Pigments in later Japanese paintings

Transcription

STUDIES USING
SCIENTIFIC
fin
METHODS
v*
PAINTINGS
Elisabeth West FitzHugh,
John Winter, and Marco Leona
FREER GALLERY OF ART
OCCASIONAL PAPERS
NEW SERIES V0L1
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
WASHINGTON, D,C„
OCCASIONAL PAPERS
NEW
SERIES VOL.
1
OCCASIONAL PAPERS
ORIGINAL
SERIES, 1947-1971
Grand Empress Dowager Wen Ming and
A. G. Wenley, The
Necropolis at Fang Shan, Vol.
Burns A. Stubbs, Paintings,
to
American and European
Gallery of Art, Vol.
no.
1,
1,
no.
3,
Drawings, Prints, and Copper Plates by and Attributed
1948
2,
in
Muslim Iconography
I:
The Unicorn,
1950
Collections of the Freer Gallery of Art, Vol.
Steindorff,
A
A
i,
Biographical Outline, Illustrated from the
no. 4, 1950
Royal Head from Ancient Egypt, Vol.
1,
no.
John Alexander Pope, Fourteenth-Century Blue-and-White:
in the
Topkapu Sarayi
Rutherford
J.
Miizesi, Istanbul, Vol.
2,
no.
2,
Fong, The Lohans and a Bridge
Calligraphers
and
Painters:
1015/A.D. 1606, translated
Richard Edwards, Li
Rutherford
J.
2,
no.
1,
5,
1951
A Group
of Chinese Porcelains
1952
Gettens and Bertha M. Usilton, Abstracts of Technical Studies
Archaeology, 1943-1952, Vol.
Wen
Wei
Together with a List of Original Wliistleriana in the Freer
Burns A. Stubbs, James McNeill Whistler:
Georg
the Northern
1947
1,
Pastels,
Artists,
Richard Ettinghausen, Studies
Vol.
no.
1,
Ti,
Gettens,
A
to
Treatise
Heaven, Vol.
3,
no.
1,
Roy
3,
S.
no.
3,
Clarke
3,
,
circa a.h.
no.
2,
1959
1967
Jr.,
and W.
T.
Chase, Two Early Chinese Bronze
Weapons with Meteoritk Iron
Blades, Vol. 4, no.
INTERIM SERIES,
PUBLISHED BY BOTH
1998-2002,
Art and
1958
by Qadi Ahmad, Son of Mir-Munshi
from the Persian by Vladimir Minorsky, Vol.
Vol.
in
1955
1,
1971
THE FREER GALLERY OF ART AND THE ARTHUR M. SACKLER GALLERY
Ebba Koch, Dara-Shikoh Shooting Nilgais: Hunt and Landscape
Vol.
1,
in
Mughal
Painting,
1998
Gauvin Alexander
Court of India, Vol.
Stanley K. Abe,
A
Bailey,
2,
The
Jesuits
and
the
Grand Mogul: Renaissance Art at
1998
Freer Stela Reconsidered, Vol.
3,
2002
the Imperial
STUDIES USING
SCIENTIFIC
METHODS
PIGMENTS
IN
LATER JAPANESE
PAINTINGS
Elisabeth West FitzHush,
***
John Winter, and Marco Leona
OCCASIONAL PAPERS
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
WASHINGTON, D.C.
NEW
SERIES VOL.
1
AID
/S/0
r—.
EDITORIAL BOARD
Ann
j
£00 2
Louise Allison Cort
Paul
lett
Julian
©
O
C. Gunter, series editor
Raby
2003 Smithsonian Institution
All
l
ights reserved
series editor
editor
Ann
C.
Gunter
Jennifer Alt
designer Kate Lydon
All objects illustrated are in the collections of the Freer Gallery of
Art, Smithsonian Institution, unless otherwise noted.
Freer Gallery of Art.
Studies using scientific methods
paintings
/
[essays by] Elisabeth
pigments in later Japanese
West FitzHugh, Marco Leona,
:
John Winter.
cm.
p.
—
(Occasional papers 2003
;
v. 1)
Includes bibliographical references.
1.
Painting, Japanese
2.
Pigments
—
Elisabeth West.
V.
— Edo
Analysis.
II.
3.
period, 1699-1868
Ukiyoe.
Leona, Marco.
Occasional papers
(
4.
III.
— Technique.
Freer Gallery of Art.
Winter, John. IV.
Freer Gallery of Art
:
2003
);
I.
FitzHugh,
Title.
v. 1.
ND1053.5.F729 2003
759-95 2 '09'°3
— de2i
NOTE: Dimensions
Printed by
£
2003006484
are given in centimeters; height precedes width.
CS Graphics
in
^ Smithsonian
V4i*
Singapore
CONTENTS
Preface
A
Database of Pigments on Japanese Ukiyo-e Paintings
in the Freer Gallery of Art
Elisabeth West FitzHugh
The
Identification of Indigo
and Prussian Blue
on Japanese Edo-Period Paintings
Marco
Leotia
Authors
Index
and John Winter
PREFACE
The
Freer Gallery of Art Occasional Papers began publication in 1947 under the stew-
ardship of Archibald G. Wenley, director of the
eleven
titles
between 1947 and
1971. Subject,
museum, and produced
format, and length ranged widely, from
monographic treatments of a
single object or
group of objects
and commentaries on
a particular text
— even
lations,
The
series
was intended
on material
a total of
to annotated bibliographies.
and
for a specialist readership,
it
in the collections of the Freer Gallery of Art.
Occasional Papers produced three additional
titles
to checklists, trans-
focused almost exclusively
A short-lived revival of the
between 1998 and 2002. Unlike
the original series, however, these papers consisted of brief treatments of individual works of art, were highly standardized in length
and format, and were aimed
at
a broad readership.
As one of the world's premier research
Freer Gallery of Art demonstrates
research activities
it
sponsors for
its
its
institutions for the study of Asian art, the
commitment
own
staff
Disseminating the results of these research
dimension of the museum's mission, and
the Occasional Papers series in
The new series
its
and
activities
in this regard
forms an equally important
we have decided to relaunch
third incarnation.
it
collections.
Wenley
publishes for a specialist constituency research
Asian art from a variety of perspectives, although
museum's
through the
other scholars.
signals a return to the underlying principles of the series
established in 1947. Likewise,
to the
to this mission
facilitates for
As in the original
on
is
no longer confined
series, future titles
of the Freer Gallery
its
purview
of Art Occasional Papers will range widely in subject; they will include monographs,
conference proceedings, multiauthor treatments of material or theme, and studies
in conservation
and
scientific research.
The
first
of the series
is
entitled Studies
Using Scientific Methods: Pigments in Later Japanese Paintings.
This volume was funded by a publications
endowment
established with a grant
from the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation and contributions from private donors, and
by a grant from the Mellon Foundation that supports the
materials
Julian
and structures of East Asian
Raby
Director
paintings.
scientific
study of the
A Database of Pigments on
Japanese Ukiyo-e Paintings in the
Elisabeth West FitzHugh
ABSTRACT
The pigments were identified on
paper supports
Edo
period,
in the Freer Gallery
hundred Japanese ukiyo-e paintings on
Of
late sixteenth to
the seventeen pigments identified, eleven were
throughout the ukiyo-e period:
shell white, vermilion, red lead,
and some were
first
Prussian blue, and
red and
six
pigments were not used before the
used
later:
artificial
brown organic
Identification
late
the late
employed
and an organic
seventeenth century,
lead white, orpiment, various copper greens, smalt,
ultramarine. Further characterization
is
needed of the
colorants and of some of the copper greens. Other pigments
included mica and some metal pigments. Shell white
the organic brown.
and
organic red, red and
earths, organic yellow, yellow earth, malachite, azurite, indigo,
brown. The other
silk
Momoyama period, the
of Art. They date to the
and the early years of the Meiji period, from the
nineteenth century.
brown
five
The other pigments were
is
unique to Japan,
in use
as
may be
throughout East Asia.
methods were polarized-light microscopy, chemical microscopy, and
x-ray diffraction, with limited use of scanning electron microscopy with energydispersive x-ray analysis.
INTRODUCTION
The
Freer Gallery of Art, Smithsonian Institution,
paintings, drawings,
The
and the pigments used
made
in this
group were the subject of this
of Japan, and their subject matter was
first
hundred Japanese
artists
use of color on
Paintings in the ukiyo-e style depicted the everyday
ings
six
and sketches of the ukiyo-e school, dating from the
to the late nineteenth century.
these works,
owns over
appeared in Japan in the
life
some
late sixteenth
five
hundred of
investigation.
of the ordinary people
known as "the floating world." Ukiyo-e paint-
late sixteenth
century during the
Momoyama
period (1573-1615) and continued to be produced throughout the Edo period
(
1615-1868 ) and into the early years of the Meiji period
artists
(
1868-1912).
Some
ukiyo-e
produced both paintings and woodblock prints while others specialized
in
1
ELISABETH WEST FITZHUGH
either
one or the
other.
Curran, and Bailie 1984; Whitmore and Cass 1988); they generally require
1971; Feller,
methods from those used here because the amount of pigment
different analytical
from
available
Pigments on woodblock prints have been studied (Grove
a print
is
substantially less than that available
These paintings were executed on
hanging
scrolls
silk
(kakemono), handscrolls
from a painting.
and paper supports and
(
are in the
form of
makimono), folding screens (byobu), and
drawings or sketches; some of the drawings and sketches were originally
or sketchbooks. In this report the term painting refers to
This project was conceived by Rutherford
J.
all
in
albums
of these types of work.
Gettens, then head curator of the
Technical Laboratory, the predecessor of the Department of Conservation and
Scientific Research of the Freer
some of the
earliest
and Sackler
galleries,
and Gettens himself carried out
work. The study was begun in 1969 and completed by
1985.
The
present author published a progress report (FitzHugh 1979) and a shorter version
of the final results
(
FitzHugh 2003
).
This work forms a basic database appendix on pigment use on Japanese ukiyo-e
(
paintings and has provided the
)
groundwork
for further
work by
Winter 2001; Winter, Giaccai, and Leona 2003). The intent was
pigments used and to determine
from the
1.
late 16th to mid-ijjth
the early years (table
IN
Used
century
Organic yellow
Shell white
to characterize the
1 ).
THE FREER GALLERY OF ART
after late 17th
17th century
on
on
century
Smalt
Copper greens
Vermilion
Malachite
Red lead
Azurite
18th century
Indigo
Red and brown earths
late 18th
Yellow earths
Organic brown
Orpiment
— 19th century
Prussian blue
Lead white
Organic red
Ultramarine
19th century only
The dating of
Leona and
Many pigments were used throughout the
SUMMARY OF PIGMENTS ON UKIYO-E PAINTINGS
Used
(
any chronological differences could be observed
early to the late ukiyo-e period.
some were not used during
period;
TABLE
if
others
these paintings
is
in
some
cases problematic.
The
first
ukiyo-e
painting in the collection of Charles Freer (1854-1919) was catalogued in 1896. By
1917 Freer
had purchased three-quarters of the
color here under consideration.
Of the
five
paintings acquired before 1917 (no ukiyo-e
paintings were acquired between 1917 and 1954),
istrar's
were
records for
first
updated
2
many
hundred ukiyo-e paintings with
some
are firmly dated, but the reg-
of them supply only the information available
accessioned. Attributions given here are based
in
some
cases with
more
recent information
on the
when
they
registrar's records,
from the catalogue published
A
DATABASE OF PIGMENTS
the time of the fiftieth anniversary of the Freer Gallery of Art
at
appendix the column headed
as far as
is
is
Stern 1973
style
of that
is
attributed to an eighteenth-century
may only
artist.
The information presented here should be of interest to
a
wide audience. In par-
and culture may find some guideposts toward
ticular historians of Japanese art
and dating of ukiyo-e painting,
solving problems of the attribution
ject,
indeed referred to as "the Augean stables" by one specialist in
1992
).
Other potential readers include
East Asian technology
to learn
more about
In the
superseded by any information in the column
for example, if a painting
but "dated" to the nineteenth century, this indicates that the painting
artist
be in the
).
Dates" indicates the attribution
"Artist, Life/ Activity
known. This attribution
headed "Dated";
(
and
a
complex sub-
this field
(Clark
scientists searching for facts in the history
generalists with
an interest in the
the materials used to produce
art
of the area
of
who wish
it.
DESIGN OF THE PROJECT
The range of
colors
on every painting was noted by
visual inspection
and
at
low
magnification with a binocular microscope. Every color was sampled, within the limits
of subjective judgments that had to be made. In
missed; for example, two
superficially to be the
some
blues in different areas
same but
are in fact
two
cases a color
may have been
of the painting might appear
different pigments.
It
should be
noted that on certain works, chiefly nineteenth-century drawings and sketches, some
pigments were applied too thinly
not
all
to
permit analysis by the methods used, and thus
the colors were sampled; these paintings are indicated in the appendix.
Pairs or sets of paintings
was sampled
after
it
were treated as one painting. Usually only one painting
was ascertained
paintings in the pair or
set.
ing to another in a pair or
that the
Variations in colors occasionally occurred from one paintset,
and
in that case
in order to obtain a representative range.
teria
more than one painting was sampled
With an album or sketchbook,
Some retouched areas were sampled when
intent here
was
questions arose, but generally the
to obtain a record of the original pigments.
obviously an important one, but
it
was only peripheral
The question of retouch
to this investigation.
Only very small samples were required, so no damage was done
The
similar cri-
were used. Samples were taken from areas showing no obvious evidence of
retouch.
is
same range of colors was found on other
identifications were carried out
to the painting.
by traditional methods: polarized-light
microscopy, chemical microscopy, and x-ray diffraction. Limited use was
made of
element determination by scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive
3
.
x-ray analysis. Also included here are the results of analysis by thin-layer chromatog-
raphy carried out on three of these paintings
The
analytical
another investigation Winter 1987).
in
(
methods used here have inherent
limitations, but they served to
possible firm identification of a large majority of the pigments.
make
Some pigments could
not be exactly characterized, and a few could only be described in a very general way.
Nevertheless, the totality of the data gives a
No
statistical
absence of a pigment does not necessarily
For example,
if
good idea of the colorant
range.
deductions can be drawn from the results of these analyses. The
no yellow was used
mean that it was never used by the painter.
in a painting,
yellow was available, but only that the
artist
it
was not necessarily because no
did not require that color to obtain a
desired effect.
Carbon-based inks and pigments are obviously of tremendous importance
East Asian works of art, for their use in drawing outlines
and
Important work has been done on carbon pigments (Winter
gation of their use
and
silver,
copper
1983),
but the investi-
on ukiyo-e paintings was beyond the scope of this
metal pigments were not searched for systematically.
alloys,
and
silver sulfide are
A
in
for parts of the design.
project.
The
few identifications of gold
noted, but a comprehensive discus-
sion of this subject merits a separate investigation.
Japanese pigment names have varied
monly
in use in the
been made
Edo period
to discuss other
at different
are given here,
names when they
periods.
Those most com-
and only an occasional attempt has
relate to the
pigment's history of use.
The complex history of Japanese pigment terminology over the
centuries
is
beyond
the scope of this study.
When Buddhism reached Japan from China and
techniques and
new
(Chronicles of Japan
tion
coloring materials from China
),
a
Korea in the sixth century, new
became
available.
The Nihongi
famous seventh-century document, mentions the introduc-
from Korea of techniques of preparing painters' colors Aston
(
1924, vol.
2,
140
)
Previously the range of pigments in Japan was limited chiefly to earth colors and
clays
to
(
Yamasaki and Emoto 1979 ). Early writers on Japanese pigments often referred
China
as the source of the best pigments, or
mation about them. For
this reason
from reports of pigment use
history
and use
in the West,
in
sometimes
as the best source of infor-
some information from Chinese documents and
China
is
included here, with a discussion of pigment
where appropriate.
OVERVIEW OF RESULTS
Of
4
the seventeen pigments identified
on these paintings, eleven were employed
A
throughout the ukiyo-e period see table
(
reds used were vermilion, red lead,
earths, the iron oxide pigments.
compositions are closely
their
1 ).
The common white was shell
one or more organic
These two earths are
related.
common
green,
white.
and there were two
— the
classified together
only
latter
and
blues: azurite
brown colorant was an organic brown, discounting brown
The
and red and brown
because
The yellow colorants used throughout
period were an organic yellow and yellow earth
was the
reds,
The
indigo.
earth,
the
Malachite
rarely.
which
is
single
not dis-
cussed separately.
The other
some were
six
first
pigments were not used before the
used even
on Japanese paintings,
later
yet
it
(
see table
1 ).
late
was used here on some
quite extensively, as seen in plate
1.
seventeenth century, and
Smalt has not been previously reported
ukiyo-e paintings has also been unreported; further research
their identity
ings.
not
The
at
and
fact that
sometimes
sixty paintings,
The use of various copper green colorants on
to account for the date of their first
orpiment was not used
required to determine
is
appearance on these paint-
until the early eighteenth century also can-
present be explained. Prussian blue was invented in the West at the beginning
of the eighteenth century, and the chronology of its importation into Japan after the
late
eighteenth century
is
discussed below. Lead white was used after the late eigh-
teenth century, by only two
artists,
shell white. Finally, the finding
tent with
evidently because ukiyo-e painters preferred
of few examples of
artificial
our knowledge that neither the natural nor
Japanese paintings on paper and
in repaint, kaolin
artificial
pigment
is
is
consis-
known on
silk.
Other pigments found rarely included mica,
two found only
ultramarine
and
a selection of
metal pigments, and
barite.
THE PIGMENTS
WHITE PIGMENTS
Shell white, gofun,
is
a
form of calcite, calcium carbonate (CaC0 3 ), made of crushed
seashells, usually oyster shells.
The
shells are collected in piles
and allowed to age out-
side for a protracted period to allow organic matter to deteriorate.
They are then pro-
cessed by crushing, grinding, and pulverizing, followed by levigation. In factory
production observed by R.
fifteen years,
J.
Gettens in Japan in 1970, the shells were
ing carried out (Gettens, FitzHugh, and Feller 1993). Shell white
in this series that
lead white
left
outside for
followed by purely mechanical processing with no heating or calcin-
is
on nine
is
the only pigment
unique to Japan, and the only white pigment used, except for
late paintings.
5
There are early references to
China. "Clam shell white" was men-
a shell white in
tioned in seventh-century China as an ingredient of
136).
We know
artificial
jade
(Needham
1976,
from documentary evidence from late-seventeenth-century China
that pulverized oyster or
make white paint
clam
shells
were heated, ground, and mixed with water to
(Sze 1956, 41). Heating, or calcining, the calcite of the shells
would
produce quicklime (calcium oxide, CaO), and the subsequent addition of water
would convert
it
to lime
(Ca(OH) 2 ). Exposure
to air
would then
result in the re-
formation of calcium carbonate that would not retain the typical striated appearance so characteristic microscopically of the particles of ground
on Japanese pigments have
writers
said that shell white
shells.
Early Western
was calcined, but there may
have been some confusion with the Chinese process (Anderson 1886; Conder
1911).
Japanese shell white shows no evidence of calcination.
The term gofun
older literature the
clay.
Uyemura
(
literally refers to
any white powder or pigment; therefore,
name may refer to
1931
)
and Oguchi 1969 both point out that the term
)
(
referred to lead white,
and Anderson
in the
other pigments, such as lead white and white
at early dates
(1886) notes the application of the
term to
white clay as well as to lead white.
Shell white has
fifteenth
(
been used
in
Japan since the time of the Kano School in the
and sixteenth centuries, when
it
replaced clay as the
common white pigment
Yamasaki and Emoto 1979 ). Artists used this pigment throughout the ukiyo-e period,
as
evidenced on these paintings, both as a white pigment and as an important con-
stituent of
pigment mixtures designed
to obtain lighter color tones.
Calcium carbonate pigments other than
A
China.
calcite
was used
repository in Nara, but
it
in
is
not
(Naruse 1996). Calcite was used
Mogao
caves at
states that a
Dunhuang
shell
Japan on masks
in
known
at
if it
9).
On
Han
dynasty (206 b.c.e-
a few of these paintings, a
pigment was identified that does not have the same microscopic appearance
from
It
occurs mixed with shell white and also appears separately.
a different source also
Lead white, empaku, an
was known
in Japan
artificially
made
basic lead carbonate,
by the seventh century; in 692
Japanese
artists
c.E. a
2,
Emoto
1979). Shell white then
2PbC03 Pb(OH) 2
.
monk was
408).
through the seventeenth century, chiefly on
paintings (Yamasaki and
may establish that
was used.
the empress for preparing lead white (Aston 1924, vol.
6
both Japan and
various periods in the wall paintings in the
may be a variety of the typical shell white; further investigation
calcite
in
western China (Hsu, Chou, and Li 1983). Yii Feian
"white chalk," CaCO,, was used as early as the
as typical shell white.
It
known
originated from shells or limestone
220 c.E.) in China (Silbergeld and McNair 1988,
calcite
white are
in the Shosoin, the eighth-century
It
,
rewarded by
was then used by
small and valuable
became the
common white
A DATABASE OF
PIGMENTS
pigment for reasons that have not been explored, perhaps because
and
it
was cheaper
easier to produce.
Lead white occurs on
Gallery, dating
a
number of pre-ukiyo-e
Japanese paintings in the Freer
from the thirteenth through the fourteenth century (Winter
found on only nine of the ukiyo-e paintings under investigation
(1756-1829) or in his
style,
TABLE
2.
Hosoda
Eishi (1756- -1829), style of
F1898.117
Hosoda
Eishi, style of
F1906.ll
Hosoda
Eishi, style
F19575
I
F1957.6
[
called
Dutch
as the
of
losoda lishi
F1957.7
Hosoda
F1903.125
Katsushika Hokusai (1760-1849)
Eishi
F1903.274
Katsushika
F1906.233
Katsushika Hokusai
lokusai (orSori
I
dominant white pigment
process, the
Hosoda Eishi
(table 2).
losoda Fishi
These occurrences indicate that lead white was
it
is
LEAD WHITE ON UKIYO-E PAINTINGS
F1898.93
white replaced
here, six by
and three by Katsushika Hokusai (1760-1849)
1981). It
common
still
III)
occasionally in use after shell
in the seventeenth century. In the so-
method used
preparation
in the West, lead
was
exposed to acetic acid vapors from vinegar (Gettens, Kiihn, and Chase 1993). This
method was well established in Japan
The
earliest literary reference to lead
b.c.e. text,
metal
300
(
in the late nineteenth
century Takamatsu 1878 ).
(
pigments in China,
fourth-century
in a
appears to discuss the manufacture of lead white and red lead from the
(Needham
B.C.E.,
Needham
1976, 103).
The Dutch process was described
in
China
as early as
but the early use there of lead white, as in Japan, was as a cosmetic
1976,
15,
16
),
and the
first
date of its use as a pigment
used extensively on fifth-century wall paintings
at the
is
not known.
Tiantishan Grottoes
(
It
was
Zhou,
Zhang, and Cheng 1997). Lead white appears to be one of the painters' pigments
described in a fifth-century Chinese
from lead and vinegar
and Pak
1928)
The few
and
in
poem
(
Schafer 1956
China was described
in the seventeenth century
identifications of lead white
).
The making of lead white
in the late sixteenth
(
Read
on Chinese works include tenth-
eleventh-century Song-dynasty (960-1279) wall paintings in the
Dunhuang
century
(Sung 1966, 256).
(Gettens, Kiihn, and Chase 1993).
It
was
also
Mogao
to
caves at
found on several tenth-
to sixteenth-century Chinese paintings in the Freer Gallery
and on Korean paint-
ings of the fourteenth to the fifteenth century (Winter 1981).
Other kinds of "lead white" include
a basic lead chloride that has
been found on
7
some Japanese works of
(
including objects from the eighth-century Shosoin
art,
Naruse 1996) and a number of twelfth-
Gallery (Winter 1981
ings, five
).
Of
to fifteenth-century paintings in the Freer
the nine lead white occurrences
on these ukiyo-e paint-
were confirmed as lead white by x-ray diffraction. The possibility that basic
lead chloride might be present
on the other four paintings has not been
investigated.
RED PIGMENTS
Vermilion, shu or shin-sha, red mercuric sulfide, a-HgS, appears on the paintings
as a bright clear red.
The former term
mineral cinnabar, which
ground
is
to
generally refers to vermilion
and the
latter to
produce the pigment. The synthetic form of
vermilion can be prepared by two methods, the dry process and the wet process
(Gettens, Feller,
and Chase
1993).
Dry-process vermilion
cury and sulfur together to form black mercuric
is
sulfide,
made by
which
heating mer-
in turn
heated,
is
causing the red mercuric sulfide to form by sublimation. This dry-process vermilion
is
ground
