syarahan perdana 2011 uthm aeronautics and the

SYARAHAN PERDANA 2011
UTHM AERONAUTICS AND THE
SECRET IN HELICOPTER FLYING
SYARAHAN PERDANA 2011
UTHM AERONAUTICS AND THE
SECRET IN HELICOPTER FLYING
Prof. Ir. Dr. Hj. Abas bin Ab. Wahab
Aeronautical Engineering Department
Faculty of Mechanical & Production Engineering
2011
© Penerbit UTHM
First Edition 2011
All Rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted, electronic, mechanical photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior
permission in writing of the Publisher, nor be otherwise circulated in any form of binding or cover
other than that in which it published and without a similar condition being imposed on the subsequent
purchaser.
Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia
Cataloguing—in—Publication Data
Abas Ab Wahab, 1951UTHM aeronautics and the secret in helicopter flying / Abas bin Ab. Wahab.
Bibliography: p. 73
(Syarahan perdana 2011)
ISBN 978-967-5457-80-7
1. Aeronautics. 2. Aerospace engineering. 3. Helicopters—Piloting.
4. Speeches, addresses, etc. I. Title. II. Series.
629.1325
Terbitan :
Pejabat Penerbit
Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
86400 Parit Raja, Batu Pahat
Johor Darul Ta’zim
Tel : 07-453 7454 / 7051
Faks : 07-453 6145
Laman Web : http://penerbit.uthm.edu.my/
E-mel : [email protected]
CONTENT
1.
INTRODUCTION
1
1.1
Aviation World
1.1.1 Regulatory Bodies
1.1.2 Aviation Activities
Aerospace, Aeronautic and Astronautic
1.2.1 Aerospace
1.2.2 Astronautic
1.2.3 Aeronautic
Aeronautical Engineering And Aeronautical
Technology
1
1
2
4
4
5
6
6
7
AERONAUTICAL EDUCATION IN MALAYSIA
9
1.2
1.3
2.
2.1
2.2
2.3
3.
PAGE
Traditional Aeronautical Education
The Dilemma
The Cause And Its Effect
9
10
11
UTHM AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY
PROGRAMS
17
3.1
3.2
17
17
17
3.3
3.4
3.5
Understanding The Need Of Aviation Industries
The Formation Of The Programs
3.2.1 Aeronautical Engineering and Technology
Match-Making
3.2.2 Proposal of Implementation
3.2.3 Admission Requirements
The Uniqueness Of The Programs
3.3.1 The award of Degree and Professional Licenses
3.3.2 Job Opportunity
3.3.3 First Salary
Programs Approval And Launching
3.4.1 The Approval
3.4.2 The Launching
Sequencing the Offering of the Programs
19
22
24
24
25
27
28
28
28
29
4.
THE IMPLIMENTATION OF THE BACHELOR DEGREE IN
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY
PROGRAMS
31
4.1
31
4.2
4.3
4.4
5.
31
33
33
34
35
38
38
38
39
40
OVERVIEW OF FLYING
41
5.1
Airborne And Moving Through The Air
41
5.2
Aircraft Performance
5.2.1 Axes of motions and the control surfaces
5.2.2 Takeoff and climbing
5.2.3 Cruising
5.2.4 Approaching and Landing
Pilots And Their Duties
44
44
46
47
47
47
5.3
6.
The Bachelor Degree In Aeronautical Engineering
Technology (Professional Piloting) With Honours
4.1.1 1st Intake Students
4.1.2 Facilities
4.1.2.1 Dedicated Lecture Rooms
4.1.2.2 Aeronautic Resource Room
4.1.2.3 Aeronautic Laboratories
The Bachelor Degree In Aeronautical Engineering
Technology (Aircraft Maintenance) With Honours And
The Bachelor Degree In Aeronautical Engineering
Technology (Air Traffic Control) With Honours
Aeronautic Students’ Campus Life
4.3.1 Rules and Regulations
4.3.2 Other Activities / Duties
Department Staff
HELICOPTERS
6.1
Introduction
6.2
Helicopters Versus Aeroplanes
6.3
How A Helicopter Flies
6.4
The Secret Of Rotating Wings
6.5
Problem Of Side Wind
6.6
Current Research In UTHM
References
51
51
51
54
68
61
64
73
Suggested Further Reading
74
Curriculum Vitae
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UTHM AERONAUTICS
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Aviation World
1.1.1 Regulatory Bodies
The world of aviation is broad. It encompasses the engineering and technology, the law,
the management, the business and others related. All aviation activities come under the
jurisdiction of single world body named the “INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION
ORGANISATION” – ICAO, based in Canada. ICAO main activity is to formulate and
enforce laws and regulations to ensure safe and sustainable aviation activities throughout
the world. The aviation activities range from international and domestic flights down to
any aviation sports such as hot air balloons. Strictly speaking, any airborne activity is
under the control of this world body either directly or through its authorized body in each
country of the world. For examples; in United States of America, Britain, Europe and
Malaysia the laws and regulations are under the “FEDERAL AVIATION AUTHORITY
– FAA”, EUROPEAN AEROSPACE SAFETY AGENCY – EASA”, BRITISH CIVIL
AVIATION REGULATION – BCAR” and MALAYSIA CIVIL AVIATION
REGULATION respectively. DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AVIATION MALAYSIA –
DCAM, under the Ministry of Transport Malaysia is the regulatory body responsible for
the implementation of these regulations in Malaysia. Figure 1.1 below is the schematic
illustration of the ICAO authority in relations to the aviation regulations.
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UTHM AERONAUTICS
EASA
(European Union)
BCAR
FAA
(Britain)
(USA)
MCAR
(Malaysia)
ICAO
For Safe Aviation
.
Figure 1.1: Schematic illustration of the ICAO authority in
aviation regulations
1.1.2 Aviation Activities
The main activity in aviation is flying the aircraft either for civilian or military purposes.
The civilian aircraft serves mostly the international and domestic flights although there
are some for training and general aviation purposes. Most of this category of aircraft is
made for passengers comfort flight and the flight speed is well below the Mach 1. Mach 1
is the sound speed and is equivalent to 1200 km/hr. Boeing 747 and Airbus 330-233 are
examples of civilian aircraft as shown in Figure 1.2.
Boeing 747-4H6 : 960 km/hr
Airbus 330-223 : 860 km/hr
Figure 1.2: Examples of Civilian Aircraft – MAS Fleet
[Source: http://www.airliners.net]
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Military aircraft are rather robust used for combating enemy aircraft in war and
controlling the airspace of the country. Their flight speed sometimes reaches Mach 3.
Sukhoi and F-18 are examples of Malaysia military aircraft. These are shown in Figure
1.3.
F18 – Hornet
Sukhoi SU – 30MKM
Figure 1.3: Examples of Military Aircraft – TUDM Fleet [Source:
http://thenewoldtanakwagu.blog.com & http://www.airliner.net]
In order to make the above flying activities happen, first of all the aircraft has to be
designed and manufactured. Once the aircraft is ready, it then needs somebody to fly it
i.e. the Pilot. For every flight, it has to make sure that the aircraft is in good condition and
save to fly. Thus it needs somebody to do the maintenance i.e. the License Aircraft
Engineers (LAME) and also the technicians. After all, the pilots cannot fly the aircrafts
anyhow they like. This may create havoc and accidents. Thus it needs somebody to
regulate and control the flying activities i.e. the Air Traffic Controller. Pilots work in the
cockpit of aircrafts, License Aircraft Engineers work in Aircraft Hangars and the Air
Traffic Controllers work at the control tower of the airport. The pilot, the maintenance
engineers and the air traffic controllers are all licensed by the Department of Civil
Aviation Malaysia, DCAM. Figure 1.4 shows the parties that involve in making aviation
activities i.e. flying possible.
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UTHM AERONAUTICS
AVIATION
PILOTING
MENERBANGKAN
MAINTENANCE
SELENGGARAAN
AIRCRAFT DESIGN
&
MANUFACTURING
MENGHASILKAN
AIR TRAFFIC
CONTROL
KAWALAN
TRAFIK UDARA
Figure 1.4: The main parties involve in Aviation
1.2
Aerospace, Aeronautic And Astronautic
The words AEROSPACE, AERONAUTIC AND ASTRONAUTIC are the common words
people used when talking about aviation. Let us explore the real meaning of these words
so that these words could be used correctly in the proper sense.
1.2.1 Aerospace
Aerospace is the terminology used to describe the aviation activities that encompasses the
total flying activities starting from the ground into the atmosphere and to the outer space
(SPACE) where there is no air and no effect of earth gravity. It also includes the return
flight from outer space to the earth. Hence the exploration to the moon is an example of
aerospace activity i.e. without flying through the earth atmosphere the journey to the
moon is impossible.
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UTHM AERONAUTICS
The word AEROSPACE itself comes from two words, the AERO and SPACE. AERO
means air i.e. the earth atmosphere or sometime called AIRSPACE. Any aircraft flying
in the airspace always utilizes the airflow around its wing to create lift force that make it
possible to airborne and moves in air. The airflow around aircraft wings and the forward
motion of the aircraft are made possible by the propulsive force created by the engines.
The engines do need to take in air to support it function. Without air the combustion
process in the engines could not happened and hence no propulsive force could be
produced. The aircraft engines that could only work in airspace are known as airbreathing engines. Examples of this type of engines are the TURBOFAN, TURBOJET
and TURBOPROP engines. Turbofan is the common type of engines used in airliners. As
we go higher and higher, the air becomes lesser and lesser and hence limits the height of
any aircraft with air-breathing engine could go. Figure 1.5 shows an example of a typical
turbofan engine.
Figure 1.5: A Typical Turbofan Engine
[Source: http://www.aviationearth.com/]
On the other hand, the word SPACE means area or space with no air. It is also known as
OUTER SPACE. In space there is no air and no earth gravitational effect. Thus the
spacecraft does not need any wing to make it float and no air-breathing engine could be
used there to propel the spacecraft. Rocket engine is used in place of the air-breathing
engine. Rocket engine is being fed by self carried fuel and oxygen in order to facilitate
combustion for producing propulsive force.
1.2.2 Astronautic
ASTRONAUTIC is the terminology used to describe any aviation activities taking place
in SPACE. Datuk Dr Sheikh Muszaphar Shukor Bin Sheikh Mustapha is the first
Malaysian astronaut to be in space.
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UTHM AERONAUTICS
1.2.3 Aeronautic
AERONAUTIC is the terminology used to describe any aviation activities taking place in
earth ATMOSPHERE. These activities include international, domestic and commercial
flights, general aviation, para-gliders, hot air balloons, etc.
Thus Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM) offers AERONAUTIC
programs and not AEROSPACE programs.
1.3
Aeronautical Engineering And Aeronautical Technology
Aeronautic itself encompasses of two main disciplines i.e. the AERONAUTICAL
ENGINEERING and AERONAUTICAL TECHNOLOGY.
Let us discuss and
understand what the two disciplines means.
ENGINEERING is the activities associated in “creating the data” that implies to the
design and manufacturing of the said object. Thus AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING
is the discipline emphasizing on the activities of designing and manufacturing of the
aircraft. These activities are mainly done by the graduate engineers i.e. the engineers that
passed out from universities and having SOUND KNOWLEDGE in the said field.
On the other hand, the word TECHNOLOGY carries the meaning of “using the data” that
implies to the activities of utilizing (operating), maintaining and ensuring the smooth and
safe running of the activities. Thus AERONAUTICAL TECHNOLOGY is the
discipline emphasizing on operating, maintaining and controlling the activities of the
aircraft i.e. the flying activities. PILOTS are responsible to fly the aircraft, LICENSE
AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE ENGINEERS are those responsible to service, repair and
overhaul the aircraft while AIR TRAFFIC CONTROLLERS are responsible for
sequencing the flight operations both on ground (at airport) and in air. All these
personnel are being licensed by the aviation authority of the country and in Malaysia the
aviation authority is the DCAM. By having the license the said personnel had proven that
they have SOUND SKILL in doing the particular jobs. Figure 1.6 is the illustration of the
two main disciplines in Aeronautic.
