Appendix - Background Information

Transcription

Ecolabel for Batteries
-1-
Background Information
European Ecolabel for
Batteries for Consumer Goods
Appendix Background Information
Gerd Scholl
Dr. Werner Baumann
Dr. Anneliese Muth
Heidelberg (FRG), July 1997
Institut für ökologische Wirtschaftsforschung (Ecological Economics Research Institute),
Regional Office Baden-Württemberg,
Bergheimer Straße 95, D - 69115 Heidelberg,
Tel. xx49 / 6221/ 167954 or 182667, Fax. xx49 / 6221/ 27060, E-mail: [email protected]
Institut für Umweltforschung (Institute for Environmental Research),
University of Dortmund
P.O. Box 500 500, D - 44221 Dortmund,
Tel. xx49 / 231 / 755-4095, Fax. xx49 / 231 / 755-4084, E-mail: [email protected]
-2-
Table of Contents
1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................... 3
2 THE PRODUCT GROUP OF BATTERIES FOR CONSUMER GOODS.............................. 3
2.1 Definition and Function of Batteries ............................................................................... 3
2.2 Battery Composition....................................................................................................... 4
2.3 Battery Formats.............................................................................................................. 4
2.4 Battery Innovations ........................................................................................................ 5
2.4.1 Lithium Batteries ..................................................................................................... 5
2.4.2 Rechargeable Nickel Metal-Hydride Batteries........................................................ 6
2.4.3 Rechargeable Alkaline Batteries ............................................................................ 7
2.5 Battery Applications ....................................................................................................... 8
2.5.1 "3C" Applications .................................................................................................... 8
2.6 Definition of the Product Group.................................................................................... 10
3 MARKET DATA FOR BATTERIES FOR CONSUMER GOODS........................................ 12
3.1 Market Data for selected EU countries ........................................................................ 12
3.1.1 Germany ............................................................................................................... 12
3.1.2 Italy ....................................................................................................................... 13
3.1.3 Sweden ................................................................................................................. 14
3.1.4 Austria................................................................................................................... 14
3.1.5 The Netherlands ................................................................................................... 14
3.2 Data on Import and Export Streams ............................................................................ 15
4 APPROACH TO THE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT ................................................ 18
4.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 18
4.2 Approach to Streamlined Life Cycle Inventory............................................................. 18
4.3 Functional Unit ............................................................................................................. 19
4.4 System Boundaries ...................................................................................................... 19
4.4.1 Raw Materials Acquisition and Pre-production..................................................... 20
4.4.2 Production............................................................................................................. 20
4.4.3 Distribution ............................................................................................................ 20
4.4.4 Use........................................................................................................................ 21
4.4.5 After-use-management ......................................................................................... 21
4.5 Data Sources and General Assumptions..................................................................... 22
5 RESULTS OF THE STREAMLINED LIFE-CYCLE INVENTORY....................................... 23
5.1 Raw Materials Acquisition and Pre-Production............................................................ 23
5.2 Production .................................................................................................................... 26
5.3 Distribution and Transport............................................................................................ 27
5.4 Use ............................................................................................................................... 28
5.5 After-Use Management................................................................................................ 28
5.5.1 Recycling .............................................................................................................. 29
5.5.2 Incineration ........................................................................................................... 31
5.5.3 Landfilling.............................................................................................................. 33
5.5.4 Assessment of After-use Management Options................................................... 33
5.6 Energy Efficiency of Batteries for Consumer Goods ................................................... 34
5.7 Material Efficiency of Batteries for Consumer Goods .................................................. 36
5.8 Results of the Streamlined Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) ................................................. 36
6 APPENDIX .......................................................................................................................... 38
7 REFERENCES .................................................................................................................... 40
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1 Introduction
This report presents a supplement to the "Final Summary Report" (Scholl/Baumann 1997)
which contains the main issues of the final stage of the work carried out by IÖW and INFU
on the "Establishment of ecological criteria for batteries for consumer goods", research
contract no. B4-3040/95/1158/MAR/C6. It is dedicated to the provision of background
information on the proposal of ecolabelling criteria being made in the "Final Summary
Report".
The main objectives of the "Appendix - Background Information" are
•
to give a technical and detailed characterisation of the product group under
consideration,
•
to provide economic data on battery markets of single European countries and also
data on exports and imports,
•
to summarise the environmental assessment of the product group under
consideration.
2 The Product Group of Batteries for Consumer Goods
2.1 Definition and Function of Batteries
Batteries for consumer goods are defined as follows:
Batteries for consumer goods are electrochemical storage units, either
rechargeable or non-rechargeable, with a weight of less than 1 kg.
In batteries electrons are passed between a positive electrode (cathode) and a negative
electrode (anode) through an electrolyte. The positive pole consists of a metal, the negative
pole of a metal oxide. Furthermore, a battery includes the separator, which separates the
anode from the cathode in order to prevent a short circuit, and the collector which collects
the electrons and transports them out of the battery. All these parts are enclosed in a water
tight case. The essential elements of a battery (cylindrical cell type and button cell type) are
shown in Figure 2.1.
Batteries can be divided into primary batteries, which can be discharged only one time and
then must be disposed of, and secondary batteries or accumulators, which can be
discharged and charged several times.
Depending on the chemical system of the battery the voltage and the current density may be
different.
Figure 2.1:
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Essential battery elements
steel casing
negative
connection
cell casing
anode
Separator
seal
MnO2 -cathode
Zn-anode
and electrolyte
Separator
cathode
Silver-oxide button cell
Cylindrical alkali-manganese
2.2 Battery Composition
As mentioned in Chapter 2.1, batteries consist of an anode, a cathode, an electrolyte, a
separator, a casing and several auxiliary materials, e.g. current collectors and sealing
materials. Table 2.1 gives an overview of the most important materials that are used in
batteries.
Table 2.1:
Materials used in batteries
Anode materials
Cathode materials
Electrolytes
Casing and auxiliary
materials
Cadmium
Lead
Lithium
Metal hydride
Zinc
Active carbon/oxygen
Lead dioxide
Manganese dioxide
Nickel oxide
Polycarbon mono fluoride
Silver oxide
Mercuric oxide
Ammonium chloride
Potassium hydroxide
Sulphuric acid
Zinc chloride
Iron/steel
Copper/brass
Plastics
Paper
Bitumen
Tin
2.3 Battery Formats
A battery can consist of only one cell or can be put together from several cells, which are
connected among eachother. There are cylindrical cells, button cells, prismatic batteries and
battery packs available on the market.
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Button cells are available in very different formats. Therefore, they are not regarded as
mass products, but as batteries for specific applications. Button cells are batteries of which
the height is smaller than the diameter.
Cylindrical cells are batteries with a diameter which is smaller than the height. The most
common formats of cylindrical cells are listed in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2:
Most important formats of cylindrical cells
Name
IEC-Nr.
US-Standard
Diameter
[mm]
Height
[mm]
Mono
R 20
D
32
60
Baby
R 14
C
24
49
Mignon
R6
AA
13,5
50
Micro
R 03
AAA
10
44
Also very common formats are the 9 V E-block battery and the 4.5 V normal battery. These
are prismatic batteries which are composed of six small prismatic cells (9 V E-block) or of
three cylindrical cells (4.5 V normal battery).
Packs are also put together from several cylindrical or prismatic cells. The formats are not
standardised, therefore they also can be considered as batteries for specific applications.
2.4 Battery Innovations
In this section we provide a brief overview of product innovations that have recently been
introduced on the battery market. "Green" product development that is still underway and not
yet marketed is not taken into account.
2.4.1 Lithium Batteries
Lithium batteries are cadmium- and mercury-free.
Primary Lithium Batteries
Non-rechargeable lithium batteries are available in button and cylindrical format and as a 9V
block (Sonnenschein). For the use in consumer appliances the lithium-manganese-dioxide is
the most important (more than 90% of the lithium batteries in consumer applications). The
button cell format is mainly applied in watches and photo equipment. The cylindrical type is
also used in photo equipment. A recently marketed primary lithium mignon battery (1.5V,
3Ah, Energizer) is suitable for application in disc-man, tape recorders, camcorders, flash
lights etc..
Lithium batteries are characterised by low self-discharge, long life-span (7-12 years), high
energy density and good temperature features (-20° - +70° C).
-6-
Their sales price is approximately more than three times that of alkaline batteries. However,
compared on the basis of the price per functional unit the primary lithium battery becomes
"cheaper".1
Rechargeable Lithium Batteries
The lithium manganese button cell is available as a rechargeable battery as well, but only for
very small energy delivery needed e.g. in memory back up.