to
produce the pigment and
is
identical in microscopic appearance to
ground mineral cinnabar. Either dry-process or natural vermilion was used on these
paintings throughout the ukiyo-e period.
Wet-process vermilion
prepared by heating black mercuric sulfide
is
tion of ammonium or potassium sulfide, yielding a product of fine
typical of a chemically precipitated material. In the
We have
in
Germany
in
China or Japan. Wet-process vermilion
In the
common
process
1993
133
).
).
and
in 1687.
that vermilion
is
use by the fourteenth century;
it
Interestingly,
first
B.C.E.
it
and McNair
was ever made
in this
size,
used
way
and was
in
(
Gettens, Feller,
and Chase
has been referred to as the "Chinese method" in the West Li 1948,
(
in the fifth
century
B.C.E.,
of mercury from cinnabar there was described as early as the third cen-
sulfur
1976, 4).
More than one author says
was known
1988, 5).
to the Chinese in antiquity
The manufacture
late-sixteenth-century China
(
that the process of heating
(
Sung 1966, 280;
of dry-process vermilion
Read and Pak 1928 ). The process was
China by the seventeenth century, and the pigment was imported
the
first
has been suggested that knowledge of the
probable reference to vermilion in China was
(Needham
mercury with
was
in the eighth century
may have been transmitted to the West from China
The
this process
not found on these paintings.
West dry-process vermilion was known
distillation
tury
no evidence
West
in a solu-
and uniform
Edo period (Oguchi
1969).
Numerous authors
Silbergeld
was described
in
well developed in
into Japan during
say that the best vermilion
was
imported into Japan from China, and high-quality Chinese vermilion was exported
to
England
in the
second half of the eighteenth century (Harley 2001,
In Japan production of dry-process vermilion
monopoly
8
in 1609 (Gettens, Feller,
and Chase
is
known
1993).
to have
127).
begun under
a
Tajima (1903) refers to the
PIGMENTS
A DATABASE OF
preparation of
vermilion by roasting mercury and sulfur, and Anderson
artificial
by "rubbing together yellow sulfur
(1886) noted that vermilion could be prepared
with mercury." Takamatsu
and
eral
Japan whereby native cinnabar
later in
which
(
in turn
method used
1878) describes the preparation
is
in
China
heated to obtain metallic mercury,
heated with sulfur to produce vermilion by sublimation. The min-
is
was sometimes pure enough
to be
ground and used
as a pigment.
The
less
pure
mineral cinnabar was used as a source of mercury for dry-process preparation of the
pigment (Sung 1966,
280).
Mineral cinnabar occurs in Japan in Yamato Province (Takamatsu
are deposits of cinnabar
4000
There
throughout China, with particularly rich deposits occur-
pigment
ring in the south (Golas 1999, 139). Cinnabar was found as a
least as early as
1878).
b.c.e. in
in graves at
China Wang and Wang 1999 ).
(
Vermilion was used as a pigment in Japan from the eighth century on Yamasaki
(
and Emoto
1979).
was
It
common
in
use on these paintings during the whole
of the ukiyo-e period. The vermilion was sampled from the painting proper, not
from the
Red
seals.
Pb,04 appears on the paintings
lead, entan or tan, artificial lead tetroxide,
as a bright orange-red, or
sometimes
tallographically to the mineral
was ever used
as a
pigment
,
a dull orange.
minium. There
is
It is
similar chemically
no evidence
Red lead
in Japan or elsewhere.
and crys-
that the mineral itself
made
is
in
two ways: by
heating lead white, or by heating metallic lead in a two-step process, in which case
compound litharge (PbO) is an intermediate product (FitzHugh 1986).
An eighth-century Japanese document describes the heating of "black lead" to prothe yellow
duce "red
lead," evidently a reference to the
second method; red lead powder from
the eighth-century Shosoin has a high litharge content, and
that this indicates that
method
use of this
it
it
has been suggested
was prepared by the two-step process Yamasaki 1959 ). The
(
in the nineteenth
century in Izumi Province in Japan was
described by Takamatsu (1878).
The preparation of red lead from
century in China (Needham 1976,
known from
ties,
It
the
Han
lead appears to have been
103).
A
C.E.
)
(
paper and
The
silk
(
earliest
FitzHugh 1986
known
as early as the fourth
Li 1983
)
but was
less
century
at
came from China.
the
Mogao
caves at
common on Chinese paintings on
).
use of red lead pigment in Japan
century wall paintings of the Horyuji temple
it
is
(Schafer 1956). Several authori-
including Conder ( 1911 ), have suggested that the best red lead
was used on wall paintings
in the fourth
definite description of the process
period (206 B.C.E.-220
Dunhuang Hsu, Chou, and
and
known
in
is
on the late-seventh-
Nara (Yamasaki and Emoto 1979
has been in continuous use in Japan since that date.
It
),
was used throughout
9
the ukyio-e period, as represented by the paintings in this series.
The darkening of red
lead observed
possible causes. Black lead oxide can
on some of these ukiyo-e paintings has two
form upon exposure to
or black lead sulfide
air,
can form due to the presence of hydrogen sulfide or adjacent sulfur-containing
pigments. The deliberate alteration of red lead to
prints has been described (Walsh, Berrie,
nomenon
One
is
or
known
different periods
is
it is
some Japanese
no
1998), but
similar phe-
the
a pink or purplish-pink color
term referring
Three types of red dye could have been available
red dyes
and purpurin
on
common term used during the Edo period for an organic
also used as a general
to various colorants at
— any crimson or purplish-crimson dye used
The first of these
alizarin
gray in
in the paintings.
these paintings. Enji
1969).
and Palmer
more organic red pigments supplied
red pigment, but
a silver
is
in painting
(
Oguchi
Japan during this period.
in
madder. Western madder, Rubia tinctorum
as coloring constituents, while Japanese
L.,
contains
madder, Rubia akane
Nakai, contains purpurin alone Schweppe and Winter 1997 ). Alizarin, the main con(
stituent of
Western madder, was
Needham
1986, 263
(
)
there
China
available in western
a fourth- to fifth-century Chinese reference to madder,
is
which he suggests was Rubia
synthesized in the West in 1868. According to
first
Tibetan madder, which
cordifolia,
in the twentieth
The second group of organic red
anthraquinone derivatives from
the principal
et al. 1939).
colorants that might have been used includes
scale insects.
pared from two different species of scale
is
century (Sewell
known to have been
is
Two of these are carmine pigments, pre-
insects,
kermes and cochineal. Kermesic acid
component of kermes carmine; carminic
acid
is
that of cochineal
carmine. Kermes was the source of carmine in the Eastern Hemisphere and cochineal
Western Hemisphere (Schweppe and Roosen-Runge 1986
in the
indicates that cochineal
was known
The other red anthraquinone
Laccifer lacca, the principal
the material found
by the
scale insect
of stick
bility
(
on
derivative
is
and was known
The
lac
was known
to have
in
dye from the Indian scale insect
are several laccaic acids. Stick lac,
a mixture of the dye with a hard resin
the eighth-century Shosoin
China
1986).
(
produced
The presence of a specimen
Asahina 1955 suggests the possi)
at that date.
in the early fourth
Documentary evidence
century Laufer
(
1919, 475)
been imported into China from Southeast Asia during the
Tang period (618-907) (Schafer
1957).
third red organic colorant that
safflower red, beni, which derives
tinctorius L., Japanese benibana.
to
is
Schweppe and Roosen-Runge
lac, shiko, in
Literary evidence
(
components of which
the tree,
).
by 1800 FitzHugh 1979 ).
of its use as a pigment in Japan beginning
indicates that lac
is
in Japan
might have been available
from the
The
to ukiyo-e artists
petals of the safflower,
chief red constituent
is
Carthamus
carthamic acid or
PIGMENTS
A DATABASE OF
carthamin.
It
was known
purpose were described
this
mentioned
327)
and
illustrated in a
(Needham
(Sung 1966,
in the late
China
in fourth-century
and was
to 1108
76),
Chinese
1986, 285).
and
dye in Japan, where
as a textile
nineteenth century Takamatsu 1878).
(
as a source of red for cosmetics
treatise
as a
al.
1939
China
it
was
Feller,
has yet to be established.
A
firmly characterized.
Curran, and Bailie 1984).
Its
late-seventeenth-century Japanese scroll has been
On
five
a nineteenth-
name
s
pigment
as enji
on
a
shown by reflectance spectroscopy
to be an anthraquinone, either laccaic or carminic acid
fiber-optics reflectance spectroscopy
on
use as a painter
reddish-purple colorant identified by
(Taguchi and Taguchi 1977).
used as a dye
still
Safflower red has been tentatively identified by spectral reflectance
(
was
).
Few organic red pigments on Japanese paintings have been
century Japanese print
It
Laufer 1919,
dye in seventeenth-century China
in twentieth-century western
for cosmetics (Sewell et
(
on pharmaceutical natural history dated
was described
It
preparation and use for
its
—
that
is,
lac
dye or carmine
Edo-period paintings in the Freer Gallery,
showed the use of an anthraquinone
colorant;
three works contained carminic acid, identified by high-performance liquid chro-
matography, indicating the source to be cochineal carmine
(
Winter, Giaccai, and
Leona 2003).
The red
earth
and brown earth pigments
are related in composition.
are here considered together, since they
The coloring agents of both
complex mixtures with quartz,
calcite, clay
are various iron oxides in
minerals, and other materials
(
Helwig,
forthcoming). The term shido refers to red iron oxide in general, taisha designates
the natural mineral,
and bengara
the artificial material
shido literally
The
more
recently
means "purple
colors supplied
refers to the natural material in ancient
(
times and
Oguchi 1969 ). Yamasaki 1959 points out
(
)
that
earth."
by the red earth pigments on these paintings can vary from
dark brown or maroon to dark red, reddish-brown, or orange. The red mineral
hematite, the anhydrous iron oxide, a-Fe 2
found
ings.
brown
earth pigments that appear as
supplies their color. Hematite
brown or yellow-brown on
Other iron oxides, in addition to hematite, are undoubtedly present
earths.
and
in
Ov
The hydrated
lepidocrocite,
(Roberts, Rapp,
and Weber
in the
is
brown
HFe0 2
1974). Goethite can
various shades of reddish or yellowish-brown and in the yellow form
the color of yellow earth, while lepidocrocite
also
the paint-
iron oxides, generally termed limonite, include goethite,
y-FeO(OH)
is
is
,
be
the source of
deep red to reddish-brown. The pres-
ence of these hydrated iron oxides can be assumed in the brown earths on these paintings,
and they may also occur, with hematite,
in the red earths.
Other iron compounds
can be present (Helwig, forthcoming) and might occur in these pigments.
Red and brown earth pigments were known
early worldwide, even before their use
China use of red earth
in Paleolithic cave paintings (Helwig, forthcoming). In
ments
also
known as early as the
periods in China
at all
and
is
Li 1983
).
—
Paleolithic
for example, at the
The red clay found there was
minerals such as kaolin
to eighth-century
(
Wang 1986
).
(
pig-
Needham 1976, 3 They have been used
).
Mogao
caves at
Dunhuang
natural hematite with quartz,
(
fisti,
talc,
Chou,
and
Red, brown, and yellow earths were used in
Korea (Winter 1989 ). Hematite
clay
fifth -
the most abundant of Chinese iron
is
ore minerals, and limonite was also an important ore (Golas 1999, 163), so the necessary materials were readily available for pigments. In Japan earth pigments were
known
(
before the third century
b.c.e.
and have been used
Yamasaki and Emoto 1979). Red earth
(Geerts 1883, 390
A
Red and brown earths
).
number of artificial
found
is
are
at all
periods since then
number of
at a
common on these
locations in Japan
ukiyo-e paintings.
iron oxides, prepared by various methods, are
the West. Heating one type of iron oxide to create another
is
common;
known
in
yellow earth
can thus be converted to a red or brown earth. Heating ferrous sulfate by different
methods can produce the
artificial
red oxide, and
also possible to
it is
produce iron
oxide by oxidizing metallic iron in various ways Helwig, forthcoming). Artificial iron
(
oxides are
in
known
According to Oguchi (1969 they
in East Asia.
documentary evidence indicating
(1998) discuss the
made
in
scraps.
the Edo period by two methods,
were prepared
Kitano and Koezuka
sulfate.
that synthetic iron oxide
roasting iron sulfate
fact that
they were available from iron mines
oxides are generally
more uniform than
(Wang
was
and heating iron
Chinese documents also refer to two sources: preparation from iron
and the
ties,
first
)
Japan in the early eighteenth century by heating iron
sulfate,
1986). Synthetic iron
the natural earths, with
no mineral impuri-
but the two cannot be distinguished by polarized-light microscopy (Helwig,
forthcoming).
attempt was
No
obvious
made
to
artificial
confirm
this
iron oxides appear
Rarely, a purple color can be supplied
that a purple iron oxide
tenth century. Geerts
(
several locations in Japan.
392
)
paintings, but
no
by an iron oxide. Akiyama (1964) reports
pigment was known
1883,
on these
by noting the presence or absence of impurities.
in Japan as early as the eighth to the
notes that a purple clay used in painting occurs at
A purple color was identified as a hematite-containing pig-
ment on two of these ukiyo-e
paintings:
on
F1898.104,
mixed with
shell white,
and on
F1903.132 (plate 2).
YELLOW PIGMENTS
Orpiment,
that
is
sekid, is
ground
the yellow arsenic sulfide, As 2 S 3 a naturally occurring mineral
,
to produce the pigment.
grind finely and contributes to
The term
12
shid
is
a general
its
Its
glittery
word
micaceous character makes
it
difficult to
appearance on the painting.
for a yellow color,
and the material
to
which
it
A
was an
early designation for orpiment, but
referred
changed over the
came
be used for gamboge by the seventeenth century Winter 1997). Orpiment
to
years. Shid
(
has been said to be a standard painting material in Japan
1969), although
writers
lists
it
seem
Anderson
(1886) stated that
been unaware of
to have
its
it
use,
(Uyemura
painters."
Some
not mentioned in
many
was "rarely used by
because
it is
Oguchi
1931;
of traditional Japanese pigments.
Realgar, yud, a red to orange arsenic sulfide, As 4 S 4 that occurs with orpiment, has
,
had limited but
persistent use as a
pigment
in the
China and central
wall paintings in western
West and has been
Asia, but not
identified
on
on paintings on paper or
Japan or China. Other arsenic sulfides, ranging in color from yellow, to red-
silk in
dish-orange, to orange-brown, have been identified as pigments in the West
(
FitzHugh 1997), but they have yet to be found on paintings
Orpiment
as a
pigment was mentioned
century Schafer 1955
(
(Geerts 1878, 176;
(Palache,
).
The mineral
Morimoto
known from
is
in East Asia.
in Japanese sources as early as the tenth
a
number of locations
most commonly
1954), occurring there
Berman, and Frondel 1944; Noguchi and Nakagawa
Both orpiment and realgar are more widely available
named
early in Chinese sources,
as the fourth
century
b.c.e.,
when
is
found
Orpiment and
6).
by the second century
hot springs
China than
in
mining of
in the fourth
in Japan
in
and possibly
b.c.e.
Hunan
realgar were
as early
they were important in Chinese medicine and were
used to create gold-colored arsenical bronze (Needham 1974, 223). The
tion of the
Japan
1970).
(Geerts 1878, 175), and the worlds largest deposit of realgar
Province in China (Silbergeld and McNair 1988,
at
in
realgar in China,
and thus presumably
first
men-
also of orpiment,
was
century Golas 1999, 176). There was no direct mention of their use as
(
pigments, although Schafer (1955) suggests that orpiment was in use as a pigment
by the
fifth to sixth
ings (Wise
century. In the nineteenth century
and Wise
1998)
and exported
it
to England,
was used on Chinese paint-
where
it
was sold
as
Chinese
yellow (Harley 2001, 94).
Artificial
orpiment
is
made by two
have been applied to
cess
from
its
processes.
The terms dry process and wet pro-
manufacture (Wallert 1984). Documentary evidence
1837 appears to indicate that sekio was
grinding mineral orpiment, and that the
made
artificial
in
Japan in the Edo period by
material was
made by dry and wet
methods learned from the Dutch Kitano and Koezuka 2000 ). Wet-process orpiment
(
produced by precipitation methods from solution does not appear to have been used
as a
pigment FitzHugh 1997 ).
(
The dry-process material
is
pound, usually arsenic dioxide,
prepared by heating sulfur with an arsenic comto
produce the pigment by sublimation. Takamatsu
(1878) described the use of the dry process in Japan as the
burning of "arsenical
13
.
stones" with sulfur to produce the yellow arsenic sulfide. In addition the natural mineral
can be sublimed to get a more uniform product, a process described
in the eighteenth
alchemists
may have known how to make
mation of the mineral
(Sung 1966,
Europe
century (FitzHugh 1997). Schafer (1955) suggests that Chinese
realgar artificially, using native realgar as
by sublimation. The preparation of realgar by
a starting material, evidently
ual
in
subli-
described in a seventeenth-century Chinese painting
is
man-
212).
not possible to differentiate objectively between mineral orpiment and the
It is
dry-process material. However, the natural mineral, as seen by polarized-light
microscopy, includes both large and small particles, while the dry-process material
tends to be
more uniform
in size.
The orpiment from
great variety in particle size; therefore,
Orpiment has not been
On
Gallery.
identified
these paintings
it
(
F1902.250 ) being
3.
low
to
)
table 3
)
ORPIMENT ON UKIYO-E PAINTINGS
Okumura Masanobu
Katsukawa Shuncho
F1905.271
Katsukawa Shunsho (1726-1792)
F1905.309
Katsukawa Shunsho (1726-1792)
F1898.433
Tsukioka
Settei
F1898.419
Hokuun,
early 19th
F1899.18
Katsukawa Shun'ei (1762-1819)
F1898.423
Katsukawa Shunko 1734-1827)
F1898.431
Sori
F1898.94
Utagawa Toyohiro
F1903.245
Shumman
(19th c), style of
F1904.35
Shumman
(
(
(1686-1764)
(late 18th c.)
1710-1786
),
dated 1776
c.
(
III (fl. late
i8th-early 19th c), style of
19th
c.
(
),
d. 1829), style
style
of
24 paintings
F1898.108
Shigemasa
its
II
color mainly
(
of
Fdo period, 1615-1868)
from the mineral
goethite, a hydrated
Helwig, forthcoming), the earthy varieties of which can be yel-
brownish-yellow (Roberts, Rapp, and Weber 1974). Brownish-yellow
docrocite
391
(
F1903.132
(
in the Freer
eighteenth century, the
F1902.250
Yellow earth, odo, derives
HFeO,
artists also active in the
Okumura Masanobu
TABLE
iron oxide,
almost certainly the natural mineral.
is
on any non-ukiyo-e Japanese works
was used most widely in nineteenth-century works,
notably by Hokusai, and by some
earliest
it
these ukiyo-e paintings shows
may also be present. Yellow earths are found widely in
and were used there
as
Japan Geerts
(
lepi1883,
pigments rarely but consistently from the sixth century
A
on (Yamasaki and Emoto
which were of widely scattered
paintings as early as the
fifth
The organic yellow on
is
sometimes
They were found on only
1979).
China yellow earths were used on wall
dates. In
century (Pique 1997).
these paintings
called shid, the general
is
probably gamboge, to-o or gambdji;
term for yellow. Gamboge
low vegetable pigment, obtained from
and Southeast
of these paintings,
six
trees of the
Asia; the resinous portion
is
of the yellow color (Winter 1997). Schafer
is
a
genus Garcinia throughout South
the major
component and
(1981, 213) states that
the source
is
was imported into
it
China from Southeast Asia during the Tang dynasty. Several authors report
was imported into Japan from China Conder
(
low,
assumed
to be
gamboge, was widely used
it
gum resin, a yel-
1911;
Takamatsu
in Japan
1878
).
that
it
An organic yel-
from the eighth century on
(Yamasaki and Emoto 1979). Few firm identifications of gamboge have been made
on Japanese paintings.
It
has been identified by reflectance spectroscopy on a
late-seventeenth-century scroll
(
Taguchi and Taguchi 1977 ), and by thin-layer chro-
matography on four ukiyo-e paintings
and F1957.2 (Winter
1987).
in this series: F1898.420, F1903.208, F1905.234,
On the remainder of these paintings
acterized as an organic yellow colorant;
it
it
can only be char-
was used throughout the ukiyo-e period.
GREEN PIGMENTS
Malachite, rokiisho,
It is
the
common
is
artists
Cu( OH
.
)
2
.
green pigment of Japan and has been used there continuously
from the seventh century
by ukiyo-e
CuC0 3
the green basic copper carbonate mineral,
to the present
day ( Yamasaki and Emoto 1979 ).
throughout the period. The mineral
is
It
was used
crushed and ground, then
washed, levigated, and sieved to produce the pigment. Grades of the pigment were
produced by varying degrees of grinding, the more
finely
ground material being
lighter in color.
Malachite
62).
is
found widely
China
in
in
secondary copper ore deposits Golas 1999,
(
Because of their colors, both malachite and azurite were easily recognizable, and
they were the two most important early copper ores (Golas 1999, 225).
Chinese alchemical text from the
malachite
(Needham
good-quality malachite (Geerts
Malachite
is
common on
FitzHugh 1993b ), where the
at the
Mogao
caves at
is
fourth to early third century
earliest
no evidence
b.c.e.
known
in a
includes
to supply
from Central Asia (Gettens and
use appears to have been in the third century
(
silk
were
list
1883, 630).
wall paintings
Dunhuang Hsu, Chou, and
on paintings on paper and
There
late
1976, 15). Several localities in Japan
A
Li 1983
).
It
c.E.
has yet to be identified
from China proper.
that green verditer, the artificially
was ever used on Japanese paintings.
In the paintings
made form of malachite,
under investigation here,
'
5
there was
unusual
one occurrence mixed with
artificial
center, has
been identified on
1988). This green has not
world
it is
only
barite in a retouched area (F1902.229).
malachite, characterized by curious,
by x-ray diffraction
typical malachite
An
particles with a white
wood
sculpture (Larson
in East Asia.
Elsewhere in the
fifteenth-century Italian tempera paintings.
A green, copper-containing pigment from
identified
Chinese
a twelfth-century
been reported on paintings
known on
rounded
as malachite,
a few of these ukiyo-e paintings
but
it
was
did not have the appearance of
by polarized-light microscopy. The particles are more rounded
than one would expect of mineral malachite that has been ground, but they are not
the typical spherulitic particles of artificial malachite. Further investigation
show that
this material
Copper greens
malachite.
is
material.
refer here to green, copper-containing colorants that are not
Many of them
granular malachite ( plate
shown
some other kind of artificial
appear on
3
)
.
first
examination of the painting to be a coarse
Sometimes they have
a yellow tone. Detailed study has
these pigments to be various materials other than malachite.
A number of these greens were
atacamite or paratacamite, two dimorphic basic
copper chlorides with the composition
Cu 2 Cl( OH
)
v Recent research has
the mineral phase generally identified as paratacamite should
termed clinoatacamite (Scott 2000). These compounds occur
and
may
are also
found
as corrosion
more
shown
that
correctly be
in nature as minerals
products on bronze and copper. Most of these basic
copper chloride greens are extremely finely divided material with every appearance
of being
ent.
artificially
Anderson
(
prepared (plate
4). In addition,
1886) has described a "dull green
tute for malachite in Japan,
quartz and calcite are often pres-
powder"
which he suggested was
that
was sold
as a substi-
a copper oxychloride.
Thus
it
appears that atacamite and paratacamite pigments might have been available there
in the nineteenth century.
known to have been used
may sometimes be alteration products
Atacamite and other basic copper chlorides are
pigments
in the West,
although they
as
of
other copper-containing pigments (Scott 2000). Atacamite has been identified on
early Chinese wall paintings
per chloride, although not
(
Duang
et al. 1987;
common,
is
Hsu, Chou, and
Li 1983),
and
a cop-
reported on some nineteenth-century
Chinese paintings (Wise and Wise 1998). In Japan atacamite has been found on
eighth-century objects in the Shosoin (Naruse 1996).
Other copper greens found on these paintings are complex mixtures that have yet
to be classified.
Quartz and sometimes
glassy particles are seen.
camite),
when
Green
present, are
calcite are often present,
and occasionally
particles of atacamite or paratacamite (clinoata-
sometimes brownish
in tone
and do not have the
finely
divided appearance noted above. These types of green mixtures have been found as
16
)
)
)
)
-
)
)
A
retouch on two seventeenth-century paintings: on a hanging scroll (F1898.122)
the only green
and
is
found
yellow-green in color and
in several areas;
is
(
F1905.17,
one of a
pair)
it is
possible that a few of these copper greens are glass-matrix pigments. These
It is
Yamasaki and Emoto
(
1979).
the addition of suitable metal oxides
(
a screen
used in widely scattered locations.
pigments, called shin iwaenogu, were not
in 1868
on
it is
