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Scottish Journal of Arts, Social Sciences and Scientific Studies - ISSN 2047-1278
http://scottishjournal.co.uk
SCOTTISH JOURNAL OF
ARTS, SOCIAL SCIENCES
AND SCIENTIFIC STUDIES
VOLUME 25, ISSUE I
March 2015
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Articles
State and Society in Africa: An Exploration of African Development Crisis .............. 3
Dr M.M.Fadakinte ..................................................................................................................... 3
Using strategic intellectual property management to maximize value- An Empirical
Study on the Algerian Insurances Companies .............................................................. 20
Dr.Zoubier Ayache and Dalal Adjali ....................................................................................... 20
Apprenticeship and the Stylistic Trend of Painting in Nigeria ................................... 35
Abodunrin Johnson A .............................................................................................................. 35
Organizational Role Stress Among Medical Practitioners In Goa ............................. 49
Christo F.V. Fernandes, .......................................................................................................... 49
Pia Muriel Cardoso .................................................................................................................. 49
The Effect of Training Methods and Trunk Flexibilities Towardsmash of Skillin
Sepaktakraw Game .......................................................................................................... 70
Achmad Sofyan Hanif .............................................................................................................. 70
Asry Syam ................................................................................................................................. 70
Impact of Location and Noise on Residential Rental Values in Akure, Nigeria ........ 79
Ajayi, M,.................................................................................................................................... 79
Olukolajo, M. Ayodele .............................................................................................................. 79
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State and Society in Africa: An
Exploration of African Development
Crisis
Dr M.M.Fadakinte
Department of Political Science
University of Lagos, Nigeria.
[email protected]
Abstract
Most African countries attained political independence some fifty years ago, with most of them
still wobble in their quest for development, with very little evidence for meaningful and
relevant results. Today, underdevelopment accentuates development crisis and vice-versa with
consequences for political stability, peace and progress on the African continent. Scholars have
used among others the modernization, dependency and globalization theories to explain the
development crisis in Africa. However, this paper adopts an alternative model. The model
states that the dynamics of capitalism makes it imperative for the modern state to evolve from
the society but having evolved from the society, the state embarks on policies, the effects of
which define the type and level of development for the society while the ensued development
re-shapes and re-defines the society. Thus, to understand Africa’s development crisis, we must
understand the nature and character of the African state and society, in order to understand the
types of policies that are made by the African state and why. Finally, the paper ends by
proposing that in order to solve the problem of development crisis in Africa; we must start to
re-visit those artificial boundaries of African countries as drawn up by European colonialists.
KeyWords. Underdevelopment Crisis, Pre- Colonial State, Post- Colonial State.
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Introduction
The development crisis in Africa is hydra headed, impacting on all the major parts of
the continent. The crisis spans issues like corrupt leadership, abuse of the electoral process;
unproductive economy, social disequilibrium, and above all, crisis of hegemony that results in
stunted state formation process. Today, a decade and a half in the twentieth first century,
development structures in Africa still remain a far cry from other regions of the world ( Sanubi,
2014). In the present international economic dispensation where the world trade organisation
(WTO) dictates the course of international trade and finance, globalization has further
estranged African states from the realities of modern world economic spectrum ( Sanubi,
2014).
Africa’s continued underdevelopment decades after independence is indeed a strange
and perplexing phenomenon, given that development is the product of wealth, created out of
nature and that the continent is so richly endowed by nature with resources - massive land area,
forest tree, rivers, minerals, and a variety of other raw materials.
The contact with colonialism must be taken as the root cause of the Africa crisis.
Today, the post colonial interplay of class alignment and re-alignment has equally contributed
to the crisis. In Africa, there is the tendency to use the state for private accumulation while the
limited autonomy of the state contributes to the poor coordination of production forces, which
makes the continent to remain incapable of responding to the contradictions, crisis and
conflicts emanating from its historical experience (Sanubi, 2014).
In this paper therefore, attempts have been made to do some conceptual notes on the
concept of development, after which an examination was made of some theories that have been
used to explain development crisis in Africa with all of them not adequate enough to explain
the crisis. An alternative model of explanation is therefore provided. Thereafter, the state,
from pre-colonial, colonial and post-colonial periods was examined with the state being
identified as the main problem with development in Africa. Finally, a conclusion was made
with the recommendation that the boundaries of African countries be examined as a first step
in the process of solving Africa development crisis.
Development: Some Conceptual Notes
Gauba, (2003), conceives development as the increasing capacity to make rational use
of natural and human resources for social ends. Paul Baran (1957) defines development as a far
reaching transformation of society’s economic, social and political structure. For (Todaro,
1977), development is the maximization of the growth of the Gross Domestic Product through
capital accumulation and industrialization. In this context, development implies change which
often follows well-ordered sequence and exhibits
a series of successive stages of
transformation with common characteristics across countries. Also, development means “the
reduction or elimination of poverty, inequality and unemployment within the context of a
growing economy” (Todaro, 1979:87).
Payne and Nassar (2008) assert that development is fraught with political as well as
scientific difficulty because development is a significant and measurable economic growth and
the emergence of social, economic and political institutions. For (Palmer (1989), development
is a special type of purposeful change in society that moves towards the attainment of a
specific goal which includes the physical development of an individual. However, as argued by
(Todaro, 1977) while economic progress is an essential component of development, it is not
the only one. Thus, development encompasses more than the financial and material side of
people’s lives.
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Thus, Marxism believes that development rather than being an abstract economic
category is a multi-dimensional process. When viewed from the dialectical materialists’
binocular, development rather than being restricted to macro economic variables focuses on
man and his well being. Therefore, human beings constitute the fulcrum on which it revolves.
As a result, comprehensive understanding of the meaning of development provides the most
functional path towards overcoming the endemic problem of backwardness.
Walter Rodney encapsulates Marxist expositions on development as follows;
Development in human society is a many sided process. At the level of
individual, it implies increased skill and capacity, greater freedom, creativity,
self-discipline, responsibility and material well being. At the level of social
groups, it implies an increasing capacity to regulate both internal and
external relations… in the past, development has always meant the increase in
the ability to guard the independence of the social group. (Rodney, 1972)
Thus, Marxists view view man as highly central to the idea of development.
Consequently, at the individual level, human beings are seen as the epicenter of development.
Therefore, human development is seen as a prerequisite for real development. Again, the
individual level, development implies mental and academic sophistication, moral rectitude as
well as material well being. It is contended that the acquisition of this aspect of development
will catapult the society to the frontiers of genuine development and explode the shells of
backwardness. For instance, the development of man will conduce to increase in productivity,
ability to harness the forces of nature and the capacity of man to eke out a living in the face of
harsh natural forces Consequently, the first step towards development is the overall
improvement of man who is expected to be the harbinger of transformation and change (Ekpe
and Okereke, 2002).
In development discourse, there are three basic elements that make the concept of
development meaningful and which, when applied to society encompasses its entire gamut.
These elements are economic, social and political development.
Economic Development
Economic development is a wider concept than economic growth and it is taken to
mean growth plus change. (Jhingan, 2006). It is related to qualitative changes in economic
wants, goods, incentives, institutions, productivity and knowledge or the upward movement of
the entire social system. Thus, economic development describes the underlying determinants of
growth such as technological and structural changes. An economy can grow but it may not
develop because poverty, unemployment and inequalities may continue to persist due to the
absence of technological and structural changes. It is difficult to imagine development without
economic growth in the absence of an increase in output per capita particularly when
population is growing rapidly. Thus, economic development is the sustained, concerted actions
of policy makers and communities that promote the standard of living and economic health of
a specific area. Thus, economic development means the quantitative and qualitative changes in
the economy. (Mansel and Wehn, 1998,) Also, economic development has been understood
since the World War II to involve economic growth, namely the increases in per capta income,
and the attainment of a standard of living equivalent to that of industrialized countries (Mansel,
and Wehn,., 1998).
In economics, the study of economic development was borne out of an extension to
traditional economics that focused entirely on national product, or the aggregate output of
goods and services. Therefore, economic development is concerned with the expansion of
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people’s entitlements and their corresponding capabilities, nourishment, literacy, education,
and other socio-economic indicators (Todaro, & Smith 2011).
However, economic development now a day goes beyond the expression of GNP
statistic and now includes changes in such sectors as education, health, interpersonal relations,
and the age composition of the population. And that is because all these things are involved in
the transformation from a low to a more desirable social situation (Rao, 1985). Thus,
development is symbiotically connected with better conditions of living because it has to do
with the improvement in the quality of life or wellbeing of man (Umezinwa, 2014).
Social Development
Social development theory attempts to explain qualitative changes in the structure and
framework of society that help the society to better realize its aims and objectives. Thus, social
development can be broadly defined in a manner applicable to all societies’ at all historical
periods as an upward ascending movement featuring greater levels of energy, efficiency,
quality, productivity, complexity, comprehension, creativity, mastery, enjoyment and
accomplishment (Jacobs, 1999). Thus, social development is a process of social change, not
merely a set of policies and programs instituted for some specific results.
Political Development
The Oxford Dictionary of politics defined political development as the development of
the institution, attitudes, and values that form the political power system of a society.
Political development is synonymous with the domestic attributes of constitutional
order and political stability, attained through the formation of a settled framework of
government, reliable procedures for leadership succession, and a consolidation of the territorial
administrative reach of government institutions.(Palmer, 1989 ).
Political development
therefore, enhances the state’s capacity to mobilize and allocate resources, to process policy
inputs into implementable outputs which assist with problem solving and adaptation to
environmental changes and goal realization, making the contemporary notion of good
governance dwells on efficient, effective, and non-corrupt public administration.( Palmer,1989
)
Marx and Engels also believe that political development is attained when all members
of a society learn to take according to their needs and to give according to their abilities and
when such a condition has been achieved, “the state will wither away” and there will be no
need for government. The ultimate goal of political development, therefore, is the elimination
of the human conflict that makes government necessary. Consequently, the notion of
withering away of the state as the basis of political development places tremendous faith in the
capacity of human beings to behave rationally and to play fair ( Palmer, 1989 ).
Lucian Pye (1962), identified three levels, where political development could be
observed, which are population, government performance and organization of the polity.
Thus, under population, is equality which signifies mass participation i.e. recruitment on the
basis of merit. By government programme it means the capacity, which signifies efficiency and
effectiveness. And for the polity, differentiation means diffusion and specialization of
structures with specialization based on integration and division of labour.
And for Organski (cited in Verma, 1980) the goals of development follow the
following stages;
1. Political unification,
2. Industalization,
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3. National Welfare,
4. Abundance.
With the above brief description of the concept of development, and its three basic
elements, economic, social and political , there is no doubt that Africa is far from being a
developed continent (society). Consequently, what then accounts for the development crisis in
Africa? Scholars have come up with some theories, to explain the crisis which includes,
modernization, dependency, and globalization theories.
Modernization Theory
Modernization theory argues that all countries go through stages of development, from
traditional through transitional to modern. These stages are identified as (i) underdevelopment
(ii) take-off and (iii) modernity. The leading proponent of the modernization world view is
Rostow. The theory posits that traditional societies are characterized by ascription, fatalism,
self-sufficiency, loyalty to the family, strong kinship and ethnic groups, weak institutions, low
levels of literacy and technology, and widespread superstition. (Rostow, 1962). And these
characteristics are believed to be barriers to development.
However, in modern society, there are tendencies for literacy increases, with village
values not as pervasive while new social, economic and political institutions emerge to
challenge traditional norms and behaviour. Thus, modern societies are fundamentally
westernized. They are characterized by increasing rate of urbanization, literacy, high quality of
life and a high degree of personal and political freedom. The modernization theory holds that
developing societies would have to change their values, adopt western technology, economics
and political institutions and create a climate that would attract foreign investment for
industrialization (Rostow, 1962).
Modernization theory is viewed as being synonymous with industrialization with
emphasis on Western Europe and the United States as models of development for the rest of
the world and on free market capitalism. It often ignores specific problems and conditions in
developing countries and tended to treat Africa, Asia and Latin American societies as
monolithic groups, despite the areas historical, cultural, economic and political differences.
Little efforts were made to respect the values and cultures of the developing world (Payne &
Nassar 2008). The theory is too simplistic in its initial view of change and that was why the
theory expects third world countries to achieve economic growth, greeter equality, democracy,
political stability and greater national autonomy simultaneously. (Handelman, 2011).
Consequently, in the third world, the process of development turned out to be more difficult
and unpredictable than originally imagined, precisely because economic growth as recorded in
Africa, proves to be no guarantee of democracy, stability, equality or autonomy. As a result,
with modernization theory, the processes of modernization in Africa often ushered in political
instability and violence (Handelman, 2011). Consequently, modernization theory has been
accused of being culturally biased, assuming the superiority of western values, while not
recognizing the fact that the differences between traditional and modern cultures are not
necessarily as stark or clear cut as originally thought (Handelman, 2011).
Dependency Theory
Dependency theory views three classes of countries in the international system (i)
countries at industrial core (ii) countries at the semi periphery and (iii) countries at the
periphery. The first group comprises the industrial countries in Western Europe and North
America and their multinational corporations. The second group comprises developing
countries that have achieved significant levels of economic growth. The third class comprises
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the poorest developing countries, which are mostly in Africa. The relationship between the
core and the periphery was established by colonialism for the benefit of industrial powers. And
developing countries continue to be suppliers of raw materials to importers of manufactured
products from rich industrial countries. For the dependency theory, capitalism reinforces
dependency and economic inequalities among countries (Payne & Nassar, 2008). Walter
Rodney (1972) argues that one of the causes of Africa’s many problems regarding the
internationalization of trade in the 15th century was that the Europeans overwhelmed Africans
through the use of superior weapons which they used to monopolize international waters,
starting with the Western Mediterranean and the Atlantic Coast of North Africa and within a
short time Europe dominated all trade routes linking Africa and the rest of the world. Where
Africa had already gained access, it lost it to Europe where it would have gained access; it
never did because Europe prevented it from doing so. By her control of the seas, Europe took
the first steps forward, transforming the several ports of Africa and Asia into economic
satellite.
Frantz Fanon (1963) believes that development crisis in Africa is traceable to the
historical retrogression foisted on the continent by Europe and that the proofs of a wonderful
Shanghais civilization will not change the fact that today the Shanghais are underfed and
illiterate thrown between sky and water with empty heads and empty eyes. For Fanon, the
white colonialists raped and emasculated Africa to the point that it has no alternative than to
remain backward.
Thus, (Offiong (1980) defined imperialism as an institutional system of control which
systematically shapes the institutions and structures of dependent countries and limit their
freedom of action.
However, dependency theory suffered from serious failings because like the
modernization theory, which over-emphasized the internal causes of underdevelopment, it
erroneously attributes virtually all of the Third World problems to external economic factors,
including, foreign investments, credits as well as political alliances. Also, it has been observed
hat countries that have experienced the most impressive improvements in per capita income
and human development tend to be the ones most closely linked to the global economy and its
industrialized core, like, Tiwan, Singapore and South Korea. (Handelman, 2011)
Globalization
Asobie (2005:5) defines “globalization as the integration of economies through trade,
financial flow, and the exchange of technology and the movement of people” Protagonists of
globalization further argue that globalization through competition and linkage effects, Foreign
Direct Investment (FDI) whether in manufacturing services or resource extraction will produce
positive outcome for all nations (Yusuf, 199). Onogie (1995) explaines that the transformation
strategy of globalization hinges on a rational deductive methodology and therefore, a
perpetuation of the modernization by design and the civilizing mission thesis of the colonial
period. Thus, globalization can be seen as a way to introduce the trend in the America and
Western Europe’s perception and way of life into Africa and the rest of the world (Olutayo &
Omobowale 2007:105).
The dynamics of the neo-colonial tendency of globalization has subjected Africa and
many countries of the developing world to the international division of labour in which they
are relegated to the position of suppliers of raw materials and importers of finished products of
the advanced capitalist countries. Globalization is therefore characterized by a dichotomy
between the rich and poor countries. Thus, Africa is subjected to unfair trade conditions, as
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prices are set in favour of the western countries to suit their economic and political system
(Eze, 2010).
As a result of the above after decades of political independence and economic planning,
Africa’s economies are still heavily dependent on the economies of the industrialized nations.
Consequently, the main characteristics and structure of African economies still bear a close
resemblance to what prevailed in the preceding colonial period.
. Clapham (1996) argues that globalization for Africa provokes a return to familiar
conditions of subordination much like those which marked the insertion of the continent into
the global capitalist system by European colonialism in the 19th century. Thus, globalization
should be seen as a continuation of colonialism. The idea of globalization therefore, appears to
be a clear projection of the economic interests and the collection of the developed world. (Jike,
2004)
Alternative Explanatory Model
It is now clear that, modernization, dependency and globalization as theories cannot
explain the development crisis in Africa. What alternative do we then have? We now turn to
state-society relations i.e. how the state, with its policies, define the type and level of
development and how this re-creates the society. Thus, the state is responsible for development
and development reshapes society. Therefore, a state in crisis will lack the peace to evolve
relevant policies that will promote meaningful development and as a result; the society will
remain stagnant or even chaotic. Consequently, understanding the nature and character of the
African state and society become very crucial in understanding Africa’s development crisis, in
so far as the state needs hegemony in order to be cohesive, hold society together and perform
its functions as the power house of society. This is because capitalism creates the state from
and for society and the state then stands above society as its power house, giving definition to
the society with its policies that are reflections of its ideology and philosophy.
Thus, the level of development in the society is a function of the state’s ability to be
articulate, rational, creative, focused, organized and cohesive, to enable it formulate policies
that will bring about meaningful development.
Fig. 1: State – Society – Development Paradigm
Source: Authors Imaginative Conception of State – Society – Development Paradigm
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The African Pre and Post Colonial States and Societies
The State
History is replete with ideas about the state and as history had been interpreted in
different ways so the ideas about the state had developed into diverse versions from the
Natural, Divine, Social Contract and Force Theories (Fadakinte, 2013). Bluntschili says that
the state is the politically organized national population of definite territory (Bluntschili,cited
in Mahajan,1988).
MacIver, (1965, opines that the state is an association which acting through law as
promulgated by a government endowed with coercive power maintains within a community
territorially demarcated the universal external conditions of social order.
However, for this work, we shall adopt the force theory of the state in our analysis of
the state. And that is because the force theory of state does not assume that the state is the
natural expression of the whole of an evolving society, or as a community chosen by God, or
as an organized community based on contract but as the means by which a small number of
people impose their will on a reluctant majority. The origin of the state is linked to the
division classes. This division leads to the existence of class struggles and contradictions for
the control of the state.
With the force theory, the state ceases to be co-extensive with
society and becomes more closely identified with what is called the dominant class. (Goodwin,
1982). What the force theory emphasizes is that the state was not build on any contract, as
claimed by the social contract theory, neither can it be an organic unity but it is built on force
and usurpation because society is an imbroglio of class conflict of which the state’s very
existence is symptomatic (Goodwin, 1982). The state is therefore a complex of intuitions
which includes the government, the bureaucracy and public corporate (Knuttila and Kubik,
2000), performing two critical functions, viz accumulation and legitimating. Thus, the state
provides the wherewithal for development because the state must coordinate and articulate
development efforts, in order for modern society to progress. Thus, development and its
processes are shaped by four basic variables viz political (ideology), economics, cultural and
social structure (Palmer, 1989). So, if the state is cohesive it means that the dominant class is
united in its pursuit of implementing a class project and influencing the overall ideological
development of the larger society.
Thus, important decision and public policy formulation, regarding development
objectives are carried out by the state on behalf of the dominant class.
