- Bangor University

The Regulation of Electronic Evidence in the United Arab
Emirates: Current Limitations and Proposals for Reform
Khaled Ali Aljneibi, LLB, LLM (Dubai)
Thesis submitted to Bangor University
for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
February 2014
i
Abstract
Due to the crucial role that electronic evidence is now playing in the digital age, it
constitutes a new form of evidence for prosecutors to rely on in criminal cases.
However, research into the use of electronic evidence in the United Arab Emirates
(UAE) is still in its initial phase. There have been no detailed discussions on the
procedural aspects associated with electronic evidence when investigating crimes, or
the problems and challenges faced by law enforcers when handling electronic evidence.
In addition, there has also been no detailed explanation of the ideal investigation
process, such as the processes involved in computer search and seizure, and forensic
investigation. As a result, the understanding and awareness of how to regulate and
combat criminal cases that rely on electronic evidence is incomplete. In such situations,
offenders usually take advantage of this lack of prescription in law. Because the
understanding and awareness levels associated with electronic evidence is not perfect in
the UAE, the UAE needs to promulgate new rules for handling electronic evidence as
its laws are currently focused on traditional eyewitness accounts and the collection of
physical evidence. Thus, it is very important that issues related to the existing
approaches pertaining to electronic evidence in criminal procedures are identified, and
that reform proposals are developed, so that new rules for handling electronic evidence
can be adopted to effectively combat crime, by making full use of it.
This thesis examines the problems and challenges currently affecting the regulation
electronic evidence in the UAE, and contributes to the body of academic literature in
this area. Such a contribution is appropriate in the UAE context, where the law
currently lacks sufficient academic input, especially concerning electronic evidence.
The thesis makes actual recommendation as to how the substantive law may be
reformed in the form of draft articles and includes an analysis as to how the process of
prosecution and evidence collection can be facilitated. In particular it suggests that the
electronic evidence process should be regulated in order to facilitate effective
investigation and make full use of electronic evidence. This will ensure that electronic
evidence is used in a transparent manner to preserve the integrity of criminal procedure,
thereby safeguarding the accused, whilst at the same time facilitating prosecution and
trial proceedings.
ii
I dedicate this thesis to my parents and my wife
iii
Acknowledgements
First and foremost, I wish to express my sincere thanks to the many people who have
assisted me during the writing of my thesis. I offer my sincere thanks to my supervisor
team, Dr. Yvonne McDermott, for her constructive criticism, valuable suggestions,
support and guidance throughout the course of this thesis. I am also grateful to my
second supervisor Mr Mark Hyland for his encouragement. I would also like to express
my grateful acknowledgement to Professor Dermot Cahill Head of Bangor University
Law School for his constant support, guidance, inspiration and encouragement. My
work would not have progressed to completion without their, ideas, support, and
continual enthusiasm.
Many thanks also go to Mr Stephen Mason who has helped me by reviewing a draft of
this thesis. This thesis has greatly benefited from his thoughtful feedback.
I would like express my appreciation to all the participants in the applied study.
Last but not least, I am indebted to my family and my sons (Shouq, Mohammed, Fatima
and Omar) who have supported me endlessly. Although my family were physically far
away from me the whole time, they were always close to my mind and my heart.
Without their support this work would not have been possible.
iv
Declaration and Consent
Details of the Work
I hereby agree to deposit the following item in the digital repository maintained by
Bangor University and/or in any other repository authorized for use by Bangor
University.
Author Name: Khaled Ali Aljneibi
Title: Mr
Supervisor/Department: Dr. Yvonne McDermott / School of Law
Funding body (if any): Dubai Public Prosecution
Qualification/Degree obtained: PhD
This item is a product of my own research endeavours and is covered by the agreement
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v
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vi
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viii
Table of contents
Abstract........................................................................................................................ ii
Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................... iv
Declaration and Consent............................................................................................... v
List of Abbreviations................................................................................................. xiv
Table of Cases............................................................................................................ xv
Table of Statutes, Regulations and other Official Documents................................... xviii
List of Figures ........................................................................................................... xxi
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION...................................................................... 22
1.1 Research questions and objectives ........................................................................ 26
1.2 Statement of problem............................................................................................ 26
1.3 Hypotheses ........................................................................................................... 27
1.4 Scope of study ...................................................................................................... 28
1.5 Significance of study ............................................................................................ 29
1.6 Methodology ........................................................................................................ 30
1.7 Literature review .................................................................................................. 34
1.8 Terminology......................................................................................................... 44
1.8.1 Definition of the term ‘electronic evidence’ ............................................... 44
1.8.2 Interpretation of the term ‘Computer’......................................................... 48
1.9 Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 49
CHAPTER TWO: THE JUDICIAL SYSTEM IN THE UAE AND THE NATURE
OF ELECTRONIC EVIDENCE ............................................................................. 52
2.1 The judicial systems and evidentiary rules ............................................................ 53
2.1.1 Evidentiary rules of civil law versus common law systems: regimes and
implication ......................................................................................................... 54
2.1.2 UAE’s legal system.................................................................................... 58
ix
2.1.3 Developing UAE’s criminal procedure law ................................................ 60
2.1.4 UAE legal system and evidentiary rules ..................................................... 61
2.2 Physical crime and cybercrime ............................................................................. 67
2.2.1 Physical crime and cybercrime: similarities and distinctions....................... 69
2.2.2 UAE law and cybercrimes.......................................................................... 70
2.3 The types and the nature of electronic evidence .................................................... 72
2.3.1 Types of electronic evidence ...................................................................... 72
2.3.2 The nature of electronic evidence............................................................... 76
2.4 The criminal investigation of cybercrime and physical crime: procedural aspects of
UAE’s legal system .................................................................................................... 80
2.5 Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 83
CHAPTER THREE: REGULATION OF ELECTRONIC EVIDENCE IN CIVIL
LAW AND COMMON LAW SYSTEMS: A CASE STUDY OF CHINA AND
ENGLAND AND WALES ....................................................................................... 85
3.1 Common law jurisdiction: England and Wales...................................................... 86
3.2 Civil law jurisdiction: China ................................................................................. 87
3.3 Electronic evidence regulation in civil law and common law systems ................... 89
3.3.1 An overview of electronic evidence regulation in England and Wales ........ 90
3.3.2 An overview of electronic evidence regulation in China............................. 90
3.4 A comparison of electronic evidence regulation: selected aspects ......................... 91
3.4.1 Scope and admissibility of electronic evidence: England and Wales........... 92
3.4.2 Scope and admissibility of electronic evidence: China................................ 96
3.5 The process of gathering, analysing, preserving and presenting electronic evidence
in the England and Wales compared to China ............................................................. 99
3.5.1 Search and seizure process for electronic evidence................................... 100
3.5.2 Preservation process for electronic evidence ............................................ 102
3.5.3 Analysis process for electronic evidence .................................................. 104
x
3.5.4 Presentation process for electronic evidence............................................. 105
3.6 Evaluation of each model with regard to electronic evidence regulations ............ 106
3.7 UAE lessons from comparative approach............................................................ 107
3.8 Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 109
CHAPTER FOUR: IT ENVIRONMENT AND UAE’s CRIMINAL PROCEDURE
LAW:
PROCEDURES
PRESERVATION,
GOVERNING
EXAMINATION,
SEARCH
AND
PRESENTATION,
SEIZURE,
AND
AUTHENTICATION OF ELECTRONIC EVIDENCE ...................................... 111
4.1 Collection of electronic evidence ........................................................................ 112
4.2 Search and seizure for electronic evidence.......................................................... 115
4.2.1 Search and seizure for electronic evidence: procedural aspects of the UAE’s
legal system ..................................................................................................... 117
4.2.2 Search and seizure for electronic evidence: with a warrant ...................... 118
4.2.3 Search and seizure for electronic evidence: without a warrant .................. 133
4.3 Impact of other laws in relation to electronic evidence: regional issues ............... 135
4.4 Legal procedures to obtain evidence from outside country .................................. 137
4.4.1 Mutual Legal Assistance (MLA) .............................................................. 137
