier column.
Draupadi’s beauty, however, did cause problems, as she became the cynosure of
many evil-minded people. One such was Kichaka, the brother-in-law of King Virata.
Kichaka was physically strong and politically powerful, being commander of the army.
The Pandavas had to spend the thirteenth year of their exile incognito, without being
discovered. They had assumed different roles in the household of King Virata under false
identities. Draupadi became chief attendant to the queen, and Bhima a cook in the royal
kitchen. Kichaka began to make improper advances towards her. She complained to
Bhima, and together, they hatched a plan. Kichaka was persuaded to meet her secretly at
night in the dance hall where Bhima was lying in wait dressed as a woman. They fought
each other, and Kichaka was killed. To keep Bhima from being recognized as the killer,
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it was given out that Draupadi was protected by gandharvas, semi-celestial beings who
were responsible for the killing.
Draupadi’s implicit trust and deep devotion to Sri Krishna are revealed on many
occasions, two of which are described here. During a shameful episode where she was
disrobed in public in the assembly of Kurus, when no one could come to her rescue, she
mentally petitioned Lord Krishna to save her from disgrace. Sri Krishna responded
promptly by sending her an inexhaustible supply of saris.On another occasion,
Duryodhana, who was hosting Sage Durvasa and his many disciples, requested the sage to
visit the Pandavas during their forest exile. Duryodhana’s intent was evil and malicious.
He thought that Yudhisthira would not be able to satisfy them, and Durvasa, who was
known for his quick, fiery temper, would pronounce a curse on the Pandavas. Early during
the exile, Surya, the Sun God, pleased with Yudhisthira’s worship and devotion, had gifted
a magical vessel to the Pandavas. It could provide an inexhaustible supply of food, but
would not provide any more for the day after Draupadi, who was the last to eat, had eaten
her meal and put it away. Yudhisthira, as a dutiful host, invited Durvasa and his disciples
for a meal. Draupadi was caught in a dire predicament as she had already eaten and put
away the vessel. She thought intensely of Lord Krishna who appeared and asked Draupadi
to fetch the vessel. A grain of rice and a piece of spinach were found sticking to the
bottom. Krishna ate the tiny remnants with great relish and declared he was full and
could eat no more. Meanwhile, Durvasa and his disciples had gone to the river for their
customary bath. All of them suddenly experienced extreme fullness. Thinking that
Yudhisthira would be insulted if they did not eat, they left in haste.
Draupadi’s full acceptance and kind behavior to the two wives Arjuna had
acquired during a period of voluntary separation from his family, show her magnanimity.
One was Ulupi, a princess of the Nagas, and the other was Subadhra, sister of Krishna.
In another episode, when she meets Krishna’s wife, Satyabhama, Draupadi shows her
intelligence by giving wise advice on how to keep husbands happy. After the war was
over, Drona’s son, Aswatthaman, commits a heinous act by killing all of Draupadi’s sons
when they were asleep by setting their tents on fire. Arjuna was able to capture him and
was intent on killing him. Draupadi shows her capacity for forgiveness by reminding
Arjuna that he was Status of Women
There is an interesting story in Santiparvan of Mahabharata regarding
philosophical debate between King Janaka and Sulabha, a women sage. Janaka a learned
scholar realized the supreme self while being a king. Salabha a yogini by practice, wants to
check and validate the knowledge of absolute truth of King Janaka. She appears as a
beautiful lady and proceeds to the court of the king. By merely looking at Sulabha's attire,
youthfulness etc, the king could not recognize her actual form and starts to enter with her
in a philosophical debate. Sulabha answers all his questions and ultimately defeats the
king in debate amidst the group of scholars before disclosing her real form. Meanwhile
there is a great conversation between them with regard to gender, caste, celibacy and so
on. Janaka is convinced that there is no gender to the self (atma) and the bodies are just
the substratum of the selves which are perishable while agreeing with her on remaining
arguments. This story tell us the actual reality of status of women and brahmavadini in
our scriptures.
CONCLUSION
Every civilization all over the world, from all times has treated women as a
secondary citizen. In the Europe and America, women got the right to vote in 1970's.
Christianity, a modern religion, has debated "if women were humans at all". Neither does
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Islam treat its women at par with men. Jainism believes that only men can attain Nirvana.
etc. Mahabharat times were no different. And this should be no reason to conclude that
the ancient Hindus were barbarians. The role of women in the Mahabharata makes an
interesting study providing insight into the strengths and weaknesses of their character.
Women have done a remarkable service to culture and society. Vedic scriptures asserted
that women and men both are two sides of the same coin. No one is superior to the other
in the materialistic world. Woman is the manifested divine form of the same absolute
energy.
REFERENCES:
1.
Manusmriti, Motilal Banarasidas, New Delhi, 1998.
2.
Hindu Dharma, Bharatiya Vidhya Bhavan, 1995.
3.
Mahabharata, Ratipatiram.
4.
Bhagvadgita,Motilal Banarasidas,Varanasi.
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THE IMPORTANCE OF PEACE
EDUCATION
FOR WORLD BROTHERHOOD
PRO. SUNITA B. MAKWANA
SHRI JASANI ARTS & COMMERCE COLLEGE,RAJKOT
SUBJECT:
KEYWORDS:
INTRIDUCTION
Education aims at all-round development of the individual. But, unless he is an
peace within himself and with the external world or his environment, be cannot achieve
progress in various fields. According to Swami Vivekanands, "Education is the
manifestation of perfection already in man." The individual has the potentially to make
progress and go ahead. He is endowed with different qualities of hand, head and heart. He
is to live in a peaceful atmosphere for utilising these qualities and express himself through
various activities. Education is the powerful means of self-expression and self-realization.
That is why, Gandhiji means education as "an all-round drawing out of the best in the
child and man-body, mind and spirit." He is the celebrated apostle of peace and for him
peace is not merely absense of war. Rather for him, peace is creative, positive and cooperative.
In the modern shrinking world., one cannot keep himself aloof from others. All are
interelated and share the same destiny-sorrows and suffering, happiness and porsperity.
Mankind is threatened with nuclear holocaust and mass devastation today. Peace is the
felt-need of the hour. It has been eulogised through ages. It has been desired by mankind
most and the two World Wars have cast shadow of despair in the living human memory.
Peace is the cherished goal of mankind. It cannot be achieved by peaceful meassures and
cannot be enjoyed by a group of people or a particular country exclusive of others. It can
be realised only through mutual understanding, international harmony and world
brotherhood. Education which promotes such international understanding, fellow-feeling
and brotherhood is called peace education. It must enable the human being to be in peace
irrespective of caste, creed, colour and geographical location.
GEONESIS
Peace Education is not a modern invention or an innovation of the modern age of
science and technology. As far back as about five thousand years ago, the Rig Veda has
ushered in a new era of enlightment and one-worldness. The Vedan idea of "Brahaman"
speaking of "oneness of the mankind:". It sings of mutual co-existence and eternal peace.
It dreams of "the father-hood of God" and "the brotherhood of man". The lofty ideal of
"Basudhalb Kutumbakam" meaning the whole world as a unified family has been
enshrined in the Vedic as well as Purank literature and philosophy of our country.
The Indian Heritage has been based on universal brotherhood and eternal peace.
It has been enriched and neverberated through ages in the Indian art, literature, religion
and culture. Rabindranath Tagore has visualised the utopia which is free, frank and open
without any barrier and constraint. He sings –
Where the mind is without fear and the head is held high,
Where knowledge is free;
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Where the world has not broken up into fragments.
By narrow—domestic walls.
The Constitution of UNESCO enjoins, "Ignorance of each other's ways and lives has
been a common cause, throughout the history of mankind, of the suspicious and mistrust
between the peoples of the world through which their difference have all too often broken
into war." Unless we remove all difference arising out of ill-will, mistrust and misunderstanding and spread mutual trust, fellow-feeling and friendship throughout the
world, the entire world will be dragged to unprecedented destruction of all. Such
annihilation can be eradicated only by peace education based on universal love, liberty,
equality and fraternity. In brief, democratisation of the human culture and civilization will
ensure such peace education.