Pre-Colonial State
The geographical shape of what is usually regarded as African states, which were more
like societies, as well as institutional structures were done by ex-colonial power during the
scramble for Africa. Prior to this time, African states (societies) had no well defined national
boundaries. The boundaries of African states were vague and porous. There was a wide range
of multiple, overlapping and alternative collective identities (Burnell and Randall, 2008).
The boundaries of African countries are today artificial whose creations were externally
directed and imposed and till today, are in the form of straight line drawn cartographically on
open maps. There was no indigenous conceptualization of geographical boundaries, neither
was there the involvement of nationalist movements in creating the boundaries of modern
African nation states (Burnell and Randall, 2008). Indeed, there was no capitalism in Africa as
the societies were predominantly feudal with monarchism as the ruling political institution.
Therefore, it can be argued that there was no state in pre-colonial Africa
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The Colonial State
Whenever we make reference to the colonial state we mean the colonial administration
and government in the colony, until the attainment of flag independence. Thus, the instruments
of state coercion, military, police, courts and prisons were created and a new administrative
bureaucracy was set up. In Africa therefore, the colonial state was not a product of antagonistic
interests among social classes, i.e. the colonial state did not emerge because of lack of unity of
interests among social classes in the society nor because the society was torn apart by
irreconcilable contradictions. Indeed, the colonial state was not an instrument of any
indigenous social class that developed to mediate between social classes whose interests were
irreconcilable. The colonial state was basically an agent of imperialism, an instrument of
economic exploitation (Fadakinte, 2013)
The colonial state was a dominating force which did not serve the interests of the
natives. In addition, the colonial state lacked sovereignty, nationhood and external autonomy
(Muiu, 2008). Thus, without sovereignty, the colonial state did not have any say in economic,
political and cultural attains of the people as it was a dependent institution on the colonizing
power. The colonial state was also not a nation because the society was an amalgam of difficult
tribes and ethnic groups with disparate cultures. And the colonial state lacked autonomy as it
could not be an autonomous independent actor in international force (Muiu, 2008).
The main purpose of African colonial state was not to develop the social infrastructure
but to extract the resources of Africa for the benefit of Europe. This was true of the private
companies that acted for European states in the exploitation or extraction of riches, raw
materials, and taxes as their primary goals. And in as much as the institutions of colonial rule
can be termed colonial states they were states of extraction, and had no interest in the
promotion of national economic development. (Burnell and Randall, 2008:219). During the
colonial rule and well into the twentieth century, the institutions of control were authoritarian,
elitist and channeled towards more extraction for the benefit of the metropolitan centers
(Burnell, and Randall, 2008:219). Unfortunately, elements of the colonial state have been
dominant since political independence.
What was constant in the colonial administration was the concentration of authority to
establish, revise and interpret rules in a structure that was entirely removed from local, popular
mechanisms of control. Even where this authority was shared (like in the indirect rule system)
because of operating realities with a local traditional figure, input was usually not increased by
this. If anything the chief used indirect rule to attenuate his vulnerability to customary control
(Olowu, 1994)
The Post-Colonial State
Colonialism, as a historical factor in the development of the African State made her
own variant of capitalist formation to possess some unique characteristics. Thus, the capitalist
formation in Africa is devoid of certain similarities, which do not make her to be quite the
same with other capitalist states of Europe, where the state is the “classic state in the sense that
it is the instrument of the capitalist class to maintain its domination over the other classes in the
society” (Nnoli, cited in Fadakinte, 2013). One of the uniqueness of the post independent
African state was the evolution of a political class that was created by colonialism but with its
own trajectory of development based on the unleashing of capitalist forces. Thus, colonialism
created capitalism in Africa when there was no capitalist class. It also created capitalist
political institutions when there was no capitalist state. However, an embryonic working class
emerged at the time of independence based on textiles, motor transport and tobacco processing,
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including a powerful African petty bourgeoisie which were made up of teachers, civil servants,
prosperous farmers, and traders emerged. (Smith, B.C.2009).
Soon after independence, most African countries adopted state capitalism as a model
for development. And that was because state capitalism rejects the idea of the invisible hand on
the regulator of the market place and gives the government a central role in economic
development. The model was adopted because it was believed that former colonies should
emulate the capitalist countries in order to facilitate, economic growth and the development of
modern political institutions (Payne and Nasser, 2008).
The post colonial state in Africa is therefore characterized by patrimonial rule and
patronage which has deleterious consequences on the independence of institutions such as the
courts, bureaucracies, armies, or other state owned agencies. This has led to the privatization of
such institutions because they are used to advance the interests of individuals who have served
as state officials. Thus, (Burnell and Randall, 2008) argue that the state in post colonial Africa
is treated as properties of the political elites with the state becoming amenable to control by
political leaders and this remains a problem in establishing the modern states. Therefore, the
post colonial state, for (Smith, 2009) is a kind of parasite especially through a privileged
bureaucratic state. The state obtained economic resource from the society in order to sustain an
unproductive dominant class, the class that uses state powers to grant themselves business
opportunities for them to acquire wealth.
Other characteristics of the African post colonial states are low level of economic
growth, difficulty in maintaining the territorial and external sovereignty of poor states,
dependence of African states on loans in order to finance development projects. As a result,
there are many states in post colonial Africa which have found it extremely difficult to
maintain political consolidation within their territory, to protect their sovereignty and
accomplish monopoly of the use of coercion (Burnell and Randall, 200).
Thus, the post-colonial state acquired the characteristics that rendered it vulnerable to
the vagaries of the international economy, (Akokpari, 2001). It is unfortunate that the African
post-colonial state has taken on more elements of the colonial state rather than of the precolonial state. The legacy of the colonial state is the weak vertical and horizontal integration of
the African state, the dominance of power rather than authority and the low-level of
government. (Olowu, 1994)
The African post-colonial state is therefore artificial because it is the creation of the
colonial powers on the ideology of capitalism. This is why the state is weak because it did not
evolve over a long period of time, like the typical state in Europe. As a result of the artificiality
of the state and its weakness, it is unable to be in full control of the society, which explains its
fragility; log jammed or even near total collapsed (Akokpari, 2001).
The African Society
Society is a collection of individuals, held together by some enduring relationships in
pursuance of common ends. (Mahajan, 1988) For Gauba (2013) society is an association of
human beings which fulfils all their needs of life – from cradle to grave while the state fulfils
their particular need of political organization subjecting them to binding laws and decisions to
provide for order and security, and common supreme decision making authority. Thus, society
binds men into multifarious relationships which is usually determined by necessity, customs,
morality, mutual understanding, agreement or even contract.
Society has been defined to include in the widest sense every kind or degree of
relationship entered into by men whether these relations be organized or unorganized, direct or
12
indirect, conscious or unconscious, cooperative or antagonistic. It includes the whole issue of
human relationships and is without a boundary or assignable limits.(Mahajan, 1988) Thus,
society is used to describe the whole community of mankind, from a small group of a village
communities.
However, with some exceptions, the pre-colonial African society was characterized by
the absence of social classes in the sense of a division between a capital-owning, factorowning, class and a wage-earning (urban proletariat) and peasant class, with a middle class of
merchants, professionals and others in-between or, as in the feudal society of medieval Europe,
an aristocratic class and a peasant class bound in the service of the aristocratic landowner and
attached to the land (serfs). It was rather a society in which everybody was illiterate, “did
pretty much the same thing (peasant farming, fishing, petty trading, pottery, simple ironworks
handcraft), and lived at pretty much the same level. It was a society in which no one possessed
any expert knowledge or superior skills, so that all belonged together to the same more or less
undifferentiated, unstratified, classless mass”. (Nwabueze, 2010:323)
There was no
accumulated capital, no employing class, no working class, which made the wage and salary
earning class a creation of the colonial system in Africa. (Nwabueze 2010.) Also, there was no
aristocracy of birth or of wealth, and no bourgeois class; land, because the principal means of
production in the agricultural economy of pre-colonial African societies, was owned in
common by the family, village or community, and in some places was farmed in common. In
addition, government in the traditional society was rudimentary, and its functions and activities
were extremely limited which excluded the existence of a ruling class of full-time professional
politicians and bureaucrats. (Lloyd,1972) The more or less undifferentiated and unstratified,
classless societies of pre-colonial Africa were transformed to be like the European state, which
was a creation of capitalism.
However, in post colonial African society, elite class emerged as a result of
stratification in the society which occurred as a result of the gross disparities in income and
living standards between the different groups now comprised within it. The middle class in
Africa is undeveloped in terms both of its share of national wealth being nearer the poverty
than the affluence line, and of the percentage of the population comprised within it. Apart from
their overwhelming numbers and their heterogeneity, the masses, as a class, is characterized
more by extreme poverty, illiteracy, ignorance, disease and wretchedness., with their poverty
and privation constitute a major part of Africa’s under-development. And far from improving,
their condition, the condition became increasingly worse since independence.
Thus, at the outset of independence there had been a narrow gap in trust and confidence
between the bulk of the population and the beneficiaries together with leaders of anti-colonial
nationalism. And till date, the gap had widened to an abyss. Thus, on one side, a great mass of
resentful and impoverished rural people and on the other, a small minority with quantities of
wealth, and into that abyss there had plunged, more or less helplessly, the legitimacy and credit
of the state which had allowed this gap to yawn ( Nwabueze 2010).
State, Society and Development Crises in Africa,
The state has become the main problem in Africa and that is why the African
environment is characterized by chaos, violence and uncertainty as a result of blind and
senseless struggles for power by factions of the dominant class, making the state irresponsible
and lacking in ideological focus, to the extent that the state is unable to perform its primary
role of protecting class interest and property. Thus, such a primary function will ensure that an
organized process of social production and accumulation remains possible and that there
13
should be class “harmony” between the social classes in society because the state always
pretends to be neutral in class conflict (Knuttila and Wendee, 2000).
We are here emphasizing the role of the state because the nature and character of the
document class determine the nature and character of the state. Consequently, the belligerence
nature of the dominant class is what accounts for disorganized nature of the state in Africa.
And that is why the state is rancorous, violent and arbitrary. And for as long as the factions of
the dominant class maintain rancorous relationship as a result of their blind quest for power,
for so long the state will know no peace. So, political elites that do not have economic base but
preoccupies itself with blind struggle for power, with the aim of winning political power and
be in control of the institutions of state to consolidate an economic base for itself will have no
time to plan for development.
So, in Africa, politics means winner takes all, which implies that the loss of an election
is synonymous with the loss of patronage and access to socio-economic benefits (Ojo, 2012). It
is so bad that in some cases, an ethnic group takes the loss of election by their kin’s man as a
total loss of benefits to the ethnic group.
Thus, in Africa, the political elites engage in politics with the aim of winning elections
by all means, whether legitimate or otherwise, including making use of violence to eliminate
opponents or even liquidate them. Consequently, the state in Africa is but an instrument of
violence, disorderliness and chaos. Therefore , instead of the state playing the role of power
house of society in bringing about order, peace and the orderly coordination of the distribution
of resources, it is enmeshed in crisis and turning the society into an arena of warfare.
In Africa, every general election is warfare because the state has turned political
competition (politics) into a zero sum game where the loser in an election will lose everything
while the winner will win everything.
Thus, the political elites are so absorbed in the struggle for survival that they could not
pay much attention to anything else, especially development (Ake, 1996). They alienated the
people from the developmental process by turning the state into a system of organized violence
for the repression of the very people whose support is indispensable to development.
Consequently, no development can take place when the people are alienated from the state and
its government while development can only be related to and driven by social will in the
context of democracy. It is only in this context that the people can be the means and the end of
development (Ake, 1996). The ruling elites impeded development by setting one tribe against
another tribe thereby inflaming hostile relations among the population. Moreover, in trying to
consolidate their power and to prevent rivals and opponents from having access to power, they
use state power to control the economy and to appropriate wealth. This political strategy
created an unproductive state capitalism in which surplus was appropriated and distributed by
using state power, which will not allow and the law of value to take root. Therefore, engrossed
in the political warfare for state power, the ruling elites opted for dependent development,
letting their metropolitan patrons determine their agenda and finding the resources to
implement it (Ake, 1996). Thus, Africa fails to make significant progress towards development
because the continent is unable to maintain order, enforce laws and most importantly provide
essentially public services, such as education and health care (Payment and Nassar 2008),
because those who are supposed to do it (the political elites) do not have the vision and peace
to do so.
Thus, the main problem for most of Africa has not been poor, incompetent leadership
per se, but weak, inefficient institutional arrangements, not-viable economic institutions,
inefficient systems that have encouraged and rewarded opportunism, and a state that has either
14
become irrelevant or has been unwilling or unable to perform its functions properly (Mbaku,
1999).
Underdevelopment, therefore, becomes one of Africa’s tragic inheritances from
European colonialism, perhaps the most tragically visible of all. It combines with a wobbling
and incipient state, another colonial inheritance, to inflict on Africa a development crisis whose
trauma and pains have deformed the face of all African societies, making Africa to be the most
underdeveloped continent in the world. Thus, Africa’s development crisis reflects the
backwardness of a continent, due more essentially to her incapacity to harness maximally its
natural and human resources for the production of wealth, and to utilize rationally such wealth
to provide social services that are essential to the well-being and happiness of its population.
Unfortunately for Africa, as argued by (Thies, 2007) states that are more efficient in extracting
revenues from their societies are better competitors with external rivals. Thus, if African states
do not have the capacity to extract their resources or even collect taxes, how can they be part of
the competitive global market? So, instead of relying on domestic economic growth to
produce taxable revenue, African rulers seek political and economic aids from aboard, as well
as credits from global financial markets (Thies, 2007). And since part of the process of state
making , which include extraction, protection and even ability to go into war are integral to
state building (Thies, 2007), then, state building is in serious crisis in Africa as all that are
integral to state building are either nonexistent or are in serious jeopardy. Consequently, the
infrastructures as well as the institutions, and the nonsensical national boundaries, with the
systems of government, are now colonial legacies that serve to distort, rather than facilitate
contemporary social, economic and political development of Africa. (Moseley, 2009).
Conclusion
The African state is a state constructed principally on its colonial origins in terms of its
philosophy, structure and organization. And that is why it suppresses, distorts and sometimes
perverts pre-colonial conceptions of the state and state institutions and also, criminally
manages those inherited from the colonial state. Today, the emphasis of the state seems to be
on power to the exclusion of ethics and a complete reliance on western conceptions of
authority and imported western institutions of government such as the legislature, executive,
military etc. without the attending norms supporting them( Olowu, 1994).
In addition, the African state is in a flux because the dominant class is in factional crisis
and is unable to organize itself to be united with a common ideology needed to plan for
development as a result, the society is thrown into a condition of anomie, making everybody to
run helter shelter for survival which turns the society into the Hobbessian state of nature. And
the situation is like that because, African countries have very weak institutions, including the
state which is why the state is unable to achieve territorial integration, or control the whole
area under their jurisdiction (Burnell and Randall, 2008). In such a situation, how does the
state plan for development when its primary concern is to secure political order and provide for
political stability so as to be able to maintain social control. So, quite a sizable portion of the
budget of African countries goes to defence and at the slighted engagement in full scale war,
they run to their colonial masters or other imperialist western countries for military assistance.
Thus, the cost of a disorganized state and a society in anomie can be quite high, which
will impact on the social, political and economic aspects of the society. Therefore, the
condition of flux that characterizes the African state and society leads to the failure of the state
to organize the economy and plan for development. It also affects the capacity of the state to
effectively organize its apparatus of power in order to create political order and produce stable
15
and well coordinated political authority with effective public administration, consistent policy,
and ensure stability and social cohesion (Burnell and Randall, 2008).
In view of the foregoing, what is the way forward for Africa?
In the first place, the current national, boundaries of African countries, as drawn up by
the colonialists, are the major problems in Africa. Today, each African country is an amalgam
of incompatible tribes and ethnic formations that create heterogeneous societies in bellicosity.
The most serious problem this situation poses for Africa is the difficulty in getting the
dominant class together, to be cohesive and create a stable state with a well defined ideology
and philosophy to enable it plan relevant and meaningful development for the society. Thus,
lack of hegemony becomes an immediate crisis confronting the African state and there cannot
be hegemony when there is no dominant class with paternalism. Also, there cannot be effective
domination when the state lacks hegemony while the state cannot peacefully and rationally
distribute resources without domination.
Therefore, the current chaotic societies masquerading as countries should have their
boundaries reviewed to create a more homogeneous and compact society that will make
governance less rancorous among bitter tribes and ethnic formulations that are struggling over
the distribution of resources. And this is because the smaller and more homogenous, with same
culture and history the easier it will be to evolve a cohesive ruling class with paternalistic
interest. How do we expect African countries, the way they are constituted, to be devoid of
bitter struggles for power when competition for resources is irrational and lacking ideology
which turns elections into warfare? From Nigeria, Ivory Coast, through Cameroon, to Sudan,
Congo, Kenya, and the story is the same.
We therefore need to start thinking of the right of secession in the constitutions of
African countries. And perhaps the starting point is to first push the idea through the United
Nations.
16
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19
Using strategic intellectual property
management to maximize value- An
Empirical Study on the Algerian
Insurances Companies
Dr.Zoubier Ayache and Dalal Adjali
Faculty of management, Larbi ben M’hidi University, Oum El Bouagui , Algeria
[email protected]
Abstract:
The aim of this study is to empirically examine the strategic intellectual property
management and their relationship with maximize value in the Algerian insurance
organizations. This study was conducted based on a psychometrically validated questionnaire
designed and distributed to a random sample of 430 managers in two Algerian insurance
companies (AXA & SAA). The response rate was 36% as 134 managers filled the
questionnaire. Confirmatory Factor Analysis has been used as statistical methods to analyze
the three hypotheses developed. In particularly, we found that: (a) there is statistically
significant on the existence of strategic intellectual property management (SIPM) in Algerian
Insurance organizations. (b) “Strategic intellectual property management (SIPM)” is positively
associated with “maximize value by intellectual property management” in Algerian insurance
companies. (C)There is a statistically significant relationship difference amongst Algerian
insurance companies toward “Maximize value of companies by Intellectual Property
Management” due to type of company (international or public).
Key words: strategic intellectual property management, Intellectual property management,
maximizes value, Algerian insurance companies, SAA (Algerian Insurance Company), AXA
Algeria.
20
Introduction:
The advent of the knowledge economy and the shift towards a technology based
competition in the global markets has led to a growing importance of intellectual property (IP)
assets for companies’ growth. In particular, market value of companies appears to rely
increasingly on intangible assets, notably on intellectual property. The management of IP, which includes patents, trademarks and copyrights-, has become therefore a strategic matter for
companies.
Different compelling arguments have been advanced for a better understanding and
appreciation of the value of IP and its potential impact on business value (Justin M. Nielsen
and Robert F. Reilly, 2012, pp46-47). Intangible assets (patents, marks, know-how, licenses…)
play increasingly a key factor for companies’ economic performance (Ian Ellis, 2009, p4).
They are particularly important for early stage-technology based companies as IP is viewed as
the primary contribution to earning Power and future value.
The strategic management of intellectual property means the art of using intellectual
property tools systematically over time to help a company meet its goals, whatever they may
be.
Strategic intellectual property management today still is a topic of major interest for
many researchers and is an organizational variable that should be understood and constantly
monitored for the welfare of any company. In recent years, the primary locus of value for many
companies has been found in there IP rights, whereas some three-quarters of the Fortune 100’s
total market capitalizations was represented by intangible assets, such as patents, copyrights
and trademarks. In our principal thesis there is no one best way to manage IP and that many
managers overestimate the attractiveness of using IP to exert market power. Rather, the value
of the various means to protect and benefit from IP depends on firm strategy, the competitive
landscape, and rapidity changing contours of IP law (William W Fisher, 2013, p1).
