3.1 Article 1 - Global Built Environment Review
Transcription
3.1 Article 1 - Global Built Environment Review
Ali Faruki M GBER Vol. 3 No. 1 pp 15-25 Locating Dhaka: A Study of Potential Inspirations for Louis Kahn’s National Assembly Mustafa Ali Faruki∗ School of Oriental and African Studies, London Abstract Two decades have passed since the completion of Louis Kahn’s Citadel of the Assembly in Dhaka, Bangladesh. In that span of time, the National Assembly building has received both enthusiastic praise and harsh criticism from architectural designers and scholars alike. This paper focuses on a particular aspect of recent critical responses to Kahn’s work in Dhaka: that is, interpretations surrounding the conceptual origins of the building’s design. While Kahn never explicitly linked his work to South Asian architectural paradigms, such a connection has gained popularity. The paper endeavours to both explore and problematize this historicist view. Alternative explanations of the motives behind Kahn’s Assembly building are also examined. While no rigid conclusions can be immediately drawn in relation to this rather abstract study, the paper attempts to present what may be an additional means of understanding the National Assembly, via aspects of work completed elsewhere in Kahn’s design career. Introduction Is Louis Kahn’s design for Dhaka’s National Assembly inspired by a Bengali - or even Indian - tradition?1 While some have emphatically argued—often in praise of Kahn—that the complex is distinctively ‘of the land’, the reality, I think, leads us not necessarily to that conclusion (Rashid, 1991: 39). Although it is true that Kahn studied extensively major monumental works of architecture in Pakistan, India, and even Iran quite immediately before the onset of his work in Dhaka, these preliminary explorations should not be viewed as tantamount to the architectural foundations of the National Assembly (Sevcenko, 1984: 72). To begin with, Kahn’s writing and thought process with regards to the Assembly building stridently question the assertion that the project sought to conform to Bengali, Mughal, or South Asian paradigms. Indeed, the architect himself was particularly averse towards any endeavour seeking to re-locate an historic Mughal architecture into the designs of the modern day. In expressing his thoughts about the use of Islamic designs in contemporary building, Kahn wrote, “[T]hese lies, these frauds, do not exhibit Islamic Architectures. These can appeal to only those who are fond of outward manifestation of religion without basic fundamental purity of thought and action”. In essence, Kahn aspired to what he deemed to be an ‘honesty of purpose’ in architectural design, one in which only the techniques and materials of the present day would be used to create the structures of contemporary times (Hossain, 1992: 44)2. Moreover, a determination to avoid oversimplified pastiche or obvious references to the forms of the past was a concomitant of Kahn’s personal approach to design. Indeed, when given the suggestion by his client that the Assembly’s intricate series of punctured vertical sky-light walls might easily be arranged into a dome-like shape, thus replicating a ‘local style’, Kahn refused outright (Goldhagen, 2001: 181). In her recently published work detailing the major projects of Kahn’s career, Goldhagen proposes that the ∗ Mustafa Ali Faruki is MA student in history of art at the School of Oriental and African Studies, London. Email: [email protected] 15 Ali Faruki M GBER Vol. 3 No. 1 pp 15-25 architect’s ‘modernist sensibilities’ as well as his pursuits of honesty and ‘authenticity’ in the design process most probably explain Kahn’s eschewal of overt quotations of Mughal or Islamic forms in his designs for the National Assembly (2001: 186). Notwithstanding Kahn’s own ruminations surrounding his work at Dhaka, a series of recent interpretations of the National Assembly - including that of Goldhagen - have sought to connect that building to aspects of the Mughal planning tradition. This paper focuses on these assertions of a link between Kahn’s Assembly building and Mughal South Asia. To start, I will discuss various connections of this sort that have recently been made by both Western as well as Bangladeshi scholars and architects. In the hope of casting doubt on these historicist analyses, I will offer alternative possibilities regarding the inspirations of Kahn’s work that have been presented by additional publications on the National Assembly and its meanings: these include the view - often expressed as criticism - that the Assembly is simply an