The Permeable of the UNESCO declares, "Since wars begin in the minds of man, it
is in the minds of men that the defences of peace must be constructed." Education is the
strongest fort of the mind for maintenance and promotion of peace. International
understanding is essential for this which cannot be achieved by brick and mortar or with
chisel and harmer. It has to grow like a delicate plant and silently. He has to be nursed and
nourished in the minds of hearts of men. This can be ensured and achieved by peace
education, only.
PIONEER OF PEACE EDUCATION
John Amos Comenius who is regarded as the "fatehr of modern education" and is
compared with compernicus and Newton in modern science, and with Becon and
Descartes in modern philosophy was also pioneer in the field of peace education. Under
the impact of the Thirty Years' War and his personal suffering that drove him from his
Moravian homeland to Holland via Poland, England and Sweden, be repeatedly gave
eloquent expression to his desire for peace. On the occasion of negotiations conducted to
end the War between Britain and Holland, he expounded a plan for a peace court and a
world Senate to safeguart it. According to Hebert Zdarzil his teaching may be regarded as
peace pedagogies, because he expected education to lead Man to guide him towards the
realization of the order of creation as an order of peace.
The history of mankind is a recored of human wisdom as well as folly. It is a story
of peace as well as of wars. It is a panorama of civilizations and barbarities. It is an irony
or human fate that while the propets preached of the unity of human beings as the
children of one God and revaged the world with bloodshed, cruely and inhumanity.
Similarly, the advocates of democracy who profess tolerance, fellow-feeling and cooperation, are involved themselves in bloody warfare for the sake of democracy and
perpetrated all kinds of undemocratic practices like proliferation of armaments,
belligerent activities and military conflagrations.
DEMOCRACY AND EDUCATION FOR WORLD PEACE
The above observations of Sorokin have made it crystal clear that neither
demicracy nor education in the present form can ensure world peace and harmony.
Democracy has to be ethically based and oriented and the persons at the helm of affairs
who constitute only minority, should not only be made responsible to the entire
humanity, but also should not only be made responsible to the entire humanity, should
not only be made responsible to the entire humanity, but also should, explain their actions
that would affect the mankind. The egoistic and short-sighted political leaders should be
punished for their follies for dragging their own countries and subsequently the other
nations to satanic warfare and destructive activities. democracy should be regarded as
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essentially a moral commitment, a system of ethical and spiritual values meant for human
welfare, not for annihilation of the mankind. The only political democracy cannot
guarantee world peace and progress is true sense of the term. True democracy must be
moral democracy which should be directed towards orientation of the popular action and
thoughts with the concepts of rightness and wrongness of conduct.
The philosophy underlying true democracy is based on fellow-feeling, dignity of
the individual, brotherhood, co-operation harmony and faith on the humanity. Unless it is
realized, democarcy will be merely political, without any permanent values, deprived of
all moral standards and motivated by egoistic and fanatic sentiments of the political
leaders holding the reins of administration.
With a view to realising that moral democracy, education should not only be
available to all, it must be morally based and oriented. Ethics should constitute an
important ingredient of modern education. Education devoid of moral values and ethics of
conduct at various levels, cannot nake true citizens. Citizens are not merely required to
cast their votes or stand for elections, run a government or give some political decisions.
The decisions must be based on rightousness, natural justice and altruistic considerations.
The enlightened citizens should influence all political decisions of their government which
not only affect their own life, but also the life of the whole humanity.
The educational system of the coming world should aim at eradicating all kinds of
prejudices and stereotypes which are found to be the root-cause of conflicts and
aggressions between persons, groups, communities and countries. The individuals
through suitable education should be made free from their own psychological tensions
and turmoils, so that better and cordial interpersonal relations can be developed in the
society. Herbart Azdarzil has aptly said, "Peaceful inter-human relations are last.
Therefore, education for peace will achieved lasting success only if aimed as well at
leading Man towards peace with himself. His image of identity, his norms, his aims in life
and his life-work must be free of inherent contradictions and Man must not be variance
with them in his actions. Education for peace in the later sense is to no small extent
education for self-education for the forming and disciplining of the self.
True education should be impregnated with moral values which speak, "Love thy
neighbour" as per the Bible or "The entire world community is our neighbours"
(Basudhaib Kutumbakam) as per the Indian scripture of "All should live in peace and wellbeing and be courteous and free form sorrows and suffering" as per the Upanishad.
Such moral education should not be just spiritual and religious. It should be
mostly sociological, humanitarian as well as scientic. Therefore should not be any place
for prejudice, streotypes and blind acceptance. It must be ethical on the one hand and
scientific on the other. The principles of universal brotherhood, neighbourhood, fellowfeeling, social justice and mutual co-operation should be taught to children, practised in
the schools and outside. The principles of scientific attitude, free and open mind to all
facts and conditoons of life should be taught to our pupils. The International Education
Report under the auspices of the UNESCO has laid down a number of useful guidelines for
the world education. This report has emphasized a learning society and viewed justice
and scientific attitude as the base for the future world education. The World Organisation
like UNO, UNESCO have been doing their best to avoid war and safeguard peace. But it is
the moral duty of all nations to consider national and international problems in true
perspective and promote mutual understanding and concord among all individuals.
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CONCLUSION
The Indian Education Commission has aptly remarked, "Indian culture has had a
strong and honourable traditions of international understanding, of valuing, on the whole
with an open mind, the contributions of different counries and race to human civilization."
Indian is always respective and hospitable to others and other's ideas. Therefore, her
ancient sages have said, "Let noble thoughts come from all sides" (Anobhadra Kratu
Biswateh) The ideal of peace and non-violence has been practised and professed in this
country through ages. This has also enabled her to attain Independence without war and
bloodshed.
The world is always threatened by catastrophe owing to human arrogance power
of science and technology. Knowledge and intelligence without ethical values and
conscience are meanings. It will rather create problems than solve them. Man has now
faces his own problem by himself. The imbalance and lopsided growth of civilization
neglecting true democratic and moral values has to be rednessed. Otherwise the mankind
instead of raising itself to new heights of glory and fulfilment will fall down to an abysmal
depth of sufferings or face total annihilation. Our education and democracy should,
therefore, be reoriented and enlivened with a new system of ethical values and cordial
relations in order to ensure and avoid war in this world.
REFERENCE :
(1)
Modern Trends in Indian Education - Dr. Indira Dhull
(2)
Precepts for perfection - Sabina Thorne
(3)
Peace in the new Millenium – Jasjit Singh
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TOURISM INDUSTRY AND
GLOBALISATION: IMPACTS ON CHILD
LABOUR
PATEL RITESHKUMAR PREMJIBHAI
ASST. PROFESSOR,DHARMENDRASINHJI ARTS COLLEGE, RAJKOT
SUBJECT:
KEYWORDS:
Children usually work to contribute and provide financial support to their
families. Their health is often ignored by their parents or they may not be aware about
their children’s health. This paper illustrates World have adopted laws and regulations to
eliminate child tourism labour. However despite all the efforts, child tourism labour and
the factors that influences the incidence of child tourism labour continues to be prevalent.
It has been observed over decades that, poverty forces poor families to send their
children to work, which results in a serious problem the world is facing nowadays. Child
labour can leave many severe consequences on children and their families. When children
work, it does not mean as a standard, they support their families economically, neither all
of them get paid for their work since many of them work as bonded labour or as slaves. In
addition to that, they face many problems which may cause permanent damage to their
childhood.
The national and international organizations have made great efforts to eliminate
child labour across the world. Many countries have adopted legislation to prohibit child
labour; nonetheless child labour is widespread throughout the world. It is not easy task
for low income countries to achieve banning child labour. Several studies and
international organizations considered that education is the key strategy in addressing
child labour, and it can help children to stay away from work. However not every family
can afford to send their children to school or, even if they enrolled, afford to keep them
attending the school.
Travel companies and travellers do not often question who cleaned the room,
washed the vegetables or made the craft but from the International Labour Organisation
(ILO) figures of 13 to 19 million children working in the formal tourism industry, it is
clear that the likelihood of them unknowingly benefitting from child labour is high.
Whether we are aware of it or not child labour has in some way contributed to our
holidays. However, the lack of visibility stops companies and travellers from asking
questions.
