Mono 111-C5a WATER SUPPLY IN COLD REGIONS

Transcription

(O~rD ~[EG~ON5
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DA PROJECT 1T062112A130
U.S. ARMY MATERIEL COMMAND
TERRESTRIAL SCIENCES. CENTER
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~lEG~(Q)INl§ ~~$~£~(C[H] ~ [E~(G~~lElE~~~(G li6\!a(Q)~tQ\l'(Q)~V'
HANOVER, NEW HAMPSHIRE
THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN APPROVED FeR PUBLIC RELEASE
AND SALE; ITS DISTRIBUTION IS UNLIMITED.
.
. '
WATER SUPPLY IN COLD REGIONS
Amos J. Alter .
january 1969
DA PROJECT 1T062112A130
u.s.
ARMY MATERIEL COMMAND
TERRESTRIAL SCIENCES CENTER
COLD REGIONS RESEARCH & ENGINEERING LABORATORY
HANOVER , NEW HAMPSHIRE
THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN APPROVED FOR PUBLIC RELEASE
AND SALE ; ITS DISTRIBUTION IS UNLIMITED .
ii
PREFACE
This monograph was prepared by Mr. Amos J. Alter under contract with the
U.S. Army Terrestrial Sciences Center (USA TSC). The author was for many years
the Chief Engineer of the Department of Health and Welfare, Division of Public
Health, of the State of Alaska and is eminently qualified to summarize existing
knowledge with a very extensive bibliography in the subject of Water Supply in Cold
Regions.
The work supplements information available in standard works of reference
in the subject.
This monograph was published under DA Project lT062112A130, Cold Regions Research.
USA TSC is a research activity of the Army Materiel Command.
iii
CONTENTS
Preface ........ ,' . .' ........ '.' ........... .' '.' .... ., .... .. ' .' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Editor's. forewlJl'd ..... . .... . ......... ....... :.'... ~ ... .' ' .' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ..,
The influence of a cold environment on sanitary engineering works and services .
Characteristic s of cold-region living ..... ;.. ..•. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Effects of low temperature on sanitary engineering iIi cold regions ......
Basic design concepts of peculiar significance iIi cold-region sanitary
engineering .... .. .. ..... '.' ................' ... '. ...... ...... '.... '. . . . . .
Water supply engineering in cold regions .".......... ... . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .
Water sources and characteristics ...................... ~ . .. . . . . . . . . .
Distribution system design and operation .... .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cold-regions aspects of water treatment processes ...... . . . . .. . . . . . . . .
Future possibilities of supply ...•........ '.' ................' . . . . . . . .
Water supply during military field operations ....... ' .' .......... ~ .. . . . .. . . . . .
Selected bibliography ............. '..................... .. .... ' .........' , . . .. . . . .
Appendix A ... '.' ..... ... ......,.... . '.' '.' ........ '.' ..... '. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Page
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ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure
1. Northern cold regions as determined by air temperature.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. Northern cold regions as determined by frozen ground ...................
3.. Temperature and viscosity of water ...................... , ... ' . .:. . . . . . .
4. River temperature, sediment and discharge. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . ..... . . . . . .
5. Average annual degree-day heating units . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .
6. Thawing frozen ground for installation of utilidor at Nome, Alaska. . . . . . .
7. Con struction of utilidor at Nome, Alaska .... . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . .
8. Utilidor showing pipe placement ............ ...
' '.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9. Interior view of utilidor at Nome, Alaska .... .........". .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10. Utilidor at Nome - ' manhole station ................... '.. , . . . . . . . .. . . . .
11. Utilidor at Nome ~ service connections ... ........ " . . . . .. . . . ... . . . . . .. .
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12. Occurrence of ground water in interior Alaska ..•. ' . .. . . .. . . .. . .... . . •.. .. . .
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Entrapped water in permafrost.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Flow of subpermafrost and entrapped water into river in permafrost zone. .
Frost-mound formation ..... •................... '.............. ; . . . . . .
Unsafe ground-water supply in permafrost .. '.' ..... '.' .. ',' . . . . . . .. . . . . . .
Drive-jet assembly ......................... '.' .....; .. .. .. ... ... . . . .
Casing-head construction for well in permafrost ........................
Pump-head installation detail. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . .. . . . . .
Typical wellhead for multistage two-pipe jet pump ...... : . .. . . . . . . . . .. .
Pitless unit for submersible pump ,' .' ............ " . ,,: . .. . . .. . . . .. • . . . .
Hess Creek Darn, Livengood, Alaska .. , ......................... '.' . . . . .
Water-supply source at Thule Air Base, qreenland. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . .
A typical Rodrigue z well (in ice) ..... ', ' ...... ' .' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ground-level water stor age tank at Thule Air ?ase .. ~ ....•...... ,. . . . . . .
Distribution system placed on the ground surface at Thule. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Service connection at Thule ......... ~ ...... , ........... ~ . .. . . . .. . . . . . .
Ground-temperature isotherms, Big pelta, Alaska ...... '. ;..... . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ground temperatures around water pipe at Yellowknife, N. W. T:, Canada. . .
iv
CONTENTS
ILLUSTRATIONS (Cont'd)
Figure
30. Parameters in heat··f1ow computations.. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
31. Frictional heat generated by flow of water in iron pipes . ' ..............
32. Walk-through utilidor ......... ........ '. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33. Aboveground wood utilidor ............... ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .
34. Small underground wood utilidor .............................. ~. . . . . .
35. Removable top on 'cast-in-place concret~ utilidor ......................
36. Typical utilidor detail ............. ~ .... ' .' .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37. Surface utilidor at Quinhagak, Alaska .. '. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38. Section through utilidor , Inuvik, N. W. T., Canada. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39. Typical surface utilidor at Thule .. ' ,' ~ .. '.' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40. Pass-through two-level utilidor, Noril'sk, Siberia . ................ '. . . . . .
41. Two-compartment utilidor, Noril'sk, Siberia...........................
42. Drainage of entrapped water into improperly sealed utilidor .. .. . . . . . . . . . .
43. Single-main recirculating distribution system ......... ~ . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44. Standard %-in. pitorifice service cock. : .................... ; . .. . . . . . .
45. Recirculating water system with pitorifices and service connections ... ~ .
46. Heating plant for single-main recirculating water system. . . . . . . . ... . . . . .
47. Dual-main recirculating distribution system. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48 . . Dual-main service connection .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .
49. Typical "T" base fire hydrant ... .. . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50. Typical "L" base fire hydrant showing steam tracers. . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . .
51. Commercial resistance heater for pipe protection .............. ' ........
52. Well piping detail ........... . .. . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53. Cable resistance heating at Thule Air Base '. .. .. . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .
54. Typical water-supply line at Thule Air Base. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55. Typical electrical units for heating sanitary facilities ......... ~ . . . . . . . .
56. Approximate time and current relationship for thawing steel pipes .... '. . . .
57. Time of mixing, temperature, and r ate of settling ................. : . . . .
58. Solubility of chlorine in water, 32 to 212F . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . .
59. Theoretical relation of hydraulic subsiding values to temperature ..... '. . .
60. Temperature and loss of head in sand filter. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .
61. Multistage distillation process .. .. .................. ; .. '. . . . . . . . ... . . . .
62. Most promising reclamation concept .. '......................... .... '.' . .
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TABLES
Table
I. Alaska native housing data - 1965 ............ . .................... ; .
II. Water use at cold-region . communities .............. ; .......... .. .... ,
III. Record of incidents substantiating the occurrence of possibly wat~r- borne
communicable disease in cold-region areas. ....... ' ...•. : ...... ' .' . . .
IV. Approximate heat rejection from internal com bustion engines .. . . . . . . . . . . .
V. Water supply pr actice ~t selected cold-region communities; ... ' .' . . . .. . . . .
VI. Comparison of water rates and scavenger service rates in Nome' aud Fairbanks, Alaska, before 1965 ... . '. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .
VII. Approximate monthly mean ground and air temperatures at certain points in
the Arctic permafrost area ................ . • .......' ..' . . . . . . . . . . . . .
VIII. Recommended cable sizes for electrical thawing .............. ~ . . . . . . . .
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EDITOR'8 FOREWORD
Cold Regions Science and Engineering consists of a series of monographs written by specialists to summarize existing knowledge and provide selected references on the cold regions,
defined here as those areas of the earth where :operational difficulties due to freezin g temperatures may occur.
Sections of the work are being published as they become ready, not necessarily in numerical order but fitting into this plan, which may be amended as the work proceeds:
I. Environment
A. General - Characteristics of the cold regions
1. Selected aspects of geology and physiography of the cold regions
2. Permafrost (Perennially frozen ground)
3. Climatology
a. Climatology of the cold regions. Introduction and Northern Hemisphere I
b. Climatology of the cold regions. Northern Hemisphere II
c. Climatology of the cold regions. Southern Hemisphere
d. Radioactive fallouLin northern regions
4. Vegetation
a.. Patterns of vegetation in cold regions
b. Regional descriptions of vegetation in cold regions
c. Utili zation of vegetation in cold regions
B. Regional
1. The Antarctic ice sheet
2. The Greenland ice sheet
n.
Physical sciences
A. Geophysics
1. Heat exchange at the ground surface
2. Exploration geophysics in cold regions
a. Seismic exploration in cold regions
b. Electrical, magneti'c and gravimetric exploration in cold regions
B. Physics and mechanics of snow as a material
C. Physics and mechanics of ice
1. Snow and ice on the earth's surface
2. Ice as a material
a. Physics of ice as a material
h. Mechanics of ice as a material
3. The mechanical properties of sea ice
4. Mechanics of a floating ice sheet
D. Physics and mechanics of frozen ground
1. The freezing process and mechanics of frozen ground
2. The physics of water and ice in soil
III. Engineering
A. Snow engineering
1. Engineering properties of snow
2. Construction
a. Methods of building on permanent snowfields
b. Site investigation and exploitation on permanent snowfields
vi
c. Foundations and subsurface structures in snow
d. Utilities on permanent snowfields
e. Snow roads and runways
3. Technology
a. Explosions and snow
b. Snow removal and ice control
c. Blowing snow
d. Avalanches
4. Oversnow transport
B. Ice engineering
1. River-ice engineering
a. Winter regime of rivers and lakes
b. Ice pressure on structures
2. Drilling and excavation in ice
3. Roads and runways on ice
C. Froz~n ground engineering
1. Site exploration and excavation in frozen ground
2. Buildings on frozen ground
3. Roads, railroads and airfields in cold regions
4. Foundations of structures in cold regions
5. Sanitary engineering
a. Water supply in cold regions
b. Sewerage, and sewage disposal in cold regions
6. Artificial ground-freezing for construction
D. General
1. Cold-weather construction
2. Materials at low temperatures
3. Icings
IV. Remote sensing
A. Systems of remote sensing
B. Techniques of image analysis in remote sensing
C. Application of remote sensing to cold regions
F.J. SANGER
by
Amos J. Alter
THE INFLUENCE OF A COLD ENVIRONMENT ON SANITARY
ENGINEERING WORKS AND SERVICES
Water supply and waste-water systems in cold regions are singularly affected by frost. ss 152212
Figures 1 and 2 are maps delineating the northern cold regions. The Antarctic Continent is entirely
a cold region, and many mountain areas at low latitudes qualify as cold regions, defined by frost
penetration into the ground of engineering significance. The integration of water supply and
waste-water system needs* into the earliest stages of cold-region community and project planning
is of utmost importance.
Although it has been almost four centuries since the first record 221 of the occurrence of
permafrost in North America was made by Martin Frobisher in 1577, cold-regiori sanitary engineering technology advanced little until about 1930. Unsuccessful attempts to obtain a water well in
permafrost at Yakutsk, in Siberia, during 1685 and 1686 were followed by many unsuccessful
attempts at water supply. Successful water supply is a serious problem in many cold-region communities today although more advances have been made during the last twenty years than had been
made during the previous 300 years.
The principles 3 79 194 involved in cold-region sanitary engineering are not materially different from those of sanitary engineering in temperate climates, but application of these principles is
different. Heat conservation, humidity, light, construction and operation costs, and the efficient
use of materials and resources are more important in cold regions; biological and chemical reactions are generally retarded at low temperature; and materials and their physical characteristics
must be evaluated under cold-region conditions. Thermal analysis of all materials, systems and
processes must be included as a part of the design; neglect of this may result in project failure. t
Availability and use of heat energy are highly important in sanitary engineering systems in
cold regions. Water and fuel oil may be comparable in value, and new .limits are imposed on design.
Unavailability of aggregates, timber and many other common building materials from local sources
limits construction. Lack of a continuously stable economy for natives focuses greater attention
on the financial feasibility of proposed systems for water supply and sewerage for native communities. It may cost the state less to install sanitary facilities for communities that cannot
afford them than to pay for medical expenses arising from waterborne epidemic diseases.
*
Ref. 24, 80, 86, 103, 114, 141, 143, 165.
t Ref. 64, 69, 94, 101, 174, 175, 197,206,209,210,213,214.
2
~""
/ Numerical value indicates
/ temperature in OF durino the
~~ldest month of the year.
------____ ._".
. "t. . .
,
/
'''~
""
~
//
/
,
'\
\
\
\
\
\\_-----
Figure 1. Northern cold regions as determined by air temperature. 18
-
3
THE INFLUENCE OF A COLD ENVIRONMENT
" "-
--~ Li",it of continuoul permafrost:
,
--- .~ Limit of dilcontinuoul or Iporadic
I
1',· , . ,. . . frolt.
~'"
---. LiM,. of Iubltantial frolt penetratio",~ ~
in tM t(~und (approximately OM foo t ) .
onc:e in 10 ,ea'i. Eltimate baled on a !
",eon of 100 ~,.. days of fr ••zin;
te"'perature. "
)f
..-\.....
Figure 2. Northern cold regions as determined by frozen ground. 18
4
Characteristics of Cold-region Living
Present cold-region communities vary from outposts manned by a few persons to cities with
populations of several thousands, from a relatively recent stone-age tribe to a modern sophisticated
society.
Two problems face the sanitary engineer in providing water and sewerage services to coldregion buildings: source, or disposal, and distribution. The data in Table I indicate the housing
conditions that exist in native communities in Alaska. It is based on a survey of 820 homes, approximately 10% of all native homes in Alaska, by staff personnel of the Alaska Department of
Health and Welfare in cooperation with the Federal Public Health Service.
Table I. Alaska native housing data - 1965.
Type of construction
Material
%
of total
Frame
Log
Other
60.8
37.6
1.6
*
I
Rooms/home
No.
%
of total
1
2
3
>4
43.4
33.3
12.7
10.6
Average number of occupants per home
Floor area/ home
Ft 2
< 100
100-200
200-300
300-400
400-500
500-600
600-700
700-800
> 800
=
%
of total
1.5
16.0
25.6
24.5
11.1
8.1
3.9
4.2
5.1
Floor area/occupant
Ft 2
<£5
25-50
50-75
75-100
100-150
150-200
> 200
%
of total
7.5
29.5
21.1
12.5
12.1
7.9
9.4
*
Windows / home
No.
1
2
3
4
>5
%
of total
6.9
33.2
31.7
14.3
13.9
5.7.
Approximately 95% of the 720 homes surveyed in 1965 were obtaining water from contaminated
or potentially contaminated sources. Water-storage facilities at 63% of the homes were inadequate
to prevent contamination.
In the majority of Alaskan native communities, water is hauled from surface sources in the
summer and ice is cut and carried in for winter use. Distance to water in the summer ranges from
a few feet to over Y2 mile, but in the winter the haul distance may be several miles, especially for
potable water.
Temporary structures on skids built without consideration for utility connections are common.
Water supply to such structures is very unsatisfactory; 94.7% of 720 homes (representing 9.5% of
all native Alaskan dwellings) surveyed in 1965 had an unsatisfactory supply; i.e., only 5.3% received water up to reasonable health standards; 89.4% of the homes were using water from untreated
surf ace sources and only 5.3% had well-water.
Work is in progress for development of "package unit" water and sewerage facilities for
use in temporary structures. Considerable progress has been made in study of such units but they
are not yet produced commercially. Temporary structures are not readily adapted to adequate water
supply and se wer age.
Permanent structures in very cold regions are usually constructed over air spaces to provide
cold environments under the structures in winter. This type of construction complicates connection
of water and sewerage services.
5
Among the approaches to solving the cold regions water system problems have been 1) encapsulation of the water system, 2) warming of the whole environment, and 3) substitution of a
"bucket brigade" concept for a proper community distribution system.
Encapsulation has proved successful, but difficulty has been experienced in encapsulating
all parts of the system. Tremendous research effort has been directed toward perfecting encapsulated systems, which are necessary in arid regions and in space travel as well as in the cold regions. The wasteful technique of warming the entire environment is neither feasible nor possible
in most cold-region communities. And in terms of aesthetics, industry and health protection, the
bucket-brigade system has failed.
A cold-region community spread over a large area cannot be effectively supplied with water
from a conventional central system with long distribution lines. Either a different type of water
supply system or a different type of community is necessary. California, Illinois, or Massachusetts
practice cannot be merely modified to fit a cold-region site. In an effort to develop compatible concepts, attention has been focused on desalting and re-using water and on re-styling community living concepts.
Water use
Water use in cold regions is somewhat different from that in temperate climates. In temperate
climates, use is affected by type of area to be served, availability of water, cost, whether the
water is metered, seasonal demands, and other factors. In cold regions water use is subject to
these same influences but in a different manner.
Low temperatures generally decrease domestic water consumption. Since there is little industry at most cold-region installations, industrial demands may be minor. Little provision need
be made for such seasonal demands as lawn sprinkling. Unless water is metered and adequately
protected to prevent freezing, excessive water is wasted from the supply system. High water costs
have a decided effect in reducing consumption. The re-use of laundry and shower waste water for
flushing toilets and the installation of minimum-water-use toilets and urinals significantly reduce
domestic demands. Often cold-region water supply systems are not designed or constructed to
furnish quantities and pressures suitable to fight fires.
For military purposes needs may be somewhat lower than they are for civilian purposes. 2 1 2
Suggested daily use for up to 100 military personnel in cold regions, under field conditions, is 2 to
5 gal for drinking and cooking, 5 to 10 gal for bathing, 2 to 3 gal for laundry, and 1 to 2 gal for
miscellaneous needs - making a total per-capi ta use of 10 to 20 gal/ day. For groups of more than
100 men, per-capita daily needs are 10 gal for drinking and cooking, 10 to 15 gal for bathing, 5 gal
for laundry, 10 gal for toilet flushing, and 5 to 15 gal for miscellaneous use, making a total percapita use of from 40 to 55 gal! day.
Table II shows results of water-use observations at selected cold-region communities.
Waterborne diseases
The cold regions environment is generally favorable for long survival of pathogenic organisms. 3 Contrary to common belief, water and wastes in the cold regions should be accorded the
same concern and care as is given to them elsewhere. There is little reason to believe that the
sanitary en gineering and public health principles involved in preventing the spread of disease
are materially different from those in temperate climates . . Because some disease vectors may
differ, however, the applic'!-tion of these principles may be different.
6
Table II. Water use at cold-region communities.
Community
Gal/day
per capita
1- Barrow (Point Barrow), Alaska
2. Barter Island, Alaska
3. Byrd Station, Antarctica
30-50*
2-5
10-30
Pressure system; water partly hauled.
Eskimo Village; ice, snow, and lake wateJ carried.
Melted snow and ice.
4. College, Alaska
5. Douglas, Alaska
60
50-170
Wells, pressure system, utilidors; no industry.
Surface water distributed under pressure; conventional
system , some bleeding ,
Wells, reCirculating, pressure, distribution including
industry
6. Fairbanks, Alaska
130
7. Fort Churchill, Canada
8. Fort Smith, Canada
9. Fort Yukon, Alaska (School)
65
40
30
Remarks
Surface water, pressure s~tem, utilidors.
Surface water, pressure s ystem, bleeding.
Well; utilidor, pressure system,
10. Juneau, Alaska
11- Kemi, Finland
12. Ketchikan, Alaska
300-500
40
600-900
Artesian wells, conventional system; winter bleeding.
Pressure system; surface source; deep burial of pipes.
Surface source; conventional system; shallow; bleeding.
13. McMurdo, Antarctica
14. Mt. Edgecumbe, Alaska
20
300-800
15. Prince George, British Columbia
100-270
Utilidor, pressure system.
Surface source; much bleeding from conventional
system.
Conventional pressure system; deep burial of pipes ;
bleeding.
16.
Rovaniemi, Finland
50
17. South Pole Station, Antarctica
18. Thule, Greenland
*
20-30
80
Surface source; conventional pressure distribution
system.
Utilidor ; limited source.
Utilidor; pressure system.
Similar water use has been observed at Alaska DEWLine stations.
Table IlI. Record of incidents substantiating the occurrence of possibly water-borne
communicable disease in cold-region areas.