articulation of Kahn’s Beaux-Arts architectural training and experience. Also mentioned, however briefly, is the notion that the National Assembly building represents a ‘universal’ approach to building design as espoused by the architect. The paper will culminate with my suggestion that Kahn’s work in Dhaka might best be understood when viewed in conjunction with other examples of the architect’s later design projects. In sum, my primary motive is to problematize the idea that, through the National Assembly, Kahn sought to re-present principles of Mughal architecture; theories ascribing the Assembly building - part and parcel - to the beaux-arts predilections of the architect are also, it will be argued, somewhat incomplete. View of Assembly Building Vaulted roof over Assembly Chamber This paper relies heavily on the above mentioned publication by Sarah Goldhagen, as well as on the critical assessments of Lawrence Vale and Sten Nilsson; the published research of Delwar Hossain regarding the symbolism and potential origins of the National Assembly building has also been of great assistance. These authors, along with the other writers referenced in this paper, have gone beyond a simple laudatory description of Kahn’s assembly building, opting for a more critical and analytical approach. While my paper rests, in comparison to the in-depth research and fieldwork of my sources, on a more superficial level, I have nonetheless attempted to emulate this style of critical interpretation in my work. 16 Ali Faruki M GBER Vol. 3 No. 1 pp 15-25 The Mughal Aspect: Connections and Misconnections Arguments supporting a relationship between the National Assembly and the Mughal building tradition have utilised both specific architectural details as well as more general, abstract links in the hopes of advancing their cause. For example, Delwar Hossain, following in William Curtis’ footsteps3, has highlighted a connection between the plans of the National Assembly and those of “rectangular three-domed mosques found all over Mughal Bengal”. Hossain notes that the roof structures of this Bengali Mughal architecture is reflected in the floor plans of Kahn’s Assembly (through the use of a change in tile pattern or floor levels); however, Hossain cautiously adds that this ‘subliminal relationship’ may not have been a ‘conscious decision’ of the architect, who never elicited such a scheme in discussing the project (Hossain, 1992: 30). I must admit that Hossain’s inclusion of mosque floor plans— part of the author’s attempt at linking those structures with the Assembly building - is rather more confusing than helpful (Hossain, 1992: fig. 3.11). Kazi Ashraf has, in his writing surrounding the National Assembly, indicated a more conceptual “spiritual communion with certain aspects of Mughal planning and even the architectural order in such monastic complexes as Nalanda and Paharpur; still, these claims are never substantiated in Ashraf’s text, nor - once again - in Kahn’s own words” (Ashraf, 1989: 58). In any case, I think that references - subliminal or otherwise - to Buddhist or Hindu paradigms would in no way converge with the goals of architect or client in the Dhaka project. In reading Sarah Goldhagen’s recent interpretation of Kahn’s National Assembly, one realises that that author is also quite convinced of an outward link between the Assembly building and “the architectural tradition of the people whom it serves”: her chapter on Kahn’s work at Dhaka clearly articulates this theory by connecting the site’s reflecting pools, building arrangements, and other various details to elements of the Taj Mahal and Fatehpur Sikri in India (2001: 183, 186). Unfortunately, Goldhagen withholds an exploration of these “oblique references”, most probably because they are not the focus of her overall examination of Kahn’s singular brand of modernist architecture. A somewhat curious example from Goldhagen’s book, however, is her reference to the marble inlays of the National Assembly building as a Kahnian allusion to similar detail on monuments of the Mughal tradition (2001: 183). In briefly making this connection, Goldhagen neglects to mention the raison d’être of the marble bands: Kahn - for the sake of practicality – imposed a vertical limit of five feet with regards to one day’s concrete pour, thus giving the Assembly a standard unit of dimension, at least in height. However, the architect “did not like the cold joints left by placing one day’s concrete directly on top of the previous day’s work”. To remedy this, Kahn separated the daily pours of concrete with a 6-inch band that would later be