4fig - Ministerio del Medio Ambiente

Chapter 6
Availability of Green
Areas
1] Background
223
2] Diagnosis: Availability of Green Areas
225
3] Actions related to Green Areas
236
Green Areas
carbon
sequestration
O2
improvement
of air quality
protection of
biodiversity
CO2
quality of
life of the
population
control
of urban
temperature
connection
of biological
corridors
social
integration
physical
activity
223
Introduction
Abstract
Urban green areas play an important role in the quality
of life of the population and in the urban ecology. That
is why there is worldwide concern about them as well as
a minimum standard recommended by the World Health
Organization. Chile has a great challenge to improve
upon this topic, since, on average, it has low levels
of square meters per inhabitant and a high inequality
at both the regional and commune levels. The case of
the Greater Santiago area confirms this diagnosis.
Background 1
Green areas are spaces with predominat vegetation and natural elements
such as lagoons, streams and unpaved trails (Reyes, Presentation, 2011).
These provide many benefits to the population and the urban environment,
such as favoring physical activity, social integration and a better quality
of life for the population. They also provide environmental services such
as the control of urban temperature, carbon sequestration, improvement
of air quality, protection of biodiversity, decrease of erosion, flood control,
energy saving, and noise control, among others (Reyes, 2011; Flores, 2011).
Green areas “are scarce in the large cities of Latin America, as a result
of the precarious and explosive urbanization history during the second
half of the 20th century“ (Reyes and Figueroa, 2010, page 90). Population
in Chilean cities has grown approximately 107 percent between 1970 and
2002, from 6,050,436 to 12,538,053 in that period (University of Chile, 2010).
A comparison of census data for 1992 and 2002, reveals that 26 cities had
an explosive population growth, which is understood as an annual average
growth rate greater that 4.2 percent (University of Chile, 2010). Figure 1
shows the urban expansion between 1920 and 2002 in Santiago.
green areas chapter 6
chapter 6 availabity of green areas
224
Urban growth in Santiago, 1920-2002
Source: UNEP, PUCCH, IEUT and
GORE, 2003.
“The maps published in this report
that refer to or are related to limits or
boundaries of Chile do not commit the
State of Chile in any way, according
to Article 2, letter g of the Decree
with Force of Law N° 83 of 1979 of
the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The
Cartographic information is based
on Datum WGS84 and it is mearly
referential”.
1920
1940
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2002
fig.
1
Explosive urban growth has been detrimental to the availability of green areas.
In Chile, the official definition of the green area concept appears in the Construction and Urbanism Law in its General Ordinance, which identifies it as a “land
area set aside preferably for pesdestrian circulation and recreation, generally
consisting of vegetation species and other complementary elements” (Ministerio
de Vivienda y Urbanismo, 2007). This definition is deficient, since it leaves room
for the possibility of considering a green area as such even if it lacks vegetation.
According to the Santiago Metropolitan Urban Master Plan, green areas “are
the urban spaces predominant covered by (or set aside for) trees, bushes or
plants, that allow people to enjoy recreation and leisure activities in them”
(Secretaría Regional Ministerial Región Metropolitana, Ministerio de Vivienda y
Urbanismo, 2007, p. 5). This definition is more precise, by including the presence
of vegetation, but only refers to the Metropolitan Region of Santiago.
On the other hand, the National Commission for The Environment (CONAMA
by its acronym in Spanish), defined green areas as spaces in urban areas or in
their periphery, predominantly covered by trees, bushes or plants that may be
used for different purposes, be they recreational, leisure, ecological, embellishment, protection, restoration and rehabilitation of the place or other similar
ends (Comisión Nacional del Medio Ambiente, 2002). This definiton provides a
broader view of the green areas concept, since it includes their ecological function.
225
green areas chapter 6
The availiability of green areas in urban centers is a worldwide concern.
Because of that, different international institutions are promoting the use
of relative indicators in this topic, in order to carry out environmental
performance assessments which also allow comparability among countries.
Given the relevance of green areas for the quality of life of urban populations, the World Health Organization (WHO) recommends a minimum
standard of 9m2/inhabitant (Reyes and Figueroa, 2010).