which appears
F1966.35),
made in Japan
They
(
are
before the Meiji restoration
composed of a
Oguchi 1969
).
to be in a retouched area,
glassy
all
dating after the
him
or attributed to
colored by
A green pigment on one screen
may be one
of these pigments.
These copper greens are found on forty-seven ukiyo-e paintings
lection,
frit,
in the Freer col-
seventeenth century, twenty-three being by Hokusai
late
(table 4).
TABLE
4.
COPPER GREENS ON UKIYO-E PAINTINGS
18TH-19TH CENTURY
17TH CENTURY
F1905.17
anon. (1624-44) (retouch)
F1898.94
Utagawa Toyohiro
F1966.35
anon. ( early 17th
F1898.419
Hokuun
F1898.427
Utagawa Toyonobu
c.
)
(
retouch
style
I7TH-18TH CENTURY
Kiyonobu
(1664-1729)
F1898.14
Torii
F1898.122
Hishikawa Morofusa
I
(
fl.
ca. 1688-97
(retouch)
F1903.68
anon.
(Kambun
era,
1661-73)
F1903.131
anon.
(Kambun
era,
1661-73)
F1903.134
Miyagawa Choshun (1682-1752),
style
(
(
early 19th
d. 1829
c.
(late 18th c),
of
Kiyonaga (1752-1815)
F1902.101
Torii
F1905.312
Toshinaga early 19th
F1906.11
Mosoda
23 paintings
(
Eishi
(
c.
1756-1829
),
style of
19TH CENTURY
of
5
paintings
EDO period (1615-1868)
18TH CENTURY
F1898.424
Tsunemasa
(fl.
1730-80)
F1900.112
anon. ( 18th
c.
(
F1904.195
Ishikawa Toyonobu (1711-1785)
)
3
paintings
retouch
Careful examination indicates that most of these copper greens are part of the
original paint. Their use as repaint in the
examples cited does not seem to be
In addition to problems of identification, there
these copper greens.
and
also to
The term
verdigris has
emerald green (Geerts
is
confusion in the naming of
been applied to malachite Oguchi 1969)
1883, 632), so
(
no exact designation can be assumed
by the use of the term. Verdigris, an entirely different material,
acetate of varying composition
*993)-
The preparation of
typical.
and was known
in the
artificial verdigris in
West from
is
an
artificial
copper
Roman times Kuhn
(
nineteenth- and early- twentieth
17
)
century Japan, by application of vinegar to copper, has been described by several
authors (Anderson 1886; Conder
is
1911;
Tajima 1903). Takamatsu (1878) remarks that
it
"not an important pigment, scarcely used in painting." Yii Feian states that verdi-
was one of China's
gris
earliest
Oguchi (1969) mentions
refers to a
invented pigments ( Silbergeld and McNair 1988, 9 ), and
use in China in the Tang dynasty.
its
Needham
Chinese text of uncertain date and provenance that describes the prepara-
tion of green
and blue pigments from copper, but
it is
not clear what they might be.
found on the ukiyo-e paintings here under discussion.
Verdigris has not been
Emerald green, copper aceto-arsenite,3Cu(As02)2.Cu(CH3C02)2,
pigment
first
produced
and Bayard
(Fiedler
(1976, 244)
in
Germany
1997).
is
a synthetic
decade of the nineteenth century
in the first
appears on a single nineteenth-century painting by
It
Hiroshige F1898.123 ). Emerald green was probably introduced into Japan by the Dutch.
(
evident that a variety of
It is
artificial
copper greens were available to
China and Japan, but because of confusion
naming and
in
artists in
the need for further ana-
confirmation, few definite conclusions can be drawn at this time.
lytical
BLUE PIGMENTS
Azurite, gunjo,
is
with malachite the pigment
is
and FitzHugh
finely divided (Gettens
paintings reflects these grades;
and sometimes
and
the present day
It
a pale blue.
is
a
)
2.
As
prepared from the ground mineral. The grades of the
pigment are determined by the amount of grinding, the
more
2CuC0 3 .Cu(OH
the blue basic copper carbonate mineral,
it is
1993a).
The
lighter color being the
color of azurite
on
these
a usually a bright blue, occasionally a dark blue,
Azurite was used in Japan from the seventh century to
common blue pigment in
Japan Yamasaki and
(
Emoto
1979
).
was used throughout the ukiyo-e period, but on these paintings the most widely
used blue
to Japan,
says
it
is
indigo. Azurite occurs with malachite, but less abundantly.
where a number of localities are known Geerts
(
was discovered
in Settsu Province in 104 C.E.
Kozuke Province was presented
to the
empress
China azurite and malachite were important
A
1883, 638
)
.
It is
Anderson
native
(
1886
specimen of azurite from
in 714 C.E.
(Takamatsu
1878). In
early copper ores (Golas 1999, 225).
Azurite was listed in the Chinese alchemical literature in the late fourth to early third
century
Mogao
b.c.e.
(
Needham
caves at
Dunhuang
Blue verditer, the
to date has not
1976, 15
).
It
was
identified
rich glass, colored blue
an
Chou, and
Li 1983).
form of azurite, was not found on these paintings and
been reported on works from East
is
wall paintings at the
as early as the fourth century (Hsu,
artificial
Smalt, hana-konjo,
on Chinese
artificially
Asia.
made pigment, a coarsely ground, potassium-
by the incorporation of cobalt oxide during manufacture.
On these paintings it is usually a gray-blue, or occasionally a bright blue, often with
18
PIGMENTS
A DATABASE OF
a granular, glittering appearance.
on paper or
silk in East
The
earlier
example of the use of smalt on works
Asia appears to be on a sixteenth- to early-seventeenth-
century Japanese print in the Fogg
been found
earliest
than the
Museum
of Art (Magurn 1942). Smalt has not
seventeenth century on these paintings, nor on any
late
other East Asian paintings in the Freer Gallery, but ukiyo-e
artists, as
the paintings here under discussion, used
late
widely in the
it
represented by
seventeenth to eigh-
teenth century, and consistently but less often in the nineteenth century (table
TABLE
SMALT ON UKIYO-E PAINTINGS
5.
late 17TH- early i8th century
13
18TH century
19 paintings
18TH-19TH CENTURY
11
paintings
paintings
19TH CENTURY
4 paintings
6 paintings
EDO period
7 paintings
(1615-1868)
Smalt was long thought to be a sixteenth-century European invention, but we
know of isolated, earlier occurrences on
tion that
it
5).
might have an Asian
origin.
now
the Asian mainland, leading to the speculaIt
has been identified
on
a seventh-century,
Tang-dynasty, cast-iron head (Larson 1988), on eleventh-century wall paintings
Kara Khoto
in
at
Mongolia (Gettens and Stout 1966), and on fourteenth-century wall
paintings in a Byzantine church in Istanbul (Muhlethaler and Thissen L993).
Uyemura
(1931) reports that a blue glass
pigment made
substitute for ultramarine in Japan, but writers
make no mention of
smalt, with
on
in
China was used
traditional Japanese
two exceptions. Takamatsu
as a
pigments
(1878) describes
its
preparation by "fusing crude oxide of cobalt with a mixture of clay and alkalies."
Oguchi 1969
(
)
says that an artificial, bluish glass
was introduced into Japan
in the
mid-seventeenth-century date,
The
cobalt oxide used to
Kyoho
era
(
pigment colored with cobalt oxide
1716-35
),
although
make smalt was prepared by
such as cobaltite or smaltite. Cobalt minerals are found
according to Geerts
(
1883, 561
)
it
was cheaper
that the acquisition of these cobalt minerals
smalt was
made
because
was cheaper, and Geerts
it
in Japan.
this
is
later
than the
when smalt was first used on these ukiyo-e paintings.
Takamatsu
(
(
1878
1883,
)
to
roasting cobalt minerals
in
China and Japan, but
import them from Europe. The
fact
was mentioned supports the idea that
notes that foreign smalt was largely used
569 ) mentions that a blue glass pigment
was imported by the Dutch.
Indigo,
it
ai,
an organic colorant, varies from bright to dull blue on the paintings;
can appear as greenish-blue
otin
(Ci6H 10 O 2 N 2 ), which
is
when
thinly applied.
are the
most important. Polygonum
Asia.
was the early source of blue dye
It
The blue constituent
is
indig-
obtained from several species of plants, three of which
tinctorium, dyer's knotweed,
in
China (Needham
is
indigenous to
1986, 158).
It is
known
19
.
to
grow
Japan and was reported there in the
in
1878). Indigofera tinctoria originates in India
best-known source;
was known
it
Isatis tinctoria, dyer's
in
China
woad, originated
nineteenth century (Takamatsu
late
and elsewhere
Tang period Needham
in the
is
the
is
the
1986, 158 )
(
Europe but was introduced elsewhere.
in
(Needham
evidently did not reach China until the sixteenth century
Indigo
South Asia and
in
It
1986, 158).
common blue on these paintings; it is not known which plant or plants
were the source of the pigment.
Indigo was used in Japan
objects in the Shosoin
reflectance
(
the eighth century, as
at least as early as
Yamasaki and Emoto
1979).
on nineteenth-century Japanese prints
It
was characterized by
spectral
Curran, and Bailie 1984) and
Feller,
(
known from
is
on a late-seventeenth-century scroll by reflectance spectroscopy Taguchi and Taguchi
(
1977
).
It
has been identified by fiber-optics reflectance spectroscopy on over one hun-
dred eighteenth- to nineteenth-century paintings in the Freer Gallery, in some cases
confirming identifications reported here (Winter, Giaccai, and Leona 2003).
Indigo cultivation, preparation, and use as a dye has been described in
century China, and
(
Sung
370
).
1966, 78
).
Its
it
was known there
at least as early as the third
century
use as a cosmetic was reported in the Tang period
(
fifthB.C.E.
Laufer 1919,
Indigo was cultivated in southwest China, but competition from imported syn-
thetic indigo caused a
(Sewell et
al.
marked decrease
in cultivation
1939). In the nineteenth century the best
between
artificial
Germany
material
in the late nineteenth century
would not be expected
is
an
1878).
Indigo was
Documentary evidence
1997), so the
pigment,
ferric ferro-
last half
It
was
indicates that
made
in
Germany
was known
in Japan,
first
it
of the eighteenth century and that
increasingly available after the 1820s (Smith, in press). Prussian blue
by Dutch and Chinese traders and appears never
Japan.
It is
not mentioned in
lists
(Feller,
identifications
to have
it
was
was imported
been manufactured in
of traditional Japanese pigments.
The use of Prussian blue on Japanese
evidence
first
(Schweppe
artificial
cyanide, with the basic formula Fe 4 (Fe(CN)6) 3 .xH 2 0.
although not widely used, by the
1930s
here.
Prussian blue, hero, bero-ai, or heroin,
in 1704 (Berrie 1997).
and the
kind of indigo for painting
was said to be imported into Japan from China (Takamatsu
synthesized in
1875
prints
is
Curran, and Bailie 1984; Smith,
well
known from documentary
in press).
The only published
on Chinese paintings have been on four ninteenth-century paintings
in the Freer (Giaccai
and Winter,
in press). Until the
work herein presented, no
occurrences had been reported on Japanese paintings. Recent studies
at
the Freer
Gallery by UV-visible reflectance spectroscopy have expanded and confirmed our
knowledge of the use of Prussian blue on many of these paintings
Winter 2001; Winter, Giaccai, and Leona 2003 ).
20
(
Leona and
)
PIGMENTS
A DATABASE OF
Prussian blue was used
ings by Hokusai,
It
One work (F1898. 429) by Miyagawa Choshun
paintings.
for the time
retouch,
on ten nineteenth-century paintings, and on twenty paint-
and on one anonymous Edo painting.
also occurs
on four
earlier
(1682-1752) seems too early
frame suggested by Smith. The Prussian blue here does not appear to be
and
presence suggests that they might be of a later date. Three paintings
its
by Hosoda Eishi (1756-1829), or
make
other paintings
On
definitely retouch.
in his style,
fit
better into Smith's time limit. Three
use of a mixture of Prussian blue with kaolin, which
is
almost
a pair of screens (F1907.126-.127), dated only to the
Edo
period, this mixture
was applied over a mixture of artificial ultramarine and smalt.
Since ultramarine
is
found only on later-nineteenth-century ukiyo-e paintings,
presence suggests a
late
is
retouch.
this
On
its
ukiyo-e date, and that the mixture of kaolin and Prussian blue
another much-damaged seventeenth-century painting (F1905.96),
same mixture
is
used in what
is
almost certainly a retouched area. Table 6 sum-
marizes the occurrences of Prussian blue on these ukiyo-e works.
TABLE
6.
PRUSSIAN BLUE ON UKIYO-E PAINTINGS
MID-18TH CENTURY?
Miyagawa Choshun (1682-1752)
F1898.429
F1903.145
Ando
Hiroshige (1797-1858)
F1903.146
Ando
Hiroshige
F1904.357
Ando
Hiroshige
F1906.46
Numata
Gessai
F1976.41
Hokuga
(early 19th c.)
F1977.24
Hokutei Joren
LATE 18TH-19TH CENTURY
Hosoda
F1905.294
F1906.11
Hosoda
Eishi, style of
Fi957-7
Hosoda
Eishi
20 paintings
anon.
F1903.135
F1898.8
Gakutei Harunobu, 19th
F1898.124
Hiroshige
II
F1898.125
Hiroshige
II
F1903.IO6
Hiroshige
II
(
1800-1868)
Edo period, 1615-1868)
natural
form
is
F1905.96
anon,
(late 17th c.)
F1907.126-I27
anon.
(
the
aluminum silicate that
(Plesters 1993). Artificial ultramarine
is
On one of them
Edo period,
1615 - 1868
powdered blue mineral lazurite, a sulis
the blue constituent of the rock lapis
ultramarine of the same composition was
in this series (table 7).
(ca.
RETOUCH, MIXED WITH KAOLIN
c
(1826-1869)
ruri, in its
fur-containing sodium
lazuli. Artificial
i9th-20th c
EDO PERIOD
19TH CENTURY
Ultramarine,
(fl.
Eishi (1756-1829), style of
found on
six
first
made in France in
1828
nineteenth-century paintings
(F1907.127), dated to the
Edo
period,
it
was
mixed with smalt, as described above. No ultramarine, artificial or natural, has been
found on any other Japanese works
marine
name
in
Japan
is
not known;
for azurite, gtmjo,
is
it
in the Freer Gallery.
The source of artificial ultra-
was probably imported by the Dutch. The Japanese
sometimes used
for ultramarine.
21
)
)
TABLE
7.
ULTRAMARINE ON UKIYO-E PAINTINGS
F1899.17
Hiroshigell
(
F1900.II4
Hokuga
half 19th
(
1st
1826-1869), style of
c.
F1903.IO6
Hiroshige
F1903.145
Ando
Hiroshige (1797-1858)
F1903.146
Ando
Hiroshige
F1907.127
anon.
(
II
Edo period, 1615-1868
mixed with smalt
Lapis lazuli
mines
in
art until
1993
).
The Badakshan
discovery in the nineteenth century in Siberia near Lake Baikal
existence
was known
century Chinese traveler of
Anderson
(
1886
in China, as evidenced
occurrence in Afghanistan (Laufer
its
(
Plesters
by the report of a thirteenth1919, 520).
evidently referring to the natural material, says that lapis lazuli was
),
used rarely by Chinese
because of
artists
used early on wall paintings
tury,
1883, 475).
Afghanistan were the only source of lapis lazuli for Western as well as Asian
its
Its
not found in China or Japan (Geerts
is
in
its
costliness. Natural ultramarine
north and west China,
at
Yungang
was
in the fifth cen-
and widely at the Mogao caves at Dunhuang from the fourth century on Hsu,
(
Chou, and
Li 1983;
Wang, Guo, and
Li 1995
).
BROWN PIGMENTS
An
organic
brown
the identification
on
colorant found
methods used
these paintings could not be characterized by
by chemical microscopy indicate that
here. Tests
more than one pigment may have been
in use.
Work by Jennifer Giaccai, primarily by
infrared spectroscopy, suggests a possible relationship to
Vandyke brown but has not
reached a definite conclusion (Winter, Giaccai, and Leona 2003).
MICA
The mineral mica, ummo or
kira,
has a glittery appearance on the painting, due to
the platy quality of the particles of ground mineral. Mica
includes a
number of silicate minerals with
colors or can be white or colorless
on eighteenth-
rences found,
covite, a white mica.
Muromachi period
was identified
Geerts
22
(
1878,
(
Mica
(
)
a general
Weber
1974
).
1333-1573
said to have
)
(
range of
The four occur-
to nineteenth-century ukiyo-e paintings,
is
term that
this property; they exhibit a
Roberts, Rapp, and
come
into use as a
Oguchi 1969 ), although
earlier in the collection
426
is
a
were
pigment
all
mus-
after the
sample of mica powder
of the eighth-century Shosoin ( Asahina 1955).
reports occurrences of mica in Japan.
)
A
METAL PIGMENTS
As noted above, the metal pigments on these paintings were not researched
systematically.
der
Gold and
form of metal
silver in the
made into paint have been used on
leaf,
or scattered grains or
was found on the seventh- to eighth-century wall paintings
tomb, and gold and
silver are
known on
(
in the
foil
Takamatsuzuka
paintings and objects in the eighth-century
Shosoin ( Yamasaki and Emoto 1979). Loose gold and
in the Shosoin
pow-
Japanese paintings since early times. Gold
silver
powder were
also
found
Naruse 1996 ). The precious-metal pigments found on these ukiyo-e
paintings were gold powder, silver
and
leaf,
powder. In addition, some gold-
silver
colored areas were revealed to be a copper alloy of unidentified composition, or in
some
cases a copper- zinc alloy.
Copper- zinc
century Japanese paintings in the British
1990). Also present occasionally
probably tarnished
alloys
have been found on eighteenth-
Museum Duncan,
(
on these paintings
is
Daniels,
and Fleming
black silver sulfide, which
is
silver.
PIGMENTS USED AS REPAINT
Kaolin, a white clay, hakudo, was used in Japan as early as the seventh century, particularly
a
on wall paintings (Yamasaki and Emoto
1979),
and was found
ground on a cast-iron sculpture of the Tang period (Larson
replaced as the
common white
century (Yamasaki and
Emoto
of these ukiyo-e paintings, but
pigment by
1979).
it
It
shell
1988).
It
in
China
as
was generally
white in the fifteenth to sixteenth
does not occur as a white pigment on any
was found mixed with Prussian blue, probably
as
retouch, as noted above.
Barite, a white
pigment, barium
sulfate,
early nineteenth century ( Feller 1986 ).
by Nishikawa Sukenobu 1671 - 1751
(
green
floor. In a
(F1907.35),
retouched
it
at
is
)
,
It
BaS0 4 came
,
into use in the
occurs on two paintings.
it is
On one
West in the
(
F1902.229
mixed with green verditer on the retouched
retouched area on an anonymous seventeenth-century painting
tinted with a yellow that
may be
yellow earth; this painting was
an unrecorded location during conservation
at the Freer
Gallery in 1955.
MIXTURES
A number of pigment mixtures were used on these paintings. The addition of various colorants to shell white to create a lighter tone
is
common. Other
color
com-
binations include blue with yellow to give green, red with blue to give purple, and
mixtures of more than one red. In addition a few unusual pigment combinations
were seen that have not been discussed elsewhere.
23
Some
mixtures of blue and yellow to give green were used to produce a differ-
ent shade of blue, rather than a green. Yamasaki has suggested that the combination
of indigo and yellow earth found on the tenth-century Daigo-ji wall paintings was
probably intended to be a substitute for azurite, evidently to give the indigo a greenish
tone nearer to that of azurite (Yamasaki and
tion,
used
in
Emoto
1979
).
This same combina-
eighth-century Japan, was described as an "ultramarine blue," implying
a similar aim: to
produce a different shade of blue Mogi, Nakasato, and Emoto 1975 ).
(
Yanagisawa ( 1985 reports that indigo was applied in several layers over yellow earth,
)
as well as
being mixed with
on the Daigo-ji
it,
paintings. This observation points out
the difficulty that can sometimes arise, even with careful examination, in determining whether two pigments are in two separate layers, rather than being mixed. This
mixture of indigo and yellow earth was not observed on these ukiyo-e paintings.
The use of mixtures of blue and yellow
has been noted by a
nary painting"
a
produce green on Japanese paintings
(
1878
)
remarked that
pigment mixtures with
their
was cheaper. Conder
it
(1911),
who
a "transparent green."
China (Sze
Taguchi and Taguchi
The same mixture
A
1956, 584).
lists
a
number
of
names, noted that combining indigo and gamboge pro(
1977) have identified a mixture
of indigo and gamboge on a seventeenth-century Japanese
spectroscopy.
in "ordi-
mixture of indigo and gamboge was used rather than mineral
greens, implying perhaps that
duced
to
number of authors. Takamatsu
to create green
scroll
was described
by reflectance
at the
same date
in
mixture of indigo and orpiment was identified in a dark
green on a sixteenth- to early-seventeenth-century Japanese print (Magurn 1942),
and the use of orpiment with
by Japanese
a blue colorant
has been reported by Geerts (1878, 176
).
On
artists to
produce green
the Freer ukiyo-e paintings, mixtures of
indigo with orpiment, as well as with an organic yellow, were used. In one case the
organic yellow was found to be
gamboge Winter 1987 ); on another painting a green
(
was made from orpiment and Prussian
blue. Additional analysis of
pigments on
Japanese paintings in the Freer Gallery by fiber-optics reflectance spectroscopy has
identified mixtures of indigo,
and occasionally Prussian
low to produce green Leona and Winter 2001
(
blue, with
an organic
yel-
).
On two of these paintings, malachite was mixed with azurite to give a green with
a
blue tone; on another one malachite and azurite were combined with smalt, result-
ing in a dark blue.
A
different
combination of blue and green, described
in
China,
consisted of verdigris tinted with indigo to give a bluer color similar to that of the
more valuable pigment malachite (Needham
Single,
good purple colorants
1976, 136).
are rare. Iron oxide pigments can
produce earths of a
purple color, and organic red pigments sometimes have a purple tone. But
artists
world-
wide have had to make use of mixtures of red and blue pigments to produce a purple
24
A DATABASE OF
color.
PIGMENTS
A number of these mixtures have been noted on East Asian paintings, and several
that have not
In Japan,
been previously reported have been found on these ukiyo-e paintings.
on eighth-century
wall paintings, red earth
been noted (Mogi, Nakasato, and Emoto
(Yamasaki
1951).
mixed with indigo has
1975), as has red earth with azurite
Vermilion has also been combined with indigo (Emoto 1962).
These combinations have not been found here, but
a
number of other mixtures of
red and blue were used by these ukiyo-e painters to produce varying shades of
purple. Smalt was found
combined with red earth, with organic
red,
and in one case
with indigo and organic red. Indigo was mixed with organic red and in one case
occurred over vermilion. Combinations of both vermilion and red earth with car-
bon black were
also found.
Mixtures of different red colorants are known. Vermilion adulterated with red
lead or with red earth was said to give an inferior color
(
Takamatsu
bination of vermilion with red lead was noted in a Chinese
1878
).
The com-
document of 1597 Read
(
and Pak 1928 ), and the same combination, sometimes with the addition of red
was found
at several
periods on the wall paintings in the
(Hsu, Chou, and Li 1983).
temple
at
On
Mogao
caves at
earth,
Dunhuang
the wall paintings in the eighth-century Eizan-ji
Nara, vermilion was observed over red lead (Yamasaki 1951).
A vermilion
and red lead combination was found on eighteen of these ukiyo-e paintings. Other
less
common
mixtures of reds were of red earth with either red lead, vermilion, or
organic red, to produce varying shades of purplish, brownish, or dark red.
A
dark
red was also created by mixing organic red with vermilion.
Shades of brown were produced on these paintings with mixtures
ple,
—
for
exam-
red earth with red lead and orpiment, or in another case the same three pigments
with the addition of vermilion; sometimes shell white was present. With these and
other combinations, a variety of browns could be produced that were not attainable
with brown earth or organic brown alone.
This survey of mixed pigments on these ukiyo-e paintings indicates that mixtures
were more commonly used than was previously thought. The investigation of the use
of indigo mixed with Prussian blue on Edo-period paintings in the Freer Gallery seems
to support this observation
(
Leona and Winter, 2003 ). Further investigation of these
mixtures would serve to expand knowledge of these painters' techniques.
IDENTIFICATION METHODS
Identifications
were carried out by traditional methods: polarized-light microscopy
(PLM), chemical microscopy, and x-ray
diffraction
(XRD). Scanning electron
25
ELISABETH WEST F1TZHUGH
microscopy with energydispersive x-ray analysis
PLM: The sample was mounted
in
(
SEM-EDXA
Canada balsam
)
was used
in a
(refractive index 1.53) or
Aroclor resin 5442 (refractive index 1.66) on a microscope
under a cover
slide
The mounted sample was examined by transmitted (plane-polarized)
between crossed
an
oil
polars, usually at magnifications
immersion
lens at X1250.
PLM
is
up
to X500,
an excellent and
few cases.
light,
slip.
and
and sometimes with
reliable
way
to
determine
how homogeneous or heterogeneous the sample is, to see if it is a single pigment or
determine
a mixture, to
if it is
organic or inorganic, and to detect traces of material
which might be overlooked. Attributes such
fringence,
and
The reported
is
indicated.
on
a
as color, particle characteristics, bire-
refractive index in relation to the
refractive indices are
It is
microscope
an advantage
slide before
mounting medium can be observed.
measured with sodium
to start off
light, unless
lithium light
an examination of the sample dispersed
proceeding to other methods.
The sampling and mounting techniques have been described (Gettens
and the application of PLM
to
pigment identification has been summarized
and Bayard 1986 ). Every pigment sampled
in this series
1976)
Feller
(
was examined by PLM, and
the microscope slides have been retained permanently.
Chemical microscopy: Major elements present were determined by chemical
