Linguistics, Literature and Translation

Transcription

English Language Teaching, Literature, and Translation
International Conference 2013
Unnes in collaboration with AWEJ & RELO
ConferenceProceedings
“Issues and Challenges in English Language Teaching,
Literature, and Translation”
Faculty of Languages & Arts
Semarang State University
2nd ELTLT CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS
Linguistics, Literature and Translation
Faculty of Languages and Arts
Gedung Dekanat FBS, Jl. Raya Sekaranm Gunungpati
Semarang, Jawa Tengah 50229
Email: [email protected]
eltl-indonesia.blogspot.com
Telp & Fax: (024) 8508071
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions
of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place
without the written permission of the Faculty of Languages and Arts, Unnes.
First published in December 2013
Reviewers: Jia-chen Chuo, Assoc/ Prof. Pam Allen, Professor Dr. Cameron Richards,
Helena I. R. Agustien., PhD
Editor: Dr. Issy Yuliasri., M.Pd
Layout: Yuliati
Cover Design: Arif Budi
Library of Congress cataloguing in Publication Data:
ELTLT Conference Proceedings published by the Faculty of Languages and Arts, Unnes –
includes bibliographical references I.
Series ISBN 978-602-19638-6-9
Distributed by:
English Department of Unnes
B3 Building, Faculty of Languages and Arts, Unnes
Jl. Raya Sekaran, Gunungpati, Semarang 50229
Telp. & Fax. (024) 8508071
Email: [email protected]
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Preface
A year ago, it named ELTL (English Language, Teaching, and Literature). At this moment, we
think that a subject named Translation must be put in this seminar because translation is
deeply interesting subject. Besides that, a few months ago, we had a Translation Conference
named IATIS.
Last year, we discussed about relation of English language, Teaching, and Literature to
Culture but at present, we discuss issues and challenges in English Language Teaching,
Literature, and Translation. We expect that there are many lecturers, researchers, teachers,
students and those interested who would like to contribute to the better relation among
nations.
As the chair of 2nd English Language Teaching, Literature, and Translation International
Conference 2013, I would like to extend our sincere gratitude to all presenters, especially Ms
Helena Indiyah., RA, M.A., Ph.D, Ms. Kimberly Bunts-Anderson, Ph.D, Prof. Khairi Al Zubaidi,
and Ms. Kari Dickson, M.A for accepting the invitation to speak as the keynote speakers.
We would like to do best for the smooth of the programs. The committee would also like to
thank the rector of Semarang State University, Prof. Fathur Rokhman and the Dean of
Languages and Arts Faculty, Prof. Agus Nuryatin for their full support. The last, we expect all
presenters and participants to have wonderful conference at present and we hope all of you
would like to join 3rd ELTLT next year.
Bambang Purwanto, S.S., M.Hum
Chair of ELTLT Committee
Faculty of languages and Arts
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Welcome from the Dean of Languages and Arts Faculty
As the Dean of Languages and Arts Faculty, we are proud to have an annual international
conference such as ELTLT 2013.
To be chosen as presenters for the parallel presentation in this conference is a considerable
honor and achievement. I would like to congratulate the presenters who have been selected,
as well as the reviewers who have chosen the successful presenters. Obviously not everyone
interested in the chosen topic could attend this conference, so the post-conference
proceeding will present to a much wider audience issues related to the topic. The
proceeding is also a proof that the contributions of presenters are valued.
I also would like to offer my congratulations and appreciation to the organising committee
who have been working hard to prepare the conference, and to all keynote speakers,
presenters, and participants for such an impressive conference.
We hope that through this annual ELTLT conference, there will be a stronger bond amongst
academics, especially those with the expertise of English language teaching, literature, and
translation. I wish you a wonderful conference.
Semarang, September 2013
Prof. Dr. Agus Nuryatin, M. Hum
The Dean of Languages and Arts Faculty
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Welcome Note from the Head of English Department
We are privileged to organize this annual conference. This year ELTLT is actually the second
conference; the first, namely ELTL (English Language Teaching and Literature) Conference,
was last year. We have received quite a lot of abstracts and most were accepted for
presentation. Surprisingly, the number was doubled as compared to last year. This means that
more academics are interested in our conference and trust us as organizer of the conference.
Therefore, I would like to congratulate the organizing committee who has been working hard
to prepare the conference. I also would like to extend my deepest gratitude to all keynote
speakers, presenters, and participants for their contribution to our conference.
I do hope that this annual ELTLT conference could serve as a bridge that channels bond
amongst academics, especially those with the expertise of English language teaching,
literature, and translation.
With best wishes for a rewarding and successful conference!
Dr. Issy Yuliasri
Head of English Department
Semarang State University (UNNES)
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Content
Preface
Welcome from the Dean of Languages and Arts Faculty
Welcome Note from the Head of English Department
Content
KEYNOTE SPEAKER PAPER ....................................................................................... 1
WHAT STUDENTS SAY AND WHAT TEACHERS THINK: INFORMAL
TALK IN ESL LEARNING
Kimberly Bunts-Anderson, PhD ......................................................................................... 3
BENEFITS
AND
THREATS
OF
INTERNATIONALIZATION
AND
STUDENT MOBILITY: A CASE STUDY OF UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGY
MALAYSIA (UTM)
Dr. Khairi Obaid Al-Zubaidi ............................................................................................... 20
LINGUISTICS PAPER .................................................................................................... 33
THE INFLUENCE OF CULTURE ON THE STEPS OF PERSUASIVE
KEYNOTE SPEECH
Alief Noor Farida ................................................................................................................ 35
A STUDY OF JAVANESE CULTURAL THEME
APPLIED BY ENGLISH TEACHERS
Dwi Winarsih ...................................................................................................................... 50
COGNITIVE LINGUISTIC AND ESP:
USING METAPHOR AS A USEFUL DEVICE FOR TEACHING L2 BUSINESS
ENGLISH LEARNERS
Ida Hendriyani ..................................................................................................................... 61
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THE USE OF COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES IN SECOND LANGUAGE
LEARNING
Intan Permata Hapsari ......................................................................................................... 73
THE AGE FACTOR OF LEARNING SECOND LANGUAGE (L2)
IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE SETTING: IS THE EARLIER THE BETTER?
Kunto Nurcahyoko and Dwi Amalia Putri .......................................................................... 95
TEACHING POLITENESS IN SPEECH ACT OF INVITING OTHERS
THROUGH DCT
Lestari Ambar Sukesti ......................................................................................................... 105
PHONOLOGICAL AND GRAMMATICAL PERFORMANCE OF DISABLED
STUDENTS IN SLB NEGERI UNGARAN
Muhimatul Ifadah ................................................................................................................ 131
TOPICAL CASUAL TALKS AS RESPONSIVE LISTENING AND SPEAKING
PERFORMANCES OF BEGINNERS
Taranindya Zulhi Amalia .................................................................................................... 141
AN INTERLANGUAGE STUDY: A CASE STUDY OF AN INDONESIAN
LEARNER OF ENGLISH
Widya Ratna Kusumaningrum ............................................................................................ 160
LITERATURE PAPER .................................................................................................... 174
ISSUES ON CHILDREN PUNISHMENTS IN HARRY POTTER AND THE
SORCERER’S STONE AS REFLECTIONS OF THE EQUALITY OF
CHILDREN’S RIGHT
Anna Sriastuti ...................................................................................................................... 176
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THE IMAGE OF A WOMAN IN THE KOREAN DRAMA
MY PRINCESS
Aris Siswanti ....................................................................................................................... 185
THE RISE OF CHINESENESS
IN AMERICAN HYPHENATED IDENTITY:
A STUDY IN AMY TAN’S THE BONESETTER’S DAUGHTER
DyahEkoHapsari, M.Hum. .................................................................................................. 201
ABORTION AND VIOLENCE IN JANE MARTIN’S KEELY AND DU: PROCHOICE, PRO-LIFE, OR MERELY PROVOCATIVE?
Eta Farmacelia Nurulhady ................................................................................................... 217
WOMEN, WATER, AND ENERGY IN BYAR RUFAEL’S NAJLA:
AN ECOFEMINIST APPROACH
Fatma Hetami ...................................................................................................................... 226
INTRODUCING LOCAL CULTURE THROUGH INDONESIAN CHILDREN’S
SONGS IN ENGLISH CLASS OF ELEMENTARY STUDENTS
Indrawati.............................................................................................................................. 240
SELF-DETERMINATION AGAINST MALE SUPREMACY IN GILMAN’S AN
OBSTACLE
Juliati ................................................................................................................................... 248
READING SUBALTERN AS COMPARABLE DISCOURSE CONSTRUCTION ON
THE ADVENTURES OF HUCKLEBERRY FINN.
Mohamad Ikhwan Rosyidi .................................................................................................. 267
BARBIE®: AN IRONIC IMAGERY IN TODAY’S CONSUMER CULTURE
A Study on ‘Barbie® Flu’ in Odessa, Ukraine
Melania Shinta Harendika ................................................................................................... 279
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LUCIEN TAYLOR’S LOVE-SEEKING MOTIVATION
IN SOMETHING TO BE DESIRED: A NOVEL BY THOMAS McGUANE
Primanda Dewanti ............................................................................................................... 291
THE ADVANTAGES OF USING PUR SANTOSO’S SHORT STORY
“DAMAYANTI” AS AN EXTENSIVE MATERIAL FOR SMP STUDENTS
Sapuroh................................................................................................................................ 306
CHRISTIANITY AND COLONIALISM IN SOME ENGLISH SHORT STORIES
Tatang Iskarna ..................................................................................................................... 325
TRANSLATION PAPERS ............................................................................................... 341
FUNDAMENTAL STRATEGIES TO TRANSLATE TOURISM TEXTS
FROM ENGLISH INTO INDONESIAN
Dr. Budi Purnomo ............................................................................................................... 343
FICTIONAL TRANSLATOR AND THE PORTRAYAL OF ISLAMIC
MODERNITY IN AYAT-AYATCINTA
DelitaSartika ........................................................................................................................ 358
THE POLITICS OF TEACHING AND LEARNING LITERARY TRANSLATION
Dono Sunardi....................................................................................................................... 372
TRANSLATION ANALYSIS IN BILINGUAL TOURISM BROCHURE:
TRANSLATING INDONESIAN TO ENGLISH
Elysa Hartati ........................................................................................................................ 380
CULTURAL IDENTITY IN THE ENGLISH TRANSLATION OF PRAMOEDYA’S
CERITA CALON ARANG: A COMPONENTIAL ANALYSIS
Ervin Suryaningsih, M.Hum and Esriaty S. Kendenan, M.Hum ....................................... 395
\
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CULTURAL TERMS TRANSLATION IN “THE RAINBOW TROOPS”
NOVEL AS AN EFFORT TO REACH GOOD CRITERIA: A
COMPONENTIAL ANALYSIS
Indriati Satya Widyasih, Ade Purna Nugraha, and Nida Amalia Asikin ............................ 408
MORE THAN WORDS
Kari Dickson ....................................................................................................................... 426
TRANSLATION AS THE MEDIUM OF MULTICULTURAL AND
MULTILINGUAL COMMUNICATION
Suprapto .............................................................................................................................. 450
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KEYNOTE
SPEAKER
December 2013
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WHAT STUDENTS SAY AND WHAT TEACHERS THINK:
INFORMAL TALK IN ESL LEARNING
Kimberly Bunts-Anderson, PhD
Northern Marianas College, Saipan
Abstract
The importance of interacting with others has long been considered a critical component
of learning processes in general and from a Social Interactions perspective, of language
learning, specifically. This presentation explores these relationships from either side of
the classroom door. The discussion centers on the beliefs and experiences of learners’
spoken interactions in their own lives outside the classroom and how students view
communication with others as impacting their overall knowledge of the language. The
paper also looks at these issues from the perspective of the teachers. Multiple
perspectives are illustrated with data collected from two Australian studies. The first
study describes a cooperative action research project conducted with 13 foreign ESL
students focused on enhancing their language learning through improving their personal
out-of-class spoken interactions with others. Individual’s narratives of language learning
and communication are presented. Results indicate improved learner efficacy and higher
assessments in formal learning contexts. The second study is a phenomenographic
investigation of 28 EAP instructors’ reported descriptions of learners’ verbal
communications in and outside the classroom. Findings indicate greater awareness of
formal interactions and fewer categories of conceptions for informal spoken language.
The resulting categories for language appear similar to reports of surface and deeper
approaches of learning, knowing and thinking in other subject areas. The researcher
provided excerpts of instructors' reports and discusses the significance of developing an
awareness of the relationships between these spoken communications and cognition. In
conclusion, audience participants were asked to share their own thoughts and experiences
with these relationships.
Keywords: Teacher Perceptions, Informal Talk, ESL, Autonomous Learning, Teacher
Cognition
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What Students Say and What Teachers Think: Informal Talk in ESL
Learning
This paper discusses, the relationships between teachers’ and students’ perceptions of the
informal interactions that occur both in (ICI) and outside (OCI) the second or foreign
language classroom and how these interactions can impact learner outcomes and participants
self-evaluations’ of the learning and teaching experiences received or what I have termed
previously as Self Timed Learning Modification (STLM) where students
practice self-
regulation in the self-access time often provided at language colleges (Boekaerts,,1999) . The
original data presented was gathered from two formal studies conducted in Australia. Later,
comments from the first plenary session in Semarang, Indonesia and from the writer’s own
students in Saipan, Micronesia were added. As much of the data ,presented in this paper ,is
built upon shared personal experiences of informal spoken interactions , by a number of
people across
three countries and multiple nationalities and language backgrounds, the
writer has taken the creative liberty of sharing this information in a narrative format. At this
point, the writer would like to ask the readers (many of whom are language teachers and
students) their pre-tolerance of the switches in first, second and third person which occur, and
offers, as an excuse, that this technique was purposefully chosen to assist with reading clarity.
The paper will briefly present phenomenographic categories, student accounts and literature
covering
informal interactions followed by academic discussions and research practitioner
events experienced by the writer, as a language instructor, herself.
The best learning and teaching experiences often occur not as they were planned nor does
learning stop once the classroom door shuts at the end of the day. Recently, I had the pleasure
of being invited to be a Key Note Speaker and to open the first Plenary Session for the 2 nd
English Language Teaching, Literature, and Translation International Conference, 2013, in
Semarang, Indonesia. By way of addressing the conference theme “Current Challenges and
Issues in ELT” I was asked to discuss the relationship between teacher and learner beliefs
when it comes to considering the place or role of informal spoken language in current
teaching practices. Although teacher talk, error correction and class room interaction have
been topics of frequent discussion and research informal interactions have not received a
similar amount of attention. The plenary began with my asking the audience to jot down their
own thoughts regarding informal interactions and particularly the informal spoken
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interactions they had, had recently in the classroom if they were a language teacher or student.
I then provided a brief background on the topic and how our perceptions of informal
interactions have evolved over the years. . In the late-80’s and throughout 1990’s , when I
was immersed in trying to understand these interactions much of the literature acknowledged
OCI importance through claims
that they needed to be encouraged through setting up
opportunities for collaborative work (Slaven, 1992) and the use of “real life texts” in
classroom. Lastly, when it comes to bringing real life interactions to the classroom we should
be cognizant that mobile technology and handheld devices have integrated these outside of
classroom interactions into our formal learning and teaching contexts much more rapidly
than we would have imagined a decade ago (Bunts-Anderson technology (2011). Although
there continues to be a lack of focus on teacher beliefs in the field of language teaching
interestingly, the emergence and rapid integration of technologies in educational institution is
one area where this is not the case and teachers of language just as teachers of other subject
areas have been widely criticized for their lack of willingness to more rapidly integrate
technology into everyday practice (Wood, Mueller, Willoughby, Specht and DeYoung, 2005).
A decade ago being immersion in the target language’ through travel or specialty programs
was viewed as ‘innovative’ but perhaps beyond the scope of typical, local and national
language classrooms . Learners who sought out the opportunities to practice what they were
learning, often traveled overseas, to study and use, the language in natural contexts. Some
found their experience beneficial whereas others claimed what they learned formally and
needed to progress through academia was not the same as what they needed to live and
thrive in active target language communities. Initial findings for the first study presented were
published in (2000) as a book chapter titled “I’m surrounded by blokes and busy clerks- What
can I say?” A cooperative action research project with foreign ESL students studying in
Australia” (Bunts-Anderson, pp.35-52). The title was an actual quote from one of the student
learners who had progressed well in English courses, was attempting a formal degree in
another area of study in English but was frustrated at his lack of ability to communicate
socially with Australians outside the school contexts and wanted to improve his spoken
communication both in and out of the classroom.
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The Australian STLM Study
At that time, I was graduate student myself plus worked full time at an English Language
College in Sydney’s inner city “China Town”. The idea of working on students outside
interactions had come about through similar complaints from various students, who had lived
in Australia for a number of years. There was a mix of language backgrounds with students
from SriLanka, The Czech Republic, France, Italy, Russia, Japan, Korea and Hong Kong. All
13 students had reached a level of spoken ability of Intermediate or level 5 and higher on
IELTS assessments and all shared the same self-study or self-access time, which is where we
met. Although a few of the students had been my students, in the past, none were enrolled in
one of my courses at that time. After attending an informal focus group where the majority
of students echoed a need to improve their informal interactions and a desire to improve
and start social relations, with Australians or other native speakers of English, we embarked
on
seven-week cooperative action research project looking at ways the students could
improve their English interactions outside the classroom context. The students had also put
together a list of factors they felt contributed to problems they were having then categorized
the factors as attributing to students or others (Table 1). We agreed to work on the five
‘student factors’ as those were the factors the students would be able to affect change in.
Each student’s goals were unique to that individual.
.
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Prior to the study officially starting the students were asked to self –evaluate their own spoken
interactions by recording their own spoken interaction outside of class for two weeks.
Students were asked to estimate how much they spoke outside the classroom, how many
opportunities they had and describe the quality of the interactions they had. After two weeks,
some students had found specific areas of interactions they wanted to work on. Others had
noticed opportunities they hadn’t been taken advantage of and some relayed specific
interactions they had, had problems with. The group worked collaboratively, meeting weekly
and adapting a cooperative action research approach similar to an action research cycle of
Intent→Action→Critique published by Dick (1995 p. 3). Each week we met discussed the
previous week’s intention, and the students reported on their goals and outcomes. I would say
it worked something like a Weight Watchers meeting in principal, as people would report on
each stage sometimes do it again, sometimes try something completely different and
sometimes expand, amend or radically change a particular intention and attempt it again.
For Example: Participant C reported that he had plenty of opportunities to
interact in his home-stay situation, as his home-stay family was quite friendly
and sociable. They frequently invited guests over for dinner. His problem was
that he felt uncomfortable in group discussions.
→His goal then, was to enhance his current interactions. He began his first
week by preparing answers to the standard question, ‘How was your day?’
He reflected on the home-stay day’s events while commuting from school,
and set a goal to explain what he had found interesting, discuss what he had
learned, or comment on why he found it boring.
Week 2 the same goal extended version (posing a question or giving an
explanation)
Week 3 extended version (join in and comment on the gist of the
conversation rather than trying to understand every word).
Participant B on the other hand, began the project quietly and was in fact
known as a quiet student at the college. She described her opportunities to
interact as very limited but surprised everyone the first week by announcing
that her goal was to enhance and increase her interactions through
volunteering at her friend's electronic shop for five hours every evening and
talking with customers. While the other participants and I, felt that a goal of
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this magnitude would be difficult to sustain, she confidently argued that the
time commitment was not a problem and stuck with her goal throughout the
project.
At the end of the project, eleven of the thirteen participants reported specific improvements in
their OCI. Interestingly, they all reported the greatest benefits were unexpected, that by using
STLM and focusing on something they felt they could affect change in unplanned interactions
occurred and new social relationships had been established. The language learners believed
these unplanned interactions were the greatest benefit of the project and decided they were
probably due to the confidence the learners had built up when achieving their smaller weekly
goals. Most also noted overall improvements in their language proficiency and better results
in their classroom participation.
The students’ teachers had not been directly informed of the project as there had been no need
to adjust students’ schedules etc. However during the project I was approached by a few
instructors who had wondered what the group was doing. Participant C for example reported
moderate improvements compared to some of his peers in the group however his teacher’s
observations were quite different. She sought me out on her own to discover what I had done
to him as she was very pleased with his current classroom participation and his improved
communications with others.
To ascertain whether the students reports of their beliefs that their classroom communication
had benefited by focusing on their OCI. I asked their classroom teachers to tell me if there
was a change in these 13 students spoken interaction pattern this term versus the previous
term. According to their instructors’ observations and their course marks, all 13 students
participation scores in their classes had improved .Depending on the course they were
enrolled in, some had measurably improved, on the IELTS speaking and listening exam or on
the Cambridge Business Exam, which focused on these skills through testing interviewing
skills.
Perhaps the most prominent theory supporting the learning outcomes reported after this
collaborative action based research study is what Zimmerman (2000) terms
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December 2013
Cognitivist Perspective” where the active participation in cooperative research requires
forethought , action, reflection and self-regulation of action raises the learner’s awareness.
Figure 1.1.
The learners had become responsible for reporting and evaluating their own interactions. In
effect by setting, evaluating and developing interaction strategies that best suited their own
learner needs they had become their own ‘learner trainers’.
An extensive review of literature at that time indicated that there was not much published
regarding the role of informal interactions in language learning from the perspective of the
teachers. There was however, a wide acceptance that language learners considered natural
interactions with native speakers to be an important factor in language learners . Informal
discussions with language teachers working in the same language college, who were often
language learners themselves, suggested that teachers generally tended to acknowledge that
students consider both formal and informal spoken interactions as important. However the
majority of teachers described feeling overwhelmed by the work they are expected to do and
had very little time to consider what types of interactions students were having once they
were outside the classroom doors.
The Macquarie Teacher Beliefs Study
As mentioned earlier, learning does not always go as expected. After spending almost two
years looking at factors that support and encourage language learning I discovered an even
larger gap which was very little attention or importance has been given to what it was
language teachers’ believe (Borg, 2003). In the field of language learning there appeared to
be a contradiction as there were numerous publication on students’ beliefs and how these
beliefs could motivate or impede an individual’s learning (Oxford & Green, 1996) Although
there were case studies describing an individual teacher’s beliefs in small class based studies
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the lack of publication in the area suggested that teachers’ beliefs were
not typically
considered an area of serious research in the field of language learning and teaching and that
it is what these teachers did rather than thought that was considered important. One of my
favorite quotes on this topic comes from a small book on education titled “Teaching as a
Subversive Activity” where the authors describe the teachers and especially their attitudes as
the most important factor in any educational inquiry yet bemoan what they believe to be
axiomatic or given fact as frequently being overlooked.
There can be no significant innovation in education that does not have at its
centre the attitudes of the teachers. The beliefs, assumptions, feelings of
teachers are the air of the learning environment; they determine the quality
of life within it.
—Postman and Weingartner (1969, p. 30)
A further review of literature highlighted a huge gap in our understanding of how teachers
viewed informal interactions both in and outside the classroom.
In other words, while
teachers’ were well versed in the need to set up , provide or somehow scaffold spoken
communication within the classroom there was almost nothing published on what teachers
defined as “good learning” through the use of informal communications either in or outside
the classroom. However as teachers we must keep in mind that our students are astutely
aware of the types of teacher talk they receive in the classroom and recent studies such as
Matsumoto’s research into students perceptions of teacher talk suggest that they are not
satisfied with the types of error feedback they receive and view longer explanations and visual
illustrations of informal interactions to be addressed in the classroom along with academic
language practice (2010) whereas Hughes, and Chen Pei, described a large study in China
which indicated that Chinese students were not happy with the limited amount of English
language interaction they were receiving in theirs (2008). In an attempt to address this gap, I
used a phenomenographic technique developed in Sweden which had been successfully
applied to better understand and categorize teachers beliefs in areas like math & science
(Prosser, Trigwell, & Taylor, 1994). 4). 4, 217-231.
 Twenty-eight EAP teachers were interviewed at the National Centre for English
Language Teaching and Research (NCELTR) at Macquarie University.
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 All participants had current or very recent experiences in teaching students at upper
intermediate to advanced levels of English.
 The level of the students and the subject context was pertinent to the
phenomenographic approach, as previous studies indicated that teacher practices
altered with the perceived variation in subject area or in the ability of the students at a
course level
Using a phenomenographic approach all the instructors were asked to describe the lesson they
had most recently taught. They were asked to recall specific in class interactions and also to
recall if out of class interactions had been described by students, observed by the instructor or
played a role in the lesson. In a situation were no OCI was evident, the teachers were asked to
recall a lesson where they had been evident, observed or part of the class. As lessons were
reported teachers were asked to describe when they viewed learning to have taken place and
how they perceived this. The interviews were quite extensive and some took place more than
once in order to collect data that was current and easily recalled.
The purpose of the
interviews was to record the different ways the language teachers viewed learning and
teaching, to develop an understanding of when they perceived “good” learning and teaching
to occur and how individual instructors rated specific instances of teaching and learning.
Finally, the investigation attempted to explore what role, if any, ICI and OCI had in these
processes. The information collected was transcribed and analyzed using multiple analytical
tools both statistically and qualitatively to uncover patterns of words, beliefs and actions
reported. Data was also categorized by individual scripts and as a whole. At this point in the
presentation, I asked the audience to jot down any recent classroom experience they had and
to list the role, if any that informal interactions outside the classroom and informal interaction
s, inside the classroom played in the teaching and learning that happened. I also asked them to
consider how planned or formal ICI connected to the learning and teaching they viewed as
taking place.
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Teacher Conceptions of Informal Out of Class and In Class Interactions
Findings
Consistencies
Four consistent conceptions of how the teachers viewed out-of-class interactions (OCIs) in the
process of learning ESL were evident across the range as a whole:
1. Outside L2 use was perceived to provide beneficial language practice, particularly with
native L2 speakers or classmates with a different L1.
2. OCIs in L2 were viewed as a means of socialization and beneficial in developing learner
understanding of Australian culture. Friendships or contacts made through OCIs were
thought to be a good support for learners.
3. Initiating and maintaining OCIs were conceived to be the learners’ responsibility - They
must make the choice.
4. OCIs were perceived as beneficial to overall individual L2 learning.
In other words, the data collected suggested very similar attitudes towards OCI as had been
described informally by the teachers of students in the STLM study. In short, OCI were
considered to benefit language learning but were thought to be the learner’s responsibility and
outside the scope of teaching and learning that occurs in language classrooms.
In contrast, the informal interactions that occurred between learner and learner(s) and teacher
and learner (s) inside the classroom were considered play an active role in the teaching and
learning that occurred. The teachers’ viewed, as part of their job, a requirement to plan for,
promote, and provide opportunities for and to actively encourage ICI as part of the learning
and teaching activities that took place.
1. ICI Teachers’ Method: In-class interactions are conceived as a method used by the
teacher to teach second language learners.
2. ICI Teachers’ and Students’ Method: In-class interactions are conceived as a
method used by the teacher to teach second language and to provide opportunities
for the learner to receive feedback from teacher and peers.
3. ICI Teaching Method Provides Opportunities for Group Problem Solving: In-class
interactions are conceived as a means by which students learn experientially by
interacting with others.
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4. ICI are the Context for Individual Development: In-class interactions are
conceived a means by which links between what is taught and the students’
outside world are forged.
5. ICI are a Forum: In-class interactions are conceived as a situation in which
learners’ individual conceptions are built upon and changed.
The various roles described for informal ICI or spontaneous talk, as some teachers’ referred to
it, were much more complex than those for OCI. The roles followed almost a hierarchal
pattern where in 1) they were planned by the instructor who used the interactions to provide
information to the learner, 2) they were viewed as a tool for the teacher to give information
but also viewed as a way for learners to confirm what was taught. Lastly, in 5) they were
viewed as a free discussion time where students could speak with others and the teacher in
unplanned ways to build upon or change ideas the learners already had.
Teacher Conceptions of Planned Formal versus Unplanned, Informal Talk
in Classroom Teaching
When comparing and contrasting the various ways teachers described their perceptions of
planned versus unplanned interactions within the context of the classroom, a clear pattern of
different ways classroom talk was viewed emerged. First, across the group of teachers
interviewed and the large number of teaching experiences described 5 patterns of planned talk
were found in the data whereas only 4 patterns of unplanned classroom interaction were
described. Conceptions reported across the transcripts moved from more limited to more
developed conceptions in regards to how interactions were believed to relate to the teaching
that occurred. For example in Table 2, it is clear that planned ICI within the context of a
classroom are considered to be connected to the teaching that takes place as all five types are
clearly described as part of the teaching. Interestingly, the most developed conceptions
describes the planned interactions as connected to the teaching but also related and linked to
the students’ real needs outside the classroom context. In contrast out of the four types of
informal interaction that occur in classroom three were described as outside of the class focus
and disconnected with what was being taught. The fourth was viewed as disconnected from
the teaching but related to the subject matter being taught.
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Table 2
The connection between ICI and the Teaching and Learning Reported
within Specific Instances during a Lesson.
The most complex descriptions of relations between interactions both planned and informal
occurred when teachers recalled specific teaching and learning they observed in a recent
classroom experience. These were significant as the categories which developed closely
mirrored the surface to deep approaches to learning and teaching reported in other areas such
as math, science and reading. .
Below one experience indicating a surface level conception is contrasted with one that
illustrates a deeper level of conception. These are followed by illustrations of how ICI is
viewed in these situations.
Surface-Level Conception of ICI
Participant: We also did some skimming and scanning work, focusing mainly on scanning. So
that was, you know, quite a good activity, they had: questions, to look for answers and scan to
find them.
Interviewer: Were they working alone, together?
P: What we did is, I divided them into groups of four. They were scanning for certain
information; they were looking for certain words, certain phrases and [would] give certain
answers. (Pause) So I put them in groups of four and I said to them, you start scanning and as
soon as you’ve found the first answer, the group runs up to the board and writes down the
answer on the board.
I: So each group was doing the same task?
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P: They were all doing the same text and they were reading on their own, but it was a race to
see who the winning group would be
When reviewing the group interaction that is planned. It is clear that little if any interaction is
required and that the individuals simply need to go to the board and answer the question to
indicate understanding. This follows the pattern of a surface level conception such as
provided in Illustration 1.1. A where interaction is viewed as coming from the instructor in
the form of information and learner understanding is viewed as answering a question.
Deeper-Level Conception of ICI
Participant: Dictograph—it just means having a passage, reading it once at normal speed,
they write out key words and then work in groups to reconstruct the meaning—the text, not
identical but the same meaning. It’s good because you use a lot of skills so you’ve got
listening not to dictation (which is a fairly false situation) but to a person speaking at a
normal speed (pause). A bit of note taking, and then they are working in groups. That’s good
because they are constructing working together plus they are thinking about sentence
structure for one thing, “There’s that word, how do you put it in a sentence—oh that’s not a
good word in that sentence,” and all that.
When reviewing the group interaction that is planned it is clear that the instructor has
scaffolded a context where interaction will take place however the type of interactions very
and the task includes problem solving, looking at writing,, listening to native speakers and
working together to construct a text that conveys meaning.. Differences in the complexity
involved in the first and second excerpts are indicated in Illustration 1.2.E where either the
teacher or a student initiates the topic where shared previous experience is required to
complete the task and interaction occurs naturally between the learners, in discussion with the
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class, perhaps asking the teacher a question. Learning is viewed to occur when the student can
apply these skills in their own world contexts and construct meaning.
Northern Marianas College
Once I had returned to Saipan , I was bombarded with questions from new students about my
trip to Semarang. A majority of my students are advanced English Speakers enrolled in
Academic Research classes. However this term I also taught a class of novice English
speakers and listeners who were very interested in the outcome of Participant B from the
Australian study.
I explained that she was the most surprising participant of all. Because she continued to
quietly attend meetings, sometimes would offer suggestions to others but generally, she would
simply indicate that had maintained her goal from the week before. The outcome of her
STLM did not become evident until the final day of the project when the participants gathered
in a forum, reflected on their individual goals throughout the project and reported their
individual outcomes to the others. She was one of the last ones to speak and she had taped
recorded her reflection prior to the meeting. She started by describing her life before the
project as being extremely lonely. That she had attended the college for four years but had
only made a few friends who generally spoke to her in Chinese. She explained that she was a
naturally shy person and had not attempted to meet anyone where she had purchased a flat
and for the previous three years she had grown more and more reclusive. She claimed that
prior to joining the group she had begun to fear graduation as after that she would have no
reason to go outside at all and was afraid that her growing depression would only get worse.
Her words stunned her peers back then and my new students in Saipan as well.
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Participant C explained that she found it excruciating at first to walk up to a customer in the
electronics shop and ask if they needed help but evening after evening she began to notice
that she was more able to help them and that they had begun to seek her out with questions.
She told of the elevator man who became curious as to why this tenant who always stayed in
her flat was now out every evening. She explained she had a job and after a week or two of
exchanging greetings he invited her to his home to meet his wife and kids and they had all
become friends.
Surprisingly, at the end of the story an elderly woman with very low level English skills
began to cry explaining that she felt exactly the same way. She had lived in Saipan for a
number of years and was so tired of being lonely and unable to communicate that she had
signed up for the course. She was immediately surrounded with hugs from students in the
class and has struggled throughout the semester but now has a number of friends she studies
and goes out with from my class and her other classes. I’m including this here because
although it may appear a non-academic way of concluding a plenary paper. It was a
significant moment for me as a teacher to recall how debilitating living in a foreign country
can be for some and often there are other reasons beyond language improvement that should
encourage us to stop and include our students’ lives in our classroom interactions, these
interactions some emotional can make huge differences (Hargreaves, 2000).
Author Note
My sincere appreciation to
the ELTL&T
Conference
Committee for their kind
invitation to be a keynote speaker and to open the first Plenary Session of the 2 nd ELTL&T
International Conference in Semarang, Indonesia, 2013. I would also like to acknowledge that
my attendance and stay, in part, were covered by the conference sponsors a collaboration
between Semarang State University, Arab World English Journal (AWEJ( and RELO . I
would also express my gratitude to the Faculty and students of Language and Arts at
Semarang State University for their enthusiasm and professional hosting of this stimulating
event. The quality of information exchange and caliber of speakers invited was truly
impressive. Lastly, the setting, beauty of the city and friendliness of the Semarang people,
during my stay, make this event, one I hope to have the opportunity to visit again, in the near
future.
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Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Kimberly Bunts-Anderson,
Department of Language and Humanities, Northern Marianas College, Saipan, MP 96950
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BENEFITS AND THREATS OF INTERNATIONALIZATION
AND STUDENT MOBILITY: A CASE STUDY OF UNIVERSITI
TEKNOLOGY MALAYSIA (UTM)
Dr. Khairi Obaid Al-Zubaidi
Language Academy.
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM)
International Campus, Kuala Lumpur
Malaysia
Abstract
As we progress our living in this new millennium with all the challenges of its
globalization which has affected all aspects of the human life, internationalization in
higher education has emerged as a response to globalization. Therefore, many policy
makers in different countries are called to take necessary steps and measures as well as
establish extensive and effective programs to face these challenges. Ministries of
Education, Higher Education and other educational departments and institutions - public
and private - in most of world countries have launched quantum activities to develop and
update its teaching methodology, facilities and programs to cope with the trend of
internationalization. Mobility of the students is considered to be the most important reason
for making internationalization a priority and is defined as the fastest growing aspect of
internationalization. This paper discuses the internationalization and students mobility and
its new trends in term of threats and benefits in general and the reasons behind
international students choosing Malaysia as a destination for their study.
Keyword: Internationalization, student mobility, benefits and threats
Internationalization
Knight (2009 P. 113) says that internationalization is “a term that means different things to
different people.” She explains that Internationalization is not a new term, but its popularity in
the educational field has appeared since in the early 1980s. Then, in the 1990s, the term
international education was centered on differentiating it from comparative education, global
education, and multicultural Education. (Knight, 2009 P.115). Today, as we are in the new
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millennium there are another set of related terms which has emerged that includes
transnational education, borderless education, and cross-border education. Knight emphasizes
that there is a need to understand internationalization at the national level as well as at the
institutional level. At the national level, internationalization is defined as “the process of
integrating an international, intercultural, or global dimension into the purpose, functions or
delivery of postsecondary education”. She explains that one of the leading rationales at the
institutional level for internationalization is preparing graduates to be internationally
knowledgeable and inter-culturally skilled to live and work in more culturally diverse
communities both at home and abroad. Knight also believes that there is a confusion and
complexity in what internationalization means. Internationalization has different purposes and
outcomes, depending on the actor or stakeholder.
On the other hand, as we are living in this new digital age Knight (2009)
says that
Internationalization has become a “formidable force for change” as evidenced by many
developments and initiatives, such as the creation of new international networks, the growing
numbers of students, professors, and researchers participating in academic mobility schemes,
more emphasis on developing international/intercultural and global competencies, more
interest and concern with international and regional rankings of universities, the establishment
of new national, regional, and international organizations focused on international education
and the investment in recruiting foreign students and dependence on their income.
Internationalization has become a common phenomenon at the higher education. There is a
growing number of universities around the world that have taken the internationalization
theme as the main issue in their planning. Penn State University in its strategic plan for 20092013 points out that (1) the qualified faculty involvement is the main key to success in
accomplishing broad vision for ‘”vigorous internationalization objectives”. (2)It is a serious
radical departure from the past modality. (3), the trend of Internationalization requires a
network of partnerships with other countries that have the capacity to provide adequate
intentional education for the students and to cope with the new vital global challenges of our
time and (4) “Universities should take time and resources to develop vigorously and pursue
strategies that will significantly enhance the education abroad offerings, the services to
international students, and efforts to internationalize campuses”.P.3.
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Wood, Van R. (2007), outlines eight common perceptions about internationalization in
reviewing a research about 110 U.S. institutions of higher education (drawn primarily from
the Institute of International Education’s 2004 Open Doors Report). These eight common
perceptions are (1) the internationalization of campus and community is both an opportunity
and a challenge that must be dealt with today. (2) Great universities need to let the world
know they have a purpose and a vision concerning what they are and what they seek to
become. (3) Effective university leaders do not demand an embrace of the international arena
at their institutions. What they do is establish broad policies and priorities related to
innovative initiatives aimed at developing a global culture throughout their campus and
community, and then let the creative entrepreneurs take over. (4) Exemplary international
programs and initiatives success or failure are based primarily on the dedication and
capability of their faculty champions and their creative entrepreneurs. (5) No institution is an
island. Partnerships and alliances are critical components of international educational
development and a global focus. (6) The organization behind a university’s international
efforts appears to work best when it is both centralized and decentralized. And (7) Branding
of the university in the international arena is a responsibility that all must understand and
share. (8) Finally, Wood believes that students are central to the success of any university’s
attempt to globalize its campus and community, and students are the primary reason why a
university should embrace internationalization.
(Knight, 2003.P.3) points out that the dynamic relationship between internationalization of
education and globalization is a crucial area of study. Globalization affects each country in
many different ways due to “a nation’s individual history, traditions, culture and priorities”
and it is “positioned as a multifaceted phenomenon and an important environmental factor
that has multiple effects on education.” In addition to that Knight believes that Globalization
presents new opportunities, challenges, and risks at the same time. She says that
“internationalization is changing the world of education and globalization is changing the
world of internationalization.” (Knight, 2003.P.3) She adds that substantial efforts have been
made to maintain the focus on the internationalization of education and to avoid using the
term globalization of education.
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Student Mobility
Student mobility refers to students studying abroad to obtain a degree. Historically,
international students - in spite of many obstacles - have traveled to foreign countries to
obtain a higher education. Student mobility has traditionally been motivated by cultural,
academic and other non-economic reasons, but nowadays the scene has changed. There are
many Universities and colleges around the world which rely heavily on the fees of the
international students. Also traditionally, most of the international students’ movement was
towards North American and European universities and some universities provide
“scholarships to foreign students as a means of enhancing their international status and
relations with other countries”. (Kritz.2006. P4), but as we are at the end of the first decade of
the new millennium the student mobility has new trends.
The 21st century has witnessed a new status of student mobility with high growth; it is a real
challenge for the higher education. The increasing number of higher education opportunities
for studying abroad is contributing to a rising competition in the international students market.
In an attempt to attract the growing number of foreign students many institutions are working
to differentiate themselves from their competitors. Furthermore, this growth has encouraged
colleges and universities to take steps to upgrade their programs, and facilities to reach
international demands and requirements. At the same time the growth has created new trends
in the development of the international education as well. Some universities have designed
programs and courses that include international content and curricula.
According to (Altbach, 2009 P.II), in the early of the first decade of the century, “higher
education has become a competitive enterprise. In many countries students must compete for
scarce places in universities and in many countries admission to the top institutions has
become more difficult” He adds that Globalization is a key reality in this century, and it “has
magnified the importance of the global context.”
Knight in the 2003 International Association of the University Survey Report indicates that
mobility of students is considered to be the most important reason for making
internationalization a priority and is identified as the fastest growing aspect of
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internationalization. She adds Student mobility is one of the biggest benefits of
internationalization. (Knight2003c.P.3)
Some believe this high volume of foreign students will help to create new academic potential
opportunities in many countries. Others think this growth may be at the expense of the
academic quality, poor command of the English language and will be misused by some
commercial providers. Therefore, the role of the Ministry of Higher Education and other
educational institutions is curtailed to guide and monitor all academic activities in the public
and private universities. On the other hand, (Wilen,2008) believes that technology will play
an increasing role in higher education and student mobility and educational institutions will
adopt solution that will change the students’ way of learning, communicating and studying
on and off campus.
Open Door (2008, p.3) reports that the Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs of the U.S.
State Department also takes a special attention on this matter and “manages a wide range of
academic, professional, and cultural exchanges that include approximately 40,000 participants
annually, with the goal of increasing mutual understanding and respect between the people of
the United States and the people of other countries.” The same report estimated that there
were 623,805 international students in the US in the 2007/08 academic year. In the last few
years the enrolment of international students in the United States’ higher institutions has
declined. In his testimony, Scott (2007), the director of Education, Workforce, and Income
Security Issues, has outlined three main challenges in attracting international students to the
United States and their implications for global competitiveness. These challenges are: (1) the
global landscape of higher education is changing and it provides more alternatives for
students, particularly as other countries are also expanding their educational capacity and
technology-based distance learning opportunities; (2) the cost of obtaining a degree in the
United States is rising, which may discourage international students from enrolling in the U.S
colleges and universities; (3) visa policies and procedures being tightened after September 11,
2001, to protect U.S national security interests, may have contributed to real and perceived
barriers for international students seeking to enter the country.
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Similarly, there are many other countries which are working aggressively to attract
international students, such as Britain, which announced the “setting up of a goal of attracting
100,000 more international students to the country in the next five years” (Johnson 2006, p.
16). Furthermore, according to Chun-Fen (2008, p. 8), Japan’s cabinet has discussed the plan
to accept 300’000 international students as part of Japan’s global strategy and its international
commitment to expand flows of human resources.
According to "College Enrolment
Statistics Canada” (2009), the recent total for international student enrollment in Canada is
123,901 in 2008. On the other hand, according to the China Scholarship Council (2008), the
number of international students in China reached 195,503 in the 2007-08 academic year.
They are from 188 countries and regions and enrolled in 544 universities and colleges,
scientific research institutes and other teaching institutions. The Chinese government has
awarded scholarships to 10,151 students.
World Migration Report (2008, p. 105) states that between 1998 and 2004, the number of
foreign students enrolled worldwide rose by 52% to 2.7 million with the OECD countries
hosting 85% of the total number. Knight (2009) estimates that by 2025, the demand for
international education will grow to 7. 2 million students, a quantum leap, from 1.2 million
students in 2000. She believes that certainly not all of this demand will be met by students’
mobility. (Kritz, 2006. P.11) points out that most of Australian universities have been very
active in setting up transnational Branch Campuses and providing services for students from
other countries as well as their own students and faculty. According to Bohm (2002.p3), the
total demand for Australian education is set to increase over 9-fold in the period between
2000 and 2025. By 2025, it is forecasted that the total demand for international higher
education in Australia will exceed 996,000 students.
On the other hand, Bohm (2002,p.3) indicates that Asia will dominate the global demand for
higher education. Asia, China and India will represent the key growth drivers - generating
over half of the global demand in international higher education by 2025.
International Students in Malaysia
In recent years, Malaysian universities and colleges have witnessed a notable increase in
international students’ enrolment. In 2006, UNESCO reported that the highest recent total for
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international students’ enrollment in Malaysia is 30.407 international students. A little more
than a third of this population came from China. On March 9, 2008, a Malaysian newspaper,
The Star said that the number of international students had increased between 2006 and 2008
by 30%, bringing the overall numbers to 65,000 foreign students enrolling in private and
public institutions of higher education last year, compared to 48,000 in 2006. This increase in
number came as result of the ambitious plan announced by Malaysia to attract 100.00
international students by 2010. In addition, Verbik, (2007) believes that at the present,
Malaysia, Singapore and China have emerged as contenders and have a combined share of
approximately 12% of the global student market. According to Malysian Ministry of Higher
Education international students in Malaysia exceeded 90.000, June 2011 and its target is
200.000 by 2020.
Why international students chose Malaysia for their study
Methodology
For the purpose of this study a questionnaire seeking information on the above was designed
to address the research question of this study and explore the reasons behind the increasing
number of international postgraduate students in Malaysia The questionnaires were
distributed to 163 respondents who made up of postgraduate international students population.
These students are studying in different majors at the Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM).
This study examined international students from 14 countries including Indonesia, Iran,
Libya, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Jordan, Iraq, Yemen, Sudan, Kazakhstan, Nigeria, Syria,
Turkey and Algeria.
Findings and Results
With regard of international students’ choice to study in Malaysia, the data shows that 95
(58%) of all respondents agreed that the cost of living and study fee is affordable. 85 (52%) of
all respondents agreed to choose Malaysia for study because Malaysia is a modern and
technologically advanced country and Malaysia is a safe country to live in respectively. The
data also shows that 75 (46%) of the respondents agreed that Malaysia has a good reputation
around the world. Also, the data shows that 75 (46%) of the all respondents agreed that they
chose Malaysia because of the excellent quality of higher education and 73 (44%) of
respondents agreed home qualification are acceptable and it allows them to pursue the studies
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wanted while 43 (26%) of all respondents said because there are limited places available to
study at (high prestigious) University in the home country. 58 (35%) of the respondents also
said that they found difficulties with the recognition of credits/academic qualifications
obtained in their home country. In addition, the data shows that 65 (39%) of the respondents
believed there are good chances to live and work in Malaysia after their studies and 65 (39%)
of the respondents chose Malaysia because Malaysians are welcoming towards
foreigners/people from different ethnic backgrounds while 68 (41%) the respondents like the
climate/weather in Malaysia.
Threats and benefits
As the student mobility has witnessed a significant increase in the last two decades, the
foreign students have started to face new challenges such as the absence of clear guidelines
and systems of some of the universities and this has led to many types of frustration to many
of the students. Some international students are discouraged to study abroad when they have
to face too much bureaucracy such as the process of the applications and there is a lack of
knowledge of the people dealing with international students’ backgrounds. On the other hand,
some universities have developed well prepared programs and facilities to attract more
foreign students. The increased student mobility has two folds; it has created a new
competition among higher education for better and new programs to face the new challenges
of the global and digital education and it has also created a new phenomena of a commercial
education on the expense the students’ own national and cultural identity as well as on the
expense of the academic quality. Many countries around the world have lost many of their
talented and gifted students as a result of student mobility due to different political, social,
and economical reasons. (Knight 2003c, p.3) states that “Brains drain and loss of cultural
identity are seen as the greatest risk of internationalization”. Some countries have launched
plans to attract their graduates to go back home. According to (Hvistendahl, 2008) China has
set up a plan to attract its graduate students to return back home as a high percentage of
Chinese students who are studying abroad are not returning back to China. Tremblay (2005)
compiled data on the return rate of Chinese students by destination and found that whereas 48
percent returned home after studying in France, only 14 percent returned after studying in the
United States. That study and other evidence that students in some fields are more likely to
return than others suggest that steps could be taken by sending and receiving countries to
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increase return rates if the latter are perceived as too low. (Kritz, 2006. P.27) explains there is
one “criticism directed at international student mobility is that it leads to a brain drain for the
sending country and a brain gain for the receiving country”.
According to Teferra (2008, P.12) the results of a worldwide survey on internationalization
carried out
by the International Association of Universities,
polled senior institutional
leaders of higher education institutions in 95 different countries and received their opinions on
a common set of questions related to the importance, rationales, benefits and risks, growth
areas, etc. The survey revealed “96% of all respondents support the statement that
internationalization brings benefits to higher education, 70% believe there are also risks
associated with the international dimension of higher education.” Therefore, there is no doubt
at all, the mobility of students is an essential factor of these dimensions as the students is one
of main components - maybe the most important one, in the development of global or
international education .
The student mobility can benefit universities, countries and students in a number of ways and
help to:

Bring cross-cultural and international diversity to universities, and encourage an
awareness of cultural differences, and prepare graduates who are internationally
knowledgeable and inter-culturally sensitive.

Increase the skills of the local workforce and contributes to social transformation
processes in most countries around the world.

Stabilize their universities’ student bodies and revenues. Because most foreign
students pay their own living costs and student fees, the governments recognize that
they bring in foreign exchange for expenditure in the cities and regions where
education institutions are located, thereby stimulating local economies. Foreign
students become substitutes for domestic students and can allow universities to
stabilize their enrollments.