4.4.2 Rogatory Letters ...................................................................................... 139
4.5 The preservation of electronic evidence in the UAE............................................ 140
4.6 Examination of electronic evidence .................................................................... 144
4.6.1 Electronic device forensics: background and definition ............................ 145
4.6.2 The procedures law on electronic evidence examination .......................... 148
4.6.3 Techniques and tools of electronic evidence examination......................... 149
4.6.4 The forensic expert opinion rule in the UAE ............................................ 153
4.7 Authentication of electronic evidence ................................................................. 155
4.8 The presentation of electronic evidence in the UAE............................................ 159
xi
4.9 The case of the UAE’s Ministry of Education as an example of electronic evidence
practices in the UAE................................................................................................. 161
4.9.1 The facts of a case.................................................................................... 161
4.9.2 Observations of the case........................................................................... 164
4.10 Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 165
CHAPTER FIVE: APPLIED STUDY: CURRENT ISSUES IN RELATION TO
ELECTRONIC
EVIDENCE
FROM
THE
PERSPECTIVE
OF
LEGAL
EXPERTS AND OTHER SPECIALISTS, TOWARDS THE REGULATION OF
ELECTRONIC EVIDENCE IN THE UAE .......................................................... 169
5.1 The research methodology.................................................................................. 170
5.2 Research methods............................................................................................... 172
5.2.1 Questionnaire........................................................................................... 172
5.2.2 Interview considerations .......................................................................... 176
5.3 Analysis and results of the applied study............................................................. 181
5.4 Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 203
CHAPTER SIX: NEW STRATEGY FOR ELECTRONIC EVIDENCE IN THE
UAE......................................................................................................................... 207
6.1 Part one: challenges and problems facing the law enforcers with regard to electronic
evidence and gaps in the existing criminal procedures of the UAE ........................... 208
6.1.1 Challenges and problems to the investigation and disclosure of crimes in
relation to electronic evidence........................................................................... 209
6.1.2 The rules regarding collecting, preserving, examining and presenting
electronic evidence. .......................................................................................... 216
6.2 Part two: recommendations................................................................................. 223
6.2.1 Academic findings ................................................................................... 224
6.2.2 Coordination and cooperation .................................................................. 225
6.2.3 Training of law enforcers ......................................................................... 226
6.2.4 Laboratory development .......................................................................... 226
xii
6.2.5 Reforms to the law ................................................................................... 227
6.3 Obstacles to applying the previous proposals ...................................................... 229
6.4 Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 231
CHAPTER SEVEN: CONCLUSION.................................................................... 233
7.1 Findings ............................................................................................................. 239
7.1.1 Is the UAE’s CPL sufficient for the regulation of electronic evidence? .... 239
7.1.2 What is the level of knowledge, understanding and awareness of electronic
evidence in practical life in the UAE? ............................................................... 243
7.2 Limitations of the research.................................................................................. 244
7.2.1 Scope of the research question ................................................................. 245
7.2.2 Legal and geographical scope................................................................... 246
7.3 Opportunities for future research ........................................................................ 246
7.4 Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 247
Appendices.............................................................................................................. 248
Appendix 1: A Letters to the Interviewees ................................................................ 248
Appendix 2: Original questionnaire (Arabic) ............................................................ 254
Appendix 3: Translation of the questionnaire (English) ............................................ 259
Appendix 4: Questionnaire respondent comments (open-ended questionnaire
question…................................................................................................................ 265
Appendix 5: Transcript translation of the interviews from Arabic ............................. 279
Bibliography ............................................................................................................ 307
xiii
List of Abbreviations
ACPO
- Association of Police Chief Officers
CPL
- UAE Criminal Procedure Law
DOJ
- USA Department of Justice
EU
- European Union
ICT
- Information and Communication Technology
IP
- Internet Protocol
IT
- Information Technology
MD5
- Algorithm (Message Digest 5)
MLA
- Mutual Legal Assistance
MLAT
- Mutual Legal Assistance Treaty
MMLA
- Multilateral Mutual Legal Assistance
PACE
- Police and Criminal Evidence Act
PRC
- People’s Republic of China
RAM
- Random Access Memory
SHA-1
- Algorithm (Secure Hash)
UAE
- The United Arab Emirates
UK
- The United Kingdom
UN
- United Nations
USA
- The United States of America
xiv
Table of Cases
Criminal Case of UAE Federal Supreme Court No. 371/2002, date of decision 14th May
2002, unpublished.
Criminal Case of UAE Federal Supreme Court No. 211/2010, date of decision 25th
March 2010, unpublished.
Criminal Case of UAE Federal Supreme Court No. 10/2011, date of decision 6th April
2011, unpublished.
Criminal Case of UAE Federal Supreme Court No. 50/2011, date of decision 19th April
2011, unpublished.
Criminal Case of UAE Federal Supreme Court No. 75/2011, date of decision 31st May
2011, unpublished.
Criminal Case of UAE Federal Supreme Court No. 17/2013, date of decision 2nd July
2013, unpublished.
Criminal Case of Cassation Court Dubai: UAE No. 153/2011, date of decision 2nd May
2011, unpublished.
Criminal Case of Cassation Court Dubai: UAE No. 268/2011, date of decision 22nd
August 2011, unpublished.
Criminal Case of Appeal Court Dubai: UAE No. 3422/2010, date of decision 26th
August 2010, unpublished.
Criminal Case of Appeal Court Dubai: UAE No. 6962/2010, date of decision 17th
March 2011, unpublished.
Criminal Case of Appeal Court Dubai: UAE No. 7003/2011, date of decision 7th June
2011, unpublished.
Criminal Case of Appeal Court Dubai: UAE No. 6732/2012, date of decision 6th
January 2012, unpublished.
xv
Criminal Case of First Instance Court Dubai: UAE No. 37784/2009, date of decision
30th May 2011, unpublished.
Criminal Case of First Instance Court Dubai: UAE No. 9913/2010, date of decision 9th
May 2010, unpublished.
Criminal Case of First Instance Court Dubai: UAE No. 15432/2010, date of decision
24th November 2010, unpublished.
Criminal Case of First Instance Court Dubai: UAE No. 7690/2012, date of decision 20th
September 2012, unpublished.
Australia
R v Hourmouzis (Victorian County Court, decided 30th October 2000, unreported).
The People’s Republic of China
Yang Chunning v Han Ying (2005) hai min chuzi No.4670.
The United Kingdom
DPP v Bignell [1998] 1 Cr App R 1.
Kajala v Noble [1982] 75 Cr App R 149.
Masquerade Music v Springsteen [2001] EWCA Civ 563.
R v Governor of Pentonville, ex p Osman [1990] 1 WLR 277DC.
R v Spiby [1990] Crim App R 186.
R v Wood [1982] 76 Cr App R 23.
Sapporo Maru (Owners) v Statue of Liberty (Owners) [1968] 1 WLR 739.
The United States
Columbia Pictures Indus v Bunnell 2007 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 46364 (C.D. Cal. 19th June
2007).
Daubert v Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals Syllabus (92-102), 509 U.S. 579 (1993).
xvi
SEC v Hourmouzis (District Court of Colorado, no 00-N-905 decided 1st May 2000,
unreported).
US v Bennett [1966] 4-66-Crim. No. 89 (D. Minn 1966).
xvii
Table of Statutes, Regulations and other Official Documents
Constitution 1971 and amended on 1996.
Federal Criminal Procedure Law No. 35-1992 and amended on 2005.
Federal Law No. 8-1974 concerning the Appointment of Experts before the Court.
Federal Law No. 36-2006 concerning International Judicial Cooperation in Criminal
Matters.
Federal Law No. 5-2012 concerning the Prevention of Information Technology Crimes.
Federal Penal Law No. 3-1987 and amended on 2005.
Law No. 23-2006 concerning the establishment of the Abu Dhabi Public Prosecution
Office.
Law 1968 concerning the establishment of Abu Dhabi Courts and amendment by Law
No. 23-2006.
Law 1970 concerning the establishment of the Dubai Courts.
Law 1971 concerning the establishment of the Ras Al Khaimah Courts and amendment
by Law No. 3-2011.
Decree No. 11-2006 concerning the establishment of the Ras Al-Khaymah Public
Prosecution Office.
Decree No. 8-1992 concerning the establishment of the Dubai Public Prosecution
Office.
Australia
Crimes Act 1914.
South Australian Evidence Act (SACEA) 1929.
Canada
Competition Act R.S.C., 1985, c. C-34.
xviii
Evidence Act R.S.C., 1985, c. C-5.
France
Code of Civil Procedure Inserted by Law No. 230-2000.
Code of Criminal Procedure Inserted by Law No. 516-2000.
Germany
Code of Criminal Procedure 1987.
Ireland
Criminal Evidence Act 1992.
Italy
Code of Computer Crime 1993.
Code of Criminal Procedure 1988.
Code of Electronic Government 2005.
Portugal
Code of Criminal Procedure amended by Law No. 48-2007.
Singapore
Criminal Procedure Act No. 15-2010.
Evidence (Amendment) Act No. 8-1996.
South Africa
Computer Evidence Act No. 57-1983 (SACEA).
The People’s Republic of China
Civil Procedure Law 1991.
Criminal Procedure Law 1979 and amended on 2012.
Electronic Signature Law promulgated by Order No.18 of the President of the People's
Republic of China on 2004.
xix
The United Kingdom
Civil Evidence Act 1995.
Computer Misuse Act 1990.
Criminal Justice Act 2003.
Criminal Procedure and Investigations Act 1996.
Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984.
The United States
Computer Fraud and Abuse Act (CFAA) 1986.
Federal Criminal Procedure Act 1930.
Patriot Act 2001.
Official Documents
Best Practices for Seizing Electronic Evidence submitted by: US Department of
Homeland Security.
Code of Practice on Legal Admissibility and Evidential Weight of Information Stored
Electronically submitted by: The People’s Republic of China.
Good Practice Guide for Commuter-Based Electronic Evidence submitted by:
Association of Chief Police Officers’ (ACPO) UK.