This research paper addresses a question: What are the current patterns in child
tourism labour in World now? What kinds of policies are adopted to address child
tourism labour in World? How does policies adopted relate to previously identified
causes?
DEFINITION OF CHILD LABOUR
The term child labour has many definitions by different scholars. According to
Suda(2011) the term child labour refers to when children is working in any type of work
that is dangerous and harmful to children’s health or the work hinders their education.
For Moyi (2011) child labour refers to low wages, long hours, physical and sexual abuse.
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According to Edmonds and Pavcnik (2005) child labour is viewed as a form of child labour
abuse, when children work in bad conditions and hazardous occupations.
The definition of child labour is not simple because it includes three difficult
concepts to define, which are “child”, “work” and “labour”. He claims that the term of
childhood can be defined by age but in some societies, people cease to be a child at
different ages. The onset of puberty occurs at different ages for different people.
Therefore in the Article 1 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child and
the ILO Convention on the Worst Forms of Child Labour, 1999 defines a child who is
under the age of eighteen years. The definition of child labour differs among societies, for
example in Africa and Asia they do not consider the work of fifteen years old person as a
child labour, they view child labour as a good task that children learn skills from work.
They distinguish between child labour and child work, where child work is considered to
be a part of the children’s training to be responsible adults while child labour is thought to
be exploitative.
TYPES OF CHILD LABOUR
Child labourers are involved in many different forms of works, which include risks
and hazards. These children are vulnerable to physical pain and injury particularly being
exposed to health hazards. According to ILO (2012) the vast majority of child labour is
involved in hazardous occupations such as agriculture, mining, manufacture, construction
bonded child labour, domestic work and fishing. Environmental and occupational
conditions can impact on the health and development of the children.
Children working in different sectors such as agriculture, factories, domestic
labour, sex workers and carrying out their illicit activities, migrant labourers, and on the
streets as vendors etc. The effect of job and activities can vary from a country to a country.
Also working conditions, ages and gender of children involved in the differences too.
CHILD LABOUR IN TOURISM: BACKGROUND AND DEFINITION
The ILO and other international organisations generally define child labour as
work that deprives children of their childhood, their potential and their dignity, and that
is harmful to their physical and mental development. A key aspect of child labour is that it
is likely to interfere with children’s right to education. Recent figures from the ILO show
that 1 in 6 children work. 218 million children aged 5-17 are involved in child labour
worldwide mainly in the Asia/Pacific region and Sub Saharan Africa. However, child
labour also occurs in industrialised countries. The ILO (1999) warns that in Central and
Eastern Europe child labour has reappeared since countries there have made the
transition to a market economy More boys than girls work and very few children actually
get paid for the work they do. The ILO estimates that over 100 million girls (46%) are
involved in child labour. Their position is very vulnerable and the majority of them work
in agriculture and domestic service. The work is often invisible, hidden away from the
public eye and very hard for authorities to check on. Generally girls start to work at a
younger age than boys.
REASONS WHY CHILDREN WORK IN TOURISM: PUSH AND PULL FACTORS
stated that the amount of children working around the world was expanding. This
increase was due to “growing poverty and the lack of educational opportunities in many
parts of the world, as well as to the growing pressure of globalisation” which in her
opinion were forces that would also affect tourism. She also indicated that inadequate
income for adults and the demand for cheap and flexible labour was a reason for children
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to go to work in tourism. Stop Child Labour created a cycle of child labour perpetuating
poverty which clearly shows how parents and children start in poverty and end up in
poverty. Under these circumstances child labour is seen as a ‘necessary evil’ because the
parents cannot afford for their children to go to school.
that ‘push’ factors had been given more emphasis than ‘pull’ factors which she felt was
connected to the fact that there is a view of the child worker as a victim. She pointed out
that not all working conditions for child workers are exploitative or damaging and that in
some parts of the world children enter into work of their own free will because
employment of children is accepted.
TYPES OF WORK CHILDREN DO IN TOURISM
Despite the domination of multi-national companies in the tourism sector, the
tourism labour market is characterised by jobs in small businesses, often family run. The
majority of the tourism workforce works for a medium-size or small tourism business.
The WTTC estimates this figure as high as 80%. A lot of these jobs are in the informal
sector and employment conditions vary greatly. Overall the is not very positive about
working conditions in tourism in general: working hours are generally long, jobs are not
secure, employment is seasonal, wages are low, very little unionization and collective
bargaining is possible, labour laws are often broken and there is a lack of opportunities
for training for tourism workers. The situation is compounded by the fact that the
majority of the workforce is female and is increasingly getting younger.
Equations also point out that even though work in tourism may be perceived as
light or non-hazardous, the level of risk is high in the sense that the child may be exposed
to sexual exploitation and abuse. This is to do with the fact that jobs in tourism are often
hidden away from the public eye but do involve direct contact with adults. Many of these
jobs are difficult for the government and/or police to monitor, the only exception are jobs
which involve manufacturing rather than services.

Consequences of children working in tourism: more bad than good?
The divides the negative impacts of children working in tourism on their own well-being
into 3 categories as illustrated
1.
Physical : fatigue from long working hours, physical harm (violence, chemicals,
abrasions-hazards associated with the work), HIV-AIDS, other sexually transmitted
diseases, impaired growth.
2.
Moral : exposed to drugs, sex, violence, exposed to adult behaviours, lack of
schooling, too much independence?
3.
Psychological : low self-esteem, marginalised from society, stigmatized, lonely,
loss of a safe upbringing / childhood, stress, lack of chance to develop cognitive skills
TYPES OF WORK CHILDREN DO IN TOURISM DESTINATIONS IN DIFFERENT
SECTORS
1)
Accommodation :
a.
Workplace - Hotels, holiday resorts, boarding houses, guesthouses, lodges, bed
and breakfast places, rooms in private homes; subcontractors such as laundries, cleaning
firms
b.
Occupations - Receptionists, baggage attendants, bell-boys, lift-boys,
chambermaids, room-boys, domestic servants, grooms, porters, garden hands; helpers in
laundry and ironing, cleaners
2)
Catering food and beverage :
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a.
Workplace - Restaurants, cafes, teashops, snack bars, beer gardens, pubs, bars,
beach shacks, street stands, itinerant food vending stalls
b.
Occupations - Kitchen and scullery helpers, dishwashers, water-carriers, cleaners,
waitresses and waiters, delivery boys, vendors of fruit, snacks and ice-cream
3)
Excursions, recreational activities, entertainment industry
a.
Workplace - Excursion sites, tourist sightseeing spots, sport and beach activities,
fitness centres, animal shows, circuses, folklore performances, casinos, nightclubs with
go-go dancing, massage salons, brothels
b.
Occupations - Tour guides, vendors of postcards or tickets, flower girls, “photo
models”, shoeshine boys, beggars, beach cleaners, caddies and “umbrella girls” on golf
courses, attendants in surf and diving schools, attendants for pony rides, “Thai boxers”,
snake and crocodile exhibitors, acrobats, divers for pennies, beach boys, “hospitality
girls”, “guest relations officers”, dancers, masseuses, prostitutes, and procurers
4)
Tour operating and transport
a.
Workplace - Travel agencies, airports, train stations, bus and taxi firms, excursion
and transfer boats
b.
Occupations - Small handling agents, errand-boys, baggage attendants, bus
attendants, car washers and guards, ship-boys, deckhands, porters (on trekking tours)
5)
Souvenir production
a.
Workplace - Wood carving and plastic processing, textile industry, sewing shops,
straw and palm leaf manufacturing (mat weaving, etc.), shell, coral and mother-of-pearl
processing, carpet-weaving, tanning, leather production, lacquer industry, precious stones
mining, gem industry
b.
Occupations - Manufacturers of all kinds, shell and pearl divers
6)
Selling of souvenirs
a.
Workplace - Shops, hotel boutiques, stands, itinerant sales activities on streets and
beaches
b.
Occupations - Souvenir vendors of all kinds
CONCLUSION
World have been implementing policies and programmes to eradicate the child
tourism labour. Various policies and programmes are also created by organizations on the
global challenge of the child tourism labour. World has ratified all the important
instruments concerning the issue, The governments of World countries have enacted
strategic policies which includes the prohibitation of all forms of child tourism labour.