Benefit students by better preparing themselves to function in a world dominated by
transnational corporations and changes in communications technology that have
radically increased the speed of communications as well as challenge students to
appreciate the complexity of issues and interests.
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In recent years, the international student mobility has been changed towards new destinations
and countries as well as the traditional countries. This is a result of globalization and
internationalization beside many other mixed economical, political factors.
Conclusion:
As a conclusion, student mobility has increased in recent decades, bringing growing numbers
of students from diverse cultures into exchange with each other. Internationalization in higher
education has created more opportunities in international competitive market which will
impact the mobility of students among the countries and create new trends and directions,
therefore colleges and universities must develop strategies that provide the global perspectives
and international experiences that will help their graduates excel in this new world order.
Students who have crossed international borders for higher education purposes used to
originate mainly from countries in the South and flowed to countries in North America or
Western Europe to continue their advanced studies. Today, in contrast, significant south-tosouth and north-to-south flows are occurring as well and flows in all directions are growing
rapidly.
The survey respondents of this study indicated international students’ decision to choose
Malaysia for their study was influenced primarily by the attractive cost of living and tuitions
fees and Malaysia being a modern and technologically advanced country, it is a safe country
to live in and has a good reputation around the world. Secondly, higher education/reputation
of universities is excellent, home qualification is acceptable and it allows students to pursue
the studies they want. There are limited places available to study at universities in the home
country and because they find difficulties with the recognition of credits/academic
qualifications obtained in home country. Thirdly, there are good chances to live and work in
Malaysia after their studies.
About the Author:
Dr. Khairi Obaid Alzubaid (Applied Linguistics) University of Northern Colorado, U.S.A
M.A: University of La Verne, California, U.S.A. Taught at University of Baghdad, Sultan
Qaboos University, Amman University, and currently at language Academy, University
Teknologi(UTM), Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia .
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Wilen, Tracey(,2008)21st Century Trends for Higher Education Top Trends, 2008–
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LINGUISTICS
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THE INFLUENCE OF CULTURE ON THE STEPS OF
PERSUASIVE KEYNOTE SPEECH
Alief Noor Farida
Abstract
Persuasion in business is important. It can be done by giving information about the
products to the customers via advertisements or keynote speech when the company is
launching the products. As the function of a keynote speech is important, the speaker of
the event should be able to deliver the speech in a clear and concise manner. In this study,
discourse analysis was done to find out the moves of persuasive keynote speech in mobile
phone launching events. There were four keynote speeches analyzed. They have similar
move structure: Introduction^Body^Conclusion, but the steps constructing the moves are
different, especially in Move 1 and Move 3. In Move 2, the steps follow Monroe’s
Motivated Sequence. The structure of the steps in the move 1 and move 2 of the keynote
speeches under study varies. The variation of step structure is highly influenced by the
cultural background of both the speakers and the audiences; eastern and western culture
have some significant differences. This study shows that basic knowledge on the
audience’s cultural background will help the keynote speaker to construct his/her speech
to give better persuasive effect on the audience.
Keywords: step, move, keynote speech, culture
INTRODUCTION
In recent years, the market of electronic gadgets is increasing as an individual usually has two
mobile phones (Deloitte, 2011: 4). It is the result of the success of advertisements in
influencing the customers as Morden (1991: 25) states that advertising is used to establish a
basic awareness of the product or service in the mind of the potential customers and to build
up knowledge about it. A keynote speech which is delivered in a mobile phone launching
event is another way to influence the audience. As it has a certain purpose, it is a kind of
genre (Bathia, 1993: 13). Therefore, it has certain move structure.
Speech is included in English curriculum. A teacher needs to employ an authentic material
which provides cultural knowledge of the subjects in order to trigger the process of natural
language acquisition and effective EFL education (Hwang, 2005: 91). Unfortunately, English
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textbook which is used does not have any examples of keynote speech. Therefore, information
on move structure of keynote speech is highly needed.
This study investigates the steps in the moves of keynote speeches in mobile phone launching
events, how they are structured, and the reason why they are structured in the way they do.
The outline of this article begins with introduction. Then, it is followed by review of related
literature, method of investigation, discussion on the findings, and conclusion.
Genre
Genre has been defined as the staged, structured, communicative events, motivated by various
communicative purposes, and performed by specific discourse communities (Swales, 1990:
9). Genre explains relations between social processes, being a manner of using language to
accomplish recognizable tasks within a culture, where texts of different genres are used to
perform different tasks. Each discourse community has specific stages in constructing its text
as it is influenced by the cultural background of the community. People who hold eastern
culture tend to be indirect in expressing their ideas, while western people tend to be direct.
Each stage has different function as Swales and Feak (2003: 35) define the term ‘move’ or
‘schematic unit’ as a defined and bounded communicative act that is designed to achieve one
main communicative objective. Dudley-Evans and St John (1998: 89) state that a move has
steps that provide a detailed perspective on the options open to the writer in setting out the
moves. Because it is a functional category, the length of a move can range from a single finite
clause to several paragraphs.
As we know that a text consists of some moves, they need to be organized in a specific way to
make the messages in the text are conveyed and understood well by the audience or readers.
The structures will also help a speaker or writer when s/he organizes her/his text. Moreover,
the move structure describes specific genre as Eggins (1994: 10) states that when we describe
the stage, structure way in which people go about achieving goals using language, we are
describing genre. The structure of moves in a text of a specific genre will be different from
another genre. Therefore, a description of move structure in a given genre is needed.
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To make a description of move structure in a given genre, a discourse analysis which focuses
on the moves is needed. Stages analysis involves identifying the series of moves (Hyland,
2007: 47). The analysis is based on the distinctive communicative act which is designed to
achieve one main communicative function. In this study, to identify the moves, textual clues
and surface signals are usually fairly reliable indicators.
In most general terms, the constituent stages of a genre are a Beginning, a Middle and an End.
However, Thompson (1996: 13) views that we can split up text into stages, stages into
sentences and sentences into parts, so that we can later go on to look at the particular
functions which each part serves. In short, describing the move structure of a text means
describing its constituent.
English Curriculum for Senior High School
The 2006 Curriculum or Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan (KTSP) becomes the base of
this study as the study aims to enrich the knowledge on English text type that will be learned
by Language program students. It is the operational curriculum made and done by each unit of
education (BSNP, 2006: 1). It is arranged based on the students’ potential development and
needs for now and for the future with consideration of the local and national interest, and the
global requirements with the spirit of the School-Based Management.
The objective of the 2006 English curriculum for senior high school is preparing the students
to compete in the global era by developing their communicative competence and their
understanding on language and culture. Language program students have some additional
materials in public speaking (BSNP, 2006: 147). The curriculum is preparing them to have
public speaking skills. The following is the public speaking: Speech, Debate, and Presentation
that will be given to XII grade students in the first semester.
This study focuses on speech, especially keynote speeches which are delivered in mobile
phone launching events. The keynote speech videos and transcripts can be authentic materials
in teaching public speaking. They will give examples on how a keynote speech, a spoken
persuasive text, is constructed and the features of the keynote speeches. It will give guidance
for students in language programs to understand and construct a keynote speech.
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Public Speaking
Public speaking, or rhetoric, is the process of speaking to a group of people in a structured,
deliberate manner intended to inform, influence, or entertain the listeners. It is closely allied
to presenting, although the latter has more of a commercial advertisement. In public speaking,
as in any form of communication, there are five basic elements, often expressed as "who is
saying what to whom
using
what medium with
what effects?"
(Malmsio,
2012:
6).
Who/whom refers to the audience of the speaking as the most important factor to consider the
manner to deliver the speech. He should deliberately come up with a verbal address that is
appropriate to the audience. What refers to the topic which will provide the speaker with the
idea to develop a talk which is most appropriate, timely and equally relating to the audience.
What medium or how refers to how the speech is delivered so that it will bring about certain
effects to the audience. The way the speaker talks will influence the way the audience react on
the speech.
Public
speaking
can
also
be
considered
a discourse
community. Interpersonal
communication and public speaking have several components that embrace such things as
motivational speaking, leadership/personal development, business, customer service, large
group communication, and mass communication. Public speaking can be a powerful tool to
use for purposes such as motivation, influence, persuasion, informing, translation, or
simply ethos.
Speech
In our live, we may have a chance to speak or deliver a speech in front of an audience. To
give a successful presentation of speech, careful preparation and organization are required. A
careful consideration on who you are speaking to, when, where, and why, will have an impact
on the structure and content. A well-structured speech with a step-by-step approach is one that
is easy to follow. Mostly, a speech has an introductory statement, body, and a conclusion
(Connel & Stoffer, 2004: 6). An introduction must include the following elements (Kaminski,
2001: 2): Grabber or hook, Establishing Credibility, Purpose of speech, Main idea or topic
introduction, and Agenda for what's to come in the presentation. The Body section includes
the following elements: Body "paragraphs, Cohesive devices and transitional links, and
Examples and details. The concluding section is the last part of a speech where a speaker has
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the last chance to remind the audiences on the points have been delivered and to persuade the
audience once more. It can be in the form of a summary of the points, a review of each points,
tie to introduction, and concluding thought (end with impact).
Keynote Speech
A keynote is a speech that is generally the main speech at a meeting or for that day of the
meeting. The keynote sets the tone of a convention and carries out the theme. A keynote
speech in mobile phone launching events is the speech which aims not only to launch and to
introduce a mobile phone, but also to persuade the audience to purchase the product by
providing facts. It can be in the form of informative speech or persuasive speech.
A persuasive speech has a specific organization which plays a central role: the speech must
logically establish why the audience must change. Although other persuasive designs are also
effective in preempting psychological resistance to change, the most widely used
organizational pattern for public-speaking is Monroe’s motivated sequence (O’Hair et.al,
2007: 45). The following is the format of Monroe’s motivated sequence: Gain the audience’s
attention, Identify unfulfilled needs, Propose a solution that satisfies, Visualize the resulting
satisfaction, and Define specific actions. The most critical principle in Monroe’s sequence is
the identification of the audience’s needs before proposing a solution.
The existence of thematic statement and preview in the introduction part makes it different
from the persuasive one (O’Hair et.al., 2007: 40). An informative speech gives us information
that describes something or states how to do something and it does not give your opinion as a
main point.
Discourse Analysis
As being stated before that genre is cultural bounded, it is along with the concept of discourse.
There are three main dimensions of discourse: (1) language use, (2) the communication of
beliefs, and (3) interaction in social situations (Van Dijk, 1997: 32). It refers to how spoken or
written language is constructed based on the beliefs hold by the discourse community for a
specific communicative purpose. A keynote speech is a text which is created within a
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community. Consequently, it is influenced by the three factors. To see the three influencing
factors in text productions, a discourse analysis is done.
Discourse analysts study the text-forming devices with reference to the purposes and
functions for which the discourse was produced, and the context within which the discourse
were created Nunan (1993: 20). The ultimate goal is to show how the linguistic elements
enable language users to communicate. Essentially, a discourse analysis involves asking
questions about how language, at a given time and place, is used to construe the aspects of the
situations network and how they give meaning to the language. In this study, a discourse
analysis focusing on the cultural background of the keynote speech is done to know the reason
why the steps in moves in the keynote speeches are structured in the way they do.
Culture in Public Speaking
Language and culture are so closely bound that we communicate the way we do because we
are raised on particular culture and learn its language rules and norms. The context of a
speech also includes the social and cultural characteristics of the speaker and the audience.
Levine et.al. (1987: 219) define culture as the system of knowledge, beliefs, and behavior
shared by a group of people to understand their world and to guide their actions and behavior.
An important aspect of public speaking in today's world is intercultural communication; the
transmission of meaning between people from different cultures or between people from
different cultural groups within a society.
There are cultural influences that affect any public speaking situation. Cultural differences in
public speaking may be seen by examining the Western logical format of developing
arguments. Though it is difficult to generalize about all members of any particular nation or
culture, learning cultural background will also help to analyze audiences and situations to
apply in public communication knowledge and skills effectively.
The core values of each culture create different cultures (McAllister, 1995: 32). Core values
involve a culture’s ideals, not necessarily what exists in real life. Western people are said to
be different from eastern people on some areas.
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Eastern Cultures are often perceived as high context cultures where collectivism is important.
In high context cultures people use a lot of indirect and nonverbal communication and are
mostly collectivistic. The Confucian concept of self makes it difficult for Chinese speakers
and writers to be direct, to express a point of view which is a typical American pattern. It
presents individualism as problematic. Arguments are often delayed, include narration, and
use statements that seem unconnected to the ears of the Western listener.
The four keynote speeches under study are constructed in four different contexts. Therefore,
we will see the influence of the two different cultures in the structure of the keynote speech.
Design of research
This is a genre study which is using qualitative approach to find out the steps in moves of a
keynote speech in mobile phone launching event, to explain how the steps in moves of
keynote speech are structured, to find out the reason why the steps are structured the way they
do, and to explain how the persuasion in the keynote speeches is realized.
Data
There are four keynote speeches in mobile phone launching events downloaded from
youtube.com on November 2011 as the data for finding out the moves of keynote speech. The
keynote speech were delivered in four different mobile phone launching events to get various
steps structures in the moves as the keynote speech are done by different people from
different mobile phone companies.
Model of Analysis
There are two models of analysis. First, analyzing the steps structure in moves of the keynote
speeches based on the social function. Second, analyzing the cultural background of the text
production to know the reason why the moves of the keynote speeches occur in the structure.
DISCUSSION
A keynote speech is an important talk/speech in a formal meeting. The keynote sets the tone
of a convention and carries out the theme. It usually tries to convince the audience about the
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theme by providing some arguments, like an exposition does. Keynote speeches under the
study are the keynote speeches delivered in mobile phone launching events. The purpose of
the event is not only to launch and to introduce a mobile phone, but also to persuade the
audience to purchase the product by providing some facts.
After segmenting all the data into their respective moves, it was found that the moves
used in advertisements under the study are:
1.
Move 1: Introduction. It is stated in the beginning in order to prepare the audience to have
the information that will be presented in the body. The steps of the Move 1 are:
a. M1S1: Grabber/hook/attention getter. The attention-getter is designed to intrigue the
audience members and to motivate them to listen attentively. There are some sub steps
done by the speakers in the keynote speeches to construct Grabber: Greeting,
Introducing oneself, Using attention getter device, Welcoming, Introducing the guests,
Giving impression, and Congratulating.
b. M1S2: Establishment of ethos. It is important to build the speaker’s and the
company’s credibility which consequently will increase the audience’s trust on the
company and product and also the desire to buy the product. The dimensions of ethos
establishment in the keynote speeches under study are: Reputation, Trustworthiness,
and Similarity.
c. M1S3: Thematic statement. It introduces the purpose of the speech. It is important to
give an insight for the audience about the points of the presentation.
d. M1S4: Preview of the products being launched
2.
Move 2: Body. All of the keynote speeches under study use the sequence of
need^satisfaction^visualization to construct its body. The following are the steps of the
Move 2:
a. M2S1: Need. The statements of need are presented to show the audience that the
existing condition at present needs changes. In this case, the speakers of the keynote
speeches try to uncover the customers’ real need on the mobile phone.
b. M2S2: Satisfaction. In this stage, the speaker presents the solution to the needs or
problems described in the previous step.
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c. M2S3: Visualization. In this stage, the speaker shows more realistic and detailed
information using vivid images and verbal illustrations to support the benefits of the
proposed solution.
3.
Move 3: Conclusion. In this final step, the speaker tries to turn the audience’s agreement
and commitment into the desired action. The following are the steps done by the keynote
speakers under study to construct Move 3.
a. M3S1: Summary / Review. It helps to remind the audience of the big ideas to help
solidify their memory of the message.
b. M3S2: Future intention. It states the speaker’s intention in the future.
c. M3S3: Tie to introduction. It resonates the introduction of the presentation.
d. M3S4: Creative concluding thought. It is a set of statements refers to main ideas with a
strong motivating statement, a call to action, or a plea. All of the keynote speeches
include this move in their conclusion part although they come out in different forms:
Slogan, Inform the product’s price and color, Offer the product, and Inform the date of
products’ availability and the delivery system.
All
of
the
keynote
speeches
Introduction^Body^Conclusion.
under
They
study
have
have
the
same
same
steps
move
structure:
in
Body:
Need^Satisfaction^Visualization. The difference comes on the steps constructing Move 1 and
Move 3.
KS1 was done on March 24th 2010 in Las Vegas in CTIA show. The audiences of the show
are people who work for telecommunications industry in United States and journalists who
make report or reviews on telecommunication industry. Both the speaker and the audience of
the event are English native speakers who hold a strong western culture. It can be seen from
the move structure of the keynote speech.
KS1 is in the form of informative speech. Move 1 in KS1 consists of M1S4- M1S1-M1S3.
M1S4 is done by stating the product’s benefit. M1S4’s occurrence before M1S1 shows
directness of the speaker to the point of the presentation. It is the way western people view the
truth. The clause of M1S4 also offers practicality which becomes the way they encounter life.
Move 2 is used by the speaker to describe and show the benefits of the product. The steps
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consist of the description of the new product. The steps’ sequence M2S1-M2S2-M2S3 shows
simple cause-and-effect logic. People in western culture use this way in their life. They think
that problems in their life require solution. They must be resolved, not to be avoided. The
conclusion of KS1 is done in a short way as the speaker only states a phrase. The phrase ties
to the introduction which describes the benefits of the product on the customers’ life.
Although the conclusion is short, it is effective to persuade the audience as the audience will
remember it easily. It also shows how people in the area face their life. They put practicality
forward.
KS2 follows the outline of persuasive speech. KS2 was delivered when Apple announced the
iPhone 4s launch event on October 4, 2011, in Cupertino, California. The event was opened
and closed by the Apple’s CEO, Tim Cook. As it is done in California, the audiences of the
KS2 are Apple’s customers, colleagues, and journalists. Most of them are English native
speakers. They hold western cultures in their life. It can be seen on the KS2’s move structure.
The Introduction of KS2 consists of M1S1 (the speaker’s self-introduction) and M1S2
(establishment of ethos). It is done by the CEO of the company. The Introduction mainly aims
to establish the speaker’s and the company’s ethos by describing his experience in the
company and the company’s achievements. It shows that he holds western culture as western
people think that human effort determines one’s lot in life. M1S2 is also done by the speaker
to establish the company’s ethos. He tells the company’s experience in telecommunication
industry and shows how the customers react on the products made by the company. He uses
testimonials, graphs as scientific evidence, and also videos. He shows two cultural values
here; that truth is defined by facts and that development must be pursued.
The Move 2 of KS2 is done by some speakers. They are people who work for the company.
They describe updates and features on the new products. They also show directness in their
presentation as they directly go to M2S1-M2S2- M2S3 after they are given floor by the
previous speaker. The one who gives the floor to the next speaker is the one who is delivering
and finishing his speech. It shows that they hold Egalitarianism. They think that everyone has
equal rights and opportunity. It can also be seen from the way they give floor to the next
speakers. The conclusion of the event is done by the CEO, the same person who opens the
event. He closes the event by reviewing the information about the product which is launched
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in the event (iPhone 4s). He also tries to tie it to the introduction by showing his pride on the
team and establishing the ethos. It also reveals the cultural background of the speaker. M3S1
is done in a short way. It shows practicality in his way of thinking. M3S3 comes after the
review. The clauses in the step show that he thinks that human effort or skill determines
outcome.
KS3 was delivered when Nokia introduced Symbian Belle on August 24th, 2011 in Hong
Kong. It was done by two speakers: the first is Colin Giles, EVP and head of Global Sales at
Nokia and the second is Heiki Koivu, head of Nokia smart phone operation in China. Both of
them are English native speakers, but they have lived in Asia for years. The way they
delivered the keynote speech shows that they combine western and eastern cultures. KS3
follows the outline of informative speech. In the Introduction part, the speaker shows some
previews on the products being launched. It is done by the CEO of the company. The speaker
tries to establish his own and the company’s ethos. He tells about his experience in the
company and in the area where the product is launched. It is done to make the audience trust
the speaker more. He puts a lot of efforts to establish the ethos; he uses a familiar word for the
audience, shows statistics, and also shows the company’s efforts to fulfill the customers’
needs. In this opening, he also previews the products by describing the products and also
informing the price of the products. In Move 1, the steps used by the first speaker are M1S1M1S3-M1S2-M1S4. M1S3 comes right after M1S1 to put the audience into higher position,
to show that the audience is the important people in the event as they become the first persons
to see the new products. It shows that the eastern cultural value has class structure in the
community: individuals have unequal rights and position. M1S2 is done by showing that the
speaker has been a part of the community. He uses a word from Hong Kong. He does that as
people in Hong Kong holds Collectivism in their life. They will do anything for the group’s
sake. Therefore, the speaker aims to show that he is a part of the community and he will do
anything for the community. It is shown on the way he tells the company’s efforts to make the
products for the customers. However, from the way he tells the development of the company
on the telecommunication industry in the area, it shows that he uses the eastern culture as the
bases. The eastern people see the past as the living anchor of the present and must be
maintained. Therefore, he shows the success of the company in the past to build the
audience’s trust on the company.
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Move 2 of KS3 is done by the second speaker. He shows that he still holds western culture in
their life as he directly comes to M1S3 by stating the point of his presentation. His
presentation is constructed by M2S1- M2S2- M2S3. It also shows directness and he is
showing the facts on how the product will give benefits on the customers. That is how
western people see the truth. It is that truth is defined by facts, not depends on the relationship
of the audience. He also shows practicality as the emphasis of the products’ benefit. Move 3
consists of M3S1- M3S3- M3S4. M3S1 is simple as western people make a summary. In
M3S3 and M3S4, the speaker uses eastern culture in order to take the audience’s trust so they
will have desire to buy the product. He shows that the company will preserve their
relationship. Collectivism occurs once more in this step as the speaker shows that what the
company does is for the community’s sake. The event is closed by the first speaker. This
conclusion part consists of summary of the presentation, tie to introduction (by showing
commitment to customers), creative concluding thought (by showing future intention) and
giving impact to the audience. It is done to make the audience purchase the products to
experience the products’ benefits.
KS4 was delivered in the launching event on 26 October 2010 in Taiwan. The speakers and
the audience are not English native speakers. Their eastern culture can be easily seen from the
move structure of the keynote speech. Move 1 takes most of the presentation as there are eight
speakers in it. The first speaker is the CEO of the company and the other speakers are the
partners of the company. It shows that the community holds the faith that relationships
determine outcome. They will be able to achieve something if they have good relationship
with their colleagues. Therefore, the partners are given chance to presents their impressions
on the products and on the company. At the same time, it is also important for them to
persuade the audience as they hold the perception that truth is dependent on the relationship.
They try to create the audience’s trust by showing other’s opinion on the products. Eastern
people tend to act based on what other people (their group) think. The presentations done by
the colleagues also aim to preserve the company’s image.
Move 2 of KS4 aims to present the new products and how the products will benefit the
customers. The speaker in this move does not directly go to the description of the products.
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He starts by showing gratitude to the colleagues for their support on the products and how
customers react on their previous products. He uses these steps as the audience holds
collectivism. He aims to show that he tries to maintain the relationships with their colleagues
and gets the audience’s trust on them. As the products go to global market, the sequences of
M2S1- M2S2- M2S3 or M2S1- M2S3 are used by the speaker to describe the products. He
uses the sequence to show western culture in the product’s development; that is simple causeand-event logic. It also resembles the Monroe’s Motivated Sequence as a way to persuade the
audience. It is good to be used as the customers will directly see the solution on the problems
they face in their life.
Move 3 of KS4 is done by the last speaker, the same person as the first speaker. He uses
M3S3 to tie to the introduction. In this step he tries to maintain the company’s relationship
with its partners. It is the way eastern people see a relationship. It must be preserved at all
costs since it will affect the company’s outcome. M3S4 also comes in indirect way. He uses a
question as if it is questioned by the audience to inform the date of the product on market. It
shows the way eastern people view the truth. It is impolite to reveal something directly.
CONCLUSION
This study focusing on the steps in the moves of keynote speeches in mobile phone launching
events has three main findings.
First, the keynote speeches under study have different forms: three of the keynote speeches
are in the form of informative speeches (KS1, KS3, and KS4) and KS2 is in the form of
persuasive speech. The difference depends largely on the speakers of the keynote speeches.
They all have similar move structure Introduction^Body^Conclusion, but the steps
constructing the moves are different, especially in Move 1 and Move 3. In Move 2, the steps
in
the
four
keynote
speeches
Need^Satisfaction^Visualization.
The
follow
steps
Monroe’s
in
Move
Motivated
1
vary
Sequence:
from
M1S1:
Grabber/hook/attention getter, M1S2: Establishment of ethos, M1S3: Thematic statement, and
M1S4: Preview. It depends on the form of the speech. Informative speech will include
preview in the introduction. The steps in Move 3 vary from M3S1: Summary / Review,
M3S2: Future intention, M3S3: Tie to introduction, and M3S4: Creative concluding thought.
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Second, the structure of the steps in the moves of the keynote speeches under study varies. It
depends on the cultural background of the speakers and the audience of the keynote speeches.
Third, the different steps occur in the keynote speeches are highly influenced by the cultural
background of both the speakers and the audiences. The cultural influence can be seen on how
the steps constructing the moves of the keynote speeches are structured. It can reflect the
western or eastern culture purely, or mixed of both cultures.
Suggestion
From these findings, it is suggested that English teachers use authentic materials to reach a
better language acquisition, especially in teaching public speaking. From the authentic
materials, students will learn the generic structure of specific genre in certain discourse
communities. For language researchers, further study on other type of genre to show
influencing factors on the text will be challenging and be useful for education field.
References
Bhatia, V. K. 1993. Analysing Genre: Language Use in Professional Settings. London:
Longman
BSNP. 2006. Standar Isi untuk Satuan Pendidikan Dasar dan Menengah. Jakarta: BSNP.
Connell, Eve & Jill Stoffers. 2004. Public Speaking for the Commercial Diplomat. Retrieved
on 15 September 2011 from www. Commercialdiplomacy.org.
Deloitte. 2011. Addicted to Connectivity. Perspectives on the Global Mobile Consumer 2011.
Retrieved on 15 December 2011 from www.deloitte.com/addictedtoconnectivity.
Dlugan, Andrew. 2010. 15 Tactics to Establish Ethos: Examples for Persuasive Speaking.
Retrieved on 4 July 2012 from http://sixminutes.dlugan.com/ethos-examples-speaking/
Dudley-Evans, T., & St. John, A. M. J. 1998. Developing English for specific purposes: A
multi-disciplinary approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Eggins, Suzanne. 1994. An Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics. London : St
Martin’s Press
Hwang, C. 2005. Effective EFL Education Through Popular Authentic Materials. The Asian
EFL Journal Quarterly, June 2005, Volume 7, Issue 1. Retrieved on 20 June 2011
from http://www.asian-efl-journal.com
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Hyland, Kenn. 2004. Genre and Second Language Writing. Michigan: The University of
Michigan Press.
Levine, D. R., J. Baxter, & P. McNulty. 1987. The Culture Puzzle: cross-Cultural
Communication for English as a Second Language. NJ: Prentice Hall.
Malmsio, Helene. 2012. Preparing Yourself for Public Speaking. Retrieved on 7 February
2012 from www.strategic-service-aust.com
McAllister, Lawrence W. 1995. Culture: the Seen and the Unseen. Course Book for CrossCultural Understanding offered at IKIP Semarang.
Morden A.R. 1991. Elements of Marketing. London: D.P. Publication Ltd. Cambridge
Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (3rd Ed.)
Nunan, David. 1993. Introducing Discourse Analysis. London: Penguin.
O’Hair, D., Stewart, R., & Rubensten, H. 2007. A Pocket Guide to Public Speaking. Boston:
Bedford-St. Martin’s.
Swales, J. M. 1990. Genre Analysis: English in academic and research settings. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Swales, J. M., & Feak, C. B. 2003. English in today's research world: A writing guide. Ann
Arbor, MI: The University of Michigan Press.
UNCG Speaking Center. 2012. The Tools of Persuasion: Ethos, Logos, and Pathos. Retrieved
on
3
February
2012
from
http://speakingcenter.uncg.edu/resources/tipsheets/argumentation/thetoolsofpersuasion.
pdf
Thompson, Geoff. 1996. Introducing Functional Grammar. Auckland: Arnold
Van Dijk, T.A. 1997. Discourse Studies: A Multidisciplinary Introduction. London: Sage.
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A STUDY OF JAVANESE CULTURAL THEME
APPLIED BY ENGLISH TEACHERS
Dwi Winarsih
[email protected]
Abstract
This qualitative study aims to know how teachers apply Javanese cultural theme in their
professional practices. Data was collected from 5 senior English teachers of senior high
school in Magelang. Finding shows that teachers concern very much with inner
management (olah rasa). Education tries to instill the idea of peace (rukun), respect
(hormat), and harmony (keselarasan). The teachers appreciate feeling at peace, not
bothered and evaluate personal life and that in the neighborhood, in terms of quiet
orderliness (tata-tentrem). The impacts of the manifestation of those concepts are teachercentered teaching, passive students, low ethos of teachers’ professional practices,
ineffective teaching.
Keywords : cultural theme, professional practice, education
INTRODUCTION
Topic of a research which has got much attention on teachers’ professional becomes a source
of information when they make instructional decisions in the classroom. The study how
teachers make instructional design concerns with the ways of practitioners organize and
process complex bodies of information in fields such as teaching methodology, setting of the
subject, experiences as well as the ways knowledge is applied to problem solving and
decision making.
Researchers conduct educational studies concerning with quality of education. Some of them
indentify factors contributing the decline of quality in education. Kompas (3/3/2011) says
based on Education for all (EFA) Global Monitoring Report 2011 the quality of education in
Indonesia is on the rank of 69 among 127 countries. Summary of Education for All written
by UNESCO (2008) and Suryadarma (2011) also state curriculum, teaching-learning process,
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and teachers as the most important factors that affect the quality of education. It is the
teachers themselves that have to responsible for the students’ learning.
In line with the facts above, the quality of education is determined by the role of teachers. It
implies that the decline quality of education is supposed to be caused by the quality of
teachers and teaching. Improvement of teacher quality is needed accordingly to improve the
quality of education. This demands teachers to have good competencies in English as a
foreign language and teaching methodology to get better result of English education. Teachers
need knowledge, skills, and values aligned with students leaning needs in school. They also
need competency to bring about students intended learning outcomes. They need competency
in demonstrating how teaching and learning at school can be planned and evaluated. The
curriculum development process may vary from one teacher to another depending on the
views and beliefs of the curriculum designer, in this case, the teacher.
Those facts are shared to put into place the motivation the researcher has for teachers’
knowledge, thought, and their professional practices regarding today’s English teaching
methodology apllied, i.e. literacy-based teaching. It is therefore important to consider how
personal knowledge and thought influence the English teacher’s conceptualization of
practices. The objective is to seek the interplay between teachers’ knowledge, thought, and
their professional practices in the context of English teaching as a foreign language in senior
high schools in Magelang Municipality.
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Professional Practice
Professions are occupations wherein performance-that is both tasks and human service- is
regulated by those already admitted to the guild on the basis of the particularized knowledge
they possess (Olesen, 1979:201). One of the characteristics of the notion of teaching as
profession is the centrality of career growth as an ongoing goal. Practice is defined as exercise
of professional skills and as achieving more humane relationships with clients (Olesen,
1979:2001).
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Education uses the term teachers’ professional practice to describe informal entities, not
organized under law. Professional practice (Danielson, 2007) requires evidence of practiceevidence of each the components of teaching identified in adopted framework. This must be
grounded in actual events, in actions or statements, in artifacts or in decisions a teacher has
made. A teacher’s professional practice would be the surest means of sustaining the program
and implementing other ideas for operating a school and serving students well. They strive for
an environment that encourages creativity, risk-taking, high-quality work and achievement,
and sharing knowledge and skills.
The Role of Teachers and Learners
Kern (2000:307) covers the three Rs of responding, revising, and reflecting concerning with
the role of teachers and learners. Responding as the first R, refers to either to give a reply or to
react (Kern, 2000:308). These mean act some thing if someone reads, writes, and talks.
Based on Kern (2000:309) idea revising in literacy approach relates with a wide range of
language activities. At the level of lesson plan and curriculum, it emphasizes rereading,
rewriting, rethinking, reframing, and redesigning language. The focus is not to repeat but to
redo within a different contextual frame, purpose, or audience differently in different
situation.
Reflecting concerns with the importance of evaluation. Kern (2000:310) proposes that
teachers must concern themselves with the target culture to which learners are being exposed
and the culture that learners themselves bring to the language classroom as well as the
relationship between two. The culture that the learners or the teachers bring to foreign
language classroom influences much on the teaching-learning activities.
English Curriculum in Indonesia
English, as stated in standard of content (PERMENDIKNAS No. 22, 2006), is learned at
elementary two hours in a week (as Mulok for class IV, V and VI), at junior and senior high
school four hours in a week except for language program in SMU – five hours in a week.
Moreover, the standard competence of graduate of English (PERMEN No. 23, 2006) for each
level is communicative competence in the form of spoken of language accompanying action
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for elementary school, in the form of spoken and written for achieving functional literacy
level for junior high school and in the form of spoken and written for achieving informational
literacy level for senior high school.
The Notion of Culture
Many people have struggled to define culture most social scientists today view culture as
consisting primarily of the symbolic, ideational, and intangible aspects of human societies. In
broad definition, culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals,
law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.
Greetz (1975:12) says that culture is public because meaning is. Culture consists of socially
established structures of meaning in terms of which people do such things as signal
conspiracies and join them or perceive insults and answer them. It is a psychological
phenomenon as well, characteristics of someone’s mind, personality, cognitive structure, or
whatever. People within a culture usually interpret the meaning of symbols, artifacts, and
behaviors in the same or in similar ways.
The Concept of Javanese Culture
Achmadi (2004:29) says that according to the Javanese people, the righteous living is to live
as people of Java in accordance with their nature, that is – their being as individuals, as part of
the society, as God’s creatures, they must have a good conducts, avoid conflicts, love to live
in peace and harmony. Actually the main characteristic of Javanese life is keeping harmony
and balance (Nurkamto, 2000:139). These characteristics are reflected in their norm of daily
life, they are as stated by Nurkamto (2000) peace (rukun), respect (hormat), and Achmadi
(2004) adds one more norm that is harmony (keselarasan). The concept of peace is applied in
order to create safe (tenteram) and peaceful (damai) atmosphere. Mulder (1998:80) says that
rukun demand a relationship to be agreeable, peaceful and friendly, demonstrating unity of
purpose. Respect (hormat) aims to maintain good relationship among the people by showing
appropriate manner to respect the social hierarchy. While harmony (selaras) means an
individual as a member of a society
has to tolerate and cooperate in order to avoid
disintegration. These norms reflect that Javanese avoid conflict and put their priority on good
feeling (rasa).
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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The present study used a case study approach to examine teachers’ knowledge, thought, and
their professional practices of five EFL teachers in “an intensive, holistic description and
analysis of a single instance, phenomenon, or social unit”. As Stark and Torrance (2005) put
it, “case study seeks to engage with and report the complexity of social activity in order to
represent the meanings that individual social actors bring to the settings and manufacture in
them”.
In this study, the researcher involved 5 teachers as subjects of study who teach in public
schools of SMA in Magelang Municipality. The teachers graduated from university that
majored in English education. There is only one teacher who has earned her master degree.
Several data were collected to provide an understanding of the interplay between teachers’
knowledge, thought and their professional practice. A case study approach seemed to be the
most appropriate way to go about capturing this data and exploring this topic. Due to the
nature of the study, inductive analysis was ongoing throughout the full period of data
collection. The researcher conducted this form of analysis simultaneously throughout the
research period for ten months in written cycle of English lesson.
Validity and reliability are essential issues to ensure the trustworthiness of a research finding.
This research utilized triangulation, member checking, and peer debriefing. Member checking
was also utilized by sharing research participants’ profiles.
DATA ANALYSIS
Based on the finding, four cultural themes are applied by SMA teachers of English concerning
with literacy based teaching and teachers’ professional practice in Magelang municipality as
the setting of the research. These four cultural themes are (1) respect for hierarchy, (2) low
ethos in working, (3) peace and harmony (kerukunan and keselarasan), and Inner
management (olah rasa) leading to be true.
Respect for Hierarchy
Using new metaphor for education that schools have always operated in loco parentis
(Goldman, 1989:60), at school, teachers represent parents, while students represent children.
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This reflects that teachers have higher social status than students. In Java culture, Mulder
(1998:64) says that manner serve to express respect (hormat). When teachers had scaffolding
model in their professional practice as collaboration that involved language in the form of
dialogue between teachers and students, students tend to be passive during the interaction.
Actually scaffolding occurs when the teachers feel that students were not yet able to
understand and do the assignment. However the students did not respond to the teachers’
utterances or answer questions except being appointed. In this case students place themselves
as children who have lower status, thus they were not dare to talk without being demanded by
teachers as parents who have higher social status. This habit has already taught since the
students were in kindergarten when the teacher educate them using song as creation of art
which have to have the same mindset (Achmadi, 2004:9).
“siji, loro, telu, mirengake bu guru… lungguh sedeku ora pareng ngganggu”. Accordingly it
becomes the culture and of course it has already been norm that governs the life. Another
realization of students’ respect toward the teachers is being afraid of making mistake.
Students who made mistake seemed to have disagreement or different opinion with teachers
aroused conflict, thus it is assumed to be embarrassing. Avoiding conflict to maintain orderly
relationship fit with the notion of rukun which has been glossed as to be in harmony, quiet
and peaceful (Mulder, 1998:62).
These facts of being passive and afraid of making mistakes become a constraint (Nurkamto,
2000:152) of student-active learning which demand students to be active to take part in any
activities teaching learning process and student-centered learning that focuses on students’
activities during teaching learning process (Nunan, 1991).
Teachers respect management directives and moral inequality come naturally. Those
management directives that cover not only people but also policy are supposed to have higher
position. Thus teachers maintain the correct social form and ordered relationship by
respecting and being obedient to management directives such as school principle, the head of
municipal education office, the minister of education, etc, as well as a policy taken by them.
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The policy of government concerning with
curriculum is the implement literacy-based
teaching. It means theoretically teaching-learning procedures apply four steps teaching as
proposed by Hammond et.al (1992), they are building knowledge(BKoF), modeling (MoT),
joint construction (JCoT), and independent construction of the text (ICoT). These teaching
procedures promote literacy development that resulting from awareness of context. However,
today’s policy, a decree of minister of education no 41 in 2007, concerning with standard of
process states that teachers may apply a procedure of exploration, elaboration, and
confirmation.
The use of modality “may” in the decree represents possibility not obligatory. It is possible
for teachers not to use those teaching procedure when it is assumed to be not appropriate,
however the teachers are quite obedient to apply. They do not dare to violate it because the
decree is assumed to be formal instruction. Using the concept of respect used by Mulder
(1998) people should know their place and task, teachers were aware that their position is
lower the minister of education who issue it. That is why the concept of respect to hierarchical
order follows teachers’ life at their work place. Based on the facts above, the purpose of
teaching English as a foreign language using literacy-based teaching that is proficient in
communicative competence (Celce-Murcia, 2007) at informational level (Hammond et.al.
(1992) cannot be successfully achieved.
Parameter successful English teacher concerns with students grade of national exam. If most
students get good grade, the teachers are supposed to be successful. Schools has good image
accordingly. Being aware of the fact, school principles demand the teacher to facilitate
students in order to get high score of national examination of English. To respect their
principles who have higher position, they think that it is important for them to responsible to
do the task given by the principles. Thus in their professional practice, they tend to complete
the target of material to teach according to the curriculum, but the teaching-learning activities
are national-exam oriented.
To Live Considerably Sufficient (Urip Sak Madyo )
Professional practice of teachers in literacy-based teaching of English has not done a good job
of turning students on to rewards of reading. They led monotonous reading activities during
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teaching-learning process, take for example discussing social function of the text, generic
structure, and linguistic elements in every single class. Since teachers’ belief in literacy –
based teaching is reading and writing skills, they spend most time to discuss vocabulary used
and comprehend the content of the text in which it develop one dimension of literacy, i.e.
linguistic. Having such a teaching-learning process and uninteresting material to read create
boring atmosphere. Thus students read texts in general are for the teachers not for improving
developmental dimension of literacy.
Students of senior high school have hectic schedule because they have a lot of responsibilities
to complete many assignments from teachers and attend many activities such as attending
extra-curricular activities, taking courses to improve understanding of school lesson because
school demand students’ score should be above minimum standard. Teachers of all subject
gave students many home-work to facilitate them practice which aims to train students doing
test item. Given a hectic schedule, students did not go to have much time to read. When they
have free time, they are exhausted, consequently, it is easier to turn television than to open up
books. These conditions support Javanese young generation to maintain a habit to put a
priority of emotional experience (Greetz, 1975; Achmadi, 2004). They tend to relax and get
an entertainment by enjoying fun.
It is not surprising that they live in a culture where people watch television in their free time
everyday. All that passive viewing does not allow much time for reading. Reading is actually
(Holme, 2004:2) a skill that must be actively practiced. This simple fact is that students who
do not read very often are not likely to be strong readers.
Javanese habit is the
implementation of Javanese society’s concept to emphasize aspect of “inner feeling” (rasa)
rather than thought and material (Achmadi, 2004; Mulder, 1998). The a concept of “urip sak
madyo” meaning that they are not ambitious (ora ngangsa / ora ngoyo) and enjoy relaxation
inspire them to lead such a relaxation. They hardly read books to improve all dimension of
literacy in their free time but in school schedule. These reflect that the appeal is always to
emotional experience (rasa). This reality as passive viewer (Langan and Broderick, 1994:1)
affects students as young generation to have low ethos work. If young generations do not have
high spirit to do activities, they will be left behind and viewers of established countries.
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Peace and Harmony (Kerukunan and Keselarasan)
To keep peace and harmony, teachers never demand much although it is needed to achieve an
ideal purpose of the curriculum. The teacher whose students have low mastery of vocabulary
and sentence structure hardly demands them to write because he thinks it creates conflict
asking them to generate ideas without having sufficient language elements mastery. Checking
and giving comments on mistake that are addressed to personals usually bother feeling. For
the sake of inner harmony and peace teachers avoid it, as in Javanese these against the
concept of having quiet orderliness of life.
Inner Management (Olah Rasa) Leading to be True
In the discourse of Javanese introspection, olah rasa is called the inward spirit or inner sense
observance in order to achieve a high level of awareness. Javanese put this spiritual
revitalization as an important issue in the aspect of life, they particularly the elderly ones
always love to share their insights and give advice to young people. This of course affects the
SMA English teachers in Magelang municiapality to implement it in their professional
practice. They tend to dominate the lesson, because it is very important for them to tell
students many things such as language knowledge as well as personal experience in order that
the students have true insights. The teachers explain the English lesson and lead to manage
their inner feeling to be true by saying for example :
“After a conjunction despite is followed by a noun, what I said here kata ini saya
jabarkan ke yang lebih spesifik karena hubungannya dengan he didn’t get angry pasti
what he said is something impolite, something makes us ill feel, misalnya saya
menyatakan despite what you said to me, I still love you. Suami istri asal nesu njuk
purek yo bubar. Ini saya jabarkan ya.”
In tune with Javanese concept that the elders have more experience to share, the teachers
prefer to suggest the students as young generation to have inner management to be true. Thus
teaching-learning process applied are mostly teacher-centered that are directed specifically by
the teacher who serves to direct the learning in very purposeful ways. Students are passive
recipients of information who acquire knowledge by listening to the teacher, by reading a
textbook, or both it literally means that the teacher is the person who is imparting knowledge
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or information to the student and the student is the receiver of this knowledge. The teachinglearning activities show that the teacher directs everything to do by students.
CONCLUSION
English teachers of SMA in Magelang municipality as member of Javanese society concern
very much and try to instill the idea of respect (hormat), peace (rukun), harmony
(keselarasan) and inner management (olah rasa).
Concerning with respect, students tend to be passive during the interaction and they were not
dare to talk without being demanded by teachers as parents who have higher social status.
Besides, teachers maintain the correct social form and ordered relationship by respecting and
being obedient to management directives such as school principle, the head of municipal
education office, the minister of education, etc, as well as a policy taken by them.
Javanese society implement a concept to emphasize aspect of “inner feeling” (rasa) rather
than thought and material. The a concept of “urip sak madyo” meaning that they are not
ambitious (ora ngangsa / ora ngoyo) and enjoy relaxation inspire them to lead such a
relaxation. This affects teachers and students not to work hard. Teachers whose students have
low English mastery seldom assign students to write English text to keep inner harmony and
peace. They also tend to dominate the lesson, because they share many things to the students
such as language knowledge as well as personal experience in order that the students have
true insights. The impacts of the manifestation of those concepts are teacher-centered
teaching. Thus students are passive. Teachers have low ethos of teachers’ professional
practices teaching and fail to have effective literacy-based teaching.
REFERENCES
Achmadi, Asmoro. 2004. Fisafat dan Kebudayaan Jawa. Surakarta : Cendrawasih
Celce-Murcia, 2007. Rethinking the Role of Communicative Competence in Language
Teaching. Paper. USA: University of California
Danielson, Charlotte. 2007. The Handbook for Enhancing Professional Practice. Virginia :
ASCD
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Depdiknas. 2006. Peraturan Pemerintah Republik Indonesia Nomor 19 tahun 2005 tentang
Standar Nasional Pendidikan. Jakarta: Depdiknas Republik Indonesia
Depdiknas. 2007. Peraturan Menteri Pendidikan Nasional Republik Indonesia Nomor 41
Tahun 2007 tentang Standar Proses untuk Satuan Pendidikan Dasar dan Menengah.
Jakarta: Depdiknas Republik Indonesia
ELN. 2011. Peringkat Pendidikan Indonesia Turun. Kompas . 3 Maret 2011. Jakarta
Goldman, Louis. 1989. The Revolution in Education. Article. Illinois:The Board of Trustees
of the University of Illinois.
Greetz, Clifford. 1975. The Interpretation of Cultures. Great Britain : The Anchor Press Lmt.
Hammond, et.al. 1992. English for Social Purposes. Sydney Australia : Macquarie University
Holme, Randal. 2004. Literacy An Introduction. Edinburgh : Edinburgh University Press
Kern, Richard. 2000. Literacy and Language Teaching. Oxford : Oxford University Press
Langan, John and Broderick, Bill.1994. Ten Steps to Building College Reading Skills. USA :
Townsend Press
Mulder, Niels. 1998. Mysticism in Java Ideology in Indonesia. Singapore : The Pepin Press
Nunan, David. 1991. The Learner-Centered Curriculum. Great Britain : Bell & Bain Lmt
Nurkamto, Joko. 2000. Pendekatan Komunikatif: Penerapan Dan Pengaruhnya Terhadap
Pemelajaran Bahasa Inggris. Dissertation. Jakarta : Universitas Negeri Jakarta
Olesen, Virgin. 1979. Employing Competence-Based Education for the Reform of
Professional Practice. Paper. London : Jossey-Bass Publisher
Stark, S., & Torrance, H. (2005). Case Study. In B. Somekh & C. Lewin (Eds.),
Researchmethods in the social sciences (pp. 33-39). London: SAGE Publications.
Suryadarma. 2009. Pendidik dan Tenaga Kependidikan Menghadapi Era Global. Paper. Dies
Natalis UNNES ke 44. Semarang : Program Pasca Sarjana. UNNES
UNESCO. 2008. Education for All by 2015 Will We Make it? France : Oxford University
Press
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COGNITIVE LINGUISTIC AND ESP:
USING METAPHOR AS A USEFUL DEVICE FOR TEACHING L2
BUSINESS ENGLISH LEARNERS
Ida Hendriyani
Diponegoro University
[email protected]
Abstract
Cognitive Linguistics is language essentially and inherently symbolic in nature. It means
that all linguistic expressions such as; words, phrases and sentences, utterances, signs or
writting are symbols of concept in a speaker’s mind. Metaphor is a figure of speech in
which a word or phrase is applied to an object or action that it does not literally denote in
order to imply a resemblance. Many people have encountered them in literature and
poetry, and most of us know that even when we talk casually, we may take advantage of
such figurative language, perhaps especially when there are some evasive, hard-to-grasp
emotions or thought that we want to communicate. We can find several metaphors in
newspapers, literature or scientific articles, etc. Metaphor is a central issue in ESP
teaching.
The purposes of this paper are (1) to increase the students’ knowledge of technical and
semi-technical business vocabulary. (2) to improve business reading fluency and (3) to
enrich vocabulary in business texts or readings.
Metaphor in a specific English language program can provide students with a useful
device to raise awareness of key concepts, models and issues and to improve their reading
in business. The term of Business English refers to a wide range of ESL (English for
Specific Learning) courses characterized by having sense of purpose, specific content and
general. This frequent presence of metaphor in economic and business texts are for
second language learners, to improve language learners’ specialized reading of business
texts and to help them produce native-like discourse when they translate business texts.
Keywords: Teaching, Metaphor, English for Specific Learning (ESL), English for
Business
INTRODUCTION
In our everyday conversation, we use all kinds of devices to convey our messages, including
metaphor. Listening to one’s conversation through a metaphorical filter often reveals the
intuitive human ability to see the similiarity in dissimilars. Metaphor is ingrained in our daily
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life has become part of cognitive linguistic theory since Lakoff and Johnson emphasized the
link between language and thought. In Lakoff and Johnson’s opinion (1980), these systems
accommodate metaphors in thought or conceptual metaphors which can be expressed in
language or other modes of expression. Metaphor is an important creativity tool. Metaphor is
more appealing than pure rhetoric because it stimulates imagination and appeals to the
emotions. A metaphor can transform an intangible idea into an image that people can more
easily grasp.
Language is understood as a product of general cognitive abilities. Consequently, a cognitive
linguist must be willing to accept what Lakoff (1990: 40) calls the ‘cognitive commitment’,
that is, s/he must be prepared to embrace the link between language and other cognitive
faculties because linguistic theory and methodology must be consistent with what is
empirically known about cognition, the brain and language.
Cognitive Linguistics is a new approach to the study of language which views linguistic
knowledge as part of general cognition and thinking; linguistic behavior is not separated from
other general cognitive abilities which allow mental processes of reasoning, memory,
attention or learning, but understood as an integral part of it. Cognitive linguistics searches for
cognitive concepts that may provide reason for language choice and thus gives intersting
grounds of explanation to facilitate foreign language learning processes. The aspects of
cognitive metaphor theory more productive for language teaching will be reviewed, applied in
the business English classroom and finally empirically tested in field study.
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Cognitive Linguistics
Language is “essentially and inherently symbolic in nature” (Taylor 2002: 20). It means that
all linguistic expressions; words, phrases and sentences, uttered, signed or written, are
symbols of speaker’s mind. Taylor (2002: 20), all languages can be explained in terms of
these three entities, in which phonological structure refers to the actual linguistic expression;
in speaking, writing or signing, semantic structure refers to the meaning of linguistic
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expression which the speaker tries to convey. These entities are then brought together by the
symbolic relation.
In Cognitive Linguistics, language is seen as an integral part of cognition. In generative
grammar, it is assumed that language knowledge constitutes a “separate cognitive faculty,
structured according to its own specific principles and which is independent of other mental
capacities (Taylor 2002: 7). However, generative grammar certainly acknowledges that
grammar exists in the mind of speakers as a cognitive function.
Conceptual Metaphor
The word metaphor comes from Greek metapherein, which means to carry from one place to
another (Miller 1979: 156). It is important to separate between metaphors as they appear in
language and the metaphors that are part of our thought processes.
A conceptual metaphor is a metaphor that exists in the mind of a speaker, and may be
unconscious. The process which constitutes a conceptual metaphor is when the knowledge
from one domain is mapped onto another domain. Conceptual metaphors consist two
components, to separate them from linguistic metaphors, I will use Lakoff and Johnson’s
terms for the two components where the domain, or concept, that is mapped onto is referred to
as the target domain, while the domain that is mapped from is known as the source domain.
For example, if someone utters the sentence, when is the next wave of immigrants going to hit
us? The use of wave is metaphorical, the target domain is immigration and the source domain
is water; and he or she is thus conceptualizing immigrations in terms of waves of water.
Conceptual metaphors are typed in small capital letters, as if immigrants are water.
Conceptual Metaphor Theory suggests that conceptual metaphors play an important role in
human thought processes, and are largely unconscious.
Business Metaphors
Metaphor is an important creativity tool. Metaphor is more appealing than pure rhetoric
because it stimulates imagination and appeals to the emotions. A metaphor can transform an
intangible idea into an image that people can more easily grasp. Metaphors have been
detected in the theory and actual practice of business. For lakoff and Johnson, metaphor is a
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fundamental embodied cognitive mechanism by means of which ordinarily understand one
abstract domain of experience in terms another more concrete source domain, a schematized
real bodily experience (Lakoff and Johnson: 1980). Metaphor is regarded as a feature within
our human conceptual system that enables a comparison of one concept in terms of another
concept, with linguistic expressions and other modes of expression as possible manifestations
of these underlying metaphorical structures.
Metaphor in economic and business texts may be a hurdle for second language learners when
approaching L2 special discourse. It follows better understanding of the metaphor use in L2
business discourse will lead to better L2 business comprehension and reading on the part of
the non-native English-speaking student and better translation. In this way, the exercises we
propose in the following section are hoped to provide an account of the use of metaphor in
Business English and to help students to raise awareness of business lexis, to improve
language learners’ specialized reading of business texts and to help them produce native-like
discourse when they translate business texts.
a) Socio-Economic Discourse as Target Domain
Business English course needs to briefly consider the peculiarities of the target
domain socio-economic discourse. Newspaper articles use metaphor to manipulate
readers, and business discourse comprises a multitude of different oral and written
texts apart from press releases. The topic is target domain.
b) Source Domains of Socio-Economic Discourse
The source domains for an encountered linguistic metaphor is not always easy and
straightforward. “Different metaphorical systems intersect, so that different
conceptual metaphors may be at play simultaneously”(Boers 1997b, 234). Source
domains may even be hierarchically connected, thus the actual source domain
responsible for the chosen linguistic instantiation can sometimes not be clearly
identified.
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DISCUSSION
The paper comprises two parts: an activation of the students. Awareness of metaphor
and the presentation of the methodology and exercises used (1) to increase the students’
knowledge of technical and semi-technical business vocabulary. (2) to improve
specialized business reading fluency and (3) to improve translating business texts.
(a) Activation of The Students’ Awareness of Metaphor
Firstly, I would check out the students’ awareness of metaphor by asking the
following questions to my students: “.What is metaphor? What type of metaphors do
you know? What other figures of speech (e.g. metonymy, simile, etc.) do you know?
What is the difference between them and metaphor? Can you provide examples of
metaphors used in literary texts, general English language texts, specific language
texts or spoken discourse? What is metaphor used for (e. g. identification,
classification, comparison, etc.)?”
Secondly, the students would be introduced to the topic of cognitive metaphor by
giving them the definition of metaphor and characteristics of it. I would teach the
terminology of the structure of this figure (i. e. target domain and source domain). I
would illustrate this explanation with typical examples of conceptual metaphors taken
from Lakoff and Johnson.s (1980) Metaphors We Live By: LIFE IS A JOURNEY,
AN ARGUMENT IS WAR or IDEAS ARE FOOD. In the same way, I would present
the metaphorical concept and the metaphorical expressions and show how they are
different. I would also illustrate this explanation with linguistic expression and type of
the above-presented conceptual metaphors.
In order to put these theoretical concepts into practice I have established the following
sample exercises:
1) Which metaphor, i.e. which source domain and which target domain, can you
recognize in the following linguistic expressions:
(1) economic growth; (2) corporate disease; (3) a price war; (4) a bear market. and (5)
cash flow?.
(Source: Adapted from Z. Kövecses: 2002) Metaphor. A Practical Introduction, p.13)
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Answers:
1 and 2: BUSINESS (target) IS A HUMAN BEING (source)
3: BUSINESS (target) IS WAR (source)
4: BUSINESS (target) IS AN ANIMAL (source)
5. BUSINESS (target) IS WATER (source)
2). What linguistic expressions can you collect as examples of the conceptual
metaphor BUSINESS IS WAR?
(Source: Adapted from Z. Kövecses [2002], Metaphor. A Practical Introduction, p.13)
Possible answers: trade war, a price war, advertising campaign, a takeover battle,
invading new markets, conquering the market, joining forces with other companies,
market competition, mobilize ones, sales force, beat the competition, corporate raiders,
etc.
(b) Business Vocabulary Learning
Metaphors provide insight into particular ways of thinking in relation to the
development of technical and semi-technical registers (Boers, 2000). As CharterisBlack (2000: 153) argues,
“[...] in the case of vocabulary language teaching, if there is no clear-cut boundary
between literal and figurative meanings, and the literal meanings of words are
extended to provide figurative meaning, there are implications for second language
learners who may not be able to distinguish between such literal and metaphorical
uses.”
The following sample exercises are geared towards teaching typical business
metaphors (i.e. BUSINESS IS AN ORGANISM, BUSINESS IS WATER,
BUSINESS IS HEALTH, BUSINESS IS SPORTS, or BUSINESS IS A PLANT) to
assist L2 learners in the understanding of content specific business lexis:
1) Match the following expressions of the conceptual metaphors THE MARKET IS
AN ORGANISM and THE MARKET IS WATER (indicated by numbers) with
their meanings (indicated by letters):
1. The market has grown
a. supply exceeds demand
2. The market is depressed
b. the market is in a good state
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3. The market is flooded
c. the market is in a bad state
4. The market is buoyant
d. the market is bigger than it used to be
5. The market has suffered
e. the market is smaller than it used to be
6. The market has dried up
f. the market is undergoing a gradual process
(Source: Adapted from M. Powell [1996], Business Matters, p. 28)
Answers:
1d, 2e, 3a, 4b, 5c, 6f.
2) Complete the following extract with some of the expressions from Exercise1:
The US market was fairly 1. _______________ when we finally managed to
penetrate it three years ago, even though it was largely dominated by two or three
big American players. And over thenext two years both the market itself and our
market share 2. _______________ significantly (...). I am afraid the picture in
Western Europe is not much better. European trade disputes have further 3.
_______________ a market which was already 4. _______________ from the
effects of the recession.
(Source: Adapted from M. Powell [1996]. Business Matters, p. 28)
Answers:
1. buoyant; 2. flooded; 3. depressed; 4. suffering.
(c) Business Reading
In line with Boers (2000), I believe that an enhanced metaphoric awareness on the
part of language learners can be beneficial to their specialized reading. As one of the
objectives of the Business English 1 course is students to be able to read and discuss
real and adapted business articles, I propose exploring if the students cope better with
a register of socio-economic discourse when they aware of its metaphorical
underlying content. One simple way of raising learners’ metaphoric awareness is to
draw their attention to the source domain or to the origin of the unfamiliar figurative
expressions as they encounter these in their specialized reading. The method proposed
is clearly meant for in-depth reading rather than skimming or scanning activities.
(Boers 2000)
Sample exercises:
1) Underline the metaphorical expressions that you encounter in the following text:
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“Coke versus Pepsi; Nike versus Reebok; Nintendo versus Sega. The battle is on
amongst the world.s top brands. Aggressive comparative advertising has now
reached fever pitch; extra millions are pouring into R & D, and the market leaders
are under constant pressure to slash their prices in a cut-throat struggle for market
domination. When Philip Morris knocked 40c off a packet of Marlboro, $ 47-anda-half billion was instantly wiped off the market value of America.s top twenty
cigarette manufacturers lesser brands went to the wall. And that.s just one
example of how fair competition within a free market has rapidly escalated into
all-out brand war.”
(Source: Passage from M. Powell [1996], Business Matters, p. 42; own elaborated
exercise on it)
Answers:
Coke versus Pepsi, Nike versus Reebok, Nintendo versus Sega, the battle is on,
The world.s top brands, aggressive advertising, has now reached fever pitch,
millions are pouring into R & D, the market leaders, are under constant pressure,
to slash their prices, in a cut-throat struggle, market domination, knocked (...) off
(...), was instantly wiped off, America.s top twenty cigarette manufacturers, lesser
brands, went to the wall, fair competition, free market, has rapidly escalated, allout brand.
2) Discuss the following issues raised in the article: 'price wars in retail marketing’,
’quality versus price’ and ‘brand wars’.
Students are encouraged to activate metaphorical mappings by using some of the
expressions identified in exercise 1 and bringing in different ones by activating
their knowledge of the subject from L1 and prior L2 knowledge.
Answers: Students’ own answers.
CONCLUSION
It is worthwhile to draw L2 ESP (English for Specific Purpose) instructors’ attention to the
important role of metaphor as a teaching device. This paper has attempted to show that
metaphors may have a useful function in teaching by helping to raise L2 learners’ awareness
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of technical and semi technical vocabulary, to improve specialized reading and to reader
better translations of specialized texts into L1. It might also be useful to those involved in
creating ESP materials for students whose first language is not English. In addition, the
teaching procedure discussed here may leave the door open to a further discussion with regard
to developing and improving other learners’ competence on skills such as ‘speaking’,
‘listening’ or ‘writing’, not only in L2 ESP teaching but also as part of any L2 learning
process.
It may be argued that metaphor in economic and business texts are beneficial for L2 learners.
In this way, the exercises I propose in the following section are hoped to provide the use of
metaphor in Business English and to help students to raise awareness of business lexis, to
enrich vocabulary in business reading, and to help the students produce native- like discourse
when they translate business texts or readings.
REFERENCES
Block, David (1999): “Who framed SLA research?” Researching and Applying Metaphor,
Eds. Lynne Cameron and Graham Low. Cambridge: University Press. 135- 148.
Boers, F. (2000). “Enhancing metaphorical awareness in specialized reading.” English for
Specific Purposes 19: 137-147.
Cameron, Lynne (1999a): “Operationalising ‘metaphor’ for applied linguistic research”.
Researching and Applying Metaphor, Eds. Lynne Cameron and Graham Low.
Cambridge: University Press. 3- 28.
Charteris-Black, J. (2000).”Metaphor and vocabulary teaching in ESP economics.” English
for Specific Purposes 19: 149-165.
Cotton, D., D. Falvey & S. Kent. (2000). Market Leader. Intermediate Business English.
Longman.
Donna, S. (2000). Teach Business English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Edwards, N. (2000). “Language for business: effective needs assessment, syllabus design and
materials preparation in a practical ESP case study.” English for Specific Purposes 19:
291-296.
Ellis, M. & C. Johnson. (1994). Teaching Business English. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
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Halliday, M. A. K. (1985). An Introduction to Functional Grammar. London, Baltimore and
Melbourne: Edward Arnold.
Lakoff, G. (1993). .The Contemporary Theory of Metaphor. in A. Ortony (ed.), Metaphor and
Thought, 202-251. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lakoff, George and Johnson, Mark (2003, first edition 1980): Metaphors We Live By. The
University of Chicago Press.
Lakoff, George and Johnson, Mark (2002): “Why cognitive linguistics requires embodied
realism”. Cognitive Linguistic, Vol. 3, Issue 3, 245-263
Lee, David (2001): Cognitive Linguistics: An Introduction. Oxford University Press.
Steen, Gerard (1999): “Metaphor and discourse: Towards a linguistic checklist for metaphor
analysis”. Researching and Applying Metaphor, Eds. Lynne Cameron and Graham
Low. Cambridge University Press. 81-104.
Taylor, John R. (2002): Cognitive Grammar. Oxford University Press.
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Appendices:
Foreign Language Teaching Methodology (adapted from [Roche 2005, 11- 30])
Table: A collection of metaphors from the socio-economic discourse.
(Lakoff and Johnson 2003, 264)
Conceptual Metaphors and Examples of Linguistic Expressions
Ontological Metaphors:
Economy is a container/
to invest in, to take out of
A company is a container
Money is liquid
cash flow, liquid assets
Ideas are objects
to stuff into sth, to sell, to exchange...
Orientational metaphors:
More is up
prices fall/ rose, dividend is up/ down
Ahead is positive
to be ahead of time, a backward part of
something
Structural metaphors:
Business is war
to bombard with new inquiries, to give up
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without a fight, to reinforce a market
position, to have joined forces, to map out a
strategy, to penetrate the market,
to invade markets, a take-over battle, to
conquer market shares, keep your head down,
marching order, to capture a bigger share, to
set a target, to gain
Business is competition/
to work at a steady pace, to be still on the
Business is a race
starting block
Economy is a plant
flourishing/ growing/ thriving/ shrinking
industry, organic growth
Economy is a building
foundation of a business, to build up/ rebuild
a good business
A company is a ship
to be on course, to run a tight ship, uncharted
territory to bail out something
Economy is a human being
attractive, in a calm mood
Economy is a patient/
to stay healthy, to be made ill, on the verge to
Economic activity is health
collapse,
care
recovery, stabilize, a right economic remedy
needs to be prescribed, depresssion
Economy is a machine
exchange rate mechanism, using the right
tool, to tighten the screw on economy, to
Economy is a motor
fine-tune inflation, the monetary lever has
rusted, economy is overheating high salaries
may fuel inflation, to kick-start
Economic development is mountaineering
peak, trough, climb, mount, creep up,
A group of companies is a family
parent-company, sister-company,
mother-company
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THE USE OF COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES IN SECOND
LANGUAGE LEARNING
Intan Permata Hapsari
English Department, Faculty of Languages and Arts
Abstract
In conveying the messages or the intentions in English, especially for English learners of
Indonesia, is not easy, therefore they often get stuck in the middle of conversation
because the lack of competencies. Through communication strategies, the learners are
able to overcome the difficulties during the conversation. Communication strategies refer
to the devices or means the learner uses to convey meaning in the target language when
he lacks adequate linguistic competence. The study of communication strategies has been
mainly approached in relation to language proficiency and with learners having various
first language background.
This study is concerned with the communication strategies used by a group of Indonesian
speakers learning English as a second language based on classroom observation. The
design of this study is descriptive qualitative. The data in the form of oral discussion were
recorded and transcribed. Then the transcribed data were analyzed by classifying the
utterances which reflect the use of each communication strategy. The result of the study
shows that the second semester students of English Department as the subject of the study
can apply message abandonment, literal translation, message replacement, topic
avoidance, and appeal of assistance in constructing or conveying the messages. The
strategy that is mostly used by the students is message abandonment. In message
abandonment when the students begin to talk about a concept but are unable to continue
due to lack of meaning structure and stop in mid structure, they convey their
intensions/messages to the interlocutor by using filter/non-words vocalizations, repeating
utterances, and laughing or stopping for a second as a sign that they get stuck with the
utterance and need interlocutor’s help.
Keywords: appeal of assistance, approximation, communication strategy, language
switch, message abandonment, topic avoidance
Introduction
The main purpose of learning language is to be able to communicate using the target
language. This case also happens in learning English. As the world’s most spoken language
which is known as the number one international language, English becomes an obligatory
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language in many non- English speaking countries including Indonesia. In Indonesia, English
is introduced into the curriculum that has to be taught as one of the compulsory subjects in the
first year of Junior High School up to the third year of Senior High School and even in
university level. Nowadays, English is also taught in Elementary Grade in order to prepare the
students before entering the Junior High Schools. In learning English, learners are required to
be able to convey meanings productively and receptively. They should interact with others
using English as well as their mother tongue, both in oral and written language. Therefore
when they are able to speak fluently and transfer the goal of the speaking, it means that they
are able to communicate because they succeed in transferring what they are going to say or in
other word, the goal of speaking.
However, the problem that most of English learners face in performing their mastery of
English especially in speaking is their difficulties to show or to negotiate what they want to
say in the target language. They find it difficult to describe the words or phrases that they
intend to say. These kinds of problems are usually caused by the lack of vocabulary in the
target language. That is called communication problem. When suddenly this problem rises,
the speaker will feel blank and have no idea to continue the speaking. In this situation, he
needs to do something to be able to convey his communicative goal. He tends to use
interlanguage as one of the solutions.
Interlanguage can be defined as the type of language produced by non native speakers in the
process of learning a second language or foreign language. Selinker (1972) as quoted by Ellis
(1997: 140) states that “interlanguage is the systemic knowledge of second language (L2)
which is independent of both this learner’s first language and the target language. Some
people, despite their lack of vocabulary and grammar in a language, are able to communicate
effectively in the language. They use their hands, they mix languages, they create words, and
they do circumlocution or describe something they don’t know the word for.”
This ability to deal with language communication problems is referred as “strategic
competence which is an important component of communicative competence and a
contribution to understanding how learners communicate by various strategies. Canale and
Swain (1980) as quoted by An and Nathalang (2009: 122) state that:
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Strategic competence is composed mastery of verbal and non-verbal
communication strategies that may be called into action for two main reasons:
(a) to compensate for breakdowns in communication due to limiting conditions
in actual communication (e.g. inability to recall something) or to insufficient
competence in one or more of the other areas of communicative competence;
and (b) to enhance the effectiveness of communication (e.g. deliberately slow for
rhetorical effect).
In doing conversation, there are possibilities that the other parties (the person one is talking
to) do not fully understand the utterance due to their or our limited knowledge. To make it
clearer, the speaker uses the strategy to rephrase his/her utterance in simpler way in order that
the other party can understand his/her meaning more. These kinds of strategies that are used
in communication are widely known as communication strategies (CSs). An and Nathalang
(2009: 121) make a resume of the function of communication strategies based on the
statement by Bialystok (1990) and further explanation by Dornyei (1995) as follows:
It is believed that learners can improve their communicative competence by
developing an ability to use specific communication strategies that enable them
to compensate for their target language deficiency (e.g., Bialystok, 1990;
Dornyei, 1995).
The speaker perceives that there is a problem that may interrupt the achievement of his
communicative goal. The problem often arises as a result of his limited linguistic system
relative to a given communicative goal. He may lack the linguistic resources needed, be
uncertain about the correctness of rules belonging to his interlanguage system, or encounters
fluency problems. He therefore uses communication strategies, which are solutions to the
problem, in order to achieve his goal. The implementation of communication strategies is best
described in a conversation activity. In a conversation, students are urged to always speak and
keep in doing efforts in order to convey their intended goals of speaking and in order to
overcome oral communication breakdown, they both as a speaker and listener usually make
some communication strategies. Therefore this study attempts to describe various kinds of
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communivation strategy that used by the students of English Department of Semarang State
University in order to mantain a conversation activity.
Communication
In their effort of maintaining their life, human being needs to communicate with each other. It
means that they need to do a communication. With communication, a close relationship
among members of society can be established. Thus, without communication, it is hard to
imagine how people can cooperate and get along with each other.
Communication itself is stated as ways of sending information from one person to other
people. And by communication, meanings can be exchanged. Thus, people can choose and
interpret the meanings when they are communicating with each others. In technical
description, communication is simply defined as a process in which a message is sent from
senders to receivers. It is said that the sender encodes a message and the receiver decodes it.
From those statements, it can be concluded that communication can only exist if there is more
that one side that are doing the activity of exchanging information. It is not necessary for
those sides to be in the same place, or giving a simultaneous response but at least they are
connected and talk about the same meaning. Another important aspect of communication is
the existence of information or meaning to be exchanged. If there are two or more people
intend to do a communication without the existence of information, then the communication
is impossible to be done. In conclusion, there must be three aspects of communication: the
information or meaning that can be exchange from person to person, the person who sent the
information, and the person who receives the information.
Richards and Schmidt (1983: 3-4) propose the nature of communication which suggested that
there are some characteristics of communication: (1) it is a form of social interaction, and
there is therefore normally acquired and used in social interaction, (2) it involves a high
degree of unpredictability and creativity in form and message, (3) it takes place in discourse
and sociocultural context which provides constraints of appropriate language use and also
clues as to correct interpretations of utterances, (4) it is carried out under limiting
psychological and other conditions such as memory constraints, fatigue, and distractions, (5)
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it always has a purpose (for example to establish social relations, to persuade, or to promise),
(6) involve authentic, as oppose to textbook-contrived language, and (7) it is judged as
successful or not on the basis of actual outcomes.
From the explanation above, we can define communication as an exchange or negotiation of
information between at least two individuals or more because there must be some “exchange”
of meanings. However, there are two categories of communication: one way communication
and two way communication (Wikipedia.com: types of communication).
One way communication is the type of communication that does not have a simultaneous
response between the two parties. It is only one side communication which there is the one
who becomes a speaker and the other one becomes the hearer/ listener. In one way
communication, there is no interaction between the speaker and the listener. Examples of one
way communication are speech, lecture, and seminar (without the question and answer
session).
Meanwhile, the main points in a two way communication is the existence of turn taking or
response between the parties involved in the communication. The examples of two way
communication are conversation, debate, talk show where there is more than one speaker and
they are responding each other’s statements, and interviews.
Communicative Competence
Communicative competence is not only the mastery of grammar and lexicon but also the rule
of speaking for example knowing when it is appropriate to speak/to open a conversation, what
topics, and how speech acts to be given, interpreted, and responded to.
Models of Communicative Competence
There are some models of communicative competence that are connected to language
learning. Several linguists have stated about their model of communication competence. The
figure below is the summary of the chronological evolution of model of communication
competence from several linguists:
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Chomsky
(1957, 1965)
Linguistic
competence
Hymes
(1967, 1972)
Canale and Swain
(1980)
Canale
(1983)
Celce Murcia
et.al.(1995)
Linguistic
competence
Grammatical
competence
Grammatical
competence
Linguistic
competence
Sociolinguistic
competence
Strategic
competence
Strategic
competence
Strategic
competence
Sociolinguistic
competence
Sociolinguistic
competence
Sociolinguistic
competence
Actional
competence
Discourse
competence
Discourse
competence
Figure 1 Chronological Evolutions of Models of Communicative Competence
(Celce-Murcia, 2007: 43)
Celce-Murcia explains that originally, ‘communicative competence’ is a term coined by Dell
Hymes (1967, 1972); he put forward this notion in response to the theories of the formal
linguist Noam Chomsky (Chomsky 1957; 1965). Many applied linguists adopted Hymes’
terminology and perspective, and his notion of communicative competence became part of the
theory of a new language teaching approach and new teaching materials that were compatible
with communication as the goal of second or foreign language teaching.
Furthermore, Celce-Murcia, Dörnyei, and Thurrell (1995: 10) proposed the new model of
communicative competence. Their model is compatible with theoretical view which states
that language is a communication, not only grammatical rule. This model prepares students to
communicate with other people using their language that they have learnt.
The model of communicative competence by Celce-Murcia et. al. is represented as a pyramid
enclosing a circle and surrounded by another circle. The circle within pyramid represents
discourse competence. This means that the discourse competence is the core of the
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communicative competence. One said to achieve communicative competence if he is able to
participate in a discourse. The three points of the triangle are sociocultural competence,
linguistic competence, and actional competence. The circle surrounding the pyramid
represents strategic competence as seen in the Figure 2 below:
Figure 2 Model of Communicative Competence Proposed by Celce-Murcia et. al. (1995: 10)
This 1995 model is a pyramid enclosing a circle, surrounded by another circle. The circle
inside the pyramid is discourse competence, the core or central competence. The three points
of the triangle are the top-down sociocultural competence and the bottom-up linguistic
competence and actional competence. The arrows indicate that the various components are
constantly interacting with each other and the discourse component. This construct thus
placed the discourse component in a central position where the lexico-grammatical resources,
the actional organizing skills, and the sociocultural context all come together and shape the
discourse. The circle surrounding the pyramid is strategic competence, an available inventory
of communicative, cognitive, and metacognitive strategies that allow a skilled interlocutor to
negotiate meanings, resolve ambiguities, and to compensate for deficiencies in any of the
other competencies. It means the main competence in this model is discourse competence.
While the other competencies support discourse competence. To achieve discourse
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competence students have to master the other components, they are; sociocultural
competence, linguistic competence, actional competence and strategic competence.
Components of Communicative Competence
Canale and Swain (1980) proposed a model of communicative competence which consists of
four aspects of competence. Here is the model of communicative competence proposed by
Canale and Swain (1980), which further was elaborated by Canale (1983) as quoted by CelceMurcia et al (1995: 7):
(1)
Grammatical competence
Grammatical competence is knowledge of the language code (grammatical rules, vocabulary,
pronunciation, spelling, etc.)
(2)
Sociolinguistic competence
Sociolinguistic competence is the mastery of the sociocultural code of language use
(appropriate application of vocabulary, register, politeness, and style in a given situation).
(3)
Discourse competence
Discourse competence is the ability to combine language structures into different types of
cohesive texts (e.g. political speech, poetry)
(4)
Strategic competence
Strategic competence is the knowledge of verbal and non-verbal communication strategies
which enhance the efficiency of communication and, where necessary, enable the learner to
overcome difficulties when communication breakdowns occur.
There have been review and addition by the linguists about the new model of communicative
competence. The latest concept was explained clearly by Celce-Murcia et. al. (1995). The
concepts of communicative competence by Celce-Murcia et. al. (1995: 13- 35) are briefly
explained as follows:
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(1)
Sociocultural Competence
Sociocultural competence refers to the speaker’s knowledge of how to express messages
appropriately within overall social and cultural context in communication, in accordance with
the pragmatic factors related to variation in language use. (Celce-Murcia et. al., 1995:23)
It means that someone will automatically learn the culture of one language when his learn a
specific language. There are some sociocultural problems that must be faced by the language
learners. In many times, second language learners get problems in applying their language
knowledge in the real life communication. The differences in culture between the first
language and second language create this kind of problem. Celce-Murcia et. al. use the term
sociocultural competence in order to distinguish it from actional competence.
(2)
Linguistic Competence
The term linguistic competence is used in order to indicate unambiguously in this component.
So, this competence is not grammatical competence only, but also included lexis, phonology,
morphology and syntax. Linguistic competence comprises the basic element of
communication: the sentence patterns and types, the constituent structure, morphological
inflection, and the lexical resources as well as the phonological and orthographic system
needed to reach communication in spoken or written language. Linguistic competence is not
about knowing the structure of the sentences, but it is about how to apply the structure
according to the context.
(3)
Actional Competence
Celce-Murcia et. al. state that actional competence is defined as competence in conveying and
understanding communicative purpose that is, matching actional purpose with linguistic form
based on the knowledge of an inventory of verbal schemata that carry illocutionary force
(Celce-Murcia et. al., 1995:17). Actional competence has two main components, they are
knowledge of language function and knowledge speech act sets.
(4)
Discourse Competence
This competence concerns the selection, sequencing and arrangement of words, structures and
sentences to reach a unity of spoken or written text. This is where the other competencies are
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used to support discourse competence. Without the other competencies students cannot be
said that his reach discourse competence. The sub areas that contribute discourse competence
are cohesion, deixis, coherence, generic structure and the conversational structure.
(5)
Strategic Competence
Celce-Murcia et. al. conceptualized strategic competence as knowledge of communication
strategies and how to use them. It has three functions of strategy from the different
perspectives: 1) Psycholinguistic perspective, 2) Interactional perspective, 3) Communication
continuity/ maintenance perspective.
All the above functions are related to communication problems and difficulties. Based on the
three functions above, the description of the strategic competence consists of five main parts,
they are: avoidance or reduction strategies, achievement or compensatory strategies, stalling
or time gaining strategies, self monitoring strategies, interactional strategies.
Communication Strategies
Faerch and Kasper (1983a) as quoted by Bialystok (1990: 3) define that communication
strategies are “potentially conscious plans for solving what to an individual presents itself as a
problem in reaching a particular communicative goal.”
Bachman as quoted by Inuzuka (2002:1) suggests that communication strategies composed of
the mastery of verbal and non verbal that can be used into actual communication for two main
reasons: to compensate for breakdown in communication and to enhance the effectiveness of
communication.
Meanwhile, Tarone (1980) states that communication strategy is a mutual attempt of two
interlocutors to agree on a meaning in situations where requisite meaning structures are not
shared (Bialystok, 1990: 3).
Celce-Murcia et. al. highlighted three functions of strategy use from three different
perspectives (Celce-Murcia et. al., 1995: 26). The first perspective is from psycholinguistic
perspective. Psycholinguistic Perspective defines communication strategies as verbal plans
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used by speakers to overcome problems in planning and execution stages of reaching
communicative goal (Faerch and Kasper, 1984). The second perspective, Interactional
Perspective, emphasizes that communication strategies involve appeals for help as well as
other cooperative problem solving behaviors which occur after some problem has surfaced
during the course of communication, that is, various types of negotiation meaning and repair
mechanism (Tarone, 1980). While the last perspective which is called communication
Continuity/Maintenance Perspective defines communication strategies as means of keeping
the communication channel open in the face of communication difficulties, and playing for
time to think and to make alternative speech plans (Dornyei, 1995).
As communication strategies are classified into some detail strategies, there are some
strategies highlighted by each perspective.
Psycholinguistic Perspective, for example, makes a highlight on the avoidance strategy to be
the problem solver when a communication problem occurs. Meanwhile, Interactional
Perspective emphasizes on the use of interaction between the speakers to overcome the
communication problem that may occur in the conversation. Here, the interaction is portrayed
as the help of the speakers in correcting utterances or words that the first speaker does not
know. Interactional Perspective highlighted the use of appeals for help and other interactionbased strategies. The last perspective, Continuity/Maintenance Perspective, defines the
strategy as the effort to make time to think. When one is having problem in maintaining
communication, he has to manage the strategy that can give us the time to think. It
emphasizes the use of time stalling or time gaining strategy. Or else, fillers to fill in the time
when he was thinking the correct utterances or words to continue the conversation.
Classification of Communication Strategies
Tarone as quoted by Bialystok (1990: 39) started the work on classifying the strategies in
communication by offering taxonomy of the strategies into five main parts: avoidance,
paraphrasing, conscious transfer, appeal for assistance, and mime.
Later on, she explains that avoidance is a strategy that occurs when the speakers avoid
talking or abandoning the conversation because of their lack of knowledge.
Avoidance
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consists of two parts: topic avoidance and message abandonment. Topic avoidance occurs
when the speakers do not talk about the concepts because they do not know about the
vocabulary or other meaning structure. So they intentionally refuse to talk about certain topic
in order to be smooth in doing the conversation. Message abandonment occurs when the
speakers begin to refer to an object but give up continuing because it is too difficult to find the
correct item. So, they start to talk about a concept but get stuck in the middle of the
conversation because of their lack of vocabulary.
Meanwhile, paraphrasing is the way the speakers give meanings in different form which
consists of approximation, word coinage, and circumlocution. Approximation exists when the
speakers use a single vocabulary item or structure in the target language which they think
shares enough semantic approach with the word they intended to say (example: “pipe” for
“water pipe”). Word coinage occurs when the speakers make up a new word in the target
language in order to convey the intended word (for example “airball” for “balloon”).
Circumlocution is used when the speakers cannot think of a correct word or related word of
the intended word. Therefore, they give the explanation or description of the intended word
(for example “the animal which lives in the tree, they eat banana” for “monkey”).
In Conscious Transfer (which later in 1981 was referred to Borrowing), Tarone classifies the
transfer as literal translation and language switch. Literal translation happens when the
speakers translate word for word from the native language. They make a literal equivalent
word from the intended word (e.g. “they drink together” for “they toast one another”). While
language switch occurs when the speakers finally give up searching for the words and decide
to take a native language term to replace the intended word (e.g. “balon” for “balloon”,
“capung” for dragonfly).
Appeal for assistance is the condition in which the speakers ask the interlocutor or the other
speaker/party to supply the correct item or structure. The utterance or effort that they make to
do that is called appeal for assistance (e.g. What is that? What do you call as…?)
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Mime is the non-verbal strategy which is used by the speakers in place of lexical item or
action (e.g. clapping their hands to illustrate applause, or make a wink to illustrate the action
of flirting).
Research Methods
This study concerns on different types of communication strategies used by the second
semester students of English Department of Semarang State University in Speaking 2
(Interpersonal and Transactional Conversation) class. The classification of communication
strategies based on Tarone’s Typology is used as the framework of the study:
Communication Strategy
Description of Strategy
1. Avoidance
(a) Topic avoidance
Avoiding reference to a salient object for which
learner does not have necessary vocabulary.
(b) Message abandonment
The learner begins to refer to an object but gives
up because it is too difficult.
(c) Message replacement
Occurs when the learner begins to talk, but makes
a mistake. He then repeats the word in a right way.
2. Paraphrase
(a) Approximation
The learner uses an item known to be incorrect but
which shares some semantic feature in common
with the correct item.
(b) Word coinage
The learner makes up a new word
(c) Circumlocution
The learner describes the characteristics of the
object instead of using the appropriate target
language item.
3. Conscious transfer
(a) Literal translation
The learner translates word for word from the
native language.
(b) Language switch
4. Appeal for assistance
The learner inserts words from another language.
The learner consults some authority – a native
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speaker, a dictionary.
5. Mime
The learner uses a non-verbal device to refer to an
object or event.
Table 1 Typology of Tarone’s Conscious Communication Strategies
The design of this study is descriptive qualitative. Thus, the method used is descriptive
analysis. In this research, I present the data by using a qualitative description of the data
found. The data were taken from the students' utterances in Speaking 2 (Interpersonal and
Transactional Conversation) class. The data in the form of dialogue were recorded and
transcribed. Then the transcribed data were analyzed by classifying the utterances which
reflect the use of each communication strategy based on Typology of Tarone’s Conscious
Communication Strategies.
Research Findings
This study intends to describe the communication strategies that are used by the second
semester students of English Department of Semarang State University in their conversation
in Speaking 2 (Interpersonal and Transactional Conversation) class. After a series of
processing the data (transcribing and typing), I analyzed the data which had been in the form
of transcribed conversation and categorized the utterances according to the type of
communication strategies used by the speakers. In analyzing the data, I highlight mostly on
the theory of communication strategies proposed by Typology of Tarone’s Conscious
Communication Strategies.
The result of the study shows that the second semester students of English Department as the
subject of the study can apply message abandonment, literal translation, message replacement,
topic avoidance, and appeal of assistance in constructing or conveying the messages. The
strategy that is mostly used by the students is message abandonment. Here are the findings of
the communication strategies used by them:
Communication Strategy
1. Message Abandonment:
Message abandonment
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Utterances
(1) Mm… mm… I’m sorry. I didn’t do anything except
discussion with her. I’m so sorry. I didn’t talk to you
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occurs in the situation when
first.
the speakers give up
(2) I’d love too but mm… mm… what do you need to buy?
continuing their sentences in
(3) Mm… well… I’ve got a job interview coming up so I
the middle of their utterances
need to buy a suit.
due to the lack of
(4) Well… mm… where are you now?
competencies in speaking. It
(5) Well, mm… let’s see your CV. Okay, alright mm…
is a strategy in which the
now tell me about yourself, about your life so I’m sure
speaker has initiated to
that you are mm… the one that we are looking for.
convey a message but gives
(6) Oh, that is great. You’re very excellent. Mm… yes
up in the middle of the
mm… now mm… our company is mm… PT Asuransi
utterances due to the lack of
Allianz Utama Indonesia mm… an international joint
linguistic competence,
venture general insurance company mm… we invite
especially vocabulary items.
suitable and qualified candidate.
(7) Thank you, sir. Mm… I design some computer
programs or network and to be a visual and
communication designer and I mm… do some projects
of network.
(8) Mm… yach, absolutely yes because being network
administration is my dream and mm… I’m sure I will
enjoy with this job, sir.
(9) Mm… mm… it’s a difficult question if it really happen
to me I will give some good reason why I didn’t agree
with him without forget if he or she is my boss
actually.
(10) Okay good. Mm… the last question mm… how much
do you think we should pay you.
(11) Okay, thank you for your answer and mm… I think
that’s all for our interview today. Yach mm… just wait
for our announcement mm… if you are accepted and
mm… our company will send you soon mm… a letter
or maybe we’ll call you later mm… later on. Thank
you for your coming and you may go now.
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(12) Now mm… I just mm… I wanna concentrate to my
mm… my study in Unnes.
(13) Mm… you know last semester I can’t concentrate my
study in Unnes because of something. Yes, mm… and
that’s really important too.
(14) Mm… mm… in Unnes I have so many experience,
happy, bad, sad, etc. So, mm… mm… but I want to…
to finish my study in Unnes as soon as possible in… in
a good grade of course because I not realize that I
semester two now.
(15) Mm… I tell you one things. Mm… when I was a child,
my kindergarten teacher mm… but I forgot her name
actually, asked me what I wanted to be in the future.
(16) And other factors that make me mm… I am familiar
with English is because I like playing computer games
and watching mm… western movies.
(17) But… but I think mm… there is something wrong
happens. You… you… talk to me the truth, honey.
(18) Thank you, sir. Good… good afternoon, sir.
(19) They made mm… the meeting was disorder they got
caught on camera, they were broking some tables
mm… some chairs and also the glasses mm… glasses.
(20) I am very mm… very angry with them.
(21) I come from Magelang, a small town between
Yogyakarta and Semarang, but I like mm… I like my
hometown.
(22) I like them mm… I like the lecturers. They are… they
are also kind and they teach the students well.
(23) That’s the way I will teach English to my students in
the future mm… mm… teaching English to my
students like playing a game, mm… enjoyable and
friendly.
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(24) We’re
discussing assign…(stop
for
a
second)
assignment.
(25) We… we in the assembly mm… in the provincial
room, they are mm… the glasses I mean mm… you
know friends because the glasses is contain of water,
right? Mm… (laughter).
(1) Take a blue line to Edmund Station, then transfer to…
2. Literal Translation:
Literal
translation
strategy
in
learners
which
translate
is
a
the
to… mm… green line, get off mm… mm… at Buson,
then go out to exit number 4. You can’t miss it.
the (2) … why do you select for present job?
intended utterances word by (3) … what do you think that you will enjoy your new
word
from
language.
the
native
job?
(4) … this company will pay me as good as my skill and
my job.
(5) … this time I would take my chance to give my
opinion about…
(6) … Assembly of Provincial Level was fighting each
other as long as the meeting was being held.
(7) … and instantly I am very mm… very angry with
them.
(8) They were just important for themselves.
(9) I’ve been in semester two, so I have to study hard now
and I have to concentrate my study in Unnes.
(10) I feel enjoy when I’m in Magelang.
(11) The pollution of Magelang is not very very high
because in Magelang there are a lot of trees there,
and also in Unnes.
(12) The trees makes me mm… makes my eyes enjoy.
(13) That’s why Unnes come of a famous university in
Central Java, especially for the English Department.
(14) I wanna be an army actually, …
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(15) But since in Unnes I also almost never do exercises
like jogging, sit-up, push-up, and etc.
(16) … in Unnes I have so many experience, happy, bad,
sad, etc.
(17) I want to… to finish my study in Unnes as soon as
possible in… in a good grade of course because I not
realize that I semester two now.
(18) … all the best answers which were in mm… appeared
in my mind had answered,
(19) One thing that I know that I like English, maybe
because mm… I am familiar with English since I was
a child.
(20) English is a difficult thing.
3. Message Replacement:
Message replacement can be
(1) What have you been up to mm… keeping busy
listening mm… I mean done this afternoon.
defined as the substitution of (2) I’ve got some shopping to do and I was… I am
meaning with new word
wondering if you could join with me at 1 p.m.
preferably as close to their (3) Now mm… let me tell you about mm… please tell me
optimal meaning as their
approximate allows.
about the skill you have.
(4) I can operate Microsoft Windows 2000 mm… 2007,
Cisco networking, and Firewall.
(5) Mm… then mm… say little about what you do mm…
yes… I mean your present job.
(6) Mm… then mm… say little about what you do mm…
yes… I mean your present job.
(7) I had seen on TV mm I… had mm… watched news
report on SCTV.
(8) Oh… it’s so good news, right? Oh no… mm it’s so
bad news, right?
(9) They made mm… the meeting was disorder they got
caught on camera, …
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(10) We… we in the assembly mm… in the provincial room
mm… they are mm… the glasses I mean mm…
(11) To lead their mm… mm… their com… mm… no, no
mm… their city, right?
(12) But I think that’s… that happened the most of students
because they life… they life mm… they live in
different place with their parents, …
(13) … all the best answers which were in mm… appeared
in my mind had answered, I mean had been answered
by my friends, like a doctor, a teacher, a pilot, etc.
(14) That’s because they have mm… in my mind mm… in
their mind I mean, English is a difficult thing.
(1) Actually mm… friends mm… well… this time I would
4. Topic Avoidance:
It is a situation when the
take my chance to give my opinion about mm… about
speaker avoids the topic
mm… but mm… last night mm… I had seen on TV…
areas or concepts that pose (2) We… we in the assembly mm… in the provincial room
some
difficulties.
Topic
mm… they are mm… the glasses….
avoidance appears when the (3) Yes, mm… and that’s really important too. I failed
speaker attempts to evade
mm… mm… mm… I come from Magelang, a small
communication
town between Yogyakarta and Semarang, …
about
the
topic being discussed. It may (4) But since in Unnes I also almost never do exercises
of
like jogging, sit-up, push-up, and etc. mm… mm… in…
competencies if the speaker
in my boarding house mm… mm… so I become trainer.
caused
in
by
the
employing
lack
the
target
language or some personal
reason that avoid him/her to
continue
talking
about
certain topics.
5. Appeal of Assistance:
Appeals for help are the
(1) My father bought me a… a… what is it? Mm… cassette
of English songs for children.
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strategy
in
speakers
which
ask
the (2) And when I was on junior high school, my first English
for
the
interlocutor’s help to recall
certain
items
language.
in
song was mm… mm… wait mm… what is it? I have a
Dream from Westlife.
target (3) As we can see now, many students think English is a
the
difficult subject to study, dealing with grammar,
speakers ask for L2 terms of
genres, vocabularies, and many other what is it? mm…
certain L1 items that they do
yes, complicated things.
not
know.
manipulating
Usually,
Instead
their
of
own
language resource, they relay
on
the
interlocutor’s
knowledge to provide the
correct terms for them.
Table 2 The Findings of Communication Strategies Used by the Second Semester Students of
English Department in Speaking 2 (Interpersonal and Transactional Conversation) class.
Conclusion
After analyzing the use of communication strategies used by the second semester students of
English Department of Semarang State University in their Speaking 2 (Interpersonal and
Transactional Conversation) class, I found that in doing the conversation, all students were
participated actively and tried to get involved in the conversation. However, due to some lack
of mastery in English and some aspects, there were a considerable amount of mistakes in
grammatical aspect and structural construction of the utterances they produced. These
mistakes may lead into communication breakdowns. In order to compensate those
breakdowns, the speakers employ some strategies in communication as a solution that can
help them to keep the conversation run smoothly.
Meanwhile, the kinds of communication strategies used by the students vary. From the
analysis, I found out that the second semester students of English Department as the subject of
the study can apply message abandonment, literal translation, message replacement, topic
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avoidance, and appeal of assistance in constructing or conveying the messages. In using
message abandonment, the students tend to find some ways to overcome the problem by (1)
using filter/non-words vocalizations, (2) repeating utterances, and (3) laughing or stopping for
a second as a sign that they get stuck with the utterance and need interlocutor’s help. In literal
translation, the students translate word for word from the native language, Bahasa Indonesia.
In message replacement, when the students begin to talk, but make a mistake, then they repeat
the word in a right way. In topic avoidance, the students find a way to overcome the problem
by (1) giving up the topic entirely, and (2) letting the message unuttered. Then, in appeal of
assistance, the students apply a direct question in the target language, that is ‘what is it?’ The
strategy that is mostly used by the students is message abandonment. In message
abandonment when the students begin to talk about a concept but are unable to continue due
to lack of meaning structure and stop in mid structure, they convey their intensions/messages
to the interlocutor by using filter/non-words vocalizations, repeating utterances, and laughing
or stopping for a second as a sign that they get stuck with the utterance and need interlocutor’s
help.
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Celce-Murcia, M. 2007. Rethinking The Role of Communicative Competence in Language
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THE AGE FACTOR OF LEARNING SECOND LANGUAGE (L2)
IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE SETTING: IS THE EARLIER THE
BETTER?
Kunto Nurcahyoko
The Ohio State Univesity-Semarang State University
Dwi Amalia Putri
Abstract
Since long time ago, age factor has become one of the most controversial topics in second
language education field. Some studies conducted in natural language setting revealed
that early start is a good predictor for L2 learners in reaching native-like accuracy.
However, the current studies in instructed language setting showed that age factor is not
the most determining factor to achieve such goal. Responding to that issue, this study
aimed to argue about a commonly over-generalized assumption of “the earlier the better”
theory in instructed language setting. The study mainly discussed the implementation of
English language teaching in Indonesian setting and how age factor is or is not the most
important predictor for language attainment success. The study was a critical analysis
upon relevant books and journals. The result of the study conveyed that age was not
always the most dominant factor in successfully achieving a language attainment in
instructed language setting. In most cases, there was positive support confirming that
adult learners in instructed language setting could outperform young learners over some
language domains. As conclusion, an early start in instructed language setting would not
always lead to a better language attainment without adequate comprehensible input and
learning motivation. Therefore, Indonesian government should consider more language
empowering programs to support language learners to study English, for example by
revitalizing its curriculum implementation and adding more learning facilities.
Keywords: Age factor, second language education, language attainment, natural
language setting, instructed language setting
Introduction
The existing literature on second language (L2) area suggests that there are many factors
determining the success of L2 learners like motivation, personality, learning style, aptitude,
and age (Singleton, 2001; Mayo & Lecumberri, 2003; Munoz, 2010). Among those factors,
the later has become a fierce topic of debate in Second Language field. The core of this debate
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is mainly about whether or not students who start learning L2 in the early stage of life will
achieve better language performance than those who start at the later stage. In regard to this
topic, some studies have been conducted in second language field especially in natural
language setting where the target languages are spoken. Some studies reveal that early start is
good predictor for L2 learners in reaching native-like accuracy (Baker, et. al., 2008) and in
lexical as well as semantics tasks (Izura, et. al, 2011). Studies on early L2 learning in natural
language setting are consistent with a larger body of literature examining the Critical Period
Hypothesis (Lenneberg, 1967; Singleton, 2001; Bowers & Kennison, 2011). This theory
mainly believes that there is a period where learners will lose a complete language acquisition
(native-like) because their neuro-plasticity does not work as good as before (Lenneberg,
1967). They believe that the lower limit for such period is at the age of 2 and an upper limit
around puberty.
While the theory of the earlier the better seem to have some appeal, there is evidence to
suggest that early start of learning L2 does not always result in better language acquisition,
especially in an instructed language context. A study in Spain called the Barcelona Age Factor
(BAF) by Munoz (2006) revealed that the participants who were adult L2 learners in
instructed language setting tended to outperform the younger one. The BAF project itself
aimed to investigate the influence of age factor on foreign language learning at different
period of time and for different language abilities. These results start triggering other scholars
and researcher to reevaluate the commonly believed concept of “the earlier the better”.
Therefore, there is more empirical support that such concept does not always work in
instructed language settings.
Responding to that issue, this paper plays as a critical analysis aiming to reevaluate the
common assumptions of “the earlier the better” for second language learning in instructed
language setting. This is an important issue particularly in instructed language settings like
English teaching in Indonesia. The commonly believed concept of “the earlier the better” has
influenced educational policy about establishing the starting age for students to learn second
language at school. The problem with this situation is that most countries are not fullyinformed toward this age factor which shows that early start does not always determine the
success of L2 learners. In supporting my arguments, some empirical and theoretical studies
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have been reviewed respectfully. Along with these theoretical references, I will also provide
some practical findings both as language instructor and learner in Indonesia.
Discussion
English as Foreign language in Indonesia
Indonesian schooling system first introduced English in 1914 under the Dutch administration.
Yet, it was not until 1989 that English officially got its legal recognition from Indonesian
Education Ministry. After since, English is considered as the first foreign language and taught
at the secondary level as compulsory subject under the national curriculum (Pusat Kurikulum,
2007). English is also allowed to be taught from Primary four for schools as an elective
subject in particular schools. In fact, many elementary schools have included English as an
additional subject for their students because it is considered as a very important subject. They
even expand their English program by providing English extracurricular activities. Such
program is supported by parents and community because they believe that exposing young
learners to English will results in better language attainment (Ivone, 2005).
However, according to the writer’s practical experience as a language instructor and student,
the early start does not always help students to attain better language performance. Many
Indonesian students still struggle to write and speak in English although they have learned it
for six years at school. Most of adult students even performed better than my young students
although they started it later. Such fact provides me an opportunity to contemplate that the
early start does not always constitute the better attainment. Therefore, we should go through
and discuss further on whether or not the common belief of “the earlier the better “will always
work in instructed language setting like Indonesia.
Age Related Factors
In natural language setting, many researchers appear to agree that age is an important
predictor for L2 learners (Singleton 2001; Baker, et. al., 2008; Bowers & Kennison 2011;
Izura, et. al, 2011). During the early stage, learners have more biological sensitivity in
responding language inputs, especially in the realm of phonetics and phonology (Lenneberg
1967; Baker, et. al., 2008). The results lead to an assumption that young learners have a
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greater chance to attain L2 native-like performance in using the language as compared to
adult learners. A study from Ballester (2012), for example, confirmed that 5-year-old Spanish
children acquiring second language (L2) English in an immersion bilingual context showed
high sensitivity to grammatical contrast in their L2. She also found that at the very early stage,
L2 learners could potentially develop language property. Such result then serves as a strong
support for “the earlier the better” theory. Therefore, many countries in the world take such
commonly believed notion as their basis to oblige a very young learner to study L2 at school.
However, some experts argue that the finding of “the earlier the better” should not be over
generalized in all language settings (Mayo & Lecumberri, 2003; Munoz, 2006; Munoz, 2010).
Although the study of Ballester in 2012 showed a significant language attainment for young
learners in instructed language setting, the result must not be taken for granted as this study
was conducted in fully immersion bilingual context. In that particular setting, the language
inputs were definitely adequate for the learners’ linguistic development. Yet, not all instructed
language settings have that privilege. Having said that, the finding in Ballester study is
inapplicable in most instructed language setting. As explained by Munoz (2006), instructed
language settings mostly encounter massive scarcity of comprehensible input. Because the
language is not widely used by community, language learners will not get sufficient exposure
to the language both in quality and quantity. Therefore, unless language learners are exposed
to significant language input, age factor will not pretty much affect their language attainment.
The scarcity of comprehensible Input
The existence of comprehensible input is really significant in learning L2 because learning
language cannot be separated from social interaction. Comprehensible input is a type of input
which can enhance language learners in using the language communicatively (Lightbown &
Spada, 2006). The quality and quantity of comprehensible input in particular setting will
define how effective the language environment in supporting language learners development.
