Decline of

Transcription

Decline of

1
A Life Course Framework
for Improving the Lives of
Boys and Men of Color
ARNOLD CHANDLER
FORWARD CHANGE CONSULTING
Overview
 Why
a Focus on Boys and Men of Color
(BMOC)?: A Vicious Cycle of Male
Disadvantage
A
Life Course Framework for Improving the
Lives of BMOC: Interrupting the Cycle
2
3
Why Focus on Boys
and Men of Color?
Why Focus on BMOC?
4

Gross disparities in particular negative outcomes: Violence victimization and offending,
crime and incarceration.

Males of color are showing negative or stagnant trends in key opportunity outcomes
relative to females: Employment and Earnings, High school graduation, college
enrollment and completion

A vicious cycle of intergenerational male disadvantage: Single parent families are
significantly more damaging to male educational outcomes than females.
Intergenerational Cycle of Male
Disadvantage since the 1970s
Declining
Employ
and
Earnings
Mass
Incarceration
and the War
on Drugs
Declining
Educational
Attainment
Growth of
SingleParent
Families
Rise in
Concentrated
Disadvantage
6
Declining Employment and
Earnings
Demand-Side Shifts in Employment
Technological Change
Declining
Employment
and Earnings
Off-shoring of middle-skill jobs and
import competition (China)
Decline in Unions
Suburbanization of low-skilled jobs
(“spatial mismatch”)
Autor and
Wasserman,
2013
Legal discrimination against felons
Illegal Employment Discrimination in
Low-Wage Jobs
Declining Male Employment
8
Joblessness among Native-Born Males
Ages 18-61
Heavily
1950-2010
concentrated
among those
who didn’t
attend college
13%
8%
42%
29%
22%
12%
8%
15%
10%
6%
21%
12%
7%
14%
7%
17%
10%
24%
17%
6%
1950
1960
1970
Black
1980
Latino
1990
White
2000
2010
Winters and
Hirsch, 2012
Declining Male Earnings
9
Autor and
Wasserman,
2013
Declining Male Earnings…
10
Real Median Earnings 2000 and 2010
(1999 Dollars)
Native Born Men Ages 18-61
$33,000
$27,729
Lower than 1950 in
real terms
$17,900
$17,500
$15,405
$7,702
Black Men
Latino Male
2000
2010
White Male
Winters and
Hirsch, 2012
11
Mass Incarceration and Declining
Employment and Earnings
Rise of Mass Criminalization

Imprisonment increased by 430 percent
between 1973 and 2010 largely because of
changes in policy that increased prison
admissions and sentence lengths,
particularly for drugs in the 1980s (Travis and
Declining
Employment
and Earnings
Western, 2014)

Felony conviction and/or imprisonment
reduces lifetime earnings and employment
by 10-30 percent. (Travis and Western, 2014)

The explosion in the market for crack
cocaine in the 1980s increased withdrawal
from high school and the labor force,
particularly among black males. Together
cocaine, heroin, marijuana and meth
comprised a $109 billion industry in 2010.
Mass
Criminalization
(RAND, 2014)
2.3 million in prisons
or jails (2012) BJS
Explosion in the
Drug Economy
in the 1980s
13
14
Lifetime Risk of Imprisonment by Age 35 for
Males in 2010
(by Education Level)
68%
27%
12%
All
20%
28%
21%
9%
5%
H.S. Dropouts
Black
6%
H.S./GED
Latino
7%
3%
1%
College
White
Western and Pettit, 2010
15
Change in Lifetime Risk of
Imprisonment for
Male H.S. Dropouts by
Age 35 (1975 vs. 2010)
68.0%
28.0%
19.6%
14.7%
4.1%
Black
Latino
3.8%
White
H.S. Dropouts that
reached 30s in 1975
H.S. Dropouts that
reached 30s in 2010
Western and Pettit, 2010
16
Rise of Single Parent Families
Rise of Single Parent Families
Declining
Employ
and
Earnings
Mass
Incarceration
Growth of
SingleParent
Families

Decline of “marriageable
males”

Declining economic returns to
marriage for women

Incarceration reduced and
continues to reduce male
parental involvement
Children Living in Single Parent Families
18
In 2012, the percentage of children living in single parent
families:
• 20.7 percent of white children
• 31.3 percent of Latino children
• 55.2 percent of black children
Vespa et al 2013
19
Gender-Specific Effects of Family
Disadvantage on Educational
Outcomes
Disadvantage on Educational Outcomes