covered by marble inserts, thus creating “a design out of a necessity” (Steele, 1994: 131). Indeed, for some of the building’s critics, the bands of marble actually solidify the National Assembly’s distance from local traditions, presumably because of Kahn’s rather functional, standardised use of a material that, in the Mughal context at least, carries functions of a more decorative sort (Taylor, 1982: 38). As such, the question of whether this marble banding was seen by Kahn as simply an evocation of tradition remains, I think, a debatable one; however, its existence - in the first place - is, I would argue, a dictation of the architect’s personal method and style, as opposed to a quotation of ‘local’ precursors. Goldhagen also proposes that the system of lakes and waterways that encompasses the National Assembly and its adjacent ministerial housing facilities is, yet again, evidence of Kahn’s inspiration from a Mughal design aesthetic - specifically, a reference to the reflecting pools of the Taj Mahal (2001: 180). Others have also taken this line, pointing to both the 17 Ali Faruki M GBER Vol. 3 No. 1 pp 15-25 lakes as well as the surrounding gardens as symbolic links to the Mughal mausoleum building tradition (Hossain, 192: 26). With regards to these waterways, I think a connection to a localised format in more plausible; however, I question if ‘Mughal tradition was the local’s sole contribution to the formulation of the lakes and canals. Indeed, Bangladesh’s landscape has, historically, been conducive toward settlement generated by waterway movement: could it be that Kahn was paying tribute to the geographic realities of his working site? (Nilsson, 1978: 183). Goldhagen has mentioned Kahn’s defence of the Assembly’s waterways in response to a sceptical and flood-wary client during the project’s early planning stages: by claiming that they were part of a drainage system for the overall site, it appears that the architect hoped to depict the lakes as more than just a historical allusion or stylistic preference (Goldhagen, 2001: 180). As such, one could argue that Kahn’s waterways were indeed a response to local environs. Moreover, aside from their flood-abating potential, the lakes would, as a result of the earth-removal necessary for their creation, allow for the erection of the raised platform on which the National Assembly itself would be built (Hossain, 1992: 28). It would appear, then, that the inclusion of lakes and canals from the onset and throughout the development of Kahn’s landscape plan for the National Assembly complex may have drawn on localised, practical inspirations; still, I am dubious of speculations ascribing the waterways to a suggested aesthetic historicism on the part of the architect. While some have praised Kahn’s lake system at Dhaka as a powerful demonstration of the manner in which water can be controlled, others have been less impressed (Steele, 1994: 131). For these critics, the waterways are more representative of the architect’s failure to consider local principles. Vale, for example, accuses the architect of ‘domesticating’ the region’s traumatising memory of flooding into the hearts and minds of the Bangladeshi people through his superfluous use of water around the National Assembly (1992: 259). Of course, it is true that Kahn’s reliance on waterways, as an integral component of his plan was a risky one, considering low-lying Bangladesh’s cyclone and flood-prone position. However, I think that the risk was worth taking. It must be noted that the lakes and canals have not proved to be an ostensible problem for the site, especially in comparison to the maintenance woes encountered by other portions of the Capitol complex (Hossain, 1992: 36; Sevcenko 1984: 73; Steele, 1994: 133). As such, I think the waterways produce a significant—and real—statement regarding the National Assembly’s possible connection to the realities of the local context for Kahn’s work in Dhaka. Alternative Approaches: Kahn, Universalism and the Beaux-Arts Many contemporary interpretations of Kahn’s National Assembly at Dhaka, including some of those mentioned earlier in this paper, have focused on the notion of that project as an example of a ‘universalist’ approach to building design: these critics argue that the architect’s work in Bangladesh was, at least in part, a fusion of local and Western building traditions (Ashraf, 1989: 58; Goldhagen, 2001: 178). Al-Radi, for instance, views the integration of such disparate elements as Humayun’s tomb, Agra’s Red Fort, and Roman baths and pantheons as representative of a kind of symbolic ‘universalism’ embodied by