Sufficient comprehensible language input in particular setting will make their learning more
effective.
Regarding to the quantity of the input, some studies of L2 in naturalistic language setting have
confirmed that the amount of time or length of exposure is a good predictor of L2 attainment
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(Singleton, 2001; Bowers & Kennison, 2011; Izura, et. al, 2011). They argue that young
language learners will have more opportunity to be successful learner because they have
longer time of exposure as compared to the adult learners.
However, such situation is completely different in instructed language setting. The L2
exposure will only exist in formal instruction-based situation like school (Munoz, 2006).
Once they step outside from this classroom, they will not get adequate L2 exposure. Their
family, friends, society, or even media do not use L2. English in Indonesian schooling system
is the example of such quantity limitation (Ivone, 2005). The junior high school students will
only get 2 meetings per week where each meeting lasts for less than 2 hours. When they move
up to high school, the condition hardly ever changes. In addition to that issue, Indonesian
teachers often switch to learners’ L1 for classroom management or discipline, reducing the
quantity of L2 exposure for learners in the classroom.
Munoz (2010) argues that it takes around 10 years for language learners to be fluent in natural
language settings under the circumstance that the language is intensively exposed in their
daily life. Within rough mathematic calculation, those 10 years exposure equals to 200 years
(50.000 hours) in instructed language setting because they will only spend 2 hours per week
in the classroom. That number seems really impossible for language learners in instructed
language setting to reach.
Another problem regarding to comprehensible input issue is the quality of input itself. In
natural language setting, learners are exposed by the variety of language use, both for
academic and non-academic domain (Singleton, 2001). At school, they will learn how to use
academic language through their paper work, exercise, or any other assignment. When they
go outside the school, they learn how to use language for their daily communication with
friends, neighbor, and other people. Not to mention, L2 learners will be exposed by the native
speakers language of L2 all the time. This situation enables L2 learners to get role model for
proper pronunciation, intonation, and other language features (Ballester, 2012).
Not surprisingly, L2 learners in instructed language setting have completely different
situation. Language learners in instructed language setting do not live among interaction with
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the native speakers. They mainly learn the language from their classroom. That said, the only
role model that they have is their teacher. Such situation definitely limits the opportunity of
the language learners to get quality inputs. According to Lightbown and Spada (2006),
classroom learners are mainly exposed to a very formal and academic L2 domain in
comparison to the language as it is used in social settings. The language input will be directed
on how to prepare them in passing the test or do their academic assignment. Therefore, the
content is mostly not applicable for daily use.
The other problem dealing with the quality of input is the limited role model for the English
production. English teachers in Indonesia, for example, still have problem with their oral
production like pronunciation and intonation (Ivone, 2005). They do not speak as fluent as
native speakers. They still mispronounce some words and language learners tend to just
imitate such errors. This drawback will jeopardize L2 acquisition primarily for young
learners. Young language learners have more tendencies to imitate their role models directly
(Lightbown & Spada, 2006). They are not sensitive enough in finding another source to
compare their knowledge they get from their teacher. They will accept whatever they receive
from their teacher. The adult learners, on the other hands, usually are more aware of the
explicit strategy for language learning. They are cognitively developed to select and pick
some more inputs other than their teachers. They will be more capable in maximizing limited
input in their surrounding by looking up a dictionary, internet, or television.
The parameter of L2 quality has brought another issue in L2 learning. This is worth noticing
that most inference defining a successful language learner is determined by how close their
language ability to native speaker standard (Baker et.al., 2008). The problem with such
concept is that most of language learners in instructed language settings are barely interact
with native speakers intensively. Although there is somehow support from Bongaerts, et. al
(1997) that very highly successful old learners can perform as good as native speakers in
domain of pronunciation, such case is fairly exceptional phenomenon. That situation required
the late learners to be consistently exposed by native speakers in their life which most learners
in instructed language setting will hardly ever have. This implies that the level of success for
language learners in instructed language setting should not be defined by native-likeness that
they have. Because their language performance is not established by native-speaker type
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input, the level of success should be based on how well they can use that language for
instructed language use like academic purpose, etc.
Maturation of L2 learners
Next misleading assumption overlooks that young learners are better learner in all learning
settings. Critical period supporters believe that there is a stage where the time-sensitive
neurobiological exists in young human being and they are very potential learners within this
period of age (Lenneberg 1967; Baker, et. al., 2008). According to this view, early childhood
is the best period where L2 learners can better absorb such linguistic input and interaction.
Some studies conducted in natural language setting confirmed that young learners outperform
the adult learners (Baker, et. al., 2008; Bowers & Kennison 2011; Izura, et. al, 2011). When
L2 learners maturation process goes up, the full acquisition of L2 will be decreased. The
finding leads to the assumption that young learners are better learners no matter what.
However, even some studies conducted in naturalistic language setting have confirmed
different result (Mayo & Lecumberri, 2003; Muñoz, 2006). They argue that early stage of
language learning is no longer the only predictor of success for second language (L2) learners.
When young L2 learners and adult learners are compared in the same amount of time in
instructed language setting, adult learners even can outperform the child learners. The BAF
study conducted by Munoz (2006) showed a surprising result. This study confirmed that adult
learners are able to outperform the younger learners in all measurement times. The result also
confirmed that the motivation of L2 learners were the main engine for such phenomenon.
According to Lightbown and Spada (2006), motivation to learn and individual differences in
aptitude for language learning is very important determining factors that affect eventual
success in learning. In this sense, adult learners usually possess better maturation that
eventually will increase their level of motivation to learn the language. The adult learners are
able to advance faster in the early process of L2 acquisition process since they are aware of
their own limitations and needs (Singleton, 2001).
Zang and Wu (2009) revealed that effective language learners in instructed language setting
are those who can explicitly plan, monitor the comprehension, and select appropriate
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strategies for their learning. This finding favors the adult learners in instructed language
setting because they are more aware of the importance of learning compared to young
learners. In Indonesian learning context, English is mostly taught explicitly for academic
purpose in education (Ivone, 2005). Learners are expected to learn the language from the
activities that teachers set up for them. These activities include lecturing, discussion,
homework, assignment, quiz, and assignment. When learners do not have sufficient
maturation and metacognitive awareness in learning, they tend to limit the inputs only from
their teacher as the way it is. They will not have any intention to expand their learning if their
teachers do not ask them to do so. Young learners are prone to be such learners. Although
they will response very well for implicit instruction of learning, they mostly lack of
motivation for further learning (Zang & Wu, 2009).
Conclusion
The previous section has discussed that the situation between naturalistic language setting and
instructed language setting are different. This fact should be seen as the reason why we should
not over generalize the research finding from one to other settings. This includes the finding
that younger students are better learner for L2. For all this time, there has been misleading
assumption toward the age related factor in L2 fields that “the earlier the better” is the best for
learners. Although there is strong evidence that beginning to start learning L2 very early is a
good predictor of L2 acquisition success in natural language setting, there is no sufficient
proof that it constitutes the same results in instructed language setting.
This critical paper has provided an opportunity for us to reflect on the finding of natural
language setting about the age factor. Therefore, there should be more awareness for the
decision makers in a particular country, especially Indonesia, to take into account the fact that
“the earlier the better” principle does not always contribute the L2 learning success. The
decision about when to start second language program in schools must consider the realistic
estimates of how long it takes to learn a second language. By only providing two hours per
week for L2 learners to access the language will not attract significant L2 learning success, no
matter how young they are when they begin learning it. In this context, the adult learners even
may get some benefits because they can better use of the limited time they have for second
language instruction. Age is definitely one of the factors which affect language learning
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success. But the opportunity to get comprehensible input, the motivation, and metacognitive
awareness to learn language are also essential factors in achieving eventual success of
language learning. Indonesian government should also consider more language empowering
programs to support language learners to study English, for example by revitalizing its
curriculum implementation and adding more learning facilities.
Reflecting to that situation, the issue of English development in Indonesia does not only go to
policy makers but also for the classroom teachers. Teachers should be able to maximize the
limited time in classroom to involve students in learning English optimally. Struggling to
always improve our teaching instruction is also important. Having said that, teachers should
be able to create activities which will enable students to benefit in the input and metacognitive
awareness in learning English.
References
Baker, W., Trofimovich, P., Flege, J., Mack, M., & Halter, R. (2008). Child–adult differences
in secondlanguage phonological learning: The role of cross-language similarity.
Language and Speech, 51(4), 317–342.
Ballester, E. P (2012). Child L2 english acquisition of subject properties in an immersion
bilingual context. Second Language Research. 28(2), 217–241.
Bongaerts, T., Summeren, C., Planken, B., & Schils, E. (1997). Age and ultimate attainment
in the pronunciation of a foeign language. Studies in Second Language
Acquisition, 19(4), 447–465.
Bowers, J. & Kennison, S. (2011). The role of age of acquisition in bilingual word translation:
Evidence from spanish-english bilinguals. J Psycholinguist Res, 40, 275–289.
Ivone, F. (2005). Teaching English as a foreign language in Indonesia: The urge to improve
classroom vocabulary instruction. TEFLIN Journal, 16(2), 195-208.
Izura, C., Pérez, M., Agallou, E., Wright, V., Marín, J., Stadthagen-González, H., & Ellis, A.
(2011). Age/order of acquisition effects and the cumulative learning of foreign words: A
word training study. Journal of Memory and Language, 64, 32–58.
Krashen, S., Long, M., & Scarcella, R. (1979). Age, rate and eventual attainment in second
language acquisition. Tesol Quarterly, 13(4), 573-582.
Lenneberg E.H. (1967). Biological foundations of language. New York: M. Wiley
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Lightbown, P. & Spada, N. (2006). How language are learned. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Mayo, G and Lecumberri, M. (2003). Age and the acquisition of English as a foreign
language. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Muñoz, C. (2006). The effects of age on foreign language learning: The BAF project.
Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, 1-40.
Muñoz, C. (2010). On how age affects foreign language learning. Advances in Research On
Language Acquisition and Teaching: Selected Papers, 39-49.
Pusat Kurikulum. (2007). KTSP for English subject of SD, SMP/MTs, SMA/MA. Jakarta:
Ministry of National Education
Singleton, D. (2001). Age and second language acquisition. Annual Review of Applied
Linguistics, 21, 77–89.
Zhang, L., & Wu, A. (2009). Chinese senior high school EFL students’ metacognitive
awareness and reading-strategy use. Reading in a Foreign Language, 21(1), 37-59.
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TEACHING POLITENESS IN SPEECH ACT OF INVITING
OTHERS THROUGH DCT
Lestari Ambar Sukesti
SMA Negeri 1 Bergas, Kabupaten Semarang
Abstract
This study deals with inviting strategies used by Indonesian students as nonnative
speakers of English regarding of rank, imposition and power. The subjects were ten males
and ten females of Senior High School Students. The data were collected by using oral
Discourse Completion Tasks (DCT) which consisted of nine situations in Bahasa
Indonesia regarding social status of low, equal, higher. The subjects were asked to
respond to the situation presented to them. The terms Discourse Completion Tasks (DCT)
lead the students to think about the English utterance they should produce. Their
responses were analyzed based on Brown-Levinson politeness system. The findings
showed that most of the students utilized more polite invitation strategies besides the use
of deference to the addressee to those who are higher and unfamiliar, while to equal and
lower the students use neutral or less polite invitation strategies and solidarity markers to
the addressee. The students also consider that the use of DCT make them easier in
producing English sentences.
Keywords: inviting strategies, politeness, DCT
Introduction
Teaching EFL at school in Indonesia for the time being adopts what we call Genre Based
Curriculum which focuses on understanding and generating selected genres of texts in the
scopes of four skills namely, listening, speaking, reading and writing. The idea of promoting
genre approach is the use of the language to speak or to write which engaged in particular
social situations, not only in what to say but also how to say things. It relates closely to social
factors such as class, gender, ethnicity and geographic location. Thus the issues of power and
power-difference between individual and groups are involved (Macken: 1990).
The teaching of these four skills is integrated through two cycles and four stages, namely:
spoken cycle, which includes listening and speaking skills and written cycle, which comprises
reading and writing skills (Celce-Murcia: 2000). For spoken cycle, the students are trained
to be able to identify and create some discourse or utterances to do transactional (to get
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something done) and interpersonal speech (to establish and maintain social relations) within
participants related to situational, social, and cultural factors which constitute speech acts. As
for written cycle, the focus is on models and features of text written for a particular purpose.
Students learn text types or genre which relates the knowledge of the language with a social
purpose. Narrative, descriptive, report, recount, news item, exposition, argumentation, are
some of genres taught at school.
Invitation is a part of speech acts, which reflects the actualization of an illocutionary intention
of a speaker through utterances, either spoken or written. Invitation actually falls upon request
category by which Trosborg (1995: 187) defines as “an illocutionary act whereby a speaker
conveys to a hearer that the speaker wants the hearer to perform an act, which is for the
benefit of the speaker.” What makes difference is that invitation asks the hearer to conduct an
act for the benefit of the hearer. The speech act of invitation emerges when someone asks
somebody else to attend to a kind of occasion, usually the one that is hosted by the inviter.
Speech act of invitation is rarely used in daily activity in Indonesian culture so inviting others
for a meal, for instance, is unusual for common people. The very understandable forms of
invitation are an sich wedding invitation and social meeting. Indonesian people rarely invite
others for having dinner, having parties, watching movies or going out for recreation.
Moreover, English is not used for daily communication, as it is only learned and practiced at
school even they hardly have time to utter the language they study with whomsoever unless
they are forced to do so.
The teaching speech acts such as “inviting”, “requesting,” “complementing” and others, and
their strategies used by the learners has turned out to be one big topic in the English Learning
and Teaching. Students here are commonly asked to understand and memorize the
expressions used in the conversation under the title of the language function being discussed.
The influencing factor of the successful teaching learning process includes learning of
vocabulary and grammar as well as discourse strategies and their combinations i.e. semantic
formulae and their related linguistic politeness strategies. Hence, EFL learner should start to
learn such pragmatic strategies in order to express themselves in appropriate ways in certain
contexts after or while they have deep understanding of the use of vocabulary and sentence
patterns.
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However, the learning tends to exclude socio pragmatic knowledge. Students even are not
aware whether the target language they learn has the norms of politeness in their daily basis
communication or not. Textbooks usually cannot supply the important and appropriate
utterances in speech acts, and often differs from real life speech (Edward: 2001).
As invitation is one of the materials taught at school, the focus on this study is unearthing
how young Indonesian EFL learners make invitation in appropriate way to whom they
address the invitation for. It always happens to the students that they only translate the
utterances in their mother tongue into the target language without pondering the differences in
sentence pattern and word order between those two languages. In general, the way the
teachers teach invitation to the students is only by explaining linguistics unit of making
invitation in terms of giving examples of sentence patterns without stressing on politeness
strategies. Accordingly, whenever the teacher asks them to make a dialog, students just take
sentences from the examples given by the teachers.
Take
examples
of
making
informal
and
polite
invitation
from
http://bbclearningenglish.com.accessed on January 10, 2012.
Situation: It is five o’clock on a Friday, Darmuid has had a hard week and it is time for
a pint. What is a good way of asking other people if he would like a drink
too? Well, in the first dialog, Diarmuid is going to invite Catherine out for a
pint or having a glass of wine.
Dialog 1:
Darmuid:
Catherine, I’m just going for a drink after work this evening.
Do you fancy a pint?
Catherine: Ooh, I’d love one.
In the dialog 1, Darmuid invites Catherine by saying, “Do you fancy a pint?” The strategy
Darmuid uses in his utterance is using an informal way. It might be understood that Darmuid
and Catherine are familiar to each other. In British English, if someone ‘fancy’ something, it
means that at the moment the person wants to have it. For example, ‘I fancy an ice cream’, ‘I
fancy a hamburger’.
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Dialog 2:
Diarmuid: Catherine, are you free on Friday?
Catherine: I think so. Why?
Diarmuid: Well, I’m going to have a barbeque on Friday night, in my back
garden. I wondered if you’d like to come along.
Catherine: Yeah, I’d love to. That sounds really nice.
Diarmuid: OK, you’re not vegetarian are you?
Catherine: No, no I’m not.
Diarmuid:
Ah, you’ll be fine with burgers.
In dialog 2, Darmuid uses polite strategy in inviting Catherine to come for a barbeque by
saying I wondered if you’d like to come along.
‘To wonder’, means ‘to think’ or ‘to ask
yourself’ but the meaning of the word isn’t that important here; Diarmuid is just using the
phrase to be polite. Sometimes to be polite means to use long sentences.
Review of Politeness
Politeness is perceived of as an instrumental act in addressing the interactants whether the
acts threaten the positive face want, by indicating (potentially) that the speaker does not care
about the addressee’s feelings, wants, etc, in this case the acts threaten the hearer’s face and
those that threaten the speaker’s face.
Politeness expression is addressed to those who are higher level than the speakers. To explain
the politeness phenomenon, Brown and Levinson (1987: 61) distinguish two facets of face,
the public self-image that every member wants to claim for himself, as follows:
1) Negative face: The basic claim to territories, personal preserves, rights to nondistraction—i.e. to freedom of action and freedom from imposition.
2) Positive face: The positive consistent self-image or ‘‘personality’’ (crucially including
the desire that this self-image be appreciated and approved of) claimed by others.
Method
This study adopted descriptive qualitative approach. The subjects consisted of twenty
students, ten males and ten females of Senior High School. They are students at the age of 16
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to 17 years old with different background of family and economical status. All of them have
learned English for nearly four years since they were in Junior High School. They have never
been abroad. Data were collected through oral Discourse Completion Tasks (developed by
Blum-Kulka) with nine scenarios. The students were asked to give responses to the scenarios,
recorded and them trancsribed. The data then were analyzed by using Brown-Levinson
politeness system.
The situations were designed by considering the power relation, distance, and rank of
imposition, as specified in Table 1.
Table 1. Specification of the Scenarios
Role Play
Equal
Lower
Higher
Equal
Lower
Higher
Equal
Lower
Higher
Pragmatic Situation
Power
Distance
Inviting a close friend for
a birthday party with
specific theme and time
Inviting
lower
grade
student to see a show
Inviting a teacher for a
class excursion
Inviting a friend to go to a
prominent university to get
an
information
about
registration
Inviting a friend to watch a
football match in a
stadium
Inviting a sport teacher for
a meal
Inviting some to see a
photography exhibition
Inviting someone for a
swimming competition
Inviting someone for a
formal occasion at school
=P
=D
Rank
of
Imposition
=R
+P
=D
+R
-P
-D
-R
=P
-D
=R
=P
+D
=R
-P
+D
-R
-P
+D
-R
+P
+D
+R
-P
+D
-R
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The descriptions of the situations are presented below.
1. You have a close friend (male) in your classroom. You intend to invite him to come to
your seventeenth birthday party at your house on Saturday at 18.30. The theme of the party is
James Bond so you ask him to wear James Bond’s costume.
a. What would you say to him?
b. What would you say if your close friend is female?
2. You are a Senior High School Student and you have a lower grade student friend
(male) who is close to you because you were alumni from the same school. You act as a
committee of an art show at your school, you intend to invite him to come and watch the art
show held on Saturday at 19.00.
b. What would you say if your close friend is female?
3. Your class will celebrate New Year party as well as a holiday excursion to
Prambananan Temple and Parang Tritis Beach. You act as team leader
and you are very
close to one of your male teachers. You intend to invite your teacher to join the event.
b. What would you say if your teacher is female?
4. You have a friend (male) from other class. You are not close to him. Once you and
your friend attended a chemist class because both of you were chosen as school
representatives to join Chemist competition. Now you are in year XII and you would like to
gain information about registration in Chemist faculty of an outstanding university in another
city. Today you meet him and you intend to invite him to join you for going there.
b. What would you say if your friend is female?
5. You met somebody (male) who is also one of your favorite football club supporters
when you watched them play in your town. You became acquainted with him. After a long
school holidays, you meet him at school as he continues his study at your school. As you
know that next week your favorite football club will play in a town not far from your place,
you invite him to watch the football match together.
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b. What would you say if your acquaintance is female?
6. You just won a running race in your town. You were in the first place and you
intended to invite your sport teacher (male) for a meal at your house.
7. You met somebody (male) from other school when you watched a photo exhibition.
You asked his identity. What good news is that your school will hold a student photo contest.
You intend to invite him to come to your school and see the event on Saturday at 17.00.
8. You were in year XI, you acted as a committee of swimming contest for Junior High
School Students. You met someone (male) from a Junior High School and you intended to
invite him to join the contest on Sunday at 09.00.
9. Your school would hold a graduation day for year XII you acted as a committee. You
intended to invite a socialite (man) who was a graduate of your school whose house was close
to school to come on the event.
Findings and Discussion
This part discussed inviting strategies related to difference of rank of imposition
(close, familiar, unfamiliar), gender (male and female) and social status (equal, lower and
higher). Broadly outlined that different rank of imposition and different gender influenced
inviting strategies.
a. Close-Equal
Different status and gender was found out to influence the way participants use
inviting strategies. Most data show that participants use different greetings and address
followed by hoping strategies and performative invitation strategies, examples can be seen
below:
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1. Hi, tomorrow on Saturday at a half past six p.m. I will held sweet seventeen
birthday party in my home. The theme of my party is James Bond. I hope you
will join it (hoping strategy)
2. Hello, boy. I will invite you to my seventeenth birthday party at my home. The
party will be held on Saturday at half past six o clock. I’ll tell you the theme of
the party is James Bond, so you have to wear the James’s Bond costumes. Thank
you. I’ll wait for your attend ( performative strategy)
Other data show that female and male participants use want strategy (female to
male) and willingness (male to female) after passive performative:
3. Hi, I will be held a party to my seventeen birthday on Saturday at six half past
p.m. with theme James Bond. Do you want to join my party and you wear James
Bond costume? (female to male)
4. Ehmm, hey, you are invited at my sweet seventeen party at my home. Can you
attend? (male to female)
However, male participants tend to use willingness strategies followed by final
addresses, which can be seen in the example below:
5. Will you can come to my birthday party at seventeenth in my home Saturday at
half past six o clock with themes James Bond and you will come with James
Bond costume, guys? (male to male)
6. Won’t you go to James Bond costume party in my birthday party at half past six
p.m. on my house, ladies? (male to female)
Female participants tend to use imperative sentences (female to male) and
willingness followed by imperative in their inviting strategies (female to female). The
following sentences are the examples:
7. Guys, please join us in my seventeenth birthday in my house at Saturday at half
pas six p.m. and please wear clothes with theme James Bond. I will be waiting.
(female to male)
8. I will be held my seventeenth birthday party in my home at Saturday half past
six p.m. Can you come in my event, Ratna? Please use the costume James Bond.
Thank you so much. (female to female)
b. Close-Lower
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Just like inviting strategies to close-equal, most data show that participants tend to
use greetings + addresses then followed by willingness (number 9 and 10), greetings +
supportive moves + performative strategies (11), greetings + supportive moves + willingness
(12) :
9. Hello, do you like to watching art performances that closed MOPDB in my
school this Saturday at seven p.m.? (female to male)
10. Ladies, will you go to art contest at Saturday seven p.m. in school? (male to
female)
11. Hi, sob. Do you remember me? I will be held festival for closing MOPDB, for
that, I invite you and hope you can come in that event. (male to male)
12. Hi, younger class. You and me have been in the same school at the Junior High
School. Will you attend our art exhibition in our Senior High School on
Saturday at seven? (female to female)
c. Close-Higher
Compared to close-equal and close-lower, inviting strategies addressed to closehigher sound more polite and cultured. This is marked by the use of disarmers and polite
markers. Data show that participants use apology + addresses + supportive moves + polite
strategies (13 and 14), addresses + supportive moves + polite strategies (15), greetings +
addresses + supportive moves + polite strategies + supportive moves (16):
13. I’m sorry, Mister. My class want held new year and holiday’s celebrate. We
want visit Prambanan temple and Parangtritis Beach. Would you like to join
our event, Mister? (female to male)
14. I’m sorry, Sir. My friends and I will visit Prambanan and Parangtritis and as
the leader I’d like you to join us. Would you mind? (male to male)
15. Mom, in this New Year and this holiday my class will visit in Prambanan and
Prangtritis beach. In this event i’m as leader event and would you invite as
accompany my class (male to female).
16. Good morning, Mrs. My class will hold the study tour and new Year Party
holiday. I am as the Chairman of the activity. Would you like to join this? We
will also go to Prambanan temple and Beach Parangtritis (female to female)
Based on the explanation above, it can be concluded that despite different level of
status they are close, they use different strategies in making invitation. When the participants
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are equal and close to the invetee, they tend to use neutral inviting strategies. However when
the participants are in distant to the invetee they tend to use different strategies. When the
invetee is lower, the inveter tend to use solidarity marker to show the closeness and
friendliness. While the invetee is higher, deference marker is mostly used followed by polite
strategies.
d. Familiar – equal
Data show that most participants use greetings + addresses + willingness:
17. Hello friend, can we going together for search information of university? (male
to male)
18. Hi, will you go to the X university, if yes, let’s go with me? (female to female)
However, some tend to use willingness + supportive moves (19), greetings +
asking for remembrance + supportive moves + want strategies (20):
19. Do you want to go to Chemical Technique University with me, because I know
you want to next study in this university. (female to male)
20. Hi, do you still remember me? We ever met in Chem Olympiad. I want you to
follow me in Chem university. (female to male)
Gender influences different inviting strategies. Some female participants use
greetings + saying identity + conditional (21) and greetings + addresses + performative +
willingness (22), while male use greetings + addresses + asking for remembrance +
supportive moves + willingness (23) and greetings + saying identity + asking for
remembrance + performative (24), as can be seen in the following examples:
21. Hi, I’m Rebecca. If you will visit to university, please visit with me. ( female to
male)
22. Hello, girl. I will invite you to go to the one of another city for searching the
information about chemical Technique Faculty. Do you want to go with me? (
female to female)
23. Hi, boy. Do you remember me? We ever met in Chem Olympiad. Do you want
with me to follow in Chem university? ( male to male)
24. Hello, my name is Tedy. Do you remember me? I will search information
about cara pendaftaran di fakultas teknik jurusan teknik kimia in UGM . ( male
to female)
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Female participants tend to use more polite strategies to the invetee by using
apology + willingness + polite strategies (25), greeting + asking for remembrance +
supportive move + polite strategies (26) as can be seen in the following examples;
25. Sorry, do you want searching more inform from Chem Technique University?
If yes, would you like to go with me? ( female to male)
26. Hi, do you remember me? My plan will invite you to University in other city.
So we can go together to go there. If you don’t mind, would you like to
accompany me? ( female to female)
e. Familiar - Lower
Data show that most participants use willingness in single utterances (27 and 28),
however, some data show that participants use greetings + addressee + supportive moves +
willingness (29 and 30):
27. Will you go to watch football club match with me guys? (male to male)
28. Will you going with me for watch a football match next week, girls (male to
female)
29. Hi, boy meet you again ehm... our favorit team will match in beside city next
week. Will you want to watch this match with me? ( female to male)
30. Hi, girl. You and me have a same football favorite and our favorite will play in
the other city near our city. Will you join with me? ( female to female)
Female participants tend to have great expectation that their invitation be fulfilled,
it can be seen in the use of hope expression in their inviting strategies. They use greetings +
supportive moves + hoping + want (31, 32):
31. Hi, do you know that our favorite team will match next week? I hope you can
watch it together with me. Do you want? ( female to male)
32. Hi, meet again. Do you know? Our favorite football team will play. I hope you
can accompany me to watch it. (female to female).
f. Familiar – Higher
Data show that most participants use polite strategies. They use
single would
question (33), addressee + supportive move + polite strategies + thanking + prohibition (34),
addressee + supportive move + want + polite strategies (35), apology + addressee + polite
strategies (36).
33. Would you going to my house for celebrating my winning, Sir? (male to male)
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34. Madam, tomorrow at five o’clock would you invite to attend in my home for
celebrate my win? Thanks before. You don’t be late. (male to female)
35. Mister, because I am as the winner in run competition I held celebration to it,
and I want to invite you to attend my celebration in my house. Would you want
to attend it? (female to male)
36. I’m sorry miss. Would you like to come in my home to celebrate my win in
running? (female to female).
As please is assumed as polite marker, some female participants use addressee +
please + imperative + supportive move (37), addressee + supportive move + please +
imperative + supportive move + thanking (38)
37. Sir, please come to my house. Tonight I will pray because I am the winner in
the running competition.
38. Mom, in the running yesterday, I’m the winner. Please come in my house. I
will celebrate it. Thank you for your study.
g. Unfamiliar – equal
Data show participants, especially male tend to use single utterance of willingness.
39. Will you going to my school for watch photography contest, guys? (male to
male)
40. Will you going to my school for watch photography contest at Saturday on five
p.m., sis (male to female).
Data show that some female participants tend to use greetings + supportive moves
+ willingness (41), greetings + asking for remembrance + supportive move + hoping (42):
41. Hi, next Saturday there will the photography show in my school at five p.m.
can you come to the show? (female to male)
42. Hi, do you remember me? We ever met at Photography exhibition. My school
will be held a photography exhibition at Saturday five p.m. can you visit there
to watch it? I hope you can? (female to female)
However data show that participants also use polite strategies. They use greetings
+ polite strategies (43), greetings + supportive moves + polite strategies (44), addressee +
supportive moves + polite strategies (45), greetings + addressee + asking for remembrance +
polite strategies (46):
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43. Hi, would you like to go in my school for watching forography gallery?
(female to male)
44. Hi, friend I have met you in photography exhibition and my school will be held
photography exhibition. Would you attend our exhibition? (female to female)
45. Guys, in my school will be held a photography exhibition on Saturday at five
p.m. o’clock. Would you like to see it? (male to male)
46. Hi, ladies. Do you remember me? In my school I will be held a photograph
exhibition. Would you like to see it? (male to female)
Nevertheless, some male participants use reasoning + performative (47), greetings
+ supportive moves + performative (48), greetings + addressee + asking for remembrance +
performative + thanking (49) while female use supportive moves + want + willingness (50):
47. Cause I know we have a same interest in photography, I’m inviting you to
come to our school’s “pameran fotografi” event at five p.m. (male to male)
48. Hey, my school will be show of photograph, I will invite you there. (male to
female)
49. Hi, friends, do you still remember me? I will you can attend a photography
exhibitionon Saturday at five p.m. in my school. I will glad if you can come.
Thanks before. (female to female)
50. My school will held exhibition arat on Saturday at five p.m. I want to come to
my school and join in our exhibition. Do you want to come and join it? (female
to male).
h. Unfamiliar – Lower
Data show that participant use willingness:
51. Won’t you going to swimming pool for swim in Sunday nine a.m., guys? (
male to male)
52. Will you going to swimming pool for swimming training on Sunday at nine
a.m. Sis? (male to female)
Other data show that participants use greetings + supportive moves +
willingness (53), greetings + addressee + supportive moves + performative + want (54),
greetings + addressee + supportive moves + willingness ( 55) :
53. Hey, there’s a match, why don’t you participate on Sunday at nine o’clock.
(male to male)
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54. Hello, boy. My school will hold the swimming competition for Junior High
School. I know you like swimming, so I’ll invite you to the competition on
Sunday at nine a.m. Do you want to join us? (female to male)
55. Hi, younger class. You and me have been in the same Junior High School. You
and me have a same hobby. I will swimming on Sunday at nine. Will you join
with me? (female to female).
Different gender influence the participants in making inviting strategies, some
female participants supportive moves + indirect imperative + agreement (56), addressee +
supportive moves + please + imperative (57):
56. Next month there will the swimming competition. You must follow the
competition on Sunday at nine a.m. Okay? (female to male)
57. Girl, I know you have hobby a swim. Please come in swim competition at
Sunday nine a.m. (female to female)
Other data show that participants use greetings + addressee + supportive moves +
hoping :
58. Hi, sob. My school will be held a swimming competition on Sunday at nine
o’clock in Muncul swimming pool. I hope you can join it. (male to male)
59. Hi, girl. My school will be held a swimming competition on Muncul swimming
pool. I hope you can join it. (male to female)
60. Hi, bro. In my school will be held a swimming competition on Sunday at nine
a.m. I hope you can follow that competition. Okay? (female to male)
61. Hi. I know your hobby is swimming and my school there will swimming
competition. I hope you will join in the competition on Sunday at nine a.m.
Please don’t be late. (female to female)
i. Unfamiliar – Higher
Data show that male participants use single utterance in terms of polite strategies
followed by deference markers:
62. Would you going to my school for join farewell party, Sir?
63. Would you going to farewell party in my school, Miss?
Other data show that participants use apology + addressee + performative +
polite strategies(64 and 65), before + apology + if clause + reason + polite strategies (66),
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apology + addressee + supportive moves + hoping (67), apology + addressee + want +
hoping (68) :
64. Excuse me, Mister. I will invite you to the farewell party of my school because
I know you have ever school at my school. Would you like to join us? (female
to male)
65. I’m sorry Miss, my school want held an event. Would you like to come in my
school? (female to female)
66. Before I am sorry if I disturb you I come in here because I want to you attend
in our farewell, would you want to attend it? (female to female)
67. Excuse me, Mister. I have a plan to hold a farewell party. So I hope you can
attend in our party. (female to male)
68. Excuse me, Mom. I want to invite you to join farewell event in my school. I
hope you can join it. (male to female).
However, some participants use less polite greetings + supportive moves +
performative + hoping (69), less polite greetings + addressee + supportive moves + hoping
(70), less polite greeting + addressee + supportive moves + hoping + thanking (71), less polite
greetings + addressee + supportive moves + polite strategies (72):
69. Hi, Mr. Burhan. Next month my school be held wasana warsa I would you
invite this event and I hope you can come on this event. ( male to male)
70. Hi, Miss. Next month my school be held wasana warsa, I hope you can ome in
this event (male to female)
71. Hi, Mister. My school will be held a farewell party. I want you to attend it. I
hope you can Mister. Thank you so much. (female to male)
72. Hi, Mom. My school will be held farewell party. Would you like to attend it?
(female to female)
Data show that participants use different greetings based on different situation and
different rank and imposition as can be seen in table 2.
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Table 2. List of greetings used by the participants
No Category
1
Close equal
Freq
20
4
2
15
1
4
6
2
4
2
5
22
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Pragmatic Situation
Greetings
Inviting a close friend for 1. Hi
a birthday party with 2. Hello
specific theme and time
Close lower Inviting lower grade 1. Hi
student to see a show
2. Hello
Close higher Inviting a teacher for a 1. Hi
class excursion
2. Excuse me
3. Good morning
4. I’m sorry
Familiar
Inviting a friend to go to 1. Sorry
equal
a prominent university to 2. Hello
get an information about 3. Hi
registration
Familiar
Inviting a friend to watch 1. Hi
lower
a football match in a 2. Excuse me
stadium
Familiar
Inviting a sport teacher 1. I’m sorry
higher
for a meal
2. Hello
3. Hi
4. Excuse me
5. Alhamdulillah
6. Good afternoon
7. Assalaamu’alaikum
Unfamiliar
Inviting someone to see a 1. Hi
equal
photography exhibition
2. Hello
Unfamiliar
Inviting someone for a 1. Hi
lower
swimming competition
2. Hello
Unfamiliar
Inviting someone for a 1. Excuse me
higher
formal occasion at school 2. Hi
3. Assalaamu’alaikum
4. Hello
5. I’m sorry
Total
26
2
2
1
3
6
1
2
2
19
1
18
4
8
7
2
11
2
202
In category close equal, the participants use less formal or neutral greetings “hi” is 20 times
(83 %), while greeting hello is only 4 times ( 17%). In category close lower, greetings “hi” is
used 15 times ( 93%), while greeting hello is only 1 time (7%). In category close higher,
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where the invetee is older than the inveter, greetings are varied which are considered polite.
Greetings excuse me, good morning and I’m sorry are considered polite. Excuse me is used 6
times (37.5%), I’m sorry is 4 times (25%), good morning is 2 times (12.5%). However, the
less polite greeting “hi” is also used 4 times ( 25%).
In category familiar equal, greetings “hi” is used 22 times (76%), greeting “hello” is used 5
times (17%) and greetings “sorry” is used 5 times (17%). In category familiar lower, greetings
“hi” is used 26 times (92%) while greetings “excuse me” is used 2 times (8%).in category
familiar higher, various greetings which are considered polite are used as the invetee is older
than the inveter. Greetings “assalaamu’alaikum” is used 2 times (12%), good afternoon is
used 2 times (12 %), I’m sorry is used 2 times (12%), excuse me is used 6 times (35%),
alhamdulillah is used 1 time (6%). Other greetings are considered less polite, “hi” is used 3
times (17%) and “hello” is 1 time (6%).
In category unfamiliar equal, greeting “hi” is used 19 times (95%), while greetings “hello” is
used 1 time (5%). In category unfamiliar lower, greetings “hi” is used 18 times (82%) while
greetings “hello” is used 4 times (18%). In category unfamiliar higher, various greetings
which are considered polite is used. Greeting “excuse me” is used 8 times (38%), greetings
“assalaamu’alaikum” is used 2 times (9.5%), greetings “I’m sorry” is used 2 times (9.5%).
Other greetings which are less polite is used by the participants. Greeting “hi” is used 7 times
(33%), while greetings “hello” is used 2 times (9.5%).
Data show that there are distinctions in the use of addressee by the participants in making
inviting strategies. The list of various addressees can be seen in table 3.
Table 3. List of addressees
No Category Pragmatic
Situation
1
Close
equal
Place of the addressee
Before inviting
After inviting
strategies
strategies
Addressee
Freq
Addressee
Freq
Inviting
a 1. Guys
2
1. Guys
4
close friend 2. Girl
2
2. Girl(s)
3
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for a birthday
party
with
specific
theme
and
time
2
Close
lower
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Inviting lower 1.
grade student 2.
to see a show 3.
3
Close
higher
Inviting
a
teacher for a
class
excursion
4
Familiar
equal
5
Familiar
lower
6
Familiar
higher
Inviting
a
friend to go to
a prominent
university to
get
an
information
about
registration
Inviting
a
friend
to
watch
a
football
match in a
stadium
Inviting
a
sport teacher
for a meal
7
Unfamili Inviting some
ar equal to
see
a
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1
1
2
1
1
1
2
1
2
4.
5.
6.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Boy
Names
Sweety
Bro
Sis
Sweet
Friends
Sob
Girl
Younger
class
Sweety
Brother
Ladies
Mister
Miss/es
Sir
Mom
Teacher
Madam
Guy
Ladies
Friends
Boy
Girl
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Guys
Girl
Bro
Boy
Sis
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Sir
Mam
Mister
Miss/es
Madam
1. Bro
2. Sis
3. Boy
4. Ladies
1
2
1. Guys
2. Girls
2
2
1. Sir
2. Miss
4
4
1. Bro
2. Sis
3. Guys
4. Girls
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
1
1. Guys
2. Girl/s
3. Sis
4. Boy
2
4
3
1
8
4
7
8
4
1. Mister
2. Miss
3. Mister
sister
4. Sir
2
3
1
1
1
1. Guys
2. Ladies
4
1
1
2
2
9
10
5
4
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
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photography
exhibition
8
9
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Unfamili Inviting
1.
ar lower someone for a 2.
swimming
3.
competition
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Unfamili Inviting
1.
ar higher someone for a 2.
formal
3.
occasion
at 4.
school
5.
Total
Guys
Girls
Friend/s
Boy
Ladies
Bro
Sis
Sob
Girl
Younger
class
Boy
Guys
Kids
Dear
Mister
Miss/es
Sir
Madam
Mom
1
1
6
1
1
1
1
1
4
2
2
1
1
1
7
8
6
1
5
155
3. Girls
4. Sis
1
2
1. Guys
2. Sis
3. Girls
4
2
2
1. Sir
2. Miss
3. Misses
4
2
2
72
From table 3, data show that from total 227 addressees, 155 (68%) participants use initial
place before inviting strategies and 72 (32%) participants use final place after inviting
strategies. In category equal, from total 54 addressees, “guys” is used 13 times (24%), “girl”
is used 11 times (20%), “friends” is used 9 times (16%), “boy” is used 6 times (11%), “sis” is
used 6 times (11%), “ladies” is used 5 times (9%), “bro” is used 3 times (9%). In category
lower, out of 53 addressees, “guys” is used 9 times (16%), “girl” is used 15 times (28%),
“boy” is used 6 times (11%), “ladies” is used 2 times (3%), “bro” is used 4 times (7%), “sis”
is used 6 times (11%), “sob” is used 4 times (7%), “brother” is used 2 times (3%). In category
higher, out of 112 addressees, “mister” is used 25 times (22%), “Miss/es” is used 36 times
(32%), “Sir” is used 29 times (25%), “Mom” is used 13 times (11%),”Madam” is used 6
times (5%)
Auxiliaries used by the participants in making inviting strategies are varied among males and
females based on different situation in the DCT as seen in table 5.
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Table 5. The list of the use of auxiliaries
No Role
Play
1
Situatio
n one
2
Situatio
n two
3
Situatio
n three
4
Situatio
n four
5
Situatio
n five
6
Situatio
n six
7
Situatio
n seven
8
Situatio
n eight
9
Situatio
n nine
Pragmatic situation
Will
Would
May
Auxiliaries
Freq
Male
4
Must
1
Will
1
Will + can
Won’t
3
Will
1
Won’t
3
Can
5
Can
Will
Would
2
Would
3
Will
1
Can
Will
May
5
1
Female
Inviting a close Will
friend for a birthday Can
party with specific Would
theme and time
Inviting lower grade Will
student to see a show May
Can
Inviting a teacher for Would
a class excursion
Inviting a friend to
go to a prominent
university to get an
information
about
registration
Inviting a friend to
watch a football
match in a stadium
Inviting a sport
teacher for a meal
Would
Will
Can
Inviting some to see Can
a
photography Would
exhibition
Inviting someone for Will
a
swimming Must
competition
Inviting someone for Would
a formal occasion at
school
Total
5
1
1
4
3
4
1
5
53
Freq
1
4
1
4
6
2
1
1
2
6
2
4
1
Would
Can
Will
Would
Will
Would + can
Would
Will
1
1
5
7
1
1
2
6
Won’t
Will
Can
Would
4
1
1
7
58
From table 5, data show that in category equal (situation one, four and seven), out of 19
auxiliaries used by female, “will” is used 6 times or 31.5%, “can” is used 5 times or 26%,
“would” is used 7 times or 36.8%, and “may” is used 1 time or 5.7%. While for male
participants, out of 25 auxiliaries, “must” is used 1 time or 4%, “will” is used 14 times or
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56%, “will + can” is used 1 time or 4%, “won’t” is used 4 times or 16%, “would” is used 4
times or 16%, “can” is used 1 time or 4%.
In category lower (situation two, five and eight) data shows, that out of 18 auxiliaries used by
female participants, “will” is used 12 times or 67%, “may” is used 2 times or 11%, “can” is
used 3 times or 16%, “must” is used 1 time or 6%. While for male, out of 21 auxiliaries,
“will” is used 12 times or 57%, “won’t” is used 6 times or 29%, “can” is used 3 times or 14%.
In category higher (situation three, six, and nine) data shows, that out of 17 auxiliaries used
by female participants, “would” is used 15 times or 88%, “ will” is used 1 time or 6%, “can”
is used 1 time or 6%. While for male, data shows that out of 25 auxiliaries, “can” is used 1
time or 4%, “will” is used 3 times or 12%, “would” is used 19 times or 76%, “would + can” is
used 1 time or 4%, “would + mind” is used 1 time or 4%.
Politeness markers used by the participants reflect the situation in the DCT as can be seen in
table 6.
Table 6. List of politeness markers used by the participants.
No
Role Play
1
Situation
one
2
Situation
two
3
Situation
three
Pragmatic
situation
Inviting
a
close friend
for a birthday
party
with
specific
theme
and
time
Inviting
lower grade
student to see
a show
Inviting
a
teacher for a
class
Female
Please
Politeness Markers
Freq
Male
2
Please
4
Honorably 1
I’m sorry 1
Please
3
Excuse
me
I’m sorry
Freq
2
1
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4
Situation
four
5
Situation
five
6
Situation
six
7
Situation
seven
8
Situation
eight
9
Situation
nine
excursion
Inviting
a
friend to go
to
a
prominent
university to
get
an
information
about
registration
Inviting
a
friend
to
watch
a
football
match in a
stadium
Inviting
a
sport teacher
for a meal
Please
1
Excuse
me
Please
1
1
Please
I’m sorry
Excuse
me
Inviting some Please
to
see
a
photography
exhibition
Inviting
Please
someone for a
swimming
competition
Inviting
Excuse
someone for a me
formal
I’m sorry
occasion at Please
school
Total
3
1
1
Excuse
me
2
Excuse
me
2
1
1
2
2
1
27
7
From table 6, data show that female tend to use polite markers than male participants. Male
tend to use polite markers in category higher (situation three, six and nine), while female use
polite markers for all situations and all categories (equal, lower and higher). In category equal
(situation one, four and seven) female tend to use “please” as well as in category lower,
“excuse me” is used only one time in situation five where the invetee is familiar. In category
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higher, politeness markers used by female participants varied, out of 15 markers, “I’m sorry”
is used 4 times or 27%, “please” is used 7 times or 46%, “excuse me” is used 3 times or 20%,
“honorably” is used 1 time or 7%.
Implications for English Language Learning
As politeness does exist in any languages in this universe, students should have been known
about this issue. Being polite is not only by using body language as we bow while walking in
front of older people but also the way we produce the language. As pragmatics differs from
one culture to other second or foreign language, learners should acquire the sociopragmatics,
in terms of politeness and pragmalinguistic rules of the foreign or second language to enable
them to make communication effectively with native speakers. Miscommunication often
occurs due to incident that people make use of the rules of their native pragmatics to express
intention in other culture without realizing the difference between these two cultures. Making
grammar mistake in other language is acceptable however, using inappropriate utterance
might yield an awkward communication. Dealing with character building issued in teaching
learning process now it is advisable to include teaching politeness within classroom activities.
Scenarios in DCT might be a better option to do so.
Conclusion
Based on the findings most inviting strategies are in forms of indirect and well mannered,
different genders reflect different ways in making invitation strategies. It can be seen from
several aspects; namely, greetings, the use of auxiliaries, politeness markers, deference,
address of familiarity, status of the speakers and supporting moves.
1. Greetings
The prominent finding is that “hi” is used as greetings for all situations. However, the most
blatant use of “hi” is in category equal and lower even though the inviter and the invetee are
unfamiliar. While for higher category, it happens as the inveters do not conduct a real
conversation meaning they do not face to face with the invetees so they do not come across
the physical appearance of adults or old people and as young learners, they tend to use “hi” to
commence a conversation.
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2. The use of Auxiliaries
The most frequent auxiliaries used are “will”, “can”, and “would”. The participants managed
to differentiate in choosing auxiliaries based on social status of the invetees. In category equal
and lower, the participants tend to use “will” and “can” while for higher status “would” is
used by the participants.
3. Politeness markers.
Female participants tend to use polite markers than male even in all situations. Female do not
make distinction of the invetees regardless of the rank, power and imposition.
Male
participants tend to use politeness markers to those who are categorized higher status
(situation three, six, and nine). Politeness markers mostly used are “please”, “excuse me”, and
“I’m sorry”.
4.
Deference markers
Different situations discern the way the participants use deference markers. In category equal
and lower, the participants tend to use solidarity markers, which cover “bro”, “guys”,
“ladies”, “sis”, “sweety”, “sob”, “boy”, “friend”, “girl”, and “beautiful girl”. In category
higher, the participants tend to use deference markers, which comprise Sir, Mister, Madam,
Mom, Miss, Misses, and Teacher.
In general, scenarios in the DCT are clear enough for the participants to gain information to
let them make invitation by using different strategies according to different rank, power and
imposition as well as gender. A few points can be noted from the participants involved in the
study that male participants tend to use single utterances to whom as the invitee regardless of
gender, rank, power and imposition. The higher the invitee, the more polite will they in
making inviting strategies, the lower the invetee, the less polite will they. When the inveter
and the invitee are equal, they use informal invitation. Female tend to use polite strategies to
those who are equal, however to those who are lower female tend to use informal strategies.
Male participants tend to maintain closeliness to female invetee especially to those who are
lower.
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References
Billmyer, K. and Varghese, M. 2000. Investigating Instrument-Based Pragmatic Variability:
Effects of Enhancing Discourse Completion Tests. Applied Linguistics. 21/4: 517-552.
Oxford University Press.
Brown, P and Levinson, S.C. 1978. Politeness. Some Universals in Language Usage. New
York: Cambridge University Press.
Canale, M., and Swain, M. 1980. Theoretical Bases of Communicative Approaches to Second
Language Testing and Teaching. Applied Linguistics, 1(1), 1-47.
Celce-Murcia, M.Z. Dornyei and S. Thurrell. 1995. Communicative Competence: A
pedagogically motivated model with content Specifications. Issues in Applied
Linguistics 6 : 5-35
Chomsky, Noam. 1957. Syntactic Structure. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Flor, A. M and Soler, E. A. Developing Pragmatic Awareness of Suggestions in the EFL
Classroom: A Focus On Instructional Effects. Universitat Jaume I, Castellón (Spain)
Hymes, D.H. 1972. On Communicatiove Competence. Sociolinguistics. Eds. J. B. Pride and J.
Holmes. Baltimore: Penguin Books. 269-293
Kasper, G and Dahl, M. 1991. Research Methods in Interlanguage Pragmatics. Cambridge
University Press.
Kasper, G and Rose, K.R., 1999. Pragmatics and SLA. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics
(1999) 19, 81–104. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Kasper, Gabrielle. 1992. Pragmatic Transfer. Second Language Research 8,3 (1992); pp.
203-231.
Kasper, Gabriele. 2000. Four Perspectives on L2 Pragmatic Development. The annual
conference of the American Association of Applied Linguistics (AAAL), Vancouver,
March 2000
Macken, Mary. 1990. A Genre-Based Approach to Teaching Writing. New South Wales:
Literary and Education Research Network..
Taguchi, Naoko. 2006. Analysis of Appropriateness in A Speech Act of Request in L2 English.
Pragmatics 16:4.513-533 (2006) International Pragmatics Association.
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Trosborg, Anna. 1995. Interlanguage Pragmatics. Requests, Complaint and Apologies. New
York : Mouton de Gruyter.
http://bbclearningenglish.com. downloaded on January 11, 2012 at 13.30.
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PHONOLOGICAL AND GRAMMATICAL PERFORMANCE
OF DISABLED STUDENTS IN SLB NEGERI UNGARAN
Muhimatul Ifadah
Universitas Muhammadiyah Semarang
Abstract
In Indonesia, disabled students are taught in particular schools. The research was aimed to
give an overview of phonological and grammatical performance of those students and to
find out how the teachers deliver English. English was not taught since primary school
due to the competence of the teachers and some complexities of the students themselves,
so English taught only for those with cognitive or learning disability and autism. The
English teachers at the school did not have qualification in English because their major
was not English; however, this gave impact on their teaching. In the process of teaching,
the students were much asked to listen and imitate the teachers’ pronunciation, and they
always used pictures as media. Unfortunately, words found in the material distributed in
the classroom pronounced differently by the teacher and he seems do not realize with this
weakness. Meanwhile, in grammatical performance they always use present progressive
in the process of teaching. The students were much taught lexical or vocabulary to
simplify the concept of English subject.Hence, the students were already sat on the
senior high level, and the material were the same with the elementary. Meanwhile, the
students made many unappropriate pronunciation because the teacher inconsistently
pronouncing the words or sentences. It is suggested that teachers should have adequate
skill in English to help those students in English class, because in a classroom setting,
communication means a lot of things, and it is represented by the sufficient competence
in English skills.
Keywords: English teaching disabled students, teacher’s proficiency, grammatical
performance, phonological performance.
Introduction
Ideally, education’s purpose is to ensure that all students have equal access to educational
opportunities so they can participate freely and actively. The physical environment of a
classroom is very important to the learning process of any student, and it is equally important
to students with disability. In Indonesia, students with disability are taught in particular
school, named SLB (Sekolah Luar Biasa). SLB usually serves students with disabilities of all
kinds, including mobility, visual, or hearing impairments; speech impairments; chronic
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illnesses such as AIDS, psychological disabilities such as bipolar disorder and severe anxiety
or depression; attention deficit disorder; and learning disabilities. However, SLB serves
students who meet the following criteria; the students who have documented physical,
medical, and/or psychological conditions; and professionals have verified that the students
need individualized services, and the absence of which would cause severe disadvantages for
the students.When students request services from SLB, its teachers have the responsibility for
determining whether the students have disabilities impeding educational access. In making
this determination, the teachers conduct an assessment and evaluation process that is
consistent with established system practices. The assessment and evaluation process usually
includes interviews with the parents as well as review of documentation provided by
physicians or other clinicians (for example, clinical psychologists, audiologists, and
optometrists). When students are determined to have disabilities impeding educational access,
SLB is already planned a program of services for them. Some students require program
modifications: for example, a reduced course loads. However, those students may not be
expected as those who are not in such condition. With many deficiencies they have, it will be
a burden for the teacher as well as the students in meeting the educational purposes perfectly.
Problems faced by the teachers are not simply as passing the grade, or achievement in the
course but also about the process in the class; strategy, method, media/aid, and the assessment
and/or evaluation.
In the research, the writer are eager to find out how the English teaching in Sekolah Luar
Biasa , and also reporting the performance of phonological and grammatical performance of
those students, and part that cannot be discard from the teaching process is about the
proficiency of the English teacher in English skills.
What is a Disability?
The Americans with Disabilities Act defines a disability in the following manner:
A physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more of the major life
activities of such individual, record of such an impairment, or being regarded as having such
an impairment. Disabilities come in many shapes and forms, but generally speaking, they can
be categorized as follows:
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a. A Mobility disability refers to an impairment of one or more of his or her
extremities or physical movement. Students with a mobility disability might use a
wheelchair, a walker, prosthetic, or other types of assistive devices.
b. A Sensory disability refers to people with low vision or who are hard of hearing and
those who are Deaf and/or blind. Aphasia is included within this category.
c. A Chronic Health or Mental Health disability refers to conditions such as diabetes,
multiple sclerosis, depression, anxiety or arthritis.
d. A Cognitive or Learning disability such as dyslexia and attention deficit disorder
are the most commonly seen forms in a language classroom. This also includes
Asperger’s and the other forms of autism. (www.miusa.org/ncde/tools/esl)
From English classroom setting, there are some impairments that may restrict the process of
teaching, those are;
a. Sensory Disabilities
Sensory disabilities include students with auditory (Deaf/hard of hearing), speech-related, and
visual (blind/low vision) disabilities .The teachers need to consider adaptations to their
lessons and provide students with what is needed for them to have equal access to standard
lessons.
b. Speech Disabilities
Speech disabilities can be the result of neurological impairments (such as cerebral palsy), a
degenerative illness, or through a stroke or traumatic brain injury (resulting in aphasia, for
example). Some of these students may be able to communicate verbally, but in a slower or
less articulate manner, while others will use communication boards or electronic speechsynthesizers.
c. Cognitive and Learning Disabilities
Cognitive and learning disabilities are common in the ESL classroom and may have a
significant impact on the way a student learns English. For people with learning disabilities,
autism and other forms of neurological impairments, the standard methods of language
teaching probably are not as effective. It is incumbent on the teacher to make modifications to
his or her teaching style to assist students with cognitive and learning disabilities in their
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goals of learning a new language. Accommodations vary from student to student; people with
different disabilities may have different academic problems, and sometimes two people with
the same disability will be affected in diverse ways.
Teaching Students with Sensory Disabilities.
For obvious reasons, students who are deaf or hard of hearing face enormous obstacles in an
academic setting. It is essential that teacher will maintain effective communication with these
students. Students who are deaf or hard of hearing are not all alike. Some are extremely adept
at reading lips and others are not; some communicate orally and others use sign language,
gestures, writing, or a combination of these methods. Following are suggestions for
improving the academic situation of students who are deaf or hard of hearing.
a. Always speak directly to the student, not to the student's sign language interpreter.
b. During class discussions, ensure that no more than one person speaks at a time. When a
class member asks a question, repeat the question before answering
c. Loss of visual contact may mean loss of information for some students who are deaf or hard
of hearing. Unless the students are using sign-language interpreters or real-time cautioners,
be sure that the students have visual contact with you before you begin lecturing. Avoid
giving information while handing out papers or writing on a whiteboard.
d. Provide seats near the front of the class so students with hearing impairments can get as
much from visual and auditory clues as possible.
Teaching Students with Learning Disabilities
Students with learning disabilities have normal or better intelligence, but they also have
severe "information-processing deficits" that make them perform significantly worse in one or
more academic areas (reading, writing, math) than might be expected, given their intelligence
and performance in other academic areas. Though all learning disabilities are different,
students with learning disabilities report some common problems, including slow and
inefficient reading; slow essay-writing, with problems in organization and the mechanics of
writing; and frequent errors in math calculation.
The following suggestions may be helpful in working with students who have learning
disabilities, and also those who have head injuries.
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a. Students with learning disabilities may take longer to complete exams and may need
extended time. They may also take longer to complete assignments, so it is particularly
important to provide a detailed syllabus at the beginning of the class. The syllabus should
list all assignments and due-dates.
b. If possible, provide frequent opportunities for feedback: for example, weekly quizzes on
assigned reading, teacher review of early drafts of essays, error-analysis of tests. If a
student's written exams seem far inferior to the student's class work, the two of you can
meet during your office hours for a discussion of the exam questions. This discussion will
give you a better idea of what the student really knows and how you can help the student
produce better exams or other written work.
c. Encourage students to contact you in order to clarify assignments. Be sensitive to students
who, for disability-related reasons, may be unable to read aloud or answer questions
when called on. If students make you aware of these difficulties, you and the students can
discuss other ways they can meaningfully participate in class sessions: for example,
volunteering comments or making short presentations.
d. Compose exams in a way that makes them accessible for students with learning
disabilities, make sure that exams are clearly written or typed, in large black letters or
numbers, with spaces between lines and with double or triple spaces between items. To
avoid visual confusion, avoid cramming too many questions onto one page. Print
questions on only one side of the paper.
e. Group similar types of questions together: for example, all true/false, all multiple-choice,
all short-answers. Leave several spaces between multiple-choice items.
f. Allow students to use extra paper in preparing answers to essay questions.
Teaching Students with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is characterized by a persistent pattern of
frequent and severe inattention, hyperactivity, and/or impulsiveness. People with ADHD have
many problems in academic settings. Some of these problems are similar to the problems of
people with learning disabilities: slow and inefficient reading, slow essay-writing, and
frequent errors in math calculation and the mechanics of writing. Other problems are
especially characteristic of ADHD; students ADHD often have serious problems with timemanagement, task-completion, organization, and memory.
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Students with ADHD generally perform better if given a syllabus with clear explanations of
tasks and specific due dates. As the semester progresses, keep reminding students of
impending deadlines: "Remember, the problem sets are due on Friday."Whenever possible,
start each lecture with a summary of material to be covered, or provide a written outline. At
the conclusion of each lecture, review major points. Students with ADHD may tend to "drift"
mentally during class, especially during long lectures. Provide test-sites that are relatively
distraction-free; and when students are taking tests with extended test-time, do not ask them
to move from one test-site to another.
Teaching Students with Speech Impairments
Speech impairments can have many causes: dysfluencies such as stuttering, neurological
conditions such as Tourette's Syndrome, surgical removal of the larynx, stroke, traumatic
head injury, and degenerative illness. Students with speech impairments may communicate in
various ways. Some students speak with their own voices, but slowly and with some lack of
clarity; other students write notes, point to communication boards, use electronic speechsynthesizers, or communicate through assistants who interpret their speech to other people.
When students have speech impairments, meet with them early in the semester to discuss their
communication styles and how they can best function in your classroom. Will they be able to
answer if you call on them? If a communication assistant accompanies the student to class,
address your comments and questions to the student rather than the assistant.
(www.dsp.berkeley.edu/teachstudentswithdisab.html#10)
This study was done based on case study spectrum which its range defined as an effort to
illuminate a decision or set of decisions; why they were taken, how they were implemented
and with what result. The main ground of this study was the implementation of English
teaching in various fields, particularly for those students with different condition or those with
deficiencies. The study completed in a senior level of Sekolah Luar Biasa in SLB Negeri
Ungaran. The observation was the process of English teaching in the class for students with
most of them are having learning disability. There were nine students in the classroom taught
by a teacher who teach various subjects-or teach all subjects for the students.
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In SLB Negeri Ungaran,the English teaching was prearranged for junior and senior high
school and the teacher was the classroom teacher, means that he/she teaches all subjects for
those students. English subject was given once a week with time allotment ninety minutes.
Observed from the room, there were several classes were separated into two parts and being
used by two different level, for instance elementary and senior high school and furthermore
teaching two different subjects. During the process of teaching, the teacher used Javanese and
Bahasa Indonesia to moderate the English comprehension. Most of the teaching topic is
vocabulary enrichment by explaining job and profession, accompanied by printed pictures as
the media. Moreover, the teacher used simple present in delivering the lesson as the impact of
teacher’s limited knowledge in English proficiency, so the students are only learnt now
moment, neither past nor future. Hence, the teacher often mispronounced English words and
as the consequence, the students repeated the teachers’ utterance inconsistency. Viewed from
pedagogical perspectives, the teacher was very expert in coping with class management and
students’ learning attitude. Moreover, the teacher was thriving with those various students’
impairments so that the materials given much depend on students’ mood. Though, whenever
the students were not ready to start the activities, the teacher would not start the teaching.
There were several improper pronunciation performed by the teacher imitated by the students
and they were pronounced inconsistently;
1. police:[ pɒl̩iːs ]
2. mother:[ mɒðə ]
3.doctor:[ dɒktɒ ]
4. nurse: [nuːs]
5.a:[ aɪ ]
6. he is:[hes]
7. police line:[ pɒlɪslen ]
8. he:[ hɪ ]
9. she:[ sɪ ]
10.policeman:[ pəlaɪsmən ]
11. the:[ nθə ]
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The above words are some improper forms made by the teacher. This phenomenon might be
caused by the reality that the teacher was not attending English major like it should be. In fact,
the teacher was attended for disabled program major, and he enriched his English by reading
books and practicing with his daughter who sit in a university, taking the same major like her
father. However, this will give impact on his teaching, because this is about transferring
knowledge and information. From the observation, it can be predicted how complicated the
teaching in the classroom was. The main reason in fact was not about meeting the purpose of
the course/subject only but also about the process of transferring knowledge. However, the
teacher who was not graduated-certificated from English department usually did not have the
same proficiency as those who graduated from English department. In the teaching and
learning process, it will be recommended if the teacher has the adequate skill and proficiency,
because it will be imitated by the students. Hence, students with those impairments will cause
various restraints in the process of teaching, and likely the incompetence teacher made it
worse. However, not all English teachers are having chance in attending course, workshop, or
training and so on in English teaching or as a supplementary skill because of many reasons.
One of those is the policies which forced the officer, in this case is teacher in developing their
proficiency and ideas; facilities and human resources are likely to be the main problem in the
educational arrangement. Curriculum applied in school for disabled should have more definite
purpose and technical instruction for the teachers as the executor in the lowest level, even the
recruitment of the teacher for disabled students often did not represent need in the grassland.
However, the state school’s teacher arrangement is controlled by government through civil
servant recruitment and the recruitment for English teacher for those schools did not
accomplish but on the other hand, they empower the classroom teacher. Hence, the principal
asked for the researcher to find an English teacher because he thought that the English
teaching was not satisfying yet. This request actually represents the real need in the school but
restricted by the policy. The government’s policy will definitely give impact on the quality
and bring various consequences for teaching and learning process in the school, and maybe in
the same school outside there.
Conclusion
The students in SLB Negeri Ungaran are having problem in learning disability and attention
disorder. Hence, the English Second Language classes require a great deal of interaction
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between the teacher and students and between student and student, and the latter never been
done in SLB Negeri Ungaran. On the other hand, the English Second Language activities
require students to work in groups, which often require students to get up, move around,
relocate desks, but these activities were difficult to be applied in SLB Negeri Ungaran. As an
English teacher in school for disabled students, he should become informed. As the English
teacher, he should empower himself about English skill and components. Language is part of
skills that need to be developed by practicing grounded on the right guidance. Moreover,
English as a foreign language-even some of us consider as the second language will bring
different atmosphere whenever it applied in many educational settings. The level of English
comprehension is not only in actional competence, but also in the level of communicative
competence. English for specific purposes need difference strategy in its delivery, depend on
the audience and the purpose of the course. Based on the process of teaching, the teacher was
on the level of performative, which only able to decode the convention of the letter
formulation, from the spoken message. He was not able to provide learning experience for his
students because he has no such competence. On the other hand, this part is essential in
comprehending the English concept. The curriculum applied in an institution should be
supported with the appropriate human resources and facilities. Materials are another integral
part of the classroom that can be adjusted to suit the needs of those students. Visual aids are
extremely helpful to students with these impairments, and they can also be beneficial to
students who are predominantly visual learners. Another easy way to achieve academic
success for students with learning and speech impairments is through the use of highly
organized and clear instructions. Even if he is not getting used to in English pronunciation, he
still has to practice in it because his students will imitate. Using images and written out
questions will provide these students with a reference point beyond speech and language, and
it will make them be stimulated. Adding visual aids is a simple and effective means of helping
speech and language impaired students. From general remark, this weakness can be
minimized if government pay more attention to state schools because most of the society
prefers to state school than private school regarding the lower cost, furthermore, having
children with disabilities require higher cost than those who are not.
In this case, the
appropriate human resources and facilities are a must for them. The teachers of the schools as
the main actor and also the executor should be given more chance in improving their skills in
English through workshop, training, course and so on. It is also important to set up wisely the
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distribution of English teachers which
based on effective result on teaching process.
Moreover, the teachers should create stimulating class material format and do not forget to
permit several breaks for the students. However, the students are often distractible, so they
should be invited to sit near the front of the class, to prevent possible sources of distraction
(doors, windows, and noisy heaters). The teacher should avoid making assignments orally,
since the students may miss them, it is better to write assignments on the whiteboard or in
written form. if it might be imagined and applied, the ideal English teacher for those special
students should have adequate skill in English and also in coping students with disabilities to
fulfill the need of English comprehension for impaired students based on their right to access
appropriate service in education.
References
Hutchinson,Tom&Waters,Alan.1987.English for specific
purposes.1987.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
JORSEN Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs.Volume 10, issue 3, pages 227236, November 2010. Retrieved July 20 2013 from
onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j1471-3802.2010.01164.x/full .
Kartini,Kartono.2007.Psikologi Perkembangan.Bandung.Mandar Maju.
Krzyzak,Anna. Dyslexia in the Language Classroom. Retrieved on July 20 2013 from
http://iteslj.org/techniques/kryzak-dyslexia.html..
Teach Students With Disability. Retrieved July 19 2013 from
http://dsp.berkeley.edu//teachstudentswithdisability.html .
http:// www.miusa.org/ncde/tools/esl.
http://voices.yahoo.com/how-adjust-classroom-students-speech.5589839.html.(Retrieved July
23 2013)
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TOPICAL CASUAL TALKS AS RESPONSIVE LISTENING
AND SPEAKING PERFORMANCES OF BEGINNERS
Taranindya Zulhi Amalia
STAIN Kudus
[email protected]
Abstract
Global communication concern brings human to be familiar with English as early as
possible. Nowadays beginner students started English orally in elementary school even
kindergarten. At this moment, they dealth with listening and speaking skills and put them
into practice. When they came down to English, some beginners feel uncomfortable in
their learning because of facing formal situation. The beginners who were typically keen
on playing and having fun comfortably could not be treated in teaching-learning that was
usually presented to intermediate level or adult. Teachers had to create informal situation
so that they were more relaxed and got chemistry one another.
Dealing with comfortable zone put into informal situation in listening and speaking
practices for the beginners, this study focused on topical casual talks. It set up a relaxed
spot in order to explore effective communication related to their subject matters. The
teachers/tutors could apply one of classroom listening and speaking performance types,
responsive.
This study used qualitative approach. While it refered to library research. The primary
source was Elementary School Silabus. Whereas the secondary data sources were English
teaching-learning books.
This issue discussed about listening and speaking skills for beginners. The beginners
classified into age 6-8. In listening section, the students processed teacher talk instantly.
Afterwards in speaking, suitable direct short response answered the teacher talk. This
action
could be assessed by subjective test in the form of whquestions and short answers test.
Ultimately, the next comparable studies may converse different competences and
performances for beginners or any levels.
Keywords: Beginners, Responsive Listening and Speaking Performances, Topical Casual
Talks
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Introduction
Background of the Study
English always turns to be hot issues in any countries since its position which is nearby
internationally having the status of mother tongue, first, second, or foreign language.
Motherlands that have it as their very first language are able to practice instantly from the
time when its citizens use their mother-tongue to communicate to their culture. Another way,
the citizens who practice English as foreign language essentially calls for an approach in
facing global practical challenge.
For the shake of English Language spots in the world, http://dictionary.cambridge.org notes
their differentiations as follows:
a. Mother tongue means the first language that you learn when you are a baby,
rather than a language learned at school or as an adult.
b. First language means language that someone learns to speak first
c. second language means a language that a person can speak that is not the first
language they learned naturally as a child: German is my second language.
d. English as a foreign language (abbreviation EFL) is English as taught to people
whose main language is not English and who live in a country where English is
not the official or main language.
Indonesian, as one of societies who applies English as foreign language starts initiating its
learning formerly a few years back dealing with more preparations. Children as beginners
commence
English in kindergarten and elementary school. English is basically introduced as a local
content subject.
Conversely, its teaching-learning tackles some trials when some teachers assume their all of
their educational subjects are the same. They do not overlook the beginners as children (even
some are adults). The teachers formally blunder to treat them likewise and fix to
methods/strategies which are used to be higher levels’.
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Then, a number of teachers have an innovation to practice teaching beginners by partaking of
informal situation to classroom. Yet, what they could really do with is relevant issues
collaborated by way of casual talk. It is formulated into “Topical Casual Talks as Responsive
Listening and Speaking Performances of Beginners”.
1. Focus of the Study
The study concentrates on topical casual talks for beginners. It set up a relaxed spot in
order to explore effective communication related to their subject matters. The
teachers/tutors could apply one of classroom listening and speaking performance types,
responsive.
2. Objective of the Study
The objective of the study is to analyse responsive listening and speaking perfomances of
beginners on topical issues by applying casual talks.
3. Significance of the Study
By doing this library research, the writer hopes that:
a. English teachers could relate topical issues and casual talks to teach listening and
speaking competences to beginners by applying responsive perfomance types.
b. Beginners have a relaxed situation in experiencing listening and speaking
performances by practicing responsive types.
Literary Reviews
Who are Beginners?
Person who starts learning the very first time calls a beginner. http://www.portal.state.pa.us
defines it as a child over kindergarten who enters elementary school in its lowest grade.
Moreover http://www.uh.edu focuses the average-age Beginners between age 6 -8. This cites
the group for children in these ages to be the most developed market for piano method books
where a lot of piano teachers still consider them as the ideal time for children to begin the
lessons, other talents, or else. In line with the cites Harmer (2001:38) maintains that:
Children love discovering things, because they respond well to being
asked to use their imagination, they may well be involved in puzzle-like
activities, in making things, in drawing things, in games, in physical
movement or in songs.
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On the contrary, he (2001:17) also mentions terms for different student level (and Association
of Language Testers of Europe (ALTE) levels). He differs the terms beginners into false
beginners and elementary. False beginners means students who do not really start to be
beginners (they are unable to use English but are knowledgeable about it and need to be
activated. While elementary students are not beginners anymore not yet intermediate level and
can basically exchange a few spoken words.
beginners
intermediate
advanced
PreFalse1 elementary
Uppers (and ALTE
Figure
Terms for different
student level
intermediate
beginners
intermediate
levels)
This study touches on the beginners in the term of elementary school who essentially require a
starter lesson about English. In its learning process, English is taught as a local content in the
first grade of elementary school.
Teaching English as a foreign language takes time longer than as mother-tongue, first, or
second ones. People need to know, understand, and learn more to this global language They
bring out many formal and informal institution to facilitate the language teaching- learning
process but it is not the twinking of an eye. Nuha (2009:23-24) argues three key-words for
mastering foreign language, they are interest, practice, and long time. Interest means students’
affection and awareness to the language learnt. Then practice means making the language as
their habits. And long time is similar with taking much time.
Responsive Listening and Speaking in Relationship
After paying attention on those key-words, teachers as the designers of education in the
classroom should propose some elements of teaching that is available in a lesson plan,
including; level and age of learners, objectives, materials, methods, evaluations, references of
teaching and many more.
In teaching foreign language, the writer focuses on:
Level
: Beginners (6-8 years old)
Skills
: Listening and Speaking Competences
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Objectives : Students are able to practice responsive listening
Students are able to practice responsive speaking
Materials : Topical Casual Talks
Methods
: responsive listening and speaking
Evaluation : subjective test (teacher-made test)
References : 1st-3rd grades of Elementary School English syllabus, English books for
children.
Even in responsive method there is no dialogue and intensive interaction between
teachers and beginners, both of them have to present educated interaction in order to
communicate each. According to Surahmad (2003:7), educated interaction means an
interaction that takes place in educated situation. It is a direct interaction in education use.
He (2003:133-137) adds some reasonable interative preparation periods. They are as
follows:
1. Preparation of general situation
2. Preparation of students to be faced
3. Preparation of objetive to be achieved
4. Preparation of materials to be taught
5. Preparation of teaching methods
6. Preparation of helping tools
7. Preparation of evaluation technics.
The preparations have been discussed before and are similar to what is in a lesson plan. From
all of those criteria, the preparation of teaching methods will be the headline that are going to
be discussed, Responsive Listening and Speaking.
Brown (2001:257) explores responsive listening as classroom listening
activity that consists of short stretches of teacher language designed to
elicit immediate responses. The students
process the teacher talk
immediately and fashion an appropriate reply. e.g:
- Asking questions (“How are you?”)
- Giving commands (“Take a sheet of paper.”)
- Seeking clarification (“What was that word you said?”)
- Checking comprehension (“So, how many people were in ...?”)
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From six types of classroom listening performance [reactive, intensive, responsive, selective,
extensive, and reactive] (Brown, 2001:255-258), responsive listening represents an
appropriate method for beginners. In this ages and levels, they possibly response teachers talk
in smallest amount of alternative reactions.
Furthermore, he (2001:271-274) mentions six types of classroom speaking performance
[imitative, intensive, responsive, transactional (dialogue), interpersonal (dialogue), and
extensive (monologue)].
Once more, responsive is prefered for being used by the beginners because of its role as the
first step bonding into primary speaking in former communication.
He (2001:273) illustrates responsive speaking as student meaningful and
authentic short replies/speech to teacher or student-initiated questions or
comments. These replies are usually sufficient and do not extend into
dialogues. They are categorized into number 4 (produce reduced forms of
words and phrases) and 5 (use an adequate number of lexical unit
(words) in order to accomplish pragmatic purposes) of microskils of oral
communication. e.g:
T: How are you today?
S: Preety good, thanks, and you?
T: What is the main idea in this essay?
S: The United Nation ...
The existence of responsive speaking is in between monologue and dialogue. Practically, it is
not one directed communication nor two/more interactive dialogue. It labels as planned
familiar oral language.
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Dialogue
Interpersonal
Monologue
Planned
Unplanned
Figure 2
Unfamiliar
Familiar
Transactional
Unfamiliar
Familiar
Types of Oral Language (Nunan, 1991:20)
Moreover, both responsive listening and speaking performances are acted as one. Those
enclose in one package since their presence accomplishes one another. What is essential their
(or other language competences) teaching-learning is realizing learning styles. Amalia
(2012:2) shows them as follows:
a. Visual stimuli (human learns better when he/she see them)
b. Audio stimuli (somebody respond better when he/she hear them)
c. Audio-visual stimuli(learners combine both stimuli for something that
they see and hear)
d. Kinaesthetic stimuli (they gain knowledge of physical activities)
Actually no matter what learning style stimuli we have, they must be proper to criteria of ages
and levels. Like beginners in the term of elementary level, they possibly experience into
responsive listening and speaking performances by having audio-visual and kinaesthetic
stimuli which mutually represent the way the children in these ages love to see, hear, and do.
Talking Something Casual
Listening and speaking require spoken language style than written one. The types of spoken
text are a). Formal spoken style used in radio, seminar, or talk, b). Relaxed, informal spoken
style, such as a discussion which needs more prepositional verbs and conveys through
verbs,c). Relaxed, simplified, very informal spoken style; which produces repetitions and
stuffings in chats (http://linguapress.com).
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The last spoken language style is considered to be the most suitable one for beginners
(elementary level). Relaxed condition creates comfortable and stress-free learning-zone.
Simplified materials represents the beginning of basic lesson which they need. And very
informal situation brings them into casual talks/conversations like they have whilst
communicating to family or peers.
In casual conversations, they are authentic and spontaneous,
occuring in real contexts in
the everyday lives of the participants
(Eggins&Diana, 1997:1). They (1997:6) add that casual conversation is,
in fact, a highly structured, functionally motivated, semantic activity.
Motivated by interpersonal needs continually to establish who we are,
how we relate to others, and what we think of how the world is, casual
conversation
is a critical linguistic site for the negotiation of such
important dimensions of our social identiy. This means constructing
meanings by applying everyday talk
Elsjelyn (2006:54) brings pronunciation, appropriacy [accuracy], and conventional as
speaking components aside from grammar and vocabulary. Additionally, some mention
fluency as well. However firstly teachers should appreciate the learners on their passionate
courage in beginning things to be talked.
Creating Basically the Topical Casual Talk
Have you ever watched “Eat Bulaga Indonesia” game show at Surya Citra Televisi (SCTV)
channel? A pair of participants has to guess a word noted on their partners head which is
displayed in the monitor by asking some questions briefly. Then their partner just says
‘Yes/no/perhaps’. This is organized as topical casual talks that relies on ages and affiliations.
When they have women as their participants, it may have daily topics such as food, clothes
etc. In another situation, animals or stationaries perhaps are refered to children. The producer
of this program decides the topics based on the backgrounds of its participants.
The role of topic-based work is accomodating teaching-learning process in the classroom.
Scott, et.al., (1990:84-85) suggest topic-based work to be used all/some of the time for these
reasons:
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a. Make us easier to relate the lessons to the experiences and interests of learners
b. Help the learning process (both memory and learning language in context help
understanding)
c. Allow us to go into a subject in depth and the learners need more into focus.
d. Allow us more easily to give a personal/local touch to mateials which may not
have been produced in our country and rearrange them to suit what is happening
generally at the time of teaching.
Moreover, they (1990:85-86) show how to set about it. The steps are: 1). Choosing topic, 2).
Planning time, and 3) collecting material.
Evaluating the Talks (Listening & Speaking in one package)
Doing evaluation means measuring. In a diffent way, Daryanto (2001:6) mentions two steps
for making evaluation. He argues that we could have assement before measurement:
Measuring is comparing something in a size. It is quantitative.
Assessing is making a decision about something through badness and
goodness. It is qualitative.
Evaluating includes both of the steps, measuring and assessing.
In students’ evaluation, teachers may categorize the best appropriate test to measure the
students competence, as the test-taker.
Input
Transformation
Output
Feedback
Figure 3
Learning
(Arikunto, 2012:3)
Transformed
Diagram(Arikunto,
2012:5)
a. Input,
In school term, the raw materials (input) are student candidates whom are measured for
their ability in doing the next subjects and assignments.
b. Output
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The output is the alumna of school whom indicates the quality of school.
c. Transformation
In transformation, students enter a process from “have not yet known or cannot” to be
“know or can”. They role both as input and transformation.
d. Feedback
In education, the feedback consists of evalution and the results of scoring derived from
education domains.
Three basic education domains consist of cognitive, affective, and psycomotor.
In Bloom Taxonomy (1956) cognitive domain contains six aspects (http://www.apa.org) .
Create
Evaluate
Analyze
Apply
Understand-describe,
explain
Knowledge-remember
Figure 4
Bloom Taxonomy (Revised)
This domain becomes the most related one in education especially at formal study. When this
taxonomy is applied for beginners, they would take bigger portion in remebering
(knowledge). In their age, they retain something in memory easily (specially in Golden Age),
if it is visual and practical.
Subsequently, Affective domain is a domain that is associated with attitudes and values.
There are several categories in the affective domain as a result of learning Daryanto,
2001:117-118); (a) Receiving/paying attention, (b) Responding, (c) Valuing, (d)
Organization, and (e) Characterization by a value or value complex. Two of them (receiving
and responding) are related to this research. Receiving seems to be listening approach as
responding matches speaking one.
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Receiving/attending is receiving stimulation from outside to students in the form of issues,
situations, and other symptoms. Students pay attention on an object/activity. Responding is
the attitude of active participation by responding, actively participate in certain phenomena
and make reaction to the phenomena in a way such as the accuracy reactions, feelings, and
satisfaction of students in response to external stimuli. (http://www.elearning.milaulas.com).
While psycomotor domain is measured by three main groups; muscular/motor skills,
manipulation of materials/objects, and (Daryanto, 2001:123-124).
From those three educational domains, responsive listening and speaking performances refer
to affective domain which is categorized into receiving and responding operational verbs to
formulate Particular Instructional Objective/Tujuan Instruksional Khusus (TIK). Daryanto
(2001:118-119) classifies them into:
RECEIVING: asking, answering, mentioning, choosing,identifying,
giving, describing, following, selecting, using, etc.
RESPONDING: answering,writing, making, doing, writing, telling-story,
helping, discussing, arguing, reporting, etc.
Furthermore, Arikunto (2012:134-135) states opinion and attitude/value as in measuring
affective domain of students. Quantifying opinion needs arranging questions that wish for a
response related to expressions, feelings or personal opinion to simple things not to facts. e.g:
What do you think about ... in the situation above? When teachers want to measure
attitude/value, students responses and have to maintain their oipinion. e.g: What is your
opinion about ...? Why ...?
Additionally, list of questions is formulated in the form of test. In terms of the types of tests
based on its objectives, achievement tests (both standardized and teacher made tests) are the
most familiar ones at school. Arikunto (2012:165) mentions three functions of test: a). Test
for class, b). Test for guidance, and c). Test for administration. In accordance with those, test
for class relates to school needs. She explains (2012:166) the test function in the class are:
a. Diagnose of students learning challenges.
b. Evaluate their talent with the attainment.
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c.Raise the level of achievement.
d. Group students in class at the time of the group method.
e. Plan activities for the teaching-learning process of students individually.
f. Determine which students need specific guidance.
g. Determine the level of achievement for each student.
The last function (students achievement levels) could be assesed by teacher made test. As
mantained by its measurement, it is sorted into objective and subjective tests. Djiwandono
(2011:36-37) says that objective test is an assessment test that is conducted with the high
level of objectivity, like; matching test, true-false test, or multiple-choice test. While he
(2011:55-56) adds that subjective test is an assessment test that is conducted with the
corrector’s subjectivity, such as; essay, wh-questions test, short-answers test, or compled test.
This research analysed suitability of subjective test as assessment instrument of responsive
listening and speaking. Beginners as the subject of the study produced topical casual talk in
the form of short wh-questions completed by short answers without having longer dialogue in
such interactive situations. It was highlighted by their responses on the teachers questions.
They possibly said again the questions.
Once again, Arikunto (2012:178) catalogues the advantages and weaknesses of subjective
test. The advantages of Subjective test:
a. Easily prepared and organized.
b. Does not give much opportunity to speculate.
c. Encourage students to dare to think and formulate a good sentence form.
d. Provide an opportunity for students to express meaning with style and language of its
own way.
e. It can be seen the extent to which students explore a problem that is assessed.
The weaknesses are:
a. Low levels of validity and reliability are known as difficult aspects of
knowledge where students truly have mastered
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b. Less representative in terms of representing the entire scope of the lesson
material that will be tested for because only some (limited)
c. How to check more influenced by subjective elements
d. More difficult correction because need more individualized consideration
appraiser.
e. taking time correction and can not be delegated to others.
Behind all of the pros and cons, she (2012:178-179) shows how to arrange subjective test as
follows:
a. Test questions should include the main ideas of the tested material, and that was
probably composed about the nature of a comprehensive
b. They should not take the matter of sentences passed directly from books or
records.
c. In arranging the questions, they are completed by answer keys and scoring
system.
d. The questions are varied between "Explain", "Why", "How", "How far", in
order to know more student mastery of the material.
e. The question Formula should be made so that easily understood by test-takers
f. The test makers should emphasize theent answers, question should not be too
general, but be specific.
Besides, subjective test is stated as a variety of language tests (based on the test target) which
is appropriate to examine listening and speaking competences.
The discourse contains the determination of beginner level skill target types by using test
items that the answer requires an understanding of just those things that directly, concretely
and literally (Djiwandono, 2011:114). While the contents of the relevant elements, sistematic
organization, also excellent and correct language use are included into an speaking skill.
Then, the most appropriate spoken test is implemented as a subjective test but not an objective
one. In its implementation, this test is instead of concentrating on the list of answers, but the
scoring guidance and validity due to its reliability (even assigning more than one appraiser)
(Djiwandono, 2011:120-121).
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Responsive listening testing has a question-and-answer format. The test-taker is required to
find the appropriate response (http//www.ehow.com).
Methods of the Study
Approach of the Study
This study used qualitative approach. Sugiyono (2012:15) argues that it has significant data
that contains meanings as its real data. It focuses on its meaning . In quantitative, it calls
generalization approach.
Yet, it is transferability in qualitative.While it refered to library research. By doing this
research, the writer arranged data collection by literary reviews . According to Wahyudi
(2013) it constructs a documentation understanding review on published and unpublished
reports of secondary data on the researcher’s interest area.
Sources of Data
a. Primary Data
Primary data are directly found by researchers from subjects of the data. Primary data
are data obtained directly from subjects of a study as an information source through
direct observation (Sugiyono, 2006:137).The primary source in this study was
Elementary School Silabus.
b. Secondary Data
Secondary data are undirectly found by researchers from another sources (literature,
books, and documents or arguments by reading, learning, and understanding (Sugiyono,
2009:139). Whereas the secondary data sources were English teaching-learning books.
Technics of Collecting the Data
In collecting the data, the writer applied two technics, observation and documentation.
a. Observation
Observation focuses on a process which is being the center of qualitative evaluation
design
(Nasution,
2008:230).
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An
evaluator
needs
School-based
Curriculum
December 2013
familiarization in before doing any evaluation. It is publicized as an idea or a plan in a
laboratory/field research.
Additionally, Wray (1998:186) states that the technique is being for studies in
psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics.
b. Documentation
It is aged memo which can be hand-writings, picture, monumental masterpieces of ones.
E.g: life stories, biographies, rules, policies, etc. Since it i s written type documentation,
this study needs all written literatures related to “Topical Casual Talks as Responsive
Listening and Speaking Performances of Beginners”
Technique of Analyzing the Data
This study puts on content analysis. As a technique of formulating conclusions, Muhtadi, A.
S., et.al (2003:12) says that content analysis sistematically and objectively identifies spesific
characters of texts. –direction
The Analysis of Topical Casual Talks as Responsive Listening and
Speaking Performances of Beginners
The newest research entitled Oral Communication: How to Strengthen our Effectiveness
(http://www.theparishpaper.com) notes responsive listening to create conversational
environment to have caring or active listening. This are available tips on what responsive
listeners should not do, such as; runaway sympathy and taking responsibility for others. In
contrast, they suggested to do, such as allows others to hear any information clearly due to
his/her personality and
recognizes someone saying without aggrement/disagreement
comments.
From the angles, the writer concludes that for being a responsive listener, we would be better
not extremely antipathy to others’ questions/opinions and more sensitive on them. If we take
responsibility for others moods and manners, we are appreciating ours. As we are keen on
others responses as we practice responsive speaking. We have to listen and welcome
someone’s perspectives, especially if they are different from ours .
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Last of all, being good responsive speakers are workble as long as we could expreess our
viewpoint well-prepared and sometimes be neutral to create harmonious relationships.
On the same site, it share some responsive techniques. They are paraphrasing, repeating
words, perception checking, and creative questioning. Beginners in elementary school level
are competent to practice repeating words, and making creative questioning (like their habit
who love asking anything).
The beginners are age 6-8 (http://www.uh.edu). In listening section, the students processed
teacher talk instantly while in speaking, suitable direct short response answered the teacher
talk. In line with Skinner&Parlov (Behaviorism Theory) says, language development is built
from a series of habits. The practice of students’ habits takes a question (stimulus) – answer
(response) frame gradually. Students will try to answer teachers’ stimuli even they are the
difficult ones. The correct response creates a positive reinforcement, such as verbal praise,
prizes, and good grades (http//www2.vobs.at)
Stimulus
Figure 5
Response
Reinforcement
Skinner&Parlov (Behaviorism Theory)
From the theory, the writer found that the most effective way to teach beginners is by
modelling, when we do translating they will not be recalling. e.g: Draw a big circle (they
response by doing the instruction). These action could be assessed by subjective test in the
form of wh-questions and short answers test.
Nowadays, the newest 2013 Curriculum does not mention English as a subject. Besides,
http://www.kemdikbud.go.id through 2013 Curriculum Team (organized by Badan Litbang
Kemdikbud) declares thematic-integrative approach to be socialized as Elementary School
Curriculum. In its use, this minimalist curriculum is going to be extended by local goverment
to enclose other relevant subjects, such as English and any local languages (mother tongue).
This is corresponding to the scheme(http://www.docstoc.com) below:
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Penilaian Hasil Belajar:
Ekstra-kurikuler:
- Berbasis Kompetensi&Tematik-integratif
Pramuka (wajib)
- Pergeseran dari penilain melalui tes
[mengukur kompetensi pengetahuan
berdasarkan hasil saja], menuju penilaian
otentik [mengukur semua kompetensi
sikap, keterampilan, dan pengetahuan
berdasarkan proses dan hasil]
UKS
Figure 6
PMR
Bahasa Inggris
ELEMEN PEMBELAJARAN SD DAN RANCANGAN STRUKTUR
KURIKULUM SD (http://www.docstoc.com)
It is in different portion with compulsory subjects. English subject is possibly given while it is
integrated to others. Practically, it is still presented as an extra-curricular which is given
mutually like the compulsory subjects.
Closing
Truly, the study which concentrates on topical casual talks is workable not only for beginners
but other student levels as well. The talks set up a relaxed spot in order to explore effective
communication related to their subject matters. language teachers/tutors could apply one of
classroom listening and speaking performance types, responsive. This type is concerned to
any levels by considering the rate of complexity.
Further comparable studies may converse different competences, like reading featuring
writing or integrate all language competences.
Another type of performances such as
extensive, intensive, selective, and reactive are possibly comparable in order to discover
which ones are the best and most appropriate.
References
Amalia, T. Z. (2012). Developing Student Self-awareness of Motivating Language-learning
Styles. Kudus: Vernacular Magazine of State College of Kudus Islamic Studies.
Arikunto, Suharsimi. (2006). Prosedur Penelitian Suatu Pendekatan Praktik, Jakarta: PT
Rineka Cipta.
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_______________. (2012). Dasar-Dasar Evaluasi Pendidikan. Jakarta: Bumi Aksara.
Brown, H. D. (2001). Teaching by Principles an Interactive Approach to Language
Pedagogy. New York: Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.
Daryanto. (2001). Evaluasi Pendidikan. Jakarta: PT Rineka Cipta.
Djiwandono, Soenardi. (2011). Tes Bahasa Pegangan bagi Pengajar Bahasa. Jakarta: PT
Indeks.
Eatbulaga Indonesia. Surya Citra Televisi (SCTV) Monday-Friday at 2.30 to 4.00
p.m.Saturday at 2.30 to5.00 p.m.
Eggins, Suzanne., Diana S. (1997). Analysing Casual Conversation. London: Cassell.
Elsjelyn, E. R. English Made Easy. Jakarta: Kesaint Blanc.
Harmer, Jeremy. (2001). The Practice of English Language Teaching. Essex: Pearson
Education Limited.
Muhtadi, A. S., et.al. (2003). Metode Penelitian Dakwah, Pustaka Setia.
Nasution S. (2008). Asas-asas Kurikulum. Jakarta: Bumi Aksara.
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Wahyudi S. I. (2013). Pembuatan Roadmap Diagram Alir, Pelatihan Metodologi Penelitian
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AN INTERLANGUAGE STUDY: A CASE STUDY OF AN
INDONESIAN LEARNER OF ENGLISH
Widya Ratna Kusumaningrum
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Universitas Negeri Semarang
[email protected]
Abstract
The aims of this study are to investigate whether Indonesian grammar affects error oral
production and leads to the creation of interlanguage (IL) grammar, also whether this
grammar causes fossilization. The proposed Null Hypotheses (H0) are Indonesian
grammar does not affect error production in English and it does not systemize IL
grammar, also this IL grammar does not triggers fossilization. The subjects are a NNES
(an Indonesian who has unique exposure in which after two years being exposed to
English and being in temporary pause state for two years, he has been living in the US for
a year) and a NES. The instrument used is a wordless image book. In this project, both
subjects narrate the sequential pictures into a good story for 25 minutes, and their oral
productions are recorded and analyzed by employing qualitative evaluation design. From
the data calculation, the Null Hypotheses (H0) are rejected. On the basis of NES’ oral
production, NNES speaks inaccuracies such as in possessive pronouns, verb tenses, and
articles. To sum up, he uses Indonesian grammar to create his IL grammar by transferring
and overgeneralizing it when he produced English grammar. However, it has no sufficient
evidence to claim that his IL has fossilized or become signals for achieving nativelikeness. Thus, in doing so it is suggested to do longitudinal verification.
Keywords: interlanguage (IL), second language acquisition (SLA), fossilization, nativelikeness.
Introduction
Debatable issue of interlanguage (IL) concept whether a learner has to utter acceptable target
language (TL) or it is okay with understandable IL has been a central discussion for years.
Those who disagree with IL claim that IL results fossilization (Tarone, 2006; Fauziati, 2011),
meanwhile the others (Cowie, 1998) sustain IL as a good indicator for acquiring target
language (TL) and achieving native-likeness.
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Nested on Weinreich’s interlingual identification (1953), Selinker (1972) defines IL as nonidentical utterances to express the same meaning and spoken mostly by second language
learners (p.214). These utterances relate to the errors of oral and written language productions
and give only 5% chances to acquire native-likeness (p.212), while most 95% of L2 learners
violate second language grammar.
This theoretical framework leads my curiosity to investigate IL in the case of an Indonesian
learner who experienced exceptionally unique period exposure. He was exposed to English
for 2 years and continued by having temporary pause for 2 years in his home country before
he decided to go back to the US for pursuing degree. Thus in this project, I determine three
research questions to be investigated, as follows:
• Does Indonesian grammar as his first language affect to his errors in English?
• Does Indonesian grammar create interlanguage (IL) grammar?
• Does this interlanguage (IL) grammar result to the fossilization or help to acquire nativelikeness?
Literature Review
An indicator characterizes interlanguage is the non-identical utterances which are created
when someone learns a second / foreign language (Sayer, 2008). In doing so, he adds, the
learner creates a temporary linguistic system. This temporary linguistic system is a continuum
links between the first language (L1) and the target language (L2) (Selinker, 1972, Tarone
2006) but distinctively the features are different from the L1 and L2 (Sayer, 2008).
On the basis of studying interlanguage system, Tarone (2006) suggests to investigate learner
utterances. He reasons, the utterances provide evidence of language transfer i.e. by utilizing
contrastive analysis between the L1 and L2, and analyzing the systematic linguistic errors in
the areas of phonology, morphology, syntax, lexical, pragmatics, and discourse levels (p.748).
For example, Fauziati (2011), who investigates Indonesian learners of English, focuses on the
grammatical error. Or, Comacho (1999), who studies the interlanguage word order of Peru
learners of Spanish, provides evidence that there is full transfer of Peru’s grammar SOV to the
standardized Spanish grammar SVO. Although these two studies are done differently, both
Fauziati (2011) and Comacho (1999) agree that the investigated learners create the
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interlanguage system, where both Indonesian and Peru create the impermanent linguistic
system. It happens as the result of language transfer, transfer of training, strategies of second
language learning, strategies of second language communication, and overgeneralization
(Selinker, 1972, p.229).
Research Method
I compared the NNES spontaneous oral production to a NES. To control the independent
variables, I selected NES with typically the same variables such as age and gender. In order to
elicit their oral production, I employed a wordless image book entitled The Arrival by Shaun
Tan. It is a five-chapter book which illustrating a family story where the husband leaves his
family for looking a better job. I asked both of them to narrate this book and recorded their
utterances for about 25 minutes in different place and time. After transcribing the recorded
utterances by utilizing audacity software, I focused on quantifying three grammatical
components such as possessive pronouns, verb tenses, and articles. Furthermore, I analyzed
whether his IL causes fossilization or not. In analyzing the data, I applied descriptive
qualitative evaluation design in which it refers to the qualitative and naturalistic approach in
combination with the quantitative data (Patton, 2003). I quantified inaccuracies in three
domains above and continued by describing it qualitatively.
This section comprises of four sub-headings including speech rate, possessive pronouns, verb
tenses, and article.
Speech Rate
Speech rate deals with how fast someone speaks. According to American National Standards
Institute (Adam et al, 2012), people’s speeches are rated into three major categories as slow,
average, and fast. These categories are calculated by knowing how many words someone
utters in particular minutes (wpm) or how many syllables he speaks in particular second
(syll/second). The following table presents three groups of speech rate.
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Table 1. American National Standards Institute’s speech rate: words per minute (wpm),
syllables per second (syll/sec)
Speech rate condition
wpm
syll/sec
Slow
<120
2.2
Average
121-170
3.2
Fast
171-234
4.4
In narrating two introductory chapters of Shaun Tan’s The Arrival, the NES spent 28.15
minutes while the NNES was a bit longer with 32.53 minutes. With a four-minute gap, both
of them were able to produce relatively the same numbers in which the NES uttered 2809
words while the NNES spoke 2837 words. To calculate their speech rate, I used wpm formula
that could be done manually by dividing the total words to the total minute for narrating the
assigned chapters.
Table 2. Comparing NNES’s speech rate to NES
Participants
Words
Time (in minutes)
Speech Rate (words/minute)
NES
2809
28.15
99.78
NNES
2837
32.53
87.21
As the table 2 shows, NES’s speech rate was about 99.78 while NNES was 87.21. With this
insignificant difference, it can be drawn that both NES and NNES are classified into the same
group. The fact is both of them spoke in relatively slow rate i.e. below 120 wpm. It can be
inferred that both NES and NNES have equal ability in speaking. With this data, I confirm
that both subjects are equally the same.
Possessive Pronouns
Possessive pronouns deal with the ownership concept. Prominently, it deals with forms such
as mine, your, his, hers, ours, theirs, whose or sometimes it deals with the forms of modified
possessive pronouns such as my, your, his, her, its, our, their, and whose. After calculating the
data, I found that there was a tendency where both NES and NNES only uttered his, her,
their, its but not another forms as mentioned before. However, NES and NNES uttered his
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more frequently than her, their, and its. Obviously, NES mentioned the words his 63 times
and her 20 times while NNES said his 92 times and her 15 times. In speaking these words,
NES did not make any mistakes, while NNES uttered errors on the use of his and her but not
in the use of their and its. The following table depicts the comparison of these inaccuracies.
Table 3. Comparison of possessive pronouns uttered by NES and NNES
Possessive
Pronouns
(NNES)
NES
NNES
Inaccuracy
Inaccuracy
(in number)
(in percentage)
His
63
92
3
3.26%
Her
20
15
4
26.67%
Their
8
14
0
0
Its
2
0
0
0
These inaccuracies were clearly seen from the following utterances.
Table 4. The NNES utterances containing ‘his’ and ‘her’ errors
1
The [correction: his] right hand is holding the bird, his left hand is holding his
daughter, and his wife is holding his other hand.
2
She yawned and automatically went to the table when she saw his [correction: her]
dad bags are prepared
3
His wife covers his [correction: her]head as well to protect her from the very rude
winter outside.
4
His daughter wore his boots/her [correction: her] boots and
5
….carried her [correction: his] bags before Shan took it from her hand.
6
His daughter looked upside to the sky and wish if this is not the day when she will
apart with his her [correction: her] dad.
7
It was a heartbreaking moment where Shan finally hug her his [correction: his]
daughter.
Those aforementioned sentences explain that NNES slipped his tongue when he dealt with
possessive pronouns of his and her rather than their and its. He wrongly uttered ‘his’ towards
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her, as well as her towards his. The reasonable argument to explain this fact was dealing with
the background language that NNES has, Indonesian language.
In Indonesian, the possessive pronouns of his and her are used interchangeable by exercising
“–nya”. In order to utter her head (sentence 2), the NNES will say kepala (head) + nya (her),
“kepalanya”. In the same way, the NNES may articulate “kepalanya” to say “his head”. This
may affect the oral production of the NNES, himself.
However, a question may rise up. Why does he make more errors dealing with the application
of her rather than his?As the data shows above, the NNES produced 4 errors out of 15
utterances dealing with the use of her and 3 errors out of 92 utterances on the use of his. In
other words, the inaccuracy of the use of her was about 26.67% and his was about 3.26%.
This data leads to the argument that the NNES understands that English in term of possessive
pronouns is different with Indonesian, where English grammar distinguishes “-nya” by
gender, his or her. With this understanding, the NNES started to focus on the male character
and brainstorm any linguistic system relate to this gender. Thus, when the NNES started
narrating story, he tended to use the correct possessive pronouns of his. He, then, might
subconsciously overgeneralize the patterns that lead him to focus on his rather than her. Once,
two supporting characters (wife and daughter) with different gender were pictured in the
story, the NNES started to get confused and overgeneralize his towards her. Thus, the NNES
will say his more than her.
Verb Tenses
Verb tenses perform basic role in English. In ESL/EFL context, from the very beginning,
students learn the forms of the verb tenses will change based on timeline whether past, present
and future. Alike with the first sub-heading, verb tenses lead many NNESs to make mistakes.
This case also happened to the NNES subject where he uttered error verb tense.
After classifying the errors, I found out that there were three frequent typical mistakes. Firstly,
there was inconsistent use of past / present tense such he shifted the past tense to the present
tense as well as from present tense to past tense. Secondly, he utilized the wrong forms of past
simple (V2). Last was the tendency where he uttered pronouns (he, she, it) and singular nouns
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without being followed by singular verbs.
Table 5. The three major categories of verb tenses errors
1.
It was 10 a.m. says [correction: said] the old clock –old
wooden clock on the table
2.
They walk [correction: walked] along the city’s alley where
everything became so clear.
3.
His daughter looked up and wish [correction: wished]
4.
Shan tried to comfort her and silently open [correction:
opened] her head.
5.
It was a heartbreaking moment when Shan finally hug
[correction: hugged] her, his daughter.
6.
His daughter did not cry but his wife does [correction: did]
7.
When they hug [correction: hugged], his wife handkerchief
was so wet.
8.
[touched] his right arm.
I
shift verb tenses
(present-past/pastpresent)
But before he could go, two soft and gently hand touch
9.
When they walk [correction: walked] back home, Shan was no
longer with him.
10. The wife and the daughter walks [correction: walked] along the
alley…, they still felt the eyes.
11. but loneliness remain [correction: remained].
12. He had the picture of his family, place [correction: placed]
right on top of his cabinet.
13. On board, it was not a very beautiful view for somebody who
wish [correction: wished] travelling far away.
14. But then he didn’t care because all he care [correction: cared]
is [correction: was] his own family.
15. He tear [correction: tore] the paper from his diary
16. and then start [correction: started] folding it
17. He realized what make [made] him doing [correction: do] so
18. So many people rush [correction: rushed] outside
19. There [correction: addwas] somebody who looks [correction:
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looked] like…
20. Because he never clean [correction: cleaned] them up.
21. And then come [correction: came] the time for the interview
22. He is trying to show his family members in the pictures that he
brings [correction: brought]
23. The huge ship that Shan was on very gently and very slowly
approach [correction: approached] the pier.
II
wrong forms of past
simple
(V2)
1. Shan’s daughter was awaken [correction: was awakened] by the
sunshine.
2. They still not [correction: did not] talk each other
1.
He …. make [correction: makes] sure the bag is in tack
2.
The only thing that connect [correction: connects] him to the
very nature.
III
3.
pronouns / singular
future. There is [correction: are] only low class workers on
nouns without
board of that ship
followed by singular 4.
verbs.
The image of event that are [correction: is] coming from the
5.
Why would I’ve been [correction: am I] doing this?
All of the ships coming from to end of the city is [correction:
are] bringing people
6.
And the person trying [correction: is trying] to give him hard
time.
The finding charts that the NNES utters more mistakes caused by the category I i.e. by
shifting verb tenses form present to past as well as from past to present with 5.39%. This
number doubles the error production based on category III i.e. the pronouns / singular nouns
without followed by singular verbs.
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Table 6. Comparison of three errors of verb tense
Inaccuracies
Verb Tenses
Present
Past
I
verbs verbs
Shift verb tenses
(NNES)
(NNES)
(present – past /
past to present)
Total
(in number)
II
III
Wrong
Pronouns /
forms of
Singular nouns
past simple
without singular
(V2)
verbs
201
226
23
2
6
-
-
5.39%
0.99%
2.56%
Total
(in
percentage)
It can be argued that the reasons why the NNES made more errors by the shift from present to
past or past to present is because of the awareness of the importance of past tense in narrating
story. The NNES was aware to use past verbs rather than present verbs. However, there was
an interesting pattern where after few minutes he still expressed present verbs and kept
mixing the use of it. The assumption is derived from his L1, Indonesian language, where there
is no such rule that distinguishes the timeline whether present, past, or future. In Indonesian
grammar, people apply directly V1 for any situations and will understand when the event take
a place by the adverb of time such as yesterday, now, and tomorrow. Take a look at the I.6
sentence as the example.
Table 7. English – Indonesian sentence to express the same meaning
Indonesian