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UTHM AERONAUTICS
AERONAUTIC
AERONAUTICAL
ENGINEERING
AERONAUTICAL
TECHNOLOGY
ENGINEERING
(CREATING THE
DATA)
TECHNOLOGY
(USING THE
DATA)
TO DESIGN &
MANUFACTURE
AIRCRAFT
TO USE THE
AIRCRAFT
ENGINEERS
TO
MAINTAIN
LICENSE
AIRCRAFT
MAINTENANCE
ENGINEERS
TO
FLY
PILOTS
TO
CONTROL
AIR TRAFFIC
CONTROLLERS
Figure 1.6: The two main disciplines in Aeronautic
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CHAPTER 2
AERONAUTICAL EDUCATION IN MALAYSIA
Aeronautical education is not new in Malaysia. It started with the training of pilots,
license aircraft maintenance engineers and the air traffic controllers to serve the Royal
Malaysia Air Force (RMAF) and the national airline i.e. the Malaysia Airline System
(MAS). This was followed by the offering of aeronautical engineering degree courses in
the Malaysian Universities since early 1980s.
2.1
Traditional Aeronautical Education
Traditionally i.e. since the beginning until now, aeronautical educations in Malaysia are
being conducted under two different umbrellas as shown in Figure 2.1.
AERONAUTICAL
EDUCATION IN
MALAYSIA
AIRCRAFT
DESIGN
UNIVERSITIES
MOHE, BEM,
EAC
PILOTING
MAINTENANCE
AIR TRAFFIC
CONTROL
TRAINING INSTITUTIONS
DCA
Figure 2.1: Aeronautical Engineering and Aeronautical Technology
Educations Administrated by Two Different Bodies
Aeronautical Engineering is being taught in the universities under the control of the
Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE) with due respect of the advice of Malaysia Board
of Engineers (BEM) and the Engineering Accrediting Council (EAC). The universities
(Universiti Sains Malaysia – USM, Universiti Putra Malaysia – UPM, Universiti Islam
Antarabangsa Malaysia – UIAM and Universiti Teknologi Malaysia – UTM) produce
graduate engineers or sometimes called the design engineers.
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UTHM AERONAUTICS
On the other hand Aeronautical Technology is being taught in authorized training
schools under the jurisdiction of Department of Aviation Malaysia (DCAM) answerable
to the Ministry of Transport (MOT). The pilots, the license aircraft maintenance
engineers and the air traffic controllers are being trained in flying schools (e.g. Asia
Pacific Flying School – APFT in Kota Bahru, HM Aerospace in Langkawi and Malaysia
Flying Academy – MFA in Melaka, etc.), in aircraft maintenance training institutions
(e.g. D’LOG in Subang, Malaysia Aviation Training Academy – MATA in Kuantan, etc),
and in Malaysia Aviation Academy – MAvA in Sepang) respectively. They are not
allowed to work without getting the appropriate licenses from DCAM. The licenses have
to be renewed at certain interval of time.
2.2
The Dilemma
The Aeronautical Engineering Education (Universities) produces graduate engineers /
aircraft design engineers with sound knowledge. The question is where are they going to
work? To work in aircraft design and manufacturing industries, there is none the “so
called industries” in Malaysia at the moment. Years ago, Tun Mahathir Mohamad the
fourth Prime Minister of Malaysia had established two national aircraft manufacturing
companies, one in Sungai Buloh, Selangor and the other in Batu Berendam, Melaka. The
one in Sungai Buluh was to produce MD3 trainer aircraft while the one in Batu Berendam
was to produce Eagle trainer aircraft. MD3 aircraft is made of metal and the Eagle aircraft
is made of composites. The two companies are still operating but under limited scope.
Thus the need of graduate engineers is also limited. To work in the aeronautical
technology sectors i.e. as pilots or aircraft maintenance engineers or air traffic controller,
they do not posses the required skill. Then, where do they want to go? Most of them find
jobs in other engineering industries especially in mechanical related ones.
The Aeronautical Technology Education (Authorized Aeronautical Training Institutions)
on the other hand, produces high skilled personnel of specific skills i.e. the pilots, license
aircraft maintenance engineers and air traffic controllers. These personnel have to
maintain high standard of health in order to stay in jobs. Failing this, they will have to
find alternative jobs for living. Where do they want to go? They will have hard time to
find jobs since the specific skills they have may not be relevant to other fields and at the
same time most of them only posses Malaysian Certificate of Education – SPM. It will
really a hard time for them. This dilemma is well described by the following Figure 2.2.
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UTHM AERONAUTICS
TRADITIONAL AERONAUTICAL EDUCATION SYSTEM
ENGINEERING EDUCATION
TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION
UNIVERSITIES – CONTROL BY
KPT + MQA +EAC + BEM
TRAINING SCHOOLS – CONTROL
BY DCA
GRADUATE ENGINEERS
(DESIGN ENGINEERS)
PERSONNEL OF SPECIFIC SKILL
(LICENSE AIRCRAFT
MAINTENANCE ENGINEERS,
PILOTS, AIR TRAFFIC
CONTROLLERS
TO JOIN AVIATION
INDUSTRIES:– NO RELATED
SKILL (NO LICENSE – PILOT ,
MAINTENANCE, ATC)
MANAGEMENT – QUITE LIMITED
LIMITED FIELD OF JOB - NO
DEGREE, MOST ONLY WITH SPM
Figure 2.2: The Dilemma Of The Current Aeronautical Education System
2.3
The Cause And Its Effect
Based on the prior discussion in section 2.2, it is clearly seen that the dilemma resulting
from the current aeronautical educational system is due to the separation between the
aeronautical engineering and the aeronautical technology educations. The aeronautical
engineering education emphasizes on knowledge whereas the aeronautical technology
education emphasizes on skill. Thus the KNOWLEDGE AND SKILL IN
AERONAUTIC ARE IN TWO DIFFERENT WORLDS which really becomes the
main cause to the dilemma. When knowledge and skill are in two different worlds, the
following scenarios take place:
i). Aviation Industries such as Malaysia Airline System (MAS), AIRASIA,
MASWING, FIREFLY, Singapore Airline (SIA), GARUDA, QANTAS,
BRITISH AIRWAYS (just to name some) and other airline companies throughout
the world have restricted their manpower recruitment from university
graduates. If any is just for some management posts and not for the companies
main job scopes i.e. the operations (flying, maintenance and air traffic
controlling). This is due to universities graduates do have sound knowledge in
aeronautic but very little or insufficient skill for the said operation jobs. Also
from their experience university graduates could be a better manager if they also
have the relevant operation skills.
ii). Since the last decade aviation industries have also realized that having skill only
is not enough for ensuring the sustainable growth of the industries. Lots of
new advancement in aeronautical engineering and technology had taken place.
New aircraft with sophisticated systems have been built, new materials have been
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UTHM AERONAUTICS
used and complicated aircraft designs with thousands of drawings have been
produced. These really need to have the knowledge behind the technology i.e.
the aeronautical engineering.
Just take for example, the case of operating the new big sophisticated AIRBUS 380 shown
in Figure 2.5. Currently Airbus 380 is the latest, biggest and most sophisticated aircraft
in the aviation world. Its wing span and body (fuselage) are of 80 and 74 meters in length
respectively with its height of 24 meters. Its height alone is equivalent to the height of at
least 6 stories building i.e. about the same height of UTHM new library building. Figure
2.6 shows the size of Airbus 380 in relations to other aircrafts while Figure 2.7 illustrates
some of the unique features of AIRBUS 380.
Figure 2.5: A Photo of AIRBUS 380
[Source: http://www.cybermodeler.net]
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UTHM AERONAUTICS
Figure 2.6: The relative size of Airbus 380
[Source: http://www.flightsim.com]
Figure 2.7: Airbus 380 First Class Cabin
[Source: http://airlinesflightnews.com]
Airbus 380 flight controls are fully automated. It is real difficult for the pilots to
understand the working of the flying control systems if they do not have any aeronautical
engineering background. Same thing applied to the license aircraft engineers, it is really
awkward to maintain the aircraft and even difficult to understand its thousands of
drawings, parts and wirings if they do not have sound aeronautical engineering
knowledge. Figure 2.8 shows the Airbus 380 cockpit where the pilot has to operate the
fully automated control systems while Figure 2.9 illustrates the detail aircraft structural
systems layout.
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UTHM AERONAUTICS
Figure 2.8: Fully Automated Flying
Control Systems in the Cockpit
[Source: http://www.flightglobal.com]
Figure 2.9: The Airbus 380 Detail Structures.
[Source: http://a380wallpaper.blogspot.com]
Another thing is that in the pass all aircraft are totally made of metals. But nowadays are
not. For good business, the number of passengers carried on board each aircraft should
be increased since the revenue depends on how many passengers it carries. Thus bigger
and bigger aircraft are being built. The bigger the aircraft the heavier it will be. The
growing in weight of the aircraft will also limit the number of passengers increased. A
way to overcome this problem is to reduce the aircraft weight by replacing some of its
metal parts with lighter materials such as composite materials which are lighter but
stronger than metals as shown in Figure 2.10. Composite material is another new
dimension for the license aircraft maintenance engineers have to master. Thus extra
engineering knowledge is really essential to the license aircraft engineers. Without this
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UTHM AERONAUTICS
knowledge, license aircraft maintenance engineers will loose their importance in aviation
world of the future.
Figure 2.10: The Usage of Composite & Hybrid Material in
Airbus 380 [Source: http://www.carbonfiber.gr.jp]
Based on the above facts, the future generations of aviation personnel (pilot, aircraft
maintenance engineers and others) have to have both the required specific skill and
engineering knowledge i.e. to have license and degree together.
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UTHM AERONAUTICS
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UTHM AERONAUTICS
CHAPTER 3
UTHM AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY PROGRAMS
3.1
Understanding The Need Of Aviation Industries
The current aeronautical education in Malaysia and throughout the world as a whole has
produced two different categories of aeronautical personnel, one with sound aeronautical
engineering knowledge (graduate aeronautical personnel) and the other with sound
specific aeronautical skill (the license aeronautical personnel). This world’s common
practice in aeronautical education is getting less relevant in preparing the manpower for
the near future aviation industries. The industries will be in great need of knowledgeable
and skillful aeronautical personnel. This is really in line with the saying of our beloved
prophet Muhammad s.a.w. (may Allah blessing be upon him) i.e. “Ilmu tanpa amal
seperti pokok rendang yang tidak berbuah, amal tanpa ilmu adalah perbuatan
orang yang jahil”. Hence “ilmu & amal” or “knowledge & skill” must come together.
The advancement in aeronautical engineering and technology, as being proved by the
existence of big and sophisticated aircraft such as Airbus 380, has made the aviation
industries throughout the world in real need of pilots, aircraft maintenance engineers, air
traffic controllers and managers having aeronautical knowledge at least up to the
Bachelor Degree level. These graduate personnel could also play an important role in
making aviation policies. All are aiming for the safe and sustainable aviation in the future.
Knowing the current aviation scenarios and the future needs of the country and the world
of aviation as a whole, UTHM in 2007, put up an effort in match making the aeronautical
engineering and aeronautical technology to come up with the UTHM unique Aeronautical
Engineering Technology Programs.
“TODAY education is for the need of
TOMORROW”
3.2
The Formation Of The Programs
3.2.1 Aeronautical Engineering and Technology Match-Making
The match-making between the aeronautical engineering and aeronautical technology
curriculums had to be done very carefully in order to suit the future needs of the aviation
industries. Survey had been done throughout the country to find out:
i). the current and future needs of every parties involving in aviation activities and
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UTHM AERONAUTICS
ii). to see weather the proposed aeronautical engineering technology programs are
relevant in meeting the needs of the industries.