Guideline for the management of IT evidence submitted by: Australia.
xx
List of Figures
Figure 1: Average practical experience........................................................................181
Figure 2: The difference between electronic evidence and other kinds of evidence.. 182
Figure 3: Methods of gathering electronic evidence.................................................. 183
Figure 4: Placement of electronic evidence in the cybercrime scene………………..184
Figure 5: Methods of preservation of electronic evidence…………………………..186
Figure 6: Procedures for electronic evidence examination…………………………..187
Figure 7: Techniques and tools for electronic evidence examination………….…….188
Figure 8: Forensic expert’s reports of electronic evidence……….………………….189
Figure 9: Challenges and problems of cybercrimes in relation to electronic
evidence……………………..…….………………………………………………….189
Figure 10: Ranking of twelve principle issues of electronic evidence in the UAE….192
Figure 11: There should be legal terms for electronic evidence……………………..197
Figure 12: We need to promulgate clear guidelines on how to deal with electronic
evidence in the UAE………………………………………………………………….198
Figure 13: Gathering electronic evidence should be by qualified persons…….…….199
Figure 14: Examining electronic evidence should be documented………………….200
Figure 15: Should we update laboratories of electronic evidence continuously……..201
Figure 16: Police officers, lawyers, prosecutors, and judges need more professional
training on electronic evidence……………………………………………………….202
Figure 17: There must be strong international cooperation and coordination between
regulators to succeed in the effective prosecution of cyber-crimes and make full use of
electronic evidence……………………………………………………………………203
xxi
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
The use of technology to support and enrich various aspects of life has spread globally.
There are many positive aspects to this change; the paperless working environment in
the office is increasing communication, accessibility and accuracy. In contrast, the
negative aspect of this advancement in technology is that new ways of committing
crimes have been introduced. However, numerous measures have been suggested to
help overcome this outbreak of cybercrime and the losses resulting from unlawful
activities resulting from technology.
Aside from the fact that technology has introduced a novel range of crimes, electronic
evidence can also play a significant role in the successful prosecution of crimes. 1
Electronic evidence used in crime detection may lead to more successful prosecutions
and more effective capture of criminals involved in any sort of crime. For instance,
electronic evidence was instrumental in capturing a serial killer, who had killed ten
people.2 He called himself ‘BTK’ and was sentenced to ten consecutive life terms in
prison for the killings. In his case, deleted data was recovered on a floppy disk held on a
church’s computer.3 Moreover, electronic evidence is becoming increasingly prominent
when prosecuting diverse criminal cases.
This advancement in technology has also helped criminal entities to grow rapidly and
with considerable efficiency, creativity and pace. One example of the use of electronic
evidence in a criminal cases in the UAE was a case concerning the issuance of a secret
regulation to overthrow the government. In this case the judgment was a conviction,
based on electronic evidence, which was obtained from the defendant’s computers,
discs and audio recordings.4 There are many other trials and criminal cases that have
been, or could be, resolved completely and easily using electronic evidence. This was
confirmed by the United States of America’s (USA) Department of Justice (DOJ) that
reported many cases where electronic media is involved, and electronic evidence is
1
Linda Volonino and Stephen Robinson, Principles and Practice of Information Security (Prentice Hall
2004) 137.
2
See: Sam Coates, ‘Rader Gets 175 Years for BTK Slayings’ (The Washington Post 19th August 2005)
<http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/08/18/AR2005081800201.html> accessed
24th April 2013.
3
Ibid.
4
Criminal Case of UAE Federal Supreme Court No.17/2013 date of decision 2nd July 2013 unpublished.
22
particularly important in prosecuting criminal cases.5
With the passage of time, the structure of computers and the features of internet service
are being improved; this has facilitated society’s growth and reliance on these media in
a number of ways. 6 For example, technology has been instrumental in securing
economic, political, social and confidential data. However, as touched on above, this
advancement has also enhanced the complexity of the crimes committed. Criminals too,
are becoming more and more dependent upon such technologies, and lack of virtual
boundaries assists their actions in every possible manner. This feature of electronic
technology is making it increasingly complicated for law enforcement bodies to address
and regulate such crimes; the advanced technology used is tricky to evaluate for law
enforcement agents, forensic experts, judges, attorneys and corporate security experts.7
As a consequence criminals are becoming technologically more literate and organised;
they can harm people more easily and retain efficient communication channels to help
them when planning and committing crimes. Criminal activities are also being
increasingly facilitated by the fact that almost every office, hospital and home has
electronic devices that are network based, making incursions by cybercriminals easier.
This increased use of technology by criminals when committing crimes has a positive
side to it; in particular, the use of computers in the planning stages of crime offers a
new body of evidence for law enforcement bodies engaged in the investigation of
criminal cases. For example, after the incident at the World Trade Centre in 2001, the
criminals’ laptops were examined, and electronic evidence assisted authorities in
locating plans for the first bombing, and when they were being examined also the
second bombing. In that case, about one hundred hard drives were examined.8 UAE
Federal case No.17/2013 involved the use of electronic devices for prosecuting
criminals, electronic evidence played an important role in finding the offenders’ plans
5
See: ‘Digital Evidence in the Courtroom: A Guide for Law Enforcement and Prosecutors’ (2007) US
National Institute of Justice
<http://www.law.du.edu/images/uploads/library/evert/DigitalEvidenceinTheCourtroom.pdf > accessed
13th April 2013.
6
According to Internet World Statistics there were 2,405,518,376 internet users in the world on 30th June
2012 <http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm> accessed 24th October 2013.
7
Hisham Rustom, The Procedural Aspects of Cybercrimes (Modern machinery 1994) 8. (Author’s
translation from the Arabic).
.8 ‫( ص‬1994 ‫ ﻣﺼﺮ‬،‫ اﻟﺠﻮاﻧﺐ اﻻﺟﺮاﺋﯿﺔ ﻟﻠﺠﺮاﺋﻢ اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺗﯿﺔ )ﻣﻜﺘﺒﺔ اﻻﻻت اﻟﺤﺪﯾﺜﺔ‬،‫ھﺸﺎم رﺳﺘﻢ‬
8
Eoghan Casey, Digital Evidence and Computer Crime: Forensic Science, Computers, and the Internet
(3rd edn, Waltham Mass.: Academic Press/Elsevier 2011) 3.
23
to overthrow the government.9
Location of electronic evidence in murder investigations increases the chances of a
verdict of first-degree murder, and in such cases emails and other digital data are the
only clues found in an investigation. For instance, in 1996, in a case in Maryland, USA,
emails were the only clue found. In this case, a woman named Sharon Lopatka
informed her husband that she was visiting friends but the husband found a note, which
caused him to contact police about her unusual absence. The investigations into the case
found a number of emails exchanged between Lopatka and a man named Robert Glass
regarding torture and death fantasies.10
In the US, law-enforcement bodies have agreed that the use of advanced technology,
which has become common in most criminal cases, is ruining law and order
conditions. 11 They have therefore started considering cases in which evidence from
advanced technology is put forward.12 This is also happening in other countries, such as
the UK, Australia, Canada, France and Germany, and case law and legislation from
these jurisdictions will be referred to throughout this thesis.
However, in the UAE, crimes involving electronic evidence are still treated as simple
cases in spite of the huge losses that have been incurred by the entities there. In 2007
about Dh 735 million was lost due to cybercrime.13 The figure doubled in 2012, when
losses amounted to Dh 1.5 billion.14 Moreover, according to the Kaspersky Company,
about 56 per cent of cyber-attacks in the region were from the UAE. Among Europe,
Africa and the Middle East, the UAE is ranked 18th for having a high rate of criminal
activities.15 In spite of these losses, law-enforcement bodies are alleged to not be taking
cybercrime seriously and are considering only those cases of interest that have some
9
(n 4).
Rachael Bell, ‘Internet Assisted Suicide-The Story of Sharon Lopatka’ Crime Library
<http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/notorious_murders/classics/sharon_lopatka/5.html> accessed 16th
April 2013.
11
Linda Volonino and Stephen Robinson (n1)117.
12
Ibid.
13
At the time of writing, 1 US$ was 3.67 AED.
14
Norton Cybercrimes Report (2012) <http://www.norton.com/2012cybercrimereport> accessed 26th
April 2013.
15
Kaspersky LabReport (2012) <http://www.kaspersky.com/downloads/pdf/kaspersky_global_it-securityrisks-survey_report_eng_final.pdf> accessed 26th April 2013.
10
24
physical manifestation.16
Legislators in the UAE have not yet shown that they are prepared to a comprehensively
address the regulation of electronic evidence. At present, the most important issues
concerning electronic evidence that UAE law enforcement and prosecutors are likely to
encounter are the search and seizure, and thereafter, the preservation of evidence
extracted from electronic devices. Existing rules of criminal procedure for evidence
have been drafted to regulate physical evidence.17 This thesis aims to show that these
rules may not meet the requirements for handling electronic evidence, if it is to be
utilised effectively to combat crimes. In 2009, a pertinent criminal case failed in the
UAE, after three years under discussion.18 The facts of the case can be summarised as
follows. In 2009, the prosecution complained against the defendant that he had written
online statements of complaint to the board of the company: ‘The Company was run
unprofessionally and immorally, …managers were asking for (sex) in exchange for
employment, and if she refuses she then is unsuccessful in interview’. The court of First
Instance ruled that the defendant be found not guilty because there was insufficient
evidence, and because the forensic report did not refer to the perpetrator of the
statements. In addition, the UAE Telecommunications Regulatory Authority failed to
find the IP address, and thus identify the person who wrote the online statements. The
reason that identification of the person failed was due to the passage of time; over a
year had taken place since the incident.19
The previous case is just one example of a supporting authority for the argument that
electronic evidence in the UAE requires greater regulation. In this case the investigating
authorities failed to prove a crime had been committed, largely because the forensic
report failed to identify the accused, and the Telecommunications Company failed to
find the IP address. In addition, the prosecutors failed to investigate the crime and
provide sufficient evidence, and the police officers failed to seize devices containing
electronic evidence. In fact, they were unprofessional when dealing with the incident,
16
Jay Hilotin and Lubna Bagsair, ‘Cyber gangs on the prowl in UAE’ Gulf news (Dubai 3rd February
2011) <http://gulfnews.com/news/gulf/uae/crime/cyber-gangs-on-the-prowl-in-uae-1.756268> accessed
26th April 2013.