Anak perempuannya tidak menangis
English

tetapi justru isterinya. (present)

Anak perempuannya tidak menangis
tetapi justru isterinya. (past)
His daughter is not crying but his wife is
(present)

His daughter did not cry but his wife did
(past)
As the table shows, the sentences in Indonesian language remain the same form and without a
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slight different to express the event happens in two different timeline. The NNES may transfer
his language grammar directly to the English pattern.
This reason also contributes to third category. In Indonesian language, we employ V1 without
adding inflections to verbs, even if it deals with singular pronouns - singular verbs and simple
and continuous events in present tense. In sentences (III.1) and (III.6), we can see that the
Indonesian grammar affects the mistakes.
In the sentence (III.1), the verb used (make sure)is supposed to be a singular verb. But, the
NNES uttered as if it is plural. This mistake also happens to the sentence (III.6) where the
verb (trying) is supposed to be a singular verb.
Articles
Article has its role where it determines the definite and indefinite. Although it is not that
difficult to exercise articles such as a, the, some, and an, the NNES still articulated errors that
can be labeled into three categories: (1) add articles, (2) omit them, and (3) change into
another articles.
Table 8. The classification of articles error
1. [correction: + the] tea is ready
2. Among them is [correction: + a] very young family of two men and
I
add articles
(+)
a very young women.
3. Probably something of [correction: +a] size of a [correction: #the]
Titanic
4. This is very [correction: +a] very confusing time for Shan
5. It was quite [correction: +a] torturing moment for him
II
omit articles
(-)
III
change articles
1. folded very neatly and carefully tight with a catgut. [correction: - a]
2. with a [correction: - a] very unique body features
1. Shan just finished making that [correction: # a] folded plastic bird –
folded paper bird.
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into another
2. Shan could not see anything but a [correction: # the] wide blue sea
articles
(#)
and a [correction: # the] wide blue sky
3. But all of the [correction: # a] sudden a very loud sound came from
his bag
4. All of the ships coming from to [correction: # the] end of the city
5. Probably something of [correction: +a] size of a [correction: #the]
Titanic
As it is seen, the data shows that the NNES produced more errors on the article ‘a’ rather than
‘the’ with 16%.
Table 9. Comparison of articles error between the NES and NNES
articles
NES
NNE
Inaccuracy
Inaccuracy
S
(in number)
(in percentage)
+
-
#
total
+
-
#
total
8%
4%
4%
16%
a
95
50
4
2
2
8
the
226
178
1
-
4
5
some
25
1
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
an
9
2
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
0.56
%
-
2.24
%
2.8%
Those data depicts that errors dealing with article ‘a’ is caused by the influence of Indonesian
language. Although Indonesian language has definite article to represent ‘a’ or ‘an’ i.e.
‘sebuah’, the way how Indonesian people define the definite articles and indefinite articles is
distinctively different. Take a look at the sentences I.4, II.1, and III.2.
I.4 It was quite [correction: +a] torturing moment for him.
Ini merupakan momen yang menyedihkan baginya.
II.1 …folded very neatly and carefully tight with a catgut [correction: - a].
…melipat dengan rapi dan mengikat dengan hati-hati dengan sebuah tali.
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III.2 Shan could not see anything but a [correction: # the] wide blue sea and a [correction: #
the] wide blue sky.
Shan tidak dapat melihat apapun kecuali sebuah laut biru yang luas dan sebuahlangit biru
yang luas.
The sentences I.4 and II.1 are dealing with the same problem i.e. indefinite articles. In both
sentences, it can be seen that the NNES defined ‘moment’ as plural indefinite article and
‘catgut’ as singular indefinite article. This confusion of the application plural and singular
indefinite articles is affected by Indonesian language. In Indonesian, ‘moment’ is often
identified as a plural noun, while ‘catgut’ as a singular noun. So, the NNES might apply this
knowledge and transfer it into English that has a distinctive pattern. Unlike the sentence I.4
and II.1, the sentence III.2 had a problem with overgeneralizing indefinite articles to definite
articles. The Indonesian culture suggests that natural phenomena such as sea, sky, moon, etc.
are often seen as definite articles. Thus, he applied the Indonesian pattern and made
distinctive errors.
General Discussion
The aforementioned discussion gives detailed information how the NNES creates the
interlanguage system in the forms of possessive pronouns, verb tenses and articles. In the
possessive pronouns, the interlanguage was seen when the NNES uttered his and her and used
the terms interchangeably. In the verb tenses, the NNES created the interlanguage system in
three different ways, as mentioned above. While, it was clearly seen that the errors production
on articles arose the effect of interlanguage system in which his L1 affected the way he
narrated the story.
In general, the interlanguage system that the NNES created was the result of the direct
language transfer from Indonesian language. The linguistic system, he made, was alike
continuum connected his Indonesian as the L1 and his English as L2. However, if the data are
depicted in a figure, there is a tendency for possessive pronouns aspect skewed to his L2, and
verb tenses and articles skewed to his L1.
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Figure 1. The skewness of interlanguage distribution in possessive pronouns, verb tenses,
and articles
Notes:
verb tenses
articles
possessive pronouns
L1 (Indonesian)
L2 (English)
Conclusion
The small project here provides an empirical finding that Indonesian language as the NNES
L1 affects his English and causes him uttering errors. It can be defined that his Indonesian
creates his own interlanguage system,particularly in two aspects such as verb tenses and
articles where the skewness to L2 are negative. However, to conclude that this negative
skewness results to fossilization are not suggested. It is too early to say that he is fossilized, in
which fossilization phenomena will be seen under ethnographic study that takes long period
of investigation. Also, it is hard to see whether there is a developing process or a declining
process or a stop-progressing state.
References
Adams, E.M., Hickey S.G., Morlas H.& Moore. R. (2012). Effect of rate-alteration on speech
perception in noise in older adults with normal hearing and hearing impairment.
American Journal of Audiology, 21, 22-32.
Comacho, J. (1999). From SOV to SVO: the grammar of interlanguage word order. Second
Language Research, 15, 2, 115-132.
Cowie A.P. (1998) Introduction. In Cowie A.P. (ed.),Phraseology: Theory, Analysis and
Applications(pp.1-20). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
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Fauziati, E. (2011). Interlanguage and error fossilization: A study of Indonesian students
learning English as a foreign language. Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistic, 1, 1,
23-38.
Patton, M. Q. (2003). Qualitative evaluation checklist. Retrieved September 7, 2013,from
http://www.wmich.edu/evalctr/checklists/qec.pdf.
Sayer, P. (2008). Interlanguage. In J. González (ed.), Encyclopedia of Bilingualism in the
United States, 1 (pp. 404-406). Los Angeles: Sage.
Selinker, L. (1972). Interlanguage. International Review of Applied Linguistics and Language
Teaching (IRAL), 10, 3, 209-231.
Tarone, E.(2006).Interlanguage. Elsevier, 4, 747-752.
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LITERATURE
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ISSUES ON CHILDREN PUNISHMENTS IN HARRY POTTER
AND THE SORCERER’S STONE AS REFLECTIONS OF THE
EQUALITY OF CHILDREN’S RIGHT
Anna Sriastuti
Satya Wacana School of Foreign Language
[email protected]
Abstract
Literature is a portrait of human’s life. It captures the events happened in a certain time
and place, reflects them in forms of words, and serves readers as a piece of literary work.
Pickering and Hooper (1969:11) say that fiction is the relationship between the created
world of the given work and the real world art objective experience. The richness of the
stories varies from time to time, era to era, and culture to culture. The first sequel of
Harry Potter, Harry Potter and The Sorcerer’s Stone, gave readers not simply a splendid
story of a common boy who turned to be a wizard and his adventure, but also issues on
certain culture within the story. The ways on how teachers gave certain detentions as a
penalty for school rule breakers become interesting issues to analyze how children are
treated as beings whose rights are equal to adults. In many Eastern soap opera and
cinemas, the phenomenon of punishments like rude calls, physic, and mental like standing
in front of the class, scot-jumping around the school field, or even cleaning the school
toilet, are still popular among young rule breakers. In this culture, children are treated as
objects without any bargaining power toward the society systems. Unlike this culture, in
Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone, the issues on detentions to children are not to
disgrace them but let them learn from their mistakes. It allows readers to adapt Western
ideas that all men created equal, even children.
Keywords: punishment, detention, equality, right.
Introduction
Literature offers rewards for its readers or viewers. The first motive for reading a novel or a
poem is pleasure. A novel could be read many times for it offers a great enjoyment for the
readers or laid unfinished once they find no interest in it. Since there is no obvious degree
toward the levels of enjoyment due to human’s differences, the pleasure readers seek as well
as they encounter may be very personal. Furthermore, for adults who are rich of life
experiences of what they call ‘good or bed’, ‘black or white’, and ‘succeed and failure’, the
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nature of pleasure in literature can be very different from that for children (Lukens, 1990).
Children too, seek for pleasure but the sources of their pleasures are more limited than those
of adults for they have simpler understandings and fewer experiences. Children may accept
the fantastic more readily than many adults. They are more open to experimenting with a
greater variety of literary forms from poetry to folktales, to adventure, to fantasy. Beside
pleasure, literature also provides us with understanding. It shows the exploration of human
conditions, the revelation of human nature, and the discovery of humankind. It is not
explicitly the function of literature, either for children or for adults, to try to reform human
beings, or to set up guidelines for behaviors; however, it is the province of literature to
observe or to comment, to open individuals and their society for the observations and
understandings. Furthermore, literature provides vicarious experiences. It is impossible for us
to live any life but our own, in any time but our life span, or in any space or place but our
own. But literature makes it possible for us to live in the time of the French Revolution, in the
periods of the Vikings, or during the days of the American colonies. In case of Harry Potter
and the Sorcerer’s Stone, readers are taken to have an adventure of a world of witches and
wizards with all the imagined magic possibly happened; flying broomsticks, magic wand and
spells, unicorns, centaurs, black ropes, pointed black hats, posting owls, and many more.
Reading Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone, it is hard for children of not situating
themselves in a magic world, imagining themselves are witches or wizards, producing magic
spells, or flying on the broomsticks. The New York Times Book Review gave
positive
comments on J.K. Rowling’s first novel by stating that this book is full of wonderful, sly
humor, and the characters are impressively three-dimensional (occasionally, fourdimensional) and move along seamlessly trough the narrative. In addition, School Library
Journal mentioned that after reading this entrancing fantasy, readers will be convinced that
they, too, could take the train to Hogwarts School (a wizardly school where famous witches
and wizards gained their magical powers) if only they could find Platform Nine and Three
Quarters at the King’s Cross Stations. Even in India there was a controversy due to the
extinction of owls and Harry Potter – and his snowy white owl sidekick, Hedwig – may be
partly to blame. "Following Harry Potter, there seems to be a strange fascination even among
the urban middle classes for presenting their children with owls," India's Environment
Minister Jairam Ramesh told the BBC, while calling for protective measures for the species.
A conclusion then can be withdrawn that the genre of this novel is fantasy, or more a high
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fantasy novel. It requires the willing suspension of disbelief, in which readers are taken to
another world of magic and life of witches and wizards. The story does not only offer the
fantasy of wizardly world but also teaches readers of the values of good and evil through its
conflicts. A lesson can be taken is that same like the real world readers are living in, good and
evil parties also occur in this imagery world. Readers, especially children, can learn about
moral lessons of being good and responsible willingly, without being told directly or even
forced by parents. They accept lessons, understand life values, and take actions by reading the
novel.
The popularity of Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone is undeniable as it won many awards
like A New York Times Bestseller, A USA Today Bestseller, A Publishers Weekly Best Book
of 1998, Booklist Editor’s Choice, An ALA Notable Book, Winner of the 1997 National
Book Award, Winner of the 1997 Gold Metal Smarties Prize, A New York Public Library
Best Book Of 1998, and perhaps the most interesting, Parenting Book of the Year Award
1998. Parenting Book of the Year Award is a also known as Parents’ Choice Awards, which
motto is ‘Trust, Integrity, Independence’. It is designed to help parents and caregivers of all
achievements and backgrounds make informed decisions about which new products are right
for their children. The Parents' Choice Awards Committees evaluation process offers
objectivity, respect, and expertise – and all with a sense of humor. Learning is fun. The
Parents’ Choice Awards committees look for products that entertain and teach with flair,
stimulate imagination and inspire creativity. Judges are interested in how a product helps a
child grow: socially, intellectually, emotionally, ethically, and physically. Products must be
free of bias. Above all, products must not extol violence. Adhering to rigorous standards,
Parents’ Choice honors materials that respect a child’s age, interests and abilities, and adheres
to universal human values. It becomes interesting to figure out that one of the values being
shown in this novel is about children’s right equality which can be seen from the applications
of punishments happened in this novel.
Discussion
While there are no muggles, wizards or mud-bloods in our world, prejudice certainly is.
Generally the prejudice of witches leads our thought to black magic, spells, and evilness.
Never had ones be convinced scientifically on its existence since it is more to a matter to
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believe or not believe. However, the predicate of a witch is often being addressed to a person
who has an evil heart or behavior. Through the story of Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s
Stone, readers are shown different views of a world of magic, witches, and wizards. A world
allows readers not only to read but experience the magic themselves as they imagine of being
parts of the story. A world teaches readers about things beyond magic like friendships,
schoolings, courage, moral issues, and related to this paper is children’s right equalities
through punishments happened in the story.
Human rights apply to all age groups; children have the same general human rights as adults.
But children are particularly vulnerable and so they also have particular rights that recognize
their special need for protection. The Convention on the Rights of the Child sets out the rights
that must be realized for children to develop their full potential, free from hunger and want,
neglect and abuse. It reflects a new vision of the child. Children are neither the property of
their parents nor are they helpless objects of charity. They are human beings and are the
subject of their own rights. The Convention offers a vision of the child as an individual and as
a member of a family and community, with rights and responsibilities appropriate to his or her
age and stage of development.
Harry Potter as the main character of the story experienced two converse lives of being in a
muggle (non-magic) world and in Hogwarts School and dormitory for Witchcraft and
Wizardry.
While living in the muggle world, Harry Potter stayed with his aunt’s family from his
mother’s side since his parents died when he was still a baby. Potter’s aunt and uncle, who
taught that having relatives of witches would cause great humiliations for their family, hid the
facts of Potter’s parents and the mysteries of their deaths. And though they agreed to raise
Harry in their house, they tried to minimize his contacts with the surrounding.
“__but Dudley Dursley was no longer a baby, and now the photographs
showed a large blond boy riding his first bicycle, on a carousel at the fair, playing
computer game with his father, being hugged and kissed by his mother. The room
held no sign at all that another boy lived in the house, too.” (Harry Potter, p. 18)
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It was so surprising for Harry when he got his first mail from Hogwarts when he was about
ten as it can be seen from this quotation, “No one, ever, in his whole life, had written to him.
Who would? He had no friends, no other relatives—he didn’t belong to the library so he’d
never even got rude noted asking for books back.” It is clear that Harry’s existence as a being
was neglected. He was alive but he possessed limited access to socialize with other people but
his ‘relatives’. Being separated from his surrounding was not the only example of violations
toward humans’ rights happened to Harry, since Harry was also abused by his fat cousin,
Dudley who made Harry as his favorite punching bag for he was four times smaller and
skinnier than he was. Harry also accept ‘special’ treatments from the Dursleys like owning the
cupboard under the stairs as his room, wearing none but Dudley’s old clothes, never being
starved but had never been allowed to eat as much as he liked. (Harry Potter, p.20 & p. 123).
Apart from the previous discussions on violence of rights toward Harry, this paper would
focus more the issues on punishments to reflect whether there were equality of children’s
rights or not.
The Dursley often thought that Harry was a trouble maker, a burden for their family. The very
first rule for a quiet life with the Dursleys (p. 20) set for Harry was “Don’t ask question”.
Harry never had a chance to ask what had happened to his parents, why his birthday had never
been celebrated, why he had to stay in a cupboard as his bedroom, or why he had to obey all
the orders and rules. Each time Harry tried to argue on something or made a compromise, he
got a punishment from his aunt or uncle. Harry was silenced. Instead of being treated as a
subject, he was claimed to be an object whose rights were nothing but accepting without
protesting. His right to speak was ignored or even blocked. Doing this, his aunt and uncle felt
no guilt since they considered that what they had done to raise Harry was so noble that Harry
owned them everything.
The Dursley’s efforts to hide the facts from what they called ‘the normal world’ that Harry
was a witch and owned a magical power was almost ruined when Harry accidently set a Boa
free from its cage and replaced it with Dudley inside. The uncle was outraged for first Harry
was blamed to endanger his beloved son’s and second to reveal Harry’s secret as a wizard in
front of Dudley’s friend, which he believed would bring a huge embarrassment to his
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‘normal’ family. He was so angry he could hardly speak. He managed to say, “Go- cupboardstay-no meals…” (p.29). The escape of the Brazilian boa constrictor earned Harry his longestever punishment. Having been sent to a cupboard, which was also his room, can be said as an
abuse. It is not difficult to figure out a size of a cupboard under the stairs. It is not a big room,
even for a child to stay, and Harry had to spend his time for quite a long time (by the time he
was allowed out of his cupboard again, the summer holidays had started…..). Having nothing
else to do but perhaps laid uncomfortably on his small bed, hearing the noise of people
climbing up and down the stairs, and being dusted from the old wooden stairs could be said as
a torture for a ten-years old boy. This punishment surely against the rights a child deserves to
get. Moreover, having given no proper meal was another thing against protecting of children’s
rights. Children need to be given proper and sufficient meals to develop to their potential.
They need to be freed from hunger. In this case, not allowing having meal as a punishment
was positively broke the rights. Not to mention equality, even a fulfillment of rights was
surely neglected. Harry was both isolated and starved.
Harry also got another physical punishment as he was being disobedient to take orders
from the Dursley, as can be seen from the quotation follows:
“Get the mail, Dudley,” said Uncle Vernon from behind his paper.
“Make Harry get it.”
“Get the mail, Harry.”
“Make Dudley get it.”
“Poke him with your Smelting stick, Dudley.” (Harry Potter, p.33)
Physical punishments or physical abuses are not appropriate means of educating children. In
addition, applying physical punishment is considered breaking human rights. Children
deserve to be treated as subjects, not objects of actions, with love and caring.
Being silenced, starved, isolated, and abused are punishments experienced by Harry as he
lived with Muggles, non-magic people. People who often claimed as the noblest creature on
earth and marked magic as something weird or even evil, are described differently in this
novel. Prejudice about magic world and non-magic world is shown beautifully by J.K.
Rowling who was trying to say that magic or dark art is laid within one self, apart from who
that person is.
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Besides getting physical punishments, Harry also experienced more educative punishments
while he was staying in Hogwarts. One of the issues on punishments occurred at the school
can be cited from this quotation, “While you are at Hogwarts, your triumphs will earn your
house points, while any rule breaking will lose House points…” (Harry Potter, p.114). Harry
broke the rules more than one that he deserved punishments. In this novel, J.K. Rowling tries
to give broader views to describe punishments; those are losing points, getting detentions, and
having moral punishments. These three punishments give minimum impacts to physics but
maximum impacts for mental.
Being out of beds sat night was considered as breaking the school rule. Harry and other
students were found out up in the astronomy tower at one o’clock in the morning (p.243). As
a result, fifty points were taken from each student’s House. One hundred and fifty precious
points were taken from Harry’s House; points that were collected hardly by the whole
members of the House member. It meant that because of Harry’s mistake, Gryffindor failed
the opportunity of winning the House Champion. This led to great disappointments to all of
Gryffindor members to Harry. They did not want to call Harry by name, but by his position,
‘the Seeker’; letting Harry understand and aware of how it felt to be a stranger among his
friends. It taught Harry a lesson of the consequences of breaking the rules.
Another kind of punishment for breaking the rule was getting a detention. The idea of a
detention was sending students outside of the castle to do some required jobs as a return of
their mistakes. Harry and other students were sent to a forbidden forest to investigate the
death of the unicorns. The forbidden forest was a gloomy scary forest which was avoided
even by the witches and wizards. Having to face the fear, Harry and friends were required to
pay their mistakes by doing some deeds that was revealing the mystery of the murder of
unicorn. This kind of punishment allowed Harry and friends not only to regret their mistakes
but take another responsibility as a return of their mistakes. Something interesting in here was
that these children were not let alone in doing their detention. They were assisted by
somebody who knew this forest well; a right person to guard and protect these children from
any danger. In this case, children’s right of having security was fulfilled.
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The hardest mental punishment shown in this novel for rule-breakers was perhaps how these
rule breakers were called by their last names which happened to be their family names.
“I’m disgusted,” said Professor Mc.Gonagall.”Four students out of bed
in one night! I’ve never heard of such a thing before. You, Miss Granger, I
thought you had more sense. And for you Mr. Potter, I thought Gryffindor
meant more to you than this….” (Harry Potter, p. 243).
Being addressed by a title, means that somebody is valued by its maturity. He or she is
considered mature enough to be responsible with his/ her actions. Breaking the school room
was not a noble action. A person who does it can be considered as immature or even childish.
Moreover, the family names were used after the title. It’s an insult for a family of having its
member who broke the rule. This is a hard punishment because the family names were risked.
This mental punishment is reprimanding one’s responsibility of his/her mistakes. Moreover,
the rule breakers were forced to think about effects of the mistakes to himself/herself or others
(family).
Closing
The novel Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone through the issues on punishments teach
readers about the equality of children’s rights. Children are human beings and are the subject
of their own rights and have rights to develop their full potential, free from hunger and want,
neglect and abuse. Children can suffer from such physical punishments applied to them. On
the other hand, being given appropriate punishments for their mistakes, children are allowed
not only regret but learn from their mistakes, and help them to be more responsible being in
the future time.
REFERENCES
Gov. UK. School discipline and exclusions.
https://www.gov.uk/school-discipline-exclusions/discipline
Kirszner & Mandell. 2000. Literature Reading, Reacting, Writing 4th Edition. Philadelphia:
Harcourt College Publisher.
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Lukens, J. Rebecca. 1990. A Critical Handbook of Children Literature. Ohio: Harpers Collins
Publishers.
Parents’ Choice Foundation: Parents’ Choice Award.
http://www.parents-choice.org/aboutawards.cfm
Pickering, James H; Hoeper, Jeffry D. 1969. Concise Companion to Literature. New York:
Macmillan Publishing Co, Inc.
Rowling, J.K. 1997. Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone. New York: Scholastic Inc.
Silverman,
M.
Stephen.
2010.
Harry
Potter
Blamed
for
India's
Owl
Crisis.
http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20439059,00.html
Unicef: Convention on the Rights of the Child.
http://www.unicef.org/crc/index_protecting.html
Wellek, Rene & Warren, Austin. 1956. Theory of Literature, Third Edition. New York:
Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc.
Biodata
Anna Sriastuti is a teacher at Satya Wacana School of Foreign Language (STiBA Satya
Wacana), Salatiga, Central Java, Indonesia. She was born in Salatiga, March 12th, 1978. Her
area of interests in present time is literature, especially ones related to issues on gender,
children, and popular culture.
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THE IMAGE OF A WOMAN IN THE KOREAN DRAMA
MY PRINCESS
Aris Siswanti
Universitas Brawijaya
Abstract
Korean dramas have been a favorite television program in many countries because they
are commonly relaxing and cheerful and show in-fashion lifestyles. Presenting universal
themes like love and family, K-dramas show deep yet subtle emotions. Many K-dramas
focus on the female characters, allowing the story to be told from a female point of view,
although that does not mean that the women are portrayed as powerful as or equal to their
male counterparts.
This paper analyzes My Princess (2011), a drama about Lee Seol, a college student, who
is in fact the great-granddaughter of the Joseon Dynasty's last Emperor. She undergoes
difficult changes in her life to fulfill her role as a princess. Yet, in the end she leaves her
position as a princess to be with the man she loves. From a feminist perspective, the
analysis is conducted to discover the image of a woman in the drama. In particular, the
paper describes the image in connection with Yu’s ideas that while the female characters
in Korean film are described as cheerful, confident, and proactive, as well as having more
access to public areas and being more equal to men, they still fall into their “traditional
roles as victims of the patriarchal order and comfort objects for men” (n.d. p. 267). The
findings indicate that the woman is portrayed as a naïve, less sophisticated person who is
weaker or less significant than man.
Keywords: image, woman, weaker sex, My Princess
Introduction
Popular culture refersto “the products of human work and thought which are (or have been)
accepted and approved of by a large community or population.” It tends “imitative, repetitive,
and resistant to change”. It “reflects as well as manipulates our hearts and minds; reflects &
alters our image (Nachbar & Lause, 1992, pp.6-14). For example, once a movie or TV drama
with a particular theme becomes a hit, there will be other movies and dramas carrying a
similar subject. The trend is repetitive and hardly changed because the producers are reluctant
to change their “recipe of success” that will satisfy the vewers.On the other hand, it is worth
noticing that popular culture helps to shape as well as mirrors the society. People may accept
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that a certain product of popular culture is merely (creative) attempt to portray what actually
happens in the society, but the more they see and enjoy it, the more they believe in the ideas
that the work delivers, and their beliefs and attitudes may change accordingly.
One example of the recent popular culture is Korean Wave or Hallyu. Thisterm was coined by
the Chinese press to refer to the popularity of Korean pop culture in China, starting with the
export of Korean television dramas to China in the late 1990s.In the last two decades, South
Korea has successfully export its entertainment products, especially the TV dramas (Kdrama) and popular music (K-pop) to countries in Asia and the other continents. Korean
Wave does not only provide people with much enjoyable entertainment but also popularize
South Korean culture in general, like language, cuisine, and fashion (Korean Culture and
Information Service, 2011). Table 1 shows that except in 2000 and 2001, South Korea has
always exported more TV programs than buying them (Korean Ministry of Culture and
Tourism, 2009, cited in Korean Culture and Information Service, 2011).
Table 1. Exports and imports of Korean TV programs
There are some reasons why K-dramas become favorite TV programs. According to Korean
Culture and Information Service (2011), first, they are commonly relaxing and cheerful.
Although many of them are melodramas showing the hardships the heros or heroines have to
endure, which many times lead to their tragic endings, there are also many dramasthat are
cheerful and have a happy ending. The characters may be facing problems, but they are still a
joyful person. Sometimes they are also careless or clumsy people whose naivety will result in
funny actions that will add to the amusement in watching the dramas.Another reason is they
show in-fashion lifestyles. The female characters wear pretty coats with miniskirts, leggings,
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and boots that exude femininity and cuteness, and the men wear trendy shirts or perfectlytailored suits that highlight their finely-built body. Next is the themes are quite universal. Kdrama plots usually evolve around themes like love and family. These themes are particularly
favorable for Asian vewers because family is a very important element in Asian culture in
general. The expressions of love and passion are usually deep yet subtle, with limited or less
explicit physical contacts between the opposite sexes. This makes K-dramasa suitable show
for families, although TV guide usually categorize the dramas for viewers of fifteen-year old
or older. Another characteristic of the dramas is many of them focus on the female characters,
telling the story using their point of view. This will particularly appeal the female viewers,
which are a larger segment of the viewers such as in the United States, like presented in
Figure 1 (dramafever.com, n.d., cited in Korean Culture and Information Service, 2011).
Figure 1. K-drama Viewers in the U.S.
(Source:
Drama My Princess
My Princess is a South Korean romantic-comedy drama originally aired on Wednesdays and
Thursdays, on MBC starting from 5 January 2011. The main roles are played by two famous
Korean movie stars, Lee Tae Hee and Song Seung Heon (The Korea Herald, 2011). The 16episode drama was also broadcast in countries including Indonesia, Japan, and the Phillipines.
It is about a college student, Lee Seol, who lives with a foster family (a mother and an older
sister). Shefinds out she is a princess and the great-granddaughter of the Joseon Dynasty’s last
Emperor, Emperor Sunjong. The grandson of Daehan Group, Diplomat Park Hae Young, is
put in charge of educating the newly-found princess on proper etiquette so she is able fulfill
her role. At first, Park Hae Young is among those who are strongly against the restoration of
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the monarchy since it means Daehan properties will be returned to the royal family
foundation. However, these two people also start to fall in love. After the national poll
approves the restoration, Lee Seol carries out her duties as a princess, as in promoting Korea’s
culture, while Diplomat Park works abroad. At the end of the story, one night Princess Lee
Seol leaves the palace to join Park Hae Young on the plane leaving for the US (My Princess,
2011)
As the drama focuses on the life of a woman, the image of the female character is worth
analyzing. Therefore, this research aims to dislose the image of a woman in the drama My
Princess.
Review of Related Literature
Many people that Korean culture is much influenced by Confucian values. For example, a
woman is required to obey to her father, husband, and son. After a woman gets married, she
becomes an outsider from her biological family, but until she produces a son, she is also an
outsider from her husband’s family. In such a partriarchal sociaty, a 'virtuous' woman should
not deal with outside world and should not get ahead of her husband. Korean women are are
given a lower position consistently: being treated as less important than men, excluded from
prestigious occupations, and alienated from politics(Maynes, 2012; Kong, 1997). Nowadays,
Korean women are looking into a more equal position with men, but the traditional gender
roles in the family are still maintained because of deep-rooted acceptance of gender inequality
based on a legacy of Confucianism. Married women, for instance, are struggling between
pursuing carees and taking care of their family. All in all, in general women in Korea are
“lack of positive self-concepts and opportunities to exercise their potentials” (Kim and Han,
1996, in Kong 1997).
Regarding the images of women in Korean films, especially in melodramas and horror films,
Yu (n.d.) states that there are two major images: “the ‘good wife and wise mother’ who
conforms to traditional Confucianism and is locked into the ideology of chastity”and “the
‘wicked woman’who is either a femme fatale or a seductress.” These categorization shows
that Korean films also echo what is expected from women in the society. The female
characters who stick to their role of serving their family, especially the males, are considered
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good and wise. The romantic comedies, Yu continues, are “transforming the tragic image of
women into cheerful, confident, and proactive characters who have their own jobs”.
Nonetheless, they still “fall as victims of the patriarchal order and comfort objects for men”.
Reffering back to popular culture that reflects as well as helps to shape the society, it is
suggested that Korean movies also portray the condition of women in Korea and at the same
time perpetuate the beliefs on these images and roles.
Research Method
This research is conducted using a feminist approach. It analyzes “images of women”
concerning with “how the media creates stereotypes …of women’s lives … thus sustaining
patriarchal images and values” (Moody in Rooney, 2006, pp. 175-176). The center of the
story of My Princess is the leading female character, Lee Seol. Thus, the study focuses on her
image depicted in the drama.
The research is carried out in several steps. There are watching the DVD version of the drama
several times, taking notes of the descriptions of the woman’s image in the scenes, and
categorizing and analying the data, by reffering to the image of women in romatic comedies
by Yu (n.d.). In order to get clear captures of the important scenes, this paper cites most of the
pictures featured in the reviews on a website presenting complete reviews of the drama
episodes.
The study findings show that Lee Seol is portrayed as cheerful and strong-willed but also
naive and dependent on men.
Cheerful
Lee Seol is depicted as a cheerful woman even in a discouraging circumstance. For example,
her foster sister, Lee Dan, is rude to her because she envies Lee Seol over their mother’s
attention and later over Lee Seol’s status as a princess. In a scene in Episode 1, Lee Seol
comes to her sister to stay for the night.
Lee Dan (LD) : I want to be alone, so leave.
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Lee Seol (LS) : Come on. What’s wrong now? Are you feeling bad again? Want
me to buy some spicy chicken?
LD
: I just want to be alone for one night. Why do you complaining
so much? Don’t you have any friend?
LS
: I do. I have many friends. But I have no excuse to offer them
since I’ve stayed with them so many times whenever you acted
like this. …[LD shuts the door and leaves LS outside.]
(My Princess,2011, Ep. 1, min. 31)
In this scene, Lee Seol responds her sister’s indifference lightheartedly. She tries to persuade
her sister and make her feel better by offering to buy spicy chicken, which is probably a good
food to pick up someone’s mood. She also keeps smiling to her sister (Figure 2).
Figure 2Lee Dan refuses her sister to sleep at her place. (Javabeans, 2011)
Other evidence of Lee Seol’s easy-going/confident personality is in when she gives dating
tips to Park Hae Young, whom she barely knows at that time.
[After seeing Park Hae Young (PHY) at the jewelry store, Lee Seol follows him to
the parking lot.]
LS
: You have a crush on her [the woman who has just called him], right?
PHY
: No way.
LS
: Okay. 3 minutes. Stay here and wait for me. I’ll help you end this
unrequited love and you’ll call her as ‘my wife’ in the future.
…
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[LS took the receipt of the ring PHY has bought in the jewelry store to exchange it
with some gifts in the store. PHY almost leaves when she comes back, running.]
PRH
: What is this? A glove?
LS
: Are you stupid?
PRH
: What? Stupid? What the… Miss, you may not know this but I’m not
someone
LS
: Forget that. You’re rich. She’s probably rich, too. You think a rich
woman will be impressed by you buying her expensive ring and
bringing along a cleaner to do her job? No way. Usually, it’s when
woman receives something that she never expected the other person to
give, that’s when we fall in love. So, take that and use it to clean the
desks yourself. If you do that, by this time next year you’ll be
celebrating your baby’s birth.
PRH
: My baby’s birth?
LS
: I can see you’re happy about it. It’s written on your face.
PRH
: You are too straight away.
…
LS
: Do it sincerely. You can do it!
(My Princess, 2011, Ep. 1, mins. 24-28)
Tailing a person to ask for something and giving him dating tips without being asked may
need some confidence, especially when it is just their second meeting and the other person –
Park Hae Young – does not seem to care a lot about the advice. However, it seems that Lee
Seol can do it lightheartedly.
Strong-willed
Lee Seol’s other trait is her determination. Almost everyone is against her being a princess.
However, Lee Seol survives the challenge until the nation polls vote for the restoration of the
royal family. One example of her overcoming the challenge is on the day she is introduced to
the press in Episode 9. Oh Yoon Jooh, the daughter of the Secretary of the Daehan group
President and Park Hae Young’s long-time friend who also whishes to marry him, has
prearranged the event so that only a few journalists can enter the conference room while the
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rest cannot get into the palace. Lee Seol starts her speech anyway. And when Park, who
begins to show some supports for her, secretly writes to her to do the press conference at the
parking lot, she directly asks everyone to go outside to continue the press conference there
(see Figure 3). She takes off her shoes and runs past the yard to meet the other journalists. She
stands on a chair so that those journalists can see her during her speech. (My Princess, 2011)
This courageous act, which also shows her liveliness, pleases the journalists and everyone
begins to notice her seriousness of being a real princess. She does not retreat although Oh
Yoon Jooh is doing whatever it takes to stop her from being a princess and to kick her out of
the palace.
Figure 3. Lee Seol speaks to the journalists (Javabeans, 2011)
She also shows her determination in Episode 15, in the night before the nation poll when the
news about her possible relationship with Park Hae Young breaks. This can be seen as a
scandal and may hurt the poll result. While Park Hae Young and Naam Jung Woo (Lee Seol’s
professor) think that they should release a statement denying the relationship, Lee Seol
bravely conffesses to the nation about her true feeling about Park Hae Young (My Princess,
2011). She thinks that the best solution is to be honest about their situation. Lee Seol’s video
message is shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4. Lee Seol confesses her love to Park Hae Young in a video message.(Javabeans,
2013)
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In the video message, Lee Seol states that people may be surprised with the news and directly
says her point that she is in love with Park Hae Young. The scene, however, does not go
further, so what she says to defend her action or to assure the people that her relationship with
Park will not harm the monarchy restoration, is not clear. All the viewers know is in the next
episode, Lee Seol is now officially the Princess of Korea after the referendum approves the
restoration of the monarchy.
Naïve
On the other side of being cheerful and determined, in many occassions, Lee Seol is portrayed
as a naive, reckless person who is also not a very bright student. For example, in Episode 2,
Park is serving her dinner. She loves steak very much that she eats it so eagerly. Suddenly Oh
Yoon Joo comes and Park asks her to hide in the guest room. While hiding, her stomach aches
because she has eaten so much steak, and Oh and Park catch her running to the bathroom,
much to her embarassment. The scene is shown in Figure 5.
Figure 5.Oh and Park looks on as Lee Seol runs to the toilet. (Girlfriday, 2011)
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Next, when Park as her mentor gives her pretest in Episode 6, Lee Seol is shown as not being
able to answer a single question. It is very contradictory to Park, who is described as a very
knowledgeable person, speaking many foreign languages and holding several degrees, among
others. Lee Seol’s failure at the test makes her look stupid and Park is not shy of criticizing
her for that.
LS
: [looking at the questions] I thought you said i didn’t need to learn English?
PHY : It’s not an English test. It’s a test on politics, current affairs, and Koren
history.Come. Okay. You have 30 minutes...You may begin now. Then [I]
wish you have a nice time.
LS
: [while PHY is checking her answers] You’re supposed to draw a star on the
questions i got wrong. Don’t you watch any commercials?
PHY : You want your test paper become the Milky Way?
LS
: Give it back if you are done.
PHY : No. You got everything wrong, there’s nothing to see. I didn’t know this
was possible. You didn’t get a single answer right. It’s pretty amazing. I
think i need to recover from the shock. See you tommorow.
(My Princess, 2011, Ep. 6, mins. 14-16)
Lee Seol’s naivety is also shown in Episode 10 when she invites the children from her old
orphan’s home to the palace without realizing President Lee Young Chan’s 's hidden agenda
on the event. The Korean President wants to use the event as part of his political propaganda,
showing to the nation that the government and the royal family can work together for the
country while it is just the image that he wants to use to gain support from the citizens. Lee
Seol is not aware of this scheme and then trapped in a situation that makes her look like the
president’s ally. Figure 6 portrays her confusion during the event.
Figure 6. Lee Seol during the photo session with the orphan children and the President.
(Girlfriday, 2011)
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Not only that she is described as naive or reckless, Lee Seol is depicted as a helpless woman
who depends on other people, especially the men, to solve most of the problems she causes.
Her action to the video message regarding her relationship with Park is one of a few
exceptions. For instance, in the incident during the event with the childrean from the
orphanage described previously, it is Park who steps in to save her. He speaks directly to the
journalists taking pictures of Lee Seol and the President, explaining that the princess does not
share any political agenda with any parties, including the government. Then Park takes her
away from the room. Lee Seol is helpless against the president’s scheme, and Park rescues her
although it means he has to risk his career as a diplomat for confronting the President (My
Princess, 2011, ep. 10)
Weak or vulnerable
In addition to being naive and not very smart, Lee Seol is presented as physically weaker than
men. Two major pieces of evidence are when Park grabs her on the wrist or shoulder and
when he has to carry her.
In the 16 episodes of the drama, there are about four scenes where Park grabs her on the
soulder or wrist: when they meet for the first time; when Lee Soul refuses to have Park as her
teacher; when she is hitting Park for having sabotaged her first press conference as a princess;
and when Park takes her out of the room after the incident with the president. One of the
scenes is in Figure 7.
Figure 7. Park drags Lee Soul out of the changing room. (My Princess, 2011)
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In their first meeting, Lee Seol is on her part-time job as a princess in a performance. She
takes pictures with the visitors after the performance. Park is escorting Princess Stella of to
watch the performance. Princess Stela also wants to take pictures with the princess, but Lee
Seol has left to the changing room because her shift has ended, so Park comes to the room and
drags her out. Lee Seol protests all the way but Park is just too strong for her. Such scenes
suggest that women are a weaker sex than men physically, and it is impossible for women to
go up against the men once they use their physical strength.
Other evidence showing the vulnerabiltiy of a woman’s physique is the scenes in which Park
carries her. There are also at least for of such scenes: when Park carries her to his appartment
because she has a high fever and is unconscious in Episode 2; when he forcefully wakes her
up in Episode 6; when she is drunk (Episode 7); and when she gets blisters on her feet after
running to the parking lot to do her speech (Episode 9). Figure 8 is taken from the scene in
Episode 7.
Figure 8. Park is carrying Lee Seol because she is drunk. (Javabeans, 2011)
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In this scene, Lee Seol is very drunk that she cannot walk, so Park has to carry her on his
back. Later he will takes her to a motel so she can take a rest. In Figure 9, Park is carrying her
to her room because her feet hurt after running barefooted to the parking lot earlier. In the first
scene, it seems that Park has to carry her because she cannot walk steadily, while in the
second scene, it is more of Park’s own initiative, because although her feet hurt, Lee Seol
will still be able to walk. So, at first she refuses him, afraid of what people may think when
they see him carrying her like that, but he insists and then she obeys him. The two scenes
suggest that men are physically stronger than women, and many times women can, or have to,
depend on them.
Figure 9. Park is carrying Lee Seol in the palace. (Javabeans, 2011)
Lee Seol is not only physically weak, but she also seems somewhat less significant than men,
especially Park Hae Young. This can be inferred from the last episode, when finally she
leaves the palace to join Park leaving for the United States She has a lot of responsibility as
the princess of Korea. Park himself mostly stays abroad fulfilling his job as a diplomat. When
he is back, they cannot meet a lot because Lee Seol is very busy as well. This puts pressures
to their relationship. Then the President sends Park for an assignment in the U.S. While he is
telling Park about it, the president says, “Before achieving great accomplishments, I hope you
can bury your private affairs. Most likely, you will not be satisfied, to just be remembered as
the Princess’ man by the common people.” (My Princess, 2011, Ep. 16, mins. 60-62) The
night before the flight, Park proposes to her and asks her to go with him, but she cannot
accept the proposal since she cannot leave the palace so suddenly. He says she will not refuse
if she knows how much he loves her, and their relationship has always been difficult, whether
she is a princess or not. He leaves sadly, but when he boards the plane the next day, Lee Seol
is already sitting next to his seat (My Princess, 2011, Ep. 16).
Figure 10. Lee Seol goes with Park to the U.S. (Girlfriday, 2011)
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Lee Seol becomes a princess after undergoing a difficult process which even includes a
national referendum, but at the end she chooses to be with her boyfriend (future husband) and
probably to leave her position as a princess. It seems that when it comes to choosing the
careers of a couple, it is the man’s career that is more important. For Lee Seol, her love for
Park is more important than her position or status as a princess. On the other hand, the man,
Park Hae Young, does not make such a decision, probably because he has to put his career
and responsibilty over his personal interest, just like what the President has said earlier.
Conclusion
Based on the study findings, Lee Seol has both positive and negative images in this drama.
These findings have limitations, especially because the data from the dialogs are taken from
the English subtitle. The possibility of different interpretations of the dialogs in Korean
language is beyond the scope of this study. In line with Yu’s idea, Lee Seol is a cheerful and
proactive a character. However, her image is also that of woman who is at the lower or
weaker position than men in the partiarchal society. Her naivety often causes troubles for her
and other people, and she needs a powerful man to help her solve the problems. And as she
chooses to leave her royal position, it can be inferred that she has a less significance role or
career than her man. This can also relate to the drama title, My Princess. The story is about
Lee Seol’s becoming the Princess of Korea, so she should belong to the people, not to one
person. Yet, the title uses a possessive adjective “my”, indicating that she is the princess that
belongs to one person, Park Hae Young, a man.
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References
Girlfriday. (2011).[Image of Oh and Park looking on as Lee Seol runs to the toilet]. Retrieved
September
27,
2013
fromhttp://i630.photobucket.com/albums/uu26/dramabeans/drama/2011/princess02/prin
cess02-00344.jpg
Girlfriday. (2011). [Image ofLee Seol during the photo session with the orphan children and
the
President].
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27,
2013
cess10-00281.jpg
Girlfriday. (2011). [ Image of Lee Seol going with Park to the U.S.].Retrieved September 27,
2013
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Jang, K.S. (Director). (2011). My Princess (DVD). South Korea: P.T. Duta Cahaya Utama.
Javabeans. (2011). [Imageof Lee Dan refusing her sister to sleep at her place].Retrieved
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2013
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Javabeans. (2011). [Image of Lee Seol speaking to the journalists]. Retrieved September 27,
2013
from
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2013
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message].
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Korean Culture and Information Service. (2011). The Korean Wave: A New Pop Culture
Phenomenon. Retrieved June 27, 2013 from www.kocis.go.kr
Maynes, K. (2011). Korean Perceptions of Chastity, Gender Roles, and Libido; From
Kisaengs to the Twenty First Century. Grand Valley Journal of History: Vol. 1: Iss. 1,
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Nachbar, J. and Lause, K. (1992). Popular Culture: An introductory text. Bowling Green, OH:
Bowling Green State Univ. Popular Press.
Rooney, E. (Ed.) (2006).The Cambridge Companion to Feminist Literary Theory. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
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THE RISE OF CHINESENESS
IN AMERICAN HYPHENATED IDENTITY:
A STUDY IN AMY TAN’S THE BONESETTER’S DAUGHTER
DyahEkoHapsari, M.Hum.
Faculty of Cultural Studies UniversitasBrawijaya Malang
Abstract
America, a country of multiple ethnics, is always open for endless list of topics of
discussion for how each of its existing culture interplays with the others which results in
multifaceted cultural dynamic. The social reality is one cause for American writers to
elevate the uniqueness of a culture despite its capability to accommodate external
influences.
Amy Tan is one of prolific American writers, realizes the importance of acknowledging
one’s former culture to establish a comprehensive understanding on one’s cultural
identity regarding the complexity of American cultural web work. The Bonesetter’s
Daughter is one of her paramount works in which she puts forth the idea of the rise of
Chineseness in the main characters’ two-life spheres as Chinese-Americans. As the plot
of the novel moving on, the readers will find that the journey of revisiting their
Chineseness, the main characters do not only comprehend their identity as Chinese better,
but is more capable of understanding their existence as Americans as well.
The process of re-rooting of the main characters in The Bonesetter’s Daughter culturally
is the bedrock for the analysis in this study. Their pride of being Chinese eventually
brings them to a final conclusion of how their life is intermingled with a story of a
country thousands miles away from where they live which shapes their self-identity.
Keywords: The Bonesetter’s Daughter, Chineseness, cultural identity
INTRODUCTION
Background of Study
American pluralism becomes an outstanding topic in the discussion of American ethnicity. In
the early development of the nation, this country’s history was inseparable from what
happened in other countries, especially those connected to the coming of immigrants from
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various countries. Thus, the composition of American population is shaped by large variety of
ethnicities coming from different countries from over the globe.
In the later history, J. Hector St John Crevecoeur faced a big problem in defining what an
American really is in terms of race and ethnicities. He wrote an article entitled Letters from
An American Farmer, in which he put forward his confusion over that problem in one of its
section What is An American.In the article he states that:
I could point out to you a family whose grandfather was an Englishman, whose
wife was Dutch, whose son married a French woman, and whose present four sons
have now four wives from different nations. He is an American, who, leaving
behind all his ancient prejudices and manners, receives new ones from the new
mode of life he has embraced…..Here individuals of all nations are melted into a
new race of men, whose labors and posterity will one day cause great change in
the world (Baym et all., 1989, p. 561).
From the citation, Crevecoeur puts forth the idea that melting pot is the perfect term to
describe American pluralism. The term later becomes the source of abating discussions
among American scholars for the reason that it does not support the idea of America’s e
pluribus unum(unity in diversity). The debates were finally ended with the issue of The Civil
Rights Act of 1964, in which the rights of American minority groups were preserved under
the American law. Started from this stage, the idea of American melting pot was not anymore
suitable to depict American pluralism.
The new invented terms which are considered more compatible for eliciting American
pluralism are salad bowl, mosaics, or vegetable soup, by which the position of American
immigrants’ former culture is considered equal to their right of citizenship as Americans. This
becomes the stepping stone for the birth of American hyphenated identity. The new system of
mentioning one’s position, from the perspectives of culture and citizenship, has been
established. The examples of the use of the new system are African-American, ChineseAmerican, and Irish-American. It can be referred from the examples that American law finally
admits the importance of the role of one’s former culture in shaping their American context.
That is absolutely a big step for America to strengthen its commitment to protect the basic
rights of its citizens in the perspective of cultural identity of its people, although it is
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unavoidable to find the reality that the American ethnicities still have to face unfair treatments
from the American Caucasian which is still considered the highly-ranked race in American
society.
Chinese-Americanis one among other American ethnic groups which try to struggle to lead
their life comfortably among the complexity of ethnic relation in America. Chinese diaspora
is actually not only found in America but all over the world, so that is considered the citizen
of the world. This might happen for the reason that Chinese in general has a high level of
adaptation to new modes of life so that they can survive in any harsh condition. In American
history, the coming of Chinese immigrants was started in 19th century. The first wave begun
in the time of Westward Expansion in which they became contracted labors who contributed
to the establishment of Trans-Atlantic Railroad. This is continued with the second wave
during the years of 1882-1965. In this period Chinese were undergoing strong prejudices for
their political affiliation. The third wave came under the flag of civil rights movement by
which all minorities in America included Chinese-American, gained equal position in
American society. This leads the following generation of Chinese-Americans live more
comfortably compared to the life of the first generation because they have more opened doors
to opportunity to pursue their dreams.
In Chinese-American literature, the depiction of the struggle of a Chinese-American in
pursuing their dreams becomes the dominant theme. The plot is usually arranged into a
framework where the Chinese-American characters should deal with the web work of cultural
identity, where they have to cope with the problem of stereotype, intercultural relationship,
and the preservation of their former culture as Chinese. Those problems interplay with
personal motives, as love, existence, and personal dreams which make the stories a worth
reading. However, it is unavoidable for Chinese-American writers to connect the problems
faced by their novels’ characters with the idea that they solve the problems differently
because in some ways they are still Chinese in the blood. Therefore, the uniqueness of being
Chinese here becomes the most interesting selling point for the novel to be a widely read
story.
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One of the most prolific Chinese-American writers is Amy Tan. Her parents are both Chinese
immigrants. She is an America-born Chinese-American who is brought up with American
values. Therefore, like other Chinese-American writers, especially the second generation, she
often puts the bedrock perspective of her novels on the idea of how the characters seem to be
trapped into doubleness; on one hand they are Americans, but on the other hand they are also
Chinese. What makes Tan different from the other Chinese-American writers is the way she
sees that it is very important for a Chinese-American to re-root their former culture to find the
true self. Chinese awareness here becomes her central issue by which she creates the story for
her novels. Besides, she also includes her personal perspectives about Chinese identity seen in
the American context in her novels.
One of Tan’s masterpieces is The Bonesetter’s Daughter, published in 2001. The story of the
novel is shaped by two perspectives of the main characters. The first is LuLing (the mother),
who is the representative of the first generation of Chinese-American; and the second is Ruth
(the daughter) who represents the perspective of the younger generation. The conflicts are
shaped by how they cross into two different perspectives in seeing life and eventually settle
into one conclusion on the importance of the younger generation to know their history as a
Chinese better. This proves the idea how Tan sees the importance of Chinesenessor
Chineseconsciousness in shaping the identity of Chinese-American.
This research aims at revealing the rise of Chineseness in Amy Tan’s The Bonesetter’s
Daughter by setting the bedrock on the idea that a literary work is a product of the author’s
repertoires which are shaped by her/his experiences as the members of a particular society.
Thus, the writer of this research sees the importance of Tan’s role as part of the ChineAmerican group in depicting the life of the characters in the novel as the representatives of
what happens to Chinese-American life in reality.
Problem of Study
Due to the cultural problems faced by Chinese-Americans in American society, the writer
sees the novel as one, which presents its readers new perspective in seeing the life of ChineseAmericans by underlining the importance of re-rootingtheir former Culture as Chinese to gain
full understanding about their true identity. Therefore the problem of study of this research is
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put onto the question on how Tan sees the importance of the rise of Chineseness in the
Chinese-American characters in gaining better understanding about their true identity.
Objective of Study
Based on the proposed problem of study, this research is conducted to scrutinize the rise of
Chinesenessin the Chinese-American characters in the novel which lead them to gain better
understanding on their true identity.
THEORETICAL UNDERPINNINGS
Literature as A Societal Mirror
Literary work is not born into an empty space where it can stand alone as an autonomous
entity. It is a creation of an author who at same time is a part of his/her society; therefore, in
some ways literature can function as the reflection of what happens in the depicted society. It
does not mean that the role of an author is not significant in literature.In Lucien Goldmann’s
perspective, the repertoires of an author are the result of his/her interaction with the
environment (people and cultural elements) with sets of standards of conducts and values as
parts of culture as it can be seen in his statement that “all human groups act on the
consciousness, affectivity, and behavior of their members, only the action of certain
particular, specific groups encourage cultural creation” (Clark, 2011, p.4). Goldmann sees the
importance of external factors in shaping an individual’s sets of conduct; how the very person
internalizes the learned norms and values of his/her group. Thus, he urges on the idea that it is
difficult for an author to escape from collective consciousness as the creation of group
convention.
According to Goldmann( Clark, 2011, p.2) “relations between the truly important work and
the social group, which – through the medium of the creator – is, in the last resort, the true
subject of creation, are of the same order as relations between the elements of the work and
the work as a whole”. It can be formulated from Goldmann’s opinion that literature can be
posited as having its whole meaning if it is seated on societal context, is seen as a product of a
particular society.Goldmann’s perspective on deriving the meaning of literary works through
its ability in mirroring the society becomes the bedrock of this research’s analysis. In this
research, the writer sees Tan as the author as the representative of the Chinese-American’s
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collective consciousness, who tries to depict their life from her specific point of view as a half
Chinese and American. Therefore, the Chinese-American characters in this research are not
seen as individuals; rather they will be seen as the representatives of Chinese-Americans who
try to perceive their Chinesenessin their American context.
European Model or Straight Line Theory
Defining the position Chinese-American in American society requires an overlook on a social
mobility termed as immigration. Immigration is defined as “the settlement of people in the
country in which they are not born” (Immigration, 2008). In American case, the coming of
Chinese immigrants is divided into three waves as it has been explained in the introduction.
There were reasons for Chinese to come to America which led to voluntarily immigration.
The reasons could be connected to what happened in their homeland, such as political turmoil,
poverty, or even plague. They used crowded boats to reach the outer borders of America,
started a living, and finally underwent Americanization for the succeeding generations. The
process is termed as European Model or Straight Line theory(Kitano and Daniels, 1988)
which proposes the idea that the process of immigration is voluntarily done which later leads
to voluntarily acculturation, integration, assimilation, and eventual absorption into dominant
society. This theory assumes that in given sufficient time, anyone can become a part of
American mainstream by working hard, learning English and American way, participating in
the community, and blending into the mainstream. It can be inferred from the theory that first,
the immigrants in the mainstream American society have to give up all their cultural identity
to be accepted in American society. Second, when American society and the immigrants are
posited as two opposing forces: the dominant and the weak, what will happen to the life of the
weaker party is relatively easy to predict, for example their life will be attached to negative
stereotypes, prejudices, and discrimination at all cost. This is in line with Kitano and Daniels
that the conquered population is forced to participate in someone else’s society, whether they
wish to or not; they are subjected to a wide number of restrictions in their social, economic,
and political mobility, and their culture and social institutions are attacked, often to the point
where they are forced to give up their own “inferior” ways and accept the ways of their
superiors (1988, p.7). In short, the interaction between the immigrant group and the host
society determines the direction of change controlled largely by the host society with more
power and resources.
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Chinese-American Literature in Jeopardy
Chinese-American literature in this study is observed from two perspectives, the images of
Chinese-American in American literature and the ideology of Chinese-American writers in
seeing their Chineseness. The image of Chinese-American in American literature gets along
together with their inferior position in American society. According to Kim, there are two
images of Asians, especially Chinese in Anglo Literature, namely good Chinese and bad
Chinese (1982). Further Kim (1982, p. 14-20) describes the characteristics of good Chinese as
a person who (1) is not supposed to value her/himself; (2) can be assimilated into American
life; (3) accepts his assigned status cheerfully and rejects whatever aspects of his racial and
cultural background; (4) must never speak of himself. While the characteristics of bad
Chinese are strongly embedded with negative stereotypes against the ethnic, for example
sinister villains, brute hordes, helpless, pathetic, enigmatic, and unable to defend himself.
Something paradoxical with the characteristics of both good and bad Chinese is none of them
is good actually. This means all of those characteristics are headed to the idea that all Chinese,
regardless they are good or bad, must surrender to the fact that they have to struggle for
acceptance from the mainstream society, if notall negative labels will go to them.
In the discussion of Chinese-American writers’ ideology in seeing their Chineseness, Kim
(1982) divides Chinese-American writers into two categories, namely the first generation of
Chinese-American writers who were born in China and eventually granted American
citizenship, and the second generation of Chinese-American writers who were born in
America, raised in American values, and have been absorbed into American ways. The first
generation of Chinese-American writers tends to posit themselves as the Ambassador of
Goodwill in which they bring about the idea that they function themselves as the bridge
between the East and West, tend to accept discrimination against their own race, stand on the
perspective that the West represents modernity and East represents tradition, and try to win
friends in the West for the East through dissemination of information about their traditions as
products of high culture. Meanwhile, the second generation of Chinese-American writers
tends to have difficulty to identify themselves with China when they are confronted with
racial barriers, describe life experiences as the members of American hyphenated identity
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without giving more emphasis on the America’s social injustices, and have false choice
between America and China which means that their choice between America and China
stands on the side of America’s favor. From the ideology of the first and second generation of
Chinese-American writers, it can be concluded that both of the generations are never honest in
depicting the life of Chinese-Americans in their work, tend to hide bitter life experiences
caused by unfair treatments of American mainstream society beneath the mask of Chinese
exotics, and seek for the favor of the majority.
To sum up, it is relatively disappointing somehow to note down that the ways Americans see
Chinese-American and they Chinese-American writers portray themselves in literary works
do not stand on the idea that Chinese-Americans deserve for equality. American writers look
Chinese-American down from the nose and Chinese-American writers are trapped into
inferior feeling, having no dignity.
The previous explanation is used as the basis for the writer of this study to use Amy Tan’s
The Bonesetter’s Daughter as the material object for the research by considering the fact that
Tan, in terms of ideology, has a significant differences from other Chinese-American writers
for how she is trying to speak out loud to her reader that it is very important for a ChineseAmerican to re-root their Chineseness in order to find their true selves. Additionally, Tan does
not only delineate the life of Chinese-Americans, but also puts forth her idea that it is
important for a Chinese-American to acquire Chinese philosophy to have a better life. Thus,
Tan gives emphasis on the idea of elevating Chineseness in their life.
DISCUSSION
The Bonesetter’s Daughterpresents the readers a story of two perspectives, the first
generation’s and the second generation’s. The mothers, Precious Auntie and LuLing, are the
representatives of the first generation who were born in China; while Ruth represents the
younger generation who was born in America. Due to the background, the first generation still
has stronghold to Chinese traditions. On the other way around, the second generation is
portrayed as a Chinese descent who has already acquired western values. However, what
makes this novel a worth reading is how Tan uses Ruth as her mouthpiece. While the readers
follow the plot, they can grab the idea that in some ways this novel is dragging them to a
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certain ideology. Tan, in reality, is the second generation in her Chinese family, raised in
western perspective, and in short has been Americanized. Interestingly, in this novel she tries
to be truthful with the fact that she is also a Chinese. Additionally, this confession does not
stop there. She convinces everyone, especially those belong to her race, that being a part of
American hyphenated identity one has to accept the fact that he lives in two cultures and it is
a must to recognize the former culture in order to gain a complete understanding aboutwho he
really is. Her awareness of being Chinese is clearly portrayed in the process of how the
Chinese characters in this novelfind the “correct” way of seeing themselves more
comprehensively.
There are two prominent constructs used by Tan in the plot to deliver the message on the
importance of re-rooting one’s former culture: tracing back family history and revisiting
China in terms of history and culture. Those two constructs lead the characters’ way to the
rise of Chineseness in their cultural journey. The followings are the discussion on how each
construct plays its role in the process of the rise of Chinese consciousness in the characters.
Tracing Back Family History
In this phase, Ruth plays a prominent role in the development of the plot when she finds her
mother’s memoir given to her six years ago by her mother. The memoir is like a key to the
doors which lead her to understand her mother, her relationship to her mother andeven about
herself better. It is also her mother’s way of telling her daughter what she experiences and
feels. Therefore, when Ruth accidentally finds it in the drawer beneath other bric-a-brac, she
feels pang of guilt in her heart for not reading it earlier. Eventually she tries to find someone
who is able to decipher strange words for her because it is written in Chinese.
In the memoir, there are stories about Precious Auntie,LuLing and other family records by
which Ruth finally can see the other faces in her mother’s life for Ruth to judge her more
appropriately. In the novel, Tan describes Ruth as a Chinese prodigy who leads her life as a
successful ghostwriter. She has already helped many authors to produce quality books. Hence,
this makes her have insufficient time to be with her mother. LuLing protests Ruth for doing
so, as it is seen in the following quotation: “So busy, so success,” her mother had said recently
when Ruth told her she didn’t have any free time to see her. “Not free”, LuLing added,
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“because every minute must charge money. What should I pay you, five dollar, ten dollar,
then you come see me?” (Tan, 2001, p.41).In Ruth’s case, she is an Americanized ChineseAmerican who is nurtured with the idea that time is money; therefore, being effective and
efficient with time is highly required: “The truth was, Ruth did not have much free time, not
in her opinion….Her free time was usually usurped by what seemed at the time urgent and
later unnecessary (Tan, 2001, p.41). Wendy adds: “Free time doesn’t exist anymore. It has to
be scheduled with a dollar amount attached to it” (Tan, 2001, p.41). From the citations, it can
be inferred that Ruth and her mother rarely have time to share stories so that they do not know
each other very well although they are mother and daughter.
Until once, when Ruth finally starts reading the memoir, she is startled finding the fact that
her mother married another man in China before being her father’s wife: “Then came the
names of LuLing’s husbands, one of whom was Ruth’s father. Husbands? Ruth was startled to
read that there had been another (Tan, 2001, p.13). The information about a mother’s late
husband should have been known by the children, but it does not happen in Ruth’s case. It
does mean that they go along with a problem of communication in their relationship which is
triggered by Ruth’s being a very busy ghostwriter, which is considered common in western
mindset. In American perspective “to work is to glorify God” is the basis for hard work ethic
derived from Puritan philosophy and is still practiced in American modern time.
What is experienced by LuLing and Ruth contradicts with Ruth’s understanding in the
meaning of family based on Chinese philosophy. This understanding is gained when she is
hosting the family gathering in Chinese Full Moon Festival:
“To Ruth, this particular gathering was not “just dinner.” It was their Chinese
thanksgiving, the reunion that she was hosting for the first time. She had given
much thought to setting it up, what it should mean, what family meant, not just
blood relatives but also those who were united by the past and would remain
together over the years, people she was grateful to have in her life (Tan, 2001,
p.83).
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It can be concluded that the memoir functions as a tunnel for Ruth to know what happened to
her family, particularly to her mother, in the past. This knowledge can be the bridge for Ruth
to the past, to a better understanding about who she really is.
In this novel, another problem which shapes the conflict is the loss of the family name. Tan
gives the novel the title The Bonesetter’s Daughter for the reason that it portrays the life of
three generations of women in which the course of the other two women is determined by
what happens to the life of the bonesetter’s daughter, Precious Auntie. She is depicted as
someone who loses all of her family, is uprooted from her family by fate. Everybody starts
forgetting the name of her family which means that she is considered “does not belong” to
any, to conclude that she “does not exist.” The daughter, and later the granddaughter, tries to
reveal their family name for proofing their existence. Thus, when the name is discovered, all
of them feel that they have been reborn: “Her grandmother had a name. Gu Liu Xin. She had
existed. She still existed. Precious Auntie belonged to a family. LuLing belonged to that same
family, and Ruth belonged to them both” (Tan, 2001, p.350). the finding of the family name
eventually brings back all of the Chinese characters in this novel to the revelation of their true
selves.
Family has a very significant role in the life of Chinese because it is a smallest unit where all
Chinese cultural aspects are nurtured to its member. Family is seen as a “unit” which means
that it has a certain system followed by all of its members. It can be said that judging a
Chinese’s motifs in life requires a holistic understanding to the system of the family he lives
in. This leads to the idea that the value of a Chinese is deeply seated on his understanding
about his position among the other members of his family so that he needs to consider the
consequence of his actions to others. In Chinese philosophy, the importance of a family in
societal level of life is also given a strong emphasis. Xiao for filial piety, for strong family
values is a significant value believed by Chinese. Confucius, one great Chinese philosopher,
puts family as the central factor for establishing a strong community. He states that the
strength of a nation derives from the integrity of the home. To put the world in order, people
must first put the nation in order; to put the nation in order, people must put the family in
order; to put the family in order, people must cultivate their personal life; and to cultivate
personal life, people must first set their hearts right (Lyall, 2007). In conclusion, Confucius
puts forth the idea that strong family values and relationshipsmutual respect and family
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loyalty are keys to a stable society. Confucius’ idea is also in line with the perspective of
Buddhism (Kusumohamidjojo, 2010) that having a happy family will lead one to a prosperous
life (Jia he wan sixing). The Chinese philosophy on the role of a family in shaping a good
community is in opposition with contemporary American perspective (Bellah et all, 1986,
p.112) which pins point the idea that family is no longer an integral part of a larger moral
ecology tying the individual to community. The family is the core of the private sphere,
whose aim is not to link individuals to the public world but to avoid it as far as possible.
In the novel’s context, how Ruth’s holistic understanding about the real meaning of a family
is gained through the process of reading family records in LuLing’s memoir which functions
as the tunnel for seeing her Chineseness. The writer of this study sees this as a form of Tan’s
criticism on American familial system which is based on individualism. Family is not only
relation by blood, but it is shaped by history of past, present and future. Thus, through this
novel Tan needs to admit that her Chinesenesstakes a very important role in gaining a new
understanding about the meaning of a family and how it shapes a better understanding about
herself.
Revisiting China in Terms of History and Culture
This novel presents the readers a lot of exposures on China and its culture. It is very
interesting since it is telling the life of Chinese who have turned to be Chinese-Americans.
This is the other strength of this novel in a way to nurture the idea that one cannot leave
behind her former culture to find the real meaning of self. Tan through this novel tries to
admit that her life, in so many ways, is greatly influenced by what happens in a country
thousands miles away from where she lives now which she claims as her “homeland.” Thus,
she gave multiple visits to her home country and makes use of the knowledge as the raw
material for her novels.
In terms of history, in The Bonesetter’s Daughter, Tan revisits China in the time of pre-World
War II. In this case she portrays the condition of China when it was introduced to a new
religion through the work of missionaries. In the novel, it is depicted through the life of
LuLing before she moves to America. LuLing is sent to an orphanage by her big family
because Precious Auntie, LuLing’s mother, has committed suicide. The orphanage is run by
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two American missionaries, Miss Grutoff and Miss Towler. This orphanage functions as the
initiation gate for LuLing to Western values; one of them is religious value.
In the plot, it is told that all children in the orphanage are supposed to embrace Christianity,
the new religion. However, LuLing as the representative of Chinese in this case does not fully
accept it. Tan describes her as a clever Chinese who goes between the religions, Taoism and
Christianity. Even, LuLing sees herself as a Taoist who “has to be” a Christian at the same
time, but she has no worries over the decision because she is sure the Gods understand her
condition:
I was not afraid. I believed that if I was respectful to both the Chinese Gods
and the Christian one, neither would harm me. I reasoned that Chinese people
were polite and also practical about life. The Chinese gods understood that we
were living in a Western household run by Americans. If the gods could speak,
they, too, would insist that the Christian deities have the better position (Tan,
2001, p.240).
From this quote, how the Chinese gods is described as understanding gods is, in one way,
shows Tan’s opinion that Western values, In this case religious value, are acceptable in China
because the Chinese think “they have to,” not “they love to.” So, Chinese is portrayed as
practical by having the conclusion in the following line: “Chinese people, unlike foreigners,
did not try to push their ideas on others. Let the foreigners follow their own ways, no matter
how strange they were, that was their thinking” (Tan, 2001, p.240). This is an interesting
statement for the writer of this study to conclude that Tan shows her feeling of being proud of
her Chineseness. She wants to convey that the cruel face of westernization is successfully
undergone by Chinese by which she concludes that how harsh the condition the Chinese has
to face, this ethnic indeed can survive without losing their faith.
From cultural perspective, this novel presents its readers an intriguing fact that on one hand it
belongs to immigrant novel which tends to see life in America from a more acceptable view
point of the dominant society. However, in this novel Tan tries to be more outspoken by
exposing a lot of her Chinese culture, her former culture. In short, this is a novel about the life
of Chinese-Americans, but the detour to the characters’ experiences in China plays the
dominance. The exposures of Chinese culture here are classified into two categories, namely
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tradition and belief. The examples of Chinese traditions portrayed in this novel are Chinese
marriage custom, Chinese festivals, Chinese funeral, and Chinese system of educating
children. While belief in superstition like good and bad luck, the power of oracle bones, the
existence of ghost and curse are the samples of Chinese belief exposed in this novel. This
study will only cover discussion over one example of each category: Full Moon festival as the
example for Chinese tradition, and Chinese superstition on bad luck as the sample for Chinese
belief. These two function significantly in the Americanized character in the novel, Ruth, to
regain her Chineseness.
Full Moon festival is held on the 15th day of the eighth month in the Chinese calendar, ,
during a full moon, which is in late September or early October in the Gregorian calendar.
The festival celebrates three fundamental concepts (Gee, 2011)which are closely tied to one
another: (1) gathering, such as family and friends coming together, or harvesting crops; (2)
thanksgiving, to give thanks for the harvest, or for harmonious unions; (3) praying, asking for
conceptual or material satisfaction such as for babies, a spouse, beauty, longevity, or for a
good future. In the novel, Ruth is hosting the celebration for the first time. She takes the
matter seriously because she thinks it is not only a dinner, it has something to do with her
understanding of the importance of her family:
To Ruth, this particular gathering was not “just dinner.” It was their Chinese
thanksgiving, the reunion that she was hosting for the first time. She had given
much thought to setting it up, what it should mean, what family meant, not just
blood relatives but also those were united by the past and would remain
together over the years, people she was grateful to have in her life. She wanted
to thank allthe celebrants for her contribution to her feeling of family (Tan,
2001, p.83).
Ruth makes so much thought in the preparation, arranges the event very meticulously. She
chooses special Chinese food for the dinner, not only on the basis of taste but more on
philosophy. For example, sticky rice and tapioca pudding are served for the philosophy that
the family unity will be better cemented throughout the years. Ruth, the representative of the
second generation of Chinese-American in this novel, is portrayed as someone who still
maintains the tradition very well, even understands the philosophy of the festival.
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In the second category of the exposure of Chinese culture in this novel is the superstition.
Ruth, again, is the one who still has a stronghold to it despite the fact that she is the moreAmericanized character among others. In her Americanized life-pattern, Chinese superstition
still plays its role in her ways of seeing things, or to do things. For example, on the day she
has a lot things to do, she tries to memorize all of the tasks using her fingers and she uses her
ninth finger to memorize the most important one. Unfortunately she forgets what on number
nine is, so she starts worrying about it:
What was nine? Nine was usually something important, a significant number,
what her mother termed the number of fullness, a number that also stood for
Do not forget, or risk losing all. Did Nine have something to do with her
mother? There was always something to worry about with her mother. That
was not anything she had to remember in particular. It was a state of mind
(Tan, 2001, p.18).
Nine (九 pinyin jiǔ) is considered a good number in Chinese culture because it sounds the
same as the word "longlasting" (久 pinyin jiǔ).Nine is strongly associated with the Chinese
dragon, a symbol of magic and power (Chinese Lucky Number 9, 2011).
Full Moon Festival and Chinese superstition on number nine are few examples of how
Chinese tradition and belief are taking operation, consciously and unconsciously, in Ruth’s
life. The writer of this study sees Ruth as Tan’s mouthpiece for expressing her opinion on
Chinese culture by considering the facts that Tan herself is the second generation in her
Chinese family and she is on the trial of having better understanding about her real selfidentity by re-rooting her Chineseness. Ruth is the depiction of how an American-born
Chinese-American, consciously or unconsciously, still switches on Chinese mode in her life.
Eventually at the end of the story she realizes that her past, her mother and grandmother’s
experiences have shaped her life. To understand their lives means understanding her life
better; to understand her Chineseness leads her to the revelation of her true self.
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CONCLUSION
Ruth is the portrayal of the second generation of Chinese-American who lives into two
different cultures, American and Chinese. Tan describes Ruth as a Chinese-American who is
trapped into doubleness, double identity in culture. She goes back and forth between
American and Chinese modes of life, which is not a simple thing to do. Authors for immigrant
novel tend to choose the moderate position: hold on both cultures to survive. However, Amy
Tan is different. She has the tendency to see the importance of pride of being Chinese because
she sees that being Chinese is unavoidable fact for Chinese-Americans. Whether they like it
or not, it is part of them. Denying their Chineseness is a mission impossible because they
cannot turn back the time. Thus, Chinese consciousness is a way for Chinese-American to
find their true selves.
REFERENCES
Bellah, Robert N. et all. (1986). Habbits of the Heart:Individualism and Commitment in
American Life. New York: Pernnial Library
Chinese
Lucky
Number
9.(2011).
Retrieved
from
http://onlinelearnchinese.net/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=66&Ite
mid=86.Accessed on October 12, 2013 at 11.32 a.m.
Clark, Richard L.W. (2011) Lucien Goldmann: The Genetic Structuralist Method in the
History of Literature. Retrieved from www.rlwclarke.net/Courses/LITS3303/20102011/03BGoldmann.Accessed on September 2, 2013 at 8.43 a.m.
Gee,
Don
S.
(2011).
Moon
Festival.Retrieved
from
http://www.chcp.org/MoonFestival.html.Accessed on October 12, 2013 at 11.05 a.m.
Immigration.(2008). Retrieved from http://sociology.socialsciencedictionary.com/SociologyDictionary/immigration.Accessed on October 12, 2013 at 10.23 a.m.
Kim, Elaine H. (1982). Asian American Literature: An Introduction to the Writings and Their
Social Context. Philadelphia: Temple Unversity Press.
Kitano, Harry H.L. and Roger Daniels. (1988). Asian Americans: Emerging Minorities. New
Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc.
Kusumohamidjojo,
Budiono.
(2010).
SebuahPengantarKomprehensif. Yogyakarta: Jalasutra.
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SejarahFilsafatTiongkok:
December 2013
ABORTION AND VIOLENCE IN JANE MARTIN’S KEELY
AND DU: PRO-CHOICE, PRO-LIFE, OR MERELY
PROVOCATIVE?
Eta Farmacelia Nurulhady
Diponegoro University, Indonesia
[email protected]
Abstract
Abortion and violence are global issues, yet different culture might respond to the issues
somewhat differently. This study aims to reveal the abortion and violence issues in Jane
Martin’s Keely and Du in terms of pro-choice and pro life movements and see how
Indonesian students reading the play respond to the issues. In the United States of
America, the discussion of abortion issue can be grouped into two major categories: the
pro-life and pro-choice. In Indonesia, the majority of people would be against abortion
when it is not for medical reasons. The students reading Keely and Du find the play
challenging their beliefs as religious people still keeping hold of eastern values. Having
discussed the nature of pro-life and pro-choice movements, it is difficult for them to
decide whether they are proponent of either one. Keely and Du is successfully
provocative in offering insight on how abortion and violence issues cannot be judged in a
black and white manner.
Keywords: abortion, violence, pro-life, pro-choice
Introduction
Although most women probably are looking forward to getting pregnant and being a mother,
yet for many different reasons, many women do not want to be pregnant. Unintended
pregnancies may be one of two types: mistimed or unwanted pregnancies. A woman may get
pregnant when she does not want it to happen then but want to be pregnant later, which results
in a mistimed pregnancy. She may also get pregnant when she does not want the pregnancy
then or in the future; therefore the pregnancy is unwanted. The number of unintended
pregnancies is on the rise all over the globe. As human reproduction is often considered as
part of woman’s rights, a number of women believe that they are free to do whatever they
want with their unintended pregnancies, including performing abortion.
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In the United States of America, there were about 1.2 million abortions performed in 2008. In
general, one of every three American women will have abortion by the age of 45. Most
women who have abortion are in their 20s, while teenagers contribute to fewer than two in
every ten abortions. Many of those who perform abortion have already had a child or more.
The primary reason for abortion is the need to care for the baby, which the mother feels that
she will not be able to provide
(http://www.guttmacher.org/media/presskits/abortion-
US/index.html). In Indonesia, abortion has reached alarming levels. In 2000, it was estimated
that two millions abortions occur each year, which means there were 37 abortions for every
1,000 women of reproductive age (15-49 years) annualy. The number is relatively high
compared with that of Asia in a whole. Interestingly, the majority of women seeking abortion
in a clinic or hospital tend to be married and educated (Sedgh & Ball, 2008, p. 1). In general,
there are a wide range of financial and social reasons for abortion, and not everybody supports
the choice of a mother to abort. Therefore, abortion, together with violence which usually
accompanies abortion, becomes interesting issue to discuss not only in scientific researches
but also in literary works.
One of literary works that discuss abortion and violence issue is a play written by an
American playwright Jane Martin titled Keely and Du. The play had its professional world
premiere at Actors Theater in Louisville in March 1993. The characters are Du, Walter,
Keely, Cole, Prison Guard, and Orderlies. It is basically about the violence experienced by the
main character, Keely before and after she gets pregnant and seeks abortion. The play
performances in different states in the USA recieve numerous responses from both those who
are for and against abortion: the pro-choice and pro-life proponents. As a literary work, Keely
and Du is worth analyzing as abortion and violence are global issues, yet different culture
might respond to the issues somewhat differently. Both in the United States and Indonesia, the
abortion is generally illegal. In Indonesia, abortion is stigmatized and highly restricted. This
study tries to find answers to the following research problems: 1) How are the issues of
abortion and violence presented in Jane Martin’s Keely and Du?; 2) How does Jane Martin’s
Keely and Du present pro-life and pro-choice points of view regarding abortion?; 3) How do
Indonesian students respond to the issues of violence and abortion in the play?; 4) Can the
students identify themselves as pro-life or pro-choice proponents?; and 5) Do the students
consider the play as pro-life, pro-choice, or merely provocative? This study aims to reveal the
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abortion and violence issues in Jane Martin’s Keely and Du in terms of pro-choice and pro life
movements and see how Indonesian students reading the play respond to the issues.
Indonesian students find it difficult to decide whether they are pro-life or pro-choice
proponents as Keely and Du is challenging and provocative in offering insight on how
abortion and violence issues cannot be judged in a black and white manner.
Abortion and Violence in Jane Martin’s Keely and Du
The protagonist in Jane Martin’s Keely and Du is Keely, a woman in her early thirties,who is
kidnapped by pro-life proponents while seeking abortion. The kidnappers, Walter and Du of
Operation Retrieval, confine Kelly, who is three-month pregnant, with her left hand
handcuffed to a bed in a basement, trying to force Keely to continue the pregnancy with the
options to raise her baby or give it away after it is born. Athough Keely gradualy develops the
bond with Du, the nurse taking care of her, she is not convinced by the pro-life’s provocation.
After being forced to meet Cole, her ex-husband who has raped her, Keely performs an
abortion using cloth hanger which Du ironically brings to the room for Keely’s birthday dress
and Keely manages to hide. The play ends with Keely visiting Du in prison.
Walter and Du of Operation Retrieval are definitely proponents of pro-life movement, as can
be seen from Walter’s statement: “We are a group of like-minded Christians motivated by the
belief in the sanctity of life and the rights of unborn children” (Martin, 1993, p. 17). Keely, in
her insistence to perform abortion with a number of reasons, can be said as a proponent of
pro-choice, the movements that advocate for legal access to induced abortion services. Keely
was violently raped by her jobless, drunk, and violent ex-husband, Cole. If Keely keeps the
baby, it will make it impossible for Keely to make Cole stay away from her. That is one of the
reasons for her seeking abortion. Another reason is that she is not financially secure: she has
two jobs and has to provide for her paralyzed father. On the one hand, if the baby is born,
Keely does not want to keep it because she is afraid that she might unwillingly hurt the baby
due to the cause of its existence. On the other hand, she cannot give the baby away for
adoption because she loves it. Therefore, she believes that abortion is the best choice. Walter
is definitely oblivious to Keely’s reasons, believing that: “The child is separate from how it
was conceived and must also be considered separately from you. I have no wish to choose
between you, but if I must I choose the child who has no earthly advocate” (Martin, 1993, p.
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28). Walter’s opinion is supported by Du, who asserts,”It’s contrary to God’s will, it’s
murder, it’s not necessary, it’s as selfish an act as you could conceive, and we will not allow
you to harm that child or yourself. You are better than that, you know you are, and how you
feel or what trouble you might have is not so important as a life” (Martin, 1993, p. 25).
Therefore, there is a conflict of interest between the pro-life and pro-choice proponents in the
play.
The reviews received by the performances of Jane Martin’s Keely and Du across the United
States of America do not always focus on the opposition between the pro-life and pro-choice
movements. The reviews generally acknowledge the fact that the play basically challenges
how the audience act upon their conviction on abortion and that the play does not offer winwin answer or solution for two extreme sides of opinion on abortion. However, the reviews
given by those who publicly declare their sides do represent the opposing point of view. An
example is review written by Kathleen Broome of Pro Choice Action Network, Canada. She
says, “While watching the first half of the play, I was disturbed to note that the anti-choice
side
was
being
given
more
of
a
voice
than
the
pro-choice”
(http://www.prochoiceactionnetwork-canada.org/prochoicepress/96spring.shtml#keely).
Broome is commenting on Du’s argument on the lack of pre- or post-abortion given by
abortion clinics and post-abortion guilt depression that lead to suicide attempt. She complains
why Keely, the only pro-choice voice in the play, does not argue and that Du’s statement does
not have any basis in truth. She continues: “However, the second half of the play states the
abortion issue as it stands in reality—if women are not allowed to choose, they will die and
their fetuses will die anyway”. In other words, she believes that Keely and Du promotes prochoice movement. On the other hand, a proponent of pro-life movement, who titled the review
as “‘Keely and Du’” Reveals the Tragedy of Abortion,” Scheidler says:
Although it seems the playwright intended her work to be a slam against pro-life
activists, as the play unfolded it actually unmasked the real tragedy of abortion. Keely,
the young pregnant woman, was a victim of an abusive husband, of an unfortunate
childhood and of the excessive zeal of the pro-lifers. In her frustration and bitterness
she lashed out at the only person in her life over whom she had control—her unborn
baby (http://prolifeaction.org/hotline/2008/keelyanddu/)
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Scheidler even praises the actor playing the minister as doing a remarkable job of representing
a Christian point of view on abortion. The opinion is certainly different from Denise Neary
who writes a review for The Inquirer: “Essentially, it has three "giants" - men, the pro-life
movement, and Christianity - all of which are effectively slain by play's end” (Neary, in
http://articles.philly.com/1994-11-13/entertainment/25869261_1_keely-and-du-end-abortionabortion-debate). Neary also accuses the play and its flier as capturing the pro-abortion bias.
Accompanying the abortion issue in the play is violence issue. When Du is reciting Bible to
convince Keely not to abort, Keely tries to explain her point of view:
I could get messed up, who knows, killed by who impregnates me, not to mention I
might, I don’t know, hate this baby, hurt this baby, throw the baby or something like
that, I’m not kidding, what’s inside me. Now, do you have some Bible quote for that,
or am I just beside the point, handcuffed to this bed, carrying the result of being
fucked by my ex-husband while he banged my head of a hardwood floor to shut me
up” (Martin, 1993, p. 27).
What Keely says represents the much violence that she experiences: being raped by her exhusband; being kidnapped, confined in a basement, and handcuffed; being forced to take her
ex-husband back; and being imposed to keep her pregnancy until it is due. Keely recalls the
traumatic event:
I just touched his arm so he would know it was alright, and he locked onto my hand,
and I said ‘let go now,’ and he started in … said he needed . . . pulled me in, you
know, hard, and I got a hand in his face, and he … he bit down … bit down hard, and I
… I don’t know, went nuts … bunch of stuff .. got me down on the floor … got me
down on the floor and raped me. That’s how he caught up with our marriage, that’s
how he changed” (Martin, 1993, p. 36).
By giving her own marriage as an example, Du is trying to convince Keely to keep the baby
and starts building a happy marriage with Cole. Keely is trying in vain to show Du that her
situation is different. The final attempt to convince Keely is by bringing Cole, who is said to
have repented, to meet Keely. Linda Kintz argues:
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This scene presents the most horrific violence of the play. In a domestic context, with
both of them sitting on the bed to which she is handcuffed. Walter has completely
negated the importance of the rape and the extension of Keely, except in her role as
the glue of civilization. Walter’s complete control of language now means that he can
enforce Cole’s rights to make her listen (2001, p. 203)
The meeting does not work as expected. Cole is making a lengthy speech on how he has
repented, found Jesus, and become a good man; therefore he asks Keely to have him back and
build a family. After being silent, Keely suddenly bites Cole’s hand, after which Cole slaps
Keely’s face hard. A moment later, left alone in the basement, Keely performs her own
abortion using the dress hanger.
Abortion and Violence in Jane Martin’s Keely and Du: Pro-Choice, ProLife, or Merely Provocative?
Perspectives on abortion may be tied to cultural and religious values. However, unintended
pregnancies are not bound to cultural and religious borders as can be seen from the fact that
women of every faith and from different types of jobs and different levels of society all over
the world access abortion services. It is also true in Indonesia, a country whose people are
said to be bound to eastern values and consider themselves religious. Most Indonesian people
would be against abortion practice. The view against abortion was apparent in the
Contemporary English Drama class, held in the Spring semester of 2013 at the English
Department, Diponegoro University, Indonesia. Twenty two students were attending the class.
The initial discussion on abortion resulted in a similar point of view against abortion because
the students believed that it was against religious sanctity. A brief overview on the teaching of
different religions on abortion can be seen in the following table.
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Table 1. The teaching of different religions on abortion
Source: Best Practice Toolkit:
Abortion Education by Natalie Misaljevich and Lisa
Hallgarten.
The table shows that different religions have different perspectives on abortion. As can be
concluded from the table, the five officially acknowledged religions in Indonesia (Islam,
Catholic, Christian, Hinduism, and Buddhism) have different teaching on abortion. Alamri
suggests that in Islamic perspectives, an abortion is permissible in particular circumstances
where the pregnancies endanger the mother’s health, or the fetus is known to have fatal
abnormality or will have severe disability. In other words, abortion is permitted for medical
reasons. Abortion is also tolerable is the cause of pregnancy is an incident beyond the
woman’s will, such as in rape cases. It is recommended that the necessary abortion is
performed before 120 days of conception (2011, pp. 39-40). All students agree that if a
pregnancy poses a major threat to the mother and/or the fetus, abortion is the best choice, but
for reasons other than that they cannot conform.
The students find Keely and Du challenging their beliefs as religious people still keeping hold
of eastern values. Before reading and discussing the play, almost all students are against
abortion. After reading and analyzing the play, most of them agree with Keely’s decision to
abort. However, having discussed the nature of pro-life and pro-choice movements, it is
difficult for them to decide whether they are proponent of either one. Of those who agree on
Keely’s decision to abort, less than half of them declare that they are proponent of pro-choice
movement. Some are not sure if they are proponent of pro-choice as they still believe that
religion will not allow abortion, consider psychological and social impact of abortion, and
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think that there is no right to take other’s life. Interestingly, two of them say that they are
actually more of pro-life proponents. They believe that everybody has the right to live, yet
they support Keely’s decision to abort because they can see that Keely’s circumstances are
beyond what they could bare if they were put in her position.
Most students who do not agree with Keely’s decision believe that abortion is against God’s
will and violates religious sanctity. Keely should follow her maternal instinct to care for the
baby. They assert that the baby has the right to live, and Keely should not take it away. If
Keely worries about what will happen to her when the baby is born, she has choices to make.
Besides, no one knows what the future holds; therefore Keely should give the baby and
herself a chance. Almost all of the students who are against Keely’s decision claim to be prolife. None claims to be pro-choice.
Overall, with a slight difference in number, more students are pro-life proponents than prochoice. In between are a number of students who are not sure. On the one hand, they believe
that abortion is against God’s will and human’s conscience. On the other hand, they are aware
that the decision to keep the pregnancy may cause psychological disturbance and social
problems upon the mother. One female student admits that even though she does not agree
with Keely’s decision to abort, she is not sure whether she is a proponent of pro-choice or
pro-life because if she were put in the similar situation, she would do the same. Another
female student says that she used to be pro-choice, but considering the fact that there are
many irresponsible women performing abortion for non significant reasons but selfishness,
she is not sure whether she is still a pro-choice proponent.
All students acknowledge that Keely and Du is successfully provocative in offering insight on
how abortion and violence issues cannot be judged in a black and white manner. The play
succeeds in presenting the many aspects of abortion issue which makes it hard to decide who
is right or wrong. That Keely manages to abort does not make all students agree with the
decision and become pro-choice proponents. They are also made to see that a good cause may
not lead in a good result when performed not in good ways, such as what is done by
Operation Retrieval in the play.
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Conclusion
Jane Martin’s Keely and Du succeeds in promoting students to think more critically and
reasonably on abortion and violence issue. It helps them to see the many aspects of abortion
that they may have not thought before. In addition to introducing pro-life and pro-choice
movements, Keely and Du challenges their strict opinion against abortion before reading the
play. Based on the fact that Keely manages to abort herself, Jane Martin’s Keely and Du can
be said as promoting pro-choice, yet it does not make all students to take the side of prochoice movement. All students agree that Keely and Du is successfully provocative in
offering insight on how abortion and violence issues cannot be judged in a black and white
manner.
References
Alamri, Y.A. (2010.) Islam and abortion. JIMA. 43, pp. 39- 40
Broome, Kathleen. (2012). Keely and du. Available at http://www.prochoiceactionnetworkcanada.org/prochoicepress/96spring.shtml#keely
Guttmacher.
Abortion
in
the
United
States
of
America.
Available
at
http://www.guttmacher.org/media/presskits/abortion-US/index.html
Martin, Jane. (1993). Keely and DU. New York: Samuel French Inc.
Misalevich, Natalie & Lisa Hallgarten. Best practice toolkit: Abortion education. Available at
www.efc.org.uk/PDFs/Abortion-education-toolkit.pdf
Neary,
Denise
(1994)
Two
Views
On
'Keely
And
Du'
available
at
http://articles.philly.com/1994-11-13/entertainment/25869261_1_keely-and-du-endabortion-abortion-debate
Scheidler, Ann. (2008) “Keely and du” reveals the tragedy of abortion. Available at
http://prolifeaction.org/hotline/2008/keelyanddu/
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WOMEN, WATER, AND ENERGY IN BYAR RUFAEL’S NAJLA:
AN ECOFEMINIST APPROACH
Fatma Hetami
English Department
Central Java, Indonesia
Abstract
The purpose of the following paper is to look closer to the description of woman, water,
and energy as reflected in Rufael’s Najla. It was a research-based paper intended to reveal
the description of the discourse of woman’s body related to the water and energy, viewed
from ecofeminist perspective. There are three approaches used in this research. They are
structural, culture, and ecofeminism. The first approach highlights the intrinsic elements
of the novel. Meanwhile the second approach refers to the assumption that literary works
relate to the setting and the cultural background of where they are produced. The last
approach emphasizes the assumption that women’s culture/ nature as a model is better
than men’s culture/ nurture. In other words, traditions and morals embodied by women
are considered to have more values. Therefore, the model of environment, which adopts
feminist values, will be better in general. The results indicate that the description of
woman, water, and energy as reflected in Najla’s character is that women’s culture/nature
has more values compared to men’s culture/nurture. The feminist values embodied by
Najla such as willing to sacrifice, soft, loving, faithful, and polite have given a new
energy for Qadlausy Syauf society in the form of a spring called Ainul Hulwah. It can be
seen from the analysis of Najla’s character by using Merchant wheel chart, which covers
women and ecology, women and production, women and reproduction, as well as women
and awareness. In conclusion, the feminist values that usually regarded as soft and weak
are actually powerful especially in making the more humane individual needed by the
society.
Keywords: women, water, energy, feminist values, and ecofeminism
Introduction
As a response of social life, literary works try to reveal human deeds in a community.
Therefore, dimensions described are not only physical character’s entity, but also attitude and
behavior, as well as events refer to the quality of social structure (Ratna, 2003, p. 34). The
relation between literature and social institution or community then affects the occurrence of
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some literary works with various social themes, and one of them is the issue of woman and
environment.
The issue, which commonly appears in daily life, is inequity in society happens to woman
known as ecofeminism. It is a new term for old idea emerged as several social-feminist
movements, peace, and ecology in late 1970s and in the beginning of 1980s. In line with it,
Arivia (2003, p. 144) says that the focus of discourse dealing with woman and environment
does not rely on how close of the relation between woman and environment, but focus on how
woman’s culture/nature as a model is better than man’s culture/nurture. In other words,
woman’s tradition and values are more worthwhile. Therefore, environment model that adopt
feminist values will be better for the whole environment system.
Further Warren in Tong (1998, p. 359) emphasizes that the modus of patriarchal system,
which is hierarchal, dualistic, and oppressive, has ruined women and nature. As women have
been denaturalized and nature has been effeminized, therefore, it is difficult to know when
oppression is over and the other one starts. Women are denaturalized when they are described
through a referral of animals such as cow, wolf, chicken, etc; and so it happens to nature when
it is raped, mastered, defeated, controlled, and penetrated by men. If men are the masters of
nature, and if they have been given a power towards nature, they have a control not only over
nature, but also over women.
Whatever men do towards nature could also be done to women as it is implied in literary
works. Novel Najla written by Byar Rufael is oliterary works, which highlights ecofeminist
issue. Spring under his father’s land causes Najla, the main character, has to sacrifice her love
even her soul for the sake of people’s life where she belongs. The relation of the description
of woman’s body, water, and energy in the novel is interesting to discuss. Therefore, the
discussion is limited to the discourse of woman’s body in relation with human and non-human
(nature) connected in four important connections of Merchant wheel chart: ecology,
production, reproduction, and awareness.
Generally, this paper aims at giving a clear description and understanding of a literary work
analysis by using structural, cultural, and ecofeminist approach. Meanwhile in particular, this
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paper reveals the description of woman’s body, water, and energy viewed from ecofeminist
approach.
Theoritical Review
Culture and Gender
Literature as a product of culture illustrates social life. The life, which has moved as the way
it is that, creates myths. One of them is that woman is a passive object who is different from
man. Patriarchal system has made masculine aspect positive and considered as a norm,
meanwhile feminine aspect is regarded as a negative one or “the other” (Beuvoir,1993, p. 53).
The difference between man and woman evokes the concept of gender bias started from the
common mistake conception. Gender can be defined as social distinctions imposed on
biological ones, which are available among the sex (Budianta, 2002, p. 203). Meanwhile
according to Dayakisni and Yuniardi (2004, p. 252), gender is behavior and activity patterns
that are regarded acceptable and appropriate for both man and woman in a society or culture.
From those two definitions, it can be seen that there are two things that cannot be separated,
they are social and cultural distinction. Biologically, woman and man are distinguished by
womb and penis; but the idea of woman is weak and responsible for domestic job, meanwhile
man is strong and working outside the house are condition constructed by socio-culture of a
society. Gender is generally assumed as God’s will that cannot be changed. In fact, gender is
the quality of man and woman, which is set up based on socio-cultural construction.
The availability of reproduction and biological distinction has produced different job
description between man and woman both in family and society. Those distinctions finally
create the difference of quality and psychological characteristic between man and woman.
Culture affects gender difference in psychological characteristics with several factors, which
are not static and linear. The factors then create dynamic system and influence one to another.
As the consequence, different culture will produce different results. In one hand, a certain
culture might support the equality between man and woman, but on the other hand, a different
culture might fight against it. Therefore, culture has given a certain limitation in role, duty,
and responsibility in man and woman (Dayakisni and Yuniardi, 2004, p. 253).
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Ecofeminism
Ecofeminism cannot be separated from the inequity happens in society especially towards
women. It starts firstly from the understanding that the inequity is carried out by human
towards non-human/ nature. As culturally women are always related to nature, therefore there
will be a conceptual, symbolic, and linguistic connectivity between feminist and ecological
issues.
Ecofeminism is an approach towards nature that considers land as a mother of her descendent
not as a controller (Shiva, 2005, p. 120). In line with this, therefore, a feminist should realize
the relationship between women and nature. However, it should be careful not to interpret
women’s characteristics with nature that weaken them. For example,
by having the
conclusion that as a woman is characteristically the same as nature, therefore she is
characterized as someone is caring for, observing, preserving nature, and those duties are
define because of God’s will not awareness. (Arivia, 2003, p. 144).
Ecofeminism tries to give an understanding of the relationship of all human oppressions. I this
case, the relation between human and non-human (nature) show women’s involvement in the
entire ecosystem. Carolyn Merchant, a professor from university of Barkeley in environment,
history, and philosophy, describe an interaction system in which women’s role becomes
important. The following is the work chart of Merchant’s concept:
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Figure1. Merchant Wheel Chart of Interpretation Concept of
Ecology Revolution
Adapted from Arivia (2003, p. 142)
In the deepest wheel, an ecological core interacts with human productions. Plants, animals,
bacteria, fungus, and mineral are exchanging energy including human. Human productions
(extract, process, and exchanging commodity) are directed to the production of food, clothes,
and residence or anything that could produce profit in trade, industrialization, and capitalism.
When industrialization increases, value sectors decreases and the orientation of market
develops and becomes important (as it can be seen in the arrows). Inside the circle, it can be
seen that human and non –human reproduction take parts. Human reproduction becomes
crucial through the importance of roles of daily life, family, and community. Human
awareness relies on the outside wheel that represents the result of nature reflection in myth,
cosmology, religion, philosophy, science, language, and art. Ethics, values, taboos, games and
dances are interpreted in action and deed that affect environment, production, and
reproduction. The entire parts of the chart show the connectivity of the environment with all
aspects of human and non-human life that cannot be separated and dependent one to another
(Arivia, 2003, p. 142-143)
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Research Method
The object of this research is Byar Rufael’s novel entitled Najla. Meanwhile the focus of its
analysis is the description of the discourse of woman’s body, water, and energy through the
analysis of its intrinsic elements especially character, conflict, plot, and setting viewed from
cultural and ecofeminist perspectives.
In collecting the data, the writer used a library research. The steps carried out in this library
research was reading, taking notes, and interpreting the references used in line with the topic
analysis. Meanwhile the result was written descriptively by highlighting the phenomena
appeared in the novel. According to Chamamah (1994), analytic descriptive method refers to
qualitative method that is a research procedure, which is conducted, based on the descriptive
data. It also results on written words by shifting the possible texts and interpret them into a
certain meaningful explanation.
Data in this research were analyzed by using three methods of approach. They were structural,
cultural and ecofeminist approach. The first is an approach that start from the assumption that
literary works have typical form and content or autonomous significance in which its
interpretation can be known from its text by connecting the intrinsic elements (Endraswara,
2003: 50). Meanwhile the second is approach, which highlights two aspects. The first is
ethnographical writing that relate to literary works to see its aesthetic values; meanwhile the
latter is literary work that is analyzed from ethnographical view to see its cultural aspects
(Endraswara, 2003: 107). The last approach is ecofeminist, which does not only emphasize
the relation among the whole human oppressions, but also focuses on the human efforts in
dominating the world not human or nature (Warren in Tong, 1998: 359).
Result and Discussion
General Picture of Najla in Najla by Byar Rufael
Najla is a the main character of the novel discussed. It can be seen from her name that is used
as the title of the novel and from her appearance during the plot that takes a great percentage.
Physically, Najla is described as a beautiful and ellegant girl. Her beauty is seen from her big,
wide eyes, small lips, and dimple on her cheeks. that’s why people who live nearby call her
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”al- hulwah” (Rufael, 2006, p. 20). Besides pretty, Najla is also good at singing. The
metaphore of her amazing voice is seen in the part which is not only people who like her
voice, but also hills and valleys (Rufael, 2006, p. 80). Because her pluses, therefore, there are
a lot of boys fall in love with her. Two of them are Nashri and Sulaiman. As the main
character, Najla is described as a static one from the beginning until the end of the story. It
can be seen from her traits and personality that do not change
along with the plot
development. Those traits are independent, mature, polite, loyal, and strong minded. Here is
the explanation of Najla’s personality traits:
Najla is the only daughter of As’ad Syahdan’s family. However, different from any other only
child , who tend to be spoiled and dependent to his/her parents, Najla seems independent and
mature. Her independence appears when she has to serve her father. Every morning and
evening, she makes a cup of coffee for her father. Besides, she is also capable in doing the
housework alone. Najla’s mother was dead, so she is accustomed to do so. Her maturity is
seen from the way she responds and comments on her father attitude who refuses to approve
people’s wish to dig her father’s land as there is a spring underground. She thinks that there
is no wrong to give their land for the sake of the people’s life. According to her, the spring in
their village is going to bring a happiness for all of them. Therefore, it is going to be great if
her father let his 5 mulberry trees and 10 meter of his land to sacrifice (Rufael, 2006, p. 48).
Besides mature, Najla is also polite. Her politeness is apparent from the way she talks
especially to her own father. She talks softly when she knows that her father is sad. She
realizes that she is the only one that her father has right now since her mother was dead. That
is why she tries hard not to dissapoint him (Rufael, 2006, p. 47). However, it does not mean
that she has no stand point. It appears in the event where she refuses to the marriage arranged
by her father. She determines herself not to accept Sulaiman’s proposal although her father
keeps exlaining the benefits they would get if she agreed on the arranged marriage (Rufael,
2006, p. 102-103, 306-308).
The Description of Woman’s Body, Water, and Energy in Najla by Byar
Rufael
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As stated in the previous part that the ecofeminist analysis on Najla focuses on the description
of woman’s body in relation with human and non-human (nature) connected by four aspects
of Merchat such as ecology, production, reproduction, and awarness. Therefore, the following
explanation is divided into four parts. They are woman and ecology, woman and production,
woman and reproduction, as well as woman and awareness.
(1)Woman and Ecology
In ecology level, plants, animals, bacteria, and fungus are exchanging energy including with
human. It then shows that the relationship between human and his environment is really close,
an so does the woman and culture. In Najla, the relationship between human and culture is
described clearly how nature is integrated with the life of the people live in the village.
The nature of Qadlausy Syauf village, in Lebanon, is depicted beautifully with its springtime.
The beauty can be enjoyed through human’s senses such as olfactory, visual, auditory, and
feeling. From olfactory sense, the good smell of growing plants and flowers is described as a
sign of the coming springtime (Rufael, 2006, p. 1). The beauty of Lebanon scenery also gives
a positive energy to the local people. It is perceived from the description of happiness and
pleasure expressed by every person who sees the view. The happiness is represented by scent
of the people’s breath, which is harmoniously combined, with the fragant of the growing
plants. Besides olfactory sense, the beauty of Lebanon can also be seen from visual sense. It
appears from the description of the grace of the colour fusion as the effect of the end of the
winter (Rufael, 2006, p. 2). The colour of leave green, red and yellow of flowers, as well as
snow white give a typical uniqueness to the beauty of Lebanon City.
The next is about auditory sense. It can be seen from the description of Lebanon City in
springtime that can be enjoyed through harmonious relationship between nature and people
live there. Birds are warbling by showing their beautiful wings. Those are the representation
of the balance (Rufael, 2006, p.2). Meanwhile, sense of feeling can be gotten from the
description of the people’s activities that seem dynamic in the novel. The explanation above
shows that there is a balance between human and ecology, which according to Merchant,
relies on the deepest level of her wheel chart. It is supported by the dependency of the
villagers on a spring called ”Ainul Hulwah” (Rufael, 2006, p. 2-3). The function and the use
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of the spring that is really significant has caused people treat it well. They take care and set a
pillar made from marble. They also make iron fence around the spring so that livestocks
cannot reach and dirty the water.
Najla as the main character also represents the harmony between woman and ecology. It can
be seen from the following explanation: Qadlausy Syauf village used to be dry due to its lack
of water to support the people’s need. They have no sufficient water for their fields and
plants. Therefore, it is not surprising if they do not even know the fruit seasons such as apple,
plum, cherry, pear, and, peach. (Rufael, 2006: 10). Until one day, Qadlausy Syauf people
succeed in getting the spring that is in coincidence is situated right in the land of Najla’s
father. Unfortunately, Najla’s father is in doubt and does not want to do so. He thinks he is
not going to get the benefits, but a great loss. Najla tries hard to persuade her father but fails.
Eve Najla has to sacrifice her love and soul to make the dream come true. Her father gives her
a difficult choice when Nashri, her boyfriend, kidnappes herself. Her father tells Najla to go
home and leave Nashri for good. By doing so, her father will let the engineers process his
land. However, if Najla keep marrying Nashri, the villagers will never get the sprig forever
(Rufael, 2006, p. 263).
Najla experiences a dilemma. She loves Nashri very much, but she does not want to have such
happines that is built over people’s grief. For this reason, she is willing to sacrifice. It can be
seen from her conversation with Nashri when she asks Nashri to end their relationship. For
Najla, the life of Qadlausy Syauf people is more important than her love. (Rufael, 2006, p.
270). The way Najla offers a sacrife indicates that there is a harmony between herself and the
place where she lives. The spring of ”Ainul Hulwah” will give a positive effect to the
villagers. The water will support their daily life. Fields, plant, and flowers will grow healthly
as they get enough water. Therefore, Qadlausy Syauf will become a rich and prolific village
ever. What has been done by Najla has proved that she has done an active deed to keep the
nature in balance.
Similar with Najla, the girls of the village also support the harmony between nature and the
place where they live. It is seen from the relationship among them that looks very close ane
to another (Rufael, 2006, p. 3). Those girl usually get together in the spring of ”Ainul
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Hulwah” and share story they have. Not only having a little chat, but also sharing secrets of
their life. They are even sometimes helping one to another to solve the problem. Spring then
becomes a symbol of chilling out as one of the evidences of harmonious living between
woman and nature.
(2) Woman and Production
In this level, human production (extract, process, comodity exchange) is directed to the
production of food, clothes, houses, or anything related to trade profit, industrialization, and
capitalism. In Najla, human production can be seen in the people’s activities to fulfill their
daily needs especially in the morning (Rufael, 2006, p. 2). Woman and her values is useful in
helping men in doing their tasks. There is a relation here. However, the job allotment, which
is based on sex, embodies a perpesctive that woman is considered as a complement.
When industrialization rises, value sector falls down and market orientation becomes
important, and it develops. Here in Najla, there is dualism happens to the land’s dig for
spring. In one hand, it is carried out for the sake of people’s welfare, but on the other hand, it
can be seen as an exploitation towards nature that puts aside value and focuses on the profitoriented. The effect of the water adequacy is the people are able to water their plants which
are able to produce more profit rather than mullberry planting that do not need much water
(Rufael, 2006, p. 46). Even the villagers represented by the district head wants to cover the
expense for the fee of the engineer who is experts in water system (Rufael: 2006, p. 42).
Dualism of value also happens to the way Najla’s father fight against the people. He supports
the nature preservation as he does not want to let his land dig by the people; but in the same
time, he also support the nature distruction as land becomes infertile due to its lacking of
water. Without them, people would never be able to continue their life (Rufael, 2006, p. 45).
(3) Woman and Reproduction
In this level, there is an important role of woman in daily life. It can be seen from Najla’s
position as the only child in her family (Rufael, 2006, p. 108). As’ad Syahdan has only a
daughter, named Najla. His wife has passed away. That is why he has only Najla the one who
accompanies him in this world. As’ad Syahdan is lucky because Najla is able to play her role
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perfectly. Not only as a daughter, but also as his father’s friend. Therefore, it is not quite
surprising to know that his father really depends on her (Rufael, 2006, p. 304).
As a daughter, Najla tries to know and recognize his father’s traits and character. By doing
so, she will be able to anticipate his father’s dissapointment. It can be seen when Najla talk to
Nashri about her father. ” I really know my father. He is strong-headed, Nashri. He will not
lick his own spit. If I did not go home tonight, this village would never have water” (Rufael,
2006, p. 269).
Besides being a daughter, Najla is also a ”housewife” in her family. Since her mother left
them, Najla did the house keeping. She cleans the house, washes the clothes, cooks for meals,
and makes a cup of coffee for her father (Rufael, 2006, p. 303, 311). Even when her father’s
friend comes to visit them, Najla has to make it too.
As Nashri‘s girlfriend, Najla also plays her role well. That is why Nashri feels that he cannot
live without Najla. Nashri loves and really depends on Najla. It can be seen when he gives the
ring to Najla that used to belong to his late mother. By giving the ring, Nashri considers Najla
as a part of his life (Rufael, 2006, p. 87). He promises himself not to fall in love with any
other girls, but Najla. He even refuses Samira, his cousin, the girl who is interested in him.
After three years of Najla’s death, Nashri also passes away.
Besides as an individual, Najla is also a social being. It can be seen from her role in Qadlausy
Syauf society. For he female friends, Najla is a nice figure as she is cheerful and humorous
(Rufael, 2006, p. 73-74). As a citizen, Najla deserves a medal for sacrificing her life for
people’s happiness. It is seen in Abu Tamir’s comment on her (Rufael, 2006, p. 323).
(4) Woman and Awareness
In Merchant’s wheel chart, human awareness relies on the ouside circle. It represents the
result of nature reflection in myth, cosmology, religion, philosophy, language, and arts. The
relation between woman and awareness can be seen from ethics, morals, values, taboos,
rituals, games, and dances which are interpreted in behavior and deeds that affect
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environment, production, and reproduction. In Najla, there are several events and activities