The participating parties in the survey, just to name some, were the airline companies or
operators (MAS, AIRASIA, MASWING, FIREFLY, BERJAYA AIR and MALAYSIA
HELICOPTER SERVICES), flying schools (Asia Pacific Flight Training “APFT”, HM
Aerospace, Malaysia Flying Academy “MFA” and International Flying Academy Sabah
“IFAS), flying club (Oxysky), aircraft maintenance schools (MAS ENGINEERING,
Malaysia Institute of Aviation Technology “MIAT”, Dilog Training & Services “DTS”,
Malaysia Aviation Training Academy “MATA” and D’NEST), aircraft maintenance
companies (AIROD, Eurocopter and GE Aviation), aircraft manufacturing companies
(CTRM and SME Aerospace) and related government and semi government bodies
(Department of Civil Aviation “DCA”, MIGHT, Police Airwing, Bomba, etc) on the
need of graduate personnel in aviation activities.
Beside the survey, several special meetings between UTHM and DCA and MAS officials,
and the Industrial Advisors Committee were made. All these efforts resulted in the matchmaking of aeronautical engineering and aeronautical technology forming four UTHM
aeronautical engineering technology program proposals. The said program proposals are
as follows:
i). Bachelor Degree of Aeronautical Engineering Technology (Professional Piloting)
with Honours
ii). Bachelor Degree of Aeronautical Engineering Technology (Aircraft Maintenance)
with Honours
iii). Bachelor Degree of Aeronautical Engineering Technology (Air Traffic Control)
with Honours
iv). Bachelor Degree of Aeronautical
Manufacturing) with Honours
Engineering
Technology
(Aircraft
The layout of the match-making processes is clearly shown in Figure 3.1. The figure is
self explanatory.
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UTHM AERONAUTICS
AERONAUTICAL
EDUCATION IN UTHM
BACHELOR DEGREE
OF AERO. ENG. TECH.
(PROFESSIONAL
PILOTING) WITH
HONOURS
PILOTING
MAINTENANCE
BACHELOR
DEGREE OF
AERO. ENG.
TECH.
(AIRCRAFT
MAINTENANCE)
WITH HONOURS
AIRCRAFT ENG /
DESIGN
MANUFACTURING
BACHELOR
DEGREE OF AERO.
ENG. TECH.
(AIRCRAFT
MANUFACTURING)
WITH HONOURS
AIR TRAFFIC
CONTROL
BACHELOR
DEGREE OF
AERO. ENG.
TECH. (AIR
TRAFFIC
CONTROL) WITH
HONOURS
Figure 3.1: Aeronautical Engineering and Technology Match –
Making Layout
3.2.2 Proposal of Implementation
Each of the proposed aeronautical engineering technology programs will be conducted in
four years duration and each year consists of 3 semesters (2 long semesters and 1 short
semester). The first two years together with the first semester of the third year is
dedicated for the aeronautical engineering courses. This form the first phase of each of
the proposed programs. This phase is also called the academic or knowledge phase. The
duration from the second semester of the third year until the end of the fourth year is
called the skill phase. During this phase the students will have to gain the appropriate
skill that is required for their chosen aeronautical technology disciplines. The two phases
are well illustrated in Figure 3.2.
The curriculum for academic phase is common for all the proposed programs but the
curriculum for the skill phase (piloting / maintenance / air traffic control) is tailored to the
requirement of each discipline pertaining to the requirement of the Department of Civil
Aviation, DCA. The skill for the aircraft manufacturing program will not be assessed by
DCA but it is rather be under the jurisdiction of the university.
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UTHM AERONAUTICS
YR/
SEM
SEM I
SEM II
1
ACADEMIC
(KNOWLEDGE)
AERONAUTICAL
ENGINEERING
ACADEMIC
(KNOWLEDGE)
AERONAUTICAL
ENGINEERING
ACADEMIC
(KNOWLEDGE)
AERONAUTICAL
ENGINEERING
2
ACADEMIC
(KNOWLEDGE)
AERONAUTICAL
ENGINEERING
ACADEMIC
(KNOWLEDGE)
AERONAUTICAL
ENGINEERING
ACADEMIC
(KNOWLEDGE)
AERONAUTICAL
ENGINEERING
3
ACADEMIC
(KNOWLEDGE)
AERONAUTICAL
ENGINEERING
SKILL
FLYING /
MAINTENANCE /
AIR TRAFFIC
CONTROL
SKILL
FLYING /
MAINTENANCE /
AIR TRAFFIC
CONTROL
SKILL
FLYING /
MAINTENANCE /
AIR TRAFFIC
CONTROL
SKILL
FLYING /
MAINTENANCE /
AIR TRAFFIC
CONTROL
SKILL
FLYING /
MAINTENANCE /
AIR TRAFFIC
CONTROL
4
SEM III
Figure 3.2: Programs Implementation Layout
The programs curriculums consist of several categories of courses aiming at producing
well rounded holistic university graduates. The different categories of courses are being
illustrated in Figure 3.3.
ACADEMIC
COURSES
UNIVERSITY
COMPULSORY
FACULTY
CORE
MATHS &
SCIENCE
AERONAUTICS
PROGRAM
SPECILISATION
PROGRAM
CORE
ENGINEERING
BASIC
INTRODUCTION TO AIRCRAFT, AERODYNAMICS,
AIRCRAFT STRUCTURE, AIRCRAFT PROPULSION,
AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS, FLIGHT MECHANICS,
AIRCRAFT DESIGN, AIRPORT MANAGEMENT,
FLIGHT ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Figure 3.3: Schematic Layout of the Programs Curriculums
20
UTHM AERONAUTICS
For the Bachelor Degree in Aeronautical Engineering Technology (Professional Piloting)
With Honors, the students have to complete the academic (knowledge) requirement first
before they will be allowed to go for their skill trainings at DCA approved flying
academy. At the moment only Asia Pacific Flight Training “APFT” had signed
Memorandum of Agreement with UTHM in giving flight trainings to the students. Upon
successfully completed the flight training the students will posses Private Pilot Licenses
(PPL), Commercial Pilot Licenses (CPL) and Airline Transport Pilot Licenses (ATPL
Frozen). These licenses will be conferred by DCA and are recognized throughout the
world. At the point of time when the students are being certified by the trainers that they
are ready to sit for their ATPL Frozen Examination, the students have already fulfilled the
requirement for graduation. UTHM will confer them with the said Bachelor Degrees as
being illustrated in Figure 3.4. Upon graduations, these graduates are ready to serve any
airline as copilots or any related industries as engineers.
The students for the Bachelor Degree in Aeronautical Engineering Technology (Aircraft
Maintenance) With Honors and the Bachelor Degree in Aeronautical Engineering
Technology (Air Traffic Control) With Honors will follow the same procedures as the
Bachelor Degree in Aeronautical Engineering Technology (Professional Piloting) Honors
students.
The only different is that the Bachelor
PROGRAM:- BACHELOR DEGREE IN AERONAUTICAL
ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY (PROFESSIONAL
PILOTING) WITH HONORS
COMPLETED ALL ACADEMIC
COURSES DI UTHM
COMPLETED FLIGHT TRAINING
AT APFT
DCA AWARDS PILOT LICENSES
(PPL, CPL and ATPL Frozen)
UTHM AWARDS DEGREE
READY TO SERVE THE AIRLINES AS
COPILOTS OR WORK IN RELATED
INDUSTRIES AS ENGINEERS
Figure 3.4: Program Implementation Layout
21
UTHM AERONAUTICS
Degree in Aeronautical Engineering Technology (Aircraft Maintenance) With Honors
students will do the skill (maintenance) training at DTS Aircraft Maintenance School
while and the Bachelor Degree in Aeronautical Engineering Technology (Air Traffic
Control) With Honors students will do their skill training at the Malaysian Aviation
Academy MAvA. Upon completion of the skill trainings the students will have the
opportunity to get their respective licenses from DCA. The aircraft maintenance students
will get LWTR (License Without Type Rating) licenses and the air traffic control students
will get the Air Traffic Controller Licenses. Upon graduations, these graduates are ready
to serve the aviation industries either as aircraft maintenance personnel or air traffic
controllers depending on the types of licenses they obtained. They are also able to work
in any related industries as engineers.
The students for the Bachelor Degree in Aeronautical Engineering Technology (Aircraft
Manufacturing) With Honors will have a slightly different setups. Their skill training will
be at any aircraft design offices available in the country such as at CTRM, Eurocopter
Malaysia and MAS Engineering. They will not be conferred by any license but upon
graduation they are capable to serve aviation industries and any related engineering
industries as engineers in the respective areas.
3.2.3 Admission Requirements
The admission requirements are in two folds, one is the university general requirement
and the other is the specific aeronautic programs requirement. Potential students
(applicants) have to satisfy both the requirements. The specific program requirement is
being determined through the process of interviews. Failing the specific program
requirement the application will not be considered. No applicant will be considered
without prior attending the interview. For every aeronautic program the maximum
number of students per intake will be 25. This is inline with the regulations set forth by
DCA. Figure 3.5 outlines the admission requirements while Figure 3.6 illustrates the
admission procedures.
22
UTHM AERONAUTICS
ADMISSION REQUIREMENTS FOR UTHM AERONAUTIC
PROGRAMS
GENERAL
REQUIREMENTS
SPECIAL /
PROGRAMS
REQUIREMENTS
PASS MATRICULATION
EXAMINATION IN:
• MATHS, CHEMISTRY AND
PHYSICS
OR
• MATHS, CHEMISTRY AND
BIOLOGY (SPM: PHYSICS
CREDIT)
FULLFIL UNIVERSITY GENERAL
REQUIREMENTS
DURING ADMISSION:
• PASS MEDICAL EXAM
(CLASS 3)
• PASS ATTITUDE AND
APTITUDE TESTS
• NOT HANDICAP AND
COLOUR BLIND
• HEIGHT ≥ 163CM, BMI ≤ 25
• NOT AFRAID OF HEIGHT
(VERTIGO), ALLERGIC,
DISTORTED VOICE, AFRAID
OF DARK ENCLOSURE
(CLAUSTROPHOBIA),
RETRICTED BODY
MOVEMENTS
BEFORE GOING FOR SKILL
TRAINING:
• PROFESSIONAL PILOTING
STUDENTS MUST PASS
MEDICAL EXAM. CLASS 1
• AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE
AND AIR TRAFFIC
CONTROL STUDENTS
MUST PASS MEDICAL
EXAM. CLASS 2
UPU
INTERVIEW
(MUST PASS)
DCA
AUTHOURIZED
MEDICAL
CLINICS
Figure 3.5: Admission requirements outline
23
UTHM AERONAUTICS
ADMISSION PROCEDURES
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING
TECHNOLOGY BACHALOR DEGREES
ACADEMIC
PERFORMANCE
(CPA)
ATTITUDE &
APPTITUDE
TESTS
MEDICAL
INTERVIEWS
(CANDIDATES
BEAR THEIR OWN
COSTS)
NOTE:
APLICATION WILL NOT BE CONSIDERED
WITHOUT ATTENTING THE INTERVIEWS
Figure 3.6: Admission procedures.
3.3
The Uniqueness Of The Programs
UTHM Bachelor Degree Aeronautic Programs are unique and different from other
Aeronautic Degree Programs offered in the country. It is the first not only in Malaysia
but also throughout the Asia Pacific Region. It is similar to the one offered in the world
known university i.e. the Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University in the United State of
America. Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University is the bench mark for UTHM Bachelor
Degree Aeronautic Programs. The uniqueness of UTHM Bachelor Degree Aeronautic
Programs will be described in the following sub-sections.
3.3.1 The award of Degree and Professional Licenses
Upon graduation the graduates will be receiving not only the degree but also the
appropriate Professional Licenses related to their specific program specialization. The
graduates are ready to work in their specific specialization in the aviation industry.
They also have the opportunity to work as engineers in any related engineering
industries as alternative. Table 3.1 shows the types of degree and professional licenses
the graduates will obtain upon their graduation.