the Assembly building (Steele, 1994: 131). While al-Radi does not elaborate on this hybrid symbolism, my guess is that the towers and barbicans of the Amar Singh and Delhi Gates at Agra have probably played an important role in her conclusions. With respect to Humayun’s tomb, both that building and the National Assembly stand on a grand platform; both structures also share some elements in plan - for example, an essentially square design with subdivisions and cut corners (Tadgell, 1995: 245). Incidentally, these similarities, though still vague in the final 18 Ali Faruki M GBER Vol. 3 No. 1 pp 15-25 analysis, are, in my mind, much stronger than other alleged connections linking Kahn’s marble bands (discussed earlier) to the Taj Mahal and the Assembly’s underground library to Fatehpur Sikri’s Diwan-e-Khas (Goldhagen, 2001: 183). In promoting a somewhat similar view of Kahn’s ‘universalist’ endeavours, Goldhagen outlines an emerging realisation among Western designers in the 1950s regarding the (often negative) impacts of Euro-American interference with other cultures. Did this new cultural sensitivity prompt Kahn - and many of his peers - to pursue, at least in their work abroad, a hybridised architecture, one connecting East and West (2001: 186)? Kahn, the architect-social engineer, set out to construct a political and symbolic capitol that actualised the political values he held to be universal. He eventually did so in a manner that transcended the Eurocentrism of his initial impulses. He developed an idiom that was a genuine “cross between Western and Eastern” in an attempt to make Bengalis aware and proud of their local traditions…(Goldhagen, 2001: 186). The problem here is that, according to Goldhagen, Kahn is implementing a design strategy based on what he believes to be universal principles. In short, if Kahn’s universalism stems from his own (rather intricate) philosophies on architecture, their universality, in my mind, comes immediately into question. Equally important - with respect to this essay - is the question of how Kahn managed to incorporate these “universal values” into the design of the National Assembly. Does the (supposed) inclusion of more than one design “tradition” in a building project imply that the work engenders a kind of universalism, as espoused by the architect? An additional problem associated with this supposition of universality with relation to the Assembly building is the issue of construction materials: Kahn’s insistence of the use of concrete, a substance completely alien to the building traditions of Bangladesh, complicates notions of the architect’s universalist tendencies (Rashid, 1991: 38)4. In any case, this issue of universality itself is of debatable significance, as Kahn never designated elements of his work at Dhaka as part of a ‘universal’ design paradigm. Still other critics have pointed to a more abstract breed of hybridity lurking - perhaps coincidentally - in Kahn’s National Assembly. Ashraf, for example, points to Kahn’s “philosophical speculations about the universal qualities in architecture” as strikingly appropriate for a region that has historically witnessed a complicated tension between resistance to and acceptance of norms imposed by Western influence (1989: 55, 58). Though thought provoking, Ashraf’s explanations with regards to the subject of universality and Kahn’s project in Dhaka does little to advance the notion of the National Assembly as a product of cultural fusion, most probably because the author himself does not ostensibly see the building as literally such (Ashraf, 1989: 58). Vale, among others, is heavily sceptical of this notion of universalism in Kahn’s work. In criticism of Kahn’s view that “the language of form transcended cultural differences”, Vale writes: Architecture is produced not only by brilliant form-givers but also by the culture that gives it meaning and by the heterogeneous society in which it must stand. Especially when the architect comes from a different social and cultural background from those who sponsor the architecture, it is hard to avoid the temptation to elevate unacknowledged bias to the status of universal truth (1992: 241).5 19 Ali Faruki M GBER Vol. 3 No. 1 pp 15-25 It follows from the above discussion, then, that a link between Louis Kahn’s designs at Dhaka and an indigenous architectural tradition is seen by various critics as ranging from possible to obvious. Nevertheless, still other examiners of the National Assembly have traced the building to a history quite apart from its Bengali site. Some have pointed to his statement that “my designs at Dhaka