The Levant Basin Offshore Israel: Stratigraphy, Structure, Tectonic

The Levant Basin Offshore Israel:
Stratigraphy, Structure, Tectonic Evolution
and Implications for
Hydrocarbon Exploration
Michael Gardosh, Yehezkel Druckman,
Binyamin Buchbinder and Michael Rybakov
Revised Edition
GII 429/328/08
GSI/4/2008
April 2008
The Levant Basin Offshore Israel:
Stratigraphy, Structure, Tectonic Evolution
and Implications for
Hydrocarbon Exploration
Michael Gardosh1, Yehezkel Druckman2,
Binyamin Buchbinder2 and Michael Rybakov1
1 - Geophysical Institute of Israel, P.O.B. 182, Lod 71100, Israel, [email protected]
2 - Geological Survey of Israel, 30 Malkhe Israel St., Jerusalem 95501, Israel,
[email protected], [email protected]
Prepared for the Petroleum Commissioner,
Ministry of Infrastructure
Revised Edition
GII 429/328/08
GSI/4/2008
April 2008
Contents
Page
Abstract
1. Introduction…………………………………………………………………………......
5
2. Tectonic Setting………………………………………………………………………… 9
3. Data Sets………………………………………………………………………………… 13
3.1 Well data……………………………………………………………………………. 13
3.2 Seismic data…………………………………………………………………………. 14
3.3 Gravity and magnetic data sets…………………………………………………….... 15
4. Stratigraphy…………………………………………………………………………….. 15
4.1 General……………………………………………………………............................ 15
4.2 The Permo-Triassic section………………………………………………………..... 16
4.3 The Jurassic section………………………………………………………………..... 21
4.4 The Cretaceous section……………………………………………………………… 29
4.5 The Tertiary section………………………………………………...……………….. 35
5. Interpretation of Seismic Data………………………………………………………..... 43
5.1 Seismic horizons…………………………………………………………………….. 43
5.2 Time and depth maps………………………………………………………………… 58
6. Interpretation of Gravity and Magnetic Data…………………………………………. 67
6.1 Gravity maps…………………………………………………………………………. 67
6.2 Magnetic maps……………………………………………………………………..... 70
6.3 Gravity and magnetic modeling (2D)………………………………………………… 71
6.4 Discussion…………………………………………………………………………….. 73
7. Tectonic Evolution of the Levant Basin and Margin………………............................. 74
7.1 Rifting stage……………………………………………………….............................. 74
7.2 Post-rift, passive margin stage…………………………………….............................. 80
7.3 Convergence stage…………………………………………………………………… 83
8. Erosion and Mass Transport on the Levant Slope……………………………………. 89
8.1 Rifting and passive margin stage…………………………………………………….. 89
8.2 Convergence stage…………………………………………………………………… 94
9. Hydrocarbon Potential…………………………………………………………………. 100
9.1 Trap typs and hydrocarbon plays…………………………………............................. 100
9.2 Source rocks and petroleum systems………………………………………………… 103
10. Summary……………………………………………………………………………….. 105
Acknowledgments……………………………………………………………………… 107
References……………………………………………………………………………….. 108
List of Figures
Page
Fig. 1.1 Main physiographic and tectonic elements of the Levant region……………………...6
Fig. 1.2 Offshore drilling history and main hydrocarbon occurrences…………………………7
Fig. 1.3 Location of seismic lines, wells, and stratigraphic cross-sections……………………..8
Fig. 2.1 Schematic section across the Levant Basin and margin, from the Eratosthenes
Seamount to the Dead Sea Rift………………………………………………………...10
Fig. 4.1 Triassic stratigraphy and marine onlaps, Israel………………………………………..18
Fig. 4.2 Jurassic stratigraphy and marine onlaps, Israel………………………………………..22
Fig. 4.3 Cretaceous stratigraphy and marine onlaps, Israel…………………………………….30
Fig. 4.4 Tertiary stratigraphy and marine onlaps, Israel………………………………………..36
Fig. 4.5 SE-NW cross-section from the Gevim-1 to the Yam West-1 well…………………….37
Fig. 4.6 N-S cross-section from the Asher Yam-1 to the Yam West-1 well……………………38
Fig. 5.1 Interpreted seismic profile showing the correlation of seismic horizons to the
Yam-2 and Yam-West-1 wells…………………………………………………………44
Fig. 5.2 Synthetic seismograms of the Yam West-1 and Yam Yafo-1 wells…………………...45
Fig. 5.3 Interpreted, E-W oriented seismic profile through the Yam-2 and
Yam West-1 wells………………………………………………………………...........47
Fig. 5.4 Interpreted, composite seismic profile, generally oriented in a N-S direction along
the shallow part of the basin…………………………………………………………...48
Fig. 5.5 Interpreted seismic profile, oriented in a NE-SW direction showing the correlation
of seismic horizons in the deep part of the basin……………………………………….49
Fig. 5.6 Interpreted seismic profile showing the transition area from the elevated
Mesozoic thrust belt to the deep Tertiary basin………………………………………..51
Fig. 5.7 Interpreted composite seismic profile through the Hannah-1 well……………………..52
Fig. 5.8 Interpreted, NE-SW regional seismic profile showing extensional and contractional
structures in the central part of the basin…...…………………………………………...53
Fig. 5.9 Interpreted NW-SE seismic profile from the Eratosthenes Seamount to the
Levant margin……….…………………………………………………………………55
Fig. 5.10 Interpreted E-W seismic profile showing extensional and contractional structures
in the northeastern part of the basin…………………………………………………..56
Fig. 5.11 Interpreted SW-NE seismic profile showing the southern part of the Jonah Ridge…..57
Fig. 5.12 Depth map of the near top basement, Brown horizon………………………………....59
Fig. 5.13 Depth map of the Middle Jurassic, Blue horizon……………………………………...60
Fig. 5.14 Depth map of the Middle Cretaceous, Green horizon…………………………………61
Fig. 5.15 Depth map of the base Oligocene, Red horizon……………………………………...62
Fig. 5.16 Depth map of the top Lower Miocene, Cyan horizon………………………………..63
Fig. 5.17 Depth map of the base Messinian, Purple horizon…………………………………...64
Fig. 5.18 Depth map of the top Messinian, Violet horizon……………………………………..65
Fig. 5.19 Depth map of the sea floor……………………………………………………………66
Fig. 6.1 Revised gravity anomaly maps of the Levant Basin………… ………………..……..68
Fig. 6.2 Revised magnetic anomaly maps of the Levant Basin………………………………....69
Fig. 6.3 2D Gravity and magnetic modeling of the Levant Basin………………………………72
Fig. 7.1 Neotethyan rifting stage - inferred Triassic to Early Jurassic horst and graben
system of the Levant region……………………………………………………………75
Fig. 7.2 Neotethyan rifting stage - Early Mesozoic extensional structures in the
Levant Basin (seismic examples)...……………………………………………………77
Fig. 7.3 Passive margin stage- isopach map and geologic section through the Levant margin....81
Fig. 7.4 Convergence stage - Syrian Arc fold structures of the Levant region………………….84
Fig. 7.5 Convergence stage - contractional structures in the Levant Basin (seismic examples)...86
Fig. 8.1 Convergence stage- the Tertiary fill of the Levant Basin...............................................91
Fig. 8.2 Tertiary submarine canyon and channel system of the Levant margin
(seismic examples)…………………………………………………..………..…….….93
Fig. 8.3 Tertiary submarine incision and deposition of clastic sediments in the Levant Basin…97
Fig. 9.1 Schematic section through the Levant Basin showing potential hydrocarbon
traps in the Phanerozoic fill…………………………………………….…………….101
List of Tables
Page
Table 3.1- Summary of well data used in the present study……………………………………..14
Table 4.1- Summary of Jurassic formation tops and thicknesses in offshore wells…...………...29
Table 5.1- Correlation of interpreted seismic horizons to chrono and lithostratigraphic
unit tops……..……………………………………………………………………..….46
Abstract
The Levant Basin is a deep and long existing geologic structure located in the eastern
Mediterranean Sea. The southern part of the basin hosts a world-class hydrocarbon province
offshore the Nile Delta. Recent discoveries of biogenic gas and various oil shows indicate that
the central part of the basin, offshore Israel has significant hydrocarbon potential. To further
investigate this area, which is generally under-explored, a basin-scale study was initiated by the
petroleum commissioner in the Israeli Ministry of Infrastructure. In this study new geophysical
data is integrated with regional and local geologic data to reconstruct the basin history and to
identify favorable hydrocarbon plays.
The reconstructed basin history shows that the Levant Basin was shaped in several main
tectonic stages. Early Mesozoic rifting resulted in the formation of an extensive graben and
horst system, extending throughout the Levant onshore and offshore. Late Jurassic to Middle
Cretaceous, post-rift subsidence was followed by the formation of a deep marine basin in the
present-day offshore and a shallow-marine, carbonate dominated margin and shelf near the
Mediterranean coastline and further inland. A Late Cretaceous and Tertiary convergence phase
resulted in inversion of Early Mesozoic structures and the formation of extensive, Syrian Arctype contractional structures throughout the Levant Basin and margin. The Tertiary convergence
was further associated with uplift, widespread erosion, slope incision and basinward sediment
transport. A Late Tertiary desiccation of the Mediterranean Sea was followed by deposition of a
thick evaporitic blanket that was later covered by a Plio-Pleistocene siliciclastic wedge. The
Phanerozoic basin-fill ranges in thickness from 5-6 km on the margin to more than 15 km in the
central part of the basin
A variety of potential, structural and stratigraphic traps were formed in the Levant Basin
during the three main tectonic stages. Possible hydrocarbon play types are: Triassic and Lower
Jurassic fault-controlled highs and rift-related traps; Middle Jurassic shallow-marine reservoirs;
Lower Cretaceous deepwater siliciclastics;
the Tertiary canyon and channel system and
associated deepwater siliciclastics found in either confined or non-confined settings; Upper
Cretaceous and Tertiary Syrian Arc folds; and Mesozoic and Cenozoic isolated, carbonate
buildups on structurally elevated blocks.
Shallow gas discoveries in Pliocene sands and high-grade oil shows found in the
Mesozoic section indicate the presence of source rocks and appropriate conditions for
hydrocarbon generation in both biogenic and thermogenic petroleum systems. The size, depth
and trapping potential of the Levant Basin suggest that large quantities of hydrocarbons can be
found offshore Israel.
1. Introduction
The Levant Basin occupies the eastern Mediterranean Sea (Fig. 1.1). Its southern part,
offshore Egypt hosts the prolific Nile Delta hydrocarbon province where extensive exploration
and production activity is taking place. The increase in demand and rising price of oil in recent
years has promoted a growing interest in the less known and under-explored, central and
northern parts of the basin, offshore Israel, Lebanon and Cyprus.
Petroleum exploration in the eastern Mediterranean has a long history and has so far yielded
modest success. Offshore exploration started in the late 1960's and early 1970's with a series of
wells drilled by Belpetco (Fig. 1.2). The seven Belpetco wells targeted structural culminations
on the shallow shelf of Israel and northern Sinai, but all were found dry. These early wells,
however, provided important information and established the initial geologic model of the
eastern Mediterranean as a deep marine basin that was formed during the Early Mesozoic, and
continued to develop west of an extensive shallow-marine shelf.
The next exploration campaign during the mid 1970's to mid 1980's resulted in more
success. Several wells were drilled on shallow structures offshore Sinai (Fig. 1.2). Light oil was
found in Early Cretaceous sandstone in the Ziv-1 (drilled by Oil Exploration Limited) and the
Mango-1 (drilled by Total) wells. Mango-1 initially produced 41-500 API gravity oil at a rate of
about 10,000 Bbl/day; however, performance rapidly decreased and production was stopped.
A series of four wells were drilled offshore Israel by Isramco during the late 1980's to
late 1990's (Fig. 1.2). These boreholes that targeted structural culminations were typically
deeper than earlier wells and most of them reached a Middle Jurassic stratigraphic level at depths
of more than 5000 m. All the Isramco wells encountered various oil and gas shows. Yam-2 and
Yam Yafo-1 tested 44-470 API gravity oil at a rate of 500-800 Bbl/day from Middle Jurassic
limestone, although no commercial production was established.
Exploration activity in the Levant Basin underwent a significant resurgence since 19992000 when several, large gas fields were discovered at a shallow depth within Pliocene sands
west of the towns of Ashqelon and Gaza (Fig. 1.2). Gas reserves in the Noa/MariB/Gaza Marine
fields are estimated at about 3 TCF. Gas is presently produced from the MariB field and is
transported onshore to various Israeli consumers.
The successful exploration campaign of the early 2000's promoted the acquisition of
geophysical data throughout the entire eastern Mediterranean area. The new geophysical data
sets include about 12,000 km of regional 2D seismic reflection lines (Fig. 1.3) and several, high
resolution 2D and 3D surveys, as well as new gravity and magnetic measurements.
The petroleum commissioner in the Israeli Ministry of Infrastructure initiated a regional
analysis of the Levant Basin and margin. The study was carried out by professional teams from
5
Eurasian Plate
Cyprian Arc
yra
m
l
Pa
Eratosthenes A
Seamount
Mediterranean
Sea
Levant Basin
Study
area
Negev
Nile Delta
Western
Desert
Dead
Sea
African
Plate
B
Sinai
- Main Fault
Zone
200 km
Fig. 1.1- Main physiographic and tectonic elements of the Levant region. A-B indicates the
location of the schematic cross-section in Fig. 2.1.
6
Asher Yam-1
Mediterranean Sea
Qishon Yam-1
Foxtrot-1
Drilling year
1969-71
1976-77
~1985
Item-1
Delta-1
1989-99
Romi-1
Yam Yafo-1
2000-03
ae
l
Hana-1
Is
r
1999-2003
Yam W.-1
Gas Field
Yam W.-2
Yam-1/2
Oil Field
Echo-1
Bravo-1
Noa-Or
Mari
Gaza
Nir
Marine
Mango-1
Joshua-1
Helez-Kokhav
Ga
za
Til-1
Aneb-1
Dag-1
Gal-1
Ziv-1
Sadot
Sinai
Fig. 1.2- Offshore drilling history and main hydrocarbon occurrences. The Noa-Or, Marie,
Nir and Gaza Marine fields are recent gas discoveries in Pliocene deepwater sands.
7
8
the Geophysical Institute of Israel and Geological Survey of Israel. Its main emphasis was to
integrate the vast amount of geological information from the Levant margin onshore with the
high-quality geophysical data sets that were recently acquired in the basin offshore. The final
results include depth maps of key stratigraphic horizons, stratigraphic cross-sections, and
regional tectonic and paleogeographic maps. The results enabled the reconstruction of a regional
geologic framework for the two areas, traditionally studied in different scales and techniques.
2. Tectonic Setting
Wide-angle deep refraction profiles show significant variations in seismic velocities and
depth to the Moho from the inland part of Israel on the east to the Mediterranean Sea on the west
(Makris et al., 1983; Ginzburg and Ben-Avraham, 1987, Ben-Avraham et al., 2002). The
velocity variations (summarized in Fig. 2.1) are associated with a change from a ~30 km thick,
low velocity continental-type crust inland, to a ~10 km thick oceanic- or intermediate-type crust
offshore (Garfunkel, 1998, Ben-Avraham et al, 2002; Gardosh and Druckman, 2006). This
fundamental geophysical observation and its interpretation are milestones in the research of the
Levant area.
They unequivocally demonstrate that the present-day marine basin is a deeply
rooted geologic structure associated with large-scale plate motions.
The Paleozoic section found in outcrops and wells in southern and central Israel
comprises continental to shallow marine deposits. Evidence from adjacent countries further
indicates that during most of the Paleozoic the Levant region formed part of the super-continent
Gondwana and was located inland, several hundred kilometers south of the Paleotethys Ocean
(Garfunkel, 1998, Weissbrod, 2005). The Paleozoic landscape was dominated by a series of
region-wide swells and intervening basins that were hundreds of kilometers in diameter
(Weissbrod, 2005). The area of the eastern Mediterranean formed part of this landscape and no
deep marine basin was in existence at that time.
The Late Permian, Triassic and Early Jurassic section of the Levant region is dominated
by shallow-marine carbonate and occasionally siliciclastic rock. Significant thickness variations
in the Triassic and Early Jurassic strata are identified in well and seismic data from southern and
central Israel (Fig. 2.1) (Goldberg and Friedman, 1974; Druckman, 1974, 1977; Freund et al.,
1975; Druckman, 1984; Bruner, 1991; Druckman et al., 1995a; Garfunkel, 1998, Gelberman,
1995). The Palmyra trough in central Syria (Fig. 1.1) contains an unusually thick Permian to
Triassic section. This range of phenomena indicates extensive vertical motions, continental
9
A
Eratosthenes Seamount
Volcanic?
Cret.-Jur.
6 km/s
o
Moh
Messinian Evap.
Levant Basin
Plio-Pleistocene
Coastline
Continental
crust
Mo h o
6.5 km/s
Dead Sea
Basin
30
20
Miocene
Paleocene to
s
ceou
Trias-Perm 10
Creta
older
d
Precambrian
sic an
Upper Continental
6.15 km/s
Juras
crust
6.7 km/s
Oceanic/Intermediate
7 km/s
crust ?
8 km/s
75 km
B
10
km
0
10
20
30
Fig. 2.1- Schematic section across the Levant Basin and margin, from the Eratosthenes Seamount to the Dead Sea Rift. The section shows
the main structural elements, stratigraphic units and crustal seismic velocities (after Garfunkel, 1998). See Fig. 1.1 for location.
Dead Sea Transform
breakup and rifting of the Gondwanian shallow-shelf (Freund et al., 1975; Garfunkel and Derin,
1984, Garfunkel, 1998).
A series of horst and graben structures (Fig. 2.1) evolved in several pulses during the
uppermost Paleozoic and Early Mesozoic periods, accompanied by widespread magmatic
activity.
These regional extensional pulses resulted in separation of the Tauride and
Eratosthenes continental blocks from the Gondwanaland craton and the formation of a deep
marine basin in the area of the present-day eastern Mediterranean (Bein and Gvirtzman,1977;
Garfunkel and Derin, 1984; Garfunkel, 1998; Robertson, 1998) (Fig. 2.1). The basin was
connected to the extensive Neotethys Ocean that developed at the same time further to the north
and west.
The Early Mesozoic rifting activity is considered by most authors to be the cause of the
thinner crust identified within the Levant Basin (Fig. 2.1). The composition of the crust in the
southeastern Mediterranean Sea is still under debate. Some researchers postulate an oceanic
lithosphere that was formed when the initial rifting evolved into full scale sea-floor spreading
(Makris et al., 1983; Ginzburg and Ben-Avraham, 1987; Ben-Avraham and Ginzburg, 1990).
Others assume only stretched and intruded crust of continental origin that was formed during
intra-plate rifting (Cohen et al., 1988, 1990; Hirsch et al., 1995; Gardosh and Druckman 2006).
Rifting was followed by post-rift cooling and subsidence of the newly formed or
modified lithosphere in the Levant Basin (Garfunkel and Derin, 1984; ten Brink 1987; Garfunkel
1998). Starting from the Middle Jurassic a paleo-depositional hinge belt developed along the
eastern margin of the basin. The hinge belt that was originally identified in deep wells along the
present-day Israeli coastline (Gvirtzman and Klang, 1972; Bein and Gvirtzman ,1977) separated
a vast shallow-marine platform on the east from a deep marine basin on the west. Several
studies suggest that the Mesozoic shelf-edge extended near the entire southeastern Mediterranean
coastline from northern Egypt to western Lebanon (Figs. 1.1, 2.1) (Walley, 1998, 2001).
The Late Cretaceous to Early Tertiary section is dominated by hemi-pelagic to pelagic
sedimentation, marking the termination of the extensive, shallow-marine carbonate deposition on
the Levant margin. The lithologic transition reflects a major drowning event and ecological
changes associated with plate re-arrangement and the beginning of the closure of the Neotethys
Ocean (Sass and Bein, 1982; Almogi-Labin et al., 1993).
The Late Cretaceous convergence of the Eurasian and Afro-Arabian plates initiated a
northward-dipping subduction zone in the southern Neotethys Ocean, in the present-day areas of
Cyprus and southern Turkey (Fig. 1.1) (Robertson, 1998). Far-field stresses related to the onset
of subduction may have caused compression of the Levant passive margin and triggered the
formation of anticlines and synclines throughout the Levant region, known as the 'Syrian Arc'
11
(Krenkel, 1924) or 'Levantide' (Picard, 1959) fold belt. Well and seismic data suggest that the
Syrian Arc deformation is generally associated with reactivation of Early Mesozoic normal faults
in a reverse motion (Fig. 2.1) (Freund et al., 1975; Druckman et al., 1995). Evidence from Israel
and Lebanon further indicates that the Syrian Arc deformation that started in the Late Cretaceous
continued through the Tertiary (Eyal and Reches, 1983; Walley, 1998, 2001).
The continued plate convergence during the Oligocene and Early Miocene resulted in the
formation of a subduction zone along the present Cypraen Arc plate boundary (Fig.
1.1)(Robertson, 1998). In the Levant region plate motion was associated with uplifting east of
the Levant coast and updoming of the Arabian Shield south of it. This activity is reflected by a
regional unconformity surface that is identified at the upper part of the Eocene strata, which
separates the older carbonate section from the overlying Oligo-Miocene siliciclastics of the
Saqyie Group (Picard, 1943; Ball and Ball, 1953). The deposition of Oligo-Miocene, coarsegrained clastic units is associated with widespread erosion and basinward transport of sediments
through an extensive subaerial and submarine drainage system that developed on the Levant
slope (Gvirtzman and Buchbinder, 1978; Druckman et al., 1995b).
A thick, Upper Miocene series of halite and anhydrite (Fig. 2.1) is associated with a huge
sea-level drop and desiccation of the Mediterranean Sea known as the Messinian Salinity Crisis
(Hsu et al., 1978, Gvirtzman and Buchbinder, 1978). The Messinian evaporites filled a 1-2 km
deep topographic depression located west of the Levant coast (Tibor et al., 1992). Gradual sealevel rise during the Plio-Pleistocene resulted in renewed sediment transport and basinward
progradation of a fine-grained siliciclastic wedge on the Levant shelf.
The breakup of the Arabian Craton by the end of the Oligocene brought into existence the
Dead Sea plate boundary.
This transform fault is several thousands of kilometers long,
connecting the spreading center of the Red Sea with the Taurus collision zone in southeastern
Turkey (Fig. 1.1)(Freund et al., 1970; Garfunkel, 1981). The Israeli segment is characterized by
several, deep continental depressions, such as the Dead Sea basin, in which thick (up to 8-10 km)
Miocene and Plio-Pleistocene sections accumulated (Fig. 2.1) (Kashai and Crocker, 1987;
Gardosh et al., 1997).
12
3. Data Sets
3.1 Well Data
The well data used in this study are from 43 wells located within the basin or on its
margin (Fig. 1.3). Stratigraphic subdivisions of these wells were taken from the lithostratigraphic
data base of oil and gas wells drilled in Israel, compiled by Fleischer and Varshavsky (2002)
(Table 3.1). Formation tops were used as control points in the construction of seismic depth
maps (Table 3.1, Figs. 5.11-18). Synthetic seismograms and time-converted wireline logs of 14
wells, most of them located offshore and some near the coast, were used for correlation of well
and seismic data (Table 3.1, Figs. 5.1, 5.2). The lithostratigraphy and biostratigraphy of selected
wells were thoroughly reviewed and were used to construct two, detailed stratigraphic crosssections (Figs. 4.5, 4.6).
Additional well and outcrop data from the Levant margin were
analyzed and were integrated into four composite sequence stratigraphic schemes of the Triassic,
Jurassic, Cretaceous and Cenozoic (Figs. 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4).
Chronostrat.
Top
Seismic
horizon
Well names:
Precamb.
(?)
Basement
In Middle
Jurassic
Brown
~7800
Albian to
Turonian
Senon.
to
Eocene
Blue
Green
Red
~2100
479/Yagur
Upper
Miocene
(Top
Messin.)
Cyan
Purple
Violet
2149/Ziqim
2127/Mav
479
Well
Abbrv.
Andromeda-1
AND1
Asher Yam-1
ASYM1
Ashqelon-2
ASHQ2
3900/Barnea
2234/TY
Ashqelon-3
ASHQ3
3400/Barnea
2098/TY
Atlit-1 Deep
ATLT1
1850/ in M.
Haifa
45/Negba
~8500
Bat Yam-1
BYAM1
2432/TY
Bravo-1
BRV1
2939Daliyya
Cesarea-3
CSR3
Canusa-9
CAN9
Canusa-10
CAN10
Delta-1
DLT1
Echo-1
ECO1
Foxtrot-1
FXT1
Gaash-2
Lower
Miocene
Upper
Miocene
(Base
Messin.)
GSH2
Gad-1
GAD1
Gaza-1
GAZ1
Gevim-1
GEV1
Hannah-1
HAN1
2750/in
Haifa
M.
479
479
2040/Av
1303/BG
1955/Av
1245/BG
45
45
2197/Av
2087/BG
2197/Av
1627/BG
184/MtSc
184
885/Av
730/BG
192/Av
132/BG
~6100
M.