More important is the lithium ion accumulator, or "lithium swing battery", which is available
only in button cell format. It can be applied for computers, camcorders and communication
devices ("3C").2 Compared to other rechargeable batteries, such as nickel-cadmium or
metal hydride, they have a mucher bigger energy density (of a factor 1.8 and 1.4
respectively).
However, they are still quite expensive, e.g. 2 to 3 times more than a NiCd.3
2.4.2 Rechargeable Nickel Metal-Hydride Batteries
Nickel metal-hydride batteries (NiMH) are free from lead, mercury, and cadmium. They are
available in button, cylindrical and prismatic (9V) format. Compared to NiCads they have two
major advantages (their energy density is 30 to 50 percent higher and they do not suffer
from the memory effect) and also some disadvantages (higher rate of self-discharge, more
sensitive to temperature and smaller high power delivery).
Metal-hydride rechargeables require a precise termination of charge and, therefore, normally
specific charging devices. However, "Panasonic" has marketed a NiMH that has a built-in
resistance that protects against over-charging and, hence, makes charging possible with
usual NiCd chargers.
Except for power tools metal-hydride batteries are able to substitute NiCd in almost any
application (see Table 2.3 below). Major application areas are cellular phones, computers
and camcorders ("3C"), but also e.g. electrical shavers and tooth brushes. "Electrolux"
claims that NiMh batteries for tools will be available on the market within the next 1 to 2
years.4
1
Chapter 6 contains a price comparison of different battery sytems.
2
Scrosati (1995).
3
Jamard (1995).
4
Sundberg (1995).
Table 2.3:
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Market shares of NiCd and NiMh by application in percent, Japan
(Source: Mukunoki/Fulimoto 1996)
Application
NiCd
NiMH
Emergency
100
0
Home applications
93
7
Office equipment
51
49
Communications
82
18
Power tools
100
0
Resale
100
0
Toshiba is one of the world leading manufacturers of metal-hydride batteries. Others are
Sanyo, Panasonic, Hitachi, Duracell, and Varta.
NiMH batteries are still quite expensive. For phones or computers they cost up to 2.5 to 3
times compared to NiCd batteries.5 A comparison of the prices per functional unit reveals
that the NiMH is only about 1.5 times more expensive than e.g. a NiCd battery.6
2.4.3 Rechargeable Alkaline Batteries
Rechargeable alkaline batteries are free from cadmium and mercury.
Theoretically each alkaline battery is rechargeable, although this has been and still is denied
by battery producers from a technical viewpoint (danger of explosion and leakage).
Zinniker (n.y.) reports that one has to distinguish three types of "rechargeable" alkalimaganese batteries:
•
normal alkaline,
•
rechargeable alkaline based on old technology (e.g. "AccuCell" by Müller), and
•
rechargeable alkaline based on new technology (e.g. "Rayovac Renewal").
With regard to the useable capacity a new technology alkaline is superior to a normal
alkaline from the fifteenth cycle on. Depending on its type a secondary alkali-manganese is
capable of supplying 3 to more than 20 times its initial capacity. The best charging results
are achieved with specific charging devices (e.g. BIG "Electronic Alkaline Rapid Charger" or
"ECO charger" from Saitek).
The rechargeable alkaline is available in several formats (micro, mignon, baby, mono) and
can be applied in the same devices as the primary version. As opposed to the rechargeable
nickel-cadmium batteries, it does not suffer from the "memory effect" and has a low rate of
self-discharge.
5
Sundberg (1995).
6
See Chapter 6.
-8-
The US company Rayovac already produces 3 million pieces of the "new technology" per
day. However, the "Rayovac Renewal" is not yet available in Europe. By the end of 1996 the
manufacture should have been started in Great Britain.
2.5 Battery Applications
Batteries are spread over a large number of applications, among these are household appliances, lighting devices, cordless tools, gardening tools, entertainment electronics, computers, communication appliances and toys. This almost all-purpose applicability of batteries
is responsible for the huge amount of batteries consumed, for the large number of different
battery types and formats and for the various battery systems.
Certainly one reason for the intensive and increasing use of batteries is the flexible
handling of appliances independent of an external power supply. They are not confined to
stationary use and therefore provide, besides the fulfilment of their function, a certain surplus
utility in form of increased mobility.
A differentiation must be undertaken between so called "household batteries" suitable for a
large number of different applications and batteries fitting for only one special application.
The first group includes some cylindrical cells, i.e. the zinc-carbon and alkali-manganese
primary batteries and the nickel cadmium and nickel metal hydride secondary batteries. The
second group includes e.g. the zinc air button cell (especially for hearing aids).
On the other hand, there are some electric devices for which only one special battery can be
used (e.g. watches) and others, for which several types of batteries are suitable (e.g.
walkman). In the latter case, batteries can be interchangeable among each other. To be
interchangeable, batteries must have the same or at least similar electrical properties and
the same format.
2.5.1 "3C" Applications
Socalled "3C" applications of batteries, preponderately of rechargeable ones, cover
electronic devices such as computers, camcorders (video camera with incorporated video
recorder/player), and communications equipment (handies, cordless phones). In this section
we will briefly summarise the results of a market survey we have carried out by reviewing
recent literature supplemented by telephone interviews.
Communication Equipment
Handies are also called "cellular phones" and can be used outdoor. Cordless phones are
used mainly in homes (indoor), since their range is technically restricted. These two
communication devices have to be distinguished.
In general, mobile phones are an important area of application for rechargeable batteries.
Gay (1996) estimates that they are responsible for approximately one fifth of the overall
market of secondary batteries.
-9-
Our survey has revealed that handies are mainly powered by NiMH and Li-ion batteries,
while cordless phones still mostly use NiCads. Statistical data are not available, experts
estimate that, in case of handies, the market share of NiMH is about 70% (the rest covered
by Li-ion). In case of cordless phones the market share of NiCads is between 90% and
100% in case of cordless phones.
The main reason for favouring lithium and nickel-metalhydride batteries over NiCads for
handies is a technical one. Lithium batteries have the best performance, followed by nickelmetalhydride. This can be derived from a comparison of stand-by times (NiCd (1), NiMH
(1.4), Li-ion (4)) and of running times (NiCd (1), NiMH (1.2), Li-ion (4)7). Furthermore, the
price of the battery is less relevant in case of handies, since its fraction is a smaller one than
in case of cordless phones which are far less expensive than handies.
It appears that at the time being accu packs are device-specific in case of cellular phones,
i.e. not standardised, although Duracell has introduced an interchangeable battery option for
these kind of phones. Moreover, one should note that the innovation cycles are rather short
and that usually a handy is in the market for only one to two years. This leaves some leeway
for technical changes of the power source during following product generations.
In case of cordless phones there seems to be some standardisation going on. The accu
packs are built from single mignon cells and the chargers of at least a few products work
with both, NiCads and NiMH.
Camcorders
In case of camcorders there is no statistical data available, only a few estimates could have
been collected. It appears that at the time being most of the devices already sold are run by
nickel-cadmium batteries. Their market share is estimated to exceed 90%. However, in
recently introduced product series lithium and nickel-metal hydride batteries are gradually
substituted for NiCads. The fraction of todays offered camcorders that use lithium
accumulators as their power source is estimated to be about 50%.
The main reason for this gradual shift, which is obviously much slower than in the field of
communication equipment, is also a technical one, namely the better performance of Li-ion
and NiMH. Economic reasons are apparently less important, because the battery constitutes
less than 10% of the sales price of a camcorder.
We obtained contradictory answers with regard to the question, wether the batteries are
always device-specific, i.e. not standardised. It appears that this is mostly the case.
However, for at least a few camcorders spare packs are available that use NiMH cells, i.e.
camcorders are to some extent re-gradeable. Moreover, some products can be run by
normal alkaline batteries with the help of an adapter.
One can conclude that the leeway to change the battery system in existing series is more
restricted than in case of communication devices. Hence, battery innovations will probably
go hand in hand with product innovations.
7
"test", 1/96.
- 10 -
Computers
The situation of camcorders is comparable to that of computers. Laptops and notebooks
running with lithium or nickel-metalhydride accumulators have recently been introduced. The
latest product generation of Siemens Nixdorf (SNI), for example, consists of 60% NiMH and
40% Li-ion powered mobile computers. However, the majority of the devices which have
been sold during the last couple of years use NiCads. Statistical information on market
shares is not available.
Usually, accumulators for notebooks and laptops are not standardised, i.e. new battery
systems are introduced with new designed computer products.
