Narrative Review Tuberous Sclerosis Complex–Associated

Narrative Review
Tuberous Sclerosis Complex–Associated Angiomyolipomas:
Focus on mTOR Inhibition
Klemens Budde, MD, and Jens Gaedeke, MD
Tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC) is an autosomal dominant disorder promoting the development of benign
tumors in multiple organ systems, including the skin, brain, and kidneys. In contrast to asymptomatic
spontaneous angiomyolipomas, angiomyolipomas in patients with TSC are mostly bilateral and are accompanied by other typical clinical features of TSC. Kidney angiomyolipomas are benign tumors composed of blood
vessels, adipose tissue, and smooth muscle and are associated with spontaneous bleeding and potential
life-threatening hemorrhage if ⬎4 cm. Current treatment options for angiomyolipoma are focused on conserving kidney function and limiting potentially fatal hemorrhage. TSC is caused by mutations in either TSC1 or
TSC2 suppressor genes, resulting in increased mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) activity. Preclinical
studies have shown the efficacy of mTOR inhibitors in inhibiting the growth of patient-derived cell lines and
suppressing tumors in animal models of TSC. In the clinical setting, mTOR inhibitors have shown promising
efficacy in patients with TSC-associated angiomyolipomas and subependymal giant cell astrocytomas. This
review explores the diagnosis and current management of TSC-associated angiomyolipomas, the relevance of
the mTOR pathway in the pathogenesis of TSC, and the potential promise of mTOR-inhibitor therapy as a
systemic therapeutic approach to treat the underlying cause of TSC.
Am J Kidney Dis. 59(2):276-283. © 2012 by the National Kidney Foundation, Inc.
INDEX WORDS: Mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR).
T
uberous sclerosis complex (TSC) is an autosomal dominant disorder in which benign tumors develop in various organ systems, including the
kidney (angiomyolipomas and cysts), brain (subependymal giant cell astrocytomas [SEGAs] and eliptogenic tubers), skin (facial angiofibromas), lung (lymphangioleiomyomatosis [LAM]), heart (rhabdomyomas), and
retina.1,2 Although benign, all TSC tumors have the
potential to severely affect organ function; for example, lesions in the brain are associated with
hydrocephalus, seizures, mental retardation, and
autism.3 TSC has an estimated incidence of 1 in
5,800 births4 and a global prevalence approaching 1
million individuals.
HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF THE EVOLVING
CHARACTERIZATION AND
UNDERSTANDING OF TSC
The first clinical observation of a patient with TSC
was published during the 19th century, in which an
infant who died several days after birth was described
From the Department of Nephrology, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany.
Received May 18, 2011. Accepted in revised form August 19,
2011. Originally published online November 30, 2011.
Address correspondence to Klemens Budde, MD, Med Klinik mS
Nephrologie, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Charitéplatz 1,
10117 Berlin, Germany. E-mail: [email protected]
© 2012 by the National Kidney Foundation, Inc.