M.
2177/
Shederot
961/Mav
45
45
1479/AshCl
1479/NPVulc
1380/Ziqim
1350/Mav
1133/Av
1062/BG
184
393/Ziqim
132
1062
1062
1972
1807/Mav
247
247
247
247
772
772
2503/BG
772
1926?
772/Daliyya
772
1631/Av
1367/BG
567/Daliyya
3933/
Gevar'am
13
353/Mav
132
247/Negba
1657/TY
4588
1009/Ziqim
184
1972/BG
2100/in
Haifa
2950/in
Haifa
1063/Mav
304/Bina
1416/Negba
~7800
479
1120/Ziqim
102/Av
32/BG
3933
2900
1848/Mav
1367
1255/Mav
32
32
2763/?
1917/Mav
Hadera-1
HAD1
Haifa-1
HAIF1
~6800
HLZD1
5916
1670/in
M.
Haifa
1918/
Shederot
393/Yagur
HASD1
2560/TY
Item-1
ITM1
1007/Daliyya
Jaffa-1
JAF1
2315/TY
Joshua-2
JOSH1
Mari-3
MARI3
Netanya-1
NAT1
1223/Bina
Netanya-2
NAT2
1315/Negba
Nir-1
NIR1
Nissanit-1
NIS1
3065/
Shederot
416
-40
-40
-40
393
393
2351/Av
2178/BG
393
1849/Ziqlag
393
1729/Mav
777/Av
727/BG
687/Ziqim
687
2057/MtSc
1472/BG
1227/Ziqim
1204/Mav
2502/Av
2305/AshCl
2230/Ziqlag
2077/Mav
2021/Ziqim
1924/Mav
477/BG
-40
-40/Yagur
Helez Deep-1
Hof Ashdod-1
~6200
416/Ziqim
878/Av
1053/MtSc
1053
1315
1187/AshCl
1642/TY
1602/Av
1053
1022/Ziqlag
1053
918/Mav
2053/Afridar
2004/Mav
919/Ziqim
919
1035/BG
Noa-1
NOA1
1960/Mav
Noa South-1
NOA1S
1936/Mav
Nordan-4
NORD4
Or-1
OR1
1973/Mav
Or South-1
OR1S
1984/Mav
QishonYam-1
QISHY1
Romi-1
ROM1
Shiqma-1
SHQ1
Yam-2
YAM2
~5500
2717/Negba
Yam West-1
YAMW1
4900/
Shederot
2848/TY
Yam West-2
Yam Yafo-1
1320/BG
~1850
1590/BG
1550/?
1055/Mav
1180/Mav
1428/Mav
YAMW2
YAMY1
1596/?
1134/Ziqim
2495/
Gevar'am
2380/Daliyya
5350/Jr
Undivided
Time
converted,
used
calibration of seismic data
1960/Av
1352/BG
2123/Av
2095/Lakhis
2395/Av
2216/BG
2438/Av
2028/BG
1774/Av
1694/BG
1352
1192/Mav
2096
1772/Mav
1731/Ziqim
1657/Mav
1714/Ziqim
1663/Mav
1557/Ziqim
1524/Mav
for
~xxxx= not penetrated, depth is estimated
Table 3.1- Summary of well data used in the present study. The depth of chronostratographic
and lithostratigraphic tops in the wells is in meters below MSL. These depth values were used
for calibration of seismic data and depth maps. Abbreviations of lithostratigraphic units are: TYTalme Yafe Formation, Mt Sc-Mount Scopus Group, AV-Avedat Group, BG- Bet Guvrin
Formation, AshCl- Ashdod Clastics, Mav- Mavqiim Formation.
3.2 Seismic Data
The seismic data set used in this research includes two, large marine surveys (A and B)
that were carried out during the year 2001in the framework of hydrocarbon exploration activity
offshore Israel (Fig. 1.3). 98 multi-channel, 2D seismic reflection lines, totaling 12,000 km were
interpreted (Fig. 1.3).
14
The A survey covers most of the Levant Basin from the Israeli shallow shelf to the
submarine Eratosthenes Seamount, some 200 km northwest.
The B survey extends in a more
densely spaced grid from near the coastline to about 120 km offshore (Fig. 1.3). The long cable,
small group interval and high-energy source used in the two surveys resulted in high-quality
seismic data sets that display better vertical resolution and deeper penetration than older,
offshore seismic vintages.
Two onshore Vibroseis lines, extending along the coastline from Haifa in the north to the
Gaza area in the south, were also incorporated into the seismic data set (Fig. 1.3). Time-migrated
profiles were interpreted on a seismic interpretation workstation using Paradigm-Epos3 software.
Four seismic lines of the A survey were reprocessed in the GII. The primary purpose of
the reprocessing was to produce pre-stacked depth-migrated profiles and to extract seismic
interval velocities that were used in depth conversion of time maps.
3.3 Gravity and Magnetic Data Sets
Gravity and magnetic data were acquired in the B seismic survey (Fig. 1.3). A total of
320,000 stations were measured along the seismic lines at intervals of about 20 m. The accuracy
of the data (estimated on the crossing locations) is about a few nanoTesla for magnetic
measurements and 0.1mGal for the gravity measurements.
The raw gravity data were filtered and Eotvos, Free Air and Bouguer corrections were
applied. The IGRF was subtracted from the magnetic data. Both data sets were incorporated in
the regional gravity and magnetic grids of the Levant area compiled by Rybakov et al, (1997)
(Figs. 6.1, 6.2).
4. Stratigraphy
4.1 General
The Levant area is located on the northwestern margins of the Arabo-Nubian Shield.
This shield was shaped during the Late Precambrian Pan-African Orogeny at about 850-700 Ma.
It underwent cratonization at ~630-600 Ma and was uplifted and peneplaned at 532 Ma
(Garfunkel, 1980; Beyth and Heimann, 1999). The overlying sedimentary cover forms a
northwest-thickening wedge, ranging from about 2 km in southern Israel through ca 7.5 km
along the Mediterranean coastal plain and to ca 15 km in the eastern Mediterranean basin.
Throughout the Phanerozoic the Levant area formed a transitional zone between the
continental domain in the southeast and the marine domain of the Tethys and Neotethys oceans
15
to the west. The dominant sedimentary facies east and south of the present-day Mediterranean
coast were thus epicontinental, consisting of alternating, shallow-marine carbonate, shale, and
sandstone, with abundant coarse-grained components in the south. Slope and basinal
sedimentation was dominant in the west, across the coastal plain and in the marine basin at times
when this area subsided.
The Phanerozoic sedimentary section of the Levant is characterized by abundant coastal
onlap-offlap cycles of different orders (Figs. 4.1 to 4.4). These cycles reflect recurring
transgressions and regressions of the Tethys and Neotethys oceans onto the Arabian Craton.
Relative high and low sea-level stands were controlled both by global eustatic changes and by
local, vertical tectonic movements. The latter are evident by the substantial gaps in the
sedimentary records in the Paleozoic, Early Jurassic and Early Cretaceous successions.
4.2 The Permo-Triassic Section
The earliest Phanerozoic sediments in the central and southern part of Israel are of Early
Permian age (Weissbrod, 1969b, Eshet, 1990). Late Carboniferous to Early Permian uplift of the
Negev and central Israel led to the erosion of the older Paleozoic section down to the
Infracambrian Zenifim Formation (Garfunkel, 1988). Pre-Permian sections that escaped this
erosion may have been locally preserved, e.g., the 300 m thick section of Cambrian sandstones
and carbonates that are found in the southernmost tip of the country (Elat region; Weissbrod,
1969b). No Paleozoic section was penetrated in any wells in northern Israel.
The Permo-Triassic shallow-marine section accumulated in a large, N-S oriented
embayment, roughly coinciding with today's Judean highlands. The section thickens gradually to
the north and thins to the east and west (Weissbrod, 1969a; Druckman, 1974; Druckman and
Kashai, 1981; Druckman et al., 1995a; Korngrin, 2004).
The western flank of this embayment is delineated by a 'basement high' that was penetrated
in the Helez Deep-1, Gevim-1, and the Bessor-1 boreholes, located in the southern coastal plain
(Fig. 4.5). Its position in the southern coastal plain may explain the thickening of the PermoTriassic north and east of it. This 'basement high' was fractured and downfaulted to the west in
several pulses, during the Late Triassic to Middle Jurassic times (Fig. 4.5). The Permo-Triassic
stratigraphy was not penetrated, and is therefore unknown west of the ' basement high'.
Gvirtzman and Weissbrod (1984) termed this feature the 'Helez High' and considered it as part of
a regional 'geoanticline.'
The Lower Permian Sa'ad Formation overlies the Precambrian basement and
Infracambrian section and is found in wells in the Negev area and southern coastal plain. Its
northernmost occurrence is in the David-1 borehole, in central Israel. The Sa'ad Formation
16
consists of a 70-180 m thick fluvio-deltaic section (Weissbrod, 1969a). The deltaic sandstones
may provide favorable reservoir properties.
The Upper Permian (Thuringian) consists of the Arqov Formation. The formation is
found in wells in the Negev area and southern coastal plain where it comprises a 110-250 m
thick section of shallow-marine carbonate, sandstone and shale. The unit has source, reservoir
and seal potential. Noteworthy is its great petrographic similarities with the gas producing Khuff
Formation in the Arabian Gulf area (Derin and Gerry, 1981; Weissbrod, 2005).
The Permian-Triassic boundary is marked by an hiatus of the Induan (lowermost Triassic
stage). The boundary is marked by red clay, a characteristic fungal spike and reworked Lower
Paleozoic microfossils (Eshet, 1990; Benjamini et al., 2005).
The Triassic section accumulated in a large, shallow-marine embayment oriented in an N-S
direction. The section thickens from about 1000 m in the Negev to over 2600 m in the northern
part of the country (the Devorah-2a well; Druckman and Kashai, 1981). The thickness of the
Triassic section in the Helez Deep-1, Gevim-1, and Bessor-1 wells located on the ‘Helez High' is
reduced to a few tens to several hundred meters (Fig. 4.5) (Druckman, 1974, 1984; Druckman et
al., 1994, 1995a); whereas the Gaash-2 and Atlit-1 deep wells located 70 and 130 km north of
Helez Deep-1, respectively, penetrated over 1150 m of the Middle and Upper Triassic sections
(Derin and Gerry, 1981, Korngrin, 2004). The thickness variations in the Triassic section reflect
a regional northward dip of the basement and local vertical motions.
The Triassic section comprises a series of onlaps reflecting ten, stacked depositional
cycles, which are described in the following sub-sections and are shown in Figure 4.1.
4.2.1 The early Olenekian cycle (Yamin Formation)
The Yamin Formation represents the first cycle. The cycle consists of some 120 to 155 m
of nearshore and shallow-marine shale and carbonates and its time of deposition spans ~ 5 m.y.
4.2.2 The early Scythian to early Anisian cycle (Zafir Formation)
The Zafir Formation represents the second Triassic cycle. The cycle consists of some
175 to 320 m of shallow marine carbonate, calcareous shale and sandstone and its time of
deposition spans ~ 3.5 m.y.
4.2.3 The early Anisian cycle (Ra'af Formation)
The Ra'af Formation represents the third cycle. This cycle consists of carbonate
mudstones, packstones, and oolitic and oncolitic grainstones. Its thickness ranges from 80 m in
the south to 170 m in northern Israel (Devora-2a well), and its time of deposition spans ~1.5 m.y.
17
HETTANGIAN
Sea level (m)
0
MID. U
201.9
inland
205.7
RHAETIAN
209.6
210
SEVATIAN
10
ALAUNIAN
UPPER
215
220
LACIAN
227.4
LONGOBARDIAN
MIDDLE
LADINIAN
FASSANIAN
234.3
ILLYRIAN
Mohila
Saharonim
JULIAN
Erez cgl.
CARNIAN
230
235
9
220.7
TRIASSIC
225
S h e f a yi m
NORIAN
TUVALIAN
AEGEAN
241.7
SCYTHIAN
245
LOWER
SPATHIAN
OLENEKIAN
SMITHIAN
244.8
8
Lower Mbr.
7
Limestone Mbr.
6
Lst. Gypsum Mbr.
5
Lst. Marl Mbr.
4
Fossiliferous Lst. Mbr.
Ra’af
Gevanim L. Mbr.
3
2
Z af ir
240
BITHYNIAN
Upper Mbr.
Gevanim M. - U. Mbrs.
PELSONIAN
ANISIAN
Ya m i n
1
DIENERIAN
INDUAN
50
Haq et al.
1987;1988
L
205
Jurassic
Ma
offshore
GRISBACHIAN
Figure 4.1-Triassic stratigraphy and marine onlaps, Israel
18
Late diagenetic dolomitization affected the carbonates, mainly in the south. In the southernmost
occurrence at Har Arif, the carbonates are sandy towards the top of the Ra'af Formation,
probably representing the highstand progradation stage.
4.2.4 The late Anisian to early Ladinian cycle (Gevanim and Saharonim formations)
The lower member of the Gevanim Formation reflects a lowstand wedge. This clastic
wedge, was deposited in the Negev area only within a time-span of less than 1 m.y. It is
composed of fluvial to fluvio-deltaic coarse- to medium-grained sandstone and shale with
abundant plant remains. The unit thins from 160 m in the Makhtesh Ramon area, to 25 m in the
Sherif-1 well, 40 km northwards (Druckman, 1974). The thinning of the unit marks the onset of
vertical movements related to the Early Mesozoic rifting (Freund et al., 1975).
Several tens of thousands of barrels of medium to high grade oil were produced from the
lower Gevanim sandstones and the Raaf carbonates in the Zuk Tamrur-3 and Emmunah-1 wells,
located in the western margins of the Dead Sea.
The Late Anisian - Early Ladinian middle and upper members of the Gevanim Formation
mark the transgressive systems tract of the cycle. The maximum flooding stage was reached
during the deposition of the burrowed carbonate mudstones topping the Fossiliferous Limestone
Member at the lower part of the Saharonim Formation (found in outcrop in Makhtesh Ramon in
southern Israel). The unit consists of fluvio-deltaic and nearshore sandstone and shale passing
upward into alternating, meter thick, marlstone and storm beds of molluscan limestone. This
part of the cycle spans ~3.5 m.y. (Druckman, 1974, 1976; Benjamini et al., 1993).
4.2.5 The Ladinian to early Carnian cycles (Saharonim Formation)
The middle and upper parts of the Saharonim Formation comprises the fifth, sixth and
seventh depositional cycles. Their deposition lasted some ~3.8 m.y. These units consist of
ammonite bearing limestones, shell beds, oncolitic and oolitic grainstones, stromatolite beds,
burrowed mudstones, flat-pebble conglomerates, dolostones, marls and gypsum beds, all
deposited in tidal to shallow marine environments (Druckman, 1969, 1976; Benjamini et al.,
1993). The maximum flooding stage of each cycle is marked by a burrowed carbonate mudstone
that can be traced throughout the entire Negev. The Saharonim Formation displays a significant
thickness change, from 260 m in the south (Ramon-1 well) to 760 m in the northern part of Israel
(Devorah-2 well).
19
4.2.6 The Carnian cycles (Mohilla Formation)
The Mohilla Formation comprises the eighth and ninth cycles. The lower boundary of
the eighth cycle is identified by a sharp transition from the marine burrowed mudstone of the
Saharonim Formation to the supratidal dolomicrites at the base of the lower member of the
Mohilla Formation. The onset of the ninth cycle is marked by evaporite deposition in the upper
member of the Mohilla Formation. The termination of the cycle is marked by the upper Carnian
skeletal and stromatolite limestone.
The Mohilla Formation displays a substantial northward thickening from 200 m in the
Ramon outcrop to 1000 m in the Devora-2a well (Druckman and Kashai, 1981). During its
depositional time span (~ 5 m.y.) a marked differentiation in lithologies took place, i.e., thick
accumulations of anhydrites (150 m in the Negev and 800 m in the northern part of Israel) were
deposited in distinctive basins trending in a SW–NE direction. The basins were separated by
dolomitic sections of reduced thickness (50 m in the Negev and 200 m in the north), indicating
elevated swells between the basins. These facies and thickness changes indicate differential rates
of subsidence apparently caused by vertical movements (Druckman, 1974; Druckman and
Kashai, 1981). Normal faulting of several hundred meters during Carnian times resulted in the
accumulation of the Erez Conglomerate on the foot-wall of the Helez fault (Druckman, 1984;
Eshet, 1990). The Carnian vertical movements mark the second onset of extensional tectonics of
the Early Mesozoic rifting phase.
4.2.10 The Norian cycle (Shefayim Formation)
The Shefayim Formation represents the last Triassic cycle. The unit was recognized only
in the Atlit-1 and Gaash-2 wells in the northern coastal plain (Gvirtzman, 1981). The duration of
the Shefayim cycle is estimated to be ~8.5 m.y. It is characterized by a reef facies consisting of
sponges and other encrusting organisms, unidentified corals, and oolite beds (Derin et al., 1981;
Korngrin and Benjamini, 2001; Korngrin, 2004). In the Atlit-1 well the Shefayim section reaches
1150 m (including about 270 m of Jurassic magmatic intrusions).
The Norian sequence was probably eroded in most of Israel during the latest Triassic to
earliest Jurassic sea-level drop (Fig. 4.1).
This global lowstand is marked by a notable
unconformity surface of low relief, representing a matured peneplain surface. The hiatus
between the Norian Shefayim Formation and the Pliensbachian Ardon Formation spans ~15 m.y.
This unconformity is known throughout the Middle East.
It is associated with complete
exposure of Triassic terrain to karstic dissolution, laterization and the development of a thick
paleosol referred to as the Mishhor Formation (Goldberg and Friedman, 1974).
20
4.3 The Jurassic Section
In southern Israel, the Jurassic succession consists of ~1200 m of continental to nearshore sandstone, shale and carbonate. It gradually thickens to over 3700 m of shelf carbonates in
central Israel and thins to ~2200 m in northwestern Israel. South of Makhtesh Ramon the
Jurassic section is entirely truncated by the Valanginian erosive unconformity. Significant
thickness variations, mainly in the Lower Jurassic sections, have been related to normal faulting
associated with rifting that eventually opened the Neotethys Ocean and established the
continental margin of the Arabian Craton (see chapter 7). Accretion of reefs and carbonate
platforms mark the shelf edge, located close to the present-day Mediterranean shoreline. In the
offshore, more than 1,650 m of shelf, slope and basinal sediments accumulated.
The Jurassic section was partially penetrated in six wells only in the Mediterranean
offshore: Delta-1A, Yam-2, Yam Yafo-1, Yam West-1, Foxtrot-1 and Asher Yam-1(Fig. 1.3,
Table 3.1). Correlations between these wells and the onshore wells are displayed in the two cross
sections (Figs. 4.5, 4.6) and in the seismic profiles. The biostratigraphy of the Jurassic section
offshore has been a source of confusion: Different fossil groups used for dating the samples (e.g.,
pollen and spores, dinoflagelates versus benthic foraminifera) often produced contradicting
results. Additional difficulties arose from the lack of core samples and from the occurrences of
allochthonous rock constituents associated with mass-transport.
The description of the Jurassic succession presented in the following chapters is largely
based on the well-sampled section found in outcrops and wells in the Negev area. The Jurassic
section comprises a series of onlaps reflecting seven, stacked depositional cycles that are shown
in Figure 4.2.
4.3.1 The Pliensbachian cycle (Ardon Formation)
The Ardon Formation is the earliest of the Jurassic cycles (Maync,1966; Derin and
Reiss,1966; Goldberg and Friedman, 1974, Perelis-Grossowicz et al., 2000). The cycle overlies
the Mishhor paleosol and consists of shallow marine, peritidal carbonates with minor amounts of
evaporites. Its time of deposition spans ~ 5 m.y. (Buchbinder and leRoux, 1993). The unit
thickens from a few tens of meters in Makhtesh Ramon to nearly 800 m in the Hilal well in
northeastern Sinai, and almost 1000 m in the Helez Deep-1A well in the southern coastal plain.
These thickness variations are associated with an Early Jurassic faulting episode that
occurred simultaneously with extensive volcanism found in the subsurface in the Carmel area.
There, a thick 2500 m pile of basalts and pyroclastics, termed the Asher Volcanics, accumulated
in a fault-controlled depression oriented in a NW-SE direction (Gvirtzman and Steinitz, 1983;
Garfunkel, 1989; Gvirtzman et al. 1990). These volcanics have an intraplate basalt affinity
21
Bathonian
169.2
Bajocian
L Mid U Lower
DOGGER
JURASSIC
170
MID D LE
164.4
176.5
Aalenian
180
180.1
Toarcian
195.3
Sinemurian
200
201.9
KEUPER
205.7
UPPER
210
TRIASSIC
Hettangian
M. U Lower Upper
Pliensbachian
Tayasir
Ramon Laccolith
Ardon dykes
A r s u f
r
’a
a
S
4
160
Karmon
Daya
170
3
Rosh Pinna
Upp. Inmar
Qeren
Low. Inmar
A r d o n
Mish’hor
1
2
180
190
200
L
LOW ER
LIAS
189.6
190
Barnea
140
150
5
Brur Z o h a r
f
Sea level
6
eroded
Matmor
Shederot Sheri
100 150
7
Volcanics
Callovian
eroded
50
Asher
160
Kidod
eroded
H a i f a
159.4
Nirim
Upper L M. Upp. Lower M. U L
Oxfordian
Nirim
154.1
Be’er Sheva, Bikfaya
l
ha
a
N
Nir Am
Delta
Kimmeridgian
0m
Salima
Haluza
Haifa
Bay
Kidod
150.7
Low. Gevar’Am
Undivided
allocthonous section
UPPER
M A LM
Tithonian
Inlan
133d
Offshore
Yam
Middle Upp. L
Berriasian
144.2
150
Upper
Mid. Upper L
137.0
M. Upp. L Upp. L
(NEOCOMIAN)
Valanginian
Lower Upp. Lower Middle Upper
140
CRETACEOUS
Ma
Rhaetian
209.6
Norian
210
S h e f a y i m
Fig. 4.2 - Jurassic stratigraphy and marine onlaps, Israel.
The blue bar denotes theTop Bathonian seismic horizon.
22
Haq et al.
1987;1988
(Dvorkin and Kohn, 1989). The Asher Volcanics range in age from 206 to 189 Ma (Steinitz et al,
1983; Segev, 2000)
4.3.2 The Aalenian to early Bajocian cycle (Inmar Formation)
The Inmar Formation comprises the second Jurassic cycle (Perelis-Grossowicz et al.,
2000). The Lower Member of the Inmar Formation consists of fluvial and shoreface sandstone
with minor amounts of mudstone, passing upwards to the shallow-marine, inner-shelf carbonate
of the Qeren Member. The latter marks the maximum flooding surface of the cycle. The Upper
Member of the Inmar Formation consists of fluvial and fluvio-deltaic sandstone, siltstone and
mudstone, marking a highstand, progradational systems tract. This part of the cycle passes into
the Rosh-Pinna Formation (Derin, 1974), which represents the distal part of the highstand
progradation wedge in the coastal plain and northern part of the country. In the coastal plain and
central and northern Israel the Inmar and the Daya formations merge distally to form a ~1500 m
thick carbonate platform of the Nirim Formation. This thick platform is built of mudstones,
peletal and oolitic packstones, wackestones and grainstones. The unified cycle lasted ~5 m.y.
The Aalenian-Lower Bajocian sequence displays significant thickness variations in the
Negev, ranging from 0 in the NE to over 900 m in the NW (Goldberg and Friedman, 1974;
Druckman, 1977). These variations indicate the most significant vertical movement related to
the Early Mesozoic rifting phase that is identified in southern.
4.3.3 The late Bajocian cycle (Daya and Barnea formations)
The Daya and Barnea formations form the third Jurassic cycle. The cycle begins with
transgressive, shallow-marine carbonate and sandstone of the Daya Formation. The thickness of
the unit changes gradually from ~100 m in Makhtesh Ramon to nearly 250 m in the coastal
plain. In several wells near the present coastline the Daya Formation either passes laterally to or
is overlain by the deeper-marine Barnea Formation. The latter unit consists of thinly bedded
sponge rhaxes, spicules and radiolarian packstones, interpreted to reflect the maximum flooding
conditions of the cycle. The duration of the Daya-Barnea cycle is ~5.5 m.y.
4.3.4 The Bathonian cycle (Sherif and Shederot formations)
The Sherif and Shederot formations and an 'Undivided' Middle Jurassic unit found in the
offshore, comprises the fourth cycle. This cycle probably represents the smallest Jurassic onlap.
In the Negev the unit consists of nearshore sandstones and peritidal and subtidal carbonates of
the Sherif Formation. These may denote the lowstand to transgressive systems tracts of the cycle.
In the central and northern coastal plain it comprises the oolitic shoals of the Shederot
23
Formation, which probably correspond to the highstand systems tract. The inland part of the
Shederot-Sherif cycle thickens from ~100 m in the south to about 500 m in the coastal plain (Fig.
4.5).