17
See: the UAE Criminal Procedure Law, Chapter Three.
18
Criminal Case of First Instance Court Dubai: UAE No. 37784/2009 date of decision 30th May 2011
unpublished.
19
For more information about this case, see: Case Translation: Dubai (2012) 9 Digital Evidence and
Electronic Signature Law Review 106-107.
25
and loss of such a simple case raises concerns that more will be lost due to professional
issues. Law-enforcement bodies in the UAE need to give as much importance to
electronic evidence as they do to physical. This is a reflection of the fact that the use of
technology in every aspect of life has increased and the acceptance of such evidence
will help the UAE law-enforcement bodies to carry out their investigations more easily
when electronic evidence is the only evidence presented to investigate a crime.
1.1 Research questions and objectives
This thesis attempts to investigate whether electronic evidence is sufficiently regulated
in the UAE and if not, what reforms can be made to effectively regulate it. The thesis
will also aim to highlight the issues posed when introducing electronic evidence in the
UAE and what measures can be taken to enhance the utility and effectiveness of
electronic evidence. In addition, the thesis seeks to examine the level of knowledge,
understanding and awareness of electronic evidence in practical life in the UAE and
find the relationship between the lack of rules and the level of understanding and
awareness. In addition, the researcher proposes learning lessons from the experiences of
other countries and an examination of the way in which the law can be improved.
The research conducted in the field will acquire essential information with reference to
the nature of the issue of electronic evidence in the UAE. The collected information
will contribute to our academic understanding and make it possible to answer the
questions raised in the thesis. The achievement of the objectives of the thesis will lead
to the description of the main research question of this thesis.
1.2 Statement of problem
The manner in which rapid advancements in technology are changing the lifestyles of
people worldwide demands alterations in the functioning of judicial systems. As more
and more criminal cases are reported, the success of lawsuits is affected. In the era of
electronic evidence, courts now have to consider the electronic evidence from a variety
of crimes, because almost all crimes can at times involve electronic evidence. Based on
such circumstances, it is not difficult to predict whether in the near future there will be
an introduction of an entirely new era of judicial proof. This is because in cases where
crimes are being dealt with, it is becoming essential to provide courts with electronic
evidence to prove the wrongdoing of the accused.
26
Factors like the absence of comprehensive regulation of electronic evidence, and lack of
guidelines and instructions pertaining specifically to how to handle electronic evidence,
make it more challenging for law-enforcement bodies to tackle the challenges raised by
electronic evidence. Undoubtedly, the lack of legal regulation makes judicial activity
more complex and can also lead to weaknesses in understanding and level of awareness.
This inattention towards crimes and the features involved in judicial structures results in
poor decision-making by judges in cases including electronic evidence.20 Therefore, it
is essential for such judicial structures to integrate knowledge of the electronic evidence
involved in crimes to ensure appropriate decisions.21 This idea was supported by the
European Union (EU) when it was presented with the essentials of the project with an
elaboration of those positives that would result if there were a European-wide law on
electronic evidence for criminal lawsuits.22
While dealing with electronic evidence it is necessary for laws and procedures to be
instituted to understand the nature of electronic evidence, which differs from other
evidence. Therefore, there are many cases failing to reach some beneficial conclusions
for the reason that the UAE’s Criminal Procedure Law No. 35 of 1992 (CPL)
(hereinafter referred to as the UAE’s CPL) rules are inadequate to cope with the
challenges of electronic evidence. This thesis illustrates that the general rules of UAE’s
CPL are unsuitable for dealing with electronic evidence, and that there is a need for a
structure of laws and procedures to be changed. Moreover, it explains how electronic
evidence can facilitate better utilisation of electronic evidence when prosecuting crimes.
Furthermore, the study explains how to handle electronic evidence, and how the lack of
knowledge of law-enforcement bodies in this area affects the conclusions reached in
many of the cases.
1.3 Hypotheses
The thesis will test primary and secondary hypotheses. The primary hypotheses put
20
Eric Buskirk and Vincent Liu, ‘Digital evidence: Challenging the presumption of reliability’ (2006) 1, 1
Journal of Digital Forensic Practice 19-26. See also: Stephen Mason, gen ed, Electronic Evidence (3rd
edn, LexisNexis Butterworths 2012) chapter 5.
21
Ibid.
22
The project was undertaken by Cybex 2005-2007. For further details about this project, see:
Fredesvinda Insa and Carmen Lazaro, ‘Admissibility of Electronic Evidence in Court: A European
Project’ in Stephen Mason (eds) International Electronic Evidence (British Institute of International and
Comparative Law 2008) 1-17.
27
forward in the work is that the current UAE’s CPL rules are insufficient to govern the
process of gathering, preservation, presentation and examination of electronic evidence.
Moreover, the primary hypotheses investigates the procedures in place to effectively
combat crime, particularly cybercrime and to make full and effective use of electronic
evidence. The secondary hypotheses examines the grounds for regulating electronic
evidence in the UAE, on the presumption that electronic evidence should be regulated
because crime grows rapidly and has negative effects on economic efficiency.
Furthermore, criminal prosecutions in the UAE are inefficient. In addition, this fact
contributes to increased awareness and knowledge.
1.4 Scope of study
Chapter One introduces the significance of the thesis and draws a roadmap for it. The
literature review covers the regulation of electronic evidence, and illustrates the
mechanisms which help when designing the study. The physical and electronic
evidence, and the different kinds of investigations, are then identified in Chapter Two.
The aim of this stage of the study is to build a theoretical background with a view of
criminal investigation procedures as applied to crimes investigation. The chapter also
describes the differences between physical and electronic evidence and the importance
of the latter.
The third chapter will take a ‘macro-comparison’ approach to the regulation of
electronic evidence. The discussion in this chapter explores the nature and background
to the regulation of electronic evidence in civil and common law systems. The chapter
seeks to deduce an organised discussion that addresses how electronic evidence is
regulated in common law countries, as represented by the England and Wales and civil
law jurisdictions as represented by China. Attention will also be given to issues
involved in each system as far as adducing, admissibility, authentication and
certification of evidence is concerned in each system. Overall, the aim of the chapter is
to examine the background against which regulation of electronic evidence across the
two systems functions, and to identify the merits and demerits of each system.
In examining the UAE rules, Chapter Four will address the procedures governing
search and seizure, preservation, examination, presentation and authentication of
electronic evidence. This chapter will offer a ‘micro comparison’ approach to criminal
28
procedure rules and related issues of electronic evidence in the UAE. Chapter Four
analyses law-enforcement bodies collection of electronic evidence and related
procedures. As the concept of electronic evidence is new and different from typical
evidence procedures, law enforcement officers find it somewhat more difficult to deal
with than the traditional system. In this procedure of collection of evidence,
specifically, the strategies followed are arduous in nature but assist in developing just
conclusions about crimes.
In Chapter Five, an applied study will be used to get to the root of the actual problems
within the legal system of UAE. In this chapter, a detailed study of UAE legal
structures is discussed and evaluated by legal experts and other specialists to ascertain
flaws. Subsequently, the findings will be dealt with by the comparison method to
understand the state of regulation of electronic evidence in the UAE and how it could
be improved.
Chapter six, through reference to other state’s laws, provides solutions to the issues
raised by the applied study; this methodology is separated into two parts. The first part
gives a complete overview of the regulation of electronic evidence, illustrating
challenges and problems facing law enforcers with regard to electronic evidence and
gaps in the existing criminal procedures of the UAE. The second part describes the
manner in which an applicable law may be altered in order to better address the
challenges of electronic evidence in the UAE. The scope of the thesis is evident by
Chapter Seven, which consists of a conclusion to the research study and findings.
1.5 Significance of study
The thesis puts forth the argument that electronic evidence is one of the most
underdeveloped areas in the legal system of the UAE and this is found to be a critical
problem. According to Al Mazeina, the UAE faces many difficulties with regard to
electronic evidence. 23 To give a practical example, recently a number of money
exchange shops in the UAE were subjected to breakout electronic systems, which
caused the loss of three million dollar, as a result of fake transfers of balances to
persons outside the State. The fact was discovered after Western Union asked for
reimbursement. This case was not prosecuted due to the impossibility of acquiring
23
Khamis Al Mazeina, General Commander of the Dubai Police-UAE, ‘New Criminal Phenomena’
(conference, Dubai-UAE 22nd February 2012).
29
electronic evidence from outside the State.24
While there is a great deal of attention directed towards improving regulations and laws
in different areas with the UAE, it also seems wise to guide the efforts of the academy
in the same way. To this end, the thesis will deal with the regulation of electronic
evidence in the UAE, problems and challenges resulting therefrom, and how they can
be overcome. The literature on the subject and the UAE’s legal system’s structure will
both be evaluated in this project. As the thesis contains original ideas regarding the
regulation of electronic evidence, the subject under consideration will attract the
attention of many of jurists in other jurisdictions who have suggested many ideas to
resolve the issue of regulation of electronic evidence. 25 As far as the researcher is
aware, this thesis will present research of this sort for the first time in the UAE, and will
propose ideas openly for alterations in legal systems of the UAE. Therefore, it is using a
combination of an applied study approach and a doctrinal study to devise ideas that
could easily be applied to adjust how electronic evidence is treated within the UAE.