Power Tools
Power tools, e.g. gardening tools, electric screwdrivers, and cordless vacuum cleaners, are
one of the main application area of nickel-cadmium batteries. They are prefered over NiMH
and Li-ion batteries, since the latter is very expensive compared to the sales price of a tool we have been told that there is strong price competition among power tools suppliers - and
the metalhydride battery is performing worse under high temperatures.
We have also been told that from a technical point of view the NiMH battery will be available
for power tools soon, e.g. for Electrolux mobile vacuum cleaners. However, the greatest
barrier to its wide market introduction will still be the relatively high price.
Accu-packs for power tools are always device-specific, i.e. they cannot be substituted by
environmentally more sound batteries. This could occur only with a new product series.
2.6 Definition of the Product Group
We have decided to divide the product group into twelve subgroups, according to their main
applications. Battery systems in the same subgroup may be interchangeable among each
other, provided that they have the same format. The twelve subgroups are shown in Table
2.4.
Mercuric oxide button cells will not be considered in this study, because of their planned
phase out in 1999.
We do not intend to find ecolabelling criteria for each sub-group. Rather, the division into
subgroups enables us to collect and process data for batteries that are functionally
equivalent. In order to carry out a streamlined life-cycle inventory we are going to approach
these sub-groups, although with the intention of developing one common set of criteria.
Table 2.4:
- 11 -
Definition of the product group
Product Group
Sub-groups
Rechargeability
Primary
Format
Button
Others: AM, ZnO2, ZnAgO, ZnHgO
2
Lithium: LiMnO2, Li(CFx)n
3
Others: ZN, AM
4
Prismatics,
5
Packs
Others: ZN (E-Block 9V, normal
4.5V), AM (E-Block 9V),
6
Button
Lithium: Li-Ion
7
NiCd, NiMH
8
Cylindrical
NiCd, NiMH, AM
9
Prismatics,
NiCd, NiMH
10
Packs
Pb
11
Lithium: Li-Ion
12
Batteries
Secondary
No.
1
Cylindrical
for consumer
System
(nonrechargeable)
goods
(rechargeable)
LiMnO2
Lithium-manganese-dioxide
ZnO2
Zinc-air
Li(CFx)n
Lithium-poly-carbon-mono-flouride
ZnAgO
Zinc-silver-oxide
AM
Alkali-manganese
ZnHgO
Zinc-mercury-oxide
ZN
Zinc-carbon
NiCd
NiMH
Nickel-metal-hydride
Nickel-cadmium
Pb
Lead
In consultations with the AHWG, some "key batteries" have been chosen from the product
group. These key products belong to the subgroups 1, 2, 4, and 9. But due to similarity of the
chemistry of the battery systems, the subgroups 3, 5, 6, 8, and 10 will be considered as well.
Accordingly, we have decided to analyse the following key batteries (see Table 2.5):
Table 2.5:
Key products to be analyzed
Subgroup
Battery systems
IEC-No.
Associated
subgroups*
CR 2016
3,5
1
lithium manganese dioxide button cell
2
alkali manganese button cell
silver oxide button cell
zinc air button cell
LR 44
SR 44
PR 44
-
4
alkali manganese mignon cell
zinc carbon mignon cell
LR 6
R6
6
9
NiCd mignon cell
NiMH mignon cell
rechargeable alkali manganese mignon cell (RAM)
* joint analysis due to similar chemical system
No key products have been chosen from the subgroups 7, 11, and 12.
8,10
- 12 -
3 Market Data for Batteries for Consumer Goods
3.1 Market Data for selected EU countries
The data and information presented in this section has been collected from different publicly
available sources. For those countries for which this additional information could not be
obtained we had to confine ourselves to the EPBA data.
3.1.1 Germany8
Table 3.1
Battery Consumption in Germany 1986-1995 (mio. pieces)
(Fachverband Batterien im ZVEI)
Germany
1. Non-rechargeables
1.1 Cylindrical
1.1.1 Zinc-carbon
1.1.2 Alkali-manganese
1.2 Button Cells
1.2.1 Mercury-oxide
1.2.2 Silver-oxide
1.2.3 Alkali-manganese
1.2.4 Zinc-air
1.2.5 Lithium
2. Rechargeables
2.1 Nickel cadmium (sealed)
2.1.1 Cylindrical cells
2.1.2 Button cells
2.2 Nickel-hydride
Total (mio. pieces)
1986
1988
1990
422,5
380
240
140
42,5
445
400
235
165
45
448
400
225
175
48
23,5
23,5
38,5
38,5
43
43
446
483,5
491
1991
1992
1993
1994
646
592
330
262
54
14,4
23
6,6
5
5
80
80
65
15
689
632
345
287
57
12
24,5
6,5
7
7
85
85
69
16
734
669
342
327
65
15
25
8
10
7
86
86
70
16
724
645
335
310
79
6
15
13
15
30
81
81
68
13
726
774
820
805
1995
740
661
330
331
79
5
13
13
18
30
80,6
80
68
12
0,6
820,6
•
alkaline batteries are increasingly substituting zinc-carbon batteries
•
the number of button cells is rising, i.a. due to increasing consumption of lithium and
zinc-air cells
•
zinc-air cells increasingly substitute mercury-oxide batteries that are consumed less
(while mercury oxide cells accounted for a fraction of 74 % of these two systems in
1990, its fraction decreased to 22 % in 1995)
•
rechargeable nickel-hydride batteries are (still) of minor economic importance
•
rechargeables (esp. nickel-cadmium batteries) do not replace non-rechargeables to a
large extent
•
battery consumption per capita amounts to almost ten batteries per year in 1995
8
Cp. Scholl (1995).
- 13 -
•
the most important suppliers of batteries in Germany are Varta, Daimon-Duracell,
Philips and Ralston
•
the German battery industry employs 15,000 workers and has a domestic turnover of
2.5 billion DM
•
there are several smaller producers of special purpose accumulators (e.g.
Sonnenschein)
•
the only domestic producer of primary and secondary equipment batteries is Varta,
reaching a turnover in this business sector of 930 mio DM in the year 1994 (+7%)
3.1.2 Italy9
Table 3.2
The Italian Market for Primary Batteries 1985-1993
(FAST 1990)
Italy
1. Cylindrical
Zinc-carbon
Alkali-manganese
2. Button
Alkali-manganese
Mercury-oxide
Silver-oxide
Zinc-air
Lithium
Total (mio. pieces)
a)
1984
1993a)
1988
Mio
%
Mio
%
Mio
%
244
82
68.9
23.2
217
126
57.9
33.6
165
173
43.9
46.0
1.7
13.7
10.9
1.1
0.6
354
0.4
3.9
3.1
0.3
0.2
100
3.5
14.1
9.9
1.9
2.6
375
0.9
3.8
2.6
0.5
0.7
100
5.7
11.4
8.7
4.6
7.6
376
1.6
3.0
2.3
1.2
2.0
100
Estimates.
•
in 1993 the entire Italian market of primary batteries was estimated at 376 million
pieces (which equals 5 to 6 pieces of equipment batteries per capita)
•
the corresponding total market value was 585 billion lira (ca. 320 mrd ECU)
•
the largest market segment is represented by the mass consumed models zinccarbon and alkali-manganese (90% of the total market)
•
the most widespread model is the mignon format which is about 90% of the total
market
•
zinc-carbon batteries are substituted by alkaline batteries whose market shares rose
from 23.2% in 1984 to 46% in 1993;
•
sales of zinc-air and lithium button cells are increasing
•
sales figures of mercury oxide button cells are falling
•
the Italian battery market is highly dependent on imports (the total market share of
the Italian producers is only 10-15%)
9
Cp. Scholl (1995).
•
- 14 -
market leader is Duracell which controls about 70% of the alkaline battery segment
and 61% of the total market
3.1.3 Sweden10
•
some 4,000 tonnes of consumer batteries have reached the Swedish market in 1994
•
imports of nickel-cadmium batteries rose steadily from 50 tonnes in the seventies to
160 tonnes in 1985 and 519 tonnes in 1990, in 1992 the imports amounted to 635
tonnes
3.1.4 Austria
Table 3.3
Battery consumption in Austria (1993, mio. pieces)
(Umwelt-Forum Batterien 1993)
Austria
•
1993
1. Zinc-carbon + Alkali-manganese
55
2. Button cells
1.5
3. Nickel-cadmium
3.5
Total (mio. pieces)
60
the largest market segment is represented by the mass consumed models zinccarbon and alkali-manganese (more than 90% of the total market)
3.1.5 The Netherlands
Table 3.4
Battery Consumption in The Netherlands (mio. pieces)
(Klingenberg 1994)
The Netherlands
1994
mio. pieces
%
1. Primary, cylindrical
Zinc-carbon
40
36
Alkali-manganese
49
44
Mercury-oxide
1.7
1.5
Zinc-air
7.7
7
Lithium
0.8
0.7
Button cells*
4.7
4
7
7
no information
no information
111
100
2. Primary, button
3. Secondary
Nickel-cadmium
Nickel-hydride
Total
*
except for lithium and zinc-air
10 Swedish Ministry of the Environment (1996).
•
- 15 -
the largest market segment is represented by the mass consumed models zinccarbon and alkali-manganese (80% of the total market)
3.2 Data on Import and Export Streams
On the following two pages we reproduce the data we received from EUROSTAT on imports
and exports of batteries.