carried out
on an unmounted sample under the microscope. These methods were
described in a seminal
work by Chamot and Mason
pigment identification was pioneered by Joyce
(
1982).
The
references
tests
tests
and
(
1970),
Plesters
(
and
1956
)
their application to
and Walter McCrone
used are described briefly here; they are covered in detail in these
in the chapters
on
the individual pigments in the volumes of Artists'
Pigments, published by the National Gallery of Art. These methods are
now
rarely
used, but at the time they served their purpose admirably. Chemical microscopy was
used on selected samples of all pigments except smalt. The small amount of animalglue
medium present
in these paintings did not interfere with chemical tests.
XRD: This technique was used on selected samples to confirm the identification of
crystalline materials
such as minerals and inorganic pigments by determining the crys-
tallographic structure of the material.
as organic colorants or dyes,
It is
not applicable to amorphous materials such
nor to non-crystalline inorganic materials such as smalt.
SEM-EDXA: This method was used to determine
and the copper
The following summaries
identifications.
elements in the copper greens
alloy pigments.
It
will
are intended to
make
clear the basis for the reported
be seen that these methods have limitations, particularly with
organic pigments such as indigo and the organic red, yellow, and
brown pigments,
but even in these cases some general observations could be made.
Shell white, calcium carbonate or calcite,
26
CaC03
.
As observed by
PLM
the parti-
A DATABASE OF
PIGMENTS
of shell white vary in size and are elongated,
cles
flat,
and
appearance, sometimes described as fibrous. The particles
carbonate was deposited in layers
at the
with a striated
lathlike
way the calcium
reflect the
edge of the growing mollusk
shell.
They are
highly birefringent, with low refractive indices: £=1.486, 03=1.658 Gettens, FitzHugh,
(
and
Feller 1993
).
The
characteristic microscopic appearance
Chemical microscopy (effervescence with dilute
to be sufficient for identification.
HC1 and
a positive test for
H 2 S0 4 was used in some cases to provide
XRD was occasionally used. A few of the calcium car-
calcium with
additional confirmation, and
was generally accepted
)
bonates on these paintings lack the striated appearance typical of shell white; these
instances
may be
Lead white,
finely divided
calcined shell white, or another material altogether.
2PbCO v Pb(OH)2 By PLM
basic lead carbonate,
rounded
particles of
lead white shows as
.
uniform
size.
The particles are highly birefringent,
with high refractive indices: 6=1.94,(0=2.09 (Larsen and Berman 1934,92). Confirmation was supplied
lead nitrate
and
by chemical microscopy (effervescence with
a positive test for lead with potassium iodide
By
Vermilion, mercuric sulfide, a-HgS.
rial, is
identical to dry-process vermilion;
PLM
)
both show variation in particle
and sometimes
microscopy its solubility
Gettens, Feller,
less
and Chase
in hydriodic acid serves to differentiate
1993
Vermilion in transmitted
).
commonly with an orange
tone.
between crossed polars, with high
Berman
1934, 77).
It is
light
is
size,
it
from hematite
a clear cherry red,
highly birefringent, yellow to orange
Vermilion was identified chiefly by PLM. Sometimes
(
the double thiocyanate test for mercury).
lead, lead oxide,
grains, red to
Pb^04 By
.
orange-brown
some
PLM; by chemi-
in
HC1
concentrated
its
PLM
or concen-
from
XRD was occasionally used.
red lead appears as tiny, irregularly rounded
in transmitted light,
refractive index: r]=2.42Li (Palache,
and
presence
HNO v soluble in aqua regia and hydriodic acid, and a positive result
Red
form
refractive indices: £=3.201, 03=2.854 (Larsen
was confirmed by chemical microscopy insoluble
trated
to
hexagonal shape.
a
Large particles are often difficult to distinguish from hematite by
(
3
and by XRD.
ground cinnabar, the natural mate-
particles being quite large, with a fractured look
cal
HN0
dilute
weakly birefringent, with high
Berman, and Frondel
1944).
The presence of
highly characteristic blue-green interference colors visible between crossed polars
(FitzHugh 1986) was usually considered sufficient for identification. Confirmation
was supplied by chemical microscopy
(
see
under lead white above ).
XRD was occa-
sionally used.
Organic
red.
This shows by
PLM as a red stain, with no particulate structure. By
chemical microscopy the red color disappears with dilute nitric acid, as would be
expected of an organic colorant. Plesters ( 1956
dilute
NaOH
and orange with
dilute
)
notes that
madder turns purple with
HC1, and similar color reactions are shown by
27
carmine Schweppe and Roosen-Runge 1986 ). Some of the organic reds from these
(
paintings
copy,
show a violet
and the subsequent addition of dilute HC1 occasionally causes an orange color
to form, thus suggesting the presence of
suggests that
more than one organic
Red and brown
oxide,
is
red pigment was used by ukiyo-e
chief colorant of red earths
is
PLM;
birefringent,
it is
artists.
hematite, the red iron
most brown
also present in lesser quantities in
is
a clear transparent red by
sometimes
only as a rosy
(
Berman
Larsen and
difficult to distinguish
the refractive indices.
(
madder or carmine. Chemical microscopy
when
earths.
the particles are
enough, orange to dark red between crossed polars. The refractive indices are
high: £=2.94, (0=3.22
it is
The
earths.
a-Fe 2 O v which
Hematite
large
NaOH by chemical micros-
color with the application of 5%
it
1934, 95).
insoluble in concentrated
and
odic acid, which differentiates
potassium ferrocyanide).
it
XRD
PLM
was by
dilute
optical appearance alone
from vermilion because of the
Red earth is sometimes so
stain. Identification
From
finely divided that
HC1, soluble
in
aqua
red in color and
earths, but
it
regia, insoluble in hydri-
rarely because the
is
Berman, and Frondel
quite likely also to occur in
has never been identified.
No
1944),
brown
pigment
is
earths
attempt was
of these iron oxides were synthetic materials. By
are difficult to distinguish
PLM
a positive test for iron with
complex mixture of minerals. Lepidocrocite Y-FeO(OH), with
01=1.94, (3=2.20,Y=^-5i (Palache,
similarity of
appears by
supported by chemical microscopy
from vermilion, and
was used
it
made
usually a
is
refractive indices
brown
to
brownish
and possibly
in red
determine
to
if
any
PLM alone the synthetic materials
from the natural ochres, although they
are usually
more
uniform and lack the presence of accessory minerals (Helwig, forthcoming).
Orpiment, arsenic
sulfide,
As 2 S^. By
PLM
orpiment
particles are usually coarse,
of limited transparency, with a foliated, micaceous structure. As already noted the
natural material can include large and small particles, while the particles of dryprocess material tend to be
more uniform
in size. Especially characteristic
ence of distinctive anomalous green-to-blue polarization colors, which
considered sufficient for a firm identification. The material
and the
is
is
is
the presgenerally
highly birefringent,
refractive indices are high: cx=2.4y, |3=2.8iLi, Y=3- 02 Li
(FitzHugh 1986).
Confirmation was occasionally supplied by chemical microscopy a positive
(
arsenic with
ammonium
Yellow earths.
goethite,
HFe02
(
The
molybdate or by XRD.
)
principal source of the yellow color
Helwig, forthcoming). Goethite
is
is
the hydrated iron oxide,
isotropic, with refractive indices
a=2.26o, (3=2.393, Y =2 -398 (Palache, Berman, and Frondel 1944). By
ally
test for
PLM
it is
usu-
heterogeneous in composition, a mixture of silica with pale yellow particles and
sometimes brown
microscopy
2<S
it is
particles,
mostly isotropic (Gettens and Stout 1966). By chemical
insoluble in both concentrated
and
dilute
HC1,
is
soluble in aqua
)
A
regia,
and
tests positive for iron
Organic yellow. By
PLM
with potassium ferrocyanide.
shows
this
as a yellow stain.
This
phenomenon
is
characteristic of gamboge
the possibility of the presence of
gamboge on
Malachite, basic copper carbonate,
The formation of
5% NaOH by
orange color results from the application of
(
XRD was not used.
Winter 1997 and strongly suggests
)
CuCO v Cu(OH)2 By PLM in transmitted light,
.
when small or thin, sometimes
fibrous, often with a squarish fracture. Large particles
sometimes show banding,
vestige of the botryoidal structure of the mineral (plate 5). Malachite
and highly birefringent, with high
Berman
was carried out
Some confirma-
few cases by chemical microscopy (soluble
in a
pleochroic
characteristic microscopic appearance
of malachite was generally considered sufficient for identification.
tion
is
a
refractive indices: 0=1.655, (3=1.875, Y =1 -9°9
The highly
1934, 204).
deep
these paintings.
particles of malachite are pale green, almost colorless
(Larsen and
a
chemical microscopy.
in dilute acid
usually with effervescence, with a positive test for copper with potassium ferro-
cyanide).
XRD was
used in a few cases.
also
Copper greens. Criteria for the presence of a copper green was the appearance by
PLM
of a green material that
is
per by chemical microscopy or
eral category of
not malachite, coupled with a positive
SEM-EDXA. The only firm
cop-
copper greens were of paratacamite or atacamite by XRD; these were
confirmed by the presence of copper and chloride ions by
identification of
particles
SEM-EDXA. The
emerald green, copper aceto-arsenite, 3Cu( As0 2
was made possible by
shaped
test for
identifications in this gen-
by
its
PLM
(
)
2
single
.Cu(CH 3 C0 2
)
2,
very characteristic appearance of rounded, doughnutFiedler
and Bayard
Azurite, basic copper carbonate,
1997).
2CuCOv Cu(OH)2 By PLM
.
larger particles are
deep blue with greenish undertone, and small or thin particles are pale blue. The particles are irregular
and fractured
in
appearance, sometimes with conchoidal fracture.
They are pleochroic and strongly birefringent, with high
(3=1.758,7=1-838 (Larsen
and Berman
ally sufficient for identification.
ally
1934, 135).
Chemical microscopy (soluble
with effervescence, and a positive
test for
Smalt. Particles of this
ground blue
The
refractive
and Stout
index
in dilute acid, usu-
is
flat
and transparent, and
edges sometimes with conchoidal
low and
varies with composition,
1966). Microscopically the particles vary
blue, often purplish in tone, to a bright blue similar in color to azurite. Tiny
air
usu-
copper with potassium ferrocyanide
glass are isotropic
corners, or thin
11=1.49 to 1.52 (Gettens
fracture (plate 6).
is
XRD was used to a limited extent.
was occasionally used. Confirmation by
show square and angular
refractive indices: 0=1.730,
The microscopic appearance
from
from pale
entrapped
bubbles are occasionally present. The microscopic appearance of smalt on these
paintings was considered sufficient for identification
(
Miihlethaler
and Thissen
1993
29
).
Chemical microscopy of smalt
not possible because of
is
its
nor can
insolubility,
XRD be used because is a glass and not a crystalline material.
Indigo. By PLM indigo appears as a blue stain, with tiny opaque particles someit
times visible. With chemical microscopy
blue color
isatin.
is
HNO v
destroyed by dilute
This characteristic behavior with
of the presence of indigo. Indigo
it is
is
5% NaOH, whereas
unaffected by
the
sometimes with the formation of yellow
alkali
and acid was accepted
as indication
PLM,
not distinguishable from Prussian blue by
but the two can be distinguished by chemical microscopy because Prussian blue
insoluble in dilute
HNO^ but
dissolves in
Prussian blue, Fe4 (Fe( CN) 6 )3 .xH2 0. By
persed that
often
it
).
(
is
1997).
PLM Prussian blue appears so finely dis-
seen by transmitted light only as a non-particulate greenish-
is
The
refractive index
is
low: rpi.56 (Berrie
As noted above, by chemical microscopy Prussian blue
is
unaffected by dilute
blue stain, even at high magnifications.
1997
5% NaOH Schweppe and Winter
HNO,, but the color is destroyed by 5% NaOH, sometimes giving a reddish-brown color
due
enough pigment
to the formation of ferric hydroxide; if
tion of dilute
was
rial
HC1 will
is
present, the applica-
cause re-formation of the blue. In a single case enough mate-
by XRD.
available for identification
blue and indigo was present,
no firm
When
an apparent mixture of Prussian
identification of either
pigment was possible by
chemical microscopy.
Ultramarine, a complex sulfur-containing sodium
isotropic with a
low
ultramarine
is
49), and is
deep blue in transmitted
ular
a
and angular
rities.
in
aluminum
refractive index: T|=i.50
light. Particles
shape and are often found with
(
silicate.
By
PLM
Larsen and Berman 1934,
of the natural material are irreg-
calcite
and silicate mineral impu-
Synthetic ultramarine, which was found here, shows uniform, finely divided
particles,
opaque and somewhat rounded
(Plesters 1993).
By chemical microscopy
is destroyed by dilute HC1, and sometimes the odor of H 2 S can be
XRD can provide confirmation and was used in one case.
Organic brown. By PLM this shows as a non-particulate brown, sometimes red-
the blue color
detected.
dish stain. Chemical microscopy indicates that
Both
5% NaOH and
stain.
The behavior with
concentrated
more than one
H S0 4 cause
the
2
brown
material was in use.
color to
form
a
brown
NaOH was noted to be somewhat similar to that of Vandyke
brown, which dissolves with the formation of an amber-colored solution
(
Feller
and
Johnston-Feller 1997).
Metal pigments. By chemical microscopy gold
silver is soluble in dilute
HN0
3
,
white AgCl indicates the presence of
Copper
is
insoluble in concentrated
alloys give a positive test for
silver. Silver
sulfide
3;
can be identified by XRD.
copper with potassium ferrocyanide by chemical
microscopy, and the presence of copper and zinc can be determined by
30
HN0
and with the addition of dilute HC1 the formation of
SEM-EDXA.
A DATABASE OF
PIGMENTS
Other pigments. Mica was identified as muscovite by XRD. Kaolin was identified
by
XRD
confirmed by the determination of Al and
by
an aluminum
as a kaolin-type mineral, chiefly nacrite,
Si
by SEM-EDXA.
Barite
silicate,
was
and
identified
PLM and confirmed by XRD.
CONCLUSIONS
The majority of the pigments used by
certain stated limitations.
With two exceptions
throughout East Asia. Of these two,
pigment, and
is
it
may be
artists
painters included
shell
that the organic
also a colorant specific to Japan.
by ukiyo-e
these artists have been characterized, within
white
all
of the pigments were in use
known
to be a uniquely Japanese
brown, which has yet to be
The wide
variety of
merits further investigation.
many pigment
is
It
fully described,
pigment combinations used
has been established here that these
mixtures to obtain varying hues.
Most of these colorants were used throughout the ukiyo-e period, although
orpi-
ment, the copper greens, and smalt did not come into use until partway through the
period.
turies.
It is
striking that so
many pigments were used
Clark (1992) has said that "there
in Ukiyo-e painting."
He was
is
no
clearly
consistently over several cen-
demonstrable technical 'progress'
referring to their style, but in a different sense his
remark could equally apply to the pigments the
artists
used to create these paintings.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Harold Phillip Stern, curator of Japanese Art and
later director
of Art until his death in 1977, supported this project from
of the Freer Gallery
its
inception.
Kazuo
Yamasaki, formerly of Nagoya University, in his extensive publications on Japanese
pigments and in personal communications, has provided inspiration and
practical advice.
With Tadashi Kobayashi, Gakushuin
ful conversations
about the early paintings in
this series.
Feather, Smithsonian Center for Materials Research
the
University,
I
am
I
much
had some help-
grateful to Melanie
and Education, who carried out
SEM-EDXA analyses of the copper green and copper alloy pigments. especially
my thanks to my colleague John Winter for shared information and
I
want to express
many
helpful discussions about Japanese pigments. Finally
a debt to the late
Walter McCrone,
I
wish to acknowledge
who pioneered the application of polarizedTight
microscopy to the study of pigments and other materials;
this project
could not have
been completed without the application of this technique.
31
3
UMOjq dJO
-
l||
IIM
II
Ml
i
l(|
?rqq ubisstuj
oSipui
.nunzv
:
3ll
MO|pX -Sjq
q)JK>
pay
pr.i|
|...;|
HOIJIUIJ3A
3ju]M |pq S
313[dinODU]
poddng
sdXx
ll
11
I I
f
2
£££
4
f
fit
1
s,
1
II
I
f
c
mc
x*
mc
mx*
alloy
X
yel.Fe
kaolin
yel.Fe
barite
so
Cu
<
u
E
£
E
E
E
£
E
u
u
E
E
E
z.
(J
u
6
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
e
E
E
E
E
E
e
£
E
J
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
u
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
S
E
X
1
E
£
J
g
E
E
E
c
c
E
E
S
E £
E E
C
c
E
E
c
E
E
E
£
u
a
c
c
c
U
E
e
e
u
E
u
E
g
E
E
g
U
E
E
S
E
u
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
1
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
y
E
E
U
U
6
E
U
-;
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
g
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
s
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
1
E
1
1
1
1
1
1 11 1
1 1
I
J
1
E
III
—
1
1
a
1
1 1
1
111f1
s
Genroku
a
a
I
y
a
£
Genroku
Kambun
Kan'ei?
Kambun
Kambun
c.
c.
c.
17th
17th
17th
late
late
late
c.
c.
18th
18th
c.
17th
I7th-i8thc.
!
1
17th—
early
late
1
1694),
(1682-1752)
(1682-1752)
1
1688-1704,
1
1688-1704,
1661-73,
1624-44,
1661-73,
1661-73,
1
(d.
(1652-1724),
(1652-1724),
Itcho
Itcho
(1652-1724),
(1652-1724),
(1652-1724),
(1652-1724),
(1652-1724)
Moroshige
Morofusa
Moronobu
Morofusa
Choshun
Itcho
Itcho
Itcho
?
1
1
i-
J
%
Choshun
Itcho
Itcho
1688-97)
1688-97)
1
of
Hanabusa
Bunkaku
Hanabusa
of
Hanabusa
of
Hanabusa
of
Hanabusa
of
of
Hanabusa
Hanabusa
of
Hishikawa
Furuyama
Hishikawa
anon.
anon.
anon.
anon.
anon.
anon.
anon,
anon.
style
anon.
style
style
style
style
style
Miyagawa
Hishikawa
Miyagawa
(fl.ca.
(fl.ca.
anon.
style
2
61
F1903.6S
5
F1898.9
F1902.91
F1903.60—
F1903.-0
F1903.131
F1905.96
F1907.135
F1976.43
Z
F1900.25-26
F1898.505
F1902.256
F1904.136-137
F1898.428
F1903.108
F1904.138
F1904.387
F1904.388
F1907.657
F1898.7
F1898.122
F1898.76
F1898.101
F1898.429
Z
)
)
)
mc
yel.Fe
i
c;
Agc
AgSx
Age
Ag
u
UMOJq 'nJO
E
E
q}iE9 UA\Ojg
m\q
!
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
6
UEissnirf
u
oSipu[
£
E
E
E
E
E
£
E
E
E
E
E
E
£
E
E E
£
E
E
E
E
E
E
£
E
E
£
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
G
E
ajunzy
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
mc\
E
E
E
*
mcx
c
c
E
MorpX -Sjo
E
E
E
E
E
mcx
6
E
X
E
mcx
=
E
E
E
E
E
mcx
£
E
E
E
E
E
pay
E
paj -Sjo
pE3|
E
E
E
E
£
£
E
E
E
£
E
pay
C
c
c
C
E
E
E
E
£
E
E
z
E c
c:
E
£
E
c
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
£
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E E
E
E E
E
E
S
E
E
E
E
E
E
£
E
E
E
E
1
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
£
E
E
E
silk
silk
silk
silk
silk
silk
silk
silk
E
-
lll>l|UUJ.">/\
3)Il)A\ ||.X| S
.~U3|dlUiOllI
paper
uoddnj
silk
1
hnd
IIII I
I1
hng
11
hng
u
Dated
hng
1
c.
c.
c.
18th
18th
18th
1
1
J
c
1111 1
c.
c?
18th
18th
I
c.)
18th
1
Ft
(
I
Sukenobu
Activity
Masanobu
Masanobu
Masanobu
1711-1785
c.)
18th
c.)
1792
18th
d
Masanobu
Choshun
-
18th
(
(early
1
(1726-1792)
1726
late
1766-88)
(
I
(1726-1792)
(1726-1792)
1
1664-1729)
( (
1
%
J
(1686-1764)
(1671-1751)
1711-1785)
Dates
1111II11
(1686-1764),
1
i
K.
E
1686-1764)
(1686-1764)
1
(1682-1752),
hng
c.
1
1
silk
silk
silk
(late
(
(early
(fl.
Moroyasu
style
Toyonobu
Toyonobu
Ando
Ando
Kaigetsudu
Kaigetsudo
Shuncho
Shuncho
Shunsho
Shunsho
Shunsho
Shunsho
Katsukawa
Katsukawa
Katsukawa
Katsukawa
Katsukawa
Katsukawa
F1903.132
F1898.426
F1905.271
F1905.308-309
F1898.10
Koryusai
Kiyonobu
Torii
Life/
Its
(CONTINUED)
Artist,
of
Miyagawa
ft
Nishikawa
Okumura
Okumura
Okumura
Hishikawa
Okumura
Torii
attrib.
style
|
Ishikawa
anon.
anon.
anon.
Ishikawa
Isoda
anon.,
#
3;
r:
APPENDIX
13.16
Accession
F1901.2S
1
1
F1904.140
I
1
F1902.229
F1898.100
F1898.119
F1902.250
F1902.99
F1898.14
F1902.241
F1903.69
[
1
F1902.251
F1898.114
F1903.136
F1904.195
F1902.38-39
F1903.59
i
F1966.2
F191
)
)
)
)
c
mcx
mc
mc
alloy
yel.Fe
1
ld.wh.
£ E
E
E
E
E
E
£
ld.wh.
Cu
E
£
£
E
£
B
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
£
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
e
E
S
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
5
E E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
1
E
U
5
c
E
E
E
E
E
i
I
E
i
E
E
E
|
u
E
E
y
E
\
E
E
S
E
u
E
E
E
E
y
E
E
E
E
£
E
E
E
1
1
1
I I
C
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
11
1
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
1
1
1
E
E
E
E
E
e E
E
E
E
E
£
E
E
E
£
E
E
E E
E
E
E
E
E £
E
E E
E
S
E
6 E
y
E
E
E
E
E
E
E E
E
U
E
E
E
E
y
1 !1
1 1
III11I
111
£
E
E
E
£
E
E
E
1
sII I I I 1 I
_e
E
E
1
1II I
c.
19th
1776
c.
c.
18th
19th
dated
early
1
(1726-1792),
(1726-1792),
(1726-1792),
(1726-1792),
?
L
c.
1744-70)
(
Tsuneyuki
n)
Tsuneyuki
style
Tsuneyuki
of
Katsukawa
Katsukawa
(
(fl.
(1710-1786)
(fl.
1756-1829
(
fl.
(1756-1829
1730-80)
1730-80)
( 1
Sukevuki
Shunsui
Shunsui
Choki
(fl.
Sekien
Settei
(fl.
Settei
Eishi
|
1704-44),
1704-44)
1704-44)
|
of
Kawamata
Katsukawa
Kawamata
Kawamata
Miyagawa
Miyagawa
Miyagawa
Tsunemasa
Tsunemasa
Nishikawa
Toriyama
Tsukioka
Tsukioka
Hokuun
Hosoda
Suzuki
style
style
Eishi
CENTURY
of
Kawamata
Katsukawa
1
Harunobu
if
of
"-t-
If
Shunsho
1
of
&
(1710-1786)
of
Shunsho
(1725-1770),
1713-1788
Tsunemasa
Shunsho
),
1741-43
q=
Shunsho
1744-70)
18th
style
style
attrib.
J
(fl.
(fl.
(fl.
i
Hosoda
style
18TH-19TH
1
r\
4:
)
;i
1
i
F1898.104
F1898.115
F1898.136
F1904.191
F1903.74
1
1
F1903.67
F1902.252
F1898.118
GROUP
F1901.9
F1898.109
F1906.6
F1981.
F1901.166
F1902.230
F1898.433
F1961.25
F1898.98
F1898.424
F1898.419
F1898.500
He
F1898.93
)
)
)
)
cs
alloy
mc
mc
1
Id.wh.
UMOjq '8jq
ipjea
yel.Fe
Cu-Zn
%
1
•i
£
UA™g
£
E
3 ri[q UEissnj d
E
o8ipu,
g"
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
£
E
E
E
E
£
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
£
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
a
c
E
\
£
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
£
E
E E
E
£
lusuiidjo
E
E
E
psj -Sjo
E
E
E
E
C
C
c
c
E
E
E
pE3| pa>i
£
E
E
E
E
S
E
E
G
C
c
c
E
E
E
E
C
c
c
E
E
£
E
E
E
£
rz
C
G
C
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
1 1
1
c
U0IJIUIJ3A
3JIIJM
[|.->q
S
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
mcx
E
£
E
E
E
1 1
7
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
1
1
E
£
E
1
3J3[duiODU]
1
paper
paper
paper
Ijoddn^
1
1
I111 1 1II I 11I
1 I I
11I11 I1
11
School
1
i8th-i9thc.
Nagasaki
1
Dated
1
1III
),
1
),
c.
c).
c.)?
c.)?
c.)?
c.)?
1806
19th
19th
19th
19th
19th
19th
-early
-early
i8th-early
i8th-early
i8th-early
t8th-early
18th
18th
1
1
1
1
1739-1820),
<S
1764-1824
1754-
(1739-1820),
(1761-1816),
(1764-1824)
Dates
1
I!
1756-1829
(1756-1829),
(1756-1829),
(
Activity
(
(
I
(1738-1818)
Eishi
Eishi
1 1
(
of
of
(
late
late
late
late
late
late
(fl.
(fl.
fl.
(
(fl.
(fl.
(fl.
III
III
of
III
III
III
III
Sori
Sori
style
Sori
Sori
Sori
Sori
Masayoshi
Shigemasa
Shigemasa
1764-80)
!
Kokan
of
cd
of
of
of
1
Shorakusai
Kiyonaga
Tawayara
Hosoda
Hosoda
Kitacawa
Hosoda
Artist,
style
style
(1752-1815
Sori
Masayoshi
Masanobu
Life/
(CONTINUED)
I
Sori
L'tamaro
1765-1824)
Eishi
(
style
Kitao
logan
style
Kitao
Kitao
Kitao
style
Kitao
style
Shiba
1
ca.
Torii
(fl.
#
APPENDIX
Accession
f
F1898.117
F1905.294
F1906.11
F1974.16-17
Pp
I 1
Ph
pp
PL,
F1898.60
F1898.120
F1898.430
F1903.65
F1901.11
F1903.64
F1898.96
F1962.19
I
F1903.130
F1898.431
F1898.74
F1898.103
F1898.105
F1898.106
F1906.50
F1901.100
)
x
X
mcx
E
E
u
</}
BE
<
E
4 1
E
ult.
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
—
c
E
E
y
c
u
s
E
E
E
E
i
E
E
E
E
E
E
3
E"
E
E
e
E
E
E
E
1
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E E
E
E
E
E
X
E
E
i
E
E
3
E
E
E
E
E
U
X
E
u
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
c
—
E
E
E
E
—
c |
—
u
E
s
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E E
E
•J
E
e
E
E
£
E
E
£
U
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
U
y
rL
E
5
E
E
E
y
E
E
5
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
3
x
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
h
1
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
g
e
E
1
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
—
1 11 1 4
1
I I
5
1 I I.
n
1 1
1 1
1
1
1 11
1 1 1 1 1
I 111I 1I I1
I1
I
1 1
1 111I E I111
I
J
c.
19th
1
c.
1
18th
early
1
— 1—
c.
c.
19th
19th
c.
19th
late
Meiji
1
= "3
),
if
I 5
1
(1752-1815)
:
1829
1
1829)
1829)
d.
r.
(
( (
(1769-1825)
1829
(d. (d.
Toyoharu
1t 1
11
(1769-1825
style
d.
1
(
1
1
1
g 1
1
III
Toyoharu
1
of
(1735-1814),
1
§ (k
(1752-1815),
),
=
1
Toyoharu
Toyoharu
Toyohiro
Toyohiro
Toyohiro
Toyokuni
Toyohiro
Toyokuni
fff
1
Toyonobu,
Harunobu
Torin
Kiyonaga
Kiyonaga
Torii
Torii
of
Toshinaga
Tsutsumi
Utagawa
Utagawa
Utagawa
attrib.
of
ot
Utagawa
le
Utagawa
Utagawa
Utagawa
Utagawa
style
(1868-1935)
II
Hiroshige
Hiroshige
Hiroshige
Ando
Ando
Ando
1
f
1
1
I
1
I1
11
II
II
of
Utagawa
Utagawa
style
Gakutei
Utagawa
style
CENTURY
Hiroshige
Hiroshige
Hiroshige
Hiroshige
Gyosui
1
< 1
st\
IS
19TH
S
123-126
5:
5'
%
F1900.U3
Fisgs."s