The conclusions may serve as the basis for the introduction of such practices in other
countries of Middle East as well. Regarding the significance of the study, Dr. Hadef Al
Dhahiri, Minister of the UAE Ministry of Justice who was interviewed by the
researcher said:
Academic research in the UAE is currently limited to studying the penal
code or crimes, and there is no academic research on procedure law. I think
that your research will be of importance for the UAE, especially as there are
no academic writings on procedural problems in the UAE. Your research on
electronic evidence and result findings will be of interest and will be
discussed by the Ministry.26
1.6 Methodology
The methodology chosen to realise the objectives of this thesis combined applied social
study and a doctrinal study (black letter law), incorporating a quantitative study using
comparative elements. The objectives outline the need to acquire an understanding of
24
Amal Al Minshawi, ‘Local exchange companies exposed to foreign penetration operations via the
"Western
Union"’
Emaratalyoum
Newspaper
(Dubai
22nd
July
2013)
<http://www.emaratalyoum.com/business/local/2013-07-22-1.593094> accessed 22nd July 2013.
(Author’s translation from the Arabic).
25
Such as: other Arab countries.
26
See: translated transcript of the interview with the Hadef Al Dhahiri Minister of the UAE Ministry of
Justice in Appendix 5.
30
the shortcomings of the UAE legal system in reference to electronic evidence. In
reference to these objectives, the applied study method is well suited because it
provides information regarding the practical issues associated with in depth electronic
evidence in the UAE from the viewpoints of legal experts and academics. However, in a
thesis on the subject of laws, specific criteria should be followed when selecting the
research methodology.
The comparative law approach will be one of the research methods used in this thesis.
Comparative law is a method of analysing the problems and institutions originating
from two or more national laws of legal systems, or of comparing entire legal systems
in order to acquire a better understanding thereof, or provide information, and insight
into, the operation of the system’s institutions or the systems themselves.27
The methodological problems associated with undertaking comparative research have
been discussed by Zweigert and Kötz, the initial aim of the comparative legal methods
was indisputably bold:
‘Comparative law must resolve the accidental and divisive differences in the
laws of peoples at similar stages of cultural and economic development and
reduce the number of divergence into the law, attributable not to the
political, moral, or social qualities of the different nations but to historical
accident or to temporary or contingent circumstances’.28
Despite this initial aim of the comparative legal study can now be perceived to be
untenable,
29
the comparative legal approach can be use to provide valuable
understanding and guidance. That is, not only understanding in the sense of knowledge
and comprehension, but also in the sense of appreciating and respecting the operation of
the law in other countries. Both drawbacks and pitfalls of the comparative approach
need to be addressed and identified. 30 Platsas critically analyses the apple-oranges
idiom in relation to comparative legal study:
27
Peter DE Cruz, Comparative law in a changing world (3rd edn, Routledge-Cavendish, 2007) 9.
Konrad Zweigert and Hein Kötz, An Introduction to Comparative Law (3rd edn, Oxford University
Press, 1998) 3.
29
Ibid.
30
Mathias Reimann and Reinhard Zimmerman (eds.) The Oxford Handbook of Comparative Law
(Oxford University Press, 2008) 875.
28
31
An idiom which has captivated the English-speaking world as well as
significant parts of the French-speaking is the one which asks people not to
compare apples and oranges, they being different in essence…Where does
all this leave us in law? In law things are broadly similar…That is not to say
that broadly similar artefacts cannot and should not be
compared…Theoretically, any law could be compared with any other law, if
some common denominator of a valid comparison is found; yet the
tendency – it would seem – in the comparative method of law is that we
compare ‘corresponding’ areas of law or what is called ‘comparison of
equivalents’. 31
The analysis of comparative approach in this thesis has been included in order to
provide examples of reform which can be placed at either end of the electronic evidence
regulation. Comparative research has primarily been included when answering the
research question, when examining how electronic evidence is regulated in two legal
systems, namely the common law and civil law systems. It will examine the general
characteristics of the jurisdictions, the main characteristics of the regulatory systems
and the characteristics of the rules related to electronic evidence. The ‘macrocomparison’ draws conclusions from comparing the broader systems of regulation in
the two legal systems, it will scrutinise the background of the regulation of electronic
evidence in each legal systems, aiming to identify the advantages and disadvantages of
each system. 32
Llewellyn’s demonstration of his methodology can be used to identify the purpose of
the comparative content of this thesis, ‘Any reference to other times and places have a
single purpose: to sharpen sight of what is with us here and now, by contrasting it with
something different’.33
Moreover Gordley argues, ‘I do not think the law of a single country can be an
independent object of study. To understand law, even as it is within that country, one
31
Antonios Platsas, ‘The Functional and the Dysfunctional in the Comparative Method of Law: Some
Critical Remarks’ (2008) 12.3 Electronic Journal of Comparative Law.
32
Comparing different system is commonly regarded as a problem, which requires the comparators to
understand and describe the common and different features of the particular systems compared. This
thesis focuses on comparisons between civil and common systems in relation to a specialized area of law
namely the evidential protocols that are applied to the investigation and prosecution of crimes facilitated
by the use of modern technology. See: p 33.
33
Karl Llewellyn, ‘Behind the Law of Divorce’ 32 Columbia Law Review 1284.
32
must look beyond its boundaries…’ 34
Von Mahren was put forward the purpose and value of comparative approach, Mahren
comments:
‘…This kind of study is useful in that it gives a better understanding of the
inherent strengths and weaknesses of given institutional forms. Such
understanding has considerable theoretical interest and may also prove of
directly practical value by providing perspective and direction for law
reform efforts’. 35
Studying different legal systems requires comparing the ways in which each system
provides a solution to the legal problem at hand. The results of this comparison will be
used as recommendations for UAE law. An example of how comparative research has
been used in this manner in order to assess the regulation of electronic evidence in the
UAE and in order to provide proposal to reform. Chapter Three will seeks to explore
how electronic evidence is regulated in two legal systems. It is important to
acknowledge that while there are some salient features distinguishing the two legal
systems, there may not be striking similarities on specific rules on an area of law across
jurisdictions belonging to the same legal systems. Due to such irregular variations and
for ease in discussions, the researcher prefers to take a case study approach taking one
case study country for each jurisdiction to discuss regulation of electronic evidence in
common law counties as compared to civil law countries: the England and Wales will
represent the common law jurisdictions whereas a case study of People’s Republic of
China will be undertaken to represent civil law. The choice of each country is premised
on the basis that England and Wales and People’s Republic of China have salient
features of a typical common law and civil law systems respectively. Attention will also
be given to issues involved in each system as far as adducing, admissibility,
authentication and certification of evidence is concerned in each system. This method
allows the discussion of the comparative systems in outline in order to understand
holistically the background and the nature of the systems.
34
James Gordley, ‘Comparative Legal Research: It’s Function in the Development of Harmonized Law’
(1995) 43, 4 The American Journal of Comparative Law 555.
35
Arthur Mehren, ‘An Academic Tradition for Comparative Law?’ (1971) 19 American Journal of
Criminal Law 624-628.
33
To manage the legal problems, a distinguished legal methodology was recommended,
requiring an analysis of statutes and case law. Although social applied study is now
united with legal thought, it remains a difficult task to combine the two different
methodologies to achieve a single objective in a single thesis. The differences between
an applied study and a doctrinal study include the use of unique research methodology
for discussion.36 In this thesis, the applied study approach is presented in Chapter Five,
and the doctrinal elements of the study methodology is discussed in the Chapters Two,
Three and Four.
1.7 Literature review
Over recent years, electronic evidence has had a profound effect on both the judicial
and the technological worlds. Electronic evidence, with all its challenges and different
viewpoints, has become a hotly debated topic among many researchers in different
countries worldwide.37 All these writers have described and shared their thoughts in
different books and articles pertaining to the relationship between electronic evidence
and a variety of disciplines. Several articles and books focus on electronic evidence and
common law 38 and others have focused on electronic evidence in the field of
forensics.39 In 2010, during the Twelfth United Nations Congress on Crime Prevention
and Criminal Justice, electronic evidence was one of thirteen topics proposed for further
study and research. The following aspects were recommended for study with regard to
electronic evidence:
I.
Regulation of procedures for the gathering, preservation and analysis of
electronic evidence and the admissibility issue.
II.
Analysis of different approaches within different legal systems in relation to
electronic evidence.
36
See: section 5.1.
Such as: George Paul, Foundations of Digital Evidence (American Bar Association 2008). Michele
Lange and Kristin Nimsger, Electronic Evidence and Discovery: What Every Lawyer Should Know Now
(2nd edn, American Bar Association 2009).
38
Such as: Stephen Mason (n 20).
39
Such as: Eoghan Casey (n 8).
37
34
III.
Regional issues for electronic evidence.40
At the European level, electronic evidence has become a topic for many researches.