India introduced national legislation through Child Labour Prohibition and Regulation
act1986. World Countries have their child tourism labour problem even though they have
some kind of solutions provided by the government or NGOs. Any attempt to solve this
problem should take in mind the root cause behind the problem and how it can be solved.
Corruption could lead to the collapse of the country. Poverty and poor quality education is
one of the major causes behind the problem, no magic solution are there. However, a
successive and continuous controlling of countries resources and possibilities leads to a
continued development. Building and establishing new culture were people refrain
corruption, and take their responsibilities in developing their country is the only way to
survive in all challenges that the country could face.
Details about the child tourism labour are very similar in World. Children who
work are both boys and girls and the majority of them start working are under the age of
fourteen. The most common forms of work performed by children are: agriculture, and
domestic service. The incidences of child tourism labour in World are high in rural areas
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than urban areas, while child tourism labour in World is more rampant in urban centers
due to rapid urbanization.
REFERENCES:

Child Labour in Various Industries – S. Wal (Sarup and Sons New Delhi)

Who Really Benefits from Tourism? Working Paper Series 2008-09

Child Labor: A Global View By Cathryne L. Schmitz, Elizabeth KimJin Traver, Desi
Larson

Kerala: Exploring Future Frontiers in Tourism Development
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CHILD LABOUR AND ECONOMIC
GROWTH IN INDIA
DR SHIRISH R BHARDWAJ
HEAD IN GEOGRAPHY
SUBJECT:
KEYWORDS:
INTRODUCTION
Child labour has been one of the biggest obstacles to social development. It is a
challenge and long-term goal in many countries to abolish all forms of child labour.
Especially in developing countries like India , it is considered as a serious issue now a
days. Child labour refers to children who miss their childhood and are not able to have the
basic amenities which a child should have. They are often mistreated and forced to work
for prolonged hours, in very bad conditions. This can affect their health physically,
mentally and emotionally. These children do not have the basic rights like access to school
or health care or to create their unions. Child labour refers to the employment of children
in any work that deprives children of their childhood, interferes with their ability to
attend regular school, and that is mentally, physically, socially or morally dangerous and
harmful.
Child labourers in Brazil has fallen from over five million in 2004 to 2.8 million in
2014, a 43 per cent decrease. Their profile has also changed -- going from a majority of
uneducated children and from low-income families to teenagers above 14 that go to
school and are from stable income families, Brazil's constitution bans children under age
13 from working, and requires communities to report such situation, especially in cases of
irregular domestic work, despite the difficulty that children were usually hidden from
public, Those over 16 years of age could have a formal day-jobcontract in a safe, healthy
and hygienic environment. "Today, Brazil is a worldwide reference in the fight against
child labour,"
DEFINING CHILD LABOUR
DEFINITION
Child labour is the term used for the employment of children in an industry or
business, especially when illegal or considered exploitative. According to International
Labour Organisation (ILO) , “child labour” is often defined as work that deprives children
of their childhood, their potential and their dignity, and that is harmful to physical and
mental development. It refers to work that:

Is mentally, physically, socially or morally dangerous and harmful to children; and

Interferes with their schooling by:

Depriving them of the opportunity to attend school;

Obliging them to leave school prematurely; or

Requiring them to attempt to combine school attendance with excessively long
and heavy work.
UNICEF defines child labour differently. A child, suggests UNICEF, is involved in
child labour activities if between 5 to 11 years of age, he or she did at least one hour of
economic activity or at least 28 hours of domestic work in a week, and in case of children
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between 12 to 14 years of age, he or she did at least 14 hours of economic activity or at
least 42 hours of economic activity and domestic work per week.
Ministry of Labour, Government of India has employed the term ‘child labour’ only
in the context of children doing ‘hazardous’ work. The original child labour law banned
employment of children below 14 in only 18 hazardous industries. The amendments also
make it clear that children between 14 and 18 years will also not be allowed to work in
hazardous industries. The changes in the labour law also provide for stricter punishment
for employers for violation. While there is no penalty provision for parents for the first
offence, the employer would be liable for punishment even for the first violation.
CLPR Act is not in conformity with the International Labour Organisation (ILO)
Conventions 138 and 182, which provide for minimum age of entry into employment and
prohibition of employment of persons below 18 years, in work which is likely to harm
health, safety and morals.
According to the Census 2001, In India there were 12.6 million working children
in the age group of 5-14 as compared to the total child population of 252 million. As per
Census 2011, the number of working children in the age group of 5-14 years reduced to
4.35 million.
CATEGORIES OF CHILD LABOUR
Child labour is a term that needs to be unpacked: it cannot be used in a sweeping
manner but covers a range and variety of circumstances in which children work.
a. Child Labour:
Those children who are doing paid or unpaid work in factories, workshops,
establishments, mines and in the service sector such as domestic labour.
b. Street Children:
Children living on and off the streets, such as shoeshine boys, ragpickers,
newspaper-vendors, beggars, etc.
c. Bonded Children:
Children who have either been pledged by their parents for paltry sums of money or those
working to pay off the inherited debts of their fathers.
d. Working Children:
Children who are working as part of family labour in agriculture and in home-based work.
e. Children used for sexual exploitation:
Many thousands of young girls and boys serve the sexual appetites of men from all social
and economic backgrounds. Direct links between the commercial sexual exploitation of
children and other forms of exploitative child labour are numerous.
f. Migrant children:
India faces a huge challenge with “distress seasonal migration”. Millions of families are
being forced to leave their homes and villages for several months
every year in search of livelihoods.
g. Children engaged in household activities:
Apart from children who are employed for wages (either bonded or otherwise) as
domestic help, there are a large number of children (especially girls) who are working in
their own houses, engaged in what is not normally seen as “economic activity”.
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
Child labour is a serious problem and a challenge for many developing countries.
Many countries have enacted various laws and have taken serious initiatives to eradicate
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child labour, but still the problem is very widespread throughout the world. This paper
critically examined the issue of child labour in Ahmedabad district of Gujarat State India.
The main objectives of this research paper are;
1. To know the situational differences of child labour in Agriculture and Industrial areas
2. To know the geographical and economic areas of child labour.
3. Major problems and suggestions
METHODOLOGY
This study has relied on secondary data. In order to answer research question,
secondary data is collected through literature material researched from academic books,
articles, and news and research reports on child labour, poverty education and public
health of child labour. This study is based on a comparative study between agriculture
and industries . Since child labour is an extremely complex phenomenon, this study is
limited to examining the nature and extent of child labour aged between seven to fourteen
years.
CHILD LABOUR IN AGRICULTURE SECTOR
Today, close to 70 per cent of child labourers are in the farm sector. Now,
definitely, there will be more incidences of child labour in the farm sector. The move
might also lead to more child trafficking. In a study at NCPCR, children from Rajasthan and
Andhra Pradesh are being trafficked to Gujarat for working in BT farms," said Vinod
Tikoo, Formers member of National Commission for Protection of Child Rights (NCPCR).
Agriculture in India roughly employees 69.5 per cent of child labour (5-14 age) in
India, according to a 2013 report called, Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor, by
the US department of labour. The report further said that, "In 2013, India made a
moderate advancement in efforts to eliminate the worst forms of child labor.
CHILD LABOUR IN INDUSTRIAL SECTOR
"Children engaged in the manufacturing of goods, many in the informal economy
and increasingly in home-based production," As per Satyarthy family-based industries
most of them are hazardous and most of the trafficked and enslaved children work under
the garb of an 'extended family'. Child labour in urban areas has increased by 53 per cent
during 2001-2011. "This is of utmost concern especially since enforcement machinery is
primarily based in urban regions and the implementation of child protection structures is
stronger in urban India. This increase in urban child labour could be attributed to
increased migration including seasonal migration for employment as well as trafficking of
unaccompanied minors," says Komal Ganotra, Director, Policy & Research, CRY.