that represent ethics, morals, taboos, and ritual as the following:
There is a ritual, which is usually carried out by the villagers every time they would like to do
something big. The usually hold a party as a symbol of wish so that whatever they have would
be performed well. It also happens to Qadlausy Syauf’s people. A day before the process of
excavation, there is a party with dances and songs attended by all people of the village
(Rufael, 2006, p. 314). The party implies that there is an understanding and agreement
between two parties (As’ad Syahdan and the villagers) to put aside their anger and emotion as
well. It seems that feminine values such as patient and willing to listen are applied by Najla’s
father.
Besides ritual, there is also ethic represented by Najla. As a girl, Najla is very polite, low
profile, and well mannered. It can be seen from the way she talks and behaves, especially
when she refuses the people in labelling the spring with her name. Najla suggests them to use
other names, which are more appropriate. She does not want to be considered as a heroin
(Rufael, 2006, p. 323). Another good ethic is also conducted by Najla when Nashri gives her a
ring. She knows that the ring is very expensive as it is adorned with diamond. Besides, it is
also a heirloom given by Nashri’s grandmother to Nashri’s mother. Since now Nashri has no
sister, Najla is the one who deserve the ring. Najla asks Nashri to honor his late mother by
doing “shalawatan” together (Rufael, 2006, p. 90-91). Najla’s respect is not only dedicated to
those who are older than her, but also those who passed away, especially Nashri’s mother.
Meanwhile, taboo in Qadlausy Syauf’s society is represented by a sequence where Najla and
Nashri spend the day together. As a couple who are still in love, Najla and Nashri forget the
norm. They are dating with no companion. Knowing this, Najla’s father is very angry, as it is
sin for his family. It also ruins his self-esteem. Therefore, he has no feeling when Najla
screams and cries because of his punch and hit (Rufael, 2006, p. 118-119). Lastly, the spring
itself is a myth for the villagers. Water that always comes up from the spring represents
Najla’s tears. The myth embodies deep meaning, that is willing to sacrifice that is actually
difficult to perform in the real life (Rufael, 2006, p. 339)
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Conclusion
From the preceding explanation, a conclusion can be drawn as the following: Najla as the
main character is described statically. It can be seen from the same personality traits she has
from the beginning until the end of the story. They are independent, mature, polite, strongwilled, and loyal.
Meanwhile the description of woman’s body, water, and energy available in the novel
indicates that woman’s culture/nature has more values compare man’s culture/nurture.
Therefore, it creates a harmonious system of environment. Feminine values possessed by
Najla such as willing to sacrifice, soft, caring, loving, loyal, and polite have given a new
energy for Qadlausy Syauf society in the form of spring. It can be seen through the analysis
of character Najla by using Merchant’s wheel chart that covers woman and ecology, woman
and production, woman and reproduction, and woman and awareness.
References
Arivia, Gadis. (2003). Filsafat Berperspektif Feminis. Jakarta: Penerbit Yayasan Jurnal
Perempuan.
Beauvoir, Simone De. (1993). Second Sex. London: David Camppbell Publishers Ltd.
Budianta, Melanie. (2002). “Pendekatan Feminis Terhadap Wacana” in Analisis Wacana:
Dari Linguistik Sampai Dekonstruksi. Editor: Kris Budiman. Yogyakarta: Kanal.
Chamamah Soeratno, Siti, (1994). “Penelitian Sastra: Tinjauan tentang Teori dan Metode
Sebuah Pengantar” in Teori Penelitian Sastra. Yogyakarta: Masyarakat Poetika
Indonesia IKIP Muhammadiyah.
Dayakisni, Tri and Salis Yuniardi. (2004). Psikologi Lintas Budaya. Malang: UMM Press.
Endraswara, Suwardi. (2003). Metodologi Penelitian Sastra: Epistemologi, Model, Teori, dan
Aplikasinya. Yogyakarta: Pustaka Widyatama.
Ratna, Nyoman Kutha. (2003). Paradigma Sosiologi Sastra. Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar.
Rufael, Byar. (2006). Najla. Yogyakarta: Navila
Shiva, Vandana and Maria Mies. (2005). Ecofeminism: Perspektif Gerakan
Perempuan dan Lingkungan. Translated by Kelik Ismunanto and Lilik. Yogyakarta: IRE
press.
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Tong, Rosemarie Putnam. (1998). Feminist Thought: Pengantar Paling Komprehensif
Kepada Arus Utama Pemikiran Feminis. Translated by Aquarini Priyatna Prabasmoro.
Yogyakarta: Jalasutra.
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INTRODUCING LOCAL CULTURE THROUGH
INDONESIAN CHILDREN’S SONGS IN ENGLISH CLASS OF
ELEMENTARY STUDENTS
Indrawati
Unnes, Semarang
Abstract
Teachers of tertiary, secondary, and elementary education levels are preparing to
implement the 2013 curriculum. The elementary school curriculum state four core
competencies: first, religious aspect which means acceptance and practice of a religion;
second, social attitude which refers to social interaction of being honest, discipline,
responsible, polite, compassionate and self – confidence; third, knowledge which reveals
understanding of facts, concept, procedures and the like; fourth, performance which
means realization of knowledge in clear, logical, and aesthetic behavior.These four
competencies are developed in integral fashion that the first and second are indirectly
taught whereas the third and fourth are taught as separate class subjects.
Culture shows trifold entity of values, behavior, and artifacts. Indonesian culture is the
mosaic of dominant values, behavior, and artifacts of those ethnic communities covering
thirty three areas geographically. Children’s songs written in Indonesian are feasible as
local culture teaching sources because of the appropriateness of values found in the
songs; students’ familiarity with the songs; and the relevancy of students’ cultural
background. All would assume fun being and doing something in English class.
Teaching culture is building perceptions, perspectives, and values that students as
participants of a society might internalize to guide their life. They might be aware of the
power of culture by questioning what they inherit as unchallenging tradition. Later on
these agents may decide to change or preserve the prevailing cultural aspects.
English is taught in the subject of Art and Culture and Handicraft. It becomes necessary
to relate English as a subject that in teaching it teacher includes religious aspect and
social attitude to be taught. In what ways can English be taught in the English class to the
elementary students?
Teachers are challenged to translate Indonesian children’s
songs into English which are feasible as teaching tool to build personal traits for being
Indonesian citizens.
This paper discusses whether or not Indonesian children’s songs are feasible as source of
teaching culture. In case they are feasible, how they are translated into English.
Keywords: 2013 elementary school curriculum; four core competencies; Indonesian
children’s songs, teaching tool; personal traits
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Why teach culture?
The 2013 Elementary School Curriculum refer to realizing basic competencies of religious
aspect, social attitude, knowledge and performance of the knowledge. Religious aspect and
social attitude are taught indirectly and taught in integrated fashion through the teaching of
separate school subjects. Knowledge and performance are taught as school subjects. The new
curriculum state clearly the objectives of educational unit. It consists of attempts to build
foundation to develop students’ potentialities to be the ones who are: Firstly, believe in God
the Almighty and have good faith and noble character. Secondly, knowledgeable, skillful,
creative and innovative. Thirdly, live in good health, independent, and self confident.
Fourthly, tolerant, socially sensitive, democratic, and responsible. These personal traits
represent the intended values that can be realized through teaching the local culture of the
students.
The elementary school subject of English is taught in some schools with the school
considerations of appropriate use and function as local unit of subject. Other possible subjects
taught are Javanese Language, Environmental Education, Culinary Practice and the like. All
local subjects are included in the subject of Art, Culture, and Handicraft.
The values are indirectly taught in teaching English. The subject is given in integrative and
approach in certain theme which calls for active students’ participation. It is with this
consideration, that teaching local culture is necessary to do. Students are familiar with their
own culture, yet without practice and relate it to the subject of English, the goal of teaching
English might not be realized. Indonesian culture refers to unique values, behavior, and
artifacts in the form of mosaic revealing the ones found in Indonesia’s thirty three provinces.
The need to teach culture is considered essential to build students’ perceptions, perspectives,
and values as expected that students as active participants become aware of the power of
culture and to question what they inherit as unchallenged cultural tradition.
Hopefully, using critical thinking students could distinguish between aspects to be changed
and those worth preserving.
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Is song feasible as teaching material?
The activity of preparing Indonesian children’s song as teaching source is possible to carry
out for the following reasons: firstly, the appropriateness of Indonesian values with the ones
learned from the songs, for example the values of love and devotion to God, care and empathy
to fellow human beings, animals, plants, and environment, and attitude and behavior to realize
the values; secondly, students’ familiarity with the songs that songs discussed here are the
ones students and adults sing at home, at school and others to accompany their up bringing;
thirdly, content’s appropriateness to students’ cultural background which means that the
moral values in the song lyrics are noble values prevailing in students’ life, for example
students’ effort to reach their future goals, to help others, and many more.
Songs whether taught as subject or media to teach noble values are the same that songs
assume ease and fun atmosphere both as being and doing while children learn something.
Teachers are demanded to meet the challenge of working out the ways to make feasible that
Indonesian children’s songs are appropriate to be used as teaching material and teaching
activities in the English classroom. One of some ways to do is by translating the songs from
Indonesian into English.
What to consider in translating songs?
Songs are language presented for use of communication in verse form. The activity of
translating a song as well as other forms of text from one language as source to another
language as target language might be based on some approaches.
Traditional approaches to translation usually think it as a reproduction of an existing source
text, where it is the main yardstick guiding the translator’s decisions. Modern approaches
called functionalism uses a dynamic model of what a text is. It is an offer of information from
which the receiver accepts what they want or need. Accordingly, different readers depending
on their previous experiences, get different messages out of one text; this raises a question
whether they have really been reading the same text. In this concern, a particular view of
translation belongs to a prospective view might be discussed in an attempt to place a text in its
basic function that is communicative aim or purpose. A text is translated to obtain a particular
communicative purpose in the target audience. The analysis of who the target audience will be
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and what they may need and expect enable translators to deliver a product that suits their
needs and expectations.
It is necessary to look thoroughly the purposes of communication by discussing the
classification of communicative purposes, as follows:
COMMUNICATIVE PURPOSES
Object of Reference
referential function
Sender
SIGN
Expressive
receiver
appellative
Phatic
Referential function
Referential function involves reference to the objects and phenomena of the world or of a
particular world, perhaps a fictional one. It may be analyzed according to the nature of the
object or referent concerned. It depends on the comprehensibility of the text, which, in turn,
relies on whether the amount of presupposed knowledge is appropriate for the addressed
audience. The problem in this area is when source and target receivers do not share the same
amount of previous knowledge about the objects and phenomena referred to, as is often the
case with source-culture realities. The referential function works on the basis of the
information explicitly verbalized in the text as well as the information which is not explicitly
verbalized because it is assumed to be known to source-culture audience.
In intercultural communication, the referential function of the source text will also work for
target culture members if the textual information is sufficiently familiar with the object the
source text refers to. If not, the translator give additional information in a meta-text through
glossary, footnote, and the like.
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Expressive function
Expressive function refers to the sender’s attitude toward the objects and phenomena of the
world. The subdivision of it is that individual feelings and emotion belong to an emotive subfunction; individual expression of evaluating food for instance belongs to an evaluative subfunction. It is sender-oriented. The sender’s opinion or attitudes based on the value system
assumed to be common to both sender and receiver.
In intercultural communication, the expressive function may not be shared between source
and target culture. The translator thus should either explicate the implicit expressivity to be
interpreted correctly or explain the expressivity of the source text to the target readership in a
meta- expressive commentary, such as in footnote.
Appellative function
Appellative function is designed to induce the receivers to respond in a particular way. If we
want to educate a person for instance, we may appeal to their susceptibility to ethical and
moral principles. This is used by applying imperatives or questions or modal verbs. The
appellative function is possible to operate in poetic language appealing to the reader’s
aesthetic sensitivity as well as achieved in indirect way through stylistic devices such as
superlatives, adjectives, or nouns expressing positive values.
In intercultural communication, appellative function works well if sensitivity, background
knowledge, experience, and value system are identical or at least similar between source and
target-cultures. It also needs the cooperation of the receiver. The translator needs to adapt it to
target-culture condition. Also to change the appellative into a meta-appellative condition by
means of explanations or comments.
Phatic Function
Phatic function relies on conventionality of forms of the linguistic, non-linguistic and
paralinguistic means used in a particular situation. It aims at opening and closing the channel
between sender and receiver. It also defines and models the social relationship between sender
and receiver.
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In intercultural communication, recognizing the forms as conventional and typical of phatic
function is important as well as a reproduction of source-text forms in other language.
Besides, the translator needs to adapt the forms to target-culture conventions and making the
phatic function work for the target audience. The translator may also explain to the target
receivers that the forms used are meant to be phatic in the source culture. The phatic function
of the source text would be changed into a meta-phatic function in referential that tells the
target audience about how the phatic function works in the source culture.
The example of Indonesian Children’s songs
Bintang Kecil ------- The Tiny Stars
Bintang kecil: The tiny star
Di langit yang tinggi: up high above the sky
Amat banyak: millions of you
Menghias angkasa: twinkling beyond the clouds
Aku ingin: how amazing
Terbang dan menari: to fly and dance with you
Jauh tinggi: far far away
Ke tempat kau berada: to the place where you belong
The source-target language:
Kecil: tiny
Amat banyak: millions of
Menghias angkasa: twinkling beyond the clouds
Aku ingin: how amazing
Jauh tinggi: far far away
Cultural values:
Appreciation of God’s creation of grandiose outer space
Strong self-confidence to reach dreams
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Kupu-kupu: Butterfly
Kupu-kupu yang lucu: Dear my lovely butterfly
Ke mana engkau terbang: tell me where you want to fly
Hilir mudik mencari: back and forth looking for
Bunga-bunga yang mekar: blooming flowers every where
Berayun ayun: swinging and swaying
Pada tangkai yang lemah: up and down on little twigs
Tidakkah sayapmu: I just wonder if your wings
Merasa lelah: never need to rest
The source-target language
lucu: lovely
hilir mudik: back and forth
berayun ayun: swinging and swaying
lemah: little
tidakkah: I just wonder if
merasa lelah: never need to rest
Cultural Values:
The appreciation of the beauty of butterfly as God’s creation
The curiosity toward butterfly’s behavior
The enjoyment of being observant towards natural phenomena
The feeling of empathy toward butterfly’s effort to survive.
Conclusions
The following is the summary of translating Indonesian children’s song into English for use
in the English class for elementary level students.
a) Teaching culture through songs to reveal moral values is answering the questions of how to
include teaching religious aspect and social attitude. Students are assured of cultural values
to be preserved.
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b) Song as other texts is translatable from source language to target language by means of
purposive view of translation, that considers communicative purposes in translating a text.
c) English teachers owe their students responsibility and creativity in preparing, doing, and
evaluating their teaching, in this case respond to challenge of translating Indonesian
children’s song into English to obtain three educational domains of cognitive, affective,
and psychomotor.
Bibliography
Ministry of Education andThe Culture Republic of Indonesia. 2013. The 2013 Curriculum
Basic Competence Elementary Education.
Buhler, Karl. 1934. Sprachtheorie, Jena: Fischer.
Jakobson, Roman. 1960. Linguistics and Poetics. In: Sebeok, Thomas A. (ed.): Style in
Language.
Nida, Eugene A. 1964. Toward a Science of Translating. With Special Reference to Principles
and Procedures Involved in Bible Translating.
Nord, Christiane. 2006. Translating as a Purposeful Activity: A Prospective Approach. In
Teflin Journal XVII:2
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SELF-DETERMINATION AGAINST MALE SUPREMACY IN
GILMAN’S AN OBSTACLE
Juliati
Abstract
Throughout most of history women have generally been considered naturally weaker than
men. The concept of weak here includes physical and intellectual traits. Generally, being
a wife and being a mother were regarded as women's most suitable positions since those
two professions imply the absence of intelligence and physical strength, and media to
prove the quality of being good woman namely being obedient or submissive to man. Of
course, these are from the perspective of man. The struggles of women to break this
subordinate position have been carried out for ages.
In the nineteenth century, Charlotte Perkins Gilman was one of the most prominent
American writers who spoke for the improvement of woman’s condition. Her ideas are
reflected in many of her works such as poems, short stories etc. One of her poems that
clearly reveal her struggle is entitled An Obstacle. However, to understand this poem
cannot be achieved by merely reading it. A deep analysis should be done to dig out the
meaning. To analyze this poem, the writer will at first apply structural analysis because
as a structure, a poem can be understood by understanding each element that build it and
their relations. The next step is revealing the background of the poet, and the social and
cultural condition especially related to woman’s condition. By considering these
backgrounds, good and precise understanding of the poem can be reached because a work
of art is not born in the absence of culture (Teeuw, in Pradopo, 2007:107). It is created
within historical, social and cultural contexts.
Keywords: obstacle, Prejudice, self-determination, struggle, male supremacy
Introduction
Reading poetry is an interesting activity for some people but it may be a dreadful one for
some others. When a poem is found to be simple but thought-provoking, a light as well as
challenging discussion may happen. When it seems to be complicated, either short or long, a
discussion may turn to be silence. The latter situation unfortunately seems to be the most
frequent one. This happens inevitably since the nature of poetry as a condensed work which
enables the great use of figurative language.
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One of poems to be potentially used in English classroom is Charlotte Perkin Gilman’s
entitled An Obstacle. This poem at the first sight seems to be easy for teachers as well as
students to understand. The simple and narrative style makes readers are confident to
understand what it means. Indeed, reading a poem is grabbing the meaning of the poem.
However, to disclose the meaning of a poem, one needs to do certain steps that suits to the
nature of poetry. As a literary work, a poem uses language as its medium. As it is known,
language has already had a system. A word has a meaning though its meaning in one society
may be different from another. In addition to the language convention, a literary work has its
own convention related to the literary devices that make a literary work should be treated
differently. The meaning of a word is no longer what it means literally. It can mean another
(connotatively). Though it would be fine if the reading stops at understanding the literal
meaning, analyzing the poem more deeply and comprehensively can lead to a more
challenging and surprising result.
This paper intends to reveal how Gilman’s poem An Obstacle reflects the persona’s selfdetermination against male supremacy. To meet the purpose of this paper, the writer applies
structural approach using Semiotic theories and Genetic Structuralism. This structural
approach is chosen because a good analysis of literary work should start from structural
analysis. Two aspects of Semiotic theory will be applied to accommodate the need of
interpreting the poem by its connotative meaning. Genetic Structuralism is used to reveal the
relation between the poem, the poet, and the social and cultural background.
Method
To reveal how the poem reflects the poet’s self-determination against male supremacy, the
steps taken in this study include heuristic reading of the poem, structural analysis, and
hermeneutic reading. The heuristic reading is the first step because it is the literal
interpretation of the poem. The poem is read based on its language structure. The other name
of this reading is paraphrasing. The next step is analyzing the structure of the poem. The
analysis includes versification, diction, figures of speech, and tone. The result of structural
analysis will be the starting point for the hermeneutic interpretation.
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The analysis is done within the framework of Riffaterre’s semiotic theories and Lucien
Goldman’s genetic structuralism. Poetry as a literary work has the secondary signifying
system. This system includes the conventions concerning the nature of poetry such as form
and the use of figurative language. Riffaterre states that there is an indirectness of expression
in poetry. This indirectness is caused by three things: displacing of meaning, distorting of
meaning, and creating of meaning. The displacing of meaning happens due to the use of
metaphor. Distorting meaning takes place because of ambiguity, contradiction, and nonsense.
The third one, creating of meaning results from the physical form of poetry such as its
stanzaic form, and rhyme scheme( Riffaterre cited in Pradopo, 2007, p. 122-124). Analysis on
the indirectness of expression in poetry is basically a process of connotative reading. To add
the comprehensiveness of analysis, placing the poem within the historical context will be
conducted in this study as a literary work is not born in an absence of culture (Teeuw, cited in
Pradopo,2007,p.131). It is a response of the previous text. Therefore, a text can have its real
meaning when it is contrasted or related to other texts.
Meanwhile, genetic structuralism as implied by its name focuses on how historical and social
backgrounds, and the personal background of the poet influence a creation of a literary work,
both the structure and the content. Thus, it concerns with the origin of a literary work.
According Goldman, there are two types of literary work. The first one is created by a first
class and the second one is created by a second class writer To apply this perspective, we can
start our study with structural analysis. Then, we relate it to the background of the writer
before putting it within cultural and social background. ( Siswanto cited in Jabrohim, 2012, p.
80-82). In doing such an analysis, how the hero/heroine faces the conflicts will lead the
discovery of the world vision of the poet.
In this study, the writer tries to combine these two perspective since the writer takes the
concept of heuristic and hermeneutic reading from Riffaterre’s perspective, and the concept of
personal and cultural background of a work, as well as the problematic hero with his/her
world vision from Genetic Structuralism perspective.
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Discussion
Heuristic Reading
The first stanza: I was climbing up a mountain path with many things to do. The things were
important, and they were not only my own but also other people’s. On my climbing, I ran
against the Prejudice that quite cut off view. The second stanza: My work was so urgent to do
and my path is shown clearly. My strength and time were limited, and I carried quite a load.
In my path, I saw the hulking Prejudice who sat all across the road. The third stanza: I then
spoke to him politely because he was huge and high. I begged that he would move a bit and
let me travel by. The Prejudice smiled but he did not try to move. The fourth stanza: I argued
with the Prejudice, which is like a big mule, quietly. My time was short and there was no
other path. The mountain winds were cool. I argued as well as Solomon while the Prejudice
remained to sit like a fool. Stanza 5: I then started to lose my patience. I started to dance and
howled and swore. I also pelted and belabored the Prejudice till I was stiff and sore. The
Prejudice got as mad as I but he remained to sit as before. Stanza 6: I might still kneel if I
hoped to be able to move the prejudice. It was like inviting the monument to leave Bunker
Hill. Stanza 7: I sat before him helpless, filled with the feeling of woe. The mountain mists
were rising fast and the sun was sinking slow when a sudden inspiration came as sudden
winds do blow. Stanza 8: I took my hat, I took my stick. I settled my load fair and I
approached that awful incubus with an absent-minded air. And I walked directly through him
as if he wasn’t there!
The structural Analysis
1. Meter, Rhyme and Rhythm
An Obstacle consists of eight sextets which are rhymed in the second, fourth and six lines in
each stanza. In the first stanza, the second line is ended by the word “do” which is in rhyme
with the word “too” in the fourth line and the word “view” in the six line. Through the
scansion, it can be revealed that the stanza is dominated by iambic poetic feet. The first line is
opened by the stress in the syllables “I” “climb”, “up”, “mount” and “path”. The syllable
“I” is an extra syllable since it cannot be grouped in the iambic foot. However, the other
meters of the line are iambs. The domination of iamb is proved in the rest of the stanza. The
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first, the third and the fifth lines are iambic tetrameters. The second, the fourth, and the sixth
are iambic trimeters.
I /was climb/ing up /a mount/ain-path
With ma/ny things/to do,
Impor/tant busi/ness of /my own,
And o/ther peo/ple's too,
When /I ran /against/ a Pre/judice
That quite/ cut off /the view.
Except for line 13 (So I spoke to him politely), line 19 (And then I reasoned quietly), and
line 37 (So I sat before him helpless), they are trochees because the lines suggest softness
and weakness endured by the persona. Having tetrameter followed by trimeter, the sense of
firmness and urgency is established because the following line is shorter than the former one.
As the lines of the poem are iambic poetic feet, they result in masculine rhyme. A masculine
rhyme takes place when the line is ended by an accented/ stressed syllable.
2. Diction
The choice of words in this poem is simple and straightforward that a reader can understand
the content of the poem through exploring the denotative meaning of the words. The verbs
dominating this poem are such as climb up, ran, cut off, sat, spoke, move, reasoned, argued,
took and
walked. These words are even colloquial. The simplicity is also reflected in the
style of expression which tends to be narrative. The pattern of subject + verb runs from the
first line of the poem to the rest of the lines. “I was climbing up” is followed by “I ran
against”, “my work was such as could not wait”, so on. By having such simple and
straightforward expression, the persona establishes the sense of firmness.
The repetition of words implying the sense of heaviness is shown in the following lines: “with
many things to do” (line 2), “Important business of my own” (line3) , “And other people's
too” (line 4), “I carried quite a load” (line 10) ; “My load I settled fair” (line 44). Reading
the lines, a reader will feel the heavy burden carried by the persona. She carries not only own
but also other people’s. Meanwhile the word “important” gets support from the following
lines: “My work was such as could not wait” (line 7), “My strength and time were limited”
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(line 9) ; “My time was short “(line 27). The lines establish the sense of urgency. The work
should be finished as soon as she can. This repetition also strengthens the sense of firmness/
determination.
3.Imagery
Imagery is defined as “the sensory content of a literary work. It is the sense-impressions
represented by the concrete words” (Potter, 1967, p.49). In poetry, for instance, the words are
used to create images or mental pictures in the reader’s mind during the process of reading
poetry. Stageberg & Anderson says that poetry brings to life a group of images, feelings, and
thoughts. The words bring a vivid picture of scene in the reader’s mind in which the reader
experiences seeing, hearing, and other sensory experiences. In a poem, a poet tries to grab a
picture of phenomena by presenting them as if the reader can see them with their eyes.
Though visual imagery seems to be the dominant image created in one’s mind when he or she
is reading poetry , there are other kinds of imagery such as auditory, tactile, olfactory (smell)
and kinesthetic.
As “An Obstacle” tells about the struggle of the persona to walk against an obstacle, it is
tangibly seen that the poem has visual and kinesthetic imagery more than the other types of
imagery. From the first stanza to the last stanza, the reader is exposed with the pictures of
persona’s situation and actions that make the reader feels as if he/she experienced. The first
stanza quoted above, for instance, brings the reader a picture of a person who is climbing up a
difficult path of a mountain. The person is seen to carry many things. Thus, the reader not
only experiences sensory of sight (visual) but also movement (kinesthetic). The second
stanza presents a vivid picture of the prejudice who sits all across the road. When the persona
tells about the Prejudice that sits all across the road, the reader also gets a picture in mind
though it may be a bit hard to get it as the reader has to visualize an abstract thing.
The fifth stanza “The sun was sinking slow” (line 34) also portrays the moment of getting
dark .“The mountain mist was rising fast” (line 33) clearly visualizes a condition of getting
cold. Thus this line combines the visual imagery and tactile. The combination of visual
imagery and the other ones also happens in lines ( 26-29)
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Then I flew into a passion,
and I danced and howled and swore.
I pelted and belabored him
Till I was stiff and sore
The lines above present a picture of someone’s loss of patience who does anger-driven
actions. Through these lines, the reader is brought to a mental experience of doing the actions
(dance, howl, swear etc) which is categorized as kinesthetic as well as to feel stiffness and
sore which belong to internal sensation imagery.
Auditory relates to our hearing. A poet with its words can present a hearing sensory since it is
a part of establishing a vivid experience in the reader’s mind. But in this poem, the hearing
experience is not quite explored by, the poet. The hearing experience is limited when the
persona tells “As the sudden winds do blow” (line 35). This line suggests the sound of the
wind in the reader’s mind though it is not a strong auditory. Moreover, this line suggests
kinesthetic imagery due to the movement of the wind.
4. Figure of speech
The figure of speech found in this poem can be listed as follows. In the first stanza , hyperbole
is used by the persona by saying that she carries not only her own business but also other
people’s too. The prejudice which is typed in capital letter also means something more than
what it is literally meant. The word “Prejudice” means thinking ill of others without adequate
evidences. The phrase “ Thinking ill of others” is an elliptical expression as it actually
includes feeling of scorn or dislike and a diverse form of antipathetic conduct: such as talking
against them or discriminating against them (Allport,1979:6-7). Though the new English
Dictionary defines it “ A feeling, favorable or unfavorable, toward a person or thing, prior to
,or not based on actual experience” (cited in Allport,1979:6), the word “prejudice” most often
refers to the negative feeling. One of the natures of prejudice is how it is rooted in society. In
social life, the existence of prejudice is commonly found especially in social relation.
Someone may realize its existence some others may not root. Thus, as it is an abstract thing,
how can Prejudice cut off her view? Here Prejudice acts as if it were a human being or a
living thing which can do something. In literary convention it is called personification. If the
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second stanza, urgency is felt by the reader when the persona says that her strength and time
are limited. The reader is brought to an urgent situation that cannot wait any longer. This can
be categorized as a hyperbolic expression.
Personification is again used in the second stanza. The last line reinforces the use of this
figure of speech because it tells how the Prejudice does an action- sitting all cross the road. In
the third stanza the persona starts to refer the Prejudice with personal pronoun “he”. Then,
the rest of the poem tells about how the Prejudice (he) becomes an obstacle in the persona’s
struggle.
In the fourth stanza, some figures of speech are used. When the narrator calls the prejudice
with the name “colossal mule”, it is a metaphoric expression. Metaphor is comparing things
that largely dissimilar, but have at least one characteristic in common (Potter, 1967:53). As
the vast existence of prejudice in society and how it is difficult to fix due to its deep origin,
the phrase “ colossal mule” is relatively obvious in its similarity with the word “prejudice”.
The word “colossal” means big or huge and the word “mule” refers to a kind of donkey which
is usually reputed with the state of being stubborn and difficult to teach. This mule is chosen
to reinforce the nature of prejudice which is commonly imbedded in one’s mind and difficult
to change. Simile is vividly seen through the use of “like” in comparing the persona and one
of the prophets, “Solomon”. This comparison implies the wisdom and cleverness of the
persona in arguing since Solomon is well-known for his wisdom in resolving a conflict by his
smart and wise argument. Related how the persona calls the prejudice a colossal mule
implying a big obstinate (immovable) mule, in this stanza she compares the prejudice to a
fool. Using the word “like”, this expression belongs to simile.
In stanza six, the persona again calls the Prejudice “mass of obdurate ill-will”, which means
similarly to the previous expression. It is a big, stubborn and hostile thing. The other simile is
also reflected in this stanza. The persona compares her hope of moving the Prejudice to a
hope of asking the monument to leave the Bunker Hill. This comparison vividly creates a
sense of difficulty. Bunker Hill Monument is a high, firm and strong construction built to
commemorate a battle happened in Bunker Hill, Boston which took place on June 17, 1775.
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In stanza seven, a simile is reflected when the persona compares the sudden coming of
inspiration to her mind with the sudden blowing of winds. In the last stanza, again, the
persona changes the way she refers to the Prejudice. She uses the phrase “awful incubus with
an absent-minded air”. Metaphorically, this expression means similarly with the previous
ones. It shows that the prejudice is bad, and foolish.
5. Tone
Tone is the way a writer indicates his/her attitude and feeling toward the subject of his/her
work ( Bergman and Epstein, 1987: 606). To recognize the tone of a poem is obviously more
than difficult than that of spoken language. Because a poet puts forward his/her underlying
sentiment in the rhythm, images and word choices, a reader thus can predict the tone of the
poem through these elements. In “An Obstacle” poem, the rhythm created in the poem is
established by the meter pattern. An Iambic tetrameter followed an iambic trimeter produces
masculine rhyme which simultaneously results in rhythm of firmness and urgency. This firm
tone is also suggested by the diction. There are at least aspects of diction found in this poem.
First, it uses colloquial language and simple pattern of sentence structure (Subject plus Verb),
Second, it employs as well as repeat the words/phrases suggesting urgency such as
“important”, “could not wait”, “limited”, “short”. Third, it applies metaphor which implies
sarcasm. The phrases “colossal mule”, a fool, that awful incubus with an absent- minded air”,
can be categorized as sarcastic expression. One uses sarcasm when he or she is in anger.
Thus, the diction in this poem creates not only the tone of firmness and urgency but also
anger.
The image created in the reader’s mind when he/she is reading this poem arises mostly in the
form of visual and kinesthetic mental picture. The picture shows the reader how the persona
struggles against the Prejudice who becomes an obstacle in her completing her work or
reaching her goal. The persona endures some changes of action - from asking politely,
arguing, begging, and finally ignoring. When one loses his/her patience, ignoring what makes
him/her angry can be the ultimate state. However, it is only for those who have selfdetermination to endure such exhausting stages. This changing, however, reinforces the tone
of firmness as well as anger.
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Hermeneutic Reading
In reading Charlotte Perkin Gilman’s An Obstacle, the first question may come to one’s mind
is whether the I could presumably be Gilman herself. Referring to the background of the poet,
the reader may assume that I is the poet herself. Though some critics say that it does not
make much difference whether or not the persona and the poet are one and the same person,
and whether or not we know the background of the poet. I think to know the background of
the Gilman will enable a reader to interpret more precisely the most significant term in this
poem namely “Prejudice”.
Gilman was one of American feminists who was well-known for her strong/radical feminist
thought.
She was born in July 3, 1860 and died in August 17, 1935. She dedicated her life
to struggle against the social inequality especially toward women. Most of the books written
by her dealt with criticism toward male domination in society. Her masterpiece was a short
story entitled “The Yellow Wallpaper”. However, two of her works that can be related to this
poem is a book entitled Our Androcentric Culture, or The Man Made World and a poem
entitled Similar Cases.
In An Obstacle, the persona was climbing up a mountain path with many things to do. The
things are not only hers but also other’s. This can be interpreted that the persona was
struggling for social improvement. It is not only about personal matter but also about social
matter. This is line with the activities done by Gilman who actively participated in social
reform. The obstacle faced by the persona is in form of prejudice. As stated before, prejudice
is thinking- ill of others which can include feeling of dislike, scorn and discrimination and
antipathy. But, what kind of prejudice does the persona refer to? If in the next line the
persona refers the Prejudice to He , it can be interpreted that it deals with man. Prejudice
which is close to man is a prejudice against woman. In the cultural and social context,
Gilman’s book e Our Androcentric Culture, or The Man Made World contains her argument
against male domination in every facet of life, starting from family, and art, masculine
literature, games and sports, ethics and religion, and education. The world was considered by
Gilman was a man-made world. The mental, the mechanical and the social development in
this world was nearly wholly men’s. Women in the nineteenth century suffered for being
underestimated by men. Women were perceived as subordinate assistant, merely significant
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to the reproduction and taking care of people. These ideas have existed for long time in man’s
mind even in some women’s. Man did not feel comfortable to see a woman who looked
“different” from the ideal woman. A good woman should fulfill the cults of True
Womanhood, which consisted of pity, purity, domesticity and submissiveness. A cult imposed
to man to determine what kind f a woman can be categorized a good one. This cult chained
women’s thought and movement. Thus it needs a hard struggle for women in the nineteenth
century to improve their condition. This is seen in Gilman’s statement:
we know enough now, we care enough now, we are strong enough now, to make the
whole world a thousand fold better in a generation; but we are shackled, chained,
blinded, by old false notions. The ideas of the past, the sentiments of the past,
attitude and prejudices of
the
the past, are in our way; and among them none more
universally mischievous than this great body of ideas and sentiments, prejudices and
habits, which make up the offensive network of
the
androcentric
culture
(Gilman,2009)
In Gilman’s poem “Similar Cases”, the poet tells in a narrative style how society has been
corrupted by prejudice. Society tends to dislike someone who is different from others.
Someone who has the best achievement and someone who has a future-oriented mind are
subjected to prejudice.
Referring to the life account of Gilman as a feminist and her other works which exposed the
mind of prejudice in society especially in man’s, we can assume that the persona’s climbing is
the poet’s struggle to change male-dominated society’s into a better society for both sexes,
man and woman. What the prejudice does in the poem shows how this attitude or ideas blocks
woman’s struggle.
The urgency of improving social condition (no longer male-dominated) is revealed through
the expression of the poet of having limited strength and time. Meanwhile, man with his
supremacy in American society still does not want to access to women to improve their
condition. The poet’s repetition of showing the enormity of prejudice with the words “huge”,
“hulking”, “colossal”, reveals how prejudice in man’s mind and attitude is enormous.
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The persona’s strategy to defeat this obstacle is by asking him politely to give woman an
access. This reflects the kind of attempt that has been done by the poet in reaching her goal.
After using polite way, the persona (the poet) uses reason to argue. Still, this does not change
the condition. This shows how the prejudice (he) is strongly rooted in society. The persona
has to ask him politely to give her a way. It means the poet uses a polite way in dealing with
the obstacle. When the prejudice remains still, the persona tries to argue as wisely and
cleverly as Solomon. This means that the persona as a woman can also argue as reasonably as
Solomon who is well-known for his wisdom.
The man’s strongly embedded prejudice toward woman has caused the persona lose her
patience that she becomes mad and starts to do irritating acts such as belaboring, pelting and
swearing. The way she calls the prejudice as a colossal mule, a fool, and an incubus with
absent-minded air can be regarded as a sarcastic expression. This can be interpreted how the
poet at times loses her patience and feels helpless to face the man’s prejudice toward woman.
When at last she gets her spirit, the thing that she does to overcome her problem is walking
against the Prejudice. This means she ignores the presence of Prejudice that has been a big
obstacle in her struggle. This seems to be what the American women activists did when they
dealt with man’s prejudice against women movement.
Applying genetic structuralism should deal with how the main character (the persona) faces
problem. Based on the heuristic and hermeneutic reading, we can find vividly how the
persona in this poem meets a problem in her struggle. A big obstacle hinders her struggle to
reach her goal. The obstacle is the prejudice, which can be interpreted as the society’s
negative attitude toward woman. As the prejudice is referred to “he” who is huge and high we
can thus relate it to how man dominated American society in the nineteenth century. Male
domination or male supremacy is reflected in almost all aspects of life. This is the degraded
condition with which the persona (in Goldman’s term, a problematic hero/heroine) has to
deal.
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The authentic value revealed is the poet’s self determination to struggle against man’s
prejudice toward women. Ignoring the presence of prejudice which can be interpreted as male
supremacy is a value that the poet intends to tell the readers.
Conclusion
Gilman’s poem entitled An Obstacle vividly reflects how the persona (the poet) has selfdetermination against male supremacy. The self-determination is revealed in the poem’s form
and content. The form namely meter, rhyme, rhythm, diction, imagery, figure speech and tone
go hand in hand with the content of the poem establish the concept of self-determination.
Relating the poem and the personal background of Gilman and the social and cultural context
leads to the concept of male supremacy which is symbolized by the figure of Prejudice.
REFERENCES
Allport, Gordon W. (1979).The Nature of Prejudice. USA: Addison-Wesley Company
Bergman, David., Epstein 1992. The Heath Guide to Literature.: USA: D.C. Heath and
Company
Gilman, Charlotte Perkins (2013). Our Androcentric Culture, or The Man Made World.
Retrieved October 2,2013 , from www.gutenberg.org
Jabrohim (ed). (2012). Teori Penelitian Sastra. Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar
Pradopo, Rachmat Djoko. (2007). Beberapa Teori Sastra, Metode Kritik, dan Penerapannya.
Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar
Potter, James L. (1967). Elements of Literature. USA: The Odyssey Press,Inc
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Apendix
actions such as speaking politely to him, arguing, begging, and pelting, before finally she
walks against him.
O
woman
a sort of accompaniment and subordinate assistant, merely essential to
the making of people.
She has held always the place of a preposition in relation to man. She
has been considered above him or below him, before him, behind him,
beside him, a wholly relative existence--"Sydney's sister," "Pembroke's
mother"--but never by any chance Sydney or Pembroke herself.
Acting on this assumption, all human standards have been based on male
characteristics, and when we wish to praise the work of a woman, we say
she has "a masculine mind."
The mental, the mechanical, the social development, was almost wholly
theirs. We have, so far, lived and suffered and died in a man-made
world. So general, so unbroken, has been this condition, that to mention
it arouses no more remark than the statement of a natural law. We have
taken it for granted, since the dawn of civilization, that "mankind"
meant men-kind, and the world was theirs.
Women we have sharply delimited. Women were a sex, "the sex," according
to chivalrous toasts; they were set apart for special services peculiar
to femininity. As one English scientist put it, in 1888, "Women are not
only not the race--they are not even half the race, but a subspecies
told off for reproduction only."
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we know enough now, we care enough now, we are strong enough now, to
make the whole world a thousand fold better in a generation; but we are
shackled, chained, blinded, by old false notions. The ideas of the past,
the sentiments of the past, the attitude and prejudices of the past, are
in our way; and among them none more universally mischievous than this
great body of ideas and sentiments, prejudices and habits, which make up
the offensive network of the androcentric culture.
n spite of this the overmastering power of humanness is now developing
among modern men immense organizations of a wholly beneficial character,
with no purpose but mutual advantage. This is true human growth, and
as such will inevitably take the place of the sex-prejudiced earlier
processes.
Under this more normal influence our present perversities of functions
will, of course, tend to disappear. The directly serviceable tendency
of women, as shown in every step of their public work, will have small
patience with hoary traditions of absurdity. We need but look at long
recorded facts to see what women do--or try to do, when they have
opportunity. Even in their crippled, smothered past, they have made
valiant efforts--not always wise--in charity and philanthropy.
In our own time this is shown through all the length and breadth of our
country, by the Woman's Clubs. Little groups of women, drawing together
in human relation, at first, perhaps, with no better purpose than to
"improve their minds," have grown and spread; combined and federated;
and in their great reports, representing hundreds of thousands of
women--we find a splendid record of human work. They strive always to
improve something, to take care of something, to help and serve and
benefit. In "village improvement," in traveling libraries, in lecture
courses and exhibitions, in promoting good legislation; in many a line
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of noble effort our Women's Clubs show what women want to do.
Men do not have to do these things through their clubs, which are mainly
for pleasure; they can accomplish what they wish to through regular
channels. But the character and direction of the influence of women in
human affairs is conclusively established by the things they already do
and try to do. In those countries, and in our own states, where they are
already full citizens, the legislation introduced and promoted by
them is of the same beneficent character. The normal woman is a strong
creature, loving and serviceable. The kind of woman men are afraid to
entrust with political power, selfish, idle, over-sexed, or ignorant and
narrow-minded, is not normal, but is the creature of conditions men
have made. We need have no fear of her, for she will disappear with the
conditions which created her.
In older days, without knowledge of the natural sciences, we accepted
life as static. If, being born in China, we grew up with foot-bound
women, we assumed that women were such, and must so remain. Born in
India, we accepted the child-wife, the pitiful child-widow, the ecstatic
_suttee_, as natural expressions of womanhood. In each age, each
country, we have assumed life to be necessarily what it was--a moveless
fact.
All this is giving way fast in our new knowledge of the laws of life.
We find that Growth is the eternal law, and that even rocks are slowly
changing. Human life is seen to be as dynamic as any other form; and the
most certain thing about it is that it will change. In the light of this
knowledge we need no longer accept the load of what we call "sin;"
the grouped misery of poverty, disease and crime; the cumbrous,
inefficacious, wasteful processes of life today, as needful or
permanent.
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This mental attitude toward women is even more clearly expressed by
Mr. H. B. Marriot-Watson in his article on "The American Woman" in the
"Nineteenth Century" for June, 1904, where he says: "Her constitutional
restlessness has caused her to abdicate those functions which alone
excuse or explain her existence." This is a peculiarly happy and
condensed expression of the relative position of women during our
androcentric culture. The man was accepted as the race type without one
dissentient voice; and the woman--a strange, diverse creature, quite
disharmonious in the accepted scheme of things--was excused and
explained only as a female.
ii. The man-made family.
iii. Health and beauty.
iv. Men and art.
v.
Masculine literature.
vi. Games and sports
vii. Ethics and religion.
viii. Education.
Could the I presumably be Matthew Arnold himself? With regard to this
I would favor an intertextual reading of the poem with Matthew Arnold s biography.
By delving into the biography of Matthew Arnold, the reader might relate
the dramatic situation of the poem to some seaside rendezvous between Arnold
and Marguerite.
However, it does not make much difference whether or not the persona and
the poet are one and the same person. Chatman says:
Many lyric poems use a framework in which the speaking voice is not expressly
different from the poet s (or more exactly, there, is no particular reason
to distinguish the two) but where the addressee is clearly different from
the reader. We overhear the address we are not spoken to directly (Chatman
1958: 29 36).
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Obstaclea
by Charlotte Perkins Gilman
1. I was climbing up a mountain-path
With many things to do,
Important business of my own,
And other people's too,
When I ran against a Prejudice
That quite cut off the view.
2. My work was such as could not wait,
My path quite clearly showed,
My strength and time were limited,
I carried quite a load;
And there that hulking Prejudice
Sat all across the road.
3.So I spoke to him politely,
For he was huge and high,
And begged that he would move a bit
And let me travel by.
He smiled, but as for moving! -He didn't even try.
4.And then I reasoned quietly
With that colossal mule:
My time was short -- no other path -The mountain winds were cool.
I argued like a Solomon;
He sat there like a fool.
5.Then I flew into a passion,
and I danced and howled and swore.
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I pelted and belabored him
Till I was stiff and sore;
He got as mad as I did -But he sat there as before.
6.And then I begged him on my knees;
I might be kneeling still
If so I hoped to move that mass
Of obdurate ill-will -As well invite the monument
To vacate Bunker Hill!
7.So I sat before him helpless,
In an ecstasy of woe -The mountain mists were rising fast,
The sun was sinking slow -When a sudden inspiration came,
As sudden winds do blow.
8. I took my hat, I took my stick,
My load I settled fair,
I approached that awful incubus
With an absent-minded air -And I walked directly through him,
As if he wasn't there!
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READING SUBALTERN AS COMPARABLE DISCOURSE
CONSTRUCTION ON
THE ADVENTURES OF HUCKLEBERRY FINN.
Mohamad Ikhwan Rosyidi
Abstract
This paper aims to seek the description of recognition of the black people as the other and
the otherness of them was constructed on the discourse of subalternity. The method
applied in this paper was the deconstructive reading towards subalternity on Twain’s
novel The Adventure of Huckleberry Finn. The results of the study were, first, the
description of the otherness of Jim in Twain’s novel was the continuity of the
signification the black people as a slave. Being slaves, the black people were recognized
as the people who were vanished for their existence. Second, the negation of the black
people brought the practice of subalternity towards them. Twain still depicted that the
black people as silent people who could not speak about themselves
Keywords: subaltern, recognition, otherness, dicourse construction
Introduction
People living in this world can be far away with what so called a differentiation. People with
different race accept the different treatment from the major or dominant race. This
differentiation bears of the ‘particular’ perception towards others. Omi and Winant in
Rothenberg (2001:11) illustrated that in 1982-83, Susie Guillory Phillips unsuccessfully sued
the Lousiana Bureau of Vital Records to change her racial classification from black to white.
The descendant of an eighteenth-century white planter and a black slave, Phillips was
designated ‘black’ in her birth certificate in accordance with a 1970 state law which declared
anyone with at least one-thirty-second ‘Negro blood’ to be black.
The citation above indicates that in America, for example, the condition of differentiating
people from the race was still undergoing. This condition was, for some authors, reflected on
their literary works. One of the works reflected on race differentiation is Mark Twain/s novel
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The Adventure of Huckleberry Finn (1884). This novel talks about how a white person,
reflected on the character of Huck Finn, having adventure of life with Jim, a slave as
represented for black people. Jim was a slave and could not speak about himself. The
character built in the novel, for example Jim, was created on the practice of subalternity. This
condition bears problems of reading subalternity. The problems were how the recognition of
black people as the other was described and how the otherness of the black people was
constructed the discourse of subalternity in this novel. This paper aims to seek the description
of recognition of the black people as the other and the otherness of them was constructed on
the discourse of subalternity.
Race and Concept of Subaltern
Race consciousness, and its articulation in theories of race, is largely a modern phenomenon.
When European explorers in the New World ‘discovered’ people who looked different than
themselves, these ‘native’ challenged then existing conceptions of the origins of the human
species, and raised disturbing question disturbing questions as to whether all could be
considered in the same ‘family of man’ (Rothernberg, 2001:12). Race is indeed a preeminently sociohistorical concept. Racial categories and the meaning of race are given
concrete expression by the specific social relations and historical context in which they are
embedded. Racial meanings have varied tremendously over time and between different
societies. In the United States, the black/white color line has historically been rigidly defined
and enforced. White is seen as a ‘pure’ category. Any racial intermixture makes one
‘nonwhite’ (Rothenberg, 2001:13).
The term ‘black’ illustrates the diversity of racial meanings, which can be found among
different societies and historically within a given society. The meaning of race is defined and
contested throughout society, in both collective action and personal practice. In the process,
racial categories themselves are formed, transformed, destroyed, and re-formed. The use of
the term racial formation refers to the process by which social, economic, and political forces
determine the content and importance of racial categories, and by which they are in turn
shaped by racial meanings (Rothenberg, 2001:14).
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The race formations and constructions here relates to the concept of subalternity. Who or what
is this subaltern? Loosely derived from the writings of the Italian Marxist Antonio Gramsci,
the term "subaltern" designates nonelite or subordinated social groups. It is at once without
any particular theoretical rigor and useful for problemizing humanist concepts of the
sovereign subject (Landry and Maclean, 1996:213).
Spivak cites Ranajit Guha's definition of subalternity: "The social groups and elements
included in this category represent the demographic difference between the total Indian
population and all those whom we have described as the 'elite.' As Spivak observes, "The
object of the group's investigation, in the case not even of the people as such but of the
floating buffer zone of the regional elite-subaltern, is a deviation from an ideal— the people
or subaltern—which is itself defined as a difference from the elite (Landry and Maclean,
1996:213-4).
According to Spivak, then, the subaltern as subject-effect shows up the contrivance of more
positivist models of the subject. The subaltern emerges from the Subalternists' research not as
a positive identity complete with a sovereign self-consciousness but as the product of a
network of differential, potentially contradictory strands. However, successful traditional
history-writing might be at hiding this sleight-of-hand substitution of an effect for a cause, the
effort is still doomed to cognitive failure, since it is merely a convenient disciplinary fiction
(Landry and Maclean, 1996:214).
Spivak added that for the ‘true’ subaltern group, whose identity is its difference, there is no
unrepresentable subaltern subject that can know and speak itself; the intellectual’s solution is
not to abstain from representation (Ascroft et.al. 1995:27). Then, the question raises, how can
people touch the consciousness of the people, even as they investigate their politics? With
what voice-consciousness can the subaltern speak? Foucault suggested that to make visible
the unseen can also mean a change of level, addressing oneself to a layer of material which
had hitherto had no pertinence for history and which had not been recognized as having any
moral, aesthetic or historical value (Ascroft et.al. 1995:27-8).
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When it comes to the question of the consciousness of the subaltern, the notion of what the
work cannot say becomes important. In the semioses of the social text, elaborations of
insurgency stand in the place of ‘the utterance’. The sender—‘the peasant’—is marked only
as a pointer to an irretrievable consciousness (Ascroft et.al. 1995:28).
Methodology
This paper used qualitative data analysis. The data taken for the analysis were from the study
of Mark Twain’s novel, The Adventure of Huckleberry Finn seen from how the recognition of
black people as the other was described and how the otherness of the black people was
constructed the discourse of subalternity. The approach applied in this analysis was
deconstructive reading towards subalternity construction towards the black people in this
novel.
Description of Recognition Black people as the Other
As the novel describes about how the life of a black people or nigger opposited as the Other, it
gives illumination about how this people are subordinated in their society. The society here
basically was constructed by a white people community. They built a society as their ‘own’
constructed society. It meant that they made people with the same skin as their belonging.
People with different skin colour would not belong to them. The differentiation of skin colour
was the ‘construction’ of the society. The existence of different colour skin brought different
effect on the construction. People with different colour skin, for example black people, would
be treated differently. They were placed as people that could be treated not as human.
Sometimes they were posited as a slave or people who could be sold.
“Well, you see, it ‘uz dis way. Ole missus – dat’s Miss Watson – she pecks on me all
de time, en treats me pooty rough, but she awluz said she wouldn’ sell me down to
Orleans. But I noticed dey wuz a nigger trader roun’ de place considable lately, en I
begin to git uneasy….” (Twain, 1948: 43).
The citation above showed that Jim as I in Twain’s The Adventures of Huckleberry
Finn was a person who could be treated roughly, and he could be sold down to Orleans. The
phrases treat roughly and nigger trader indicated the oppositions of inhumanity. Treating
roughly signified the mechanism of replacing human to nonhuman being. In addition, nigger
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trader signified the process of make a trade to humans. It could be drawn that something that
could be treated roughly was things, and something that could be traded in was also things.
The culture of trading black people was a habit, which had institutionalized in America since
the tragedy of Civil War between people from the north of and the south of America. Since
that war happened, the trade of black people continuously occurred. Almost all family from
white people had at least on black people as their servant or slave. He or she had a
responsibility to handle all household business and be a servant.
This institutionalized culture was constructed culture built from the perception and
recognition of black people. The recognition was based on the different race. The different
treatment was undergone because the difference itself.
This black people or Afro-American people were presupposed as black because they were
seen as the concept of ‘black’ recognized and defined by a cultural situation. It meant that
white people saw black people as different people. They recognized and defined the black
people as the people, which were not the same as them. Seeing this difference, these
recognition and definition of black people implied the existence of differentiation and
inequality to white people. The differentiation and inequality bore the thought of white people
that the black people could be traded, could deserve bad treatments, and treated as if they
were not human. The presupposition, thus, was born as the effect of differentiation of
recognized construction in white people’s mind.
Because of this, the black people were treated out of humanism. They were underestimated,
subordinated, traded. They were seen differently since they were thought as they were
assumed differently.
“Yes, You know that one-laigged nigger dat b’longs to old Misto Brandish? Well.
He sot up a bank, en say anybody dat put in a dollar would git fo’ dollar mo’ at de
en’ er de year. Well, all de niggers went in, but dey didn’e have much. I wiz de on’l
one dat had much. So I stuck out for mo’ dan fo’ dollars, en I said ‘f I didn’ git it
I’d start a bank mysef. Well, o’ course dat nigger want to keep me out er de
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business, bekase he says dey warn’t business ‘nough for two banks, so he say I
could put in my five dollars en he pay me thirty-five at de en’ er de year.
“So I done it. Den I reck’n’d I’d inves’ de thirty-five dollars right off en keep things
a-movin’. Dey wuz a nigger name Bob, dat had ketched a wood-flat, en his marster
didn’ know it; en I bought it off’n him en told him to take de thirty-five dollars when
de en’ er de year come; but somebody stole de wood-flat dat night, en nex’ day de
one-laigged nigger say the bank’s busted. So dey didn’ none uv us git no money.”
(Twain, 1884:41)
The citation above indicated that the character I was treated differently. He did not have a
chance to get his salary and to have a saving money. His saving money for his future was
vanished. It meant that the opposition between salary and saving money was an opposition
depicting a future. Frankly speaking, if people get a job, they will accept his/her salary.
Moreover, from the salary, he/she can dream for his/her future. When the black people
worked for the white people, and they were not paid for their salary, they would not have their
future. Their future was vanished by the white people. Therefore, the differentiation of the
black people resulted the vanishing future for them. In another word, difference bore a
vanishing future.
Jim represented by Twain as a black person and a slave had a feeling that he would be sold by
his owner. Jim did not have rights to choose, but he must accept that he was traded. His rights
to live as a common person was carried away. He felt that his life was like an empty seat
when knowing that he was a slave.
Jim talked out loud all the time while I was walking to myself. He was saying how
the first thing he would do when he got to a free state he would go to saving up
money and never spend a single cent, and when he got enough he would buy his
wife, which was owned on a farm close to where Miss Watson lived: and then they
would both work to buy the two childern, and if their master wouldn’t sell them,
they’d get an Ab’litionist to go and steal them (Twain, 1948: 88).
The citation above signified that Jim dreamt about his freedom, his family, and his money.
Freedom related to slavery. Jim aspired his freedom since he was a slave. The rights to be free
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was a sign that he/she was a slave. Slavery also connoted to building an intact family. Slavery
made a system of trade. Trade brought the particular mechanism. When people have a trade,
frankly speaking, they sell thing separately. If people sell a lamb, so they can sell a lamb in its
breast, leg, and stomach. They can sell it based on the buyer’s choice. It also happened on
trading slave. A slavery trade sold family separately. A white people could buy the father not
the son or daughter. Another white people could buy the mother of a slave family. Therefore,
it can be depicted that the future of Jim was to gather his separate family.
Besides having freedom, a slave had a dream to gather his family. It bore a relation that
freedom and building intact family connoted to slavery. The dream of having both of them
occurred on the mind of a slave. It could be understandable since a slave lost his human
rights. Losing his/her human rights meant losing his/her existence of human being. To loose
human rights always relates to having no money. Jim dreamt that he wanted to be free and
built his intact family since he dreamt he had money. Thus, money played the significant role
to have rights to live and have future.
When black people were made not to have money, represented by Jim, Twain gave a
description that their life was dependent to white people. Their existence of life seemed to
appear and disappear concurrently. Twain depicted the existence of Jim. However, at the
same time, Jim had no rights to have. It meant that Twain tried to describe that black people
was posited on the marginalized place.
I went to sleep, and Jim didn’t call me when it was my turn. He often done that.
When I waked up just at daybreak he was sitting there with his head down betwixt
his knees, moaning and mourning to himself. I didn’t take a notice nor let on. I
knowed what it was about. He was thinking about his wife and his children, away
up yonder, and he was low and homesick: because he hadn’t ever been away from
home before in his life; and I do believe he cared just as much for his people as
white folks does for their’n. It don’t seem natural, but I reckon it’s so. He was often
moaning and mourning that way nights, when he judged I was asleep, and saying,
“Po’ little ‘Lizabeth! Po’ little Johnny! It’s mighty hard, I spec’ I ain’t ever gwyne
to see you no mo’!” He was a mighty good nigger, Jim was (Twain, 1948: 155).
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The citation above illustrated the condition that Jim was on mourning loosing his family. He
was trying to think his family. He worried about them. He cared his family. Twain here tried
to compare what the deed done by black people was similar to white people’s deed. This
comparison implied the marginality that Jim was posited and constructed. Black people were
always marginalized. They were out of the circle of white people. They ware made as
strangers entering the fixed and rigid environment. This environment had constructed them as
others. Their rights to live was tugged at white people’s construction and recognition. The
construction and recognition were the important axis to place black people as others.
Besides the construction of black people’s rights, they were also seen differently from their
belief. Twain described that Jim believed on sound of birds that indicated something. Having
a talisman in Jim’s body as power to run his life was also depicted on his belief.
Jim always kept that five-center piece round his neck with a string, and said it was a
charm the devil give to him with his own hands and told him he could cure anybody
with it and fetch witches whenever he wanted to just by saying something to it; but
he never told what it was said to it. Niggers would come from all around there and
give Jim anything they had, just for a sight of that five-center piece; but they
wouldn’t touch it, because the devil had had his hands on it. Jim was most ruined
for a servant, because he got stuck up on account of having seen the devil and been
rode by witches (Twain, 1948: 6).
This citation above showed that Jim kept his piece round his neck. In addition, he believed
that it was a charm that could be used as means to cure anybody. Since the belief of this such
things was thought of far from logics for white people, represented by the strange feeling of
Huck Finn that he had, they were seen as people who are uncivilized. The process of
uncivilizing black people built a different construction. They were seen as people who did not
have religion. Judging the black people having no religion brought them into the eddy of
otherness. They were prejudiced as cruel person and inhumanity. This prejudices indicated
that they were needed to learn humanity. The learning of humanity was the learning to be
slave. It was done by the white people in order to reduce their inhumanity. Slavery was a
means to make the black people learn to believe in religion brought by his/her master (white
people). They were trained to work for the master’s household in order to give them lesson
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not to be a cruel person. This life learning brought by the white people to black people was a
representation of strengthening the marginalization of the black people. The learning
indicated that the black people were put as the other. The learning, thus, was a means to put
the black people into the construction of differentiation.
The Otherness of Black People in the Construction of Subalternity
The description of recognition of the Black people above showed that the otherness of them
derived from the differentiation made by the white people. The differentiation, started from
the dream of freedom, resulted the assumption that white people tried to colonialize them. The
black people were the colonized. As colonized people, they did not have rights to live. The
white people as the colonizer oppressed them in every aspect of their life. They sold the black
people. The deed to sell people implied the condition that they oppressed the black people not
to live equal to them. The trade of black people done by the white people signified that they
put the black people similar to things. Therefore, they made the black people alien. This
alienation of the black people was constructed in the process of placing them in subalternity
condition.
Another form of colonizing oppression was vanishing the salary and money systems for the
black people. The black people were treated as workers with no payment. It meant that they
worked for their masters, but they did not their rights. Therefore, they did not have a chance
to have money nor their saving money. The condition of no money to hold for the black
people signified the condition of colonialism. They were forced to work for the colonizers,
especially the white people. The force towards the black people recognized as the process of
dehumanizing them. Dehumanization here was the process of double play. In one side, this
process existed the black people since the black people must be there for fulfilling the white
people’s needs. On another side, the black people was vanished since their rights to have
money to run their life was negated. This condition was strengthened the slavery construction
towards the black people.
The negation of the black people were indicated on the separation of their families. If the
black people had a wife and children, they would be sold separately. This situation was
derived from the trade discourse. This discourse was built to sell them individually. It meant
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that the togetherness of the black family was negated. The negation of the togetherness was
the hidden agenda to split the black people. When they were split, they would not think about
to make a rebellion towards the white people. They would not also gather to strive for their
money and salary.
On another side, this negation built a discourse of alienation and subalternity. The black
people were put on the condition that they could not speak. They did not have something to
see themselves as themselves. They were always seen from the white people’s perspective. It
indicated that the white people saw the black people on their standpoints. They put the black
people as the other. The result of putting the black people on this situation was the undergoing
colonial discourse towards the black people. The black people was placed as the colonized by
the white people. Moreover, this condition was a sign to strengthened the subalternity of the
black people.
The subalternity of the black people could be separated from the history of New World
construction. The New World has often been depicted by writers, such as Thomas Paine, as a
free “asylum” from tyranny and oppression; but, contradictorily, slavery became an institution
in the New World from almost the very moment European settlers arrived (Burns, 2002:33).
He added that by the time the slave trade was outlawed in 1808, nine million Africans had
been brought across the Atlantic in bondage, despite the fact that the Declaration of
Independence had proclaimed that “all men are created equal” and that “Liberty” ranks among
the “unalienable Rights” of humanity (Burns, 2002:33). Burns indicated that history of
slavery occurred before the declaration of humanity.
What Burns wrote above was the sign of undergoing the process of subalternity for the black
people. They were carried to America for being negated as Self. Twain described the
condition of Jim, as nigger who was represented as a slave, in terms of showing the practice
of subalternity. Twain tried to make Jim speak through Huck Finn. Jim was created as a
character, which could only be silent, and he always did what the white people asked. Thus,
he was put in the condition of silence. He was abandoned to speak about himself. That was in
line with the discourse of the subalternity.
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The way Huck Finn was created as a character, represented the white people, and was
different white people. Huck Finn tried to follow what Jim dreamt about. He always tried to
listen what Jim spoke about.
“Yo’ ole father doan’ know yit what he’s a-gwyne to do. Sometimes he spec he’ll go
’way, en den agin he spec he’ll stay. De bes’ way is to res’ easy en let de ole man
take his own way. Dey’s two angels hoverin’ roun’ ’bout him. One uv ’em is white
en shiny, en t’other one is black. De white one gits him to go right a little while, den
de black one sail in en bust it all up. A body can’t tell yit which one gwyne to fetch
him at de las’. However, you is all right. You gwyne to have considable trouble in
yo’ life, en considable joy. Sometimes you gwyne to git hurt, en sometimes you
gwyne to git sick; but every time you’s gwyne to git well agin. Dey’s two gals flyin’
’bout you in yo’ life. One uv ’em’s light en t’other one is dark. One is rich en t’other
is po’. You’s gwyne to marry de po’ one fust en de rich one by en by. You wants to
keep ’way fum de water as much as you kin, en don’t run no resk, ’kase it’s down in
de bills dat you’s gwyne to git hung.” When I lit my candle and went up to my room
that night there sat pap—his own self! (Twain, 1884:33)
What Jim spoke to Huck Finn was an example of speaking about himself. Through Huck
Finn, Jim tried to show that he was also a human. He did not want to make a subversion
towards Huck Finn since Huck Finn was one of white people. Twain created this condition to
signify that the black people still did not have rights to speak. Thus, the silence of the black
people made a sign that they were subaltern, and Twain was still accommodated that
otherness.
Conclusion
Based on the explanation above, the conclusion can be drawn that, first, the description of the
otherness of Jim in Twain’s novel was the continuity of the signification the black people as a
slave. Being slaves, the black people was recognized as the people who were vanished for
their existence. Second, the negation of the black people brought the practice of subalternity
towards them. Twain still depicted that the black people as silent people who could not speak
about themselves.
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Bibliography
Burns, Allan. 2002. A Thematic Guide to American Poetry. London: Greenwood Press.
Twain, Mark. 1948. The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. USA: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Twain Mark, 1884. The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Landry, Donna and Gerald Maclean. 1996. The Spivak Reader. New York: Routledge.
Ascroft, Bill, et.al. 1995. The Post-Colonial Studies Reader. New York: Routledge.
Rothernberg, Paula S. 2001. Race, Class, and Gender in the United States. Fifth Edition. New
York: Worth Publishers.
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BARBIE®: AN IRONIC IMAGERY
IN TODAY’S CONSUMER CULTURE
A Study on ‘Barbie® Flu’ in Odessa, Ukraine
Melania Shinta Harendika
Universitas Brawijaya
[email protected]
Abstract
Barbie® is one of the attention-grabbing American cultural products. In a consumer
culture, in which popular heroes are no longer the mighty, but the movie stars and
beautiful people of leisure (Featherstone, 1991), Barbie® plays an important role in
constructing ones’ such new standards as youth, beauty, energy, fitness, romance, luxury,
enjoyment, and fun. This new standards encourage others to imitate it, like what three
girls in Odessa, Ukraine do – Anastasiya Shpagina, Valeria Lukyanova, and Olga
Oleynik. This phenomenon is then famous with the name ‘Barbie® flu’.
What is it about this doll that makes it such a phenomenon? What are the main factors
that have allowed Barbie to dominate the doll market? Zygmunt Bauman’s theory of
consumer culture and Stuart Hall’s theory of circuit of culture are implemented in this
phenomenological study. In this study, furthermore, the data is gathered from such
informative documents as research journals and samples of free writing about the topic.
The result of this study shows that because of the mass production and consumption of
Barbie®, such new identities of women appear as modern society’s eagerness to look
better, younger, and more attractive. Behind its success in constructing social ideas of the
new standards of women appearance, Barbie® actually holds a seamy side in which she
promotes an unrealistic idea of body image for the three girls in Odessa, leading to
several risks. This condition then creates a new regulation in which many people from the
opposite side create new propaganda not to idolize Barbie® anymore. Beyond these
contrary facts, Barbie® proves that the society, represented by the Barbie® flu girls, is
being ‘trapped’ in a consumer culture, a culture in which everybody wants to be like their
idols, whatever the condition is.
Understanding American culture, i.e. Barbie®, is important to raise one’s awareness that
cultural products can also present any imagery that sometimes cannot be accepted as the
good ones. Understanding culture, moreover, will be very important for English students
and teachers especially in advanced cross-cultural understanding, in which we have to
comprehend not only others’ language but also others’ way of thinking as a part of their
culture.
Keywords: Barbie®, Barbie® flu, consumer culture, Hall’s theory of Culture Circuit
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Introduction
After World War II, various new industrial segments evolved. Manufacturers whose
production capabilities had been focused on war-related goods redesigned their businesses for
this new era of peace. Electronics, housing, and automobile business became at their peaks in
this era. The automobile industry successfully produced cars, and new industries such as
aviation and electronics grew. According to Barros (1998), moreover, one of the sectors that
grew considerably at that time was the toy industry, and one of them was Barbie®. At the
same time, a housing boom and the jump in postwar births, known as the "baby boom," also
appeared in this time, increased the number of consumers (U.S. Department of State, n.d.).
A comic strip character called “Lilli” which was created by Reinhard Beuthien in 1952 for the
Bild-Zeitung, a German newspaper, inspired Barbie’s original design. In 1953, Bild-Zeitung
decided to market a Lilli doll and contacted Max Weissbrodt from the toy company O&M
Hausser in Neustadt/Coburg, Germany. Weissbrodt designed the prototype of the doll, which
was on sale from 1955 to 1964, when an American doll manufacturer, Mattel Inc., acquired
the rights to the doll and German production stopped (Barros, 1998).
Gradually, Barbie® gained good market not only for Americans but also for people around the
world. To satisfy its consumers, Mattel, Inc. established Barbie® Dolls of the World
Collection® in 1980. In this series, each doll wears an ensemble inspired by the native
costume and fashion of each country. Argentina Barbie® doll, for example, is completed with
a special pet friend – a puma, Australia Barbie® doll sports a stylish safari outfit with her
koala friend, and China Barbie® doll wears a red gown with her cuddly panda friend. Ireland
Barbie® doll, furthermore, is with her flowing red hair, wears a precious green dress with an
Irish puppy. With this fascinating marketing, Barbie®, then, became the ‘queen’ of woman
dolls for its domination in the doll market. As the evidence, in 1999, 97% American girls
aged 3 – 12 had at least one Barbie® (Barros, 1998).
Interestingly, the reactions towards Barbie® are various. There are people who hate Barbie®
called Barbie Haters Club, which can be found in http://www.antibarbie.com. On the other
hand, some others love Barbie® so much that they would like to imitate the dolls. One of the
examples is three girls in Odessa, the third largest city in Ukraine, which is a major cultural
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center of multi-ethnic population. Those girls are worldly known as the living Barbie® girls
for in 2012, they make a sensation by changing their appearance into living Barbie® girls as
seen in Figure 1. This phenomenon is then called as ‘Barbie® flu’.
Problem Formulation
It is, then, interesting to see this phenomenon from a cultural point of view, with a question
triggering a comprehensive analysis, which is: how the elements of the circuit of culture play
their role in creating the Barbie® Flu? Furthermore, another question following the previous
one, will also contribute to analyze this phenomenon deeper: what are the main elements in
the circuit of culture that have allowed the existence of ‘Barbie® flu’?
Figure 1: Anastasiya Shpagina and Valeria Lukyanova
Source: Soldak, Katya. (2012). 'Barbie Flu' Spreading in Ukraine. Forbes, available at
http://www.forbes.com/sites/katyasoldak/2012/10/17/barbie-flu-spreading-in-ukraine/
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Data Gathering Technique
In comprehending the phenomenon, review of documents is implemented in this study. This
method is unobtrusive and nonreactive. Unobtrusive measures are ways of collecting data that
do not require the cooperation of the subjects. Webb, et al. (in Lee, 2000) describes these
measures as “nonreactive research” because the researcher is expected to observe or gather
data without interfering in the ongoing flow of everyday events. The strength of this method
is that this method is rich in portraying the values and beliefs of participants in the setting.
Research journals and samples of free writing about the topic can also be informative. It can
be conducted without disturbing the setting in any way. The researcher determines where the
emphasis lies after the data have been gathered. A potential weakness, however, is the
analysis of the content of materials entails interpretation by the researcher.
Theoretical Framework
Consumer Culture
What is it about this doll that makes it such a phenomenon? What are the main factors that
have allowed Barbie to dominate the doll market? It is because Barbie exists in the consumer
culture in which popular heroes are no longer the mighty, but the movie stars and beautiful
people of leisure (Featherstone, 1991). Here, Barbie® plays an important role in constructing
ones’ such new standards as youth, beauty, energy, fitness, romance, luxury, enjoyment, and
fun. How can Barbie® constructs such new standards? The reason is because of three criteria
of consumer society (Bauman, 2008). In a consumer society, (1) an individual tends to
hideout from fate, into something socially constructed. Why does an individual tend to
hideout from fate into something socially constructed? Because in a consumer culture, an
individual may think that his or her human condition is mortal and miserable, so he or she
finds comfort that would divert his or her attention and prevent his or her from thinking about
death (Bauman, 2008). (2) Living creatures had to consume to stay alive, not ‘merely
biological’ but to create ‘good life’. The term ‘good life’ here can be elaborated by the social
standard of prosperity and propriety, which might have been rising over time. (3) Consumer
society and consumerism are not about satisfying needs but to make self-assurance, to fulfill
the desire to be ’narcissistic’. Narcissistic is a term that originated with Narcissus in Greek
mythology that fell in love with his own image reflected in a pool of water. Currently, it is
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used to describe a person characterized by egotism, vanity, pride, or selfishness; admiration of
one’s own physical or mental attributes.
This theoretical framework will be implemented in finding how Barbie® Flu girls fulfil the
criteria of those living in the consumer society. Later, it will be discussed how those girls hide
from fate by being the living Barbie® girls, how they try to create their own ‘good life’, and
how they fulfil their desire to be narcissistic.
Circuit of Culture
The phenomenon of ‘Barbie® flu’ is a part of the circuit of culture. As Stuart Hall believes
that identities are produced, consumed, and regulated in the culture to create meaning trough
symbolic
representation
system
as
seen
in
Figure
2.
Figure 2: Stuart Hall’s Circuit of Culture (Putranto, 2007: 16)
Reference: Putranto, Hendar. Mempersoalkan Kultur dan Ideologi. In Sutrisno, Mudji, et
al. 2007. Cultural Studies: Tantangan bagi Teori – Teori Besar Kebudayaan. Depok:
Koekoesan
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The circuit of culture can be in any reversed order, depends on our point of view. Criss-cross
among the moment, moreover, can also happen. The following is the explanation of ‘Barbie®
Flu’ phenomenon as seen in the circuit of culture.
Barbie’s Circuit of Culture
Production
Production means any culture and material production and its form. It means also how goods
are produced and its sustainability and diversity. Williams (in Putranto, 2007) explains that
sustainable means it is kept to exist; diversity means that the cultural product is various.
Barbie®’s sustainability is proven by the fact that it exists for more than 50 years, since its
production in 1955 up to now. Barbie is also diverse for it has various innovations, which is
proven by the fact that Mattel, Inc. has produced more than 150 different Barbie® dolls and
120 new outfits. Barbie®, moreover, is always trendy and reinvents herself. Barbie®’s
hairstyle has been changed from ponytail, bubble-cut, swirl, to side-part flip. Barbie®,
furthermore, has various roles in life as an astronaut, soldier, air force pilot, etc., with such
numerous accessories as cars, horse, carriage, etc.
In the case of ‘Barbie® Flu’ phenomenon, this element is significant in introducing
Barbie® all around the world, specifically for the girls in Odessa. By introducing Barbie® to
them, Mattel, Inc. Strengthens Barbie®’s sustainability.
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Consumption
Figure 3. Barbie®’s Consumption Chart
Source: Barros, Izabel Falcão do Rego. Feb/Mar 1998 (last revised February 1999).
The Business of Barbie®. El Segundo: MATTEL TOYS, Inc.
Consumption means how people read, buy, recycle, and keep the products. From Figure 3, it
is seen that people buy Barbie®, and the trend increases gradually. This consumption does not
only mean people who buy and use Barbie® as a toy but also means that people keep the
products as collections.
Consuming Barbie®, moreover, is not about satisfying needs but to make self-assurance, to
fulfill the desire to be ‘narcissistic’. In this case, Barbie® is idolized as a role model for young
girls and a model of aesthetic perfection. The Odessa’s Barbie® girls, therefore, spend several
hours applying makeup to transform themself into a Barbie®-like character with long colored
hair and huge eyes. One of those girls, Shpagina, is a hairdresser and makeup artist, users her
appearance as a promotional tool for her business. Being famous as the living Barbie ® girls,
Shpagina and Oleynik are employed as a lecturer on astral projection, which is an
interpretation of out-of-body experience that assumes the existence of an "astral body"
separate from the physical body and capable of traveling outside it. This fact then shows that
as the victims of Barbie® Flu, the girls make themselves to be similar as Barbie® to fulfill their
desire to be narcissistic.
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Representation
Representation means the visual aspect of the culture. Barbie® always represents in the form
of tall and slim body. Barbie®’s body shape, to be extreme, is far from the ideal women body
shape. This not-proportional body shape, however, is still believed as the one, which has
proportional body shape. A standard Barbie® doll is 11.5 inches tall. In an actual size, the
Barbie® will have a height of 5 feet 9 inches as seen in Table 1. Barbie®'s vital statistics have
been estimated at 36 inches (chest), 18 inches (waist) and 33 inches (hips). According to
research by the University Central Hospital in Finland, she would lack 17 to 22 percent body
fat, which would be around 35 lbs. underweight for a woman 5 feet 9 inches tall. The
comparisan of women’s ideal shape and Barbie® can be seen in Table 1.
Woman vs Barbie®
Height
+61cm
Waist
-15 cm
Chest
+13 cm
Neck Length
+8 cm
®
Table 1. Woman vs Barbie
Source: International Journal of Eating Disorders, Vol 18, No.3. 1995
Barbie® Flu phenomenon, therefore, shows that the thin ideal is visually preached not only by
commodities, but also by celebrity images, fashion models, rituals such as beauty contest, and
artifact such as Barbie® (Caputi and Nance in Nachbar and Lause, 1992). Although
slenderness is only a look, an image of beauty, it is frankly a narrow stereotype.
Identity
Identity means that every element of culture has its uniqueness, aesthetic purpose, and
specific form in expressing the meaning. This uniqueness makes this element become
acceptable in the society. In other words, identity means the shared taste or symbols of a
culture. Aesthetic quality between one society and another, however, is not the same for it is
culturally limited. For example, an African woman with a long neck ring is considered
beautiful in their culture, but this woman can be considered as weird for Indonesian people.
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Barbie® has the uniqueness and the aesthetic purpose of which can be seen in the body shape,
which is actually far from the ideal body shape, but is believed as the standard of intelligence,
beauty, and fashion (Caputi and Nance in Nachbar and Lause, 1992). Barbie® body shape,
moreover, is a socially recognized sign, for class status, sexuality, grace, discipline, and
‘being good’ (Caputi and Nance in Nachbar and Lause, 1992).
This standard of beauty, which is believed as unique, and aesthetic, moves three girls of
Odessa: Valeriya Lukyanova, Olga Oleynik, and Anastasiya Shpagina have had
breast surgeries and resemble Barbie® with long, blonde hair, big eyes, small mouths, and tiny
waists. They, moreover, believe that having Barbie®-shaped body means having a ‘good life’
as stated by Caputi and Nance (in Nachbar and Lause, 1992) that in a consumer culture,
popular beliefs are above logic and above all, they move us to action.
Those Barbie® girls believe that Barbie® is the standard of beauty, this belief, then, moves
them to do something beyond logic. Those Odessa’s Barbie® girls only eats honey-dew, fruits
and vegetables with no bread, meat or fish in her diet to attain the ‘standards’ of beauty.
People consume Barbie and they will go on a diet as stated by Caputi and Nance (in Nachbar
and Lause, 1992). They will suffer and then soon after, gain at least all of the weight back
again. A vast number of American adults experience this statistical pattern regularly. It shows
that we experience the power of popular beliefs, especially beliefs in stereotypes, first hand.
Despite scientific evidence, despite medical advice, despite the negative effects on our
individuality, despite our continuous failure, despite all common sense, we go ahead and diet
anyway, popular beliefs are above logic and above all, they move us to action.
Regulation
From the circuit of culture’s point of view, the production of Barbie® may form manipulative
mass culture, which means an individual may tend to hideout from fate, into something
socially constructed. The socially constructed one is the identity of Barbie® that is then
believed as the standard of beauty. This new standard of beauty moves the capitalists to gain
profit this condition. That is why Barbie® is mass-produced and spread all around the world.
Caputi and Nance (in Nachbar and Lause, 1992) strengthens this fact by stating that those
who achieve thinness through constant dieting do so at the high risk of permanent physical
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and mental stress, actually sacrificing health for the fashionably thin image. This condition
then becomes a trigger for some people or organization to formulate some agreements to
monitor or control the Barbie® flu (Williams in Putranto, 2007). Much opposition occurs such
®
as the body care retailer store The Body Shop which created Ruby, “the Anti-Barbie ”. Ruby
®
is a doll which is far from Barbie ’s standards. This female doll is fat, with big waist, hip, and
®
not tall, as seen in Figure 3. The Unilever brand Dove , moreover, created the “Campaign for
Real Beauty”, with “Real Women Have Real Curves” as its tagline.
®
Figure 3. Ruby: the Anti-Barbie
Source: http://dayindayout10.blogspot.com/2011/10/postcards-body-shop.html
Conclusion
®
Despite the controversial issues on Barbie , it still survives in our society. It shows that
®
®
Barbie exists as the part of consumer culture. The phenomenon of ‘Barbie Flu’ in Odessa
shows that those three girls are trapped in the consumer culture. Those girls tend to hideout
from fate, into something socially constructed beauty. They do extreme diet and plastic
®
surgery to fulfill the standard of beauty. Those three girls, moreover, consume Barbie to stay
alive, to create what they believe as a ‘good life’. Those girls, furthermore, do everything to
®
be like Barbie to fulfill their desire to be narcissistic. This condition, therefore, proves what
Bauman (2008) states that ‘survival’ is not that of the consumer’s body or social identity, but
of the desire itself: that desire which makes the consumer – the consuming desire of
consuming. By Hall’s theory of Culture Circuit, it is found that because of the mass
production and consumption of Barbie®, such new identities of women appear as modern
society’s eagerness to look better, younger, and more attractive. Behind its success in
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constructing society ideas of the new standards of women appearance, Barbie® actually holds
a seamy side in which she promotes an unrealistic idea of body image for the three girls in
Odessa, leading to several risks. This condition then creates a new regulation in which many
people from the opposite side create new propaganda not to idolize Barbie® anymore for the
teenagers. Barbie®, however, still has a role in creating new standards of appearance and
bodily presentation. Beyond these contrary facts, Barbie® proves that society is being
‘trapped’ in a consumer culture, a culture in which everybody wants to be like their idols,
whatever the condition is.
Understanding American culture, i.e. Barbie®, is important to raise one’s awareness that
cultural products can also present any imagery that sometimes cannot be accepted as the good
ones. Understanding culture, moreover, will be very important for English students and
teachers especially in advanced cross-cultural understanding, in which we have to
comprehend not only others’ language but also others’ way of thinking which in involved in
their culture.
References
Barros, Izabel Falcão do Rego. (1999). The Business of Barbie®. El Segundo: MATTEL
TOYS, Inc.
Bauman, Zygmunt. (2008). Consuming Life. Journal of Consumer Culture. Available at
August 20, 2013 from http://joc.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/1/1/9
Burns, Pal. (2008). Corporate Entrepreneurship: Building the Entrepreneurial Organization
(2nd Edition). Palgrave Macmillan.
Lee, Raymond M. (2000). Unobtrusive methods in social research. Buckingham: Open
University Press.
Nachbar, Jack and Lause, Kevin. (1992). Popular Culture: An Introductory Text. Bowling
Green: Bowling Green State University Popular Press.
Putranto, Hendar. (2007). Mempersoalkan Kultur dan Ideologi. In Sutrisno, Mudji, et al.
Cultural Studies: Tantangan bagi Teori – Teori Besar Kebudayaan. Depok: Koekoesan
Soldak, Katya. (2012). 'Barbie Flu' Spreading in Ukraine. Forbes, available at
http://www.forbes.com/sites/katyasoldak/2012/10/17/barbie-flu-spreading-in-ukraine/
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Storey, John. (2003). Inventing Popular Culture: From Folklore to Globalization. Malden:
Blackwell Publishing.
U.S. Department of State. (n.d.). The Post War Economy: 1945-1960. About.com economics,
available at http://economics.about.com/od/useconomichistory/a/post_war.htm
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LUCIEN TAYLOR’S LOVE-SEEKING MOTIVATION
IN SOMETHING TO BE DESIRED:
A NOVEL BY THOMAS McGUANE
Primanda Dewanti
Students of English Education Graduate Program of UNS
[email protected]
Abstract
Novel, as one of literary works, can be analysed through several ways. One of them is by
applying psychological approach. This paper will analyse a novel entitled Something to
be Desired using the approach. The objectives of this study are to find out Lucien
Taylor’s motivation in seeking his true love and to find out how he manifested his love
seeking motivation. Some psychological theories applied are Maslow’s humanistic
theory, the nature of motivation theory, and the general theory of love. This paper will
mainly discuss about: (1) novel as one of literary works, (2) the character of Lucien
Taylor in Something to be Desired, (3) some psychological theories applied to analyse
Lucien’s behavior (4) Lucien’s love-seeking motivation to Emily, and (5) Lucien’s loveseeking motivation to Suzanne. Hopefully, this paper can provide information to the
readers that analysing literary works using psychological theories is very interesting, and
it can give experiences about a situation which may take place around them.
Keywords: novel, love, motivation
Introduction
Basically, human beings are same with animals in many respects. The differences between
them are quite clear that human being have been given intellectual and cognitive potentials to
be developed. They have ideas, thought, feeling, and sense; some particular things that
animals do not have. Human beings demand some ways to express their mind and ideas. One
of the way is through the work of art called literature.
Literature can be defined as the work of art creation and expression. It comes from human’s
experience, idea, feeling, spirit, and conviction. The author presents into a good linguistic
composition through his language expertise (Jakob Sumarjo and Saini KM, 1998: 3). The
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unique use of the language makes it able to thrill the reader’s feeling. Literature is divided
into four categories or genres, namely (1) narrative, (2) drama, (3) poetry, and (4) nonfiction
prose. All the genres are art forms; each with its own internal requirements of structure and
style. Narrative fiction, which will be focus of the study, is an account of a series or events,
usually fictional, although sometimes fictional event may be tied to events that are genuinely
historical (Robert, 1983: 4).
Novel
Novel, as a branch of narrative fiction, is a long work with a great amount of detail in every
page. It presents fullness of human’s character and development. Its fullness of development
makes it longer than the other member of narrative fiction named short story. Novel is not
decidedly meant to read in one sitting. The one thing that can be found in every novel is the
growth of the major character from childhood to maturity. Thus, novel permits the character
develops and changes (Kenney, 1996: 105).
Novel can be analyzed through several ways. One interesting way to analyze a literary work is
by applying psychological approach. It is done by applying some psychology theories to
understand and find the psychological phenomena of the character’s behavior (Morgan, 1974:
2). In this paper the writer is going to analyze an American novel entitled “Something to be
Desired” through this psychological approach.
Jakob Sumarjo and Saini KM (1998: 29-30) hold that novel can be categorized into three
genres: romantic, adventurous, and fantasy novel.
a. Romantic novel
Romantic novel tells about love story between two or more persons in the novel. In
this genre the male and female chracters are involved in the same portion.
b. Adventurous novel
This novel genre involves little female character. Most of the characters are male and
most of the problems brought in the story are masculine prolems that do not require
any female role.
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c. Fantasy novel
It tells about unreal thing to be seen from daily life. In conveying its idea, it presets
unusual character, setting, and plot. The most important matters from this genres are
the author’s idea and thought which will clearly be conveyed through a fantasy story.
The Character of Lucien Taylor in Something to be Desired
Lucien Taylor was a poor young man coming from a discordant marriage. His father was a
mountain climber who likes to have great adventure. He often went to climb the mountains he
loved and hid from his wife. His wife, Lucien’s mother, did not like the reality. Once, he took
Lucien with him in one of his great adventures. It made him happy since he had not seen his
father for a long time. Lucien saw something unpleasant; his parents’ romantic was just
camouflage of their broken marriage. His father left them away. Lucien and his mother lived
alone on alimony, child support, and donations of relatives.
In his school, Lucien was a poor student recommended to the college of his choice. He
worked his ay through the state university as a pizza chef, a tool-pusher, a fence, and an
irrigator. He was a valuable ranch hand and a superb horseman. He was a serious person who
worked well every day while studying in the college.
In his first year of college, he dated two girls from his hometown, Emily nd Suzanne. He gave
his passionate love to Emily although he knew that she did not relly mean it. He was
immediately in love to her. They often made love between classes. For Emily’s love playing,
he considered it as a psychological experiment. Emily loved a maedical student the entire time
she saw Lucien. She made love to him while hoping to be with the doctor. In fact, she also
referred him as a “volunteer” in her sexual adventure. She married the doctor.
Suzanne, whom Lucien finally married with, was a beautiful young lady. She was the one
who seduced him during his broken hert for being left by Emily. She courted and married
him. Since Lucien’s work took him immediately to Surinam, she left with Lucien. They had a
son named James. Suznne was an honest and decent wife who would be dreamed by anyone
to have her. Still, she never came to Lucien’s heart as deep as Emily did.
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Once they had just learned that Emily had committed a crime. She shouted her husband death.
They had tried to ignore it. However, Emily was the person in Lucien’s past. He could not
forget his sweet memory with Emily. He wanted to see her.
Lucien told his wife that he wanted to work again in Montana. Suzanne already suspected that
there was something strange in his behaviour. She knew that he wanted to see his old
sweetheart. She finally complained about it. He knew that he was wrong, but he wondered
why he could not stop it. He left his wife and son in Surinam to back to Montana. He came to
Emily’s ranch to pay for her bail for the indictment. He was really sure that by her husband’s
death, Emily would love him again.
Emily offered Lucien to sign an arragement, a contract which conveyed that he owned the
ranch if she jumped the bail. He finally knew that she was not as sweet as what he dreamed
about. He was dissapointed to her since she laughed at his feeling and past. In fact, she also
played an affair with WT Austinberry, her hired man in the ranch. They left Lucien in the
ranch.
During Emily’s absence, Lucien had to care the ranch alone. He had some new companions
and was busy with the ranch. He remembered Suzanne and James. He invited them to visit the
ranch. Suzanne did not agree with the idea. Moreover, they would soon be divorced.
Suzanne and James finally came to Montana. Lucien felt he was firstly deep in love. He
admitted to Suzanne that he was sorry for all mistakes he had done. He could see clearly that
she is the best woman he ever met. He begged a chance to rebuild his family.
Some psychological phenomena are experienced by Lucien Taylor. Some of them are
frustration as when Emily left him, self discovery as when he was aware to go back to his
family, and a phenomenon that is studied deeply by the writer is motivation, particularly loveseeking motivation. Lucien’s motivation is the most interesting phenomenon found in the
novel since his behaviour was always influenced by a particular reason which shows that he
wanted something more in his life.
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The Applied Theories
a. Maslow’s Humanistic Theory
Humanistic theory is an explanation of behavior that emphasizes the entirety of life
rather than individual components of behavior. It focuse on human dignity, individual
choice, and self-worth. Humanistic psychologist believe that individuals’ behavior
must be viewed within the framework of the individuals’ environment and values. One
of the humanistic approach founders was Abraham Maslow (1908-1970), who assumed
that people are essentially good than they posses an innate inclination to develop their
potential and to seek beauty, truth, and harmony (Lefton, 1997: 308).
In his humanistic theory Maslow formulated a theory that explains human behavior in
terms of a hierarchy of the six general needs. He believed that everyone had a common
set of six universal needs that were ordered in a hierarchy of importance from the
lowest-level basic through the highest-order needs. The six general needs are presented
by diagram 1 (Sdorow, 1995: 379).
Diagram 1. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
As shown in the diagram above, the basic needs found by Maslow are:
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1) Physiological needs
Physiological needs were the most basic needs in Maslow’s hierarchy and include
needs that must be satisfied for the person to survive, including food, water,
oxygen, sleep, sex, and sensory satisfaction (Steers and Porter, 1991: 34).
2) Safety and security needs
If the psychological needs are relatively satisfied, Maslow claimed that safety and
security needs would emerge. Those needs include a desire for security, stability,
dependency, protection, freedom of fear of anxiety, and a need for structure, order,
and law (Steers and Porter, 1991: 34).
3) Love and belongingness needs
These include the need for emotional love, friendship, and affectionate
relationshipwith people in general, especially spouse, children, and friends.
Individual who are unable to satisfy this needs will experience pangs of loneliness,
ostracism, and rejection (Steers and Porter, 1991: 34).
4) Esteem needs
Esteem needs may be focused internally and externally. When focused internally,
they include a desire for strength, achievement, adequacy, mastery, confidence,
independence, and freedom. When externally, they consist of a desire for
reputation or prestige, status, fame, glory, dominance, recognition,attention,
importance, dignity, and appreciation (Steers and Porter, 1991: 34)
5) Self actualization
It is the need to develop one’s potential. It involves making the full use and
exploitation of talents, capacities, and potentialities (Maslow in Davis and
Paladino, 1997: 540)
6) Transcendence need
It refers to spiritual fulfillment. In this level, the person seeks to further a cause
beyond the self and to experience a communion beyond the boundaries of the self
through peak experience (Koltko-Rivera, 2006). One of the persons who are able
to fulfill this need is Mother Theresa.
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b. The Nature of Motivation
Motivation refers to the cause and why of behavior. Psychologists confine the concept
of motivation to those factors that energize behavior and give it direction. Supporting
the idea, Atkinson et al. (1983: 283) say, “A motovated person will do something
vigorously and more effectively than unmotivated one since motivation tends to direct
behavior.”
There are some sources of motivation. According to Sdorrow (1998: 376), there are
three sources of motivation which are genes, drives, and incentives. The explanation is
presented by the following items:
1) Genes
Genes can be defined as hereditary factor that motivate behavior. Sdorrow (1998:
376) says that in early twentieth century many psychologist attributed human and
animal motivation to inherited instinct. Meanwhile, William McDougall viewed
that all human thoughts and behavior were the result of inherited instinct that could
not ne learnt (Atkinson, 1983: 284).
2) Drives
Drive can be defined as the pushes that motivate behavior (Sdorrow, 1998: 377).
Drive is an internal motivation. Considering human thirst drive, when the body
loses water, receptor in body’s hypothalamus respond and make him feel thirsty.
This arouses individuals, signal that his body lacks water, and directs him to drink.
3) Incentives
Sdorrow (1998: 379) says that incentive is the pull that motivates behavior. It ca be
said that it is an external stimulus that pulls individual toward a goal. It has been
clear that the individual is not merely pushed by internal drives; external stimuli
that are called incentives also play an important role arousing behavior.
c. The General Theory of Love
Love can be defined as an intense feeling toward another person—the strongest
positive feeling someone can experience (Liebowitz in Wortman. Loftus, and Weave,
1999: 88). It can also be defined as the condition to be deeply understood and willingly
accepted (Roger in Goble, 1987: 74). It is also an action treating others with respect
since it requires the very best for another.
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There are three components of loving: intimacy, passion, and commitment (Stenberg in
Wortman, 2004: 589).
Diagram: Stenberg Triarchic Theory
Lucien Taylor’s Love-Seeking Motivation to Emily
Emily was the one whom Lucien missed very much. She was the girl whom Lucien firstly
made love to. She had been a talented pianist before. She had incomplete use of her hands
caused by an accident her husband made. She, then, did a terrible crime: killed her husband
death.
Emily was a kind of girl who could play a sexual intercourse with someone she liked. When
they were still in college, she did not really love Lucien. The entire time she saw him, she
loved a medical student who would be her husband then. She had loved the student since she
was in high school. Nevertheless, she had made love to Lucien at their first meeting at
college. In line with the idea, Baron and Byrne (2000: 330) say “That is, you can be sexually
attracted but not in love, but you aren’t likely to be in love in the absence of sexual
attraction”. Emily was sexually attracted to Lucien. She was not in love with him since she
had loved another person a long time before.
Emily was under indictment that she had done a murder. She had killed her husband, Eric.
She shouted him death. She herself described it as a premeditated murder. She did it under the
reason that she was often beaten by him. In this case, her need of safety made her have a will
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to escape from the generating fear stimulation. Steers and Porter (1991: 34) say their
perception about safety needs as follows, “Those needs include a desire for security, stability,
dependency, protection, freedom of fear, of anxiety, and a need for structure, order, and law”.
Her husband’s cruelty had made her safety need emerge. It motivated her to protect herself by
killing him.
Lucien felt immediately in love to Emily, moreover he hoped that she was pregnant with him.
He intended to have his love relation with Emily kept in a longer time due to the baby. As
Atkinson (1983: 283) says “A motivated person will do something vigorously and more
effectively than unmotivated one since motivation tends to direct behavior”. For Lucien, to be
with Emily was one motivation that refers to the cause and why of his wants to have a baby. It
can be concluded, then, that as a motivated person, he would do many things in reaching his
goal to be with Emily.
Lucien’s betrayal started when he and Suzanne had a visit to Charlestown to examine the
ancient barrel-roofed library. He felt that there was a lack in his life for all those years. He
was suddenly aware that he was lack of high romance in his marriage. It motivated him to
seek another love, his old sweetheart, Emily. It can be concluded that his motivation in
seeking another love was a lack of high romance in his marriage. Romance can be considered
as exciting and pleasant love affair. A long-term relationship like marriage without high
romance may bring itself into boredom. As quoted by Baron and Byrne (2000: 348), Sorenson
et al (1993) say “Men and women differ in how they cope with a failed relationship. Women
confide in their friends, whereas men tend to start a new relationship as quickly as possible”.
As a man, Lucien tended to find a new relationship after he felt his boring marriage. Soon he
remembered his passionate old love, Emily.
To reach his ambition in getting Emily’s sympathy, Lucien held a meeting with her attorney.
He hoped that the attorney would be optimistic about her case. In addition, he assured that by
her freedom, it would be a fresh start for their love again. His love to Emily had been a
motivation to help her. In humanistic perspective, motivation is a matter that is highly
considered. Need of love and belongingness is the third level in need hierarchy after
physiological and safety needs.
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Once, Lucien investigated Emily’s room for a bit inventory. There was a photograph of Eric,
her late husband, stuck up in the edge of her dressing mirror, as McGuane writes “Lucien
thought of him doing the strings of the cap and flinging forth the dramatic curls. He’s death.
Soon she’ll love me again” (1984: 33). He saw the picture and thought the fact that Eris had
died would motivate her to love him again. He was sure that Eric’s death was a destiny. It was
Eric who lost and he felt as the winner in the love battle. His death was one of Lucien’s
motivations to reach her heart again.
In making Emily’s bail, Lucien had put all he could borrow. He hoped that it meant
something to take her heart again because he knew that she needed his help at this time. As
quoted by Sdorow (1995: 604), Harrison says “Men intended to seek attractive woman while
offering financial security in return. In contrast, women tended to seek financially secured
men while offering physical attractiveness in return”. The tendency conveyed by Harrison had
been proved to Lucien. He tended to Emily who had physical attractiveness while offering his
ability to pay her bail.
The same theory could be applied when Emily in her escape ordered Lucien to send five
thousand dollars to her. She demanded a financial security for the money he would send while
offering physical attractiveness in return. She called him on the phone. He began to suspect
about what she wanted from him. He was nervous to receive her call. He sent five thousand
dollars to her. It saddened him to imagine how happy she was to get the money.
Lucien wept when he was aware that Emily had left him and the ranch. While crying, he felt
like a jilted boy. In his deep mourning, he often drank. He felt lost and unlucky. He was aware
that he was demanded to keep the ranch in his name lonely. He was beginning to understand
what he had paid to be there alone. He experienced what the psychologist call it loneliness.
Loneliness is “…an emotional and cognition reaction to having fewer and less satisfying
relationship that one desires” (Archibal, Bartholomew, & Marx, 1995; Pepleau & Perlman,
1982 in Baron and Byrne, 2000). What he desired was that after he had paid Emily’s bail for
the indictment, he got the heartfelt gesture as the reciprocal action from her. However, he had
never got it. This loneliness occurred due to the lack of reciprocity between them; he had give
everything he could give, while Emily insisted that she did not love him.
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After Emily had gone, Lucien stayed in depression. He got rid of the furniture in the house.
The bedroom was empty for everything except what would furnish a dormitory room. He felt
how rueful he saw the bedroom, the most grievous thing was his long journey to sacrifice his
property and be left by Emily. He was sorry at the time; he should not throw out all the
furniture. He felt it was like being left in the barn.
Emily confessed that all he had done to pay her bail was just infantile. In fact, she could pay it
herself.
“Why do you call it infantile?”
“Because I could perfectly have paid it myself.”
“I thought it meant something when you let me do it.”
“It did mean something! It meant that the ranch would not be seized upon when I left
the country because it was in your name. It meant that I would always have it to come
back to. That’s how much contempt I had for you.” The flashing light from the airfield
ignited their faces. (STD, p. 167)
Finally it was found that Lucien was the one who should have not got a good impression in
the society for his happy little family. Oppositely, he returned to his old sweetheart for a bit
self-immolation, sacrifice, and malfeasance. In the hot spring, he spent his time to love a
murderer who had never given him a reciprocal action, instead giving him many problems.
Lucien Taylor’s Love-Seeking Motivation to Suzanne
Suzanne was a girl whom Lucien later on married with. She was a beautiful girl who was not
as brave in her love adventure as Emily was. She was a little bit mousy. She was pretty with
her brown hair and eyes. She was not an up-to-date girl. She was a kind of girl who had never
traded on her look as girl in the last of the times when looks alone would do. This left her
with the curiously easygoing nature of a twenty-year girl that was desired by many suitors.
Suzanne was a girl who was dreamed by many men to be their wife for her prettiness.
People’s attraction to her was influenced by her prettiness. A psychologist Walster et al
(1996) points out that “Physical beauty is still a social magnet that draws us to other people
and encourages us to like them”. This perception makes a conclusion that it is possible that it
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is possible for a person to admire the person of the opposite sex for the physical
attractiveness. The same perception could be employed to comprehend why many people
were interested to Suzanne. Many persons desired her for her prettiness. First was an Olympic
gymnast, and then a young ranch aristocrat majoring in classics. Right after that, a handsome
orphan and a German racer were dismissed, and then came Lucien. Lucien was the one who
seized upon her for her prettiness in his broken heart for his separation from Emily.
Suzanne chose Lucien as the last man who would accompany her. Lucien, at that time, was
wailing without shame about his old squeeze after he had been left by Emily. He shared
everything that made him depressed to Suzanne. It was Suzanne who used to seduce him
without complaint, courted him, and cooked wonderful meals which he ate absently. For
Suzanne, the way Lucien told his story was as one who shared the exposure about himself. As
quoted by Wortman et al (2004: 588), repeated exposure to another person can create positive
feeling. Repeated exposure creates an impression that someone will look less threatening for
another person. The proximity between two persons may bring them into familiarity. For
Suzanne, as for someone who had honest characteristics, the familiarity brought her to love
Lucien. Everyone who saw them would feel envy that a depressed man walked with a peerless
girl in his arm.
Love can be defined as “…intense positive feeling toward another person; the strongest
positive feeling we can experience” (Wortman et al, 2004: 588). Suzanne’s love to Lucien
was so honest. She did not refer him as a person who seized upon for her prettiness. She
referred him as nice and honest person who was just disappointed by his first girl friend. She
was successful to create positive feeling in his heart. It tended to her direct behavior. As
everybody knows, the one thing that tend to direct behavior is so called motivation. It is the
psychological processes that arouse, direct, and maintain behavior toward a goal (Sdorow,
1998: 376). Her positive feeling had motivated her to the goal of loving Lucien more and
more.
Long after having done his love affair again and left by Emily, Lucien tried to take Suzanne’s
attention. The first thing he did was calling her from Montana. He reminded her about their
old tune in Montana. She had already known what he actually intended to do. However, she
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rejected to talk about the matter. What he hoped is that when they talked about the memory,
she would do it similarly.
Lucien’s feeling to come back to his family had arisen to do his good deeds. Suzanne used to
refuse him. She said hurting words to him. Nevertheless, he knew that he should change her
perception about him and had a beautiful life with her. He was aware that he had to. There
was something in him that guides his behavior. According to Atkinson (1983: 283), “A
motivated person will do something vigorously and more effectively than unmotivated one
since motivation tends to direct behavior. Some significant examples on this matter are a
hungry person who is motivated to seek food and eat, a thirsty person to drink, a person in
pain to escape from the pain stimulus”. In line with the theory, Lucien was motivated by his
love in seeking Suzanne’s love.
Lucien invited Suzanne to the ranch. He went to the airport to pick her and James. When
seeing them, he suddenly fell in love to Suzanne. He saw that she was still the same tall
brown-eyed girl he had misunderstood for so long. In his marriage, he had never cared about
her love and attention. He had just seized upon her as a place to wail and cry for Emily
without loving her. His guilty feeling had been a motivation to love her more and more.
In order to be loved by Suzanne again, Lucien started his struggle. He tried to invite her in a
dinner. He got no response from this. Instead, she asked him to provide a car the day to get
some groceries. She decided that James and she would like to eat their own meal. It was clear
for him that he would never be able to invite her to dine out together. He was aware that she
would probably refuse any invitation coming from him. She had been frustrated by him. She
did it due to the fact that she was disappointed. The way she did not make any response was
the way she reduced from her broken heart.
One afternoon, Suzanne invited Lucien in a dinner. His love to her was getting bigger and
bigger. For him, she was a tough woman who still kept on smart when he left her. When he
tasted his food, he found her cooking had improved considerably. It proved to him that she
was obstinate enough to be left. Still, she could develop her own ability and interest. With full
of attention, she asked him about his day. What he had done to her did not reduce her
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predacious character. He just began to see that she was successful and he was sorry to just
begin to be aware of it.
Suzanne’s relatives gave Lucien a dirty look as one who had done a girl wrong. He was
beginning to see that what he had done influenced everything, including his relationship with
her relatives. He knew how it was important to rebuild his family again. His will to rebuild his
family again was a motivation to return to his wife. It tended him to direct behavior. Thus,
one of his motivations to love her again was to make better relationship with her relatives.
Speaking to himself, Lucien was aware that he loved Suzanne. She was a girl he
misunderstood for a long time. He wrote their initial in the light covering of dust. He would
rebuild his family by doing many things he had never cared before. It made him get what the
so called self-respect as people said. Therefore, from the many factors that motivated his
behavior, it can be concluded that the one whom he truly loves was his wife, Suzanne.
Conclusion
From the many factors that motivated Lucien’s behaviors, it can be concluded that one whom
he truly loved was Suzanne, his wife. She was successful from the very beginning of the
marriage. His dream to have a sexual adventure with Emily has closed his eyes to see the
reality. A guilty and regret feeling were created in his mind. He had already had a nice thing,
but he left it for a worse thing. The feeling motivated him to love Suzanne more and more.
References
Atkinson, R.L., Atkinson, R.C., and Hilgard, E. R. 1983. Introduction to Psychology (Eight
Edition). New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Inc.
Baron, R. A., and Byrne, D. 2000. Social Psychology 2 (Second Edition). Massachusetts :
Allyn and Bacon.
Goble, F. G. 1987. Mahzab Ketiga Psikologi Humanistik Abraham Maslow. Yogyakarta:
Kanisius.
Jakob Sumarjo and Saini KM. 1988. Apresiasi Kesusastraan. Jakarta: Gramedia.
Kenney, W. 1966. How to Analyze Fiction. London: Prentice Hall.
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Koltko-Rivera, M. E. 2006. Rediscovering the Later Version of Maslow’s Hierarchy of
Needs: Self-Transcendence and Opportunities for Theory, Research, and Uniﬁcation.
Review of General Psychology. Vol. 10, No. 4, 302-317. Retrieved from
http://academic.udayton.edu/jackbauer/Readings%20595/KoltkoRivera%2006%20trans%20self-act%20copy.pdf
Lefton, L. A. 1997. Psychology (Sixth Edition). Toronto: Allyn and Bacon.
McGuane, T. 1984. Something to be Desired. London: Arena Book Limited.
Morgan, C. 1974. A Brief Introduction to Psychology. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.
Morgan, C. 1986. Introduction to Psychology (International Edition). Singapore: McGrawHill Book Co.
Robert, E. V. 1983. Writing Themes about Literature (Fifth Edition). New Jersey: PrenticeHall, Inc.
Sdorow, L. M. 1995. Psychology (Fifth Edition). McGraw-Hill Company.
Steers, R. M., and Porter, L. W. 1991. Motivation and Work Behavior. Singapore: McGrawHill, Inc.
Wortman, C. B., Loftus, E. F., & Weaver, C. 1999. Psychology (Fifth Edition). New York:
McGraw-Hill College.
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THE ADVANTAGES OF USING PUR SANTOSO’S SHORT
STORY “DAMAYANTI” AS AN EXTENSIVE MATERIAL
FOR SMP STUDENTS
Sapuroh
SMPN 6 Bantarkawung-Brebes_Be Smart English Course
Abstract
The study of Damayanti is mostly to share experience with students, Damayanti, Obit,
Zara, and Astri, the characters of the short story in which one of the students, named
Damayanti leads her friends to learn together, something like peer learning activities
Damayanti is an interesting short story, it tells us more about tight friendship. A tight
friendship which leads motivation to study together, is a good example for students who
are stil in growing process. In this process, it will be better if they gain more such
positive values like friendship with such useful purposes. The most interesting side of
this short story is, one student of peer learning activities, named Obit, is being a best
friend of Damayanti and take learning activities intensively on his every Wednesday
regular schedule. Tight friendship, religious,convenience and enthusiasm in learning,
wise, caring, patience,responsible, sacrifice, and love are some of moral values which
appear in the short story in which the theme is familiar or gets closer to students’ daily
life.
Keywords: friendship, peer learning activity
Introduction
Learning a language should not be separated from learning the patterns and values of the
culture of which is a part. For this reason, literature is valuable to be learnt. It is learnt not
only to get pleasure but also to give the moral values, the cultural, social and political
backgrounds of the characters and other aspects which are implied in the literature.
Learning literature also makes us aware of the problem of life. Literature whether it is in the
form of poem, novel, short story, etc always serve real life values, such healt and comport,
friendship, ambition, love, ethical or moral knowledge, include art and religion. The values
can help reader understand every problem wisely. For example if the story of literature is
closely related to real life it leads them to understand their problems objectively. They can
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see which is good and bad, and which is wise and unwise. On the other hand, if it is not
closely to their life, at least, they can share experience with the character and learn something
valuable.
In this study the writer presents
The Advantages of using Pur Santoso’s Short Story
“Damayanti” As An Extensive Material For SMP Students since the extensive reading
program is considered as an appropriated activity in introducing literature to the students due
to the timing of conducting it which is not only inside classroom activity but also outside
classroom activity.
The study of Damayanti is mostly to share experience with students, Damayanti, Obit, Zara,
and Astri, the characters of the short story in which one of the students, named Damayanti
leads her friends to learn together, something like peer learning activities Damayanti is an
interesting short story, it tells us more about tight friendship. A tight friendship which leads
motivation to study together, is a good example for students who are stil in a growing process.
In this process, it will be better if they gain more such positive values like friendship with
such useful purposes. The most interesting side of this short story is, one student of peer
learning activities, named Obit, is being a best friend of Damayanti and take learning
activities intensively on his every Wednesday regular schedule. Tight friendship,
religious,convenience and enthusiasm in learning, wise, caring, patience,responsible,
sacrifice, and love are some of moral values which appear in the short story in which the
theme is familiar or gets closer to students’ daily life.
Literature and Language Learning
The following are the reasons for studying literature according to Lazar (1993:14-15) who
stated that literature should be used with the students because:

It is very motivating

It is help students to understand other culture

It is a stimulate for language acquisition

It develops students’ interpretative ability

It is encourages students to talk about their opinions and feelings

It is fun & students enjoy it
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Further Kay as quoted by Durya (2000, 12) explained that literature will increase all language
skills, they are reading, listening ,speaking, and writing, because its presents language that
ilustrate “a particular dialect’ which is emboded within a social context. Literature can foster
an overall increase in reading proficiency. If the students enjoy reading literature, it may
increase motivation to interact wit the text. For many students, literature can provide a key to
motivate them to read in english, and for all students, literature is an ideal vehicle for
ilustrating language use and for introducing cultural assumption.
Short stories are often an ideal way of introducing students to literature in foreign language
classroom. Collie in his book (Literature in Language Classroom, describes such advantages,
they are:

Their practical length means they can usually be read entirely within one or two class.
Slightly longer works can be can be sectioned in the some way as novels or plays, but
still be completed in a few lesson

They are less daunting for a foreign reader to tackle or to reread on his or her own, &
are more suitable when set as home tasks. Students get that feelings of achievement at
having come to the end of a whole work, much sooner.

They offer greater variety than longer text. A teacher can choose very different short
stories so that there is a greater chance of finding something to appeal each
individual’s taste and interest.