0272-6386/$36.00
doi:10.1053/j.ajkd.2011.10.013
276
as having cardiac rhabdomyomas and sclerotic brain
lesions.2,5 In the late 1880s, the French neurologist
Désiré Bourneville described a patient with neurologic symptoms and brain lesions resembling “hard
potatoes” or “tubers.”2,5 A few years later, the Scottish
dermatologist John Pringle gave the first English
description of facial angiofibromas as “adenoma sebaceum.”2 Accordingly, the disease was called “adenoma sebaceum,” “Bourneville’s disease,” “Pringle’s disease,” or “Bourneville-Pringle disease” in
different countries.5 Around 1900, it was recognized
that epilepsy, cognitive retardation, and facial angiofibroma are manifestations of the same disease. Subsequently, other manifestations involving the kidneys,
eyes, heart, and lungs were discovered. To better
describe the complex and variable disease manifestations, the disease later was called TSC. TSC was
recognized as having a hereditary component as early
as 1913,5 although the genes responsible, TSC1 (chromosome 9q) and TSC2 (chromosome 16p), were not
identified until much later.6,7 Interestingly, a contiguous gene defect of a family with TSC and polycystic
kidney disease helped identify the first gene for adult
polycystic kidney disease (PKD1).8
It was not until the last 25 years of major advances
in molecular biology and genetics that the pathophysiologic process underlying TSC was elucidated. Both
TSC1 and TSC2 are tumor suppressor genes, requiring
a second “hit” in addition to a germline mutation to
inactivate both alleles of either gene for tumor development.1 Approximately 70%-80% of patients with
TSC have no family history and presumably have
Am J Kidney Dis. 2012;59(2):276-283
mTOR Inhibition in Angiomyolipomas
sporadic mutations.9 TSC2 mutations are more common than TSC1 mutations and are associated with a
more severe phenotype.10 Both mutations are autosomal dominant and have a penetrance of almost
100%,11 meaning that all affected individuals eventually will develop symptoms of the disease. However,
individuals present with a large variability in disease
burden and symptoms. Knowledge of the complex
molecular pathophysiologic process underlying TSC
is assisting our efforts to better understand this phenomenon.
By 2003, the role of the TSC1 gene product hamartin and the TSC2 gene product tuberin in regulating
the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway
was becoming well described.12 Hamartin and tuberin
form a complex to inhibit mTOR through inactivation of
Rheb, a homolog of the signal transduction protein
Ras.13 mTOR can form one of 2 complexes: the rapamycinsensitive mTOR complex 1 or the rapamycin-insensitive
mTOR complex 2.14 The mTOR pathway through
mTOR complex 1 has a key role in regulating
protein production while influencing cell growth,
cell proliferation, and angiogenesis (Fig 1).15-17 In
addition, Notch, a signaling protein that keeps cells
in an undifferentiated proliferative state, is inactivated by the TSC complex.18,19
In physiologically normal cells, Akt-mediated inactivation of tuberin results in proteosomal degradation
of the hamartin/tuberin complex, thereby permitting
mTOR signaling.20,21 In patients with TSC, the second unaffected TSC allele can be sufficient for maintaining normal function despite the underlying germline mutation. However, if the unaffected TSC allele is
hit by a second mutation during the patient’s lifetime,
the result is loss of adequate functioning gene product.
Thus, mutations in either TSC1 or TSC2 that result in
loss of hamartin or tuberin, respectively, allow for an
unregulated increase in mTOR activity.2,20 Evidence
of this increased mTOR activation has been observed
in TSC patient–derived cell lines and tumors.22,23 It is
hypothesized that this dysregulated mTOR signaling
increases tumor cell growth, proliferation, and metabolism, thus promoting the progression of TSC lesions.
CLINICAL PRESENTATION AND DIAGNOSIS OF TSC
Examining the pathophysiologic characteristics of
the genetic TSC defect, it becomes clear that the same
germline mutation may result in a highly variable
phenotype, depending on the time and location of the
second-hit mutation. As a consequence, the clinical
presentation of TSC is highly variable (Table 1), with
a wide diversity of symptoms across patients.3,4 Thus,
some patients are severely mentally disabled due to
the development of SEGAs or tubers, resulting in
variable degrees of seizures or hydrocephalus, depending on the developmental timing and site of the
mutation. Others have no signs of cerebral manifestations and have completely normal mental status.26
Others have retinal or cardiac hamartomas; facial
angiofibromas, which can be very discrete and do not
always have a typical presentation27; other types of
skin tumors (including Koenen tumors, confetti skin
lesions, and gingival fibromas [Fig 2]); lung involvement; or frequently, angiomyolipomas in the kidneys.
Diagnostic tests thus should include dermatologic,
neurologic, and ocular examination; echocardiogram;
computed tomography/magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI) or ultrasound of the kidneys, lungs, and brain;
and, if needed, pulmonary function tests.3,26
Currently, diagnosis of TSC is based on clinical
observations because it is simple and highly reliable.