i
GROUP
F1902.101
F1898.13
F1905.312
F1896.93
I
F1S98.15
F1898.102
F1898.432
F1903.57-58
F1903.133
F1898.94
F1903.72
F1898.121
F1898.427
F1903.63
F1903.105
tin
i
F1903.291
1
F1898.8
F1976.42
F1903.97
F1903.106
F1898.
F1905.234
1
1
[
)
)
) )
)
x
mica
xs
x;
>-
Ag
1
alloy
mx;
Cu-Zn
AgS
I
laqiO
5
UMOjq 'Sjo
L|i.iro
UMO.ig
E
.m|q Linssnj t
u
(
U
oSipu]
E
)|EUIS
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
.j
E
E
£
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E E
E
E
E
E
E
E
suaajS jaddo3
E
E
mcx
mcx
mcx
E
mcx
mcx
E
E
ajiipBpW
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
met
luauiidjo
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
paj -8jo
p,M|
E
p.l>]
E
6
E
E E
y
E
U()l|IUIj,1
A
E
a;!H«
E
Ijoddng
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
^
c
c
E
u
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
mcx
E
E
E
E
E
E
=
silk
E
E
E
E
silk
silk
E
E E
E
E
E
E
E
E
silk
silk
silk
silk
silk
silk
E
E
E
silk
silk
E
E
E
E
n
paper
paper
silk
silk
silk
n.
adXi
mx
u
[|.u| S
0P[dlUO:Ul|
E
j
ipjea pay
dwg
c.
1 1 I 1f1
hng
f1111I
I1Il 1
=
111
1848
1843
9
J I1
hnd
1
19th
i
Dated
E
1
I
c.
c.
19th
19th
J
I1
early
8
c.
c.
c.
c.
c.
19th
19th
19th
19th
19th
i
1839
1
1
ca.
)
1760-1849)
1
album
1766-88),
1760-1849
)
I
1760-1849
1
(1771-1844),
1
(
(1760-1849)
(1760-1849)
!
( ( (
1
Dates
fl.
1760-1849
1760-1849
1760-1849
1760-1849
(1760-1849)
(1760-1849)
(1760-1849)
(1760-1849)
(1760-1849)
1830-43
1766-88),
(
( (
(
(1760-1849)
ca.
(fl.
1
of of of of of
Hokusai
(
Hokusai
Hokusai
Hokusai
Hokusai
Hokusai
Hokusai
Hokusai
Hokusai
Hokusai
Hokusai
Hokusai
Hokusai
Hokusai
Katsushika
Katsushika
Katsushika
Katsushika
Katsushika
Katsushika
Katsushika
Katsushika
Katsushika
F1900.58
F1901.165
F1902.2
F1902.3
F1902.27
F1902.40
F1902.41
F1902.42
fl.
Activity
I
Life/
l!
Koryusai
Koryusai
1
style
style
style
style
style
Shumman,
Shumman,
Shumman,
Shumman,
Shumman,
X ^
ji
loryo
HOKUSAI
1
of
of
(CONTINUED)
Katsushika
Katsushika
Katsushika
Katsushika
Katsushika
Mihata
Hokuga
Artist,
Isoda
style
Isoda
style
KATSUSHIKA
T
#
6:
1
APPENDIX
Accession
F1898.ST
GROUP
F1976.41
F1898.99
F1900.111
F1901.14
F1848.421
F1903.62
F1903.245
F1904.35
F1898.95
F1898.97
F1898.107
F1898.110
F1898.111
F1900.47
c
mx
1
m
alloy
5
yel.Fe
ld.wh.
Cu
C
E
(J
E E
E
E
E
E
E
E
u
E
E
y
u
E
u
E
E
j
E
g
—
—
c
u U
E
E
-J
E
E
E
3
U
E
E
X
J
y
E
E
i
q
—
U
O
E
E
E
E
E
—
E
E
E
i
i
y,
u
E
g
c
E
u
E
E
E
E
E
'->
?
£
£
£
y
E
E
£
g
u
E
E
E
E
E E
E
E
E
E
E
S
E
a
E
E
E
E
£
£
E
E
E
a
E
E
E
£
£
E
E
E
£
£
E
E
E
£
u
U
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
S
E
E
E
=
E
E
O
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
X
E
E
E
E
E
I
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
i E
E
3
E
E
E E
E
E
E
E
E
*
11 1
=
1 1
11
E
1
1
1 11111111 5 I
E
E
E
U
II
1 1 if I.ri 1
11
1 i 1 1
1
1
E
N
1 f I 1 1 fa
y
y
y
1
&
11
si
1
1
8 3
11 I 1111
|
t— f f f 1 S
11
f 1
i
t s
i
1
1
§ I
s
J
M
u
1 f
I11
11
f
1 1 I.ft 1 1 1 1 1 1 I.
s
i
!
1
t f
!
f!
t
H
u
*
t
ft i
Hokusai
1
i
1
-z
-z
1
!
1 i
z
i
2
3
1
I
1
I
(
Hokusai
Hokusai
Katsushika
Katsushika
III
1
Katsushika
Sori
or
1
i
!
1
=
4
1
1
i
i
!
f
5
Oh
'J
\
i CPt —
Oh
i
pi
Ph
i 1 i
Ph
I
Uh
I
1
Pi
R
ft
t>
i
F1903.274
Ph
Ph
Ph
Ph
Ph
II
II
1
pp
X,
Ph
Ph*
Oh
l-U
t
F1904.189-190
F1904.206
)
)
)
mcx
ld.wh
J3l{J0
UMOiq 8ao
-
uA\oag
.in
[q
ueissruj
E
E
oSipui
E
E
->
>
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
sjunzy
E
mcx
E
mcx
mcx
E
E
mcx
a
|
Hi.iLind.iQ
iflJBS
pay
paj
Sjo
pF3|
pay
c
E
=:
E
E
E
£
E
E
c:
E
E
E
mcx
E
U01[RL1.13A
G
3?!HM [pqs
c
c
c
E
E
E
c
E
E
E
c:
c
.H.1[dlll(OU|
E
E
E
E
E
c
c
E
c
c
1
paper
paper
1
I1111II111II
1f1I1 1IIf1
paper
paper
1-ioddns
=
=;
11l1
1f
B
I1
1
1818-34
Dated
Edo
ca.
i
1
1
1
1
iS4g
1760-1849)
11
1760-1849
1
1760-1849
1
1760-1849
1
1760-1849)
1760-1849)
(1760-1849)
(1760-1849)
(1760-1849)
(1760-1849)
f
Dates
(1760-1849)
Hokusai
Hokusai
!
Hokusai
Hokusai
f
rho-
Hokusai
Activity
1
(1760-1849)
(1760-1849)
(1760-1849)
!
E
Hokusai
Hokusai
(1760-1849)
1
1
ff (
( (
Hokusai
Hokusai
Hokusai
Hokusai
(1760-1849)
(1760-1849)
1
1
Hokusai
1
Hokusai
1
(1760-1849)
(1760-1849)
f(
(
Hokusai
Hokusai
Hokusai
Hokusai
(1760-1849)
(1760-1849)
(1760-1849)
E
(
Hokusai
Hokusai
Hokusai
Hokusai
Hokusai
Hokusai
Hokusai
Hokusai
Katsushika
Katsushika
Katsushika
Katsushika
Katsushika
Katsushika
Katsushika
Katsushika
1
1
1
(1760-1849)
(1760-1849)
Lite/
(CONTINUED)
Katsushika
Katsushika
Katsushika
Katsushika
Katsushika
Katsushika
Katsushika
Katsushika
Katsushika
Katsushika
Katsushika
Katsushika
Katsushika
Katsushika
Katsushika
Katsushika
Katsushika
Artist,
J
J
1
J
1
J
233-234
APPENDIX
Accession*
F1904.208
F1904.209
F1904.210
F1904.212
F1904.213
F1904.215
F1904.216
F1904.218
F1904.219
F1904.220
F1904.221
tu
F1904.224
F1904.225
F1904.227
F1904.228
F1904.229
F1904.230
F1905.228
F1905.270
F1905.276
F1905.282
F1906.51
F1906.52
F1906.
F1907.368-373
xs
kaolin
mc;
ultr
I
E
£
g
g
3
E
g
E
'J
u
u
E
E
E
E
E
3
e
e
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
e"
E
E
E
E
£
E
E
E
E
U
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
g
E
E
3
E
E
'J
E
c
c
E
c
E
E
X
E
1
g
E
u
E
E
E
u
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
u
6
E
g
g
E
E
3
E
E
3
O
E
E
E
E
u
g
g
E
E
3
E
=
E
E
g
g
g
X
u
1
E
g
£
£
g
g
|
g
g
|
E
E
E
E
g
g
g
g
E
u
g
g
g
g
—
paper
1
1
1
g lai
3
paper
1
silk
OJ
w
1
1
1
silk
I I I I I ill la
Edo
Edo
u
1
Edo
Edo
3
Edo
Edo
Edo
Edo
Edo
Edo
5
3
1I
Edo
Edo
5
1
1
II
(1615-1868)
1
11
Shigemasa
c
anon.
anon.
anon.
anon.
anon.
anon.
anon.
anon.
anon.
anon.
anon.
1
PERIOD
EDO
?.
6:
>3."d
t
13.13-
1901.12
K)n2.go
GROUP
Oh
ii
1 Uh
U-,
PL,
1S9S.11
191
?
O
1
F1901.13
F1901.171
1
F1903.66
I
kii
F1903.135
1
F1906.48
F1907.126-127
1
F1898.108
REFERENCE LIST
Duang
Akiyama 1964
Akiyama, Terukazu. 1964. Secular painting
early mediaeval Japan. Tokyo:
Kobunkan Co.
In Japanese;
in
Yoshikawa
French abstract.
et al.
1987
Duang, Shuye, Jun-ichi Miyata, Noriko
Kumagai, and Ryuitiro Sugishita.
1987.
Analysis of pigments and plasters from
wall paintings of Buddhist temples in
Anderson 1886
Northwest China. Kobunkazai no kagaku
Anderson, William.
Japan. London:
&
Searle,
1886.
The pictorial
arts
of
32:13-20. In Japanese; English abstract.
Sampson, Low, Marston,
Duncan, Daniels, and Fleming 1990
Rivington.
Duncan,
Asahina 1955
1990.
Asahina, Yasuhiko, ed.
(
Shosoin yakubutsu
1955.
The Shosoin medicinals ). English abstracts
S.
J.,
The
V. Daniels,
and
L. E.
Fleming.
identification of metal foils
and
powders used on Japanese prints and
paintings. Restaurator
11,
no. 4:244-53.
by Shigeyoshi Obata, 481-508. Osaka:
Emoto
Shokubutsu Bunken Kanko-kai.
1962
Emoto, Yoshimichi.
Aston 1924
Aston,
W.
G., trans. [1896] 1924. Nihongi:
X-ray fluorescence
ancient cultural properties. Bijutsu Kenkyit
Chronicles of Japan from the earliest times
to a.d. 69/. 2 vols, in
1.
Trench, Trubner, and
London: Kegan
E.
220:197-202.
Paul,
R Dutton.
Feller 1986
Robert
Feller,
Berrie 1997
and
Berrie, Barbara H. 1997. Prussian blue. In
A
Artists' pigments:
and
1962.
analysis as applied to the identification of
handbook of their
by
Elisabeth West FitzHugh.
book of their history and
history
1,
characteristics. Vol. 3, edited
Barium
L. 1986.
edited by Robert
Natural
sulfate:
synthetic. In Artists' pigments:
A
hand-
characteristics. Vol.
L. Feller.
New York:
Oxford University Press and National
New York:
Gallery of Art.
Gallery of Art.
Feller
Feller,
Chamot and Mason
1970
1970.
Handbook of chemical
microscopy. Vol.
2,
cles
& Sons.
pigments:
and
Robert
L. Feller.
Conder
handbook of their
New York:
1,
edited by
Oxford Uni-
and National Gallery of Art.
Feller,
Curran, and Bailie 1984
Feller,
Robert
D.C.:
L.,
Mary Curran, and Catherine
Press.
Bailie. 1984. Identification
of traditional
organic colorants employed in Japanese
1911
Conder, Josiah.
Kawanabe
A
characteristics.Vol.
versity Press
Museum. Washington,
1986.
in the
with the polarizing microscope. In
history
Clark, Timothy. 1992. Ukiyo-e paintings in the
Smithsonian Institution
and Michael Bayard.
Artists'
New
Clark 1992
British
L.,
systematic examination of pigment parti-
Chemical methods and
inorganic qualitative analysis. 2nd. ed.
York: John Wiley
Robert
Terminology and procedures used
Chamot, Emil Monnin, and Clyde Walter
Mason.
and Bayard 1986
1911.
Paintings
Kyosai. Tokyo:
and studies of
Maruzen.
prints
and determination of
fading.
prints:
Appendix
A
in
catalogue of the
Collection,
by Roger
their rates
S.
Mary A. Ainsworth
Keyes. Oberlin,
Ohio: Allen Memorial Art Museum,
Oberlin College.
4±
of
Japanese woodblock
A DATABASE OF
Feller
Feller,
and Johnston-Feller 1997
Robert
1997.
L.,
Geerts 1883
and Ruth Johnston-Feller.
Vandyke brown. In Artists' pigments: A
handbook of their
Vol.
history
and
characteristics.
edited by Elisabeth West FitzHugh.
3,
PIGMENTS
New York: Oxford
1883. Les
.
produits de
mineralogique). Vol.
&
Gettens 1976
and Bayard 1997
Fiedler, Inge, and Michael Bayard.
Emerald green and
and
Scheele's green. In
and conservation
history
and
by
restoration of pictorial art, edited
Norman Brommelle and
Perry Smith.
London: Butterworths.
by
New York:
Gettens, Feller,
and Chase
Gettens, Rutherford
Gallery of Art.
W.
FitzHugh 1979
T.
J.,
pigment
1993
Robert
L. Feller,
and
Chase. 1993. Vermilion and cinnabar.
A
In Artists' pigments:
A
FitzHugh, Elisabeth West. 1979.
history
and
handbook of their
by
census of ukiyo-e paintings in the Freer
Ashok Roy. New York: Oxford University
Gallery of Art. Ars Orientalis 11:27-38.
Press
1986.
pigments:
Red
A
lead
and minium. In
handbook of their
characteristics. Vol.
Feller.
Gettens and FitzHugh 1993a
FitzHugh 1986
.
at
the Freer Gallery of Art. In Conservation
1997.
handbook of their
1976. Japanese paint-
J.
ings: Technical studies
Fiedler
A
Yokohama: C. Levey
2.
Salabelle.
S.
Gettens, Rutherford
pigments:
nature
University Press and
National Gallery of Art.
Artists'
la
Japonaise et Chinoise ( Partie inorganique et
New York:
1,
history
Artists'
and
edited by Robert L.
Oxford University Press
Gettens, Rutherford
J.,
and Elisabeth West
FitzHugh. 1993a. Azurite and blue verditer. In
Artists' pigments:
and
A
handbook of their
history
by Ashok
New York: Oxford University Press
Roy.
FitzHugh 1997
.
1997.
pigments:
Orpiment and
realgar. In Artists'
Gettens and FitzHugh 1993b
A handbook of their history and
West FitzHugh.
versity Press
New York:
by Elisabeth
Oxford Uni-
•
1993b. Malachite
Artists' pigments:
and
Roy.
A
and green
New York:
verditer. In
handbook of their
history
by Ashok
FitzHugh 2003
.
2003.
Pigments on Japanese ukiyo-e
paintings in the Freer Gallery of Art. In
Gettens, FitzHugh, and Feller 1993
Gettens, Rutherford
J.,
Elisabeth West
Scientific research in the field of Asian art:
FitzHugh, and Robert
Proceedings of the first Forbes symposium at
Calcium carbonate whites. In
the Freer Gallery of Art, edited
with
J.
by
P. Jett,
Douglas, B. McCarthy, and
J.
Winter.
pigments:
A
handbook of their
New York:
London: Archetype Publications.
L. Feller. 1993.
Artists'
history
and
by Ashok Roy.
Oxford University Press and
Geerts 1878
Geerts, A.
J.
C. 1878. Les produits de
Japonaise et Chinoise
mineralogique ). Vol.
(
1.
la
nature
Partie inorganique et
Yokohama: C. Levey.
43
Gettens, Kuhn, and Chase 1993
Gettens, Rutherford
W.
J.,
Kitano and Koezuka 1998
Hermann Kuhn, and
Chase. 1993. Lead white. In
T.
pigments:
Kitano, Nobuhiko, and Takayasu Koezuka.
Artists'
1998.
New York:
Some experiments
production
for the
of tetsu-tan bengara used in the Edo period.
by Ashok Roy.
Bunkazai Hozon Shufuku Gakkai
shi
Kitano and Koezuka 2000
Gettens and Stout 1966
Gettens, Rutherford
J.,
.
and George
1966. Painting materials.
L. Stout.
New York:
(
Edo period
Bunkazai Hozon Shufuku Gakkai
Giaccai and Winter, in press
Giaccai, Jennifer,
press.
Kiihn 1993
real-
Kuhn, Hermann.
In Studies of the pictorial arts of Asia
and copper
1993. Verdigris
1
A
handbook
using scientific methods: Proceedings of the
resinate. In Artists pigments:
second Forbes symposium at the Freer Gallery
of their history
of Art. London: Archetype Publications, in
edited by
association with the Freer Gallery of Art,
University Press and National Gallery
Smithsonian Institution.
of Art.
Larsen and
Golas 1999
Golas, Peter
in
J.
1999. Science
China. Vol.
5,
technology. Part
and
Larsen, E.
civilisation
Chemistry and chemical
33.
and
Ashok Roy. New York: Oxford
Berman
S.,
characteristics. Vol. 2,
1934
and H. Berman.
scopic determination of the
Mining. Cambridge:
Cambridge University
(I).
shi
and John Winter. In
Chinese painting colors: History and
ity.
sekid
in exca-
)
vated urushi objects of the
Dover.
on
2000. Fundamental research
orpiment pigment contained
minerals.
D.C.: U.S.
Press.
2nd
The micro-
1934.
non-opaque
Washington,
ed. Bulletin 848.
Department of the
Interior,
Geological Survey.
Grove
1971
Grove, Nancy.
prints
1971.
Appendix
in
Larson 1988
Ukiyo-e
and paintings: The primitive period.
1680-1745, edited by
Donald
Larson, John. 1988.
tion of
Jenkins.
A
treatment and examina-
polychrome Chinese sculpture
the Victoria and Albert
Chicago: Art Institute of Chicago.
Museum.
conservation of Far Eastern
Harley 2001
John
Harley, R. D. 2001. Artists' pigments c.1600-1835.
2nd
ed.
pigments: Natural and synthetic. In Artists
1
New York:
Artistic
Laufer, Berthold. 1919. Sino-Iranica: Chinese
ancient Iran. Anthropological Series, vol.
no.
Chicago: Field
Museum
15,
of Natural
Leona and Winter 2001
X-ray analysis of the inorganic
1:187-97. In Chinese.
3.
History. Publication 201.
Li 1983
Dunhuang pigments. Dunhuang
44
and
Laufer 1919
Hsu, Wei-yeh, Kuo-hsia Chou, and Yiin-ho
1983.
Yamasaki. London: International Institute
contributions to the history of civilization in
by Barbara H.
Hsu, Chou, and
edited by
Works.
Helwig, Kate. Forthcoming. Iron oxide
Berrie.
art,
at
The
Perry Smith, and Kazuo
for Conservation of Historic
Helwig, forthcoming
pigments:
S. Mills,
In
Yanjiu
Li.
Leona, Marco, and John Winter. 2001. Fiber
optics reflectance spectroscopy:
A
unique
tool for the investigation of Japanese paintings. Studies in Conservation 46:153-62.
A DATABASE OF
Naruse 1996
Leona, Marco, and John Winter. 2003. The
identification of indigo
and Prussian blue
on Japanese Edo-period
paintings. In
Japanese paintings. Freer Gallery
inorganic pigments used on the Shosoin
by x-ray
symposium on
analyis. In International
the conservation
tion of cultural property:
and
restora-
Spectrometry
by Chie
of Art Occasional Papers, this volume.
examination
Washington, D.C.: Freer Gallery of Art,
Sano. Tokyo: Tokyo National Research
Smithsonian Institution.
Institute for Cultural Properties.
Needham
Li 1948
Li,
Naruse, Masakazu. 1996. Investigation of
objects
Studies using scientific methods: Pigments
in later
PIGMENTS
Ch'iao-ping. 1948.
The chemical
arts
of
in conservation, edited
1974
Needham,
in
Education.
technology. Pt
Magurn
and civilisation
Joseph. 1974. Science
old China. Easton, Pa.: Journal of Chemical
China. Vol.
Chemistry and chemical
5,
2.
Spagyrical discovery
invention: Magisteries of gold
1942
With the collaboration of Lu Gwei-djen.
ity.
Magurn, Blanche.
1942. Daiitoku
Myo-6:
A
and
and immortal-
Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Japanese Buddhist deity. Bulletin of the Fogg
Museum
of Art
10,
no.
1
(November) 114- 23.
Needham
McCrone
1982
Vol.
McCrone, Walter
C. 1982.
synthetic insulin.
Ho
Mogi, Nakasato, and Emoto 1975
Mogi,
AJcira,
Conservation
1975.
Ping-yii
Needham
.
on the
ceiling of the
main
hall
of
Hozon Kagaku
Morimoto
1954.
The
crystal structure
of orpiment (As 2 S 3 ) refined. Kobutsugaku
Zasshi 1:160-69.
Miihlethaler, Bruno,
and
J.
and
civilisation in
China.
biological technology.
With the collaboration of
special contribution
A
K.,
and
2,
University Press and National Gallery
R.
Nakagawa.
1970. Arsenic
and deposits of Osoreyama
hot springs, Aomori prefecture. Journal of
handbook
of their history and characteristics. Vol.
Press.
Noguchi and Nakagawa 1970
in the waters
Thissen. 1993.
Smalt. In Artists' pigments:
of Art.
Botany.
Lu Gwei-djen and
Noguchi,
Miihlethaler and Thissen 1993
edited by
1.
and
by Huang Hsing-tsung. Cambridge:
1954
Morimoto, Nobuo.
Pt
Press.
1986
1986. Science
Vol. 6, Biology
Toshodaiji temple, Nara.
invention:
With the collaboration of
treatments with reference to color paintings
and
and Lu Gwei-djen. Cambridge:
Toshikatsu Nakasato, and
Yoshimichi Emoto.
China.
Historical survey from cinnabar elixirs to
nos. 1-2:11-34.
7,
civilisation in
Spagyrical discovery
Pt. 3.
of UC-Canadian Group
and
Chemistry and chemical technology.
5,
The microscopical
identification of artists' pigments. Journal
1976
1976. Science
.
the
Chemical Society of Japan (Pure Chem-
istry Section) 91:127-31. In Japanese;
English abstract.
Oguchi 1969
Oguchi, Hachiro. 1969. Scientific investigations
on color materials
in Japanese paintings.
Tokyo Geijutsu Daigaku Bijutsugakubu Kiyo
5:27-82. In Japanese.
4S
Palache,
Berman, and Frondel 1944
Harry Berman, and Clifford
Schafer 1957
Palache, Charles,
.
Rosewood, dragon's blood and
1957.
Frondel. 1944. The system of mineralogy of
lac.
James Dwight Dana and Edward Salisbury
77:129-36.
Dana. 7th ed. Vol.
1.
New York:
Journal of the American Oriental Society
John Wiley
Schafer 1981
and Sons.
.
The golden peaches of Samarkand,
1981.
Vang exotics.
Pique 1997
a study of
Pique, Francesca. 1997. Scientific examination
of California Press, 1963. Reprint.
Berkeley: University
of the sculptural polychromy of cave 6 at
Yungang. In Conservation of ancient sites on
the Silk Road, edited
by Neville Agnew. Los
Schweppe 1997
Schweppe, Helmut.
Artists'
Angeles: Getty Conservation Institute.
and
pigments:
1997.
A
Indigo and woad. In
handbook of their
Plesters 1956
Plesters, Joyce. 1956. Cross-sections
and
history
by
New York:
chemical analysis of paint samples. Studies
Gallery of Art.
Conservation 2:110-57.
in
Schweppe and Roosen-Runge 1986
Schweppe, Helmut, and Heinz Roosen-Runge.
Plesters 1993
—
.
Ultramarine blue, natural and
1993.
artificial. In Artists'
and
of their history
edited by
pigments:
A
handbook
characteristics. Vol. 2,
University Press and National Gallery of Art.
1986.
Carmine: Cochineal carmine and
kermes carmine. In
handbook of their
Vol.
1,
Artists' pigments:
history
and
A
characteristics.
edited by Robert L. Feller.
New York:
Gallery of Art.
Read and Pak 1928
Read, B.
E.,
and C. Pak.
medicine,
1928.
A compendium
and stones used
of minerals
from
Li
in
Chinese
Shih Chen, Pen tsao kang
Schweppe and Winter 1997
Schweppe, Helmut, and John Winter.
Madder and
mu, 2597 a. d. Peking Society of Natural
handbook
History, Bulletin
Vol.
3,
pt
2.
3,
of their history
Weber 1974
and
Julius
minerals.
A
characteristics.
Roberts, Willard Lincoln, George Robert
Jr.,
and
edited by Elisabeth West FitzHugh.
New York:
Roberts, Rapp, and
1997.
alizarin. In Artists' pigments:
Rapp
Weber. 1974. Encyclopedia of
New York: Van Nostrand
Scott 2000
Scott,
Rheinhold.
David A. 2000.
and
chlorides
A
review of copper
related salts in
bronze corro-
sion and as painting pigments. Studies in
Schafer 1955
Schafer,
in
Edward H.
1955.
Orpiment and
realgar
Chinese technology and tradition.
Journal of the American Oriental Society 75,
Sewell
et al.
Sewell,
W.
1939
G., C. D. Hsiung, T. D. Swei,
Wei. 1939.
no. 2:73-89.
The
and D. H.
natural dyes of Szechwan,
West-China. Journal of the Society of Dyers
Schafer 1956
—
.
1956.
and
The
early history of lead
pigments and cosmetics
Pao 44:413-38.
46
in China.
Young
Colourists 55:412-15.
A
Silbergeld
and McNair 1988
Silbergeld, Jerome,
and
Chinese painting
Taj
Amy McNair.
colors, studies
1988.
of their
i
ma
1903
Tajima, Shiichi. 1903. Brief explanation of the
composition and use of pigments. In
preparation and application in traditional
Masterpieces selected from the Korin school.
and modern
Vol.i, xvi-xix.
times. Translation
Chung-kuo hua yen-se
Kong and
ti
Hong Kong
Seattle:
of Yii Feian,
yen-chiu.
Takamatsu
1878
University
and University of Washington
Press
Tokyo: Shimbi shoin.
Hong
Takamatsu, Toyokichi.
pigments. Tokyo:
Smith, in press
In press.
II.
Hokusai and the
blue revolution in Edo prints. In Hokusai
and
by Gian Carlo Calza and
his age, edited
John
T.
Carpenter. Venice: International
Uyemura
1931
Uyemura, Rokuro.
pigments
Hokusai Research Centre, University of
Wallert 1984
Wallert, Arie. 1984.
Studies in ancient
Art y 47 -60.
Orpiment and
realgar.
Maltechnik-Restauro 90, no. 4:45-57.
Stern 1973
Harold
1931.
in Japan. Eastern
Venice.
Stern,
On Japanese
Department of Science
Tokio Daigaku.
in
Smith, Henry D.,
1878.
Press.
P.
1973. Freer Gallery of Art
fiftieth-anniversary exhibition.
I.
Ukiyo-e
Walsh, Berrie, and Palmer 1998
Walsh, Judith, Barbara H. Berrie, and Michael
painting. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian
Palmer. 1998.
Institution.
of discoloured lead pigments in Japanese
woodblock
Sung 1966
Sung, Ying-hsing. 1966. Chinese technology
in the seventeenth century. T'ien-kung
k'ai-wu, translated
by E-tu Zen Sun and
London
prints. In
1997,
J.
Eagan. Leigh,
Conservation.
Wang
Pennsylvania State University Press.
Wang,
1986
Jinyu. 1986.
On
the crimson vitriol and
Dunhuang
Dunhuang Yanjiu 4:78-81.
the ferrous pigment used in
Sze 1956
Mai-mai, trans.
The mustard seed
1956.
garden manual of painting. Translation
wall paintings.
In Chinese.
of Chieh tzu yuan hua chuan, 1679-1701.
Wang, Guo, and
New York and
Wang,
Princeton, N.J.: Bollingen
Foundation and Princeton University
Press.
A
Jinyu,
Li 1995
Hang Guo, and
Jun
Li. 1995.
preliminary study of lapis lazuli and
ultramarine dyestuff applied to murals and
colored sculptures in
Taguchi and Taguchi 1977
Taguchi, Ei-ichi, and
Mamiko
Taguchi. 1977.
Spectrophotometric identification of color
Dunhuang
Wang and Wang
Wang,
pigments used
in the scroll 'Genji-
grottoes.
English abstract.
and combined mixed
colors, with reference
Dunhuang
Yanjiu 3:74-86. In Chinese;
materials, especially of organic pigments
to the
IPC Conference Papers
edited by
Worcester, U.K.: Institute of Paper
Shiou-chuan Sun. University Park: The
Sze,
The connoisseurship problem
Jinyu,
1999
and Jincong Wang.
1999.
Application of vermilion pigments in
Monogatari 54-J0 Emaki' of the Edo Period.
ancient China.
Kobunkazai no Kagaku 20-21:18-37. In
Kexue
Japanese; English abstract.
abstract.
11,
Wenwu Baohu
Yu Kaogu
no. 1:39-44. In Chinese; English
47
Whitmore and Cass
Wise and Wise 1998
1988
Whitmore, Paul M., and Glen
Wise, David, and Angela Wise. 1998.
R. Cass. 1988.
The ozone fading of traditional Japanese
Observations on nineteenth-century
colorants. Studies in Conservation 33:29-40.
Chinese pigments with special reference to
copper greens. In IPC Conference Papers
Winter
1981
London
Winter, John.
1981.
"Lead white"
Japanese
in
paintings. Studies in Conservation
edited by
1997,
J.
Eagan. Leigh,
Worcester, U.K.: Institute of Paper
Conservation.
26:89-101.
Yamasaki
Winter 1983
—
.
1983.
The characterization of
pigments based on carbon. Studies
in
Pigments used
in the
Hall of the Eizan-Ji temple. In Study on the
Octagonal Hall
of the Eizan-ji temple, edited
by Toshio Fukuyama and Terakazu
Winter 1987
1987.
paintings:
In
1951.
decorations of the Naijin of the Octagonal
.
1951
Yamasaki, Kazuo.
Organic colors
The
in East
identification of
Akiyama. Kyoto: Benrido Co.
Asian
gamboge.
ICOM Committee for Conservation,
Yamasaki 1959
.
Eighth Triennial Meeting edited by Karen
1959.
Chemical studies on the eighth-
century red lead preserved in the Shosoin
Grimstead. Marina del Rey, California:
at
Nara. Studies
in
Conservation 4:1-4.
Getty Conservation Institute.
Yamasaki and Emoto 1979
Winter 1989
—
.
Yamasaki, Kazuo, and Yoshimichi Emoto. 1979.
1989. Identification
of some early
Pigments used on Japanese paintings from
Korean pigments. Misul Charyo 43
(
the protohistoric period through the seven-
June):i-36.
teenth century. Ars Orientalis 11:1—14.
Winter 1997
.
Yanagisawa 1985
1997.
Gamboge.
A handbook of
tics.
Vol.
3,
FitzHugh.
their history
and
Yanagisawa, Taka. 1985. Examining Japanese
characteris-
wall-paintings
edited by Elisabeth West
New York and Washington, D.C.:
and
conservation
Gallery of Art.
erty:
Recent progress and remaining problems.
In Scientific research in the field of Asian art:
first
Forbes
Symposium
J.
Douglas, B. McCarthy, and
by
J.
P. Jett,
Winter.
restoration of cultural prop-
edited by Isao Suzuki and
II,
at
with
Research Institute for Cultural Properties.
Zhou, Zhang, and Cheng 1997
Zhou, Guoxin, Jianquan Zhang, and Huaiwen
Cheng.
chrome
1997.
Pigment analysis of poly-
statuary
and wall paintings of the
Tiantishan grottoes. In Conservation of
on the
Road, edited by
ancient
sites
Neville
Agnew. Los Angeles: Getty
Conservation
48
using physico-optical
Katsuhiko Masuda. Tokyo: Tokyo National
Marco
Leona. 2003. East Asian painting pigments:
the Freer Gallery of Art, edited
)
Conservation and restoration of mural
paintings.
Winter, Giaccai, and Leona 2003
Proceedings of the
from the seventh through
methods. In International symposium on the
Winter, John, Jennifer Giaccai, and
(
fourteenth centuries
Silk
Institute.
plate
l.
Detail,
A
Puppet-Show: The Story of "The Potted
(early 18th century). Japan,
screen; color, ink,
Edo period
and gold on paper;
Trees,"
by Bunkaku
(1615-1868). Six-panel folding
152.6
x 377
cm
(F1898.505). Smalt
used on the blue area of the wall above the red dais in the right panel.