Today, matters are more complicated, and integrated strategic IPM is required to
maximize the firm’s value. Whilst by integrated strategic IPM, we mean not only that the
various form of IP managed together, but that IPM is integrated with overall business model
design and corporate strategy (Abdurrahman Y. AL-Aali, 2013, p14).
The business world, including the insurance business, is no different. New product
development requires investment of manpower and capital, and there is always a need to make
sure that the fruits of product development efforts go as far and as long as possible to
maximize return on investment. Hence, protection for new products is essential.
Given the importance of the insurance companies in Algeria we do this research for
several objectives, including:
- To create awareness about the strategic IPM in Algerian insurance companies,
especially in the public one;
- To test the relationship between strategic intellectual property management and
maximize value by IPM in Algerian insurance companies;
- To know the deference between international insurance company (AXA) and the
public insurance company in Algeria(SAA) amongst the maximization of value using
strategic intellectual property management;
- To test the relationship between the type of Algerian insurance companies and the
maximization of value using strategic intellectual property management;
- To provide a recommendations for management of Algerian insurance companies
regarding maximize value by strategic intellectual property management.
21
Actually, there have been numerous publications on strategic intellectual property
management (SIPM) in general but little empirical data have been gathered on the SIPM of
insurance companies. Public and private Algerian insurance companies (SAA and AXA) are
ones of these companies where the SIPM has not received much attention. This research will
study the relationship between strategic intellectual property management and maximize value
by intellectual property management of a selected sample of two Algerian insurance
companies’ managers, the international Algerian company (AXA) and the public Algerian
company (SAA).
And, we have built this research on this hypothesises:
H1: There is statistically significant about the existence of strategic intellectual
property management (SIPM) in Algerian insurance companies;
H2: There is statistically significant relationship between “Strategic intellectual
property management (SIPM)” and “maximize value by intellectual property management”
amongst the Algerian insurance companies;
H3: There is statistically significant differences amongst the Algerian insurance
companies toward maximize value due to type of companies (international, public).
1- Overview about Strategic Intellectual Property Management:
Business people consider intellectual property to be a management tool for converting
human capital into value by defining and capturing new knowledge. For example, Patrick
Sullivan uses the term “intellectual capital” to describe the human resources and intellectual
assets of firm (Patrick Sullivan, 1998, pp5-9). Human resources are the creative people
employed by the company, who have individual rights. Intellectual property is the legally
protected form of intellectual assets, which belong to the company.
IP is generally regarded as representing ‘... the property of your mind or intellect
(Australian Science Capability Review, 2000, p4).
Methods for the protection and exploitation of IP include, but are not limited to: Patent,
Copyright, Trade mark, Design, Circuit layout right, Plant breeder's right, Trade secret.
1.1. Intellectual Property Management
Viewing IP merely as a legal instrument, the first is the acquisition of IP rights to
secure for a company the use of a certain intellectual material (a technology, a term, or an
artistic expression).
The second is the enforcement of IP rights by ensuring that others do not capitalize on
such intellectual material without the owner’s authorization (Nermien Al-Ali, 2003, p63).
Only when companies started looking at IP not merely as a legal right but as a business
opportunity did IPM slowly move from being a concern of the legal department to becoming
part of the strategic management function of a company, hence the business approach to IPM.
1.2. Strategic Intellectual Property Management
The strategic management of intellectual property means the art of using intellectual
property tools systematically over time to help a company meet its goals, whatever they may
be. With good strategic management, a company can increase its assets, reduce its liabilities,
and exert control over its environment (Robert Grant, 2013).
So that strategic management involves only two tasks, repeated as necessary:
(1) Form a strategy for managing intellectual property.
22
(2) Implement it.
1.2.1. Form a Strategy for Managing Intellectual Property:
First, forming a strategy requires the following (Abdurrahman, Y. Al-ALI, 2013, p17):
Define the company’s overall goals: The common goal of any IP manager is to
increase control over both internal innovation and the outside community, to protect internal
assets and accessing external IP rights.
Assess internal resources objectively: In forming a strategy, the IP manager must
make an objective appraisal of the internal innovation resources of the company or community.
Human resources are first and most important. By identifying these people, the IP manager can
determine the magnitude of the organizational challenge and the human resources available.
Evaluate the competitive market thoroughly: The IP manager must identify any
intellectual property rights that interfere with the company’s access to information or materials,
or markets (Kevin G. Rivette, 2000, p56).
Form a simple, long-range IP management plan consistent with resources,
competition, and goals: With all the basic information outlined above (about the overall
organizational mission, the internal resources, and the competitive environment), the IP
manager needs to put together a management plan. Ultimately, there are only two possible
purposes for such a plan:
To protect the company’s own IP assets;
To access innovations of others without violating their IP rights.
1.2.2. The Strategy Tools for Managing Intellectual Property: The Six Ps
IP managers perform their jobs by establishing certain policies and practices (UNECE,
2011, p30), grouped here into six categories. An overarching policy on managing IP sets the
basic guidelines for a company, and links the other categories together. The “Six Ps” They are
(Michael A.Gollin, 2008, p147):
Policy for IP management: A general policy helps the company put the right staff in
place, collect the right information, make the right decisions in timely fashion, and ultimately
protect and respect IP rights consistent with the company’s goals.
Personnel IP practices: Personnel practices deal with both internal and external rights.
Portfolio IP management practices: the components of portfolio management are a
confidentiality program, a copyright program, a patenting program, and a trademark program.
Procurement IP practices: The basic thrust of good procurement practice is to ensure
freedom to operate.
Partnering IP practices: “Partnering” is used here not in the legal sense of forming a
partnership entity, but more loosely, to refer to established relationships with outside
companies with respect to their intellectual property rights, other than straightforward
procurement relationships with suppliers.
Policing IP activities: the company should have an active policing program to make
sure that competitors are notified of IP rights, to monitor the marketplace for infringements,
and to confront competitors who do infringe. Policing requires a two way information flow–
providing notice to the market, and learning information from it.
23
2. Strategic Intellectual Property Management to maximize value
IP management has its limits, but it can be a powerful tool to help companies achieve
their goals. Here is a list of general goals for strategic IP management, to be combined and
adapted depending on circumstances (Michael A. Gollin, 2008, p148).
Increase company assets;
Attract capital (Andrew J, Sherman, 2007, p1);
Protect investment;
Obtain a short-term competitive advantage;
Maintain long-term competitive advantage (D. Somaya, D, 2011, pp 47-49);
Improve marketing;
Avoid liability;
Manage relationships with personnel;
Ensure access to technology, materials, software, and data;
Strengthen relationships with suppliers;
Coordinate relationships with partners;
Protect relationships with customers and protect them from IP challenges to
products and services provided;
Control the use of innovation;
Facilitate dissemination of knowledge and products;
Build goodwill (Michael, A. Gollin, 2008, p450).
Many of these goals apply in for-profit and nonprofit companies alike. For profit
companies tend to be more focused on the first three goals (increasing assets, attracting capital,
protecting investments). Nonprofits tend to focus more on the last three goals (dissemination of
knowledge and products and increase goodwill).
N°
3. Research methodology
The following table describes the dimensions of the study and the number of the related
items for each dimension.
Table (1): Dimensions of the research
N° of Items
Dimensions
Form
1
a strategy to manage intellectual property in your company:
1-1
Increase control by carried out some actions with IP assets;
7
1-2
Assess internal resources objectively;
8
1-3
Evaluate the competitive market thoroughly;
4
1-4
Develop an IP management plan
8
1-5
Implement the IP management plan
4
2
Strategy Tools for Managing Intellectual Property to Maximize Value.
5
3
Maximize value by Strategic Intellectual Property Management in company.
10
Total
46
The questions in the survey were rated using Likert scale as shown in table (2).
24
Weight
Table (2): The Likert scale model in answering the questionnaire
Descriptive interpretations
5
Always
4
Often
3
Occasionally
2
Rarely
1
Never
3.1. Sampling:
A simple random sample is used where 430 managers or directors of the companies and
its agencies were surveyed as recommended by Bontis (1998) and Bukh et al (1999).
3.2. Statistical Society
In this research, a limited society is used where in 2 Algerian Insurance Companies:
AXA (international insurance company) and SAA (Public insurance company), 134 managers
responded (response rate 36%).
3.3. Statistical treatment:
In this research, ordinal scales were used. The number assigned to the important (1, 2,
3, 4, 5) do not indicate that the interval between scales are equal, nor do they indicate absolute
quantities.
First, we use Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Shapiro Wilks test of normality, to choosing
tests that suite our research.
Table (3): Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Shapiro Wilks test of normality
Kolmogorov-Smirnova
Shapiro-Wilk
Statistique ddl Signification Statistique ddl Signification
-Form a strategy to manage intellectual
,220
property in your company
-Strategy Tools for Managing Intellectual
,182
Property to Maximize Value.
- maximize value of companies by strategic
,146
Intellectual Property Management.
133 ,000
,796
133 ,000
133 ,000
,917
133 ,000
133 ,000
,940
133 ,000
a. Correction de signification de Lilliefors
Table (3) shows the results for Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Shapiro Wilks test of
normality. The p-value for each field is smaller than (0.05) level of significance, then the
distribution for each field is not normally distributed. Consequently, non-parametric tests will
be used to perform the statistical data analysis. The researcher would utilize the following
statistical tests:
- Spearman Rank Correlation for Validity;
- Cronbach’s Alpha for Reliability Statistics;
- Frequency and Descriptive analysis;
- Nonparametric tests.
25
4. Questionnaire:
4.1. Structure validity of the questionnaire:
Structure validity measures the correlation coefficient between one field and all the
fields of the questionnaire that have been the same level of likert scale.
The table (4) clarifies the correlation coefficient for each field and the whole
questionnaire. The P-values (sig) are less than 0.01, so coefficients of all the fields are
significant at α=0.01, so it can be said that the fields are valid to be measured what it was set
for to achieve the aim of the study.
Table(4): correlation coefficient of each field and the whole of questionnaire
Form a strategy
to
manage
intellectual
property
in
your company
Strategy Tools
for Managing
Intellectual
Property
to
Maximize
Value.
Maximize value Questionnaire
of companies by
Intellectual
Property
Management
Form a strategy to coefficient
1.000
manage
intellectual signification 0.000
property
in
your
N
134
company
0.663
0.773
0.973
0.000
0.000
0.000
134
134
134
Strategy Tools for coefficient
Managing Intellectual signification
Property
N
Maximize value of coefficient
companies
by signification
Intellectual Property
N
Management
0.663
1.000
0.523
0.765
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
134
134
134
0.773
134
0.523
1.000
0.842
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
134
134
134
134
Questionnaire
0.973
0.765
0.842
1.000
signification 0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
134
134
Spearman test
coefficient
134
134
N
Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level.
4.2. Questionnaire reliability:
Cronbach’s Coefficient Alpha
The Cronbach’s coefficient alpha was calculated for each field of the questionnaire.
26
Table (5): Cronbach’s coefficient alpha for each field of questionnaire and the
entire questionnaire
N°
Cronbach’s Alpha
Field
1
Form a strategy to manage intellectual property in your company.
0.967
2
Strategy Tools for Managing Intellectual Property.
0.158
3
Maximize value of companies by Intellectual Property Management
0.652
All paragraphs of the questionnaire
0.650
Table (5) shows the values of Cronbach’s coefficient alpha for each field of the
questionnaire and the entire questionnaire, the result ensures equals (0.650) for the entire
questionnaire which indicates a good reliability of the entire questionnaire.
4. Empirical Analysis and Hypothesis Testing
H1: There is statistically significant on the existence of strategic intellectual property
management (SIPM) in Algerian insurance companies, this hypothesis can be divided into the
following sub-hypotheses:
H1a: There is a statistically significant on the existence of “Form a strategy to manage
intellectual property in your company” in Algerian insurance companies:
Table (6): Means and standard deviation for “Form a strategy to manage intellectual
property in your company”.
Increase
1
control by carried out some actions with IP assets: Mean Mean% S.D Rank
1-1 You Sell a product or service at a premium by blocking price 3.31
66.2%
1.09 11
competition.
1-2 You Create a product or service with extra value due to 3.04
innovative internal methods and technologies
60.8%
0.84 17
1-3 You license rights to a competitor to increase capacity, settle a 1.54
dispute, or profit without further effort.
30.8%
0.60 25
1-4 You license to someone in an alternate sector where the innovator 2.54
does not compete.
50.8%
0.58 22
1-5 You Sell the IP rights.
1.37
27.4%
0.48 26
1-6 You control the actions of downstream users.
3.83
76.6%
0.78 8
1-7 Use the IP as a defensive bargaining chip in the event an outsider 4.07
accuses the owner of infringement.
81.4%
0.70 6
2-1 The IP manager has a clear sense of who generates creative ideas 2.95
in the company.
59%
1.37 18
2-2 The IP manager knows where to find good legal advice, and how 3.15
to implement decisions involving intellectual property.
63%
1.24 14
2-3 The IP manager identifies members of the business staff who 2.57
have relevant skills in dealing with intellectual property.
51.4%
1.67 21
2-4 The IP manager maintains lists of their patents and applications, 4.39
trademark registrations, copyright registrations, and licenses for
87.8%
0.49 3
2
Assess internal resources objectively:
27
assess the company’s IP portfolio.
2-5 The IP manager assesses the legal scope: What is the scope of 4.37
exclusive rights in the covered subject matter? What activities
and products do they cover? How easily can they be enforced?
What weaknesses or exceptions are there in exclusivity?
87.4%
0.62 4
2-6 The IP manager assesses the duration: How long will the right 2.69
last? When does it expire?
53.8%
0.69 20
2-7 The IP manager assesses the geographical range: In what 2.57
countries are the rights valid? In what regions of those countries?
51.4%
1.49 21
2-8 The IP manager considers organizational practices
relationships as intellectual assets and assesses theme.
55.6%
1.44 19
3-1 The IP manager identifies any intellectual property rights that 3.09
interfere with the company’s access to information or materials,
or markets.
61.8
1.19 16
3-2 Any obstacles have to be evaluated and dealt with.
4.31
86.2%
1.08 5
3-3 Researching the IP portfolios of competitors.
2.54
50.8%
1.57 22
44%
1.07 24
4-1 The IP manager is aware which type of activity is called for at 3.16
any given time.
63.2%
1.12 13
4-2 The IP manager put a management plan.
76%
0.69 7
4-3 The IP manager access innovations of others without violating 4.51
their IP rights.
90.2%
0.50 2
4-4 The IP manager protects innovations with IP rights, and again to 3.12
deal with accessing the innovations of others without violating
their IP rights.
62.4%
0.54 15
4-5 The IP manager treats both activities –protecting rights and 3.78
freedom to operate – separately.
75.6%
0.70 9
4-6 To protect assets, the IP manager uses intellectual property to 2.37
further build the company’s own intellectual property portfolio –
to grow its own innovation forest.
47.4%
0.71 23
4-7 To protect assets, the IP manager must find the right combination 3.78
of the following activities, consistent with budget and need:
preserving, perfecting, transferring, an enforcing IP rights.
75.6%
0.76 9
4-8 The IP manager must then find a non infringing path to achieve 4.81
the company’s goals and a plan for action.
96.2%
0.39 1
86.2%
0.47 5
3
and 2.78
Evaluate the competitive market thoroughly
3-4 The IP manager carefully assess the IP of competitors is for 2.20
benchmarking – to compare the relative efforts of the companies
in protecting their IP.
4
5
Develop an IP management plan
3.80
Implement the IP management plan:
5-1 The IP manager assesses and identifies the company’s goals, 4.31
reviews the available internal innovation assets, and maps the
28
surrounding environment defined by other people’s rights.
5-2 The IP manager being decisive, selecting a simple long-range 4.37
strategic plan for achieving the company’s goals.
87.4%
0.48 4
5-3 Protecting and using internal assets and constantly re-assessing 3.29
the environment.
65.8%
1.32 12
5-4 Implementing the plan with active steps, employing resources in 3.68
specific situations to put the strategy into practice, measuring
results, and adjusting the strategy over time.
73.6%
0.68 10
66%
0.62
All paragraph of the field
3.30
Table (6) shows the following results:
The mean of all paragraphs of the field “Form a strategy to manage intellectual
property in your company” equals 3.30 (66%) and Standard deviation equals (0.62), so the
mean is greater than the hypothesized value 3. It can be concluded that the respondents agree
on the content of this dimension “Form a strategy to manage intellectual property in your
company” in Algerian insurance companies.
H1 b: There is a statistically significant on the existence of “Strategy Tools for
Managing Intellectual Property” in Algerian insurance companies.
1
Table(7): Means and Standard deviation for “Strategy Tools for Managing Intellectual
Property”.
Strategy Tools for Managing Intellectual Property
Mean
Mean% S.D Rank
Policy for IP management: A general policy helps the company 3.87
77.4% 1.32 5
to put the right staff in place, collect the right information, make
the right decisions in timely fashion, and ultimately protect and
respect IP rights consistent with the company’s goals.
2
Personnel IP practices: Personnel practices deal with both 4.50
internal and external rights.
90%
0.50 2
3
Portfolio IP management practices: the components of portfolio 4.45
management are a confidentiality program, a copyright
program, a patenting program, and a trademark program.
89%
0.50 3
4
Partnering IP practices: The relationship is usually based on 4.58
some kind of license, joint venture, franchise, inter-institutional
research agreement, or the like.
91.6%
0.50 1
5
Policing IP activities: An company have an active policing 4.35
program to make sure that competitors are notified of IP rights,
to monitor the marketplace for infringements, and to confront
competitors who do infringe.
87%
0.48 4
87%
0.49
All paragraph of the field
4.35
The mean of all paragraphs of the field “Strategy Tools for Managing Intellectual
Property” equals 4.35 (87%) and Standard deviation equals (0.49), so the mean is greater than
the hypothesized value 3. It can be concluded that the respondents very agree on the content of
this dimension “Strategy Tools for Managing Intellectual Property” in Algerian insurance
companies.
29
H1c: There is a statistically significant on the existence of “Maximize value of
companies by Intellectual Property Management” in Algerian insurance companies.
Table(8): Means and standard deviation for “Maximize value of companies by
Intellectual Property Management”.
Maximize value of companies by Intellectual Property Mean
Mean% S.D
Management”
1
IP is a valuable business asset.
2
3.86
Rank
77%
0.78
3
IP generate an income for companies through the licensing, 2.58
sale, or commercialization of the IP-protected products or
services that may significantly improve a company's market
share or raise its profit margins.
51.6%
1.52
10
3
IP rights can enhance the value or worth of companies in the 3.47
eyes of investors and financing institutions.
69.4%
0.95
6
4
IP assets may significantly raise the value of the company, and 3.21
at times may be the primary or only true assets of value.
62.4%
1.02
9
5
Increase company assets and its return.
3.38
67.5%
1.09
7
6
The intellectual property management attracts capital and 3.63
protect investment what maximize value.
72.6%
0.98
5
7
Obtain a short-term competitive advantage what increase 3.30
revenues and reduce costs.
66%
0.77
8
8
Maintain long-term competitive advantage maximize values 3.81
and profits.
76.2%
0.93
4
9
Avoid liability to reduce costs.
80.4%
0.63
2
82%
0.81
1
71%
0.78
4.02
10 Manage relationships with personnel and strengthen 4.10
relationships with suppliers, coordinate relationships with
partners, protect relationships with customers and protect them
from IP challenges to products and services provided.