are inspired actually by the Baths of Caracalla” as adequate proof of Kahn’s adherence to the Beaux-Arts thinking of his practical training, in which the architect could rely on the structures of the past - most notably those of classical Greece or Rome - for guidance and inspiration (Hossain, 1992: 28; Scully, 1962: 11). Indeed, Lawrence Vale has elaborated on this theory by finding a ‘perceptual’ relationship between the Assembly’s top lighting and the Pantheon of Rome; others have drawn upon “ the concept of enclosed space surrounding a sphere” as a significant connection between these two buildings (Hossain, 1992: 29; Vale, 1992: 242). Still others have argued that, in citing the Roman baths, Kahn was discussing not the National Assembly but his never-built “Citadel of Institutions”, which, facing the Assembly building, would have housed a stadium, art schools, facilities for exercise, and baths (Nilsson, 1978: 203)6. Nilsson is rather sceptical of Kahn’s grandiose outlines for this un-built Citadel, noting that its elaborate program ‘seems pathetic’ when considering the stark, harsh realities of day-to-day existence for most Bangladeshis (1978: 203). In any case, both Vale and Nilsson would agree that Kahn’s vision for Dhaka was a function of his own training and experience as opposed to a thoughtful consideration of local factors and traditions. The actual floor plans of Kahn’s National Assembly, as well as the overall site plans for the entire Sher-e-Banglanagar complex (including the unbuilt Citadel of Institutions), could all be, in my view, tentatively linked to Kahn’s training in the Beaux-Arts style of design. Indeed, students of Kahn’s building career have argued that “the Beaux-Arts predilection for classicizing symmetry”, along with its emphasis on dominating diagonal lines, remained a consistent element of the architect’s design work (Scully, 1962: 13; Vale, 1992: 242). Of course, one could posit that the centrality and symmetry of Kahn at Dhaka hearkens back to a Mughal tradition; however, the architect’s designs for the Ewing Township Bathhouse in New Jersey (1955), the Exeter Library (1972), and the Yale Center of British Art in New Haven (1974) all point to a method of planning that cannot be connected, in totality, to Kahn’s interest in South Asian tradition. Indeed, a look at certain portions of these and other designs by Kahn belies the architect’s rigorous utilization and advancement of the principles set forth in his Beaux-Arts schooling at the University of Pennsylvania in the 1920s7. The geometries and ‘Piranesian systems’ of the National Assembly’s intricate plan - and that of Sher-e-Banglanagar as a whole - might even explain why Kahn’s endeavours at Dhaka are viewed by some as representative of the many ideals espoused by the architect throughout the course of his design career (Goldhagen, 2001: 162; Nilsson, 1978: 193). The Mark of Kahn: Similarities in the Later Works Thus, the National Assembly’s symmetrical composition, diagonal interior arrangements, and potential aesthetic links to the Roman-style baths and pantheons - all characteristics shared by other Kahnian works - points rather convincingly towards a strong correlation with the Beaux-Arts tradition. However, I think additional comparisons - aside from historical ones can also be useful in locating the potential origins of Kahn’s Assembly in Dhaka. For example, various similarities between the National Assembly and the Salk Institute Community Center (1959), also designed by Louis Kahn, should be highlighted. As the latter project, due to the financial limitations of the client, remains un-built, a full-fledged study of the links between these two buildings has never been undertaken (Lobell, 1979: 84). 20 Ali Faruki M GBER Vol. 3 No. 1 pp 15-25 However, I believe that the two projects share significant characteristics - both in detail and concept - and that a brief exploration of the two might be helpful in locating some of the inspirations for the National Assembly8. On the surface, it may appear that the National Assembly and the Salk Institute Community Center - which is also referred to as the Salk Meeting House - have little in common, at least with regards to their respective plans. However, a closer inspection would demonstrate that the Salk building, like the Assembly, is a series of connected spaces enveloping a large, enclosed interior. The Community Center’s expansive central court - although empty - was, for Kahn, that building’s primary characteristic—“a fertile potential, a place for things which are not yet, which still ‘desire to be’” (Lobell, 1979: 