Unfortunately, figures for rechargeable batteries are not available.
"Manganese dioxide cells and batteries" comprise zinc-carbon and alkali-manganese
sytems.
Table 3.5
- 16 -
Import Figures for Primary Batteries
(Source: EUROSTAT)
1990
[1000 ECU]
1. manganese-dioxide cells extra EU
1991
[tons]
[1000 ECU]
1992
[tons]
[1000 ECU]
1993
[tons]
[1000 ECU]
1994
[tons]
[1000 ECU]
1995
[tons]
[1000 ECU]
[tons]
75740,98
12146,9
92470,21
15574,6
98052,59
17141,7
126705,72
20927,5
121119,54
18904
134583,16
21200,1
18653,64
2383,6
27339,54
4212,6
24373,12
3294,8
34136,63
5160,5
21415,17
2873,7
26399,29
2935,8
540,89
367,9
806,44
647,4
1562,09
803,7
795,12
490,3
675,55
546
290,06
221,3
Singapore
1353,21
139,3
2156,39
237,7
1332,94
212,7
1627,32
202,6
1844,78
268,8
2030,89
281,4
China
3356,01
1345,9
4188,14
1164,2
7361,05
2178,7
10066,74
2577
11235,84
3466,7
12342,77
3708,1
and batteries
United States
Thailand
South Corea
1967,87
780,1
1800,96
692,9
938,85
258,1
991,3
172,7
757,69
186,6
1324,21
350,6
Japan
14171,56
2370,7
17631,22
2681,8
20076,71
3330,3
19323,6
2494,6
11515,95
1164,3
10303,15
1105,9
Taiwan
3714,66
724,8
4555,3
897,9
3432,3
608,1
2684,19
473,2
3236,78
565,9
3108,12
486,4
Hong-Kong
3163,38
424,7
3708,44
555,1
2683,49
666,9
2543,81
611,2
2918,95
555,8
3045,18
599,1
Australia
418,82
31,8
153,62
13,4
371,15
95,6
44,09
7,1
1717,7
217,6
5,85
1,1
2. mercury-oxide cells and extra EU
7493,66
159,6
7019,01
145,2
5333,21
183,4
5739
251,9
4560,36
144,3
6715,42
315
27,3
batteries
United States
894,99
27,9
465,33
7,6
328,5
8,9
1018,94
28,8
1813,73
25,2
4006,3
China
37,27
21,6
31,93
9,3
139,29
40,3
113,99
63,2
130,75
41,4
213,87
67,8
Japan
2417,41
55,9
2941,06
65,8
2370,03
77,3
2093,23
52,3
1715,82
30,3
1169,75
26,7
331,5
12,1
294,57
15,7
153,66
10,6
169,18
12,6
182,06
16,6
237,84
36,1
extra EU
24433,5
311,3
26467,45
280,1
22110,76
271,7
22194,61
252,1
25227,49
252,5
29051,04
327,5
United States
8410,06
73,8
9466,38
81,1
5564,89
45,4
5486,53
33,6
6925,18
41,9
11154,98
82,1
Japan
5082,23
66,4
6397,93
45,5
6851,38
73,6
7327,18
89,2
8841,64
61,7
7901,5
59,8
838,12
15,2
757,79
13,8
728,93
11,6
906,01
9,4
970,22
9,8
1027,78
15,4
101041,62
8875,3
139862,12
10317,3
131116,73
8547,7
152903,07
9920
170450,24
10630,6
178593,7
11476,8
3886
Hong-Kong
3. silver oxide cells and
batteries
Hong-Kong
4. other primary cells and
extra EU
batteries
United States
44803,93
1669,2
60899,34
2351,8
54888,46
1920,9
71722,03
2135,9
78271,67
2768,1
88472,38
Israel
2431,02
34,9
2702,89
31,1
3584,05
48,2
3057,63
35,1
5416,97
83,4
5045,84
78,4
Thailand
1605,62
1077,3
1600,82
867,2
100,04
61,4
378,72
243,2
449,36
156,1
105,01
38,4
China
2849,77
1732,6
3796,45
1688,8
5445,48
2301,8
7245,56
2796,9
8815,99
3550,5
7936,8
3346,8
South Corea
1258,57
581,7
1219,27
488,2
1318,64
269,7
855,19
219,5
463,14
180,1
855,72
162,4
29577,42
799
44102,97
1006,7
44683,07
970,3
51026,02
1081,3
54275,89
913,2
59253,01
1010,2
3066,6
527,8
2846,64
372,9
1563,89
132,5
1171,88
83,3
1745,18
149,8
3410,02
166,2
3507,43
807
4847,59
941
4457,35
755,4
3819,77
645,4
3146,87
537,9
2738,06
439,6
Japan
Taiwan
Hong-Kong
Table 3.6
- 17 -
Export Figures for Primary Batteries
(Source: EUROSTAT)
1990
[1000 ECU]
1. manganese-dioxide cells
1991
[tons]
[1000 ECU]
1992
[tons]
[1000 ECU]
1993
[tons]
[1000 ECU]
1994
[tons]
[1000 ECU]
1995
[tons]
[1000 ECU]
[tons]
extra EU
86328,99
21783,4
95034,08
20748,5
97458,72
22593,3
153745,2
31179,1
173380,64
31381,4
145261,76
26398
extra EU
882,33
28,9
809,71
30,6
794,17
133,5
1977,35
129,6
2538
365
3420,65
485,2
extra EU
2154,53
34,5
2628,89
51,8
1771,46
139,9
8970,44
84,4
8191,15
123,8
10243
202,7
extra EU
25459,17
1981,3
29957,23
2532,8
27664,5
1761,3
39486,82
2711,9
43149,71
3440,3
40331,43
3606,1
and batteries
2. mercury-oxide cells and
batteries
3. silver oxide cells and
batteries
4. other primary cells and
batteries
- 18 -
4 Approach to the Environmental Assessment
4.1 Introduction
In order to identify the key ecological criteria along the manufacture, use, and disposal of
batteries a streamlined life cycle inventory (LCI) has been undertaken. By means of an LCI
all environmentally relevant inputs and outputs are systematically compiled and assessed.
The inputs encompass e.g. the energy consumption for the mining of raw materials and the
water consumption during the manufacture of a battery. Environmentally relevant outputs
cover e.g. the air emissions during the transport of (pre-) manufactured goods and the
amount of solid waste to be dumped at the end of the useful life of a battery.
While starting the LCI work, we first identified of lack of quantitative data, especially along all
upstream stages, such as pre-production, production, and distribution, since the main focus
of the research carried out so far is on the after-use management on batteries. Furthermore,
the majority of publicly available information stresses the question of hazardous substances
contained, e.g. mercury and cadmium, and pays hardly any attention to aspects of energy
efficiency or raw material extraction.
To date no streamlined, let alone comprehensive LCA on batteries has been undertaken.
There is only one project in the US that intends to carry out a life cycle assessment of
rechargeable batteries in portable devices (Green Design Initiative at the Carnegie Mellon
University). However, this study is at its very beginning and this did not allow us to refer to
their experiences to a large extent. Hence, we have been obliged to evaluate related LCA
studies and other secondary sources and also expert interviews to provide us with the
necessary information.
4.2 Approach to Streamlined Life Cycle Inventory
The reference points for conducting the streamlined LCI have been the "Guidelines for the
application of life-cycle assessment in the EU eco-labelling award scheme" as they have
been drawn up by the Groupe des Sages (Groupe des Sages 1994). They are based on the
"Code of Practice" of the Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC
1993). According to these guidelines LCA is divided into several components which are:
•
goal definition and scoping (e.g. scope of the study, definition of the functional unit,
delineation of the system boundaries),
•
inventory analysis (identification and, where possible, quantification of inputs from and
outputs to the environment),
•
impact assessment (classification, characterisation, and validation of the effects on
the environment),
•
improvement assessment (formulating options for reducing the environmental
impacts),
•
- 19 -
validation (sensitivity analyses, external review).