Overall, 80 per cent of the working children are based in rural areas and 3 out 4 of
them work in agriculture as cultivators or in household industries, most of which are
home-based employments. Interestingly, more than half of working children in India are
concentrated in five states namely Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and
Maharashtra.These states account for more than 55 lakh of child workers.
Out of these five states, only Uttar Pradesh has witnessed a growth in child labour by 13
per cent with one out of five child labourers in India belonging to the state The children
were found working as bonded labourers in hazardous conditions. They wore old, torn
clothes even in the cold conditions. They were being given little food,"
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CONCLUSION
Child labour decreasing at a dismal rate of only 2.2 per cent per year it would take
more than a century to end the menace, a Business report analysis. An analysis of census
data by CRY (Child Rights and You) has revealed that child labour has been decreasing at
a mere 2.2 per cent per year over the last decade, contrary to popular perception of its
substantial reduction.
Several issues have emerged from the research findings documented above. One is
that children are working in very large numbers in agriculture, a sector where child
labour is in fact permitted. Yet field data shows that agricultural work is extremely
hazardous for children. There is therefore a need to ban child labour in agriculture.
Secondly, even in occupations such as mining and quarrying and working in brick
kilns is prohibited under the Child Labour (prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986,
children are found working across the country. Clearly there is a need to strengthen the
implementation of the Act where it does apply.
A third important issue is the increase in the migration of children for work. They
are either travelling alone with agents and labour contractors as is the case with children
working on agricultural fields. Or they are migrating as part of family labour to work in
the brick kilns, salt pans, for cotton and sugarcane harvesting, as domestic labour or
migrating to work in sweatshops in the cities.
Child labour in India is found in almost every sector of the informal economy.
Children are found working in workshops and small factories, in dhabas and restaurants,
on the streets as well as domestic servants. But perhaps the largest sector in which
children are found working is agriculture. Child labour is the burning issue to protect
children rights at present. They are always verbally, physically, mentally abused by other
who controls them. They are forced to work to these vulnerable and hazardous jobs only
for their as well their family’s survival. They start working from dawn and finish their
work at night. No recreational facilities are available for them. They have no time and
facilities for education. Their working environment is severely unhealthy. They do not get
equitable payment.
Children are important assets and the future of a nation. The state as well as the
society should offer them ample opportunities for their proper education and physical,
mental, social and moral growth and development. As childhood is the formative part of
human life, children, should not therefore, be exposed to such work as is detrimental to
their physical or mental growth unfortunately, a large number of children of the world
today are not cared as they required. They are compelled to sell their labor for their
survival. They are also victims of negligence, cruelty and exploitation.
REFERENCE
1. NEW CHILD LABOUR LAW MAY LEAD TO MORE CHILD LABOUR IN FARM SECTORNAMRATA ACHARYA
2. CHILD LABOUR CAN DISRUPT 'MAKE IN INDIA',- KAILASH SATYARTHI
3. CHILD LABOURERS FROM BIHAR, UP RESCUED FROM RAJASTHAN FACTORYBUSINESS STANDERED
4. INDIA WILL NEED 100 YEARS TO END CHILD LABOUR: REPORT- KOMAL GANOTRA,
DIRECTOR, POLICY &
RESEARCH, CRY.
5. Child labour in rural areas with a special focus on migration, agriculture, mining and
brick kilns - Neera Burra
6. A study on child labour in Gujarat state - Rajeshwari Shrimali and Dr Mayuri Farmer
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GIRL CHILD LABOUR IN INDIA
PROF. DAXA T. ADHADUK
M.J.KUNDALIYAMAHILA COLLAGE, RAJKOT (RESEARCH SCHOLAR, SAURASTRA
UNIVERSITY)
SUBJECT:
KEYWORDS:
ABSTRACT:
Children are universally recognised as the most important asset of any nation and
children are the future of the nation. But children’s involvement in different types of
professional work is commonly ascribed as child labour. There had been a substantial girl
in child labours. These girl child labours getting into trouble and facing an uncertain
future rose considerably and also girls often subjected to the worst forms of child labour,
on account of the low status given to girl in many societies. The aforesaid discussion laid
bare the gravity of the problem faced by girl child labours. ILO, HRD ministry and the
social welfare and development department the ministry of social welfare, other
educational and administrative departments and NGO’s etc. could sincere effort of the girl
child much help in the long-run. It is believed that with all these efforts put together, by
the dawn of next century of the country could be able to ensure a right place in the society
for a majority of their children.
INTRODUCTION:
Children are universally recognised as the most important asset of any nation.
Every child has the right to an environmental favourable to his physical, mental,
emotional and intellectual growth and development. The healthy and educated child of
today is the very foundation of hopeful tomorrow of a country infect children are the
future of the nation and, therefore, when we have been saving the childhood we must
have been saving the future of the nation itself. But children’s involvement in different
types of professional work is commonly ascribed as child labour and is rampant in
different part of the globe, more so for the India and developing countries. As in the most
of the boys and girls can be treated in different ways by adults in terms of providing of
education opportunities option for survival apart from different resources and their
disposal.
CHILD LABOUR
Dr.V.V.Giri has distinguished the term child labour in two senses. First, as an
economic practice and second, as a social evil, she first signifies employment of children in
gainful occupation with a view to adding income to the family, and the second aspects
take into account the dangers to which the children are exposed which means the denial
of opportunities of development.
CAUSES OF CHILD LABOUR
Reasons behind the child labour are given below:
Poverty, population explosion, illiteracy, lake of social awareness.
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Child labour cheap, less troublesome, more disciplined, highly adoptable and easy
availability.
Death of one of the parents or both, habituated fathers, ignorance of the parents.
Illegality of child, school dropouts, children’s desire.
Family trade and craft, legal implementation.
Absences of scheme for family allowances, etc.
CHILD POPULATION AND CHILD LABOUR
Child population and child labour in India as per population census children in the
age groups of 0-14 constituted in 1991 about 314.8 million (37.2%), in 2001 about 360
million(35.3%), in 2006 about 241.7 million (21.7%); for age groups 0-10 in 2011 about
227.44 million (18.79%). The reduction (1991-2006) in the proportion of children is
attributed to drastic reduction in the total fertility rate in many major state.
As per NSSO survey child labour in the age group of 5-14 constituted in 1991
about 11.3 million in 2001 about 12.6 million compared to in India 1991 revealing an
increase in trend. In 2004-05 about 9.07 million, in 2009-10 about 4.98 million. The
reduction proportion of child labour, a substantial proportion child labour may remain
uncounted. According to the world population, ILO measured that in 2012 about 168
million (11%) are child labours.
Child Labour and Sex Distribution (10-14 age group):
All India
1991
2001
2006
Total
11.3
12.26
8.08
(million)
%
10.4%
8.7%
6.6%
Boys (million) 6.19
6.80
4.27
%
10.9%
8.8%
6.7%
Girls (million) 5.10
5.86
3.89
%
9.9%
8.5%
6.3%
As per data showing that boys are found to be slightly more exposed to work than
girl especially in the 10-14 age group, 5.10 million girl child labour in 1991, in 2001 the
girl child labour increased to 5.86 million, in 2006 the girl child labour decreased to 3.89
million.
FOCUSING IN THE GIRL CHILD
Data showing that boys form a majority share in the overall numerical figure of
child labour but in absolute numbers, there had been substantial girl child labour. These
girl child labours getting into trouble and facing an uncertain future rose considerably
many studies focus on that girl are often subjected to the worst forms of child labour, an
account of the low status given to girls in many societies how even, exclusive focus on the
girl child becomes meaningless unless a girl child is compared with the boy child and
amongst different classes of girl children. Thus, a focus on gender not only means
studying only the girl child, rather it means analysing the inequalities at the point of view.
MEASURING GIRL CHILD LABOUR
In order to get an effective hold of the problem of girl child labourer, the primary
need is to have an assessment of their intensity. NSSO, planning commission, census
reports are sources of data and ministry of Human Resource Development, International
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Labour Organization, Statistical Information and Monitoring Program on Child-Labour
survey are specifically designed for meeting such an objective. The program was first
utilized to get a measure of child labour, more so, girl child labour in different sectors of
work, and thereafter, used for raising awareness on child labour. A major advantage of
this data is uniformity of it, on account of which a cross-country comparison of the status
of girl child becomes feasible.