In the offshore wells, the fourth Jurassic cycle is found only in the lower part of Yam
West-1 (4829 m to T.D.) and Yam Yafo-1 (5033 m to T.D.). The presumed Bathonian
succession in Yam West-1 consists of more then 421 m (bottom not reached at the T.D.) of
oolitic pelletal and intraclast grainstones and skeletal grainstones. The grainstones are stacked in
20-50 m thick packages separated by a few meters of thick gray shale. On the Gamma Ray and
Resistivity logs a total of 14 such packages were defined. At the base of the section three
coarsening upward cycles (40-50 m thick) were detected. These are followed by five finingupward (bell shaped), small-scale cycles (10-30 m thick). The upper part of the succession
consists of five coarsening-upward cycles (25-40 m thick). The oolitic grainstones are interpreted
as shoals, deposited in a platform setting that existed during the Bathonian in the Yam West-1
area.
In the Yam Yafo-1 well, the lowermost 752 m is dominated by siltstones and shale,
interlayered with carbonates . The carbonate beds consist of skeletal and oolitic grainstones and
packstones. Microconglomerates composed of all the above lithologies were detected in ditch
samples. A 60 m thick mudstone interval rich in poriferan spicules and rhaxes was recorded
between 5260 and 5320 m. Following Conway (written comm., 2006) a Bathonian age is
assigned to this interval. The lithologic characteristics are different from the Shederot Formation
found in the Yam West-1 well or in the onshore. The strata in the lower part of the Yam Yafo-1
well are therefore considered as an 'Undivided' Middle Jurassic unit of a presumed Bathonian
age.
The existence of microconglomerates and the large amounts of clastics suggest that the
'Undivided' unit in Yam Yafo-1, unlike the Shederot Formation in Yam West, may represent an
allochthonous section derived in part from the nearby shelf (Druckman et al., 1994; Gardosh,
2002).
The Bathonian unconformity marked by the Blue horizon is correlated to the top of the
Shederot Formation in Yam West-1 and to the middle part of the 'Undivided' unit in the Yam
Yafo-1 well. The age definition of these offshore sections and their relation to the Shederot
cycle onshore is problematic due to contradicting biostratigraphic ages obtained from different
fossil groups.
An age of Aalenian to Early Bajocian in the Yam West-1 well is indicated by the
occurrence of the fossils Gutnicella gr. cayexi between 5080 and 5180 m and Timidonella sarda
between 5180 and 5250 m. A similar age is indicated in the Yam Yafo-1 by the fossils
“Mesoendothyra” sp. between 5338 and 5368 m and a badly preserved specimen of Timidonella
24
sarda at 5770 m (Perelis-Grossowicz, 2006, written comm.). In the Yam West-1 well PerelisGrossowicz further inferred a Late Bajocian-Early Bathonian hiatus of ~6-7 m.y. at a depth of
4910 m. The ostracode Fabanella ramonensis, which is known from the Pliensbachian Ardon
Formation in the Negev, was found at the very bottom of the Yam West-1 and Yam Yafo-1 wells
together with Gomphocythere sp. known from the Bathonian of the Paris basin.
In contrast to the biostratigraphic ages described above, Conway (written comm., 2006)
assigned an age of "not older than Bathonian" to the lower 200 m in the Yam West-1 and Yam
Yafo-1 wells. Conway based his age determination on the occurrence of the dynocyst
Systematofora penicillata.
The mixed occurrence (Pliensbachian and Aalenian –Bajocian) of foraminifera and
ostracoda faunas in the Yam West-1 and Yam Yafo-1 wells suggestes that they are reworked in
younger strata of Bathonian age, as indicated by the dynocyst assemblage. The correlation of the
oolitic offshore interval in Yam West-1 with the onshore Bathonian Shederot Formation is
further supported by the fact that the Bajocian Barnea Formation which underlies the Shederot
Formation onshore was not encountered in the Yam West-1 well, as would be the case if the
oolitic succession in this well were indeed of Aalenian –Early Bajocian age (Fig. 4.5).
4.3.5 The early Bathonian to Callovian cycle (Karmon, Zohar, Matmor and Brur
formations)
The Karmon, Zohar, Matmor and Brur formations comprise the fifth cycle. The Karmon
shale is a terrigeneous unit several tens of meters thick found in wells of the southern coastal
plain below the Zohar limestone. It is interpreted as the lowstand systems tract of the cycle that
was deposited following a sea-level drop and exposure of the underlying Shederot shelf (Fig.
4.5) (Gardosh, 2002). The base of the Karmon shale is an upper Bathonian unconformity surface
that is correlated to the Blue seismic horizon (Fig. 4.2). The overlying Zohar and Matmor
formations in the Negev area consist of shallow-marine, low-energy carbonate interlayered with
minor amounts of shale and sandstone. In the coastal plain the equivalent strata are the oolitic,
oncoid, skeletal grainstones of the Brur Formation.
The three shallow-marine units are
interpreted as the highstand systems tract of the cycle. The strata of the fifth cycle attain
thicknesses of 160-180 m in the northern Negev and ~ 100 m in the coastal plain.
An
unconformity surface associated with karst phenomena found at the top of the Brur Formation
marks the end of the cycle (Buchbinder, 1979).
In the offshore Yam-2, Yam West-1 and Yam Yafo-1 wells the Zohar Formation ranges
in thickness from 119 to 138 m. It consists of oolitic, pelletal and intraclast and skeletal
grainstones, mudstones and packstones made of poriferan spicules, and a few intercalations of
25
dark gray shale with radiolaria. The Zohar Formation conformably overlies the 'Undivided'
Middle Jurassic unit in the Yam Yafo-1 borehole and the Bathonian Shederot Formation in the
Yam West-1 borehole.
Based on a revision of the foraminiferal biostratigraphy in the three offshore wells,
Perelis-Grossowicz (written comm., 2006) updated the age of the Zohar to uppermost Bathonian
to lower Callovian. Conway (written comm., 2006) assigned a Callovian age, similar to the age
assigned to the Zohar and Matmor formations onshore (Hirsch, 2005).
Over 2 Bcm of thermogenic gas was produced from fractured limestone of the Zohar
Formation in the Dead Sea area (Zohar, Kidod and Qanaim fields). Sub-commercial quantities
of high-grade oil were also recovered from oolitic grainstones of the Zohar Formation in the
offshore Yam Yafo-1 and Yam-2 wells.
4.3.6 The Haifa Formation
The Haifa Formation is a thick and uniform carbonate succession of Bajocian to
Callovian age (Derin, 1974) that is found in wells in the northern coastal plain and offshore area
(Fig. 4.6). This succession is equivalent to the 3rd, 4th and 5th cycles of the central and southern
parts of Israel. The Bathonian unconformity marked by the Blue horizon is correlated to the top
of the Lower Haifa Member (Fig. 4.6)
4.3.7 The Oxfordian cycle (Kidod Formation)
The Kidod Formation forms the sixth depositional cycle. The unit consists of dark gray to
black shale, with minor intercalations of carbonate mudstone and packstone. It ranges in
thickness from 0 to 200 m and its deposition spans ~2.6 m.y. Its maximum thickness is found
along a NE-SW trending belt, extending from Mt. Hermon towards the northwestern Negev. In
most of the Negev the unit was entirely truncated by the Valanginian unconformity. In the
northern coastal plain and northern Israel it is entirely absent. In the offshore Yam West-1, Yam2 and Yam Yafo-1 wells the unit reappears and ranges in thickness from 170 to 340 m. In these
wells it consists of gray, green and reddish shale and a few interlayers of poorly sorted
grainstones containing intraclasts, pellets, forams, and echinoids. The Kidod shale is generally
barren of fauna, though a few radiolaria, foraminifera, molluscs, echinoids and ostracodes were
found. In the offshore the unit conformably overlies the Zohar Formation and underlies the Delta
Formation. This predominantly transgressive unit marks the termination of the Middle Jurassic
carbonate platform offshore Israel, while onshore, carbonate platform conditions were later
reestablished.
26
An Oxfordian age was assigned to the Kidod Formation (Druckman et al., 1994; Gill et al.,
1995; Conway, 2006, written comm.). Perelis-Grossowicz (2006, written comm.) attributed a
Middle Callovian – Oxfordian age to the Kidod Formation, whereas Derin et al. (1990) assigned
it an Oxfordian –Kimmeridgian age. In the Hermon and Maghara outcrops an early to middle
Oxfordian age was assigned, based on ammonite zonation (Hirsch, 2005).
The distribution pattern of the Kidod Formation in the offshore wells and in central Israel
and its absence along the coastal area may be attributed to submarine erosion or non deposition
along the upper slope during late Oxfordian times. However, subaerial erosion cannot entirely be
ruled out. This interpretation differs from that proposed by Derin, (1974), who related the
absence of the Kidod Formation in the coastal plain to interfingering with carbonates of the Nir
Am Reef. Derin (1974) further attributed the thick accumulation of the Kidod in the NE-SW
trending belt to backreef lagoonal conditions. The proposed model herein indicates open marine
conditions, which accords better with the rich ammonite fauna found in the Hermon and
Maghara outcrops. The widespread distribution of Oxfordian shale in the Middle East better
supports an open marine model for the Kidod shale rather than a shelf lagoon as proposed by
Derin (1974).
4.3.8 The late Oxfordian to Tithonian cycle
The upper Oxfordian to Tithonian strata comprise the seventh cycle. This cycle, which
lasted about 12 m.y., is assumed to represent the maximum onlap extension of all Jurassic cycles.
It corresponds to the highest Jurassic global sea-level stand (Haq et al., 1988). The cycle
comprises the Beer Sheva, Haluza, Nahal Saar, Haifa Bay , Bikfaya and Salima formations
onshore Israel and southern Lebanon, and the Delta and Yam formations in the offshore wells.
In the onshore it consists of 200 to 400 m of shallow marine carbonate mudstones, packstones,
coral and stromatoporid reefs, and oolitic and oncolithic shoals (Nir Am, Be'er Sheva, Nahal
Saar, Bikfaya formations). These carbonates are overlain by peritidal sandstones, siltstones and
shales interlayered with low–energy, subtidal carbonates and numerous, locally developed oolitic
shoals (in the Haluza and Salima formations). These Upper Jurassic units have escaped
truncation by the Valanginian unconformity due to their low structural position (Eliezri, 1964).
In the offshore wells the Oxfordian to Tithonian sequence is represented by the Delta and
Yam formations. The Delta Formation varies in thickness from 148 to 240 m. It consists of
redeposited reefoidal limestones, oolitic and pelletal grainstones, skeletal grainstones, burrowed
shale and minor amounts of fine to medium-grain, moderately sorted quartz sandstone. Twelve
meters of the Delta Formation were cored in the Delta-1A well. The cores contain mainly
burrowed black shale and rip-up clasts, with occasional 10-20 cm thick layers consisting of
27
centimeter-scale redeposited, oolitic and skeletal grainstones with fine to coarse lithoclasts. A
few fining-upward cycles several centimeters thick were also observed. Three distinct volcanic
bodies, 15-20m thick are found within the Delta Formation, in the Delta-1 well.
Friedman et al. (1971) interpreted a depositional slope environment for the Delta
Formation. In the Yam-2 and Yam West-1 wells, three stacked fining-upward cycles are
observed on the Gamma Ray and Resistivity logs that possibly represent submarine, migrating
mid-fan channel fill. These fining-upward cycles are poorly developed in the Delta-1A well and
absent in the Yam Yafo-1 well. An Oxfordian to Kimerridgian age was assigned to the Delta
Formation offshore (Derin et al., 1988, 1990; Moshkovitz, in Derin et al., 1988; Druckman et al.,
1994; Gill et al., 1995; Perelis-Grossowicz and Conway, 2006, written comm.). The unit
conformably overlies the Kidod Formation and underlies the Yam Formation.
The Yam Formation ranges in thickness from 100 to 387 m. It consists of dark, finely
laminated shale and siltstone generally barren of faunal elements but occasionally containing
some foraminifera and ostracodes, skeletal, oolithic and pelletal packstones and fine to coarsegrained grainstones, subangular to subrounded quartz sandstone, poorly sorted (Druckman et al.,
1994; Gill et al., 1995). In the Delta-1 well volcanic fragments were also recorded (Derin et al.,
1990). The Yam Formation conformably overlies the Delta Formation and underlies the Arsuf
Formation. Its age was determined as Tithonian, however a Kimmeridgian age for its lower part
is possible (Derin et al., 1988, 1990; Moshkovitz in Derin et al., 1988; Druckman et al., 1994;
Gill et al., 1995; Perelis-Grossowicz and Conway, 2006, written comm.).
During the Late Jurassic a distinct shelf-edge was established separating the shallow shelf
to the east from a slope and basin to the west. The Delta and Yam formations are thus interpreted
as slope and basin deposits that were deposited during Late Jurassic lowstands. The absence of
these units west of the shelf-edge is related to either: (a) non deposition on the Late Jurassic
upper slope; or (b) erosion of both the upper slope and shelf deposits during the Valanginian
unconformity.
Onshore, there is a hiatus of ~ 23 m.y. above the Upper Jurasic strata, from the Berriasian
until the lowermost Aptian. Offshore, however, continuous sedimentation took place across the
Jurassic-Cretaceous boundary. It is possible that Berriasian sediments were deposited onshore
and were later eroded during latest Berriasian to Early Valangian sea-level drop (see next
chapter).
28
Delta 1A
Formation
Yam 2
Yam Yafo 1
Yam West 1
Top
Thickness Top
Thickness Top
Thickness Top
Thickness
m.
m.
m.
m.
m.
m.
m.
m.
Arsuf
3905 200
4263 171
4127 63
3953 109
Yam
4105 100
4434 263
4190 387
4062 210
Delta
4205 218+
4697 198
4577 148
4272 240
Kidod
4895 340
4725 170
4512 198
Zohar
5235 135+
4895 138
4710 119
5033 752+
4829 421+
Shederot/Undefined
Total Jurassic
518+
1107+
1658+
1297+
Table 4.1- Summary of Jurassic formation tops and thicknesses in offshore wells.
4.4 The Cretaceous Section
4.4.1 Berriasian to early Valanginian cycle (Arsuf Formation)
A global sea-level drop started in the Berriasian and culminated in the early Valanginian
(Fig. 4.3) (Haq et al., 1988). At the same time, a large-scale uplift of the landmass took place,
east and south of the present-day shoreline. This uplift was caused by heating related to an
upwelling of a mantle plume associated with the Tayasir Volcanics and the shallow Ramon
intrusions (Garfunkel and Derin, 1984; Gvirtzman et al., 1998). Consequently, intensive and
widespread erosion took place. The intensity of the erosion increased from north to south,
eventually resulting in the removal of most of the Phanerozoic section in the southern Negev
(Eliezri, 1964; Weissbrod, 1969a; Druckman, 1974; Garfunkel and Derin, 1984).
The Arsuf Formation (a new formation name proposed herein) ranges in thickness from
63 to 200 m. (Table 4.1). It consists of carbonate debris interbedded with thin shale
intercalations. The carbonate debris is apparently allochthonous, representing reworked
carbonate platform sediments, e.g., skeletal, oolitic, pelletal, grainstone or packstone,
occasionally sandy. The formation is characterized by a 'bow' shaped gamma ray pattern,
reflecting a gradual decrease of mud content towards the crest of the 'bow' and an increase of
mud again towards its top. This pattern characterizes waxing and waning of sedimentation on a
mixed sand-mud fan (Emery and Myers, 1996). The sandy component of the Arsuf fan, however,
is made of carbonate debris.
The age of the Arsuf Formation is latest Tithonian to Berriasian. However, an early
Valanginian age cannot be ruled out (Fig. 4.3) (Derin et al., 1988, 1990; Moshkovitz, in Derin et
al., 1988; Druckman et al., 1994; Gill et al., 1995). Reworked Jurassic faunal elements are
29
Daliyya
Ya g u r
Kamon
Berriasian
144.2
Kesalon
event
90
95
100
G r .
Upp. Hidra
L o w. H id ra
Ein el Assad “Blanche” Zuweira
115
125
H
el
Ramon
al
Hermon
ent
ez
tin
Con
110
120
Kohal, Chouf
Nebi Sa’id
Gres de Base
Telamim
L.C.-3
K u r n u b
Deragot
Ramon
“Zumoffen”
H a t i r a
m
Qatana
Tamun
Distal slope
fan sands
m
’
0
105
130
Tayasir, Hermon
Arsuf
137.0
n
85
Sea level (Haq et al., 1987, 1988)
Couches a Knemiceras
En Qinya
Yavneh Shale
a
Lower
yo
a
R
Y a k h i n i
T a l m e - Y a f e
a
Glauconite horizon
v
He
Uza
Kefira
L
Valanginian
Lower Upper Lower
132.0
Upper
Hauterivian
Upper
121.0
127.0
Zafit
Deir Hanna
En Yorqeam
Coarse Cgl,
Upp. Lower Mid. Upper
LOWER CRETACEOUS
Aptian
Barremian
Negba
M Up Low Mid Up L M Up L
Lower
Lower
Upper
112.2
Avnon
N. Oren
Item
r
Albian
Middle
Upper
98.9
a
Cenomanian
Gerofit, up. Bina
“Vroman”
Shivta
“Clastic
Low. Ora
Unit”
Drowning
Up. Ora
Sakhnin, Tamar
Mukhraqa
J u d e a Gr.
93.5
Zihor
v
Turonian
Senonian drowning
Upper Nezer
Carmel
UPPER CRETACEOUS
89.0
Inland
e
Coniacian
Offshore
G
85.8
135
140
Top Jurassic
145
Fig. 4.3 - Cretaceous stratigraphy and marine onlaps, Israel.
Selected continental deposits are delineated by dotted lines
The green bar denotes Top Turonian seismic horizon.
30
50 100
200
occasionally present. This unit conformably overlies the Yam Formation and underlies the
Gevar’am Formation. The redeposition of Jurassic microfauna in the Berriasian to early
Valanginian sediments supports the interpretation that the main erosion phase took place during
this lowstand (Druckman et al., 1994).
4.4.2 Valanginian to Aptian cycle (Gevar'am Formation)
The pronounced uplift and related sea-level drop of late Berriasian - early Valangian
times resulted in intensive erosion and transportation of the erosional products towards the sea.
The transportation conduit persisted along the sea floor, eventually resulting in the incision of a
large submarine canyon (Gevar'am Canyon), which in the coastal plain area, reaches a width of
ca 30 km and depth of ca 1000 m (Cohen, 1976). The canyon is filled by marine shales
(Gevar'am Formation) of Valangian? to Barremian age with a few conglomerate and sandstone
intercalations.
Sandstone intercalations up to 15-20 m thick were encountered in the Yam-2, Yam West1 and Yam West-2 offshore wells. They are referred to as "Lower Sand" of Hauterivian age and
"Upper Sand"of Barremian age (Fig. 4.3) (Isramco Report ). Most of these intercalations display
a serrated log motif, indicating sand/clay interchange, which characterizes a 'channel levee'
system of proximal slope fan (Emery and Myers, 1996). The lower sand in the Yam West-1 well
displays a blocky gamma-ray motif that probably represents a sand lobe that breached the
channel's levee (crevasse splay). The interpretation the offshore sand beds further suggestes that
the basin floor should have been located westward of the Yam wells.
4.4.3 Hauterivian to early Aptian cycle (Helez and Telamim formations)
The (siliciclastic-rich) Helez Formation (up to 240 m thick) represents a gradual
encroachment of sea onto the shelf, probably in Barremian times (Fig. 4.3). This rise culminated
in the Lower Aptian and is reflected by the oolite-rich Telamim (270 m)/Ein el Assad (Muraille
de Blanche) carbonate platform and the Zuweira marine intercalation within the largely
continental Hatira sandstone of the Negev (Fig. 4.3) (Weissbrod et al., 1990; Lewy and
Weissbrod, 1993). In the offshore, the Helez -Telamim cycle is represented by the Gevar'am
Formation, especially by its upper part (Fig. 4.3). Inland, the base-level rise during deposition of
the Helez Formation resulted in the proximal accretion of continental, fluvial deposits of the
Kohal Formation (up to 400 m thick; Shilo and Wolf, 1989), the sandstones below the Nabi Said
Formation in the Qiryat Shemone (Galilee) area and the Gres de Base or Chouf Formation
(Walley, 1998) in Lebanon.
31
The time span of the Helez -Telamim deposition was ca 10 m.y., thus encompassing a
second-order depositional cycle. The cycle terminates abruptly and is replaced by a pelagic shale
interval (Yavneh Shale, ca 50 m thick) marked by the LC-3 electrolog marker (Fig. 4.3). This
change reflects a drowning phase which hampered platform growth. In northern Israel the
platform carbonate of the Ein el Assad Formation shows a pronounced deepening towards the
uppermost part of the formation (Bachmann and Hirsch, 2006), presumably paralleling the L.C.3 drowning phase. A global ecological event responsible for the demise and drowning of
carbonate platforms in the Mediterranean area at the end of the lower Aptian (Castro and RuizOrtiz, 1995; Wissler et al., 2003) could have been also responsible for the termination of the
Telamim/Ein el Assad platform (Bachmann and Hirsch, 2006).
The overlying Hidra Formation in the Galilee proximal area begins with oolitic marls of
open lagoon environment (Bachmann and Hirsch, 2006). It is portrayed as a late highstand
progradation stage of the Telamim - Ein el Assad cycle (Fig. 4.3). In the middle part of the Hidra
Formation, 10 m of recurring intercalations of fluvial sediments and ferruginous crusts signal a
pronounced sequence boundary and lowstand systems tract deposits.
A notable sandstone horizon overlain by a dolomite bed was identified by Grader and
Reiss (1958), directly above the Yavneh Shale. In their composite log of the Lower Cretaceous
in the Helez area this horizon is termed the "Main Shale Break" (M.S.B. electrolog marker). A
correlation is proposed between this sandstone bed and the coarse conglomerate at the base of
the Aptian-Albian Talme Yafe-Yakhini cycles (see below). This lowstand event is also
responsible for the prominent erosion surface, which the Talme Yafe sediments overlie.
4.4.4 Late Aptian cycle (upper Hidra to top Limestone Member of the Rama Formation)
The next cycle (in proximal areas of northern Israel and the Negev) includes the upper
Hidra, the "Zumoffen" Limestone Member and the Deragot marine intercalation within the
Hatira sandstone in the Negev (Fig. 4.3). Its time span is ca 7 m.y. Along the coastal Hinge Belt
it is represented by a carbonate platform facies of the Yakhini Formation (Fig 4.3). West of the
Hinge Belt it is represented by the Talme Yafe prism of carbonate debris. The Talme Yafe
Formation unconformably overlies different units from the Aptian Telamim Formation to Middle
Jurassic formations, with coarse conglomerate breccia at its base (Bein and Weiler, 1976). The
reasons for this intense erosion are not clear. Unlike the truncation by the Gevar'am Formation,
which was associated with a tectonic uplift, the truncation at the base of the Talme Yafe
Formation could have been caused by the pronounced sea-level fall in middle Aptian times,
which is clearly displayed in Haq's curve (Fig. 4.3).
32
4.4.5 Albian cycle
The restricted environment at the top of the "Zumoffen" Limestone Member of the lower
part of the Rama Formation reflects a sequence boundary (Fig. 4.3) (Bachmann and Hirsch,
2006). The next cycle in proximal areas includes the Rama Formation (Couches a Knemiceras)
of mixed platform and basinal carbonate and the Yagur Formation, representing the highstandprogradation stage (Fig.
4.3). A parallel section was also found in the Judea Mountains
(Ramallah area; Shachnai, 1969). The time range of this cycle is ca 13 m.y. In the more proximal
areas of the Negev, the well-known sandy glauconite zone just below the Late Albian carbonate
of the Hevyon Member (Judea Group) signifies the maximum flooding interval of the Albian
cycle. In the coastal plain and the offshore distal areas the sedimentation of the Yakhini and the
Talme Yafe formations continued.
4.4.6 Cenomanian cycle
An erosional unconformity at the top of the Yagur Formation (Fig. 4.3) (Folkman, 1969;
Kafri, 1986; Lipson-Benitah et al., 1997) is marked by conglomerates and breccia, calcrete and
dedolomitization, indicating aerial exposure (Folkman, 1969) and is thus designated as a
sequence boundary. Extensive volcanism products overlie this surface in the Carmel and Umm el
Fahm (Segev et al., 2002). In the northern Negev, this surface truncates the rudistid buildup at
the top of the Hevyon Member, which contains the foraminifer Preaealveolina, thus indicating
an early Cenomanian age (Lewy and Weissbrod, 1993). The overlying cycle begins with a thin,
ca 0.5 m glauconitic carbonate bank with Pycnodonte vesiculosa and with early Cenomanian
ammonites, representing part of the transgressive systems tract of the En Yorqeam – Zafit subcycle (Fig. 4.3). In the Jerusalem and Hebron hills the top of the Kesalon Formation represents
the same phase (Fig. 4.3) (Braun and Hirsch, 1994).
The substantial abnormal thickness (2700 m) of the Cenomanian Item Formation in the
Item-1 well offshore (reexamination by S. Lipson Benitah, 2006) is attributed to a submarine
canyon incised into the Albian sediments of the Talme Yafe Formation as a result of the Kesalon
lowstand event (Fig. 4.3). Cenomanian, mixed planktic and benthic foraminifera were found in
the Item Canyon fill. Notably, both the Kesalon event and the younger Mukhraqa channeling
events (see below) are associated with volcanic eruptions in the Carmel, at the base of the Isfiye
Chalk (=Negba Formation) and the Mukhraqa Formation (Segev et al., 2002).