The streamlined LCI that will be presented in this report includes the first two components.
Goal definition and scoping encompasses the segmentation of the product group (see
Section 2.6 "Definition of the Product Group") and the definition of the functional unit (see
Section 4.3 "Functional Unit").
The inventory analysis intends to help identify the key ecological issues of batteries for
consumer goods (see Chapter 5).
Due to restricted data availability we were not able to carry out an impact assessment.
The improvement assessment is reflected by the formulation of potential ecological criteria
for the award of an ecolabel.
A validation is part of the LCA steps in ecolabelling in the framework of the Ad Hoc Working
Group.
Due to resource constraints we have tried to find a happy medium between an "academic",
highly detailed and a more pragmatic approach without running the risk to argue on a too
narrow scientific basis. Therefore, we streamlined the LCA. "Streamlining" refers to two main
aspects. The first aspect regards the exclusion of certain stages of the life cycle and the
second aspect the confinement to qualitative information in case where quantitative data are
not available.
4.3 Functional Unit
In order to compare the environmental performance of different battery systems it is
necessary to establish some unit of their performance. The environmental effects associated
with such a functional unit can then be compared among different batteries that deliver the
same functional unit.
The product group of batteries is a very heterogeneous one, because most of the batteries
have very special applications and cannot be interchanged among each other. Since a
common functional unit only makes sense for interchangeable batteries, it is necessary to
establish functional units for each subgroup, or at least different functional units for button
cells and other batteries.
The functional unit we used is based on the capacity of a battery. It is set the following way:
•
functional unit of button cells: 100 mAh,
•
functional unit of cylindrical batteries: 1000 mAh.
4.4 System Boundaries
The overriding objective of an LCA in the ecolabelling context is to identify significant relative
differences between batteries in terms of their environmental performance and it is not in the
first place to make statements with regard to the absolute environmental impact of a battery
- 20 -
as such. Hence, the emphasis of our approach is on a horizontal comparison between
different battery systems in the same application and not so much on a vertical perspective
that tries to assess the entire environmental burden of one specific battery system.
4.4.1 Raw Materials Acquisition and Pre-production
Concerning the raw materials acquisition, only qualitative information can be given about
most of the raw materials. Until now, very few materials have been investigated
quantitatively during other life cycle inventories, e.g. steel or copper.
Anyway, the raw material contents of identical battery systems of different producers show in
most cases no significant differences, at least if they are produced in Europe.
On the other hand, the raw material market is a world market. That means that the battery
raw materials are usually produced in the same or a similar way, so in this regard there are
no significant differences among battery manufacturers as well.
In principle, we tried to inventorise the input of raw materials such as mineral ores, coal, oil
as raw material for plastics, and wood. Furthermore, we tried to consider the input of
auxiliary materials, energy, and water. The outputs are co-products, solid waste, emissions
into air, and emissions into water. The production, utilization, and waste management of
consumables and machines is not taken into account.
Very little information is available on the pre-production stage. The pre-production comprises
the manufacturing of semi-products.
4.4.2 Production
The production stage of batteries for consumer goods appears to be a kind of "black box".
There are hardly any publicly available data on production processes. Our main source of
information for the production stage has been the producers’ questionnaire.
In principle, we attempted to inventorise all inputs, such as raw, auxiliary and working
materials, packaging, energy, and water, and all outputs, such as co-products, solid waste,
emissions into air, and into water. The production, utilization, and waste management of
consumables and machines is not taken into account.
4.4.3 Distribution
A first screening of the distribution issue has revealed that environmental impacts from
transports might be neglectable for mainly two reasons:
•
transport appears to display hardly any significant differences between different
batteries from different producers in terms of transport media and transport distances,
•
- 21 -
distribution is of very small environmental importance compared to the final disposal
stage11.
Furthermore, this stage had to be excluded from further investigation, because data on
transport media and distances were not available.
4.4.4 Use
The use stage of the battery life cycle has been taken into account by considering the
material and energy efficiency of batteries. Thereby, a linkage has been created between the
environmental profile of rechargeables and non-rechargeables.
In case of rechargeables a charger is needed for periodically re-charging the battery.
Therefore, it is in principle part of the product system. However, the environmental impact of
charging devices (production of the charger, energy consumption for charging) might be very
small when the battery throughput during their lifetime is high. However, energy losses
during re-charging might be substantial. This aspect has been included in the assessment.
4.4.5 After-use-management
The after-use-management of batteries consists of recycling, landfilling and incineration. As
mentioned above, the transport appears to be of minor importance compared to the disposal
of batteries and has not been considered in this stage of the life cycle.
Only two groups of batteries are recycled in significant amounts. These are the NiCad
accumulators and the mercury containing button cells such as alkali manganese, silver
oxide, and zinc air. As previously mentioned, mercury oxide button cells are excluded from
the product group because of their planned phase out in 1999. Hence, the recycling
processes of these two battery groups were considered. We attempted to inventorise the
energy input and the solid waste, water emissions, and air emissions output, at least in form
of qualitative data.
Concerning landfilling, we tried to collect data on soil contamination, water emissions
through leachate, and air emissions output. For some substances, quantitative data were
available, but in most cases only qualitative data could be collected.
For incineration the situation is a similar one. There are quantitative data available in very
few cases. We tried to consider energy input and the outputs of solid waste, water
emissions, and air emissions.
Like in the other stages of the life cycle, the production, utilization, and waste management
of consumables and machines have not been taken into account.
11 Hofstetter/Häne (1990) find that transport of 1 ton of used batteries over a distance of 200 km by truck has the
same environmental impact as the disposal of 1 gramme (!) of a NiCad battery in terms of air pollution, i.e.
distribution is only 1 ‰ of disposal.
- 22 -
4.5 Data Sources and General Assumptions
As already mentioned above, any streamlined or comprehensive LCA for batteries for
consumer goods has not been undertaken so far. However, since our streamlined LCI
approach requires large amounts of (quantitative) data, we were forced on the one hand to
refer to existing inventories and databases that have been compiled for other product groups
and basic materials and on the other hand to collect new on-site foreground data mainly
coming from battery manufacturers.
Furthermore, we carried out a comprehensive literature search by evaluating technical
magazines, encyclopedia, handbooks, conference proceedings, written information from
battery producers (e.g. catalogues, safety data sheets), and several other reports related to
the battery issue.
The collection of new on-site data was managed by a producers’ questionnaire.
Data on the chemical and materials composition of batteries is largely available, except for
"new" batteries, such as lithium cells. Hence, it appeared reasonable for us to follow - as far
as possible - a materials based approach: Knowing the relative percentages of substances
like cadmium, steel, or copper in a specific battery, we tried to assess the environmental
burden of the battery by "mixing" the environmental burdens of the different materials
contained. However, we have not always been able to stick to this approach closely,
especially due to a lack of suitable data for single substances.
- 23 -
5 Results of the Streamlined Life-cycle Inventory
A process tree of the life cycle of a battery is shown on the next page.
5.1 Raw Materials Acquisition and Pre-Production
Batteries are not a complex good, such as TV sets or cars. The number of substances used
in batteries is quite limited. In Table 5.1 the consumption of raw materials of batteries sold in
Europe is illustrated. The figures have been calculated on the basis of the material
composition and the EPBA sales figures of the batteries under consideration. The figures for
cadmium and nickel also comprise the material flows from battery packs.
Table 5.1
Estimated consumption of (raw-)materials in batteries sold
in Europe in 199512
Raw material
Amount in Batteries Europe 1995 in t
(estimation)
1. Manganese dioxide
45,600
2. Iron
32,900
3. Zinc
31,500
4. Aqueous solution of ammonium
chloride
10,500
5. Aqueous solution of potassium
hydroxide
8,400
6. Carbon, activated carbon
7,100
7. Plastics, paper, bitumen
3,900
8. Cadmium*
2,600
9. Nickel*
2,600
10.Copper
1,500
11.Zinc oxide
12.Tin
13.Mercury
600
< 100
40
Source: own calculation
*
Comprising nickel-cadmium sinlge cells and packs. Nickel metal hydride batteries have not been included due
to lacking data.
In quantitative terms manganese dioxide, zinc, and iron are the most important materials
used for batteries. However, it is obvious that the estimated 40 tons of mercury and 2,600
tons of cadmium consumed for batteries in Europe in 1995 might be even more important in
terms of their potential environmental impact.