All paragraphs of the field
3.54
The mean of all paragraphs of the field “Maximize value of companies by Intellectual
Property Management” equals 3.54 (71%) and Standard deviation equals (0.78), so the mean
is greater than the hypothesized value 3. It can be concluded that the respondents agree on the
content of this dimension “Maximize value of companies by Intellectual Property
Management” in Algerian insurance companies.
Table(9): means and Ecart type for “All paragraphs of questionnaire”
Item
Mean
Mean%
S.D
All paragraphs of questionnaire
0.82
3.73
75%
The mean of all paragraphs of the questionnaire “Strategic management intellectual
property in your company” equals 3.73 (75%) and Standard deviation equals (0.82), so the
mean is greater than the hypothesized value 3. It can be concluded that the respondents agree
30
on the content of this dimension “Strategic Intellectual Property Management” in Algerian
insurance companies.
H2: There is statistically significant relationship between “Strategic intellectual
property management (SIPM)” and “maximize value by intellectual property management”
amongst the Algerian insurance companies, this hypothesis can be divided into the following
sub-hypotheses:
H2(a): There is a statistically significant relationship between “Form a strategy to
manage intellectual property in your company” and “Maximize value of companies by
Intellectual Property Management” amongst Algerian insurance companies.
The table (4) of spearman coefficient correlation shows Test value= +0.773 The pvalue (sig) =0.00 which is smaller than the level of significance 0.01. The sign of test is
positive, so there is a statistically significant relationship between “Form a strategy to manage
intellectual property in your company” and “Maximize value of companies by Intellectual
Property Management” amongst Algerian insurance companies.
H2(b): There is a statistically significant relationship between “Strategy Tools for
Managing Intellectual Property in Algerian insurance companies” and “Maximize value of
companies by Intellectual Property Management” amongst Algerian insurance companies.
The table (4) of spearman coefficient correlation shows Test value= +0.523 The pvalue(sig)=0.00 which is smaller than the level of significance 0.01. The sign of test is positive,
so there is a statistically significant relationship between “Strategy Tools for Managing
Intellectual Property in Algerian insurance companies” and “Maximize value of companies by
H2(c): There is a statistically significant relationship between “Strategic Intellectual
Property Management in Algerian insurance companies” and “Maximize value of companies
by Intellectual Property Management” amongst Algerian insurance companies.
The table (4) of spearman coefficient correlation shows Test value= +0.842 The pvalue(sig)=0.00 which is smaller than the level of significance 0.01. The sign of test is positive,
so there is a statistically significant relationship between “Strategy Tools for Managing
Intellectual Property in Algerian insurance companies” and “Maximize value of companies by
H3: There is a statistically significant relationship difference amongst Algerian
Table(10): Mann-Whitney test of the fields and p-value for type of company.
N° Field
Test value p- value(sig)
Form a strategy to manage intellectual property in your -9.67
1
0.000
company.
2
Strategy Tools for Managing Intellectual Property.
-5.59
0.000
3
Maximize value of companies by Intellectual Property -9.47
Management
0.000
Strategic Intellectual Property Management
0.000
-9.66
Table (10) shows that (P-value=0.000) of each field is smaller than the level of
significance (0.01). There is a statistically significant relationship difference amongst Algerian
31
5. Results and discussion:
The results of the obtained structural model are show that:
The previous analysis of the data revealed the following conclusions:
- There is a statistically significant on the existence of “Form a strategy to
manage intellectual property in your company” in Algerian insurance companies as
the mean of this dimension is (66%);
- There is a statistically significant on “Strategy Tools for Managing
Intellectual Property” in Algerian insurance companies as the mean of this
dimension is (87%);
- There is a statistically significant on “Maximize value of companies by
Intellectual Property Management” in Algerian insurance companies as the mean of
this dimension is (71%);
- There is a statistically significant on the existence of “Strategic intellectual
property management in your company” in Algerian insurance companies as the
mean of this dimension is (75%);
- There is a statistically significant relationship between “Form a strategy to
manage intellectual property in your company” and “Maximize value of companies
by Intellectual Property Management” amongst Algerian insurance companies as the
correlation coefficient is (+0.773);
- There is a statistically significant relationship between “Strategy Tools for
Managing Intellectual Property” and “Maximize value of companies by Intellectual
Property Management” amongst Algerian insurance companies as the correlation
coefficient is (+0.523);
- There is a statistically significant relationship between “Strategic intellectual
property management in your company” and “Maximize value of companies by
Intellectual Property Management” amongst Algerian insurance companies as the
correlation coefficient is (+0.842);
- There is a statistically significant relationship difference amongst Algerian
6. Conclusion
According to the results, we find that the strategic intellectual property management in
Algerian insurance companies has a relationship with maximize her value, the strategic
intellectual property management has given a great attention to the role of forming a strategy
and adopt the right strategy tools like the six polices for intellectual property management in
maximize their value and gain competitiveness, especially in the international insurance
company AXA Algeria.
32
References:
Abdurrahman Y. Al-Aali, David J. (2013), “Towards the (Strategic) Management of
Intellectual Property: RETROSPECTIVE ANDPROSPECTIV”, Teece CALIFORNIA
MANAGEMENT REVIEW VOL. 55, NO. 4, CMR.BERKELEY.EDU.
Andrew J. Sherman, (2007), “STRATEGIES FOR LEVERAGING INTELLECTUAL
PROPERTY THROUGH LICENSING, JOINT VENTURES, ALLIANCES AND
FRANCHISING”, The Morino Institute, Reston, VA, Washington.
Australian Science Capability Review, ‘The Chance to Change’ (2000).
Commonwealth of Australia.
D. Somaya, D. Teece, and S. Wakeman, (2011) “Innovation in Multi-Invention
Contexts: Mapping Solutions to Technological and Intellectual Property Complexity,”
California Management Review, 53/4.
EAS, « SUMMARY OF THE EPO-OECD-UKPO CONFERENCE: PATENTS:
REALISING AND SECURING VALUE” – LONDON, 21 NOVEMBER 2006.
Jeffrey Toobin, “Google’s Moon Shot: The Quest for the Universal Library”, New
York.
Kevin G. Rivette and David Kline, (2000) “Discovering New Value in Intellectual
Property,” Harvard Business Review, 78/1.
Michael A.Gollin, (2008), “Driving Innovation: Intellectual Property Strategies for
dynamic world”, 1st Edition, New York, CAMBRIDGE University Press.
Nermien Al-Ali, (2003), “COMPREHENSIVE INTELLECTUAL CAPITAL
MANAGEMENT: Step-by-Step”, Canada, (John Wiley & Sons),
Patrick Sullivan, (1998), “Profiting from Intellectual Capital: Extracting Value from
Innovation” Canada, (John Wiley & Sons).
Robert M. Grant, (2013), “Contemporary Strategy Analysis”,9 edition, UK, John
Wiley& sons.
William W. Fisher III, (2013), “Strategic Management of Intellectual Property – An
Integrated Approach”, California Management Review - Special Issue on Intellectual
Property Management: In Search of New Practices, Strategies, and Business Models.
United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, (2011), “Intellectual Property
Commercialization: POLICY OPTIONS AND PRACTICAL INSTRUMENTS”, New
York and Geneva, United Nations.
33
Justin M. Nielsen and Robert F. Reilly, (2012), “Procedures Companies Can Use to
Maximize the Value of Their Intellectual Property”, Intangible Asset Valuation
Insights.
Ian Ellis, (2009), “Maximizing Intellectual Property and Intangible Assets”,
Washington, Athena Alliance.
34
Apprenticeship and the Stylistic Trend
of Painting in Nigeria
Abodunrin Johnson A
Ladoke Akintola University of Technology,
Ogbomoso, Oyo State, Nigeria
[email protected]
Abstract
The paper examines the contribution of apprenticeship form of training in visual with special
reference to the trend of styles and techniques of painting in Nigeria. It focuses on the
contributions of Universal Studio of Arts, Abayomi Barber group and Mufu Onifade group,
with a view to underscore the training orientation and impart through apprenticeship training of
Arts in Nigeria. This study concentrates on the selected artists from the centers scanning
through their backgrounds, development of their individual styles and experiences and how
this has influence others who came across them. The study discovered that most painters in
Nigeria are been influenced through the efforts of various centers of training of Arts.
Therefore, the efforts of formal training in various institutions only serve as the pedestal for
further development of styles in modern artistic growth in Nigeria. The paper concludes that
apprenticeship form of training helps the development of style of painting in Nigeria artistic
landscape, though there is no formal curriculum in use for the training.
Key Words: Apprenticeship, Trend, Painting, Nigeria
35
Introduction
The Oxford advance learners dictionary of current English 4 edition 1974, defined the
word apprentice as ‘a person who agreed to work for a skilled employer for a fixed period in
turn for being taught his trade or craft’ Nwachukwu C. C in his book Management theory and
practice (1988:125) defined apprentice method of training as ‘when extensive practice or
technical knowledge is required to perform a job. The training combines on the job training
with classroom lectures’. In opinion of Ranald Nesbilt in his book ‘the training of youths in
industry (1966:109) defined apprenticeship as ‘a period of learning says 5years, at the end of
which the apprentice qualifies as skilled craft man. He further stated that ‘traditionally this
period of training was under the control of a master craft man’. The apprentice learnt his trade
by example and imitation of masters craft man and from what other instruction he could give.
In Nigeria and all over Africa, apprenticeship has been an age-long method used in
training young people in trades and crafts, agriculture, business, and catering. During the precolonial periods, apprenticeship was the mode of training. It is a common feature of the
traditional setting to see people engage in a vocation such as farming, fishing, hunting, carving,
carpentry, sculpting, painting, building, decorating, smiting, dyeing, and so on.
On the traditional apprenticeship in Nigeria, Usuala Esogwa, in his book, the vocational
technical education for Nigeria (1991:21) commented that ‘an apprenticeship system invest in
all the craft in Nigeria, the period of apprenticeship varies from district to district and from
craft to craft. After an apprentable period of training; the master entrusted the production of
certain goods to the apprentice in order to test the level of his skill, the apprentice paid the
master for his training by engaging in various domestic services as mark of loyalty to the
master. After the period of training which varies, depending on the nature of the job; the
apprentice are given opportunity to engage in freedom to practice the trade. However, there are
certain traditional craft which are restricted to a particular family, they train people within their
family alone, after the apprenticeship period, the apprentice is expected to continue with the
craft even after the demise of the master who equally serve as his parent. For example, dyers,
wood carvers and weavers were trained by their father or by an uncle.
Apprenticeship in Visual Art practice in Nigeria
Most of the visual arts apprenticeship centers come in form of workshop training center
in Nigeria. Some of the centers were developed by Catholic Church missionaries, while some
were developed by competent individual and group (Chukueggu, 2010). Towards the end of
the 20th century we have witnessed greater activity in the informal sector with the
establishment of the Harmattarn Workshop Series by Bruce Onobrakpeya who was an active
participant in the Osogbo Workshops and one of the few academically trained artists who
participated. The Harmattan Workshop is an annual artists’ retreat started in 1998 with just
eight artists. Today with over 10 editions it has become a pilgrimage of sorts, with an average
attendance of 50 artists each year. The workshop, which is being organized by the Bruce
Onobrakpeya Foundation, has been sustained by the support of the Ford Foundation, the
National Gallery of Art, Abuja and other corporate organizations from time to time. Some of
the artists that have participated include Mike Omoighe, John Agberia, Peju Layiwola, Nse
Abasi Inyang, Olu Amoda, Salubi Onakufe, Uwa Usen, Duke Asidere, Sam Ovraiti,
Emmanuel Ekpeni, Tony Emodi, Antonia Okogwu, Lara Ige-Jacks, Oladapo Afolayan, and
Bunmi Ola –Afolayan among several others. Over 300 artists have participated in the
workshop since its inception and they have been inspired by various kinds of experimental
techniques and styles from different masters.
36
The experiment from the workshop centers produced young creative artists who are
independent and self-employed today in Nigeria. Today, different centers were established by
both capable individuals and groups with the primary aim of developing the act of visual art
practice in Nigeria. Painting which is an aspect of visual arts was also developed through
apprenticeship training. For the purpose of this paper, three centers or associated group of
artists were looked at to see the impact of the apprenticeship training in the development of
painting styles and techniques. They are Universal studio art, Abayomi Barber group and Mufu
Onifade Ara group of artists.
Universal Studio of Art
This is a group of professional artists situated at Universal Studio of art, Iganmu, Lagos
with the primary aim of promoting the quality of artistic practice in Nigeria. Most of the artists
are from different geographical and institutional background with different area of
specialization, which include painting, sculpture and drawing. They promote critical
development of practical skill in various areas of visual art. The center has been the venue for
further artistic training for more especially students from various institutions on industrial
training programmes. An industrial training programme enables undergraduate students from
different University and Polytechnics in Nigeria to embark on six to one year industrial
training programmes. The idea to establish the Industrial Skill Training Centers across the
Nation was conceived in 1978. Following years of periodic appraisal of the efforts of various
formal and non-formal Vocational institutions in the country, the industrial training found in a
bid to introduce into the National economy, an effective and systematic Vocational Training
System commissioned a study of in-plant and apprentice training in Nigeria.
The Universal Studio of Art which was established about fourteen years ago is
bedecked with sweet reminiscent of quality service to visual art in training and mentoring in
valuable productivity sound professionalism. It has also become a strong center for artistic
training in Nigeria for years. The efforts of professional artists in the studio have contributed
tremendously to the growth of vocational training in the field of Arts. Prominent among the
resident artists of the center are: Abiodun Olaku, Duke Asidere and Joshua Nmesirioye. They
have over the years imparted practical knowledge into different artists from diverse institutions
and geographical locations in Nigeria through apprenticeship training. The individual and
collective styles of members have contributed to the advancement of quality and style of
painting in Nigeria. They engage students on regular practice of drawing and painting which
greatly reflected in the quality works of many students after returning from their industrial
programmes. This study concentrates on the selected artists from the center scanning through
their backgrounds, development of their individual styles and experiences and how this has
influence others who came across them.
Abiodun Olaku graduated from the prestigious Yaba College of Technology, Lagos,
with H.N.D in painting in 1981, under the supervision and guidance of Yusuf Grillo, Kolade
Oshinowo and late Dr. Isiaka Osunde, Olaku has crystallized into one of the ‘exclusive’
masters of his generation. The entrenched uniqueness of his style and the pleasantly hunting
effect it has on the viewer explains the rather frenzied pursuit of his painting. The fragrance of
honesty that oozes from his works is both compelling and stimulating at the same time, thereby
unlocking the desire for a faithful relationship with them.
The style of painting which has been carefully rendered to depict night scene from
aerial view, has smooth rendition with sparkling of light from different part of the painting.
Olaku is a multi-talented, versatile artist whose themes range from landscape paintings
(reminiscent of Turner and constable) to traditional Nigerian festivals. Whatever the subject
37
matter, he conveys the essence in the most subtle of ways. His portrayal of light, especially at
sunset or sunrise and its effect on the rest of nature has to be seen to be appreciated. His works
which is more of photorealism is found to be attractive and very loaded in content. He is more
inspired with atmospheric situation, the slow evolution of the terrance inspiration from
whatever material he can lay his hand on. This style has greatly influence many of the Nigeria
young painters who got inspired through direct training under him. Among the works in such
categories are:Misty Morning (plate 1), Life goes on (plate 2), People’s paradise (plate 3) and
Eyo Adimu (plate 4).
Duke Asidere in his own case had his formal artistic training at the Ahmadu Bello
University, Zaria. He develop his style of painting outside the general orientation been
inherited from his masters in school. He is more of independent style with limited palette
which is thoughtfully curate and technically refined skill that acts as a unique balance to his
highly expressive artistic technique. His paintings in most cases lack depth, with caricature
drawing in floating manner. This deliberate attempt makes his work unique, not because he
lacks draughstmanship skill, but to justify his individual style which is consistent. Though he
did not encourage apprentice under him to follow his own uniqueness but encourage them to
discover their own individual styles through perfect skill acquisition. He guides students on
how to develop their drawing and painting skills through adequate practice. Some of his
independent styles can be seen in his works such as: faces, hair do, redlight and untitled (plate
5 - 8).
Joshua Nmesirionye graduated from Auchi Polytechnic in 1998 with a HND in
painting. He claimed he was inspired by impressionist masters like Claude Monet and Camille
Pissarro in his use of colour and the rendition of forms. He accentuates his figures with chalk
and pastels and adds some mystery to his texture canvases with the heads of his figures beyond
the picture plane leaving plenty of the imagination. An example includes Untitled and men of
honour (Plates 9 – 10) Amongst Others. All the artists at the center train students who are
probably on industrial training programmes on how to become a professional artists by
engaging them on skill development in painting.
Abayomi Barber School
Following the apprenticeship system was the Abayomi Barber Group, started in 1971
by Abayomi Barber who was born in Ile Ife, and attended several primary schools before
enrolling in St. Stephen’s School Modakeke, where he received prizes for Drama, Poetry,
singing and Music. In 1952 he moved to Lagos and enrolled at the Yaba College of
Technology after a brief interaction with Ben Enwonwu who was then Federal Art Adviser.
Although his stay in Yaba was very brief some of his class mates then included: Yusuf Grillo,
Erhabor Emokpae and Isiaka Osunde.
From 1957 to 1958 he joined the Yoruba Historical Research Scheme at Ibadan under
the Chairmanship of Dr. S. O. Biobaku and catalogued, drew and labeled all the art works in
the collection of the Yoruba Research Scheme and went on field research with William Fagg,
Frank Willet, Dr. Bradbury and Reverend Father Carroll. In September 1960, Barber was sent
to England. He worked for some time in the British Museum, while he enrolled in the evening
class at the Central School of Art Crafts, Holborn. While he was in the United Kingdom, he
worked with the Scenic Art Studio at Notinghill gate and Fredrick Mancini in Wimbledon and
Oscar Neman, a great authority on Churchill sculptures, for four years before coming to join
the University of Lagos in 1971. Barber is an artist who believes that it is only when ones
technique is fully developed, that one’s imagination, originality and individuality can come
into play and be of any use. The objective of the group was to produce hard core professional
38
works of art. He had since then succeeded in training a generation of young Nigerians, whose
activities have culminated in the emergence of what has been known as the Abayomi Barber
Group, a group that bases its inspiration on the classical Ife bronzes. Some of the disciples of
this group, which started as part of the centre for cultural studies, University of Lagos include:
Olu Spencer, Rufus Olanrewaju, Micheal Egbuna, Akin Savage, Ekpeyong Ayi and Archibald
Etikerentse .
The Abayomi Barber Art group stands out within the modern Nigerian art space as an
informal workshop programme that promotes rigorous training and development of its
members. One of its characteristic is its emphasis on naturalistic rendering of forms. Abayomi
Barber and his students assert through their work that African artists are as capable as western
artists in creating in a naturalistic idiom. His emphasis on the metaphysical is an extension of a
traditional African art preoccupation with religious forms and societal values. In most of his
painting, he believes in the true presentation and representation of forms which oftentimes
makes his work different from his counterparts. Example of this can be seen in the works of
the following artists who are recently exhibiting with their master. Among them are: Adebayo
Akinwole, Adeladan Adeshina, Bunmi Lasaki, Kayode Lawal, Olukayode Fadipe, Mosunde
Daramola, Muri Adejimi, Omotayo Oguntoye, Busari Agbolade, Olufemi Atewolara and
others.