Place
Date
Remarks
Unalaska, Alaska
1807
Bacillary dysentery outbreak
Klondike, Canada
1897
Frequent outbreaks of typhoid and dysentery
Greenland
1916
First isolation of Bacillus typhi from a Greenland patient
Upernavik, Greenland
Augpilagtog, Greenland
1917
1919
Typhoid reported; 53 cases, 3 deaths
Typhoid fever ; 11 cases reported
Barrow, Alaska
1923
Typhoid fever reported by Williams and Alter
Upernavik, Greenland
1931
Epidemic of typhoid fever reported ; 64 cases
Bethel, Alaska
1944
Unknown number of cases of bacillary dysentery, with 97 deaths
Irkutsk, Soviet Union
1946
Echinococcosis multilocularis cases in humans observed
annually reported b y Pavlovski
Tanana, Alaska
1948
Occurrence of Echinococcosis reported by Dr. R.B. Williams,
Alaska Department of Health
Anaktuvuk Pass, Alaska
1949
Shigella paradysenteriae outbreak; 19 cases , 2 deaths
Kotzebue, Alaska
1955
Occurrence of infectious hepatitis, 21 cases reported
Rebun, Japan
1956
Contaminated water supplies in transmission of Echinococcosis
multilocularis implicated by Yamashita
West Siberia and East Siberia
1957
Echinococcosis multilocularis in humans reported by Leikina
Antarctica
1962
Recovery of viable intestinal organisms from human waste"s
deposited by men of Scott & Shackleton expeditions about
1917 reported
.
7
The history* of diseases associated with unhealthy environment shows the need for
thorough sanitary engineering control of the environment in the cold re gions . . This control is now
being attained by research, industrial development, defense activities, and an intensified public
health program. Table III lists records of possibly water-borne communicable disease in cold
regions.
Effects of Low Temperature on Sanitary Engineering in Cold Regions
Temperature has a profound influence on most of the unit processes in sanitary engineering.
Its effects are exhibited in both the design of tne structures associated with the processes and in
the processes themselves.
Biological effects
Biological reactions are slowed appreciably by reduction of temperature. The usual temperature range for growth of protozoans, metazoans and pathogenic bacteria is between 59 and
104F (15 and 40C); however, in numerous instances disease-producing organisms have been 0 bserved to remam VIable for extended periods of time 111 wastes, food, and drink. Aerobic organisms
apparently can tolerate low temperatures better than anaerobic organisms can.
Free-living and saprophytic bacteria that grow very well at 32F (OC) have been isol ated from
fish, brine, and similar sources. ~ Although not many species grow at low temperatures, many
microorganisms do grow at low temperatures. Zooplankton (animals) are not affected as greatly by
low temperatures as are phytoplankton (plants) . An increase in plant forms durin g summer periods
is closely related, however, to the number of plant-eating animals. Primitive practices of many
cold-regio!! dwellers enhance the danger of passage of infectious disease from source to healthy
indi vidual.
The response of elements affected by light must conform with almost continuous light
during the summer and extended periods of night and twilight during the winter. Certain wavelengths of light (3287-2265 A) exert bactericidal action. The action of light as a bactericide in
the cold regions might differ from its action in temperate regions but the effects are not known.
Photosynthesis and growth of most plants depend upon light and many of the microscopic organisms of interest in provision of safe water supplies are closely related to the vegetable kingdom.
Minute changes in atmospheric composition, such as a reported relatively high concentration of
ozone in the cold-region air, might exert some influence on environmental control.
Physical effects 133
192
As pressure is applied to water the, freezing point is depressed slightly. As temperature
falls, viscosity of water increases (Fig. 3) and sediment-carrying capacity (Fig. 4) is hence
increased.
Temperature gradients become steeper through heat conductors, and the moisture content of
the air drops ; soils and materials normally in a fluid or plastic state become frozen and solid, and
many other physical changes occur in the environment.
Heating of buildings is a major concern. Each degree that the mean daily temperature is below 65F is a degree-day unit for heating computations. Barrow, Alaska, for example, has more than
20,000 degree-day heating units as compared with 4,560 for Washington, D.C. (Fig. 5).
*
Ref. 17,20,68, 76, 83,84,91, 120, 153, 162, 169, 211.
8
o
I
T
I
I-
IIJ
a::
50
~
I<l
/
IIJ
IIJ
I-
~
I-
a::
Cl.
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- ----
-
l----
IL.
o
100
V
-----
r-
o
10
-
u
0
•
w
20 ~
I-
30
Ci
w
40~
W
-
II
150
0.6
0 .8
1.0
1.2
1.4
ABSOLUTE VISCOSITY, centipoise
1.6
1.8
Figure 3. Temperature and viscosity of water.
~o
E
"-
."
C
o
o
<l
o
...J
IZ
w
:!:
Ci
w
(f)
I-
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~ I-
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O.08f--+--+-t-\---+/---\-----,:+-----+-----l
O.06 f----\--- f-t---\-- -P4---\--+-+-,..------..c4-\--- --l
(f)w
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z
O.04f----+--"-<-I-+--+--++-----=:+--+-+-~+_---l
w>-
UCD
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Q02f----+----+--~-+---YL--+----__l
PERCENT SEDIMENT
~ 2xI04r-r-r-r-r-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~___
a:
<l."
I_
g
Ci
DIS CHA RGE
U
0
f-L-L-L-~~~~+-~~~~~~~+-~~-L--l
~_
19_4
_3_
_L_1_9_
4_
4_~~19_4~5__
19_4_6__~ __1_
9_
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Figure 4. River temperature, sediment and
discharge. 133
501-
9
20 ~-------------------------------------------rTImIl20
18
I/)
-------------------------------------------17
18
16
16
"0
c
g~
14 ~ ------------------------------
14
~
~
12~ -----------------------------
12
<l
o
~ 10 ~ -----------------------~
w
10
a::
<.9
~
8 1--- - - - - - - - -
~
6 ~--------------4
8
6
<l
W
I
4 1--- - - - ---;
4
2 r--- --i
2
Figure 5. Average annual degree-day heating units.
At OF there is less than \ s as much water in the air as there is at 70F and at lower temperatures the air becomes even drier. Dehydration occurs rapidly when this cold air is heated.
Vapor barriers assume unusual importance in building construction, and necessary ventilation is
very costly in lost heat. Large areas of glass in a building wall must be given special design
consideration.
Thorough thermal analysis may prove that a facility which would otherwise be satisfactory
is entirely uns atisfactory for use under low-temperature conditions because a process entirely
satisfactory for use under temperat-e climate conditions may be unsuitable for use in the cold regions. The cost of energy necessary to make a process operate or to protect it from freezing may
be beyond the feasibilities of a project. Although first costs may be low the operating costs may
be overwhelming under low-temperature conditions.
Heat losses from the facilities used for treatment or transmission of water and sewage
may change the stability and function of facilities. Waste heat may cause thawing and settlement
which c an destroy the foundations of a building , the stability of a storage reservoir or treatment
tank; change the alignment of a pipe ; or possibly cause reservoirs to leak. The effects of both
freeze and thaw should be studied thoroughly and compensation for, or protection against, these
effects must be provided in the structures.
Some construction materials are better adapted to use under low-temperature conditions than
others. The effect of low temper ature upon all material s to be used should be studied carefully.
Before the materials are used, their heat transmission characteristics as well as their strength
and durability after temperature change should be understood.
Materials that Jare ductile in temperate climates often become brittle in the cold regions and
the viscosity of liquids becomes greater as temperature falls.
10
Chemical effects
With few exceptions, low temperature retards chemical reactions . Such processes as oxidation, reduction, coagulation, solubility, vaporization, and precipitation are affected by lowering of
temper ature. In reversible reactions a decrease in temperature decreases the rate of both the forward and reverse reactions. Reactions of decomposition of organic material are heat absorbing
reactions. As stated in Van't Hoff's Principle, "the reaction that absorbs heat is made more
nearly complete by raising the temperature. "
At low temperatures, the oxidation of organic material is slowed appreciably. Temperature
affects coagulation, filtration and precipitation in water and sewage treatment. Most solids and
li quids decrease in solubility with decreasing temper ature. Vaporization occurs less readily at
low temperatures.
Effects on labor and logistics
The lack of skilled labor at most cold-region sites means high wages to attract outside men,
and men can produce only a fraction of the amount of work in extremely low temperatures that they
can produce in a more favorable climate. Productivity, therefore, is low, further increasing costs.
The construction of all environmental control facilities in cold regions should be based on these
facts.
Logistical support for cold-region construction is gener ally difficult and costly. 19 5 19 6 Construction must be preceded by careful investigation of all physical features affecting the construction and operation of sanitary facilities. The extent of permanently frozen ground and subsurface
frost, topography, ground temperatures, air temperatures, conditions in both thawed and frozen soil
and available construction materials and energy sources must be carefully considered.
Almost anyone, given unlimited materials and resources, can construct housing and utilities
in the cold regions. However, sound engineering connotes efficient and practical use of available
resources. Abnormally high construction and operation costs make efficiency a necessity when
permanent development is concerned. A system that imposes a continuing problem of supply
logistics is doomed to unacceptability largely from malfunction.
Under some conditions fuel oil may be worth several dollars a gallon (as much as 4 to 5
dollars at remote sites) by the time it is delivered to the point of consumption. The logistics involved in supplying most cold regions places such values on the materials for energy production
that it is almost mandatory to determine and use all waste-energy sources.
Basic Design Concepts of Peculiar Significance in Cold-region
Sanitary Engineering
Certain general principles or design concepts have evolved in cold-region sanitary engineering.* These prinCiples, although not recorded in texts as such, are commonly presented in engineering education programs and have been proved repeatedly. Although these principles may appear
extremely simple, the implications of their application are far-reaching.
The principles involved in design of cold-region water supply and waste-disposal systems
are similar.
Simply stated, a water supply for use in cold regions should be planned on the basis of the
following:
THE INFLUENCE OF ACOLD ENVIRONMENT
11
1. System concepts must be compatible with the environmental conditions prevailing at
the site.
2. Thermal analysis of each process and facility must be included in the design process.
3. Fail-safe procedures and processes must be incorporated into the original design.
4. Otherwise-waste energy must be used wherever possible, and the characteristic forces
of cold environments must be used to advantage.
5. Simple structures and processes requiring a minimum of "gadgetry" should be used.
6. Systems, processes and control that minimize the need for manpower, particularly skilled
manpower, should be selected .
. Successful cold-region community water systems have been conceived, planned, constructed
and operated in full consideration of the above principles.
Com.patibility of sanitary engineering design and works with
community site and oonfi~uration
Processes requiring added heat and consisting of large open-water surfaces or extensive exposure of treatment units to the cold environment are not suited for general use. Conventional
grid-system layouts for utility service are not readily usable under low-temperature conditions.
Problems of condensation control and heating are often found when an effort is made to house and
frostproof a process or facility' that is not basically adapted to low-temperature use. Use of materials and devices that are damaged when fro zen-often presents problems and such materials and
devices may have to be replaced by more suitable materials. Small pipelines which when frozen
do not readily thaw are a poor choice for low-temperature use. Even though there may be apparent
advantages in their use, these advantages are lost if the pipelines do not thaw when frozen or if
they are damaged in the thawing process.
Therm al analysis t
Energy is the supreme need in environmental control. 34 Reclaimed energy (otherwise waste
energy) or conversion of some of the energy sources naturally in the environment to useful purpose
is very important. More than half the energy available from an ~ctic power plant may be wasted.
Using this energy for heating sanitary systems and for other purposes could save almost half the
cost of power ,generation.
In an experimental camp excavated in an ice cliff at the edge of the Greenland Ice Cap,
Russell 178 was able to use 38% of the energy in the fuel for water supply (ice-well) and over 5%
in domestic water heating and space heating. In this way, over 71% of the calorific value of the
fuel was used . . The taking of more waste heat would have led to problems in condensation.
In all inhabited cold regions, nature progresses routinely through freeze-thaw cycles. (Jonversion of energy from nature can be made to actuate, aitd-actually to accomplish, some of the normal sanitary engineering processes. Separation of suspended and dissolved solids from water and
sewage may be accomplished by the freeze-thaw cycle in nature. A product may also be conditioned
in this way. Nature may not provide the time schedule initially desirable but the energy required
may be inexpensive. Desalting water and removing other objectionable constituents from water
and sewage by freezing are entirely feasible. Experimental and prototype units are now determining the limits of practicality of these processes. Table IV gives examples of the amounts of heat
*
f
Ref. 65, 127, 133, 137, 138, 139, 186, 192, 193.
Ref. 16,95,98,104,161. 178.
12
that may ·be salvaged from internal combustion engines. Waste energy may also be salvaged from
lights, electric motors, nuclear reactions, chemical reactions, etc. A 60-kw diesel generator set
at a full load of 61 kw has a recoverable waste heat of 160,000 Btu/hr in cooling water and
110,000 Btu/ hr in the exhaust gas. Potential waste energy from lighting and electric motors is
computed below Table IV ,
Table IV. Approximate heat rejection from internal combustion engines.
He~ rejection* (10 Btu / hr)
3
H orsepowerl
output
In
coolant
In
exhaust,
30
150
300
600
30
150
300
600
10
50
100
200
*
In radiation and
lubricants, and
miscellaneous losses
10
50
100
20Q
Total
70
350
700
1400
Assuming 30% overall efficienc y.
Potential.Waste EDergy from Lights
Heat normally dissillated (Btu/ hr)
where
W
Total light wattage
a
Use factor
b
Special allowance factor.
a
=
=
3.41 Wa b
Total power ratings for all installed and operable lights
Ratioof power normally used to total rated power
Refer to manufacturers' specifications. For fluorescent lights a factor of 1.2 is recommended.
Potential Waste Energy from Electric Motors
Dissipated energy (Btu/ min)
i±
1
42.4 PA(- - 1)
."
where
p
Horsepower rating (nameplate rating)
Motor efficiency. Motor efficiency ranges from 50 to 88%. The highest efficiency
is for motors with ratings of 10 hp or more (refer to manufacturers' ratings).
."
A
=
Load factor
=
Proportion of possible, to actual, time of operation.
Summary of problems of providing sanitary engineering works
and services in cold regions
There are many basic design and methods concepts 38 of peculiar significance in sanitary
engineering works and services in cold regions. These concepts are not new. They assume overriding significance because of energy cost, drastic effects of temperature change on materials and
processes, logistics, frequent lack of qualified labor, lowered productivity of labor, and increased
need for aesthetically acceptable and healthful facilities.
Low temperature has some effects upon most of the physical, chemical and biological processes related to water supply. The water supply must be analyzed and planned carefully to make
13
appropriate provision for these effects. Just as limits and safety factors are defined and provid'e d
in structural design, so must these factors be considered in thermal design. The variety of methods
by which engineers have adjusted for thermal stress may be noted in the review of various installations in use.
Insufficient knowledge is now available on water treatment processes to effectively treat
water at temperatures near the freezing point; consequently, in most systems, the thermal design
provides for warming water to a more favorable treatment temperature. Excess heating of the
water only enhances ,heat loss and introduces inefficiency; therefore, it is desirable to heat water
for treatment to temperatures as close as possible to the minimum reasonable temperature for
favorable treatment.
Thermal analysis must be rigidly applied to every facility and process. All parts of water
and sewage systems are subject to frost damage if they are out of operation (even for short
periods) and serious problems mount rapidly. Water works, intake structures, treatment work s ,· and
storage and distribution facilities should all be protected with fail-safe devices. It is not uncom:mo~ to have intake structures so clogged with ice as to become inoperative. Well sources freeze
occasionally and the system must be temporarily shut down. Transmission lines and distribution
facilities should be graded to drain properly if flow stops in the system. Treatment and storage
tanks must also be provided with appropriate drains to prevent damage if there is a risk of freezing.
In some places it has been found far more desirable to bury water distribution systems with a
minimum of cover and to provide for addition of heat to the water in the distribution system, rather
than to bury the distribution system deeply and cope with the construction and maintenance problems associated with deep burial.
New or exotic materials should be thoroughly tested and proved adequate before they are
used in construction, at least for permanent installations in the cold regions. Wherever indigenous
materials may be used, costs can be significantly reduced. Prefabricated materials, which permit
the use of less costly labor on site and fewer trained and skilled persons in fabrication, offer
many advantages for construction in the cold regions.
The price of fuel in cold regions is high. Any source of heat not normally used should be
put to work to protect the water and sewage works systems, provided no potential health hazard
is created by the use of waste heat. Waste heat from motors, power-generating equipment, 176
pumps, ventilating equipment, lights, nuclear reactors and similar equipment should be used wherever possible.
MOisture, frost, and low temperature combine to produce malfunctions in control equipment.
Float assemblies on tanks may freeze in place. Air pressure control equipment becomes inoperative when moisture and frost stop a pressure line. The lower productivity of men in a cold environment seriously affects maintenance of equipment. There is also a lack of trained operators in
cold regions. As a result, systems and processes that minimize the need for skilled manpower
and complicated' 'gadgetry" must be selected.
Some systems may require much protection from frost. Other systems by their very nature
may be relatively non-frost-susceptible. Systems that may need moderate protection but have the
fewest problems should be studied to minimize the frost protection needed or to elimin ate the
need for special frost protective measures. Slightly dirty water may be re-used for flushing and
water needs can be reduced by use of special "minimum-water-requirement" systems. Water
conservation may be the critical factor in the success of a system.
In the effort to use non-frost-susceptible systems, health protection, acceptability and
similar values should not be overlooked. Undesirable features whether structural , economic,
aesthetic or otherWise are equally effective in making a facility fail in its intended purpose.
Selection of systems or processes solely on the basis of initial cost is unjustifiable.
·1 4
WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING IN COLD REGIONS*
Ingenious methods and devices have been employed to provide an adequate supply of potable
water. Splendid examples of polar water supply are evident in both the Arctic and Antarctic. In the
Antarctic, exploration and research have stimulated development of water-supply facilities. In the
Arctic, the additional stimuli of industrial development and military preparedness have triggered watersupply improvements. The USSR, Finland, Scandinavia, Canada, and the United States have all bolstered economic and he"alth improvements throu gh con struction of community and industrial water systems.
The objectives in planning new water systems include reliability, convenience, publichealth protection, a basis for economic development, and fire protection. This approach contrasts
with the "necessity-and-subsistence" approach previously tolerated and assumed to be adequate
in occupation of the Arctic. Water-supply systems that 'depend upon harvesting ice, collecting
snow or hauling water from a distant point are being replaced; the expense and inadequacies of
such antiquated methods are becoming obvious to increasing numbers of people . . The prevention of
filth-borne disease caused by inadequate water supply reinforces the need for convenience and
economy.
Table V briefly describes the principal features of various water-supply systems that are
representatitVe of those used in Alaska, Canada, Finland, Greenland and Antarctica. This includes
almost all the principal types of supply, treatment, storage, and distribution in cold regions. No
attempt has been made to describe the more primitive water-supply methods that do not use facili:-:
ties for distribution of water under pressure.
The following brief descriptions of facilities give examples of various methods of providing
continuous water supply even under the most difficult conditions . . Community water-supply systems
are now operating in various permafrost regions of Alaska, including Fairbanks, Unalakleet, Nome,
Kotzebue, Barrow, Fort Wainwright, Big Delta, and numerous small and isolated stations such as
Air Force commlilnications sites and Federal Aviation Agency installations.
Similar community sys terns have been provided in Canada at locations including Whitehorse,
Dawson, Fort Smith, Inuvik, Hay River, and Yellowknife. Community water-supply facilities in
Greenland have been provided at Thule, Sondrestrom, Camp Century, and several smaller communications and weather sites. The northern communities of Rovaniemi and Kemi, Finland, also have
community water-supply facilities. Stations in the Antarctic now using or planning to use community water-supply facilities include McMurdo, South Pole, and Byrd Stations.
McMurdo Station is located on permafrost; it has a winter population of 250 and a summer
population of up to 1100. The source of water supply is snow, collected about liz mile from the
station with a tractor and scoop. Impurities in the snow consist of volcanic ash, and the melted
snow water tastes somewhat oily. Per-capita consumption is 20 gal. Water for drinking and cooking is filtered and chlorinated. Filtration is by use of a vacuum diatomite filter. Water is distributed to storage tanks in the different buildings through a l-in. hose line once a day. Occupants
of buildings beyond 150 feet from the treatment plant use bottled drinking water. Each building is
provided with a separate snow melter to provide water for other uses. Although the snow melter
is quite effective, the requirement of large quantities of ,. Arctic" diesel-oil results in a costly water
supply. The burning of 1 gal of fuel produces approximately 70 gal of water . .
. Considerable manpower is required to operate the various pieces of snow-collecting and
snow-melting equipment at McMurdo Station. A new sea-water distillation plant producing
14,000 gal/ day and using nuclear power plant steam began to operate in February 1965. The
~' . Ref.
2}' 4,' 5, ·s, ·SO, 3-1, 4.8, 50, 5.2, 60, 62, 72, 90, 92, 93, 97,. 108, 109, 111, 123, 124, 125, 148, 149,
188, 200, 220, 221.
WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING IN COLD REGIONS
15
16
Key to 'Symbols Used in Table V
TREATMENT
D
S
F
C
FL
IR
SO
DS
Disinfection
Sedimentation
Filtration
Coagulation
Fluoridation
Iron removal
Softening
Desalting
STORAGE
E
B
S
Elevated
Below grade reservoir
Surface tanks
FIRE PROTECTION
S
P
W
Storage
Fire pumps
Fire wells
DISTRIB UTION
UAG
UBG
CS
DMR
SMR
EHC
I
E
Utilidors, above grade
Utilidors, below grade
Conventional system with waste or
bleeding
Dual main recirculating system
Single main recirculating system
Electrica~ heat cable system
Intermittent system
Encapsulated pressure system
supplied from storage tanks which
are filled by hauling water
heavy hose intake' structure to salt water is electrically heated to keep the intake from freezing.
Salt-water line and brine return lines are all insulated and electrically traced. The 55,00o-gal
tanks placed in buildings are covered to prevent condensation from freezing on the walls and roofs
of the buildings. Trouble arose during the first winter from freezing in inlet a nd outlet pipes, but
this was easily rectified.
At Byrd Station all water is obtained from snow melting. Usage is 20 to 30 gal/day per man
in summer and 10 gal;tlay per man in winter . . The closed engine-cooling water system of the dieselelectric generator is circulated through the snow melter. The melt water is filtered through a
diatomaceous earth filter. A looped distribution system is installed in each tunnel and runs through
each building near the ceiling. The distribution piping has premolded fiberglass insulation covered
with building paper-and-aluminum laminated jacket. All lines are electrically traced except in
the buildings where the lines are exposed to absorb heat. Water is continuously circulated in the
looped main. Installation of an ice well is planned to furnish water for the entire station.
Snow melting provides water for South Pole Station. The hot exhaust from the diesel generators is used to melt the snow. Hose s are used periodically to fill overhead tanks in various
buildings. Water consumption is ,approximately 20 to 30 gal / day per man in summer and 10 gal/day
per man in winter, although a recent estimate is 50 gal/ day per man.
At Hallett Station water is obtained from a large glacier one mile from the station. During
melt periods the water is collected in a basin and piped down a slope to a point where it fills
waiting water wagons. The wagons haul the water to various buildings and pump it into storage
tanks in the buildings. During the winter, sea water is converted to fresh water by distillation
units. Velocities in distribution piping are kept at not less than 6 ft/ sec to equalize heat losses
throughout the system. Excessive heat in the water has been found to cause damage to the
pipeline.
WATER SUPPLY ENGINEtRtNG rg "'COLDR-EGI0NS
17
Air Face, Naval, and airpat facilities are located together at Point Barrow Camp, Alaska,
flbout 5 miles north of the native village of Barrow. Adjacent to the camp is POW Main, an Air
Force DEWLine station.
The water supply at Point Barrow Camp is derived from a fresh-water lake adjoining the caml'
trhis lake covers approximately 160 acres and has a maximum depth of about 10 ft. Raw water is
pumped through an insulated water line(with circulating hot water) to the boiler and water-treatment
~uilding, dining hall, shower building, and laundry • . Raw water is hauled to the living quarters aad
other buildings for use in basins and showers; each building has its own pressure pump• . Treated
;drinking water is hauled to all buildings in insulated coolers • . During the month of August 1963 an
"a verage of 26,000 gal/day of raw water was pumped.
The treatment of water at the camp includes filtration with three Army-type pressure filters
·and chlorination with a hypochlorinatCl'. Treated water is stOred in a steel tank in the water-treat;ment building. Treated water is hauled to the airport and POW Main sites as well as the buildings
'in camp and to the Public Health Service Hospital, Bureau of Indian Mfairs, and Weather Bureau..
Local citizens in Barrow all haul water 4 miles from the water-treatment building to the village.
There are many fresh-water lakes in the area, but the lake adjoining the camp is the primary source
of treated water because the others are brackish. There are two salt-water ponds nearby, but this
lake is fresh, probably due to permafrost. It is estimated that an average of 4,000 gal of water is
treated each day.
Before 1965 water supply for Nome, Alaska, was obtained, during the summer, from a steel
pipe distribution system placed on the ground surface and supplied from' 'Moonlight Springs"
located approximately 3 miles from the city . . In winter and summer, water for drinking and cooking
was hauled by tank truck and delivered to homes and business houses • . Thawed ground exists in a
narrow strip along the shoreline of the Bering .sea; therefore, business houses located immediately
adjacent to the shoreline used shallow wells to obtain brackish water for operating water-carriage
waste-disposal systems • . These inadequate and unsafe systems are gradually being replaced by
an improved year-round community system.
A modern recirculating water and sewer system (Fig. 6-11) has , be"en installed (1965) in Nome,
Alaska, after much promotion by a few interested persons. As a part of the promotion many presentations were made to the citizenry. An example follows:
"By wa&, of explanation, it is pointed out that the project Nome has undertaken is to 'provide
a water and sewer system' - not to enlarge Cl' modernize an existing water and sewer system or
make repairs to old syst~ms, but to make available to the residents cf the city for, the first time in
its history, running water and flush toilets, · two conveniences which are so basic to modern living
in our civilized world that they are largely taken for granted in other communities and cities throughout the United States. Unfortunately for Nome, these two basic conveniences have not been
economically feasible nor teclmologically possible until recent years due to Nome's geographical
location in a sub-arctic permafros t area. Heretofore, the problems encountered in maintaining water
and sewer lines on a year-round basis in the permanently frozen ground precluded any possibility
of providing running water and modern sanitation to the people of Nome. It has been only in the .
last few years that advances in engineering have overcome these physical problems, and we are
now"assured by competent engineers that running water and sewer systems ean be provided;
further they can be provided on an economically practicable basis. : Currently, however, Nome is
still coping with its water and sanitation problems almost exactly as it did sixty years ago", laboriously hauling the ·water from house to house by tank truck and primitively having its human waste
in 'sanitary cans' picked up periodically by the scavenger truck's attendant• . That the method has
been modernized by the use of motor vehicles in place · of the horse-drawn conveyance of 1900 is
small consolation. "
18
Figure 6. Thawing frozen ground for installation of utilidor at Nome, Alaska.
The portable. b.oiler supplies many steam thaw points. Excavation is by backhoe.
Figure 7. Construction of utilidor at Nome, Alaska, using
2-in. cedar ·plank.
Figure 8. Utilidor construction at Nome, Alaska, showing wood .. stave sewer
pipe below the steel water 'lilies.
Figure 9. Interior view of utilidor during construction. (Photo by L.K. Clark.)
Note provision for adjusting grade of sewer line.
19
20
Figure 10. Utilidor at Nome - manhole station. The
cover is of steel, normally bolted on, and watertight.
(Photo by L.K. Clark.)
Unfortunately, 90% of the homes to 00 served had no bathroom nor interior plumbing, and the
cost of installation was so high that only 35 connections were made to the utilidor in the firs t two
years of its availability. Changes have had to be made in the system of payment for utilidor
service. *
Table VI g~ves a comparison of water rates and scavenger rates in Nome and Fairbanks,
Alaska, before 1965. Nome and Fairbanks were chosen for comparison because they both have
permafrost problems. Both cities also had the same water delivery and scavenger service before
1965. The difference between service rates of these two cities before the utilidor at Nome was
constructed is illustrated in this table • .
*
Personal communication, L.K. Clark.
21
Table VI. Comparison of water rates and scavenger service rates in
Nome and Fairbanks, Alaska, before 1965.
Nome
Scavenger service rates
Water rates
Residential
Tank fills:
Pack-in:
l¢/gal plus $1.00 for tank holding
up to 400 gal
l¢/gal plus $0.50 for tank holding up to 401 gal to 600 gal
l¢/gal flat rate for tank 600 gal
and over
$1.50 flat rate for 55-gal drum.
These rates vary with size of
container to be filled.
Scavenger rates / month: Prices were based on
one honey bucket and one standard garbage
can per household.
1 collection/ wk 5.00
2 collections/ wk $7.50
3 collections / wk $10.00
Commercial
Tank fills:
Service to restaurants, hotels, etc:
$1.00/ day for daily pickup;
$30.00 flat rate/month
Ranging from 1;2 to %¢ / gal depending on size of tank and
frequency of fills.
Cost at one hotel and restaurant
for water was from $475.00 to
$500 / month in winter; $600 upward/month in summer.
Public schools cost for water
was an average of $ 170/ month
during school year.
Rates varied upward for servicing residences
beyond city limits, for servicing residences
and businesses with extra buckets and garbage
cans, and for extra service calls.
Nome public schools' cost for scavenger ser. vice ran an average of $250/ month during
school year.
Fairbanks
Residential, Commercial and Industrial
First 5,000 gal at $1.67/ 1,000 gal
Next 20,000 gal/month at $1.20/ 1,000 gal
Next 75,000 gal/month at $0.93/ 1,000 gal
Over 100,000 gal/month at $0.67/ 1,000 gal
A specific example:
5,000 gal in Fairbanks costs $8.35
5,000 gal in Nome costs $50.00
No additional cost for scavenger service
equivalent to that in Nome.
Every residence and business in Nome had to
pay extra for scavenger service, but in Fairbanks this service was incorporated in the
sewage and water system at no additional
cost to the user.
22
Figure 11. Utilidor at Nome. Service connections of
copper (continuous circulation). (Photo by L. K. Clark.)
Water Sources and Characteristics*
Snow and ice may be the only water-supply sources available under some circumstances.
Such sources are expensive to use and are subject to serious contamination by contact from animals
and birds and from community waste-disposal practice of hauling excrement, garbage" and refuse out
and dumping them on the ice.
Tastes and odors are often imparted to snow sources by equipment used in collecting the
snow. Particulate matter from the waste fuels burned nearby may also impart contamination; oil
wastes are particularly objectionable. Such sources of water supply are very undesirable for
permanent use, and facilities to treat them must be provided where they are used.
An exception to these objections may be justified in the case of ice taken from an ice cap
or glacier. The "ice well" system for using ice has been successful in some communities. This
system, often called the "Rodriguez Well," has provided water successfully for stations such as
Camp Century in Greenland. Steam is used to melt a pit in the ice cap and melted water is allowed
to accumulate in the bottom of the pit. Water is then pumped from the pit into a pressure system
*
Ref. 13, 14, 140, 150, 151, 201.
23
Cor service to the installation. An ice well has a life of only a few years but abandoned ice wells
can be used as pits for waste discharge. Since water supply and waste discharge are both in the
ice, close observation is essential to detect possible pollution.
Streams and lakes have been used for sources of water supply at several communities. Such
sources may have considerable color and turbidity and are subject to ready contamination. In some
cases, notably at Ft. Churchill, Manitoba, Canada, which draws water from a rather shallow lake,
the water becomes increasingly turbid due to the increasing thickness of the ice as winter progresses. This leaves a relatively shallow depth of water to draw from, and solids exd!luded by the
free zing process and solids from the bottom enter the raw water supply. . These sources generally
require more than simple disinfection. Stream and lake sources may also be considerably colder
than possible ground-water sources. The difference in temperature must be considered with respect
to both treatment and freezing problems in the system.
Precipitation is so small throughout much of the cold regions that it is unwise to rely upon
anything but large recharge areas and watersheds as sources of community water supply. . Shallow
surface sources of water supply are not practical where a continuous supply of water is needed,
because they may freeze solid. Seasonal ice rarely, if ever, exceeds a depth of from 6 to 8 ft on
surface waters; however, the majority of surface 30urces are only a few feet deep and many of them
freeze solid. The free zing action tends to concentrate mineral and organic content in the unfrozen
water, and for this reason the water may be undesirable or unsuitable for domestic usage.
Comparatively few rivers in the cold regions are large enough to maintain an appreciable
flow throughout the year. Use of water from rivers in the permafrost region is complicated not only
by these bodies of water freezing solid in some places, but by the formation of frazil and anchor
ice. · · Frazil ice," which resembles slush, forms in turbulent water when the water is only slightly
below 32 F. "Anchor ice" is ice formed on the bottoms of rivers and lakes.
Many streams in Arctic Alaska freeze solid • . Despite this type of freezing obstacle in Russia,
Kojinov 127 reports that the Baliago River serves as the source of water supply for the PetrovskoTransbaikal Steel Works . . Inquiry among natives and other long-term residents in Arctic Alaska
usually provides very useful information regarding streams that flow all year round. Among streams
in Alaska above the Arctic Circle that are known to flow year round are the Yukon, Kobuk, Noatak,
and Colville Rivers.
Rivers receiving water from subpermafrost source sand entr:1pped water from extensive areas
may flow continuously at points where the flow and temperature characteristics offset tendencie s
to freeze.
Checks can be made on temperature and general physical and chemical characteristics of
water in lakes or watercourses at intervals to locate appreciable quantities of subpermafrost water
(warm water) flowing into the waters.
Relatively deep lakes, which do not freeze to the bottom, may receive considerable amounts
of entrapped water and frequently receive subpermafrost or artesian water so that they can se rve
as continuous water-supply sources . . Shallow lakes receiving entrapped water can sometimes be
used as limited sources of water supply. . The great proportion of ice to unfrozen water in ponds or
lakes which are not fed by entrapped water or subpermafrost sources may make the quantity of
water stored under the ice insufficient for supplying demands for an extended period. Since most
of the lakes and ponds in the Arctic are shallow, it is necessary to construct special intake
facilities that are not affected by low temperature and do not collect foreign material from the
bottoms of the lakes or ponds.
24
Saline water 180
190 20S
Salin~ water is available for water supply throughout coastal and some inland areas, but its
use presents many problems. ' Small communities find it difficult to provide the skills needed for
proper desalting. ' The use of salt water for flushing (as in ships) necessitates installation of dual
water systems. Although some advantage may be taken of the low freezing poin~ of salt water,
this property may be a disadvantage because the low temperature often creates problems with salt
water. Unless equipment and fac ilities in which the salt water is used are suited to operation when
the salt water-acts as a refrigerant, unwanted icing may occur in the facilities.
The Alaska Native Health Service (USPHS) Hospital complex at Kotzebue, Alaska, successfully uses salt water for flushing and, by desalting, for all other purposes. The method is to heat salt
water prior to distribution, then to desalt the water by distillation. ' The salt-water intake, a 6-in.
pipe, is warmed when required by circulating antifreeze solution in interior polyethylene
pipes, a i-in. 1?upply pipe inside a longer, blanked-off, 2-in. return.
Ground water*
Ground water is difficult to obtain in many parts of the cold regions. Lack of suitable aquifers, extensive frozen ground, and (questionable re:eharge of aquifers increase the difficulty of obtaining adequate sources. Extensive areal, regional and site studies are necessary to locate adequate ground water sources. '
Ground water 3 appears in limited supply above perm~.frost, and occasionally in and below
permafrost (suprapermafrost, intrapermafrost, and subpermafrost sources, respectively) (Fig. 1215).
Suprapermafrost water
Suprapermafrost water supply is irregular and quite often disappears altogether before the
end of winter. This is particularly true in areas where the seasonal frost merges with the permafrost. In some sections of the permafrost region, a shallow layer of thawed ground may exist continuously above the permafrost, and with appropriate soil type this layer serves as an aquifer for
suprapermafrost water supplies. These supplies are generally poor producers and cannot be depended upon where any great amount of water is needed.
s•
•N
o.
_ 0
-
.
,
0
.
.
,
. . . 0 , '
'. 0
Figure 12. Occurrence of ground water in interior Alaska.
*
Ref. 37, 47, 53, 54, 130, 132, 152, 154, 191,217,227.
25
SEASONALLY
THAWED GROUND
SHALLOW LAKE
FLOW OF
- . ENTRAPPED WATER
I PENETRATING
•
FROST
Figure 13. Entrapped water in permafrost.
---! - - - - - --
~ ---
~ PENETRATING
FROST
CaNT I NUOUSLY
THAWED GROUND - --
-
-
-
--
~
.- - - -_ ..
~
-.-
-
--
-
----
FLOW OF
ENTRAPPED WATER
--- - - - -
- - -<)-
¢. SUBPERMAFROST
I
WATER
Figure 14. Flow of subpermafrost and entrapped water into river in permafrost zone.
26
/
I PENETRAT I NG
•
FLOW OF
~ EN TRAPPED WATE R
FROST
t::. SUBPERMAFROST
I
WATER
Figure 15. Frost-mound formation ( winter conditions).
HEATED
BUI LDING
S-N
. t~? i-~~:;I t;~ )~~;~{~~
I
'ii
E~rL
'
.1-'-\
\-- ~R~~~L~:_·_
I -_ --=~. OS~E§
-- CONTINUOUSLY
THAWED
GROUND
-
I
WELL PO INT
I PENETRATING
•
FROST
...
FLOW OF
EN T RA PPED WATER
Figure 16. Unsafe ground-water supply in permafrost.
Safety of this supply is highly questionable for several reasons. The water-bearing layer is
rarely more than 10 ft deep and i t receives water from the contaminated zone of the subsoil. Cesspools and other waste-disposal facilities are usually placed at about this same depth to avoid
season,a! frost and yet not be in permafrost. Heat losses from houses tend to thaw the permafrost
under them and cause formation of a sump in the top of the permafrost (Fig. 16).
Suprapermafrost water is usually obtained by means of bored, dug, and driven wells or by
use of infiltration galleries.
27
htrapermafrost water
Intrapermafrost water is not common. In the foothills of mOuntain ranges where geological
formations and permafrost exist in such a manner that subpermafrost water may be forced up into
the permafrost by hydrostatic pressure, it is possible that water may be found in fault zones of the
permafrost. Unless intrapermafrost water is under an artesian head such a supply may be exhausted
'or may come through the permafrost and appear as suprapermafrost or subpermafrost water. . Intrapermafrost water supplies may be tapped by use of drilled, or thawed and jetted, wells. : This type
of ground-water supply may be likened to a water supply in fissured limestone • . Such supplies
differ greatly in quality and safety• .
Figure 12 shows a thawed area on the inside of a river curve. : Well A is a normal well.
Wells B and C are through the permafrost . . Well D displays some artesian effect as a result d'
the confining layer of permafrost • . Well E is a rock well. . The zone between wells D and E in
Figure 12 is a probable site for frost mound formation as shown in Figure 15.
Subpermafrost water
Many successful wells have been developed to use subpermafrost water. Experience in
Canada, Alaska and the tJ.S.S.R. has well demonstrated the importance of this source of water.
Although mineralization may be high, dependability and the temperature of subpermafrost water are
significantly valuable.
Subpermafrost water supplies, although they may appear to be the most promising means of
continuous water supply t J'lre difficult to locate, costly to develop, and frequently highly mineralized~ .: At. many points the permafrost extends to, and into, impervious strata such as rock and in such locations ground water is
not available in appreciable quantities. The warmest water may
be found some distance below the lower limit of permafrost and
such sources should be used wherever possible if the aquifer
extends well below the lower limit of the permafrost.
Jetting and rotary, percussion, and diamond drilling (Fig. 17)
have all been used for drilling in permafrost. Cable-tool (percussion) drilling is most common for water-well drilling. Such rigs,
with some modifi9ation of the usual techniques, have been used
very successfully for permafrost drilling.
2" I
DRIVE I
PIPE I
I
I
I
I
I
I
ro
I
I
Well drilling through permafrost presents some special problems in weather protection, and water-well drilling is relatively
costly in isolated areas. Wells penetrating permafrost must be
operated almost continuously and sometimes heated to prevent
their freezing. Pumpage must not be too great as excessive pumpage may freeze ' a well or possibly change the production of the
aquifer . . Movement of ground water through a water-bearing
stratum is slower at a low temperature than at an average temperature and the yield from a given type of aquifer may be appreciably
less under low-temperature conditions.
: I/S" DIAM .
I
HQLES
~
[ ....
~
Well casings should be anchored in permafrost and constructed
so that seasonal freezing of the surrounding soil does not disjoint,
crush, or otherwise damage the casing.
Figure 17. Drive-jet assem-
bly.
Sand or gravel fill around casings has been recommended to
minimize cohesion of the seasonally frozen soil around the casings.
Puddled clay may freeze to the casings and damage them. The
28
DEFLECTING APRON
SLIP JOINT
PUMP HOUSE FLOOR
AIR
SPACE
THAWED ZONE
PERMAFROST
R=D
Figure 18. Casing-head construction for well in permafrost.
MOT 0 R
EDG ING,
j"
high, 14 gage
PAD, reinforced concrete
24 " x 24" x 12" high
between 1/2" stee l plates .
C
A
S
I
LOOSE
INSULAT ION - - I l -la i r space)
N
G
COVER, 18 gage galv. Iron
ROOFI NG PAPER , 15 lb.
GROUND LEVEL
Figure 19. Pump-head installation detail.
former type of construction, however, enhances the possibility of contamination of the wells by
surface drainage. Wells should not be located in buildings nor placed in pits because such arrangements .rnay disturb the thermal regime of the ground excessively as well as increase the possibility
of contamination . . A large-diameter casing and continuous moderate pumping help to prevent freezing of a well through permafrost. Special de sign is necessary for development of the casing-head
installation to preclude contamination as well as freezing and frost damage. Examples of different
methods for casing-head development are shown in Figures 18, 19, 20 and 21.
29
REMOVABLE
COVER
VOries
HOLD- DOWN
PIPE
HEATING TAPE
i
SEAL
PROTECTOR
around adopter
/-- ~-:--
DISCHARGE
PIPE
DISCHARGE
BODY
I:
, ! WELL CASING
:1
I:
Figure 20. Typical wellhead for multistage two-pipe
jet pump.