This early Cenomanian erosional surface was also described in Jordan by Abed (1984)
and by Schulze et al. (2003) as sequence boundary CeJo1 at the top of Member b of the Naur
Formation. The time span of the emergence which caused the unconformity was brief and was
33
soon followed by extensive sea level rise (represented by the chalky Negba Formation),
suppressing carbonate platform development, except in the Judean hills (partial drowning).
The strata of the Cenomanian cycle are mostly basinal, pelagic sediments such as chalks
with chert beds, e.g., the Deir Hanna Formation in the Galilee, the chalk complex of the Carmel
and the Negba Formation of the coastal plain and the offshore areas (Fig. 4.3). This chalk event
indicates a drowning phase suppressing and eventually replacing the Albian carbonate platform.
Inland, the cycle terminates with the prograding platform carbonate of the Sakhnin, Weradim
and Tamar formations. In the Negev, the cycle is divided into two transgressive-regressive
cycles: (1) En Yorqeam/Zafit, (2) Avnon/Tamar (Fig. 4.3).
Bet Oren– Atlit incised canyon of Middle/Late Cenomanian age- In the Carmel region,
pelagic distal ramp deposits of the upper Cenomanian (Junediya Formation) are overlain by the
lower part of the Late Cenomanian Mukhraqa Formation (age emendation by Buchbinder et al.,
2000). Various types of transport phenomena characterize the latter unit, and are interpreted as
distal bioclastic material shed off the prograding highstand deposits of the Late Cenomanian.
‘Reefal’ sediments of this unit were reported in an E-W trending erosive channel 10 km long
which breaches the shelf edge near Atlit (Bein, 1977, figs. 2, 3). This channel may have been
initiated as a large-scale slope failure. The erosion cuts down to early Cenomanian sediments.
The age of the "reefal" Mukhraqa facies was emended to Late Cenomanian (instead of
Turonian), based on the presence of caprinids (Buchbinder et al., 2000). The time of incision of
this channel should, therefore, be late Middle Cenomanian to pre or early Late Cenomanian.
Presumably, it is related to Haq's (1988) major sequence boundary Ce3/Ce4 at 94 m.y.
(recalibrated to Gradstein et al., 1995) following a 60 m sea-level fall.
4.4.7 First Turonian cycle
This cycle begins with a major Late Cenomanian drowning phase which resulted in the
demise of upper Cenomanian platforms (Tamar, Weradim, Sakhnin) followed by different time
durations of condensation and hiatuses (Fig. 4.3) (Buchbinder et al., 2000). Sedimentation was
later resumed in hemi-pelagic facies (Fig. 4.3) (Ora, Yirqa and Daliyya) and finally carbonate
platforms were reestablished in proximal areas: Shivta; "Vroman" (Fig. 4.3). The cycle was
abruptly terminated by a pronounced sea-level fall, resulting in the exposure of the shelf and the
development of a system of rivers and overbanks, depositing quartzose sandstone and shale of
the "Clastic Unit" (Fig. 4.3) (Sandler, 1996). In distal areas (coastal plain and Mediterranean
offshore) basinal sediments of the Daliyya Formation either accumulated, or were replaced by
condensed sections and hiatuses.
34
4.4.8 Middle Turonian to late Coniacian cycle (upper Bina, Gerofit and Zihor
formations)
The cycle begins in proximal areas with platform carbonate of the Gerofit and upper
Nezer formations (Fig. 4.3). A deepening trend developed towards Early Coniacian times and in
late Coniacian the platform facies was abruptly replaced by pelagic-rich beds.
4.4.9 The Santonian to Paleocene basinal sediments (Mount Scopus Group)
Basinal-type sedimentation started in the late Coniacian and persisted inland throughout
the Santonian to Paleocene times. These sediments are represented by the Mount Scopus Group
(Flexer, 1968) and are dominated by pelagic chalk both in far proximal areas and in the offshore.
They contain also marl, chert and phosphate. Sedimentation took place in the framework of an
upwelling system that affected the southern coasts of the Tethys Ocean along a belt
encompassing today's North Africa and the east Levant margins (Almogi-Labin et al., 1993). The
widespread pelagic sedimentation reflects a major drowning of the shallow-marine Judean
platform that occurred due to oceanographic, ecological change, probably as a consequence of
re-arrangement of the plates bordering the Mediterranean Tethys. Several eustatic lowstands at
that time (Flexer and Honigstein, 1984; Gardosh, 2002) did not effect the extensive penetration
of the sea far inland and thus could not be expressed in the onlap curve (Fig. 4.3).
The Mount Scopus section contains organic-rich carbonate intervals. These bituminous
rocks were deposited in the highly productive environment of small morphotectonic basins
(Syrian Arc type synclines) and contain up to 20% of Type II kerogen (Tannenbaum and
Aizenshtat, 1985; Gardosh et al., 1997). The Senonian bituminous rocks show geochemical
correlation to asphalt, oil and gas accumulations found near the Dead Sea Lake and are
considered to be the source of hydrocarbons that were generated within the Dead Sea Basin
(Tannenbaum and Aizenshtat, 1985; Gardosh et al., 1997).
4.5 The Tertiary Section
4.5.1 General
Facies patterns of the Lower and Middle Eocene are predominantly pelagic. Although
seemingly they contain shallower neritic interludes of nummolitic carbonates, the mixture with
pelagic elements indicates a mass transport origin in a deeper basinal setting (Benjamini, 1993)
beginning in latest Early Eocene times (Buchbinder et al., 1988).
Remarkably, the drowning conditions that started in the Sennonian persisted during most
of the Tertiary; for about 70 m.y. and a true carbonate platform was re-established for a brief
time span (ca 1 m.y.) only in Middle Miocene times (the Langhian Ziqlag Formation).
35
MP6
Gt. inflata
Gt. Crassaformis
MP5
Ss. Seminolina
MP4
MP3 Gt. puncticulata/margaritae
MP2 Gr. margaritae
MP1 Ss. Seminolina acme
8.30
Tortonian
N16 Gr. acostaensis
11.20
N15
N14
N11-13
MIDDLE
Serravallian
14.80
Langhian
16.40
LOWER
Burdigalian
20.52
Aquitanian
Catapsydrax
dissimilis
N4
Pr. kugleri
21.5
40
P22 Gg. ciperoensis
ciperoensis
N3
P21,N2
UPPER
28.5
27.1
b
a Pr. opima opima
Cgl + sandstones, offshore
LOWER
32.0
chipolensis/
P18 Cg.
Ps. micra
33.8
P17
Gr. cerroazulensis
Priabonian P16
35.3
37.0
P15 Gk. semiinvoluta
38.4
T. rohri
Bartonian P14
41.3
P13 O. beckmannii 40.5
Lutetian P12
M. lehneri
5
10
Mid. Ziqim
Lower Ziqim
15
20
Upp.
Ha’on
25
Lakhish +
Ashdod clastics
LS prograding wedge
P20,N1
30.6
Rupelian P19 Gg. ampliapertura
33.7
UPPER
35
Chattian
MIDDLE
30
EOCENE
25
OLIGOCENE
23.8
100 m
Pattish Reef
Canyons’ incision Bet Nir cgl.
N9 Gr.f.peripheroronda Bet
Ziqlag
Guvrin
N8 Pb. glomerosa
Gl. insueta
N7
17.3
Gaza Sands
N6 Cx. stainforthi
(Turbidites)
18.8
N5
50
?
Gr.menardii
Gr.mayeri
Gs. ruber
N10
Upp.
Ziqim
Submarine canyons fill
20
M I O C E N E
15
Gr. humerosa
0
Ma
-50 0 50 m
Mavqiim Evap.
Haq et al., 1977, 1978
Miller et al. 2005
Turbidite sands
?4.37
ed
UPPER
10
N17
7.12
Slumped complex
SEA LEVEL
od
Messinian
Judean Hills
Er
2.13
3.22
3.95
4.50
5.11
5.33
Shoreline
Y a f o
BIOSTRATIGRAPHY
Bet Guvrin
Zancl. Piace. G
Early Mid. L.
5
SERIES STAGES
PLIOCENE
Ma
30
Canyons’ incision
Bet
Er o d e d Fiq+ L. Ha’on
Guvrin
Canyons’ incision
Mostly eroded
35
Har Aqrav
Bet Guvrin
Qeziot
Maresha
Fig. 4.4 - Tertiary stratigraphy and marine onlaps, Israel.
The colored bars denote seismic horizon.
36
40
A’
NW
0
500 m
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
5500
6500
6000
7000
7500
8000
8500
9000
9500
10000
10500 m
essinian)
Mavqiim (M
. Miocene)
Ziqim (M.-U
e)
( P al
uf
Arsam
Y a
lt
De
od
Kidhar
Zo
ot
der
She
Bar
?
?
nea
d
San
nd
Sa
e n e) )
. Eoc
ene
. (L.- M
eo c
Taqiye
rp
Avedat G
ene - M. Miocen
Bet Guvrin (U. Eoc
En Zetim (Senonian) +
Talme Yafe (Albian)
n)
ptia
Sand
A
ut.(Ha
Sand
’am
var
Ge
Arsuf (Berriasian-Valangin
ian)
Yam (Tithonian)
Delta (Kimmeridgian)
Kidod (Oxfordian)
Zohar (Callovian)
Barnea (Bajocian)
She de rot ( Bathon ian)
Undivided Early Jurassic
?
Undivided Permo-Triassic
?
5000
4500
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
Acoustic
K.B. 26.0 m
Yam West 1
GR
Noa
Talme Yafe
En Zetim
+
Taqiye
5250 m
Mavqiim (Messinian)
Ziqim (M.-U. Miocene)
Yafo (Pliocene)
En Zetim (Senonian) +
Taqiye (Paleocene)
Talme
Yafe (A
lbian)
Yam-2
5370 m
Und
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
?
?
Yafo (Pliocene)
e)
coast line
)
. Miocene
cene - M
ssic
Jura
n)
e
e
Talm
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
)
Ya f o ( P l i o c e n e )
n
(Albia
Yafe
)
ptian
aut.-A
am (H
r’
Geva
Barnea (Bajocian)
Daya
Rosh Pinna
Nirim
(Pliensbachian-L. Bajocian)
Erez Cgl.
U. Triassic
6093 m
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
Yagur
Helez
Telamim
Datum m.s.l.
Dalyya (T
uron.)
Negba (U
. Cenoma
nian)
n)
Yagur (Albia
Yakhini (U. Ap
t.- Albian
)
Telamim (U. Bar
rem.-Apt
ian)
Helez (U. Haut.Barrem.)
Zohar (Callovian) Kidod (Oxf.)
Karmon
Shederot (Bathon.)
Daya (Bajocian)
Upper Inmar (Bajocian)
Qeren (Aalenian-L. Bajocian)
Lower Inmar
Basement
Sa’ad (L. Perm.)
Arqov (U. Permian)
Ardon
(Pliensbach.)
Mishhor
Mo hil la
)
(Ladinian
Saharonim
Zohar
Gevar’am
Shederot
Daya
Nirim
(Pliensbach.
4000 -L. Bajoc.)
4500
Erez Cgl.
U. Triassic
6000
5500
Dorot Schist
0
SE
Sa’ad
Arqov
Saharonim
Ardon
(Pliensbach.)
Qeren
Lower Inmar
Upper Inmar
Daya
Shederot
Beer Sheva
Kidod
Zohar
Telamim
Yakhini
Yagur
Bet Guvrin
Adulam
Adulam
En Zetim+Taqiye (Sen.Pal.)
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
4620 m
The Geophysical Institute
of Israel
The Levant Basin Offshore Israel:
Stratigraphy, Structure,Tectonic Evolution
and Implications for Hydrocarbon Exploration
revised edition
Gardosh M., Druckman Y., Buchbinder B. and Rybakov M.,
The Ministry of National Infrastructures
Geological Survey of Israel
Karmia Shale
(U. Perm.-L. Triass.)
Gevim Qz.Porph.
184 m.y
5000 (Carnian)
Mishhor
Mohilla
3500
Yakhini
Gevim-1
cia
rat
Helez Deep-1A
jo
Ba
a(
me
Talme Yafe-4
glo
Ashqelon-2
rne
R.T. 138.4 m
GR Acoustic
Con
T.Y.
Ba
K.B. 62.2 m
SP Acoustic
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
Arsuf
4000
Top Turonian
Base Oligocene
Karmia (Permian)
Triassic
Mishhor
4204 m
K.B. 51.3 m
SP Acoustic
4076 m
K.B. 14.9 m
Acoustic
?
?
?
Base Yafo
Seismic Horizons
Base Mavqiim
?
LEGEND
Sea floor
o-Triass
ic
(Albian)
ne)
Bet Guv
rin (U. Eo
-U. Miocen
Ziqim (Mid.
e)
Avedat Grp. (L.- M. Eoce
Early
aut.-Aptian)
afe
Talme Y
ided
?
t
n
Baseme
ed Perm
Undivid
Undiv
Gevar’am (H
En Zetim (Senonian) + Taqiye (Paleocen
?
ian)
Barnea (Bajoc
langinian)
Arsuf (Berriasian-Va
)
Yam (Tithonian
gian)
Delta (Kimmerid
rdian)
Kidod (Oxfo
Zohar (Callovian)
nian)
Shederot (Batho
Mavqiim (Messinian)
Sand
Undivided Pe?
rmo-Triassic
?
ivided Early
Jurassic
K.B. 13.2 m
GR
Acoustic
bian)
TalmeYafe (Al
?
?
ptian)
m (Ha
ut.-A
a
Gevar’
Bet Guvrin (U. Eocene - M. Miocene)
Avedat Grp. (L.- M. Eocene)
Sand
Sand
n)
sic
(Bajocia
Arsuf
(B
e
rr
ia
sian-V
alan
Ya
Delta m (Tithonia ginian)
(Kimm
)
eridgnia
Kidod
Zohar (Oxfordian n)
(Callovi
)
an)
Shede
rot (Ba
thonia
n)
Barnea
Undivided Early
Juras
?
?
rmo-Triassic
Undivided Pe
Basement
Formation contact
Top Basement
10 km
Top Bathonian
Mid. Miocene
5
Hiatus, erosional unconformity, fault
0
Report GSI/4/2008, GII Report 429/328/08
Jerusalem, April 2008
0m
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
A
10500 m
10000
9500
9000
8500
8000
7500
7000
6500
6000
5500
5000
37
B’
0
500
1000
S
(Pa
. Mio
n e)
e-M
leoce
ian)
? ?
in
lang
)
-Aptian
c e ne )
ne)
YAFO (Plioce
q i ye
n
Eoce
Mavqiim (Messinian)
nonian) + Ta
Bet Guvrin (U.
En Zetim
(Se
Hauterivian
Gevar’am (
Arsuf (Berriasian-Va
Yam (Tithonian)
Delta (Kimmeridgian)
Kidod (Oxfordian)
Zohar (Callovian)
Shederot
(Bathonian)
Barnea (Bajocian)
t
e)
ne)
YAFO (Plioce
Mavqiim (Messin
ian)
e n e)
Ge
var
Avedat
Yafe
a
Dalyy
Negba
Talme
’am (Hauterivian -Apti
reb
En Zetim+Gha
+Taqiye
Talm
Negba
e Ya
fe
0
lbia
n)
0
1000
500
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
YAFO
(Pliocene)
e Yafe
Talm
jo c
Ba
Haifa
)
vian
(Bajocian-Callo
-L.
N iri
m (Aalenian
Asher Volcanics
ian)
Yagur (Albian)
)
lbian
t.-A
Ap
a n)
p.
Apti
(U
m.Yakhini
r re
rrem.
Ba
. - Ba
p.
aut
Telamim (U
.H
(Up
Yaqum
ya
Daly
Negba
Yaq
Te
Ya
FO
YA
0
Datum
m.s.l.
YAFO (Pliocene)
500
T.Y.
1000
1500
2000
ne)
oce
rrem
. Ba
im (U
Mavqiim
n)
(debris
nia
no
no
flows)
Ce
(Se
U.
tim
a(
-Ze 1800 mNegb
En
n)
lbia
ur (A
ian)
Yag
-Alb
n)
tian
ptia
. Ap
ian-A
ini (U
ian)
rrem
-Ba
vian
h
Yak
m
Tela
Nirim
a
via
Haif allo
n -C
jocia
(Ba
uteri
. Ha
m (U
u
Yaq
Asher V.
Ni
(Pli
n)
N
(Alb
ia
Ya
khin n)
i
0
B
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
4000
3500
6000 m
5500
5000
4500
Nir
im
her Volca
nics
As
Mohilla (Carnian)
m
efayi (Norian
)
Sh
Haifa
Ya
qu
m
im
Te
lam
Ya
gu
r
Asher Yam-1
gba
Ne
A
fe (
)
Mohilla
Shefayim
5000
5500
Shefayim
2020 m
Qishon Yam-1
e Ya
Talm
ics
n
ifa ovia
Ha-Call
?
n
cia
ajo
Nirim
)
?
6000
n)
oria
Shefayim (N
n)
rnia
Mohilla (Ca
2153 m
Foxtrot-1
n)
Asher Atlit Deep- 1
Bet Guvrin
(Oligo.-L. Mio.)
tia
(B
rian
n)
rnia
(Ca
(No
n
olca
er V
Ash
fayim
She
illa
Moh
Nirim
Delta-1A
Ap
K.B. 26.0 m
ne)
t.-
Yam Yafo-1
au
K.B. 21 m
GR Acoustic
(H
K.B. 21.0 m
GR Resistivity
)
m
’a
ar
K.B. 12.7 m
SP Acoustic
YAFO (Plioce
Item (Cenomanian)
?
?
K.B. 11.0 m
GR Resisitivity
0
500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
Ars
uf
Ya
m
D
e
lt
Kid a
Zo od
ha
r
?
ev
G
Ziqim
io.)
ne
L. M
ce
Avedat
ligo.l eo
(L.-M.
Bet Guvrin (O
Pa
Eoce
1500
ne
an)
o ni
Sen
En Z
etim+Ghareb+Taqiye (
Negba
1000
4423 m
500
)
ene
Mioc
Ziqim (M.
e)
n
Bet Guvrin
ce
leo
n)
E
Pa
ia
n
e(
Zeti
an
m (Senon.)+Taqiy
om
Neg
)
en
b
n
a
(U.
Daly (Turonia
(C
C
e
n o m a ya
n ia n)
Item
n)
Talme Yafe (Albia
n)
n)
Ge
var ’a
ptia
m (Hauterivian-A
ia
ngin
Arsuf (B
erriasian-Vala
n)
Yam (Tithonia
n)
Delta (Kimmeridgia
n)
Kidod (Oxfordian)
Zohar (Callovia
?
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
5500
Und
ian)
thon
ivided
(?Aalenian-Ba
?
?
6531 m
K.B. 12.7 m
SP Acoustic
Yam West-1
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
Sand
Sand
Arsuf
Yam
Delta
Kidod
Zohar
5787 m
Seismic Horizons
Top Turonian
Base Oligocene
Arsuf (Berriasi
a
n
-V
al
angin
ian)
Yam (Tithon
ian)
Delta (Kim
m
er
i
d
g i an
)
Kidod (Ox
fordia
n)
Zohar (C
allovi
an)
Avedat Grp. (L.Ziqim
io c
Bet
M. Eocene)
(M.-U. M
Gu
e)
vrin
En Zetim+Ghareb+Taqiye
cen
M io
(U.
)
Eocene - M.
Talme Yafe (Albian
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
Barnea (Bajocian)
Shederot
(Bathonian)
)
an
GR Acoustic
5250 m
K.B. 26.0 m
GR Acoustic
T.Y.
E.Z.+Taq.
d
San
Sand
Ziqim (M. Miocen
Sand
Sand
Arsuf
Yam
Delta
Kidod
Zohar
Shedero
Barnea
LEGEND
Base Yafo
ifa
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
5500
Arsu
f
Yam
Delta
Kido
d
Zohar
She
dero
t
Barn
ea
The Geophysical Institute
of Israel
Base Mavqiim
Top Bathonian
Sea floor
20 km
Formation contact
10
Mid. Miocene
0
Hiatus, erosional unconformity, fault
n)
an
)
ni
ca
38
Da
m lyy
an a
ian
)
ni
ar
6000
6500
The Ministry of National Infrastructures
Geological Survey of Israel
Gardosh M., Druckman Y., Buchbinder B. and Rybakov M.,
The Levant Basin Offshore Israel:
Stratigraphy, Structure,Tectonic Evolution
and Implications for Hydrocarbon Exploration
revised edition
Report GSI/4/2008, GII Report 429/328/08
Jerusalem, April 2008
As
cs
o r ia
(N
rV
ol
fay
im
oh
illa
(C
he
Sh
e
M
Ha
4.5.2 Late Middle Eocene to Late Eocene cycle
In proximal areas of the northern Negev a major unconformity was found between the
Middle Eocene chalks of the Maresha Formation and the hemi-pelagic marls of the Qeziot
Formation (Fig. 4.4). Benjamini (1979, 1984) indicated that the maximum hiatus between the
two formations spans the P10 to P14 biostratigraphic zones. The Qeziot and the Bet Guvrin (its
equivalent in the coastal plain and the Shefela areas, Fig. 4.4) formations are included in the
Saqiye Group (Gvirtzman, 1970.). The latter signify the "Upper Clastic division of Ball and Ball
(1953). Occasional mass transported conglomerates are found especially in distal areas. In the
Shefela, the Bet Guvrin Formation is of the Upper Eocene semiinvoluta zone (P15). The latest
Eocene (P16) zone is missing. Siman-Tov (1991) reported on the rare occurrence of the latest
Eocene T. cerroazulensis zone in Ofaqim and in Tel-Nagila. In other Upper Eocene locations
this zone was truncated by the following major Early Oligocene unconformity. The Har Aqrav
limestone (Fig. 4.4) which overlies the Qeziot Formation in the western Negev (Benjamini,
1980) apparently represents the highstand progradation phase of the Late Eocene cycle.
Markedly, the hemi-pelagic facies of the Late Eocene is primarily uniform, both inland and far
offshore.
Unlike other locations, the Eocene succession in the synclinorial area of Ramat Hagolan
(Michelson and Lipson-Benitah, 1986) shows an uninterrupted Early to Late Eocene
biostratigraphic succession from P9 to P15. Therefore, Michelson and Lipson-Benitah (1986)
regarded the Upper Eocene (P15) chalk of the Ramat Hagolan as the Maresha Formation (Fig.
4.4).
4.5.3 Latest Eocene - earliest Oligocene erosion phase
A major unconformity is found between the Late Eocene and Early Oligocene
depositional cycles (Fig. 4.4). It could have been related to eustatic sea-level fall at 34 m.y.
(shown by Haq et al., 1988 and Miller et al., 2005). Local uplift movements associated with
Syrian Arc contraction (see chapter 7) or with doming of the Arabian Shield prior to the rifting
of the Red Sea (Garfunkel, 1988) further intensified the erosional processes. A regional
unconformity surface (peneplain) developed in the Negev and the Judea Mountains (Picard,
1951; Garfunkel and Horowitz, 1966). Zilberman (1992, 1993) named this feature “the upper
erosion surface” and pointed out that it postdates Upper Eocene deposits and predates Miocene
continental deposits of the Hazeva Formation. The presence of this erosion surface in the Judean
hills indicates that the anticlinorial backbone of the country had already emerged at that time.
39
Buchbinder et al. (2005) matched the first incision of canyons on the Levant margin to
the Early/Late Oligocene boundary (Fig. 4.4). Druckman et al. (1995b) matched it to the pre P19
– ampliapertura Zone (Fig. 4.4). The main incision in the Ashdod-1 well (Buchbinder et al.,
2005, fig. 7) may be located at the bottom of the "Lower Sands", i.e., either between P19/P20, or
within the P20, P21 zones (Fig. 4.4). Alternatively, it may be put at the base of the Lower
Oligocene (P18) conglomerates. Obviously, the biostratigraphic resolution is not refined enough
to determine the precise age of this erosion event because of intense contamination and
redeposition in the cutting samples. However, for the sake of convenience and simplicity in
interpretation of the seismic data the initial phase of the canyon's incision was placed at the base
of the Oligocene sedimentary package, and this surface is represented as the Red horizon in the
seismic profiles (Fig. 4.4, see chapter 5).
4.5.4 Early Oligocene cycle
Patchy outcrops of lowermost Oligocene sediments (Zone P18, Fig. 4.4) are scarce and
are sparsely spread from the Golan to the northern Negev. They are more common in boreholes
along the Mediterranean coastal plain and offshore areas. They invariably consist of deepwater
pelagic, marly chalks, and their aerial distribution largely follows the distribution of the Upper
Eocene deposits, except for their absence in the southern Negev (Buchbinder et al., 2005). They
thus indicate that most of Israel except the southern and central Negev was covered by sea in
earliest Oligocene times.