12 The figures refer to the EU Member States excluding Luxembourg and including Norway and Switzerland!
- 24 -
- 25 -
cadmium
lead
production
lithium
of anodes
charger
metal hydride
open loop recycling
zinc
ore mining
closed loop recycling
carbon
lead dioxide
and
manganese dioxide
production
nickel oxide
of cathodes
recycling
silver oxide
mercuric oxide
ammonium chloride
chemical
processing
potassium hydroxide
sulphuric acid
production
of electrolytes
zinc chloride
manufacturing
of batteries
after use
trade
use
management
landfilling
iron / steel
copper / brass
production
tin
of casings
incineration
poly carbon
monofluoride
oil drilling and
organic solvents
chemical
processing
plastics
bitumen
production
paper
forestry plantations
of packaging
- 26 -
Below we list additional empirical evidence that has been found during our literature search.
The information given there does not yet include LCA data we found in related studies for
steel, copper, lead, and zinc.
•
cadmium production accounts for 16,000 to 18,000 tons annually worldwide, it is a
co-product of zinc13
•
production and winning of cadmium within EC 12 has been estimated at 1,614 tons in
198714, i.e. about 10 percent of the world production
•
pure cadmium is mostly produced in Japan, Canada, China, Australia and Peru, most
important European producer is Belgium15
•
the annual world consumption of cadmium for small, rechargeable NiCd batteries is
about 8,500 tons, i.e. half of the world wide cadmium production16
•
6 million tons of zinc are used annually in the world, the zinc consumption due to
batteries is less than 1 percent17
•
zinc is a limited resource, the world resources are at the current technical level
achieved for mining in the range of 20 to 40 years18
One can conclude from this that
•
apart from its eco- and human-toxicity cadmium use in batteries is reponsible for the
major fraction in cadmium flows world wide,
•
although zinc consumption for batteries appears to be quite modest, one should strive
for an economical utilization of this limited resource.
5.2 Production
Information on input and output streams along the production stage of the battery life cycle
has been covered by the producers' questionnaire. However, data provided were often of
rather poor quality. On average, only figures on battery composition and energy
consumption for manufacture have been provided in quantitative terms, i.e. as min-maxintervals.
Battery Composition
For reasons of confidentiality we have not been able to reproduce the figures provided by
the EPBA on the battery composition. Comprehensive and publicly available information on
this issue is given in Baumann/Muth (1996).
13 Swedish Ministry of the Environment 1996, Electrolux News Release 1.10.96
14 Vonkemann (1996).
15 Ibid.
16 Electrolux News Release 1.10.96.
17 Wiaux (1995).
18 Ibid.
- 27 -
Other Production-related Issues
•
The manufacturing of primary batteries is either a dry or mechanical process. The
working of dry powders (manganese dioxide, silver oxide, mercury oxide and zinc)
causes dust emissions, which have to be extracted. When mercury oxide or zinc
powder is processed, the floors are damply cleaned afterwards. The waste water
emerging then has also to be cleaned before discharge19.
•
Total manufacturing losses of cadmium during NiCad production are estimated at 0.2
percent20.
•
The emissions of cadmium into the environment (air, water) by the battery production
are summarised in Table 5.2 below.
Table 5.2
Emissions of Cadmium into the Environment in EC 12 for 1987
(Source: Vonkemann 1996)
Cd Emissions
into
Total EC 12 in
1987 in t
Total from Battery
Production in t
Percentage of
Industry
Emissions
Percentage of
Entire Emissions
Air
126
11
16.0 %
8.7 %
Water
229
3
1.9 %
1.3 %
From this preliminary analysis of the production stage one can conclude that
•
at least cadmium emissions into the air caused by battery production Europe appear
not to be neglectable21.
5.3 Distribution and Transport
Apart from the two cutting criteria that have been briefly discussed already in Section 4.4.3
(assumption of no significant differences among the producers and neglectable relative
importance of the distribution stage) the fact that we have not received any quantified data
on transport media and transport distances led to the exclusion of this stage.
We have to admit, however, that transport might gain attention when the re-distribution of
spent batteries is regarded. Recycling plants for battery mixes are available only in
Switzerland so far, facilities for the recycling of NiCads only in France and Sweden. Hence,
when a used nickel cadmium battery collected in Spain is brought to Sweden for recycling,
this might exert considerable influence on its overall ecological balance and also in
comparison to other batteries of the same subgroup, such as metal hydride, that do not yet
enter recycling streams and therefore have not to be transported over such long distances.
19 Hiller et al. (1990).
20 Walker (1996).
21 However, 1987 figures might have fallen during the last couple of years as indicated by the 0.2 percent of total
manufacturing losses.
- 28 -
However, due to a lack of suitable data one were obliged to make several assumptions in
order to assess the environmental impact of the transports caused by the after use
management of batteries. Apart from the fact that resource constraints did not allow us to go
into detail of the environmental analysis of the (re-)distribution stage, one can assume that it
is also rather difficult to derive ecological criteria from such "scenario" assessment.
5.4 Use
As already mentioned the use of a battery is normally not a direct source of environmental
impacts. Only the question wether a battery can be re-used or not impinges on its overall
energy and material consumption. These aspects are refered to in Sections 5.6 and 5.7.
5.5 After-Use Management
In spite of the efforts that have been taken to separate batteries from normal household
waste streams they are still responsible for a large fraction of heavy metals, especially
mercury, zinc, cadmium, nickel in it (see Table 5.3).
Table 5.3
Presence of heavy metals from batteries in household waste (1988)
Presence of heavy metals (in % of total load) in household waste fractions
Total load
(mg/kg dry)
Cadmium
(3-15)
Fines <10 mm
1-2
Fines 10-20 mm
1-2
Organics
2-3
Paper/carton
Nickel
(80)
12-13a
Zinc
Copper
(1000-2000) (200-600)
Lead
(400-1200)
Mercury
(4-5)
5
7
5-7
5
33-39
13-16
1
16-19
5
4-6
5-13
2
1-2
9-11
8-9
7-8
18-19
2-4
Textiles
2
3-4
1
1-2
1
1
Leather
4
3
1-2
3-8
1
11-13
Rubber
PVC
36-40
Other plastic
13-14
Glass
24-25
3-4
4-7
8-9
6-10
1
1
2
1
27-31
35-41
12-13
2-31
1
44-47
12
1
Ferrous metal
Non-ferrous
Batteries
6-7
39-48
2
20-22
1
1
93
Source: Rousseaux (1988) in White et al. (1995)
The data provided in the table might overestimate the contribution of batteries, since they
are from 1988 where an active after-use management of batteries was at its very beginning.
More recent data suggests that at least the cadmium and nickel loads from batteries into
- 29 -
the household waste are substantial22. For instance, the analysis of heavy metal inputs into
a Swiss incineration plant shows that
•
zinc from batteries causes 10% of zinc input,
•
cadmium from batteries (nickel-cadmium) causes 85% of cadmium input23, and
•
nickel from batteries (nickel-cadmium) causes 67% of nickel input.
5.5.1 Recycling
Prior to their (environmentally sound) after-use management spent batteries need to be
separately collected in order to enable the recycling of certain battery systems. Re-collection
schemes have already been established in the majority of the European countries, although
their success is limited so far (see Tables 5.4 and 5.5).
Table 5.4
Re-collection of batteries in Europe
Countrya)
Battery System
Return Quota
Reference Year
Austria
no specification
60%
?
Belgium
no specification
40%
1994
Denmark
NiCads
20%
"beginning of the
90-ties"
Germany
HgO button cells
Zn AG2O button cells
NiCads
36%
80%
34%
1994
Italy
no specification
20%b)
1992
NiCads
35%
1993
button cells
other batteries
80%
50%
1994
1994
51%
1994
Sweden
c)
Switzerland
The Netherlands primary batteries
Sources: Warmer Bulletin 2/95, 2/96, ZVEI, Scholl (1995), Swedish Ministry of the Environment (1996), BUWAL
(1994), Ministry of Housing (1996)
a)
Countries for which return quotas were not available have been ommitted.
b)
The figure refers to the Province of Milan. The figure for the whole of Italy might be somewhat below, due to the
fact that only 30% of local municipalities in Italy have activated the separate collection of spent batteries.
c)
Switzerland has been included, because collection rates for used batteries are among the highest in Europe.
22 Recently, it has been claimed that even 60 to 70 percent of cadmium in household waste stems from NiCd
batteries (Sundberg 21.10.96).
23 One must note here that recycling quotas for nickel-cadmium batteries are up to 55% in Switzerland.Hence, with
less NiCads being recycled their contribution to the heavy metal load in incineration would even be bigger.