20
Growing up in a single-parent family:
 Reduces
(Jacob, 2002)
college attendance for boys, but not for girls
 [Father
absence] increases juvenile delinquency
among boys, but not girls (Cobb-Clark, 2011)
 Increases
behavior problems significantly more among
boys than girls (Bertrand and Pan, 2011)

21
Father’s Education Matters a Lot for Boys
A
father who graduates from high school reduces juvenile
delinquency for boys, but not for girls (Kalb and Williams, 2003)
 Boys
are less likely to complete college than their sisters if
their father is absent or less-educated than their mother
(Buchman and Diprete, 2006)

Father’s Incarceration Impacts Boys More Negatively than Girls
 Boys
are twice as likely as girls to show an increase in
aggressive behavior when their fathers are incarcerated
(Wakefield and Wildeman, 2013)

Growing up in a low-income family:
 Reduces
boys expectations of college
graduation significantly more than girls (Jacob
and Wilder, 2011)
22
Disadvantage on Educational
Outcomes
Declining
Education
Attainment
Declining
Employ
and
Earnings
Mass
Incarceration
Growth of
SingleParent
Families
Gender-Specific Effects:
Disadvantaged Families
Affect Boys More
Negatively than Girls
24
Stagnant Male Educational
Attainment
High School Graduation Trends by Race & Gender
1970-2010, Ages 20-24
95%
White Females
White Males
Black Females
Black Males
Latino Females
25
Latino Males
88.6%
90%
84.1%
85%
81.8%
80%
75%
74.0%
70%
72.0%
65%
60%
55%
50%
Murnane,
2013
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
2010
26
A Vicious Cycle of Intergenerational
Male Disadvantage
A Vicious Cycle of Male
Intergenerational Disadvantage
Declining
Employ
and
Earnings
Mass
Incarceration
and the War
on Drugs
Declining
Educational
Attainment
Growth of
SingleParent
Families
This cycle is now an
intergenerational
phenomenon as
educational
attainment shapes
the employment
prospects of the next
generation
Oakland, CA
•
•
Poor neighborhoods
are over-policed
through aggressive
street-level
drug/harassment
(“stop and frisk”)
enforcement and
under-protected
from violence
Mass incarceration is
also concentrated
Mass
Criminalization
(War on Drugs and
Incarceration)
Declining
Employ
and
Earnings
Rise of
Concentrated
Disadvantage
Declining
Education
Attainment
Declining
Employ
and
Earnings
Declining
Education
Attainment
•
The rise of
concentrated
poverty and jobless
ghettos since the
early 1970s
•
Concentration of
negative factors
associated with
poverty like crime,
violence, poor
school quality,
drugs, disinvestment
Growth of
SingleParent
Families
Growth of
SingleParent
Families
Declining
Employ
and
Earnings
Declining
Education
Attainment
Growth of
SingleParent
Families
29
A Life Course Framework for
Improving the Lives of BMOC:
Interrupting the Cycle
Overview of Framework Components
Ecological and Contextual Factors
Dimensions of Human
Development
•What develops over people’s
lives.
Life Course Outcomes
•School readiness
•Incarceration
•High School Graduation
•Stable Full-Time Employment
30
Dimensions of Human Development
31
Physical Health:
motor-visual-auditory dev, morbidity, brain development,
biological embedding (epigenetic) of social and toxic
substance exposures: chronic adversity, allostatic
load/toxic stress, environmental toxin exposure (e.g. air
pollution, lead poisoning, etc.), basal cortisol levels
Socioemotional Skill Development:
Emotion and Behavior regulation; Autonomy; Determination;
Self-monitoring/Meta-cognition
Cognitive Development:
Intelligence, Information processing, Language,
Numeracy, Literacy, Executive functions (e.g. memory,
attention, reasoning, problem solving), Communication
skills
Mental Health and Sense of Well-Being:
Identity Development:
Self-concept, Self-Awareness, Mindset, Self-efficacy, Gender
identity, Sexual identity, Cultural orientation/attachment
Moral Development:
attachment, trauma, happiness/contentment, hope, selfesteem/mastery, stigma stress, mood disorders,
schizophrenia, psychosis
Conscience and Moral agency, Moral judgment, Moral
reasoning, Altruism, Empathy, Moral action/behavior
(Prosocial behavior), Moral emotion, Moral character (i.e.
virtue, ethics)
Personality
Openness, Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, Neuroticism
Dimensions of Human Development
Protective
Factor
Physical
Health
Risk Factor
Cognitive Dev.
Mental Health
Socioemotional
Identity
32
Etc.
Society
Peers and Networks
Place
Schools and Public Systems
Family
OFF TRACK
ON TRACK
0-5
6-11
Physical Health
19-25
12-18
Cognitive Dev.
Mental Health
Socioemotional
26-35
Identity
Etc.
Society
Peers and Networks
Place
Schools and Systems
Family
0-5
Ecological Factors
6-11
12-18
19-25
26-35
ON TRACK
STABLE HOUSING
SCHOOL
READY
Cog. & Soc.
Skills
(Kinder)
PROFICIENT
4th Gr. Math
& Reading
STABLE FULL-TIME
EMPLOYMENT @ 300% FPL
H.S. GRADUATION
PROFICIENT, GOOD
GRADES
8th Gr. Math, Reading,
Middle-School Grades
COLLEGE
ENROLLMENT
OFF TRACK
CRIMINAL OFFENDING (ESP VIOLENT) ARREST,
FELONY CONVICTION, INCARCERATION
NOT SCHOOL
READY
Cog. &
Socioemot.
Skills
(Kinderg)
NOT
PROFICIENT
4th Gr. Math
& Reading
JUVENILE ARREST, DETENTION
NOT PROFICIENT, FAILS
MATH OR ENGLISH
TH
8 Gr. Math & Reading
BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS & DISCIPLINE
Behavior problems (antisocial behavior;
violence), Suspensions, Expulsions
H.S. DROPOUT
COLLEGE COMPLETION
(4-year college)
STABLE FULL-TIME
EMPLOYMENT
COLLEGE DROPOUT
HOUSING INSTABIITY OR HOMELESSNESS
LONG-TERM UNEMPLOYMENT
OR UNDEREMPLOYMENT
(>6 Months)
UNTREATED SUBSTANCE ABUSE OR
BEHAVIORAL HEALTH PROBLEMS
EARNING BELOW FPL
POSITIVE
NET
WORTH
Society
Peers and Networks
Place
Family
6-11
0-5
12-18
19-25
26-35
OFF TRACK
ON TRACK
STABLE HOUSING
SCHOOL
READY
Cog. & Soc.
Skills
(Kinder)
PROFICIENT
4th Gr. Math
& Reading
NOT SCHOOL
READY
Cog. &
Socioemot.
Skills
(Kinderg)
NOT
PROFICIENT
4th Gr. Math
& Reading
PROFICIENT, GOOD
GRADES
+22
percentage
points
MATH OR ENGLISH
TH
+13
percentage
points
STABLE FULL-TIME
EMPLOYMENT @ 300% FPL
H.S. GRADUATION
COLLEGE
ENROLLMENT
COLLEGE COMPLETION
(4-year college)
STABLE FULL-TIME
EMPLOYMENT
CRIMINAL OFFENDING (ESP VIOLENT) ARREST,
COLLEGE DROPOUT
FELONY CONVICTION, INCARCERATION
HOUSING INSTABIITY OR HOMELESSNESS
H.S. DROPOUT
+47
percentage
points
OR UNDEREMPLOYMENT
(>6 Months)
BEHAVIORAL HEALTH PROBLEMS
EARNING BELOW FPL
POSITIVE
NET
WORTH
Society
Peers and Networks
Place
Family
6-11
ON TRACK
0-5
SCHOOL
READY
Cog. & Soc.
Skills
(Kinder)
PROFICIENT
4th Gr. Math
& Reading
OFF TRACK
NOT SCHOOL
READY
Cog. &
Socioemot.
Skills
(Kinderg)
NOT
PROFICIENT
4th Gr. Math
& Reading
• Earlier life outcomes affect
later ones
COLLEGE
ENTRY
COLLEGE COMPLETION
(4-YEAR COLLEGE)
CRIMINAL OFFENDING (ESP VIOLENT) ARREST, FELONY