One of the most significant projects, the ‘Admissibility of Electronic Evidence in Court:
A European Project’ (AEEC), dealt with electronic evidence. This project was carried
out between 2005 and 2007 in 16 European countries.41 The main aims of the project
were to analyse the regulation of electronic evidence and to identify the legal gaps in
the current regulatory situation in European countries in order to improve them. The
method used to collect the project data was to pursue a comparative legal study and
social science research methodology including both questionnaire and interview. The
project revealed a lack of specific regulations pertaining to electronic evidence in
European countries. 42 The report concluded with the recommendation that European
countries need to prepare specific regulations for handling electronic evidence at both
the European and the national levels, as well as to work on developing skills in the field
of gathering and storing electronic evidence and improving international cooperation
with regard to the electronic evidence.43
However, in the UAE, there is no specific written text that highlights the treatment of
electronic evidence, whether as a component of the UAE’s Procedural Law or in
general legislation. Thus, related knowledge reaches the UAE only through the media
of seminars and conferences.44 On the processes of managing electronic evidence, there
are no special texts, although the gathering of electronic evidence and other processes
associated with this type of evidence plays a vital role in the successful prosecution of
criminal cases. Illegally obtained evidence is not only commonly rejected by the court
but can also damage the case that is dependent on them, were it to be ultimately
declared invalid.
Electronic evidence creates presents an uneasy link between technical and legal
developments. However, legal and technical sides often move at separate speeds,
40
See: The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC)
<http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/expert-group-to-conduct-study-cybercrime-jan-2011.html> accessed
25th April 2013.
41
Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Holland, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg,
Portugal, Romania, Spain, Sweden and the United Kingdom.
42
For further information, see: Fredesvinda Insa (n 22).
43
Ibid.
44
Such as: the International Conference on Cyber Crimes.
35
having their own areas of individuality. A common example from our day to day lives
would be to consider two individual bodies moving at different speeds, each having
their own momentum, however at the point where they both intersect there is some sort
of friction, preventing each reaching its maximum potential. This same relationship
arises between technical and legal developments.
At the legal/ technical intersection this means that an individual’s personal rights are
jeopardised, because criminals are not being convicted or prosecuted for crimes, and
exculpatory evidence in electronic form is being overlooked. The reason is that the
conviction of a crime is difficult, and in some cases almost impossible, because
electronic evidence generates complex issues of handling.45
Electronic evidence is not as simple and easy to manage as traditional evidence; in
particular, according to Marcella, traditional evidence is typically tangible, with
substance, value and form and at times even readily available to touch.46 For example,
evidence such as finger prints, finger nails and hair fibres are visible and even in cases
where they are only very slightly visible it is easy to retrieve using certain forensic
methods; moreover, if kept in the correct conditions this kind of evidence can survive
for years, maybe even decades. This does not apply to electronic evidence, which is
held in the form of zeros and numerical data; thus, protecting and preserving it is not an
easy job, in some cases encrypted data is only available for a limited amount of time.47
According to Kerr, electronic evidence can be described as having no physical
manifestation. 48 As a result, the rules that apply to other normal physical evidence
cannot be made to apply to electronic evidence; a fact that requires judges with a
different and broader mind-set.49 On the other hand, Wilson argues that while the rapid
advancement in technology has brought law-enforcement bodies challenges, it has also
45
David Harvey, Internet.law.nz: selected issues (3rdedn, LexisNexis Wellington 2011) 241.
Albert Marcella and Doug Menendez, Cyber Forensics: a field manual for collecting, examining, and
preserving evidence of computer crimes (2nd edn, Auerbach Publications 2008) 295.
47
Ibid; this point can be an interesting, and the reader might begin considering the relevant practitioner
text written by Stefanie Fischer-Dieskau and Daniel Wilke, ‘Electronically signed documents: legal
requirements and measures for their long-term conservation’ (2006) 3 Digital Evidence and Electronic
Signature Law Review 40–44.
48
Orin Kerr, ‘Digital evidence and the new criminal procedure’ (2005) 105, 1 Columbia Law Review 279318.
49
Ibid.
46
36
brought genuine opportunities.50 The type and nature of electronic evidence is discussed
further in Chapter Two.
The profound differences in physical and electronic evidence also extend to the ways
such evidence is gathered. For example, criminal procedural rules of gathering evidence
under search warrants state that exact time, location and permission should be acquired
before beginning a search, to narrow it down. These requirements are very easily met in
the case of physical evidence collection, however in the case of electronic evidence, an
entire digital data set must be investigated in specialised labs so that the information or
data of importance can then be narrowed down; this takes place after a warrant has been
issued. 51 As technology advances it is becoming an extremely tedious and difficult
procedure to go over all the information and data on seized drives, because of their
increasing memory capacity.52
The location of evidence could be another issue associated with handling electronic
evidence. In any country where a crime is committed it is tried according to that
country’s jurisdiction. However in the case of electronic evidence, it is possible that the
evidence needs to be collected from another country or is found to be part of a network;
consequently issuing search and seizure warrants for electronic evidence is an issue
arising from this. Grabosky, Smith, and Dempsey discuss this in their book, identifying
the two main challenges facing investigators regarding obtaining evidence from abroad.
According to them, collecting evidence by attaining cross-border access is a
complicated and bewildering process.53 The case of two Russians, Vasilii Gorshakov
and Aleksei Ivanov, was the first to raise issue of evidence obtained on international
hacking. In 2001, the US FBI investigated the Russian suspects’ methods of hacking
computers, for which they needed to obtain evidence from computer servers in Russia,
without agreement or authority from the Russian Federation Government. 54 Various
50
John Wilson, ‘My Space, Your Space, or Our Space? New Frontiers in Electronic Evidence’ (2008) 86
Oregon Law Review1205.
51
Ibid.
52
Erin Kenneally and Christopher Brown, ‘Risk sensitive digital evidence collection’ (2005) 2, 2 The
International Journal of Digital Forensics and Incident 101-119.
53
Peter Grabosky, Russell Smith and Gillian Dempsey, Electronic theft: unlawful acquisition in
cyberspace (Cambridge University Press 2001) 128.
54
See: Robert Lemos, ‘Russia accuses FBI agent of hacking’ The news web site CNET (16thAugust 2002)
<http://news.cnet.com/Russia-accuses-FBI-agent-of-hacking/2100-1002_3-950719.html> accessed 24th
April 2013.
37
authors have put great emphasis on this matter, such as Richard Gissel, 55 Jahnke,56
Brenner and Schwerha.57 The case showed the difficulty in obtaining evidence from
abroad and the importance of international coordination and co-operation. The
difficulties arising as a result of search and seizure methods of obtaining electronic
evidence in the UAE are discussed further in Chapter Four.
There has been much discussion about whether electronic evidence has the same
accuracy and reliability as other evidence; some believe it does, whereas many believe
it does not. 58 However, electronic evidence can be reliable, although it is often
necessary to take steps to insure the authenticity of complex evidence; as has been
demonstrated in test cases. 59 The variance in forensic software and imaging for
electronic evidence mean there is a great margin for reduced reliability and accuracy.60
The authentication of electronic evidence will be further discussed in Chapter Four.
With regard to evidence, theories are accounts or conceptions of what the evidentiary
proof process ought to be in terms of its nature and structure.61 Theoreticians seek to
describe, explain, evaluate, regulate or guide the actual parameters that decisions ought
to take into account when addressing evidential issues. A number of evidential theories
have been proposed. These include: (a) relevance theory; (b) probabilistic theory; (c)
foundational theory.62 This list is not exhaustive, but these are some of the theories that
have received considerable scholarly attention. These are discussed briefly below:
A. Relevance Theory
According to this theory, any evidence that has a probative value ought to be admitted,
55
Richard Gissel, Digital Underworld: Computer Crime and Resulting Issues (Lulu.Com 2005)128.
Art Jahnke, ‘Alexey Ivanov and Vasiliy Gorshkov: Russian Hacker Roulette’ (1st January 2005) CSO
Security and Risk <http://www.csoonline.com/article/219964/alexey-ivanov-and-vasiliy-gorshkovrussian-hacker-roulette?%3E=> accessed 24th April 2013.
57
Susan Brenner and Joseph Schwerha, ‘Cybercrime Havens: Challenges and Solutions’ (2007) 17, 2 The
American Bar Association-Business Law Today.
58
Eric Buskirk and Vincent Liu (n 20).
59
For further information about tests for the authentication of electronic evidence see: Stephen Mason
(n 20).
60
See: Fred Cohen, Digital forensic evidence examination (4th edn, Fred Cohen and Associates 2012).
61
Edward Cheng and Albert Yoon, ‘Does Frye or Daubert Matter? A Study of Scientific Admissibility
Standards’ (2005) 91 Virginia Law Review 471.
62
See: Michael Pardo, ‘The Field of Evidence and the Field of Knowledge’ (2005) 24 Law and
Philosophy 321-324; Ronald Allen and Michael Pardo, ‘The Problematic Value of Mathematical Models
of Evidence’ (2007) 36 Journal of Legal Studies107-109; Michael Pardo and Ronald Allen, ‘Juridical
Proof and the Best Explanation’ (2008) 27 Law and Philosophy 223-225.