is
plate
2.
Kitten,
Interior:
A
Girl
and a
by Katsukawa Shuncho
(late 18th century). Japan,
Edo
period (1615-1868). Hanging
scroll;
91.5
x
color
30.8
and gold on
cm
Purple iron oxide
the
girl's
robe.
silk;
(F1903.132).
is
used for
plate
3.
Detail of copper green pigment, paratacamite, X7,
from Dancer
in
unknown
Hanging scroll mounted
a Wliite Dress, Patterned with Colored Leaves and Flowers, by an
artist.
on
Japan,
Edo period, Kambun
a panel; color
PLATE
4.
quartz,
87.3
x 29.0
cm
(F1903.131).
Photomicrograph of copper green pigment, paratacamite and
xnoo, from
by an unknown
Yujo
artist.
and ink on paper;
in
era (1661-73).
and gold on paper;
Canada balsam,
87.9
and Her Understudy ( Kamuro
),
the Latter Reading,
Japan,
Edo period (1615-1868). Hanging
x 39.9
cm
11=1.53.
(
scroll;
F1901.13). In transmitted light,
color
mounted
plate
5.
Photomicrograph
of malachite, showing banding,
xi8o, from River Landscape:
Blossoming Cherry
Trees,
by Ando
Hiroshige (1797-1858). Japan, Edo
period (1615-1868). Hanging
ink and tint on
silk;
scroll;
43.6 x 70.5
cm
(F1903.105). In transmitted light,
mounted
in
%
Canada balsam, ^=1.53.
:
mm J
]
m
PLATE
the
6.
Photomicrograph of smalt, X300, from Yujo with a Pipe Standing
Open
Side of a
Room and Looking Out,
(1682-1752). Japan,
paper; 98.6 x 46.0
balsam,
1^
=1.53.
in the style of
Edo period 1615-1868
cm
(
).
Hanging
scroll;
(F1903.134). In transmitted light,
in
Miyagawa Choshun
color
mounted
and ink on
in
Canada
PLATE
9.
Detail,
Dutch Couple Reading a
Edo period, dated
1817.
Hanging
scroll;
Collection of Ambassador and Mrs.
54
Letter,
by Nanreisai Nagasaki; 1771-1836). Japan,
(
ink and color on paper; measurements not available.
W. Leonhart, Washington, D.C.
PLATE
10.
Album
page, by
Hokuga
(act. early 19th
Ink and color on paper; 27.0 x 36.5
cm
(
century). Japan,
Edo
period, early 19th century.
Fi976.4iy).
Clockwise from above:
PLATE
11.
Detail of plate 10
plate
12.
Infrared image of detail in plate
plate
13.
Subtraction image of detail in plate
11
(shows Prussian blue areas).
11
(shows indigo areas).
55
Top and bottom
plate
14. Tfie
Japan,
left to right:
Lute and White Snake of Benten
Edo period, date unknown. Hanging
plate
15.
Detail of plate
PLATE
16.
Infrared image of detail in plate
56
(
Sarasvati
),
scroll; colors
by Katsushika Hokusai (1760-1849 ).
on
silk; 35.3
x 44.6
14.
15
(indigo areas suppressed).
cm
(F1904.134).
The
Identification of Indigo
and Prussian Blue
on Japanese Edo-Period Paintings
Marco Leona and John Winter
ABSTRACT
Indigo has long been used as a blue pigment on Japanese and other East Asian
paintings. Prussian blue appears
more
recently,
with occasional references in eigh-
teenth-century historical sources, specific documentation of
Japan in the
late
blue.
was
importation into
eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, and identification on
paintings in the nineteenth century.
and the
its
They are both dark blue, fine-particle pigments,
tinting strength of indigo appears to be at least as high as that of Prussian
Methods
for identification are reviewed briefly; the
fiber-optic reflectance spectroscopy
tion spectroscopy
(
major technique used here
FORS supplemented by infrared absorp),
and x-ray fluorescence spectroscopy. Indigo and/or Prussian
blue,
alone, in mixtures with each other, or in mixtures with other pigments, were
identified
on
139 paintings.
blue, the earliest that
is
There was
a total of forty-six occurrences of Prussian
reliably dated being
not have a co-occurrence of indigo.
reliably to after 1830, eighteen
Of a
from
1817,
more
likely to
fairly
had Prussian blue and thirty-one indigo, showing
the latter continued to be important as a pigment. There
blue was
but only eight of these did
subset of thirty-four paintings dated
is
that
no evidence that Prussian
be used on one support material rather than another, or on
paintings of one particular format. There are
numerous
cases of both pigments
being used on the same painting, either as a mixture or for separate design elements;
some
interesting examples of the latter are illustrated.
There were sixty paintings
with mixtures of these pigments with either yellow to give a green color ) or red to
(
(
give a purple color); indigo
four,
all
in
dominated these
cases, Prussian blue occurring in
only
mixture with yellows.
BACKGROUND
Indigo
is
a dark blue product obtained
plant metabolite
is
from a number of plant
a glucoside, indican (fig. la); successive fermentation
tion of plant extracts converts this to the blue
indigo in use in
species.
modern times
is
compound
indigotin
synthetic, but since this version has
The
actual
and oxida-
(fig. lb).
Most
been available
57
MARCO LEONA AND JOHN WINTER
only since the 1890s, our concern here
of indigo as a pigment
is
is
by Schweppe
with the natural product. An overall review
(1997).
Indigo has been in use throughout East Asia as both a dyestuff and a pigment
many
for
centuries.
Most of
have
likely to
it is
Polygonum tinctorium (Polygonaceae), but the
(
Papilionaceae)
is
stated to have
come from
the indigenous plant
tropical species Indigofera tinctoria
been introduced into China via Persia
the Tang period (7th-9th century), probably for use as a cosmetic
as early as
(Needham
Schafer 1981, 212). Both the seventeenth-century Mustard Seed Garden
158;
(Sze 1977, 584)
and twentieth-century
1988) cite indigo as a
pigment
for
is
an
1969; Silbergeld
Manual
and McNair
Structure of indican (indoxyl glucoside);
Fig. 1A:
artificial
(March
Chinese painting.
qqj u
Prussian blue
texts
1986,
pigment,
made for the first time in Berlin around 1704;
commercial manufacture started shortly thereafter (Berrie
1997).
It is
a hydrated
iron hexacyanoferrate of somewhat variable composition; typical molecular formu-
KFe[Fe(CN)6] and Fe 4 [Fe(CN)6] 3 both hydrated with a number of water
las are
,
molecules. Other cations, such as sodium and
in the first formula.
Along with variations
ammonium, can replace the potassium
in the color
differences are primarily a consequence of different
pigment has had and continues
to have )
(
appears to be the
commonest
in
its
sidered to be a generic term for
derived from
The
its
and handling properties, these
methods of manufacture. This
many different names, though Prussian
application as an
all varieties,
and
artists'
pigment. Iron blue
is
is
place of discovery.
date of Prussian blue's
first
arrival in
began modest, formal imports from
pigment was distributed more
Japan
is
uncertain. According to Screech
1789.
as a gift
some by
1782,
and the Dutch
Screech considers that around 1790 the
than as a regular trading good. Smith (1998)
has examined the whole question of availability of Prussian blue in Japan in
detail.
He found
that
was used in certain eighteenth-century paintings of the Akita school.
58
con-
Berlin blue (see further below)
(2000, 203-4), Chinese intermediaries had imported
it
blue
references to
it
in Japanese writings dated 1763
and
1778,
some
with claims
A study
THE IDENTIFICATION OF INDIGO AND PRUSSIAN BLUE
of Nagasaki trading records led Smith to distinguish six phases of importation
through that port.
1.
1782-97, sporadic imports by the Chinese at low prices
2.
1798-1809,
3.
1810-16, no imports
4.
1817-23, imports by the Dutch, prices initially high but declining
5.
1824-28, reentry of the trade by the Chinese, with steadily increasing
quantities
6.
more frequent but sporadic imports by the Dutch
and declining
at
higher prices
prices
1829 onward, trade entirely in Chinese
hands
until the
mid-i840s and prices
low
The
overall picture
is
one of fluctuating but limited
in the eighteenth century until the 1820s,
when
availability
from some point
increasing Chinese imports were
associated with a decline in price.
From the late 1820s, the use of a dark blue in ukiyo-e woodcut prints
by Katsushika Hokusai (1760-1849) and
a striking degree, especially
pigment has been widely assumed
lent as the price declined.
to be Prussian blue,
However, pigment identifications
Prussian blue has also been reported on Edo-period
and
Sugisita 1999
),
bero-ai. All
in other
silk textiles in
dyestuff;
was
in the eighteenth century
shorter forms after about 1800 were hero and berorin
is
in the published litera-
Japan
it
(Ito,
was held
silk.
A Japanese name for the pigment
sion
The
1
presumably being a type of disperse
responsible for deterioration of the
his school.
which became more preva-
ture relevant to the question appear at present to be lacking.
Sinkai,
increased to
(
Smith 1998 ). The modern ver-
of these are clear adaptations of Berlin blue and
Western languages. The name Berlin blue
herein buraau;
is
its
close analogues
often favored by scholars of
Japanese history.
Indigo and Prussian blue are not identical in color or other properties, but they
are quite similar.
sufficiently
the
Both are fine-particle pigments that give
very dark blue in
a
heavy applications, and might well be considered by
same design
features. It
is
a painter for
much
worth noting that blue pigments were not, before mod-
ern times, available in a great variety to the Japanese painter. Azurite
but seems often to have been imported, and there
is
no evidence
marine reached Japan (synthetic ultramarine appears there
tury). In these circumstances,
it is
was widely used
that natural ultra-
in the nineteenth cen-
of interest to acquire information on the uses of
indigo and Prussian blue in paintings from the late eighteenth to early nineteenth
centuries.
1.
Feller,
Curran, and Bailie (1984)
cite
two or three identifications of indigo on ukiyo-e
prints,
but none of
Prussian blue.
59
MARCO LEONA AND IOHN WINTER
PROPERTIES AND IDENTIFICATION METHODS
Both Prussian blue and indigo are
may
vary
—
a very
dark blue, but in both cases the exact shade
example, with greenish or reddish undertones. Indigo, the natural
for
product, can vary in purity; depending on the plant source, the isomeric
indirubin, or "indigo red,"
(Schweppe
1997).
and perhaps
also
may be
As described above, the chemical composition of Prussian blue,
its
purity,
facture. Prussian blue
is
shows differences depending on the method of manu-
usually considered to be a "brighter" blue than indigo. This
presumably means that the chroma, in the Munsell color system,
light
of the above
comments
it is
With both pigments the
caution.
for the painter to apply the
Admixture with
The
a white
clear that such statements
Berrie 1997
),
pigment
a desirable
important to the painter.
is
much weaker
in
its
It
higher, but in
making
it
fairly
pigment thinly and control the intensity of
white base pigment. Prussian blue
(
is
need interpreting with
particle sizes are very small,
pigment may
tinting strength of a
strength
compound
present in proportions of up to a few percent
also have
is
is
been used for
measure of its
a
easy
color.
lighter blues.
ability to
impart color to a
generally recognized to have a high tinting
property for making prints, though probably
less
has sometimes been implied (Wehlte 1975) that indigo
tinting ability.
However, we have been able to find no direct
comparison of the two pigments. We describe below our own experiments comparing synthetic indigo with ferric ferrocyanide (Fe 4 [Fe(CN) 6
showed
ate
and barium
3
see above),
,
which
sulfate
than did
this particular version
of Prussian blue.
We empha-
however, that the possible variability of both pigments can affect such results
size,
appreciably; in particular, the natural product indigo
versions
much less pure than
Under the
the synthetic
that the
two pigments are extremely
nation. There are
marked
and reducing agents reduce
It is
it
it
It
to
has long been recognized
difficult to distinguish
is
isatin (yellow,
by microscopic exami-
and much
to colorless leucoindigo,
stable to dilute alkali
ble to cold dilute acids, but
pigment,
here.
pigment are often too small
commonly seen.
in
differences of chemical behavior. Strong oxidizing agents,
such as nitric acid, convert indigo to
to indigo.
may have been marketed
compound used
optical microscope, particles of either
be resolved, though larger clumps are
as a
]
that the indigo displayed a higher tinting strength in both calcium carbon-
intense in color),
which may be reoxidized back
and nonoxidizing acids. Prussian blue
readily
cannot be used
less
is
also sta-
decomposed by dilute alkali which means that,
(
in alkaline
media).
These chemical properties have often been used for the identification on the
microscope stage of microscopic samples FitzHugh 1979). The main problem
(
the
amount of pigment
60
in a permissible
sample
is
generally very small.
The
is
that
intense
)
colors of indigo
mean
and Prussian blue high absorption
coefficients in the visible region
(
pigment
that the surface density of
A
design features.
sample of blue,
fibers or other materials,
and
in
if it is
and
low,
is
visible at
all,
especially so for light blue
may be mixed with support
some cases indigo and Prussian blue themselves may
be present as a mixture. These problems have sometimes
of indigo and Prussian blue impractical.
ical identifications
Prussian blue
identification
made unambiguous chem-
is
a
compound
of iron, which affords another basis for chemical
and may enable evidence
for
its
presence to be obtained noninvasively
by x-ray fluorescence spectrometry. This approach
also
limited by low surface-
is
density of the pigment, coupled with the near ubiquity of iron in various chemical
forms;
quite
it is
common to
see a
weak
iron signal
on many parts of a
painting. In
addition, x-ray fluorescence does not help with identifying indigo. Nevertheless, the
ability to identify iron noninvasively
The
advent,
meant
ble
can sometimes provide useful evidence.
infrared absorption spectrum
some time
both compounds. The
characteristic for
is
ago, of the Fourier transform approach for capturing a spectrum
that microscopic samples
became adequate
sample from the painting may still be
The
for study.
a limitation,
of a permissi-
size
but within this limit, a Fourier
transform infrared (FTIR) spectrum normally enables a definitive identification of
both pigments, including mixtures of the two. Although infrared spectroscopy can
also, in principle,
be done in reflectance
serious difficulties
when applied in this way. These are chiefly the low intensity of the
diffusely reflected radiation
tion
mode on the surface of a work, it suffers from
and obscurement of the spectrum of interest by absorp-
by the support material, binder,
method having been
sizes,
and so
forth.
We
are not aware of such a
investigated for application to East Asian paintings.
Reflectance spectroscopy has been used as a noninvasive technique in the ultraviolet
and
lar as
some
visible regions.
As an identification method,
this has
not been as popu-
others and has the disadvantage of lower resolution of spectral features
and poorer fingerprinting
ability than, for
example, FTIR.
advantage for identification of colorants: by definition
It
it
does have
is
at least
highly selective for
materials that absorb in the visible region and discriminates against other
nents that are present in the painting.
Compounds
have strong absorption in the ultraviolet
not necessary to be
bound by the
also,
and
one
compo-
that absorb visible light usually
purposes
for identification
sensitivity limits of the
human
it is
eye.
This identification method has proved to be well adapted to the indigo/Prussian
blue problem.
The main reason
in the present case lies
properties of indigo above about 700
infrared region.
a
low value,
nm,
as the
The absorption of radiation
a characteristically different
with the unusual absorption
spectrum moves into the near-
in this region
by indigo
falls
rapidly to
behavior from that of Prussian blue or
61
other possible blue pigments.
It
follows that the reflectance of indigo rises rapidly,
as seen in the reflectance curves for indigo
figure
2.
and Prussian blue dispersions shown
A consequence of the same property is that images of indigo-painted areas
in the near infrared
appear very
FIG
light in tone, to the extent that
such areas can often be suppressed
feature
sent
in
1
REFLECTANCE CURVES
2.
=
Indigo.
2
= Prussian Blue
such an image. This
was exploited
work with
in the pre-
certain paintings,
as described below.
j
Visible reflectance spectros-
£
—
£
copy has been used by others
for example,
and
in
by
Feller,
Bailie (1984)
Curran,
on Japanese
300
700
500
900
ukiyo-e prints. Fiber-optic techWavelength,
nology enabled an advance to be
made by
nm
solving the problem of coupling the spectrometer to any selected spot
the painting surface; pioneering
Bacci and his coworkers
work was done
Bacci et
(e.g.,
al.
1996),
in the field of Italian paintings
who adopted
(fiber-optic reflectance spectroscopy) for this approach. In
fiber-optic
probe of special design has been coupled to
trophotometer (Varian Associates,
Inc.),
a
the
on
by
acronym FORS
our hands, a
flexible
Cary 50 UV-visible spec-
an instrument with a spectral range of
about 250
nm
nm or so
about
mm diameter that can be accurately located on the painting surface. The
190-1100
0.7
(other limitations tend to restrict reflectance spectra to a range above
).
This system enables a spectrum to be collected from a spot of
particular spectrometer couples efficiently to fiber optics
special shielding
improved
is
is
lights; the specialized fiber-optic
efficiency in collecting reflected radiation
noninvasive:
the
from room
no sample
is
and may be used without
removed, and there
is
probe design gives an
from the painting. The method
no contact between the probe and
work of art being examined. Furthermore, exposure to the wavelengths employed
safe
even for extremely fugitive dyes for times
normal spectrum
acquisition.
much longer than
The system has been described
those required for
in detail in a separate
publication (Leona and Winter 2001), which also describes the use of Kubelka-Munk
transforms to identify mixtures of the two pigments.
The present work
relied heavily
blue, green, or purple areas
on
on the FORS technique
the paintings.
mented with x-ray fluorescence spectroscopy
Where
(to
for
an
initial analysis
of
appropriate, this was supple-
confirm the presence of iron in
suspected Prussian blue occurrences ) and FTIR spectroscopy on a removed sample.
62
The
last
approach complemented the
FORS method,
well with the heavy (and therefore dark
FORS
since
does not work as
and unreflective applications
)
more
that are
amenable to sampling.
TINTING STRENGTH
The
tinting strength of a
in a selected white
mentally.
It is
pigment
is
measured by dispersing
pigment and assessing the resulting color
a convenient
method of
quality control,
Prussian blue in commercial color technology has led to
often been measured.
modern world
The same
is
as a dyestuff rather
weighed proportion
a
either visually or instru-
and the importance of
its
tinting strength having
not true of indigo, which
known
in the
and of ferric
ferro-
better
is
than a pigment.
We prepared mixtures of synthetic indigo
(
Fisher Scientific
)
cyanide (Fisher Scientific) with calcium carbonate (Aldrich Chemical Co., 99+%).
In each case, the pigment (0.1 g) was
ture
mixed with calcium carbonate
(10 g), the
mix-
made damp with ethanol and ground thoroughly with a pestle and mortar, and
then dried to give a
1% (w/w)
dispersion.
that the Prussian blue dispersion
is
The
shown
results are
lighter in color
in plate
than indigo but also
7. It is
is
seen
a brighter
blue color. Layers were prepared on microscope slides using methylcellulose in
aqueous solution
as a binder.
Chromameter Model
Instrumental measurements of the colors (Minolta
221) gave results in the
Similar dispersions of 0.1%, 1%,
(Sigma Chemical Co.). These were
La*b* system shown in table
and 10% (w/w) were made
in
1.
barium
sulfate
but they also showed
lighter in color overall,
higher tinting strength for indigo than for Prussian blue. A dispersion of 2% Prussian
blue in barium sulfate was approximately the same tint as the
1%
indigo preparation.
Prussian blue has been characterized in the literature as having a high tinting
strength. This
is
undoubtedly true, but
it
seems clear from these
of a reasonable purity has a tinting strength
at least
comparable
results that indigo
to, if
not higher than,
that of Prussian blue.
TABLE
1.
COLOR MEASUREMENTS ON 1% DISPERSIONS
L
IN
CALCIUM CARBONATE
a*
b*
Prussian blue
48.60lo.22
-7.21+0.02
-27.1310. 26
Indigo
38.23lo.46
-1.69lo.06
-14.5910. 18
63
MARCO LEONA AND IOHN WINTER
PREVIOUS IDENTIFICATIONS
The
pigments
identification of these
in design features of paintings has
been techni-
cally rather difficult for the reasons described above, particularly in cases
tures are likely. These points should be
remembered when claims of identification
are
However, Prussian blue need not be considered before the eighteenth cen-
assessed.
tury,
where mix-
and
pigment
is
be unusual before the nineteenth. Existing identifications of this
likely to
in East Asia
appear to be confined to Japan.
Indigo as a pigment has been claimed on paintings and objects in the eighth-
century Shosoin repository as well as on temple wall paintings of the ninth to eleventh
century Yamasaki and
(
substituted for azurite
azurite,
Emoto
when
1979). In the latter usage
this
was
in short
it
was suggested that indigo
supply Japan has often had to import
(
and communications with the Asian continent were
time in question).
Coming
restricted
FitzHugh (2003),
to Japan of later times,
in
during the
an investiga-
tion of 284 ukiyo-e paintings or groups of paintings in the Freer Gallery collection,
found indigo
in 152 cases
and Prussian blue
in 36.
The paintings ranged from
the
seventeenth through the nineteenth century, and, not surprisingly, Prussian blue
occurrences were heavily weighted toward the later paintings. However, the
identification
method was chemical microscopy, and
the identifications because of small sample sizes
uncertainties attended
some of
and probable mixed occurrences.
RESULTS
PAINTING SELECTION
The
great majority of paintings investigated were
Gallery of Art, and
FitzHugh
some were works
A
large proportion of the
pupils, a school that
happens
collection of the Freer
by
also investigated, using different techniques,
(1979; 2003). Date attributions ranged
teenth century.
from the
from the eighteenth
works are attributed
to
to the nine-
Hokusai or
his
to be well represented in the Freer collection. Altogether
139 paintings were found to have indigo and/or Prussian blue, alone or in mixtures.
Nine of these had one or the other only
(
as a
mixture with a pigment of another color
typically with a yellow to afford a green color ), leaving 130 with indigo
blue in blue design features.
The
overall statistics are given in table
of paintings with their attributions and the results obtained
is
2.
in the
and/or Prussian
A complete
list
appendix.
PRUSSIAN BLUE OCCURRENCES
Those paintings where Prussian blue was found and where indigo was not found
64
as
a blue color are listed in table 3 (p. 66). In addition to twelve paintings in
Prussian blue appears as a blue, there
is
one where
it is
mixed with yellow
which
to give a
green color, also without the co-occurrence of indigo. However, of the twelve with
Prussian blue as blue, three also had indigo in a yellow-blue mixture and one had
indigo in a red-blue mixture. There were, therefore, only eight paintings that used
Prussian blue without any use of indigo on the same painting.
INDIGO OCCURRENCES
Those paintings where indigo has been found without Prussian blue having
been found are
listed in table 4 (p. 67).
indigo occurs as blue
low,
and in ten
low,
and one
in
as a
in eighteen of
(
There are eighty-five paintings
them,
it is
it
which
also present as a mixture with yel-
mixture with red), seven in which
which
in
also
it
occurs only mixed with yel-
occurs only mixed with red. In none of these cases was any
Prussian blue-based mixture found.
PRUSSIAN BLUE AND INDIGO CO-OCCURRENCES
Two
situations are possible: the pigments
ferent design elements
),
or they
may be
applied separately ( usually for dif-
may be applied as a mixture. Both situations have been
TABLE
2.
OVERALL STATISTICS
TOTAL NUMBER OF PAINTINGS
139
Having design elements
130
in blue
Mixtures with other colors only
ONLY ONE OF THE PIGMENTS AS BLUE
Indigo only as blue
1
Prussian blue only as blue 2
BOTH PIGMENTS USED AS BLUE
Used
in separate design elements
Used
as
mixtures
Both situations on same painting
9
97
85
12
33
26
13
6
MIXTURES WITH OTHER COLORS
60
Indigo + yellow pigment
48
Prussian blue + yellow pigment
3
Indigo + Prussian blue + yellow pigment
2
Indigo + red pigment
13
1.
Eighteen paintings had indigo also in a green mixture.
2.
Three paintings had indigo
in a
green mixture.
65
MARCO LEONA AND [OHN WINTER
TABLE
3.
OCCURRENCES OF PRUSSIAN BLUE ONLY
PB = Prussian blue; I-gn = indigo green; PB-gn = Prussian blue green; IPB-gn = both in green;
blue + red; Ind = indigo. Identifications: x = identification firm; (x) = identification probable.
Accession numbers refer to the collection of the Freer Gallery of Art.
B+R =
Accession # Artist
Support
Title
F1898.107
Katsushika Hokusai
F1898.123
Utagawa Hiroshige
A girl
II
silk
X
silk
X
X
paper
X
X
silk
X
paper