The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) plans
to include an indicator that reflects the area of green areas per inhabitant
within a set of urban environmental indicators it wants to promote. This
concept has been proposed by the United Nations within the framework
of the Millennium Development Goals (MDG) and the Latin American and
Caribbean Initiative for Sustainable Development (ILAC). The indicator of
areas per inhabitant does not explain by itself all of the aspects related
to green areas, such as accessibility to them and their distribution in the
city. Therefore, this chapter presents complementary indicators that do
cover these topics and are available in studies carried out for the Greater
Santiago territory.
Diagnosis: Availability of
green areas 2
Green Areas per Region
In Chile, the Administrative and Regional Development Undersecretariat
of the Ministry of Interior monitors the indicator of green areas maintained by municipality per inhabitant for each commune and publishes this
data in its National Municipal Information System (SINIM by its acronym
in Spanish)1. Based on this information, the Ministry of Housing and Urbanism (MINVU by its acronym in Spanish) also publishes this indicator
on the Urban Observatory website. By definition, this chapter only refers
to the areas maintained by municipalities, excluding private green areas
and municipal areas without maintenance, which people can still access.
1] http://www.sinim.cl
chapter 6 availabity of green areas
226
2] The most recent commune datum
between 2007 and 2009 was used,
as published on the MINVU’s Urban
Observatory (www.observatoriourbano.cl).
With the information published by the Urban Observatory, the green area average with municipal maintenance per inhabitant for each region in the country
was calculated using the most updated datum2. This revealed that none of the
regions reached the WHO standard of 9m2/inhabitants and, at the same time, it
shows that there are broad differences among them. The Arica and Parinacota
Region presents the lowest value (0.7m2/inhabitants) while the Maule Region
has the highest one (7.2m2/inhabitants). The Metropolitan Region reaches only
3.4m2/inhabitants.
Because this indicator only deals with public green areas maintained by the
respective municipality, without considering the total amount of green areas available in the commune, a more comprehensive analysis is provided below, based
on studies that presented indicators for the case of the Greater Santiago area.
fig.
2
Green Areas Maintained by Municipalities per Inhabitant per
Region, Last Year Available (m2/inhabitant)
Source: Own elaboration based on indicators published by the MINVU
Urban Observatory (www.observatoriourbano.cl).
“The maps published in this report that refer
to or are related to limits or boundaries of
Chile do not commit the State of Chile in any
way, according to Article 2, letter g of the
Decree with Force of Law N° 83 of 1979 of the
Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The Cartographic
information is based on Datum WGS84 and it
is mearly referential”.
227
Green Areas in Greater Santiago
The Greater Santiago (GS) area is divided into 34 communes, where
approximately 5.8 million people live, with an average density of 93.3
inhabitants/ha.
As mentioned before, the GS area availability of green areas in average
is below the WHO standard 9m2/inhabitants, with plenty of inequality
among the communes in it. The National Commission for The Environment
(CONAMA by its acronym in Spanish) developed a cadastre of green areas
in the GS area for the year 2003, obtaining an average of 3.2 m2/inhabitant,
a similar value to that shown by the data provided by the MINVU’s Urban
Observatory. In the CONAMA cadastre, the poorest communes presented
values between 0.4 and 2.9 m2/inhabitant, while the richest ones had
between 6.7 and 18.8 m2/inhabitant (Figueroa, 2008).
Recent studies (Reyes and Figueroa, 2010 and Figueroa, 2008) made a
more complete analysis on green areas in the GS area, incluiding all of the
green areas available, that is, municipal ones with or without maintenance
and private ones. Figure 3 and Table 1 show that 8 out of the 34 GS communes exceed the 9m2/inhabitant standard recommendend by the WHO, and
the communes with the highest incomes have more green area coverage
per inhabitant than the ones with the lowest income. The commune with
the hightest green area per capita is Vitacura (56.2 m2/inhabitant) and the
lowest one is El Bosque (18 m2/inhabitant).
In the GS area there is a great potential to improve the availability of
green areas in the communes that need them the most. If the unproductive
lands in each commune were transformed into green areas, almost every
commune would increase its green area coverage per inhabitant, some of
them significantly. For example, communes with a low green area standard
like El Bosque, Cerro Navia, Quinta Normal and Lo Espejo could practically
double or even triple it as in the case of La Pintana. Nevertheless, none
of these communes would reach the value recommended by the WHO
(Figueroa, 2008).