Abayomi Barber has established a style that features pictorial naturalism, magical
symbolism and ethereal conceptualization. Though the Barber group works may have simple
themes, they are at times esoteric. Flowing rivers and other natural objects often transmogrify
to attain human attributes. Landscapes are done repeatedly with trees, foliages, shells, hills,
feathers, birds, rocks, cowries, fruits, men and women juxtaposed into compositions of
mystifying effects. The works are mostly philosophical or magical and seldom concerned with
the political complexities of the contemporary Nigerian society. Abayomi maintains that the
iconographical symbols and images used by the group are deeply rooted in the African psyche,
and he feels they have immense influence on him. Analysis of styles of some prominent
members of the group would showcase the spread of the artistic quality of the group.
It has been difficult to separate the group from the man himself, all because of his ideas
and philosophy that are inherent in the group. Abayomi believes in hard work and the pursuit
of excellence. He maintains that geniuses are made more by handwork than inspiration.
However, he has been consistent over the years in his ambition to keep producing better
paintings and sculptures. Among the paintings are titled Omoge (plate 11), a river goddess
which was depicted in a naturalistic manner, and Yemoja (plate 12) which gives an impression
of beauty in a young lady. The two paintings are characterized by what the artist stand for, the
naturalistic and realistic presentation of art forms.
Bunmi Lasaki is another product of Abayomi Barber group, who also joined the group
in1980; he later attended the Yaba College of Technology from where he specialized in
sculpture. While he was with Abayomi Barber, he engaged in painting as well. His painting is
realistic and the same time naturalistic with little brush stroke effect. In his portrait painting of
his mentor titled Creative Dialogue, he made an attempt to bring his master to reality through
his carefully rendered painting that is close to photograph itself (Plate 13). Other instances
include Abe Olumo (Plate 14) and some others.
Olukayode Fadipe is one of the descendants of Abayomi Barber, who immediately after
his secondary education in 1989 joined the group, he studied till 1997. Though he specialized
in sculpture but still do a lot of paintings. His painting is super-realistic works rendered in
more subtle manner with limited colour display. His themes are generally naturalistic ranging
39
from landscapes and other activities in the environment titled Barber’s Profile (Plate 15)
among much more.
Mufu Onifade Ara group
Another center for apprenticeship training in painting in Nigeria is Mufu Onifade Ara
center. Araism is another trend evolved by Mufu Onifade and other young artists who are
committed to the tradition of the forebears and also not apologetic about their cultural
background. Araism which was began as a technique of painting by Mufu Onifade, but having
trained many students from 1990 to date, each student was able to develop his own style, using
the general technique as a technical base. With the distinguishing element of one style from
another, it became imperative to create a platform on which these various styles of Araism
could be projected; and this pave the way for the establishment of Ara technique. Araism as a
technique entails quite a bunch of cumbersome technicalities deserving of intense
experimentation. It was launched in 1998 with a solo exhibition by Mufu Onifade, its
proponent but the movement was born in 2006 with an official grouping of interested students
who are today know as disciples- all of them sharing a common fraternity with their teacher.
They explore a painting technique of design elements which requires elaborate
patterning and extensive use of motifs. Mufu invented Araism, an authentic African Painting
technique. (Mufu Onifade, 2011:7). The experiments with which he achieved this feat lasted
seven years (1989 to1996).
Araism is a dogged artistic development arising from technical exploration and creative
composition of tiny units of irregular shapes to create strokes that result in aesthetic projection
of active shapes and meaningful forms. These tiny units of irregular palette-knife strokes are
painstakingly arranged to produce shapes that truly define forms. The result may appear in
what looks like a jig-saw puzzle or what some arts writers (newspaper journalists) have
described as mosaic effects. Among the disciples who have leant the Ara techniques of
painting are: Olaniyi Omojuwa, Oludotun Popoola, Abiola Mautin Akande, Jonathan Ikpoza
and Tope Oguntuase, it became easier to distinguish between one style and another, but all in
relation to the same technique, being a string of affinity that binds all practitioners of Araism
together.
Mufu Onifade, one of the graduates from the Ife School, started the experiment of Ara,
a visual art technique in 1989, the same year Onaism began. The experiment was still on when
Mufu Onifade got to the Obafemi Awolowo University, Ife in 1992/1993. The exposure he had
gave him the needed direction towards perfecting the experiments he started some years later.
His paintings, though representational, keep to the traditional Yoruba philosophy that places
importance on the head. Thematically, he presents a flow in certain directions which reveals
his intellectual mind and awareness from primordial Yoruba to contemporary times. In his
painting titled lroke, he clearly displayed his understanding of Yoruba culture through
representation of Ifa divination; Opon Ifa with Iroke forming prominence, and many heads and
cowries making the work balance in content and composition. Mufu’s works reassure the
audience of his continuous dedication to the essentiality of Yoruba cultural norms and values.
His painting continues to teach morals and virtues with his illustrative themes that are often
charged with deep meanings. His use of colours is in consonance with the temperaments
portrayed by his works. This includes works like: Home sick and Ekeji Orisa among others.
(Plates 16 &17).
Jonathan Ikpoza is one of the apprentices under Mufu Onifade. He holds National
Diploma in general Arts and Higher National Diploma in painting from Auchi Polytechnic in
2006, with many awards and exhibitions. He is a pioneering member of Araism Movement
40
with unique techniques. His paintings can be place side by side with his teacher’s works,
except that his crack effects seem to be tinny and his themes are basically figure with day to
day activities. Though, he is a versatile artist who works with different media and techniques.
His paintings are colourful yet subtle. He uses lines in creating rhythmic shapes across his
subjects and infuses three dimensional surface qualities to coloured shapes through
orchestration. His themes range from cultural, social, and historical to contemporary.
He believes that his works should not only be valued as beautiful pieces but should be
regarded as a means of educating the viewer as they are exposed to his figurative illustration of
people, lives, places, culture and issues affecting the society at one time or another. He has
been exploring the use of shapes and lines in analyzing the forms of his subject. Examples of
his works among others are Iroro Aye and untitled (Plates18 -19)
Matthew Ojediran is another artist from the center. He holds a National Diploma in Art
and Design from The Polytechnic, Ibadan and Bachelor of Arts from Obafemi Awolowo
University, IIe-Ife in 2008. He had his further training directly under Mufu Onifade in 2004
and later became a member of Araism movement. Since then he has been working in line with
Araism ideas and philosophy. Though graduated from Ona School of thought, his style of
painting has been towards the ideology of Ara movement. His works includes: onirese and
owo omode o to pepe (Plates 20 & 21) amongst others.
Abolore Awojobi graduated from the University of Nigeria, Nsukka and also a
prominent member of Araism movement with distinctive styles and techniques. He did not
allow the influence of Ulli style from his formal training to dissuade him from Ara concept.
His style of rendition is not far from his counterparts except patterns that are slightly different
which constitute his identity. His cracks effect seems bold enough to differentiate him from his
master. The themes are also figurative with little attempt to depict abstraction examples are
Untitled and February 14 (Plate 22 & 23).
Conclusion
It has been observed that better artistic training could be achieved through
apprenticeship training in Nigeria. The method inherent in learning from the master has go a
long way in educating learner more on the skill acquisition, thereby bringing perfection to the
trade. Various styles of painting have also developed from different artists who have provided
apprenticeship training in Nigeria. The paper concludes that visual art training is not limited to
the training acquire through formal art education in Nigeria, but also through apprenticeship
training from practicing artists.
41
References
Araism Movement 9 exhibition catalogue 2011.pp.20,43,44
Chukueggu, C (2010) Art Workshop Centres in Nigeria: Issues and Problem,
International Journal of Research in Art and Social Sciences, vol. 12 (3). Pp 167-173.
Dance of the Mind Exhibition Catalogue ( 2008) pp. 22, 23, 33, 37
Mufu Onifade (2011) ‘Araism Movement 9’ exhibition catalogue, p. 10
Nwachukwu C.C (1988) ‘Management Theory and Practice’ Onitsha: Africana. First
Publishers Limited.
Oxford advance learners dictionary of current English 4 edition 1974, Oxford
University Press.
Ranald Nesbilt (1966) ‘The Training of Youths in Industry’ vol. 1 (1).
Usuala Esogwa (1991) ‘The Vocational Technical Education For Nigeria’ Pacific
Publishers.
Paintings of Abiodun Olaku www.arcadja.com Accessed June, 2013
Paintings of Abiodun Olaku www.artfact.com Accessed June, 2013
Painting of Jonathan Ikpoza www.araism.com.
Whisper Araism Exhibition Catalogue, 2010. p.40, 44
42
Plate 1
Abiodun Olaku, Misty Morning, 1993
Plate 2
Abiodun Olaku, Life goes on (Lagos), 1993
Oil on tex-Canvas.
Oil on Canvas.
(http://www.arcadja.com)
(http://www.arcadja.com/ )
Plate 3
Abiodun Olaku, People’s paradise, 1993
Plate 4
Abiodun Olaku, Eyo Adimu, 1999
Oil on board.
Oil on Canvas.
(http://www.artfact.com)
(http://www.artfact.com)
43
Plate 5
Duke Asidere, Faces, 2008
Oil on board.
Plate 6
Duke Asidere, Hair Do, 2008
Oil on board.
(Artist Archive, 2012)
Plate 7
Duke Asidere, Redlight, 2009
Oil on board.
Plate 8
Duke Asidere, untitled, 2010
Oil on board.
44
Plate 9
Joshua Nmesirionye, Untitled, 2009
Oil on board.
Plate 10
Joshua Nmesirionye, Men of Honour, 2008
Oil on Canvas.
Plate 12
Abayomi Barber, Yemoja.
Plate 11
Abayomi Barber, Omoge.
Oil on barber board. (Dance of the Mind
exhibition catalogue, 2008: 22)
Oil on barber board. (Dance of the Mind
exhibition catalogue, 2008: 23)
45
Plate 13
Bunmi Lasaki, Creative Dialogue.
Oil on Canvas. Dance of the Mind Exhibition
Catalogue, 2008: 33)
Plate 14
Bunmi Lasaki, Abe olumo
Oil on Canvas. (Artist Archive 2008)
Plate 15
Olukayode Fadipe, Barber’s Profile.
Oil on Canvas. Dance of the Mind Exhibition
Catalogue, 2008: 37)
46
Plate 16
Mufu Onifade, Homesick
Acrylic on canvas Whisper Araism,
Exhibition Catalogue 2010. p44
Plate 17
Mufu Onifade, Ekeji Orisa
Acrylic on canvas: Whisper Araism,
Exhibition Catalogue 2010 p. 40
Plate 19
Jonathan Ikpoza, Untitled.
Plate 18
Jonathan Ikpoza, Iroro Aye.
Acrylic. (Araism Movement 9 exhibition catalogue,
2011: 20)
47
Acrylic. (Araism.com)
Plate 20
Mathew O. Ojediran, Onirese.
Plate 21
Mathew O. Ojediran, Owo Omode o to Pepe.
Acrylic. (Araism Movement 9 exhibition,
catalogue 2011: 43)
Acrylic. (Araism Movement 9 exhibition
catalogue 2011: 44)
Plate 23
Plate 22
Abolore Awojobi, February 14
Abolore Awojobi, untitled
Acrylic. (Artist Archive 2012)
Acrylic. (Artist Archive 2012)
48
Organizational Role Stress Among
Medical Practitioners In Goa
Christo F.V. Fernandes,
Goa Institute of Management, India.
Pia Muriel Cardoso
Goa Medical College, India.
Abstract
This research focuses on testing the relationship between Personal and
Job/Organizational factors on Organizational Role Stress in Medical Doctors. Data was
collected from 454 doctors working in the Public Healthcare Sector in Goa. While
Organizational Role Stress was measured using the ORS scale, ANOVA and t-test was used
for testing differences between categories of Gender, Dual Doctor Career, Employee
Engagement, and Work Climate.
The study adds to the evidence that demographic variables, such as Gender and Dual
Career, as well as organizational factors, such as Employee Engagement and Work Climate,
have a reducing effect on Organizational Role Stress.
Keywords: Demographics; Organizational Role Stress; Employee Engagement; Work
Climate
49
Introduction
The current organizational life has experienced a number of changes at the workplace
and such developments have drawn attention to the postindustrial workplace (Murphy, 1999),
also referred to as the ‘new organizational reality’ (Gowing, Kraft, & Quick, 1997). Thus
research contributions have revealed the consequences of stress associated with demographic
and personal issues which have hampered the overall effectiveness of the organization (Alluisi
& Fleshman, 1982; Celoline, 1982; Chadwick- Jones, Nicholson, and Brown, 1982; Saffer
1984). Although organizations have been held financially accountable for issues related to job
stress, stress has become expensive for the organization. While it is evident that organizations
must now spend for stress-related illnesses and consequences of employees, they also have the
urgent need to fight and remain competitive in a global marketplace (Peters & Waterman,
1982; Rothwell, Prescott & Taylor, 1998).
While stress has almost impacted every sphere of business, it remain an accepted fact
that stress among physicians, nurses and other health professionals is high (Caplan, 1994;
Graham, Ramirez, & Cull, 1996; Al-Aameri & Al-Fawzan, 1998). This can be attributed to
the responsibility for “people” rather than “objects”, and the fact that their actions or omissions
have a profound impact on human life (Rees, 1995; Antoniou, 2001). Further the important
fallout related to stress in the medical profession is that the quality of health care administered
can be extremely influenced by the stress levels of health staff (Firth-Cozens & Moss, 1998).
Concept of Role Stress
A member in an organization assumes a role, which can be defined as expectation of
self and others from the focal person at the workplace. A role can be understood in terms of a
role set. The focal role individual usually has superior, co-workers, and subordinates who are
significant others in his/her role set (Banton, 1965; Gross, Mason, & McEachern, 1958;
Neiman & Hughes, 1951). In many instances, the incumbent personalizes the position (Graen,
1976) so that individuals in the same position will exhibit different effective behaviors. The
freedom experienced in every role performance allows people to fill a role without
experiencing role strain (Komarovsky, 1973; Merton, 1966). In situations wherein individuals
occupy roles which conflict with their value system, it leads to an outcome of role stress or role
conflict.
Kahn & Quinn (1970) have identified three categories of role stress, namely
expectation generated stress, expectation-resource discrepancies and role-personality
mismatch. The first category encapsulates role ambiguity and role conflict. The second
category includes role overload, responsibility-authority dilemma, and inadequate technical
information. The third category relates to the gaps between the role and personality.
The concept of an organization is a system of roles and role itself is a system.
Organizational roles constitute the basic human resource infrastructure on which the success of
human resource systems and process depends (Srivastav, 2006). According to Pareek (1981),
membership of an organization and the concept of an organizational role have inbuilt potential
for stress.
Stress due to occupation of a role in an organization is known as Organizational Role
Stress (ORS). While explaining various role related terms, Pareek (1981) states that each
individual in the society performs several roles. All these roles make up ones role space. The
self is in the Centre of the role space. Since the roles are at various distances from the self and
from each other, these relationships define the role space. Each role has its own systems,
which has been called role set. Role set is the pattern of relationships between the focal role
50
and other role occupants. In this, the role of the role occupant is in the center and all other roles
are around the person’s particular role.
In the role behavior of an individual, several variables are involved: the self, the other
role senders, the expectations by the other roles, expectations by the self and other roles
occupied by the focal role person. It is in the nature of the role that it has built-in potential for
conflict and stress. So stress is a natural variable in the role performance. While performing
several roles or within one’s role, a person may find that he/she is not being directed to the
desired goal. The consequence is disillusionment, frustration, tension, conflict and stress.
Pareek (1981), on the basis of theoretical speculation and statistical analysis has identified ten
different types of role stresses prevalent in any organizational setting, as below:
Empirical Study Variables









Inter Role Distance (IRD) is experienced when there is a conflict within the individual between
various roles which the individual occupies across his personal and organizational roles
Role Stagnation Stress (RS) is the feeling when the individual feels stuck or caught in the same
role
Role Expectation Stress (REC) arises out of conflicting demands originating from superiors,
colleagues and subordinates or peer from the organization
Role Erosion (RE) arises when a role occupant feels that others are performing certain functions,
which should have been part of his or her role.
Role Overload (RO) is the feeling that one is required to do too much in his present role and that
there is too much load on the role
Personal Inadequacy stress (PI) is depicted when the individual experience the absence of
adequate skills, competence and training to meet the demands of one’s roles
Self Role Distance (SRD) arises from a gap experienced between one’s concept of self and the
demands of the role that are required to perform the role.
Role Ambiguity Stress (RA) is experienced when there is a lack of clarity about the demands of
the role or the expectation of the role etc.
Resource Inadequacy (Rin) arises when the individual role occupant feel that the resources
provided to fulfill the role is not sufficient.
In addition to the above, the following factors have been undertaken in this study on
Organizational Role Stress.
Demographic Factors
Gender and Dual Career is analyzed for the causal impact of gender differences and the
influence of spouse’s occupation on ORS.
Organizational Factors
Employee Engagement and Work Climate have been investigated. The relationship between
the above practice and ORS is statistically evaluated.
Method of Investigation
The participants in the proposed study were medical doctors working in the public
healthcare sector of Goa. 600 Questionnaires were distributed to them, of which 454 completed
questionnaires have been analyzed in this study. Two sets of questionnaires were given to
collect data i.e. questionnaire relating to all personal and organizational stressors and the
organizational role stress scale developed by Pareek (1983a&b).
All the raw data was analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS)
and the analysis was done by using Mean standard deviation, t-value, and Pearson product
moment correlation and ANOVA.
51
Research Model
Figure 1 represents the research model for this study.
Personal Factors Organizational Role Stressors
Figure 1: Research Model
Data Analysis
Gender
Mean scores of total role stress in the case of male doctors is 83.83, which is lower than
that of female doctors with a score of 111.31, and its t-ratio is -18.188, which is statistically
significant as shown in Table 1. Hence, the results reveal that the level of role stress for male
doctors is less compared to female medical doctors.
Table 1 further indicates that male and female medical doctors differ significantly in
their mean scores on personal inadequacy (t=-15.899), self-role distance (t= -14.490, P<.01),
role stagnation (t= -12.326, P<.01), role expectation conflict (t= -12.219, P<.01), inter role
distance (t=-11.175, p< .01), role overload (t=-9.636, P<.01), and role ambiguity (t=-9.12,
p<0.01).
52
Table 1: Test Of Significant Difference Of Gender And Role Stress
Among Medical Doctors
Role Stressors
Male
Female
N= 233
N=221
Mean
S.D
Mean
S.D
t- ratio
IRD
8.64
2.776
11.76
3.150
-11.175**
RS
8.58
3.532
12.44
3.144
-12.326**
REC
7.95
2.443
11.26
3.242
-12.219**
RE
8.29
2.964
11.20
3.059
-10.299**
RO
7.88
2.212
9.81
2.035
-9.636**
RI
9.50
2.465
10.94
2.305
-6.426**
PI
9.27
3.130
13.82
2.962
-15.899**
SRD
8.16
2.077
11.29
2.501
-14.490**
RA
6.71
2.667
9.22
3.150
-9.120**
RIN
8.91
3.420
9.57
2.512
-2.352*
TRS
83.83
18.463
111.31
13.458
-18.188**
**p< 0.01; *p<0.05
The correlation results in Table 2 reveal that Total Role Stress is less in males
compared to female medical doctors, and the result is significant at p<.01.
Table 2: Correlation Of Gender And Role Stress
Types Of Role Stressors
IRD
-.466**
RS
-.500**
REC
-.501**
RE
-.436**
RO
-.413**
RI
-.289**
PI
-.599**
SRD
-.565**
RA
-.396**
RIN
-.109*
TRS
-.647**
**p<.01; *p<.05
Hence, the Hypothesis that “there will be significant difference in the organizational
role stress among male and female doctors” stands confirmed.