84). Indeed, the court might be used for small gatherings or formal meetings, activities that may accurately satisfy the program of this proposed work - a “meeting house”. In correlation with this emphasis on the significance of a central space is Kahn’s Assembly Chamber at Dhaka, which is also a large hall in the centre of the Assembly building. Unlike the Salk Center, Dhaka’s central chamber is not empty, but full of - at least, in theory - busy legislators undertaking the tasks of governance. Yet here again, Kahn has put at the centre what he saw as the building’s paramount function, that is: “a place of transcendence for political people” (Lobell, 1979: 90). It appears, then, that at least part of Kahn’s building design at Dhaka was informed by the architect’s own conceptual concerns with interior arrangements and the significance of order through centrality (Scully, 1962: 43). This Kahnian emphasis on the ideological importance of a large, structurally central space as exhibited in both the National Assembly and the Salk Meeting House - has made its mark on some of the architect’s other, later works. Notably, Vale has compared Dhaka’s Assembly Chamber to another one of Kahn’s full height central spaces, the great void of the Library in Exeter, New Hampshire. In connecting the two structures, Vale is troubled by “the ease with which the Bangladeshi legislators could be made to occupy the voided centre of the Exeter Library” (1992: 244). In this instance, however, I think that Vale has missed the point of the Exeter building, which, like the Salk Center and the National Assembly, carries a great degree of conceptual consequence at its otherwise empty core. In the building’s centre, Kahn saw all the complexities the Library would produce: that is, meaningful interactions between the librarian, reader, books, and light (Lobell, 1979: 100). Thus, the Exeter Library, like the Salk Community Center, provides us with additional insight into the arrangement of Kahn’s plan at Dhaka, which places the philosophical heart of the project in a full-height space at the building’s centre. I would add that this type of conceptual planning is, I think, less conceivably linked to the Beaux-Arts school of design, which is concerned primarily with order on a more physical and less abstract level. Aside from parallels in their ideological make-up, the National Assembly and the Salk Community Center share other, more aesthetic attributes. At the most superficial level, one notices the elongated, cylindrical forms that appear, often in repetition, at both Dhaka and in the model for the unbuilt Meeting House, possibly referenced by al-Radi in her Agra comparisons, as discussed earlier. (The towers of Kahn’s Prayer Hall in Dhaka find their realized compatriots in the design for Philadelphia’s Mikveh Synagogue (1963); that building consists of a square plan cornered by four, full-height towers, much like the Assembly’s Prayer Hall (Hossain, 1992: 20)9. In addition, both the Meeting House and the National Assembly integrate large scale, square-in-circle geometries into their respective elevations. Importantly, the Assembly Building, Community Center, and the Exeter Library all share an intricate system of roof lighting, in which sunlight is alternately channelled inside and 21 Ali Faruki M GBER Vol. 3 No. 1 pp 15-25 reflected around the buildings’ interior volumes and surfaces (Lobell, 1979: 84, 90, 100). Finally, it is worthwhile to mention that the never-built Salk Community Center, like Kahn’s work at Dhaka, has been attributed to elements of the architect’s Beaux-Arts training: “[P]atterns … from Ancient Rome as imagined by Piranesi at the very beginning of the modern age, have played a part in the process at the Meeting House”; meanwhile, the origins of the Salk Institute’s Laboratories (1965) - which were actually realized - have been traced, by some, to the shapes of (once again) the Baths at Caracalla (Scully, 1962: 37). However, in eliciting these relationships, Scully adds that the Laboratories symbolize Kahn’s achievement of “an expression the Beaux-Arts had never quite attained”; that is, the project, along with other works from the later portion of the architect’s career - some of which have been mentioned above - reflect the progression made by Kahn through nearly a half-century of design experience (Scully, 1962: 38). View into the Light well to ministerial offices Corner of the Prayer Hall Conclusions In light of the above (albeit brief) discussion surrounding some of Kahn’s later works, I would, in conclusion, argue that one could potentially view the National Assembly