CURBING EXPLOITATION OF GIRL CHILD LABOUR
The aforesaid discussion laid bare the gravity of the problem faced by girl child
labourers. Ministry of HRD, govt. of India, ILO are initiating different schemes bought
froth through prevention, protection, recovery and reintegration, child participation, in
research and documentation, in training and capacity building, in advocacy and social
mobilization, information sharing and exchange etc.. While prevention of exploitation
could be brought about through appropriate advocacy in grass-roots communities,
schools etc. to make aware the girls. Law need to be tightened so as so to ensure that, with
in its domain falls, almost all cases of abuse that comes in the way of girl child labour.
T5he social welfare and development dept. of the ministry of social welfare, need to
conduct training, a part from capacity building. These are lots of girl children who study
and employee themselves during holidays to earn for themselves, or to support their
parents and more girls labour in hazardous and exploitative jobs like street hustling and
garbage collecting , falling in the hands of hooligans who foster child prostitution. Thus,
making education free and compulsory is best solution of this problem, at least in the
short run could be to encourage parents to send their child to school, with the schools
some rich parents to sponsor the schooling expenses of the needy children.
CONCLUSION
The various socio-economic factors combine to give most girl children lack of selfesteem and confidence. Every municipal/corporate ward, social workers, social clubs and
organization, the government authorities, national and international corporation etc.
sincere effort on the part of the girl employers to arrange for the part time schooling of
the children could also be of much help in the long run. It is believed that all these efforts
put together by the dawn of next century of the country could be able to ensure a right
place in the society for a majority of their children.
REFERENCES:
Census report, 1991, 2001, 2011
Indian Labour Year Book (2011-12).
Magnitude of Child Labour in India.
(An Analysis of Official Sources of Data (Draft)).
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AF/DH]ZGF\ 5|`GF[ VG[ p5FIF[
CHAVDA RENUKA
M. PHIL,ECONOMICS DEPARTMENT,SAURASHTRA UNIVERSITY, RAJKOT.
SUBJECT:
KEYWORDS:
ABSTRACT
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CHILD LABOUR IN INDIA
BHATT DAKSHA B
JASANI ARTS &COM. COLLEGE RAJKOT.
SUBJECT:
KEYWORDS:
Children are always considered next to the pious versions of the Almighty who
always strive to inculcate happiness, joy, innocence and hope. The future of a nation is
determined by the way it treats its children and its women, after all, children imply a
hope, a hope to strengthen not only the economy of the country, but also to provide the
country with skilled human resources who have access to the basic amenities essential for
the existence coupled with the tenets of the education in India.
It is the moral duty of every citizen for the country to ensure that the childhood of
our children is protected and not marred with instances like that of child labour which
arise out of poverty and helplessness.
WHAT IS CHILD LABOUR
Child labour typically means the employment of children in any manual work with
or without payment. Child labour is not only limited to India, it happens to be a global
phenomenon.
As far as India is concerned, the issue is a vicious one as children in India have
historically been helping parents at their farms and other primitive activities. Another
concept that needs explanation is the concept of bonded labour which is one of the most
common forms of exploitation. Bonded labour means the children are forced to work as
employees in lieu of payment of debt by the parents due to exorbitant rates of repayment
of interest.
Also associated with the concept of bonded labour is the concept of urban child
labour wherein the labouers are the street children who spend most of their childhood on
the streets.
UNICEF has categorized child work into three categories:
1. Within the family- Children are engaged in domestic household tasks without pay.
2. Within the family but outside the home- Example- agricultural labourers, domestic
maids, migrant labourers etc.
3. Outside the family- Example- commercial shops in restaurants and jobs, prostitution
etc.
CAUSES OF RISING INSTANCES OF CHILD LABOUR
Over population, illiteracy, poverty, debt trap are some of the common causes
which are instrumental in this issue.
Overburdened, debt-trapped parents fail to understand the importance of a
normal childhood under the pressures of their own troubles and thus it leads to the poor
emotional and mental balance of a child’s brain which is not prepared to undertake
rigorous field or domestic tasks.
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National and Multinational companies also recruit children in garment industries for
more work and less pay which is absolutely unethical.
CHILD LABOUR LAWS IN INDIA
The problem of child labour in India had become an issue of concern for one and
all post Independence. The drafting committee of the India constitution wanted to
formulate laws on their own without seeking recommendations from other countries with
this regard. Since, India had been under the exploitative regime of the British, it only
made sense that the provisions were devised keeping in mind the forms of exploitative
labour that India had witnessed under the atrocious regime.
The primitive laws that were formed to prohibit child labour in India were when
the Employment of Children Act, 1938 was passed. But this act failed miserably because it
failed to address the cause of poverty as it is poverty that drives children into forced
labour.
The Indian Parliament time and again has passed Laws and Acts to ensure the
protection of children from child labour. The Fundamental Rights enshrined in our
Constitution prohibit child labour below the age of 14 years in any factor or mine or
engaged in any hazardous employment under Article 24. Apart from this, it is also
provided under Article 21-A that State shall provide infrastructure and resources for free
and compulsory education for children of the age six upto 14 years.
There exists a set of laws which under the Constitution govern the protection of
children from child labour. The Factories Act of 1948 prevents the employment of
children below 14 years in any factory. The Mines Act of 1952 prohibits the employment
of children below the age of 18 years. The Child Labor (Prohibition and Regulation) Act of
1986 prevents the employment of children below the age of 14 years in life-threatening
occupations identified in a list by the law. Further, the Juvenile Justice (Care and
Protection) of children Act of 2000 made the employment of children a punishable
offence.
Ironically, despite this huge array of laws, there seems to be no improvement in
the working conditions of the child labourers and employers also freely flout the
provisions of the Act covering the prohibition of child labour.
It needs to be highlighted that the violation of these provisions means a
deprivation of the basic human rights and demeaning the childhood of the children. The
law also isn’t very clear as to how where can the children work. The Acts covers only 10
percent of the total working children and thus not applicable to the unorganized sector.
The Act also exempts the family of the child labourer from its purview if they all are
working with the same employee as that of the child. Although the Act prohibits the
employment of children in certain hazardous industries and processes, it does not define
what constitutes hazardous work. It only provides a list of hazardous occupations.
ROLE OF INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS IN FIGHTING CHILD LABOUR
The International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (IPECL) was
launched under the programme of International Labour Organization in 1991 to work
towards the elimination of child labour by creating awareness about child labour as a
global issue using national platforms. India was among the first nations to sign the MOU
with IPECL to help in combating child labour.
National Labour Project (NCLP) is one of the major programmes implemented
throughout the country under which seven child labour projects were set up in the year
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1988. Rehabilitation is also one of the major policies that have been adopted by the
government of India to reduce the incidence of child labour in India.
Unfortunately, the concerned authorities are unable to combat the rising cases of
child labour because of varied reasons. They fail to establish the correct age if the child
due to the lack of birth proofs and at times fake proofs. Not much is being done on
creating the awareness among people. Even if efforts are being made, they cater to a
limited population and the endurance among the authorities is not visible. A lot of laxity
can be observed during the conduct of awareness programmes. There is still a need to
address the issue on global platforms time and again with stringent policy framework in
place.
HOW TO ELIMINATE CHILD LABOUR
Abolition of child trafficking, elimination of poverty, free and compulsory
education, and basic standards of living can reduce the problem to a great extent. The
World Bank and International Monetary Fund can help in eradicating poverty by
providing loan to the developing countries.
Strict implementation of labour laws is also essential in order to prevent
exploitation by parties or multinational companies. Lot many amendments are required
in the present child labour prohibition law in order to implement strict measures to
control the situation. The minimum of age of fourteen years needs to be increased to at
least eighteen. The list of hazardous activities which are present in the law needs to
include more occupations which have been left out of the purview of the hazardous
activities.