24
UTHM AERONAUTICS
Table 3.1: Types of Award Obtained upon Graduation
Degree
Program
Degree Award by
UTHM
1
Aeronautical
Engineering
Technology
(Professional
Piloting)
Bachelor Degree in
Aeronautical
Engineering
Technology
(Professional
Piloting) With
Honours
2
Aeronautical
Engineering
Technology
(Aircraft
Maintenance)
3
Aeronautical
Engineering
Technology
(Air Traffic
Control)
4
Aeronautical
Engineering
Technology
(Aircraft
Manufacturing)
No.
Bachelor Degree in
Aeronautical
Engineering
Technology
(Aircraft
Maintenance) With
Honours
Bachelor Degree in
Aeronautical
Engineering
Technology (Air
Traffic Control)
With Honours
Bachelor Degree in
Aeronautical
Engineering
Technology
(Aircraft
Manufacturing)
With Honours
Professional
License Award by
DCA
i. Private Pilot
License, PPL
ii. Commercial Pilot
License, CPL
iii. Airline Transport
Pilot License
Frozen, ATPL
Frozen
Aircraft
Maintenance
License Without
Type Rating, LWTR
Air Traffic
Controller License
(Aerodrome)
Nil
3.3.2 Job Opportunity
Currently the job opportunity for aeronautic technology specializations is only open in the
specific specialization area. For example, the pilots after being licensed by DCA, they
could only work as pilots, the license aircraft engineers could only work in the aircraft
maintenance hangers and the license air traffic controllers could only work at the airport
control tower or at the main air traffic control center. But by having the aeronautical
engineering technology degrees together with the appropriate professional licenses in
aviation, the pilots, license aircraft maintenance engineers and the air traffic controllers
will have the opportunity to work as engineers in the related or any engineering
25
UTHM AERONAUTICS
companies as alternatives. These opportunities will be a great help for the pilots, aircraft
maintenance engineers and air traffic controllers upon retirements or in cases where they
could not be licensed to continue their normal aviation duties due to the declination of
their health. The opportunity will also provide the aeronautical engineering technology
graduates to work temporarily in any engineering industries while waiting for them to be
absorbed into the aviation industries. Thus by having the aeronautical engineering
technology degrees as being offered by UTHM the job opportunities for the graduates are
broadened. The graduates could find jobs not only in Malaysia but also throughout the
world if they wish in their respective specializations. Figure 3.7 and 3.8 illustrate the
Malaysia and world demand for pilots and aircraft maintenance technicians / license
aircraft maintenance engineers respectively.
JOB OPPORTUNITY SURVEY - DEGREE IN AERO. ENG. TECH.
(PROFESSIONAL PILOTING)
Pilots
Trainers
Eng. Technologies/Engineers
Field Services
Marketing / Sales Executive
Management Executive
Others
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Opportunity (%)
JOB OPPORTUNITY SURVEY - DEGREE IN AERO. ENG. TECH. (AIRCRAFT
MAINTENANCE)
Aircraft Maintenance
Trainers
Eng. Technologies/Engineers
Field Services
Marketing / Sales Executive
Management Executive
Others
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Opportunity (%)
JOB OPPORTUNITY SURVEY - DEGREE IN AERO. ENG. TECH.
(AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL)
Air Traffic Controller
Trainers
Eng. Technologies/Engineers
Field Services
Marketing / Sales Executive
Management Executive
Others
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Opportunity (%)
Figure 3.7: Job opportunity survey for the aeronautical
engineering technology degree holders - Malaysia [1, 2, 3]
26
UTHM AERONAUTICS
Figure 3.8: World demand for pilots and aircraft maintenance technicians /
license aircraft maintenance engineers [Source: http://theasiacareertimes.com]
3.3.3
First Salary
From the market survey that being conducted by UTHM in 2008, the first salary for the
aeronautical engineering technology graduates will depend on their specific
specializations. For graduates with professional piloting specialization, if they work in
aviation industries, their first salary will be in the range of RM 6,000 – 8,000 depending
on which airlines they serve. Those graduated with aircraft maintenance or air traffic
control specializations, their first salary will be slightly lower i.e. in the range of RM
3,000 – 5,000 depending on which aviation industries they are serving. All the above
figures will be higher if they join foreign aviation companies.
27
UTHM AERONAUTICS
On the other hand, if for one reason or the other, the graduates have to join any related
engineering companies or even any government sectors, then their first salary will be
similar to any engineering graduates as stipulated by Jabatan Perkhidmatan Awam
Malaysia (JPAM) or as being dictated by the said companies.
3.4
Programs Approval And Launching
3.4.1 The Approval
To get the approval for offering the proposed UTHM Aeronautical Engineering
Technology Programs from the Ministry of Higher Learning (MOHE) was not an easy
matter. It took a lot of energy and efforts since the proposed programs were the first one
of its kind. Thanks to all that concerned i.e. the Chancellery, Center for Academic
Developments (CAD) and Faculty of Mechanical and Production Engineering (FKMP)
and all others that had rendered their helps in one way or the other.
After the second attempt, only two of the four proposed programs were granted approval
by MOHE. The two said programs are the “Bachelor Degree in Aeronautical Engineering
Technology (Professional Piloting) With Honors” and the “Bachelor Degree in
Aeronautical Engineering Technology (Aircraft Maintenance) With Honors”. The said
approval was granted at the end of 2008. The third program, the “Bachelor Degree in
Aeronautical Engineering Technology (Air Traffic Control) was resubmitted and
approved by MOHE in 2011. The only proposed program left unapproved is the
“Bachelor Degree in Aeronautical Engineering Technology (Aircraft Design and
Manufacturing) With Honors” and has yet to be resubmitted in the near future.
3.4.2 The Launching
The UTHM unique aeronautic programs were launched on August 8, 2009 by the
Honorable Tan Sri Ir. Jamilus bin Husin, the Chairman of the Management Board of
Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia. Figure 3.9 shows the prestige launching moment.
The launching ceremony served three main purposes. Firstly was to announce the
approval to run the programs given by the Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia,
MOHE or in Bahasa Malaysia called the Kementerian Pengajian Tinggi Malaysia,
KPTM. Secondly was to announce to all citizens of university and the publics as a whole
that UTHM will be offering her two unique and prestige aeronautic programs i.e. the
“Bachelor Degree in Aeronautical Engineering Technology (Professional Piloting) With
Honors” and the “Bachelor Degree in Aeronautical Engineering Technology (Aircraft
Maintenance) With Honors” programs in the very near future. Thirdly is to tell all those
who involve and responsible for the running of the two programs that the time for
implementing the said programs had begun and necessary drastic actions had to be taken.
28
UTHM AERONAUTICS
Figure 3.9: Some memories of the aeronautics programs launching.
3.5
Sequencing the Offering of the Programs
In order to ensure the smooth and effective running of the new borne programs, the
offering of the programs has to be carefully sequenced. This is due to the limited
manpower, budget, facility and experience. Table 3.2 shows the programs offering
sequence as agreed by the faculty and university.
29
UTHM AERONAUTICS
Table 3.2: Implementation Sequence of the Aeronautic Programs
NO.
1
2
3
4
PROGRAMS
B.Aero.Eng.Tech
(Professional
Piloting) Honors
B.Aero.Eng.Tech
(Aircraft
Maintenance) Honors
B.Aero.Eng.Tech
(Air Traffic Control)
Honors
B.Aero.Eng.Tech
(Aircraft Design &
Manufacturing)
Honors
YEAR OF
APPROVAL
BY KPTM
YEAR OF
PROGRAM
OFFERED
NO. OF
STUDENTS/
INTAKE
2008
2010/2011
25
2008
2011/2012
25
2011
2013/2014
25
To resubmit
to KPTM for
approval
Not Known
> 25
30
UTHM AERONAUTICS
CHAPTER 4
THE IMPLIMENTATION OF THE BACHELOR DEGREE IN AERONAUTICAL
ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY PROGRAMS
4.1
The Bachelor Degree In Aeronautical Engineering Technology
(Professional Piloting) With Honours
4.1.1 1st Intake Students
The first batch or the first student intake for the first UTHM aeronautical engineering
technology with honors program i.e. the professional piloting program was on July 2010.
For this batch only 25 students were taken in after fulfilling the university and medical
requirements, and also successfully going through the special interview as required for the
said program. Figure 4.1 and 4.2 are the photos of these students taken during their exposure
to flying session at the Asia Pacific Flight Training (APFT), Kota Bharu, Kelantan. This
flying exposure training is a requirement for the Introduction to Aircraft course and is
compulsory to be taken by each and every student enrolling into any one of the UTHM
aeronautic programs. This Introduction to Aircraft course must be taken during the first
semester of each program as to give the students some understanding of the aircraft anatomy,
the related systems, the required student discipline and also the experience to maneuver and
control the aircraft in flying. These are very essential in supporting all of their future courses
listed in their curriculum and also to ensure excellent perform of each student through out
their studies.
31
UTHM AERONAUTICS
Figure 4.1: 1st Batch UTHM Aeronautic (Professional Piloting)
Students posing at APFT, Kota Bahru, Kelantan during their
Flight Exposure Training.
Figure 4.2: 1st Batch UTHM Aeronautic (Professional Piloting)
Students under going Flight Exposure Training at APFT, Kota
Bahru, Kelantan.
32
UTHM AERONAUTICS
4.1.2 Facilities
To accomplish the aeronautical engineering technology programs special attention has to be
given by the university in providing and preparing the necessary facilities. Not all the
existing facilities available for the engineering students in the university are suitable to the
aeronautical engineering programs as certain rules and regulations set forth by the
Department of Civil Aviation (DCA) have to be complied. As to be remembered, the degree
will be awarded by UTHM but the professional licenses will be conferred by DCA. As
required by the programs, the professional licenses are part and parcel of the aeronautical
engineering technology programs. Thus failing in fulfill DCA requirements the respective
students could not get graduated. The facilities that have to be given special attentions are
being described in the following subsections.
4.1.2.1 Dedicated Lecture Rooms
To obtain the professional licenses in piloting, aircraft maintenance and air traffic control,
DCA setouts certain requirements regarding the lecture and tutorial rooms. These
requirements are:
i.
Each lecture class must not be more than 25 students while the tutorial classes each
must not be more than 15 students.
ii.
The room must be at least well lighted, equipped with video and audio systems, airconditioned and being curtained.
iii.
Each student has to have his own table and chair. The table should be of the
minimum size of 1 x 0.75 meter.
All these requirements are set to make sure maximum interaction between the lecturers and
students, proper knowledge transfer, and to develop high standard of academic and skill
performances in the students. At the same time to culture and develop high standard of
discipline as required to have by each of the said professional. These regulations are setout
by ICAO to be the common practice throughout the aviation educational world. Figure 4.3
shows the existing two required lecture rooms located at each corner of the side entrance of
the university new beautiful library building.
33
UTHM AERONAUTICS
1
2
2
1. UTHM New
Library
3
2. Aero Lecture
Room 1
3. Aero Lecture
Room 2
Figure 4.3: Lecture rooms for aeronautic students
4.1.2.2 Aeronautic Resource Room
This room is located at the ground floor of the new library building and just to the side of the
Aero Lecture Room 1. It consists of a reference corner, a meeting/discussion/consultation
corner and lecturers’ compartments. Six PCs are placed in the reference corner for the
students to get relevant information such as aircraft specifications and designs, maintenance
procedures, current issues on aviations, ICAO and DCA publications and even some lecture
notes from well-known universities (Ambry-Riddle Aeronautical University and MIT, USA)
etc., from the internet. A few more PCs will be installed in the future to house specific
aeronautical engineering software such as aircraft design and control software. Some
reference material such as manuals, journals and aeronautical publications are also available
in the reference corner. Reference books pertaining to the aeronautical curriculums are
available in the library itself.