building at Dhaka, along with the Salk Institute, Exeter Library, and Yale Center for British Art (among others) as representing a fruition of the many beliefs Kahn held about architectural design; I would add that these principles go beyond a straightforward adherence to BeauxArts paradigms. Indeed, it has been noted elsewhere that both the Salk Institute and the National Assembly constitute “the first full realization of Kahn’s mature architectural vision” (Goldhagen, 2001: 162). At the very least, I think that the similarities between the Assembly building and elements of Kahn’s other, late projects far outweigh less tangible connections to Mughal traditions, or even, for that matter, Roman works such as the Pantheon. While I do not doubt that Kahn was inspired by some of the many monumental architectural works he visited while touring South Asia prior to designing the National Assembly, the architect’s own explanations of the Dhaka building, as mentioned at the start of this paper, do little to support the view that he took a great interest in recreating a Mughal vocabulary of design. If anything, it would appear that Kahn sought to ‘give’ his client meaningful elements of his 22 Ali Faruki M GBER Vol. 3 No. 1 pp 15-25 own architectural thinking, as opposed to re-applying the traditions of his client’s past.10 Moreover, recent interpretations of the Assembly building linking that work to historical precedents have also provided little in promoting this ‘historicist’ view, aside from usually surface-level allusions to either details or abstract concepts. While a more tempting linkage of Kahn’s waterways at Dhaka to Mughal mausoleum complexes has also been endeavoured by some, I have maintained that this use of water may stem from the architect’s own understanding of the Bengali context for his project, as opposed to a direct inspiration from past sources. This paper has also touched upon the notion of the National Assembly as encompassing a ‘universalist’ paradigm in architectural thinking and design that may have been a concomitant of Kahn’s place in time. However, the meaning of this paradigm is complicated at best, and I think it is fair to question its value in assessing Kahn’s work in Dhaka. More convincing are proposed connections between the National Assembly and the architect’s Beaux-Arts training; the floor plan of the building does, as I have argued, sustain physical connotations characteristic of that school of design. However, less superficial - and more conceptual - elements of the Assembly bear a resemblance to corresponding precepts in some of the later works of Kahn’s career, most notably the never realised Salk Meeting House. My discussion of the Meeting House, along with tangential references to other Kahn projects, has sought to highlight an additional possibility with regards to the ‘inspiration’ for the National Assembly: that is, a combination of forces, fuelled by the Kahn’s Beaux-Arts schooling, and embellished upon during the span of the architect’s densely productive design career. Of course, I doubt that one could produce a single source with regards to the origins of Kahn’s plan at Dhaka. As such, I have put forth this suggestion regarding the correlation between the architect’s later works as a point of reference and further study which might - along with forays into the Beaux-Arts, ‘universalist’ planning, and even Mughal architecture - shed additional light on Kahn’s motives with regards to the design of the National Assembly building in Bangladesh.11 Bibliography Ashraf, K. (1989) ‘Muzharul Islam, Kahn, and Architecture in Bangladesh’, Mimar 31: 5563. Curtis, W. J. (1986) ‘Authenticity and Abstraction and the Ancient Sense: LeCorbusier and Kahn’s Ideas of Parliament’, Perspecta 20: 191-193 Goldhagen S. and S. Williams (2001) Louis Kahn’s Situated Modernism. New Haven: Yale University Press. Hossain, D. (1992) Architecture and Identity: Bangladesh and the Spirit of Louis Kahn, MSc Dissertation for University College, University of London. Langford, F (1982) ‘Concrete in Dhaka’, Mimar 6: 51-54. Lobell, J. (1979) Between Silence and Light: Spirit in the Architecture of Louis Kahn. London: Shambala Publications. Nilsson, S. (1978) The New Capitals of India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. London. 