Short stories are especially valuable for sessional course , for teacher with shifting
classes: evening courses, for example, or continuous – intake adult classess.
Reason For Choosing The Topic
The ability of the students in reading is very important because by having the ability to read,
they will be able to improve their knowledge and they can enrich their experiences.
Since English is a foreign language, it is understandable that most students face difficulties in
understanding a piece of reading text. These difficulties sometimes make the students
frustrated. They lose their motivation to learn English. Finally they learn English simply
because it is a compulsory subject which must be learnt. Then, the only function of English
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seems to be a subject to be learnt (Nuttal, 1982:3). It can be concluded that the reason for
reading English is simply to learnt to read. It is not surprising if students’ motivation is low.
There are some possibilities why students lack motivation for reading. One of these is that
the students are notinterested in the reading material. Another, every student does not always
have the same interest
skills and potential rate progress.
Each student has different
understanding (quickly or slowly). Finally, it is because of their vocabularies are limited. In
order to encourage them to have strong motivation teacher should pay attention to those three
progress. Krashen as quoted by Eskey (1988:230) stated that supplying a subject matter
which is interesting and relevant is one way to encourage students’ motivation. While Nuttal
stated that the teacher should supply the reading material which is fresh and interesting. We
should realize that reading material in our Indonesian language is sometimes difficult, boring,
and uniteresting. For example when the teacher gives the students the material which are
unfresh and uninteresting, the students become unmotivated to read it. When we read in
foreign language, moreover the problems especially dealing with the material, are more
complex. Nuttal (1982:20) confirmed that: The criteria of good reading material should: 1)
tell the students things they do not already know, 2). Introduce the students the new material,
3)help them to understand the way other people feel or think, 4) make the students read for
themselves.
According to Nuttals’ criteria that the teacher should supply the reading material which is
fresh and interesting (1982:20), in this study, the writer proposes a short story as one of
extensive reading material since the short story is a kind of literary works which is considered
as the fresh and interesting material. A short story can be used as one of extensive reading
materials. Francoise Grellet (1981:4) in Developing Reading Sklills: A Practical Guide to
Reading Comprehension Exercises says that extensive reading is a longer texts, usually for
one’s pleasure. This is a fluency activity, mainly involving global understanding.
Actually, the study of “ Damayanti” as an extensive reading material for SMP students based
on the following considerations:
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1. Short story is a kind of literary works which is considered as an appropriate and
interesting for SMP students in the third year since it gives them an interest and
motivation to read English texts.
2. The Pur Santoso’s short story “Damayanti” is interesting
3. Learning English through literature in this case short story is enjoyable.
Statement of The Problems
The writer limits the discussion of “Damayanti” as an extensive material for SMP students by
presenting the problems:
1. What are the advantages of using “Damayanti” as an extensive reading materials for
SMP students?
2. What are the moral values found in the “Damayanti”?
3. How should the English teachers apply “Damayanti” in their classroom?
Objective of The Study
Based on the above statements of the problems, the objective of this study:
1. To show what are the advantages of using “ Damayanti” as an extensive reading
material for SMP students
2. To show the moral values found in “Damayanti”
3. To show how should the English teachers apply “Damayanti” in their classroom.
Significance of Study
1. Useful for English teachers, because it will suggest an extensive reading material in
their extensive program
2. Beneficial for students because it will suggest an appropriate material for them to
increase their interest and motivation in their reading skill, and other language skills.
“Damayanti” also share us more some valuable moral values
Methodology
This study is library research. Library research means the activity of gathering data from
library facilities, such as, references of fundamental theories that related to the subject matter.
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Review Of Related Literature
General Concept of Reading
According to Ronald Mac Kay (cited in Simanjuntak, 1988, 15) views that reading is an
active process. The reader
takes advantages of his knowledge
of vocabulary, syntax,
discourse and the real world to graps meaning from difficult words or new vocabulary
students find through written representation or reading materials.
Reading is an interactive process of what a reader already knows about a given topic or
subject / ideas a writer writes. However, reading
as a lesson at school will be learnt
intensively and integratedly to other language skills like listening , speaking, and writing. It
means that reading lesson involves approaching the text under close guidance of teacher,
under the guidance of task which forces the students to pay great attention to the text in order
to get detailed understanding of it.
A teacher paying serious attention to develop English reading skills often uses extra reading
program for inculcating students’ reading habit. This extra reading or extensive reading
program allows the students to practice reading as much as possible. Thus, the teacher can
encourage them a positive attitude toward reading skills.
General Definition of Extensive Reading
Different from class reading in general, extensive reading has a spesific meaning to English
teaching learning program. Extensive reading is out of school reading program. Teacher may
have good reasons for not using more reading in the class since class time is limited and the
amount of the reading needed to achieve fluency and effeciency are great.
Christine Nuttal says that extensive reading is a reading library. Students here should
research by themselves to look for reading material they want. Then the students are required
to check out their reading materials, a minimum one book per week, for instance. Each book
has a checkout card when will be reported to their teachers. It is done if their school
condition has enough books collection (1982:2).
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The consideration of extensive reading principles, e. g. First is the consideration of readers.
The readers / students are the main object of extensive reading program. Before it is held, the
teachers may look at students readiness whether or not they are capable to accept the
program willingly and have time to do that. At least, he/she knows that his students have
enough competence of English, especially in vocabulary because they read in foreign
language (ELF). And he/she also knows about the proper time to give it. For example, he
does not hold this extensive reading program or give its assignments at the moment they have
a lot of examination, because it will disturb consentration of the learning and they can not do
it seriously.
The next step, books acquired should be suitable with either level of the students condition or
their school condition. The problems which are often faced by the English teacher is probably
how to obtain the book than how to choose them. It does not matter if there are a lot of
English books in his/her school library. However, school supplying limited books will find it
difficult to run extensive reading program. One good alternative for it is to buying books
which meet good criteria of conducting extensive reading program. As a teacher, however,
he/she can use some solutions to do this, Christine Nuttal says as follows:
a. Propose to headmaster to give little school funds for the extensive reading program.
The funds are used to buy English books.
b. Asking each students to collect money and then the teacher allocates to buy some
books.
c. Collecting second hand books. The students can perhaps get them from their family
or friends.
d. Supplying and selecting the reading materials by the teacher himself and distributed
them in copy form (1982:172)
If all of the criteria above are impossible he can make other efforts taking reading materials
from magazines, newspapers, tabloids, search the materials in internet, ect.
Third, as a proof of the reading activity, the teacher can give some assignments related to
reading materials. For instance, while the students are doing the reading, teacher can ask
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them to list
difficult words as many as possible along wit their meaning or with teir
synonyms. And then teacher can ask them to make a good sentence by using those words.
Extensive Reading Material
The extensive reading material provides students with additional reading and exercise. The
most important function of the extensive reading material is to encourage more reading : the
more students read, the better readers they become ( and the better they read, the more they
enjoy reading).
According to Christine Nuttal, the criteria of extensive reading material for foreign
students/FL should be: appealing, easy, short and varied (1982: 171-172)
a. Appealing
The reading materials must appeal to the intended readers, supplying what the students realy
want. The appeal is greater if the book is attractive in appearance, well printed & with good
ilustrations.The books should look like the books they buy for their choices. In other words,
the book shouldn’t smell lesson books, notes and questios are better ommited
b. Easy
The language must be easier than found in current foreign language course books. The
teacher can not expect his students to read fluently, if language is difficult. A reading
improvement comes from reading a lot of easy material .
c. Short
The lenght of the book must not be intimidating. Students who do extensive reading program
need short books so that they can finish reading quickly without a sense of strain & boredom.
d. Varied
There must be varied material for the needs of the readers in term of content, language and
intelectual maturing.
From these above opinions by Nuttal, the writer can propose choosing reading materials for
extensive reading program. The writer thinks that choice of the reading materials should be
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attractive in type and content. And the materials should also be able to support the teaching
of EFL. Type of extensive reading for SMP students would be better of literary materials,
such as folktales, short stories, essays, short aricles about news even rather than science
books.
The purpose of various materials is that students can enjoy them without any
boredom.
Guidline For Text Selection
After finding out what kinds of books or passages students like to read, kinds of text for
students will later read for themselves ( for study or rather specific purposes as well as for
pleasure), teachers have to find out good guidelines. Christine Nuttal (1982: 6-7) gives the
useful guidelines, teacher may follow :
1.Will the text do one or more of these things?
a. tell the students things they do not know?
b. Introduce them to new and relevant ideas, make them think about things they have not
thought before
c. Help them to understand the way other people feel or think (e.g. other people with
different background problems, or attitudes for their own)
d. Make them want to read for themselves ( to continue a story, find out about subject
and so on)
2.Does the text appeal to the intended readers? The appeal is greater if the book or the text is
attractive in appearance(well-covered), well-printed (bigger printed), and should like the book
they buy for choice; i.e. it should not smell of classroom or schoolroom; notes and questions
are better omitted.
3. Does the text challenge the students’ intelligence without making unreasonable demands on
their knowledge of the foreign language?
It should be known that the readers’ degree of interest and sense of purpose may change
during
the process of reading.
If one’s interes level increase, his or her level of
comprehension usually does too. If one loses his interest
comprehension decrease.
in what he is reading, his
Therefore, the teacher should be careful in choosing reading
materials for the students. He also should know for sure the function & aim of the extensive
reading.
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On this study the writer analyzes to use short story as a material for extensive reading
program. She wants to give a short story which is simple enough, so the students can get the
messages from it.
Short Story
A short story is short, and can waste no words. The short story can deal with only one central
action & major change of affect in the life of the central character or characters.
Esenwein (1988:15) offers a definition of short story that is a brief imaginative, narrative
unfolding a single predominating incident and a single chief character. It contains a plot, the
details of which are so compressed and a whole treatment so organize, as to produce a single
impression.
Kenney states that short story is normally applied to work of fiction ranging in length from
one thousand to fifteen thousand words. Length itself may seem a purely mechanical
consideration, but many important qualities of the two forms are clearly to length. The
Length of a good short story is an essential part of the experience of the story (1966:103)
Edgar Allan Poe in Kenney’s book states that the matter of a short story’s proper length is
when it should be short enough to produce the desired effect on the reader. The effect sought
in a short story should be one that can be achieved on a work short enough to be read in one
sitting (1966:103-104). Rees says that short story is a literary work which is limited in
number pages; the shortest consists no more than a page or two length, the longest may run to
over a hundred pages (1973:202) Yet, there is no absolute limitation on the word ‘short’.
Some important elements of a short story are generally similar to those of a novel. These are
setting, mood or atmosphere, plot, characterization, theme, style and point of view. On
account of limitation, The elements of short story must also be limited.
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Discussion
Pur Santoso’s Short Story “Damayanti” Meets The Criteria Required
Reading works of literature especially short story is useful. The teacher of SMP can use
“Damayanti” as an extensive reading material given to the students. It meets the criteria
required as mentioned in the previous chapter, they are as follows:
a. .Appealing
The study of ‘Damayanti’ is mostly to share experience with students (Damayanti, Obit, Zara,
Astri), the characters of the short story in which one of the students, named Damayanti leads
Obit, Zara, and Astri to learn together something like peer teaching activities. ‘Damayanti’ is
an interesting short story. It tells us more about tight friendship, a tight friendship in which
it leads motivation to study together. It is a good example for students who are still in
growing process. In this process, it would be better if they gain more such positive values
of friendship with such useful purpose. The most interesting side of this short story is, one
student of peer learning activities, named Obit, who is being Damayanti’s best friend and take
peer learning intensively on his every Wednesday regular schedule.
Tight friendship,
religious, convenience & enthusiasm in learning, wise, caring, love, patience, responsible,
sacrifice, are some of moral values which is found in the short story ‘Damayanti’
b.
Easy
Basically, the language which is used in ‘Damayanti’ is not difficult for SMP students. The
writer mostly uses short sentences and everyday students’ vocabularies. She sometimes uses
some expressions which are still unfamiliar for students, but the meaning can be guessed from
its context. The students do not have to check the difficult words in the dictionary often.
c.
Short
The lenght of ‘Damayanti’ is still related to the length of material suggested for an extensive
reading material which is below 2000 words. In addition, to keep interest in ‘Damayanti’ the
text could also be divided into two/three parts; part I, part II, and part I.
d. .Varied
The choosing of ‘Damayanti’ is based on consideration that it is a short story which shares
students’ daily life with the purpose to propose students about such literary work which is
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related to students’ contextual life. ‘Damayanti’ also shares some useful moral values as
stated above. Such moral values are could be positive guidances for them as teenagers who
are still find identities.
The Advantages of Using “Damayanti” As An Extensive Reading Material
For SMP Students
The writer wants to describe the advantages of using ‘Damayanti’ as an extensive reading
material for SMP students, they are as follows:
1. It will be suitable and more interesting for SMP students because the language used in
the short story is not difficult to study
2. Using the text as an extensive reading material is expected to bring about a positive
result in learning English such as vocabulary, grammar, and even to add general
knowledge about culture.
3. The short story also gives the students enjoyment because it tells about the other life
which may be likely or unlikely found in the readers’/students’ real life
4. Another benefit of using ‘Damayanti’ as an extensive material is that both teachers
and students can learn moral values conveyed by the writer.
The Moral Values Implied in “Damayanti”
As a piece of literary works, ‘Damayanti’ short story has some messages conveyed by the
writer, Pur Santoso. These messages are especially about moral values which play important
rules in our lives in general and SMP students’ world in particular. They are:
Friendship
A friendship conveys in the story is a tight friendship which leads to a motivation to study or
to learn. It is good example for students who are still in a growing process. In this process, it
would be better, if they gain more such positif values like friendship which is shared in the
short story. The enthusiastic side of students to make a tight friend for such purpose to study
or learn is very useful. A tight friendship both Damayanti and Obit and their classmates
includes Astri and Zara is immpressed us.
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Religious
It can be read clearly that religious is one of the themes of ‘Damayanti’ Religioius appears
from students’ peer learning activities which is led by Damayanti mostly learn about quranic
learning besides other school lessons. This peer learning activities are good activities shared
by the writer to the readers or students to apply well-roled behaviour in life.
Caring
Damayanti’s caring appears in well-conducting these peer learning activities. While her
friends (Obit, Astri, and Zara) do not take peer learning in a same schedule. Obit takes
learning every Wednesday after school, Astri and Zara take learning everyday after taking
maghrib prayer. Damayanti and her friends could manage their learning activities based on
each schedule regularly.
It could be said that Damayanti succeed managing their peer
learning activities well.
Responsible
Obit and Damayanti have appeared responsible values when their teacher was warning on
both their little bit chattings while the class was going on the lesson. Obit and Damayanti
show their responsible attitudes to receive their consequences by coming in front of class to
be excecuted by their theacher and classmates to sing a song. Here Obit sings a song entitled
‘Damayanti’.
Patience
Patience is good. Patient people makes us strong and not easily feel desperate over any
difficult situation. If people are in bad situation or they face problem that can not be solved
either by themselves or other assistance, they can make us do bad things and desperate. So,
patience will refrain from doing bad things. From the story, we see that Obit is patient
enough in treating Damayanti’s anger.
He does not show same anger to response
Damayanti’s anger on stating Damayanti’s name in a song and also first, Damayanti assumes
that Obit is not have seriously desire to learn the holy quran in purely motivativation to apply
quranic values in life. Finally, Obit can explain his pure motivation patiently.
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Wise
We should always wise about other people, either in bad or in good time. In bad time we
need other’s assistance and vice versa. We must have power to overcome the ever present
tendency toward egocentrism and we should also have the disposition of caring and wise
about what happens to others. Teaching to solve someone’s difficultness in mastering subject
matters or lessons smoothly is wise.
Sacrifice
It is nice to help others. We help other sincerely, not because of any reason behind our
actions to others. It has been our duty to help others, and vice versa. We do something that it
is proper object to others, and when we act in good spirit to help others, we do not expect
anything in return. In society where we live in, we should help others, we also take and give.
We give something to someone sincerely or not taking advantages from it, but it gives us
pleasure that our assistance to others is proper. Here in ‘Damayanti’, Damayanti’s act in these
peer learning activities is an example of good roles.
Convenience & Enthusiasm in Learning
The tight friendship among the characters in this short story leads them (Damayanti, Obit,
Astri, Zara, and her friends) are being convenience & enthusiasm in these peer learning
activities with each certain schedule regularly.
Love
Obit declares his particular feeling (love) clearly by creating a song entitled ‘Damayanti’
which is sung in the moment Obit and Damayanti come in front of class because of teacher’s
warning on their little bit chatting in a piece time of lesson to share how the best way of
going home.
Suggested Classroom Activity
On this occasion, the writer tries to present the posible procedures of applying the short story
in the classroom. The following are how the activities are organised:
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1. Teacher gives the students “Damayanti”, then the students are assigned to thread the
story on their own, for home reading, in a certain amount of time.
2. After the short story has been read completely, a class as a whole can discuss it in the
following steps:
a. Divide class into groups of four and let each group discuss the question on such
element of the short story or other comprehension questions. A small group
discussion is more enjoyable for students, since each member of the group will
have enough opportunities to express him/herself freely
b. Distribute comprehension questions to students indidually so that each has a
question of his/her own to answer. Perhaps two or three students could work
together on the most difficult ones.
3. When the students, individually or as part of a group has had enough time to think
about questions, direct discussion on the question that can be done in one of the
following ways:
a. Set a side some time each day to discuss questions assigned to each group, calling
upon members of a group for discussion.
b. Lead the class in a group dialogue incorporating all the questions with which the
classs has been presented.
4. Providing follow-up activity by letting students do the following:
a. Write an ending or a review of the story
b. Read other stories about the same theme or by the same author.
The Role of Teacher, Students, and Material in The Activity
The Role of Teacher
The teacher provides a basic for development of emphaty by giving the students time and
opportunity to internet with the story. He/She can also convince them that reading the short
story may have a significance for a moral value formation. Therefore, it is important to keep
in mind that value clarification should be means of helping them make moral decisions as a
result of responding the short story Here the purpose to give experience in decision making
by considering the consequences of an action & choose the positive points againts the
negative ones.
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The teacher should be ready to accept any responses from the students because their responses
to the short story are often personal in nature and these are inevitable. He/She should be able
to establish an atmosphere which enables them feel secure enough to respond the short story
openly.
The Role of Students
In the process of reading the short story, the students are expected not only to respond with
opinions and feelings, but also to learn, to analyze, to interpret, and to seek evidence for their
conclusions. Accordingly, they have to be able to apply their prior knowledge of essential
reading abilities and literary theorist searching the elements of the short story and other
aspects on building up literary works comprehensively.
In connection with this, they should be willing to be tentative, to express thought and feelings
they are unsure of, to change their minds. Initial response should be treated as draft, as
something to build upon, modify, or perhaps reject. They should not be afraid to change their
minds, revising one’s opinion is a normal part of intelectual activity.
The Role of Material
The presence of the short story as an extensive reading material is as a suplementary reading
material, occuring outside class/school, but it is still under the direction of the school. The
short story itself basically is an assignment which provides the students with an additional
reading material to complement the core reading within a certain period of time.
Thus the funtion of the material is to encourage more reading with the assumption that the
more students read, the better readerss they become. And because it is done as an out of class
activity, it will be more enjoyable.
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Conclusion & Suggestion
Conclusion
After discussing the advantages of using Pur Santoso’s short soty ‘Damayanti’ as extensive
reading material, the writer comes into the following conclusions:
1. In general, there are four skills to learn English laguage. Reading is one of the skills
in language learning besides listening, speaking, and writing. And reading has very
important place in learning English because there is an understanding that the increase
of one’s knowledge and experience is greatly influenced by his/her reading. By
reading one can absorb as much knowledge as he needs. The more often he reads , the
more knowledge he absorbs.
2. The ability of the students in reading is very important because by having the ability to
read, they will be able to improve their knowledge and they can enrich their
experiences, so reading is a key success for anyone who wants to be an educated
person.
3. For Indonesian students, the reading skill in English functions as a facilitator to gain
success in their study. ‘Damayanti’ is the one that can help them gain it. It takes
them through the imagination deeper into the real world, and it enables them to
understand the problems of human beings.
4. By reading the short story the students will be able to study t its elements
comprehensively.
5. The short story gives some advantages as an extensive reading material, short story
belongs to a kind of easy to read material, precisely it is not difficult for students to
comprehend. The short story also tells the students the things they have not known
before, gives them fun, & there are some implied moral values found in the story.
6. Some moral values found in ‘Damayanti’ are,
friendship, religious, caring,
responsible, patience, wise, sacrifice, convenience & enthusiasm in learning, and love.
Suggestion
a. For English Teachers
Based on the study, the writer offers some sugesstions to be considered to improve
teaching of reading especially for extensive reading:
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1. In teaching reading the teachers should remember that they are not trying to put
something into the students’ mind, but they are trying to get them to grasp
knowledge by himself/herself, to make use the knowledge they already had in
order to understand the messages intended by the writer.
2. In selecting extensive reading material, the text or the book should be attractive
(i.e. well-covered, bigger print, and good coloured illustration, if it is possible) and
appeal to the intended readers.
3.
It is necessary for English teacher to choose authentic text for extensive reading
materials although they contain difficult vocabularies or structure since thi is a
very effecient way to build up the students’ confidences.
4. English teachers should be careful in selecting extensive reading materials for the
students since the proper selection of extensive reading materials lead students to
gain a better comprehension.
5. Besides using the reading materials written in the textbooks, the teachers can also
develop his her students’ reading skills by providing exciting reading materials,
such ‘Damayanti’ short story which is suitable to the students’ need and interest.
The teachers can distribute it as task for students to be read and discussed at home
within three days or a week. The teachers can also give them some questions to
be answered individually or in a group. The students also get pleasure by doing
this activity
b. For Students
1. Students should more reading materials, especially texts which are written in
English. Students can choose what kind of reading they like to read, such as
comics, novels, short stories, poems, essays, ect.
2. Students should try to find new vocabularies, the grammar used in the story
intended by the authors
3. Students should take part in the classroom activity either individually or in group.
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References
Collie, Joanne.
(1992). Literature in The Language Classroom. Cambridge. Cambridge
University Press
Durya, A. A. S. (2000). Reading Poetry.(Unpublished English Lecturers Material). English
Department of Unnes. Semarang
Eskey, Devine and Carrel. (1988). Interactive Approaches to Second Language Reading
Applied Linguistics. Cambridge University Press.
Grellet, F. (1981). Developing Reading Skills. Cambridge University Press.
Kenney, William. (1966). How to Analyze Fiction. Monarch Press.
Lazar, Gillian. (1993). Literature and Language Teaching. Cambridge University Press.
Nuttal, Christine. (1982). Teaching Reading Skills in A Foreign Language. Heinmann
Education Books.
Rees, R.J. (1973).
English Literature:
An IntroductionFor Foreign Readers. London:
Macmillan Education Ltd.
Simanjuntak, Editha Gloria. (1988). Develoving Reading Skills For EFL Students.
Depdikbud.
Santoso, Pur.(2013). ‘Damayanti’ Easy Short Story, English Class Materials. Self Collections
Third Edittion, 2009. Oxford Learner’s Pocket Dictionary. Oxford University Press.
Biography:
Sapuroh,S.Pd,is an English Teacher at SMPN 6 Bantarkawung Brebes and Be Smart English
Course, She was born in Brebes on May 15, 1978. Graduated from English DepartmentUnnes, 2002. She’s interested in writing, Not Only A Teacher But Also A Journalist’s one of
her English writings. Pur Santoso is her pen name after completing English short story
“Damayanti”
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CHRISTIANITY AND COLONIALISM IN SOME ENGLISH
SHORT STORIES
Tatang Iskarna
Sanata Dharma University
Abstract
Colonial and postcolonial studies are often linked to the power domination of the West
upon the East in the way that the East economically, politically, and socially oppressed.
Colonialism is often associated with three elements, the explorers dealing with
geographical information, missionaries approaching the local people culturally, and the
colonial administrators ruling the colony. Gold, glory, and gospel are the European’s
concern. However, in representing the relation between Christianity and colonialism
there is critical dialectic amongst historians, anthropologists, Christian missions, or
cultural critics. Some propose that Christianity is considered to be the religious arm of
colonialism. Others state that Christianity is spread without any secular interest as it is a
great commandment of Jesus Christ. A few believe that Christianity give critical
resistance against colonialism. The relation between Christianity and colonialism cannot
be simplified as being neutral, in complicity, or in opposition. So, it is worth-discussing
to understand how European writers construct the relation between Christianity and
colonialism in their literary work. How Christianity is constructed and how Christianity
is related to colonialism will be discussed in this paper. Using postcolonial paradigm,
two English short stories will be analyzed in that way. They are Rudyard Kipling’s
“Lispeth” and Doris Lessing’s “No Witchcraft for Sale”.
Keywords: Christianity, Orientalism, Colonialism, Racism, Western Culture, Native
Culture
Introduction
Christianity is often associated with colonialism since the expansion of European people
concerns with three G as their aims, that is Gold, Glory, and Gospel. Gold can be meant the
natural resources gained from the colonies. While Glory is the fame and greatness of the
European nations, Gospel is the great commandment as Christian missionary to spread the
salvation to the rest of the world. The relation between Christianity and colonialism can also
be observed from the three parties participating in the European expansion. They are explorer
who inform the geographical data, missionaries who approach the local people culturally, and
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the colonial administrators who rule and manage the colonies (Khapoys, 2009:11). However,
how actually and to what extent Christianity and colonialism are related are not explained
comprehensively and not yet studied thoroughly.
Although gold, glory, and gospel are often considered to be related, there are various opinion
on the relation between Christianity and colonialism amongst historians, anthropologists,
sociologists, missionaries, and cultural critics. The debate, Gray (1982:60) states, is whether
Christianity has influence upon the partition of the Africa colonies or whether Christianity is
manipulated by the colonizers for the sake of secular ambition. In general the relations
between Christianity and colonialism can be divided into three types, that is complicity, noninvolvement, and hostility. While complicity means that both legitimate each other and work
side by side, hostility reveals the opposition of Christianity against colonialism. Noninvolvement relation can be described as accomplishing their own mission in their own way
without relating to each other.
Therefore, it is challenging and interesting to do a study of the relation between Christianity
and colonialism. It is also worth discussing to understand this relation from the point of view
of literary work writers, especially colonial short story writers. In this paper two short stories
will be analyzed. They are “Lessing and “Lispeth” (1888) written by Rudyard Kipling and
“No Witchcraft for Sales” (1965) written by Doris. These short stories are chosen because
they present the writers’ view on Christianity and colonialism. This paper is going to explore
how Christianity is constructed and to what extent Christianity is related to colonialism in the
two short stories.
Review of The Relation between Christianity and Colonialism
Some missionaries are of the opinion that Christianity has nothing to do with colonialism.
Christian missions had been in Africa before the colonial Europeans came. Preaching the
gospels is not related to colonialism as it is the great commandment of Jesus Christ to His
disciples. Christian mission to reach all people to the end of the earth is considered to be the
real motivation of the missionaries. Christianity is spread to change spiritual view of the
African natives. This holy duty must be done without any influence and circumstances of
colonialism. In his book Paul, the Missionary, Schnabel (2008:9) states that Christian duty to
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preach the gospel is declared clearly in the Bible. Christians, like Christ’s disciples, will be
made fishers of men (Mark 1:17), ordered to heal the sick, and commanded to conquer the
devil’s power (Luke 9:1 – 5). The Bible declares, “Then Jesus came to them and said, ‘All
authority in heaven and on earth has been given to me. Therefore, go and make disciples of all
nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, and teaching
them to obey everything I have commanded you. And surely I am with you always to the end
of the age” (Matthew 28: 18 – 20). In other gospel, The Book of Mark, Jesus says almost the
same, “He said to them, ‘Go into all the world and preach the good news to all creation.
Whoever believes and is baptized will be saved, but whoever does not believe will be
condemned’ (Mark 16:15 – 16).
Some believe that Christianity and colonialism experience mutual cooperation. Christianity is
used for the secular aim of colonialism. Stephan Becans, SVD in The Divine Word
Missionary Magazine (2002) called Christianity as “the religious arm of colonialism”. The
idea of civilizing done by colonizers and the idea of preaching the gospel for the heathen are
almost the same. The superior European colonizers believe that they have burden to civilize
the rest of the world in order that the natives embrace the colonizers’ modern culture and way
of life. The Christians also have almost-the-same mission, to make the colonized become
believers. Christianity is considered to be modern religion, which is of course in opposition to
the traditional paganism. Christianity and colonialism create binary opposition: believers –
heathen and civilized – barbarous. Due to this fact, Christianity and colonialism have
opportunity to make mutual collaboration. Christianity is used to justify colonialism.
Missionaries are ordered to contribute their programs to change the natives’ paradigm so that
they can accept European culture and submit to the colonizers. Bible can be misinterpreted to
support the European hegemony. Jesus and His teaching are manipulated to be from Europe
and He is made as Western icon. The teaching of the Bible is manipulated to preach the
European superiority. Hilde Arnsten (1997:4), a professor in the Department of Media and
Communication of Oslo, cited the remarks delivered by Pater Wolf Schmidt, S.J. from St.
Ignatius College Zimbabwe (1991) as follows:
“Jesus has been hijacked by Western culture so as to make him “white”, he was not”. Edward
Said (1978:115) implicitly relates Christianity and colonialism by stating that orientalism is a
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secular Christianity. Bible and Christianity are two supporters of binary opposition, West –
East, us – them, believer – heathen.
Others are of the opinion that Christianity actually give critical opposition to colonialism.
Some missionaries frankly resist against colonialism. They criticize the misinterpretation of
he Bible and the practice of oppression and exploitation of the natives. The relation between
Europeans and the natives is misinterpreted as the superior and inferior. William Colenso is
one of the British missionaries who uses Bible to attack the colonial project as the civilizing
force to improve the natives’ life (Sugirtharajah, 2004:67).
However, some state that the relation between Christianity and colonialism in Africa is not
that simple: as being in complicity, neutral, or in hostility. The relation is too complex to
explain as millions of Africans accept Christianity and many natives become bishop, priest,
and elders of the church. Each country in Africa as its own experience with Christianity and
colonialism. Besides, Christianity in Africa comes from various denominations, such as
Catholics, Anglicans, Baptist, Protestant, Orthodox, Evangelicals, or Pentecostal Charismatic. The affiliation of the mission also becomes the important factor to determine the
relation of Christianity and colonialism. State missionary will be treated differently from nonstate missionary by the natives. In some cases in Africa, the Baptist can be more acceptable
than other Christian denomination in Congo, for example (Pierard, 2004:81), while Anglican
is welcome with wide open arms in Uganda and South Africa because of their treatment
toward the natives.
(Ward, 2004: 93).
Orientalism, Colonial Discourse, and Christianity
Literary work authors posses power and freedom in writing their stories. They monopolize all
events experienced by the characters. Authors wins what Michel Foucault calls “the battle of
truth” as they employ their narratives as a means of constructing for the purpose of power
(Foucault, 1992:1145). In this case literary texts are meant not only to record and report facts
but also to create facts. In many literary texts concerning the description of the Eastern people
(Asians or Africans) composed by European writers, the power of representation s of course
in the hand of these writers. Consequently, facts about the Asian and African people can be
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created through the stories like what Rudyard Kipling, George Orwell, or Joseph Conrad
write about Indian civilization, Burmese, or African culture. These supposed “facts” are
actually constructed under the influence of Western discourse which contains certain
perception about the East aimed at supporting Western imperial and colonial interest in the
East as it is explained by by Edward Said in his monumental book Orientalism (1978). This
book focuses on what could be called colonial discourse – the variety of textual forms in
which the West produced and codified knowledge about non-metropolitan areas and cultures,
especially those under colonal control (William, 1993:5).
Orientalism, according to Edward Said (1978:3-5), is the discourse of West about the East, a
huge body of texts – literature, anthropology, history, topography, sociology – that has been
accumulating since Renaissance. However, this discourse is at once self-validating,
constructing certain stereotypes which become accepted as self-evident fact and in collusion
with political and economic colonialism. The image of the East is sometimes set by the
subjective assumption and experience of Western writers. Said states further that orientalism
can be analyzed as a corporate institution for dealing with the Orient (the East) – dealing with
it by making statements about it, authorizing views of it, and describing it by teaching it,
settling it, ruling over it. Orientalism in this case is a Western style for dominating,
restructuring, and having authority over the the East. Orientalism also becomes a style of
thought based on ontological and epistemological distinctions made between the Orient (the
East) and the Occident (the West). Thus a very large mass of writers, among whom are poets,
novelists, philosophers, political theorists, economists, and im-perial administrators, have
accepted the basic distinction between East and West as the starting point for elaborate
theories, epics, novels, social descriptions, and political accounts concerning the Orient, its
people, customs, "mind," destiny, and so on. Orientalism sets the polarization between the
Orient (the East) which is represented as “the other” or “them” being linked with certain
characteristics such as irrational, exotic, erotic, despotic, and infidel, and the Occident (the
West) as “us” which of course bears the contrasting characteristics such as rational, familiar,
moral, democratic, and believer. Binary opposition is often used to define the East as the
contrasting image of the West.
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Orientalism can be related to Christianity. Edward Said (1978:121) that actually orientalism is
a kind of the reconstruction of religious force, that is Christianity. “Orientalism did and what
Orientalism was—it also retained, as an undislodged current in its discourse, a reconstructed
religious impulse, a naturalized supernaturalism”, says Said. Orientalism depends on the four
elements: expansion, historical confrontation between Roman Empire (Christianity) and the
East (Islam), and symphaty, and classification.
Christianity in “Lispeth”and “No Witchcraft for Sale”
Christianity in Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (2001:225) is defined as the
religion based on the life and teaching of Jesus Christ. Although this religion consists of many
denominations, some of which are Protestant, Anglican, Catholic, Evangelicals, Orthodox,
Methodist, Baptist, or Pentecostal-Charismatic, it has at least similar pillars. They are bible as
their holy scripture, Jesus Christ as their prophet, messiah, and savior, church as their
community for fellowship, service of worship as system of rites, and preaching the gospel as
the Christian great commandment and witnessing of Jesus Christ. Christianity bases its belief
and teaching on
the history facts, not nature, philosophy, or ethics (Linberg, 2006:2).
Christianity teaches a belief that all human beings after the fall of Adam and Eve into sin lose
the God’s glory and are worthy of death penalty. Bible declares that the wages of the sin is
death. God promises the messiah or savior who will restore the relation between human being
and God. While waiting for the messiah, God chose certain righteous people to be revealed
about the promise of messiah. They are Abraham, Isaac, Jacobs (Israel), twelve tribes of
Israel, David, Solomon, and the next kings until the birth of Jesus Christ. To save the human
being, sin must be condemned. In the Old Testament God teaches how to be free from the
condemnation by providing the sacrifice, such as lamb, cows, etc to be slain until the blood
was shed. The blood represents the life of men. When the blood was shed, the punishment
was done. The blood of the lamb covers the sin of men (Hinn, 1993:33-35). Jesus Christ was
believed as the lamb of sacrifice and substitute of the sinful human being. He was crossed
until His blood was shed to save human being. Jesus was imposed the sin of men (Prince,
1986:29). Those who believe Jesus Christ will be saved from the wrath of God and will be
given new life and a status of new creation because of the Spirit of God who dwells within
those who believe in Jesus Christ. Christians should spread this good news, this gospel of
salvation of Jesus Christ to others.
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Lispeth is a short story written by Rudyard Kipling. This story was first published in the Civil
and Military Gazette on November 29th 1886. The book form was in the first Indian edition
of Plain Tales from the Hills in 1888, and it later appeared in subsequent editions of that
collection. Lispeth is an Indian girl who grows up the Kotgarh valley in Northern India. She
is christened as Elizabeth, but she is known as Lispeth according to local pronunciation. Her
parents become Christians out of destitute poverty. Her parents bring her to the Kotgarh
chaplain to be baptized. Lispeth becomes half servant, half companion to the wife of the
chaplain then residing in Kotgarh when both her parents die of cholera. She grows as vigorous
and tall girl. Lispeth is different from other Hill-girls as she does not give up the Christianity
she has accepted after she reaches womanhood. She enjoys playing with the chaplain’s
children. She likes going Sunday school classes. She is also interested in reading all the books
in the house, and taking long walks in the hills. Once upon a time, Lispeth finds an
unconscious British man while she is walking on the hills. She then returns home carrying this
young Englishman who is unconscious from a cut on the head. Lispeth falls in love with him.
She says that she intends to marry him when he recovers. Horrified, the chaplain and his wife
rebuke her for the impropriety of her feelings, but she never gives up his love for this young
English man. Through this event Lispeth completely changes her attitude toward the English.
Getting associated with the Chaplain family at a deeper level of relationship reveals to her
that the ways of her people are more congenial and acceptable to her than the supposedly
superior culture represented by the chaplain of Kotgarh, his wife, and an Englishman. The
Chaplain and his wife find her lovesick behavior and her intention to marry him
reprehensible, and they “lectured her severely on the impropriety of her conduct. After the
English gentleman recovers, he flirts up a storm with Lispeth. He doesn’t tell Lspeth that he is
engaged to an Englishwoman in England. The Chaplain’s wife advises him to tell Lispeth that
he will return to Kotgarh one day. He then leaves for England. He does not return. Lispeth is
crushed and, after marrying a local man, and goes back to her local way of life and culture.
Christianity in this short story is represented by the Chaplain family. The prominent
characteristics of this religion is the evangelism done by this family to the native people. The
evangelism is carried out through the Sunday school, the Sunday service, and also the
baptism. This family also preach and teach the local people to understand about salvation
from Jesus. Christianity in this story can be considered as a Western tradition as Christianity
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is made known to the local people as a way of life, not only as a religion. Christianity is used
to change the traditional way of life of the local people. Kipling describes:
“It takes a great deal of Christianity to wipe out uncivilized Eastern instincts, such as falling
in love at the first sight” (Kipling, 1994:4)
Lsipeth and her parents are christened by this Chaplain family. They are taught the Christian
way of life and asked to abandon their local belief. So, Christianity in this story is discussed
mainly in the way how this new tradition and religion brought by the English men to change
the local people’s culture.
“No Witchcraft for Sales” (1965) which was written by Doris Lessing, a British novelist, and
published in 1965 tells about a missionary couple, Mr. and Mrs. Farquar and Teddy, their boy
who live in shout Rhodesia, Africa. This family has servant and cook named Gideon. Gideon
with his boy dwell in the other side of the family’s house. Gideon family was taken from the
bush by this missionary family. Gideon is taught to convert to Christianity in the compound
managed by the missionary. The story develops into conflict when one day Teddy is spat in
the eye by a venomous snake and fearing he will go blind. Gideon searches a root he then
uses to treat and save the boy’s eye sight with. Mr. and Mrs. Farquar are grateful to Gideon
for saving Teddy’s eyes and give him a raise and presents for his family. The root used to cure
Teddy is traditional medicine the Africans inherit from the ancestors. It is told and given from
generation to the next, and only certain Africans who know where it is located and how to use
the healing power of the root. Some scientists appears at the home, coercing the family, the
Farquars, into persuading Gideon to reveal which plant he used for the treatment. However
Gideon is not willing to show the traditional medicine root, and it makes the relation of the
Farquars and Gideon full of tension. Gideon, quietly enraged, shows the scientist some
useless plant. The family understands that Gideon doesn’t intend to reveal the secret of the
root. Finally the relation of the missionary and Gideon is restored.
Some critics states that this short stories reveal a direct opposition between traditional African
values and Western culture. Guth (1983:708) believes that Doris Lessing shows conflicts
between people of different values, ways of life, and separate cultures. The root which Gideon
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uses to cure Teddy from the snake’s bite will be exploited and developed by the scientists to
become mass modern medicine which will be useful for human health. However, what the
scientists plan to do is nothing more than a capitalist business the scientists plan to run.
Gideon, as an African, refuses and enrages about the scientists’ plan. Gideon attempts to keep
this traditional medicine a secret. He saves the traditional values from the hands of capitalists.
For Gideon, this medicine root is only used by the Africans, not other people. The use of of
this traditional root is only for the African traditional healing, not for business. Keeping the
traditional in secret and making the root become goods for business are the different values
the Africans and the Europeans believe.
Beside exposing the opposition of two different cultures, this short story can be observed as
the representation of Christianity. Christianity in these short stories is revealed in the
characters, plot (sequence of related events), setting, and the dialogues. Lessing writes that the
Farquar family’s life deals much with religion. They are described as follows “The Farquars
are very religious people, and this shared feeling about God bound servant and masters even
closer together” (Lessing, 1965:703). “Very religious people” means believing strongly in the
religion and obeying its rules carefully. They might be missionary as they took Gideon and
his family from kraal to compound to convert to Christianity. As Christians the Farquars must
be active in preaching the gospel to Gideon. They obey the rules of preaching the good news
of the salvation from Jesus Christ to the natives, including Gideon. This missionary family
succeed in changing Gideon’s way of life and belief, from African paganism into Christianity.
During his staying in Farquars family, Gideon and his family are taught to live in Christian
way. Gideon no more mentions his gods and idols of paganism, but he mentions “Lord” of
“God” of the white missionary. He says, “Ah, missus, missus, the Lord above sent this one.
Little Yellow Head (Teddy) is the most good thing we have in our house”. “It is God’s will” ,
said Gideon who was a mission boy. (Lessing, 1983: 703). When Gideon cured Teddy from
the poisonous snake’s bite, Gideon does not mention that it is because of the traditional root
but because of God that the Farquars and Gideon worship. It can be observed through this
following conversation. “Mrs. Farquar said,: ‘Gideon, God chose you as an instrument for His
goodness’. And Gideon said,:’ Yes, missus, God is very good”. (Lessing, 1983:704).
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Gideon and his family have converted to Christianity and do not want to go back to the bush
and embrace their old way of life, including their African traditional belief. They learn
Christianity, they practice this religion, and live the religion’s way of life. “He had been with
her (Mrs. Farquar) for several years, he was one of the few natives who had his wife and
children in the compound and never wanted to go home to his kraal. Which was some
hundreds miles away (Lessing, 1983:703).
During his service as cook and servant in this missionary family Gideon was educated to be a
good Christian. The Farquars introduces Christian God to Gideon and teaches the way of
Christian life. The name “Gideon” can be a name for him after he is christened. The name
“Gideon” is taken from the Bible, Old Testament. This name is one of the Israel judges.
Colonialism in “Lispeth” and “No Witchcraft for Sale”
Colonialism generally can be defined as the conquest and control of other people’s land and
goods. The word “colonialism” comes from the Roman ‘colonia’ which means farm or
settlement, and refers to Romans who settled in other lands but still retained their citizenship.
Old Oxford Dictionary also describes colonialism as a settlement in a new country, a body of
people who settle in a new locality, forming community subjected to or connected with their
parent state, the community so formed, consisting of the original settlers and their
descendants and successors, as long as the connection with the parent state is kept up
(Loomba, 2005:7-8). According to Deji Ayegboyin (2008:33) colonialism is both system and
ideology. As a system it refers to the occupation and domination of a weak country by a more
powerful nation. As an ideology colonialism accentuates the benefits of the system primarily
to the mother country. Thus, colonialism is a direct form of influence and control of a
colonized territory to the extent of establishing political and economic institution that seek to
achieve essentially the economics needs of the colonial power. Norrie McQueen (2007:25)
formulates some driving force of colonialism as follows: economics (natural source), avatism
(land extending), civilizing mission, and security.
Both Kipling’s “Lispeth” and Lessing’s “No Witchcraft for Sale” propose some idea of
colonialism. The domination, occupation, settlement, and conquest have been done by British
people in India and South Rhodesia. The exploitation of the natural resource is showed by the
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scientists’ plan to find the traditional root which can be used to cure the wound of snake’s
bite. The British people not only occupy the land but also introduce new culture, religion, way
of life to the Indians and Africans. They are education, religion, and ethics.
The binary opposition of stronger and more superior people and the weak and inferior is also
revealed in both stories. Gideon is in the position of servant and cook, while the Farquars are
in the position of the master. Gideon submits his whole life to the Farquars and converts to a
better belief. “Ah, missus, these are both children, and one will grow up to be a baas, and one
will be a servant: it is God’s will” is what Gideon said about the binary opposition (Lessing,
1965:704). The servant-and-master relationship between Lispeth and the Chaplain family
helps to create the more and less powerful group of people: “Lispeth became half servant, half
companion, to the wife of the Chaplain of Kotgarh (Kipling, 1994:1).
As one of the factors of colonialism is the mission of civilizing, both stories stage how the
local people’s way of life are changed in such a way that they finally adopt the colonizer’s
culture. The Chaplain teach Lispeth and her family about the Western way, while the Farquar
family succeed in changing Gideon family’s way of life, that is the African culture. Kipling
describes in this following: “The chaplain and her wife lectured her severely on the improper
way of her conduct (Kipling, 1994:3).
The Relation between Christianity and Colonialism in the Stories
In both short stories Christianity and colonialism become the prominent discussion. The
characters, setting, conflict, events, and even dialogues are almost all about Christianity and
colonialism. But to conclude how these two things relate to each other, in complicity, noninvolvement, or hostility, needs a thorough study.
In “Lispeth” Christianity and colonialism are described clearly. Christianity, as it is
represented by the missionary, is part of the colonialism in the way that Christianity is spread
while India in under the British colonial power. However, evangelism is not a formal program
of the colonial administrator. The Chaplain family is a missionary having nothing to do with
the colonial project. Christianity and colonialism in “Lispeth” meet in a view that the local
people, in this case is Indian people, need to be civilized and christened. These people should
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be changed into a better society. From the point of view of Christian belief, Lispeth is
describe as “ a child, at heart of heathen and at heart of infidel”, while from the Western way
of life Lispeth is considered to have “uncivilized Eastern instincts, barbarous and folly”.
Christianity and colonialism share the same idea that the Indian should be conquered and
tamed to be a better ones.
Colonialism in Lessing’s short story can be found in the way the scientists’ plan to exploit the
traditional medicine for the sake of human welfare. They approach the Farquars to force
Gideon to show where it is located. As Christians they are first willing to discuss the plan, but
after knowing that the final goal is to gain the benefit, the Farquars do not feel like to be in
agreement. “The scientist explained how humanity might benefit if this new drug could be
offered for sale. But when the scientist began talking of the money that might result, their
manner showed discomfort. Their feelings over the miracle (that was how they thought of it)
were so strong and deep and religious, that it was distasteful to them to think of money. The
scientist, seeing their faces, went back to his first point, which was the advancement of
humanity.” (Lessing, 1965: 705). From the text it can be inferred that Christianity is not used
to force Gideon to give the traditional medicine. Even, the Farquars believe that it is the
miracle of God. They do not think about the business benefit from cultivating the root.
However, the Farquar tried to explain the use of the root if it is given for public health. “Mr.
Farquar began explaining how a useful medicine could be made out of the root, and how it
could be put on sale, and how thousands of people, black and white, up and down the
continent of Africa, could be saved by the medicine when that spitting snake filled their eyes
with poison. Gideon listened, his eyes bent on the ground, the skin of his forehead puckering
in discomfort. When Mr. Farquar had finished he did not reply” (Lessing, 1965:705).
When the Farquars understand what Gideon feel, they leave it up to Gideon whether or not to
give the root’s location. They do not force Gideon, and they appreciate and respect Gideon’s
view of the traditional root. Christianity in this story is not the religious arm of colonialism.
Christianity gives critical disagreement against the profit-oriented business which is
concealed for the sake of humanity.
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However, the Farquars seem to take the binary opposition of the white and the black for
granted. When Gideon said that it is God’s will that Teddy will be a boss and Gideon’s child
will be a servant, Mrs. Farquar agrees his statmement. “Gideon, who was watching, shook his
head wonderingly, and said: ‘Ah, missus, these are both children, and one will grow up to be
a baas, and one will be a servant’; and Mrs. Farquar smiled and said sadly, ‘Yes, Gideon, I
was thinking the same.’ She sighed. ‘It is God’s will,’said Gideon, who was a mission boy.”
(Lessing, 1983: 704).
The brotherhood amongst the two families does not change the view of their social position.
Although Gideon and his child are treated with racism by the white and Teddy, they do not
change his Christianity. They understand that the racial treatment they receive is not caused
by Christianity but by the white superiority. Gideon is offended with this racial treatment, but
he does not quit his Christianity. “Piccanin,” shouted Teddy, “get out of my way!” And he
raced in circles around the black child until he was frightened, and fled back to the bush. “
Why did you frighten him?” asked Gideon, gravely reproachful. Teddy said defiantly: “He’s
only a black boy,” and laughed. Then, when Gideon turned away from him without speaking,
his face fell. (Lessing, 1983:703) Piccanin is an offensive address for South African black
child. Being black is in the position of object of racism. However, Gideon never relates this
racial treatment to Christianity.
Conclusion
There has been debate amongst the historians, missionaries, anthropologists, sociologist, and
cultural critics about the relation between Christianity and colonialism. There are more or less
three proposition concerning this relation. The first is complicity, in which Christianity and
colonialism work together to achieve their goals. The second will be non-involvement where
Christianity and colonialism have their own way to accomplish their mission. The third is
hostility, meaning to say that Christianity is in opposition against colonialism.
From short stories entitled “Lispeth” and “No Witchcraft for Sale” the relation between
Christianity and colonialism is found being non-involvement and in opposition, but they share
the same view on the colonized people. The colonized natives need to be changed in the way
that they shall be educated and civilized.
In “Lispeth” Christianity, represented by the
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evangelism project done by a British family, is not part of the colonial power and
administration. Christianity is described as a Western tradition which is used to change the
traditional culture. In “No Witchcraft for Sale” Christianity is used by the writers to criticize
the exploitation and domination of the traditional culture. In Lessing’s story Christianity is
used to attack the capitalists’ exploitation of the natural traditional root for medicine, while in
Achebe’s story Christianity is employed to give critical disagreement against the way the
modern Western culture internalized by the black treat the cultural clash against African
traditional values. Therefore, the relation of Christianity and colonialism can be simplified as
the religious arm of colonialism. Postcolonial literature portrays complex problem which
cannot be simplified as the West and the East or the colonizers and the colonized.
References
Arntsen, Hilde (1997), The Battle of the Mind: International New Media Elements of the New
Religious Political Right in Zimbabwe, Oslo: University of Oslo.
Ayegboyin, Deji (2008), “Colonization in Africa: The Local and Global Implication for
Christianity in Contemporary Nigeria”, dalam Christianity in Africa and African Diaspora,
ed. Afe Adogame et.el., London: Continum.
Bevans, Sthepen (2002), “New Evangeiical and Mission”, dalam Divine Word Missionary
Magazine, Summer.
Gray, Richard (1982), “Christianity, Colonialism, and Communications in Sub-Saharan
Africa”, Journal of Black Studies, Vol. 13, No.1, September 1982, pp. 59-72.
Guth, Hans P (1981), The Literary Heritage, Toronto: Heat and Company.
Hinn, Benny (1993), The Blood, Nashville: Creation House.
Holy Bible (2007), New International Version, Jakarta: Lembaga Alkitab Indonesia
Khapoya, Vincent B. (2009), The African Experience: An Introduction, London: Pearson.
Kipling, Rudyard (1994), Plain Tales from the Hills, New York: Penguin Books.
Lessing, Doris (1981), “No Witchcraft for Sale” in The Literary Heritage, Toronto: Heat and
Company.
Linberg, Carter (2006), A Brief History of Christianity, Malden: Blackwell Publishing.
Loomba, Ania (2008), Colonialsim / Postcolonialism, Abingdon: Routledge.
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Pierard, Richard V. (2008), Baptists in Africa: A Missionary Church in Action, dalam
Christianity in Africa and African Diaspora, ed. Afe Adogame et.el., London:
Continum.
Prince, Derek (1985), Extravagant Love, Ford Laudeldale: Derek Prince Ministries.
Said, Edward, Orientalism, New York, Vintage: 1978
Schnabel, Eckhard J. (2008), Paul, the Missionary, Downers Grove: Interversity Press, 2008.
Sugityharajah, R.S. (2004), The Bible and the Third Word: Precolonial, Colonial, and
Postcolonial Enconter, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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TRANSLATION
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FUNDAMENTAL STRATEGIES
TO TRANSLATE TOURISM TEXTS
FROM ENGLISH INTO INDONESIAN
Dr. Budi Purnomo
Sahid Tourism Institute of Surakarta
Jl. Adi Sucipto 154 Solo, Central Java, Indonesia 57144
Telp: +62271742469 Fax: +62271742069 Cell: +6281328754512
Email: [email protected] Website: www.stpsahidsolo.ac.id
Abstract
This study attempts to evaluate the types and accuracy of two translation strategies, i.e.
transposition (change of grammatical category) and modulation (change in point of view)
used to translate tourism texts from English into Indonesian. The study is intended to be a
descriptive and qualitative method. The data sources are obtained from documents and
inter-raters. The documents are tourism texts along with their translations taken from
Garuda Indonesia magazine. To reveal the types of transposition and modulation, the
English and Indonesian texts were analyzed by the researcher. To know the accuracy of
transposition and modulation, the translations were rated by three expert raters. The
results of the analysis show that: (1) there are three types of transposition: (a) the change
from singular to plural (and vice versa), or in the position of the adjective, (b) the change
in grammatical structure from SL to TL because the SL grammatical structure does not
exist in TL and (c) an alternative to when literal translation of SL text may not accord
with natural usage in TL; (2) there are two types of modulation: (a) obligatory modulation
and (b) free modulation; (3) the transposition used is generally accurate. Of the 174
sentences analyzed, 158 sentences (98.8%) are accurate, 5 sentences (2.8%) are less
accurate and 11 sentences (6.4%) are inaccurate; and (4) the modulation used is generally
less accurate. Of the 172 sentences analyzed, 30 sentences (17.4%) are accurate, 87
sentences (50.6%) are less accurate and 55 sentences (32%) are inaccurate. The findings
imply that transposition and modulation might be fundamental for translation strategies, a
distinction which has been taken for granted in translating activities.
Keywords: fundamental strategies, transposition, modulation, tourism texts
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Introduction
Translation is a transfer process which aims at transforming a written source language (SL)
text into an optimally equivalent target language (TL) text which requires syntactic, semantic
and pragmatic understanding and analytical processing of the source language. In translating a
text, a translator needs a strategy. Suryawinata and Haryanto (2003: 67) state that translation
strategy is a technical guide to translate words for words, phrases for phrases, or sentences for
sentences. In translation literatures, the translation strategy is also called translation
procedure. Based on practical characteristics, translation strategy directly relates to practical
problem and problem solving in translation. Furthermore, they classify translation strategy
into (1) structural strategy and (2) semantic strategy. Structural strategy concerns with
sentence structures whereas semantic strategy concerns with word meaning or sentence
meaning. There are three kinds of structural strategy: (1) addition, (2) subtraction and (3)
transposition, and nine kinds of semantic strategy: (1) borrowing, (2) cultural equivalent, (3)
descriptive equivalent and componential analysis, (4) synonym, (5) formal translation, (6)
specification and generalization, (7) gain, (8) omission or deletion and (9) modulation.
Of the above strategies, this research studies two kinds of strategy: (1) transposition as a
structural strategy and (2) modulation as a semantic strategy. The two strategies are
appropriate to be applied in translating sentences from English (SL) into Indonesian (TL)
based on two reasons. First, there are many different grammatical structures in English and
Indonesian. Because of these differences, it needs transposition as a structural-adjustment
strategy. Secondly, when a translator is searching word, phrase, clause, or sentence
equivalence in Indonesian, s/he often finds meaning shifts in order that the translation result is
acceptable for the readers. Considering that a translator may not choose equivalence as s/he
likes, modulation is needed to find the proper equivalence. The transposition and modulation
will be explained further in the following review of literature.
Theoretical Review
Transposition
The term transposition is firstly proposed by Catford with the name ‘shift’ and by Vinay and
Darbelnet with the name ‘transposition’. In Dictionary of Translation Studies, Shuttleworth
and Cowie (1997: 190) quoted the definition of Vinay and Darbelnet as follows:
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“Transposition is defined as the process of replacing one word class with another without
changing the meaning of the message”. Then Newmark (1988: 85-89) states that not only the
world class which is changed, but also the grammatical structure. Newmark defines
transposition as “a translation procedure involving a change in the grammar from SL to TL”.
The term is then developed by Machali (2000: 67-69) to analyze translation strategy from
English into Indonesian or vv. In this research, then I define transposition as a translation
strategy which involves the changing of grammatical forms from SL to TL. The aim of using
transposition is to obtain appropriate grammatical forms and common lexicons in TL.
Transposition can be an obligatory or an option.
Furthermore, Machali classifies transposition into four types: (1) rules of singular noun and
plural noun, (2) patterns of noun phrase structure, (3) common equivalences of TL and (4)
grammatical-structure changes of linguistic units.
Modulation
The term modulation is also stated by Vinay and Darbelnet with the definition “a variation
through a change of viewpoint, of perspective and very often of category of thought”. In
Dictionary of Translation Studies, Shuttleworth and Cowie (1997: 66) quote the opinion of
van Leuven-Swart that divides modulation into two kinds: generalization and specification.
They define generalization as “the type of modulation in which the dissimilarity between ST
and TT TRANSEMES is characterized by a SHIFT towards greater generality in TT; as such
it contrasts with the opposite phenomenon of SPECIFICATION”. Concerning with
specification, Shuttleworth & Cowie (1997: 159) explain that
Specification is distinguished from the other type, GENERALIZATION, in
that here the SHIFT which occurs between ST and TT TRANSEMES is in the
direction of a higher level of explicitness. In other words, a shift towards
greater specification will produce a transeme the meaning of which is made
more precise, by either the addition of extra words or the use of words with a
less general meaning.
In the above definition of generalization and specification, there is a term transeme. LeuvenZwart (in Shuttleworth and Cowie, 1997: 175) explains that transeme refers to a basic unit for
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the linguistic comparison of a literary text and its INTEGRAL TRANSLATION. Reasoning
that “sentences are generally too long and words too short to be easily compared”, I suggest
the transeme as a suitable basic unit of comparison.
Modulation is then developed by Machali (2000: 67-69) to analyze translation strategy from
English into Indonesian or vv. In this research, I define modulation as a translation strategy
which involves meaning shifts due to perspective change or point of view. The aim of using
modulation is to obtain meaning equivalence between the meaning of SL and TL. By the
equivalence the readers are easy to understand the content of the text.
Furthermore, Machali classifies modulation into three types: (1) addition/creation of linguistic
units, (2) specific-general meaning and (3) clarified meaning and natural equivalence.
Criteria to Asses Accuracy of Transposition and Modulation
Criteria to assess accuracy of using transposition and modulation can be described into the
following diagram.
Diagram 1: Assessment Criteria for Transposition and Modulation
Translation
Category
Criteria
Accurate
(1) Accuracy of the use of TL structure as valid
Transposition
rules and (2) translation results seem common.
Less accurate
(1) Less accurate of the use of TL structure as valid
transposition
rules and (2) translation results seem less common.
Inaccurate
(1) Inaccuracy of the use of TL structure as valid
Transposition
rules and (2) translation results seem uncommon.
Accurate
(1) Use of words or expressions in TL that have
modulation
equivalent meaning with SL and (2) equivalence
Strategy
Transposition
Modulation
seems natural and commonly used by TL speakers.
Less accurate
(1) Use of words or expressions in TL that have no
modulation
equivalent meaning with SL, but the message has
been transferred and (2) equivalence seems less
natural and less commonly used by TL speakers.
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Inaccurate
(1) Use of words or expressions in TL that have no
modulation
equivalent meaning with SL and the message has
not been transferred and (2) equivalence seems
unnatural and uncommonly used by TL speakers.
Objects to Asses Accuracy of Transposition and Modulation
To know that transposition and modulation are used as fundamental strategies in translation, I
use tourism texts in Garuda Indonesia magazines as a case study.
Tourism texts in leaflets and brochures are often to the point and effective for economical
reason. In contrast tourism texts in books, bulletins and magazines, the text writers are more
freely to express their ideas, retell their touring experience or describe tourism objects. The
completeness of information and language aesthetics are more considerable than the economic
reasons. It is in relevance with the function of writing tourism texts, i.e. as an instrument of
information to entertain tourists.
Topics of tourism texts are various, such as tourist attraction, tourist transportation, tourist
accommodation, travel agent and tourist guide. In a tourism text, those topics are usually not
independent but as a completeness of one another in sequence and unity of events which are
described by a text writer. Accuracy and completeness of information that are described in an
aesthetic language determine quality of a tourism text. From the above explanation, I define
tourism text as a text in which the content is related to tourism topics and written in aesthetic
language as information instrument to entertain tourists.
Garuda Indonesia magazine is a magazine which is published monthly and mainly contains
description of tourist attractions and information of Garuda Indonesia Airline flights as
complimentary for passengers. In this research, I use tourism texts of March, April and July
2013 editions which were written in English and Indonesian (translation) as research objects.
The titles of the three texts are (1) Holland’s Tulips Blaze with Color, (2) Perth and the
Surrounding Areas in West Australia: Swimming with Wild Dolphins and (3) Uniquely
Satisfying Singapore Retail Heaven.
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Research Method
This research is a descriptive-qualitative research that aims to evaluate products of translation.
The science analyzed is tourism that belongs to social and cultural sciences.
I collect linguistic-unit data (words, phrases, clauses and sentences) of SL and TL, then
describe, analyze and classify them based on transposition and modulation strategies. This
method is well known as descriptive method.
Data sources are obtained from documents and inter-raters. The documents are three tourism
texts along with their translation taken from Garuda Indonesia magazines that contain 174
sentences. The inter-raters are three translation experts who have criteria (1) having broad
knowledge of tourism field, (2) understanding SL and TL and (3) understanding translation
theories. To analyze the data, the SL sentences are compared with the TL sentences. Then, I
analyze transposition and modulation forms. After that the three raters assess their accuracy
(accurate, less accurate, and inaccurate) of linguistic-unit translation according to the criteria
of the transposition and modulation. Finally, I make a translation-improvement alternative for
sentences that use less accurate and inaccurate transposition and modulation for the sake of
their quality improvement.
Research Findings and Discussion
Based on data analysis, research findings can be described and discussed as follows.
1. Analysis of Transposition Types
a. Type 1: Plural Noun in English is translated into Singular Noun in Indonesian or
vv.
SL: Holland Village is known as expatriate hangout with relaxed street-side cafes and
restaurants.
TL: Holland Village dikenal sebagai tempat bersantai para ekspatriat di kafe dan
restoran pinggir jalan yang bersuasana rileks.
In the above data, plural nouns ‘cafes’ and ‘restaurants’ are translated into ‘kafe’
and ‘restoran’, not ‘kafe-kafe’ and ‘restoran-restoran’.
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b. Type 2: Modified-Modifier pattern in English is translated into Modifier-Modified
pattern in Indonesian to modify noun-phrase structure.
SL: For travelers, don’t forget that many of the world-class hotels that line Orchard Road
are either attached to shopping malls or have their own boutique shopping arcades
which are worth checking too.
TL: Untuk para pelancong, jangan lupa bahwa banyak dari hotel kelas dunia yang
berjejer sepanjang Orchard Road terhubung dengan pusat perbelanjaan atau
memiliki arcade belanja butiknya sendiri yang juga perlu diamati.
In the above data, noun phrases ‘world-class hotels’, ‘shopping malls’ and ‘their own
boutique shopping arcades’ that have Modified-Modifier pattern are translated into
‘hotel kelas dunia’, ‘pusat perbelanjaan’ and ‘arcade belanja butiknya sendiri’ that have
Modifier-Modified pattern. Related to grammatical structure of noun- phrase
modification, i.e. relation between modified element (head) and modifier, the translation
in TL follows head-modifier pattern. In the above noun phrases, ‘hotels’, ‘malls’ and
‘arcades’ are heads whereas ‘world-class’, ‘shopping’ and ‘their own boutique shopping’
are modifiers.
c. Type 3: Transposition is done if expression in SL can be translated literally into TL
through grammatical structure, but the equivalence is uncommon in TL.
SL: You can stay in an elegant castle such as Kasteel Oud Wassenaar near The Hague
which has housed royalty.
TL: Anda dapat menginap di kastil elegan seperti Kasteel Oud Wassenaar dekat Den
Haag yang biasa dikunjungi para keluarga bangsawan.
In the above data, active verb has housed is translated into passive verb ‘dikunjungi’
because if it is translated into ‘mengasramakan/memondokkan’, the equivalence is
uncommon although it is grammatically correct.
d. Type 4: Transposition is done to fill lexical empty in TL by changing grammatical
structure of linguistic units (a word into a phrase, a phrase into a clause, and so on).
SL: Instead of hunting live fish, they become used to begging for scraps.
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TL: Mereka bisa tidak mau lagi berburu ikan segar sendiri dan lebih suka mengemis.
In the above data, phrase ‘Instead of hunting live fish’ is translated into sentence ‘Mereka
bisa tidak mau lagi berburu ikan segar sendiri’ that aims to clarify meaning.
2. Analysis of Modulation Types
a. Type 1: Modulation is done if a word, phrase or other linguistic units have no
equivalence in TL, so it should be added/created.
SL: Unique is the word that best captures Singapore – a dynamic, cosmopolitan city-state
where different cultures, ethnic groups and religions blend harmoniously.
TL: Unik adalah kata yang tepat untuk mendeskripsikan Singapura – negara berukuran
kota kosmopolitan yang dinamis, yang memiliki banyak kebudayaan yang berbeda,
kelompok-kelompok etnik dan keharmonisan dari beragam agama.
In the above data, there is no equivalence of noun phrase ‘city-state’ in TL, so it is
created a phrase ‘negara berukuran kota’.
b. Type 2: Modulation is done for a word translation in which only a part of its
meaning aspects in SL can be expressed in TL, i.e. from specific meaning to general
meaning.
SL: The visitors put on their suits and snorkels before easing into the water – splashing
loudly is regarded as a display of hostility by dolphins – in groups of five.
TL: Para wisatawan mengenakan pakaian selam dan snorkelnya, sebelum perlahanlahan turun ke dalam air dalam kelompok berisi lima orang – menceburkan diri
keras-keras dianggap sebagai tanda bermusuhan oleh lumba-lumba.
In the above data, word ‘visitors’ that lexically means ‘pengunjung’ in TL is translated
into ‘wisatawan’ in order to obtain general meaning. Moreover, the word ‘wisatawan’ is
broadly known and accepted as an appropriate term in tourism industry.
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c. Type 3: Modulation is done that aims to clarify meaning and find natural
equivalence in TL.
SL: There are also the usual hotels, quaint inns, boarding houses and campsites, not far
from the blaze of tulips.
TL: Terdapat juga hotel-hotel biasa, penginapan kecil dan pondok wisata serta lapangan
perkemahan tidak jauh dari gemerlapnya tulip.
In the above data, noun phrase ‘boarding house’ that literally means ‘rumah indekos’ is
translated into ‘pondok wisata’ in order to clarify meaning, more natural in TL and has
been broadly used in tourism terminology.
3. Analysis of Transposition
a. Accurate Transposition
SL: After many bankruptcies, the crisis was ended by government regulation of the tulip
trade.
TL: Setelah beberapa kali kebangkrutan, krisis tersebut diakhiri oleh peraturan
pemerintah mengenai perdagangan tulip.
In the above data, noun phrases ‘government regulation’ and ‘tulip trade’ that have
modified-modifier pattern are translated into ‘peraturan pemerintah’ and ‘perdagangan
tulip’ that have modifier-modified pattern in TL. In modification structure of noun
phrase, relation between modified element (head) and modifier element (modifier) in TL
should follows head-modifier pattern. In both noun phrases, ‘regulation’ and ‘trade’ are
heads whereas ‘government’ and ‘tulip’ are modifiers.
b. Less Accurate Transposition
SL: With its astounding variety of shopping options to suit all budgets and tastes
spanning the centuries from age-old traditional Chinese medicine to the latest
cutting edge technological gadgets a retail-oriented sojourn in Singapore truly does
offer a unique shopping experience.
TL: Dengan ragam pilihan yang begitu banyak yang cocok untuk semua anggaran dan
selera, mulai dari obat tradisional Cina yang berumur ratusan tahun sampai
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peralatan teknologi mutakhir, untuk orang yang suka membeli barang kecil-kecilan,
persinggahan di Singapura bisa memberikan sesuatu untuk semua orang.
In the above data – to follow accurate transposition – noun phrase ‘traditional Chinese
medicine’ is more appropriate to be translated into ‘obat China tradisional’ than ‘obat
tradisional China’. The less accuracy of the noun phrase causes a meaning change. In
‘obat China tradisional’, the concept stressed is kindness, i.e. traditional, not modern
whereas in ‘obat tradisional China’, the concept stressed is a country where the medicine
is made, i.e. China, not other countries. If we compare it with noun phrase ‘Single
European Market’ that is supposed to be translated into ‘Pasar Eropa Tunggal’ to follow
accurate transposition, our mass media usually translate it into ‘Pasar Tunggal Eropa’
that does not follow accurate transposition.
In ‘Pasar Tunggal Eropa’, the concept
stressed is an area, i.e. Europe, not other continents whereas in ‘Pasar Eropa Tunggal’,
the concept stressed is single, i.e. a single market for European countries.
To translate the above sentence with accurate transposition, I make improvement
alternative as follows.
Alt: Dengan ragam pilihan yang begitu banyak yang cocok untuk semua anggaran dan
selera, mulai dari obat Cina tradisional yang berumur ratusan tahun sampai
peralatan teknologi mutakhir, untuk orang yang suka membeli barang kecil-kecilan,
persinggahan di Singapura bisa memberikan sesuatu untuk semua orang.
c. Inaccurate Transposition
SL: Keukenhof also has a roofed-in garden with an adjacent show glasshouse which is
reason enough to visit; every inch of the 53,000 square feet space seems to be in
bloom.
TL: Keukenhof juga memiliki taman di bawah atap berdampingan dengan rumah kaca
untuk pameran yang layak untuk dikunjungi, setiap inci dari 53.000 kaki persegi
ruangan kelihatan seperti bersemi.
In the above data, noun phrase ‘53,000 square feet space’ that has modified-modifier
pattern should be translated into modifier-modified pattern, i.e. ‘petak yang berukuran
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53.000 kaki persegi’, not ‘53.000 kaki persegi ruangan’. Moreover, word translation
‘feet’ into ‘kaki’ is uncommon in TL. The common size in Indonesian is ‘meter’ and the
size ‘53.000 kaki’ should be converted into 68.600 meter (1 feet = 130 cm).
To translate the above sentence with accurate transposition, I make improvement
Alt: Keukenhof juga memiliki taman beratap yang berdampingan dengan rumah kaca
sebagai pameran yang layak untuk dikunjungi; setiap inci dari petak yang
berukuran 68.600 meter persegi tampak bersemi.
4. Analysis of Modulation
a. Accurate Modulation
SL: After many bankruptcies, the crisis was ended by government regulation of the tulip
trade.
TL: Setelah beberapa kali kebangkrutan, krisis tersebut diakhiri oleh peraturan
pemerintah mengenai perdagangan tulip.
In the above data, translation of plural marker ‘many’ does not use ‘banyak’ that has
wide meaning, but uses ‘beberapa kali’ that has narrower meaning and acceptable in TL
as modulation strategy. This modulation is accurate because it relates to trading efforts in
which the risk is profit and loss, even bankrupt. The word ‘banyak’ is more appropriate if
it collocates with word ‘keuntungan’ and ‘kerugian’ becomes ‘banyak keuntungan’ and
‘banyak kerugian’. Related to ‘kebangkrutan’, collocation ‘banyak kebangkrutan’ is
uncommon in Indonesian speakers. The common collocation is ‘beberapa kali
kebangkrutan’. So, it can be concluded that in meaning aspect, the linguistic unitstranslation of the above data is accurate. In other words, it can be stated that the above
sentence translation has used words or expressions which have equivalent meaning with
SL and the equivalence is natural and commonly used by TL speakers.
b. Less Accurate Modulation
SL: Touring through such tulips has become a rite of spring in Holland, although you can
drive through most of the country and see no more tulips than at home.
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TL: Menikmati kumpulan bunga tulip telah menjadi semacam upacara Musim Semi di
Negeri Belanda walau Anda dapat berkendaraan ke sebagian besar negeri tetapi
tidak akan melihat tidak lebih banyak tulip daripada di rumah.
To translate word ‘Touring’ into ‘Berwisata menikmati’ is more accurate than into
‘Menikmati’ and word ‘drive’ into ‘mengunjungi’ is more accurate than into
‘berkendaraan’. To naturalize translation, it is more accurate to change phrase ‘tetapi
tidak akan melihat tidak lebih banyak tulip daripada’ into ‘dan tidak dapat melihat lebih
banyak tulip sebagaimana di negeri Anda sendiri’. It can be concluded that the above
translation does not use words or expressions that have equivalent meaning with SL but
the message has been transferred and the meaning is less natural and less common in TL.
To translate the above sentence with accurate modulation, I make improvement
Alt: Berwisata menikmati kumpulan bunga tulip telah menjadi semacam upacara Musim
Semi di Negeri Belanda. Walaupun Anda dapat mengunjungi ke banyak negara
tetapi Anda tidak akan melihat lebih banyak tulip sebagaimana yang ada di negara
Anda sendiri.
c. Inaccurate Modulation
SL: It’s a good idea to have your travel agent make reservations a year in advance.
TL: Ada baiknya Anda mengatur perjalanan Anda setahun di muka.
If meaning of the above sentence translation is analyzed, there is an inaccurate meaning
shift (modulation). Clause ‘to have your travel agent make reservations’ is inaccurately
translated into ‘Anda mengatur perjalanan Anda’. The accurate one is ‘agen perjalanan
wisata Anda melakukan pemesanan’. In this context, there is a meaning shift in which
the subject is ‘your travel agent’, but it changes into ‘you’ (tourist). Besides that the
equivalence of ‘make reservations’ that is translated into ‘mengatur perjalanan’ is not
equivalent. The accurate equivalence is ‘melakukan pemesanan’. Moreover, the
translation is unnatural and uncommonly for TL speakers. It can be concluded that there
is no equivalent meaning between the SL and the TL. In other words, it can be stated that
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the above sentence translation does not use words or expressions that have equivalent
meaning and the message is not well transferred.
To translate the above sentence with accurate modulation, I make an improvement
Alt: Ada baiknya agen perjalanan wisata Anda melakukan pemesanan setahun di muka.
5. Frequency of Transposition
Frequency of transposition accuracy in the three tourism texts (text 1, text 2 and text 3)
can be explained by the following table.
Table 1: Percentage of Transposition Accuracy in Text 1, Text 2 and Text 3
Transposition
Text 1 (%)
Text 2 (%)
Text 3 (%)
Total
Accurate
38 (86.4%)
67 (97.1%)
53 (86.9%)
158 (90.8%)
Less accurate
4 (9.1%)
0 (0%)
1 (1.6%)
5 (2.8%)
Inaccurate
2 (4.5%)
2 (2.9%)
7 (11.5%)
11 (6.4%)
44 (100%)
69 (100%
61 (100%)
Total
174 (100%)
6. Frequency of Modulation
Frequency of modulation accuracy in the three tourism texts (text 1, text 2 and text 3) can
be explained by the following table.
Table 2: Percentage of Modulation Accuracy in Text 1, Text 2 and Text 3
Modulation
Text 1 (%)
Text 2 (%)
5 (31.8%)
21 (22.1%)
4 (5%)
30 (17.4%)
Less accurate
19 (20.5%)
36 (55.8%)
32 (55%)
87 (50.6%)
Inaccurate
20 (47.7%)
11 (22.1%)
26 (40%)
57 (32%)
Total
44 (100%)
68 (100%)
62 (100%)
174 (100%)
Accurate
Text 3 (%)
Total
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Conclusion
Based on the analysis results of transposition and modulation of linguisticunit translation in the above data, I draw conclusions as follows.
1. Most of the sentence translation analyzed (90.8%) uses accurate transposition. This means
the usage of TL grammatical structure follows the rules and the translation is natural. Then
43.8% of sentence translation uses less accurate modulation. This means that the translators
do not use words or expressions which have equivalent meaning in TL, but the message has
been transferred and the equivalence is less natural and less commonly used by TL
speakers.
2. Through the above research findings, it can be proved that transposition and modulation are
fundamental strategies in translation to obtain translation products that have equivalent
with their source language, easy to understand and meet the readers’ desires.
3. This research is very significant for translation studies because it could enrich translators’
knowledge, especially the application of transposition as a structural strategy and
modulation as a semantic strategy in translation activities.
References
Garuda Indonesia Magazine. March 2013 Edition. Jakarta: PT Indo Multi Media.
_______________________. April 2013 Edition. Jakarta: PT Indo Multi Media.
_______________________. July 2013 Edition. Jakarta: PT Indo Multi Media.
McLoughin, Linda. 2002. The Language of Magazines. London: Routledge Taylor & Francis
Group.
Newmark, Peter. 1988. A Textbook of Translation. New York: Prentice Hall.
Rochayah Machali. 2000. Pedoman Bagi Penerjemah. Jakarta: PT Grasindo.
Suttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. 1997. Dictionary of Translation Studies. Manchester,
United Kingdom: St. Jerome Publishing.
Suryawinata, Zuchridin and Hariyanto, Sugeng. 2003. Translation:
Penuntun Praktis Menerjemahkan. Yogyakarta: Penerbit Kanisius.
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Bahasan Teori dan
December 2013
Biodata:
Budi Purnomo holds MA in Translation Studies from Sebelas Maret University and PhD in
Cultural Sciences from Gadjah Mada University. Parts of his dissertation research project
were undertaken in Melbourne, Australia under the supervision of professors at School of
Languages, Cultures and Linguistics, Monash University through Overseas Sandwich
Program funded by the Directorate General of Higher Education. His studies have covered the
areas of translation, language teaching, tourism and cross-cultural awareness. He is currently
faculty member and President at Sahid Tourism Institute of Surakarta, Indonesia.
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FICTIONAL TRANSLATOR AND THE PORTRAYAL OF ISLAMIC
MODERNITY IN AYAT-AYATCINTA
DelitaSartika
Universitas Jambi, Indonesia
Abstract
This paper is an analysis of an Indonesian Islamic novel by Habiburahman El-Shirazy,
Ayat-AyatCinta that was published in 2004. The novel is believed to have successfully
initiated massive popularity of Islamic fiction that portrays modern Indonesian Muslims
in the last two decades. The analysis is focused on the main character of the novel, Fahri,
and aimed at finding out how the significant, yet less-observed, side of his life as a parttime translator substantially reflects the current aspiration of Indonesian Muslims to be
perceived as modern members of a globalised society. In presenting the argument,
relevant narration and dialogues that express translator’s representation of modernity are
examined in association with an analysis on the traits of modern Muslims portrayed in the
novel. The result of analysis shows that Fahri, the Muslim translator, is portrayed not only
as an image of modernity, which is reflected in his education, religious tolerance and
open-mindedness, and modern self-representation, but also as a communicator who is
responsible for introducing the aspects of Islamic modernity and accurate interpretation of
Islamic principles to the non-Islamic world in order to establish inter-religious
understanding.
Keywords: Modern Muslims, Translator, Inter-religious Communication
Introduction
The rising popularity of Islamic fiction in Indonesia in the last two decades has been strongly
associated with the burgeoning of middle class Muslims and vast development of a
modernized Islamic lifestyle (Heryanto, 2011; Hosterey and Clark, 2012; Rani, 2012). The
representation of Muslim life in the fiction has successfully suggested a new concept of how
Islam and piety link with modernity, which is contrary to common belief that being a pious
Muslim means staying dogmatically traditional. An interesting aspect of modernity presented
in the fiction is Muslims’ ability to engage and adapt with culture of foreign countries. Within
this context, this paper investigates Ayat-AyatCinta, anIslamic novel by Habiburahman ElShirazy which was published in 2004. A number of studies (Arimbi, 2009; Rani, 2012) have
highlighted the importance of this novelin initiating Islamic fiction trend in Indonesia. The
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purpose of the analysis is to find out how the significant, yet less-observed, side of the main
character’s life as a part-time translator substantially reflects Muslims’ current aspiration to be
perceived as modern members of a globalised society.
Islam and the Contemporary Indonesian Islamic Fiction
In the last three decades, Indonesia has experienced an intense phase of Islamization in which
people's strengthening awareness of being Muslims has transformed from a privately religious
practice into a public cultural identity that becomes visible in many aspects of everyday life
(Hasan, 2009; Heryanto, 2011; Subijanto 2011; Wecket all, 2011). This change was actually
an impact of both Islamic revivalism and economic improvement in Indonesia in the late
1970s (Liddle, 1996; Smith-Hefner, 2007) that successfully generated young Muslim
intellectuals who later acted as the initiator of modernized Muslim identities (Howell, 2001).
The new Muslim generation quickly dispersed their renewed understanding of Islam and
opened new phase of Islamic development in Indonesia. Their influence was really strong that
the New Order government at that time, which was ill-reputed for terrible corruption practice,
began to see Islam as a medium to win back people’s trust. The government started to soften
its attitudes on Islamic aspirations and impose more policies that encouraged the development
of Islamic culture (Hellwig, 2011; Liddle, 1996; Subijanto, 2011). This shifting attitude of the
government made possible a more expressive representation of Islamic life in Indonesian
public culture (Jones, 2010). In two decades afterward, vivid manifestation of Islamic
symbols and practices – like the increasing popularity of hijab (head scarf) among Muslim
women and the growing numbers of Islamic schools and centers – has become more intense in
Indonesian public culture (Howell, 2001; Jones, 2010).
As a response to Muslims’ newly-resurged interest in expressing their religiosity, the period
of early 1990s have seen a significant increasein the publication of Islamic lifestyle
magazines. These magazines immediately gained public reception as they were seen suitable
with people’s needs in finding a model for "true" Islamic lifestyle (Gokariksel and McLarney,
2010; Jones, 2010). One of leading Islamic magazines published since early 1990s is Annida.
This magazine is believed to play very important role in pioneering the birth of Islamic fiction
trend as a number of famous contemporary Islamic writers, includingHelvyTiana Rosa and
Asma Nadia, started their literary career by writing short stories for this magazine (Arimbi,
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2009).
In 1997, Rosa and Nadiafounded Forum Lingkar Pena (FLP), an association of young
Muslim writers which is aimed at fostering the development of Islamic literary writingin
Indonesia.Committed to its vision, FLP regularly runs seminars, workshops and trainings to
help improve its members' quality and productivity in writing. This association
hassuccessfully developed from a small group of 30 university students into an important
organization that houses 5,000 members in its 120 countrywide sub-branches and overseas
branches inSingapore, Japan, Hong Kong, Egypt, Australia, England, and USA-Canada.
FLP’s publications include more than 500 books – which are mostly novels – and thousands
of short stories published in a number of leading Islamic magazines like Annida, Ummi, and
Sabili (Arnez, 2009).Habiburahman El-Shirazy is reported a current member of FLP who had
taken part in initiating an FLP branch in Cairo.
Islamic Fiction: between Da’wah and Religious Commodification
The trend of Islamic fiction in Indonesia has created diverging public opinions. Despite the
excellent readership’s reception, the popularity of this genre has also drawn significant
critiques, particularly from a number of Islamic elites who believe that the ‘loud’ Islamic
attributes used in the fiction, such as Islamic names, fashion style and even Quranic quotes,
do not necessarily reflect Islamic values or messages that are supposed to distinguish them
from any other genres of secular films. In this perspective, the trend of Islamic fiction is in
fact very often associated with religious commodification in which Islamic labelling is seen as
a commercial strategy to serve the current interest of Muslim readers (Heryanto, 2011;
Hoesterey and Clark, 2012).
It is reasonable to argue that the controversy around the Islamic fiction trend actually reflects
the complexity in defining what Islamic fiction is and how it is related and supposed to
contribute to the development of Islam in Indonesia in general. Since early development of
Islamic fiction, some definitions have been suggested to distinguish this genre from other
popular writings. Osman and Nasir (2011) claim that Islamic narratives must be able to
encourage Muslims to follow what Islam has assigned. Similar to this, Hoesterey and Clark
(2012, p. 208) argue that the label ‘Islamic’ must be interpreted as to “breathe Islam” and,
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therefore, Islamic fiction is expected to represent a call to the Islamic faith. The basic idea of
these definitions is that Islamic fiction has to serve the purpose of ‘dakwah’, or the teaching of
Islamic principles to Muslim society, as an equally important part ofits entertaining aspect.
Rosa (2003) suggests a more elaborative definition of the genre by highlighting what an
Islamic narrative should not contain in order to be particularly different from most secular
writings. According to Rosa, an Islamic narrative must not contain vulgarity or explicit
description of physical attraction or relationship, even in describing issues such as sexuality
and love affairs.
Ayat-AyatCinta and the New Concept of Modern Piety
The novel Ayat-AyatCinta was published in 2004 by Republika Publishing House. The story,
set in Cairo, is about a young Indonesian Muslim man named Fahri who is pursuing his
master degree at the University of Al Azhar. Fahri is a good-looking, intelligent, and
hardworking student. Being a pious Muslim, he is highly committed in practicing Islam in his
daily life. Despite the common opinion that Muslims arenot highly sociable, Fahri is
described as a friendly person who develops respectful social relationship with people
regardless their gender and religion. His great personality and attitude draw interest of four
beautiful women: Aisha, a rich Germany-Turkish Muslim who is studying Psychology in
Cairo; Maria, an intelligent Coptic girl living next door to Fahriwho expresses her respect and
interest in Islam; Nurul, an Indonesian student who is a daughter of very well-respected
Islamic preacher; andNoura, an Egyptian Muslim girl who lives with her abusive family. By a
matchmaking arranged by Aisha's family, Fahri finally decides to marry Aisha. However,
some serious conflicts occur after their marriage, including Fahri’s decision to commit
polygamy in order to save their marriage.
The 418-pages novel immediately gained great popularity among the Indonesian readership
with sale record that reached 700,000 copies within two years of publication (Rani, 2012).
This success immediately triggers not only publications of many copycat novels but also
adaptation of the novel into a film. I believe that the excellent readership’s reception of the
novel is due largely to its being published at the time people’s interest in an Islamic lifestyle
was intensifying. As suggested by Liddle (1996, p. 618), the burgeoning of middle class
Muslims after Islamic revival has successfully fostered the transformation of Islam from “a
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religion of the traditionality, of uneducated, backward villagers” to its new modernized face.
Similar to Liddle, Rinaldo (2008, p. 29) claims that the new Muslim society refers to modern
Islam as “a break with tradition, and identification with what they see as constitutive elements
of modernity: education, urbanity, professionalism.” Ayat-AyatCinta seemed to suit this new
Muslim generation’s search for an ideal model of modern Islam.
By analysing the main male character of the novel, there are at least three major components
of Islamic modernity represented in Ayat-AyatCinta. The first component is education.
Despite his family's unfortunate financial situation in Indonesia, Fahri is described as an
intelligent young man who is highly determined in pursuing a master degree in Al-Quran
Studies at the well-reputed University of Al Azhar in Cairo, Egypt. Many parts in the novel
and the film describe Fahri as a bright student who is respected by his friends and
acquaintances for his academic achievement as well as excellent knowledge and command of
Islamic practice. Fahri believes that education is an important element of Muslims’ life that
will allow them a respectable place and authority to participate in the development of their
religion.
This importance of education in symbolizing a modernized Islamic lifestyle has been
suggested by a number of studies since the early period of Islamic revivalism in Indonesia.
Studies by Tamneyin 1979 and 1980 have profoundly identified positive correlation between
education and piety. In contrast to common expectation, the research suggested that welleducated Muslims tend to be more religious and committed to the practice of a purer Islamic
lifestyle. Some indications of this increasing degree of piety discussed in the research are the
commitment to pray more regularly, to dress according to Islamic manners, and to abandon
the practice of religious syncretism.
The second component is social tolerance and open-mindedness. A number of studies point
out that the most important aspects in the modernized Islam in Indonesia is Muslims’
readiness to relate with the world outside Islam, integrate Islam with modern institution, and
accept the concept of pluralism instead of radicalism (Fealy, 2008; Rinaldo, 2011; Weckat all,
2011). In this case, Ayat-AyatCinta successfully portraysFahri as a tolerant Muslim. This
attitude is contrary to the common perspective in non-Muslim societies that see Islam as a
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radical religion (Er-Rashid, 2003; Morey and Yaqin, 2011). Despite his shy and religiously
cautious character, Fahri is capable of establishing and maintaining harmonious relationship
with people from different religious and social backgrounds. For example, Fahri develops
friendship with his Coptic neighbor, the Girgis family. They help each other sincerely and on
occasions exchange little gifts.
In the novel, there are some parts where Fahri and Maria, the Girgis’ daughter, openly discuss
the difference between their faiths but remain respectful of each other.Fahri acknowledges
that everyone has a right to practice what she or he truly believes.
“Dan
aku
pun
tidakmerasaperluuntukbertanyapadanyakenapatidakmengikutiajaran
Al-
Quran.Pertanyaanitukurasasangattidaktepatditujukanpadagadiscerdasseperti
Maria.Diapastipunyaalasanataspilihannya.Inilah
membuatkumenganggap
Maria
yang
adalahgadisanehdanmistrius.Di
duniainibanyaksekalihalhalmistrius.Masalahhidayahdanimanadalahmasalahmistrius.” (p. 27)
And I don’t need to ask why she doesn’t follow Al-Quran (Islam). It isn’t a
question you would address to an intelligent woman like Maria. She must have
her own reason. I think Maria has a mysterious mind. There are many
mysterious things in this world. And one’s calling to faith is one of them. [my
trans.]
Another part of the novel expresses Fahri’s more determined opinion that humanity
should always be respected regardless of people’s religious background.
“Kita
harusmemanusiakanmanusiatanpamenyentuhsedikitpunkemerdekaannyameyaki
ni
agama
yang
dianutnya.Taklebihdantakkurang.
andaikanumatberagamasedewasa
Maria
duniatentuakandamaidantidakada
rasa
Ah,
dalammemanusiakanmanusia,
salingmencurigai.
Diam-
diamakubersimpatipadasikap Maria.” (p. 83)
We have to respect people’s existence regardless of their faith. That’s how it
has to be. Ah, I wish every religious person is as wise as Maria in respecting
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others; the world would be a peaceful place and free of suspicion. I secretly
admire Maria’s attitude. [my trans.]
The last component of Islamic modernity that can be seen inFahri’s character is modern selfrepresentation.Fahri holds a strong belief that a well-cared appearance, which is in simplest
way reflected in one’s selection ofneat and clean attire, is a significant representation of
reliable personality that every pious Muslim must perform. As depicted recurrently in the
novel, Fahri expresses disapproval over his housemates who never seriously pay attention on
the importance of neat and tidy appearance. A quotation from page 127 of the novel shows
how disappointed Fahri is as his friends do not care to wear proper attire when attending a
fancy dinner to celebrate the birthday of their kind neighbour, Madame Nahned.
“Sudahberkali-kali
akumengingatkan
agar
keduanyamembuangjauh-
jauhadatklowor
yang
merekabawadaripesantrentradisional.Tapimerekamasihsukaklowor,
padahalBagindaNabimencontohkankerapian, kebersihandanpenampilan yang
meyakinkan.” (p. 127)
I have recurrently warned them to break the habit of carelessly wearing untidy
clothes that they brought from their old Islamic boarding schools back home.
But they still do that. Even the Prophet Mohammed has shown us that being
neat and clean is part of Muslim’s reliable personality. [my trans.]
Fahri further addresses his critique to the existing tradition in many Islamic boarding schools
in Indonesia that still sees expense on clothes as a waste of money and, therefore, is
religiously discouraged. Through Fahri’s character, El-Shirazytries to communicate that
maintaining a reliable self-representation by wearing proper and neat attire is an important
attitude of a pious Muslim.
Translator and Inter-religious Communication
This section discusses how El-Shirazy’s idea of representing Fahri as a part-time translator in
his novel actually strengthens his description of Fahri as a modern Muslim. As a translator,
Fahrishows not only good multilingual competence but also great multicultural awareness
which should be seen as a symbol of Muslim’s readiness to engage with the outer world. It is
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reasonable to argue that Fahri’s multilingual and multicultural competences actually develop
from his extensive social and educational experience where he becomes in contact with
people from different social and religious background. As discussed in the previous section,
these competences are well-expressedin his commitment in encouraging inter-religious
tolerance within his social circle.
Further in this section, Fahri’s role as a translator is explored within the context of interreligious communication. Through detailednarration of his translation duties, Fahriviews
himself responsible for introducing the aspects of Islamic modernity and the accurate
interpretation of Islamic principles to the non-Islamic world. Fahri believes these roles will
help lessen social prejudice upon Muslims which, in the end,creates inter-religious
understanding.
Translator’s Multilingual and Multicultural Awareness
It is interesting to discuss that the background of El-Shirazy, the novel writer, as a translator
seems to contribute significantly to his careful awareness in building Fahri’s perspective on
how a language should be used according to socio-cultural context. As shown in the following
quotation, Fahri’s excellent command in English and Arabic is reflected not only in a
structural level but also in pragmatic context.
“Hal a..anakhata?” Ucapperempuanbercadartergagap.Iamemakaibahasafusha,
bukanbahasa‘amiyah.
Maksudnyabisadipahami,
tapisusunannyajanggal.Apakahmungkinkarenadirinyaterlalukagetatasbentakanp
emudaMesiritu. (p. 42)
“Mau
kemana?”
tanyaku.Kali
ini
kami
berbincangdalamBahasa
Arab.Akuberusahamenggunakankalimat-kalimatfusha
yang
mudahdipahamiolehnya.Kuhidnaribahasa ‘amiyahsamasekali. (p. 102)
‘Hal
a..anakhata?’ said Aisha hesitantly. She speaks in fusha instead of
‘amiyah Arabic. The meaning is comprehensible, but the structure is unusual.
She might be too shocked from being threatened rudely by that Egyptian man.
[my trans.]
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‘Where would you be going?’ I asked her. We are speaking in Arabic this time. I try
to use the fusha Arabic so that she can understand easily. I avoid speaking in ‘amiyah
as much as I can. [my trans.]
In the first part of this quotation, when meeting and talking to Aisha for the first time on a
train, Fahriimmediately notices her socially-inappropriate use of Arabic.Being aware of this
issue, when they meetfor the second time, Fahri carefully decides to speak to her in a variant
of Arabic called fusha which he believes will be more communicative.
In addition to his multilingual competence, Fahri also has high awareness of the importance
of cultural knowledge in communication. It can be seen in the way he calms down the
Egyptian passengers in a train who are upset because Aisha willingly gives up her seat to an
old American lady. Fahri recalls and practices an advice from his Al-Quran teacher who once
told him how Egyptians have very particular way to deal with angry people. Saying “La
taghdhab!”(p. 44) or ‘Please, calm down!’ will only make them more upset. By inviting the
angry passengers to praise the Prophet Mohammed, Fahrican finally avoid further conflict and
harassment toward Aisha and the American tourists.
On another part of the novel, it is said that Fahriknowshow jokes can becomean effective
strategy for successful daily communication in Cairo. He carefully learns what types of jokes
are favoured by the Egyptians and uses them effectively in many occasions, for example when
he tries to get a bargain price from a trader in Attaba traditional market.
”Akuseringmengumpulkanpepatah-pepatahkocakMesir
yang
membuat
orang
Mesirterkagetdantertawasaatkuajakbicara.Merekaakanterheranheranakudapatpepatahitudari
mana.
Universitas
Al
Azhartidakmungkinmengajarkannya.”(p. 109)
“Attabaadalahpasarrakyatterbesar
lebihmurahdibandingkantempat
di
Mesir.Semuaada.Harganya
yang
lain.
senimenawardanberguarautetappentinguntukmemperolehharga
Mesir paling sukadenganlelucondanguyonan.” (p. 108)
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relative
Meskipunbegitu,
miring.
Orang
December 2013
I often surprise the Egyptians and make them laugh by saying particular jokes that
I like to collect from time to time. They wonder from whom I learnt those jokes
because Al-Azhar University must not teach them. [my trans.]
Attaba is the biggest traditional market in Egypt. The prices of goods there are
relatively cheaper than any other markets. But we really need to know how to joke
with the sellers to get the best price. The Egyptian people really love jokes. [my
trans.]
Fahri’s sensitivity in acknowledging cultural aspects of language has helped significantly with
his success in establishing social relationships in Cairo.In referring to the above quotations, it
is reasonable to claim that Fahri’smulticultural awarenessreflects Muslim’s modernity in a
way that it symbolizes Muslims’ openness to accept and engage with foreign culture,
including that of the non-Islamic society. To some extent, this awareness could effectively
lessenmisleading opinions that say Islamic teaching expectsMuslims to be religiously strict
and, thus, prohibits them from being socially open to the globalised society.
Translator’s Role in Introducing Islamic Modernity
In some parts of the novel, there are some detailed descriptions about Fahri’s works as a parttime translator. Some of the descriptions, as shown in the following quotation, interestingly
provide in-depth insight about how a translator actually has a potential power in introducing
Islam as a modern religion.
“Usaimakan,
akumelakukanrutinitasku
didepankomputer.
Mengalihbahasakankitabberbahasa Arab kedalambahasa Indonesia.Kali ini yang
akugarapadalahkitabklasikkaryaIbnuQayyim,
yaitukitabMiftahDarisSa’adah.Duajilidbesar.Kitabberat.Menggarapkitabinibenar
-benarmenguraspikirandantenaga.AkuharusseriusdanhatihatipadasaatIbnuQayyimmembahasilmuperbintangan, horoskop, pengaruh planetplanet, ramalannasib, dan lain sebagainya.
Bahasailmufalakdanastronomiadalahbahasa
yang
tidakmudah.Akuterpaksamembukakamusklasikberkali-kali,
dipakaiIbnuQayyimadalahbahasa
Arab
karenabahasa
yang
klasik.Itusajatidakcukup,
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harusjugadidampingidengankamusdanbukuastronomi modern.Dan tatkala yang
ditulisIbnuQayyimtelahterangmaksudnya,
akubagaikanmenemukanmutiaratidakternilaiharganya.IbnyQayyimternyatajugase
orangastronom yang luarbiasa.” (p. 68-69)
Translating this book is physically and psychologically painful. I have to be really
focused in the part where IbnuQayyim discusses astronomy, horoscope, the
influence of planet system, astrology, etc. [my trans]
The language of astrology and astronomy are not easily understood. I have to
consult the dictionary from time to time because IbnuQayyim used old Arabic.
That is not even sufficient; I have to consult other dictionaries and textbooks in
modern astronomy. [my trans]
The above quotation explains how challenging the work of a translator is. The complexity of
the source text forces Fahri to resort to different dictionaries and textbooks. Furthermore, this
quotation essentially shows how the Islamic world has been well-developed in modern
science, including astronomy, horoscope, and astrology. In this case, a translator plays a very
essential role in introducing to the world that Islam that has taken part in the development of
science along the history.
Translator’s Role in Encouraging Inter-religious Tolerance
Another interesting aspect in Fahri’scharacter asa freelance translator is his strong belief that a
Muslim translator actually holds a highly potential power in encouraging religious
understanding between Muslim and non-Muslim people. In one part of the novel, Fahri is
being interviewed by an American journalist regarding some opinions that commonly exist
among non-Muslims claiming that Islam is discriminative toward women. Some evidences of
the discrimination that are cited by the journalist include Quranic verses about polygamy and
men’s right to physically hit their wives. In order to answer this question accurately,
Fahrirefers to a book in Arabic that he has read for his study. Instead of only citing relevant
parts of the book, Fahri insists on translating the book completely to allow the journalist a full
description that Islam is a religion that deeply respects humanism along the history.
The following quotation illustrates how Fahri thinks that the book must be read by all people
in the western world in order to have accurate interpretation of Islamic teaching.
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“AkumerasaisibukuProf.Dr.
Abdul
WadudShalabiharusdibacamasyarakatAmerika, Eropa, danbelahandunialainnya
yang masihseringtidakbisamemahamiruhajaran Islam termasukjugamasyarakat
Indonesia.Bukuitupenuhdengannilaihumanisme
Islam
yang
dicatatolehtintasejarah.” (p. 153-4)
I think the book of Prof.Dr. Abdul WadudShalabi must be read by Americans,
Europeans and the people around the world, who are still misinformed of the
essence of Islamic values. The book must also be read by Indonesian people. The
book reveals how humanistic Islam has been along the history. [my trans.]
In the context of this quotation, translation is seen very important in transferring knowledge
about Islam accurately in order to avoid misinterpretation that can lessen religious tolerance
among people around the world.
Conclusion
Fahri’s character as a part time translator in the novel Ayat-AyatCinta conveys a strong
message about the aspects of Islamic modernity that include Muslims’ education, religious
tolerance
and
open-mindedness,
and
modern
self-representation.Fahri’smultilingual
competence and multicultural awareness, which come from his extensive social and
educational experience,essentially symbolize Muslim’s openness to engage with the modern
world. This is contrary to common belief that claims a pious Muslim is socially reserved and
has difficulty in establishing social relationship. Furthermore, Fahri’s perception on his
translation tasks reflects his deep understanding ontranslator’s potential role in introducing
the aspects of Islamic modernity and the accurate interpretation of Islamic principles to the
non-Islamic societies. This communicative role is expected tolessen misleading opinions
about Muslims and help establish inter-religious understanding among people around the
world.
References
Arimbi, D.A. (2009). Reading Contemporary Indonesian Muslim Writers.Amsterdam:
Amsterdam University Press.
Arnez, M. (2009).Dakwah by the Pen: Reading HelvyTiana Rosa's Bukavu,Journal of
Indonesia and Malay World, 37,107, 45-64.
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El-Shirazy, H.(2004). Ayat-AyatCinta.Jakarta: Penerbit Republika.
Er-Rashid, H. (2003). Muslims and the West: A Paradigm for Polarization. In M.J. Thomson
(ed.), Islam and the West: Critical Perspectives on Modernity (pp. 5-20). USA:
Rowman and Littlefield Publishers Inc.
Fealy, G. (2008). Consuming Islam: Commodified Religion and Aspirational Pietism in
Contemporary Indonesia. In G. Fealy and S. White (ed.), Expressing Islam: religious
life and politics in Indonesia. Singapore: ISEAS Publishing.
Gokariksel, B. and McLarney, E. (2010). Muslim Women, Consumer Capitalism, and the
Islamic Culture Industry,Journal of Middle East Women's Studies, 6, 3, 1-18.
Hasan, N. (2009). The Making of Public Islam: Piety, Agency, and Commodification on the
Landscape of the Indonesian Public Sphere, Cont Islam, 3, 229-250.
Hellwig, T. (2011).Abidah El-Khalieqy’s Novels: Challenging Patriarchal Islam. Bijdragen
tot de taal, Land-en Volkenkunde, 167, 1, 16-30.
Heryanto, A. (2011). Upgrading Piety and Pleasure: the New Middle Class and Islam in
Indonesian Popular Culture. In A.N. Weintraub (ed.), Islam and popular culture in
Indonesia and Malaysia.Weintraub. New York: Routledge.
Hosterey, J.B. and Clark, M. (2012). Film Islami: Gender, Piety and Pop Culture in Postauthoritarian Indonesia,Asian Studies Review, 36, 207-226.
Howel, J. D. (2001). Sufism and the Indonesian Islamic Revival,Journal of Asian Studies, 60,
3, 701-729.
Jones, C. (2010). Images of Desire: Creating Virtue and Value in an Indonesian Islamic
Lifestyle Magazine,Journal of Middle East Women's Studies, 6, 3, 91-117.
Liddle, R.W. (1996). The Islamic Turn in Indonesia: A Political Explanation,The Journal of
Asian Studies, 55, 3, 613-634.
Morey, P. and Yaqin, A. (2011).Framing Muslims: Strereotyping and Representation after
9/11. England: Harvard University Press.
Osman, R.A. and Nasir, M.S. (2011). A Bird’s Eye View on the Islamic Literature Discourse
in Indonesia,International Journal of Business and Social Science, 2, 11, 101-110.
Rani, M.Z.A. (2012). Islam, Roman, and Popular Taste in Indonesia,Indonesia and the Malay
World, 40, 116, 59-73.
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Rinaldo, R. (2008). Muslim Women, Middle Class Habitus, and Modernity in
Indonesia,Contemporary Islam, 2, 1, 23-39.
Rosa, H. T. (2003). SegenggamGumam: Esai-EsaitentangSastradanKepenulisan. Bandung:
SyaamilCipta media.
Rudnycky, D. (2009). Market Islam in Indonesia,Journal of the Royal Anthropological
Institute, N.S., 183-201.
Smith-Hefner, N. J. (2007). Javanese Women and the Veil in Post-Suharto Indonesia,The
Journal of Asian Studies, 66, 2, 389-420.
Subijanto, R. (2011). The Visibility of a Pious Public,Journal of Inter-Asia Cultural Studies,
12, 2, 240-253.
Tamney, J.B. (1979). Established Religiosity in Modern society: Islam in Indonesia,
Sociological Analysis, 40, 2, 125-135.
Tamney, J. (1980). Modernization and Religious Purification: Islam in Indonesia,Review of
Religious Research, 22, 2, 207-218.
Weck, W. et all. (2011). Islam in the public sphere: the politics of identity and the future of
democracy in Indonesia. Jakarta: Center for the Study of Religion and Culture (CSRC)
of Universitas Islam NegeriSyarifHidayatullah.
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THE POLITICS OF TEACHING AND LEARNING LITERARY
TRANSLATION
Dono Sunardi
English Letters Study Program, Universitas Ma Chung
Villa Puncak Tidar N-01, Malang
e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
Departing from Eagleton’sdefinition of literature as “highly valued kind of writing” that
brings with it “historical and ideological category and … social and political functioning”
(Kuhiwczak, 2007, p. 79), any activity related to literaturecan never be simply creative
but also political. This paper examines how teaching and learning literary translationis a
political endeavor for at least two reasons. One is, following Anderson, because language
as the vehicle of literature, and of its translation thereof, is of central ideological and
political importance (1991, p. 67). Language of literature is therefore by and itself
political. This can be exemplifiedby Toer’s Minke’s deliberate choice to write in unstable
Malay instead of solid Dutch so that more Indonesian readers would have access to
modernity, including to the idea of nationalism, and by the choice of Kenyan writer wa
Thiong’o to stop writing in English because he sees English as a potent colonizing tool.
Languageof literature is subversive, critical to any ideology. The second reason is related
to the choice of theliterature being taught and learned in the class. Good literature,
following Toer, must have “a social aspect to it, and the greater development of the social
aspect, the better it is” (1999, p. 335). To that, I would add political and ideological
aspects, as alreadybeing hinted by Eagleton and Anderson.
Keywords: literary translation, language, teaching and learning, politics.
Introduction
Literaturehas been a source of wisdom for generations. From it, people learn timeless values.
Commenting on the timelessness of the wisdom and relating it to quality of the literary
works,C.S. Lewis pointed out, “the good ones [literature] last” (Hooper, 2002).There is,
therefore, at least to Lewis and many others, a causal relationship between the quality of
literature works (one of them being indicated by the wisdom those works offer) and their
“lasting lifespan”. Those values are then applied for the betterment of humanity. There are
already many obvious examples for this case.
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While there are only few who doubt the merits of literature toward humanity along the lines
of the wisdom literature can offer, many would tend to overlook the other potentials of
literature, that is to criticize, to subvert, to challenge what people will consider status quo.
These later, other functions of literature are sometimes denied, or at least “tamed” for the sake
of stability or power.
Before further discussing this issue at hand, it is imperative to see how literature is defined.
Terry Eagleton defines literature as “highly valued kind of writing” to which she immediately
add with its other feature of carrying “historical and ideological category and social and …
political functioning” (Kuhiwczak, 2007, p. 79). Eagleton’s definition seems to admit that
literature does not stop in its status of being highly valued kind of writing, assuming its
inherent, timeless values it can offer to humanity—in short, its wisdom it can teach to
readers—but it is so also because of its historical, ideological, and political functioning. It is
this last function of literature that this paper will deal with.
But, what is being political? Broadly speaking, politics means the art or science of power
relations, or of government. Politics is art because it involves some level of abstraction as
well as some degree of skill or craft. It is science because it contains sets of principle and
brings about academic sensibilities. Following Foucault’s ideas, politics is here understood as
a structure of power relation, because power is not a [fixed] thing. To Foucault, politics is not
principally a noun, it is verb: a relation, something that is dynamics, changes most of the
times, if not all the times. Other feature of politics as a power relation is that it is present, or
omnipresent to be précised, at the most micro-level of social relations. An extreme example
would be that even our choice of certain color or style of clothes we are going to wear to an
event is political since it implicitly tells a social relation we want to create with people we are
going to meet or, in short, what kind of image we want others will have upon us based on our
mere appearance.
This paper would argue that the act of teaching and learning literary translation is political.
Simply by following the definition of politics outlined above we can readily say that nothing,
teaching and learning literary translation included, is vacuum of politics. So, what is the
significance of this exploration anyway? This paper’s contribution is on its efforts to answer
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the “how” question, i.e. how is teaching and learning literary translation political. It will be
shown throughout that the act of teaching and learning literary translation is political for at
least two respects: the form, which is the language, and the content of the literature.
There is one more term begs to be defined before our exploration can proceed: what is literary
translation. While translation is generally and sufficiently understood as a transfer process,
which aims at the transformation of a written SL (Source Language) text into an optimally
equivalent TL (Target Language) text, and which requires the semantic, syntactic and
pragmatic understanding and analytical processing of the SL (Wills, 1982), literary translation
requires more from the translator. Following Spivak (1992), who considers translation as “the
most intimate act of reading” (p. 398), it is only logical then that unless a literary translator
has earned the to become the intimate reader of the text he/she is about to translate, he/she
“cannot surrender to the text, cannot respond to the special call of the text” (p. 400). How can
this act of intimate reading, an act that would typically be seen as a very individualistic act, be
political, a manifestation of power relation exists in the society? Will not it become a
contradiction?
Language: The Form of Literature
Language is for humanity a blessing and a curse at the same time. It is a blessing since all
knowledge and insights in this world come into our sensibilities through language, without
which there is nothing can be said, none can be communicated. But it poses a great challenge
to us all as well because the knowledge and the insights we learn through language can never
be perfect; they are somehow lack of the quality of the Real. To put it simpler, we must
satisfy ourselves with the closest equivalent to the Reality when trying to communicate it
through imperfect language. Language is, therefore, an essential yet limited tool to
knowledge.
Language is the vehicle of literature without which the later will not even exist. Language is
therefore to literature a necessary condition, sine qua non. Discussing any topic on literature
without touching the language is simply improbable. In literary criticism, the exploration of
the language of a literary work will result in formalistic approach. And when coming to the
topic of literary translation, non-discussion of the nature of language will make it a naïve
exploration.
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A language in literature is a case of print language. Although there is the so-called oral
literature, where literature is supposedly not to be expressed in writing form but is told from
one person to another orally, when coming to literary translation it is mostly the print
language that we talk about and deal with. And print language, following Benedict
Anderson’s notion in his now classic Imagined Community (1983), is the language of mass
media in its broadest sense. As such, literature, just like any other mass media, functions to
create mass consciousness. It is educative in that sense, but in most cases it educates the
readers of the unjust system that prevails. In the next stage, literature helps the readers to
bring into their consciousness their critical view of the system.
So powerful is the [print] language as an “emancipating” tool, a means to create and sustain
mass consciousness that this is well reflected both in literary setting as well as in real-world
experience. In literary setting, Pramoedya A. Toer’s Buru Quartet provides a good working
example. Its main character, Minke, had received Western style education, making him think
and behave according to Western fashion. He considers himself as a modern man, indeed as a
man of the world. The reality of the Dutch colonialism over Indonesia, however, curtails him
of his full potentials. Furthermore Minke sees that his fellow Indonesians seem to be unaware
of, or to be précised to be helpless before, their Dutch colonizer. Young Minke who had been
naïve to think that everything that comes from the West, everything that is Dutch, to be
superior starts to seriously reconsider his positioning. And through a series of events and selfreflection, Minke comes to realization that he needs to do something to help empowering his
fellow Indonesians. His choice is by publishing a newspaper, with which he hopes to gain
wide readership. And Minke deliberately chooses Indonesian, a language that is still very
young and in the process of its bildungs (which actually still continues until this very day),
instead of the much honored Dutch. The later, despite being more stable and well respected, is
not the language spoken by most of Indonesians, whom Minke wishes to raise their awareness
to the point of the creation of mass critical consciousness of their being oppressed by the
Dutch colonial power.
From the real world, the case of Kenyan writer Ngugi wa Thiong’o (previously known as
James Ngugi), can be brought to attention. In his early writing career, Ngugi did write in
English, the language of his “master” (Kenya was colonized by England.) But later in his life,
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Ngugi realized that in order to be able to speak up to the very best the experience of his
fellows he could not use English anymore. English has been so embedded with the
colonialism itself that when one wants to talk about or narrate the stories of the colonized he
cannot speak with the same language of the colonizer. So now, Ngugi writes in Kenyan,
although he can very well write in English. Also he dropped his old name “James Ngugi”
which he thinks to be Westernized and appropriated African name of Ngugi wa Thiong’o.
The interplay between language and politics is so deep that language cannot be understood
outside it. Language is a tool of politics. And in teaching and learning literary translation
where language(s) plays a very important part, politics is inescapable. Just by dealing with
language, we are political. So is teaching and learning literary translation.
As a political tool, language can be, loosely following Foucault, oppressive as well as
productive. Language can be oppressive when it is, in the hand of the people in power or the
regime, used as a tool to maintain and enforce a single way of expression, that is one that will
suit with the regime’s interest. Everything else that is different from, or contradicting with,
that single way of expression is prevented from flourishing and growing since it is seen as
dangerous for the status quo. I can think of Soeharto’s enforcement on the acceptance and use
of Ejaan yang Disempurnakan (EYD, Improved Orthography) as one example of this notion
of language as an oppressive political tool.
But there are many examples of how language can be a “productive” political tool. The
examples of Pramoedya A. Toer and Ngugi wa Thiong’o above show this aspect. As
productive political tool, language is a tool to criticize, to challenge, to make parody of and
even to subvert.
Language is, in short, an arena of politics where contested interests compete for control, in
efforts to fulfill its will to power. Language as manifested in literary works then cannot be
other but of the same operation. Translating literary works is a political activity since we
cannot escape using language that is abounds with politics itself. The second reason will
explore more in what is inside of that literary works we translate.
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Literature: The Content
The second reason why teaching and learning literary translation is a political act is precisely
because of the content of that literature itself. Any literature, no matter how imaginative,
fantastic and popular it might be, deals with human being’s social and political experience,
albeit indirectly and implicitly. Here, we are going to once again turn our attention to
Pramoedya A. Toer—many would call him a socialist realist writer—who reportedlysaid,
“My words, my writing, my actions—they have never been for myself alone, either directly or
indirectly. There is no such thing as an artist who creates art only for himself. That is
masturbation. There’s a social aspect to it, and the greater development of the social aspect,
the better it is” (Toer, 1999, p. 335). What is social aspect here but having political aspect as
well? If literature cannot escape from language, or in discussion of the previous part printlanguage, it is as well cannot be born out of vacuum.
A literary work is born out of a motive of the author and no motive is, we can say confidently,
non-political—no matter how pious that motive is. As long as human being’s interest is
inherently found in any of his or her action, political motive is a matter of certainty. To
borrow from Foucault, the struggle for power is war-like and can be found in all aspects in
societal life. It is naïve to assume that literature was, and is, written out of hollowness or nonexistence of (political) motives. Pramoedya A. Toer, when writing his Buru Quartet for which
he is internationally acclaimed in his exile in Buru Island, for example, is known saying that
he meant it would be his contribution to “help correct the accepted colonial version of history
of the rise of Indonesian nationalism” (Toer, 1999,p.314). Pramoedya A. Toer is, therefore,
aware of the strength and potential of his writing in correcting the nation to its rightful path.
And the same awareness, although directed oppositely (to some degree it might be out of
fear), was owned by Soeharto’s New Order regime which, during its heyday, banned
Pramoedya’s works from circulation.
Literature is never value free, if we agree with the initial notion in this paper: that literature
offers us wisdom of life. And yet, at the same time, literature is bias, taking side and
subjective. Considering these inherent features of literature, it is only logical to say that
literature is political, seen from the point of its content. Literature is charge with social,
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ideological and political values and agenda. Translating such works cannot be else but
political.
Conclusion
Literary translation is a kind of translation whose source language text is literature. Literature
is highly valued kind of writing that is charged with wisdom, but also with social, ideological
and political values, making its process and product of translation a political act. Teaching
and learning literary translation is political for two reasons: (1) the language that functions as
the form and vehicle is a political tool to oppress, to control but also to criticize, to challenge
and to subvert; (2) the content of literature itself is charged with values, and sometimes
agenda, that can be political. Because of these two reasons, teaching and learning literary
translation is a political act.
References
Anderson, B. (1991). Imagined Communities. New York: Verso.
Anderson, B. (2006). Language and Power: Exploring Political Power in Indonesia. Jakarta
and Kuala Lumpur: Equinox Publishing.
Hooper, W. (2002). Of Other World: Essays and Stories. San Diego, CA: Harcourt.
Kuhiwczak, P.& Littau, K. (2007). A Companion to Translation Studies. Clevedon, Buffalo
and Toronto: Multilingual Matters Ltd.
Spivak, G. (1992). “The Politics in Translation” in A. Barrett (Ed.), Destabilizing Theory:
Contemporary Feminist Debates. London and New York: Routledge.
Toer, P.A. (1990). This Earth Mankind. Trans. Max Lane. New York: Penguin Books.
Toer, P.A. (1990). Child of All Nations. Trans. Max Lane. New York: Penguin Books.
Toer, P.A. (1990). Footsteps. Trans. Max Lane. New York: Penguin Books.
Toer, P.A. (1990). House of Glass. Trans. Max Lane. New York: Penguin Books.
Toer, P.A. (1999). The Mute Soliloquy. Trans. Willem Samuels. New York: Hyperion.
Wilss, W. (1982). The Science of Translation. Stuttgart: Gunter Narr Verlag.
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Biodata:
Dono Sunardiwas graduated from Clark University, USA in 2011 with M.A. in English. He is
Fulbright scholar. Currently, he is teaching at English Letters Study Program, Ma Chung
University of Malang. Besides, he is a book translator for Serambi, BIP, and other publishers
in Jakarta and Yogyakarta.