56
38
however slight that probative value may be, unless otherwise specifically excluded by
exclusionary rules of evidence.63 Evidence with probative value in relation to a disputed
proposition will be said to be relevant.64 Thus, relevance is the fundamental foundation
of evidence. 65 Any rule that seeks to exclude relevant items of electronic evidence
ought to be regarded as a technicality, and an exception to the general rule.66 Thus, the
theory serves a normative role, but fails in its descriptive function of explaining what
should be regarded as an item of evidence in the first place. By applying this theory to
electronic evidence, relevance theory would hold that relevance is the basis of
determining which electronic items of evidence should be proffered. Critics of this
theory however, assert that it rests on the presumption that the evidence already exists,
and that the only issue is to assess whether or not it has probative weight.67
B. Probabilistic Theory
According to this theoretical framework, the basis of admitting evidence lies in its
probative value, rather than its relevance.68 The probative value in this context refers to
the strength of such evidence in tendering the proof of relevant facts or factual
propositions relative to an issue.69 In the context of electronic evidence, the admission
of that electronic evidence will be determined according to the importance of such
evidence in relation to the proof of the disputed proposition. This theory is plausible in
the sense that it emphasises the value of evidence in tendering proof; thereby focusing
on the role of evidence in the legal process. However, probabilistic theory may be
difficult to apply in circumstances where an item of evidence may have limited value
when taken in isolation,70 but when considered together with other items, it generates
63
Ronald Allen and Richard Kuhns, Eleanor Swift and Evidence: Text, Cases and Problems (5th end,
Aspen Publishers 2011) 139.
64
Kenworthey Bilz, ‘We Don’t Want to Hear It: Psychology, Literature and The Narrative Model of
Judging’ (2010) University of Illinois Law Review 429- 435.
65
David Schwartz, ‘A Foundation Theory of Evidence’ (2011) 100 University of Wisconsin Legal Studies
Research Paper 95.
66
Michael Risinger, ‘Inquiry, Relevance, Rules of Exclusion, and Evidentiary Reform’ (2010) 75
Brooklyn Law Review1349-1353.
67
Edward Cheng, ‘A Practical Solution to the Reference Class Problem’ (2009) 109 Columbia Law
Review 2081.
68
Michael Finkelstein and Bruce Levin, ‘On the Probative Value of Evidence from a Screening Search’
(2003) 43 Jurimetrics Journal 265-270.
69
Davis Deborah and Follette William, ‘Rethinking the Probative Value of Evidence: Base Rates,
Intuitive Profiling, and the “Postdiction” of Behavior’ (2002) 26 Law and Human Behavior 133.
70
Adam Samaha, ‘Law’s Tiebreakers’ (2010) 77 University of Chicago Law Review1661-1684.
39
significant probative weight. Such is the case much circumstantial evidence. 71
Secondly, the theory implies quantification of evidence (so as to determine probative
weight).72 However, this is nearly impossible, as there exist no objective standards for
such quantification.73 Probabilistic theory themselves do not offer such standards.
C. Foundational Theory
This theory was put forward by Professor Schwartz in his seminal article ‘A Foundation
Theory of Evidence’.74 Schwartz posits that the foundational basis of evidence is that it
has to be probably true, case-specific and assertive.75 He argues that only items that
meet these foundational qualifications can be entered as items of evidence, and that
these parameters are a pre-condition to relevance. In the context of electronic evidence,
judges need to examine whether or not the electronic item tendered is probably true (i.e.
that it really it comes from the source identified), is specific to the case in question, and
asserts the position which a party seeks to adduce the evidence for. This theory seems to
add only one element that is not emphatically laid out by relevance theory, that is, the
need to evaluate the truthful nature of an item of evidence as a pre-condition for
assessing its relevance.76 The other two elements essentially point towards probative
value as a basis of evidence, just as suggested by relevance theory. Foundational theory
may therefore be regarded as an extension of the relevance theory of evidence.
From the above discussions, evidence theories serves three broad functions: descriptive,
explanatory and normative (evaluative and regulative roles). Thus, beyond their
theoretical values, which may be regarded as ideals, evidence theories may be of
practical value to judges (especially in regard to grey areas or conflicting evidentiary
rules that need to be resolved), and to legislators, who may be interested in making
regulatory reforms and would wish to be guided by established theoretical frameworks.
Foregoing value may be greater in an evolving area such as electronic evidence, which
71
Susan Haack, ‘The Embedded Epistemologist: Dispatches from the Legal Front’ (2012) 25, 2 Ratio
Juris 215-218.
72
Jonathan Koehler, ‘When Do Courts Think Base Rate Statistics Are Relevant?’ (2002) 42 Jurimetrics
Journal 373-375.
73
Ronald Allen, ‘Rationality and the Taming of Complexity’ (2011) 62 Alabama Law Review 10471055.
74
David Schwartz (n 65).
75
Ibid.
76
Ibid.
40
is not yet as fully established as other traditional forms of evidence. The above
discussion has explored three key theories of evidence: relevance theory, probabilistic
theory and foundational theory. Attempts have been made to underscore their key
propositions, their strengths and weaknesses, and their application in the context of
electronic evidence.
With regard to the process for the preservation of electronic evidence, Casey notes that
it is a vital step in ensuring authentication.77 In 2009, The SANS Institute noted in their
report that the preservation of electronic evidence has increased in complexity and that
additional methodologies need to be adopted to acquire electronic evidence. 78 To
regulate all processes associated with the handling of electronic evidence, standards and
guidelines have been adopted. There is a set of guidelines that has been published, such
as Digital Evidence Standards and Principles, 79 A Guide for First Responders,80 the
Good Practice Guide for Computer Based Evidence
Management of IT Evidence.
82
81
and Guidelines for the
In addition, there are a number of international
organisations discussed that are competent in researching the issue of electronic
evidence, such as the International Standards Organisation,
83
and International
Organisation on Computer Evidence.84
Many law enforcement agencies have to date already had to resolve issues and
complications regarding the management of electronic evidence. Difficulties arise when
they have to incorporate different techniques and methods in order to maintain
77
Eoghan Casey (n 8) 12.
See: Paul Henry, ‘Best Practices in Digital Evidence Collection’ (2009) <http://computerforensics.sans.org/blog/2009/09/12/best-practices-in-digital-evidence-collection/> accessed 20th April
2013.
79
Digital Evidence Standards and Principles submitted by: Scientific Working Group on Digital
Evidence (SWGDE) <https://www.swgde.org/> accessed 4th November 2010.
80
A Guide for First Responders submitted by: US Department of Justice (USDOJ)
<https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/219941.pdf> accessed 4th November 2010.
81
Good Practice Guide for Commuter-Based Electronic Evidence submitted by: Association of Chief
Police Officers’ (ACPO) UK
<http://www.7safe.com/electronic_evidence/ACPO_guidelines_computer_evidence.pdf> accessed 4th
November 2010.
82
Guideline for the management of IT evidence submitted by: Australia
<http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/apcity/unpan016411.pdf> accessed 4th
November 2010.
83
The International Standards Organization (ISO) is most recent development in the Electronic Evidence
field. The ISO provides guidance for identification, collection, acquisition, and preservation of digital
evidence <http://www.iso27001security.com/html/27037.html> accessed 5th November 2010.
84
International Organization on Computer Evidence (IOCE) <http://www.ioce.org/core.php?ID=1>
accessed 5th November 2010.
78
41
electronic evidence as a viable option during the conviction and prosecution of a
crime.85
The biggest problem faced during electronic evidence collection is that not many
trained individuals have the necessary expert skills in operating the software, machines
and tools used for electronic data collection, and thus many law enforcers fall behind
the criminals in this area.86 In order to make electronic evidence more viable and easier
to use and understand in judicial trials requires considerable expertise, working to make
such evidence more standardised and easy to use requires machinery, tools and software
that can assist in managing this category of evidence. 87 With regard to computer
forensic tools, Casey notes that in order to make the investigator’s job easier, more
advanced tools88 must be developed.89
The technical and procedural aspects of computer evidence from the investigation
perspective have been discussed in detail by Clark and Diliberto.90 Even inexperienced
users of computer equipment can understand their discussions, because explanations of
the investigation process and the tools used, along with the methods of search and
seizure, are supported by photographs of tools and places where such evidence may be
found and evidence analysed. Exploration methods cover the area of methods for
examining floppy discs and bulletin boards, the method for breaking and bypassing
encryption, court procedures and samples of search warrants.91
In many articles and books the main issues and problems discussed in relation to
electronic evidence are the technical difficulties faced when using gadgets specifically
designed for collecting electronic evidence.92 In order to collect viable information to
handle electronic evidence, the development of both forensic tools and informative
devices is necessary.93 Development and modification in specialised areas of forensics
85
This is a significant topic, and the reader might begin by considering relevant texts written by writers
such as: Christopher Brown, Computer evidence: collection and preservation (2nd edn, Rockland MA:
Charles River Media 2009).
86
Anthony Reyes, Cyber Crime Investigations (Rockland MA: Syngress Publishing 2007) 191.
87
Ibid.
88
Tools such as: Encase and FTK.
89
Eoghan Casey (n 8) 28.
90
Franklin Clark and Ken Diliberto, Investigating Computer Crime (CRC Press 1996).
91
For further information about these methods see: Stephen Mason (n 20) 193-195.
92
Such as: Eoghan Casey (n 8) and Michael Arkfeld, Arkfeld on Electronic Discovery and Evidence (3rd
edn, Law Partner Publishing 2010).
93
Anthony Reyes (n 86).