Artificial impoundment of water40
Figure 21. Pitless unit for submersible pump.
152 168
Both surface and subsurface facilities have been constructed to impound water in permafrost. Russian engineers have reported the construction of successful dams on permafrost
and at least one such dam has been constructed near Livengood in Alaska 172 (Fig. 22). Crescent
Lake, the artificial reservoir serving Thule, Greenland, is located at the edge of the ice cap
(Fig. -23).
The Kelsey Dikes 142 constructed in Manitoba, Canada, are interesting examples of an adequate engineering solution to a difficult probleIll These dikes on permafrost were constructed of
fine sand with "sand drains" under the upstream face to drain off water formed by .the thawing of
ice in the soil. Subsid~nce of the dikes is compensated for by fill from nearby stockpiles.
At Mirny, a diamond center in eastern Siberia, the most interesting dam in the world has
impounded water successfully since 1964 using winter freeze-back of ground, thawed by contact
with water, through cold-air circulation in a system of vertical double pipes. The spillway channel
is similarly protected by horizontal ventilating pipes. 28 Although only 60 ft high, the dam took
two full years to build because of a difficult schedule dictated by permafrost and severe weather.
In some places, subsurface dams have been placed across the paths of ground-water flow,
and perforated pipes have been placed upstream from the dams to collect ground water. The latent
heat of fusion from entrapped ground water may be sufficient to prevent freezing of such sources.
30
a. 1947, soon after completion ; full reservoir.
b. .-. June 1963, following Hwashout~~ of spillway (note scar and scoured
channel in empty reservoir).
Figure 22. Hess Creek Dam, Livengood, Alaska. (Photos by USA CRREL.I12)
Figure
2~.
31
Water-supply source at Thule Air Base, Greenland (Crescent Lake
and Dam). Pumphouse on fill at edge of reservoir.
The quantity of entrapped water may be quite limited and cannot be depended upon unless subpermafrost or spring water also flows into it. Accumulation of water under appropriate temperatures
may cause an actual growth of the storage area.
Reclaimed waste waters SS
The possibility for use of reclaimed waste water offers the greatest potential for meeting
water-supply needs in cold regions • . The importance of water re-use increases particularly by
coupling waste-water reclamation with previously mentioned initial sources for procuring water.
Several methods for partial re-use are now employed . . Salvage of bathing and laundry wa&te water
to be used later for carrying wastes is common. For many years the toilets at Thule Air Base were
flushed with water that had been used for showers. Sewage normally does not contain more than
3-5% of the objectionable material present in seawater.
Source developmenf 4
Certain generalizations regarding hydrology in the cold regions are obvious, even though
each site must be individually evaluated. Storm-water and melt-water runoff discharge can be expected to be fairly high from a frozen watershed . . Small streams, which might normally be expected
to demonstrate "flash":'if'low characteristics, tend to be even more "flashy" where permafrost
exists on a watershed. Ground-water aquiferS are recharged where appropriate soil characteristics
exist and an actual thaw cycle occurs. An aquifer beneath permafrost may be recharged a great
distance away from a particular site.
32
The effects of man's interference with a long-established thermal regime must be very
carefully evaluated • . Thorough site study and test drilling are prerequisites to definition of permafrost water potential.
Development of water sources, whether from shallow wells, deep wells, ice wells, or other
sources, is based on these three desirable objectives:
1. Obtaining the best source possible including favorable sanitary and chemical
characteristics and enough warmth to minimize collection and transmission problems.
2. . Prevention of supercooling of the water, or contamination of it, at the collection
point or during transmission.
3• . ~rotection against damage of collection facilities and area through changes of
the thermal regime at the collection point.
Numerous methods have been tried to develop a source that satisfies all these objectives.
Shallow wells. Water from a well should come from a minimum of 20 ft below the surface
of the ground . . It is very unlikely that adequate shallow wells, or wells taking water from above
the permafrost, can be expected to provide safe water without treatment. Chemical quality may
be impaired and, particularly in Alaska, objectionable quantities of iron may be present in the
water. 8.9 Iron removal or other treatment is not easily accomplished, for small supplies and shallow
wells usually are not suffici.ently dependable to supply large quantities of water . . Infiltration of
·salt water is a threat to shallow wells not far from the sea, as at Unalakleet 179 for example.
Deep wells. Some of the special protective devices for deep wells are shown in Figures
18-20 and 51. Arrangements for keeping deep wells from freezing, protection of the aquifer by
regulating pumpage (presuming full knowledge of the capabilities of the aquifer has been obtained), and casing-head development methods are shown in the drawings. Deep wells are by far
the preferred source of supply based on water temperature, quality, and reliability.
Ice wells. 184 Schmitt and Rodriguez 1 &3
184 have reported upon the feasibility of melting ice
in a glacier or ice cap to provide water (Fig. 24). As the ice is melted by steam, injected into the
hole, the water is collected at the bottom of the pit and pumped to the system for use.
Russe1l 178 describes a system that he designed for an under-ice camp in northern Greenland:
28% of the fuel energy was converted to electrical energy; 38% was used in the ice well; and
about 5% was used for domestic water heating • . At Camp Century, up to 10,000 gal/day was
supplied by one ice well. The mining· of water in this fashion requires a large amount of heat
energy (1 lb of oil produced 59 lb of water) and, unless properly controlled, thawing of ice may
create site and well-head structural problems. Ice wells are particularly adaptable where nuclear
energy is available, such as at one or two installations in the Antarctic.
Springs and infiltration galleries. Springs, particularly warm springs, have been used to
ad~antage
in some places. Springs from shallow sources are unreliable and can be identified by
study of flow and temperature characteristics throughout the winter period. Since a portion of the
containing formation may depend upon retention of the surrounding area in a frozen state, it may
be difficult to properly contain spring water at the intake . . Heat from the water thaws ice and
changes conditions at the site. Shallow springs and infiltration galleries are not particularly
adapted to development for reliable water supply.
Lakes and streams. Special provision must be made to ensure that the intake works 126 12
are protected from icing• . In general, ponding and provision for deep intakes helps to prevent
icing at intakes • . Turbulence is stilled by poriding the water over the intake, and the tendency to
form frazil ice is reduced.
\
DRILLING
TIME,hr. DEPTH, ft.
0
SURFACE
0
20
S N
2 .S
o
W
40
60
7.9
SO
9 .4
100
16.S
120
21.3
25.S
30.0
140
32 .S
SECTION A-A
Figure 24. A typical Rodriguez well (in ice).
33
Artificial reservoirs. Special provisions
must be made for protecting intake works for surface-water supplies. Frazil ice and solid ice
form and completely choke intake works if adequate protection to retain the heat of the water or
if facilities to keep the water thawed at the intake
are not provided. Water at several Alaska surface
supply sources has been at 32F during winter,
and not more than 37F during summer • . At some
places surface water enters waterworks intake
structures supercooled (i.e ... at slightly less than
32F). Location of an intake at a point approximately 10 or 12 ft below the minimum level of the
surface of the body of water from which water is
taken facilitates protection of the intake • . Such
an arrangement, however, does not completely
protect the intake works. Minimum intake velocities decrease the tendency for formation of frazil
ice at the intake. . Intakes are frequently fitted
with steam lines, and jets are arranged so that
water at the intakes may be heated and the formation of frazil ice be prevented. Thawing of intake works by steam heating is costly and is not
an efficient method for maintaining flow. In some
instances the ice in intakes is removed by reversing the direction of flow in the intakes with
warmed water which has been stored for this
purpose.
Deep intake structure s should be arranged
to take the warmest water from a lake or reservoir. Artificial islands, peninsulas, and specially
prepared shorelines have been created in lakes
and streams. They have been constructed with
gravel to serve as protection for intake works.
Pumps are placed in a weliin the gravel fill;
this arrangement has been successful in minimizing intake problems ..
Where water-bearing soils, sands or gravels
exist under the body of water from which the
supply is to be taken, it is possible to use a subsurface intake works. Anchor ice and accumulated
organic material at the bottom of a lake may require special means for opening up the bottom of the
body of water so that a subbottom perforated intake may be used to provide stored water as well as
underground flow to the lake . . Deposits of organiC material, mud, etc., in the bottom of the body of
water may require removal before use of the source. Provision should be made for maintenance of
the intake.
Pumps, pumping stations, and auxiliary equipment. 'Weather protection of pumping equipment
is as essential as protection of other parts of a water-supply system. The natural tendency in protecting pumping equipment is to locate the pumps in heated buildings or in subsurface pits. Both
locations, for well pumps, have several drawbacks • . Location of wells within the confines of building walls may result in both structural and sanitary hazards. Also, wells located within buildings
34
are very inaccessible when maintenance is needed. Wells in permafrost often need maintenance
which is of paramount importance. : Pitless adapters which are readily available from several manufacturers have been' used in many installations in Alaska (Fig. 21). ' When pumps are used for circulation in a distribution system, much more flexibility is provided if they can be located wherever
they may be needed • . Service pumps, fire pumps, and miscellaneous pumping equipment must all be
properly protected from frost and weather damage.
Thawing of ground under pump-house floors must be prevented. Pipes .passing through
pump-house floors and under buildings must be properly insulated to prevent permafrost thaw.
Pipes placed under continuous foundations may damage the foundations if they are not properly
insulated . . Where there is likelihood of unequal settlement allowance should be made for some dif!erential movement without damage to pumps or parts of the structure.
Unequal expansion and contraction of dissimilar materials used in equipment may res.ult in
damage to units. : To permit rapid drainage, all piping must be installed with steep slopes and all
drain ports must be sufficiently large. All water-lubricated equipment is subject to rapid freezing
immediately upon stopping unless it is heated; therefore, water-lubricated equipment may be unsatisfactory in some instances. Pumps, even though they are not water lubricated, may frequently
freeze up when they are stopped; prompt drainage may still leave enough moisture ina centrifugal
. pump to permit freezing of the impeller blades to the housing.
Submersible pumps have been used extensively. n 75 They may be placed directly in the
casings or in the dis tribution piping, and hence given the same protection• . The specifications for
pumping equipment should take weather protection into account. A method using a submersible
pump for recirculating water in a distribution system is shown in Figure 21. . This method is .
particularly adapted for use in modifying a conventional system to provide for recirculation to reduce freezmg problems.
Control equipment for pumps should operate under free zing conditions if necessary • . Floatactuated equipment is not particularly suited for use at low temperature. : Small air control lines
may fill with moisture and freeze. Control panels placed on cold walls or in locations where they
may freeze also create operating difficultie s. Lack of skilled maintenance personnel and lack of
spare parts and equipment may cause operating problems where there is too much' 'gadgetry."
Water storage. 33 35 113 Elevated storage tanks must be protected from freezing; some ingeni(jus methods have been useq for doing this. At Kemi, Finland, the multistory city hall is a building around an elevated storage tank. Such ingenuity resulted not only in a beautiful city hall but
also gave protection f<X' the water storage.
Below-grade pressure tanks or variable-speed pumps are used frequently for maintaining
pressure in distribution systems. Below-grade storage does not provide the needed storage for fire
flows and the oontrol equipment requires more maintenance than properly designed and constructed
elevated storage. ,
Elevated storage has been used successfully at Fairbanks, Alaska, at temperatures down
to -65F. Storage tanks should be well insulated and designed to minimize the exposure of tank
walls to the cQld environment. Spheroidal tanks apparently are the most suitable type. The riser
must also be heated and insulated. Heat lines carried through the riser heat not only the riser but
the water in the tank as necessary. Waste-heat sources may be used to heat water-storage tanks.
Storage tanks at ground level can be protected in part by mounding earth around the tank
walls but tanks on permafrost carmot be protected in this way. Special consideration should be
given to stability of large ground-level, or below-grade" tanks. Waste heat from such tanks may
completely destroy the stability of the sites and result in settling, cracking and damage to the
tanks . . A good solution is shown in Figure 25 ; cold air passing through the air ducts in winter
35
Figure 25. Ground-level water storage tank at Thule Air Base. Air ducts in
base should be kept clear from snow to ensure good airflow.
freezes back a pad of non-frost-susceptible soil that has thawed to a safe depth in sumrrer.
Another solution is to support the tanks on piles, using an airspace for freeze-back (refer to
Monograpl1 III-C4 - Foundations of Structures in Cold Regions).
Subsurface storage must be placed at a point where it will not be contaminated and where
it will take advantage of conservation of all the heat possible.
Distribution System Design and Operation96
135 164 185 215
Distribution is the most critical phase of cold regions water supply because the distribution
system is the part of the water works that is the most sensitive to frost damage.* Small pipes
used for service connections from the street main to the property to be served are the most vulnerable and any interruption in flow in a conventional system is usually at this point. Distribution
has been considered so difficult and is so costly that few communities have facilities for distributililg water under pressure. Although there is good basis for considering water distribution difficult,
far too much emphasis has:·.been placed upon the problem rather than its solution.
The greatest advance in cold-region water supply has been made in the last two decades.
During this period, the outdated temporary-occupancy concept haB given way to that of permanent
occupancy in the cold regions. : Some highly sophisticated distribution systems have been designed
and constructed (Fig. :26, 27).
Several means have been employed for distributing water under low-temperature conditions.
The most common method of distribution in small communities is by tank truck. : Distribution of
heated water, by a recirculating system, and heated pipe galleries are other methods used generally
in larger communities.
*
Ref. 1, 9, 78, 102, 117, 118, 128, 145.
36
Figure 26. Distribution system (individual pipes, well insulated and electrically heated) placed on the ground surface at Thule Air Base, Greenland.
Figure 27. Service connection at Thule Air Base, Greenland.
1949 -
37
---r-0---- 1950
~ 4
~
Q:
;:)
en
a
8
8
z
;:)
o
~ 12
12
~
o
...J
~ 16
16
:x:
I-
~ 20
20
a
24~-~--~--L---L--L--~---L-
__L-__~____-L____L-__~____~24
Figure 28. Ground temperature isotherms, Big Delta, Alaska, 1949-50. 1
Permafrost complicates the laying and operation of a water distribution system. Only a
shallow layer of the top soil may thaw in the summer, and permafrost often extends down into the
ground so far that it is impractical to attempt to lay water mains below it (Fig•. 28 and Table VII).
Laying mains at usual depths results in freezing of the water. Such experience was encountered
in the early exploitation of the Transbaikal Region in Russia. 1.98 In North America the difficultie s
of water distribution in permafrost have been overcome mainly by use of heated distribution galleries
called utilidors. Recirculating systems, however, are becoming more common, mainly because of
the high cost of utilidor systems.
Sumgin, Geniev, and Chekotillo 198 discuss Russian thermal calculations for distributing
systems and describe thermal characteristics during periods of either flow or nonflow in a, .distribution system supplied with preheated water . . Muller also presents thermal calculations and preheating methods reported in Russian experience. Rathjens and Alter present a modified "Nomogram to
Determine Water Temperature in Pipes" in their discussion of " Heat Loss from Water Mains," in
Arctic Engineering. 212
Seasonal distribution systems are used in SOOle places. Water pipes that may be disjointed
and drained during cold weather use are laid on the surface of the ground and are used again in the
warm months. Distribution by tank truck CI' carboy for domestic usage: is also practiced in both
winter and summer• •In addition to t~e disadvantage of interrupted service, the pipe distribution
system is usually unfit for carrying water f<X' human consumption. Pipes that are left open and exposed on the ground for several months accumulate whatever contamination may be on the ground.
Complete collection, storage, and relaying of the pipe each season is costly and impracticable.
Hasty assembly and use of worn and damaged joints and pipes subject the system to contamination
whenever negative heads occur in the system. Water must be distributed durin·g a large portion of
the year, entirely by tank truck <X' carboy.
Continuous distribution of water under pressure throughout the year by anyone of the following methods requires thermal design of the distribution system:
1. Insulated pipelines placed above the ground surface.
2. Insulated pipelines placed in the ground.
3. Insulated <X' uninsulated pipelines placed in a utilidor.
4. msulated or uninsulated pipelines placed directly in the ground and traced with
steam or electric lines.
38
Table VD. Approximate monthly mean ground and air temperatures at
certain points in the Arctic permafrost area (0 F).
Depth from
ground
surface
(ft)
Jan
0.0
0.5
1.0
2.0
4.0
7.0
11.0
16.0
22.0
-19.1
- 7.0
- 4.3
- 2.8
3.0
6.8
7.8
15.8
14.3
16.8
July Aug Sept
Oct
Nov
40.1
53.6
45.7
38.9
26.2
23.2
18.7
15.8
13.9
14.1
36.7
43.3
41.6
37.2
29.9
26.9
22.3
18.6
13.1
15.0
31.6
34.5
34.0
33.5
30.0
27.0
23.0
20.0
11.5
15.0
16.2
20.0
21.5
23.0
25.5
26.5
24.5
21.0
17.5
16.0
4.6
9.5
11.0
11.5
17.5
20.0
21.5
20.5
18.5
16.5
-6.6
0.5
2.5
4.0
9.0
14.0
17.5
19.0
13.0
17.0
63.5
31.5
30.9
30.7
60.5
33.4
31.6
30.9
46.8
34.9
32.5
31.3
25.9
33.3
32.4
31.5
-3.8
32.2
32.2
31.6
-22.1
32.0
32.0
31.6
22.0
- 6.4 - 6.4 - 6.8 15.7 31.3 43.8 53.9 49.2 36.8
26.0 23.0 18.8 21.5 27.0 35.0 40.5 40.0 31.5
27.5 25.5 21.0 22.5 24.5 31.5 33.0 34.5 32.5
31.0 28.5 24.0 24.5 27.0 30.5 30.5 31..0 31.5
31.5 31.0 26.8 26.0 26.5" 29.5 29.0 29.0 29.5
30.5 31.0 29.0 27.8 28.0 30.0 29.0 29.0 29.5
29.5 30.0 24.8 28.8 28.8 29.5 28.3 27.5 29.5
29.0 30.0 29.8 29.5 29.3 29.5 28.5 27.5 29.5
22.2
30.5
30.3
30.5
30.0
29.8
29.3
29.3
5.7
30.5
30.5
30.8
30.8
30.5
29.5
29.5
2.8
29.5
30.0
31.0
30.5
30.5
29.5
29.0
0.5
1.0
2.0
4.0
7.0
11.0
16.0
22.0
- 4.1 - 2.2
30.7 30.5
31.0 30.7
31.1 30.5
32.9 32.3
34.9 34.1
36.5 35.3
37.5 36.6
37.3 36.6
6.2
30.6
30.5
30.7
32.1
33.8
35.0
36.4
36.6
24.7
31.3
31.0
30.7
32.0
33.5
34.7
36.1
36.3
43.7
40.7
39.8
38.8
34.9
33.8
34.4
35.5
35.8
57.4
56.1
54.7
52.5
44.9
38.7
36.1
36.0
36.1
57.2
58.9
58.7
57.5
51.3
42.1
37.8
36.1
36.0
7.3
25.2
31.7
32.0
29.2
31.0
31.2
2.9
23.6
30.5
31.2
31.5
30.7
31.3
23.4
29.1
31.0
31.6
31.8
31.1
31.9
35.5
46.3
33.0
32.0
32.1
31.4
32.0
48.4
59.3
35.2
31.3
31.4
30.7
31.3
48.9
61.7
39.4
34.7
30.8
30.3
27.8
Barrow, Alaska
Air temperature
Feb
Mar
Apr May
Jun
-12.8 -14.9 1.8 10.9 29.8
- 4.9 - 3.9 4.2 18.6 38.1
- 2.6 - .6 4.6 18.4 33.1
.2 4.8 17.6 29.8
- 1.7
2.6 5.5 12.7 22.3
1.9
5.0
5.0 7.1 13.3 17.6
9.1
7.7 8.2 9.8 14.0
13.0 11.1 10.7 10.7 12.2
15.2 16.3 12.2 11.4 12.2
16.8 15.8 15.1 14.1 14.3
Dec Ann.
9.9
17.2
17.1
16.3
15.5
14.5
15.3
15.7
14.1
15.5
Active layer
Active layer
Active layer
Permafrost
Permafrost
Permafrost
Permafrost
Permafrost
Permafrost
Bomnak, Siberia
Air temperature
4.9
6.6
9.2
-29.0 -15.7
30.6 27.3
31.8 29.8
31.6 31.9
6.1
25.2
27.7
29.8
28.6
26.8
27.5
29.1
45.7
29.7
29.5
29.5
58.4
30.7
30.4
30.2
22.1
30.6 Active layer
30.7 Active layer
30.7 Permafrost
Kotzebue, Alaska
Air temperature
1.0
2.0
4.0
7.0
H.D
m..o'
20.1
29.5
28.6
29.2
29.2"
29.5
29.8
29.2
Active layer
Active layer
Permafrost
Permafrost
Permafrost
Permafrost
Permafrost
McGrath, Alaska
Air temperature
51.8
56.1
56.4
55.5
52.0
45.3
39.1
36.8
35.9
40.3 23.1 2.6 -5.2 24.6
44.3 32.0 30.6 40.2 Active layer
45.1
32.2 31.4 40.2 Active layer
45.7
46.5
44.9
41.3
39.0
36.8
-
-
Nome, Alaska
Air temperature
0.0
0.6
2.8
5.7
10.7
19.6
1.9
17.4
31.3
31.2
31.4
30.5
31.2
-
38.2
43.5
35.8
32.2
31.6
30.9
31.6
25.8
31.1
32.5
32.1
31.'7
31.2
31.3
17.6
22.4
31.7
31.2
31.6
30.7
31.4
-
-
25.0
36.0
33.2
32.0
31.3
30.9
31.1
Active layer
Active layer
Active layer
Permafrost
Permafrost
Permafrost
This table is based on data from : U.S. Department of Commerce, Weather Bureau, and Muller.15~
5. : Insulated or uninsulated pipelines in which the water within the pipes is kept
moving by allowing water to waste at the end of the lines.