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EFZTDF\ AF/ DH}ZL VG[ jIJ;FI
DR. PARUL J. JOSHI
ASSO. PROF.SHREE DEVMANI ART'S & COMMERCE COLLEGE-VISAVADAR
SUBJECT:
KEYWORDS:
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CHILD LABOUR IN INDIA
K. R. ODEDRA
SUBJECT:
KEYWORDS:
ABSTRACT
There are many forms of child labour worldwide. Children are engaged in
agricultural labour, in mining, in manufacturing, in domestic service, types of
construction, scavenging and begging on the streets. Others are trapped in forms of
slavery in armed conflicts, forced labour and debt bondage (to pay off debts incurred by
parents and grandparents) as well as in commercial sexual exploitation and illicit
activities, such as drug trafficking and organized begging and in many other forms of
labour. Many of these are “worst forms” of child labour as they are especially harmful,
morally reprehensible, and they violate the child’s freedom and human rights. Child
labour tends to be concentrated in the informal sector of the economy. For some work,
children receive no payment, only food and a place to sleep. Children in informal sector
work receive no payment if they are injured or become ill, and can seek no protection if
they suffer violence or are maltreated by their employer.
The current approach to child labour taken by many countries and international
institutions, and increasingly by the Indian government, is to ban children from working
and to enforce that ban through the juvenile justice system. In India, for example, children
can be ‘rescued’ from their jobs – in practice, forcefully removed – and held in children’s
state custody for the simple crime of working.
But in India and around the world, this ‘ban approach’ has failed to reduce the
prevalence of child labour and in the process criminalised and traumatised thousands of
working children. In the first 15 years after the passage of the Child Labour (Prohibition
and Regulation) Act 1986, the number of working children in India actually increased,
from 111 million to 126 million in 2001. The state of Karnataka, where CWC is based, has
postponed its target for the eradication of child labour in the state four times, with the
goal, originally set for the mid-1990s, currently set for 2020. In the meantime, thousands
of children have been forcefully – sometimes violently – removed from work and
incarcerated in children’s homes, before being returned to their families only to return to
work in an unofficial, lower-paid and less safe position.
Instead of criminalising working children, CWC believes in tackling the root
causes of child labour, and recognising the positive role that age-appropriate work can
play in childhood.
CHILD WORK AND CHILD LABOUR – KNOWING THE DIFFERENCE
It is often claimed that work is ‘bad’ for children, or that the domain of work is
something that should be reserved to adults. In fact, the right kinds of work can be not
just safe for children, but actively beneficial to childrens’ growth and learning. Such work
must be not just physically safe, but not detrimental to a child’s development. A
combination of such work with education offers the best basis for many children to
develop skills, experience and confidence.
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But not all work is right for children. No child should be engaged in any work that
does not contribute to her/his growth and development. This is ‘child labour.’ CWC
believes that while we may strive to, one day, abolish child labour, it is a mistake – and
harmful to children – to try to abolish child work. But when you differentiate carefully
between child work and child labour, our work shows it is possible LINK to quickly
reduce child labour in some areas.
ENDING CHILD LABOUR: A REALISTIC APPROACH
Work provides a vital source of income for children from poor families across
India and the world – which not only helps basic living costs, but enables many children to
afford the cost of education, including books and uniforms. While we may work towards a
future without child labour, we cannot achieve this merely by criminalising child workers
and those who employ them.
Instead, we must tackle the root causes of child labour. These include poverty;
inadequate, inappropriate and sometimes harmful schooling; and environmental
degradation, which is destroying rural agricultural livelihoods, sending children to the
cities for work. Sometimes the simplest investments can significantly reduce the burden
of work in children’s lives: for example, the opening of an anganwadi (nursery) in a village
can enable large numbers of children to go to school instead of looking after younger
siblings.
LEARNING FROM CHILDREN
We did not come to these conclusions by ourselves. We learned them from
working children. Working children from India and all over the world tell us repeatedly
that while they want to gain an education on top of their work, to simply prevent them
from working would be to impoverish them and their families.
“Don’t just keep telling us ‘stop working’. We work because we have to eat. We
work because, for us, it is a necessity. If you really want us to stop working – make sure
you solve the problems of our families.”
– A working child at a CWC workshop in Bengaluru, 2007
In one of the largest ever studies of the topic, working children aged between 10
and 14 years from South Asia, Africa and Latin America were asked about their view of
their work. 77% said that ‘going to work and attending school’ is their best option under
their current circumstances. Just 12% favoured ‘school only.’
This fact is widely recognised in Western countries. From baby-sitting to carwashing, Western children are expected to contribute to household chores and often
receive money in exchange. Yet India, with millions of child labourers, is expected to keep
its children’s lives free of work!
A DISTURBING TREND IN POLICY
Unfortunately, the trend in recent years in policy, both in India and
internationally, has been to move further and further away from this nuanced approach
and towards simply criminalising working children.
India’s first national child labour law, the Child Labour (Prohibition and
Regulation) Act 1986, provided, as originally drafted, a progressive approach to the issue,
emphasising tackling the root causes of child work. Unfortunately, the law that ultimately
passed was very different, putting the emphasis largely on a ‘ban approach’ to child
labour and criminalising children working in a wide range of industries.
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As seen above, this ‘ban approach’ has entirely failed to stop child labour while
criminalising thousands of children. But despite the failure of this approach, India is now
taking it a step further. A new amendment to the Child Labour (Prohibition and
Regulation) Act 1986 will ban children aged under 14 from all work, regardless of
whether or not the work is deemed ‘hazardous.’ This is a stricter position than is taken by
many Western countries!
CWC believes a new approach is urgently needed, one which focuses not on
punishing working children but on addressing the social and economic factors that drive
children to work – while recognising that, in moderate amounts and in the right roles,
work can and should be a part of a healthy childhood.
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GENDER BIAS IN INDIA
BHAVESH. N. DAV
VISITING PROFESSOR,JASANI COLLEGE, RAJKOT
SUBJECT:
KEYWORDS:
Discrimination against girls in India has several sociological impacts. Debates
surrounding the issue question female children's role and seek to define their human
rights, especially with the nearly universal consensus on the need for gender equality.
Attaining gender justice is not an easy task in India. From time immemorial, a girl child
has been considered as an unwanted entity and a burden that the parents would not mind
doing away with. Discrimination against women begins even before her birth. The
gruesome evils of female feticide and infanticide prove how brutal the world could be to
women. Though the Indian constitution provides equal rights and privileges for men and
women and makes equal provision to improve the status of women in society, majority of
women are still unable to enjoy the rights and opportunities guaranteed to them.
Traditional value system, low level of literacy, more house hold responsibilities lack of
awareness, non-availability of proper guidance, low mobility, lack of self confidence
family discouragement and advanced science and technology are some of the factors
responsible to create gender disparity in our society. The most important causes of
gender disparity such as poverty, illiteracy, unemployment, social customs, belief and
anti-female attitude are discussed here.
POVERTY
In India of the total 30 percent people who are below poverty line, 70 percent are
women. Women’s poverty in India is directly related to the absence of economic
opportunities and autonomy, lack of access to economic resources including credit , land
ownership and inheritance, lack of access to education and support services and their
minimal participation in the decision making process. The situation of women on
economic front is no better and men still enjoy a larger share of the cake. Thus poverty
stands at the root of gender discrimination in our patriarchal society and this economic
dependence on the male counterpart is itself a cause of gender disparity.
ILLITERACY
Despite the notable efforts by the countries around the globe that have expanded
for the basic education , there are approximately 960 million illiterate adults of whom two
thirds are women .Educational backwardness of the girls has been the resultant cause of
gender discriminaThe disparities become more visible between male and female literacy
rate, during 2001. The literacy rates for males increased from 56% in 1981 to nearly 76%
in 2001. The corresponding change in female literacy rate from 30 to 54%. On the whole
the decline on gender gap peaked in 1981 at 26.6% and was 21.7% in 2001 is less
impressive. The interstate variation in literacy rate for males was much lower in
comparison to females. At the state level female literacy rate varies from 35% in Bihar to
88% in Kerala In states like Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Jammu and Kashmir and
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Rajasthan, the female literacy rate is below 50%.The progress towards education by girls
is very slow and gender disparities persist at primary, upper primary and secondary stage
of education. Girl’s account for only 43.7% of enrolment at primary level, 40 .9 % at upper
primary level, 38.6% at secondary level and 36.9% at degree and above level. More over
girl’s participation in education is still below 50% Gender differences in enrolment are
prevalent in all the state at all levels. They are not able to realize full identity and power in
all spheres of life only due to illiteracy.