The meeting/discussion/consultation corner serves the following purposes:
i. a place where aero students could meet and discuss among themselves on matters
regarding academics, aero club and other activities
ii. a place where students-lecturers interactions could take place. Students could consult
their lecturers on academics, personal and other related matters
34
UTHM AERONAUTICS
iii. a place where academic advisors could interact with there students and conducting
mentors-mantes activities
iv. a place where regular management-students and even departmental meetings could
take place.
Figure 4.4 shows the photos of the reference and meeting/discussion/consultation corners.
Behind the blue partitions of the meeting/discussion/ consultation corner are the lecturers’
compartments. There are four of them and each only consisting of a table and a chair. These
compartments serve as stopping places for lecturers on duties. For the lecturers that always
come early for their classes, they could make use of these compartments for resting, marking
tutorials and other assignments or even go through their lectures power points. They could
also stay back after their classes for similar purposes or even for students’ consultations.
Reference
Corner
Meeting/
Discussion/
Consultation
Corner
Figure 4.4: Part of Aeronautic Resource Room
4.1.2.3 Aeronautic Laboratories
UTHM has established two aeronautic laboratories for enhancing teaching and learning of
the aeronautical engineering technology courses stipulated in the program curriculums. The
two aeronautic laboratories are the “Aerodynamic and Propulsion Laboratory” and the
“Structure and Avionic Laboratory”. For all basic engineering courses, the related
engineering laboratories and workshops in the Mechanical and Production Engineering
Faculty will be used. At the moment, the aerodynamic and propulsion laboratory houses
35
UTHM AERONAUTICS
three main equipments i.e. the runnable turboprop engine test stand, cutaway turboprop
engine and turbine fuel system test stand. Another three main equipments i.e. the navigation
system test stand, landing gear system test stand and PC flying simulator are being housed in
the structure and avionic laboratory. Figures 4.5 and 4.6 show photos of the said equipments
in the aerodynamic and propulsion laboratory and structure and avionic laboratory
respectively while Figure 4.7 shows the photo of the inside environment of the common
working area shared by both the laboratories.
1
2
3
1.
2.
3.
Runnable Turboprop
Engine Test Stand
Cutaway Turboprop
Engine
Turbine Fuel System
Trainer
Figure 4.5: Current Major Equipments in Aerodynamic &
Propulsion Lab.
36
UTHM AERONAUTICS
1
2
3
1.
2.
3.
PC Flight Simulator
Navigation System Trainer
Landing Gear System
Trainer
Figure 4.6: Current Major Equipments in Structure & Avionic
Lab.
Figure 4.7: Common working area for “Aerodynamic
& Propulsion” and “Structure & Avionic” Labs.
37
UTHM AERONAUTICS
4.2
The Bachelor Degree In Aeronautical Engineering Technology
(Aircraft Maintenance) With Honours And The Bachelor Degree In
Aeronautical Engineering Technology (Air Traffic Control) With
Honours
The 1st batches of the bachelor degree in aeronautical technology (aircraft maintenance) and
the bachelor degree in aeronautical technology (air traffic control) students will commence
their studies in September 2011 and September 2013 respectively. They will be sharing the
same facilities and adhere to the same rules and regulations as the bachelor degree in
aeronautical technology (professional piloting) students as long as they are in UTHM.
4.3
Aeronautic Students’ Campus Life
4.3.1 Rules and Regulations
All UTHM aeronautic students have to adhere to the same rules and regulations as being
imposed to all other students in campus. On top of these rules and regulations, all aeronautic
students have to observed and obey the following specific rules as set by the Aeronautic
Department, Faculty of Mechanical and Production Engineering, UTHM:
i. All aeronautic students must be in campus from 8am to 5pm every week day
throughout each semester. If not attending lectures, tutorials, workshop, laboratory
works or other university activities they must be in the aeronautic lecture rooms or
aeronautic resource room. They are not allowed to be in their hostel rooms and
permissions from the head of the aeronautic department or the academic advisors
must be obtained prior to any student leaving the campus during the said period of
time.
ii. All aeronautic students must wear their uniforms every day from 8am to 5pm
throughout each semester.
iii. All aeronautic students must be at the front of aero lecture room 1 by 7.45am every
week day morning for performing morning parade.
iv. All aeronautic students must stay in the same hostel, four in each room. The male
students in the hostel block for male and the female students in the hostel block for
female.
38
UTHM AERONAUTICS
v. All aeronautic students must obtain at least 75 marks for each course taken every
semester. Failing to observe this particular regulation, student may have to leave the
aeronautic programs. 75 marks is the passing mark for every aeronautic course which
is inline with the requirement of DCA although in the eyes of the university 40 marks
is the passing mark for all the courses offered by the university.
vi. For every batch of aeronautic students, they must take the same co-curriculum
courses.
4.3.2 Other Activities / Duties
For other activities in campus, all aeronautic students have to observe the following rules and
duties:
i.
Every aeronautic student is automatically an active member of the Aero Club. It is
the duty of each and every student to make the club a success.
ii. At the end of each calendar year, the aeronautic department will organize a street
soccer (futsal) tournament between the aeronautic students and the department staff.
This tournament is to fight for the PIDA (Prof Ir Dr Abas Ab Wahab) Cup which was
launched for the first time in November 2010. Figure 4.8 shows the lineup photo of
the participants taken prior to the commencement of the tournament. Each and every
aeronautic student is compulsory to take part in the tournament.
iii. Each and every aeronautic student has the duty to uphold his/her own health up to
standard required by DCA through his/her degree study. Failing this, he/she will not
be allowed to undergo the license training required to fulfill his/her particular degree
requirement.
iv. Aeronautical students are allowed to participate in any university activities as long as
they do not go against any one of the rules stated in 4.3.1 and 4.3.2.
39
UTHM AERONAUTICS
4.4
Figure 4.8: Participants of PIDA Cup 2010 Tournament
Department Staff
At the moment the aeronautical engineering department has 17 staff of different categories as
shown in Table 4.1 below.
Table 4.1: Aeronautical Engineering Department Staff
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Category of Staff
Number
of Staff
Professor
2
Associate Professor
1
Senior Lecturer
2
Lecturer
2
Tutor
2
1
4
Instructor
2
Junior Instructor
1
Total
17
Status
Active
Active
Active
On PhD Study Leave
On PhD Study Leave
On Master Degree Study Leave
Active
Active
Active
40
FLYING
CHAPTER 5
OVERVIEW OF FLYING
The main function of a pilot is to fly the aircraft safely and economically. In normal
condition the flying of an aircraft from one place to another involves a set of activities.
The activities are preflight check, takeoff, climbing, turning, cruising, descending and
landing. These activities have to be carried out in great discipline in order to ensure the
safety of the flight. If anything happen while airborne, the whole aircraft and passengers
will be the victims. Thus the duty of a pilot is really great. The high salary that a pilot
earns is due to his responsibility and duty under high risk conditions. The higher the risk,
the better is the salary.
5.1
Airborne And Moving Through The Air
What makes an aircraft afloat in air (airborne) and moving through it smoothly?
The answer is the aircraft engine and its wing. The engine propulsive force pushes the
aircraft forward at the desired speed. As the aircraft moving forward it causes the air to
flow around its wings and body. The wings are made of special shape usually in the
shape of cambered aerofoil while its body is in the shape a cucumber. Air flow around a
cambered aerofoil creates a good upward force called lift force or simply “lift”. If the
speed of an aircraft is increased, the speed of air flowing around the wings is also
increased resulting in the increase of lift. To make the aircraft airborne the lift must be
greater than the weight of the aircraft. Lift could be increased either by moving the
aircraft faster i.e. by injecting more fuel into the engines or by changing the camber of the
aerofoil shape of the wings. The wing with more cambered will produce greater lift. The
air flow around a cucumber shape body produces negligible lift as compared to the one
produced by the wings but it facilitates the aircraft to move through the air smoothly. A
car has engine that can make it to more very fast and causes air to flow around its body at
high speed. But without wing the car cannot airborne like an aircraft.
The above explanation could also be done aerodynamically. Figure 5.1 shows two
different shapes of aerofoil i.e. symmetrical and cambered aerofoil. Let first consider the
symmetrical aerofoil. The air flow that strikes the aerofoil is divided into two, one flows
above and the other flows under the aerofoil. The top and bottom airflows will join
together again after leaving the aerofoil. Since the top and bottom airflows move through
the same distant for the same duration of time, then both top and bottom airflows are
having the same speed. According to Bernoulli Theorem, if the top and bottom speeds
are the same then the top and bottom pressures are also the same. Pressures always act
41
FLYING
perpendicularly to the surface, then as shown in Figure 5.2 the top and bottom pressures
are having the same values but in opposite directions. Thus the pressures (pressure
forces) cancel each other resulting in zero lift force being created.
Chord Length
Leading
Edge
Upper Camber
Trailing
Edge
Lower Camber
Camber: Upper > Lower
Surface Distance, Leading To Trailing Edges: Upper > Lower
(a). Cambered / Unsymmetrical
Chord Length
Upper Camber
Leading
Edge
Lower Camber
Trailing
Edge
Chamber: Upper = Lower
Surface Distance, Leading To Trailing Edges: Upper =Lower
(b). Un-cambered / Symmetrical
Figure 5.1: Cambered and Symmetrical Aerofoil
Top Pressure
Top Airflow
Bottom Airflow
Total Top
Pressure
Total Bottom
Pressure
Bottom Pressure
Figure 5.2: Symmetrical Aerofoil – Total Top Surface Pressure
Equalizes Total Bottom Surface Pressure Resulting in Zero Lift Force
But different thing happens in the case of cambered aerofoil. As seen in Figure 5.3, the
distant between the leading and trailing edges of the aerofoil is longer on the top surface
than the bottom surface. Thus according to the same Bernoulli Theorem, the airflow on
42
FLYING
the upper surface of the aerofoil is faster than the one at the bottom surface. Thus the
pressure on the top surface is lesser than the pressure on the bottom surface resulting in an
upward pressure force of lift force which makes the wing or aircraft to float in air. The
greater the speed of the aircraft, the bigger will be the lift produced.
LIFT
Total Top
Pressure
Fast Speed
Total Bottom
Pressure
Slow Speed
Figure 5.3: Cambered Aerofoil – Total Bottom Surface Pressure is
larger than Total Top Surface Pressure, Generating Lift Force
The angle at which the air strikes the wing also plays an important role in the creation of
lift force. The bigger the angle of attack, the bigger the lift force will be. But everything
on this earth has a limit and the angle of attack has no exception. Too big an angle of
attack will make the airflow above the aerofoil to be separated from the top surface of the
wing, crated sudden loss of lift called stall. Stalling will cause the sudden drop of the
aircraft which is tremendously dangerous. Figure 5.4 gives good illustration of the
limitation of the angle of attack.
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FLYING
1.6
Detached Flow
(Flow Separation)
Max. Cl
(Lift)
1.4
Lift Coefficient, Cl
1.2
1.0
Stalling
Point
0.8
0.6
Max.
Wing’s
Angle of
Attack
0.4
Attached Flow
0.2
0.0
0.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
10.0
12.0
14.0
16.0
18.0
20.0
-0.2
Angle of Attack, deg
Figure 5.4: Graph of Lift Coefficients versus Angle of Attacks of a
Typical Aerofoil (Wing)
5.2
Aircraft Performance
As being stated earlier, the aircraft (airliner) performance includes the takeoff, climbing,
turning, cruising, descending and landing. In this section these performances of the
aircraft will be briefly discussed.
5.2.1
Axes of motions and the control surfaces
Principally an aircraft maneuvers about its three body axes namely the longitudinal axis,
vertical axis and horizontal axis. Figure 5.5 illustrates the body axes of an aircraft.
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FLYING
Figure 5.5: Aircraft Body Axes
[Source: http://www.esparacing.com]
The aircraft motions about its longitudinal, vertical and horizontal axes are called rolling,
yawing and pitching motions. The parts of the aircraft responsible for and control these
motions are the ailerons, rudder and elevators respectively. These parts are commonly
called the control surfaces and are clearly shown in Figure 5.6.