The clinical diagnostic criteria for TSC are divided
Figure 1. The mammalian target of
rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathway.
The TSC1-TSC2 protein complex integrates cues from growth factors and cytokines through the PI3K/Akt (phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/protein kinase B) signal
transduction pathway to regulate the activity of mTOR through inactivation of Rheb.
When mTOR complex 1 (mTORC1) is
activated, it phosphorylates 2 effector
molecules, S6 kinase 1 (S6K1) and 4Ebinding protein 1 (4E-BP1), to stimulate
synthesis of proteins to increase cell
growth, cell proliferation, and angiogenesis.
Am J Kidney Dis. 2012;59(2):276-283
277
Budde and Gaedeke
Table 1. Clinical Manifestations of Tuberous Sclerosis Complex
Affected System and Lesion
Skin
Renal
Angiomyolipoma
Epithelial cysts
Renal cell carcinoma
Pulmonary
Lymphangioleiomyomatosis
Neurologic
Cortical tubers
Epilepsy
Subependymal giant cell
astrocytomas
Cardiac
Rhabdomyomas
Incidence3,24,25
Characteristics
● Lesions include hypopigmented macules, ungual fibromas, facial angiofibromas
⬎90%
● Composed of abnormal blood vessels, smooth muscle cells, adipocytes
● Associated with spontaneous life-threatening hemorrhage as a result of
aneurysms forming in the abnormal vasculature
● Generally asymptomatic but associated with hypertension and kidney failure
● Incidence similar to general population but affects patients at a younger age
55%-75%
● Diffuse proliferation of abnormal smooth muscle cells and cystic changes in lung
● Affects women almost exclusively
26%-39%
●
●
●
●
●
Growth can result in cognitive disability and neurobehavioral disabilities
All seizure subtypes have been observed, often refractory to medical treatment
Cortical tubers often found in same region in which seizures originate
Often protrude into ventricles of the brain
Can cause obstruction of cerebrospinal fluid flow, hydrocephalus, increased
intracranial pressure, death
⬎80%
70%-80%
● Develop within the cardiac cavities prenatally and regress spontaneously with age
● Associated with cardiac arrhythmias
50%-70%
into major and minor features (Box 1).3,28 At least 2
major features or 1 major feature and 2 minor features
are required for a definite diagnosis; patients with 1
major and 1 minor feature have a probable diagnosis,
and those with 1 major or 2 minor features have a
45%
2%-3%
10%-20%
possible diagnosis.28 Molecular genetic testing of the
TSC1 and TSC2 genes is available, but is not recommended as a diagnostic tool for all patients with TSC
because of the complexity introduced by the large size
of the 2 genes, the wide variety of mutations, and the
Figure 2. Images of notable dermatologic lesions associated with tuberous sclerosis complex. Facial angiofibromas, (A) mild, (B)
intermediate, and (C) severe; (D) hypomelanotic macule ⬎3 cm; periungual fibromas (Koenen tumors), (E) mild and (F) severe; (G)
gingival fibromas and multiple dental enamel pits; (H) confetti skin lesions; (I) shagreen patch; (J) skin tags; (K) soft fibromas; and (L)
forehead fibrous plaque. Panel I: ©Elsevier, Inc. ElsevierImages.com.
278
Am J Kidney Dis. 2012;59(2):276-283
mTOR Inhibition in Angiomyolipomas
Box 1. Diagnostic Criteria for Tuberous Sclerosis Complexa
Major Criteria
Facial angiofibroma (infancy to adulthood)
Ungual fibroma (adolescence to adulthood)
Shagreen patch (childhood)
Hypomelanotic macule (infancy to childhood)
Cortical tuber (fetal life)
Subependymal nodule (childhood to adolescence)
Subependymal giant cell tumor (childhood to adolescence)
Retinal hamartoma (infancy)
Cardiac rhabdomyoma (fetal life)
Renal angiomyolipoma (childhood to adulthood)
Lymphangioleiomyomatosis (adolescence to adulthood)
Minor Criteriab
Multiple pits in dental enamel
Hamartomatous rectal polyps
Bone cysts
Cerebral white-matter radial migration lines
Gingival fibromas
Retinal achromic patch
“Confetti” skin lesions, ie, groups of small, lightly pigmented
spots
Multiple renal cysts
Reproduced from Crino et al3 with permission of the Massachusetts Medical Society.