CONVICTION, INCARCERATION, RECIDIVISM
JUVENILE DELINQUENCY ARREST,
DETENTION
MATH OR ENGLISH
TH
Key Themes:
26-35
H.S. GRADUATION
PROFICIENT, GOOD
GRADES
CHRONIC ABSENCE
PRE-TERM BIRTH/LOW
BIRTHWEIGHT
19-25
12-18
H.S. DROPOUT
TEENAGE FATERHOOD
POSITIVE
NET
WORTH
• “Causal Density”: Everything
is related to everything else
which makes “siloed”
approaches ineffectual
COLLEGE DROPOUT
• There are “sensitive”
developmental periods for
CHILD SUPPORT ARREARS
intervention
OR UNDEREMPLOYMENT
(>6 Months)
• There is a need for
interventions across the life
course, not just early ones
DISCONNECTED FROM
SCHOOL AND WORK
UNTREATED BEHAVIORAL HEALTH PROBLEMS
PREMATURE DEATH
FULL-TIME EMPLOYMENT
EARNING 300% FPL
EARNING BELOW FPL
Generationally
Linked Life Courses: 37
Adopting a TwoGeneration Approach
Father’s Life Course
While these are later life course
interventions, they have early life
course implications for the next
generation.
Roughly 65% of black
and Latino fathers have
their first child before age
25. By age 30, roughly
85% of these fathers have
had their first child. These
fathers have 2 or fewer
kids on average less than
5 years apart. Thus, by
age 35, most of the next
generation has been
born. [Martinez et al,
2012]
Child’s Life
Course
38
Ecological &
Contextual Factors
Society
Peers and Networks
Place
OFF TRACK
ON TRACK
Family
0-5
SCHOOL
READY
Cog. & Soc.
Skills
(Kinder)
NOT SCHOOL
READY
Cog. &
Socioemot.
Skills
(Kinderg)
FAMILY (and kinship networks inc. “fictive kin”)
•Race/Ethnicity
•Pre-natal and neo-natal care
6-10•Parental
18-24
11-14
25-35
15-17
Income and
Wealth
•Parental Education PHYSICALLY AND BEHAVIORALLY HEALTHY
•Family structure and instability
•Parental
attention
PROFICIENT,
GOOD
Ecological
and
POSITIVE
H.S.
GRADUATION
PROFICIENT
GRADES
FULL-TIME
EMPLOYMENT
NET
COLLEGE
COMPLETION
•Parental
age at child’s birth (meeting A-G
4th Gr. Math
EARNING
300%
FPL
(4-YEAR COLLEGE)
Contextual Factors WORTH
Requirements)
& Reading
•Parental
Expectations
Middle-School
Grades
•Parenting skills, practices and beliefs
can be :
•Parental Social Support (e.g. social networks,
extended family)
ARREST, FELONY CONVICTION,
CHRONIC ABSENCE
1. Risk Factors
•Incarcerated Parent
INCARCERATION
•Child Neglect/Abuse (physical, emotional, sexual)
2. Protective Factors
NOT
•Documentation
Status
PROFICIENT
H.S. DROPOUT
Protective Factor
4th Gr. Math
•Genetics
& Reading
•Health
NOT insurance
PROFICIENT, FAILS
Physical
Health
MATH OR ENGLISH
Gr. Math & Reading
8TH
TEENAGE FATERHOOD
Cognitiv
e Dev.
Mental
Health
Socioe
motiona
l
Ide
ntit
y
E
t
c
.
OR UNDEREMPLOYMENT
(>6 Months)
DISCONNECTED FROM
SCHOOL AND WORK
Risk Factor
Behavior problems (aggression &
NON-COLLEGE PREP TRACK
MENTAL ILLNESS
EARNING BELOW FPL
Society
Peers and Networks
Place
OFF TRACK
ON TRACK
Family
0-5
6-10
11-14
SCHOOLS AND PUBLIC SYSTEMS (POLICIES &
18-24
15-17
AGENCIES)
25-35
PHYSICALLY AND BEHAVIORALLY HEALTHY
SCHOOL
READY
Cog. & Soc.
Skills
(Kinder)
NOT SCHOOL
READY
Cog. &
Socioemot.
Skills
(Kinderg)
PROFICIENT
4th Gr. Math
& Reading
NOT
PROFICIENT
4th Gr. Math
& Reading
•School System: resources, peer effects, teacher
PROFICIENT,quality,
GOOD
institutional
practices (i.e. administration,
H.S. GRADUATION
GRADES
COLLEGE COMPLETION
(meeting A-G
climate
8th Gr. Math, discipline),
Reading,
(4-YEAR COLLEGE)
Requirements)
•Juvenile Justice Systems: Referral, Detention,