Not only the availability of green areas is important: The quality of
available green areas is another factor to be considered, as shown in the
Perception of Urban Quality of Life Survey by the Ministry of Housing and
Urbanism. This nationwide survey asked people about the quality or state
of squares and parks of their commune. While 60 percent considered them
to be “good or very good” in 2007, this figure dropped to 53 percent in
2010 (Ministerio de Vivienda y Urbanismo, 2011).
green areas chapter 6
228
Green Areas per Inhabitant
(m2/inhabitant) and
Average Per Capita Income
($) in the Communes of
Greater Santiago
chapter 6 availabity of green areas
fig.
3
Source: Own elaboration,
based on Figueroa, 2008
and Mideplan (CASEN
survey 2009).
“The maps published in this report
that refer to or are related to limits
or boundaries of Chile do not
commit the State of Chile in any
way, according to Article 2, letter
g of the Decree with Force of Law
N° 83 of 1979 of the Ministry of
Foreign Affairs. The Cartographic
information is based on Datum
WGS84 and it is mearly referential”.
According to this criterion, it is possible to use other complementary indicators
to analyize different aspects, such as size, distribution, connectivity and accessibility to green areas by commune. The most common ones include: Green area
coverage (ha); percentage of total green area coverage in the GS area; amount
of green areas; green area density, which measures the green area coverage in
comparison to a block area (m2/ha); the largest patch index, which provides the
commune’s largest green area in relation to the total green area coverage; the
cohesion index and the nearest neighbor index, which represent the degree of
physical or structural connectivity of green areas, and the accessibility index,
which gives the percentage of the commune’s population with access to green
areas of over 5,000 m2 located 300 meters from the place where they live (Reyes
and Figueroa, 2010).
Table 1 shows the values of a large amount of these indicators on green areas
for the communes in the GS area in addition to some complementary socioeconomic indicators (average per capita household income, percentages of people
in the commune who are destitute and poor).
229
Table 1
Indicators Related to Green Areas in Greater Santiago (GS)
Source: Own elaboration based on Reyes and Figueroa, 2010, Figueroa, 2008 and CASEN, 2009.
green areas chapter 6
chapter 6 availabity of green areas
230
3] The presence of large parks is
related to values higher than 50% for
the largest patch index.
The coverage of green areas in the GS area totals 3,825 hectares, of which
62 percent is made up of a reduced number of green areas that are larger than
one hectare (Reyes and Figueroa, 2011).
In the GS area, there is a shortage of large parks3. Most of the communes have
small-sized green areas. In 24 of the 34 communes, the percentage representing
the largest area in the total coverage of green areas (largest patch index) is lower
than 25 percent (Reyes and Figueroa). The commune of Maipú, for example, is
one of the most populated and only has small-sized units, under 1,000 m2 (Reyes
and Figueroa, 2011).
Table 2
Area, Amount and Percentage of the Total Green Areas in GS
Green Areas
Size Ranges
Number of Green
Areas by Size Range
≤ 500 m2
Total Green Area
Percentage in GS
area
3,813
33%
500 - 1,000 m
2,912
25%
1.000 – 5,000 m2
4,072
35%
809
7%
11,606
100%
2
≥ 5,000 m
2
Total
Fuente: Reyes and Figueroa, 2010.
The communes with the lowest green area coverage are Independencia (17.4
ha), San Miguel (21.4 ha), Quinta Normal (25.3 ha), Lo Espejo (30.9 ha) and El
Bosque (31.0 ha) (Reyes and Figueroa, 2010). All of them have a greater concentration of socioeconomic strata, except for San Miguel, which has a higher
presence of medium socioeconomic strata.
On the other hand, the communes with the largest coverage of green areas
are Vitacura (458.1 ha), Recoleta (293.1 ha), Maipú (238.6 ha), Renca (238.3 ha)
and Las Condes (221.8 ha). Vitacura and Las Condes are high-income communes
and have the largest consolidated green area coverage of the city (Reyes and
Figueroa, 2010). In Recoleta and Renca, although low socioeconomic strata are
predominant, the great amount of the green area coverage is remarkable due
to the presence of the GS area’s largest parks (Parque Metropolitano and Cerros
de Renca) (Reyes and Figueroa, 2010).