There is sufficient evidence to the above hypothesis in the literature that supports that
female doctors are stressed consequent to women entering the male dominated paradigm of
work culture. Our findings are consistent with those of Hendrix, Spencer & Gibson (1994),
who revealed that working women are affected by stressors which are common to both sexes,
but also others which are unique to women.
53
Other studies such as Firth-Cozens (1990) reported that studies which have focused
specifically on female doctors have revealed increased stress arising from prejudice, lack of
role models and career conflict. Conflict between their work and personal lives seems to have
been particularly stressful for female doctors (Hayes, 1986; Whitley et al, 1991; Chambers &
Campbell, 1996; Blix et al, 1994; Bynoe, 1994; Rout, 1996; Griffith, 1999; Kirkcaldy, 2002;
Vanagas & Bihari-Axelsson, 2005 & Abbas et al., 2012). A survey by Swanson et al. (1996)
found lower stress and higher job satisfaction levels in female general practitioners compared
to their male counterparts. Yet female hospital consultants were found to experience more
work-related stress than their male colleagues. Consultants were also reported to be
significantly more stressed than general practitioners on sub-scales of "extrinsic stressors,
concerns about management structure, working relationships and achievement". Swanson
concluded that women were still experiencing difficulties with career advancement in hospital
medicine. Parkhouse & Ellin (1988) have suggested that gender-linked stress can lead women
doctors to make important compromises between their personal lives and careers. He reported
that women are more likely than men to enter a speciality which is not their first choice. Many
women encountered a stage in which they contemplated leaving the rigid structure of hospital
medicine for the greater flexibility of general practice (White, O’Connor & Garrett, 1997).
By contrast, Dasgupta & Kumar (2009) reported that male doctors are more stressed
than female doctors in the areas of inter-role distance and resource inadequacy. Yet in another
study, male doctors in a sample of dual career families of doctors, perceived their work as
more stressful and less satisfying than females (Swanson & Power, 1999). Some studies have
reported no significant differences between role stress and its impact on genders. These include
studies done by Deaux (1984); Dua (1994); Gmelch & Burns (1994); Smith et al (2000);
Antoniou et al., (2003); Aziz (2007); Kalyani et al. (2009) & Abbas et al. (2012).
Dual Doctor Marriages
Mean scores of total role stress in the case of doctors who have a non-doctor spouse is
77.01, which is lower than that of doctors who have doctor spouses, with a score of 104.96 and
t-ratio of 14.078, which is statistically significant as shown in Table 3. Hence, the results
reveal that the level of role stress for those with non-doctor spouses is less compared to the
level of role stress for those having a doctor spouse. Table 3 further indicates that non-doctor
spouse and doctor spouse differed significantly in all role stressors.
Table 3: Test Of Significant Difference Of Doctor And Non-doctor Spouse And Role
Stress Among Medical Doctors
Role Stressors
Doctor Spouse
Non-doctor Spouse
N= 138
N=107
Mean
S.D
Mean
S.D
t- ratio
IRD
10.90
3.034
8.21
3.350
8.232**
RS
11.55
3.582
7.63
3.066
11.597**
REC
10.29
3.143
7.66
2.932
8.400**
RE
10.78
2.955
6.90
2.573
12.991**
RO
9.46
1.972
7.13
2.371
9.799**
RI
10.57
2.251
9.22
2.817
4.824**
PI
12.54
3.301
8.74
3.664
10.642**
SRD
10.62
2.443
7.26
2.032
14.854**
54
RA
8.49
2.988
6.48
3.169
6.324**
RIN
9.76
2.735
7.86
3.322
5.686**
TRS
104.96
15.990
77.01
19.967
14.078**
*p<0.05, **p <0.01
The correlation results shown in Table 4 reveal that Total Role Stress is less with a
non-doctor spouse than with a doctor spouse, and the result is significant at p<.01.
Table 4: Correlation Of Dual-Doctor Marriages And Role Stress
Types of Role Stressors
IRD
-.290**
RS
-.298**
REC
-.227**
RE
-.475**
RO
-.453**
RI
-.160**
PI
-.354**
SRD
-.377**
RA
-.121**
RIN
-.155**
TRS
-.433**
**p<.01; *p<.05
“There will be significant difference between the Organizational Role Stress levels of
doctors married to doctors, and doctors married to non-doctors” stands confirmed.
Role Stress was significantly higher in doctors who were married to doctors than in
those married to non-doctors (t=14.078, p <0.01). This result is also reflected in the correlation
Table 4. This study is in conformity with earlier studies which showed that being married to a
doctor increases occupational role stress (Sekaran, 1983; Greenhaus & Parasuraman, 1986;
Rout, 1996; Swanson & Power, 1999). From this finding, one can infer that being married to a
doctor is associated with aggravated stress levels, rather than being married to a non-doctor.
This can be attributed to the fact that a non-doctor can be more supportive, than a doctor
spouse who will have a tendency to be judgmental. The non-doctor spouse would be more
sympathetic to the doctors’ stress, as against a doctor spouse who may himself/herself be in a
stressful work environment, hence worsening the stressful situation. There is substantial
evidence that medical careers are highly stressful for both male and female doctors (Cooper et
al., 1989; Sutherland & Cooper, 1993; Swanson et al., 1996), and demands of medical work
have an adverse impact on marital relationships and family life (Gabbard et al., 1987).
One explanation may appear due to the emotional content of medical work and the
strong ethical commitment of the medical profession, whereby the needs or demands of the
patient take precedence over the needs of the doctor, and his or her family. For some of those
doctors who reported work as being a source of conflict with their partner, the 'patient comes
first' ethic was frequently mentioned as a reason for conflict between work and time for self or
partner. This is less likely to occur in other professions, whereas, a sick patient, who is
essentially a human being in need of assistance, is the source of conflict. Work demands
during 'home' or family time was a major source of conflict for dual-career doctors, mentioned
55
more frequently by males than by females. In this sense 'spillover' of work role or being “oncall” was perceived as a source of stress which may be compounded where both partners have
heavy work role demands, as in the medical profession (Swanson & Power,1999).
Employee Engagement
Table 5 furnishes results of ANOVA between stress levels for different levels of
employee engagement among medical doctors. The total role stress mean scores of medical
doctors in the public sector for the levels of employee engagement of Low, Medium and High
are 121.48, 102.91 and 91.54, respectively, with F=38.256 at p<.01, and the result is
statistically significant. It is interesting to note that all the role stress dimensions have
demonstrated a similar relationship with the level of Engagement as follows: Role stress is
highest when Employee Engagement is low; role stress is lowest when Employee Engagement
is high, and role stress is at a medium level when Employee Engagement is moderate. All these
findings are significant at the level of p<.01.
Table 5: Level Of Job Engagement And Role Stress Of Medical Doctors
Role Stressors
IRD
RS
REC
RE
RO
RI
PI
SRD
RA
Level Of Job Engagement
Mean
S.D
F
SIG
Low
11.44
3.042
7.492
.001
Medium
10.76
3.321
High
9.68
3.312
Low
13.15
2.537
8.908
.000
Medium
10.74
3.752
High
10.03
3.923
Low
13.37
3.628
56.680
.000
Medium
10.86
3.067
High
8.44
2.819
Low
11.74
2.850
6.965
.001
Medium
9.94
3.256
High
9.37
3.362
Low
10.74
.984
14.655
.000
Medium
9.12
2.500
High
8.45
2.215
Low
12.07
2.659
11.763
.000
Medium
10.48
2.160
High
9.85
2.557
Low
14.70
2.771
22.733
.000
Medium
12.39
3.957
High
10.64
3.513
Low
12.67
2.304
26.141
.000
Medium
10.16
2.640
High
9.12
2.661
Low
11.22
3.490
35.885
.000
Medium
8.86
3.107
56
RIN
TRS
High
7.08
2.795
Low
10.37
3.027
Medium
9.62
2.937
High
8.90
3.034
Low
121.48
11.524
Medium
102.91
17.686
High
91.54
21.329
4.852
.008
38.256
.000
The Correlation results shown in Table 6 clearly indicate that there is an inverse
relationship between Job Engagement and Role stress. In other words, the degree of role stress
decreases with an increase in the perspective of Employee Engagement in all role dimensions.
Table 6: Correlation Of Job Engagement And Role Stress
IRD
-.235**
RS
-.242**
REC
-.390**
RE
-.176**
RO
-.199**
RI
-.224**
PI
-.301**
SRD
-.285**
RA
-.341**
RIN
-.132**
TRS
-.378**
**p<.01, *p< .05
Hence, based on the above results the hypothesis that “Employee Engagement helps in
reducing Organizational Role Stress among Medical Doctors stands confirmed”. By being
engaged, one is fully immersed in the activity of the role and this leads to a reduction in the
stress levels experienced. Role stress and stressors, in turn, result in burn out that ultimately
affects the employee’s level of engagement (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004). Coetzee & de Villiers
(2010) found that job stressors such as role ambiguity and lack of job autonomy relate
significantly negatively to all the work engagement variables – vigor, dedication and
absorption. This study further reveals that the higher the level of job stressors, the lower the
level of job engagement. Earlier studies have shown that there is significant and negative
relationship between employee engagement and job stress (Iqbal et al. 2012). Many
researchers studied the effect of job stress on the above mentioned related constructs (Jamal,
1984; Rose, 2003; Coetzee & de Villiers, 2010). Employee engagement is highly affected by
job resources (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004). Job resources provide employees with
psychological autonomy and more concentration. Inadequacies of these resources cause stress
which affects the employee’s work in terms of satisfaction and involvement (Baumeister &
Leary, 1995). Coetzee & Rothmann (2007) found that job demands that failed to be fulfilled
by the employee cause stress and these job demands like work load are negatively related to
work engagement. While there is substantial literature on the importance of Employee
Engagement in building behavior in an organization, there is no reported evidence of the effect
57
of Employee Engagement on Organizational Role Stress in medical doctors in literature and
hence this relationship needs to be further investigated.
Work Climate
The mean scores of each role variable for the three levels of Length of Service (Below
10 years, 11-24 years, and 25 years and above) are tabulated with level of significance using
ANOVA and are shown in Table 7. The Total Role Stress mean scores were found to be
105.12, 97.39 and 94.05, respectively, with F= 7.809 at p<.01.
Table 7: Level Of Work Climate And Role Stress Of Medical Doctors
Role Stressors
Level Of Work Climate
Mean
S.D
F
Sig
IRD
POOR
10.48
3.123
.756
.026
GOOD
10.24
3.371
EXCELLENT
9.96
3.412
POOR
10.45
3.865
1.363
.257
GOOD
10.82
3.657
EXCELLENT
10.16
4.025
POOR
10.92
3.583
13.995
.000
GOOD
9.89
3.366
EXCELLENT
8.77
2.911
POOR
10.51
3.251
3.437
.033
GOOD
9.32
3.352
EXCELLENT
9.73
3.327
POOR
9.64
2.152
6.009
.003
GOOD
8.57
2.414
EXCELLENT
8.71
2.273
POOR
11.16
2.641
7.575
.001
GOOD
10.14
2.283
EXCELLENT
9.88
2.528
POOR
12.22
3.939
2.899
.006
GOOD
11.65
3.775
EXCELLENT
11.06
3.741
POOR
10.48
3.007
4.062
.018
GOOD
9.62
2.780
EXCELLENT
9.44
2.638
POOR
9.26
3.544
10.855
.000
GOOD
8.03
3.127
EXCELLENT
7.34
2.892
POOR
10.05
3.086
3.560
.029
GOOD
9.16
2.955
EXCELLENT
8.99
3.026
RS
REC
RE
RO
RI
PI
SRD
RA
RIN
58
TRS
POOR
105.12
21.152
GOOD
97.39
20.349
EXCELLENT
94.05
21.352
7.809
.000
Except for Role Stagnation, the remaining role stress variables have demonstrated a
similar relationship with the level of Work Climate as follows: Role stress is highest when
Work Climate is Low; role stress is lowest when Work Climate is high, and role stress is at a
medium level when Work Climate is moderate. The correlation results shown in Table 8
reveal an inverse relationship between Work and Organizational Role stress, except for Role
Stagnation, and the results are found statistically significant.
Table 8: Correlation Of Work Climate And Role Stress
IRD
-.104**
RS
-.086
REC
-.291**
RE
-.110*
RO
-.135**
RI
-.233**
PI
-.141**
SRD
-.174**
RA
-.270**
RIN
-.140**
TRS
-.244**
The findings are in line with the hypothesis that “higher levels of Work Climate lead to
lower levels of Organizational Role Stress in Medical Doctors” stands confirmed except for
RS.
This study concurs with that of Wu et al. (2008), who found that the main significant
predictor of exhaustion in doctors besides role overload was physical environment. It is a well
known fact that our network support within the organization as well as outside can provide
valuable support (House, 1981). Support received from one’s peers, colleagues and friends has
been recognized as an effective mechanism for dealing with the negative impact of stress
(Eccles and Crane, 1988; Semmer, 2003; Spielberger et. al., 2003; Wong, 2004 and Haslam
and Reicher, 2006; Kellogg et al., 2006). These findings are consistent with the findings of
earlier studies.
Inadequate support from senior staff was an important source of stress in a study done
in junior doctors. (Dudley 1990). Firth-Cozens &Morrison (1989) also found that the second
largest source of stress, after role overload, was poor support of senior doctors. Role
Stagnation is not impacted by Work Climate as role stagnation is a feeling of being stuck in the
same role due to lack of opportunities, and this could be resolved by taking recourse to human
resource audit and intervention by exercising role transition. Allowing the role occupant to
socialize for the new role, and providing necessary training and support to take on a new role
could be effective
59
Findings and Discussion
H1:
Female Medical Doctors experience a significantly higher level of
Organizational Role Stress compared to Male Medical Doctors stands confirmed.
While it is noticed that male doctors have more control over their decision making and
emotions, it is also a known fact that they are able to accept situations, and handle tough
situations more effectively than female doctors. Female medical doctors on the other hand
utilize emotional and social networks or at times lose concentration and have less control on
the situation (Abrol, 1990; Olsson, Kandolin, & Kauppinen, 1990; & Thoits, 1995). The
outcome of this study therefore implies that in delegating medical duties, male doctors could
be offered challenging positions requiring demanding decision making exercises.
H2: Doctors married to Doctors experienced higher Organizational Role Stress than
Doctors married to Non-doctors stands confirmed.
Role Stress was significantly higher in doctors who were married to doctors than in
those married to non-doctors. This study is in conformity with earlier studies which showed
that being married to a doctor increases occupational role stress (Sekaran, 1983; Greenhaus &
Parasuraman, 1986; Rout, 1996; Swanson & Power, 1999).
From this finding, one can infer that being married to a doctor is associated with
aggravated stress levels, rather than being married to a non-doctor. This can be attributed to the
fact that a non-doctor can be more supportive, than a doctor spouse who will have a tendency
to be judgmental.
The non-doctor spouse would be more sympathetic to the doctor’s stress, as against a
doctor spouse who may himself/herself be in a stressful work environment, hence worsening
the stressful situation.
H3: Employee Engagement helps in reducing Organizational Role Stress in medical
doctors stands confirmed.
While this is one of the “hottest topics in management”, getting employees engaged is
one of the greatest challenges faced by many organizations (Welbourne, 2007, Frank et al.,
2004). Currently it has been considered as the main contributor in gaining a competitive edge
(Saks & Gruman 2010). Fully engaged employees enjoy and love their work and maintain
good levels of energy and connection with their work (Schaufeli & Salanova, 2007). The
challenge today is to pick up candidates with passion during interviews and support medical
doctors with time and effort to establish their role in the profession. This can be achieved
through informal as well as formal interventions. Individuals should be supported in investing
their full energy in the work activity (Saks & Gruman, 2011).
H4: A higher level of work climate leads to lower levels of role stress is partially
confirmed except for role stagnation.
Based on the above study it is important to help medical doctors to prevent stress with
the aid of work climate initiatives. Earlier research has confirmed that Initiatives aimed at
reducing and preventing stress that have focused on improvements to the work and
organizational environments seem to have met with some success (Clarke, 2000; Cox & Cox
,1991 1996; Cox & Flin ,1998).
Implication of the Study
Based on the above results and findings, there are a number of recommendations that
could help in the reduction of Organizational Role Stress among medical doctors.
Demographic variables have revealed that female doctors as well as doctors married to doctors
60
experience higher organizational role stress. It follows that positions incurring greater
workload and consequent role stress should be allocated to mixed group doctors, having male
and married individuals as a part of the senior team.
Secondly having noticed the recent entry of women doctors in large numbers, the
medical human resource body could re-establish links with work-life balance especially for the
women doctors who have a higher responsibility of child bearing and children development.
There is currently a practice of offering maternity benefits and child care leave to the medical
doctors in Goa, yet a future strategy needs to be formulated for effective support in the coping
mechanisms to reduce organizational role stress. Special emphasis could be offered to timings
of work; support teams in case of emergency, so that “On – Call” duties could be assisted with
group intervention rather than depend on just a few individuals.
The public healthcare sector should be open to offering the best environmental support
to doctors, especially in the form of the essential instruments and job equipment, easy
availability of drugs and medications, good service conditions and superior support. This will
in turn increase the receptivity of the employed doctors and lead to higher retention and
productive output. Initiatives aimed at reducing and preventing stress that have focused on
improvements to the work and organizational environments seem to have met with some
success, but a new strategy would require organizations to take a highly participative approach
with high quality appraisal, personal development, and other modern human resource
management techniques. The medical organization can take appropriate steps in nurturing their
medical students with tools and techniques to combat organizational role stress. This could be
achieved through systematic training imbedded in the curriculum of medical study, further
supported with counseling and mentoring possibilities that can support competency mapping of
younger doctors-to-be to meet present day requirements. Such programs will not only mold
their attitude but also assist them in choosing their field of specialization, and path of career
progression.
For doctors, there is need to develop a systematic approach to primary prevention of
stress involving better teamwork and leadership training, career counseling and education
about errors, backed up by a secondary service strategy providing coaching, counseling and
psychotherapy. Employers should encourage and integrate coping strategies in the lives of the
doctors by offering training packages, refresher courses or seminars that encourage them to
explore the various options available to deal with stress. As stress has become endemic in
medical practice it should be tackled as a mainstream element of management and an essential
part of patient safety. In the organizational coping strategies, improvement in variables such as
Employee Engagement and Work Climate emerged as contributory factors in lowering the
level of organizational role stress among medical doctors. The energy required for building
Employee Engagement is strongly driven by the altruistic perspective of the medical doctors.
Building and sustaining of cultures depends on the availability of visible role models,
communication of ethical expectations and also providing more emphasis on training in
medical ethics.
Direction for Future Research
The current study was conducted among public sector medical doctors in Goa, and it
resulted in various findings which have been interesting, as well as relevant. However,
utilizing a wider sample base as well as cross-functional areas would help in refining research
findings. Secondly this study revealed results using different factors individually. A complex
multivariate methodology would offer distinctive findings especially on the impact of the
various variables studied so far. This in turn would help in resolving issues related to multi-
61
collinearity. The new variables studied such as Employee Engagement and Work Climate
could be further tested for scale refinement as well as their impact on other industries and
cross-function with industry. Amidst the limitations, the outcomes of this study have been
interesting as well as encouraging. The results could certainly help practitioners to design
appropriate measures to help reduce the impact of organizational role stress in the field of
medicine. This could be supplemented with the developing of coping strategies. The outcomes
of this study have been encouraging as far as the objective of stress reduction is concerned and
practitioners, policy makers and employers need to work further on developing practical
programs for implementing the findings of this study.