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TRANSLATION ANALYSIS IN BILINGUAL TOURISM BROCHURE:
TRANSLATING INDONESIAN TO ENGLISH
Elysa Hartati
Graduate Student of the State University of Semarang
[email protected]
Abstract
The tourism brochure is considered to be the product of ethnographic translation. The
methods used to translate are varied. This paper aims to see what kinds of methods used
to translate from Indonesian to English in the tourism brochure, to see the problems
emerge in the translation product of tourism brochure, and to find the solution to
encounter the problems emerge in the translation product of tourism brochure. Journal
articles and book references are mainly the source of this study. From the analysis result,
it was shown that literal translation, faithful translation, free translation, and
communicative translation were used to translate the text. However, the methods which
more stressed on source language were mostly used in translating this product since the
influence of Indonesian language still existed on them. Therefore, the product of the
translation sometimes was not natural as English as the native-like. It happened on the
grammatical function mostly, spelling and punctuation, and also the choice of words
which then influenced the evaluation of translation product; they are accuracy,
readability, and naturalness. Therefore, it is recommended for the translators to be aware
of those components mentioned above. Moreover this is a tourism brochure which is used
to promote Indonesia tourism especially for Central Java. The foreigners will need it to
guide them go around this province, so that the information given should be acceptable in
content and context of tourism.
Keywords: ethnographic translation, translation methods, evaluation of translation
INTRODUCTION
In an effort to promote Indonesia tourism, especially for Central Java, to the global society,
making a brochure is an effective way to lead the tourists interested to visit Indonesia. Since
the tourists may come from Indonesia and overseas, the language used should be in both
Indonesian as a national language and English as a foreign language which is considered to be
the language used to communicate to each other in international business. In line with that
point, therefore, the translation does work an important role to make the Indonesia tourism
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brochure can be comprehended by the tourists. Hence, the translation product is produced
bilingually, Indonesian and English.
Translation consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of
the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style (Nida in
Hartono, 2009: 1). This definition means that translation is a process of producing the
equivalent meaning and cultural discourse from source language to the target language.
Newmark (1988: 5) states that translation is rendering the meaning of a text into another
language in the way that the author intended the text. Iser in Bassnett (1997:115) states that
translating is not just rendering the explicit notion in the sentences but understanding the
implicit purpose beyond the sentences or statements, so translators should do translating
process carefully. Crystal in Hartono (2009) defines translation as a process where the
meaning and expression in one language (source) is tuned with the meaning of another
(target) whether the medium is spoken, written or signed.
From the definitions given above, translation can be defined as a process that is not only
looking for the equivalent meaning from the source language to the target language, but the
culture embedded in it also must be understood to make the product of translation readable,
accurate, and natural. It does so in translating a tourism brochure. There are so many technical
words and cultural terms that perhaps hard to be translated in the target language. So, the
various techniques and methods of translation must be applied in doing that.
In the brochure of Central Java tourism, it is found some translation techniques and methods
used to translate from Indonesian to English. However, there are still some mistakes found in
it, such as the structure, diction, and discourse that make the tourists from the foreign
countries, or they are called foreigners, hard to understand that.
The above elaboration shows that there are some problems in translating a tourism text
particularly the techniques use on it. For that reason, this paper is presented 1) to see what
kinds of methods used to translate from Indonesian to English in the tourism brochure, 2) to
see the problems emerge in the translation product of tourism brochure, and 3) to find the
solution to encounter the problems emerge in the translation product of tourism brochure.
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Tourism and Translation
The language of tourism has recently become a productive field of research, stimulating work
in various fields, such as cultural studies, discourse analysis and specialized discourse. The
language of tourism is characterized by a peculiar variety, expressed at all linguistic levels,
which is due to the distinctive lack of uniformity of an extended subject area such as tourism
whose borders with other disciplines such as geography, history, economics, marketing, etc
(Agorni, 2012).
In terms of translation, most, if not all, forms of text types have undergone translation, but, as
mentioned before, tourism brochures in particular are among the least examined texts.
Henceforth, translating such texts constitutes a challenging process in which translators may
face serious problems related to culture-specific terms and technical terms products (Shehab,
2011). Such problems may lead to translation inaccuracies that will negatively affect the
target receptors' comprehensibility of the translated texts. Avoiding the possible translation
problems requires skilful abilities that enable the translators to choose appropriate translation
methods. Such methods are going to be investigated in this study.
Culture-specific items defined as lexical units that refer to everyday life, art, culture,
traditions, customs, natural environment that are strongly linked to a group of people and
carry additional meanings for them: connotative and emotional. The role of the translator is to
facilitate the transfer of message, meaning and cultural elements from one language into
another and create an equivalent response from the receivers (Nida in Terestyenyi, 2011). He
conferred equal importance to both linguistic and cultural differences between the source
language and the target language and concluded that differences between cultures may cause
more severe complications for the translator than differences in language structure. The
literature of translation usually gives strategies to overcome this problem.
Newmark (1988) suggests two opposing methods: transference is a strategy when a source
language word is transferred into a target language text in its original form which gives color
to the text, for example keeping cultural names and concepts; and componential analysis
which excludes the culture and highlights the message.
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It is known that a perfect translation of culturally-bound texts is impossible. The translation
focusing on the purpose of writing the source language text is, however, always possible.
Whether it will be translated or not, the chosen methods depends on their importance and
function in the given text.
DISCUSSION
Ethnographic Translation
The tourism brochure is a kind of text which consists of cultural lexical items and many
technical terms such as wayang, batik, inscription, some proper names of the tourism object,
etc. Because of those cultural terms exist in that text, as a translator, he/she should be
sensitive when translating or explaining those cultural contexts from source language (SL) to
the target language (TL).
In along with that, the type of translation which is called ethnographic translation is used to
translate a kind of tourism brochure like what is being studied in this study. Soemarno in
Hartono (2009: 13) states that the aim of the ethnographic translation is to explain the context
of culture from source language to target language; from Indonesian to English. The translator
has to be able to find out the suitable words of target language to explain the terms of source
language that culturally do not exist in the target language. For example, the word wayang,
batik, kampoeng batik are difficult to translate into English because those are culture. If they
are translated into English, they will be very long writing and can not guarantee the tourists or
foreign readers understand what are meant. To cope with that, a footnote is usually used to
explain those words, while still keeping the words from Indonesian, to define those terms in a
particular way.
For example:
1
wayang is a traditional puppet made from the buffalo leathers and played by the puppeteer
toward a story.
2
batik is a method of printing patterns on cloth, in which wax is put on the cloth before it is
put in the dye (= substance for changing the colour of cloth) or the cloth itself.
3
kampoeng batik is a place where it is a centre to buy and sell batik as the famous product of
that tourism place.
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Translation Methods
In this bilingual tourism procedure, it is not only one method used to translate from
Indonesian to English. Molina and Albir in Hartono (2009: 16) argues that translation method
refers to the way of a particular translation process that is carried out in terms of translator’s
objective, i.e. a global option that affects the whole texts. Therefore, the translation methods
truly determine the product of translation. In doing so, Newmark (1988: 45) classify into two
groups the methods of translation which stress on source language and the ones which stress
on target language. The classification is drawn as follows.
Figure 1: Translation Methods
SL emphasis
TL emphasis
Word-for-word translation
Literal translation
Faithful translation
Semantic translation
Adaptation
Free translation
Idiomatic translation
Communicative translation
(Newmark, 1988:45)
Here, the methods used in translating tourism brochure are presented in this study.
1) Word-for-word translation
In this method, the SL word-order is preserved and the words translated singly by their
most common meanings, out of context. It is not used in translating the tourism brochure.
If all the words are translated in English word by word, they will not make sense. The
readers will never understand the meaning, especially for foreigners.
2) Literal translation
The SL grammatical constructions are converted to their nearest TL equivalents but the
lexical words are again translated singly, out of context. As a pre-translation process, this
indicates the problems to be solved.
For example:
SL
: pembuatan batik
TL
: batik production
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SL
: Candi Pawon terletak tepat di sumbu garis yang menghubungkan Candi
Borobudur dan Candi Mendut.
TL
: The location of Pawon Temple is right in the axis line connecting the
Borobudur and Mendut Temple.
SL
: Beberapa tempat menarik yang bisa Anda kunjungi ialah Candi Hindu
Dieng, Telaga Warna, Telaga Pengilon, Telaga Menjer, Sumur Jalatunda,
Kawah Sikidang, Kawah Candradimuka, Tuk Bimokular, Dieng Plateau
Theatre, dan Tambi Tea Plantation
TL
: Some tourism highlights You may experience are a cluster of Hindu Temple,
Candradimuka & Sikadang Crater, Warna Lake, Pengilon Lake, Menjer Lake,
Jalatunda Well, Tambi Tea Plantation, and Dieng Plateau Theatre.
3) Faithful translation
It attempts to reproduce the precise contextual meaning of the original within the
constraints of the TL grammatical structures. It transfers cultural words and preserves the
degree of grammatical and lexical ‘abnormality’ (deviation from SL norms) in the
translation. It attempts to be completely faithful to the intentions and the text-realization
of the SL writer.
For example:
SL
: Tersedia sarana akomodasi dengan pondok-pondok wisata yang dikelola
oleh masyarakat setempat dan tersedia pula paket wisata alam pedesaan yang
menarik.
TL
: This village is also well facilitated with means of accommodation for tourists
and huts which are managed by local communities and a very interesting tour
packages to visit and enjoy the whole village are also ready to be tried.
4) Semantic translation
It differs from faithful translation only in as far as it must take more account of the
aesthetic value of the SL text, compromising on ‘meaning’ where appropriate so that no
assonance, word-play or repetition jar in the finished version. Further, it may translate
less important cultural words by culturally neutral third or functional terms but not by
cultural equivalents. It is not surely used in the translation product of tourism brochure.
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5) Adaptation
It is used mainly for plays (comedies) and poetry; the themes, characters, plots are
usually preserved, the SL culture converted to the TL culture and the text rewritten. It is
not used in translating tourism brochure.
6) Free translation
It reproduces the matter without manner, or the content without the form of the original.
Usually it is a paraphrase much longer than the original.
For example:
SL
: Owabong merupakan wahana permainan air yang dilengkapi dengan
gokart, terapi ikan, dan studio film 3 dimensi. Sedangkan keunggulan
Purbasari Pancuran Mas terletak pada koleksi hewan air (seperti piranha,
ikan raksasa) dan satwa lainnya, juga dilengkapi studio 4 dimensi.
Sanggaluri Park memiliki museum hewan reptil dan unggas, juga wayang,
uang, boneka dan aneka permainan anak lainnya.
TL
: Owabong is located at Bojongsari Purbalingga. It is the biggest and
modern water attractions in Central Java with a very clear pond, flowed by
fresh water directly from mountain springs, cool and refreshing. Purbasari
has more than 150 fishes of ± 30 species of freshwater fishes. Among the
rare and protected fishes are : Arapaima gigas, Giant Fishes from Amazon
river. Sanggaluri Park offers varied educational stand such as Rumah
Boneka Lintang, Forum for Science and Technology , Money Museum,
Wayang and Artifacts Museum, Assorted Fruit Garden and Museum of
Reptiles.
7) Idiomatic translation
It reproduces the ‘message’ of the original but tends to distort nuances of meaning by
preferring colloquialisms and idioms where these do not exist in the original.
8) Communicative translation
It attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of the original in such a way that both
content and language are readily acceptable and comprehensible in readership.
For example:
SL
: Masyarakat sekitar Kauman memproduksi batik dengan motif yang
diadaptasi dari batik kerajaan /keraton. Begitu pula Laweyan merupakan
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sentra produksi batik di kota Solo sejak lama. Kampoeng batik Kauman dan
Laweyan dikelilingi dengan bangunan bersejarah yang sangat unik dan
menarik. Selain berbelanja batik, pengunjung dapat mempelajari cara
pembuatan batik.
TL
: Local people in Kauman village have their capability to make batik and its
motives often adopt from the royal family. Laweyan is an old area that has
been famous for decades as one of batik production district in Solo. Both area
are surrounded by unique historical buildings. You can enjoy shopping there as
well as visiting batik production.
Some Errors in Translation Product
Since the translator of the tourism brochure is Indonesian, no wonder if some errors found in
the product, either the grammar, spelling, or diction. From the previous elaboration of
translation method, it can be known that the methods mostly to translate tend to stress on
source language. The intervention of Indonesian still affects the translator when doing his/her
work.
To see whether the product has some errors or not, can be identified from the translation
quality evaluation. Actually, there are three main components in evaluating the translation
product (Larson in Hartono, 2009: 90). They are accuracy, readability, and naturalness.
First, accuracy means whether or not the product of translation communicates the same
meaning from source language to target language. It can be seen from the comprehension of
the readers. Does the reader from target language catch the same meaning with the reader
from source language? The translator also must be sure when doing his work; he does not do
such kind of addition, omission, and changing information or message.
Second, readability means able to read. In other word, it can be called clarity which means the
translation product can be understood. To make sure that the product can be well understood,
the translator needs to ask the readers from target language read his/her translation in order to
tell the content of the text delivers in the translation product. He/she needs to know which part
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of his/her translation that hard to understand by the readers. If there is a translation product
which is hard to understand, it means that it has not achieved the readability yet.
Third, naturalness means whether or not the translation is easy to read and use the appropriate
structure and language style as natural as the target language readers. A translator needs to
know whether his/her product flows smoothly so that it looks as if it is not the product of
translation but the original text of the author.
Therefore, those three components mentioned above are very important in evaluating the
translation product. Now, seven products of translation text taken from tourism brochure are
evaluated as below to see whether the errors still exist by using three main components of
evaluation.
Text 1
CANDI PAWON – Kabupaten Magelang
PAWON TEMPLE – Magelang Regency
Candi Pawon terletak di desa Brojonalan Kecamatan Borobudur bangunan Candi Budha
yang disebut dalam prasasti Karang Tengah 824 M dan merupakan tempat untuk menyimpan
senjata Raja Indera yang bernama Vajranala. Candi ini terbuat dari batu gunung berapi.
Candi Pawon terletak tepat di sumbu garis yang menghubungkan Candi Borobudur dan
Candi Mendut. Selain letaknya, kemiripan motif pahatan di ketiga candi tersebut juga
mendasari adanya keterkaitan diantara ketiganya.
Pawon Temple is located on the Brojonalan District in the Borobudur subdistrict. This
Buddhist temple used to be a place to keep the weapons of King Indera Vajranala, this story
was based on the fact that were found in Karang Tengah inscription made on 824 AD. This
temple was made of volcanic stone. The location of Pawon Temple is right in the axis line
connecting the Borobudur and Mendut Temple. Besides the location of the temple, we can
find many similarities on motives carved in the three temples are also proved that there was
relationship between those three Buddhist temples.
There are some inappropriate translations found in this text. They are elaborated in the
followings.
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-
The use of preposition ‘on’ in the on the Brojonalan District which should be changed
into in the Brojonalan District.
-
The use of preposition ‘on’ in the on 824 AD which should be changed also into in 824
AD.
-
The use of punctuation in the sentence … King Indera Vajranala, this story was based …
which makes hard to understand that should be changed into … King Indera Vajranala,.
This story was based…
-
The translation product of the last sentence is hard to understand. The meaning is quite
different with the source language.
Therefore, it can be said that the first text is lack of accuracy, readability, and naturalness.
Text 2
Desa Wisata Candirejo – Kabupaten Magelang
Candirejo Tourism Village – Magelang Regency
Desa ini terletak di Kecamatan Borobudur sekitar 2,5 km dari Candi Borobudur. Daya tarik
wisata utama desa wisata Candirejo adalah segala keunikan, berupa kebudayaan tradisional,
terkait keaslian kehidupan desa yang alami dan industri rumah tangga (kerajinan bambu dan
pandan) sebagai cinderamata ketika berkunjung. Tersedia sarana akomodasi dengan pondokpondok wisata yang dikelola oleh masyarakat setempat dan tersedia pula paket wisata alam
pedesaan yang menarik.
The village is situated in Borobudur District, approximately 2,5 km from Borobudur Temple.
The most attractive thing about this village is the uniqueness that can never be found
anywhere else. Visitors can learn about village’s traditional culture, and all about the villagers
way of live which totally different from people in a big city. and household souvenirs
industries (Bamboo and Pandanus Crafts). This village is also well facilitated with means of
accommodation for tourists and huts which are managed by local communities and a very
interesting tour packages to visit and enjoy the whole village are also ready to be tried.
Some inappropriate translations also found in this second text. They are explained as follows.
-
The use of possession “apostrophe (‘) s” in the village’s traditional culture is confusing.
It should be written directly village traditional culture.
-
The choice of words in the way of live that should be written into way of life.
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-
The writing of …in a big city. and household souvenirs industries (Bamboo and
Pandanus Crafts) which is hard to understand.
-
Another writing of a very interesting tour packages to visit and enjoy the whole village
are also ready to be tried which should be considered more on its grammar.
Hence, it can be said that this text is quite accurate but lack of readability as well as lack of
naturalness
Text 3
Dataran Tinggi Dieng
Dieng Plateau
Secara administrative, Dataran Tinggi Dieng terletak di Kabupaten Wonosobo dan
Banjarnegara. Dieng menyimpan keindahan alam yang begitu mempesona. Dalam
Indonesian Sansekerta, Dieng berarti Khayangan atau surga di atas gunung. Beberapa
tempat menarik yang bisa Anda kunjungi ialah Candi Hindu Dieng, Telaga Warna, Telaga
Pengilon, Telaga Menjer, Sumur Jalatunda, Kawah Sikidang, Kawah Candradimuka, Tuk
Bimokular, Dieng Plateau Theatre, dan Tambi Tea Plantation
Administratively located in Wonosobo and Banjarnegara Regency, Dieng Plateau has
mountainous landscape and deep valleys, as well as picturesque scenery and cool fresh air. In
Sanskrit language, Dieng means ‘hills of heaven’. Some tourism highlights You may
experience are a cluster of Hindu Temple, Candradimuka & Sikadang Crater, Warna Lake,
Pengilon Lake, Menjer Lake, Jalatunda Well, Tambi Tea Plantation, and Dieng Plateau
Theatre.
So far, this translation product is quite natural. However, because of the lack in choosing the
words, it makes less natural and less readable. They are shown in the following.
-
The word Administratively that is better to change with Geographically.
-
The writing of Some tourism highlights You may experience are … which should be
changed into Some tourism you may experience are …
Text 4
Telaga Warna, Telaga Pengilon dan Gua Semar – Kabupaten Wonosobo
Warna Lake, Pengilon Lake, and Semar Cave – Wonosobo Regency
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Dinamakan telaga warna karena telaga tersebut memantlkan aneka warna yang indah. Di
sampingnya, terdapat telaga pengilon (telaga cermin) karena berkilau seperti cermin.
Fenomena ini mungkin disebabkan oleh kandungan mineral telaga tersebut. Memang telagatelaga tersebut terletak tidak jauh dari beberapa kawah yang mengeluarkan bahan-baha
mineral dari dalam bumi. Di sekitarnya terdapat beberapa gua kecil. Gua semar panjangnya
sekitar 4 meter dengan dinding batu dan dapat digunakan untuk bermeditasi.
Being able to reflect various beautiful colors, therefore this lake was named of Warna (color)
Lake. Further, there also exists another lake located next to the lake of Telaga Warna, recently
known as Telaga Pengilon (Mirror Lake) because of its mirror-like sparkle. This phenomena
are probably because of minerals exist in the lake. In fact, these lakes are situated not so far
from several craters which emerge mineral substances from inside of the earth. Still in the
surrounding, there also exist some small caves. One of them is Semar Cave. This cave is 4
meter in length with the wall made of stone and commonly used for meditation.
This text translation is better compared with the previous ones. Those three evaluation
components are considered to be moderate. There are only some parts which should be a bit
changed.
-
The use of the word ‘therefore’ in the Being able to reflect various beautiful colors,
therefore this lake was named of that should be omitted because it sounds odd.
-
The misused of putting pronoun ‘This’ in the This phenomena are which should be
changed into These phenomena are.
Text 5
Kampoeng Batik Kauman dan Laweyan
Kampoeng Batik Kauman and Laweyan
Masyarakat sekitar Kauman memproduksi batik dengan motif yang diadaptasi dari batik
kerajaan /keraton. Begitu pula Laweyan merupakan sentra produksi batik di kota Solo sejak
lama. Kampoeng batik Kauman dan Laweyan dikelilingi dengan bangunan bersejarah yang
sangat unik dan menarik. Selain berbelanja batik, pengunjung dapat mempelajari cara
pembuatan batik.
Local people in Kauman village have their capability to make batik and its motives often
adopt from the royal family. Laweyan is an old area that has been famous for decades as one
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of batik production district in Solo. Both area are surrounded by unique historical buildings.
You can enjoy shopping there as well as visiting batik production.
The fifth text is quite natural, accurate, and readable. There are some parts that should be paid
attention. They are given as follows.
-
The grammar mistake in the its motives often adopt from should be changed into its
motives are often adopted from.
-
The writing of batik which is better to add footnote to describe what batik is in the end of
the text.
Text 6
Museum Kereta Api Ambarawa – Kab. Semarang
Ambarawa Railway Museum – Semarang Regency
Pada tahun 1873, stasiun ini dikenal dengan nama ‘Willem II’. Tersimpan 26 lokomotif kuno
buatan Inggris, Belanda, Jerman, dan Swiss. Pengunjung dapat menumpang kereta api
bertenaga uap melalui rel bergerigi sambil menikmati keindahan panorama pedesaan dan
pegunungan dari stasiun Ambarawa menuju stasiun Bedono.
It was known as Willem II Railway Station in 1873. Its collection includes 26 old-aged
locomotives made in UK, Netherlands, Germany, and Switzerland. Visitors can enjoy a
railway mountain tour from Ambarawa station to Bedono station.
This translation product omits some words of the third sentence written in Indonesian. They
are not translated into English that will decrease the content of the message. Therefore, this
text is considered to be readable and natural but unfortunately it is not too accurate.
Text 7
Owabong, Sanggaluri, dan Purbasari Pancuran Mas – Kab.Purbalingga
Owabong, Sanggaluri Park, and Purbasari Pancuran Mas – Purbalingga Regency
Owabong merupakan wahana permainan air yang dilengkapi dengan gokart, terapi ikan, dan
studio film 3 dimensi. Sedangkan keunggulan Purbasari Pancuran Mas terletak pada koleksi
hewan air (seperti piranha, ikan raksasa) dan satwa lainnya, juga dilengkapi studio 4
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dimensi. Sanggaluri Park memiliki museum hewan reptil dan unggas, juga wayang, uang,
boneka dan aneka permainan anak lainnya.
Owabong is located at Bojongsari Purbalingga. It is the biggest and modern water attractions
in Central Java with a very clear pond, flowed by fresh water directly from mountain springs,
cool and refreshing. Purbasari has more than 150 fishes of ± 30 species of freshwater fishes.
Among the rare and protected fishes are : Arapaima gigas, Giant Fishes from Amazon river.
Sanggaluri Park offers varied educational stand such as Rumah Boneka Lintang, Forum for
Science and Technology, Money Museum, Wayang and Artifacts Museum, Assorted Fruit
Garden and Museum of Reptiles.
The translation product is totally different with the source text. There are so many addition
and omission of the content. Though it is readable and natural, the accuracy is left behind.
CONCLUSION
From the above elaboration, it can be concluded that doing a translation work is not that easy.
So many components have to be considered as well as the methods used to translate because it
will determine the quality of the product. The tourism brochure is considered to be the
product of ethnographic translation. The methods used to translate are varied from literal
translation, faithful translation, free translation, and communicative translation. However, the
methods which more stress on source language mostly used in translating this product since
the influence of Indonesian still exist on them. Therefore, the product of the translation
sometimes are not natural as English as the native-like. It happens on the grammatical
function mostly, spelling and punctuation, and also the choice of words which then influence
the evaluation of translation product those are accuracy, readability, and naturalness.
For the translators should be aware of those components mentioned above. Moreover
this is a tourism brochure which is used to promote Indonesia tourism especially for Central
Java. The foreigners will need it to guide them go around this province, so that the
information given should be acceptable in content and context of tourism.
About the Author:
I am Elysa Hartati. Currently I am a graduate student of the State University of Semarang. I
also work as an English lecturer in Wahid Hasyim University. I am of interest in discourse
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analysis, teaching English for young learners, and curriculum development. My
correspondence is [email protected].
REFERENCES
Agorni, Mirella. 2012. Tourism Communication: The Translator’s Responsibility in
Translation of Cultural Difference. Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural, 10(4).
Bassnett, S. (1997). 'Text Types and Power Relations. In Trosborg, A. (ed.), Text Typology
and Translation. Vol, 26. pp. 87-98.
Central Java Tourism Map. Published by Central Java Provincial Culture and Tourism Office,
2012.
Hartono, Rudi. 2009. Teori Penerjemahan. Semarang: PT. Cipta Prima Nusantara.
Newmark, Peter. 1988. A Text of Translation. London: Prentice Hall.
Shehab, Nahedah. 2011. Translating Brochures Advertising Personal Care Products from
English into Arabic: Strategies and Linguistic Inaccuracy. Unpublished Thesis. Faculty
of Graduate Studies, An-Najah National University, Nablus, Palestine.
Terestyenyi, Eniko. 2011. Translating Culture-specific Items in Tourism Brochures . In
SKASE Journal of Translation and Interpretation [online]. 2011, vol. 5, no. 2 [cit.
2011-11-21].
Available
on
web
<http://www.skase.sk/Volumes/JTI06/pdf_doc/02.pdf>. ISSN 1336-7811.
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CULTURAL IDENTITY IN THE ENGLISH TRANSLATION OF
PRAMOEDYA’S CERITA CALON ARANG:
A COMPONENTIAL ANALYSIS
Ervin Suryaningsih, M.Hum
Esriaty S. Kendenan, M.Hum
STiBA Satya Wacana
Abstract
Translation and cultural identity contributes to the enrichment of the communication
across culture. As the media of sharing and learning cultural identity that are accessible
and available to international audiences, literary translation plays undeniable role in the
shaping of cultural identity. This study focuses on the translation of cultural terms found
in Cerita Calon Arang novel, based on a Javanese tale, written by Pramoedya Ananta
Toer and the English Translation of those terms in The King, the Witch, and the
Priest. The identification of cultural terms in both texts is done by examining the
equivalence meaning of cultural terms using the componential analysis. By comparing the
cultural terms in source language (SL) and in the target language (TL), it will show us
whether there is any shift or change in the meaning of the translated text that can affect
the changes of cultural identity in the source text. For example, the identification of the
word Kanjeng Nyai that is translated in the source text as Teacher is started by
determining the common sense of both different terms which refer to a similar concept.
Then, identifying the differing sense components in each pair of SL and TL words to
determine whether or not the different senses have shifted the meaning as well as the
cultural identity implied in those terms. By using this componential analysis, it is hoped
that this study will provide us more insight on how translation may play a dominant role
in shaping cultural identity depicted in a literary work.
Keywords: cultural identity, cultural terms, componential analysis, source language,
target language.
Introduction
Translation and Cultural Identity gives contributions to the enrichment of the communication
across culture. People may gain knowledge of other cultures since culture and translation
have important roles in the literary communicative across culture. As the media of sharing and
learning cultural identity that are accessible and available to international audiences, literary
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translation plays undeniable role in the shaping of cultural identity. Literary translation as a
culture transcending process plays an important way in forming cultural identity as well as
positioning culture among others.
Over the last few years, translation and cultural identity has been an interesting issue of
scholars from different many disciplines and approaches. There are some research conducted
dealing with that issue. The cultural theory that is applicable in the translation especially in
the context of cultural identity formation as in Michaela Wolf’s discussion of the main
categories of Bhabha’s cultural theory shows that translation influence the forming identity of
a culture (2008). Beside, Lawrence Venuti discusses the role of translation for the formation
of cultural identities (1994). He mentions that translation may create some possibilities for the
cultural resistance, innovation and change.
This study takes up the discussion of cultural identity and especially focus on the translation
of cultural terms found in Cerita Calon Arang Novel written by Pramoedya Ananta Toer, and
the English translation The King, The Witch, and The Priest. Cerita Calon Arang which is
written based on Javanese tale is considered as the Source Language (SL) text and the English
translation that is translated and edited by Willem Samuels is as the Target Language (TL)
text. The identification of cultural terms in both SL and TL texts is conducted by investigating
the equivalence meaning of cultural terms that is done by componential analysis. By making
comparison of the cultural terms in SL and TL, it shows whether there is any shift or change
in the meaning of the translated text that can affect the changes of cultural identity in the
source text. It is hoped that this study will provide more insight on how translation may play a
dominant role in shaping cultural identity depicted in a literary work.
The Representation of Cultural Identity through Cultural Terms in the
English Translation of Pramoedya’s Cerita Calon Arang.
Translation can be seen as cultural representation, and the cultural identity as one of the
cultural representation can become a key notion in translation studies. In this study, the
cultural identity can be expressed through the cultural terms stated in the literary texts, Cerita
Calon Arang and the English translation The King, The Witch, and The Priest. The
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identification of cultural terms represented in SL and TT texts is conducted by investigating
the equivalence meaning of cultural terms using componential analysis.
Halls (1990) points out that there are two principal ways of thinking about cultural identity.
The first view of cultural identity is
“shared culture, a sort of collective 'one true self', hiding inside the many other, more
superficial or artificially imposed 'selves', which people with a shared history and
ancestry hold in common. Within the terms of this definition, our cultural identities
reflect the common historical experiences and shared cultural codes which provide us,
as 'one people', with stable, unchanging and continuous frames of reference and
meaning, beneath the shifting divisions and vicissitudes of our actual history” (p. 223).
In the second sense, cultural identity is described as the following:
“is a matter of 'becoming' as well as of 'being'. It belongs to the future as much as to
the past. It is not something which already exists, transcending place, time, history and
culture. Cultural identities come from somewhere, have histories. But, like everything
which is historical, they undergo constant transformation. Far from being eternally
fixed in some essentialised past, they are subject to the continuous 'play' of history,
culture and power. Far from being grounded in a mere 'recovery' of the past, which is
waiting to be found, and which, when found, will secure our sense of ourselves into
eternity, identities are the names we give to the different ways we are positioned by,
and position ourselves within, the narratives of the past” (p. 225).
Drawing upon Hall’s view of cultural identity that applied in translation studies, cultural
identity may becomes a matter of becoming. There are no two languages that are identical,
thus the cultural identity that are represented in the source text may undergo transformation,
transferring from the SL text to the TL text. Hence, the cultural identity represented in the
source text may shift as represented in the target text.
Cultural terms in the literary text can be the representation of reality which may also represent
the cultural identity. Newmark (1988), adapted from Nida, gives five classification of cultural
terms :
(1) Ecology
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Flora, fauna, winds, plains, hills: 'honeysuckle', 'downs', 'sirocco', *rundra\
'pampas', tabuleiros (low plateau), 'plateau', selva (tropical rain forest), 'savanna',
'paddy field*
(2) Material culture (artefacts)
(a) Food: 'zabaglione', 'sake', Kaiserschmarren
(b) Clothes: 'anorak', kanga (Africa), sarong (South Seas), dhoti (India)
(c) Houses and towns: kampong, bourg, bourgade7 'chalet', 'low-rise', 'tower'
(d) Transport: 'bike*, 'rickshaw', 'Moulton', cabriolett 'tilbury', caliche
(3) Social culture - work and leisure
ajaki amah, condotttere, biwa, sithar, raga, 'reggae', 'rock'
(4) Organisations, customs, activities, procedures, concepts
(a) Political and administrative
(b) Religious: dharma, karma? 'temple'
(c) Artistic
(5) Gestures and habits 'Cock a snook','spitting' (p. 95)
Considering that translation plays an importance role in the process of communication,
Newmark proposes the componential analysis as “the most accurate translation procedure,
which excludes the culture and highlight the message” (Newmark, 1988 : 96). The basic
process in conducting the componential analysis in translation is to compare the SL word and
TL which has the same meaning (1988). The identification of cultural terms in both source
and target texts, is done by examining the equivalence meaning of cultural terms using the
componential analysis. By comparing the cultural terms in source language (SL) and in the
target language (TL), it will show us whether there is any shift or change in the meaning of
the translated text that can affect the changes of cultural identity in the source text.
Referring to the classification on cultural terms as in Newmark (1988), it can be found that
there are several cultural terms in the novel. For ecology, it is worth to analyze the use of
“field” in the source text as the translation of sawah, ladang, and hutan in the target text. The
word(s) can be seen in the sentence “…sawah, ladang, hutan, dan lapangan tempat
menggembala binatang….” that is translated into English become “…field and pastures
where they took their animal to graze….” Although those all three Indonesian terms share
several similar senses with the English term field, i.e. “an area of land”, Javanese and
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Indonesian people in general, identify sawah, ladang, and hutan with some special
characteristics. As it is shown in Table 1 for example, hutan can be differed from sawah and
ladang by considering that sawah and ladang are usually planted and cultivated, while hutan
is not always cultivated for it is covered with trees. As a part of field, sawah is a wetland in
general that is usually planted with rice, so it is usually also called a ricefield. On the other
hand, ladang, as hutan, is a dry land where cassava, corn, and other dry land crops are
planted.
Table 1: Ecology - Field
SL
TL
Semantic Features
Sawah
Ladang
Hutan
Field
An area of land
+
+
+
+
Planted/cultivated
+
+
±
+
Wetland
+
-
-
±
Dry land
-
+
+
+
Planted with rice
+
±
-
+
Planted with cassava, corn, etc.
-
+
±
+
Covered with trees
-
±
+
-
The use of field, as a general term, to render the terms sawah, ladang, and hutan in the target
text (TT) certainly does not reveal all typical characteristics of ecology and geography in
Indonesian regions. Consequently, cultural identity reflected in the use of term related to the
ecology in the ST is not fully expressed in the TT.
There are some cultural terms related to the material culture that can be found in the novel,
but this paper will focus only on the three particular forms of houses and towns terms. First,
as it can be seen in the Table 2, the term village is used to render kampung, desa, and dusun.
For Indonesian people in general, all three Indonesian terms are sometimes interchangeable
because they are all “part of a region”, likewise for the term village, and also can be identified
as a group of houses and other buildings. Nevertheless, each of them has more or less specific
characteristics. For example, kampung can be seen as a part of town but dusun, desa as well
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as village cannot. In other words, dusun, desa, and village are outside the town, while
kampung is not.
Table 2: Material Culture - Village
SL
TL
Semantic Features
Kampung
Dusun
Desa
Village
Part of a region
+
+
+
+
A group of houses and other buildings
±
±
±
+
Part of a town
+
-
-
-
Outside the town
-
+
+
+
Second, the use of central square in the target text as the equivalence of alun-alun. Both
terms have more similarities than differences, especially that they share similar meaning as a
broad open area. Table 3 describes the slight differences between the two terms which can be
identified in the position, function, location, and shape of the object/place. Alun-alun is
usually opposite to the royal residence (also governor or other government official’s
residence), but central square on the other hand is not always posed and function in the same
way. In addition, alun-alun is neither always located in the middle of the town nor in the
shape of a square, like a central square.
Table 3: Material Culture – Central Square
SL
Semantic Features
Alun-alun
A broad open area
TL
Central
square
+
+
+
±
In the middle of a town
±
+
In the shape of a square
±
+
Opposite to the royal residence (also governor
or other government official‘s residence)
Third, the translation of asrama from source text into English word becomes ashram and
hermitage. Table 4 shows that both ashram and hermitage are function as the place or
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building to live in, just like asrama in Indonesian language. The three terms either from
source text or target text can be distinguished in the kind of person and the number of people
live in that building. Ashram as an example is known only in Hinduism, while asrama and
hermitage are not always intended for Hindu. Different with asrama and ashram, where (a
group of) homogenous people live in, hermitage is known as an isolated place for a person to
live alone.
Table 4: Material Culture – Ashram & Hermitage
SL
TL
Semantic Features
Asrama
Ashram
Hermitage
A building to live in
+
+
+
For Hindus
±
+
±
Place for homogenous people to live together
+
+
-
Place for a person to live alone
-
-
+
The terms related to material culture are also generally translated into the target language by
the translator using the more general terms especially in the translation of kampung, dusun,
and desa as village. Whereas, central square is similar in general with alun-alun and different
only in terms of the very specific characteristic of alun-alun in Javanese culture. However, the
use of hermitage, besides ashram, even gives more specific features of the terms than its SL
term asrama. It is probably because of the context in which the term is used. To sum up, the
translation of those material culture terms in this case can cause generalization and also
distinctiveness of the terms. Thus, cultural identity is not completely disappeared in the
translation of those particular terms.
This paper is only focus on four main terms to be analyzed in relation with social culture. The
first one is witch as the translation of Indonesian terms among others: tukang sihir, tukang
teluh, janda, perempuan celaka, and perempuan durhaka in the novel. To describe the
characteristics of the main character of the novel, Calon Arang, Pramoedya as the author of
the source text used those five Indonesian terms. On the other hand, the translator only chose
witch to refer to those five terms in the target text. As a matter of fact, most definitions of
witch in English Dictionary defines witch as a woman. As an example, Longman Dictionary
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of Contemporary English (2001:1644) defines witch as “1) a woman who is supposed to have
magic powers, especially to do bad things, 2) informal an insulting word for an old or
unpleasant woman”. By considering those two definitions of witch and also the context where
the terms used, it is acceptable somehow to translate janda, perempuan celaka, and
perempuan durhaka into the target language becomes witch. Table 5 shows that tukang sihir
and tukang teluh are different with witch because the two Indonesian terms do not always
refer to woman unlike witch.
Table 5: Social Culture - Witch
SL
Semantic Features
Tukang
Tukang
sihir
teluh
Woman
±
±
Has not married again
±
Rebel
TL
Perempuan
Perempuan
celaka
durhaka
+
+
+
+
±
+
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
+
±
Trouble maker
+
+
±
+
+
+
Has a magic power
+
+
±
±
±
+
Janda
Witch
The second social culture-related term is teacher as the English translation of Empu. Both two
terms, teacher and Empu, are likely to have more similarities than differences in their
characteristics as shown in Table 6. Thus, it is not surprisingly if the translator considered
both terms were equivalent one another. The only differing componential meaning of those
two terms can be found in the practical use of the terms, in which Empu, unlike teacher,
especially in Javanese culture is used not only as an expression to address one type of teacher,
religion teacher, or a person with a special expertise but also can be function as an honorary
title.
Table 6: Social Culture - Teacher
SL
TL
Empu
Teacher
A man with religious duties and responsibilities in Hinduism
±
±
Religion Teacher
±
±
Semantic Features
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An honorary title
+
-
Person with a special expertise
+
+
The third is the interchangeable use of murid and pengikut likewise their translation as
student, pupil, and follower in the target text. All five terms share similar componential
meaning as someone who has a great interest in something or someone. Yet, in some cases,
they have some slight differences that can be seen in the Table 7. For example, murid,
student, and pupil are definitely applicable for someone who is studying, but pengikut and
follower are not always. In contrast, pengikut and follower are not only referring to someone
who believes in a particular system or ideas but also referring to someone supports a leader
who teaches particular ideas, while murid, student, and pupil are not always having those
characteristics.
Table 7: Social Culture – Student, Pupil, & Follower
SL
TL
Semantic Features
Murid
Someone who is studying
Someone
who
believes
in
a
particular system or ideas
Someone supports a leader who
teaches particular ideas
Someone who has a great interest in
something/someone
Pengikut Student
Pupil
Follower
+
±
+
+
±
±
+
±
±
+
±
+
±
±
+
+
+
+
+
+
The fourth social culture term is bodyguard. In general, as can be seen in the Table 8,
bayangkara and its translation bodyguard share most similar componential meaning.
However, they are different especially in the number of people involved/joined in. Bodyguard
can be used either to a person or a group of people/person, whereas bayangkara on the other
hand is always referring to a group of people, not a single person.
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Table 8: Social Culture - Bodyguard
SL
TL
Bayangkara
Bodyguard
A person
-
+
Group of people
+
+
The job is to protect an important person
±
+
Semantic Features
The over-generalisation has occurred especially in the translation of tukang sihir, tukang
teluh, janda, perempuan celaka, and perempuan durhaka becomes witch in the TL.
Consequently, it has caused the disappearance of specific characteristics of those SL terms.
The nearly similar thing has happened also to the translation of Empu becomes teacher as
well as to the translation of bayangkara becomes bodyguard. It is different with the
equivalence of murid with student or pupil and also pengikut with follower which is certainly
acceptable. The problem emerges when murid is exchanged with pengikut in ST and student
or pupil with follower TT in turn. Thus, the interchangeable within TL terms occurs merely in
accordance with its SL terms. The cultural identity changes especially in the use of witch,
teacher, and bodyguard that has abolished some special characteristics of its SL terms.
Two concepts related to the political and administrative as a part of organization, custom,
activities, procedures, and concept in cultural terms which are analyzed in this paper are King
or Your Highness as the translation of Baginda, Sri Baginda, Raja as well as Paduka Raja and
The headman or the village chief as the English translation of Kepala Dusun. The translator of
the text used two alternative terms to render four Indonesian terms Baginda, Sri Baginda,
Raja, and Paduka Raja. Table 9 describes that all terms, in the source text and target text, are
used to speak to or about a ruler of a country. Besides that, they are all, except Your Highness,
are usually the son of previous ruler (not elected). Therefore, as a male ruler of a country, it is
suitable somehow to render Raja and Paduka Raja as the King. However, it is noteworthy that
Baginda, Sri Baginda, and Your Highness can be used to refer not only to male ruler but also
to the female one.
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Table 9: Organization, Customs, Activities, Procedures, and Concept – King & Your
Highness
SL
Semantic Features
Sri
Paduka
Baginda
Raja
±
±
+
+
±
+
+
+
+
+
±
+
+
+
+
+
+
Raja
Baginda
+
A male ruler of a country
Usually the son of previous
ruler (not elected)
Used to speak to or about a
ruler of a country
TL
Your
King
Highness
For the term kepala dusun in source text, it was translated into English using two different
terms, i.e. the headman and the village chief. Table 10 clearly shows that although the
translator used two different terms for one concept, but the componential meaning inherent in
the terms are similar. As kepala dusun, the headman and the village chief are referring to a
ruler or leader in a village where a tribe lives.
Table 10: Organization, Customs, Activities, Procedures, and Concept –
The Headman & The Village Chief
SL
Semantic Features
Kepala Dusun
TL
The
The Village
Headman
Chief
A ruler/leader
+
+
+
In a village where a tribe lives
+
+
+
The use of either King or Your Highness as the translation of Baginda, Sri Baginda, Raja as
well as Paduka Raja is generally appropriate. However, it cannot represent all meanings
embedded in the SL terms. On the other hand, the use of two alternative terms, the headman
and the village chief, as the translation of kepala kampung has apparently represented the
senses in the SL term. Hence, the translation of the selected terms related to Organization,
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Customs, Activities, Procedures, and Concept does not cause a total change of cultural
identity illuminated in the ST.
One main cultural term related to gestures and habit that is analyzed in this paper is menandak
and its translations in the target text. Menandak in the Indonesian dictionary (KBBI) has no
detailed description and it is described only as a kind of dance that is considered similar or has
some equal characteristics with tari ronggeng, one type of dance popularly known in the East
Java. The translator of the text sometimes translated the term into a more general term dance,
but on the other parts of the novel he translated the terms into frenetic dance or frenzied
dance. Even the translator also paraphrased the terms become “slapping their hands against
their bellies and thighs to produce drum-like sound” to give more detailed description about
the terms. Componential analysis of both SL and TL terms as can be seen in Table 11 shows
that all terms or expressions used by the translator have most similar components of meaning.
The difference between frenetic dance and frenzied dance can be identified only in that the
frenetic dance sometimes can be violent, but not always.
Table 11: Gestures and Habits – Frenetic Dance & Frenzied Dance
SL
TL
Semantic Features
Dance
Actions are very fast, uncontrolled and
excited
Involving a lot of movement or
activity/extremely active
Sometimes violent
Menandak
Frenetic dance
Frenzied dance
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
±
+
The use of general terms, descriptive terms and paraphrase in the translation of menandak is
the most possible way to render the terms. It is due to the absence of its equivalence in the TL
and the need to describe its type, characteristics, and the way how those gestures could be
performed. Although all the nuances of meaning inherent in the SL terms cannot be fully
expressed in the TL terms, the translator actually has managed to preserve the cultural identity
in the text.
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Conclusion
Translation may play a dominant role in the shaping of cultural identity depicted in The King,
the Witch, and the Priest. The cultural identity represented through the cultural terms in five
categories including 1) ecology, 2) material culture, 3) social culture, 4) organization, custom,
activities,
procedures, concepts, 5) gesture and habit is identified by examining the
equivalence of their meanings. The shift or change in the meaning of the English translation
text influence the changes of the cultural identity as represented in Cerita Calon Arang as the
source text. It is found that the cultural identity of the source text is not completely
disappeared, there are no total change of the cultural identity illuminated in the source text.
Seemingly, the translator actually has managed to preserve the cultural identity in the target
text.
There are no two languages that are identical; hence there can be no absolute correspondences
between languages. It can be said that there is no fully exact translation; some cultural terms
cannot be fully expressed in the target text. It shows that there will be reasonably close to the
original but cannot gain the cultural identity in detail.
References
Newmark, P., (1988). A Textbook on Translation. Prentice Hall, New York.
Samuels, Willem (Trans). (2002). The King, the Witch and the Priest. Jakarta : Equinox
Publishing (Asia) PTE. LTD.
Toer, Pramoedya Ananta. (2003). Cerita Calon Arang. Jakarta : Lentera Dipantara.
Venuti, Lawrence. (1994). The Formation of Cultural Identities in Current Issues in
Language and Society. 1, 3, 201 – 217.
Wolf, Michaela. (2008). Interference from the Third Space? The Construction of Cultural
Identity through Translation. In Calvo, Micaela Munos; Gomes, Carmen Buesa and
Moneva, Angeles Ruiz (Eds), New Trend in Translation and Cultural Identity. (pp. 11
– 20). Newcastle : Cambridge Scholar Publishing.
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CULTURAL TERMS TRANSLATION IN “THE RAINBOW
TROOPS” NOVEL AS AN EFFORT TO REACH GOOD
CRITERIA: A COMPONENTIAL ANALYSIS
Indriati Satya Widyasih
[email protected]
Ade Purna Nugraha
[email protected]
Nida Amalia Asikin
[email protected]
English Education Department
UPI School of Postgraduate Studies
Abstract
A successful translation depends on translator’s competence to transfer message of SL
(Source Language) into the TL (Target Language) to reach accuracy, clarity and
naturalness. However, translators often have difficulty to find the lexical equivalent terms
in TL because of the difference of custom, belief, geography, perspectives, etc. Then, in
this study, the researcher analysed the cultural terms translation in a novel entitled Laskar
Pelangi by Andrea Hirata, published by Bentang Pustaka (2005) and its English version
entitled The Rainbow Troops by Angie Kilbane published by Bentang Pustaka (2009).
Cultural gap is considered as the most challenging in translation that arose some
questions, such as: (1) What categorization of cultural terms translation are found in The
Rainbow Troops; (2) What translation procedures of cultural terms are found in The
Rainbow Troops; (3) How does CA (Componential Analysis) reveal the equivalence of
cultural terms translation found in Laskar Pelangi compared to The Rainbow Troops.
Related to the issues, this research employed a descriptive qualitative study design.
Purposive sampling was applied to collect the data through investigation of translated
novel. After that, the data were classified based on translation procedures offered by
Newmark (1988) and Vinay-Darlbernet in Venuti to know the translation strategies. Next,
Componential Analysis frameworks of Newmark (1988) and Nida (1975) were applied to
know the data features in detail.
Keywords: translation, cultural terms, novel, componential analysis, translation
procedures
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INTRODUCTION
Translation has an important role in improving intellectual and establish cross cultural
understanding. It has function as a communicative tool that can be made by an equivalent
thought that lies behind the replacement of textual material in one language into another
language (Savory, 1968). As a process of message transfer of SL into TL, translation helps the
target readers to understand the message of source language. In educational system,
translation plays a significant role in improving students’ language ability mastery and
enables them to improve their language competence in order to fulfill the instructional
objectives of their subjects.
In the process of translating, a translator is the main component in the effort of spreading
knowledge from one language into another language. A good translator is demanded to have
awareness of some significant differences between the SL and TL. The failure to transform
one language into another language will cause misunderstanding among the readers. In brief,
a translator is included in the cultural shift indirectly since translation has communicative
intention that is very affected by social context, culture, and ideology of SL writer, the
translator as the mediator and client or reader of TL (Nababan: 2004). Actually, the success of
translation depends on the translator’s effort to reach accuracy, clarity and naturalness.
However, the biggest problem in the translation process is the difficulty of translator to
transfer the message caused by the presence of cultural words in the ST (Source Text).
Cultural word refers to specific word for special kind of ‘things’, events or customs which
only exists in one language (Wierzbicka: 1997). The concept of SL words that may totally
unknown in the target culture since it related to religious belief, social custom or even type of
food (Baker, 1992:21) will create problems in the work of translation. This problem is getting
worse when the translator is lack of knowledge on SL and TL culture that will affect to the
result of translation. Therefore, translation needs the translator’s ability to analyze and
determine the meaning of SL and reconstruct the similar meaning of TL using the lexicon and
grammatical structure that are appropriate in the TL and its cultural context (Larson, 1997).
Viewing the gap between the important role of translation and the difficulty of cultural terms
translation, this research is going to find some findings reflected into some questions: (1)
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What categorization of cultural terms translation are found in The Rainbow Troops; (2) What
translation procedures of cultural terms are found in The Rainbow Troops; (3) How does CA
(Componential Analysis) reveal the equivalence of cultural terms translation found in Laskar
Pelangi compared to The Rainbow Troops.
Then, some translation procedures offered by Vinay-Darlbernet in Venuti (2000) and
Newmark (1988) especially to CA (Componential Analysis) were used. CA is one of the best
procedures to bridge lexical gaps linguistically and culturally between language (Newmark:
119) that can be used to know the validity and reliability of translation.
In consideration of cultural terms, this research will analyze an Indonesian novel entitled
Laskar Pelangi by Andrea Hirata, published by Bentang Pustaka (2005) and its English
version entitled The Rainbow Troops translated by Angie Kilbane published by Bentang
Pustaka (2009). Novel is expressive text that contains various cultural words as the data
sources for this research. Laskar Pelangi novel is chosen because of its achievement that has
been translated into almost 79 languages in 2013. A novel as a kind of literary work is
considered as an appropriate genre related to the latest curriculum that expects students to
learn several kinds of texts. The richness of cultural and educational values in this novel is
expected to have positive implication to build students’ characters. The choice of subject and
topic is appropriate to the aim of this research to enlighten the people in common and for the
translator in specific as a consideration related to cultural terms translation.
LITERATURE REVIEW
As mention before, translation is not only intended to change written or spoken text into
another language but also it should replace the textual material of one language into another
language equally (Catford, 1965:20). It means that translation is an effort to replace a written
message or statement in one language to the similar message in another language (Newmark
(1981:7). Thus, the translator is demanded to have knowledge on syntactic, semantic and
pragmatic and analytical understanding to transfer and transform a written source language
text into an optimally equivalent target language text (Wills in Noss, 1982:3).
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Actually, there are three important distinction types of written translation according to Roman
Jacobson: 1959/2000:
1. intralingual translation is translation within the same language,
which can involve rewording or paraphrase;
2. interlingual translation is translation from one language to another;
3. intersemiotic translation is translation of the verbal sign by a nonverbal sign, for example music or image.
The translation of Laskar Pelangi into “The Rainbow Troops” can be categorized as
interlingual translation since there is change of Indonesian language into English. It can be
mentioned as an expressive text as summarized by Reiss (1977/89:108-9) in Munday
(2001:75) that there are some text types: (1) Informative text that transmit the full referential
or conceptual of the ST; (2) Expressive text that transmit the aesthetic and artistic form of the
ST; (3) Operative text that produce the desired response in the TT receiver and (4) Audiomedial text that requires the “supplementary” method with visual images and music. This
novel was chosen by the consideration of its popularity that got high appreciation for the
author’s ability to express his ideas and experience through language. Besides, it has a large
amount of cultural and educational values that can be used to create the characters building.
Cultural Terms Translation
The concept of “culture” is defined by Goodenough (1964), Gohring (1977) and Newmark
(1988) as someone’s knowledge or believes in the acceptable way for its members and has
some roles for their life that is differ to biological heritage. It must produce some learning
components such as: knowledge and sense of the term. In other words, culture is not a
material phenomenon since it organizes things, people, and behavior or emotion in the form
of mind concept, acceptance and interpretation. Actually, social arrangements and events are
product of the people’s culture that is applied dealing with their circumstances. So, it can be
concluded that culture is the whole of knowledge, mastery and perception that has close
relationship to behavior and event or activity and its presence depends on expectation and
norm in the society.
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However, translation is not an easy work since it is affected by cultural characteristic and
norm in the society that can cause the difference between the Source Language and Target
Language as Nida (1975:130) asserted that translator’s problem is the way to treat the cultural
aspects implicit in a Source Language and finding the most appropriate technique to convey
these aspects into the Target Language. Similarly, Dollerup and Lindegard (1993:72)
suggested translators attempt to send the cultural image of Source Language that is suitable to
the Target Language culture.
Newmark (1988) categorized the cultural words that are very important to be concerned in
translating as follows: (1) Ecology: flora, fauna, hills, winds, plains; (2) Material Culture:
food, clothes, houses and towns, transport; (3) Social Culture: work and leisure; (4)
Organizations Customs, Activities, Procedures, Concepts (Political and administrative,
religious, Artistic); (5). Gestures and Habits.
Translation Procedures
Newmark (1988) offered the different translation procedures as follow:
1. Transference: It is the process of transferring an SL word to a TL text. It includes
transliteration and is the same as what Harvey (2000:5) named "transcription " or
“borrowing” by Vinay and Darbelnet in Venuti (1958/2000);
2. Naturalization: It adapts the SL word first to the normal pronunciation, then to the normal
morphology of the TL (Newmark, 1988:82). It is also called as “adaptation” by Vinay and
Darbelnet in Venuti (1958/2000);
3. Cultural equivalent: It means replacing a cultural word in the SL with a TL one. however,
"they are not accurate" (Newmark, 1988:83);
4. Functional equivalent: It requires the use of a culture-neutral word. (Newmark, 1988:83);
5. Descriptive equivalent: In this procedure the meaning of the CBT (Culture-bound
translation) is explained in several words. (Newmark, 1988:83);
6. Componential analysis: It means "comparing an SL word with a TL word which has a
similar meaning but is not an obvious one-to-one equivalent, by demonstrating first their
common and then their differing sense components." (Newmark, 1988:114);
7. Synonymy: It is a "near TL equivalent." Here economy trumps accuracy. (Newmark,
1988:84);
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8. Through-translation: It is the literal translation of common collocations, names of
organizations and components of compounds. It can also be called: calque or loan
translation. (Newmark, 1988:84) and Vinay and Darbelnet in Venuti (1958/2000);
9. Shifts or transpositions: It involves a change in the grammar from SL to TL, for instance,
(i) change from singular to plural, (ii) the change required when a specific SL structure
does not exist in the TL, (iii) change of an SL verb to a TL word, change of an SL noun
group to a TL noun and so forth (Newmark, 1988:86) and Vinay and Darbelnet in Venuti
(1958/2000);
10. Modulation: It occurs when the translator reproduces the message of the original text in the
TL text in conformity with the current norms of the TL, since the SL and the TL may
appear dissimilar in terms of perspective. (Newmark, 1988:88) and Vinay and Darbelnet in
Venuti (1958/2000);
11. Recognized translation: It occurs when the translator "normally uses the official or the
generally accepted translation of any institutional term" (Newmark, 1988:89);
12. Compensation: It occurs when loss of meaning in one part of a sentence is compensated in
another part (Newmark, 1988:90);
13. Paraphrase: In this procedure the meaning of the CBT is explained. Here the explanation is
much more detailed than that of descriptive equivalent. (Newmark, 1988:91);
14. Couplets: It occurs when the translator combines two different procedures. (Newmark,
1988:91);
15. Notes: Notes are additional information in a translation. (Newmark, 1988:91).
16. Word or word translation: It is introduced by Newmark (1988:77) refers to the SL and TL
words having similar orthographic or phonological features. Meanwhile, Vinay-Darlbernet
in (Venuti, 2000: 130) called it as “literal translation”.
Componential Analysis (CA)
Newmark (1988) proposed CA (componential analysis) that he described as being "the most
accurate translation procedure, which excludes the culture and highlights the message.” He
thought that the relevance of componential analysis in translation that is flexible but orderly
method of bridging the numerous lexical gaps, both linguistic and cultural, between one
language and another. Therefore, it can be used to compare a SL word with TL word based on
their different common sense. It can identify the loss or gain information in the process of
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translation as Newmark (1988:115) stated that CA in translation is the basic comparison of a
source language (SL) word with a target language (TL) word which has similar meaning, but
not an obvious one-to-one equivalent, by demonstrating first their common and then their
differing sense component.
The use of CA is a good solution as it enables to identify and compare semantic components
of the original word and its potential translations. Certainly, CA could be very useful to
translate cultural terms accurately based on the process of breaking down the sense of the
word into its semantic features (Leech, 1981: 89). For instance, man = [+ male], [+ mature]
or woman = [– male], [+ mature] or boy = [+ male], [– mature] or girl = [– male] [– mature]
or child = [+/– male] [– mature]. In other words, the word ‘girl’ can have three basic factors
(or semantic properties): human, young, and female. The four basic types of semantic features
which are shared by the language being compared can be divided into: (1) object elements, (2)
events elements, (3) relational elements, (4) Quality elements (Nida, 1975: 146).
There are three basic steps in the procedure for determining the diagnostic features
(or semantic properties) according to (Nida, 1975: 48): (a) determining the common features
and line up all the apparently relevant differences in form and possibly related functions; (b)
studying the relations of the features to one another, in order to determine the redundancies
and dependencies; and (c) formulating a set of diagnostic features and testing such a set for
adequacy.
Furthermore, Nida (1975: 54-61) has developed these three basic steps into six procedural
steps which are important for analyzing the components of a related set of meanings: (a)
conducting a tentative selection of meanings which appear to be closely related, in the sense
that they constitute a relatively well-defined semantic domain by virtue of sharing a number
of common components; (b) listing all the specific kinds of referents for each of the meanings
belonging to the domain in question; (c) determining those components which may be true of
the meanings of one or more terms, but not of all the terms in question; (d) Determining the
diagnostic components applicable to each meaning; (e) cross-checking with the data obtained
by the first procedure; and (f) describing the diagnostic features systematically.
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Good Translation Criteria
There are several indicator of good translation suggested by experts; one of them is Larson
(1998: 485) who gives some criteria of good translation as follow:
1. Accuracy: It refers to the precise understanding of the SL message and the transfer of
message as accurate as possible into the TL.
2. Clarity: A translation should be clear and there should be no mistakes on the analysis
of the ST or in the transfer process by the translator. In other words, the translator
should put forward the message in the TL in a way that can be understood by the
readers.
3. Naturalness: A translation should be natural and not sounds odd, as if were not a
translation. The forms and the use of natural TL structures in translating is important
of the translation is expected to be effective and acceptable.
RELATED RESEARCH
A research related to cultural words translation and componential analysis was conducted by
Krisnadewi (2011). The data source is taken from a novel entitled The Dancer as the
translation of the trilogy book written by Ahmad Tohari entitled Ronggeng Dukuh Paruk
(1982), Lintang Kemukus Dini Hari (1985), Jantera Bianglala (1986) that were published
into one book entitled Ronggeng Dukuh Paruk in 2003. She applied translation techniques of
Molina and Albir (2002), analysis of semantic frame elements of the cultural terms and
componential analysis. The research used some categorization of cultural terms, such as:
material, social, activities and procedures according to Newmark (1988). There was also
analysis of frame semantic that was elaborated into componential analysis that is also found in
the present research. The translation categorization of cultural words (Newmark: 1991) are
similar to this present research. The result of that research shows that the most applied method
is communicative method because most of translation techniques applied by the translator are
oriented toward the target reader. to be applied by EFL students.
METHODOLOGY
This study employed descriptive qualitative approach that has general characteristics
(Fraenkel &Wallen, 2008: 422) that is suitable to investigate translation strategies and the
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translator’s cultural awareness in translation. The instrument used in this research is content
analysis. An Indonesian best seller novel entitled Laskar Pelangi by Andrea Hirata, published
by Bentang Pustaka (2005) and its translation into English entitled The Rainbow Troops
translated by Angie Kilbane published by Bentang Pustaka (2009) were used as the main data
in this research. Laskar Pelangi novel has some admirable achievement and popularity around
the world proved by its translation into almost 79 languages in 2013. It had been adapted into
a movie and got many literary appreciations. The original version of Laskar Pelangi consists
of 529 pages and 470 pages for its English version that were quite interesting to be analysed.
All cultural words contained in Laskar Pelangi novel and its English version The Rainbow
Troops were taken as the population of this research. Meanwhile, sample were chosen based
on purposive sampling as the most dominant strategy in qualitative research. According to
Mustafa
(2000),
purposive
sampling
is
also
known
as
judgmental, selective or subjective sampling that relies on the judgment of the researcher
when it comes to selecting the units (e.g. people, cases/organizations, events, pieces of data)
that are to be studied. Usually, the sample being investigated is quite small, especially when
compared with probability sampling techniques.
The data was collected by using content analysis. The procedures were done by, first reading
the novel and observed it carefully to obtain cultural terms and note the words that can be
classified as cultural terms. After that, the English version of the novel was reread and
scrutinized to look for the translation of cultural terms from SL those are found in TL. Then
after note taking was done, the collected data were analyzed. Fraenkel and Wallen (2008)
stated “data analysis is the process of simplifying data in order to make it comprehensible”. It
is conducted after the data collection that aimed to gain some findings and results. The data
analysis has important role to fulfill in the research objectives.
In this research, the data analysis was conducted aafter collecting the data through content
analysis. It tried to discover the translator’s cultural strategies in translation some cultural
words based on translation procedures framework of Newmark (1988) and Vinay-Darlbernet
in Venuti (2000). Next, the researcher conducted Componential Analysis of Newmark (2008)
and Nida (1975) to elaborate the result of translation procedures analysis. Then, the quality of
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translation was analysed in the frameworks offered by Larson (1998:485). After that, to
understand the research analysis process, the findings were presented by drawing tables which
showed the frequency and percentage.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS
1. Culture Words of Ecology
According Newmark (1988:96), ecology or geographical features can normally be
distinguished from other cultural terms, because they are usually value-free, politically and
commercially. This is in the same line to Hornby in Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary
(2000:485) who stated that data can be categorize as the terms related with ecology because
they related to plants and living creature that have relationship to each other and their
environment.
The followings are the componential analysis of some ecology terms:
Data 1:
SL
TL
Sebelum menyerbu filicium, serindit Melayu
terlebih dahulu melakukan pengawasan dari dahandahan tinggi ganitri sambil jungkir balik seperti
pemain trapeze.
Gorgeous parakeets would often visit them,
and before attacking our filicium, those lovely
green birds would first survey the area from the
branches of a tall gantri tree behind our school,
scouting out the possibility of competitors or
enemies.
(Kilbane, 2009: 51)
(Hirata, 2006:64)
Table 4.1 Componential Analysis of Serindit Melayu-Gorgeous Parakeets
SEMANTIC
SL
TL
FEATURES
Serindit Melayu
Parakeets
Object
+
+
Bird
+
+
Green fur with red tail
+
+/-
Has mystical role
+
-
Serindit Melayu is an ecology word related to fauna. It is a kind of bird that live in Brunei,
Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand. Meanwhile, parakeet is also a type of bird that
lives outside Asia continent (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parakeet). However, serindit melayu
usually has green fur with red tail, but parakeets have various colors beyond green color. In
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addition, for Malay people, serindit melayu is considered as a symbol of wisdom, peace, and
braveness, but parakeets do not have similar function.
In the sentence above, the translator used cultural equivalent” to translate serindit melayu
(Loriculus Galgulus) into parakeets. “Cultural equivalent” can be identified from the use of
parakeets to translate serindit melayu that may only found in Indonesia. So, to make it more
familiar to the TL readers, then she used parakeets as a kind of bird lives in the TL readers’
region. Actually, the two procedures are covered as “couplets.”
2. Culture Words of Material
Data 2:
SL
TL
Titik-titik
keringat
yang
bertimbulan di seputar hidungnya
menghapus bedak tepung beras
yang dikenakannya, membuat
wajahnya coreng moreng seperti
pemeran emban bagi permaisuri
dalam Dul Muluk, sandiwara kuno
kampung kami.
The sweat breading around her nose
smudged her powder make up,
streaking her face and making her
look like the queen's servant in Dul
Muluk, an ancient play in our village.
(Kilbane, 2009:2)
(Hirata, 2006: 2)
Table 4.2 Componential Analysis of Bedak tepung beras-powder make up
SEMANTIC FEATURES
SL
TL
Bedak tepung beras
Powder make-up
Object
+
+
Soft powder
+
+
Made of rice
+
-
Chemist substance
-
+
Cosmetics
+
+/-
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Based on the elaboration above, it can be seen that bedak tepung beras has some differences
to powder make-up since it is rather made from natural substance than chemical substance
like powder make up. Besides, bedak tepung beras function to beauty equipment only but
powder make up can be used as medicine also.
In the sentence above, there is “cultural equivalent” as a kind of translation procedure where
the translator tries to translate bedak tepung beras into powder make up. It means the
translator thought that the equivalence of bedak tepung beras as one kind of Indonesian
cultural is powder makeup though "they are not really accurate" (Newmark, 1988:83) since
the materials are different. However, because of the form and function of those materials are
rather similar as beauty equipments, so this translation is still accurate and the meaning could
be transferred comprehensively.
3. Culture Words of Social Culture
It is work and leisure, such as the names of profession and interests, which is typical in certain
areas (Newmark, 1988).
Data 3:
SL
TL
Di mulut pintu berdiri dua orang
guru seperti para penyambut tamu
dalam perhelatan.
In the doorway stood two teachers,
like hosts welcoming guests to a
party.
(Kilbane, 2009:1)
(Hirata, 2006: 1)
Table 4.2 Componential Analysis of Perhelatan-Party
SEMANTIC FEATURES
SL
TL
Perhelatan
Party
Abstract object
+
+
In a group
+
+
+/-
+/-
+
+/-
At home
Marriage event
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In the data above, perhelatan could be categorized as social culture (leisure). Then the
translator used a party as the translation of the culture word. This procedure is called as
“cultural equivalent” procedure because perhelatan is a special kind of marriage party in
Indonesian culture according to Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia (Depdiknas: 2008). It has
significant difference to party in Western culture that is used to a special occasion, often in a
person’s home, at which people eat, drink, talk, dance, and enjoy themselves (Hornby,
2000:924). So, it is clear that perhelatan has significant difference with party that can be held
for various event celebrations, not only marriage. In fact, the result of the ‘cultural equivalent’
procedure appears to tend on TL readers and far from the SL word.
Culture Words of Organization, Customs, Religious
This category of culture words covers political and administrative, religious, artistic.
Those concepts cannot be translated into a language where the audience is unfamiliar with it.
As Newmark (1988) points out, political and social life of a country is reflected in its
institutional terms, religious, artistic, political, and administrative.
Data 4:
SL
TL
Ia menjadi seorang ketua salah
astu fraksi di DPRD Belitong.
Eventually, he became a candidate
for a political party and then
successfully realized his plan A to
have position in the House of
representatives.
(Hirata, 2006: 490)
(Kilbane, 2009: 459)
Table 4.4 Componential Analysis of DPRD Belitong-The House of Representatives
SEMANTIC FEATURES
SL
DPRD BELITONG
Object abstract
A group
Consist of typically officers
Consist
of
typically
subgroups
Placed in sub region
+
+
+
-
TL
The House of
Representatives
+
+
+
+
+
-
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DPRD Belitong is a kind of culture word (organization) that was translated into the House
Repesentatives. DPRD (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Daerah) is a representative institution of
society or parliament that is placed in province/region/city. This is rather different to the
House of Representatives, that are placed at the central government of The United States.
Therefore, it can be seen clearly that DPRD does not have sub group while the House of
representatives has sub groups since it is the highest institution.
Although the term can be translated directly by similar term using “recognized translation”,
but the translator preferred to use her cultural word that may be more comprehensible for the
readers. This procedure is called as cultural equivalent since the translator tends to maintain
TL culture.
5. Culture Words of Gestures and Habits
It is work and leisure, such as the names of profession and interests, which is typical in certain
areas (Newmark, 1988).
Data 5:
SL
TL
Suara alu yang dilantakkan ke
dalam lumpang kayu bertalu-talu,
sahut-menyahut dari rumah ke
rumah.
(Hirata, 2006:52)
The sounds of pestles pounding
against wooden mortars incessantly
echoed from one stilted house to
another, but when the clock struck
five, the shiren shrieked once again.
(Kilbane, 2009: 42)
(Kilbane, 2009:1)
Table 4.5 Componential Analysis of Bertalu-talu-Mortars
SEMANTIC
SL
TL
FEATURES
Bertalu-talu
Mortars
Gestures
+
+
Explosion
_
+
Loud voice
+
+
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Bomb
-
+
There are some cultural words in this sentence, but bertalu-talu is the most interesting to be
analyzed. Bertalu-talu can be categorized as gesture or habit as a part of cultural words.
Bertalu-talu is used to illustrate sounds of alu against lumpang kayu. Alu and lumpang kayu
are some artifacts in Indonesia that have function to grind rice. Therefore, the translator used
mortars as the translation of the culture word that may have different sense. According to
Hornby (2000: 827), mortars refer to attack something using a mortar (a heavy gun that fires
bomb and shells high into the air). Then, it can be seen a little different between the two
terms. However, “cultural equivalent” procedure is a way to reach naturalness of the
translation. It may be still comprehensive for the TL readers. As data analysis (37), cultural
equivalent procedures can be categorized as domesticating strategy since the result of
translation is oriented to TL readership.
CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS
This research has attempted to emphasize on the importance of using appropriate translation
procedures in translating cultural words. It is proved that translation includes cultural
awareness and knowledge of the translator. Then, it could be found there were five
categorizations of culture words in this study related to material, ecology, social culture,
organization and gestures/habits. It can be identified that all procedures applied in this study is
“cultural equivalent” that indicates that the translator wants to give tendency on TL culture
and avoiding the affect of SL culture. The differences among features did not give significant
effect to the text comprehension since it only happened in a few semantic features. Therefore,
it can be concluded that this translation still accurate, natural and clear as some indicators of
good translation.
However, the translator is suggested to give more explanation into the untranslatable words. It
means that she is able to use another procedure, like: notes, paraphrase, transference, etc that
will be more comprehensible for the readers. The use of componential analysis is also
recommended to be applied to asses students translation product, thus the accuracy can be
identified.
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Polish, German, and Japanese. New York: Oxford University Press.
Website:
(http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serindit_melayu).
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parakeet).
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MORE THAN WORDS
Kari Dickson
University of Edinburgh.
Norwegia
My talk today will be based on my experience as a practising literary translator, rather than an
academic paper.
Background
I was born in Scotland, but as my mother is Norwegian and my grandparents could not speak
English, I grew up speaking both languages, though I hesitate to say that I was in anyway
bilingual until I was an adult. However, spending a considerable amount of time in Norway as
a child gave me a deep understanding of the country and a solid grounding in the culture,
which I have really only come to appreciate latterly as a translator. We only spoke English at
home, unless we had Norwegian visitors, and apparently my sister and I switched languages
automatically when we got on the boat to go to Norway, and likewise, switched back to
English when we got back on the boat to come home. When we arrived in Norway, the first
thing we did was to drink Solo, a local fizzy drink, and eat an ice-cream that is particular to
Norway. So it would seem that from an early age, we practised a form of immersion. During
those summer holidays we picked berries and mushrooms, learnt to preserve what we had
gathered, went out on boats, went fishing, played with the local children, listened to the radio,
watched TV and without realising it, acquired a substantial reference frame of childhood in
Norway. To this day, I perhaps know more words for berries, fish and fishing in Norwegian
than I do in English. What is perhaps peculiar is that my sister now speaks very little
Norwegian, despite us having had the same exposure to the language. However, she lives in
Australia and has more or less no practical use for the language there, so her knowledge of
Norwegian is now very latent. But, she has maintained the cultural knowledge and
understanding.
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I decided that I wanted to take Scandinavian Studies at university, and spent the year before
starting my studies, working in Norway as an au pair. I realised very quickly that the language
I had spoken until then was a conservative form of Norwegian, the language of my
grandparents, and my mother who had moved away from Norway in the early 1960s. I didn’t
even know how to swear! So I quickly set about learning the language of young people. By
the time I arrived at university, I was speaking fluent, modern Norwegian, but I had no formal
knowledge of the grammar, writing standards or the terminology to discuss this. I loved
learning about the literature and the history, but I struggled with the language, as I didn’t have
the patience to, in effect, relearn the basics. Perhaps partly as a result of this, when I left
university, I went to work in theatre and all my Norwegianness lay dormant for a few years.
Then I was asked to do a literal translation of Henrik Ibsen’s play, The Lady from the Sea. In
the UK, it is fairly standard practice to have someone do a literal translation of a play, which a
well-known playwright then reworks (and often takes all the credit for!). A couple of years
later, I was asked to do the same with Ibsen’s Hedda Gabler. And I discovered that this was
something I enjoyed, that I could do, and I remembered a childhood wish to be a literary
translator.
This led to a masters degree in translation. The programme was designed for commercial
translation, but for my dissertation, I worked on the translation of a play. The head of the
department knew that I wanted to be a literary translator and encouraged me to pursue this.
She put me in touch with an organisation called NORLA in Norway (I will talk more about
NORLA shortly). I then got a job as an in-house translator at the central bank of Norway, and
worked there for about three and a half years. I learnt a lot about translating, about the
Norwegian economy and about working in the public sector in Norway. But it was not for me,
so I managed to wangle myself a job at the National Theatre in Oslo, and spent the next three
years there.
It was really only when I moved back to the UK that I started consciously to look for literary
translation work. And twelve years later, I'm standing here. My route to translation was just
one path. If you ask a group of translators how they got into translation, the answer will often
be that they fell into it in some way; they worked in a bookshop and fell in love with a book,
they were asked to do a translation by a friend or colleague, they were living in a foreign
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country and needed to make money. But what is common for most is a passion for literature,
for language and culture. I often say that translation for me is not so much a job as a way of
life.
However, in recent years, more and more people are taking the path of translation studies. In
the UK, there are now 16 universities that offer first degrees in translation, and 38 that offer
postgraduate courses, of which 3 offer specifically literary translation. These are the
University of Edinburgh, the University of East Anglia and Swansea University. The courses
will generally combine translation theory and practice. For example, the programme in
Edinburgh includes portfolio classes every week, where students are required to translate into
and out of both languages in their specific combination, across a range of genres that dovetail
with a set of workshops in specific genres (travel, autobiography, poetry, drama, children's
books, crime, etc). Translation theory has very much become a discipline in its own right, and
while it provides a short cut to understanding some of the strategies available and the hows
and whys of translation, many of the more experienced translators that I know who have not
followed the academic route, have arrived at similar conclusions through practice and
experience.
I remember some years ago now being particularly incensed and insulted when a highly
respected editor who is known as a champion of translated fiction told his audience of young,
eager translators that you had to be over 60 to be a really good translator. I still don't entirely
agree with him, especially when it comes to literature that involves a high level of swearing,
slang, street language and the like, but I do see his point. The more experience you have, the
richer your experience and vocabulary and understanding. The time it takes to get your first
contact with a publisher can be a very hard and challenging time for emerging translators. It
took about four years in my case. And this is where organisations like NORLA in Norway
and The British Centre of Literary Translation in the UK are invaluable (and they continue to
be invaluable!), so I want to talk a bit about them both, as their remit and support differs.
NORLA
As I mentioned, I was encouraged to contact NORLA at a very early stage in my career, and
to be honest, had it not been for them, I could easily have faltered. Networking plays a huge
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part in a(n emerging) translator's working life. NORLA invited me to the London Book Fair,
and to literary events in Norway. They put in me in touch with Norwegian publishers who
then started giving me work in the form of translating catalogue texts and sample translations,
which in turn got my name out to British publishers. They really nurture and look after those
translators who work from Norwegian into other languages, because they are essential to
helping Norwegian literature to travel. They are tireless in their enthusiasm and efforts to
promote Norwegian literature abroad, and can in return can point to very concrete results,
with an increase in the volume of Norwegian literature in translation. Crucial to this is the
translation subsidy they offer to foreign publishers wanted to translate Norwegian works.
They also subsidise travel for Norwegian authors to attend literary festivals, give talks at
higher education establishments abroad – and have in fact paid for the Norwegian author, Kari
Brænne and myself to come here, to run a relay-translation workshop for the Inisiatif
Penerjemahan Sastra. There are many who envy us NORLA because of their level of
engagement and activity. Obviously, being from one of the richest countries in the world
helps, but personally I don't think that is the only reason they are so respected and admired, it
is also their level of commitment to promoting Norwegian literature abroad. Many countries
in Europe have similar organisations.
Another organisation that I have to thank for taking me to Indonesia is the British Centre of
Literary Translation.
British Centre of Literary Translation
The BCLT was established in 1989, and is now in its twenty-fourth year. It describes itself as
part university centre, part arts organisation, and is based in Norwich at the University of East
Anglia. As it is housed in the university it combines both academic and outreach work.
The first BCLT summer school was held in 2000. The UK is well-known for its aversion to
anything foreign, especially strange languages, and the summer school was set up to further
encourage and improve the inter-translation of European literature. It is a highly successful
and very simple model: every July, a group of emerging translators work with a more
experienced translator to produce a consensus translation of a text (which has not been
published in English translation), with the author present to answer any questions and take
part in the discussions. The focus is on the process. Through discussing the challenges and the
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various solutions, participants not only expand their vocabulary, but also discover new ways
to approach the text and translation issue and can develop new strategies. The end product is
often surprisingly good, given this rather unusual method. In the past couple of years, I have
tried to allow participants the opportunity to work in various combinations: alone, in pairs, in
bigger groups and in plenary. Last year, for the first time, editors from publishers that work
with translated fiction, were invited to join a couple of the editing sessions. This has proved to
be a mutually beneficial experience for participants and the editors. The Norwegian group
was delighted when the editor said that she was amazed that six different and separate voices
could work together to produce such a coherent and consistent narrative voice. And this year,
Susan Harris, the editor of the online literary magazine Words Without Borders, said that
when she is approached by a new translator, if she sees that they have attended a BCLT
summer school, she takes that as a stamp of approval.
After participating in one of these summer courses a couple of years ago, a group of emerging
translators set up the Emerging Translators' Forum. This is an online forum where people who
are starting out in their career can ask questions about contracts, words, publishers, etc., share
experiences and generally support and encourage each other.
The BCLT also runs a very successful mentoring programme. Once again, an emerging
translator is paired with an expert translator. The mentees are selected on the basis of a sample
translation and experience. For six months, they work together on a text that the mentee has
chosen. The mentor also takes the mentee to various translation and trade events so that they
can develop their own networks. Those I know who have taken part in this programme have
said that it was invaluable to them.
Inisiatif Penerjemahan Sastra
The Inisiatif Penerjemahan Sastra was started by Eliza Hindayani with the aim to establishing
a literary translation centre in Indonesia. The idea of a relay translation workshop was born
when she met with people from the BCLT at the London Book Fair in 2010. So last year, the
Dutch author Gustaaf Peek and Norwegian author Kjersti Skomsvold went to the BCLT
summer school in Norwich to be translated into English by participants there. Then in
October, they came here with myself and the Dutch-English translator, David Colmer, to
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facilitate the translation of these English texts into Indonesian. The role of the author and
English translator in these relay workshops is to explain meanings and cultural differences,
translation choices and to share experiences of the translation process. The Indonesian
workshop leaders then work with participants on reaching a consensus translation and doing
the final edits. And I have quite literally come from this year's workshops. The Norwegian
author, Kari Brænne, and I were in Norwich again in July, and have spent the week working
with ten participants and the Indonesian workshop leader, Miagina Amal, to complete the
text's journey from Norwegian to Indonesian. The other relay workshop this year was from
Mandarin. As it turned out, half of the participants in that group actually spoke Mandarin, so
in many ways it was a half-way house. There were also two direct translation workshops from
Indonesian to English and English to Indonesian.
I really hope that all the work and effort that has gone into these workshops over the past
couple of years will continue and will help to raise the profile of translators and the processes
involved, and will contribute to a thriving and creative translation scene in Indonesia.
Workshops / culture
The text that I chose for the workshops this year is an extract from Kari Brænne's novel,
Under the Shadows. I chose it on purpose because it contains many culture related items that
would give us something meaty to discuss, both in the UK and in Indonesia.
I will now give some examples of the issues we tackled, and some more unexpected issues
that cropped up.
But first, as little amusing example of cultural relevance, and to show why knowing more
than just the words is so important, I'm going to talk about goat's cheese. When you say goat's
cheese, most people associate this with a white, more often than not, soft cheese. However,
Norwegians will immediately think of a brown cheese peculiar to Norway. This is how it was
described by a Norwegian journalist in a British newspaper, following a bizarre incident
where a lorry-load of brown cheese caught fire in a tunnel. Not surprisingly this caught the
imagination of the press throughout Europe and there were many amusing and bemused
reports.
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So what exactly is brown cheese? It's quite unusual. Visitors often say that it tastes like a
sweet-savoury, fudgey Caramac, which may sound unpromising. I'd rather describe it as a
deeply savoury dulce de leche, and as such it can be a challenge to non-Norwegians. The
sweetness comes from overcooking whey until a Maillard reaction kicks in and the milk
sugars caramelise. Brown cheese doesn't go through any maturation process, and it keeps in
the fridge for a few months.
Brown cheese is quintessentially Norwegian, and imbued with all the romantic notions of
national identity in this oil-rich country (think Grieg's Peer Gynt, Ibsen, Amundsen beating
Scott, traditional sweaters, stunning natural landscapes, trolls). It is really only eaten in
Norway and we love it. Most households will have a variety (there are surprisingly many) in
their fridge and a cheese slicer is essential for getting the requisite thin slices. (blog by Signe
Johansen, the Guardian.com, Thursday 24 January 2013)
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If a Norwegian was to overhear the following exchange: "Oh, we've run out of strawberry
jam." "Don't worry, I prefer brown cheese anyway" they would automatically presume that
the conversation was about waffles, as these are the most popular toppings for waffles.
However, it might leave those with no knowledge about Norwegian culture a bit bewildered,
not only because of the brown cheese, but also because there is not immediate association
between strawberry jam and cheese.
Here is an extract of the text that I chose for the workshops:
In The Deep Shadows by Kari Fredrikke Brænne
Translation by Adam Fitzpatrick, Nancy Langfelt, Siân Mackie & Mahala Mathiesen
BCLT summer school 2013
She wakes up stiff and hunched on the sofa. The clasps on her bunad are digging into her
middle and the silver brooch at her collar is pressing against her throat. The television is still
on, a flickering source of light in the darkening room. There’s an old comedy on the box, a
lively dinner party in black and white. Glamorous guests raise their glasses in a toast, before
leaping up and starting to chase each other. She fumbles for the remote control and manages
to switch it off, unlaces her bodice and loosens her waistband. Air.
She can’t remember ever having slept in her bunad before. But then her memory isn’t
what it used to be. Is it evening already? She lifts her head. The food is still on the table. And
her best china that only comes out on special occasions. The silver tongs and canapés with
prawns, roast beef, and smoked salmon lie untouched on the platter. The eight-ring
kransekake, iced and decorated, is a splendid centrepiece between the flowers and the
kangaroo wine.
So, as you can see, there are some culture related items that I knew would cause problems for
both the English translators and the Indonesians. In the first two paragraphs, there are two
Norwegian words in italics, bunad and kransekake. In Norwich, for homework, I asked the
participants to domesticise these two paragraphs as far as possible. Unfortunately we didn't
have the time to do this in Jakarta. This is a very good exercise for an extract, to help clarify
the importance and weight of cultural context, but would have to be extremely well thought
through if it was to be the strategy for an entire book. But then you might also ask, what is the
point of translating foreign literature if it is then entirely domesticised? Surely one of the
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greatest benefits and values of translated fiction is that it gives us a window on other lives and
cultures, and helps to widen our horizons. With the reader in mind, the translator has
constantly to strike the balance between making the text as natural and readable as possible
for the reader, whilst maintaining the cultural integrity of the source text.
Bunad is more often than not translated as 'national costume'. This is probably about as close
as you could get. They are worn on special occasions, such as weddings, christenings,
confirmations, the national day, and the like. The basic design is more or less the same, but
each region has its own costume, and the tradition is that you wear the costume from the
region that your mother came from. Some were originally more like folk costumes and worn
everyday, whereas others were made specifically for special occasions. Throughout the
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the older costumes were also modified in relation to
prevailing European fashions and which materials were available. Today, however, the
designs are now fixed.
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Some of the suggested ways of domesticising this into English were: a long tartan skirt
(women's equivalent of a Scottish kilt)¸finest clothes, and Sunday best. However, after a
discussion about how it would be domesticise the text and looking at the various options, it
was decided that we would keep the word in Norwegian, rather than use the more usual
translation of 'national costume', partly because of all the variations in the actual costumes,
but also because of the deep cultural associations.
Kransekake could be literally translated as 'ring cake' or 'wreath cake', but this tells the reader
nothing. It is a cake that is made only in Norway and Denmark, and is again used for special
occasion. It's actually very simple to make, but looks spectacular. The dough is a mix of
ground almonds, egg white and icing sugar, so in affect it is a baked marzipan, and the
moulds are generally used to form the rings. Because we really have no equivalent in English
and because the translation would leave the reader none the wiser, it was decided that this too
should be left in Norwegian, thus indicating that it is something really quite specific and
unique.
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The Indonesian participants decided to do the same, which would lead to a further issues and
discussion later on. There is a paragraph where the passing of time is given in relation to
various flowers and trees. These were known and recognisable to the English translators,
where as, rather obviously, they were totally unknown and meaningless to the Indonesians.
We googled them to find the Latin names to see if there was in fact an Indonesian name, but
no such luck. Only 'tulip' was known. Initially, the names in the English translation were used
in italics. We then realised that the words that were in italics in another language earlier in the
text were in Norwegian, and was it wise to confuse the reader by introducing additional
languages, when there was no narrative necessity? Eventually, it was decided that these
should be left in the original Norwegian.
Relay translation vs. Secondary translation
The workshops that I have run for Inisiatif Penerjemahan Sastra has been called “relay”
translation workshops. In both years, the text that we worked on was translated from
Norwegian to English by a group of emerging translators at this year’s BCLT summer school
in July. With the author present to answer any questions, the aim is to produce a consensus
translation. This year, the author, Kari Brænne and myself were present to be able to explain
the choices we had made, and why and to answer any other questions regarding the text in the
translation process. But the bulk of the work was led by the Indonesian workshop leader,
Miagina Amal. There were ten participants in the group, one of whom attended the
Norwegian workshop last year, and one who attended the Dutch workshop.
I am aware that a lot of the translations that are done here in Indonesia (and in many, many
parts of the world) are from the English – whether it is the original text or an English
translation. And this practice has raised many questions for me as a translator from
Norwegian into English. And it has become a prickly issue for many translators into English.
I realise that we are in a very privileged position in Europe, where many people speak two or
more languages. We are also able to travel between countries with relative ease and freedom.
These are privileges we often take for granted. As we do the fact that we, more often than not,
work directly with the author during the translation process. Sometimes this is via email, and
other times we go to meet the author to discuss any problems that have arisen, things we don’t
quite understand. A Dutch-Norwegian translator that I know was struggling to translate a
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passage about a particular landscape in Norway. The Netherlands is, of course, a very flat
country, and this passage was talking about all the bumps and cliffs and mounds and contours
of a more mountainous landscape, for which there are no words in Dutch. So she went to
Norway and followed the path described in the book in question, so she could get a feel for
the landscape and find a way to describe it. Obviously, that would be more difficult if you
were a translator sitting here in Indonesia grappling with Norwegian landscapes. Which is
then compounded by the fact that you might be translating from a text that is already one step
removed from the original, and has been adjusted to meet the requirements of an Englishspeaking audience. But you can still always try to contact either the author or the English
translator with any questions you might have.
The response might be varied. I have worked with authors who are delighted that their work is
being translated, but who feel that either their grasp of English is not good enough to have an
opinion, or that the work is no longer theirs once it takes on another language guise, and so
there is very little or no communication. I have also worked with authors who want to go
through the entire translation, more or less word by word, and who play a very active role in
the translation process. Generally, it’s somewhere in between. But I always contact the author
when I start a new translation.
So I see the model of “relay” translation that the Inisiatif Penerjemahan Sastra is seeking to
promote as good practice. It is encouraging Indonesian translators to work with the authors
and/or translator of the text they are working from.
However, what often happens is that the English translator is not aware of the fact that the
rights to a particular book have been sold to other countries and that it is in fact their
translation that is being used as the ‘base’ text. This can lead to all kinds of complications, at
worst, a kind of Chinese whispers. Authors too should be concerned about this. A colleague
of mine was once lambasted by an Israeli reader, who happened to be able to read Swedish,
because she felt that the Israeli translation was so bad that he surely must have done an
appalling English translation in the first place. But from the examples that she gave, it was
obvious that the translator had simply not understood the English. I was also contacted once
by a Portuguese translator who wondered why there was a sex line in the police station. I was
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slightly puzzled, as I didn’t remember this from the book, but it was only when she said the
word “hotline” that I realised where the problem lay. In Swedish, this is “tipstelefon”. The
definition in the Collins English Dictionary fot “hotline, in British English is: A hotline is a
telephone line that the public can use to contact an organization about a particular subject. I
can see that the word hot might cause some confusion, but imagine how different the story
might have been if she had not contacted me! And at the point when she contacted me, I had
no idea that my translation was being used as the basis for the Portuguese translation – and
presumably, many other languages. Indeed, I now know that it was also used for the basis of
the Indonesian translation, as the translator happened to be one of the participants in the
workshop in Jakarta last year.
Many translators into English feel that is unfair that their work is used without their
knowledge or permission. After all, translations are subject to copyright, so we have the right
to know when our translations are being used. It is therefore an ethical matter. And for this
reason, many English translators may be prickly about being contacted by translators into
other languages. But things are changing gradually. For instance, through talking about this
issue, there is now one publishing house in Norway that consistently contacts the English
translators for their permission to use their translations when the book is sold to a country
where there are no translators who can work directly from Norwegian. I would like to see the
copyright being recognised in print, and eventually, that there is some form of remuneration.
I have to admit that this was initially one of my prime motivations for getting involved in the
project. I am sure there is a way to develop a good practice in this area, and it is only through
dialogue with people who have to translate from English because they don’t know the original
language that this can happen. In an ideal world, translators would be able to translate from
the original language, but that is also unrealistic given the number of languages in the world
and therefore language combinations. But together we can work to maintain the integrity of
the original work and of any subsequent translations.
In conclusion, I would recommend that those who are interested watch a very clever little
piece of reversible text written by a Norwegian colleague. For the past couple of years,
CEATL has run a competition for short films that promote and highlight translation and this
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was one of the joint winners this year. It very cleverly combines some of the more dominant
views of translation and translators today.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UGYL5sUwr2Q
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CULTURAL ASPECTS IN TRANSLATION
(A MULTICULTURAL PERSPECTIVE BASED ON ENGLISH,
INDONESIAN, AND LOCAL LANGUAGES CONTEXTS)
Rudi Hartono
[email protected]
Abstract
Translation is an activity of transferring information from one language into another. In
transferring the message, a translator not only renders a language form but also replaces a
cultural content. Practically it is because translation itself an activity that involves at least
two languages and two cultures (Toury in James: 2000). Translating the text that contains
a cultural content and message is more difficult than translating an ordinary text that only
has literal meanings. Cultural aspects that include in stereotypes, speech levels, pronouns,
idioms, even in proverbs are things that can lead difficulties for translators to translate.
He or she sometimes should look for the closest meaning in order the translation products
can be accepted in the target language culture.
Keywords: cultural aspects, stereotypes, idioms, speech levels, local languages
Introduction
Naturally all sorts of phenomena, both natural and social, have an important role in a system
of cultural development process. Culture as a social phenomenon is the result of human work
and thought pieces which has an important role in a process of living systems. The one system
of life that is meant is speaking of life, specifically in the translation process. It is because
translation is an activity that involves at least two languages and two cultures (Toury, 1978:
200) in James (2000). In this case an interpreter is permanently faced with the problem of how
to treat or discuss cultural aspects implicitly stated in the source language (SL) and look for
the right techniques to transform, render, and replace them into the target language (TL). The
problems faced are extremely different and various depending on the level of cultural and
linguistic gaps and target market (Nida, 1964: 130). Here it seems clear how culture with its
aspects have an important role and translator should be able to discuss and convey the
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meaning to the target language because it is an important source for the readers of the target
text (TT readers).
Cultural implications in the source text for a translation process have a variety of forms
ranging from lexical and syntactic meaning to ideology and outlook on life. This is a tough
task for a translator to be able to understand the cultural implications of all forms and submit
them to the target text reader, exactly what is meant by the authors or readers of the original
source. To truly understand what cultural implications implicitly stated in the source text, the
translator must do an analysis of the source text and get the information as clear as possible
about the purpose of the text from the author of the source text (James: 2002 ).
Definition of Culture
What is a culture? Some experts of culture give different opinions in defining “culture”. The
culture itself includes many things, such as values, traditions, behaviors, hopes, food, and arts.
All these things become the talk of many people all the time. Brislin in Wang (2000: 1-3)
presents some characteristics that can be used as a reference to define what the culture is, as
follows:
1) Culture is the work of a man who became a part of the environment.
2) Culture allegations reflect together about life in general.
3) Culture is fundamental so many people do not or are not able to discuss and analyze it.
4) Culture can be real through meaningful clashes.
5) Culture is passed from generation to generation.
6) Culture allows people to fill in the blanks.
7) Cultural values last long.
8) Violation of cultural norms has an emotional impact.
9) These differences can be illustrated by contrasting cultures.
Definitions of Translation
Many experts give definitions of the translation. Some of them are as follows:
1. Translation is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the
author intended the text (Newmark, 1988: 5). This definition prioritizes meaning as
the main center for translation. It is basically the implicit meaning of the cultural
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elements that need to be understood and conveyed by the translator according to the
author's intent in the source text.
2. Translation is transferring the meaning of the source language into the receptor
language (Larson, 1984: 3). This definition states that aspect of meaning as an
important element of the center of attention must be analyzed and understood by the
translator in order the author’s purpose or the original message from the source text
can be delivered to the readers of the target text. Implicit aspects of culture in the form
of physical culture, norms and customs are carried by the existing meaning in the
source text, which then have to be transferred by the translator to the target language
precisely, clearly, and accurately.
3. Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent
textual material in another language (Catford, 1978: 20). Based on the definition,
translation is a process of replacing the text materials of a language which contain
different forms of linguistics and culture with the text materials that have a precise and
accurate equivalence in other languages.
4. Translation consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural
equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in
terms of style (Nida, 1969: 12). Based on this definition, translation is a process of
natural reproduction of the closest equivalence of the source language to the target
language in both its meaning and style. Basically the meaning and style of the source
language contains cultural elements that should be reproduced into the target language
with the closest natural equivalent by the translator.
From the four definitions of translation above the cultural aspect that implicitly is stated in the
source text in the forms of message, meaning and style are important aspects in the process of
translation. Therefore, its role is taken into account because it will greatly affect on the
translation. If the translator is not able to understand the cultural elements in the physical
form, ideas, and lifestyles contained in the source text, he or she will have difficulties in the
translation process and produce the translation products that are not in accordance with the
original message.
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The Importance of Culture in Translation
Relating to some definitions of culture, Newmark (1988: 95) defines a culture is as a lifestyle
and its manifestation is unique for one community in which a particular language is used. So
it can be concluded that each language group has distinctive characteristics culturally.
However Newmark (1988: 95) does not regard language as a component or characteristic of
the culture. On the contrary Vermeer in James (2000) states that language is part of a culture.
According to Newmark, Vermeer 's perspective implies an impossibility in a translation,
while Vermeer himself believes that the translation of the source language to the target text is
part
of
the
translator’s
role
in
intercultural
communication.
The concept and idea of culture is very important to consider, especially its implications for
translation, although many experts translation are still disagreement and different
understanding. But in this case Nida (1964: 130) put his pinion relating to linguistic and
cultural differences between the source language and target language. He concluded that
intercultural differences in translation may cause problems and complications that make it
more difficult and even dangerous for translators than differences in the structure of language.
Therefore the cultural implications of translation are very important as well as the lexical
meanings than other formal shifts.
In addition, Lotman in James (2000) stated that there will be no language when not immersed
in a cultural context and culture would not be alive if it has no center, that is the structure of
natural language. Bassnet (1980:13-14) emphasized on two considerations when translating
the language and cultural considerations. She said that language is located in the heart of the
cultural body. It means that language is the hearth within the body of culture". Both language
and culture are lively interdependent and need each other. Linguistic ideas in the transfer of
meaning can be seen as part of the translation process and all the things that include extralinguistic criteria should be considered. Basnett added that the translator must capture the
source text as the target language version that matches the version of the source language. He
added that efforts to impose cultural value system of the source language into the target
language culture are a very dangerous thing (Bassnet, 1980: 23). So when doing translation,
the translator should not only consider the impact of lexical aspects on target readers, but also
the way how the cultural aspects can be perceived and acceptable for making decision.
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Nababan ( 2003:99 ) adds that a source language word sometimes cannot express a cultural
concept which is totally unknown in a target language. The concept itself may be abstract or
concrete. The concept can be related to religious, customs, or other types of food. These
concepts are usually referred to as special concepts of culture. Mododareni term, for example,
is an abstract concept that is closely related to Javanese traditions, the concept is not
recognized in English. So what should be done by a translator if he or she finds culturally
specific concepts in translation?
We realize that the term culture has a very wide scope. Language itself is a cultural
component and is also a part of the culture. For example, the word house in the English
language is often paired with the word rumah in Indonesian language. This meaning is not
exactly equivalent because the term house does not always refers to rumah, it may refer to
gedung, for example, white house is not rumah putih but it is gedung putih or istana presiden.
It is like in understanding the term rice. Western people regard that rice refers to beras but
Indonesian context it refers to nasi, beras, and padi, for examples, “I eat rice” (Saya makan
nasi), “I buy rice in the market” (Saya membeli beras di pasar), “The farmer goes to the rice
field” (Petani pergi ke lading padi/sawah). This is due to the Americans that already have a
mental device (a mental set) that is different from a mental device of Indonesian people. This
opinion is in line with the statement of Duff (1981: 10) as follows: “Language has its mental
sets: it is through them that we 'picture' reality in words”. These mental sets may overlap
between one language and another, but they rarely match exactly. It is the translator's difficult
task to bring them as close together as possible. From these statements it can be understood
that the languages have the mental tools that we can use to describe reality in the form of
words, even if the device is not at all uncommon mentally fit and this is a difficult task for a
translator to find the match at the same or equivalent proximity.
So the house and rumah, rice and nasi, beras, padi can be said to be equivalent (equivalent)
although in fact it is not exactly the same meaning, in other words, they rarely match exactly.
When these words are analyzed, they differ in some respects. Conceptually and functionally
house and rumah have in common. For example, conceptually the terms house and rumah
refer to a building that has a foundation, floors, walls, and roofs and functionally the two
concepts have a function as ordinary dwellings occupied or inhabited by humans, but in
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reality the house of Americans with rumah of Indonesian people have differences in contrast.
If two words are derived from two different languages that are considered equivalent, then the
translator would not be so in trouble. Conversely, if the words of the source language are not
known well based on the concept, function, and the reality of the target language, it makes
then the translator get into trouble. The cultural terms that there have no absolutely
equivalence in the source text and target text, for examples, if terms sekaten and nyangku as
Javanese and Sundanese terms are translated into English, the translator will be very difficult
to find the equivalent words in English because those words have cultural nuances and
meanings.
Similar difficulties will be found by the translator when he or she translates literary works,
such as poetry and novels. Since both of these literary works always contain a bunch of
cultural meanings and messages. The poem, for example, reveals the beauty, while the beauty
in a language is unique. The beauty aspect of it cannot be transferred to another language
without changing its shape. The message of the source text must be maintained in the target
language. Thus a translator of poetry must retain the message or the beauty of language. Is it
possible for a translator? The possibility will happen, if a beautiful poem in the source
language
is
translated,
it
will
become
no
longer
beautiful,
or
vice
versa.
What is about the translation of novel containing many cultural elements in the source
language much different from the concept, functionality and reality in the target language? In
the form of material culture or artifacts, body movements (gestures), norms, customs, habits,
ideology and way of life, for examples, are difficult to be translated with equivalent words in
the target language (James, 2000). This is where a translator has to work hard to find the
equivalent words that can be acceptable, which do not deviate from the original message. So
as to seek the cultural equivalence, a translator should go around the world to find the
equivalent terms or words. Therefore how important the role of culture in translation is. It is
because if the cultural substances are available, the translation will be useless and
unacceptable. In fact it is probably not a translation but only a bouquet. An important thing
said by Nida (1964:13): "The message in the source language is embedded a cultural context
and has to be transferred to the target of language”. From this statement it is known that the
source language that stores messages in a cultural context must be transferred to the target
language.
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There are so many examples of phrases in English and Indonesian languages that are laden
with cultural elements in some of the forms that often cause a lot of problems in translation
for example in the form of expressions:
Stereotype
The stereotype here includes greeting phrases, such as good morning, good afternoon, good
evening, good night, and so on. For example, the greeting Good morning is paired with a
greeting in Indonesian language Selamat Pagi, whereas the concept of morning in English
language is not the same as the concept of Selamat pagi in Indonesian language. Other
example is saying Selamat malam that has two meanings in English, one refers to Good
evening and the other refers to Good night. If someone misuses these greeting attentions, he
or she will make miscommunication and sometimes this event will be embarrassing because it
is misused.
Cultural events
Can “Thanks Giving” cultural event in the western culture be paired with a particular cultural
event in the eastern culture as Sekaten or Kenduren? Of course this is a difficult work for a
translator to do.
Traditional building
Similarly, the traditional buildings in the source language like Tembok Cina (Chinese Wall),
Kota Larangan (City of Prohibition), Pagoda, Piramida (Pyramid) will be difficult for the
translator to find out its equivalence in the target language culture. Because the target
language culture has traditional building forms that are conceptually, functionally and really
different from the source language culture, like the names of building Pendopo Agung (Great
Wall), Rumah Gadang (Tower House), Balairung (Traditional Hall) and others. Are those
cultural terms translatable one another?
Kinship (Kinship)
Kinship system in western culture has differences with Kekerabatan in eastern culture. In
English cultures, for example, the kinship is only known from the father, mother, aunt, uncle,
brother,
sister,
grandfather/mother,
446 ISBN 978-602-19638-6-9
grandparent(s),
grandson/
daughter,
great-
December 2013
grandfather/mother, great-great-grandfather/mother, great-grandson/daughter to the greatgreat-grandson/daughter, whereas in Indonesian culture, the kinship has a much more striking
differences, for example, ranging from Ayah/Ibu, Pak/Bu Gedhe, Mbah/Eyang, Mbah/Eyang
Buyut, Mbah/Eyang Canggah, Mbah/Eyang Wareng, Mbah/Eyang Udheg-udheg siow, an
others. All these kinships cannot be similar between English and Indonesian because those
have a different range and names. How can all these sorts of things be translated? Could a
translator find the nearest and closest equivalence?
Pronouns
The equivalence to the pronouns also occupies a high degree of difficulty for translation. The
western culture (English culture) has simply pronouns, such as I, you, he, she, it, we, and
they, while the eastern culture (Indonesia culture) has a lot. Even for the first personal
pronoun (I), Indonesian language has many equivalent words, such saya, aku, gua; for the
second personal pronoun (You): kamu, engkau, kau, anda, saudara, kalian; for the third
singular pronouns (He/She): dia, ia; whereas in English only one single pronoun (I, You,
He/She). The first singular personal pronoun in the Indonesian language has different levels
depending on the status and context. The pronoun Saya is more formal than Aku and Gua or
even Gue. The pronoun Gue is more rude than the Aku and the pronoun Aku is more intimate
or romantic than Saya and Gua. How is the first personal pronoun “I” translated? Is the
pronoun Saya, Aku or Gua/Gue equivalent and appropriate for "I" in English? All depend on
the cultural context and situation on which speakers perform their speech acts.
Speech levels
The phenomenon of speech levels or Undha-usuk bahasa in Indonesian terms may be better
known and applied to specific local languages such as in Sundanese and Javanese languages.
Sundanese language has speech levels, for examples, basajan (standard) and lemes (polite),
whereas in the Javanese language there are is a set of speech levels: ngoko (standard), karma
(polite), and ngoko alus (more polite). However Indonesian language itself does not have
speech levels, so the translator will only have problems of speech levels if he or she translate
one language into another local language in Indonesia that will be very difficult for the
translator to translate.
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Idioms
How to translate idioms that are also loaded with cultural contents? Feare (1980) in Soemarno
(2003: 22) said that the idiom is a phrase that has a special meaning and significance that
cannot be fully understood by looking at the word by word, so it is not easy to translate
idioms. Translators could not understand the meaning of an idiom that is based on the words
in the idiom it separately but it must be understood completely and thoroughly and then find
its meaning, so that translators should seek the equivalent idiom in target language. It is in
line with Baker’s opinion (1995: 65) that says the translator will have difficulties in
translating the idiom because he or she should really consider the message and intent implied
in the idiom of expression.
Conclusion
So, how complicated and difficult to translate words or phrases laden culture it is. In this case
a translator has to work hard to find cultural equivalents in accordance with the message
stated in the source language. If not, there will be a diversion even misdirection. That is the
importance of cultural elements in translation that has a significant role that must be
considered by translators rather than linguistic elements that are loaded with formal shifts that
includes grammar and sentence structure.
References
Baker, M. 1995. In Other Words. USA: Routledge. New Fetter Lane.
Bassnett, S. 1991. Translation Studies. London: Routledge.
Catford, J.C. 1978. A Linguistic Theory of Translation. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Duff, A. 1981. The Third Language, Recurrent Problems of Translation into English.
England: Pergamon Ltd.
James,
K.
2000.
“Cultural
Implications
for
Translation”.
http://accurapid.com/journal/22delight.htm. retrieved 02/25/2006.
Larson, M.L. 1984. Meaning-Based Translation: A Guide to Cross-language Equivalence.
Lanham: University Press of Amerika, Inc.
Nababan, M.R. 2003. Teori Menerjemahkan Bahasa Inggris. Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar.
Newmark, P. 1988. A Textbook of Translation. United Kingdom: Prentice Hall International
(UK) Ltd.
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Nida, E.A. 1964. “Principles of Correspondence.” In Venuti, L. The Translation Studies
Reader. London: Routledge.
Wang, M.M. et al. 2000. Turning Bricks into Jades. USA: Intercultural Press. Inc.
Biodata:
Rudi Hartono is an English lecturer of English Language and Education Department at
Faculty of Languages and Arts of Semarang State University, Indonesia. His major subjects
are translation studies and academic writing.
ISBN 978-602-19638-6-9
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TRANSLATION AS THE MEDIUM OF MULTICULTURAL
AND MULTILINGUAL COMMUNICATION
Suprapto
Faculty of Humanities, UIN Malang
Abstract
The communication of one culture with another culture is very crucial and couldn’t be
avoided in this global era. It could be done through many ways, one or them is using the
language while it is used in translation. As we know that translation is the replacement of
message or meaning in one language (source text) by equivalent message or meaning in
another language (target text) through competent use of the dictionary and grammar, the
process involves a whole set of extra-linguistic. By translating a text, it means that we
make a communication using one language and another language. Besides, we also create
a communication of the two different cultures, the culture which is inside in source text
and the other side is in target text. The best way in communicating the different languages
and cultures is to use them naturally and properly. Understanding the different languages
and cultures well will make us aware of common values, and bring us into a more
peaceful global village.
Keywords: Translation, multicultural, multilingual.
Introduction.
God creates humans in the earth is to share and to help one another. No one can’t live well
and peacefully without a help or support of someone else. To do that, we are as humans we
use a language to communicate, commonly in spoken or written form. We usually use the
same language when we communicate with other people of the same ethnic or nation. For the
same ethnic, we use our ethnic or local language, such as Javanese, Madurese, and Balinese.
On the other occasion, we communicate with our national language, Indonesian, to the same
or other ethnic of Indonesia.
In global era, the communication of people is not only among the same ethnic or nation, but
also with different nation or country. In this arena, mostly we use international language,
such as English. Communicating using foreign language, with the speakers of different
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countries needs a lot of understanding. Without a good understanding of it, we’ll have a big
problem , especially in expressing and catching the message . Since, each language has its
own culture and system. The culture of the different ethnics or local languages of the same
national language commonly do not create a problem in communication due to having of the
same shared values of national culture. The problem of communicating appears when we
communicate with foreign people by using foreign language. There are many ways of solving
the problem, one of the them is translation
In this paper, I would like to explain one of the roles of translation in global era. One of them
is as the medium of multicultural and multilingual communication. So, the title this paper is
“Translation as the medium of multicultural and multilingual communication”.
The Role of Translation as the Medium of Multicultural and Multilingual
Communication
Translation is the replacement of message or meaning in one language (source text) by
equivalent message or meaning in another language (target text) through competent use of
the dictionary and grammar, the process involves a whole set of extra-linguistic criteria also.
By translating a text, it means that we make a communication using one language and another
language. Besides, we also create a communication of the two different cultures, the culture
which is inside in source text and the other side is in target text.
Dealing with the relationship between language and culture, Edward Sapir in Bassnett
(1991:13) stated that language is a guide to social reality and human being at the mercy of
the language that has become the medium of expression for their society. In other words, we
can say that a language is the reflection of its culture. Through the work of translation, for
example, the western people who have different culture and language know that Javanese
language has three levels of speech in addressing the addressee. The term of address “you”
in Javanese is stated in different word for different class level of Javanese society. The word
“kowe” (you), the lowest level of speech ‘ngoko’ is used when the speaker and hearer are in
the same level, or the hearer is lower level than the speaker. The word “sampeyan” (you), the
middle level of speech ‘madyo’ is used when the speaker and hearer are in the same level, and
the speaker wants to give a respect to the hearer or addressee. The last is “panjenengan”
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(you), the highest level of speech, “kromo inggil”, used when the speaker is lower than the
hearer or the speaker thinks that the hearer is an honorable person. Those examples show that
Javanese people respect others differently with the western people do, for example, the native
speakers of English. Besides, the Javanese also know the way how the western people behave
to the others, and vice verca. Those will enrich the understanding of different language and
culture among different nation.
In other case, An Indonesian who doesn’t know English well can understand the way or the
norm of how native speaker of English expresses the idea by reading the result of translation,
and also the native of English is in reserve side. The western people usually state the idea by
saying point of idea firstly, then followed by reasons or arguments. It is the reverse of the
Indonesian’ s point of view, say the argument in front part and supported by the later point of
saying. Despite the differences across cultures, there are common values that will help us
form a more peaceful global village. When we seek to understand others, others will seek to
understand us (Kim, Eun Y, 2001)
Conclusion
In conclusion, by translation, we can communicate with the different languages and cultures.
Furthermore, we can know the characteristics, the norms, the values, and the cultures of
different languages, different ethnics and nations. So, we can say that translation as the
medium of multicultural and multilingul communication. Being sensitive to and
understanding others’cultural production and the way in which they play with various
identities available to them is crucial part of good intercultural communication (Holliday,A.,
Hyde, M., Kullman, M., and Kullman, M., 2007:18)
References
Bassnett,
Susan,
and
Mc.Guire.
1991.
Translation
Studies.
England:
Clays
Ltd. St. Ives.
Holliday, A., Hyde, M., and Kullman, M. 2007. Intercultural Communication. New
York: Routledge.
Kim, Eun Y. 2001. Yin and Yang of American Culture. USA: Intercultural
Press.
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Linguistics, Literature and Translation

Transcription

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