Longitudinal
Axis
Lateral Axis
Vertical Axis
Figure 5.6: Aircraft Control Surfaces
[Source: http://www.rc-airplane-world.com]
The pilot makes use of the control stick / control column to operate the aileron and the
elevators, and the rudder paddles to operate the rudder. Pushing the stick to the right or
left makes the aircraft to roll to the right or left respectively. Pulling the stick backwards
causes the aircraft to pitch up (nose up) while pushing the stick forwards causes the
aircraft to pitch down (nose down). Pushing down the right rudder pedal makes the
aircraft to yaw / turn to the right while pushing down the left rudder paddle will make the
aircraft to yaw to the left. To give the aircraft a good or sharp turn, the pilot will make
45
FLYING
use the aileron and the rudder simultaneously. If using the rudder alone, the turning circle
will be too large and will take a lot of times.
There is another type of control surface called the flaps. The use of flaps does not make
the aircraft to move about any of its body axes but rather to increase the lift forces created
by the wing during takeoff, climbing, descending and landing. Moving the flaps down
will increase the wing camber and thus increasing the lift force created as shown in
Figure 5.7.
Inflight
(Cruising)
Climbing /
Descending
Figure 5.7: Examples of the Usage of Flaps in Flight Operations
[Source: http://www.airliners.net & http://www.theairlinehub.com]
In cruising flight the flap will be set to its normal / horizontal position in order to reduce
drag. This action will make the aircraft moves faster or at the same speed with reducing
fuel consumption. Detail aerodynamic explanation for the above said motions could be
obtained from any the aeronautic staff and students or from any aerodynamic reference
books.
5.2.2
Takeoff and climbing
To make the aircraft to takeoff, the pilot puts the flap down to the takeoff position and
starts ramming the engines to increase the speed of the aircraft as it moves along the
runway. At reaching the recommended takeoff speed, the pilot will pull the control stick /
column backwards making the elevators to deflect upwards. The force due to the air
striking the upward deflected elevators causes the aircraft to pitch up (nose up). With the
right amount of lift force created by the flap down wing and in the nose up position, the
46
FLYING
aircraft will takeoff and climb nicely. After reaching a permissible height (depending on
the types of aircraft), the landing gears have to be retracted in order to reduce drag and
thus inducing a better climbing motion.
5.2.3 Cruising
After reaching the required height, the pilot will push the control stick to its neutral
position, thus putting back the elevators into their neutral / horizontal positions and
making the aircraft into the level flight. This action is not enough; the pilot has also to
bring back the wing flaps position into the cruising / horizontal positions. This will
reduce the drag force on to the aircraft and hence reducing fuel consumption. At last and
not to forget, that the pilot has to trim down the formerly engines power in order to
maintain steady, economical level flight. If this is not done the aircraft will keep
increasing its speed unnecessarily.
5.2.4 Approaching and Landing
During approaching and in the preparation for landing, the pilot has to reduce the height
and at the same time to reduce the aircraft speed to the recommended speed to touch
down. It is very vital not to give the aircraft a high impact high speed landing. This will
cause damage to the aircraft, uncomfortable and dangerous feeling to the passengers, and
also create difficulties in make the aircraft to come to a stop since each runway has its
own limited length. To have a safe landing, the pilot first of all has to reduce the aircraft
speed by releasing the landing gears down and also reducing engines speed. Once the
aircraft speed is reduced, the lift force created by the wing will also reduce. This makes
the aircraft to drop. In order to have the right suitable rate of descend; the lift force has to
be regulated due to the continuously reducing aircraft speed. This done by putting the
wing flaps to the landing position and regulated from time to time until the aircraft
reaching the touch down position. Once touching down, the aircraft engine will be put to
the minimum power position, and the air spoilers into the up position to increase the drag
force on to the motion of the aircraft. Once a permissible speed is achieved the tyre
brakes are employed until the safe taxing speed is reached. The tyre breaks are not
advisable to be employed at high aircraft landing speed since it will cause a sudden stop
to the aircraft which may resulting into the somersaulting motion of the aircraft.
5.3
Pilots And Their Duties
The main duty of pilots is to fly the aircraft safely and economically. Their main place of
work is in the aircraft cockpits. The captain (pilot) seat is on the left and the co-pilot seat
is on the right. Figure 5.8 illustrates these respective pilot and co-pilot seat.
47
FLYING
PILOT
COPILOT
Pilot
Co-Pilot
Figure 5.8: The Positions of Pilot and Co-pilot in an
Aircraft Cockpit [Source: http://us.fotolia.com]
In the past, the job of the pilot was quite tough. He has to perform all the required duties
(to pull backward and to push forward the control stick for nose up and down, to push the
stick left and right to make the aircraft roll to the left and right, and to push the left and
right peddles in order to yaw / turn the aircraft to the left and right respectively, etc) for
the aircraft maneuver especially during takeoff, climbing, approaching and landing. But
nowadays, with the introduction of big aircraft such as Boeing 747 and Airbus 380, the
tasks of the pilot are much more relaxing since the aircrafts are equipped with automated
control systems. Boeing 747 operates using semi-automated control systems while the
Airbus 380 operates using fully automated control systems. Figure 5.9 shows the cockpit
of both types of aircraft. At the beginning of the flight (i.e. before takeoff) the pilot has to
setup the control systems by putting in all the necessary data such as port of takeoff,
destination, weather conditions, etc ) into the master computer. Then by pushing the ok
button every movement of the aircraft, from takeoff up to landing will be performed and
controlled by the master computer automatically. The pilot just has to monitor the
aircraft performance by looking at all the gages in the cockpit. If any malfunction of the
systems occurs (as indicated by flashing red light and sharp sounding), then the pilot has
to investigate and overcome them.
The pilot will have to have good engineering
background of the automated control systems and also the working of the each individual
aircraft control component system. The degree level of engineering technology
knowledge is now a compulsory for the new, current and future pilots since aircraft
systems are becoming more advance and sophisticated.
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FLYING
(a). Boeing 747
(b). Airbus 380
Figure 5.9: Cockpit of Layouts of the Big
New Generation Aircrafts [Source:
http://www.flickr.com &
http://www.flightglobal.com]
49
FLYING
50
HELICOPTER FLIGHT
CHAPTER 6
HELICOPTERS
6.1
Introduction
Helicopter is one of the members of the aircraft family. This member of the aircraft
family serves vital roles as public air transport to the remote and isolated areas (i.e. the far
interior of the country, small islands, thick jungles, high mountains, etc) where other
modes of transportation are not available or not feasible to be implemented. Land
transports (like cars, buses, etc) need good roads, water transports (like water express in
Sarawak, Penang ferries, speed boat and ferries to Tioman Island) need good continuous
amount of water while air transports (all type of planes) need good runway for their
smooth operations. But helicopters do not need all the above mentioned facilities for
their operations. Thus helicopters become the main mode of transportation to these
remote and isolated areas.
Helicopters are also used in military activities, search and rescue, national security
monitoring (police, fire bridge/ ”bomba”) and also at a more important role as air
ambulance. Helicopters do not need runway for takeoff and landing but have the special
capability of taking off and landing vertically. Helicopters are also used in making
movies and taking aerial photos for the purpose of aerial mappings and monitoring the
inflow of illegal immigrants, illegal lumbering, etc. All these functions are made possible
by helicopters due to their capability to hover at any height and takeoff and landing
vertically.
6.2
Helicopters Versus Aeroplanes
Helicopters and aeroplanes are not much different; both are modes of air transportation.
They can be used not only as public transports but and also in military supports.
Although these aircrafts carry out similar functions but they still posses some differences
between them. Table 6.1 outlines the main differences only. In an aeroplane the wing is
fixed and is only responsible to produce lift to airborne and float the aeroplane in air. The
thrust produces by the engines provides the propulsive force. Aeroplane makes use of
control surfaces (the ailerons, rudder and elevators) to maneuver and control its motions
in the air. But in the case of a helicopter, its rotating blades of the main rotor produce not
only the required lift but also at the same time provide the necessary propulsive force in
any required directions. Figure 6.1 illustrates the said differences. The rotating blades are
also called rotating wings due to their lift producing function. The helicopter employs it
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HELICOPTER FLIGHT
main rotor to maneuver in the air. To fly forwards, backwards and to left and right, the
pilot just has to tilt the main rotor forward, backwards, to the left and right respectively.
Detail explanations will be given in subsection 6.3. The helicopter needs tail rotor in
order to make it stay in any required position, without or malfunction tail rotor will set the
helicopter into the dangerous spinning motion. This is one of the reasons that causes some
of helicopter accidents.
A very outstanding different in flying both types of aircraft is that in an aeroplane the
pilot (captain) takes the left seat whereas in helicopter the pilots will take the right seat.
The reason for this will be discussed later.
Table 6.1: Main differences between Helicopter and Aeroplane
[Source:
http://helicopterphotos.net]
No.
Helicopter
[Source:
http://www.airliners.net]
Aeroplane
1.
Rotating Wing (Main Rotor)
Fixed Wing
2.
Need Tail Rotor to
encounter helicopter body
rotation resulting from the
rotation of the main rotor
No such effect
3.
Helicopter directional
motions are being controlled
by tilting the main rotor.
4.
Main rotor provides lift and
also propulsive forces for the
operations of helicopter
5.
Operates up to high subsonic
speed (Mach < 1)
Aeroplane direction motions
are being controlled by control
surfaces (rudder, ailerons and
elevators
Lift force is provided by the
wing and the propulsive force
by the thrust produces by the
engine or by the propeller.
Operates at high subsonic
speed (Mach < 1) – airline
transport aircraft
Operates up to supersonic
speed (5 < Mach < 1) –
military aircraft
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HELICOPTER FLIGHT
6.
Pilot (Captain) occupies
right seat
Pilot occupies left seat
7.
Small number of passengers
(up to 16 peoples)
Large number of passenger
(Airbus 380 can carry up to
800 passengers)
8.
Does not need runway
Needs runway
9.
Special capabilities
(hovering and vertical
takeoff and landing)
Only in military aeroplane
(Harrier)
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HELICOPTER FLIGHT
Keys:
Lift force
Propulsive Force
Figure 6.1: Lift and Propulsive Forces (Thrust) acting on an
Aeroplane and a Helicopter in Forward Flight.
6.3
How A Helicopter Flies
[Source: Internet]
The main different between a helicopter and an aeroplane is that a helicopter could
takeoff and landing vertically without the need of runway, hovering (fly at one place) in
air, fly backwards and sideways on top of other common aircraft maneuvers (operations)
such as flying forward and turning. When the helicopter rotor turns with its rotor plane of
54
HELICOPTER FLIGHT
rotation horizontally, it produces some vertical upwards force called “Lift”. At a high
rotation, the lift created will be much bigger that the helicopter’s weight. In this situation,
the helicopter will climb vertically into the air. If then, the pilot reduces the rotor speed
of rotation in such a way that the lift produce is just equal to the weight of the helicopter,
the helicopter will stay at a particular height. Such situation is called hovering. To
descend / landing, the rotor speed has to be further reduced resulting in the lift produced
will be less than the helicopter’s weight. The reduction in rotor speed / lift has to done bit
by bit since too big reduction in lift will cause the helicopter to descend very fast and may
hit the ground with too high an impact. This will damage the aircraft and hurt the pilot
and passengers if any. These vertical operations / capabilities of a helicopter are clearly
illustrated in Figure 6.2 below.
Lift
Lift
Weight
Vertical Climb (Ascending)
Weight
Hovering
(Floating)
Lift
Weight
Descending
On Ground
Figure 6.2: Vertical and hovering operations of a helicopter
Helicopter does not have any ailerons, rudder and elevators to do pitching, rolling,
yawing and turning motions like an aeroplane but it solely utilizes the main rotor to
perform the said maneuvering operations. In maneuvering operations, the main rotor will
supply the lift force (lift) and the propulsive force (thrust) at the same time.