Note: When available, age of onset is indicated in parentheses.
a
Two major features or 1 major feature plus 2 minor features
are required for a definite clinical diagnosis of tuberous sclerosis
complex (TSC); for a probable diagnosis of TSC, 1 major and 1
minor feature are required; for a possible diagnosis of TSC, 1
major or 2 or more minor features are needed. Cerebral cortical
dysplasia and cerebral white-matter radial migration lines are
counted together as 1 feature of TSC; when both lymphangioleiomyomatosis and renal angiomyolipomas are present, other
features of tuberous sclerosis must be present before TSC is
diagnosed. Data were modified from Roach et al.28
b
In addition to major diagnostic features, minor features affect
the teeth (dental pits), gums (gingival fibroma), digestive tract
(hamartomatous rectal polyps), blood vessels (aneurysms), and
bony skeleton (bone cysts or sclerosis). Data are not available to
list typical age at onset.
high rate of somatic mosaicism.29 Furthermore, it is
estimated that up to 10%-15% of patients with definitive TSC do not have detectable mutations by current
standard genetic testing10 and genetic testing therefore may not confirm or rule out TSC in some cases.
However, in young patients with vague clinical features suggestive of TSC, identification of a TSC1 or
TSC2 mutation is useful in confirming the diagnosis.
Although patients often are given the diagnosis as
young children, presentation can occur at various ages
(Box 1).3 For example, the presence of cardiac rhabdomyomas is predominately prenatal. Angiomyolipomas in the kidney occur from childhood through
adulthood. Pulmonary lesions (LAM) occur almost
exclusively in females and typically develop in adolescence to adulthood. Radiographic images of notable
TSC manifestations in the brain, heart, kidney, and
lungs are shown in Fig 3.2
Am J Kidney Dis. 2012;59(2):276-283
KIDNEY LESIONS
From the nephrologist’s perspective, clinical presentation may be characterized by the presence of angiomyolipomas or cysts in the kidneys, as well as evidence of mental disability or dermatologic features
(eg, facial angiofibromas or gingival fibromas). However, sporadic asymptomatic angiomyolipomas found
on routine ultrasound or computed tomography/MRI
are not necessarily a defining diagnostic feature of
TSC in the absence of other characteristics. Because
nearly all patients with TSC have some form of
angiofibroma or neurologic involvement, a complete
medical history and physical examination of patients
with angiomyolipomas should be used to rule out or
confirm a diagnosis of TSC. Only in rare cases are
additional diagnostics needed.