4.5.5. Late Rupelian-earlyChattian lowstand wedge and transported clastics
Sediments of P19-P21 zones (ampliapertura to opima opima, Fig. 4.4) have a limited
inland distribution, especially the P19 Zone. Both are of hemi-pelagic facies, however, sediments
of the opima opima Zone penetrate more inland to the Lower Shefela region (Lakhish
Formation), displaying slumped blocks, debris flows and occasional sandy calcareous turbidites
(Lakhish outcrops). In the Lakhish Formation the mass transported sediments are covered by a
few meters of in situ large-foraminifera limestone representing a lowstand prograding wedge
(Buchbinder et al., 2005). More than 300 m of sand and conglomerates of this age were
penetrated in the Ashdod wells in the coastal plain. It is most likely that coarse-grained clastics
could have been transported several tens of kilometers further to the west into the Levant Basin.
40
4.5.6 Late Oligocene (P22) – Early Miocene (N4) cycles
These cycles represent the last major inland transgressions (Fig. 4.4). They are separated
by an erosional unconformity of moderate magnitude. The onlap of the Early Miocene cycle
reached across the rift valley to the Golan area (Fig. 4.4, upper Ha'on Member, Buchbinder et al.,
2005). However, their hemi-pelagic sediments were largely eroded in the hilly backbone of the
country in later periods. The facies is ubiquitously pelagic or hemi-pelagic (Bet Guvrin type),
except in the most proximal outcrop in the Golan.
4.5.7 The Burdigalian lowstand (N5-N7)
Sediments of this interval are limited to the coastal plain and offshore area. Canyon
incision was renewed and mass transported deposits occasionally accumulated, e.g., the Gaza
sands (Fig. 4.4; Martinotti, 1973).
4.5.8 Early Middle Miocene cycle (Ziqlag Formation)
This cycle is unique in the sense that it shows a development of a carbonate platform
(Ziqlag Formation, Fig. 4.4) unconformably abutting the western flank of the Judean anticline,
in times of dominant muddy deposition (Buchbinder et al., 1993; Buchbinder and Zilberman,
1997). However, its life span was short (ca 1.5 m.y.). The high sea level at that time facilitated
the development of the carbonate platform by curbing siliciclastic supply. Hemi-pelagic
deposition of the Bet Guvrin facies, however, persisted in the basin (Fig .4.4). On the other hand,
a thick (250 m) succession of conglomerate, consisting of limestone, chalk and chert pebbles
apparently derived from Cretaceous to Tertiary formations, was found in the Nahal Oz-1 well in
the Afiq Canyon (Druckman et al., 1995b). Its distribution probably spread towards the offshore
continuation of the Gaza Canyon.
4.5.9 The Middle Miocene Seravallian crisis
The Ziglag episode terminated abruptly when the sea level dropped and erosion and
canyon incision resumed, leaving behind their products: conglomerates and overbank deposits
(Bet Nir conglomerate, Buchbinder et al., 1986). This happened despite the relatively high global
sea level. Apparently there is evidence for a climatic, ecological and salinity crisis in the
Mediterranean during Serravallian times, and as a result, the Mediterranean sea-level curve
departed from that of the global sea level (see Martinotti, 1990; Buchbinder et al., 1993). This
lowstand episode produced a distinct seismic reflector in the basin, namely the Cyan horizon
(Fig. 4.4, chapter 5). Small onlap episodes of limited landward penetration are indicated by the
lower and middle Ziqim "mini" cycles (Fig. 4.4).
41
4.5.10 Late Miocene – Tortonian to Messinian cycle (N16-N17)
Although of limited inland penetration, sediments of this cycle are relatively common in
outcrops (Buchbinder and Zilberman, 1997) and especially in boreholes in the coastal plain (e.g.,
the Ashdod wells, Fig. 4.4). The cycle is marked by the development of coral (mostly Porites)
and algal reefs of the Pattish Formation (Fig. 4.4). However, in the offshore extension of the
Afiq (Gaza) Canyon, hemi-pelagic muds are found, interbedded with mass transported sands,
conglomerates of chert pebbles.
4.5.11 The Messinian Mavqiim cycle
The Messinian cycle is composed of a thick evaporitic series found throughout the
Mediterranean region (Hsu et al., 1973a,b; Neev et al., 1976; Ryan, 1978). The deposition of
Mavqiim evaporites (Fig. 4.4), which are composed mainly of halite and some anhydrite,
followed a major sea-level drop associated with the closure and desiccation of the Mediterranean
Sea (Hsu et al.1973a,b; Hsu et al., 1978, Gvirtzman and Buchbinder, 1978). The area of
evaporite accumulation extended throughout the Levant basin to about 20-40 km west of the
present-day coastline (Gardosh and Druckman, 2006). The Messinian evaporites most likely
filled a pre-existing topographic depression (Tibor et al., 1992) and are not associated with
significant, local tectonic movements. However, during short highstand episodes the brine
covered the slope and penetrated through deep canyons further inland. Remnants of the
Messinian brine in the form of a few tens of meters of thick halite and anhydrite beds were
encountered in various wells in the coastal areas of Israel (Druckman et al., 1995b). On the
seismic data the base of the Messinian cycle is marked by the Purple horizon (Fig. 4.4)
4.5.12 Plio-Pleistocene cycles
The abrupt sea-level rise in the Early Pliocene terminated the evaporite deposition and
resulted in the deposition of hemi-pelagic clays and marls of the Plio-Pleistocene Yafo
Formation (Fig. 4.4) reaching over 1000 m in thickness. The unconformity surface at the top of
the Mavqiim evaporites and the base of the Yafo Formation is marked on the seismic data by the
Violet marker (also known as the M seismic marker; Neev et al. 1976) (Fig .4.4, chapter 5).
Sedimentation during the lowermost Pliocene succession was highly condensed. After
deposition of a few tens of meters of hemi-pelagic marl in a period of ca 1 m.y., a significant
sea-level drop occurred, estimated to correspond with the 4.37 m.y. sequence boundary of
Hardenbol et al. (1998) (correlated with Haq et al.'s (1988) 4.2 m.y. sequence boundary). This
lowstand resulted in the deposition of gas-bearing sands of turbidite origin in a basin floor or
lower slope setting (Druckman, 2001; Oats, 2001). On land, this lowstand event is correlated
42
with a boulder conglomerate separating between the Pliocene sequences I and II of Buchbinder
and Zilberman (1997) in the Beer Sheva area.
Hemi-pelagic deposition was resumed during the following highstand and the rate of
sedimentation gradually increased, eventually resulting in a progradational topset-clinoform
pattern, clearly portrayed in the seismic sections (Figs. 5.1, 5.3).
The next significant events expressed in the seismic records are chaotic intervals of
slump deposits of Late Pliocene and Pleistocene times (Frey-Martinez et al., 2005). Most notable
is the large scale-slumping zone, ca 150 m thick, of Late Pliocene times, which may also be
related to a lowstand phase.
5. Interpretation of Seismic Data
5.1 Seismic Horizons
The regional, 2D seismic profiles of the A and B surveys show a continuous series of
seismic reflection that is 5 to 6 sec thick near the Israeli coast and reaches up to 10 sec (15-17
km) in the far offshore (Figs. 5.1, 5.3, 5.8, 5.9). This series comprises the entire sedimentary
rock section that accumulated and was preserved within the Levant Basin during the
Phanerozoic. The Phanerozoic basin-fill is subdivided into eight distinct seismic units that are
separated by seven seismic horizons (Fig. 5.1, Table 5.1). Each of these horizons is interpreted
as an unconformity surface that bounds a regional, basin-scale depositional unit. All the
interpreted surfaces mark significant changes in seismic character within the basin-fill (Fig. 5.1).
Some are recognized also by truncation or onlapping and downlapping reflections (Figs. 5.1,
5.3). The interpreted seismic markers extend throughout the entire basin; therefore they are not
correlated to individual seismic reflections but rather to the tops (or bottoms) of separable
seismic packages.
Well control on the seismic interpretation is possible only in the relatively shallow,
eastern part of the basin. In this area the horizons show good fit to the tops of lithostratigraphic
units identified in the wells (Figs. 5.1, 5.2). The correlation of seismic units from the shallow to
the deep part of the basin, particularly for the deeper Brown, Blue, Green and Red horizons, is
hampered by extensive faulting and tilting and is therefore somewhat speculative.
43
W
AC.
Yam-2
AC.
Messinian
E
TWT (ms)
Precambrian (?)
Crystalline
Basement
Permian- M. Jurassic
M. Jurassic-Turonian
Senonian-Eocene
Oligocene-L. Miocene
M.-U. Miocene
Plio-Pleistocene
Yam West-1 (proj. 2km SW)
?
?
5 km
Fig 5.1- Interpreted seismic profile showing the correlation of seismic horizons to
the Yam-2 and Yam-West-1 wells, in the southeastern part of the basin.
The lithologic column below the TD of the Yam West-1 well is inferred.
44
45
AC.
Yam West-1
Fig 5.2 - Synthetic seismograms of Yam West-1 and Yam Yafo-1 showing the correlation of the seismic reflections to
lithostratigraphic tops in the wells. The synthetic seismograms were prepared from acoustic (AC.) and density logs,
and a zero-phase, normal 25 Hz Ricker wavelet
AC.
Yam Yafo-1
TWT(ms)
Seismic Horizon Chronostratigraphic Top
Lithostratigraphic Top
Violet
Late Messinian (Late Miocene)
Mavqiim (M horizon)
Purple
Early Messinian (Late Miocene)
Ziqim/Ziqlag/AshdodClst.(N horizon)
Cyan
Langhian (early Middle Miocene)
Bet Guvrin/Lakhish
Red
Eocene
Avedat
Green
Albian to Turonian
Talme Yafe/Yagur/Negba/Daliyya
Blue
Bathonian
Shederot/ within 'undivided' M. Jurassic
Brown
Precambrian ?
Crystalline basement
Table 5.1- Correlation of interpreted seismic horizons to chrono- and lithostratigraphic unit tops.
5.1.1 The Brown horizon
The brown horizon is the deepest seismic marker interpreted in this study. It is correlated
throughout the basin with the transition from a chaotic and reflection-free seismic character
below to a continuous, parallel to divergent, high-amplitude reflection series above (Fig. 5.1).
No direct well control is possible for this deep marker in the offshore. We interpret the transition
as characterizing a major acoustic boundary between non-layered, magmatic and metamorphic
complexes and the overlying, layered Paleozoic-Mesozoic sedimentary interval. The Brown
horizon is therefore considered as the 'near top of the crystalline basement' of an assumed
Precambrian age.
The transition in seismic character is more evident in the southeastern corner of the study
area, near the Yam West-1 well, where it is found at a relatively shallow depth of about 5-6 sec
(Figs. 5.1, 5.3). In this area the seismic boundary possibly correlates to the top of the
Precambrian to Infrcambrian basement rocks, penetrated by the Helez Deep-1 and the Gevim-1
wells, located about 15 km east of the coastline (Fig. 1.3). The resolution of the seismic data in
the offshore generally decreases below 7-8 sec due the reduction of the seismic energy.
However, the transition between the chaotic seismic character and the overlying, high-amplitude
partly continuous reflection series is identifiable at the bottom of many seismic profiles that
cross the central, deep part of the basin (Figs. 5.8, 5.9).
5.1.2 The Blue horizon
The Blue horizon is correlated to a distinct change in seismic character from highamplitude; continuous reflection series below to discontinuous, low-amplitude occasionally
shingled reflections above (Fig. 5.1 at 4500 ms between Yam-2 and Yam West-1 wells). The
change in seismic character is most evident in the southeastern area, though it is observed also in
46
47
Precambrian (?)
Crystalline Basement
Permian- M. Jurassic
M. Jurassic-Turonian
M.-U. Miocene
AC.
Plio-Pleistocene
Fig 5.3- Interpreted, E-W oriented seismic profile through the Yam-2 and Yam West-1 wells,
showing the area of transition from the elevated, Mesozoic thrust belt on the east
to the deep, Tertiary basin on the west.
Senonian-Eocene
Oligocene-L. Miocene
Messinian
W
AC.
E
TWT(ms)
W
E S
Messinian
Oligocene-L. Miocene
M. Jurassic-Turonian
Permian- M. Jurassic
N W
M.-U. Miocene
Senonian-Eocene
Plio-Pleistocene
E
TWT(ms)
Precambrian (?)
Crystalline Basement
Fig 5.4- Interpreted, composite seismic profile, generally oriented in a N-S direction along the shallow
part of the basin, showing the continuity of seismic horizons from Yam West-1 (south) to
Yam Yafo-1(north).
48
S
49
M.-U. Miocene
Messinian
Oligocene-L. Miocene
Permian- M. Jurassic
Precambrian (?)
Crystalline Basement
Fig 5.5- Interpreted seismic profile, oriented in a NE-SW direction showing the correlation of
seismic horizons in the deep part of the basin.
M. Jurassic-Turonian
Senonian-Eocene
Plio-Pleistocene
N
TWT(ms)
the central and western parts of the basin where the horizon is found at the top of a relatively
continuous high-amplitude seismic event below less continuous and lower amplitude reflections
(Figs. 5.3, 5.4, 5.5, 5.8, 5.9, 5.11).
The correlation of the Blue horizon from Yam West-1 to Yam Yafo-1 presents some
difficulty. At Yam West-1 well it is correlated to a high-amplitude event found at the lower part
of the well near the top of the Bathonian Shederot Formation (Fig. 5.2). At the Yam Yafo-1 well
it is correlated to a high-amplitude event within an undivided Jurassic section of poorly defined
age (probably Aalenian to Bathonian) (Fig. 5.2). Furthermore, there is a significant difference
between the two wells in the lithology of the Middle Jurassic section. It is therefore unclear
whether the seismic event represents the same chronostratigraphic unit in this area.
The change in character below and above the Blue horizon is, however, identifiable and
most likely signifies a basin-wide seismic boundary. According to our stratigraphic analysis of
the Jurassic section (chapter 4.3) the Blue horizon may correlate to the transition from a Lower
Jurassic, shallow-marine carbonate section to a Middle-Upper Jurassic deep-marine section that
was deposited during the passive margin stage.
5.1.3 The Green horizon
The Green horizon corresponds to the top of a distinct high-amplitude reflection package
below lower-amplitude reflections, chaotic and reflection-free zones (Figs. 5.1 to 5.8). At the
eastern part of the basin the marker is an onlapping surface (Fig. 5.1). Well control shows that
the Green horizon correlates to the tops of several Middle Cretaceous units. These are the
Albian Talme Yafe and Yagur formations, the Cenomanian Negba Formation and the Turonian
Daliyya Formation (Fig. 5.2) (See also Table 3.1). In most wells of the study area the marker is
overlain by strata of the Upper Cretaceous Mount Scopus Group (Figs. 5.1, 5.2, Table 3.1).
Throughout inland Israel a Middle Cretaceous unconformity is evident by a depositional
hiatus and an abrupt lithologic change between shelf and slope carbonates of Albian to Turonian
age (Judea and Talme Yafe formations) and pelagic marl and chalk of Senonian to Paleogene age
(Mount Scopus and Hashefela groups) (Gvirtzman and Reiss 1965; Flexer 1968, Flexer et al.,
1986). The change in seismic character corresponds to this well-recognized regional surface that
is associated with drowning of the Middle Cretaceous carbonate platform (Sass and Bein, 1982;
Almogi-Labin et al., 1993).
The correlation of the shallow, eastern part of the basin to the deep, western part requires
a certain degree of jump-correlation across conspicuous sets of reverse faults (Figs. 5.3, 5.8). No
well control is available in the far offshore. However, the identification of the Green marker at
the top of a continuous, high-amplitude reflection series in the deep basin (Fig. 5.5) is well
50
51
Oligocene-L. Miocene
Senonian-Eocene
Messinian
Precambrian (?)
Crystalline Basement
Permian- M. Jurassic
M. Jurassic-Turonian
M.-U. Miocene
Plio-Pleistocene
Fig 5.6- Interpreted seismic profile showing the transition area from the elevated
Mesozoic thrust belt to the deep Tertiary basin. The Red horizon is a base
Oligocene unconformity (correlated to the Yam West-2 well) that truncates the
Senonian-Eocene section at the tops of Syrian Arc fold structures.
NW
AC.
SE
TWT(ms)
NW
M.-U. Miocene
Messinian
Senonian-Eocene
Oligocene-L. Miocene
M. Jurassic-Turonian
Plio-Pleistocene
SE SW
NE
TWT(ms)
Permian- M. Jurassic
Fig 5.7- Interpreted composite seismic profile through the Hannah-1 well. The Red horizon
is a base Oligocene unconformity that truncates the Cretaceous, Senonian and Eocene section.
In the Hannah-1 well the Oligo-Miocene fill overlies the Lower Cretaceous Gevar’am Formation.
52
53
Precambrian (?)
Crystalline Basement
M. Jurassic-Turonian
M.-U. Miocene
Permian- M. Jurassic
Senonian-Eocene
Oligocene-L. Miocene
Messinian
Jonah
Ridge
Plio-Pleistocene
Fig 5.8- Interpreted, NE-SW regional seismic profile showing extensional and
contractional structures in the central part of the basin.
NE
AC.
SW
TWT(ms)
supported by the overall continuous seismic character of this unit as well as by the assumed
vertical offsets on the reverse faults.
5.1.4 The Red horizon
The Red horizon is an unconformity surface that is characterized throughout the eastern
part of the basin by truncation, incision and onlapping (Figs. 5.3, 5.6, 5.7). Well control shows
that the Red horizon correlates to an Early Oligocene unconformity at the top of the Eocene
Avedat Group or older stratigraphic units (Fig. 5.2, Table 3.1). In most of the wells of the study
area the marker is overlain by strata of the Oligo-Miocene Saqiye Group.
The correlation of seismic profiles to the Yam West-2 and Hannah-1 well further
demonstrate the amount of erosion associated with this seismic marker. In Yam West -1 the Red
horizon is found at the top of an eroded, 30 m thick Eocene section (Fig. 5.6). At the Hannah-1
well the marker is correlated to the base of a deep canyon, incised within the Lower Cretaceous
Gevar'am Formation, filled with Oligocene to Lower Miocene strata (Fig. 5.7). From these two
wells the marker is carried across the top of several eroded structures down to the deep basin,
where it merges with a series of high-amplitude, continuous seismic reflections at a depth of
about 5-6 sec (Figs. 5.6, 5.7).
It should be noted that the present interpretation of the Red horizon within the deep basin
is a revision of the results presented by Gardosh and Druckman (2006). This revision was made
following the integration of the critical information from the Hannah-1 well that was not
available at the time of the previous interpretation. The revised interpretation suggests that a
significant part of the basin-fill is younger than was assumed.
The base Saqiye unconformity is recognized throughout the inland part of Israel. It is
associated with an Oligocene uplift event that resulted in erosion and the development of an
extensive drainage system and transport of sediments into the Levant Basin (see chapter 4.5).
The incision and truncation on the Levant slope associated with the Red horizon comforms with
the Early Oligocene paleogeography. The conformable, high-amplitude Red event within the
basin is probably a condensed section at the top of the Upper Cretaceous to Eocene strata.
5.1.5 The Cyan horizon
The Cyan horizon is an unconformity surface that is characterized by a minor degree of
truncation, incision and onlapping (Figs. 5.1, 5.3, 5.6). At the Yam West-1 and Yam Yafo-1
wells the marker is a low-amplitude event that is correlated to the top of the Oligocene-Lower
Miocene Bet Guvrin Formation (Fig. 5.2, Table 3.1). The correlation is carried from the wells to
the deep part of the basin where the Cyan horizon is identified as the top of several continuous,
54
55
Eratosthenes
High
Messinian
Leviathan
High
Senonian-Eocene
Oligocene-L. Miocene
Precambrian (?)
Crystalline Basement
M.-U. Miocene
Plio-Pleistocene
SE
Jonah
Ridge
Permian- M. Jurassic
M. Jurassic-Turonian
Fig 5.9- Interpreted, NW-SE seismic profile from the Eratosthenes Seamount to the Levant margin.
The profile shows a series of horst and graben structures, associated with Early Mesozoic rifting.
NW
TWT(ms)
W
Senonian-Eocene
M.-U. Miocene
Oligocene-L. Miocene
Messinian
Jonah
Ridge
Plio-Pleistocene
M. Jurassic-Turonian
E
TWT(ms)
Permian- M. Jurassic
Carmel- Caesarea
Block
Fig 5.10- Interpreted E-W seismic profile showing extensional and contractional structures in the
northeastern part of the basin. The bordering fault of the Carmel-Caesarea block may
have originated as a normal fault during the Early Jurassic and was reactivated in a
reverse motion during the Tertiary.
56
57
M. Jurassic-Turonian
Senonian-Eocene
Messinian
Jonah
Ridge
Permian- M. Jurassic
a
b
c
Oligocene-L. Miocene
M.-U. Miocene
Plio-Pleistocene
Fig 5.11- Interpreted SW-NE seismic profile showing the southern part of the Jonah Ridge. The ridge
is composed of three units: (a) an Early Jurassic horst block, (b) a chaotic seismic package
interpreted as a volcanic cone with highly dipping slopes, of Late Cretaceous to Early
Tertiary age and, (c) a series of parallel, high-amplitude reflections interpreted as a carbonate
buildup of Lower Miocene age.
SW
NE
TWT(ms)
high amplitude reflections below less reflective zones at a depth of about 4 to 5 sec (Figs. 5.5,
5.8, 5.9). In the deep basin the Cyan event is probably a condensed section at the top of the
Oligocene to Lower Miocene strata.
5.1.6 The Purple horizon
The Purple horizon is the base of the Messinian evaporites. In wells at the eastern part of
the basin it is correlated to a high-amplitude event near the top of the Ziqim Formation (Fig 5.2).
Throughout the deep basin it is clearly recognized by the conspicuous change in seismic
character from the underlying finely layered Middle-Upper Miocene strata to the overlying
chaotic salt layer (Figs. 5.5, 5.8, 5.9, 5.10). The base Messinian unconformity, also known as the
N horizon, is an Upper Miocene erosion surface associated with the huge drop of the
Mediterranean sea-level and subsequent deposition of the Messinian evaporites (Hsu et al.,
1973a,b; Finetti and Morelli, 1973; Ryan, 1978).
5.1.7 The Violet horizon
The Violet horizon is the top of the Messinian evaporites. In the deep basin the surface is
clearly recognized by the conspicuous change in seismic character from the underlying chaotic
salt layer to the finely layered Plio-Pleistocene strata (Figs. 5.5, 5.7, 5.8, 5.9). In the eastern part
of the basin it is correlated to a high-amplitude event near the top of the Mavqiim Formation or
to an erosion surface at the base of the Plio-Pleistocene section. In this area the Messinian
evaporite layer is either very thin or completely missing and the Purple and Violet horizons
merge (Figs. 5.3, 5.6). The top Messinian unconformity, also known as the M horizon, reflects a
major lithofacies boundary associated with marine transgression and deposition of the hemipelagicYafo Formation.
5.2 Time and Depth Maps
The seven seismic markers described above were interpreted on the seismic profiles of
the A and B surveys throughout the study area (Fig. 1.3). A set of two-way-time maps was
initially produced. These were converted to depth maps, layer by layer (layered cake method),
through the multiplication of time and interval velocity grids (Figs. 5.12 to 5.19).
The reliability of time-to-depth conversion is commonly dependent on the quality of the
velocity data. The main source of velocity information is check-shot surveys measured in wells.
Well information in the study area is limited to the eastern part of the basin. Therefore, in a
previous study Gardosh and Druckman (2006) applied a simplistic approach, using single
interval velocity values.
58
59
Depth Contours (m)
Fault
0
540000
560000
50 Km
B’
A’
620000
640000
A
480000
500000
520000
580000
Fig 5.13- Depth map of the Middle Jurassic, Blue horizon (meters below MSL).
460000
Jerusalem, April 2008
600000
660000
680000
700000
9940
9230
8520
Report GSI/4/2008, GII Report 429/328/08
7810
The Levant Basin Offshore Israel:
Stratigraphy, Structure,Tectonic Evolution
and Implications for Hydrocarbon Exploration
revised edition
7100
6390
5680
4970
4260
Gardosh M., Druckman Y., Buchbinder B. and Rybakov M.,
The Geophysical Institute
of Israel
Well (used for depth calibration)
Well (used for time & depth calibration)
3550
2840
Seismic Lines
Cross sections
2130
600
0 (m)
Legend
The Ministry of National Infrastructures
Geological Survey of Israel
GEV 1
B
N
3680000
3660000
3640000
3620000
3600000
3580000
3560000
3540000
3520000
3500000
3480000
60
Depth Contours (m)
Fault
480000
500000
520000
0
540000
560000
580000
50 Km
Fig 5.14- Depth map of the Middle Cretaceous, Green horizon (meters below MSL).
460000
Jerusalem, April 2008
Report GSI/4/2008, GII Report 429/328/08
The Levant Basin Offshore Israel:
Stratigraphy, Structure,Tectonic Evolution
and Implications for Hydrocarbon Exploration
revised edition
Gardosh M., Druckman Y., Buchbinder B. and Rybakov M.,
The Geophysical Institute
of Israel
Well (used for depth calibration)
Well (used for time & depth calibration)
Cross sections
The Ministry of National Infrastructures
Geological Survey of Israel
GEV 1
Seismic Lines
Legend
600000
B’
A’
620000
640000
A
660000
680000
B
N
700000
8040
7370
6700
6030
5360
4690
4020
3350
2680
2010
1340
670
0 (m)
3680000
3660000
3640000
3620000
3600000
3580000
3560000
3540000
3520000
3500000
3480000
61
Depth Contours (m)
Fault
480000
500000
520000
0
540000
560000
580000
50 Km
Fig. 5.15- Depth map of the base Oligocene, Red horizon (meters below MSL).