For forward flying, the main rotor is tilting to the front in such a way that the plane of
main rotor rotation is slanting slightly to the front. To increase forward speed, the main
rotor is tilted more to the front and vice versa. No other aircraft could move backwards
except helicopter. This is done just by tilting the main rotor to the back. By doing this,
the thrust component produced by the rotor is in the backward direction resulting in the
backward motion.
55
HELICOPTER FLIGHT
Another special maneuvering operation that a helicopter could do is the pure sideways
motions. It could fly in the pure left and right directions. These pure left and right
motions are accomplished just by tilting the main rotor to the left and right respectively.
An integrated motion could also be done, i.e. by tilting the main rotor in such a way that
the plane of its rotation is in between the front and side planes. This action will produce
the thrust neither in the forward direction nor in the sideward direction but it is in
between. In this situation the helicopter will neither fly straight direction nor in the
sideway direction but making a turn instead. Figure 6.3 illustrates the helicopter in the
forward, backward, sideways flights with the relevant forces produced by the main rotor.
The planes of the main rotor rotation in the respective flight motion are shown in Figure
6.4.
Lift
Lift
Thrust
Thrust
Weight
In Forward Flight
Lift
Thrust
Weight
In Backward Flight
Lift
Thrust
Weight
Fly sideway (To the right)
Weight
Fly sideway (To the Left)
Figure 6.3: Schematic illustrations of helicopter in forward,
backward, to the right and left flying motions.
56
HELICOPTER FLIGHT
Plane of
Rotor
Rotation
Vert.
Vert.
Long.
Lat.
Long.
Lat.
Plane of
Rotor
Rotation
Forward Motion
Sideward Motion
Plane of
Rotor
Rotation
Vert
.
Long.
Lat
Turning Motion
Figure 6.4: Planes of main rotor rotations and the forces
produced by the main rotor in forward, sideward and turning
The main purpose of the tail rotor is to counter the helicopter body moment of inertia
induced by the main rotor rotation. But it is also used to help in making sharp turns and
making helicopter to turn around its vertical body axis during hovering. Figure 6.5
illustrates the functions of the tail rotor. For hovering in a particular position or to be in
straight forward flight, the force F produced by the tail rotor should be equal the counter
rotating force (counter force). Reducing F, the helicopter in hovering will start to rotate
anticlockwise about its vertical body axis or will help to make a sharp turn to the left if
the helicopter is in turning motion. To perform a clockwise rotation in hovering or to
make a sharp turn to the right in flight the F must be bigger than the counter force.
57
HELICOPTER FLIGHT
F = counter
force
(a)
F < counter
force
Induced
Body
Rotation
Hovering / Straight
Forward Flight
(b)
Anticlockwise Turn in
Hovering / Sharp Left
Turning
F > counter
force
(c)
Clockwise Turn in
Hovering / Sharp Right
Turning
Figure 6.5: The functions of Tail Rotor
6.4
The Secret Of Rotating Wings
The helicopter main rotor consists of a number of blades, the minimum is two and the
maximum is five) depending on the load it carries and also the mission it has to
accomplish. Each blade when rotating produces lift. Since it produces lift for the
helicopter flight operations, it is called wing; just like the wing of an aeroplane. The only
different between the two is that the rotor blade produces lift while rotating but the wing
of an aeroplane just stay fixed to its body. Thus helicopter blade is called rotating wing
and the aeroplane wing is called fixed wing.
In flight of an aeroplane, only the relative air velocity coming from the front hits the wing
and produces the required lift. It is very much different in the case of helicopter flight. In
helicopter forward flight, on only the relative air velocity coming from the front due to
forward motion but also the relative velocity of air due to the rotation of the blade itself.
The resultant relative velocity is the one that is responsible to produce lift on each blade.
The value of the resultant relative velocity depends on which side of the helicopter it is
operating. Its value on the advancing side is higher than the one on the retreating side.
This implies that the lift produced on the advancing side is higher than the one on the
retreating side. Thus strictly speaking, the helicopter will fly in a way that its right side of
the body (advancing side of the blades) will be higher than its left side (the retreating side
if the blades) as shown in Figure 6.6.
In order to have a stable straight and level flight, the angle of attack of the retreating blade
is increased. Thus increasing the lift produced. This in turn equalizes the lift produced by
the advancing blade. This happens continuously as the blades keep rotating and hence
straight level flight is accomplished. Normally, the angles of attack of the advancing and
retreating blades are 4 and 12 degrees respectively.
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HELICOPTER FLIGHT
In vertical flight and in hovering conditions, the helicopter does not involve in any
forward motion. So, there is no relative velocity due to helicopter forward flight acting on
the rotor blades. Relative velocity due to helicopter blade motion is the only one that of
concerned. Thus in vertical flight and hovering, there is no necessity to vary the blade
angles of attack from the advancing to the retreating sides or vice versa. The lift on the
retreating side is already equal to the one on the advancing side. Figure 6.7 gives good
illustration on these conditions.
59
HELICOPTER FLIGHT
Direction
of Flight
Retreating
Blade/ Side
4o
Keys:
Advancing
Blade/ Side
4
o
Relative Velocity
Due To Blade Motion
Relative Velocity
Due To Helicopter
Forward Motion
Resultant Relative
Velocity Striking The
Blade
Direction
of Flight
Unstable Flight
12
o
Retreating
Blade/ Side
Advancing
Blade/ Side
4
o
Stable Flight
o
12
o
4
o
12
4
o
Rotating
Blade
angles of
Attack
Figure 6.6: Controlling lift production of rotating blades for
helicopter flight stability
60
HELICOPTER FLIGHT
4
o
Retreating
Blade/Side
Advancing
Blade/ Side
Lift
4
o
Lift
Figure 6.7: Symmetrical Lift Distribution on Helicopter Rotor
during Vertical Flight and Hovering
6.5
Problem Of Side Wind
Helicopter pilots are being advised to avoid landing, takeoff and hovering in the present
of gust i.e. high speed wind; no matter whether the gust comes from the front or from the
sides. The one comes from the sides is also known as cross wind / side wind. Special care
has to be taken if have to face this situation and only experienced pilot will be permitted
to do so. To fly a helicopter in the vicinity of high hills and in the present of cross wind
will be more dangerous and difficult since the cross wind is in the form of upwash. If
strong head wind or cross wind or even upwash wind comes suddenly while the
helicopter is in takeoff or landing or hovering operation, only Allah knows what will
happen and all onboard have to make heavy doa. In several cases, accidents do take
place.
In order to have some understanding into the problem of flying helicopter in the present
of cross wind / side wind, let us refer to Figure 6.8 below. Usually for stable flight the
angles of attack of the advancing and retreating blades are of the values
61
HELICOPTER FLIGHT
Direction
of Flight
12
Advancing
Blade/ Side
o
Upwash
Cross
Wind
o
4
Retreating
Blade/ Side
Zero
Lift
(a)
(d)
Strong
Head
Wind
Head Wind
Zero
Lift
< 16o
(b)
(c)
Figure 6.8: The Effects of Strong Wind / Gust on Helicopter
Flight
of 4 and 12 degrees respectively (Figure 6.8 – a) . When a strong head wind strikes the
blades, the resulting relative wind velocity on the advancing blade will be much higher
than the one on the retreating blade. The lift on the advancing side will be much higher
than the lift on the retreating side resulting in the left side of the helicopter to drop (Figure
6.8 – b). This situation could be remedied by the pilot increases the retreating blade angle
of attack to a value higher than 12 degrees but it could not be more than the blade stall
angle of attack which is in the range of 16 degrees. If goes beyond 16 degrees, the blade
will stall i.e. will have zero lift and the helicopter will fall and crash on to its left side in
no minute (Figure 6.8 – c). Sometimes if too strong a head wind occurs, the lift on the
retreating side will be automatically zero and nothing could be done before the helicopter
strikes the ground. Figure 6.9 illustrates the limits of helicopter blade angle of attack.
62
HELICOPTER FLIGHT
1.6
1.4
Lift Coefficient, Cl
1.2
1.0
0.8
Maximum
Blade
Angle of
Attack (Stall
Limit)
0.6
0.4
Retreating
Blade
Angle of
Attack
Advancing
Blade
Angle of
Attack
0.2
0.0
0.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
10.0
12.0
14.0
16.0
18.0
20.0
-0.2
Angle of Attack, deg
Figure 6.9: The Range of Main Rotor Blade Angle of Attack for
Helicopter Operation
In the case of upwash cross wind from the left, the retreating side of the main rotor will
be push up and the advancing side will drop. To stabilize this situation, the pilot has to
reduce the lift on the retreating side. This is done by reducing the retreating blade angle
of attack to lower than 12 degrees. In this case, stalling of the retreating blades will not
happen. Thus it is quite safe but troublesome.
The most dangerous situation is when the upwash cross wind comes from the right side of
the helicopter (Figure 6.8 – d). In this case the advancing side of the main rotor is being
pushed up and the retreating side drops. To stabilize this situation, the pilot has to
increase the lift on the retreating side by increasing the retreating blade angle of attack to
higher than 12 degrees. If the retreating blade angle of attack is more than 16 degrees, the
blade will stall and the helicopter will fall to the ground on its lift side. In some instances
the upwash cross wind from the right is too strong. The advancing side of the main rotor
will be tilted upward to nearly 90 degrees. In this case the pilot could not do anything
and the helicopter will hit the ground on its left side in no time.
According to the above discussed theoretical analysis, when a helicopter involves in any
accident due to high head on or high upwash cross winds, the helicopter will crash to the
ground on its left side. This is being well supported by the cases of real helicopter
accidents reported in public media. Figure 6.10 gives good representation of the said
accidents.
63
HELICOPTER FLIGHT
Figure 6.10: Photos of Helicopter Accidents that may due to high
head on and high cross winds [Source: http://www.flightglobal.com ,
http://www.canada.com & http://www.foranlaw.com]
Based on the said theoretical analysis, all helicopters are being designed with the captain
(pilot) seats on the right. This will give some safety measures to the pilots if these
circumstances (accidents) occur.
Always remember the old saying, “Never turns your back to a hungry lion”. This is
true in the case of helicopter retreating blades. Tremendous loss of lift occurs when the
blades faces away from the incoming wind.
6.6
Current Research In UTHM
Based on the said problem facing by helicopter flying, a research has been initiated in
UTHM aiming at proposing a solution to the problem either partially or totally. A master
64
HELICOPTER FLIGHT
student research that had commenced in July 2009 and completed in June 2011 revealed
some outstanding results. In this research the use of vortex traps on helicopter blades was
investigated.
In helicopter flight, the angle of attack on the retreating blades was made higher than on
the advancing ones. In high head on wind and side gust, the retreating blade angles were
increased in order to balance the increase in lift on the advancing blades. If the angle of
attack on the retreating blades was made too high then the blade will stall and the whole
helicopter will suddenly drop to the ground. Normally the retreating blade angle goes up
to 16o before stalling. This is due to flow separation occurs on the top of the upper
surface of the blade creating drag too much higher than the lift produced.
The research introduced vortex traps on the upper surface of the retreating blade in order
to trap the vortex and thus delaying flow separation. Hence delays retreating blade
stalling. Figure 6.11(a) illustrates flow separation and 6.11(b) shows the function of
vortex trap.
(a). Flow Separation on
Aerofoil Without Vortex
o
Trap at 16 Angle of Attack
(b). Flow Separation being
delayed on Aerofoil With
o
Vortex Trap at 16 Angle
of Attack
Vortex Trap
Figure 6.11: The Application of Vortex Trap on Delaying Flow Separation on
Aerofoil [4]
The simulation results are shown in Figure 6.12. The green and pink coloured curves are
the plots of Lift Coefficient of the blade verses various angles of attack for the helicopter
blades without and with vortex trap respectively. The simulations were done for flow
with Mach No., M=0.4 and Reynolds No., Re = 3 x 106. The blade with a number of
vortex traps was simulated and the one with a single vortex trap located at 0.4 chord
length on the upper surface of the blade gave the best results among all. The pink curve
in Figure 6.12 is the plot for this said blade.