Cysts in the kidneys are common in patients with
TSC, occurring in 30%.24,30 Although cysts rarely
cause symptoms, they can compromise kidney function and often are associated with kidney failure and
hypertension.3 Some patients with TSC have a contiguous deletion of regions in both the TSC2 gene and
PKD1 gene, resulting in a more severe degree of
kidney cysts.7,31 Renal cell carcinomas (RCCs), including clear cell, chromophobe, and papillary types, also
occur in patients with TSC.32 The risk of RCC in
patients with TSC is similar to that in the general
population (2%-3% lifetime risk)3; however, RCC
typically is diagnosed in patients with TSC in their
30s, whereas RCC typically is diagnosed in the general population in their 50s or 60s.33
Angiomyolipomas commonly occur in up to 80%
of patients with TSC3,24,30 and represent the most
common cause of TSC-related mortality in adults.26,34
Angiomyolipomas manifest as multiple and bilateral
benign kidney tumors that are rich in blood vessels,
adipose tissue, and smooth muscle.24 Histologically,
angiomyolipomas can be divided into 2 variants: (1) a
classic form containing abnormal vascular smooth
muscle that may show atypical nuclei and mitotic
figures and adipose tissue and (2) an epithelioid form
with a large component of epithelioid cells that may
be atypical or variable in size and have significant
mitotic activity.35 Although angiomyolipomas exhibit
cells with atypical nuclei with high mitotic activity,
these lesions are not malignant.35 Although often
asymptomatic, angiomyolipomas can be associated
with life-threatening hemorrhage as a result of aneurysms forming in the abnormal vasculature. Patients
with angiomyolipomas ⬎4 cm in diameter have a
higher risk of hemorrhage.36 Furthermore, although
benign, larger angiomyolipomas may compress normal kidney tissue or encroach into normal tissue, with
the potential to culminate in kidney failure.35,37
279
Budde and Gaedeke
Figure 3. Radiographic images of notable manifestations of tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC). (A) Coronal T2-weighted (T2-W)
images of subependymal nodules (white arrows) dotting the ependymal surface of the ventricles. (B) Enhanced T1-weighted images of
subependymal giant cell astrocytomas (arrows) causing mild ventricular enlargement. (C) Axial T2-W fetal magnetic resonance image
shows several high-signal cardiac masses (arrows) in a fetus with a family history of TSC. (D) High-resolution chest computed
tomographic image in a woman with TSC and lymphangioleiomyomatosis shows smooth-wall cysts (black arrows) and nodules (white
arrows) throughout the lungs. (E) Conventional angiogram of a large kidney angiomyolipoma (large arrows) shows increased
vascularity and markedly abnormal vessels containing several aneurysms (small arrow). (F) Coronal T2-W image of a patient with TSC
and polycystic kidney disease shows numerous bilateral cysts enlarging the kidneys. Reproduced from Baskin et al2 with permission of
Springer Science⫹Business Media.
In addition to the impact of angiomyolipomas on
the kidneys, angiomyolipomas are hypothesized to
underlie the pathogenesis of LAM, a devastating
pulmonary disease occurring exclusively in women
that results from smooth muscle cell proliferation in
the lungs and leads to interstitial lung disease, cystic
lung destruction, recurrent spontaneous pneumothorax, and chylous effusions.2 Approximately 60% of
patients with sporadic LAM also have kidney angiomyolipomas.38 Somatic mutations in TSC2 were found
in both LAM patient–derived angiomyolipomas and
LAM tissues, supporting a direct role of TSC2 in
LAM pathogenesis.39 Moreover, in 4 patients for
whom both tissues were available, the same TSC2
mutation was found in both LAM and angiomyolipomas but not normal kidney or lung, suggesting that the
tumor cells were genetically identical and arose from
a common progenitor.39 This led Carsillo et al39 to
propose a “benign metastasis” model for LAM pathogenesis in which angiomyolipomas cells migrate from
the kidneys and metastasize to the lungs. This model
was supported by an analysis of a patient with recurrent LAM after a lung transplant, in which the same
TSC2 mutation was present in both the original LAM
cells and the recurrent LAM cells after the lung
transplant, suggesting that the recurrent LAM was
derived from the patient.40
280
TREATMENT OPTIONS FOR ANGIOMYOLIPOMAS
Current management strategies for angiomyolipomas emphasize the importance of monitoring angiomyolipoma growth,36 preferably by ultrasound or
MRI. Historically, the primary treatment modalities
for patients with TSC-associated angiomyolipomas
have included angiographic catheter embolization and
surgery. Angiomyolipomas ⬎4 cm in diameter are at
risk of bleeding and should be treated by embolization
or, if embolization is impossible, nephron-sparing
resection.26 Not all angiomyolipomas can be resected
or embolized easily, especially if multiple lesions are
present and have encroached on normal tissue, because any surgery or embolization may lead to the
loss of healthy nephrons and compromise kidney
function. Finally, new angiomyolipomas may develop
after local treatment in other places. It is important to
note that in an emergency setting with a life-threatening bleed, especially in the case of very large angiomyolipomas, the lesion may be mistaken intraoperatively for RCC and therefore incorrectly result in total
nephrectomy surgery. In the event of repeated severe
life-threatening bleeding, definitive treatment with
nephrectomy and kidney transplant may be considered.41 These methods treat only the manifestations of
kidney angiomyolipomas; however, there currently
Am J Kidney Dis. 2012;59(2):276-283
mTOR Inhibition in Angiomyolipomas
Figure 4. Phase 1/2 results of sirolimus
treatment for angiomyolipomas in 20 evaluable patients with tuberous sclerosis complex. Angiomyolipomas were visualized by
abdominal magnetic resonance imaging, and
volumetric analysis was performed at baseline and at 2, 4, 6, 12, 18, and 24 months.