The participation of each commune in the total GS green area coverage shows that
of the 34 communes only 10 have more than 4 percent each, with Recoleta (7.7%)
and Vitacura (12%) as the most outstanding. Of the remaining communes, seven
have 2 percent and 4 percent and 17 have 2 percent (Reyes and Figueroa, 2010).
231
fig.
4
green areas chapter 6
Distribution of Green Areas Density in the GS area
Source: Figueroa, 2008.
Communes with the Lowest
Green Area Coverage
Cities with the Highest
Green Area Coverage
“The maps published in this report that refer to or are related to limits or boundaries of Chile do not commit the State
of Chile in any way, according to Article 2, letter g of the Decree with Force of Law N° 83 of 1979 of the Ministry of
Foreign Affairs. The Cartographic information is based on Datum WGS84 and it is mearly referential”.
In the GS area, the green area density indicator (green area coverage
per block) shows a concentration in some places linked to the presence of
large parks (Parque Metropolitano, Parque Mahuida, Parque Padre Alberto
Hurtado and Parque Cousiño Macul, among others), and a low density in
the rest of the city, particularly on the outskirts to the south and west (see
Figure 4) (Reyes and Figueroa, 2010).
As for the cohesion index and the nearest neighbor index, they give a
highly concentrated pattern, with similar values for all of the GS area communes, despite their great differences in green area coverage (Reyes and
Figueroa, 2010). The similarity in the cohesion index is due to the existence
of a regular spatial pattern in the distribution of green areas (Reyes and
Figueroa, 2010). In addition, it is observed that the communes having a
large green area in relation to their total (largest patch index higher than
50%) have a high connectivity value (Reyes and Figueroa, 2010).
232
4] Biological corridors are “more or less
continuous open space areas that cross
urban areas linking different sites with
each other or linking urban area sites
to green spaces located around the
city” (Flores, 2011, page 23).
5] The Biodiversity Index aims to classify
green spaces taking into account the
amount of flora and fauna present in
the site and the percentage of native
species (Flores, 2011).
chapter 6 availabity of green areas
An important aspect to be considered is the access to green areas. This was
assessed with the accessibility index in three communes of different income
levels. It is interesting to observe that the access to green areas is higher as the
income level of the assessed communes increases: La Pintana (low income) 19.6
percent, San Miguel (medium income) 45.3 percent and Vitacura (high income)
74.1 percent (Reyes and Figueroa, 2010).
The Perception of Urban Quality of Life Survey by the Ministry of Housing and
Urbanism researches this factor. Regarding the closeness (walking distance from
the place of residence) to squares, parks and pedestrian walkways, 64 percent
of the sample considered them to be “close and very close” in 2010 (Ministerio
de Vivienda y Urbanismo).
Green areas also support urban biodiversity, allowing flora and fauna settlement and making it easy for them to enter from other green spaces located
around the cities. Explosive urban growth speeds result in “fragmentation, habitat
loss and biotic homogenization, which cause an ecosystem alteration and the
disappearance of wild species” (Flores, 2011, page 2).
In the GS area, green areas and biodiversity are more abundant on the outskirts and decrease towards the center. There is a biodiversity route along the
periphery, mainly in the northeast zone, crossing points where biodiversity is
high due to the presence of large-sized green areas in good condition. Biological
corridors4 for birds defined by Varela (Flores, 2011) link the green areas with
the highest biodiversity indices5, which coincide with the communes that have
the highest cohesion indices. Therefore, these corridors could make it easier for
species to move and colonize the center of the GS area more effectively through
the northeast zone. Figure 7 shows the relation of the GS area’s urban green
areas to the biological corridors, priority sites for biodiversity conservation and
tourism interest zones that surround it.
Given the relevance green areas have for the well-being of the population and
the urban environment, as well as the shortage and inequality in their availability throughout the country, there is the challenge to increase their availability
and equitative access at a national level. Progress also needs to be made in
generating more information on the green areas of each region, in order to carry
out a more detailed and integral diagnosis, like the one made with the available
information for the Greater Santiago.