Community Supervision
•Criminal Justice System: Incarceration (state
sentencing policies
and
practices),Prosecutorial
ARREST,
FELONY
CONVICTION,
CHRONIC ABSENCE
INCARCERATION
policies and practices, Community Supervision
policies and practices
MATH OR ENGLISH
TH
H.S. DROPOUT
TEENAGE FATERHOOD
EARNING 300% FPL
DISCONNECTED FROM
SCHOOL AND WORK
OR UNDEREMPLOYMENT
(>6 Months)
MENTAL ILLNESS
EARNING BELOW FPL
POSITIVE
NET
WORTH
Society
Peers and Networks
Place
OFF TRACK
ON TRACK
Family
0-5
SCHOOL
READY
Cog. & Soc.
Skills
(Kinder)
NOT SCHOOL
READY
Cog. &
Socioemot.
Skills
(Kinderg)
PLACE
6-10
18-24 and Metros 25-35
11-14
15-17
•Neighborhoods,
Places of Routine Activities
PHYSICALLY
AND BEHAVIORALLYand
HEALTHY
•Concentrated
Disadvantage
Concentrated Affluence
•Violence and Crime
•Racial
Segregation/Social Isolation
PROFICIENT,
GOOD
H.S. GRADUATION
PROFICIENT
GRADES
COLLEGE COMPLETION
•Employment
opportunities/Labor
Markets
th
(meeting A-G
4 Gr. Math
EARNING 300% FPL
(4-YEAR COLLEGE)
Requirements)
& Reading
Middle-School
Gradesquality/Neighborhood
•Housing
Deterioration (e.g. uncollected
garbage, abandonment)
•Neighborhood institutional infrastructure (e.g. CBOs, Nonprofit
service providers, organizers)
CHRONIC ABSENCE
•Social capital and community
involvement
INCARCERATION
•Neighborhood collective efficacy
NOT
JUVENILE
ARREST, substance
DETENTION
•Toxic
exposure
PROFICIENT
H.S. DROPOUT
th
4 Gr. Math
•Policing: law enforcement practices and tactics (e.g. aggressive
& Reading
street FAILS
drug enforcement, racial profiling, stop-and-frisk
) UNEMPLOYMENT
NOT PROFICIENT,
LONG-TERM
MATH OR ENGLISH
OR UNDEREMPLOYMENT
TEENAGE FATERHOOD
DISCONNECTED FROM
•Church
TH
(>6 Months)
•Day care/After School Programs SCHOOL AND WORK
•Shopping Centers
EARNING BELOW FPL
UNTREATED
SUBSTANCE
ABUSE OR
•Metro-level
segregation,
inequality
and
intergenerational
mobility
NON-COLLEGE
PREP TRACK
BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS
& DISCIPLINE
MENTAL ILLNESS
POSITIVE
NET
WORTH
Society
Peers and Networks
Place
ON TRACK
Family
0-5
SCHOOL
READY
Cog. & Soc.
Skills
(Kinder)
6-10
PROFICIENT
4th Gr. Math
& Reading
PEERS and NETWORKS
•Social and Emotional Support (e.g. relationship
with a caring adult outside the family; strong
and weak 15-17
ties)
18-24
11-14
•Negative PHYSICALLY
peer socialization
AND BEHAVIORALLY HEALTHY
•Social Capital (bridging and bonding)
PROFICIENT, GOOD
GRADES
H.S. GRADUATION
(meeting A-G
Requirements)
OFF TRACK
NOT
PROFICIENT
4th Gr. Math
& Reading
MATH OR ENGLISH
TH
COLLEGE COMPLETION
(4-YEAR COLLEGE)
EARNING 300% FPL
INCARCERATION
CHRONIC ABSENCE
NOT SCHOOL
READY
Cog. &
Socioemot.
Skills
(Kinderg)
25-35
H.S. DROPOUT
TEENAGE FATERHOOD
DISCONNECTED FROM
SCHOOL AND WORK
OR UNDEREMPLOYMENT
(>6 Months)
MENTAL ILLNESS
EARNING BELOW FPL
POSITIVE
NET
WORTH
Society
Peers and Networks
Place
ON TRACK
Family
0-5
SCHOOL
READY
Cog. & Soc.
Skills
(Kinder)
6-10
PROFICIENT
4th Gr. Math
& Reading
SOCIETY
•Market-based racial discrimination:
18-24
11-14
15-17
•labor
market
PHYSICALLY AND BEHAVIORALLY HEALTHY
•housing
•retail
PROFICIENT, GOOD •financial
H.S. GRADUATION
GRADES•Implicit bias and
explicit
bias COLLEGE COMPLETION
(meeting
A-G
OFF TRACK
NOT
PROFICIENT
4th Gr. Math
& Reading
MATH OR ENGLISH
TH
EARNING 300% FPL
INCARCERATION
CHRONIC ABSENCE
NOT SCHOOL
READY
Cog. &
Socioemot.
Skills
(Kinderg)
(4-YEAR COLLEGE)