Angiomyolipoma volume at each visit is expressed as a percentage of the baseline
size. The dashed line represents 70% of the
baseline value; data below the line indicate
that the mean angiomyolipoma volume was
decreased by ⱖ30%. Reproduced from
Bissler et al45 with permission of the Massachusetts Medical Society.
are no approved systemic therapies to treat the principal biochemical abnormality (ie, unregulated mTOR
activation) caused by the mutations in TSC-associated
angiomyolipomas.
Newer systemic treatment options that directly target mTOR currently are under investigation. In preclinical studies, mTOR inhibitors have been shown to
decrease the phosphorylation of downstream effectors
of mTOR, resulting in decreased DNA synthesis and
cellular proliferation in TSC patient–derived tumor
cell lines, including angiomyolipomas (Fig 1).22,42 In
a mouse model of TSC in which cystadenomas spontaneously develop in the kidneys, mTOR inhibition
significantly decreased tumor burden and kidney cyst
severity and improved overall survival.43
Initial observations have noted clinical improvement in patients with angiomyolipomas treated with
the mTOR inhibitor sirolimus.44,45 In a patient case
study of a 38-year-old woman with TSC and large
bilateral angiomyolipomas, a dramatic decrease in
angiomyolipoma volume was seen after 1 year of
sirolimus treatment and persisted 6 months after the
2-year treatment course. Moreover, a substantial size
reduction of both kidneys occurred during the first
year of treatment.44 Consistent with this finding, a
multicenter phase 2 study conducted in the United
Kingdom (TESSTAL [Trial of Efficacy and Safety of
Sirolimus in Tuberous Sclerosis and LAM]; ClinicalTrials.gov identifier NCT00490789) in 16 patients
with TSC- or LAM-associated angiomyolipomas
showed decreases in angiomyolipomas with sirolimus
treatment (mean decrease in the longest diameter at 12
months, 25%) and an overall response rate of 50%.46
Treatment-related adverse events were mostly mild
and included mouth ulcers, infections, metabolic abnormalities, fatigue, and peripheral edema.46 In addition, a number of case reports describe improvements
Am J Kidney Dis. 2012;59(2):276-283
in symptoms with sirolimus treatment, including regression of facial angiofibroma,47 LAM,45,48 and
SEGA.49,50
A 24-month phase 1/2 open-label study by Bissler
et al45 evaluated the potential of sirolimus to decrease
angiomyolipoma volume in 25 patients with TSC or
sporadic LAM. Sirolimus was administered for the
first 12 months of the study. Angiomyolipoma volume
decreased by a mean of 53.2% (P ⬍ 0.001) from
baseline to month 12; 80% (16/20) of evaluable patients experienced a ⱖ30% decrease in angiomyolipoma volume (Fig 4).45 Mean angiomyolipoma volume increased after sirolimus therapy was stopped,
yet remained significantly less than baseline volume;
6 months after the end of sirolimus treatment, mean
volume had reached 76.8% of its baseline value (P ⬍
0.001), and at 24 months, it was 85.9% of baseline
(P ⫽ 0.005).45 The most common adverse events
were stomatitis (aphthous ulcers or mucositis; n ⫽
22), diarrhea (n ⫽ 12), and upper respiratory tract
infections (n ⫽ 18); 6 of 10 serious adverse events
were considered possibly related to or worsened by
sirolimus (diarrhea with dehydration, communityacquired pneumonia, pyelonephritis, cellulitis, stomatitis, and one case of angiomyolipomas-related hemorrhage that occurred 2 days after the start of sirolimus
treatment).45
A phase 2 study described the successful treatment
of SEGAs with the mTOR inhibitor everolimus.49 In
this open-label study, 28 patients (mostly children;
median age, 11 years) with growing SEGAs were
treated with low doses of everolimus (median trough
levels, 4.2 ng/mL at 3 months and 5.0 ng/mL at 6
months). Within 6 months of treatment, a clinically
meaningful decrease in SEGA size was noted in 75%
of patients, accompanied by a significant decrease in
neurologic symptoms, such as seizures. The convinc281
Budde and Gaedeke
ing results of this small phase 2 study led to US Food
and Drug Administration approval of everolimus in
TSC patients with SEGAs that cannot be treated with
surgery. The phase 3 EXIST-1 (Examining Everolimus in a Study of TSC; NCT00789828) currently is
evaluating the response rate of TSC-associated
SEGAs to everolimus therapy more thoroughly.