Table 5.5
- 30 -
Re-collection of nickel cadmium batteries by application in Japan (1994)
Application
Return Quota
Emergency
17.1%
Home appliances
18.7%
Office equipment
7.5%
Communication
36.3%
Power tools and toys
6.7%
Others
13.6%
Source: Mukunoki/Fujimoto (1996)
One can conclude from these tables that
•
the majority of spent batteries is not returned at all, i.e. is either incinerated or
landfilled,
•
the collection of button cells appears to work quite well,
•
collection rates of nickel cadmium batteries are still very modest in the EU,
•
the situation is different for Japan; keeping in mind, however, that power tools are the
main application of NiCads the absolute re-collection seems to be modest as well.
One can assume that in case of NiCads the return quotas do more or less coincide with the
fraction of NiCads being recycled. At least for Japan the figures provided in Table 5.5
represent the percentage of NiCads that have been sent to recyclers in 1994. In other
sources it was estimated that portable NiCd batteries are recycled only at a rate of 7 to 10
percent24.
From a technical point of view, recycling technologies are available and partly already
working for all different kinds of batteries, i.e. in principle all batteries for consumer goods
can be recycled.
As already mentioned, only nickel cadmium accumulators and mercury containing button
cells (mercury oxide, alkali manganese, silver oxide, zinc air) are actually recycled in
significant amounts. However, an overview of todays' recycling capacities for different
battery types in Europe indicates that25
•
the recycling capacity for household batteries and battery mixes is about 9000 t/a and
•
hence, less than 10 % of all household batteries sold in Europe can be recycled today.
Material Efficiency of Recycling
It is not possible to calculate the material efficiency of each recycling process of batteries.
The data on materials inputs and outputs available so far are mostly of a qualitative nature,
24 OECD (1996), p.240 and David (1995), p.2.
25 See Table 6.2 in Chapter 6.
- 31 -
i.e. material flows are described but not exactly quantified. Hence, we are not able to give
clear suggestions as to the material efficiency of battery recycling.
With regard to the SAFT-NIFE process of NiCad recycling in Sweden the following figures
have been reported26:
•
capacity 1.500 tons/year,
•
Cd-emissions into air < 1 kg/year,
•
water consumption 4 m3/t batteries, i.e. 6.000 m3/year,
•
Cd-emissions into water 0,03 mg/l, i.e. about 0.2 kg Cd/year.
Energy Efficiency of Recycling
It is not possible to calculate the energy efficiency of each recycling process of batteries
either. Quantified data are available only on a few occasions. The Swiss Recytec Process
for battery mixes (excluding button cells), for instance, has an energy input of 1.2 KW per kg
of recycled battery.
Another source suggests that "reproduction of waste (primary) batteries may require seven
to ten times as much energy as is necessary to produce batteries from original materials"27.
For the US Inmetco process of NiCad and NiMH recycling it has been reported that it "is
50% more energy efficient than metal production from virgin ore"28.
Johansson (1996) provides information on the energy balance for the recycling of 100 kg NiCd batteries within the SAFT-NIFE process (with heat exchanger): The decomposition of the
plastic material generates 139 kWh per 100 kg of sealed Ni-Cd batteries. The distillation
process requires 113 kWh per 100 kg of batteries. So the whole process generates 26 kWh
per 100 kg of batteries. The same process carried out without heat exchanger requires 350
kWh per 100 kg of batteries.
5.5.2 Incineration
Assuming that due to insufficient separate collection the majority of spent batteries in Europe
still ends up in municipal solid waste (MSW) one can take figures on the current state of
MSW incineration in the Member States as a hint for the relevance of this disposal option for
batteries (see Table 5.6).
26 Hanewald (1996).
27 Sasakura/Wada (1996).
28 Hanewald (1996).
Table 5.6
- 32 -
Incineration in Europe
The current state of MSW incineration in Europe
Country
No. of MSW
incineration plants
% of MSW
incinerated
Austria
2
8,5%
Belgium
25
54%
Denmark
38
65%
Finland
2%
France
170
42%
Germany (unified)
49
34%
Greece
0
0%
Ireland
0
0%
Italy
94
18%
Luxembourg
2
69%
Netherlands
8
35%
Portugal
0
0%
Spain
23
6%
Sweden
23
56%
UK
34
8%
Sources: European Energy from Waste Coalition (1993), Shell
Petrochemicals (1992), Warmer Campaign (1990), RCEP (1993),
MOPT (1992), OECD (1993) in White et al. (1995)
The table shows that
•
in some European countries incineration of MSW plays hardly any or a minor role
(Greece, Ireland, Portugal, Finland, Spain, United Kingdom, Austria),
•
in other countries it is of medium importance (Italy, Germany, The Netherlands,
France) and
•
in a few countries it is the dominating dipsosal option for MSW (Luxembourg,
Denmark, Sweden, Belgium).
Analysis of an incineration plant in Switzerland has revealed that the contributions from
batteries to the cadmium, nickel, and zinc inputs account for 85, 67 and 10 percent29.
Having entered the incineration process once, the substances are distributed among the
different output streams, such as slag, flue gas etc.. The same study has made an attempt to
quantify these fractions for several battery elements (see Table 5.7).
29 Lemann (1995).
Table 5.7
- 33 -
Distribution of battery components in the various fractions of incineration
Element
Slag
ESP-dust
Flue gas
7%
89 %
0%
4%
0%
Nickel
89 %
10 %
n.a.
1%
0%
Zinc
37 %
60 %
2%
3%
0%
Manganese
83 %
16 %
n.a.
1%
0%
1%
2%
6%
91 %
0%
Cadmium
Mercury
Sludge*
Waste water
Source: Lemann (1995)
*
Sludge from the waste water pre-treatment plant of the flue gas treatment system
n.a. not analysed
The incineration residues that contain large quantities of toxic substances have to be
disposed of properly in order to avoid negative impacts on the environment. Two major
options exist
•
Slag (nickel, manganese): Usually disposed of in capped landfills or reused in road
construction. If the latter alternative is chosen, the washing out of heavy metals may
exert some negative environmental impact.
•
ESP-dust (cadmium, zinc): Is not reused so far. Must be disposed of in capped
landills.
5.5.3 Landfilling
Under landfill conditions batteries will undergo degradation which could lead to the leaching
out of the chemical substances contained. A study of the Institute for Risk Research (1992)
says that "under ideal landfill conditions, metals will not leach rapidly through landfills and
soils into ground water". At the same time, they have to admit that "metals do not
decompose or degrade, and thus have the potential of leaching into aquifers over long
periods of time" (p.iv). Summarising they say that "most household batteries (alkaline and
zinc-carbon batteries) may be safely disposed of in municipal landfills ...".
Sundberg (1995) reports that "a landfill test with NiCd batteries in Japan shows that buried
sealed NiCd batteries have caused little or no leaching of cadmium after 17 years. However,
this is explained by the fact that corrosion of the outer casings of the batteries has started,
but not yet exposed the interior of the batteries." Sundberg concludes that "the present
leachage of cadmium from the landfills does not at all reflect the present consumption of
NiCd batteries".
5.5.4 Assessment of After-use Management Options
In this section we will briefly summarise the approach and findings of a study which aims at
assessing the environmental impacts of different after-use options for batteries for consumer
goods.
The study comprising an inventory stage, impact assessment and improvement analysis and
carried out in Japan (Tanaka et al. 1995) on the disposal options for mercury containing dry
batteries found that
- 34 -
•
the first best option is to reduce the mercury content of the batteries,
•
the second best option is safe landfilling as hazardous waste and
•
the third best option is incineration with a flue gas scrubber (wet process).
5.6 Energy Efficiency of Batteries for Consumer Goods
Above, we have mentioned a few suggestions as to the energy consumption along the lifecycle of a battery. A comprehensive assessment, however, has not yet been undertaken.
We have tried to do so, considering the upstream stages, i.e. the energy content of the
materials used, the manufacture of the battery, and its packaging. This enabled us to
compare the energy input along upstream stages with the energy output during the operating
time of a battery, i.e. to arrive at an indicator for the energy efficiency.
Our assessment of the energy consumption of batteries has been based on the following
assumptions and constraints:
•
the energy consumption for transports could not have been considered due to a lack
of data on transport distances and transport media,
•
figures for the energy consumption of the battery manufacture have been provided by
the EPBA, figures for the energy consumption along upstream stages, i.e. mainly for
the extraction and refinement of the materials used, were taken from suitable (LCA-)
studies and other manuals,
•
publicly available literature often provides (slightly) different figures for the energy
consumption of a certain material, in this case we have taken the minimum value or
the figure that is mentioned most often respectively,
•
in case our calculations have been based on the data provided by the producers'
questionnaire we give min and max values, since the information obtained from them
was intervals as well.