Requirements)
25-35
H.S. DROPOUT
TEENAGE FATERHOOD
DISCONNECTED FROM
SCHOOL AND WORK
OR UNDEREMPLOYMENT
(>6 Months)
MENTAL ILLNESS
EARNING BELOW FPL
POSITIVE
NET
WORTH
Key Takeaways from the life course
framework
44
 The
vicious intergenerational cycle described is not inevitable,
but rather is the product of both policy decisions and structural
forces: At every step, policy and resource decisions were and are
being made that can either amplify or dampen the impact of
big, impersonal forces like structural shifts in the economy
this vicious cycle requires a “two-generation
approach” that involves both : 1) changing conditions in which
BMOC find themselves through policy and systems change; as
well as 2) helping BMOC be more resilient to bad conditions
through programmatic interventions
 Interrupting
Key Takeaways from the life course
framework
45
 It’s
unlikely that we can interrupt this intergenerational cycle
without directly addressing employment and earnings and mass
criminalization among men of color – in both generations
 Education
outcomes are crucial – the protective effect of
educational attainment for negative life outcomes is profound
 Place
matters and the impact of living in neighborhoods of
concentrated disadvantage must be addressed in gender
specific ways.
 Changing
approach
population-level outcomes requires a life-course
Contact
Arnold Chandler
[email protected]
46
Citations
47
Anna Aizer and Joseph J. Doyle Jr. (2013) “Juvenile Incarceration, Human Capital and Future Crime: Evidence from RandomlyAssigned Judges.” Working Paper 19102, National Bureau of Economic Research. Available online at
http://www.nber.org/papers/w19102.
David Autor and Melanie Wasserman (2012) Wayward Sons: The Emerging Gender Gap in Labor Markets and Education, The Third
Way. Available at http://www.thirdway.org/publications/662
Sandy Baum, Jennifer Ma and Kathleen Payea (2013) Education Pays 2013: The Benefits of Higher Education for Individuals and
Society. The College Board
Marianne Bertrand and Jessica Pan (2011), The Trouble with Boys: Social Influences and the Gender Gap in Disruptive Behavior, NBER
Working Paper No. 17541, National Bureau of Economic Research. Available at: http://www.nber.org/papers/w17541
Claudia Buchman and Thomas A. DiPrete (2006) “The Growing Female Advantage in College Completion: The Role of Family
Background and Academic Achievement,” American Sociological Review, 71 (4), pp. 515–541.
Deborah A. Cobb-Clark (2011) “Fathers and Youth’s Delinquent Behavior,” Working Paper 17507, National Bureau of Economic
Research. Available at: http://www.nber.org/papers/w17507.
Citations
48
Centers for Disease Control (2010) "Homicide Rates Among Persons Ages 10–24 Years, by Race/Ethnicity and Sex, United States".
Available at http://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/youthviolence/stats_at-a_glance/hr_age-race.html
Candace Hamilton Hester, Chris Meyer, and Steven Raphael (2012) “The Evolution of Gender Employment Rate Differentials within
Racial Groups in the United States”, The Journal of Legal Studies, Vol. 41, No. 2 (June 2012), pp. 385-418
http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/667578 .
Brian A. Jacob (2002) “Where the Boys Aren’t: Non-cognitive Skills, Returns to School and the Gender Gap in Higher Education”
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