Author Information
Christo F.V. Fernandes is currently the Associate Professor for Organizational
Behavior and Human Resources at the Goa Institute of Management. He has served as the
Area Chairperson for OB and HR since 2010 at GIM. His research interest includes
Leadership, Human Resource Management, Talent Management, and Organizational Role
Stress. Email: [email protected].
Pia Muriel Cardoso has over two decades of experience in Obstetrics and Gynecology
and is currently the Associate Professor at the Goa Medical College of Goa. Her research
interest includes Communication, Leadership, Stress Management, and Foetal-Maternal
Medicine. Email: [email protected].
62
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69
The Effect of Training Methods and
Trunk Flexibilities Towardsmash of
Skillin Sepaktakraw Game
Achmad Sofyan Hanif
[email protected]
Asry Syam
[email protected]
Abstract
The aim of this research is to find out the effect of training methods and flexibilities towards
smash of skill in sepaktakraw game.The training method consists of two methods namely
distributed and massed training methods. This research also aimed to find out the interaction
between training methods andtrunk flexibility of smash skills. Trunk flexibilityconsists of both
high and low trunk flexibilities.The sample of this research is 28players were taken from
population of 87 students using purporsive sampling methods. Sample then divided into four
groups that consists of 7 studentseach.The analyzing techniques of data implementing two-way
analyses of variance (ANOVA) and further continued byTukey Test at α = 0.05 level of
significance.The resultsof the research shows that (1) there is interaction in the treatment
between training methods towards trunk flexibility and smash skill of the athlete-groups, (2)
the athletes in experimental group of distributed methods have higher results than those with in
massed methods, (3) the athletes who have high trunk flexibility and get treatment with in
distributed methods have higher results than those of high trunk flexibility but get in massed
method, (4) the athletes who have low trunk flexibility, there is no difference between massed
methods and distributed methods for smash skill.
Key words: Effect of training, trunk flexibility, smash skill
70
Sepaktakraw is a traditional game that is owned by southeast Asian countries. In Laos
known as "kator", in the Philippines with a "sipa", Thailand with "takraw", and in Singapore
known as "bola sepak raga". (Ucup, Yusuf, dkk, 2004: 7). In Indonesia sepakraga made a game
that was shown when there are events in the country such as South Sulawesi, sepakraga a child
game king. The meaning of the game in Bugis called "marraga" or "mdaga", in the native
language is called "akraga" while in Sumatra called "Bermain Rago" and the archipelago called
"Sepak Raga" (Achmad Sofyan Hanif, 2011: 12).
To organize and accommodate a variety of terms are known in various countries then
on the date 27 March 1965 the term "takraw" officially standardized in Malaysia. Literally the
word "takraw" comes from the Thai language, which means that the ball is made of rattan.
Then added in front of the word "sepak" from the Malay language means kick, play, the ball
with the foot from toe to thigh kepangkal. (Ahmad, Mohammad Wafi, 1991: 78).
In Indonesia, PERSERASI (Persatuan Sepak Raga Indonesia) sepaktakraw organization
founded in 1971. And in 1981 PB. PERSERASI through a change congress turned into
PERSETASI (sepaktakraw Association of Indonesia). Then PERSETASI well as a member of
the International Federation sepaktakraw (ISTAF) and the Asian sepaktakraw Federtion
(ASTAF). And the National Congress of August 22, 2005, NT. PERSETASI changed again
into PP. PSTI held in Kuningan, Jakarta (Suleman, 2008: 4-5).
The game was dominated by the legs were played on a badminton court and a wide
field dipertandingan between the two teams face each other with the number of players each
three (3) persons. Sepaktakraw is a sport game played by two teams facing each other and
separated by a net with a height of 1.55 meters. Played ball made of rattan or synthetic fiber
with a circle between 42-44 cm. The game that started with the service, which is done Tekong
to the opposite field. Opposing players play the ball using the entire body in addition to the
hand, every team must play at most three times the ball with touch. The number of players of
each team consists of three players, (Tekong, flanked left and right wedge) with a reserve
player.
In 2011, the Rules of the sport has changed, these changes Tekong states that athletes
can only serve 3 times and continued to serve alternately by the other party as much as 3 times.
Unlike the previous regulations, athletes Tekong served continuously for servicing team
managed to turn off the ball to the opponent. This means that, the opportunity to serve three
times by the opponent should be used to carry out an attack with a spike to the opponent.
Therefore, the most important technique factors to be addressed in this game was a smash
technique. With smash the effective and efficient will reduce the chance of a service team to
obtain numbers in this game.
Increased ability smash technique, not in spite of the training methods applied by the
coaches. Exercise quality factor has a very strategic position, because of any potential, talent
and motivation of a person not accompanied by adequate training it will be difficult to achieve
optimal performance. To improve smash technique, it takes an approach oriented methods of
science and technology in practice. Seeing so many factors that determine the skill smash, this
research should be limited to the method of distribution and solid training and flexibility togok
to smash skills.
Based on the problems in the description of the background issues related to the
research problem can be formulated as follows: 1) Are there any differences in the skill smash
sepak takraw game between trained athletes training methods of distribution and overall solid
training methods ?, 2) Is there a differences in skill smash on sepaktakraw game between
training methods of distribution and solid training methods for athletes who have high
71
flexibility togok ?, 3) Is there a difference in skill smash on sepaktakraw game between
training methods of distribution and solid training methods for athletes who have low
flexibility ?, togok 4) Is there an interaction effect between training methods to smash skill in
sepak takraw game ?.
Skills Smash
Ratinus and prince Bases (1992: 69) states smash or rejam (term Malaysia) is a very
important motion and the last movement of the labor movement attacks. Failure download
smash the ball into the opponent's field will provide an opportunity to strike back or dead ball
in his own field or leave the field of play, otherwise the success of smash create points or
points for the team attacker or the opportunity to move the ball back when the opposite party to
carry out the first kick or servicing. Sofyan Hanief (2011: 72) argues that the spike is an attack
that can be done with various and header, which aims to turn the ball in the opponent and then
give players the opportunity to serve fellow servers.
Rick Engel (2010: 66) states that to smash exercises can be done by 1) Turn the body in
the direction opposite to the kicking leg to get a good repulsion, 2) Lift the leg that is not used
to kick up (knees bent), 3) Still in vertical body position, jump to the other leg as well spun
around 180 degrees in the opposite direction to the foot that does not kick up in the air and also
rotate, 4) Slowly feet are not used to kick up, with legs that kick mendaratlah facing berlawana
direction, 5) Repeat again in order to leap higher when memutur body and landed, 6) Hanging
a high ball about two feet from the floor in position 1 or 2 hours in connection with the
diigunakan leg to kick, then kick the ball using the feet while turning so that landed in the
opposite direction.
Wafi Ahmad Mohammad (1991: 56) adds that the main problem in rejaman are: 1) The
ball must be in the bait well by a friend who desired, 2) Players are willing to carry out the
attack, 3) Pedestal is the player's eyes to the ball before the attack, 4) Using the attacks of
interest, 5) ensure that in the smash ball passes through the net or net and fell to the opponent,
6) Players make sure to be able to land perfectly.
Thus the question is a smash skill proficiency motion process a player to do a
somersault, which consists of a prefix, kicking the ball in the air by using parts of the legs to
throw the ball to the opposite field accurately, along with the movement of landing position.
Distribution Exercise Method
Oxendine (1984: 262) argues that solid training method is a method of exercise that has
little time off between the beginning to the end of the period of activity, while the method of
distribution exercise is the exercise period of his working time is divided by a break, or by
different activities.
Robert Kerr (1982: 52) states that the method of distribution exercise is an exercise in
which the resting interval is equal to or greater than the length of the exercise. McMorris and
Hale (2006: 96) argues that the distribution exercise is when work is interspersed with rest
periods or breaks. Singer (1972: 192) says that the method of distribution exercise is a form of
exercise refers to exercise that is divided into intervals of rest. Schmidt (1975: 74) adds that in
actual motion tasks and intervals that are used can be done in a progressive and linear.
Edwards (2011: 422) that can be defined as the distribution exercise training session in which
the amount of rest time equal to or greater than the amount of time in the job.
Athletes sepaktakraw smash in the game by using the method of distribution, which
begins with a spike a bounce or bait made by coaches and other athletes. In its implementation
72
requires a longer time, because interspersed with resting time during activities. Rest in question
is one method of exercise that emphasizes the athletes to concentrate and understand the right
moves in the spike. In addition, during the break between tasks smash, athletes always to
always correcting of any mistakes made during the break, and fix it back on when given the
opportunity to do a smash by coach. Or in other words that the players will be given the smash
punch movement during the movement. But after a stroke movement smash given time off or
interrupted by other players. Giving a break or do other player movement would result in a
decrease in the skills learned. Therefore, in granting time off should be considered as possible,
because the provision of rest time is too long, then the skills will quickly disappear.
Time is very important rest time between exercises. Break time to give athletes the
opportunity to hold a motion recovery between repetitions. Judging from the implementation
of the smash exercise training methods of distribution can be identified advantages include: 1)
to minimize errors smash punch technique, because every mistake can be corrected
immediately, 2) the physical condition of the student will be protected from excessive fatigue
(overtraining), 3) athletes Conditions will be ready to do the next exercise session well, 4)
Besides this smash training methods have the same tempo or rhythm in the play sepaktakraw.
Solid Exercise Method
Magil (1980: 11) argues is a form of exercise where the amount or duration of a given
time off in between exercises are very short or not at all, in other words, these exercises are
relatively carried out continuously. Singer (1972: 192) argues that the solid exercise is an
exercise method that refers to the exercise in which the implementation is done without a break
or a short break. McMorris and Hale (2006: 98) says that the solid training method is a method
of training where there is little or no rest between exercises. Sage (1984: 290) suggests that
exercise takes time continuously with time or less short period of rest between exercises called
solid workout.
Schmidt (1975: 192) says that the striking difference between the exercise method of
distribution (distributed practices) and solid training methods (massed practice model)
operationally explained that: The main characteristic of solid training method is the execution
time of motion tasks longer than the break between tasks motion is concerned, so that the
relative exercise continuously without a break, otherwise the method execution time
distribution exercise breaks between tasks motion longer or equal to previous motion task
execution time.
This exercise is an exercise method that is performed continuously without adequate
rest periods interspersed in a series of activities. The main characteristic of this method is the
absence of a break during the on-going exercise. Exercise is done in a sustainable manner and
cause the heart rate increases to an extent that it has been estimated and survive at that level
during exercise. The basic principles of solid training method is to do exercise or repetition of
movements continuously without a break. Solid training methods indicates that the
implementation of the exercise smash in the game is the player spike continuously until the
time limit or number of repetitions is scheduled to be completed without being given a chance
to rest.
Flexibility Togok
Oxendine (1984: 262) argues experts flexibility (flexibility) is a component of physical
fitness are very important mastered by every player sepaktakraw. With the fast-paced motion
characteristics, strong, flexible However the still powerful, body flexibility training should
receive attention. Sajoto (1995: 58) suggests that flexibility is one's effectiveness in coping
73
unluk do segata activity of the body with stretching wide-suasnya especially the muscles,
ligaments around the joint-ligament. Josep Nosek (1982: 82) argues that a person who lacks
the flexibility normally movements stiff, rough and slow.
Games in the sport sepaktakraw has characteristics of the game with fast-paced
movement, strong, flexible However the still powerful, body flexibility training should receive
attention. Very major flexibility in supporting the appearance of motor coordination more
effective and efficient. This can be seen in the spike a somersault in the game sepaktakraw.
Especially when the position of the body in the air to perform difficult movements in placing
the ball into the opponent's point blank or avoid a player blocks the opponent. Spinal flexibility
is needed to accelerate the ball penemopatan spike.
Spine (vertebrae colomna) is included members of the upper body (extermitas
superior). When examined vertebrae arranged from top to bottom and between each vertebra is
connected by cartilage called discs between the sections, so that the vertebrae can upright and
bent. Besides, on the front and the rear there is a collection of fibers that strengthens the
position of the spine. In the middle of the inner segments of the spine there is also a channel
called the spinal cord canal (spinal canal) which includes the spinal cord. James Tangkudung
(2006: 35) revealed that part of the vertebral column consists of: (1) cervical vertebra 7
segment; (2) thoracic vertebrae 12 segments; (3) the lumbar segment 5; and (4) sarkalis
(sacrum) 5 segments; (5) Koksigialis spine (coccyx) 4 segments.
Flexibility, not in spite of the term flexion, (shrink movement angle), extension or
increase movement angle, hiperektension (movement extending above normal angle), double
jointedness (folding joints), and muscleboundness (develop muscle).
In the measurement of flexibility, there are two concepts that must be known in order to
improve and produce (achievement) which is as follows: (1) Relative Flexibility Test, which is
designed to determine the extent or length of a particular body part. Within this test that
measured not only the movement, but also the length or breadth of a part of the body, (2)
Flexibility Test Absolute, just measure the movement associated with an absolute result. With
good flexibility togok, sepaktakraw players will be able to do it elastic and flexible movement
during stroke movement smash. Thus to get the smash blow hard, sharp and focused, then
togok flexibility plays an important role to perform the movement.
Thus togok flexibility is very important for athletes to be able to smash the movement
of effective and efficient. In this case the flexibility is a person's ability to move the joints,
muscles, tendons on togok are flexible, elastic, optimized and smoothly in all directions
corresponding portion of the desired movement without stiffness in movement.
Methods
This study uses a simple experiment with a factorial design 2 X 2. The target
population is all athletes sepaktakraw in Gorontalo Province. And affordable population is all
athletes son sepaktakraw club in Gorontalo province, amounting to 87 athletes from 18 clubs.
The sampling technique was done by purposive sampling, in order to obtain a sample of 52
athletes.
Data was collected through a process assessment data movement patterns engineering
skill smash smash and then add up the results into the value of skill smash in the game
sepaktakraw. The collection of data obtained through the data attribute variable sit and reach
test, and then aggregated into the value of flexibility togok.
Data were analyzed using the technique of analysis of variance (ANOVA) and two-way
with a significance level a = 0.05 (Sudjana, 1994: 197-198). Requirements are needed in the
74
analysis of variance is normality test using the test Liliefors (Sudjana, 2005: 466-467), and the
homogeneity test using the Bartlett test (Sudjana, 1994: 461-465), and followed by Tukey's test
if there is interaction.
Results And Discussion
The analysis showed that F count between columns (FA) = 128.68 is greater than the
Ftable is 7:39 (Fo = 128.68> Ft = 7.39) so that Ho is rejected and H1 is accepted. It can be
concluded that overall there is a very significant difference between the results of smash skill
training methods of distribution with solid training methods to result smash skills.
Sumber Variansi
JK
db
RK
Fh
Ft (0.05)
Ft (0.01
JK (b)
3,290.48
1
3,290.48
128.68**
4.11
7.39
JK (k)
682.32
1
682.32
26.68**
4.11
7.39
JK (bk)
1,496.98
1
1,496.98
58.54**
4.11
7.39
JKD
613.71
24
25.57
Total ( R )
3,649,552.50
27
While the interaction between training methods with flexibility togok based on
summarize the results of the above analysis of variance calculation, obtained the price of F
intraksi (FAB) = 58.54 and F table = 7.39, it can thus be said that F count> F table so that the
null hypothesis is rejected. Then it can be stated that there is a significant interaction effect
between methods of training and flexibility togok to smash skill outcomes.
No
Kelompok Yang Dibandingkan
Q hitung
Q tabel 0.05
Keterangan
1
P1 dengan P2
12.83
3.79
Signifikan
2
P4 dengan P3
2.49
3.79
Tidak Signifikan
P1 to P2 indicate that the Q value count = 12.83 is greater than the Q table = 3.79 or Q
count> Q table at significant level 0.05, then the null hypothesis is rejected and thus the
alternative hypothesis is accepted, it means that the results for the group smash skills flexibility
high togok who trained with the training methods of distribution (x = 123.09 and s = 5,068) is
better than the trained with solid training methods (x = 98.59 and s = 3,442). This suggests that
the third hypothesis suggests that for a group of high togok flexibility with better distribution
of training methods compared with solid training methods to result smash skills proven and
tested.
While P3 to P4 indicate that the Q value count = 2.49 is smaller than the Q table = 3.79
or Qhitung <Q table at significant level 0.05, then thus the null hypothesis is rejected and the
alternative hypothesis is accepted. Group average solid training methods with low togok
flexibility of = 91.53 and s = 4274 is greater than the average of the distribution of training
methods with low togok flexibility of = 86.78 and s = 6.830. Thus the research hypothesis
states for low togok flexibility, solid training method is thought to have a better effect on the
skill smash in the game sepaktakraw than training methods of distribution "is not tested.
Conclusion
The conclusion of this study are as follows: (1) Overall, the results of skill smash
through the application of the method of distribution exercise give better results than solid
training methods. (2) There is an interaction between training methods with flexibility togok to
75
smash skills. (3) For those athletes who have togok high flexibility, the result of skill smash
through the application of the method of distribution exercise give better results than solid
training methods. (4). For athletes who have low togok flexibility, the results of the application
of skills smash through solid training methods give the same results as effective as training
methods of distribution. So expect to coaches, teachers, and athletes can apply the results of
this research field to enrich the material in an exercise program. But must consider the
characteristics and physical abilities in practice. For athletes who have a high leg flexibility
given training methods of distribution and athletes who have low flexibility can be given solid
training methods and distribution in improving smash skill in this game. It is expected to
teachers, lecturers pengampuh courses especially coaches, need to consider factors togok
athlete's flexibility when providing this training method.
76
Bibliography
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Depdikbud, P2TK. 1993.
Edwards, William H. Motor Learning and Control . USA: Wadsworth 20 Davis Drive
Belmont, CA 94002-3098, 2011
James Tangkudung, Ilmu Faal Fisiologi. Jakarta: Penerbit Cerdas Jaya. 2006
Kerr, Robert. Psycomotor Learning. United State Of America: CBS College
Publishing. 1982.
Magill, Richard, A. Concept and Application. Dubuque, Lowa: Wm.C. Brown
Company Publisher. 1980.
Nosek, Josep. General Theory of Training. Lagos: National Institute of sport.1982.
Oxendine. Psycology Of Motor Learning. New Jersey: Prentise-Hall, Inc.1984.
Pate, Russel R, Bruce Mc Clenaghan, dan Rotella, Robert Terjemahan Kasiyo
Dwijowinoto. Dasar-dasar Ilmiah Kepelatihan. Semarang: IKIP semarang. 1993.
PB Persetasi. Peraturan Perwasitan, Permainan dan Pertandingan Sepak Takraw.
Jakarta: PB. Persatuan Sepak Takraw Seluruh Indonesia. 1996.
PB. PSTI., Majalah Takraw Mania Edisi 01 Oktober – November. Jakarta: PB. PSTI.
2005.
Sajoto, Peningkatan & Pembinaan Kekuatan Kondisi Fisik Dalam Olahraga,
Semarang: Dahara Prize, 1995.
Schmidt, Richard A. Motor Skill. New York : Harper and Row Publisher. 1975.
Singer, Robert N. Motor Learning And Human Performance An Application To
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Publishing Company Inc. 1980.
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Jaya. 2011.
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Universitas Negeri Semarang Press. 2008.
77
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78
Impact of Location and Noise on
Residential Rental Values in Akure,
Nigeria
Ajayi, M,
Department of Estate Management
Ganiyu, S. Abiodun
Department Of Architecture,
Olukolajo, M. Ayodele
Department of Estate Management,
Federal University of Technology,
P.M.B.704, Akure, Nigeria
Abstract
This study examines the effect of location and noise on the rental values of residential
properties in various density areas of Akure. Stratified random sampling technique was
employed to reach 115 occupiers of residential properties. Rental values for five years were got
from Estate Surveyors and Valuers. Analysis of Variance (complete randomized design one
way ANOVA) was used for data analysis and shows that noise has no significant effect on
residential rental values in the selected areas while location does. Transportation noise was
highest. Provision of by-pass roads, acoustic design by Architects and compliance with Town
Planning laws were recommended.