In Table 5.8 below figures for the energy consumption of different battery materials are
presented.
In the framework of the energy assessment figures for the upstream energy consumption of
the batteries have been derived from the energy contents of relevant materials (see Table
5.8).30 For an alkaline mignon battery, for instance, we have taken into account the energy
needed for the supply of manganese, zinc, and steel and built the sum of these three figures
according to their fraction in the battery.
Table 5.8
Materials
Aluminium
Overview of the Energy Consumption of Relevant Materials
Considered Process
Energy Consumption
Extraction plus Electrolysis
90.6 MJ/kg
Source
Römpp (1990 ff.)
30 In general, only those materials have been considered of which the percentage of weight is not less than 10 %.
Materials that are obviously extremely energy consuming are exempted from this rule.
- 35 -
Cadmium
Electrolysis
Iron/steel
4.5 MJ/kg
Ullmann (1986)
Material-related consumption
30.0 MJ/kg
Fritsche et al. (1994)
Cobalt
Electrolysis
23.4 MJ/kg
Ullmann (1986)
Carbon
Production of graphite
7.2 MJ/kg
Ullmann (1986)
Lithium
Electrolysis
51.12 MJ/kg
Ullmann (1990)
Manganese
Electrolysis
32.4 MJ/kg
Ullmann (1990)
Nickel
Production from sulphidic ores
43.2 MJ/kg
Lackmann et al. (1991)
Silver
Electrolysis
2.16 MJ/kg
Ullmann (1993)
Zinc
Production from raw material
65.0 MJ/kg
Ullmann (1995)
The min-/max-figures for the battery manufacture have been obtained from the EPBA.
The energy consumption of the packaging was calculated from well known figures of
different packaging materials31 and information from the EPBA on the composition of the
battery packaging. Since we obtained data on packaging compositions only for primary
mignon cells and alkaline button cells, we assumed that compositions were the same with
secondary mignons and button cells other than alkali-manganese.
In order to make energy figures slightly more comparable we put them into relation to the
functonal unit which is 1,000 mAh for of cylindrical batteries and 100 mAh for button cells.
However, one should note that cross-comparisons might be misleading to some extent due
to the fact that figures calculated for each battery system are based on different
assumptions, i.e. the system boundaries do not always correspond.
The last column of Table 5.9 below summarising technical data on different battery systems
provides information on the amount of energy that is theoretically supplied by a battery
during its lifetime. It is the product of the voltage and the capacity (V x Ah). When this figure
is put into relation to the amount of energy consumed along upstream stages and the
manufacture of batteries, one arrives at an indicator of the energy efficiency, i.e. of the
relationship of energy input and energy output.
Table 5.9
Technical Data on Different Battery Systems
Battery
Alkali-manganese
Zinc-carbon
Lithium
Zinc-air
Silver-oxide
NiCd
NiMH
Type
LR6
R6
CR2016
PR44
SR44
KR6
HR6
Weight
[g]
22
21
2
1.9
2.33
26
25
Nominal
Voltage [V]
Capacity
[Ah]
1.5
1.5
3
1.4
1.5
1.2
1.2
2.7
1.1
0.07
0.4
0.17
0.75
1.0
Useable
Energy [Wh]
4.05
1.65
0.21
0.56
0.26
0.9
1.2
As far as rechargeable batteries are concerned we made a few specific assumptions:
•
for rechargeable alkaline batteries we use the same figures (for the composition and
energy consumption during manufacture) as for non-rechargeables,
31 Cp. BUWAL (1996).
- 36 -
•
we do not consider capacity losses that may occur during the re-charging of the
battery,
•
we do not consider the rate of self-discharge,
•
we do not consider energy losses during primary energy supply, and
•
we do not consider the energy consumption for supplying the charging device.
The latter four assumptions yield "conservative" estimates of the energy consumed and,
thereby, imply slightly overestimated figures for the energy efficiency of rechargeables.
Figures have been calculated similarly to non-rechargeable batteries.
For reasons of confidentiality we have not been permitted to publish the energy data on the
manufacturing and packaging of batteries. The publicly accessable findings of our results
are reproduced in the "Final Summary Report" (see Table 4.1).
5.7 Material Efficiency of Batteries for Consumer Goods
Our suggestions as to the material efficiency of batteries for consumer goods have
completely been incorporated in the "Final Summary Report" (see Table 4.2).
Apart from that, the survey among battery manufacturers has revealed that
•
material consumption per functional unit varies among different suppliers of the same
battery system (mainly due to varying capacities), and
•
material efficiency with respect to a specific substance varies among different
batteries of the same sub-group (e.g. mercury inputs for alkaline and zinc carbon
mignon cells).
For reasons of confidentiality we have not been permitted to publish the figures on battery
composition we obtained from the producers.
5.8 Results of the Streamlined Life Cycle Inventory
The findings of the life cycle inventory with respect to key environmental issues of the
product group can be summarised the following way:
Input-related Environmental Issues
•
the depletion of non-renewable resources through battery consumption cannot be
clearly assessed on present empirical grounds
•
the material efficiency correlates positively with the capacity and negatively with the
rate of self-discharge of the battery
•
batteries appear to be rather inefficient in terms of energy (for round cells the energy
input exceeds the energy output at least by a factor of 40, for button cells this factor is
between 90 and 500)
Output-related Environmental Issues
- 37 -
•
collection and recycling of batteries (except for button cells) is not yet working on a
large scale
•
batteries are a major cause of at least cadmium and nickel loads into the household
waste
•
zinc and cadmium inputs into incineration plants are mainly caused by batteries
•
landfilling of batteries containing hazardous substances appears to be rather safe in
the short term, but may cause negative environmental effects in the mid to long term
when battery casings corrode and the interior is being exposed
Correspondingly, we conclude that for batteries for consumer goods
•
the content of hazardous substances is of high importance,
•
the energy efficiency is of medium importance,
•
and the material efficiency is of small importance
- 38 -
6 Appendix
Table 6.1:
Price Comparison of Different Batteries
(Source: Conrad Electronic 1997)
Battery System
Format
Subgroup
IEC No.
Price/pc.
(ECU)
Price/f.u.
(ECU)
LiMnO2
b
1
CR 2016
2.60
4.30
Alkali-manganese
b
2
LR 44
0.22
0.18
Silver oxide
b
2
SR 44
2.60
1.44
Zinc-air
b
2
PR 44
1.74
0.29
LiMnO2
c, mignon
3
4.16
1.39
Zinc-carbon
c, mignon
4
R6
1.0
0.90
Alkali-maganese
c, mignon
4
LR 6
1.16
0.50
Zinc-carbon
9V block
6
1.90
4.22
Alkali-maganese
9V block
6
4.0
7.02
Lithium-Ion
b
7
n.a.
n.a.
Nickel-cadmium
b
8
2.4V
6.18
2.75
Nickel-metalhydride
b
8
2.4V
5.18
4.32
Nickel-cadmium
c, mignon
9
1.2V
2.24
2.99
Nickel-metalhydride
c, mignon
9
1.2V
5.24
4.37
Rech. alkali-manganese
c, mignon
9
1.5V
3.66
3.66
p
11
6V, 2Ah
6.82
3.41
Non-rechargeables
Rechargeables
Lead
Explanation:
b
button cell
c
cylindrical cell
p
pack
f.u.
functional unit (button cells 100mAh, cylindrical cells and 9V blocks 1000mAh)
1,90 DM = 1 ECU
Nota bene:
The above comparison is not derived from a comprehensive market survey. It only refers to
sales prices of one specific battery dealer in Germany (mail order business). Therefore, it
should be regarded as an exemplary illustration.
Table 6.2
- 39 -
Overview of Recycling Facilities for Batteries for Consumer Goods
Organization (country)
Input
Capacity
Batrec (CH)
zinc carbon, alkali manganese
(household batteries)
3 000 t/a
Recytec (CH)
battery mix; no button cells
NQR (D)
mercury containing button cells
SNAM/
SAVAM (F)
nickel-cadmium batteries
TNO (NL)
battery mix
unknown
SAFT-NIFE (S)
nickel-cadmium batteries
1 000 t/a
Batenus (D)
battery mix
Indaver (B)
mercuric oxide button cells
unknown
EMC Services (F)
unknown
Trienekens (D)
unknown
Claushuis (NL)
unknown
Minas de Almaden Y Arrayness (E)
unknown
Recypilas (E)
unknown
4000 - 5 000 t/a
commercial operation
4 000t/a
planned, 800 -1200 t/a
- 40 -
7 References
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BUWAL Bulletin 2/88, 1/90
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