460000
Jerusalem, April 2008
Report GSI/4/2008, GII Report 429/328/08
The Levant Basin Offshore Israel:
Stratigraphy, Structure,Tectonic Evolution
and Implications for Hydrocarbon Exploration
revised edition
Gardosh M., Druckman Y., Buchbinder B. and Rybakov M.,
The Geophysical Institute
of Israel
Well (used for depth calibration)
Well (used for time & depth calibration)
Cross sections
The Ministry of National Infrastructures
Geological Survey of Israel
GEV 1
Seismic Lines
Legend
600000
B’
A’
620000
640000
A
660000
680000
B
N
700000
7800
7200
6600
6000
5400
4800
4200
3600
3000
2400
1800
1200
600
0 (m)
3680000
3660000
3640000
3620000
3600000
3580000
3560000
3540000
3520000
3500000
3480000
62
Depth Contours (m)
Fault
480000
500000
520000
0
540000
560000
580000
50 Km
Fig 5.16- Depth map of the top Lower Miocene, Cyan Horizon (meters below MSL).
460000
Jerusalem, April 2008
Report GSI/4/2008, GII Report 429/328/08
The Levant Basin Offshore Israel:
Stratigraphy, Structure,Tectonic Evolution
and Implications for Hydrocarbon Exploration
revised edition
Gardosh M., Druckman Y., Buchbinder B. and Rybakov M.,
The Geophysical Institute
of Israel
Well (used for depth calibration)
Well (used for time & depth calibration)
Cross sections
The Ministry of National Infrastructures
Geological Survey of Israel
GEV 1
Seismic Lines
Legend
600000
B’
A’
620000
640000
A
660000
680000
B
N
700000
5280
4840
4400
3960
3520
3080
2640
2200
1760
1320
880
440
0 (m)
3680000
3660000
3640000
3620000
3600000
3580000
3560000
3540000
3520000
3500000
3480000
63
Depth Contours (m)
Fault
480000
500000
520000
0
540000
560000
580000
50 Km
Fig 5.17- Depth map of the base Messinian, Purple horizon (meters below MSL).
460000
Jerusalem, April 2008
Report GSI/4/2008, GII Report 429/328/08
The Levant Basin Offshore Israel:
Stratigraphy, Structure,Tectonic Evolution
and Implications for Hydrocarbon Exploration
revised edition
Gardosh M., Druckman Y., Buchbinder B. and Rybakov M.,
The Geophysical Institute
of Israel
Well (used for depth calibration)
Well (used for time & depth calibration)
Cross sections
The Ministry of National Infrastructures
Geological Survey of Israel
GEV 1
Seismic Lines
Legend
600000
B’
A’
620000
640000
A
660000
680000
B
N
700000
4200
3850
3500
3150
2800
2450
2100
1750
1400
1050
700
350
0 (m)
3680000
3660000
3640000
3620000
3600000
3580000
3560000
3540000
3520000
3500000
3480000
64
Depth Contours (m)
Fault
0
540000
560000
50 Km
480000
500000
520000
580000
Fig 5.18- Depth map of the top Messinan, Violet Horizon (meters below MSL).
460000
Jerusalem, April 2008
Report GSI/4/2008, GII Report 429/328/08
The Levant Basin Offshore Israel:
Stratigraphy, Structure,Tectonic Evolution
and Implications for Hydrocarbon Exploration
revised edition
Gardosh M., Druckman Y., Buchbinder B. and Rybakov M.,
The Geophysical Institute
of Israel
Well (used for depth calibration)
Well (used for time & depth calibration)
B’
A’
620000
640000
A
600000
660000
680000
700000
2520
2310
2100
1890
1680
1470
1260
1050
840
630
Seismic Lines
Cross sections
420
210
0 (m)
Legend
The Ministry of National Infrastructures
Geological Survey of Israel
GEV 1
B
N
3680000
3660000
3640000
3620000
3600000
3580000
3560000
3540000
3520000
3500000
3480000
65
66
To improve the velocity control, in the present study we used two additional sources of
velocity information: (a) stacking velocities that were extracted from the time processing of
selected, regional lines from the A survey; and (b) horizon velocity analysis performed during
the process of Pre-Stack Depth Migration of four lines. An interval velocity map was produced
for each of the interpreted seismic horizons by integrating these velocities with the available
check-shot data from the wells. Most of the interval velocity maps show east to west variations
that are associated with increased depth of burial and degree of compaction from the margin into
the basin. The resulting depth maps reflect these lateral velocity variations and are therefore
considered more reliable than the previous versions of Gardosh and Druckman (2006). The
depth maps were further controlled by the correlation of the various depth grids to the
corresponding lithostratigraphic units in the 43 wells located within the study area (Fig. 1.3,
Table 3.1).
6. Interpretation of Gravity and Magnetic Data
6.1 Gravity Maps
The raw gravity data measured during the acquisition of the B seismic survey were
filtered and corrected for Eotvos, Free Air and Bouguer correction. The data were incorporated
in the regional grid of the Levant area previously compiled by Rybakov et al. (1997). The
combined Bouguer gravity map (Fig. 6.1a) shows a good fit with the new and old data sets.
Negligible inconsistencies observed close to the tie line (white polygon) are explained by the
poor gravity coverage of the B survey area.
The Bouguer gravity map (Fig. 6.1a) shows that a significant part of the area is occupied
by high gravity values that reach up to 125 mgal. The composition of the crust underlying the
Mediterranean is the subject of much discussion. Makris and Wang (1994) suggest an oceanic
crust using seismic refraction, gravity and magnetic data, while Knipper and Sharaskin (1994)
suggest that the crust is continental, based on their analysis of the tectonic history of the region.
The high Bouguer gravity values are in agreement with the hypothesis that the crust underlying
this part of the Levant Basin is dense. It is therefore either oceanic or intermediate in
composition. Negative gravity values are typical for the continental crust of the African and
Arabian plates.
Within the positive Bouguer gravity province a local gravity high is noticeable in the
northern part of the basin (Fig. 6.1a). It should be noted that this gravity high was not highlighted
in the previous gravity maps (Makris and Wang, 1994), probably due to poor gravity coverage in
67
Y
X
a
b
Fig 6.1- Revised gravity anomaly maps of the Levant Basin. New gravity data set acquired
in the area of Survey B (white polygon) is compiled with the gravity map of the
Levant region (Rybakov et al.,1997): (a) Bouguer gravity, (b) Residual Bouguer
gravity-second order polynomial. X-Y is the modeled section in Fig. 6.3.
68
Y
X
a
b
Fig 6.2- Revised magnetic anomaly maps of the Levant Basin. New magnetic data set acquired
in the area of Survey B (white polygon) is compiled with the magnetic map of the
Levant region (Rybakov et al.,1997): (a) total magnetic intensity, (b) total magnetic
intensity after reduction to pole. X-Y is the modeled section in Fig. 6.3.
69
this area. The positive province appears to be bounded to the SW and SE by two branches of
relatively reduced gravity (zero Bouguer gravity close to the southern coastal plain of Israel)
(Fig. 6.1a). The wide range of gravity values is probably associated with crustal changes;
however the presence of the thick, light density sedimentary prism of the Nile River is an
additional factor for the low gravity province in the south. The gravity steps and larger horizontal
gradients in the southeastern part of the basin appear to represent a more complex pattern of
near-surface density contrasts than in the southwestern area.
The effect of the shallower anomalies was enhanced by removing the regional deep trend
up to the third order polynomial. The second order polynomial, shown in Figure 6.1b, is almost
free of the deep crustal heterogeneities and shows the distribution of several high and low
density blocks.
The northern anomaly is further enhanced and is interpreted as a NE-SW
trending, high density, shallow crustal block. It is limited to the SW by a gravity low, possibly
associated with the effect of the light Nile prism. An additional more complex, but generally
NE-SW trending, shallow crustal block is interpreted in the southern part of the basin. The
narrow, elongated gravity low along the Israeli coast may be associated with the effects of the
Plio-Pleistocene prism, or with deeper crustal heterogeneities that at this stage are not well
resolved.
6.2 Magnetic Maps
The pattern of the magnetic anomalies (Fig. 6.2a) shows they are distributed randomly
throughout the region, rather than associated with distinct, large-scale features as in the gravity
anomaly map. We therefore assume that the magnetic anomalies are associated with local
magmatic features and not with the deep crustal structures.
The low inclination of the Earth's magnetic field in the study area results in misplacement
of the location and direction of the magnetic anomalies. An RTP (Reduction-To- Pole)
calculation removes anomaly asymmetry caused by inclination and position of the anomalies
above the causative magnetic bodies. It converts data which were recorded in the inclined
Earth's magnetic field to what they would have been if the magnetic field was vertical. The RTP
calculation was performed by the IGRF program (http://swdcdb.kugi.kyoto-u.ac.jp/igrf/)
assuming the midpoint of the area at 35E, 34N, the total intensity of the Earth's magnetic field is
44,763nT, its inclination is 49.6° and declination 2.7°. We also assume that the remanent
magnetism is small compared to the induced magnetism
The RTP map (Fig. 6.2b) preserves the overall magnetic pattern of the area; however it
shows a shift of the positive and negative magnetic anomalies towards the NW. The accuracy
of the RTP map is supported by the good correlation between the small, circular positive
70
anomaly found in the center of the area and a high density block of similar pattern observed on
the residual gravity anomaly map (Fig. 6.1b).
The large positive magnetic anomaly found in the NW corner of the map (Fig. 6.2b) is
the edge of the pronounced Eratosthenes magnetic anomaly (Ben-Avraham et al., 1976) located
further to the NW. A large positive anomaly located in the SE part of the map (Fig. 6.2b) is
associated with the Hebron magnetic anomaly (Rybakov et al., 1995) located inland further to
the SE. Both anomalies are considered to be associated with Mesozoic volcanic bodies
(Kempler, 1998; Rybakov et al., 1995).
An elongated NE trending positive magnetic anomaly intersects the NW trending Carmel
magnetic anomaly near the coastline (Fig. 6.2b). The Carmel anomaly is associated with Jurassic
basalts found in several wells near the coastline (Asher Volcanics) (Garfunkel, 1989; Gvirtzman
et al., 1990). The NE trending anomaly in the center of the basin is possibly associated with a
Jurassic or younger magnetic source.
6.3 Gravity and magnetic modeling (2D)
A regional geologic cross-section compiled from the seismic depth maps was used for
modeling of the gravity and magnetic fields (Fig. 6.3). The section crosses the basin in a NW-SE
direction more or less perpendicular to most of the anomalies observed in the gravity and
magnetic maps (Figs. 6.1, 6.2). Calculation of the gravity and magnetic curves was carried out
using Geosoft software.
Figure 6.3a shows the results of gravity modeling. The observed curve is taken from the
Bouguer gravity map in Figure 6.1b. The modeled depth to the Moho is based on Ben-Avraham
et al. (2002). The densities used for modeling are taken from well data. The basement density
assumed in the central and western part of the section is 2.9 gr/mm3, corresponding to an oceanic
or transitional type crust, whereas at the southeastern part it is assumed to be 2.75 gr/mm3,
corresponding to a continental type crust (Ben-Avraham et al., 2002).
The good fit between the observed and calculated curves in the center of the basin
supports the structural interpretation. A significant misfit is observed in the southeastern part of
the section (Fig. 6.3a). The higher values of the calculated curve in this area can be explained in
several ways: (a) the top of the crystalline basement is deeper than assumed; (b) the crystalline
basement is either lighter; or (c) thicker than assumed (~22 km). The depth to the top of the
crystalline basement in this area is relatively well constrained by the seismic data. Furthermore,
in the Helez Deep-1 well located several tens of kilometers south of the edge of the section, the
basement rocks were encountered at a depth of about 6 km, in agreement with the present
structural interpretation. The density of the basement rocks in this well is 2.77 gr/mm3, similar
71
Y
X
a
b
c
Fig 6.3- 2D Gravity and magnetic modeling of the Levant Basin (see Figs. 6.1 and 6.2 for location
of the section): (a) observed and calculated Bouguer gravity, (b) observed and calculated
magnetic intensity assuming continuous magnetic basement (light blue line), and
(c) observed and calculated magnetic intensity assuming separate magnetic bodies (blue polygons).
72
to the value used for modeling. The most likely explanation for the misfit is therefore a thicker
basement in the southeastern part of the section (Fig. 6.3a). This explanation is supported by a
new deep refraction test (Netzeband et al., 2006), suggesting that the depth to the Moho near the
coastline is 27 km, about 5 km more than previously assumed by Ben-Avraham et al. (2002).
A misfit between the observed and calculated curves is found also in the northern edge of
the section (Fig. 6.3a). The higher calculated values may suggest a shallower basement than
interpreted from the seismic data.
However, it should be noted that the reliability of the
observed gravity data in this area is reduced due to the smaller number of measurements.
Figures 6.3b and 6.3c show the results of the magnetic modeling. The observed curve is
taken from the total magnetic anomaly map in Figure 6.2a. Two calculations were made. In the
first one we assumed a magnetic basement extending along the entire basin (Fig. 6.3b). An
optimal fit for this curve is reached when the top of the magnetic basement modeled is
significantly shallower than the structural one (Fig. 6.3b).
Additionally, the regional data
suggests that the crystalline basement in the area is generally non-magnetic (Rybakov et al,
1999). Therefore, we consider the model in Figure 6.3b as unrealistic.
An alternative option is presented in Figure 6.3c. In this calculation we assume the
presence of several highly magnetized bodies at a shallow depth within the sedimentary section.
The southeastern body may correspond to the northern edge of the Hebron anomaly, which is
assumed to be associated with Jurassic volcanics (Fig. 6.3c). A shallow magmatic body in this
area may correspond to the Tertiary National Park Volcanics. A second magnetic body, located
in the center of the basin is possibly associated with extrusive igneous rocks at the top of the
Jonah Ridge (Fig. 6.3c). Several small bodies in the northwestern part of the section may
correspond to the Eratosthenes high located nearby (Fig. 6.3c).
It should be noted that the
geometry and properties of these bodies as presented in Figure 6.3c are only tentative.
6.4. Discussion
The gravity and magnetic anomaly maps (Figs. 6.1, 6.2) and the modeled section (Fig.
6.3) shed new light on the deep structure of the Levant Basin. The high Bouguer gravity values
in the central and northern part of the basin (Fig. 6.1a) indicate the presence of a dense crust, in
the range of 2.9 gr/mm3. The residual map (Fig. 6.1b) suggests that the distribution of the
positive gravity anomalies is related to several distinct blocks oriented NE-SW. These blocks
are interpreted as fault-controlled basement highs (Fig. 6.3a) that were formed during Early
Mesozoic rifting (Garfunkel and Derin, 1984; Gardosh and Druckman, 2006). Rifting was
probably associated with extrusive volcanism as well as with intrusion of mafic rocks at a lower
73
crustal level. The combination of extension and magmatic intrusion resulted in the modification
of the old continental crust and the formation of a thinned and heavy crust in the Levant Basin.
The NE-SW negative anomaly extending along the coastline is related to the transition
from the intruded, heavy crust of the basin into the lighter (~2.75 gr/mm3), continental crust of
the margin of the Arabian plate (Ben-Avraham et al., 2002). It is possible that the depth to the
Moho at the eastern edge of the basin is deeper than previously assumed and is in the range of 27
km, as recently proposed by Netzeband et al. (2006).
The magnetic anomaly maps (Figs. 6.2a, b) and the modeled section (Fig. 6.3a, b) reveal
the presence of several highly magnetized bodies. The distribution the magnetic anomalies is not
directly related to the deep crustal structure of the Levant Basin indicated by the gravity anomaly
maps. The modeled section suggests that these bodies are found within the sedimentary section
and they are interpreted as extrusive volcanics. The Carmel anomaly at the northeastern edge of
the basin is most likely associated with the Early Jurassic Asher Volcanics (Gvirtzman et
al.,1990) found in the Atlit-1 well and other boreholes in the Haifa area. An Early Jurassic age is
also assumed for the Hebron anomaly (Rybakov et al., 1995) at the southeastern edge of the
basin and the Eratosthenes anomaly at its northwestern edge.
The origin of the elongated, NE-SW oriented anomaly in the central part of the basin is
less well understood.
Its northeastern edge intersects the Carmel magmatic anomaly.
Its
southwestern edge is correlated to a positive gravimetric anomaly and a Mesozoic basement
high, known as the Jonah structure (Folkman and Ben-Gai, 2004). The modeled section shows
that the Jonah magnetic anomaly is found at a relatively shallow depth within rocks of
Cretaceous to Tertiary age (Fig. 6.3c). It is speculated that this feature is related to Cretaceous
and Tertiary eruptive episodes that are probably associated with a deeply rooted magmatic
chamber.
7. Tectonic Evolution of the Levant Basin and Margin
7.1 Rifting Stage
7.1.1 Late Paleozoic to Early Mesozoic extensional structures inland
Rifting activity in the Levant region started in the Late Permian and continued in several
pulses through the Triassic and Early to Middle Jurassic. Significant vertical movements and
differential block motions took place during this period in northern Sinai, Israel and Syria (Fig.
7.1)(Goldberg and Friedman, 1974; Druckman, 1974,1977; Freund et al., 1975; Druckman,
1984; Gelberman and Kemmis, 1987; Bruner, 1991; Druckman et al., 1995a; Garfunkel, 1998).
74
75
Fig 7.1- Neotethyan rifting stage- inferred Triassic to Early Jurassic horst and graben system of the Levant region. Inserted section
shows the structural relations across the Helez fault, on the southern coastal plain (after Gardosh and Druckman, 2006).
Attesting to these motions are the thickness and facies changes of the Late Paleozoic and
Mesozoic strata found in wells and outcrops in the region (for details see chapter 4).
The structural configuration revealed by this wide range of phenomena is an extensive
graben and horst system extending east of the Mediterranean coastline (Fig. 7.1). Some of the
faults that bound these structures are identified in seismic reflection lines (Gelbermann, 1995;
Druckman et al., 1995b), while others are inferred from well data.
A major structural low extends in a NW-SE direction from northern Sinai to central Israel
(the Hilal and Judea grabens)(Fig. 7.1).
Towards the north this structure splits into two
segments, the Asher graben trending to the NW and the southern edge of the Palmyra Trough
trending to the NE.
The Judea-Asher graben system is bounded on the west by three
downstepping horst blocks: the Gevim high in the south and the Gaash and Maanit highs in the
north (Fig. 7.1). The Helez fault is the eastern boundary of a structural low extending near the
coastline west of the Gevim high (Fig. 7.1). Other, smaller scale structures are found in the
southern Dead Sea area (Hemar and Massada highs) and probably also below the Syrian Arc
structures of the northern Negev (Fig. 7.1)(Freund et al., 1975).
The timing of activity of this horst and graben system is broadly defined. Part of the
system was active during the Permian (Garfunkel, 1998). Evidence for this initial stage in the
inland Levant area is sparse due to limited well data. A significant tectonic phase took place
during the Middle and Late Triassic (Anisian and Carnian) followed by a relatively quiet period
during the latest Triassic (Garfunkel, 1998). A third and possibly the most extensive phase took
place during the Early to Middle Jurassic (Liassic to Bathonian). The large amount of vertical
offset during this phase is evident on the Helez fault (Fig. 7.1insert) (Gardosh and Druckman,
2006), and abrupt thickness changes in the Liassic Ardon and Inmar formations (Goldberg and
Friedman, 1974; Druckman 1977; Buchbinder and le Roux, 1992).
The Early Jurassic tectonic phase was followed by extensive extrusive magmatism in
northern Israel (Asher Volcanics). Evidence for magmatic activity during this time, probably of
more intrusive nature, is found also in various wells in central and southern Israel (Garfunkel,
1989; Rybakov et al., 1955). It is estimated that parts of the inland rift system were active at
different rates during different times.
7.1.2 Late Paleozoic to Early Mesozoic extensional structures in the Levant Basin
The horst and graben system identified inland is observed on the seismic data of the
Levant Basin offshore. The details of this system are more easily recognized in the central and
western part of the basin than in the eastern part, where the sedimentary section was strongly
affected by younger, contractional deformation (Figs. 5.8, 5.9).
76
W
E
TWT(ms)
M. Jurassic-Turonian
Permian- M. Jurassic
Jonah Ridge
a
Precambrian (?)
Crystalline Basement
E
TWT(ms)
W
M. Jurassic-Turonian
Permian- M. Jurassic
Yam High
b
Precambrian (?)
Crystalline Basement
Fig 7.2- Neotethyan rifting stage- Early Mesozoic extensional structures in the
Levant Basin; (a) the northeastern part of the Jonah Ridge and (b) the
southern part of the Yam High (see Fig. 7.1). Normal faults found east
and west of the Yam High were reactivated as reverse faults.
77
The most prominent structures are two basement highs, the Jonah Ridge (Folkman and
Ben-Gai, 2004) and Leviathan High (Figs. 5.8, 5.9, 7.1). A third structure, the Eratosthenes
High, is partly covered by the seismic data and only its southeastern part is observed (Figs. 5.9,
7.1). The Jonah and Leviathan highs are structures 15 to 30 km wide and 80 to 100 km long
trending in a NE-SW direction (Figs. 5.11, 5.12, 7.1). In the two structures the near-topbasement Brown horizon and the Middle Jurassic Blue horizon are markedly elevated from their
surroundings. The identification of these horizons within the structures is somewhat tentative
due to the correlation of seismic events across faults. However, the depth to the top of the
basement level as derived from the seismic interpretation and depth maps is supported by the
results of the gravity modeling presented in Chapter 6 (Fig. 6.3a). The Leviathan basement high
is also observed as a large positive anomaly on the residual Bouguer gravity map (Fig. 6.1).
The two structures are bounded by sets of high-angle normal faults with vertical offsets
in the range of several hundred meters to a few kilometers. The structural lows on the two sides
of the structures are characterized by dipping events, forming asymmetric grabens (Figs. 5.9,
7.2a). The grabens are filled with 4-8 km thick sections of Permian to Middle Jurassic strata.
Several smaller basement highs, about 10 km wide and 20 km long trending in a NE-SW
direction are identified south and north of the Jonah and Leviathan ridges (Figs. 5.12, 5.13, 7.1).
A larger structure is partly revealed by the seismic data in the southeastern part of the basin. The
Yam High is identified by a series of deep-seated normal faults found west of the Yam-2 and
Bravo-1 wells (Figs. 7.1, 7.2b). The near-top-basement level is downfaulted to the west, forming
a set of down-to-the-basin fault blocks. The thickness of the Brown to Blue interval shows a
marked increase from about 1 km in the east to about 3 to 4 km in the west (Fig. 7.2b). The Yam
High probably extends several tens of kilometers to the NE (Fig. 7.1). Its eastern boundary is
marked by a series of faults located near the Yam-2 and Bravo-1 wells (Fig. 7.2b). These are
interpreted as normal faults that were later reactivated in a reverse motion.
Unlike the situation inland, the timing of activity of the horst and graben system within
the basin is only broadly defined due to the uncertainty associated with the age of the seismic
markers. The asymmetric grabens near the Jonah and Leviathan ridges suggest syntectonic
deposition through the Late Paleozoic to Middle Jurassic periods. Some of the faults bounding
these structures appear to have been active also during post Middle Jurassic time (Fig. 7.2a),
however, it is assumed that this late activity was only minor and during the Late Jurassic the
structures were well developed and formed submarine topographic highs. The faults on the
western edge of the Yam High do not offset the Middle Jurassic horizon, thus suggesting a Late
Paleozoic to Triassic age of this structure (Fig. 7.2b).
78
The near-top-basement to Middle Jurassic interval shows significant thickness variations
across the basin. It is about 3 km thick near the Mediterranean coastline and the Eratosthenes
and Leviathan highs and about 5 to 8 km thick in the central part of the basin (Figs. 5.8 to 5.10).
The middle part of the basin termed here the Central Levant Rift (Fig. 7.1) is interpreted as the
main depocenter associated with the Late Paleozoic to Middle Jurassic rifting activity. Intra-rift
highs such as the Jonah Ridge were formed within this large depocenter. Localized lows may
have been partly filled with a thick volcanic series (Asher Volcanics), as suggested by Gardosh
and Druckman (2006).
7.1.3 Neotethyan rifting in the Levant area
The onshore and offshore horst and graben system was formed under an extensional
regime associated with major plate motions and the opening of the Neotethys Ocean in the
Levant area and north of it (Garfunkel and Derin, 1984; Garfunkel, 1998). The Levant rift
system was bounded by the Arabian Massif to the southeast and the Eratosthenes continental
block to the west and thus was probably separated from the main body of the Neotethys Ocean
that extended north of the Eratosthenes Seamount and was later consumed underneath Cyprus
and southern Turkey (Garfunkel, 1998, 2004; Robertson, 1998). Four main rifting episodes are
recognized: during the Permian; early Middle Triassic; Late Triassic; and Early to Middle
Jurassic. The amount of extension during each of these phases is not well established
The general strike of the normal faulting in the Levant Basin is NE-SW; accordingly, we
interpret an extension in a NW-SE direction perpendicular to the strike of the faulting. The
extension may have been accommodated by NW-SE trending transform faults within the basin
(Fig. 7.1). Garfunkel and Derin (1984) and Garfunkel (1998) postulated a similar strike-slip
fault along northern Sinai to explain the separation and northward motion of the Tauride and
Eratosthenes blocks. An apparent lateral offset in the northern edge of the Jonah ridge and the
southern edge of the Leviathan High (Fig. 7.1) may be explained by strike–slip faulting.