233
fig.
5
green areas chapter 6
Green Areas and Biological Corridors in Greater Santiago
Source: SEREMI of the Environment- Metropolitan Region
of Santiago
“The maps published in this report that refer to or are related to limits or boundaries of Chile do
not commit the State of Chile in any way, according to Article 2, letter g of the Decree with Force of
Law N° 83 of 1979 of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The Cartographic information is based on Datum
WGS84 and it is mearly referential”.
234
capítulo 6 disponibilidad de áreas verdes
235
áreas verdes capítulo 6
Green areas also support urban biodiversity, allowing flora and fauna settlement and making
it easy for them to enter from other green spaces located around the cities.
236
chapter 6 availabity of green areas
Actions Related to Green
3 Areas
6] In accordance to what is set forth
in the General Ordinance for Urbanism
and Construction, land areas not
suitable for house building are set
aside for green areas. In residential
zones, the area set aside for green
areas is calculated in a different way
according to the population density.
In places where the density is less
than 70 inhabitants per hectare
(inhabitants/ha), it is mandatory
to build approximately 10 m2/
inhabitant of green areas while in
places with higher density values, it
can be much lower. For example, in
social housing neighborhoods, where
there are about 500 inhabitants/ha,
green areas vary from 1.1 to 1.5 m2/
inhabitant (Reyes and Figueroa, 2010).
In Chile, the main regulations, including aspects related to the creation and
management of green areas, are the Constitutional Organic Law of Municipalities
(Law N° 18.695), the General Ordinance for Urbanism and Construction (SD N°
47), the General Law for Urbanism and Construction (DFL N° 458), and the Forests
Law (SD N° 4,363) (Vargas and Balmaceda, 2011). Other relevant regulations are
regional urban development plans, intercommunes master plans, commune
master plans, sectional plans and municipal ordinances (Vargas and Balmaceda,
2011). Tables 3, 4 and 5 show some of these regulations in detail.
Chilean regulations promote the creation of small-sized green areas, since
they only require assigning a percentage of the land that will be urbanized to
green areas without establishing a minimum size6 (Reyes and Figueroa, 2010).
In order to improve both the availability of green areas and the existence of
trees in the country, there are some initiatives related to the creation of large
parks and urban afforestation.
In the city of Santiago, for example, 15 new green areas will be built, which will
be finished in 2014. This add 396 hectares of urban parks, increasing the green
area coverage of the city by 16 percent. As part of this initiative, 2011 marked
the opening of Cerillos Park, one of the largest ones in Santiago (50 ha), and the
second part of the Bicentennial Park in Vitacura, adding 12 ha to the existing 18
ha, more than 1,500 trees and a new lagoon. Other outstanding projects under
construction are: The Renato Poblete Park (20 ha), which will enable one of the
branches of the Mapocho River for navigation; Lo Errázuriz Park (40 ha), in the
former Cerillo dumping site; the creation of the Citizenship Park (64 ha) in the
National Stadium; and the Aguada Floodable Park (41 ha), on the banks of the
Aguada Stream, which will be the first water park in Santiago and will contribute
to solving the flooding problem in winter.
Regarding urban afforestation, one remarkable project is the Urban Afforestation
Bicentennial Project of the Chilean Government: 17 million trees. One Chilean,
one tree, which was announced by the President of the Republic in March, 2010
and aims to plant one tree for each Chilean throughout the country before the
year 2018 (CONAF, 2011).
237
Table 3
green areas chapter 6
Main Laws and Decrees with Force of Law Related to Green Areas
Regulation
Description
Law N° 16.391
Ministry of
Housing and
Urbanism
Art. 51 includes green area buildings in properties eligible for expropriation.
Law N° 18.695
Constitutional
Organic Law of
Municipalities
Art. 25 states that the unit responsible for the environment, cleaning and embelishment functions will be in charge of overseeing (letter c) the construction, conservation
and management of the green areas in the commune.