Based on these promising results, additional clinical trials are investigating the efficacy of sirolimus
and everolimus in patients with TSC-associated angiomyolipomas. Currently ongoing clinical trials include
an open-label phase 1/2 trial of everolimus (RAD001
Therapy of Angiomyolipomata in Patients With TSC
and Sporadic LAM; NCT00457964) and an openlabel phase 2 study of sirolimus (Sirolimus in Treating
Patients With Angiomyolipoma of the Kidney;
NCT00126672) in patients with TSC- or LAMassociated angiomyolipomas. In addition, the phase 3
EXIST-2 (NCT00790400) trial is a randomized doubleblind placebo-controlled study of everolimus in 99
patients with TSC- or LAM-associated angiomyolipomas. The primary end point is angiomyolipoma response rate. Because accumulating evidence collectively supports the ability of mTOR inhibitors to
reduce or stabilize other TSC-associated conditions,45,47-50 secondary and exploratory end points of
EXIST-2 include changes in other TSC-associated
lesions (eg, SEGA volume and skin lesions), neuropsychological assessments, and cognitive function, seizure severity, and pulmonary function analyses.
CONCLUSIONS
Although the clinical presentation of TSC is highly
variable, the diagnosis can be relatively straightforward when guided by clinical observation and medical history, except in a few atypical cases. Nephrologists should carefully screen patients who present
with angiomyolipomas or kidney cysts plus evidence
of neurologic compromise or characteristic dermatologic features for TSC. Current treatment options,
surgery and angiographic catheter embolization, are
focused on conserving kidney function and limiting
the risk of potentially fatal hemorrhage. mTOR inhibitors have shown promise as a new type of therapy for
reducing the size of TSC-associated angiomyolipomas and represent the first systemic therapeutic approach to treat the underlying cause of TSC (ie,
targeting unregulated mTOR activation). Results from
currently ongoing phase 2/3 clinical trials of the
mTOR inhibitors sirolimus and everolimus in patients
with TSC- or LAM-associated angiomyolipomas will
continue to define the treatment landscape for this
patient population.
282
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors thank Victoria A. Robb, PhD, of Scientific Connexions, Newtown, PA, for providing assistance with medical writing
and technical editing.
Support: Dr Robb’s involvement in the preparation of this
article was funded by Novartis Pharmaceuticals Corp, which is
investigating the use of everolimus for treating TSC. Novartis did
not influence the content of the manuscript or the decision to
submit the manuscript and the authors did not receive financial
compensation for authoring the manuscript.
Financial Disclosure: Dr Budde has received research funds
and/or honoraria from Pfizer, Novartis, Astellas, Roche, Hexal,
Bristol-Myers Squibb, LCP Pharma, TCL Pharma, and Siemens.
Dr Gaedeke has received research funds from Shire.
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