The structural scheme presented above for the Neotethyan rifting is not in accord with
extension and spreading of the eastern Mediterranean in an N-S direction accompanied by a
transform fault along the eastern Mediterranean shoreline, as proposed by Dewey et al. (1973),
Bein and Gvirtzman (1977), Robertson and Dixon (1984) and Stampfli et al. (2001).
An important question regarding the nature of the Neotethyan rifting processes is whether
emplacement of new oceanic crust took place in the Levant area. Apart from faulting no
pronounced disruption or conspicuous lateral variations in the seismic properties of either the
upper part of the basement or the Late Paleozoic to Middle Jurassic interval are observed in the
seismic data set.
The basement layer in the central part of the basin does not show any
79
characteristics of oceanic crust such as described in other passive continental margins (Klitgord
and Hutchinson, 1988) or in the central part of the Mediterranean Sea (Finetti, 1985; Avedik et
al., 1995). The normal faults and basement highs associated with the rifting stage are well
preserved. Although a considerable amount of Triassic and Jurassic volcanics may exist within
the basin, their equivalent units in the onshore area (Asher Volcanics) do not show MORB
characteristics associated with sea-floor spreading.
Thus, the occurrence of spreading and
introduction of new oceanic crust cannot be supported by the present data.
In view of the above discussion, it is suggested that the Early Mesozoic rifting that
started on the northern edge of Gondwana may not have reached the spreading phase in the area
of the present Levant Basin (Gardosh and Druckman, 2006). A recent analog for this scenario is
the northern part of the Red Sea. There, the rift is continental with only a nucleation of an
oceanic spreading center and an early magmatic phase. An oceanic spreading center has
developed only in the southern and central parts of the Red Sea (Martinez and Cochran 1988;
Bohannon and Eittreim 1990; Cochran, 2001).
The thinned crust in the center of the Levant Basin (Fig. 2.1) may be explained in two
ways: (a) extension and stretching on basement-involved sets of normal faults; (b) magmatic
underplating and thermal erosion at the base of the crust (Hirsch et al., 1995). It should be noted
that the amount of extension on the Early Mesozoic faults appears to be limited as most of them
are high-angle normal faults and lack the listric character that is often observed in other rifted
continental margins. The high-density of the thinned crust that is interpreted from seismic
velocities (Fig. 2.1) (Ben-Avraham et al., 2002) and is indicated by the modeling of gravity data
in the present study (Fig. 6.3c) may be associated with intrusion of mantle material into the old
Pan-African continental crust of northern Gondwana (Hirsch et al., 1995).
7.2 Post-Rift, Passive Margin Stage
Rifting and normal faulting activity in the Levant by and large ceased during Middle to
Late Jurassic (Garfunkel, 1998). A post-rift, passive margin stage was initiated at this time as a
result of crustal cooling and thermal subsidence (Garfunkel and Derin, 1984; Garfunkel, 1989;
ten Brink, 1987). A faster rate of subsidence in the central part of the basin compared to that on
its margins may have initiated the formation of the 'Mesozoic depositional Hinge-Belt' along the
Mediteranean coast.
The Hinge-Belt is characterized by a pronounced facies change in the Mesozoic section,
from shallow water carbonates and sandstones in the east to fine-grained, pelagic and hemipelagic carbonates and siliciclastics in the west (Derin, 1974; Bein and Gvirtzman, 1977; Flexer
et al., 1986). This pronounced facies change, which was detected in many onshore and offshore
80
81
ites
Turbid
r
e
t
a
w
Deep
Fig 7.3- Passive margin stage- (b) isopach map of the Middle Jurassic to
Middle Cretaceous interval, and (a) geologic section through the
Levant margin showing the two dominant depositional styles:
backstepping and aggrading, shallow marine carbonate platforms
on the east; and deepwater, siliciclastic and carbonate turbidite
systems on the west (from Gardosh, 2002). Blue and green lines
denote seismic horizons.
a
PALEOZOIC ?
TRIASSIC
LOWER
JURASSIC
MID JUR.MID CRET.
UPPER CRETACEOUS
TO LOWER TERTIARY
MIDDLE -UPPER TERTIARY
PLIOCENE - PLEISTOCENE
b
te
na
o
rb
Ca
UP.
PRECAMBRIAN
PERMIAN
TRIASSIC
s
orm
f
t
Pla
UP.
LO. MIDDLE
MIDDLE
LOWER
wells (Fig. 7.3), indicates the development of a deep marine basin in the Levant area, bordered
by a slope and a shallow-marine shelf.
There is some ambiguity regarding the time of initiation of this passive margin-type,
depositional profile. Our stratigraphic analysis shows that all the Triassic as well as the first four
Jurassic depositional cycles (Pliensbachian to Bathonian) are generally dominated by shallowmarine-type rocks. However, the allochthonous Bathonian section in the offshore Yam Yafo-1
well (Fig. 4.2) contains mass flows that were obviously deposited in a deeper marine
environment (see chapter 4.3). It is therefore assumed that the allochthonous succession in the
Yam Yafo-1 well indicates an initial stage of basin evolution within a predominantly platform
setting.
A deep marine depositional environment was well established throughout the Levant
basin since Oxfordian to Kimmeridgian times. The corresponding rock interval in the offshore
Yam Yafo-1, Yam-2 and Yam West-1 well (Delta Formation) is composed of carbonate mud of
deep marine origin with transported material (Fig. 7.3) (Derin et al., 1990; Druckman et al.,
1994, Gardosh, 2002).
The deepening of the basin and the change in depositional environments is further
indicated by the change in seismic character delineated by the Blue horizon. A relatively
continuous high-amplitude reflection series, interpreted as shallow-marine strata below the Blue
horizon changes upward to a discontinuous, low-amplitude, occasionally shingled seismic facies
(between the Blue and Green horizons). The latter is interpreted as fine-grained strata of deepmarine origin with mass transported components (Fig. 5.1).
The strata architecture along the passive margin was significantly affected by eustatic
changes. Gradual sea-level rise resulted in backstepping and aggradation of the carbonate
platforms, whereas fast sea-level rise resulted in drowning of the carbonate platforms. Sea-level
drops were associated with bypass of the shelf and deposition of siliciclastic and carbonate
gravity flows on the slope and in the basin.
These are remarkably demonstrated by the
siliciclastic, turbidite system of the first two Cretaceous depositional cycles (Berriasian to
Hauterivian and Hauterivian to Lower Aptian; Fig. 4.3).
The passive margin succession reaches a thickness of 2500 to maximal 3500 m (Fig.
7.3a). Its depocenter extends from the present coastline area to about 70 km westward. In the
central part of the basin and near the Eratosthenes High the thickness of this succession is
reduced to several hundreds up to 2000 m (Fig. 7.3a). In this distal part of the basin the rate of
accumulation of deepwater sediments was significantly slower than near the margin.
Thick accumulations of the passive margin stage (between the Blue and Green horizons)
are located adjacent to the Early Mesozoic horsts (east and west of the Jonah Ridge in Fig. 7.2a).
82
It is assumed that these areas continued to act as localized depocenters, accumulating clastic
material that was shed from the nearby submarine topographic highs. The tops of the Jonah,
Leviathan and Eratosthenes structures may have reached shallow water level and hosted isolated
carbonate buildups of Middle-Late Jurassic and Middle Cretaceous age.
7.3 Convergence Stage
7.3.1 Late Cretaceous to Tertiary contractional structures inland
The termination of post-rift, passive margin stage coincides with the onset of a regional
contractional deformation phase associated with the formation of the 'Syrian Arc' (Krenkel,
1924) or the 'Levantid' (Picard, 1959) fold belt. This structural element is an 'S' shape mountain
belt extending from the Palmyra Mountains in Syria to the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon
Mountains; through the Judea Mountains and Negev anticlines and into the northern Sinai
anticlines (Fig 7.4) (Picard, 1943, 1959; Ball and Ball, 1953; Bentor and Vroman, 1954, 1960; de
Sitter, 1962; Gvirtzman, 1970; Bartov, 1974; Neev et al., 1976; Horowitz, 1979; Eyal and
Reches, 1983; Lovelock, 1984; Beydoun, 1988; McBride et al., 1990). The fold belt extends
further to the southwest below the thick Mio-Pliocene sediments of the Nile Delta (Aal et al.,
2000) and into the Western Desert of Egypt (Said, 1990).
The Syrian Arc belt consists of a series of surface and subsurface anticlines that strike in
an ENE, NE and NNE direction. Most of the structures are open flexures and folds, in some
areas forming broad anticlinorial upwarps. Several characteristic geometries are identified: the
folds of the central and northern Negev are all strongly asymmetric with steep flanks on the
southeast, while the Hebron anticline is strongly asymmetric on the west (Fig. 7.4). Other
structures, such as the Fari'a anticline (Fig. 7.4), are roughly symmetric box folds with steeply
dipping flanks on both sides (Flexer et al., 2005).
The Syrian Arc folds are frequently associated with reverse faulting. The concept of
reverse faults at depth, as first suggested by de Sitter (1962), was substantiated by several deep
oil wells in southern and central Israel in which strata repetitions were discovered. Freund et al.
(1975) suggested that these reverse faults originated as normal faults during the Early Mesozoic
rifting stage. Compelling evidence for inversion of the older extensional structures has been
supplied from various parts of the Syrian Arc fold belt in onshore Israel and Syria (Davis, 1982;
Gelbermann and Kemmis, 1987; Bruner, 1991; Best et al., 1993, Chaimov et al., 1993;
Druckman et al., 1995a).
The timing of the Syrian Arc deformation inland is debated, but the main range of ages
given by various authors is Turonian to Neogene (Picard, 1943; Bentor and Vroman, 1954, 1960;
Freund, 1965; Bartov, 1974; Eyal and Reches, 1983).
83
Walley (1998), who summarized
Fig 7.4 – Convergence stage-Syrian Arc fold structures of the Levant region. Combined depth map of the Middle Cretaceous level:
onshore after Fleischer and Gafsou (2003) top Judea map; and offshore depth map of the Green horizon in present study. Note Syrian Arc
I and II folding phases. The Syrian Arc II structures offshore are projected from the top Lower Miocene level.
84
NW
SE
Plio-Pleistocene
Messinian
OligoceneL. Miocene
1
TWT (ms)
2
M.-U. Miocene
SenonianEocene
M. JurassicTuronian
12.5 km
a
NW
SE
Plio-Pleistocene
M.-U. Miocene
2
1
OligoceneL. Miocene
SenonianEocene
M. JurassicTuronian
b
85
TWT(ms)
Messinian
TWT(ms)
NW
SE
PlioPleistocene
Messinian
M.-U. Miocene
2
1
OligoceneL. Miocene
Senonian
-Eocene
M. JurassicTuronian
c
NW
SE
PlioPleistocene
TWT(ms)
Messinian
M.-U. Miocene
2
OligoceneL. Miocene
Senonian
-Eocene
M. JurassicTuronian
d
Fig 7.5- Convergence stage- contractional structures in the Levant Basin: (a) profile from the
southeastern part of the basin showing two folding phases, 1= Syrian Arc I (Senonian) and
2=Syrian Arc II (Oligo-Miocene); (b) profile from the southeastern part of the basin showing
Syrian Arc I+II folds, note the onlapping of the Oligo-Miocene strata on the tilted, faulted and
folded block apparently deformed during Syrian Arc II folding phase; (c) profile from the eastern
part of the basin showing Syrian Arc I+II folds; (d) profile from the northeastern part of the basin
showing Syrian Arc II folds
86
observations on the Syrian Arc system from Lebanon and other parts of the Levant, suggested
two main episodes of deformation: Syrian Arc I during Coniacian to Santonian times; and Syrian
Arc II during Late Eocene to Late Oligocene times. Mimran (1984) found a 'post Neogene' age
for the latest folding phase in the Fari'a anticline (Fig. 7.4), while Freund (1965) infers a post
Pliocene continuation of folding in some structures. Eyal (1996), who studied the properties of
Syrian Arc folds and related structures throughout Israel and Sinai, suggested that the Syrian Arc
stress field in the Levant area may have persisted into the Miocene and possibly to the present.
7.3.2 Late Cretaceous to Tertiary contractional structures in the Levant Basin
Syrian Arc type contractional deformation is observed in the offshore seismic data
throughout the Levant Basin and margin. Two folding episodes are identified, and following
Walley (1998, 2001), these are termed here Syrian Arc I and II (Fig. 7.5a).
Syrian Arc I structures are predominant in the eastern part of the basin some 50 to 70 km
west of the coastline (Fig. 7.4). The dominant deformational style in this area is of highamplitude and short wave length anticlines and synclines accompanied by high-angle thrust
faults (Figs. 5.3, 7.5a).
The deformation affects the Middle Cretaceous unconformity (Green
horizon) and older strata; therefore a Senonian age for this folding is inferred (Figs. 5.3, 5.6,
7.5a).
The time and style of deformation of the Syrian Arc I structures offshore appear to be
similar to the folds of the northern Negev inland. The size of the folds ranges from 10 to 30 km
in length and 5 to 10 km in width. Their height ranges from several hundred to more than 1000
m and their flanks dip 100-300. Many of the folds are asymmetric with steep flanks on the east or
southeast (Fig. 7.5a, b).
The thrust faults dip 65-750 and are traced down into the basement. Most of the faults
offset up to the Middle Cretaceous unconformity (Green horizon), although rarely, they also
penetrate the overlying Tertiary strata (Figs. 5.3, 5.6, 7.5a, b). In some areas evidence for
inversion of the older, extensional structures is observed. For example, the reverse fault west of
the Yam West-1 well may have been a normal fault associated with down-to-the-basin, Early
Mesozoic faulting (Figs. 5.3, 7.2b). Many of the faults resemble positive flower structures and
contain supporting limbs; thus a certain amount of wrenching or transpression is inferred.
Syrian Arc II contractional deformation in the offshore is more complex and contains two
elements. The first element is a series of low-amplitude long wave folds that are in some places
superimposed on the older Syrian Arc I structures (Figs. 7.5a, c). The deformation affects the
Lower Miocene unconformity (Cyan horizon) and older strata; therefore a Middle Miocene age
of this folding phase can be inferred. Syrian Arc II folds are found throughout the basin and also
87
in its deep part east of the Eratosthenes high (Fig. 7.4). Reverse faulting and inversion are
generally not associated with this style of deformation; however, some of the structures in the
deep part of the basin are located above deep-seated basement highs, possibly suggesting some
reactivation of the Early Mesozoic horst and graben system (Fig. 5.9). The time span of the
Syrian Arc II deformation phase is not well constrained. Folding could have started in the Late
Eocene, as proposed by Walley (1989, 2001), and could have continued through the Early to
Middle Miocene. The base Messinian unconformity (Purple horizon) is generally not affected or
very mildly deformed (Figs. 7.5a-d).
Therefore an upper age limit for the Syrian Arc II
deformation in the Levant Basin is the latest Miocene.
A second element associated with the Syrian Arc II deformation is uplifting and tilting.
Figure 7.5b shows an uplifted block at the western end of the Syrian Arc I fold belt (Fig. 7.4).
The Middle Cretaceous unconformity (Green horizon) is tilted westward and the uppermost part
of the structure is elevated some 3000 m from the basin floor (western part of the profile in Fig.
7.5b). The Oligocene to Lower Miocene section onlaps the elevated structure on the east; thus
indicating filling of a negative relief (Fig. 7.5b). Uplifting and onlapping of Neogene strata
characterize the entire western edge of the Syrian Arc I fold belt in the eastern part of the basin
(Fig. 7.4 and seismic examples in Figs. 5.3, 5.6, 5.8,). The age of this event is estimated as
Oligocene to Upper Miocene (pre-Messinian).
At the northeastern part of the basin a younger deformation is observed. In the CarmelCesarea area the Mesozoic and Cenozoic section is uplifted near the coastline and the thin PlioPleistocene section on top of the structure thickens significantly west of it (Fig. 5.10). It is
therefore suggested that in this area the uplifting continued through the Plio-Pleistocene.
7.3.3 Neotethyan convergence in the Levant area
It is widely accepted that the Syrian Arc contractional deformation of the Levant area is
associated with the collision of the African-Arabian and Eurasian plates (Reches and Eyal, 1983;
Garfunkel, 1998; Walley, 1998, 2001; Flexer et al., 2005). A late Early Cretaceous convergence
initiated a northward-dipping subduction zone within the southerly Neotethys oceanic basin
(Robertson, 1998) that eventually progressed to collision and accretion in the present-day area of
Cyprus and southern Turkey. This activity is manifested at a lower intensity by the Syrian Arc
contractional structures of the Levant.
Reches and Eyal (1983) and Eyal (1996) described the Syrian Arc stress field (SAS)
associated with this deformation. According to these authors the SAS regime has been active
from the Turonian to the present. This suggestion is generally supported by the data from the
Levant Basin. The long-term contraction is marked by phases of more intense deformation.
88
The Senonian Syrian Arc I phase is characterized by localized folding, partly controlled by the
location of the deep-seated, Early Mesozoic normal faults. Walley (1998) proposed that this
phase reflects an ocean-ocean collision in the southern Neotethys.
Thickness and facies
variations of the Senonian strata in the Levant area are relatively limited, therefore it is
speculated that no significant relief was formed between the Levant margin on the east and the
deep basin on the west during the Syrian Arc I deformation.
The Syrian Arc II phase that started in the Paleogene is possibly related to the
progression of convergence and to a continent-continent collision on the southern Neotethys
margin (Walley, 1998, 2001). The wide extent of this deformation that was previously identified
only in several locations inland is revealed in the offshore data (Fig. 7.4). It is assumed that
many of the older, Syrian Arc I folds onshore and offshore were reactivated while new structures
were continuously being formed. The offshore seismic data further indicates that the Syrian Arc
II contractional deformation continued through the Miocene (Eyal, 1996) and did not end in the
Late Oligocene as proposed by Walley (1998, 2001).
An important element of the Syrian Arc II deformation shown by the offshore seismic
data is uplifting and tilting on the Levant margin (Fig. 7.5b). Walley (1998) proposed that the
main uplifts of the Lebanon and the Anti-Lebanon mountains occurred during this phase. It is
assumed that uplifting of the mountainous backbone of Israel also took place during the OligoMiocene and resulted in erosion, westward transport of clastic sediments and huge
accumulations within the deep part of the Levant Basin. Uplifting continued locally in the
Carmel-Caesarea area during the Plio-Pleistocene, possibly in conjunction with the activity on
the nearby segment of the Dead Sea Transform (Yagur fault) (Ben-Gai and Ben-Avraham,
1995).
8. Erosion Processes and Mass Transport on the Levant Slope
8.1 Rifting and Passive Margin Stages
Erosion and transport of sediments from elevated areas in the south and east to the basin
in the west and northwest have been taking place throughout the Mesozoic and Cenozoic history
of the region. The earliest evidence for coarse, clastic sediment accumulation is found in the
Helez Deep-1 well in the southern coastal plain of Israel (Fig. 1.3). The Erez Conglomerate
(Druckman, 1984) is a few hundred meters thick, built of polimictic carbonate breccia of lower
Late Triassic age (Fig. 4.1). Druckman (1984) described this unit as a fault breccia that was
eroded from a nearby horst block (Gevim High, Fig. 7.1) and accumulated on the downthrown
side of the Helez fault. The Triassic to Middle Jurassic horst and graben morphology could have
89
accommodated a well-developed drainage system, transporting fine and coarse siliciclastics.
During lowstands, e.g., between the Jurassic cycles 3 and 4 (Fig. 4.2), the Inmar sands may have
been transported from the distal Sinai and Negev hinterland toward the basin in the north and
west
During the passive margin stage deepwater turbidities accumulated on the slope and
within the basin, west of the shallow-marine shelf (Fig. 7.3)(Gardosh, 2002). Thin oolitic and
micro-conglomerate beds found in the Upper Jurassic cycle offshore (Yam-2, Yam West-1 and
Yam Yafo-1 wells; Derin et al., 1990; Druckman et al., 1994) are the products of submarine,
mass transport processes. The distribution and paleogeographic extent of these units are not fully
resolved.
The Lower Cretaceous Gevar'am Formation reflects an extensive deepwater turbidite
system that developed on the Levant slope during a prolonged lowstand (Fig. 4.3). This unit
comprises a thick series of hemi-pelagic dark shale found in various onshore and offshore wells.
In the southern coastal plain it fills a 1 km deep canyon, incised within the Jurassic shelf (Cohen,
1976).
The Gevar'am Canyon was the main conduit for submarine turbidite flows that
transported significant amounts of quartztoze sands into the basin from the elevated area on the
southeast. Several sand beds up to 20 m in thickness, found within the Gevar'am shale offshore
(Yam-2 and Yam West-1 wells, Fig. 7.3), are interpreted as distal slope fans and questionably
basin floor fans that are associated with the Gevar'am Canyon and channel system (Gardosh,
2002). Lower Cretaceous deepwater slope and basin floor fans are likely to be found in other
parts of the southern and central Levant Basin (e.g., Mango-1 well, Fig. 1.2).
The Middle Cretaceous section of the Levant margin and basin, although dominated by
carbonate strata, show evidence of clastic sediment transport. The Aptian-Albian slope deposits
of the Talme Yafe Formation contain coarse-grained carbonate breccias found in various wells in
the coastal plain (Cohen, 1971; Bein and Weiler, 1976). These were probably eroded from the
shelf and deposited by gravity flows on the slope during short term Aptian –Albian lowstands
(Gardosh, 2002).
Another Middle Cretaceous erosional feature of the Levant slope is the Item Canyon.
The Item Formation is a 2000 m thick carbonate series of Cenomanian age (Fig. 4.3), found in
the Item-1 well (Fig. 1.3). The origin of this unit was previously not fully understood. The new
offshore seismic data provides evidence for erosion at the base of the unit, indicating deposition
within a deep submarine slope canyon (Fig. 4.6). The geometry of the Item Canyon is at present
not well resolved because of the later Syrian Arc deformation.
A pronounced middle Turonian lowstand associated with karstic phenomena and
quartztose sandstone deposition is well documented in the shallow-marine platform from the
90
91
a
Fig 8.1- Convergence stage-the Tertiary fill of the Levant Basin: (a) Stratigraphic
section through the Levant Basin and Margin, and (b) isopach map of the
Oligocene to Upper Miocene interval. The great thickness of the
Tertiary section in the basin (more then 3 km) resulted from tectonic
uplift, eustatic sea-level falls and intense erosion and mass transport
across the Levant slope. See location of the section on the isopach map.
Crystalline Basement
Permian-M. Jurassic
M. Jurassic-Turonian
Senonian-Eocene
Oligocene-L. Miocene
M.-U. Miocene
Messinian
(Evaporites)
Pliocene-Pleistocene
b
Yam Yafo-1
-Long distance transport of
Nubian sandstone
a
- Long distance transport of
Nubian, Hazeva and
Hordos sandstone
b
92
- Short distance transport of
Hazeva and Hordos sandstone
c
- Short distance transport of
Hazeva sandstone
- Long distance transport of
Nilotic sands
?
d
Fig 8.2- The Tertiary, submarine canyon and channel system of the Levant margin, shown on the
depth maps of: (a) base Oligocene, (b) top Lower Miocene (c) base Messinian and (d) top
Messinian. The main directions of siliciclastic sediment supply are marked with black arrows.
93
Negev to the Galilee area (Fig. 4.3) (Sandler, 1996). It is possible that Turonian sands bypassed
the shelf and were transported westward by submarine turbidite flows to the slope and basin
areas, although these rocks were not encountered yet in any offshore wells
8.2 Convergence stage
8.2.1 Submarine canyon morphology
Extensive erosion and incision on the Levant slope, followed by the accumulation of
several kilometers thick Tertiary fill within the basin took place during the convergence stage
(Fig. 8.1). These phenomena reflect the combined effects of tectonic uplifting and tilting of the
Levant margin and the mountainous backbone of Israel, the uplifting of the Arabian Shield and
eustatic sea-level drops (Fig. 4.4). A highly developed submarine canyon and channel system
evolved during the Early Oligocene and persisted till the Late Pliocene (Figs. 8.2, 8.3). The
system included several main conduits generally oriented in NE-SW and E-W directions. These
are, from south to north: the Afiq, Ashdod, Hadera, Caeserea, Atlit and Qishon canyons (Fig.
8.2). Some of these erosional features were previously identified in onshore wells (the Afiq and
Ashdod canyons, Gvirtzman and Buchbinder, 1978; Druckman et al., 1995b; Buchbinder and
Zilberman, 1997). The offshore seismic data reveal the extent of the Tertiary drainage system
along the entire eastern part of the Levant Basin up to 70 km west of the present-day coastline.