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HELICOPTER FLIGHT
o
7
1.6
1.4
Stalling
Points
Lift Coefficient, Cl
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
4
0.4
o
0.2
0.0
0.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
10.0
12.0
14.0
Angle of Attack, deg
16.0
18.0
20.0
Keys:
Without
Vortex Trap
With Vortex Trap
At x/c=0.4
Figure 6.12: Plots showing the effect of using vortex trap on
helicopter blade [4]
From Figure 6.12 it is clearly seen that the lift required in ordinary situation is being
produced by the blade without vortex trap at an angle of attack of 12o (black broken line).
The same amount of lift could be produced by the blade with single vortex trap at an
angle of attack of 11o (pink broken line). Also the stalling point for blade without vortex
trap is at the angle of attack of 16o whereas the stalling point for blade with single vortex
trap is at 18o. Thus the safe ranges of angle of attack for the two types of blades (without
and with vortex trap) are 12o – 16o (i.e. 4o range) and 11o – 18o (i.e. 7o range)
respectively. The percentage increase in the range of safe angle of attack is 75% which
implies that the pilot will have a larger range of angle of attack to play with for
encountering high head on wind and side gust. This will be the beginning of UTHM
contribution in aeronautics application. Further detail investigations and designs will be
pursed in the near future.
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HELICOPTER FLIGHT
THE END…. UTHM AERONAUTICS FOR FUTURE SAFE AND
SUSTAINABLE AVIATION
67
HELICOPTER FLIGHT
68
UTHM AERONAUTICS
References
1.
Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Dan Pembuatan. “Cadangan Kurikulum Dan Silabus
Program Sarjana Muda Teknologi Kejuruteraan Aeronautik (Penerbangan Profesional)
Dengan Kepujian”, Kertas Kerja Untuk Kelulusan Jawatankuasa Pendidikan Tinggi
Kementerian Pengajian Tinggi Malaysia, Ogos 2008
2.
Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Dan Pembuatan. “Cadangan Kurikulum Dan Silabus
Program Sarjana Muda Teknologi Kejuruteraan Aeronautik (Penyenggaraan Pesawat
Terbang) Dengan Kepujian”, Kertas Kerja Untuk Kelulusan Jawatankuasa Pendidikan Tinggi
Kementerian Pengajian Tinggi Malaysia, Ogos 2008.
3.
Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Dan Pembuatan. “Cadangan Kurikulum Dan Silabus
Program Sarjana Muda Teknologi Kejuruteraan Aeronautik (Kawalan Trafik Udara) Dengan
Kepujian”, Kertas Kerja Untuk Kelulusan Jawatankuasa Pendidikan Tinggi Kementerian
Pengajian Tinggi Malaysia, Ogos 2008.
4.
Mohd Fauzi Yaakub and Abas Ab. Wahab. “Preliminary Study on the Effect of Vortex Trap
(Groove) on NACA0012 Helicopter Blade”, The International Conference On Mechanical
And Manufacturing Engineering 2011 (ICME 2011), 6-8 June 2011
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UTHM AERONAUTICS
Suggested Further Reading
1.
Abas A. Wahab, Rosbi Mamat, Syariful Syafiq Shamsudin. “The Effectiveness Of Pole
Placement Method In Control System Design For An Autonomous Helicopter Model In
Hovering Flight”, Journal: IJEE, Vol. 1 – February 2010.
2.
Arhami, Abas Ab. Wahab, Khalid Hasnan. “ Towards The Concept Design Of A Personal
Air-Land-Water Vehicle”, Proceedings: MUCEET 2009 Malaysian Technical Universities
Conference On Engineering And Technology, Kuantan, Pahang, Malaysia, 20 – 22 June
2009.
3.
Mohamed Sukri M. A. & Abas A.W.. “Study The Effect Of Quadratic Blade Shape On The
Vertical Autorotation Performance Of A Small Scale Model Helicopter”, 12-th International
Conference On Aerospace Sciences & Aviation Technology (12-th ASAT Conference),
Cairo, Egypt, May 2007.
4.
A.A.Wahab & M.H.Ismail. “Estimating Vertical Drag On Helicopter Fuselage During
Hovering”, Regional Conf. On Vehicles Eng. & Tech. (RIVET 06), Kuala Lumpur, July
2006.
5.
A.A.Wahab & N.A.R Nik Mohd. “Numerical Analysis Of An Isolated Main Helicopter
Rotor In Hovering And Forward Flight”, Regional Conf. On Vehicles Eng. & Tech. (RIVET
06), Kuala Lumpur, July 2006.
6.
A.A.Wahab & N.A.R Nik Mohd. “Feasibility Study On Improving Of Helicopter Forward
Flight Speed Via Modification Of The Blade Dimension And Engine Performance”, Regional
Conf. On Vehicles Eng. & Tech. (RIVET 06), Kuala Lumpur, July 2006.
7.
A.A.Wahab & S.Y. Shamsudin. “The Development Of Autopilot System For An
Autonomous UAV Helicopter Model – Part 1”, Regional Conf. On Vehicles Eng. & Tech.
(RIVET 06), Kuala Lumpur, July 2006.
8.
A.A.Wahab & S.Y. Shamsudin. “The Control System Design For An Autonomous
Helicopter Model In Hovering Using Pole Placement Method”, Regional Conf. On Vehicles
Eng. & Tech. (RIVET 06), Kuala Lumpur, July 2006.
9.
A.A.Wahab & M.S.M.Ali. “Preliminary Experimental Investigation On Autorotation
Performance Of A Scale Model Helicopter In Vertical Manoeuvre”, Regional Conf. On
Vehicles Eng. & Tech. (RIVET 06), Kuala Lumpur, July 2006.
70
UTHM AERONAUTICS
10.
A.A.Wahab & M.S.M.Ali. “Numerical Study On The Transition Performance Of A Scale
Model Helicopter From Hovering To Vertical Autorotation”, Regional Conf. On Vehicles
Eng. & Tech. (RIVET 06), Kuala Lumpur, July 2006.
11.
A.A.Wahab & N.A.R Nik Mohd. “The Effect Of Blade Solidity On Helicopter Cruising
Speed Performance”, Malaysian Science & Technology Congress Proc., Kuala Lumpur,
October 2004.
12.
A.A.Wahab & S.Y. Shamsudin. “Preliminary Study On System Identification Modelling Of
A Model Scale Helicopter In Hovering”, Malaysian Science & Technology Congress Proc.,
Kuala Lumpur, October 2004.
13.
A.A.Wahab, M.Z.M.Nor, M.T.Tan & M.H.Ismail. “High - Lift Foldable Wing For Low
Take-off Speed Seaplane”, National Symp. of Science & Tech Proc., July 2003.
14.
A.A.Wahab & M.F.Nadzri. “The Study Of Induced Velocity On Helicopter Main Rotor
Blade”, National Symp. of Science & Tech Proc., July 2003.
15.
A.A.Wahab & C.H.Oii. “The Development Of An Helicopter Performance Analysis
Software”, National Symp.of Science & Tech Proc., July 2003.
16.
Abas Ab. Wahab et al. “Human Resource Development For Malaysian Aerospace
Industry”, Proc. National Workshop On Malaysian Aerospace/Aviation Industry, Its Vision
And Future Development, Prime Minister Department, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, July 1995
71
UTHM AERONAUTICS
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UTHM AERONAUTICS
CURRICULUM VITAE
Professor Ir Dr Abas bin Ab. Wahab was born on 20th April 1951 in Kampung Solok Gaung, Bukit
Lintang, Melaka. He started his engineering education in 1971 by registering at Maktab Teknik,
Kuala Lumpur and obtained his Diploma in Mechanical Engineering from Institut Teknologi
Kebangsaan, ITK (the new name of Maktab Teknik) in 1974.
In August 1974 he joined ITK as Assistant Lecturer B and was responsible to teach Engineering
Drawing, Workshop Practices and to take tutorial classes for the subjects of Fluid Mechanics,
Thermodynamics and Mechanic of Machines. He was sent by Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, UTM
(the new name of ITK) to do his undergraduate education at the University of Strathclyde, Glasgow,
United Kingdom in September 1975. After getting his Bachelor Degree in Mechanical Engineering
(Hons), majoring in Aerodynamics, in 1977, he was promoted to the post of Assistance Lecturer A.
By then he was given the responsibility to teach the subjects of Fluid Mechanics, Thermodynamics
and Mechanic of Machines for the diploma courses.
In September 1982 he was again sent by UTM to pursue his master degree at the West Virginia
University, USA and 1984 he was conferred the degree of M.Sc. Aerospace Engineering (MSAE).
By May 1984 he was promoted as Full Lecturer and it was the beginning of his career in aeronautics.
He had to teach the subjects of Aerodynamics, Gas Dynamics and Aircraft Design I & II for the final
year of the Aeronautical Engineering Degree and Diploma Programs. He was given the responsibility
to lead the Department of Thermo-Fluid, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, UTM from 1st June
1985 – 31st May 1987.
He had to be in the classroom again when UTM sent him to further his study to the doctorate level at
the University of Salford, UK in September 1989. In 1992 he was awarded with the Doctor of
Philosophy (Ph.D.) Degree in Aerodynamics. By now he had to teach the subjects of Helicopter
Technology, Aerodynamics, Gas Dynamics, Aircraft Propulsion and Flight Management. He gained
his Professional Engineer (Ir.) Status from the Board of Engineers Malaysia (BEM) in the same year.
Since then he involved actively in Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV), Helicopter and Wind Energy
researches and at the same time was appointed as the Head of the UTM Aeronautical Laboratory. He
was promoted to the post of Associate Professor in 1993, the Head of the Thermo-Fluid department
(1994 – 1998) and the Head of Aeronautic Panel (1996 - 2004), Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,
UTM. He was then promoted to the post of Professor (VK7) in 1999. He was also appointed as the
Head of Aeronautic, Automotive and Marine Research Focus Group (2000 – 2006) and the Head of
Aerospace and Transport Engineering Cluster (2006 – 2007), both at the Research Management
Centre, UTM. He retired in April 2007 at the age of 56 years old after serving UTM for a period of 33
years.
Shortly after retirement he joined the Faculty of Mechanical and Production Engineering, Universiti Tun
Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM) as Professor (VK6). His main assignment was to develop Aeronautical
Engineering Technology Programs at UTHM. Currently he is serving UTHM as the Head of
Aeronautical Engineering Department at the Faculty of Mechanical & Production Engineering (2009
– 2011), Senate Member (2009 –2012) and Member of Lembaga Pengarah Universiti, LPU (2011 –
2014).
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UTHM AERONAUTICS
During his career in the two universities, 3 Ph.D. and 11 Master Degree students (UTM) and 1 Ph.D.
and 7 Master Degree students (UTHM) had graduated under his supervision. Currently he is
supervising 2 Ph.D. and 1 Master Degree students. He also had published 3 books pertaining to
aeronautics and 67 journal and conference papers. In serving the publics, he had been appointed as
member of the “Roadmap for Aerospace Engineering Programs in IPTA Committee”, KPT, Malaysia
(2009 – 2011), member of the “Guidelines for Engineering & Engineering Technology Programs in
Malaysia Institutes of Higher Learning Committee”, MQA, Malaysia (2009 – Now), chairman of the
“Malaysian Industry Government Group For High Technology (MIGHT) Aeronautical Committee –
responsible for the HRD blueprint:” (1995 – 1996) and chairman of the “Jawatan Kuasa Istilah
Pembuatan Kapal Terbang”, Dewan Bahasa Pustaka (DBP) Malaysia (1994 – 2004).
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UTHM AERONAUTICS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author would like to express his utmost gratitude to the Vice Chancellor, Deputy Vice
Chancellors, Deans of Faculties and other University’s Senior Officers for the support he had
received throughout his career in the university. He would also like to thank his wife for her
uncompromising sacrifice and support.
75