X
silk
X
paper
X
silk
X
walking
silk
X
Peach blossom spring
silk
Ningyo
paper
pipe
Utagawa Hiroshige
F1903.216
Katsushika Hokusai
F1904.132
Katsushika Hokusai
Rats and rice bales
F1904.180
Katsushika Hokusai
Flowers, birds, animals
F1904.185
Katsushika Hokusai
A girl
F1904.218
Katsushika Hokusai
F1905.228
Katsushika Hokusai
F1954.119
Katsushika Hokusai
Summer
A seated man looking
at
ill
potted peonies
twelve seasons
holding
A man
Kawahara Keiga
Following painting had Prussian blue
F1904.73
Katsushika Hokusai
Ind
Landscape: Mountain,
stream, and boat
F1997.23.3
X
carrying
backpack and lantern
I'.uikIio
X
a letter
behind her back
lam
B+R
Landscape of the
season:
n)8(i.(i(i
IPB-gn
Landscape of the
F1898.126
I
PB-gn
I-gn
X
a
season: Spring
II
PB
paper
holding
Portrait of a courtesan
in a
X
(X)
green mixture only
Walking figure of
a
X
paper
courtesan
found, sometimes on the same painting; table 2 gives the overall numbers. In addi-
may be mixtures with other colors. Table 5
tion, as before, there
three paintings in
(
p.
69
)
lists
the thirty-
which these various co-occurrences have been found. This increases
the
number of paintings on which any
six,
and the number of paintings on which any indigo has been found
Prussian blue has been found at
all
to forty-
at all to 127.
MIXTURES WITH YELLOW OR RED PIGMENTS
The
sixty paintings
where mixtures of
either
pigment with a yellow or
respectively a green or purple color, are listed in table 6 (p. 70).
2,
in
red, to give
As seen from
table
these are additional to the use of indigo or Prussian blue in blue design elements
all
but nine
cases.
RELATIONSHIP TO SUPPORT OR FORMAT
In table 7 (p. 72), the
port material
listed.
66
(silk
numbers of occurrences of Prussian blue
or paper) and of painting format (hanging
as a function of sup-
scroll, screen, etc.) are
TABLE
4.
OCCURRENCES OF INDIGO ONLY
Ind = indigo; I-gn = indigo green;
IDENTIFICATIONS: x
=
B+R =
blue + red.
identification firm.
Accession # Artist
F1894.30
K.isni
Title
Bamboo stems
A peacock
Ganku
F1898.6
Mori Sosen
F1898.74
Sdri
F1898.96
Shiba Kokan
with branches and foliage
I-gn
X
X
X
a
cage of
fireflies
River landscape
Miyagawa Choshun
F1898.103
Sori
III
F1898.105
Sdri
III
A
A
A
F1898.111
Katsushika Hokusai
Flowering squash-vine and
F1898.114
Hishikawa Moroyasu
A
F1898.121
Seashore: Three girls under a flowering cherry tree
X
1-1898.1350
Utagawa Toyokuni
Katsushika Hokusai
Blossoming plum branches
X
Fi898.i35e
Katsushika Hokusai
F1898. 13511
Katsushika Hokusai
Fi898.i35i
Katsushika Hokusai
A man with a fan, butterflies, and
A tree and four red Torii
A young crow and maple leaves
F1898.423
Katsukawa Shunko
An
F1898.429
Miyagawa Choshun
A yujo
F1898.508
Smoata Zesmn
Ashinaga and Tenaga worshiping the rising sun
X
F1899.16
Kitagawa Utamaro
A
X
F1899.17
Utagawa Hiroshige
F1899.19
F1900.58
F1901.13
yujo and her understudy
girl
X
a faggot-gatherer
under
a
cherry tree
playing battledore and shuttlecock
a
X
a
bowl of water
actor in character
on
a
X
X
X
bee
yujo doing her hair
sitting
bench
courtesan playing a samisen
in A
ino
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Ind
River Landscape
X
Nishikawa Sukenobu
A
X
Katsushika Hokusai
An
A yujo and
F1901.166
Anonymous
Suzuki Harunobu
F1902.3
Katsushika Hokusai
Miscellaneous subjects
X
F1902.27
Katsushika Hokusai
The Chinese hermit Sun Teng
X
F1902.41
Katsushika Hokusai
Standing figure of a
X
F1902.42
Katsushika Hokusai
X
X
F1902.48
Katsushika Hokusai
Country scenes
X
X
F1902.49
Katsushika Hokusai
Country scenes
X
F1902.100
Katsushika Hokusai
Katsushika Hokusai
F1902.222
Katsushika Hokusai
A courtesan under a cherry tree
New Year's day: Two strolling mountebanks
A boy fishing from the limb of a tree
X
F1902.178
F1903.2
Katsushika Hokusai
Clam-gatherers on the shore
X
F1903.52
Katsushika Hokusai
rituals
X
rituals
X
II
girl sitting
on her bed
old fisherman standing on the shore
her understudy
Murasaki Shikibu
girl
F1903.53
Katsushika Hokusai
F1903.97
Utagawa Hiroshige
Landscape: Flowering cherry trees along
F1903.109
Katsushika Hokusai
River landscape, ferry-boat,
F1903.125
Katsushika Hokusai
Landscape: Parties
F1903.126
Katsushika Hokusai
F1903.127
Katsushika Hokusai
the banks of a stream
looking
A
A
at
X
X
X
X
New Year
New Year
II
In A
Ind
X
Katsushika Hokusai
F1898.101
and
X
X
F1898.97
lady
D+K
X
Women at their toilet
A young woman with
III
T«
A
Ind
and Mt. Fuji
of men and women
cherry blossoms
courtesan standing
X
X
Ind
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Ind
X
dancer, Kiyohime, a cherry tree,
and the
bells
A
of dojo-ji
courtesan writing, another looking on
X
F1903.128
Katsushika Hokusai
Interior:
F1903.129
Katsushika Hokusai
F1903.134
F1903.135
Anonymous
Anonymous
A
A
A
F1903.143
Katsushika Hokusai
Viewing cherry blossoms
X
F1903.144
Katsushika Hokusai
Viewing cherry blossoms
X
X
courtesan
X
yujo with a pipe
X
yujo reclining
X
Ind
67
TABLE
4.
(CONTINUED)
[nd = indigo; I-gn = indigo green;
identifications: x
=
B+R =
blue + red.
identification firm.
Artist
Fl903.291
Ando
Ind
Title
Landscape
Hiroshige
Fl904.142
Katsushika Hokusai
Suikoden
F1904.173
Katsushika Hokusai
Standing figure of a
F1904.174
Katsushika Hokusai
Landscape: Bridge, houses, and distant
F1904.177
Katsushika Hokusai
A
Fl904.l86
katsushika
I
lokusai
A
F19O4.I88
Katsushika
1
lokusai
1
a
tie six
X
women, and
hills
X
X
a child
pine tree
traveling
X
mountebank under
a tree
X
X
X
poets
Katsushika Hokusai
Descending dragon
F1904.206
Katsushika Hokusai
Landscape: Boatman poling his
X
X
F1904.357
Ando
Hiroshige
Miscellaneous sketches
X
X
After
Tsunenobu
Birds and flowers
X
X
Eishi
A taggot -gatherer looking at a waterfall
An amusement resort at the seashore
Lady viewing cherries at Goten Yama
Eishi
Yang Kuei-Fei
X
1
1
ign
|.K)ii
!go |.;S;
F19O4.4OO
Shibata Zeshin
Fi905.27O
Katsushika Hokusai
F1905.294
F1906.11
Hosoda
Hosoda
F1906.51
Katsushika Hokusai
Filial
F1906.52
Katsushika Hokusai
Two drunken men
F1906.233
Katsushika Hokusai
X
raft
returning from
a
—
r-—
Katsushika Hokusai
Fi907-368
Katsushika Hokusai
E1907.369
Katsushika Hokusai
F1955.2
A
Fi957-7
lam Buncflo
Hosoda Eishi
F1959.12
Miyagavva Choshuii
Festivals of the twelve
Sakai Hoitsu
j
:
X
X
Beauties of the season: Spring
X
months
X
Yosa Buson
F1974.I6
logan
Barbarians
F1977.22
Anon.
Ryukyu man
One hundred boys playing
Activities of the twelve months
Parrot on a branch
Pounding rice for rice cakes
Ike Taiga
1
1
!.)(.-
K)-S
Yamawaki Toki
(-.
F1978.I4
Kavvanabe Gyosai
F1986.6O
Kusumoto Rin
1
1992.24
F1995.15
Katsushika Hokusai
Kishi
Ganku
1
F1995.17
Utagawa Kunisada
F1998.297
Shuki
Okamoto
inu
X
peacock and peonies
F1967.I9
F1964.12
X
X
Vosa Musiin
Mori Sosen
X
cherry
four seasons
IS
1960.3]
X
tour seasons,
The master poets
Monkeys and waterfall
Tower
Mynah birds on a plum
Mynah birds on a plum
1
F1963.3
X
X
Two of the
spring and summer
Landscape: Two of the
One of the six poets
One of the six poets
Landscape:
F1906.234
Ind
X
X
piety
blossom party
—
DTI\
X
tall girl
shinto priest, three
under
on
l-gn
I
X
inu
X
X
x
tree
X
tree
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
agle
Courtesan beneath a mosquito net
X
Auspicious symbols
X
Ind
Following eight paintings have indig o mixed with other color only
I
iStj
4
.
2
<-y
Kishi
A female immortal riding a deer
Ganku
X
F1898.421
Shun man
Two
F1904.131
Yosai Kikuchi
Three gardeners of the emperor Takakura
X
Katsushika
Woman
X
F1904.428
1
I
1
1
lokusai
I'Kig. in
Kawanabe Gyosai
Kawanabe Gyosai
KM". 31.I
Izuhara
1999.5.3
Ikeda Koson
68
Makoku
X
oiran
facing the right beckoning
of Shuten Doji
Fan with scenes of the
tale
tale of
Flowers of the four seasons
Gosekku
Shuten Doji
X
X
X
Ind
TABLE
5.
OCCURRENCES OF PRUSSIAN BLUE AND INDIGO ON SAME PAINTING
Ind = indigo; PB = Prussian blue; Mix = mixture of both; I-gn = indigo green;
PB-gn = Prussian blue green; IPB-gn = both
identifications: x
=
identification firm; (x)
in green;
=
B+R =
blue + red.
identification probable.
Accession numbers beginning with "F" designate paintings in the collection of the Freer Gallery of Art.
-0
Accession #
Artist
Title
F1898.8
Gakutei Harunobu
Two
a
geisha reading from a
book
F1898.no
katsushika Hokusai
Boy and Mt.
F1898.124
Utagawa Hiroshige
Landscape of the season: Winter
Fi898.i35a
Katsushika Hokusai
II
A fat
man
old
an old
Fuji
X
X
X
PB-gn
IPB-gn
X
X
X
X
+
X
sitting beside
bell
F1902.2
Katsushika Hokusai
Cherry blossom viewing
F1902.40
Katsushika Hokusai
A herd boy
F1902.221
Katsushika Hokusai
Chung Kuei Shoki
F1902.254
Katsushika Hokusai
Crustaceans of various kinds
F1902.258
Katsushika Hokusai
Hawk and
X
F1903.106
Utagawa Hiroshige
F1903.145
F1903.146
Ando
Ando
F1903.274
Katsushika Hokusai
A
(Sori II) or Sori
a clothes rack
seated
on
(
)
tall
trees
X
a tree
trunk
killing a
demon
fish
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
River landscape and temple in
X
X
sites ot
X
X
sites
X
X
X
X
the rain
Famous
Famous
III
X
(x)
River landscape: Village and
Hiroshige
(x)
X
Katsushika Hokusai
Hiroshige
X
X
F1901.165
II
orj
Ph
Edo
of Edo
X
X
courtesan standing near
X
F1904.134
Katsushika Hokusai
The
F1904.175
Katsushika Hokusai
Mt. Fuji and Enoshima
F1904.176
Katsushika Hokusai
Mt. Fuji and
F1904.178
Katsushika Hokusai
Four ran papers
F1904.179
Katsushika Hokusai
Flowers, birds, and animals of the
F1904.181
Katsushika Hokusai
A fisherman
F1904.182
Katsushika Hokusai
A
F1904.184
Katsushika Hokusai
Interior:
veranda
X
F1904.189
Katsushika Hokusai
Ascending dragon
X
F1904.204
Katsushika Hokusai
X
X
X
Katsushika Hokusai
The
The
rivers
F1904.205
rivers
X
X
X
F1905.276
Katsushika Hokusai
Breaking waves
X
X
X
F1905.282
Katsushika Hokusai
A priest (Kobo
the tantra
X
X
F1964.11
Ike Taiga
Red
X
X
F1975.14
Katsushika Hokusai
X
X
X
F1976.41
Hokuga
Album
Album
X
X
X
F1977.24
Hokutei Joren
Choi and Kanyu
X
X
F1996.32
Totoya Hokkei
X
Nanreisai (Nagasaki)
The first katsuo of the season
Dutch couple reading a letter
X
LTS1987.1.72
X
X
lute
and white snake of Benten
X
bnosmma
at
the shore
faggot-gatherer
six
six
Two
Tama
Tama
ladies seated
X
X
twelve seasons
seated
(x)
on
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
(x)
X
X
X
a
Daishi) practicing
Cliff
of forty-two sketches
X
X
Ind
X
69
J
1
TABLE
OCCURRENCES OF BLUE/YELLOW AND BLUE/RED MIXTURES
6.
Ind = indigo; PB = Prussian blue; Mix = mixture of both; I-gn = indigo green; PB-gn = Prussian
blue green; IPB-gn
=
(x)
= both
B+R =
in green;
blue + red. IDENTIFICATIONS: x = identification firm;
numbers
identification probable. Accession
refer to the collection
of the Freer Gallery of Art.
*
-0
Accession #
Artist
A
Oanku
Ganku
Fi894-—9
Kishi
F1894.30
Kishi
Hlftrtft Ji
rioyo.o
l^i
L'
tpi
vjdKuici
PiJinS "7.1
rioyo./^
^riri
oui
female immortal riding a deer
Bamboo
1
I
1
-
1
I
HiiK
1111
Oy 0. lit/
Klioy
Slf\ft 1 01
r
0. 1 _
1
1
R
IXil1
L
'
XA/nmi^n
vwiiiilii
v Mn
Mi
1
1
1
1
1
w
o-haj ii1
l Tti
1 ii i^ti
T
'
Hn K Sa
mvn
tuni
yi k
L' 1
ts.il
1
1
1
1_>
tl L' LI1
1
>
ii
1
1
>.
1
X
rPTninu
iluliiiiu tmm
nuiii
it
tnpir
uilii t<"iil*>t
loiili
\A
ivl
t
ill
Rnu
DOV ui nn
1L1
1
I
1
^*=>i c n
jcdoiiuic.
1
1
I
1
li
Utagawa Hiroshige
Fi898.i35e
Katsushika Hokusai
II
IPB-gn
B+R
X
Pi
Lll|l
Tn
rt^t*
r 1
l hill gins
ci
1
(
v\
X
Ind
X
x
1 1
.
X
X
riL'
L'OUK
X
X
X
innPr a
q
uiiuci
1
1
X
flowcrinc cherry tree
F1898.126
PB-gn
X
1
iwu
Ti*?r\ n*>icn'i
gcioiid
Til
111
1
00
stems with branches
1 n (H tt~\
1 np
dl
ILL LUJ iiltt
H
iriinnnii
ndi
lihuihi
1
1
c
Cu
Title
Ind
Landscape of the season:
Summer
A man
and
F1898.13511
Katsushika Hokusai
F1898.421
Shun man
F1899.16
Kitat^awa
F1899.17
Utagawa Hiroshige
F1901.165
Katsushika Hokusai
Utamaro
II
a
with a fan, butterflies,
bowl of water
X
X
A tree and four red Torii
Two oir&ti
A courtesan playing a samisen
X
River landscape
X
X
Ind
X
River landscape! Village and
trees
tall
F1902.2
Katsushika Hokusai
Cherry blossom viewing
X
F1902.27
Katsushika Hokusai
X
F1902.40
Katsushika Hokusai
The Chinese hermit Sun Teng
A herd boy seated on a tree trunk
X
F1902.42
Katsushika Hokusai
X
X
F1902.48
Katsushika Hokusai
Country scenes
X
X
F1902.178
Katsushika Hokusai
New Year's
mountebanks
X
X
F1902.221
Katsushika Hokusai
Chung
demon
X
X
X
F1902.254
Katsushika Hokusai
Crustaceans of various kinds
X
X
X
X
X
X
day:
Two
Katsushika Hokusai
Hawk and
Katsushika Hokusai
Clam-gatherers on the shore
F1903.109
Katsushika Hokusai
River landscape, ferry-boat, and
F1903.125
Katsushika Hokusai
F1903.128
Katsushika Hokusai
1-1903.145
Ando
F1903.216
Katsushika Hokusai
Hiroshige
hsh
ruji
U
1
1
1L
1 1
IV
Interior;
M )M 1 U a
1
L 1 1L
I
A courtesan
X
X
X
X
1
I
V Ul OSoOi
1 1
X
Famous
X
seated
sites
of Edo
man
looking
at
Katsushika Hokusai
Walking figure of
F1904.131
Yosai Kikuchi
Three gardeners of the
emperor Takakura
F1904.173
Katsushika Hokusai
Standing figure of
F1904.175
Katsushika Hokusai
Mt. Fuji and Enoshima
Katsushika Hokusai
Four fan papers
F1904.180
Katsushika Hokusai
Flowers, birds,
F1904.181
Katsushika Hokusai
F1904.182
Katsushika Hokusai
A
A
Ind
X
X
X
potted
a tall girl
X
X
X
X
X
(x)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
and animals of the
twelve seasons
faggot-gatherer
X
X
at
the shore
X
X
a courtesan
fisherman seated
X
Ind
X
F1904.73
F1904.178
X
X
peonies
7"
Ind
writing,
another looking on
A
X
men and
Landscape: Parties of
VV
X
Kuei (Shoki) killing a
Fi9 '2.2s8
JYLt.
X
X
strolling
F1903-2
(
X
TABLE
(CONTINUED)
6
c
DO
-0
Accession #
Artist
F1904.184
Katsushika Hokusai
-
Title
Two
Interior:
ladies seated
X
F1904.186
Katsushika Hokusai
A
F1904.204
Katsushika Hokusai
The
six
F1904.205
Katsushika Llokusai
he
six
F1904.206
Katsushika Hokusai
Landscape: Boatman poling his
F1904-218
Katsushika Hokusai
A man
F1904.357
Ando
Miscellaneous sketches
I
Hiroshige
mountebank under
Tama
X
X
X
rait
n,
inu
X
1
Katsushika Hokusai
Breaking waves
F1905.294
Hosoda
Lady viewing cherries
Goten Yama
F1906.51
Katsushika Hokusai
Filial
piety
F1907.369
Katsushika Hokusai
One
of the
F1960.31
The master poets
r1964.11
Sakai Hoitsu
Tl r ~ i\ .,
Ike laiga
F1969.29
Kawanabe Gyosai
of Shuten Ddji
tale
F1969.30
Kawanabe Gyosai
tale
F1975.14
Katsushika Hokusai
F1976.41
Hokuga
Album
Album
F1992.24
Katsushika Hokusai
Pounding
F!995-!7
Utagawa Kunisada
Courtesan beneath
F1996.32
Totoya Hokkei
The
Fi997-3i-i
Izuhara
Ft999-5-3
Ikeda Koson
facing the right beckoning
six
resort at the seashore
X
X
X
hid
X
X
at
poets
D~*l
/""lift
Red (_ntt
\
X
X
X
Makoku
nd
X
1
X
lnd
X
X
X
X
X
of Shuten Ddji
X
of forty-two sketches
rice for rice cakes
a
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
mosquito net
katsuo of the season
first
1
X
X
F1905.276
:
X
\
carrying backpack and lantern
An amusement
B+R
X
X
1
Woman
IPB-gn
X
Kim, rivers
Katsushika Hokusai
11
(x)
X
Katsushika Hokusai
.
X
X
X
F1904.428
Eishi
a tree
rivers
F1905.270
PQ
on
a veranda
traveling
DO
-
ex
X
X
Ind
X
lnd
X
X
Flowers of the four seasons
X
Gosekku
Ind
DISCUSSION
An
elementary point to deal with
first is
whether Prussian blue was more
likely to
have been used on one support material rather than another, or for paintings of one
format rather than another. The relevant numbers are in table
test
was used
to test the null hypothesis that there
Prussian blue being chosen for
listed.
silk
7;
the statistical
yi
were equal probabilities for
or for paper, and also for each of the formats
This was done for both total Prussian blue usage and
its
employment with-
out indigo also being present. In no case was the null hypothesis rejected: there
no reason based on these
toward use on one or the other
results to suspect a bias
support material or in one or another format.
is
It is
true that, in the case of format,
the great majority of works were hanging scrolls (these include paintings that were
clearly intended for
mounted
dom
as panels
),
hanging
which
scrolls,
though
limits the extent to
at
the time either
which the
results
unmounted
or
can surmount ran-
variations.
7i
TABLE
7.
PRUSSIAN BLUE OCCURRENCES BY SUPPORT AND FORMAT
format:
Hng = Hanging scroll;
Alb = Album, album
Handscroll;
= Fan
painting.
Format
Silk
Paper
Hng
Scr
Hnd
Alb
Fan
139
69
70
102
17
5
8
7
46
25
All paintings
Prussian blue, total
Prussian blue, not indigo
12
in the
Hnd =
Support
Total
As noted already
= Screen;
Scr
or single sheet; Fan
leaf,
81030
75
background
5
4
36
21
section, historical evidence argues for the
ready availability of Prussian blue for pigment use after the 1820s.
investigated here, although
many of them
it is
1
clear that a majority are
Of the
paintings
from the nineteenth century,
have serious uncertainties associated with the dating. However, thirty-
four of them could be dated to
later
than 1830 with reasonable confidence.
eighteen had Prussian blue identified
on the
painting,
Of these,
and three of them had Prussian
blue without indigo. Thirty-one of the same group had indigo identified, and of these
sixteen
had indigo without Prussian
cerned, indigo was used
is
sole use of the
more
blue. Thus, as far as these paintings are con-
frequently than Prussian blue, whether the criterion
pigment or includes cases where both are used. The
latter
includes
the use of mixtures of the two, which are considered further below. However,
seems
as a
clear
from these
results that indigo
it
continued to be used extensively by painters
dark blue pigment even when Prussian blue was available to them.
From
table
2,
we see
that there were thirteen paintings
(
of the whole suite exam-
ined) where mixtures of indigo and Prussian blue were identified (table
the paintings).
a fine
It
may be
that, in
some or
adjustment to the shade of blue desired. The
fact that, as
discrimination could occur.
An
specifies
described below, cases
are found where both indigo and Prussian blue are used separately
design elements on the same painting
5
of these cases, the painter was making
all
may support
for different
the hypothesis that such color
alternative hypothesis
is
that, in
some or
all
cases,
Prussian blue was either adulterated by a pigment supplier with indigo (which, as
a
domestic product, was presumably cheaper or was being "eked out" by the painter.
)
It is
also clear
from the background section that examples of Prussian blue use
from the eighteenth or
early nineteenth century
was possible
obviously one does not expect many.
It
with some confidence to before 1820.
Of these,
earliest
was
a landscape
been painted
by the bunjinga
would be of some
interest,
though
to attribute seventeen paintings
Prussian blue was found on two.
artist Ike
The
Taiga (1723-1776), believed to have
in the 1760s (plate 8).
Both indigo and Prussian blue are present, sometimes separately, sometimes
72
as
either mixtures or overpainted areas.
river near the
The Prussian blue is present
bottom of the painting, and
in the blue areas of the trees
approximately
halfway up. However, the painting, though believed to be firmly attributed,
sively restored in the
replaced.
addition cannot be ruled out.
work
is
exten-
upper part, with significant areas of paper support having been
Although the Prussian blue
ferent Taiga
by the
in the rocks
It is
as the earliest
is
present in unrestored areas, clearly
its
later
interesting that Screech (2000, 204) refers to a dif-
known
Japanese painting in which the sky
repre-
is
sented in a blue color.
The second painting
(plate 9)
painter Nanreisai 1771-1836
(
),
is
a portrait of a
applications both of indigo (decorations
(flowers
on the woman's
Dutch couple by the Nagasaki
dated from an inscription to
on the
figures' scarves)
dress). This firmly dated painting
"serious" importation of Prussian blue as a pigment,
dence.
The pigment was
There were some
1817."
of,
on the
is
and of Prussian blue
course, entering Japan through Nagasaki.
leaf by the early-nineteenth-century painter
);
is
some of the blue
is
details
in plate 10.
of this feature were shown by the
It
relatively
pigment are suppressed
An
in plate 12,
in
To the
was possible
FORS tech-
to separate these
identification
high reflectance in the near infrared, and features
an infrared image. Such an image of the same area
which shows
exactly corresponding
the
is
and white porce-
(
shown
only.
Hokuga, seen
by an imaging method. As described previously Properties and
methods), indigo has a
in this
An example
a representation of a piece of blue
nique to be indigo and others to be Prussian blue.
details
and
individual cases of interest because of the use of indigo
lower right of this painting
lain (plate 11
the early edge of
at
basis of historical evi-
Prussian blue for separate design features of the same painting.
album
This also had light
(in black
and white) the Prussian blue
image of the same area taken with
features
visible light will,
of course, register both pigments, and subtraction of the plate 12 image from
removes the Prussian blue features to leave those
in indigo, as seen in plate
have to assume that the rather small differences in blue
tint
it
We
13.
between the indigo and
the Prussian blue areas were what was desired by the painter in this case.
Plate 14
shows
The decorated
a painting
lute
by Hokusai
entitled
The Lute and White Snake ofBenten.
bag features two shades of blue,
darker blue apparently overpainting a
as seen in plate
15,
showing a
medium and rather duller blue. Reflectance spec-
troscopy showed the darker blue to contain Prussian blue and the less dark to be indigo.
Once
again the latter could be suppressed in an infrared image,
shown
Table 2 summarizes identifications of indigo or Prussian blue
(
in plate 16.
or, in
one
case,
both) with a yellow pigment to give a green color, and of indigo with a red pigment
to give purple. Table 6
2.
lists
the paintings where these situations were found.
Collection of Ambassador and Mrs. W. Leonhart, on loan to the Sackler Gallery, loan
number
The first
LTS1987.1.72.
73
point
is
that
mixed colors seem
to be relatively
common,
especially
where indigo
is
concerned, perhaps more than had hitherto been suspected. Out of the 139 paintings examined,
no fewer than
fifty-two
had
a
mixed green of some kind. Only four
of these used Prussian blue including two where indigo and Prussian blue were both
(
found
to
),
showing that indigo was strongly favored
producing
since
all
a
for this purpose.
purple color from a blue/red mixture, indigo
thirteen cases
found used
this
of blue can only be surmised; possibly
cheaper blue usually being chosen.
Prussian blue and
name "Hooker's
is
When
It is
comes
also strongly favored,
pigment. Reasons for the disparity
it
it
in choice
was made on economic grounds, with the
of interest that
gamboge was marketed
in the
West
at
one time
a
mixture of
for watercolor use
under the
green" (Gettens and Stout 1966, 119).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was supported by a grant from the
Andrew W. Mellon Foundation. We
thank Ms. Elisabeth West FitzHugh for making available her unpublished
Freer Gallery ukiyo-e paintings
and
for valuable discussions
on
Jennifer Giaccai for experimental help at various stages. Professor
Columbia
University,
is
on
and Ms.
Henry Smith,
thanked for providing a copy of the English version of his
paper in advance of publication (see Smith 1998).
74
results
this topic,
H+a
u8-i
Ind
X X
Ind
X
X
X
x
X
X
X
x
fan
J
X
X
9d
early
/A|ji>3
1
ii
X
x
puj
X
x
X
X
x
x
x
rl\
ate
ea
1
early
x
X
earb
x
x
x
x
x
late
late
late
silk
silk
silk
t'
_c J3
SI
x
paper
iddnv,
silk
lEUIJOJ
X
silk
silk
silk
silk
silk
silk
silk
60
I111
hng
1
'i'
si
Bp
—
hng
silk
1
=
1
silk
t
1
1
fan
J
1
1
c.
1
19th
Attributions
c.
c.
L>
19th
c?
1839
19th
18th
early
1
ca.
foliage
bell
fireflies
old
and
bee
of
deer
book
Summer
a
a
a
a
Winter
an
Spring
I
cage
and
branches
under
beside
butterflies,
a
riding
branches
from
f
faggot-gatherer
season:
with
hair
pipe
battledore
toilet
girls
season:
season:
tree
with
tree
squash-vine
a
reading
immortal
J
their
woman
stems
the
plum fan,
the
a
of of of
with
doing
holding
and
bowl
a
old
and
female
Bamboo
Titles
1
<
A
young
lady
River
Two
girl
girl
Women
c.
Flowering
yujo
Landscape
Landscape
man
A
c.
A
A
Boy
a
fat
flowering
and
Blossoming
Landscape
Seashore:
under
< A
A
of
man
playing
1
cherry
1 1
Mt.
shuttlecock
landscape
at
the
Three
a
cherry
geisha
her
Fuji
water
sitting
A
A
and
1
1
5i
b
< <
c.
Dates
19th
1
19th
B
18th-
19th
1
c.
18th-
18th-
1
18th
1
1
1
1
i786?-i868
Artist
1826-1869
late
1
1749-1838
1760-1849
early
1
.
late
early
late
early
1760-1849
1760-1849
1826-1869
1826-1869
1760-1849
1760-1849
1760-1849
1760-1849
I
1769-1825
fl.
i
1747-1818
1749-1838
II
11
II
c
3
Hokusai
Hokusai
Hokusai
Hokusai
Moroyasu
Hokusai
Toyokuni
Harunobu
Ganku
Ganku
Kishi
Kishi
Hiroshige
Hokusai
Hokusai
Hiroshige
±
1
c
I
Kokan
III
Katsushika
Gakutei
Artist
Hiroshige
Sori
Shiba
1
>
III
III
Sori
Sori
Katsushika
Katsushika
Katsushika
Katsushika
Katsushika
Katsushika
Fi898.l35a
Fl898.i35b
Fi898.i35e
Hishikawa
Utagawa
Utagawa
Utagawa
Utagawa
F1898.121
F1898.123
F1898.124
F1898.126
#
2
F1898.no
Accession
i
F1894.29
F1894.30
I
I
F1898.8
F1898.74
F1898.96
F1898.97
F1898.103
F1898.105
F1898.107
F1898.111
F1898.114
_I
i
-a
a+a
Ind
Ind
y
»»
VJ
X
X
.
y
US-]
X
X
y
x
H<l
pu]
y
X
early
early
X
Wl
X
X
x
y
It
//[leg
x
X
X
X
X
X X X X X X X
X
x
X
X X X
y
X
X
X
X X
X
X
X
X
y.
paper
paper
u
%>
early
X
X
X
XTJAJ
X *
X
late
late
early early
<LI
jjoddns
paper
paper
paper
paper
silk
10
paper
paper
paper
^<
_^
-j.
OO
00
00