23 Ali Faruki M GBER Vol. 3 No. 1 pp 15-25 Rashid, H. (1991) ‘Construction and Kahn’s Capital’, Mimar 38: 38-39. Scully, V. (1962) Louis Kahn. New York: Braziller. Sevcenko, M. (ed) (1984) Continuity and Change: Design Strategies for Large Scale Urban Development. Cambridge: Agha Khan Foundation/MIT. Steele, J. (ed) (1994) Architecture for Islamic Societies Today. London: Academy. Tadgell, C. (1995) The History of Architecture in India. London: Phaidon. Taylor, B. B. (1982) ‘Visions of Grandeur’, Mimar 6: 37-47. Vale, L. (1992) Architecture, Power and National Identity, New Haven: Yale University Press. Endnotes 1 The focus of this paper is Louis Kahn’s National Assembly building in Dhaka, modern day Bangladesh (also known as the ‘Citadel of the Assembly’). The initial client of Kahn’s work in South Asia was Ayub Khan’s government in Pakistan. Lawrence Vale (1992) has given a concise description of the design and construction of this project with relation to civil war in Pakistan and the subsequent formation of Bangladesh in 1971. Hossain (1992) has offered a more detailed explanation in his dissertation. 2 Hossain has devoted a chapter to “The Philosophy of Kahn” (1992: 41-45). The bulk of Goldhagen’s book (2001) is dedicated to an investigation of Kahn’s modernist approach to design. Lobell’s more poetic overview of Kahn includes the architect’s own words with regards to the importance of Form in Design (1979: 28). 3 Curtis (1986) has argued for the adherence to tradition in the architecture of Dhaka, as well as in that of LeCorbusier’s Capitol Complex at Chandigarh.. 4 An exhaustive account of the preparations for Bangladesh’s first monumental concrete structure is given by Langford (1982) and a qualified defence of Kahn’s (often controversial) use of concrete is presented in an interview with architect Mehmet Pamir (Sevcenko, 1984: 77-78). 5 Vale is not alone in his scepticism regarding Kahn’s supposed ‘fusion’ between East and West. Delwar Hossain has criticized the architect in a similar vein: “By rejecting the greater part of Mughal architecture, historic forms of the country have been sacrificed, whilst classical aesthetics both theoretical and visual have been adopted relating the building to such monuments as the Baths of Caracalla and Ledoux’s Saltworks. Kahn has merely expressed an affiliation to one idiom over another.” (1992: 44) 6 The never built Citadel of Institutions forms the remainder of the Sher-e-Banglanagar (lit. City of the Bengal Tiger) complex originally planned by Kahn, and named ‘Ayubnagar’ prior to Bangladeshi independence. Explanations on the concepts behind this ambitious design project can be found in; Hossain 1992: 23-29; Lobell 1979: 86-89; Vale 1992). 7 In his in-depth analysis of many of Kahn’s projects, Scully (1962) has used metaphors of Hellenic Greece and Rome as a means of understanding the inspirations behind Kahn’s architectural vision. However, Scully’s work was published before the initial planning stages of Kahn’s work at Dhaka. 8 Both Lobell (1979: 84-85) and Scully (1962: 37-39) offer an overview of the Salk Institute’s Community Center; as this project was never realized, research surrounding it focuses on Kahn’s model and initial plan for the building, which have been re-printed in Lobell. 9 The National Assembly’s Prayer Hall has been investigated (and criticized) in many of the publications referenced by this paper. Hossain (1992: 31-33) gives details surrounding the Prayer Hall’s (which he refers to as the Mosque, using Kahn’s original terminology) conception, subsequent 24 Ali Faruki M GBER Vol. 3 No. 1 pp 15-25 planning alterations, and final physical make-up; Nilsson (1979: 203) has linked the Hall to pyramid ancestry, and has discussed, briefly, its symbolic relevance; Vale (1992: 261-264) has extensively analysed what he views as Kahn’s ‘overcompensation’ with regards to religion and the misplaced symbolism of the Assembly’s Prayer Hall. 10 As Kahn himself noted with regards to the Dhaka project: “What I’m trying to do is establish a belief out of a philosophy I can turn over to Pakistan, so that whatever they do is always answerable to it.” (Lobell 1979: 90, emphasis added). 11 In her book, Goldhagen offers an additional explanation that may help in understanding the Assembly building: “[Kahn] wished to strengthen communal sentiment in his users and believed that one of the principal means for doing so was to create the impression of monumentality” (2001: 207). As such, the National Assembly, with its sweeping scale, full heights and dramatic ambulatories, could be connected (also) to Kahn’s vision of the community and its use of the monumental spaces he would create. Lobell’s discussion of Kahn’s emphasis on the notion of “institution” and its relation to architecture might also provide yet another jumping-off point for those seeking to understand the reasoning behind the design of the Assembly building (1979: 65). 25