Key words: Akure, location, Nigeria, noise, property, rental values, residential
79
1.0 Introduction
The effect of noise on residential properties can be viewed as a subset of location.
Noise has been shown to have significant health implications for individuals and the wider
community when levels are excessive for extended periods of time. Excessive noise may result
in constrained behaviour patterns (Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development
(OECD), 1991), and is considered to be a factor in reducing concentration that can result in
loss of productivity in the workplace. Noise, where excessive, has also been shown to cause a
reduction in property values (WHO, 2000). Noise generated by road traffic is recognized as the
most significant cause of environmental degradation in urban areas (OECD, 1991).
The decisions of a would-be tenant of a residential property will depend on the ease of
access to other locations which support related uses such as employment, shopping facilities,
schools, recreational open spaces and place of worship. Not all residential estates will depend
on access to each of these services mentioned to the same extent, however, nearness to
employment opportunities may be the most important features of location. This study explores
the location uniqueness of selected neighborhoods in Akure in order to examine the effect of
location on residential rental values. The selected areas are Alagbaka, Ijapo, Aule, Fanibi,
Araromi and Isolo in low, medium and high density areas respectively. The aim of the study is
to examine the impact of location and noise on residential property value with a view to
enhance investment in residential property and livability of the housing environment.
Noise is any unwarranted disturbance within a useful frequency band. It is considered
to be an “unwanted sound” that causes annoyance to a person. Excessive noise over long
periods has been shown to have significant health implications for individuals and
communities. Noise may also be described as ‘a sound that produces an adverse response from
those subjected to it involuntarily’ (Bryant, 1975). Noise can be described in terms of three
variables: amplitude (loud or soft); frequency (pitch); and time pattern (variability). There are a
variety of metrics for quantifying noise levels, the most useful of which for measuring sound
as a health hazard. In general, these metrics are based on physical quantities, which are
corrected to account for the sensitivity of people to noise. These corrections depend on the
noise frequency and characteristics (impulse, intermittent or continuous noise levels), and the
source of noise. The human ear is not equally sensitive to sounds at different frequencies.
Noise is measured in decibels (dB), a logarithmic scale. Common noise levels range from 30 to
90 dB (A). Decibels are an instantaneous measurement, so various indexes are used to measure
noise over a period of time. The Acoustic Wizard website gives the following examples of dB
levels for various sounds: 0 dB the faintest sound we can hear; 30 dB a quiet library or in a
quiet location in the country; 45 dB typical office space or ambience in the city at night; 60 dB
a restaurant at lunch time; 70 dB the sound of a car passing on the street; 80 dB the loud music
played at home; 90 dB the sound of a truck passing on the street; 100 dB the sound of a rock
band; 115 dB limit of sound permitted in industry; and120 dB deafening.
2.0 Effect of Noise on Residential Rental Values
The impact of noise can influence the welfare of residents if it exceeds the ambient
levels, which is 50 decibels. In such cases, noise could affect residents’ conversations, TV
viewings, leisure, work or sleep and in extreme cases, can generate harmful long term health
effects adversely affecting the productivity and quality of life (Nelson, 2007). Some studies
have analyzed noise levels in a different context.
Railroad noise is known to have a
considerable impact on property values. This situation is more or less similar to the airport
problem, but is distantly related to road traffic noise. The side effects related to rail transport
80
are vibration, noise and impact of vibration on structural quality of houses in close vicinity to
rail tracks.
Nelson (2007) using empirical studies conducted on airport and road traffic noise,
revealed the likelihood of rights involved in operating these sources being placed in the
category of common property resources. It is hypothesized that noisy areas are favored by
individuals who have a low willingness to pay for reduced noise levels and it is the opposite
for those with a higher willingness to pay. Airport noise pollution studies have discussed some
interesting results with respect to the depreciation of property values. With this background in
mind Pennington et al (1990) estimated property devaluations with respect to Manchester
airport noise levels, location and environmental factors which have a significant influence on
property values. It was found that there was a low negative relationship between aircraft noise
and property values. However, when neighborhood and location characteristics are taken into
account, the relationship becomes statistically insignificant. Nelson (1982) studied highway
noise by using previous findings from other studies. Noise-related annoyance was mainly
through background noise. This intrusive noise problem was mainly generated by vehicles
travelling on the highway and the properties most affected are those situated in very close
proximity to highways. According to Bajic (1983), while rail transit systems often increase
nearby property values by improving accessibility, they can also depress values due to the
nuisances they bring to their neighborhoods. Using a hedonic price regression model to
measure the capitalization of Toronto subway (heavy rail) stations into residential property
values, it was concluded that the commuting time-cost savings of the rail system was
measurably capitalized into nearby home values. In a similar vein, Nelson (1982) studied how
proximity to Atlanta, Georgia’s elevated heavy rail stations affect single-family house prices.
Here, the line had a negative price effect on high-income neighborhood properties due to the
nuisances associated with the elevated heavy rail system, while they had a positive effect on
low income neighborhood properties due to their accessibility benefits.
In Nigeria there is paucity of research as to the effects of transportation noise on
residential properties. The closer one gets to the city centre, the less likely one will enjoy peace
and quietness (which many people value in terms of residential properties) because of various
forms of traffic externalities. This is relative to the price one will want to pay for it. While
some value peace and quietness, some are only concerned about the ease to get to work which
makes the value placed on residential land uses sometimes relative (Cervero and Duncan,
2001). Nelson (1982) agrees with the sector model theories of urban structure which states that
“people segregate according to income and social class.” The high income earners will not
want to locate near the central business districts because of the congestion and noise, they will
like to locate in a more decent place Whereas, the low income earners do locate in a congested
areas because of their inability to pay for a decent housing. Even if a decent and expensive
house is located in noise polluted areas (land transportation noise) the value will be affected
adversely.
Another major source of noise in Nigeria is noise from neighbourhood churches
although there is paucity of studies on its effect on the values of nearby residential properties.
The few existing studies revealed varied magnitude and direction of impact: ranging from
negative, to insignificant, and to positive impact (Do et al., 1994). In the developed nations,
the paucity of studies could be attributed to effective planning (zoning regulation) that has
curtailed indiscriminate location of religious premises. For example, the US has the Religious
Land Use and Institutionalized Persons Act (RLUIPA), a federal law that profoundly makes
churches to adhere to zoning regulations. Thus, it was observed that the Zoning Boards have so
far successfully pressured religious institutions to limit their physical presence in American
81
cities and towns thereby making residential neighborhoods very reserved areas. Only few
studies have therefore been carried out in the US on the subject including Do et al., (1994) and
Carroll et al., (1996).
In Nigeria where there are larger number of churches which are often indiscriminately
located within residential neighborhood, effect of neighborhood churches on residential
property values has not been seriously investigated. Noise from church bells, loud speakers and
musical instruments, people arriving and departing the premises, traffic and parking problems,
pollution from automobiles, operating hours extending from morning till evening, and people
of different shades and characters trooping into the neighborhood are parts of the negative
externalities generated by neighborhood churches (Do et al., 1994). Iroham and Oloyede
(2010) used the Living Faith Church, Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria to investigate the impact of
religious property on nearby residential property values. The mean of residential property
values before and after the establishment of the church were compared, and suggested that the
church had tremendous impact on the values of surrounding residential properties. This study
exhibited apparent methodology limitations. Given that the factors affecting property values
are many and diverse; the mean difference would not have captured the relative impact of the
religious property on residential property values convincingly. Gabriel and Adewunmi (2011)
studied the effect of churches (Mountain of Fire and Miracle Ministries, Onike; Deeper Life
Bible Church, Gbagada; and Christian Pentecostal Mission on rental values of residential
properties at Ajao Estate Lagos State) and found that religious properties constitute negative
externalities on flats.
2.1 Effect of Location on Residential Rental Values
Location quality has the potential to shape the present and future well being of families
and individuals in a variety of ways. High quality urban locations are a common goal of
planner policy makers and real estate professionals. Though location quality is hard to define;
location which is described as ‘high quality’ typically exhibits high or stable property values,
low rates of migration, high household incomes, racial cohesion and high quality public
services Kain and Quigley (1970). Location of a particular property is its unique character
which it possesses over every other similar property in the neighborhood. Residential
properties do vary in their locational advantages because no two properties are the same in
terms of location, though they may be similar in designs and every other thing. The major
locational advantages enjoyed by residential property owners are accessibility to transport
facilities, nearness to tertiary institution, nearness to commercial properties among others.
Location has always been an important determinant of a property’s value.
In the early times, a mono centric model of land prices is the one that reigned. This
model predicts that land closest to the city center has the highest value. When most cities
developed around a central port or railhead, this model was a good predictor of land values.
Businesses located near the center of town paid less to move goods to and from the central
port. Before modern transportation, most people also preferred to live close to work. Business
and residential users competed for the limited central space, and hence bid up central land
prices.
More recently, however, central city congestion and crime have increased residential
movement to the suburbs and many retailers followed their customers out of the city. Today,
shopping, restaurants and entertainment all can be found in the suburbs. Thus, many people
commute downtown only to work. In addition, many businesses have moved their operations
outside of the city center to take advantage of lower land values. These trends have reduced the
value of central city land and have changed the relationship between land value and its
82
proximity to the city center. It is hypothesized that housing values vary with distance from the
CBD or that proximity to a large shopping facility capitalizes into higher or lower property
values.
3.0 Methodology
The study is based in Akure, the capital of Ondo State, Nigeria. The target population
for the study included occupiers of residential properties in high, medium and low density
areas of Akure and practicing firms of Estate Surveyors and Valuers. Two neighbourhoods
were chosen per density area namely Isolo and Araromi for high density area, Aule and Fanibi
for medium density and Ijapo and Alagbaka Estates for low density area. The number of
residential apartments formed the sample frame. There are 412 residential buildings in Isolo
and Araromi (Nwosu and Olofa, 2012), Aule and Fanibi are 330 (Ondo State Planning Report
2006 and 2008), Ijapo Housing Estate is 187 and Alagbaka is 217 (Ondo State Development
and Property Corporation, 2009). Stratified random sampling technique was adopted in
selecting respondents from the neighbourhoods to reach a sample size of 115 respondents.
Sample size was determined from the sampling frame using an appropriate formula.
Questionnaires were distributed to all Principal Partners of Registered Estate Surveyors and
Valuers firms in the study area.
4.0 Discussion of Results
Out of the 115 questionnaires administered to occupiers of residential properties, 103
were found useful for the analysis. The prevalent sources of noise in the different locations
included churches, transportation and equipment. Responses are presented in Table 1.
Table 1: Sources of Noise in Location
Ijapo
Alagbaka
Aule
Sources
Fanibi
Araromi
Isolo
Church
4(23.5)
4(21.1)
4(26.7)
1(5.6)
3(20.0)
5(26.3)
Transportation
11(64.7)
8(42.1)
5(33.3)
6(33.3)
7(46.7)
9(47.4)
Equipment
2(18.2)
7(36.8)
5(33.3)
11(61.1)
5(33.3)
5(26.3)
Total
17(100)
19(100)
15(100)
18(100)
15(100)
19(100)
Source: Field Survey 2012.
Table 1 shows that five out of the six locations namely Ijapo (64.7%), Alagbaka
(42.1%), Aule (33.3%), Araromi (46.7%) and Isolo (47.4%) had noise from transportation to
be the highest percentages. Fanibi was not affected by transportation noise because it is like a
by-pass linking the major road (Oba Adesida Road) to the suburb (Isikan/Ondo Road). It was
affected majorly by equipment noise through use of power generators and by cottage industries
like welding, furniture-making and so on. Noise from church activities was highest in Aule
(26.7%), being a rapidly expanding medium density neighbourhood.
Data collected from the Estate Surveyors and Valuers in Akure were used in arriving at
the trend in property values. Three bedroom apartments were used to show the trend in the
rental values in the six locations over a five- year period. This is because it is the commonest
type of property that is found in all the locations. Tenements were not found in the high
83
income low density areas (Ijapo and Alagbaka) while duplexes were not found in the low
income high density areas of Isolo and Araromi, hence the use of three bedroom flats.
Table 2 shows the rental values for 3-bedroom flats in the six locations between 2008
and 2012.
Table 2: Trends in Value for 3-Bedroom flat in the neighbourhoods (in Naira)
LOCATION
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
IJAPO
80,000
80,000
120,000
120,000
180,000
ALAGBAKA
70,000
90,000
90,000
150,000
160,000
AULE
60,000
60,000
60,000
80,000
100,000
FANIBI
60,000
70,000
70,000
80,000
100,000
ARAROMI
45,000
60,000
60,000
90,000
90,000
ISOLO
50,000
60,000
70,000
80,000
80,000
Source: Field Survey 2012
Table 2 shows an increase in rental values of 3-bedroom flat in all the locations. A
number of factors were responsible for the steady appreciation in rental values including the
fact that demand always outweighs supply in the property market. It could be seen that location
affects the value of properties as the least values were found in the high density area of Isolo
and Araromi while Alagbaka and Ijapo commanded the highest values ($1= N165 as at date of
data collection).
Since the study is limited in the equipment to measure the noise levels, respondents
were asked to rate the noise level of their neighbourhoods using a 3-point Likert scale of very
noisy, noisy and quiet. Table 3 shows the rating of the six neighborhoods by respondents in
terms of noise.
Table 3: Noise Rating in the Neighborhoods
Response
Ijapo
Alagbaka
Aule
Fanibi
Araromi
Isolo
Very Noisy
1
2
2
3
7
15
Noisy
4
3
3
7
5
4
Quiet
11
14
10
8
3
0
Total
17
19
15
18
15
19
Source: Field Survey, 2012
Table 3 reveals that Isolo followed by Araromi had the highest frequency under “very
noisy”. This is because the place is in the city centre and highly congested. Ijapo, Alagbaka
and Aule are quiet followed by Fanibi, the reason being that Alagbaka and Ijapo that are low
density areas while Aule and Fanibi are medium density areas.
84
Noise level is lower in the low density areas (Ijapo and Alagbaka) than the high density
areas (Araromi and Isolo) while rental values are lower in high density areas than in the low
density areas. This means that noise and rental values are inversely proportional.
Two null hypotheses were set for this study namely:
Ho1: Location has no significant effect on residential rental values
Ho2: Noise has no significant effect on residential rental values.
The decision rule is to reject the null hypothesis if F calculated is > F tabulated with
0.05 (95%) confidence level. Table 4 and 5 below give the result of effects of location and
noise on residential rental values respectively.
Table 4: ANOVA of Effect of Location on Rental Values
Sum of Squares DF
Mean Square
F
Sig.
Between Groups
1132.010
5
226.402
4.416
.002
Within groups
3332.188
65
51.264
Total
4464.197
70
In Table 4, the F calculated was 4.416 and the F tabulated was 2.37, the result shows
that the F calculated was greater than F tabulated with confidence level of 0.002, which means
that the null hypothesis was rejected. This means that location has significant effect on
residential rental values in the selected areas in Akure.
Table 5: ANOVA of Effect of Noise on Rental Values
Sum of Squares
DF
Mean Square
F
Sig.
Between Groups 295.073
4
73.768
1.168
.333
Within Groups
4169.124
66
63.169
Total
4464.197
70
The F calculated was 1.168 and the F tabulated was 2.50 with confidence level of
0.333, the F tabulated was higher than F calculated. This implies that the null hypothesis was
accepted that noise has no significant effect on residential rental values in the selected areas.
This means other factors such as location and facilities or condition of property have more
effect on values than noise.
5.0 Conclusion and Recommendation
This paper identified the sources of noise in the different locations in Akure to include
churches, transportation and equipments, the most prevalent noise being transportation noise.
Having studied the trend in residential properties for a period of five years, in low, medium
and high density areas of Akure using Alagbaka and Ijapo; Aule and Fanibi; and Araromi and
Isolo respectively, the differences in rental values could be attributed to the impact of location
85
whereas noise has an insignificant effect on rental values. This is similar to the finding of
Pennington et al (1990) in which lower market values of properties affected by aircraft noise
from Manchester International Airport were found to be wholly attributable to the
neighbourhood and the effects of noise are insignificant.
Although noise cannot be totally taken away from our environment, it can be reduced
to a bearable level for housing condition to satisfy its goal of a livable environment. The active
participations of Government and professionals in the building industry can help to reduce this
issue through strict adherence to Town Planning laws, acoustic design in residential buildings
among others. Government officials need to enforce the dictates of planning regulations which
stipulates that residential, commercial, industrial, educational and agricultural areas are to be
properly and carefully located to prevent conflicts and promote harmonious inter-relationships.
The noise level in the city centre which happens to be the high density residential
neighborhoods can be reduced through creation of by-pass roads to reduce traffic level in the
city centre.
86
6.0 References
Bajic, V. (1983): ‘The Effects of a New Subway Line on Housing Prices in
Metropolitan
Toronto’, Urban Studies, 23 (2), 105–117.
Bryant, J. (1975): Traffic Noise and the Community, Australian Road Research Board,
Queensland, 48-66.
Caroll, T. M., T. M. Clauretie, and J. Jensen (1996): ‘Living Next to Godliness:
Residential
Property Values and Churches’, Journal of Real Estate Finance and Economics, 12:
319-330.
Cervero, R., and M. Duncan (2001): Transit’s Value-added: Effects of Light and
Commuter Rail
Services on Commercial Land Values, Transportation Research Board, 81st Annual
Meeting presentation.
Do A. Q., R.W. Wilbur, and J. L.Short (1994): ‘An Empirical Examination of the
Externalities of Neighborhood Churches on Housing Values’, Journal of Real Estate
Finance and Economics, 9: 127-136.
Gabriel, K.B. and Y. Adewumi (2011): ‘The Impact of Neighbourhood Churches on
House
Prices’, Journal of Sustainable Development, 4 (1), 246-248.
Iroham, C.O., and S. A. Oloyode (2010): ‘Location of Worship Centres and Its Effect
on Residential Property Values (a case of Living Faith Church, Ota)’, A Paper
Delivered at the First National Conference, Department of Urban and Regional
Planning, University of Lagos, Emerging Global City: The African Challenge.
Kain, J. F., and J.M. Quigley (1970): ‘Measuring the Value of House Quality’ Journal
of the American Statistical Association 65(330): 532-548.
Nelson, J.P. (2007): Hedonic Property Value Studies of Transportation Noise: Aircraft
and Road
Traffic. Department of Economics, Pennyslvania State University.
Nelson, J.P. (1982): ‘Highway Noise and Property Value’, Journal of Transport
Economics &
Policy, 117-138.
87
Nwosu, A. E., and S. A. Olofa (2012): ‘An Appraisal of the Provision of Urban
Infrastructural
Facilities as a Means of Realising Latent Residential Property Values in Akure,
Nigeria’, In: Laryea, S., Agyepong, S., Leiringer, R. and Hughes, W. (Eds) Procs 4th
West Africa Built Environment Research (WABER) Conference. Nigeria, 969-977.
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (1991): Fighting Noise in
the 1990s,
OECD Publications Service, Paris.
Pennington, G., N. Topham, and R. Ward (1990): ‘Aircraft noise and residential
property values
adjacent to Manchester International Airport’ Journal of Transportation Economics
and Policy 24(1), 49-51.
World Health Organization (2000), Guidelines for Community Noise, available at
www.internet/environmental information/noise/comnoise excec.htm
88

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