Law N° 19.175
Constitutional
Organic Law
on Regional
Government and
Administration
The Regional Government (GORE by its acronym in Spanish) along with the Regional
Council (CORE by its acronym in Spanish) manage and authorize the access to financing for the construction of green areas through the National Fund for Regional Development (FNDR by its acronym in Spanish) or the Urban Improvement Program (PMU by
its acronym in Spanish). In the Metropolitan Region, it has been requested to transfer
the responsibility of green areas to the Regional Government.
DFL N° 458
General Law for
Urbanism and
Construction
Art. 70 “All land urbanization projects will need to set aside, in a compulsory manner
and free of charge, the areas defined by the General Ordinance for circulation, green
areas, development of sport and recreational activities and equipment, which cannot
exceed 44% of the total area of the original land. If the corresponding land use planning tool envisages public use of green areas or roadways in the respective land, it
will be preferably be ceded to those ends. The municipality could exchange or alienate
lands approved for equipment, in order to locate the corresponding works in a more
suitable location and space.”
Art. 79 “Municipalities are responsible for developing the actions necessary for the
rehabilitation and sanitation of deteriorated or unhealthy settlements within the city,
in coordination with plans of this same nature and housing plans of the Ministry of
Housing and Urbanism”. Art. 80 “In accordance with the expressed objective (Art. 79), the Municipality will be
able to directly execute, from its budget, the following actions: ...c) execute gardens
and plantations of public use green areas”. Source: Own elaboration
Detail
238
Table 4
chapter 6 availabity of green areas
Main Supreme Decrees Related to Green Areas
Regulation
Description
Detail
SD N° 4.363
Forests Law from
1931
Art. 12° “For sanitation and embellishment reasons, municipalities should establish
lineal plantations and groups of trees, within or adjacent to urban centers. The Government will award, according to the regulation, those municipalities that have more
efficiently fostered these types of plantations.”
SD N° 47
General Ordinance for Urbanism
and Construction
Art. 1.1.2. defines green area as a “land area preferably set aside for recreation and
pedestrial circulation, generally made up of vegetation species and other complementary elements” and public green area as “a national asset of public use having the
characteristics of a green area.”
Art. 2.1.24. “Land Use Planning Instruments are responsible for, in their own action
scope, defining land use for each zone.” Uses are divided into types of domestic use,
equipment, productive activities, infrastructure, public space and green areas.
Art. 2.1.30. “The Public Space type of use refers to the road system, squares, parks
and public green areas, as public use national assets.” In addition, “the Municipality may authorize specific buildings in the green areas and parks mentioned in the
previous paragraph.”
Art. 2.1.31. “The Green Area type of use in the Land Use Planning Instruments refers
to parks, square and clear areas set aside for green areas, which are not public use
National Assets, regardless of their owner, be it a natural person or a public or private
legal entity.”
SD N° 066/09
Metropolitan Region Prevention
and Decontamination Plan
In letter m number 5, it includes the creation of green areas within strategic programs
for emission control.
Source: Own elaboration
239
Table 5
green areas chapter 6
Some Ordinances Related to Green Areas
Regulation
Detail
Master Plan Ordinances
The Commune Master Plans specify the conditions that must be met regarding urban arboriculture or urban silviculture in each zone of the communes.
Municipal Ordinances
These are regulations passed in compliance to what is set forth in the Commune Master
Plans. Some examples:
Ordinance N° 004/1984 on Maintenance of Green Areas and Vegetation Species in Public
Roads of the Renca Commune.
Ordinance N° 001/1990 on Fences, Sidewalks and Tree Planting in the Renca Commune.
Ordinance on Planting, Transplanting, Pruning and Extraction of Trees, Punta Areas Commune.
Ordinance on Use, Design and Maintenance of Green Areas in the Chillán Commune.
Municipal Ordinance on Construction, Maintenance and Promotion of Green Areas and Vegetation Species in the Public Use National Assets, La Serena Commune.
Ordinance on the Maintenance of Green Areas and Vegetation Spaces, Copiapó Commune.
Ordinance on the Protection and Conservation of the Environment, Cauquenes Commune.
Local Ordinance on the Protection and Conservation of the Environment, Lo Espejo Commune.
Source: Own elaboration
240
chapter 6 availabity of green areas
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green areas chapter 6