6. : A single main, insulated or uninsulated pipeline connected to form a closed loop
into which the water within the pipe is pumped for circulation.
7. : Insulated or uninsulated parallel pipelines one of which serves as a supply line
and the other of which serves as a return line for unused water.
Thermal analysis, * cost of excavation, construction and maintenance, cost and life of
materials, cost of operation, and similar factors concerning the distribution system must all be
*
Ref. 6, 42, 46, 82, 87, 115, 116, 136, 159, 187.
39
evaluated in selecting the most economical system. 131 155 183 225 It has been reported in Sweden 15~
that it is sometimes economically advantageous to bury distribution lines at a minimum depth to
prevent mechanical damage to the lines. A similar conclusi on has been reached in the USSR.
Freezing is prevented by heating and circulating water in the system as needed. This is contrary
to common practice but thermal analysis shows that such a system could be built and operated
under certain conditions. Thermal analysis also shows that under certain conditions it is more
economical to use a pumped grolllld-water supply source than a gravity-fed surface-water supply
source. Frost effects in the soil around the pipes are an important consideration. The soil must
be uniform along the pipelines to obviate damage from differential heave and subsidence. Hence,
the results of tests in Sweden 152 in a sandy soil should not be blindly applied if the soils are frostsusceptible.
Heat transfer in distribution system design and operation*
Water pipe placed in the ground, in the air, or in other places where the surrollllding material
is warmer or cooler than the pipe tends to assume the temperature of the surrollllding envir onment.
Heat flows from the pipe and the liquid in it to the surrounding environment or from the surrounding environment to the pipe. · If the surrounding environment is cool enough, the water in the pipe
freezes.
In extreme latitudes the ground stays very cold and permafrost may exist. The ground surface may remain for a long time at temperatures below -40F. Water pipes placed in an environment
where extremely low temperature exists mayoe expected to perform service over a range of temperatures from +40F to -40F or even lower. ' Water in the pipe must be kept at temperatures between
+32F and +40F and must not be allowed to free ze.
The problems of particular concern in this discussion are those involved in keeping water
in a pipe at temperatures between +40F and +32F even though the pipe is in an environment with
a temperature range of +40F to -40F or lower. Heat can be added to the water in the pipe to keep
it in the necessary range or the environment arolllld the pipe can be warmed. In be st engineering
practice only the minimum· amollllt of heat should be added to a particular pipe or piping system to
keep the pipes in operatiol1.
Many v.ariables must be considered in preparing a design for a particular pipe or piping
system. Some variables are extremely significant in the overall design; others are relatively insignificant and may be disregarded . . All variables, however, should be noted and evaluated. Some of
these variables are described next.
Water temperature. The greater the temperature difference between the water in the pipe and
the surroundings the more rapid is the heat loss from the water. The greater the velocity of flow
the greater the heat gain because of increased friction loss and the laws of heat conduction. 181
Variable velocities result in variable rates of heat generation.
Viscosity is not considered a significant factor in heat losses in the range of 32F to 4OF.
Water in a normal water piping system may be completely at rest or it may be fl.owing at any
velocity up to 30 ft/sec.
The farther down a pipeline that water flows (losing heat as it goes) the flatter the temperature gradient becomes from the water in the pipe to the environment and the rate of heat loss is
hence reduced. : In an empirical solution of heat-loss problems, with the many variables, it is best
to work with the most desirable and the most lllldesirable situations making reasonable assumptions.
p
Type of pipe. The type of pipe in which the water is flowing affects heat flow from the pipe.
It is assumed in this discussion that all pipes are of circular cross section and are tubes or
cylinders running full.
*
Ref.
7, 15,36,43,45,58,61,67,70, 119, 146, 147, 152, 156, 166, 173, 181, 198,212,218,226.
40
Pipe material may be wood, steel, iron, cast iron, aluminum, concrete, asbestos cement,
copper, PVC, or other plastic materials; but note the high coefficient of thermal expansion of plastics. : The heat transmission characteristics of each of these materials vary enormously. Cast iron
becomes very brittle at low temperatures; wood, aluminum and copper are not thus embrittled.
In some instances an underground water pipe might be insulated, although insulation is
generally applied to pipes above ground or in utilidors rather than to pipes buried in the ground.
Pre-insulated (urethane foam) piping is available commercially for aboveground and underground
installation but it is not in common use. The conditions existing around pipes buried directly in
the soil vary from almost perfect insulating conditions to conditions in which the pipe might as
' well be immersed directly in water since in some places where the soil is almost total ice thawing
due to a warm pipe results in a watery mass. In such conditions the water is detrimental to most
insulating materials, which ~hould be either "closed-cell" materials or materials covered by
a waterproof layer.
Pipe environment. 106
122 Pipe 'environment, or surrounding materials, vary extremely.
In aboveground installations pipes rriay be exposed to the air. Such pipes would probably be insulated.
When pipes are buried directly in the soil, the physical characteristics of the soil are extremely important. The thermal characteristics of soils vary with type, moisture content, dry density,
particle size and, to a degree and under certain conditions, color and exposure of the soils. Dark
soils absorb more solar radiation than light soils. Soils in a well drained area, on a south slope,
in an earth road, under pavement, in an area covered ·by peat or grass and trees or shaded by buildings exhi bit Significant characteristics which influence heat transfer • . Snow cover acts as an effective insulator to reduce loss of heat to cold air.
The initial temperature of the soil itself is of considerable significance. Although most of
the soils in which water mains may be located would not remain at a temperature of much less than
o to -5F, there are situations in which the temper ature of the pipe environment conceivably could
decrease to -40F. For the purpose of this discussion, soil temperatures at different sites should
be considered to range from +40F to -40F. Critically-low temperatures for each site should be
specific figures and should be determined by direct 0 bservation rather than by as sumption. Unfortunately, direct observation of soil temperature and characteristics is not always possible. Without observed data, soil temperature and characteristics must be determined empirically.
Extensive studies by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers have. shown reasonable correlation
between a free zing inde x (freezing index values are given in TM 5-818-2)207 and depth o~ freezing.
Sanger 181 gives methods for relating air freezing index to depth of frost and for computing the freezing index at the surface of a buried pipe. Janson 119 discusses ground temperature, heat losses from
buried pipelines and need for heating the pipeline in relation to laying depth for the pipeline in
concluding that under certain conditions it is more economical to place water lines at a relatively
shallow depth and heat them than it is to bury them deeply. Data on air temperatures and freezing
and thawing indexes in Northern Canada are presented in reference 202.
Heat input into the system. Water from underground sources may be available at temperatures
several degrees above the freezing point. Some heat input into a piping system is often important.
The quantity of heat from friction depends upon the hydraulic design of the system, the roughness of the distribution line, and the mode of operation. For example, a flow of 600 gal/min in a
4-in. :iron pipe with a coefficient of roughness of C = 100 would create a friction head of 337 ft'per
1000 ft of pipe. The same flow in an 8-in. pipe with the same roughness would create only approximately 1~0 of the friction head for a 4-in. pipe. Doubling the friction he~d in a recirculating water
system approximately doubles the energy input into the system, assuming no change in the quantity
of flow and no significant change in efficiency of the circulating unit. The increased energy input
is .almost entirely dissipated as heat in the system. Energy is not free and -here the pumps are
transferring added energy from their prime movers.
41
Drop of temperature in a pipeline. 181 The drop in temperatpre between 2 points on a pipe
carrying water increases with (a) length/diameter ratio of the line, (b) temperature difference pipe to soil, ~d (c) thermal conductivity of soil; and diminishes with increase of flow veJocity.
Hence, the risk of freezing in service pipes is highest in a saturated sandy soil at low temperature, and the importance of high water velocity is accentuated.
Normally in the hydraulic design of a water pipe flow rates are kept in the range of 2 to
15 ft/sec although they may go as high as 30 ft/ sec. If delivery of a given quantity of water to a
particular point is desired, the hydraulic parameters may govern, but thermal needs may be a basis
for modifying , hydraulic design. Too much friction means increased pumping costs, and too little
friction means that pipe costs are too high for any given qu·antity of water. If water moves too fast
in pipelines, the high velocities may erode the pipe and cause objectionable noise, particularly
where the piping is exposed ina building.
Cold-region distribution-system design and operation demand careful thermal analysis and
regulation of the system. In some instances it may be better to hydraulically undersize the piping
to take full advantage of friction heat in the system. : But this selection must be accompanied by
continuous circulation; otherwise, when flows are stopped rapid freezing occurs.
Thermal characteristics are as important as, or perhaps more important than, hydraulic and
structural features of the design.
Thermal design affects also not only the functioning of the system but the economics of roth
its original cost and operating costs.
Thermal analysis may be the basis fcr completely abandoning some concepts of distribution-
system design.
Heat input into the distribution system must be sufficient to satisfy all heat losses from the
system and to maintain the water above 32F. Thermal analysis and design, then, consist essentially of evaluating all heat losses from the system and satisfying these heat losses by added heat,
or heat gain, in the ·sys tem.
Al though the calculation of thermal characteristics may be defined very specifically, application of preCise thermal design and control is complicated. : Conditions affecting the heat balance in
a waterfilled pipeline located in an environment at a temperature below 32F are constantly changing.
Time,. temperature, water volume, flow velocity, and environment, lx'oadly speaking, determine the
heat balance in the distribution system. Some of these factors may be controllable, whereas others
may vary widely with little or no opportunity for control. Precise design, therefore, is usually
impossible and experience and judgment are essential. Often the optimum operating conditions are
determined by tests of the complete system.
Theory of heat transfer. Heat balance and the extent of variability of factors affecting the
heat balance have been determined by :
1. Observation of distribution systems already in place and operating.
2. Predictions based on formulas derived from steady-state heat transfer relationships.
3. Steady-state heat transfer analysis by computer.
4. Non-steady-state heat transfer analysis by finite difference techniques with or
without a computer.
Transfer of heat in and from a water distribution system is mainly by conduction where heat
is transferred from one body to another by physical contact. The basic equation for thermal conduction in steady state is derived from Fourier's general law , i.e. '.
42
GROUND TEMPERATURE, F
32
o20
30
5o
40
133
~
2
I
I
I
\ROUND P'PE
.t
• 4
~"
b
I
I
t-
I
el.
I
W 6
I
o
UND IST U RBED
WATER
I
I
I
/
I
I
10
I
I
31
I
d
IV
I
8
MA IN
r'
32
Mean annual a ir tempera t ure
22 F
Figure 29. Ground temperatures around /)uried water
pipe at Yellowknife , N. W. T., Canada (after Copp, Crawford and Grainge. ~ 3)
aT
at
where V2 -
(a
2
- \ax 2
aT
at.
o
2
a
2
+
by putting
+ 8 )
T is temperature, a is thermal diffusivity and t is time. In
az 2 '
ay2
radial flow the equation is
e
2T
a
ar 2
+
~r
aT)
ar
a:r
at
where r is radius.
Rigorous calculations are impossible and the most accurate computations are still approximations. : Experience has shown that assumption of a steady state of heat transfer using average
temperatures is sufficiently accurate as a basi s of deSign.
Heat flow is directly proportional to K, the coefficient of thermal conductivity of the ground,
which must be known as accurately as possible. : The radius at which soil temperature is constant,
for practical purposes, must be ass umed. Temperature of water and environment must be known as
accurately as possible. Good estimates then become possible.
Figure 29 shows a typical temperature distribution around a warmed pipe in permafrost. The
curve to a depth of about 3 ft is affected by air temperature but the remainder is very close to the
logarithmic curve of steady-state conditions4
>
The following equations are used for computation of heat transfer in distribution system piping:
UNINSULATED PIPE
o.
.43
INSULATED PIPE
b.
Figllle 30. Parameters in heat-flow computations.
The basic equation for steady-state heat flow by conduction is :
where
q
heat flow or heat loss from pipe in Btu per hoUr per lineal foot of pipe
thermal conductivity of surrounding medium, in this case the mean thermal conductivity, expressed as Btu per hour per square foot per of per inch.
km
x
=
thickness of the material in inches, measured in the direction of heat flow,
- may be assumed to be the distance in inches between, the pipe wall (point
where T 1 is measured) and point where T2 is measured. For iron or steel pipe
where the thermal conductivity is high and no insulation is provided, Ti may be
taken at the exterior wall of the pipe.
Am = area of the material normal to the direction of heat flow, expressed in square
feet, in this case the logarithmic mean surface area of two concentric cylinders
1 ft long. : One cylinder is formed by the exterior of a section of the pipeline
and the other cylinder is an imaginary cylinder located at a selected distance
from toe exterior of the pipe (see Fig. pOa). The logarithmic mean may be represented as follows:
If AI Ai does not exceed 2, the arithmetic mean area is within 4% of the logarithmic mean area. . Use of the arithmetic mean should be satisfactory for most
computationS.
Ti
=
temperature in of at the exterior of the pipe; for most computations thi s may be
assumed to be the temperature of the water in the pipe. This is based on the
assumption that the pipe has a high thermal conductivity, is not insulated, and
is buried directly in the ground.
T2
=
ternperaturein of at a specific distance x from the exterior of the pipe. :
.The equation for steady-state heat flow by conduction, assuming one or more layers resisting flow
of heat (Fig. 30b) is:
R
where
R
x
x
.kA
for each layer
i"esistance to heat flo.w
=
thickness of material measured in inches in the direction of heat flow
k
thermal conductivity expressed as Btu per hour per square foot per of per inch
A
area of the material normal to the direction of heat flow. expressed in square
feet • . Strictly applied for concentric cylinders this should be the logarithmic
mean area but since in most computations Az! A1 does not e.~ceed 2. it is
satisfactory to use the arithmetic mean.
The total thermal resistance R is the sum of the separate values; heat loss' through a series
of insulating bodies may then be expre ssed as:
q
where
~T =
~T
R
temperature difference between any two points under consideration.
The basic equation for heat gain due to friction of water flowing in a pipe is:
heat gain as a result of friction in the pipeline, Btu/hr ft 2
(@f pipe surface
where
W
f
flow of water, expressed in pounds per hour
friction loss in pipeline, ft of head per 1000 ft of pipe, as determined from the
Hazen-Williams formula
D
diameter of pipeline, in inches.
The basic equation for the heat in water entering the pipeline at a temperature above freezing is:
1. 325 we Tw - 32)
DL
where
heat available above 32F in Btu/hr ft 2 of pine surface
rate of flow in 10 3 gall day
temperature of water in OF at entrance to pipe
nominal diameter of pipeline in inches
length of pipeline, in 10 3 ft.
I
Sample calculations to determine heat loss and gain in a pipe in a recirculating distribution
system. The empirical computation of heat balance in a continuous-t1ow distribution pipe pre-
sented in this section may be used with an appropriate safety factor. Precise calculation is dependent upon many factors, some of which cannot be precisely defined without direct site observation.
~ 1--- -
l-
-- -
1- -
--
--
_v
1-----
,.......
.......-
......-- ----~
,.......v
-0
0>
~
o
...J
f...- "'"
I--'"
~
~
I--'"
V- ........... f...-
l---- i,....--"'"
V
,. . . . v ~
,;:;;;,' v
V
...........- ,....... vf-........... Y
f...-v ~
...........VV
~
v t>- l.---"
l.---"
........
..... l.--
.......
---- -----b------V
10102
~
.......
..............
J------ v
....... f...-
i' V V
I- I-~
--
............
i,....--"'"
I-
V
f...-
.............
1-
...........10 5
10·
.H EAT GENERATED in 1000 ft. of pipe. BTU/hr.
10'
45
However, this empirical method is sufficiently
accurate for most simple applications and is a
guide for reasonable evaluation of alternatives
to be considered in selection of ultimate design.
Experience in operating the recirculating
system at Fairbanks, Alaska, indicates the
importance of (1) salvage of waste heat through
heat exchangers; (2) consideration of pumping
and flow rates in the system; (3) protection
provided by the thawed zone around the pipe
after the sys tem has been operating for some
time; (4) circulation in the street main to create
circulation in service lines; (5) and financial
feasibility of community distribution of water
under pressure, even in areas where the pipelines must be placed in frozen groiInd.
Tables AI-AIV (p. 86) list the dimensions
and properties of various types of pipe. Table
AV is based on the Hazen and Williams hydraulic . tables and lists velocity, discharge,
and head loss due to friction for water flowing through pipes of various sizes , assuming friction coefficient of 120. Figur-e- Al provides a ready reference to convert flow in gallons per minute to
thousands of Btu's, or pounds of water , per hour. Figure A2 relates flow and pumping requirements
to temperature drop in the pipeline and Btu' s developed per hour . Figure 31 shows heat gain that
may be expected under different conditions of flow. Tables AI-AV and Figures A1, A2 , and 31
may be used to facilitate computation .
F igure 31. Frictional heat generated by flow of
water in iron pipes.
The most critical heat balance condition in a recirculating distribution sys tem located in
frozen ground is when the system is first being filled. After a system has been operating 'an. extended period of time a thawed zone exists around the pipe to a distance of several inches. This
mne extends farthest under the pipe, not quite so far away at the sides of the pipe, and the least
distance where maximum weather effects are concerned above the pipe. A thawed zone extending
a distance of 6 in. above the pipe is often a reasonable assumption for computation. The gradient
of heat flow from the pipe is steep in very cold permafrost, and a few inches from the pipe the
temperature may be considerably below freezing. Design should be based on field observation of
soil and temperature conditions as far as possible. A safety factor of not less than 2 is recommended for ultimate systems' capacity, but components and operation characteristics most favorable
under conditions prior to application of the safety factor should govern in selecting components.
Problem.. Site investigations where a water main is to 'be placed show Northway sand
at a mean temperature of 25F with a moisture content of 22%. The water main is to be 1000 ft long,
constructed of steel pipe placed directly in the sand; and of a size sufficient to carry 250 gal/ min
at a velocity of between 6 and 7 ft/sec • . Average temperature of water in the line is to be about
40F and not less than 35F. What is the heat loss and heat gain in the pipe?
Solution. • . Hazel) and Williams' .hydraulic tables (Table AV shows excerpts) indicate
that a 4-in. pipe would meet the above conditions and when operating under these conditions would
have a friction head loss of approximately 67 ft per 1000 ftt of pipe. "Thermal Conductivity k
for Various Soils" as shown in Table AVIlists 10.92 as k for the soil described . above; rounding off the value, 10 may be used for k. Under stable operating conditions, it may be assumed
that at a point 4 in. above the main the soil temperature would be 32F. (Observations in both
Canada and Alaska substantiate this assumption.): Tables AI-AIV list the essential properties of
various kinds of pipes.
46
Using the basic equation for steady-state heat flow (page 46)
where
q = 45 Btu/ hr per lin ft of pipe = 38 Btulhr fe of pipe surface . .
(Use of the arithmetic mean for the areas of concentric cylinder surfaces, the mean temperature of
40F with 45F at the beginning of the line and 35F at the end of the line, and ass umption of a
temperature of 32F at a point 4 in. from the surface of the 4-in. hne are all considered sufficiently
accurate for calculations to determine the magnitude of heat transfer under critical conditions,
although A 2 > 2A r)*
.
Using the formula on page 46, heat gain is determined as follows:
(4.9 x 10- 6 )(125,000)(67)
4
where
qg
=
10 Btu/ hr fe of pipe surface.
Hence, operating under these conditions, heat of friction would supply approximately
needed to operate this line as a recirculating water line• .
Utilidors3
~
of the heat
11 0 176 177
In many places water distribution lines have been put in heated conduits or utilidors; continuous distribution can be maintained relatively easily by this type of system but it may be costly
to install and operate . .
Two general types ci utilidors are now used:
1. : Underground utilidors constructed of wood, metal, or concrete, some of which are
insulated• .
2. Abovegrou.nd utilidors constructed prinCipally of wood or metal, practically all of
which have special insulation such as foamed plastic, asbestos, foamed glass,
rockwool, sawdust, fiberboard, paper, tar, felt, peat, or dead air spaces.
Some prefabricated insulated metal cond uits, which may be purchased in standard sections or
lengths, provide for heating and transmission of one or more materials or services. Formed inSUlating material with protective metal covering has been fabricated on the site at Thule, Greenland . .
In· 1962, Clark and Groff56 reported total cost of $59.80 per foot for a 4-in. pipe installation there
(Fig. 26 and 27); this cost was itemized as follows:
M.I. cable ..... . .............. . $ 4.00
(heating element)
*
Support ....................... .
5.50
Pipe and insulation ............ .