The system is built of superimposed canyon incisions revealed by the topography of the base
Oligocene, Lower Miocene, base Messinian and top Messinian unconformities (Figs. 8.2a-d).
The major canyons are more or less vertically stacked and are straight to slightly
curvilinear. Secondary, subsequent channels confined by the morphology of pre-existing fold
structures flowed into the main canyons. The Afiq and Ashdod canyons are deeply incised. The
depth of the Afiq Canyon is up to 1500 m onshore (Druckman et al., 1995b) and several hundred
meters offshore (Fig. 8.3b). The Ashdod Canyon cuts a 700 m-deep gorge into Mesozoic strata
some 40 km offshore (Fig 8.3a). The incisions in the northern channels (Hadera, Caesarea, Atlit
and Qishon) are limited to the upper slope, near the present-day coastline.
8.2.2 Oligocene to Lower Miocene canyon system
The Oligocene tectonic activity and sea-level falls resulted in considerable shedding of
clastic material into the Levant Basin. Denudation was extensive, exposing Nubian sandstone
terrain in far proximal areas. Widespread transport of clastic material initiated a system of
submarine canyons, depicted by the Red seismic horizon (Fig. 8.2a). Oligocene continental
deposits are absent in Israel. Apparently, clastic material was not stored inland but was directly
transported to the basin.
94
Approximately 250 m of Oligocene coarse-grained clastics (sandstones and
conglomerates, named "Ashdod Clastics" ) were penetrated in the Ashdod wells, located in the
southern coastal plain where the Ashdod Canyon meets the present-day shoreline (Fig. 8.2a)
(Buchbinder and Siman-Tov, 2000; Buchbinder et al., 2005). The age of the Ashdod Clastics is
not strictly defined. It may range from upper Rupelian to Lower Chattian (zones P19 to P21 in
Fig. 4.4; Buchbinder et al., 2005). Core #2 from the Ashdod-2 well reveals a conglomerate
consisting of boulders, imbricated pebbles (mostly of Cretaceous limestones and dolostones) and
bioclastic sandstones of turbidite origin. Two intervals of highly porous sandstones, 20 m to 50m
thick, were detected in the Ashdod Clastics section. Their Spontaneous Potential (SP) and
Gamma-Ray (GR) log response exhibit blocky to fining-upward patterns. Other parts of the
section show a serrated log motif, reflecting interbded conglomerates, sandstones and marls
(Buchbinder et al., 2005). The clastic succession is interpreted as canyon fill or proximal slope
fan, deposited within the submarine, Ashdod Canyon that was formed during the lower
Oligocene (Figs. 4.4, 8.2a)
Although no significant sandy deposits were encountered in onshore wells along the Afiq
Canyon (Fig 8.2a), Martinotti, (1981) reported a Cretaceous boulder within hemi-pelagic middle
Oligocene sediments in the Gaza-1 well. Apparently, sands either bypassed the present-day,
onshore part of the Afiq canyon and were deposited offshore, or were eroded during the repeated
canyon entrenchments in the Miocene.
According to new findings from the Qishon-Yam-1 well (Fig. 1.2) (Schattner et al.
2006), the Qishon-Yizrael valley in the north part of the country was formed already in
Oligocene times. Therefore, clastic sediments from the Damascus- Ein Gev Basins could have
been transported through the Qishon and Atlit Canyons to the Levant Basin (Fig 8.2a) (see
below).
In the offshore area, high-amplitude, discontinuous seismic events that were identified
within Oligocene canyons may be interpreted as stacked, migrating channel systems (Fig 8.3a,c).
This seismic pattern probably indicates transported, coarse clastic material. It is highly probable
that clastic material was further transported into the basin and was deposited as sandy basin-floor
fans. On the seismic data these may correspond to high-amplitude seismic events, which were
identified above the Red horizon near the distal outlets of the main canyons (Fig. 8.3d).
The Lower Miocene is characterized by a prolonged lowstand (~6 my) indicated by the
absence of marine Burdigalian sediments inland (Fig. 4.4). This lowstand occurred during a
period of global eustatic rise of sea-level (Haq et al., 1977; 1978, Fig. 4.4) and may thus indicate
a tectonic uplift (Syrian Arc II phase). The lowstand was accompanied by intensive erosion and
transportation of clastic material into the basin. A Lower Miocene sand interval, 17 m thick, was
95
SW
NE
TWT(ms)
Ashdod Canyon
a
SW
NE
TWT(ms)
Afiq Canyon
b
96
W
E
TWT(ms)
1
c
TWT(ms)
SW
NE
2
2
d
Fig 8.3- Tertiary submarine incision and deposition of clastic sediments in the Levant Basin:
(a) the incised Ashdod Canyon; (b) the incised Afiq Canyon; (c) high-amplitude,
discontinuous seismic reflections within the Hadera channel (1), interpreted
as stacked, migrating channel systems; and (d) high-amplitude seismic reflections
near the mouth of the Ashdod Canyon(2), interpreted as basin-floor fan lobes.
97
encountered in the Gaza-1 well, in the southern coastal plain (Figs.1.3, 4.4). It may represent the
proximal tail of much more extensive accumulation in a distal basin position. The seismic data
shows high-amplitude events in the upper part of the Oligocene to top Lower Miocene interval,
below the Cyan horizon (Figs. 8.3b,d). These seismic events may correspond to clastic
accumulations in a distal basin position.
Notably, continental clastic sediments of the Hazeva and Hordos formations started to
accumulate in proximal inland areas in Early Miocene times. The Hordos sedimentation in the
Galilee initiated before 17 my (Shaliv, 1991) and the Hazeva Group in the Negev started to
accumulate before 20 my (Calvo and Bartov, 2001). The Hazeva continental deposition was
occasionally interrupted by Syrian Arc or other tectonic movements which may correspond to
the significant erosional truncation event of the Zefa Member (Calvo and Bartov, 2001). This
event could have resulted in a long distance transportation of clastic material from southern
Israel into the basin through the Afiq and Asdod Canyons (Fig. 8.2a,b).
In the north, the Nukev, En Gev and Hordos sands (of the Golan area) could have also
been remobilized and transported through the Qishon Valley to the Levant basin. According to
Shaliv (1991) the similarities between the En-Gev sands and the continental sediments of the
Damascus basin suggest that the two sites are, in fact, parts of the same basin. This indicates the
existence of extensive source for siliciclastics in the north (Fig. 8.2.a,b)
In summary, the Oligocene to Lower Miocene period is characterized by widespread
transport in submarine canyon and channel system along the entire Levant margin. The
provenance of the clastic material was long distance sites of Nubian sandstone (which was
already exposed in Sinai, Negev, and Trans-Jordan) during the early Oligocene phase, and both
Nubian sandstone and remobilized Hazeva and Hordos sands during early Miocene times (Fig.
8.2a,b).
8.2.3 Middle to Upper Miocene canyon system
The Serravallian to early Tortonian time is characterized by a long term lowstand
(Serravallian crisis). This lowstand is associated with the Bet Nir Conglomerate found in
outcrops inland; and probably also with 250 m thick conglomerate interval found in the Nahal
Oz-1 well, located in a proximal part of the Afiq Canyon, at the southern coastal plain (Fig.
8.2b). Druckman et al. (1995b) described in this part of the canyon erosion and slumping event
of Langhian to Serravallian age (2nd erosion; Druckman et al., 1995, figure 4). Further updip, the
Beer Sheva Canyon was excavated at this time and later filled by Late Miocene sediments of the
Pattish cycle (Fig. 4.4) (Buchbinder and Zilberman, 1997).
98
The Serravallian lowstand is associated with submarine incision on the Levant slope,
depicted by the Cyan seismic horizon (Fig. 8 2b). The canyon pattern closely followed the older,
base Oligocene system although the degree of incision was reduced (Fig. 8.3a,c). Coarse clastic
material was transported basinward through the Middle to Upper Miocene canyon system (Fig.
8.2b). Discontinuous, high-amplitude seismic events found above the Cyan horizon (Fig. 8.3b)
may be associated with channel-fill deposits and basin floor fans. Evidence from several wells
recently drilled in the Afiq Canyon offshore support this interpretation. The provenance of the
siliciclastic material was long distance sites of Nubian sandstone and remobilized Hazeva and
Hordos sands (Fig. 8.2b).
8.2.4 The Base-Messinain-evaporite canyon system
Substantial subaerial and submarine denudation of the North African and Levant
continental margin took place during the Messinian salinity crisis and lowstand (Fig. 4.4) (Ryan,
1978; Gvirtzman and Buchbinder, 1978). On the Levant slope the base Messinain canyon
system is depicted by the Purple seismic horizon (Fig. 8.2c). The degree of incision at the base
of the evaporite section is smaller then previous erosion phases (Fig. 8.3a,c) possibly due to
reduced runoff during this arid period.
The mountainous backbone of Israel was well developed at this time forming a
topographic barrier for long distance transport. A possible source for siliciclastics could have
been the Hazeva and Hordos sands that where eroded from elevated areas near the coast (Fig.
8.2c). There is no indication for clastic accumulation at the base Messinain level inland.
However, evidence from several wells recently drilled in the Afiq Canyon offshore indicates
some coarse clastic deposition.
8.2.5 The top-Messinian-evaporite canyon system and the Pliocene gas-bearing sands
A latest Miocene to Early Pliocene lowstand, associated with erosion of the Messinian
evaporites is identified in the proximal part of the Afiq Canyon inland (Druckman et al., 1995b,
5th erosion in figure 4). Druckman et al. (1995b) noted that this lowstand is followed by fluvial
erosion and flooding of the entire Mediterranean with fresh and brackish water during the socalled 'Lago Mare' event (Rouchy and Saint Martin, 1992).
In the Levant Basin the top
Messinian erosion is depicted by the Violet seismic horizon (Fig. 8.2d).
A short-term episode of marine deposition of the lowermost Pliocene was followed by
another significant lowstand at 4.37 m.y. (Fig. 4.4). Deepwater sands that are found above the
Mavkiim Formation in the offshore distal part of the Afiq canyon are separated from the
99
evaporites by several tens of meters thick layer of hemipelagic marl; and are therefore related to
the second, Early Pliocene lowstand of 4.37 m.y.
The thick accumulations of deepwater turbiditic sands, termed the Lower Member of the
Yafo Formation or the "Noa Sand" form the reservoir of the biogenic gas in the Noa, Mari and
Gaza Marine fields (Fig. 1.2). These prolific gas sands represent a basin floor fan environment
within the Afiq and El Arish Canyons. Some of the sands form large mounds up to 250 m in
thickness. The formation of the mounds is related to postdepositional, remobilization of the
deepwater sand, due to fluid injection in overpressure conditions (Oats, 2001; Frey-Martinez et
al., 2007).
A likely source for the Lower Pliocene siliciclastics is the Miocene Hazeva sandstone
that was exposed at that time and was eroded and transported to a short distance from the Negev
and northern Sinai area (Fig. 8.2d).
Another possible source is 'Nilotic' sands that were
transported from the Nile Delta by longshore currents and eventually trapped and transported
offshore in the Afiq canyon (Fig. 8.2d). The Yafo sands were so far encountered only in the
southern part of the basin. This may be explained by the lack of adequate source of siliciclastics
in the northern area during Pliocene times.
9. Hydrocarbon Potential
9.1 Trap Types and Hydrocarbon Plays
The integrated analysis of the Levant Basin presented in this report indicates a high
potential for hydrocarbon accumulation. Each of the main stratigraphic intervals described and
mapped in this report contains various types of potential structural and stratigraphic traps.
Suggested hydrocarbon plays within each interval are shown in Figure 9.1 and are briefly
described at the following sub-sections.
9.1.1 Permian to Middle Jurassic interval
This period is characterized by shallow-marine deposition and the formation of extensive
graben and horst systems across the Levant region. The main hydrocarbon plays suggested for
this interval are Triassic and Jurassic fault-related traps (Fig. 9.1).
Alluvial fans (Erez
Conglomerate type) and other coarse-grained clastic deposits may be found near the main faults
or within the Triassic and Jurassic grabens. Buried hill-type traps or carbonate buildups may be
found at the tops of the Triassic- Lower Jurassic highs, sealed by fine-grained Upper Jurassic and
100
101
M.-U.Miocene
Messinian
Carbonate buildup
Channel-fill
Turbidite lobes and sheets
Buried-hill
Biogenic gas
discoveries
High-grade
Oil shows
E
Fig 9.1- Schematic section through the Levant Basin showing
potential hydrocarbon traps in the Phanerozoic fill.
Pliocene gas discoveries in the southern part of the basin
and high-grade oil shows in the Mesozoic section
indicate the existence of biogenic and thermogenic
petroleum systems.
Permian-M. Jurassic
M. Jurassic-Turonian
Plio-Pleistocene
Alluvial fan
Trap type:
Oligocene-L. Miocene
W
Cretaceous strata. These features, which are deeply buried within the basin, are located at a
shallower depth (5-6 km) near the eastern margin.
9.1.2 Middle Jurassic to Turonian interval
This period is characterized by shallow-marine conditions during its early part, followed
by the deposition of carbonate platforms on the margin and deepwater turbidites in the basin
during the passive margin stage. The main hydrocarbon plays suggested for this interval are
Lower Cretaceous deepwater fans (Fig. 9.1). The Early Cretaceous Gevara'am canyon was part
of a submarine canyon and channel system incised on the continental slope in the southeastern
Levant margin. Several sand layers that where deposited as deepwater fans at the distal part of
this system were penetrated by offshore wells (e.g. Yam-2 and Yam West-1) (Gardosh, 2002).
Similar sand bodies can be expected in other parts of the basin. It should be noted that Early
Cretaceous sand bodies pre-dated the Syrian Arc deformation stage and therefore, are equally
distributed on highs and lows.
The early Middle Jurassic period is characterized by the accumulation of oolitic shoals
and fine-grained carbonate debris. These may be considered as an additional play type for this
interval. Light oil shows were discovered in the Yam-2 and Yam Yafo-1 wells in shallowmarine, Middle Jurassic reservoirs trapped within Syrian Arc folds.
Likewise the Lower
Cretaceous fans, the distribution of Middle Jurassic porous intervals is not controlled by Syrian
Arc deformation.
9.1.3 Oligocene to Lower Miocene interval
This period is characterized by contractional deformation and uplift that was followed by
intense erosion and transport of clastic sediments into the basin. An extensive canyon and
channel system developed during the Oligocene throughout the eastern part of the Levant Basin
(see chapter 8.2.1). The main hydrocarbon play suggested for this interval consists of Oligocene
channel-fill and deepwater fans (Fig. 9.1). Potential taps are channel-fill units interpreted on the
seismic data in up-dip position (confined setting), and basin floor fans interpreted on the seismic
data at the distal end of the canyons (non-confined setting) (Fig. 8.3). Some of the fans may be
found in structurally favored locations within Syrian Arc II type folds.
A unique feature that developed during this period is found at the southern part of the
Jonah Ridge (Figs. 5.11, 9.2). The seismic data show a large, layered mound located above a
chaotic package interpreted as a Cretaceous to Early Tertiary volcanic cone, which is
superimposed on a Triassic-Jurassic high (Fig. 5.11). This mound is interpreted as an atoll of
possibly upper Early Miocene age, equivalent to the Ziqlag reef and shelf carbonates found on
102
the margin. This and other Miocene carbonate buildups that may be found in the basin, are
suggested as an additional play in the Oligocene to Lower Miocene interval (Fig. 9.1). A similar
carbonate buildup was likewise interpreted by Aal et al. (2000) in the ultra-deepwater of the Nile
Delta, offshore Egypt.
9.1.4 Middle to Upper Miocene interval
This period is characterized by the continuation of contractional deformation, erosion and
sediment transport into the basin (see chapter 8.2.1). The main hydrocarbon play suggested for
this interval consists of Miocene channel-fills and deepwater fans similar to the above described
Oligocene play (Fig. 9.1). Combinated, stratigraphic and structural traps are expected to be
found. Deepwater channels at the base of the Messinian salt are an additional play that should be
considered in this interval (Fig. 9.1)
9.1.5 Pliocene interval.
Sediment transport into the basin through a submarine canyon and channel system took
place during the Early Pliocene (see chapter 8.2.1). Pliocene deepwater fans charged with
biogenic gas were discovered in the Afiq Canyon. This play should be further explored in other
Pliocene canyons, particularily in the southern part of the basin (Figs. 8.2d, 9.1).
9.2 Source Rocks and Petroleum Systems
An important aspect of the Levant Basin hydrocarbon potential is the distribution and
maturation level of source rocks. Producing fields and hydrocarbon shows found in the basin
and on its margins indicate the existence of two types of petroleum systems: biogenic and
thermogenic. The organic rich shales of the Plio-Pleistocene, Oligo-Miocene and Eocene all
have biogenic gas potential (McQuilken, 2001). The Middle Miocene Qantara Formation is
considered by Dolson et al. (2002) as a major Tertiary source in the offshore Nile Delta. The
Sadot and Shiqma gas fields (Fig. 1.2) found in the southern coastal plain are probably
associated with an Oligo-Miocene source of biogenic gas. The origin of the gas found in the
Noa, Mari and Gaza Marine fields is considered to be Miocene and Pliocene organic rich shale,
although a particular source rock for the Pliocene biogenic gas could not be explicitly established
(Feinstein et al., 2002). The great thickness and wide distribution of the hemipelagic Tertiary
section, however, suggest good potential for biogenic gas generation throughout the Levant
Basin.
Mesozoic source rocks comprise theromgenic petroleum systems. The Upper Cretaceous,
organic rich marl of the Mount Scopus Group have excellent source properties in the inland part
103
of Israel and generate oil and thermogenic gas in the Dead Sea basin (Tannenbaum and
Aizenshtat, 1985). Thermal maturity modeling shows that the Upper Cretaceous section reaches
maturation within the Levant Basin at depths greater than 4 km (Gardosh, 2002). Therefore,
Senonian strata should be considered as a potential source for oil and thermogenic gas in the
deep part of the basin.
The Lower Cretaceous Gevar'am shale has source rock properties and may have
generated oil and thermogenic gas where maturity is reached (McQuilken, 2001). The Middle
Jurassic Barnea Formation is the source of oil in the Helez field, onshore (Fig 1.2) (Bein and
Soffer, 1987). The organic rich limestone of the Barnea Formation was so far penetrated in the
southern coastal plain. If the organic facies of the Barnea Formation extends into the basin (Fig.
4.5) it may serve as an important source of hydrocarbons.
Lower Jurassic and Triassic continental to shallow-marine rocks were deposited
throughout the Levant area during the Neotethyan rifting stage. Bein et al.(1984) found source
properties in this section in various deep, onshore wells. It is assumed that the organic content in
Lower Jurassic and Triassic strata was higher in the paleograbens offshore, where lacustrine to
deeper marine conditions may have prevailed. High-grade oil shows found in the Middle
Jurassic limestone in the Yam-2 and Yam Yafo-1 well are probably related to these source rocks.
The timing of oil generation of the Early Mesozoic rock units is not well established.
McQuilken (2001) estimated that Lower to Middle Jurassic source rocks are presently in the
peak oil window to just within the gas window offshore. However, Gardosh (2002) estimated
that the Triassic rocks reached the maturity window in Late Jurassic to Middle Cretaceous time.
The later results further suggest that the primary migration of Early Mesozoic hydrocarbons may
have taken place prior to the onset of Syrian Arc folding phase, and therefore they should be
found in Early Mesozoic fault blocks and stratigraphic traps.
Recently discovered oil in the onshore Meged wells, located northeast of Helez (Fig. 1.2),
was related to Silurian source rocks (www.givot.co.il). This is the first occurrence of such oil in
the Levant region. It may be hypothesized that Silurian source rocks have been preserved, and
generated hydrocarbons within Neotethyan rift structures such as the Judea Graben onshore and
the deep-seated grabens offshore (Fig 7.1).
In summary, a wide spectrum of biogenic and thermogenic petroleum systems, ranging in
age from Paleozoic to Plio-Pleistocene is found in the Levant Basin. The situation offshore
Israel is probably similar to that offshore the Nile Delta where deep structures serve as focal
points for vertical hydrocarbon migration, resulting in a mix of biogenic and thermogenic gases
in shallow structural levels (Dolson et al., 2002, Feinstein et al., 2002).
104
10. Summary
Modern, geophysical data yielded new information on the structure and stratigraphy of
the Levant Basin, offshore. The integration of these data with the vast amount of information
from the Levant margin and inland part of Israel enables the reconstruction of a regional
geologic scheme. Three distinct tectonic stages in the evolution of the region are documented:
(a) Rifting stage
(b) Post-rift passive margin stage
(c) Convergence stage
Rifting in the Levant region is related to the breakup of the Gondwana plate and the
formation of the Neotethys Ocean system. Four extensional pulses are postulated: in the latest
Paleozoic; Middle Triassic; Late Triassic; and Early Jurassic. These pulses resulted in normal
faulting in the range of several kilometers, magmatic activity and the formation of NE-SW
oriented graben and horst systems. Four basement structures associated with the Early Mesozoic
extension are found in the deep parts of Levant Basin (from east to west): the Yam, Jonah,
Leviathan, and the Eratosthenes highs. The main structures inland are the Gevim, Gaash and
Maanit highs and the Hilal, Judea and Asher grabens. The rifting in the Levant area reached an
early magmatic stage. Although magmatic intrusion and stretching of the crust took place, no
indications for sea-floor spreading and emplacement of new oceanic crust are found. Continental
to shallow-marine depositional environments were dominant in the Levant region during the
rifting stage.
The post-rift stage is associated with cooling and subsidence that was probably more
intense within the basin than on the eastern margin. The Late Jurassic to Middle Cretaceous
section records the gradual formation of a passive-margin profile and the subsequent
development of a deep marine basin bordered by a shallow-marine shelf. The passive-margin
stage is characterized by recurring cycles of marine transgression and regression associated with
relative sea-level changes.
These are reflected by marine onlaps, numerous unconformity
surfaces, accumulation of carbonate platforms on the margin and mass transported deposition in
the basin.
The convergence stage is related to the closure of the Neotethyan Ocean system and the
motion of the Afro-Arabian plate towards Eurasia.
In the Levant region this motion is
manifested by large-scale contractional deformation of the Syrian Arc fold belt.
Two
contractional phases are observed. A Late Cretaceous Syrian-Arc I phase is characterized by
inversion of older normal faults and the development of asymmetric, high-amplitude folds that
are found mostly near the eastern margin and further inland. An Oligo-Miocene Syrian-Arc II
105
phase is characterized by the formation of low-amplitude folds throughout the basin, and
uplifting and tilting of marginal blocks, at the eastern part of the basin and further inland.
Teriary tectonic activity and eustatic sea-level falls scaused intense erosion and
accumulation of several kilometers thick basin-fill. Fluvial systems flowed on the exposed shelf
from elevated areas in the east. Submarine turbidity currents incised the upper slope and
transported siliciclastics further into the basin.
The Oligo-Miocene and Pliocene drainage
system includes, from south to north, the Afiq, Ashdod, Hadera, Casarea, Atlit and Qishon
canyons. The Afiq and Ashdod canyons are highly erosive and are incised several hundred
meters in the continental slope. Other canyons are less erosive and their flow pattern was for the
most part controlled by the topography of the paleoslope. The Tertiary drainage system was shut
off temporarily during the Messinian salinity event and turned on again during post-evaporites,
latest Miocene to Early Pliocene lowstands.
The variety in tectonic styles and depositional patterns may provide favorable trapping
conditions for hydrocarbons in the Levant Basin. Potential structural traps are associated with the
extensional rift structures and the contractional Syrian Arc folds.
Stratigraphic traps are
associated with Triassic-Middle Jurassic shallow-marine, carbonate and siliciclastic reservoirs
and Cretaceous and Tertiary deepwater turbidite systems.
Shallow gas discoveries in Pliocene sands and high-grade oil shows found in the
Mesozoic section indicate the presence of source rocks and appropriate conditions for
hydrocarbon generation in both biogenic and thermogenic petroleum systems. The size, depth
and trapping potential of the Levant Basin supports the conclusions that large quantities of
hydrocarbons can be found offshore Israel.
This study was focused on the stratigraphy, structure and tectonic evolution of the Levant
Basin. It is recommend to conduct specific studies on the following topics: (a.) further analysis
of the Tertiary drainage systems in wells, outcrops and 3D seismic data; (b) further analysis of
the Middle Jurassic to Middle Cretaceous reservoir rocks and depositional environments, (c.) 2D
and 3D structural reconstruction of the basin; (d.) modeling the thermal history and migration
paths for hydrocarbons; and (e.) study of Direct Hydrocarbon Indicators (DHI) in 2D and 3D
seismic data.
106
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank B. Conway, L. Perelis-Grossowicz , R. Siman-Tov and
S.
Lipson-Benitah for reviewing paleontological data of selected Jurassic, Cretaceous and
Tertiary intervals. We thank B. Cohen and N. Almog for drafting maps and geologic sections,
and B. Katz for editing the manuscript. The help of R. Calvo in data organization is much
appreciated. We thank Y. Ben-Gai and A. Sneh for fruitful discussions and P. Weimar for
helpful remarks on the Tertiary drainage system.
107
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