LACK OF EMPLOYMENT FACILITIES
Women are not able to resolve the conflict between new economic and old
domestic roles. In both rural and urban India, women spend a large proportion of time on
unpaid home sustaining work. Women are not able to respond to new opportunities and
shift to new occupations because their mobility tends to be low due to intra-house hold
allocation of responsibilities. Rights and obligations within a house hold are not
distributed evenly. Male ownership of assets and conventional division of labour reduce
incentives for women to undertake new activities. In addition child bearing has clear
implications for labour force participation by women. Time spent in bearing and rearing
of children often results in de-Skilling, termination of long term labour contacts. Thus
women are not being able to be economically self sufficient due to unemployment and
their economic dependence on the male counterpart is itself a cause of gender disparity.
SOCIAL CUSTOMS, BELIEFS AND PRACTICES
Women are not free from social customs, beliefs and practices. The traditional
patrilineal joint family system confines women’s roles mostly to the domestic sphere,
allocating them to a subordinate status, authority and power compared to men. Men are
perceived as the major providers and protectors of a family while women are perceived
as playing only a supportive role, attending to the hearth. Boys and girls are accordingly
drained for different adult roles, status and authority. In Indian culture since very early
periods, men have dominated women as a group and their status has been low in the
family and society.The preference for sons and disfavour towards daughter is complex
phenomenon that still persists in many places. Sons especially in the business
communities are considered to be economic, political and ritual assets where as
daughters are considered to be liabilities. Thus anti female social bias is the main cause of
gender disparity in our society.The boy receives a ceremonial welcome on his birth where
as everyone is sad at the birth of a girl child. The preference for male child is due to lower
female labour participation, prevalence of social evils like dowry and many others causes.
The typical orthodox mentality is present even in this modern era leading to sex
determination tests and abortion in an illegal way.Parents often think that teaching a girl
child to manage the kitchen is more important than sending her to school. Many feel that
it is an unnecessary financial burden to send a girl child to school as subsequently she will
be married off and shifted to some other family. This orthodox belief of parents is
responsible for gender disparity.
SOCIAL ALTITUDE
Though many social activists and reformers carried their crusade against all social
odds to restore honour and dignity to women, attitudinal disparities still hunt our rural
masses. Despite pronounced social development and technological advancement, women
in our society still continue to be victims of exploitation, superstition, illiteracy and social
atrocities. The social stigma that women are housekeepers and should be confined to the
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four walls of the house is perhaps a viable cause of gender disparity. They should not raise
their voice regarding their fortune for the sake of the prestige of the family. In patriarchal
society a lot of weightage is given to men.
In the health and nutritional field, male members of family are supposed to take
fresh and nutritious food in comparison to women because either they are earning
members or head of the family or they are supposed to be more important than female
members. This type of social attitude is conducive to create the problem of gender
discrimination.
LACK OF AWARENESS OF WOMEN
Most of the women are unaware of their basic rights and capabilities. They even
do not have the understanding as to how the socio-economic and political forces affect
them. They accept all types of discriminatory practices that persist in our family and
society largely due to their ignorance and unawareness.Article 15 of the Indian
constitution states that the state shall not discriminate any citizen on the grounds of only
sex. The irony is that there still is widespread discrimination which is a form of injustice
to women. Hence at the onset of the new millennium let this generation be a historic
example by putting an end to the gender – based discriminations by unfurling the flag of
gender justice in all our action and dealings.
There are two main inequalities as pointed out by Amartya Sen: educational
inequality and health inequality. These are the indicators of a woman’s status of welfare.
In India irrespective of the caste, creed, religion and social status, the overall status of a
woman is lower than men and therefore a male child is preferred over a female child. A
male child is considered a blessing and his birth is celebrated as opposed to a female child
where her birth is not celebrated and is considered more of a burden.[1] Therefore,
education and health care of the female child in India is an important social indicator to
measure equality between men and women. According to the 2001 Indian census, overall
male-female ratio was 927 females per 1000 males. However, the 2011 Indian census
shows that there are 914 females per 1000 males. During the last decade the number
female children to male children in the youngest age group fell from 945 per 1000 males
to 927 per 1000 males.[7] As per the data available there seems to be gender disparity
depending on the location, as the Northern states(particularly Punjab, Haryana, and
Himachal Pradesh) seem to be more biased then the Southern states. The sharpest decline
for the age group of zero to six years is observed in the Northern States particularly in
Punjab (793 per 1000 females) and Haryana (820 per 1000 females).[8] These new
figures point out that the use of new technology contributes to the gender composition.
Furthermore, the availability of and access to new technologies provides new ways for
parent to achieve such goals of sex determination before birth.[2] Due to the widespread
use of this technology the Indian Government banned the sex determination before
birth.[2] In spite of these bans imposed by the Government, the law is not widely
followed, see sex-selective-abortion. If women get equal opportunities like men, they can
work in every field like men. Today if she lags behind a little, it is not her fault but the fault
of traditions which have suppressed them for centuries , owing to this, her own thoughts
like also hang around only familial life and her nearest environment also does not provide
favourable conditions for her devotion in the outside work. In order to change the
situation along with economic growth social progress is also greatly required. Hence the
need of the hour is to effectively combat gender disparity as to promote gender equality
by sufficiently empowering the women. The "Wikipedia Teahouse" project was launched
WWW.VIEWOFSPACE.ORG
164
with the goal to provide a user-friendly environment for newcomers, with a particular
goal of boosting women participation in Wikipedia.
In Western nations women typically live about six years longer than men, but this
is not true in India. Evidence shows that girls are given less food and health care than
boys, especially in Northern India. Girls are breastfed for shorter periods, given less
medical attention, fewer consultations and visits to the doctor, and are often taken very
late to the hospital in an emergency.Because of some culturally assigned duties, many
girls miss out on the chance to improve their overall health. Miller calls this as an
extended infanticide, since life sustaining necessities like food, nutrition and health care
are denied to the female child. Female children are given less food, both in quality and
quantity, and therefore are undernourished compared to male children. This in turn leads
to health issues like anemia and intrauterine growth restriction during pregnancy. If a
woman gives birth to a female child while malnourished, then the child's survival issues
and salon nutritional issues increase.
CONCLUSION
Gender based discrimination against female children is pervasive across the
world. It is seen in all the strata of society and manifests in various forms. As per the
literature, female child has been treated inferior to male child and this is deeply engraved
in the mind of the female child. Some argue that due to this inferior treatment the females
fail to understand their rights. This is more predominant in India as well as other lesser
developed countries. Sex selection of the before birth and neglect of the female child after
birth, in childhood and, during the teenage years has outnumbered males to females in
India and also in countries like Pakistan, Bangladesh and South Korea.There are 1029
women per 1000 men in North America and 1076 women per 1000 men in Europe, but
there are only 927 women per 1000 men in India. These numbers tell us quite a harsh
story about neglect and mistreatment of the female child in India. Women have a
biological advantage over men for longevity and survival, yet there are more men than
women.The figures above support that gender discrimination of female child is a basic
facility area. Though the demographic characteristics do not show much or in some cases,
anti-female bias, there is always a woman who receives a small piece of the pie.
REFERENCES
Agarwal, B. (2002). Bargaining and legal change: toward gender equality in India's
inheritance laws. Sussex: Institute of Development Studies at the University of Sussex.
T.V.Sekher and Neelambar Hatti, Discrimination of Female Children in Modern India: from
Conception through Childhood
Study on “DISCRIMINATION OF THE GIRL CHILD IN UTTAR PRADESH” Conducted by
Social Action Forum for Manav Adhikar New Delhi
Agnes, F. (2001). Law and gender inequality: The politics of women's rights in india. New
York: Oxford University Press.
Jasmine, D. (2007). Longman panorama civics 7. New Delhi: Pearson Education India.
Mathu, A. (2008). Gender and development in India: The Indian Scenario. New Delhi: Gyan
Publishing House.
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Transcription

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