30.00
Galvanized steel cover ......... .
10.00
Electrical cond uit and wiring .... .
5.00
Panatrols. ·................ _... .
(automatic control of heating)
3.30
Cleanout ..................... .
2.00
A lengthy but more precise calculation gives q = 43 Btu/ hr ft s howing the val ue of the much easier and
shorter method.
47
STEAM
PI PES
\
\
\
9' WATER
MAIN
\
Constructed of steel frame
and 8" reim'orced concrete
with waterproof, insulated
cover and grovel backf ill ,
Figure 32. Walk-through utilidor, 7 It by 9 ft.
PIPE
wood or steel
FIBRE BOARD
INSULATION
~=;~I~
SAWDUST
Figure 33. Aboveground wood utilidor.
Heating oable or tape is placed albng the pipe as an electrical eleme~t for warming the pipe (see
Fig. 39 and 51-54). Heating elements can create a serious fire hazard unless they are properly
designed, constructed, and operated.
Wood and/ or concrete utilidors of rectangular\cro),'s section, constructed in place, are the
most common types of utilidors now ~se.d 0Fig"7~il) . • Wood utilidors are commonly of 2-in. cedar
'witl1\L JQ. of c,QPp,\~r\llail'8,pel" 100 ft SM. ' The sizes of these utilidors range from those just large
enough to convey the services carried through them to those with inside dimensions almost 9 ft
higp. by 7 ft wide (Fig. 32). , Figure 33 illustrates a small aboveground wood utilidor. Underground
utilidors constructed of wood and concrete are shown in Figures 34,35, 36, 40 and 41. ' Little
attempt has been made, in some instances, to insulate the utilidors any more than by enclosing
them in wood or concrete walls • •Other utilidors have been insulated more efficiently, e.g., by
providing cellular glass enclosures (Fig. 38). ' Heat losses through the walls of most constructedin-place utilidors, even if made of wood, are great. '
Certain hazards exist in utilidors that provide both water and sewer service s in the same
duct • • Leakage of sewage and negative head s in water mains might readily and seriously contaminate
a water supply. Adequate drainage is essential in all utilidors; this complicates their construction.
For this reason, underground utilidors should 'be constructed to drain by gravity. . However, this can
be done only on selected sites. '
48
GRAVEL
BACKFILL
Figure 34. Small underground wood utilidor.
-..
.~
-•
Figure 35. Removable top on cast-in-place concrete utilidor .
• 4 WIRE
!5 Turns around cold
water pipe every
20 feet
Figure 36. Typical wood utilidor detail.
0,
I·r
I NSULATION
FRAME
2 " )( 4 " ,3 ' O.C.
Cellular gloss
4 " 1.0. WOOD STAVE PIPE
Hea ti nQ tope inside
MUD SI L L
3 " )( S ")( I S " lanQ
3 ' O C.
A ll lumber creasated
Figure 37. Surface utilidor at Quinhagak, Alaska.
1--- - - -- - - 4 '- 6 " (ApprOK ) -----~-l
3" I NSUL A TION
Cellu lar gloss
PILE CAP
WOOD
PILE
Figure 38. Section through utilidor, Inuvik, N. W. T.
Figure 39. Typical surface utilidoLat Thule Air Base, Greenland. Note
roll s of M.l. heating cable being used to trace,':.the steel pipelines electrically.
49
01
o
ACCESS
ACCESS
VENT
Upper Level
H
--
H
H
Lower Level
WATER
-----
VENT
HMAIN
E1
a::: --- ::0 STE
a::: ---- - ::0 ST~~
PI PE SUPPORT
SEW ER
g
•
E!:f
H
m-
Brick
\
E!
g
S
~
tl[
E
C
T
o
N
H
~
H
t:!i
IiIIl
~
A-A
STEAM
STEAM
WATER
STEAM
WATER
~>....----n-
SEWER
~SO I L
CONCRETE~
~_~-~_-~_~-_~-_~~~~ CONCRETE
I
I
f-'--=-~----~~
I SELECTED I
I
I
I
I
L _____ ..J
SECTION B-B
SECTION C-C
L~~~~~J
Fjgure
1J).
Pass-through two-level utilidor, Noril'sk, Siberia.
SECTION 0-0
STEAM
f-
51
+--<f
I
----------------
I
0
Ii;;i~~~~~iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiil2~~~3iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiijj4~~5
;;I
I meters
4
1i i
0
~~~iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii4~~~8iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiI2~~~16
IiMii
-
---
I
feet
CONCRETE SLABS
Removable
0%VdWdW~v~/'/'<w/ffi
~REINFORCED
~
CONCRETE
r--SELECTEO--=tSOI L CONCRETE
~ __B~~lQ"lU___ J
SECTION A-A
Br i ck
~------------ _____ J
I
L- ________________ JI
SECTION 8-8
Figure 41. Two-compartment utilidor, Noril'sk, Siberia.
Rodent-proof construction should be used for all utilidors. Improperly constructed utilidors
may serve as runways, and provide harborage for ·small animals • .
A very serious hazard is fire which may be caused by faulty temperature control in electrical
tracers.
Service connections are difficult to operate unless each utilidor is extended all the way to
the property it serves. This difficulty is most commonly overcome by providing heat as a utility
along with sewer and water services. The heat service lines from the heat main are connected to
the premises through the same pipe gallery used for water service. Small recirculating pumps may
be placed on each service line and the line looped back to the utilidor.
Underground utilidors which extend down in the ground to a point be10:W the permafrost table
level must be watertight or they will serve as infiltration galleries and collect groundwater flow
from the surrounding ground (Fig. :42).129 Even though the utilidor may not extend down to a point
near or in the permafrost, unles s it is watertight it will collect ground water at any point where
the ground water reaches an elevation above the floor of the duct .. During the summer, tundr a,
peaty, and similar soils are saturated with ground water almost to the ground surface . . Spring runoff
has been responsible for completely filling a utilidor with water . .
Heat loss from utilidor. A recent investigation at USA CRREL's Alaska Field Station, Fairbanks , of a new wood utilidor on piles gave a heat loss of about 0.4 Btu/ hr OF per lineal foot.
The utilidor was 12 in. wide, 6 in. deep and was covered inside by 2 in. of "rigid" polystyrene.
The sides were of 2-in. by 10-in. fir, and top and bottom were of %-in. plywood.*
Heat lost from underground utilidors frequently thaws the permafrost near them. Unless the
characteristics of the soil in which the utilidors are placed are such that they are not altered
*
Personal communication, S. Reed, USA CRREL.
52
SEASONALLY
THAWED GROUND
I
•
PENETRATING
FROST
HEAT
- - LOSS
FLOW OF
~ ENTRAPPED WATER
Figure 42. Drainage of entrapped water into improperly sealed utilidor.
great!y 'by'thawing, differential settling may occur. This may result in damage to the utilidors and
possible failure of the sewer through adverse grades. Water supply lines are under pressure
nearly all the time. In sewers, gravity flow is relied upon; they should never run full under pressure.
Placing the utilid6rs on piling to depths three times the thickness of the active zone eliminates
these effects. Proper insulation around the utilidors to protect the permafrost where it must not be
disturbed is neces sary.
Distribution systems placed in utilidors with large cross-sectional areas are readily accessible
for repair and maintenance. The tops of small cast-in-place concrete utilidors should be constructed
so that they are readily removable and are tight enough to retain all heat possible in the ducts. The
tops of concrete utilidors may be cast in sections and the secHons fitted with pulls so that they
may be easily fitted (Fig. 35, 40, 41) but care must be taken to ensure water tightness. Such an
alTangement may not be necessary or desirable fot utilidors wide and deep enough to permit adequate work-space inside them. Many utilidors made from sections of wood or metal pipe are not
constructed to be readily opened, ~o it is difficult to open them for repairs except in summer.
Utilidors placed at the surface of the ground (Fig. 33) are much easier to service and drain, but are
not practicable where they must cross roads or streets.
Topography of the permafrost table, thermal regime of the ground, ground-water conditions,
soil characteristics, and minimum number of utilidors required to serve a given area must be carefully studied in planning an underground utilidot. The types of soil and the thermal regime of the
ground determine whether permafrost should be protected or thawed prior to installation of the systems. Figure 29 shows changes in soil temperature caused by a water main. 62 Study of the local
coilditionsindicates whether "active" or "passive" construction techniques should be employed.
The relatively high cost of utilidor construction (costs in Alaska range from $30 to $1500 per foot)
nece ssitates careful study of the area to be served to determine the absolute minimum length of
utilidor necessary to provide service. In new building developments, much can be done by judicious
planning of building locations.
Single-main systems with arrangements for bleeding
Few systems in the cold regions depend upon wastage of water to keep water moving and
prevent them from freezing because at most sites water is not plentiful enough to be wasted. However, where warm springs occur, or where large amounts of water are available at temperatures just
53
R
v
E
:. ,:. -
.... :
I
II
:+
TERNAr~E-'
IAL
I
TREATIN G
I
I
HEATING
I
AND
I REC I RCU L AT I NG I
L-_PJ:...A~T _--.l
I
tI I
WEL L
WATER
SOURC E
S i ngle - ma in rec ir culat ing d istr ibut ion system .
Figure 43. Single-main recirculating distribution system.
above the freezing point, this system for the protection of distribution piping may be the most
economical one (as at Dawson, Yukon Territory). Even for development and use of limited ,Sources
of supply, bleeding may be economically feasible if little or no power is required to distribute the
water, or if bleeding is merely the first stage in system development. In the latter inst ance, bleeding may be discontinued later and provision be made for heating provided by other means. If
bleeding is the first stage in system development, it is essential that the initial design be compatible with the ultimate design and development. Bleeding is sometimes used to keep hydrants
operable but is rarely recommended even for this, as better methods exist and road icing is a
serious risk. Bleeding through house faucets, sometimes used during exceptional cold waves in
cold-temperate r~gions, may be valuable in emergencies.
Preheating and recirculating distribution system 114
115
Heating the water to be distributed and recirculating it to a pumping station and heating
plant through a system designed and constructed to mam most efficient use of all available heat
offer the most economical solution to distribution in many instances. But the use of such a system invol ves problems of design and satisfactory operation.
The recirculating system consists of a distribution main, a water-return main, circulating
pumps, and a water-heating system. The distribution and return mains may be one continuous
line (Fig. 43) starting and ending at the recirculating pump, or they may be a dual piping system
(Fig. 47) with high- and low-pressure pipelines placed side by side.
Service connections for the single main are kept operative by use of (1) good i nsulation,
(2) short service-connection utilidors, (3) electrical resistance tape, which when energized warms
the service connection, or (4) pitorifice service _connection to the main such as is used in Fairbanks, Unalakleet and Nome, Alaska. Short service-connection utilidors may be heated by the heating system at the premises they serve . Use of electrical energy for warming service connections
may be expensive but it is a positive method. The pitorifice (Fig ~ -44 and 45) on the water distribution main has proved to be very effective. The pitorifice has two service taps with modified
corporation cocks designed to feed a service loop to each property to be served and return unused
water to the street main through the return side of the service loop. During periods of flow in the
street main, velocity head causes circulation in the service connection loop. The dual piping
Figure 44. Standard 3j.,-in. pitorifice service cock
used for house service connections on singlec-main
recirculating distribution system. (Photo by G.M. Alter.)
METER
Frostproof
PARTIAL PLAN
WATERPROOF
INSULATION
PI TORIF ICES
SECTION
Figure 45. Recirculating water system with pitorifices and service connections.
WATER' SUPPLY ENGINEERING IN COLD REGIONS
, HEATING
PLANT
-- ~ ------.'
------OOSTER
•
--r---
_ T O SERVICE INLAUNORY.
!t
HOT
WATER
STORAGE
TANK
PUMP
-~--
•
It
I
_
BOOSTER
PUMP
CHECK
VALVE
A IR
CHAMBER PRESSURE
TANK
.t
HEAT
EXCHANGER
, ___ j
' WELL
PUMP
-
t \'-HEATING)
- - -...
~ (COILS~
'-
(/)
- - -
,---
I
I RELIEF
VALVE
--,
I·
j
;
(
•
I
.----
t
----4i---~
I
__---1 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ --.J
TEMPERATURE
Ce~r~~L
l:
it :
I I
I L ___ __ UTILIDOR ~SELECTED ~R~ BACKF ILL ~STALLATION
___ ___
J
~
L ____ ____
_ _ _ _ _ _ __-_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
SERV I CE
I
I
I
---l
CONNECT I ONS
Figure 46. Heating plant for single-main recirculating water system.
system also affords positive means fot complete recirculation. In the latter system, service connecti'ons to premises are made by tapping the high-{X'essure main and serving the property from this
main; the unused water, which has cooled, is returned to the distribution system by tapping the
return line from the premIses to the low-pressure line (Fig. :48). The low-pressure line returns the
unused water to the recirculating pump and heating unit.
In the recirculating system, the water is usually heated only a few degrees above freezing,
or by an amount slightly above freezing which will just permit the unused water to return to the
recirculating pump and heating plant (Fig. 46). It is very difficult to start operating such a system
during cold weather. Only small sections of the system should be started at a time, and intensive
pumping with continuous waste is necessary until the entire system and the ground around it have
been warmed.
, Distribution systems have been installed above ground, on the surface of the ground, and in
the ground. The heat losses involved in the methods and the relations of construction, operating,
and maintenance costs should be evaluated in each instance. In locating the pipe in the ground,
whether the pipe should be placed at the top of the permafrost table, in the permafrost, or in the
seasonally thawed area (-active zone) should be determined. : If the distribution system is placed
on top of the ground rather than in the ground, winter temperatures around the system are lower,
but summer temperatmes are higher. : If the distribution system is placed in the permafrost, low
temperatures prevail throughout the year, but at notime are they as extreme as when the system is
placed at the ground surface. If the distribution system is placed at the top of the permafrost table,
advantage may be taken of the latent heat of fusion of entrapped water. However, when the system
is placed at this point and if insulation is used, it may be damaged or rendered almost useless if
it is penetrated by ground water. Freezing and thawing of the active zone cause differential ..
movements that may be structurally unacceptable. Exhaust steam or other waste-heat sources
shoUld be used to heat the water befoce circulation.
Rigid control of plumbing is of prime importance in a recirculating system. Cross-connections and back-siphonage conditions must not be tolerated.
It is desirable to eliminate dead ends and to arrange the distribution system so that the
largest users are located at the points of maximum distance for water flow. On large systems,
56
~-~-.~~~~~
: ".. :~~:~7··~~R~~~~~~V~~'~·~E~' ~··~~;>7;:07R0.....7.. ~·.~'~. ...~~:~":;0:~:~,'~,~.:~..-...~.,~.. ~:.~,=
: ~;
'::. :.:- '- :. : , -:, ' :"
: . .: :.·:7· . :. ·.·;.
::.: ..:-- ....:: : ';"':' : ,', ~ '.' .' .:',
_
:~
.. . .<.
~-': '~
: '~" .
,~~
...........
. .:...;..
.• •..: .....
.f.:___
·. : ___
SEWAGE
PUMPING
WELL
WATER
SOURCE
,=-
I
WATER
RECIRCULAT I NG
AND
Figure 47. . Dual-maIn recirculating distributiDn· system..
WATER
MAIN
RETURN
Figure 48 . . Dual~main service_cQnneetion~
several heating points may have to be established after tests on a complete system. Location of
water mains near sewer mains may help to keep the water mains from freezing; however, this is a
dangerous practice. Frost action may damage both the water lines and the sewer lines with resultant leakage and possible contamination of the water supply, since a positive pressure in the water
mains cannot be guaranteed at all times.
Fire hydrants
Conventional fire hydrants should be designed to provide continuous flow of water through
the base (Fig. 49 and 50) rather than to be put on short lines stubbed off from the main line. The
piping arrangement can be made to permit split flow from the main line and through the fire-hydrant
service line.
WATER MAIN
Q.
Plan
VALVE BOX, C. I.
sliding type
Lower section length sufficient
to raise sliding top 16 inches
II'
Drill 1/4" holes IS"o.c.
CONCRETE
BASE
2 cu . ft .
b.
Elevation
Figure 49. Typical HT'-' base fire' hydrant.
STEAM
CONNECTION
I"
4"2
10'
~
1 1' -6" min .
typical
Figure 50. TypicaIi
I
II
DRAIN
=1l:)I !:JI,;,n~
.6"."".:
... '..
:"
i '
~::AIJ.i~ 4" min.
I
L" base fire hydrant showing steam tracers.
57
58
SpeciaJ. antifreeze sautions have been perfected fCl" use in fire hydr.ants to prevent them from
freezing, and these are available commercially. Insulated covers are commonly used during cold
weather. Fire-hydrant services 22 57 107 from utilidors are provided by stubbing hose connections directly
off the water main. The hose connections and valves are enclosed in a riser section of the utilidor
which is readily opened for firehose connection.
In the Fairbanks, Alaska, system, dead-end service to hydrants has been eliminated; hydr ant
drains have been plugged; and provision has been made for the hydrants to be pumped out immediately after use. : The barrel is then filled with a special antifree ze solution. Also, in the Fairbanks
system all piping and hydrants are installed to predetermined, precise elevations; and the facilities
are all graded to drain to a point where the remaining water may be pumped out • . These are recommended practices • .
Fire hydrants, valves, corporation cocks and all other pipeline appurtenances should be
fitted with thaw wires having permanent electrical contact from the buried services to the ground
surface. Rubber-coated no. 2 conductor can be used for thaw wiring. Small-diameter (~.. in~) perforated pipe extending from the ground surface to the buried line or hydrant base is often used as a
permanent facility for steam thawing (Fig. 49).
Frost protection systems and devices*
Many practices have been used to prevent pipeline freezing:
Use of steam tracers (Fig. :50)
Electrical heating cables or tapes (Fig.
Intermittent use of pipelines
~9,
45, 51-54)
Use of air-ejection systems that blow remaining water out of pipeline s after use
Mixture of exhaust steam with the
wate~
at intake works
Placement of waterlines in streambeds
Placement of waterlines in or over sewers
Substitution of salt-water service for a portion of the system
Adoption of water re-use systems.
Some of these practices have deficiencies and in some instances the practices are dangerous
to public health. Electrical heating is by far the best of these practices but it may be expensive • .
Special local conditions, however, may justify use of other means.
Intermittent pipelines. Intermittent use of pipelines is practiced at many small low-temperature area installations, e.g., a DEWLine station far above the level of the source. With this system
it is necessary to provide large storage facilitie s to meet needs during non-distribution periods. : In
at least one small installation in Alaska, storage tanks sufficient to meet needs for several weeks
were constructed. : Storage has been provided at dispersed and at central sites. Even where this
system is feasible, and economical, however, it is space consuming and has operating difficulties,
usually in automatic controls for heating and pumping.
Intermittent operation of distribution systems with provision for blowing water out of the
pipelines, during non.-flow periods, is also complicated . . Air-ejection systems have proved satisfactory for use on small intake line s, but except for the smallest installations this practice does
not seem to be practical. .
*
Ref. 27,44,49,59,81.99, 100, 121, 170,219.
59
An air-lock principle has been employed at Eek,l1 Glennallen, Tuluksak, Moose Pass and
several other places in Alaska. Compressed air is used to drive water out of intake piping. wells,
or other parts of the distribution systems and to protect facilities between pumping cycles. These
systems were designed and constructed to function automatically. Dry lines (X' pipelines under air
pressure are often used for sprinkler sys terns exposed to low temperature s.
Electric heating. Figures 51-54 illustrate methods for tracing pipelines with electric heating
elements. • Figure 51 shows the use of a commercial heating tape for pipe protection. Other types
of heating elements are shown in Figure 55. Precaution must be taken in placement of wire heating
elements or they may overheat and cause fires. Utilidor fires have occurred from such overheating.
Element wiring should not be looped so that the elements cross each other in direct contact and
wraps of wire should be spaced around the pipe at proper distance s apart. The manufacturers'
specifications for use should be rigidly observed. Cables become brittle at very low temperatures
so they should be installed in warm weather. The resistance of the element wire and the size and
insulation of the pipe to be protected determine placement. Although only 1 Wlft of pipe may be
required to thaw a well casing, above-grade pipelines may require as much as 6 or 7 W1ft. . Elements
are rated by the manufacturers and theoretical heat losses may be computed empirically for a given
installation . • Eaton 73 discusses in some detail the thawing of wells in frozen ground and concludes
that low voltage power is very suitable for this purpose.
AIR
THERMOS TAT
NICKEL
CHROMIUM WIRE
FROZEN
THAWED
o. SEASONAL FROST AREA
PADDING a
WATERPROOF
TAPE
PERMAFROST
q
. 9
b. PERMAFROST AREA
Figure 51. Commercial resistance heater [or pipe
protection.
60
THERMOSTAT
Automatic
ContrOl
~""\,,,,~_-"
TO
PUMP _
PIPE I NSULATION
I " thick
4 " CASING
_HEATING CABLE
60 ft. length
Figure 52. Well piping deiail.
BRASS or COPPER CAP
(SI LVER SOLDERED)
CONDUCTOR ====~~~~~~~~~~~
COPPER
COVERING
MINERAL INSULATED ELECTRIC
HEATING CABLE
CABLE GROOVE
DETAIL "A"
METAL
COVERING
*THERMOSTAT
Secured to water
pipe with silicone
tope .