00 00 so
00 OD 00
silk
silk
60 00
00
00 00
00 -d
JEUIiOJ
silk
so
silk
silk
silk
silk
BO BO so BO so
silk
silk
00 BO
c
hng
00
c
hng
hng
c.
1843
00
Attributions
c.
18th
o
c.
c.
19th
19th
i8th-i9th
1840
1820s?
dated
1806
ic
1806
ca.
Fuji
shore
mountebanks
rain
tree
trees
Mt.
demon
tall
trunk
tree
a
on
trees
of
in
and
kinds
cherry
strolling
standing
a
on
viewing
subjects
stream
girl
understudy
Village
a
)
a
the
hermit
under
(
seated
Shikibu
her
and
00
sun
in
figure
scenes
rituals
rituals
Year
Year
cherry
banks
<&
blossom
landscape
landscape
Kuei
landscape:
and
Chinese
at
Clam-gatherers
the
Year's
Miscellaneous
courtesan
rising
Murasaki
yujo
H
River
An
<
the
A
<
Country
Standing
'00
Cherry
Ri\cr
An
Chung
The
A
A
Landscape:
Landscape:
ountr\
herd
Ashinaga
>
courtesan
Crustaceans
old
Titles
landscape,
fishing
boy
Miscellaneous
actor
standing
Parties
of
fisherman
courtesan
'5
and
Flowering
from
day:
scenes
of
on
Shoki
playing
of
a
various
subjects
or
Tenaga
BO
blossoms
ferry-boat,
the
Two
character
men
temple
killing
cherry
Sun
a
and
shore
limb
tree
QJ
and
Teng
worshiping
samisen
women
the
a
the
A
New
boy
River
New
X
A
New
looking
River
along
A
(
Dates
ON
o
00
rQ
1
1
O
1
1826-1869
Artist
1734-1827
00
no
1760-1849
1760-1849
NO
1753-1806
1760-1849
1760-1849
1760-1849
1760-1849
1760-1849
1760-1849
1760-1849
1760-1849
1760-1849
1760-1849
1760-1849
1760-1849
1760-1849
1724-1770
NO
1826-1869
1760-1849
1760-1849
1826-1869
1760-1849
1760-1849
1760-1849
1760-1849
1
1807-1891
II
C
3
II
3
Hokusai
Shunko
Utamaro
U
Hiroshige
Hokusai
Hokusai
Hokusai
Hokusai
Hokusai
Hokusai
Hokusai
Hokusai
Hokusai
Hokusai
Hokusai
Hokusai
Hokusai
Hokusai
3
Hokusai
Hokusai
Hokusai
Hokusai
Hokusai
Hokusai
Katsushika
Katsushika
Katsushika
F1903.125
F1903.126
_^
OJ
-r;
3
Hiroshige
Hiroshige
Utagawa
Utagawa
F1903.97
F1903.106
X
Harunohu
c/)
Zeshin
II
03
c
(CONTINUED)
Katsukawa
Anonymous
OO
Katsushika
Kitagawa
>-
Artist
Katsushika
Katsushika
Katsushika
Katsushika
Katsushika
Katsushika
Katsushika
Katsushika
Katsushika
Katsushika
Katsushika
Katsushika
Katsushika
Katsushika
Katsushika
Katsushika
Katsushika
Utagawa
Shibata
Suzuki
z
s2
#
c
ON
ON
-T
APPENDIX
Accession
00
ON
GO
CO
ON
CO
_
F1898.423
Uh
rS
ON
ON
00
F1898.508
F1899.16
F1899.17
ll<
O
OS
F1900.58
F1901.13
F1901.165
F1901.166
F1902.2
F1902.3
F1902.27
F1902.40
F1902.41
F1902.42
F1902.48
F1902.49
F1902.100
F1902.178
F1902.221
F1902.222
F1902.254
—
F1903.2
F1903.52
F1903.53
F1903.109
1
11
1111s
I
i
5
it
i
1
.5
I
§
f
El
i
II
1
31
till
i
in
fill III
-
fff ff
i
i
Hiiiiii
lit
1
11
I
i
I
.
0
-a
T3
c
a+a
"8-ad
u8-]
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
late
late
X
ad
X
X
pui
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
x
X
X
X
X
X
X
late
late
Ml Jr 3
X
X
X
X X
X
x
Si
SL
-2
3.
X X
X
X X X
1
early
early
paper
paper
X
f
X
early
per
uoddns
paper
I
paper
paper
I
paper
s.
silk
silk
silk
scr
alb
alb
alb
I1= III 1
I
paper
silk
silk
pa
silk
1
8.
bp
hng
I I
scr
scr
silk
silk
paper
silk
paper
silk
silk
s.
g1 SI I
c°
hnd
hng
11I1
fan
fan
19th
1848
=
c?
c?
88
19th
19th
i8th-early
1844
1797
Attributions
c.
c.
19th
19th
1760s
dated
aged
late
1840
late
1760s
after
1776
late
c.
c.
19th
19th
Doji
Doji
Shuten
Shuten
1776
boat
waterfall
ratt
Yama
lantern
t
his
a
and
and
seashore
c
1
walking
the
looking
sketches
Spring
party
months
tree
at
1
four
four
the
the
of
of
tale
tale
the
the
returning
plum plum
peonies
Daishi)
resort
waterfall
cherries
blossom
Mountain,
poets
season:
poets
twelve
a
courtesan
a
of of
men
Boatman
poets
summer
Two
Two
flowers
waves
six
Kobo
six
.
carrying
faggot-gatherer
A
(
amusement
Miscellaneous
c
and
cherry
Kuei-Fei
drunken
viewing
-g
tree
stream,
at
backpack
of of
Goten
at
poling
seasons
seasons,
practicing
Landscape:
of
Landscape:
the
and
the
of of
of
Beauties
Portrait
A
A
A
An
the
Two
Lady Yang
Mynah
scenes
scenes
with
with
Fan
Fan
Monkeys
Festivals
Tower
spring
Filial
Mynah
Cliff
peacock
ot
Breaking
Birds
on
birds
and
Landscape:
man
Titles
on
birds
the
master
a
tantra.
priest
Landscape:
the
and
piety
a
One
from
One
The
A
Red
Dates
11
Artist
ft
*
1891
1760-1849
f
1760-1849
1760-1849
17611-1849
1760-1849
1760-1849
1760-1849
1760-1849
1760-1849
1760-1849
1760-1849
1-60-1849
1760-1849
1682-1752
1831-1889
1831-1889
Gyosai
Gyosai
Kawanabe
Kawanabe
1797-1858
1756-1829
1756-1829
1756-1829
1761-1828
1763-1840
1747-1821
1716-1783
1716-1783
1807
1723-1776
Hokusai
]
Hokusai
Hokusai
Hokusai
Hokusai
Hokusai
Hokusai
Hokusai
Hokusai
Hokusai
Hokusai
Hokusai
Hokusai
Choshun
Zeshin
Hiroshige
Eishi
Tsunenobu
Eishi
Eishi
1
Hoitsu
Buncho
Sosen
(CONTINUED)
Katsushika
Katsushika
Shibata
Artist
Ando
1
1723-1776
Katsushika
Katsushika
Katsushika
Katsushika
Katsushika
Hosoda
Katsushika
Katsushika
Katsushika
Katsushika
Katsushika
Katsushika
faiga
Taiga
Ike
Ike
F1964.11
F1964.12
Buson
Buson
Yosa
Yosa
F1967.18
F1967.19
Miyagawa
Hosoda
Hosoda
After
Sakai
Tani
Mori
i i
#
APPENDIX
Accession
—
F1904.206
F1904.218
F1904.357
F1904.383
F1904.400
—
F1905.228
F1905.270
F1905.276
F1905.282
F1905.294
F1906.11
F1906.51
F1906.52
F1906.233
F1906.234
F1907.368
F1907.369
F1954.119
F1955.2
F1957.7
F1959.12
F1960.31
F1963.3
F1969.29
F1969.30
^2
Ind
X
*
X
X
X
X
X
X
x
X
late
paper
paper
paper
silk
alb
Ind
X
X
x
late
earh
late
silk
silk
paper
hnd
x
X
x
late
X
late
late
silk
silk
paper
I
g? g?
<
A
I.
silk
silk
hng
1 I I,
alb
early
paper
If
1
ci
c.
s
19th
u
1820-25
!11
late
1
1828
1
1830
ca.
3
ca.
1855
3
1817
net
months
mosquito
letter
1
cakes
sketches
a
rice
twelve
a
L
playing
reading
boys
for
beneath
forty-two
the
\
of
|
rice
\
1
couple
of
hundred
5
1
Barbarians
:
Courtesan
§
5
Activities
Pounding
Album
Si
One
Gosekku
Dutch
Ningyo
t
If
#
1
1786-1860
1
1
Ii
II
'J
1
1
!1
1831-1889
1777-1839
If
1771-1836
1760-1849
1823-1880
ca.
?l
1801-1866
)
1765-1824
Nagasaki
Hokusai
3
Gyosai
Kunisada
Toki
Keiga
(
Katsushika
Koson
3
Hokusai
logan
1
d
Katsushika
Yamawaki
Kawanabe
Nanreisai
Kawahara
3.
\%
Utagawa
After
11
I
!
Ikeda
g
110-4,10
F1975.14
_
6
PL,
II
1
F1978.6
F1978.14
F1992.24
—
F1995.17
F1997.23.3
?1
LTS1987.1.72
F1999.5.3
)
REFERENCE LIST
Bacci et
Bacci,
al.
Gettens and Stout 1966
1996
Mauro, Andrea Casini, Franco
and Marcello
Gettens, Rutherford
Lotti,
reflectance spectroscopy
and
posium on the conservation and
—
and George
L. Stout.
New York:
Dover.
spectral imag-
ing for conservation. In International sym-
of cultural property
J.,
1966. Painting materials.
Picollo. 1996. Fiber optics
Ito, Sinkai,
Ito,
and
Sugisita. 1999
Atsuko, Tetuo Sinkai, Ryuitiro Sugisita.
restoration
Spectrometric exami-
nation in conservation, edited by Chie Sano.
Tokyo: Tokyo National Research Institute
1999.
Study on berensu Prussian blue
(
deteriorating silk fibers of Edo-period
kosode.
Bunkazai Hozon Syuhuku Gaikkaisi
43:47-53.
of Cultural Properties.
Berrie 1997
Berrie, Barbara. 1997. Prussian blue. In Artists'
pigments:
A
handbook
of their history
West FitzHugh.
versity Press
and
by Elisabeth
Curran, and Bailie 1984
Feller,
Robert
L.,
March
of traditional
Chinese painting. Baltimore: Waverly Press,
1935. Reprint:
Needham
and determination of their
Needham,
rates
of
fading. Appendix. In Japanese woodblock
prints:
A
catalogue of the
Collection,
by Roger
S.
unique
1969
organic colorants employed in Japanese
prints
A
tool for the investigation of Japanese paint-
March, Benjamin. 1969. Some technical terms of
Mary Curran, and Catherine
Bailie. 1984. Identification
optics reflectance spectroscopy:
ings. Studies in Conservation 46:153-62.
New York: Oxford Uni-
Feller,
Leona, Marco, and John Winter. 2001. Fiber
Mary A. Ainsworth
Keyes. Oberlin,
in
Paragon Book Corporation.
1986
Joseph. 1986. Science
China. Vol.
6,
technology. Part
and
civilisation
Biology and biological
1:
Botany. Cambridge:
Press.
Ohio: Allen Memorial Art Museum,
Schafer 1981
Oberlin College.
Schafer,
FitzHugh 1979
Edward H.
of Samarkand,
FitzHugh, Elisabeth West. 1979.
A
pigment
census of ukiyo-e paintings in the Freer
A
1981.
The golden peaches
study of Vang exotics.
Berkeley: University of California Press,
1963. Reprint.
Gallery of Art. Ars Orientalis 11:27-38.
Schweppe 1997
FitzHugh 2003
.
2003.
A
Schweppe, Helmut.
database of pigments on
Japanese ukiyo-e paintings in the Freer
history
Gallery of Art. In Studies using
Elisabeth
methods: Pigments
ings.
in later
scientific
Japanese paint-
Freer Gallery of Art Occasional
Papers, this volume. Washington, D.C.:
Freer Gallery of Art, Smithsonian
Institution.
80
1997. Indigo
and
and woad.
A handbook of their
West FitzHugh.
New York:
Gallery of Art.
by
Screech 2000
Screech,
Fear and creativity
culture:
states,
by
Sze 1977
Timon. 2000. The Shogun's painted
in the
1/60-1829. Envisioning Asia, edited
Homi Bhabha, Norman
Wu
Japanese
Bryson, and
Hung. London: Reaktion Books.
Sze,
Mai-mai, trans.
garden manual
1977.
The mustard seed
of painting. Translation
of
Chieh tzu yuan hua chuan, 1679-1701.
Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
Reprint of publication by Bollinger]
Foundation,
New York,
1956
and
1963.
and McNair 1988
Silbergeld
Silbergeld, Jerome,
and
Amy
McNair.
1988.
Chinese painting colors, studies ot their
Wehlte 1975
Wehlte, Kurt. 1975. The materials and tech-
preparation and application in traditional
niques of painting. Translated by Ursus Dix.
and modern times. Translation ot Yu Feian,
New York: Van
Zhongguo hua yan se di yan jiu. Hong
Kong and Seattle: Hong Kong University
Press
and University of Washington
Press.
Nostrand Reinhold.
Yamasaki and Emoto 1979
Yamasaki, Kazuo, and Yoshimichi Emoto. 1979.
Pigments used on Japanese paintings from
Smith 1998
the protohistoric period through the seven-
Smith, Henry. 1998. Ukiyoe ni okeru
"bum
kakumei" The "blue revolution"
(
teenth century. Ars Orientalis 11:1—14.
in
ukiyoe). Ukiyoe Geijutsu 128:3-26.
8]
AUTHORS
Elisabeth West FitzHugh holds a B.A. in chemistry from Vassar College and a
Diploma
in the
Archaeology of Western Asia from the University of London. She was
a conservation scientist in the
at the Freer
Department of Conservation and
Gallery of Art and Arthur
M.
Research
Scientific
Sackler Gallery until 1991
and
is
now
a
research associate there. She has carried out extensive analyses of Chinese bronzes
and pioneered the application of x-ray
diffraction to the study of Chinese jades. In
recent years her interests have focused
on the history and
ments, and her research has included the identification of
ple,
identification of pig-
Han
blue and
Han
pur-
two previously undescribed Chinese pigments.
MARCO LEONA
Marco Leona has
a doctorate in mineral crystallography
He was
Pavia in
Italy.
Program
at the Freer Gallery
He
is
a research scientist for the East
of Art and Arthur
currently Scientist-in-Charge of the
Metropolitan
methods
M.
from the University of
Asian Paintings Research
Sackler Gallery
from 1998
to 2000.
Department of Scientific Research
at the
Museum of Art. His main interest is the development of noninvasive
for the scientific analysis of artists' materials
and works of art.
JOHN WINTER
John Winter has a doctorate in organic chemistry from the University of Manchester
and spent
several years doing
academic and industrial research before transferring
to the field of archaeological science at the Applied Science Center for
at the
University of Pennsylvania.
Smithsonian Institution
the
in 1971,
He
working
Department of Conservation and
Arthur M. Sackler Gallery. He
is
82
joined the Freer Gallery of Art of the
in the Technical Laboratory,
Scientific
which became
Research after the addition of the
currently senior conservation scientist in that
department. His major research interest
ings using scientific methods.
Archaeology
is all
aspects of study of East Asian paint-
A DATABASE OF
PIGMENTS
INDEX
Akiyama, Terukazu,
China
12
azurite pigment, 18
alizarin, 10
Anderson, William,
Ando
Hiroshige
22 table
(
70-71 table
1797-1858
68 table
7, 37,
cinnabar deposits, 9
6, 9, 13, 16, 18
6, 77,
4,
),
18, 21
table 6,
69 table
"clam
white" in
shell
artificial jade, 6
indigo cultivation, 20
5,
lead
78
and lead white pigments
River Landscape: Blossoming Cherry Trees,
malachite in alchemical
52 plate
organic red pigments, 10-11
5
from Hunan Province,
anthraquinone colorants, 10-11
realgar
arsenic sulfide,
red earth pigments, 12
28
13, 14,
and dating of ukiyo-e paintings,
2-3
as source
of best pigments, 4
verdigris pigments, 17-18
azurite (gunjo) pigment,
1,
5, 18, 21,
29, 59
wet-process vermilion/ "Chinese method," 8
yellow earth wall paintings,
Bailie,
Yungang
Catherine, 62
barite pigment,
barium
bengara
See also
31
5, 16, 23,
cinnabar,
sulfate, 23
(
red iron oxide),
"clam
11
Mogao
8, 9,
cave paintings
cobalt oxide,
Berlin blue, 57, 59
cochineal
(
31,
42
18, 19
scale insect
10
),
Conder, losiah,
9,
heroin (Prussian blue), 20
copper acetate,
artifical, 17
herorin (Prussian blue), 59
copper aceto-arsenite,
blue pigments, 18-22
copper
alloys,
24
copper carbonate,
Prussian blue pigment
copper chlorides,
(
5,
22, 25
early 18th
c.
51
),
A Puppet-Show:
plates
copper oxychloride,
copper-zinc alloys,
screen), 33, 49 plate
Curran, Mary, 62
hyobu (folding screens),
1
1,
5,
16-18, 17 table
4,
3-4
The Story of "The Potted Trees" folding
(
29
15, 18,
16
copper green pigments,
18
brown pigments,
Bunkaku
18
4
See also indigo pigment;
blue verditer,
Dunhuang)
shell white," 6
herein huraau (Prussian blue), 59
Prussian blue), 20, 59
(
27
Clark, Timothy,
(
15
wall paintings, 22
beni (safflower red), 10-11
hero
13
red lead pigment from, 9
atacamite, 16
attribution
in, 7
texts, 15
16
23,
30
2
Daigo-ji wall paintings, 24
calcite
pigment,
5, 6,
26-27
calcium carbonate pigments, 6-7, 26-27,
63 table
Edo period
(1615-1868),
1
artifical iron oxides, 12
1
carbon pigments, 4
carmine pigments, 10
dry-process vermilion from China, 8
carminic acid, 10
Japanese pigment terminology, 4
indigo with Prussian blue,
carthamic acid, 10-11
organic red pigments,
Chamot, Emil Monnin, 42
chemical microscopy,
1, 3,
26, 29, 30,
Eisai,
25,
57-81
11
Shuzen, 41
64
83
)
Hishikawa Morofusa
Eizan-ji temple (Nara), wall paintings, 25
emerald green pigments,
empaku
enji
lead white),
(
6-8, 27
1, 5,
organic red), 10
(
entan
(d. 1694), 32, 33
Hishikawa Moroyasu,
34, 67 table 4, 75
(
1771-1844), 21 table
55 plates 10-13, 69 table
Hokutei Joren,
Feather, Melanie, 31
Hokuun
Feian, Yti, 6, 18
Feller,
Robert
71 table 6,
21 table 6, 38,
(early 19th
c.
),
22 table 7,37,38,
6,
5,
69 table
14 table
5,
79
79
table 4, 35
3, 17
"Hookers green" Prussian blue and gam-
62
L.,
1688-97),
Hishikawa Moronobu
Hokuga
red lead), 9
(
ca.
(fl.
17 table 4, 33
17, 18
(
60
ferric ferrocyanide, 20,
boge), 74
FitzHugh, Elisabeth West,
"floating world" paintings,
Horyuji temple
64; profile of, 82
2,
Hosoda
1
Freer, Charles, ukiyo-e paintings collection, 2
21
(
Nara
wall paintings, 9
),
Eishi (1756-1829), 7 table
2, 17
table 4,
table 6, 35, 36, 68 table 4, 71 table 6, 78
Freer Gallery of Art Occasional Papers
identification
series, vii
Furuyama Moroshige,
methods
chemical microscopy,
33
1,
26, 29, 30,
3,
64
fiber-optics reflectance spectroscopy
Gakutei Harunobu
69 table
gamboge
5,
(
19th
70 table
c.
),
12, 19,
spectroscopy, 22,
13, 15
57,
61-62
PLM
(
3, 16,
), 1,
25-31
emerald green pigment,
indigo synthesized
Prussian blue
first
project design,
18
first in,
made
in,
1.,
dispersive x-ray analysis
2, 5
1,
3-4, 25-26, 29,
shin iwaenogu
),
61-62, 62
leaf, 4, 23,
green verditer,
4, 15
(
XRD
), 1,
3, 8, 16,
x-ray fluorescence spectroscopy,
31
25-31
57, 61
Ike Taiga (1723-1776), 68 table 4, 69 table
30
green pigments, 15-18
71 table 6,
1, 5,
Gyosui (1868-1935
)>
5,
72-73, 78
Landscape: "Red Cliff" (hanging scroll),
23
15,
gunjo (azurite),
SEM-EDXA),
fig. 2
x-ray diffraction
5-6, 26-27,
(
UV-visible reflectance spectroscopy, 20,
17
28
), 1,
61
31
thin-layer chromatography,
(
glucoside, 57
gofun (shell white
15,
scanning electron microscopy with energy-
20
Giaccai, Jennifer, 22
glass-matrix pigments
11, 14,
3—4
reflectance spectroscopy,
20
wet-process vermilion, 8
Gettens, Rutherford
gold
62-63
polan/ed-light microscopy
24
Germany
goethite,
57,
Fourier transform infrared (FTIR)
(fo-d or gambdji),
Geerts, A.I.C.,
(FORS),n,20,
table 6, 37,
21
6, 75
18, 21,
S3 plate 8
29
Ikeda Koson, 68 table
37
4, 71 table 6,
79
indican, 57
hakudo kaolin
(
Han dynasty
indigo
5, 21, 23, 31
),
(206 B.C.E.-220
(
ai) pigment,
19-20, 53 plate
1, 5,
55 plates 10-13, 56 plates
c.e.
methods, 30
red lead pigment process, 9
identification
"white chalk" pigment, 6
identification of, 57-81
Hanabusa Itcho 1652-1724),
(
hana-konjo (smalt),
1, 5,
occurrences
33
11, 12,
Hiroshige. See
Hiroshige
37
84
II
67-68
pigment mixtures, 65
52 plate 6
hematite,
of, 65,
table
70-71 table 6
28
Ando
table 4, 69 table
overall statistics, 65 table 2
18-19, 29-30, 49,
previous identifications, 64
Hiroshige
(1826-1869),
21 table 6,
22 table
7,
7,
14-16
research results, 71-74
tinting strength, 60, 63
2,
65-66,
5
A DATABASE OF PIGMENTS
"indigo red" (indirubin), 60
Kishi
indigotin, 19
75.
iron hexacyanoferrate, 58
red oxide,
70 table
Kitao
50
12,
Isoda Koryusai
1711-1785
(
17 table 4,
),
34
1766-881,34,38
(fl.
Iwasa Matabei (1578-16501,32
Izuhara Makoku, 68 table
4, 71
Jogan (1765-1824), 36, 68 table
Ando
Kaigetsudo
(early 18th
kakemono (hanging
Kano Eitoku
Kano
Masanobu
c.
79
4,
),
Kobayashi, Tadashi,
31
Koezuka, Takayasu,
12
laccaic acids, 10
34
lapis lazuli, 21, 22
scrolls), 2
lazurite, 21
lead carbonate pigments, 6-8, 27
Kano Mitsunobu 1565-1608), 32
lead chloride,
Kano
lead oxide, 27
(
school, use of shell white pigment, 6
Kano Tan'yu (1602-1674), 32
kaolin (hakudo) pigment,
Katsukawa Shuncho
Girl
(
late 18th c.
and a
lead white
4,
14 table
34
3,
Kitten (hanging
lepidocrocite,
3,
14 table 3, 36,
34,
3,
1744-70), 35
Katsushika Hokusai (1760-1849),
38-41,
table
5,
3, 17
table
4, 19
66 table
59, 64,
70-71 table
table
3,
7 table 2,
5, 21
67-68
table 6,
table 4, 69
75-79
6,
Benten
(
Sarasvati
(hanging
)
scroll
makimono
Kawamata Tsunemasa
Kawamata Tsuneyuki
Kawanabe Gyosai
71 table 6, 78,
82
dye), 10
(
rokusho) pigment,
1, 5, 15,
29,
5
Mason, Clyde Walter, 26
Meiji period (1868-1912),
mercuric
sulfide,
1
8-9, 27
metal pigments,
1,
mica (ummo, or
kira)
4, 5, 23,
30
pigment,
1, 5,
22, 31
(fl.
Miyagawa Choki
79
ca.
1830-43), 38
(fl.
1741-43), 35
(18th c.),35
(
fl.
1704-44), 35
(1831-1889), 38, 68 table
4,
79
Kawashima Shigenobu
(
3,
of,
14
(handscrolls), 2
Mihata Joryo
table
11,
microscopy. See under identification methods
),
56 plates 14-16, 73
Kawahara Keiga, 66
6-8,
Walter, 26, 31
52 plate
The Lute and White Snake of
kermes
McCrone,
malachite
35
(fl.
5,
12
(
Katsukawa Shunsui
14 table
11,
madder red
14 table
1,
36
76
Katsukawa Shunsho (1726-1792),
pigment,
)
Leona, Marco, profile
limonite,
1762-1819), 14 table
(
Katsukawa Shunko (1734-1827),
67 table
),
etnpaku
(
7 table 2, 27
19
50 plate 2
Katsukawa Shunei
7-8
lead tetroxide, artificial, 9
23,31
5, 21,
Kara Khoto (Mongolia), wall paintings,
scroll),
1764-1824), 36
Kitao Shigemasa (1739-1820), 36
(
(1543-1590), 32
A
(
Kubo Shumman (1757-1820), 36
Kusumoto Rin, 68 table 4, 79
Kyoho era 1716-1735 ), 19
table 6, 79
Jinnojo, 32
Interior:
(1761-1816), 36
Kitao Masayoshi
11
Ishikawa Toyonobu
36, 67 table 4,
76
6,
Kitano, Nobuhiko, 12
11-12, 24-25, 28
5,
purple iron oxide,
table 4, 68 table 4, 70 table 6,
79
Kitagawa Utamaro (1754-1806),
iron blue. See Prussian blue pigment
iron oxide pigments,
Ganku, 67
scale insect
),
(
fl.
1722-44
),
35
10
kermesic acid, 10
kira (mica),
1, 5,
22,31
85
Miyagawa Choshun (1682-1752),
17 table 4, 21
Prussian blue (bero-ai) pigment,
table 6, 33, 34, 67 table 4, 68 table 4, 75, 76, 78
Open
Yujo with a Pipe Standing in the
Side
Room and Looking Out hanging
of a
Mogao
(fl.
15, 18, 22,
invented in the West,
1744-70), 35
cave paintings (Dunhuang),
Momoyama
6, 7, 9, 12,
60-61
5
Nagasaki trading records, 59
occurrences by support and format,
25
period (1573-1615),
Mori Sosen, 67
of,
methods, 30
identification of, 57-81
scroll), 52 plate 6
Miyagawa Shunsui
chemical identification
identification
(
20-21,
1,
53 plate 7
72 table 7
1
occurrences
table 4, 68 table 4, 75, 78
Muromachi period
on ukiyo-e
(1333-1573), 22
of,
64-65, 66 table
paintings, 21 table
3,
69 table
5
57-81
6,
overall statistics, 65 table 2
Nanreisai, Dutch Couple Reading a Letter, detail
(
hanging
Needham,
scroll
),
54 plate
9,
69 table
5,
73,
Nishikawa Sukenobu (1671-1751),
Gessai
65-66,
tinting strength, 60, 63
23, 34,
purple color pigments, 24-25
76
Nishikawa Sukeyuki,
Numata
2,
research results, 71-74
(
4,
table
70-71 table 6
previous identifications, 64
Joseph, 10
Nihongi Chronicles of Japan ), 4
67 table
pigment mixtures, 65
79
purple iron oxide pigment,
35
19th -20th
(fl.
c.
),
21 table 6,38
50 plate 2
12,
purplish-pink colorants. See organic red
(
enji)
pigments
purpurin, 10
odo (yellow earth), 14-15
Oguchi, Hachiro,
6, 12, 18, 19
Okumura Masanobu
(1686-1764), 14 table
3,
34
organic
brown pigment,
1, 5,
organic red (enji) pigments,
organic yellow pigments,
orpiment
dry
vs.
(sckio) pigments,
10-11,
1, 5,
1, 5,
27-28
12-14
red pigments, 8-12
rokusho
Ryuryukyo
), 1,
21,
5, 15,
9-10, 27
29, 52 plate 5
22 table
7,
30
Shinsai, 38
Sakai Hoitsu, 68 table
listing of,
4, 71
table 6, 78
1,
scanning electron microscopy with energydispersive x-ray analysis,
1
3-4
of repaint pigments,
Schafer,
4-5
Screech,
See also identification methods
pigment mixtures, 23-25,
sekio
H.,
1,
3-4, 25-26
13, 14, 15
Timon,
of indigo and Prussian blue, 65 table
2,
70-71 table 6
shell
1,
5,
12-14,
white (gofun) pigment,
1,
5-6
as a
27-28
3,
28
uniquely Japanese pigment,
identification
(PLM),
1, 3,
16,
58, 73
(orpiment pigment),
14 table
31
polarized-light microscopy
Edward
Schweppe, Helmut, 58
17, 23
research results overview,
86
1, 5,
1, 5,
Sanraku (1559-1635), 32
pigments on ukiyo-e paintings,
25-31
11-12, 28
safflower red (beni), 10-11
16, 51
pigment analysis
Plesters, Joyce, 26,
green pigments
(
painting, term defined, 2
project design,
(
run ultramarine),
14 table 3
paratacamite/clinoatacamite,
2 table
5,
1,
red lead (entan or tan) pigment,
red mercuric sulfide, 8
methods, 28
on ukiyo-e paintings,
earth pigments,
29
wet-process, 13—14
identification
brown
red colorants, 25
30, 31
1, 5, 15,
realgar (yuo), 13
red and
orange-red pigment. See red lead pigment
1,
31
methods, 26-27
Shiba Kokan (1738-1818), 36, 67 table
Shibata Zeshin, 67 table
4,
68 table
4, 75
4, 76,
78
9
shido ("purple earth"),
Shigemasa
14 table
II,
"ultramarine blue," 24
11
ultramarine
41
3,
shin-sha (red pigment/cinnabar),
shio (yellow), 12,
8-9
ummo
13, 15
Shosoin repository (Nara),
Shuki Okamoto, 68 table
14 table
4,
8-9
),
70 table
1,
5,
1,
67 table
4,
table 4, 71 table 6, 79
(
d. 1829
),
14 table
3, 17
table
table 4,
6, 75
Uyemura, Rokuro,
18-19,
methods, 29-30
paintings, 19 table
17 table 4, 37
6, 19
verdigris
1, 5,
8-9,
7
7 table 2, 14
Wenley, Archibald G.,
70 table
white pigments,
1,
Winter, John,
profile of, 82
i8th-early 19th c),
69 table
36, 67 table 4,
5,
6,
75,77
spectroscopy. See under identification
Harold
17, 18
2-7
Song dynasty (260-1279),
III (fl. late
pigment,
vermilion pigment (shu or shin-sha),
5
Smith, Henry, 58
methods
woodblock
31;
vii
5-8, 23
prints,
pigment analysis
of,
1-2
Phillip, 31
Suzuki Harunobu
(
1725-1770),
35,
67 table
4,
76
Yamasaki, Kazuo,
11,
Yamawaki Toki, 68
Mamiko, 24
Taguchi, Ei-chi and
taisha (red iron oxide),
Tajima, Shiichi,
yellow arsenic sulfide, 12
yellow earth (odo) pigments,
9, 18, 19,
yellow (shio) pigments,
24
Takamatsuzuka tomb, wall paintings,
Yosa Buson, 68 table
23
1680-1730), 34
(ca.
Tang dynasty (618-907),
Tani Buncho, 66 table
I (fl.
Tawayara Sotatsu
ca.
3,
(fl.
1,
4,
78
Yosai Kikuchi, 68 table
4,
yud
tan (red lead),
Tawayara Sori
24, 31
table 4, 79
Yanagisawa, Taka, 24
11
8-9
Takamatsu, Toyokichi,
Tamura Suio
3,
76
52 plate 6
on ukiyo-e
Stern,
6, 75,
38
Utagawa Toyonobu,
30
identification
3,
66 table
II,
70 table
Utagawa Toyokuni (1769-18251,37, 67
silver sulfide, 3,
7,
4.37
smalt (hana-konjo) pigment,
table
22 table
(
silver leaf, 4, 23, 30
Sori
5,
Utagawa Toyohiro
4,
76
6,
21,
Utagawa Toyoharu 1735-1814), 37
79
68 table
3, 38,
1, 5,
22, 31
1, 5,
Utagawa Kuniyuki,
Shungyo, 36
49 plate
mica ),
Utagawa Kunisada, 68
64
70 table
(
69 table
6, 8, 9, 10, 16, 20,
shu (red pigment/vermilion
Shumman,
pigment,
ruri)
Utagawa Hiroshige
Shorakusai, 36
22, 23,
(
30
1, 5,
14-15, 28-29
12, 13, 15
70 table
6,
77
(realgar), 13
10, 15, 18, 19, 20, 23, 58
68 table
4, 78,
79
1764-80), 36
ca.
1600-40), 32
Tiantishan Grottoes (China), wall paintings, 7
tinting strength, of a pigment, 60, 63
Torii
Kiyonaga (1752-1815),
Torii
Kiyonobu
I
(
Toriyama Sekien
(
Toshinaga,
),
4,36,37
17 table 4,
34
1713-1788), 35
17 table 4, 37
Totoya Hokkei, 69 table
Tsukioka
17 table
1664-1729
5, 71
table 6, 79
Settei (1710-1786), 14 table 3, 35
Tsunemasa
(
fl.
1730-80),
Tsunenobu, 68 table
Tsutsumi Torin
III
4,
17 table 4, 35
78
(d. 1820), 37
87

Pigments in later Japanese paintings

Transcription

Similar documents

Untitled - Clifton Diocese

Mapping the Senses

Jan Schall, Wilbur Niewald, 10/Charlotte Street Foundation, 2007

Pissarro was born in the caribbean and moved to paris when he

Oyfn veg shteyt a boym, Sung by Chava Alberstein ILEX BELLER

From The Air

TAI-SHAN SCHIERENBERG LOS PADRES LYNN DENNISON

Wayne Thiebaud Food Painting

Contemporary Artists

Keith Haring - Hartwood PTO