SUP
P
0
R
T
TIM
B
E
R
Figure 53. M.l. cable resistance heating, Thule Air Base, Greenland.
ELECTRIC
HEATING CABLE
Mineral insulated
FIBRATED ASPHALT CUTBACK a GLASS CLOTH
Covered with 22 - gage galvanized sheet steel
6"
X
a" x
36"
SUP P 0 R T T l M B E R ,
10' O.C.
3"
NON- FROST - SUSCEPTIBLE FILL
Figure 54. Typical water-supply line at Thule Air Base, Greenland.
STR I P HEATER
DISC HEATER
J (Q) ~
RING HEATER
WIRE HEATER
TANK IMMERSION
HEATER
CARTRIDGE HEATER
Figure 55. Typical electrical units for heating sanitary facilities.
61
62
Electricity may also be used for impedance heating to protect pipelines and tanks. In impedance heating, the pipeline serves as the resistance ele.ment. Only pipe that selVes as an electrical conductor can be protected . . When energized by alternating electric current, hysteresis and
self-induction cause heat-generating eddy currents in the pipe. Commercially produced control
systems available include transformer, energizing unit, thermostat, and miscellaneous accessories.
Below-ground piping must be insulated for proper operation . . Urethane foam insulation is used and
pre-insulated piping is available commercially. Stray electric currents can greatly aggravate corrosion in a water system. : Whenever electrical systems are used for protecting pipes, corrosion
must be considered and means taken to control it.
Incorrect placement of pipelines. Placement of pipelines in streambeds has prevented them
from freezing. : But it is doubtful if the extra cost of the original installation added to the cost of
maintenance would justify such practire. In addition, the health hazards resulting from possible
contamination of lines placed in often contaminated waters do not justify the risk.
Under no conditions should the pr actice of placing domestic water supply lines inside sewers
be allowed. Such practice continuously presents an extremely serious potential hazard to health.
In one instance where the water lines were placed immediately above the sewers but allowed to
run through sewer manholes, sewer gases corroded the water pipe. Within a 15-year period the
pipe was full of pinholes and the system would not hold water. In this instance the practice was
not only a hazard to health but ruinous to the system.
Salt water. Use of salt-water systems to s'8.tisfy a portion of the domestic need for water
supply is only applicable under certain specifically favorable conditions. In installation of new
facilities the addeq .cost for duplicate systems probably would not justify the practice. Fire protection, lack of fresh water supply, or other factors may enter into consideration. However, since
salt water provides only a limited amount of additional protection (±3F) from freezing over that of
fresh water, the limits of applicability of this practice are not significant.
Old systems of protection. In many cold-region installations certain frost-protective devices
have been incorporated into the distribution systems as standard design practice. : Provision of
thaw wire connections from all house service corporation cocks, valve boxes, meter box piping
and fire hydrants has been made a part of the design and installation procedure. Such practice
permits easy thawing by electrical means when the system freezes. Steam lines around fire hydrants are sometimes used (Fig. 50).
Old systems have been modified to prevent recurrence of freezing problems by the installation of short connecting runs to provide for recirculation in the distribution system, and occasionally by installation of recirculating pumps . .
Special devices to permit just enough bleeding to bring necessary heat into the system
have been fitted with siphon breakers and arranged to drain into the drainage system. Great care
must be exercised in ·such installations to avoid cross connections. Existing lines have been converted to circulating lines by placing small-diameter pipes inside lines subject to freezing problems using a small circulating pump to circulate water through the system. Water is taken from
the end of the problem line and pumped through the insert line to some point back into the larger
mains in the system where there is more assurance of sufficient heat in the water to prevent
freezing.
Fire protection by dry lines has been used in some places where there is danger of the lines
freezing. Compressed air is used to charge the system until fire need opens the system to water.
Considerable difficulty may be experienced in small lines of this nature; however, large insulated
lines which are initially charged with relatively warm water as the system fills for fire needs apparently are effective although they are rarely used.
63
Special. pipe materials. 199 Plastic pipelines are being used at several installations in the cold
regions. Although the plastic lines are not seriously damaged by freezing, they are not readily
thawed. The use of electrical-resistance heating simplifies the thawing of lines which in themselves may serv~ as conductors. Althoughstandards have been established for plastic pipe and
the manufacture of such pipe has been greatly improved since its inception, some problems arise
in using it in the cold regions. The exceptional expansion and contraction of plastic pipe when
exposed to extreme temperature changes makes it unsuitable where fixed and tight fittings must be
maintained at both ends of the pipe. Plastic pipe is best suited in cold regions to places where it
is subjected to the least temperature change possible or is free to change length without thermal
stress • . Special thawing provisions must be incorporated into buried plastic lines. Heating elements
may be placed directly in, or near to, the lines . . Heating cables must not be permitted to reach high
enough temperatures to damage the pipe. A distinct advantage of plastic pipe is that it is easy to
place. It is particularly effective in temporary applications in which the pipe is continually placed,
used, and taken up.
The use of wood-stave pipe was most common in the earliest cold regions community systems
but it has been replaced by copper, and "iron," piping. Wood-stave pipe has advantages in its
low friction, resjstance to heat transfer, ability to freeze and thaw without serious damage, and
ease of shipping (the latter point applies particularly to large-diameter pipe). There are ofteri
problems of leakage from wood-stave pipe, however, especially when it is placed in a heated
utilidor . .
Modification of existing systems. Existing systems usually can be modified fairly easily to
provide frost protection. A thorough flow survey and thermal analysis will indicate appropriate
interconnections and modifications to correct freezing problems.
Service connections (future connections should all be designed for thermal balance either by
pump or pitorifice) may be modified by installing appropriate bleeding devices, recirculating
pumps, heating elements, or other means.
Service lines may be modified to provide for recirculation simply by inserting return lines of
small diameter inside existing service lines. : The principal disadvantage of such a procedure is
the need to lock all valves that must pass a recirculating line. Special provision may be made at
the corporation cock. If it is desired toallow the valving of the corporation cock and the bypass
of the cock with a return line, installation of a special tee fitting may be made in the service line
just ahead of the existing corporation cock. A new corporation cock can be installed for the return line. Smail electrical recirculating pumps placed inside the house to be served are inexpensive to purchase and operate.
Thawing frozen pipes by electrical energylO 29
39 73 167 228
Thawing frozen water pipes by using electrical energy saves time and is a great improvement
over the archaic practices of building fires on the ground or endeavoring to excavate frozen
ground. Several rules should be practiced in employing this means for pipe thawing. Either
portable gasoline or diesel-driven arc-welding equipment or heavy-service electrical transformers
(110 or 220 V) may be used in thawing.
The amount of heat power generated when an electric current is passed through a pipe is:
and
H
3.41W
64
60r--'r-'-1I'--'__'--'--'---~~~
50
where
W
40
I
30
R
H
III
C1>
power, watts
current, amperes
resistance, ohms
heat, Btu/hr.
'520
c
'f
2"
w
::E
I-
10
(!)
z
8
~
~ 6
I-
4
I"
CURRENT, amperes
Figure 56. Approximate time and current relationship for thawing steel pipes.
Doubling the flow of current quadruples
the amount of heat generated, provided resistance in the system remains the same. Alternating current or direct current may be used
in preparing a hookup for thawing pipe. Coil~
nection from the power source to the pipe
shoUld be made as close as possible to the
. frozen area. . In other words, the less pipe
between the power source cables, the less
resistance in the circuit and the quicker the
results • . As much heat as possible should be
applied to the pipe to shorten the time required for thawing.
The following precautions are extremely important in using electrical
pipes because of the risk of fatal accidents:
e~ergy
to thaw frozen
1. . Do not use electrical thawing methods for indoor piping.
2. Do not use powerline transformers or similar high-voltage equipment. High amperage varying from 50-600 A depending upon pipe size, length, and material, is used at low voltage,
normally about 15 V.
. 3. • Connections from the electrical cables to the pipeline must be tight. This is ensured by the use of C-clamps on a surface smoothed by emery paper.
4. Arc-welders used for thawing should not be operated for more than about 5 min at
the rated:·.amperage. Not more than 75% of the rated amperage may be used when longer thawing
times are required.
Equipment with a rated capacity of 600 A should be used for thawing large pipes. The
portable transformer is rapidly becoming preferable to the much more cumbersome portable welding
equipment that generates its own power. The transformer is quiet and in most places may be
readily connected to electrical service in the area.
Figure 56 gives recommended currents and times required for thawing steel pipes of various
sizes.
Copper pipes may be thawed by electrical means, but the resistivity of copper is only about
this means that approximately twice as much current is needed to thaw a length of
copper pipe as is required to thaw the same length of steel pipe • . In thawing copper pipe, care must
be taken to prevent damage to soldered joints .
%that of steel;
.A careful check should be made to assure that the electric cables connecting the thawing
device to the pipe to be thawed are heavy enough to minimize resistance losses (Table VIII).
65
Table VIII. Recommended cable sizes for electrical thawing (Lincoln Company).
D i stance in ft from welding machine or transformer to pipe connection
Amperes
100
150
200
250
300
:&50
400
50
75
100
125
150
175
200
225
250
300
350
400
2
2
2
2
1
1/0
1/ 0
2
2
1
1/ 0
2/ 0
2/ 0
3/ 0
2
1
1/0
2/ 0
3/ 0
4/ 0
4/ 0
2
1/ 0
2/ 0
3/ 0
4/ 0
4/ 0
2- 2/ 0
2/ 0
3/ 0
4/ 0
4/ 0
2- 2/ 0
2- 3/ 0
170
:fl O
4/ 0
4/ 0
2- 2/ 0
2- 3/ 0
2-3/ 0
110
3/ 0
4/ 0
2-2/ 0
2- 3/ 0
2- 3/ 0
2/ 0
4/ 0
4/ 0
2- 2/ 0
2- 3/ 0
2/ 0
4/ 0
2- 2/ 0
2-3/ 0
2- 4/ 0
3/ 0
4/ 0
2- 3/0
2- 3/ 0
4/ 0
2- 2/0
2-3/ 0
4/ 0
2- 3/0·
2- 4/0
Cold-Regions Aspects of Water-Treatment Processes*
Low temperature affects all treatment processes. Plants must be closed and heated. Because
of high heat losses treatment works should be designed to minimize the area of exterior wall.
Chemical treatment
Oxidation. 3 Many Alaskan waters have high iron and manganese contents and/or undesirable
tastes which may be reduced by aeration. These objectionable qualities are caused by concentrated mineral and organic material, due to freezing and to insufficient oxygenation of water from
beneath the ice or from frozen soil. An iron content up to 174 mg/ liter in water at Akiachak ,
Alaska, is being reduced to 0.4 mg/liter by combined treatment: aeration, batch lime treatment,
settling and decantation. 2 3
.
Waterfall types of aeration are not practical in general for use in cold regions, but aeration
by air diffusion may be satisfactorily carried out. With low temperatures, the viscosity of the
water is relatively high (Fig. 3) and although water will absorb more oxygen, aeration may not be
as efficient as it is at high temperatures, so aeration periods should probably be extended somewhat over those in normal operation.
Waterfall type aerators are difficult ~o enclose properly during very cold weather. Enclosures
reduce the possibilities of aeration unless.provision is made for proper circulation of air in the enclosure. Circulated air from the outside must be heated. Spray and mixing of the water in the air
present problems of condensation of water from the air of relatively high humidity on the cold surfaces of the enclosing structure.
The introduction of finely divided air bubbles into water by air diffusion methods permits an
easy enclosure of the process of aeration for protection from the cold. Diffusion air should be
hea ted, and the diffusion chamber should be constructed in such a way that water-saturated air
may be controlled and kept from causing excess condensation on the walls of the enclosing
structure. Under certain conditions, the condensation and free zing of water on the walls of the
enclosing structure may not be undesirable. However, such condensation may be deleterious to
the enclosing wall and make housekeeping very difficult in that· portion of the plant.
Mixing chambers and mixing are affected by temperature, arid design and operation must take
this into consideration for satisfactory results. Presumably, a change in electrochemical phenomena,
under low temperature conditions, causes the more rapid formation of a small floc; however, additional mixing beyond what is normally required is necessary to consolidate the floc and to secure
*
Ref. 3, 19,21, 24, 25, 26,32, 85, 105, 112,·.134, 144, 146, 158, 203, 204, --223.
66
c
'f
~40 r-------r-----~T-------~------~--~~~
z
x
~
u..
o
~ 20 t - - - ------,/<L-~
o
40
60
80
100
FLOCCULATED MATERIAL SETTLED IN 4 HOURS, percent
Figure 57. Time of mixing;~· -temperature., and rate of settling.
49.~
•~
~
F
I
Below 49.2 F chlorine hydrate forms, removing
'~ chlorine from solution as solid C1 2 8H2 O
c
f\
1.0
~0.8
I
~
<I
a::
~
~ 0.6
u
J
z
o
~
z
ii:
o
0 .4
~0.2
u
~
I
._
~
..
--=---
/
I
..i
32 40
I
o
60
I
10
i
-t------
~
80
I
20
I
I
---I
-...........
100
120
140
160
I
I
I
I
I
30
40
50
60
70
T E M PER A T U R E
~
1
I
180
~
200 212· F
I
I
80
90
I
100·C
Figure 58. Solubility of chlorine in water, 32 to 212F.
proper settling of it. It is recommended that the normal mixing time of from 10-30 min be about.
tripled when water at temperatures between 32 and 38F is being treated. Both rapid and slow mixing should be increased for best results (Fig. 57). In certain instances, it may be desirable to increase the quantity of coagulant to secure proper floc-formation in a minimum of time. Efficient
design should make this increase unneces sary.
Cold-regions water treatment deals with water at approximately its maximum density and viscosity (Fig. 3), and the ease with which complete mixing is obtained is somewhat differ~nt frorn
that for temperate climate operation.
Use of chemicals, under low temperature conditions, requires the lmowledge of certain
changes which occur at low temperatures • . Iron- and manganese-bearing waters· from ground-water
sources in the Fairbanks, Alaska, region have been found to be very difficult to' treat at low temperatures. : As much as a 50% saving may be made in chemicals by warming the water to 55 to 60F
and by adjusting its pH. Investigation of the effectiveness of chlorine (Fig. 58) in disinfecting
water shows that 2 to 10 times as much chlorine is required at 36 to 41F (2 to 5C)as is required
at 68 to 77F (20 to 25C) to produce the same effectiveness in the same time. 41 Frequently, chemicals must be added in excess to procure the desired result within a reasonable period of time.
Jar tests and laboratory tests are highly' desirable for efficient operation under any conditions; they
are even more desirable under low-temperature conditions.
67
Certain difficulties are experienced with the use of chlorine in cold water and under low-temperature conditions. At temperatures between 32F and slightly over 49F, chlorine hydrate forms,
removing the chlorine from solution. At 32F there is practically no chlorine in solution. Gaseous
chlorine containers and apparatus may have to be heated slightly to keep the chlorination apparatus
working properly. The gassing rate is reduced with a drop in temperature, but great care must be
taken to prevent the overheating of containers of gaseous chlorine.
The application of chlorine to overheated water results in inefficient use of the chlorine, and
care must be taken to prevent the introd uction of chlorine near a condensate line or other heating
means that may raise the temperature of the water considerably above normal. For the most effective use of chlorine, the water to be treated should be at a temperature of about 50F.
Chemical storage should be constructed with the treatment facilities because low temperatures
make carrying, hauling, and running out of doors highly undesirable for operating personnel. The
high humidities that may exist in enclosures for water-treatment facilities, when ventilation is improper, may make the storage and handling of water-treatment chemicals difficult unless they are
properly protected from condensation and moisture. The solubility of chemicals is generally considerably less in cold water than in warm water but calcium carbonate, for example, is soluble to
a greater degree in cold water than in warm water. Solution-feeding of chemicals may be undesirable in some instances.
Most measuring equipment is calibrated for use under temperate conditions and any change in
use may cause error. Feeding equipment should be designed for use at or.near the freezing point
and efficiencies should not vary materially from those of normal temperature operation.
It is difficult to mix ozone with water under normal conditions but more so under low-temperature conditions. The efficiency of activated carbon in the removal of odors and tastes tends to be
reduced somewhat at low temperatures. Ultraviolet light may be more effective in the disinfection
of the cold water than it is for disinfection of water at moderate temperatures.
The reclaiming of chemicals is desirable wherever possible, because of the high cost of
transporting chemicals to isolated communities.
Fluoridation requires greater dosages for effective use at cold-region communities. Per-capita
water consumption is lower and to provide the proper amount of the chemical in the diet a greater
residual must be retained in the drinking water.
Cold water can contain much more 'dissolved oxygen than warm water. When the water is
heated, the excess oxygen is released and may create serious corrosion problems.
Corrosion control in recirculating water distribution systems would not normally present a
serious problem. However, metal piping is commonly used in utilidor systems; and under such conditions corrosion problems in the cold regions may differ from those elsewhere. Water from ice
wells has a low pH ; many surface waters containing organic material are also slightly acid. Most
Alaska surface waters from small streams and ponds have a low pH (tundra water may have a pH
as low as 6). . Norm~lly water of such acidity is aggressive. Water at 36F (2C) may contain more
than 13 ppm dis'solved oxyg~~ at saturation ,while at 77F (25C) , other things being equal, it may
contain less than 81ppm at saturation. It is obvious that warming oxygen-saturated water in a
closed system will produce corrosion problems. Corrosion control is often indicated.
The Corps of Engineers, Engineer Research and Development Laboratories has developed
the "Erdlator," ,a solids-contact Clarifier. Three of these units are in use in the treatment plant
for Thule Air Base, Greenland. This special design unit has been used with success for reduction
of color, turbidity and iron. Solids-contact clarifiers have also been used with success ar Fairbanks, Alaska. Warming of the water improved results at Fairbanks. The raw water is also preheated at the Thule plant. Such units are well suited for weather-protective enclosures.
68
80
25
u
70
20
...;
~
Q:
~ 60
::::>
~
15
<l
Q:
W
Cl.
~
::::>
~
<l
a::
10
w
~
~ 50
:E
w
~
5
0
40
L
V
V
--
V
v
--
1 - - -r - '--5
6
7
8
9
10
HYDRAULIC SUBSIDING VALUES. mm.lsec,
Figure 59. Theoretical relation of hydraulic subsiding values to temperature.
Water softening. Conventional water softening in cold regions is affected by slowed reaction
times for chemicals and longer mixing and settling times. Zeolite-type softeners are common on
small ground-water supplies. Lowered temperatures tend to reduce the maximum rate of softening
to somewhat below the usual 75 to 120 gal/ ft 2 of zeolite surface. Temperature is very important
in lime softening. Less calcium and magnesium stay in solution at high temperatures than at low
temperatures. Iodine appears to be more effective at low temperatures than at higher temperatures.
Sedimentation in cold-regions water treatment is slowed greatly by the increased viscosity
of the water at low temperatures (Fig. 59). Sedimentation chambers should be designed for operation at 32 to 35F and probably should provide capacities of from 1Y2 to 2 times those provided for
operation in temperate climates unless tests on treatment methods may show this is unnecessary.
The entire 'settling basin should be in a heated inclosure. Heat losses to the ground should
be prevented to avoid degrading a frost-active permafrost and the damage which may result from
differential settlement.
Filtration.
Slow sand: Although slow-sand filters have been reported to function satisfactorily,
even when they are covered with considerable ice for extended periods, they are not practical under
severe low-temperature condi tions, owing to the large area required which demands a large enclosure.
Rapid sand or diatomite: Rapid-sand filters or diatomite (diatomaceous·earth) filters
appear to be the mos t practical filtering means for low temperature operation. Rapid-sand filters
may be relatively easily enclosed and heated. Theoretically the rates of filtration (Fig. 60) may
be lowered as much as 30% at temperatures of from 32 to 35F. Filter design should take this reduction in efficiency into account. Diatomaceous earth filtering rates may also be reduced, somewhat at low temperatures. Such filters constructed of materials with unequal rates of expansion
and contraction may give operating difficulties under low-temperature conditions. Under cold-regions conditions, it may be more desirable to provide for backwashing by use of pumps to avoid
elevated storage. In places where water is scarce, it is desirable to recla im backwash water
rather than discharge it from the filters to waste. '
Hydraulically operated control equipment is undesirable unless at all times the enclosure is
to be heated to temperature s of at least 35F.
Surface washing and air-washing of rapid-sa'nd filters may be more economical under low temperature operating conditions than under operation at normal temperatures.
30
0
40
5
.
IL.
U
w'O
~ 50
~
~
Q:
::::>
::::>
<l
<l
Q:
Q:
UJ
~ 15
~ 60
~
UJ
UJ
~
~
20
70
/
25
80,
/
/
V
/
2
69
V
3
4
HEAD LOSS, ft .
Figure 60. Temperature and loss
of hea'd in sand
filter.
Future Possibilities of Supply
. Water re-use presents many possibilities. Much work must be done to perfect it for widespread
use under low-temperature conditions. Reclamation of sewage for re-use has not been aesthetically
acceptable. However, it is easier to reclaim sewage than it is to desalt water 55 88 157 216 because
there are much smaller amounts of objectionable impurities in sewage than in sea water. In addition, salt-water reclamation pos sibilities are limited to areas generally adjacent to the sea wherea2
the possibility of reclamation of sewage exists wherever man establishes communities and industry.
Sewage reclamation systems have the added advantage of being capable of placement in areas of
controlled environment. They lend themselves more readily to the encapsulated existence now
typical of our current approach to permanent development in cold regions. For schematic drawings
of desalting and water reclamation processes and a, recommended system for re-use of sewage,
refer to Clark and Groff. 56 Two figures from that report are reproduced: Figure 61 is a diagram of
a multistage distillation process, and Figure 62 illustrates the most promising reclamation concept.
VACUUM
CONDENSER
22 " Hg.
COOLING
WATER
-
SALTWATER INPUT
17
'--1
.\
!STEAM
---
226 F
I
I ~
c_~
'1
191 F
I
I
259 F • 35 psi .
Z
j--l
L-.
I
I
!
.\
~-
1
152 F
--,L--- r--,=:-=- --l'---r------·
,=~~-
-
DIST I LLATE
Figure 61. Multistage distillation process. 56
70
TOILET
WASTE
KITCHEN
WASTE
WASHWATER
WASTE
HOT
POTABLE
WATER
POTABLE
WATER
I
I
I
I
STORAGE TANK
I
!t
I
I
I
GASES
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
:t
I
I
I
I
CONDENSER
(f)
~t
tO
I
FRESHWATER
STORAGE
~
:E
<t
w
t-
(f)
CYCLONE SEPARATOR
ASH
Figure 62. Most promising reclamation concept. 56
71
WATER SUPPLY DURING MILITARY FIELD OPERATIONS
When on maneuvers in cold regions men have never suffered from thirst even in coldest conditions, but their water may have been of poor quality and somewhat scanty at times.
A man while on operations should have at least 1 gal/day for drinking or 2Vz gal/day for
both drihking and cooking. If there is a choice, and the snow or ice is pure and of adequate amount,
ice is preferable as a source because of its higher density, and hence smaller volume to be handled.
Another advantage is that dirt can be removed from water by the freezing process. Men should be
warned against eating snow or sucking ice at very low temperatures, or in large amounts. If the
snow or ice is warmed in the gloved hands beforehand, and eaten in small amounts, it is usually
unobjectionable (provided that the material is clean, far from any habitation, and not from an are a
where troops have operated previously) . When moving on sea ice, men will find that the old ice
makes quite acceptable drinking water. Melting ice in bulk is often very time and fuel-consumin g,
so other sources may be preferred. A container on a gasolin_e stove is a simple means for melting ice.
A good source (perhaps the best) is the water immediately beneath an ice cover on a lake or
river. A hole may be chipped by hand, bored by hand drill or by power drills (pneumatic), or it may
be thawed rapidly by steam. Shaped charges (M2A3) are also effective; grenades are not recommended. For ice up to 2 ft thick, hand cutting is no burden but is time comsuming, whereas a 12-in.
hole can be steamed in 3 ft of ice in a few minutes. Here a fog nozzle, such as is used in fire
fighting, on a s team hose is effective. A wood crib about 4 ft by 4 ft around the hole, and a pump
strainer about a foot below the surface will usually keep the hole unfrozen except in very low temperatures when the ice cover is easily broken. The watering pJint can be covered by a tent if
necessary. It should be away from shore in deeper, cleaner water , where there might be a current.
In very rare instances, well points in gravel near a lake or stream are a possible source.
If filtration is desirable, standard 35 gal/min or 50 gal/ min diatomite filter s in a heated
shelter are preferred, but sedimentation and decantation may be the only way of removing suspended
solids that may be harmless but unappetizing.
Disinfection is always necessary. Disinfection tables are commonly used, and boiling the
water will make it safe biologically but hypochlorination by means of portable units may be possible for larger numbers of men.
Water is commonly hand-carried in 5-gal cans about three- quarters full to ensure room for
"sloshing about " and a minimum of ice formation. Insulated 5-gal food containers are much better
if they are available , because they can prevent freezin g (or ~ome hours, depending on the ambient
temperature. This is important when the normal operating procedure is to prepare water, possibly
in the evening, to be carried and used while the troops are on the move.
The 250- gal water trailer, unless it is weather-protected and fitted with a heating unit, will
probably not be a s good as the seemingly more primitive hand-carrying method although it will
facilitate chemical treatment of the water en route. The tank may be carried on sled runners for
ease in hauling on snow, and in very cold weather an immersion heater of some kind may be used
to prevent freeze-up. Freezing of hoses and valves is the usual problem, however, and gas torches
may be needed at times. Make-shift insulation, or batting carried along for this purpose, is well
worthwhile.
73
SELECTED BmLIOGRAPHY
1. Aitken, G. W. et al. (1962-1968) Ground temperature observations, Alaska. U.S. Army
Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory (USA CRREL) Technical Reports 100-114. (Also similar U.S. Weather Bureau Data, for various Alaska stations.)
2. Alter, A.J. (1949) Water supply problems of the Arctic. Alaska's Health, vol. vii, no. 3.
3.
(1950) Arctic sanitary engineering. Federal Housing Administration, Washington, 106 p.
4.
(1950) Community facilities for Alaska. Alaska's Health, vol. 8, no. 1,
p. 1 and 2.
5.
(1950) Water suppl y in Alaska. Journal of the American Water Works Association, vol. 42, no. 6, p. 519-532.
6.
(1953) Thermodynamic considerations in the design of Alaskan water distribution s ystems. Proceedings~ Fourth Alaskan Science Conference, p. 36-38 (1956).
7. Deleted.
8. Alter, A.J. (1955) Low temperature problems in Alaska. Journal of the American Water
Works Association, vol. 47, no. 8, p. 763.
9.
(1955-56) The effect of ground temperature conditions upon the design of
Alaska water distribution systems. Proceedings, Sixth and Seventh Science Conferences, Alaska Division AAAS, 18 p.
10. Amsbary, F.C. Jr. (1936) Thawing service pipes. Journal of the American Water Works
Associ ation, vol. 28, no. 7, p. 856.
11. Anderegg, J.A.; Hubbs, G.L. ;oand Eaton, E.R. (1960) Ice water on tap for the Arctic.
Water Works Engineering, vol. 113, no. 7, p. 632-634.
12. Argo, J .W. (1960) Design and ins ta llation of intakes for Canadian supplies. Journal of
the American Water Works Association, vol. 52, no.!, p. 88-96.
13. Arnow, G.M. and Hubbs, G.L. (Unpub. paper) Characteristics of surface and ground
waters in selected villages of Alaska. Part I, Lower Kus kokwim River, Lower
Yukon River Norton Sound - Seward Peninsula, Kotzebue and St. Lawrence Island.
14.
(Unpub. paper) Characteristics of surface and ground
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21.
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74
23. Benson, B.E. (1966) Treatment for high iron content in remote Alaskan water supplies.
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36~
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43. Deleted.
44. Carlson, G.F. (1965) How to provide freeze-up protection for water systems. Heating,
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45. Deleted.
46. Carlson, G.F. (1966) How to design and control ethylene glycol heating systems.
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75
48. Cederstrom, D.J. and Tibbits, G.C. Jr. (1961,) Jet drilling in the Fairbanks area,
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53.
area~
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54. Deleted.
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61.
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63.
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76
71- Dolson, F .E. (1959) Submersible pumps as booster stations in St. Louis County.
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80. Farra, E. (1940) Maintaining water service in subzero weather. Journal of the American Water Works Association , vol. 32, no. 12, p. 2060-2066.
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87. Geidt, W.H. (1957) Principles of engineering heat transfer. New York : D. Van Nostrand Co.
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92. Grainge , J.W. (1959) Water supplies in the central and western Canadian North. :.
93. Deleted.
94. Grainge , J.W. (1958) Water a nd sewer facilities in permafrost regions. Municipal
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95. Gunther, F. J. (1966) Gas engine power for water and waste water facilities - Cooling
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77
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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98. Hands, G.E. and Popalisky, J.R. (1959) Salvaging heat from modern recarbonation
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"
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WATER SUPPLY iN COLD REGIONS
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146. Deleted.
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79
80
166. Porkhaev, G.V. (1965) Underground utility li ~ . National Research Council of
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167.
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195. Deleted.
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costs. Civil Engineering, vol. 19, p. 12 (January).
197. Sterling, C.!. (1955) Sanitary engineering in Alaska. Journal of the Boston Society of
Civil Engineers, vol. 42, p. 345 (October).
198. Sumgin, M.l.; Geniev, N.N. and Chekotillo, A.M., Water supply of railroads in permafrost reg-'ons (Excerpts). SIPRE Translation 28, Corps of Engineers, U.S. Army,
p. 7-21.
199. Sweitzer, R.J. (1960) Developments in plastiCS and plastic pipe. Journal of the
200. Teetor, S.D. and Rosanoff, S. (1959) Design problems for consultants: Arctic water
supply and sewage disposal. Consulting Engineer, vol. 12, no. 6, p. 90.
201. Thomas, J.F.J. (1964) Surface water quality in major drainage basins and northern
areas of Canada. Journal of the American Water Works Association, vol. 56, no. 9,
p.1173-1193.
202. Thompson, H.A. (1966) Air temperatures in northern Canada with emphasis on freezing and thawing indices. Proceedings, Permafrost International Conference,
National Academy of Sciences - National Research Council Publication 1287.
203. Thompson, R.F. (1952) Water treatment - Ladd Air Force Base. Science in Alaska Alaska Science Conference.
204. Thuma, R.A. (1953) Problem of softening water at low temperature. Water Works
Engineering, p. 292 (April).
205. Tribus, M. and Evans, R.M. (1962) Optimum-energy technique for determining costs of
saline-water conversion . Journ al of the American Water Works Association, vol.
54, no. 12, p. 1473-1490.
206. U.S. Army (1948) Water supply in Arctic, subarctic and Antarctic regions. Engineering School.
207.
, TM5-818-2, TM5-852-1, TM5·852-6.
208.
, TM5-852-5, Arctic and subarctic construction - utilities.
209. U.S. Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory (1953) Report of the symposium on advanced
base water supply and sanitation. Port Hueneme.
210. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ (1960) Polar camp water systems. Port
Hueneme. Technical Report 122.
211.
(1963) Survival of sewage bacteria in zerocent igrade sea water. Technical Report R-256, 6 p.
81
82
212. U.S. Navy (1955) Arctic engineering. Department of the Navy, Bureau of Yards and
Docks, Technical Publication, Navdocks TP-PW-11, p. 7-21213. Deleted.
214. U.S. Office of Naval Operations (1954) Low temperature sanitation. Washington.
215. VanDeusen, E.J. (1951) Cold weather operation of distribution systems. Journal of the
216. Walters, C.F. and Anderegg, J.A. (1960) Water conservation through re-use of flushing
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Conference.
217. Waring, G.A. (1917) Mineral springs of Alaska. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey, Water Supply Paper 418, Government Printing Office.
218. Westfall, H.C.; Beck, R.W. and Associates (1953) Research and design of a single main
recirculating system. Proceedings, Fourth Alaska Science Conference, Alaska
Division, AAAS, p. 48-53.
219. Williams, G.P. (1961) A study of winter water temperatures and ice prevention by air
bubbling. National Research Council of Canada, Technical Paper no. 117.
220.
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Publication no~62, p. 203-212.
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Engineer (January-February).
223. Williams, R.L. (1965) Microelectrophoretic studies of coagulation with aluminum sulfate.
Journal of the American Water Works Association, vol. 57, no. 6, p. 80 1-810.
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225. Woodside, W. and de Bruyn, C.M.A. (1959) Heat transfer in moist clay. Soil SCience,
vol. 87, no. 3, p. 166-173.
226. Wright, K.R. (1965) Waterline freeze problems in mountainous Colorado communities.
Joumai of the American Water Works Association, vol. 57. no. 6. p. 746-754.
227. Wright, R.W. and Fricke, D.W. (1966) Water-freezing problems in mountain communities.
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Engineering, vol. 63, no. 1, p. 214.
83
APPENDIX A
I
I
I
I
100
.....
~
80
1
/
G
o
.a•
-
'0
f-
60
...
/
f-
o
':
40
s;
.....
=>
.....
f-
CD
20
V
o
/
I
1/
/
-
.
-
-
-
I
40
1
I
120
80
FLO W, gpm .
I
160
200
Figure Al. Equivalent water flows in gal/min
and lb/hr (equals Btu/hr 0 F) .
..:
s;
.....
=>
.....
CD
61----+-1~-I-___t'-----+--~'-----_+--~
Q
o
~ 41----+-;/----,f-+,I'-----~'-----+----_+--~
o...J
UJ
>
UJ
o
~
2f--If-+.f--,.L-+----+------+---~
UJ
I
400
Figure A2~ Capacity of pumps for
forced hot water circulation at various
temperature drops during circulation
(after Hoffman Specialty Co. Data Book).
84
APPENDIX A
Table AI. Dimensions and properties of asbestos cement pipe.
(Class 150)
Nominal
size
4
6
8
10
12
Thickness
(in.)
0.45
0.55
0.65
0.85
0.98
External
surface area
2
(ft /lin. ft)
Internal
surface area
2
(ft /Iin. ft)
Volume
(gal/lin. ft)
1. 27
1. 82
1. 03
1.. 53
2.06
2.62
3. 14
0.64
1. 40
2.47
4.09
5.88
2.40
3.06
3.66
Table All. Dimensions and properties of wood-stave pipe.
Nominal
size
2·
4
6
8
10
12
*
Thickness
(in.)
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
00
06
12
12
12
19
External
surface area*
2
(ft /lin. tt)
Internal
surface area*
(fe/lin. tt)
0, 52
1. 04
1. 58
2. 10
2.61
3.14
1. 04
1. 60
2.16
2.68
3.21
3.80
Volume
(gal/lin. ft)
O. 1632
0. 6528
1. 469
2.611
4.080
5.875
Surface areas approximate.
Table AlII. Dimensions and properties of
steel pipe.
Nominal
size
Y2
%
1
1112
2
3
4 ·
6
8
10
12
24
External
surface area
2
(ft /lin. ft)
Volume
(gal/lin. ft)
0 .. 220 _
0.275
0.344
0.497
0.622
0.916
1. 178
1. .734
2. 257
2.817
3. 34
6.29
0.0158
0.0277
0.0449
O. 1058
0.174
0.384
0.661
1. 50
2.66
4.24
5.96
22. 1
Table AIV. Dimensions and properties of
copper tube.
Nominal
size
Y2
%
1
1Y2
2
3
4
6
8
10
12
~
External
surface area
2
(ft / lin. f~
O. 164
0.229
0.295
0.425
0.556
0.818
1. 08
1. 60
2 .. 13
2.65
3.17
Volume
ft)
~ g~l/lin.
0.0113
0.0227
0.0405
0.0894
0.157
0.345
0.607
1. 35
2.34
3.65
5.24
85-
APPENDIX A
Table AV. Velocity, discharge, and head loss for water flowing through pipes.*
Pipe
size
(in.)
Vel.
(tt/sec)
D'ischarge
(gal/min)
Head
loss
(tt/ lOOO tt)
Vel.
(tt/sec)
Discharge
(gal/min)
Head
loss
(tt/ lOOO tt)
1. 05
1. 20
1. 12
1. 10
1.02
3.06
3.15
3. 10
3. 12
2
3
7
10
120
277
485
760
15
14
9
5.3
3.6
12.2
8.0
5.6
4.32
3. 16
3.01
2.98
3 . 15
3.06
9. 19 ·
9.46
8.86
9.08
3
5
8
20
30
360
836
1380
2240
113
75
55
37
27.3
93.0
61. 0
38.7
31. 2
1f2
~
1
I1f2
2
4
6
8
10
Based on
*
Ha~en-Willi ams
hydraulic tables - C (friction coefficient)
Vel.
(tt/ sec)
Discharge
(gal/min)
Head
loss
(tt/lOOO tt)
5.26
9. 02
9.30
9.44
9.19
15.32
15.76
14. 18
5
15
25
60
90
600
1380
1520
290
570
455
281
210
240
159
93
= 120 for smooth new iron.
Table AVI. Thermal conductivity* .. k" for some soils and crushed rocks. 106
Dry
density
(lb / tt 3 )
Moisture
content
(%)
Mean
temp
(0 F)
k*
Dry
density
(lb / tt 3 )
0.2
25 . 1
-19.9
105.3
[j2
133.3
0.2
129.3
3.9
25.2
-19. 9
25 .0
-20. 2
25.0
-20.1
4. 01
3.92
5.80
5.63
6.12
6.12
14.13
14.38
24.9
-20.0
2.00
1.94
103.2
3.8
25.0
-19 .9
24.8
-19 .9
24.9
-20 . 1
4.51
4.71
3.27
3.20
6.58
6.55
120.3
3.7
0.07
4.0
120.0
0 .09
120.1
3.9
25.0
25.0
-20.2
24 .8
-19.9
25 .0
-20.0
0.014
97.3
1.5
1.4
0.013
107.6
108.1
1.4
1.4
24.9
-19.8
25.1
-20.0
25.1
-19.9
24.9
-20.0
25.1
-20.1
2.26
2.19
107.1
5.8
5.8
0.2
25.1
-20.0
24.9
-19.6
25.1
-20.0
8.81
9.48
3.60
3.44
13.58
14.06
120.4
119.7
6.0
5.9
92.2
0.6
24.8
- 4.9
1.39
1.33
97.9
21. 8
24.9
10.92
105 . 7
0 .8
110.2
14.0
14.0
24.9
- 0. 1
24.9
-20.2
2.00
1. 93
13.06
13.17
2. 18
4.88
4.80
3. 21
3 . 17
9.08
9.30
1.68
1.62
2.37
2.15
2.39
2.34
4.08
5.50
70.0
2.4
76. 5
101.9
39.0
20. 5
20.1
25.0
-20 .6
24. 8
24.9
-19.9
1. 10
1.04
16.32
15.66
14.54
Fairbanks Silty Clay Loam
57.7
2.4
90. 3
29.7
29.4
64.0
3. 1
3.1
34.4
33. 7
15.3
15.1
21.4
2 1.2
25.0
-20.0
25.2
-20.0
0. 97
0.94
13. 23
13.92
24.8
-19.9
25.0
- 20.4
1.06
1.06
Healy Clay
71.7
108.2
103.8
*
k*
Fairbanks Silt Loam
Standard Ottawa Sand
97.6
(OF)
.0.2
Crushed Granite
106.1
102.9
(%)
Northway Sand
0.2
0 .2
Mean
temp
106.6
Crushed Trap Rock
102.6
120.0
Moisture
content
Fairbanks Sand
Chena River Gravel
119.5
122
25 .2
-19.9
24.8
-20.3
Base d on Thermal Properties ot Soil s by Mile s S. Kersten. 122 k is expre ssed in Btu in ./ ft 2 hr of .
9. 71
10.63
13. Q5
13.97
13.75
15.6
Unclas sified
Se ~ unty
Classificatlon
DOCUMENT CONTROL DATA - R&D
( Security classification of title, body of abstract and indexing annotation must be entered when the overal1 report is classified)
1. ORIGINATING ACTIVITY
(Corporate author)
2 •• REPORT SECURITY CLASSIFICATION
Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory
U.S. Army Terrestrial Sciences Center
Hanover, New Hampshire
Unclassified
2b. GROUP
3 . REPORT TI TL E
4. DESCRIPTIVE NOTES
(Type of report and inclusive dates)
Cold Regions Science and Engineering Monograph
5 · AU THOR(S) (First name, middle initial, last name)
Amos J. Alter
6 . REPORT DATE
7a. TOTAL NO. OF PAGES
91
January 1969
8a. CONTRACT OR GRANT NO .
SIB. ORIGINATOR·S REPORT NUMBERIS)
Monograph III-CSa
b. PROJECT NO.
c.
Project No.
1 T062ll2Al30
eb. OTHER REPORT NOIS) (Any other numbers th.t may be aBBlgned
this report)
d.
10 . DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
This document has been approved for public release and sale; its distribution is
unlimited
II . SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
12. SPONSORING MILITARY ACTIVITY
Cold Regions Research and Engineering
Laboratory
Terrestrial Sciences Center
Hanover, New Hampshire
13 . ABSTRACT
The monograph outlines the influence of a cold environment on sanitary engineering
works and services. It then deals with water supply in cold regions: sources,
distribution systems, treatment processes and possible future supply from other
than geological sources.
DD
.'!~.. 1·4 73
".~LAC • •
oaaoL.T.
DD P'O"" 147 •• 1 .JAN .4. WHICH I.
P'O" . ".. V u ••.
Unclas sified
Seeurity Cl . . . ifie.lion
Unclassified
Security Classification
14.
LINK It.
KEY
LINK B
LINK
C
WORDS
ROLE
WT
ROLE
WT
ROLE
Cold regions engineering
Water supply
Water di s tri bution
Water treatment
I
Unclas s ified
Security Cla •• ification
WT

Mono 111-C5a WATER SUPPLY IN COLD REGIONS

Transcription

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