42
is also a very important feature that needs to be developed. However, through
legislation and in response to the needs of law enforcement agencies,94 advancements
have been made in order to convict and prosecute crimes reliant on electronic evidence,
such as cybercrime. Policies are now gradually taking shape with the involvement
international standards organisations. There is more development and work required to
insure appropriate handling of electronic evidence, so that it can be widely used;
therefore, the legal establishment and the IT industry must work together to accomplish
change. Electronic evidence is still in the early stages of development, it requires time,
energy and devotion before it is readily used and accepted in trials in the same way as
physical evidence. With the rapid evolution of technology it is important for the law to
keep up to date and to work openly with the IT industry in future.
In the UAE, all the above-mentioned challenges involved in handling electronic
evidence as confronted by lawyers, judges, prosecutors and police officers are of huge
significance.95 Despite this, in the UAE, there have been no studies about the challenges
of using electronic evidence and what procedures can be adopted. Thus, there is a lack
in the academic library in this regard, which this thesis aims to fill. At present, in the
UAE, newly constructed laws exist relating to the evidence that can be used in criminal
enquiries; the intention of these is to eliminate shortfalls and misunderstandings. This is
the first research conducted in the UAE regarding the utilisation of electronic evidence
to prosecute crimes and the related challenges. Despite the focus on a single country,
because this is a global issue, knowledge and understanding of the use of electronic
evidence in the UAE has implications for the rest of world, especially other countries in
the Middle East. Public consciousness may enforce improvements in electronic
evidence. It will also ensure that electronic evidence is used in a very clear and
translucent way.
In brief, the purpose of this study is to identify the issues and problems that arise in
prosecution when evidence is solely electronic. As a result, this work studies the
amalgamation of IT and law, to transform and bring to life a totally new era of law and
prosecution.
94
95
Such as: The People’s Republic of China. For further information, see: section 3.4.2.
See: section 5.3.
43
1.8 Terminology
Generally speaking, the term ‘evidence’ refers to anything that is acceptable as such to
a court of law; it should help the judge to evaluate the scenario in a just manner. Thus, it
comprises all the information and material submitted to a court by the parties concerned
with facilitating the court to settle their dispute.
Evidence has two main types, the first is physical evidence and follows the fashion of
starting with an oath, testimony of witnesses, fingerprints, etc., whereas the other sort is
non-traditional, referred to as electronic evidence. Each of these kinds of evidence
varies in its admissibility and integrity.96 While the traditional form of evidence has
long been understood, electronic evidence could not be understood clearly, because it is
new and has less literature to support its existence, specifically in the UAE.
Electronic evidence is available in digital or binary form, consisting of the numbers 0
(pulse absent) and 1 (pulse present). 97 It originates from a multitude of sources
including seized PC hard drives and ISP records, real-time email messages, backup
media, chat-room logs, web pages and digital network traffic. It also includes local and
presumptive databases, electronic directories, memory cards, wireless devices and
digital cameras.98 Evidence generated by digital systems is broader in scope than the
electronic evidence produced by an analogue system. Therefore, the term ‘digital
evidence’ is confined to evidence produced using digital technology, although its
application is wider than that of electronic evidence since it extends to cell phones and
digital audio and video devices, which are the prevailing technologies at present. This
section of the thesis contains legal and technical terms and other terms that require
understanding.
1.8.1 Definition of the term ‘electronic evidence’
In the last few years, the term ‘electronic evidence’ has taken on several different
definitions.
A set of accepted terms have been provided by leading organisations and academics in
96
See: Fred Cohen (n 60).
Chet Hosmer, ‘Proving the integrity of digital evidence with time’ Spring (2002) 1, 1 International
Journal of Digital Evidence
<http://www.utica.edu/academic/institutes/ecii/publications/articles/9C4EBC25-B4A3-6584C38C511467A6B862.pdf> accessed 29th November 2010.
98
Ibid.
97
44
the field to delineate the area. Some of these definitions are presented below:
Electronic evidence refers to the kind of ‘information which either has been stored or
been transferred through a computer and either supports or disproves the scenario
presented regarding an offense’.99 The definition of this phenomenon, as suggested by
the Standard Working Group on Digital Evidence (SWGDE) is that it refers to ‘piece of
information that has been either stored or transferred in digital form’. 100 The
International Organization of Computer Evidence (IOCE) defined it as the ‘information
stored or transmitted in binary 101 form that is dependable in court’.102 Association of
Chief Police Officers (ACPO) defined it as ‘a piece of information stored or transferred
by computer’. 103 Lastly, there is also the definition offered by Schafer and Mason,
‘electronic evidence: data (comprising the output of analogue devices or data in digital
format) that is manipulated, stored or communicated by any man-made device,
computer or computer system or transmitted over a communication system, that has the
potential to make the factual account of either party more probable or less probable than
it would be without the evidence’.104
Based on these definitions we can explain the phenomenon as the generation of
evidence by the entry of some sort of information by a user on a computer. However, a
computer generates information when given a request to do so by an operator and when
it processes the information. Thus, the list of electronic evidence includes databases,
application programs, operating systems, electronic and voice mail messages and
records, computer-generated models, and other instructions stored in a computer’s
memory.
Generally, countries legislative structures offer no specific definitions for electronic
99
Eoghan Casey (n 8) 7.
See: Standard Working Group on Digital Evidence (SWGDE) <https://www.swgde.org/> accessed 4th
November 2010.
101
The word ‘binary’ was later changed to ‘digital’. See: Carrie Whitcomb, ‘An Historical Perspective of
Digital Evidence’ Spring (2002) 1, 1 International Journal of Digital Evidence
<http://www.utica.edu/academic/institutes/ecii/publications/articles/9C4E695B-0B78-10593432402909E27BB4.pdf> accessed 5th November 2010.
102
See: International Organization of Computer Evidence (IOCE), ‘G8 Proposed principles for the
procedures relating digital evidence’ (2000)
<http://www.ioce.org/fileadmin/user_upload/2002/G8%20Proposed%20principles%20for%20forensic%2
0evidence.pdf> accessed 15th November 2010.
103
See: Association of Chief Police Officers, ‘ACPO Good Practice Guide for Digital Evidence’ (March
2012) <http://library.npia.police.uk/docs/acpo/digital-evidence-2012.pdf> accessed 15th November 2010.
104
See: Stephen Mason (20) 27.
100
45
evidence. However, many countries include a definition of the phenomenon of
legislative structure through references. For example section 2 (1) of the Irish Criminal
Evidence Act 1992 provides:
“document” includes—
(i) a map, plan, graph, drawing or photograph, or
(ii) a reproduction in permanent legible form, by a computer or other means
(including enlarging), of information in non-legible form’.105
In the case of documentary evidence, the French Civil Code defines it as proof in
written form, with some conceptual terminologies, characters, figures or any other signs
or symbols involved, no matter what is their medium or manner of transmission.106 This
article includes some references to electronic evidence.
A more direct reference can be found in the UK and Canada. The Police and Evidence
Act 1984 in the UK put forth a definition of this phenomenon as ‘information stored in
any electronic form’.107 However, the definition used in Canada was altered along with
the structure of its legislation in 1997, when the Uniform Law Conference of Canada
suggested alterations to the structure of the definition so that it could conform to a state
applicable to features like hearsay rule, best evidence rules and authentication. These
different suggestions of definitions of the phenomenon created more issues and
therefore the idea of creating a Uniform Act was suggested to promote a logical legal
structure in this regard. 108 This suggestion resulted in the definition of the Canada
Evidence Act in 1998, which defined it as the computer system, electronic documents,
data, and the electronic document system. The nature of electronic evidence as a
definition is quite broad, as it includes both soft and hard copies of data stored in a
computer.109
In the UAE, there is no direct definition of the term ‘electronic evidence’ or ‘digital
evidence’ in any extant statutes, with the exception of Article 1 of Federal Law No. 5
from 2012 concerning the Prevention of Information Technology Crimes. In this Act,
the terms ‘electronic information’ and ‘electronic document’ are defined as follows:
105
See also: Electronic Government Code of the Republic of Italy 2005, Article 1.
Civil Procedure Code of the French Republic Inserted by Law No. 230-2000, Article 1316.
107
The Police and Criminal Evidence Act of 1984, s 20 (1).
108
Canada Uniform Law Conference, available at: <http://www.ulcc.ca/en>.
109
Canada Evidence Act R.S.C., 1985, c. C-5, s 31.8.
106
46
Electronic Information: ‘Any piece of information that is saved, processed, produced
and transmitted with the use of information technology, specifically in the form of texts,
voice, pictures, numbers, letters, codes, signs, etc.’110
Electronic Document: ‘A document that is saved, extracted, copied, exhibited, or
transferred by electronic means on some electronic or some tangible medium and is
accessible in a feasible manner’.111
In short, the term ‘electronic evidence’ is used widely, but is commonly used to denote
digital evidence only, which creates confusion. It is suggested that the term ‘electronic
evidence’ is generative, rather than specific, in that it encompasses all forms of data,
whether produced by an analogue device or in digital form.112 Evidence generated in
digital form is typically on a larger scale than electronic evidence produced by analogue
device. Accordingly, the term ‘digital evidence’ is restricted to evidence produced by
digital technology, but, as previously stated, its application is wider than electronic
evidence since it extends to cell phones and digital audio and video. These two forms of
evidence should not be confused because different evidential and procedural
requirements apply to each, in that they must meet their respective technical, scientific
and legal standards or requirements to be admissible as evidence at trial. In the UAE,
the meaning of electronic evidence has not yet been discussed. Case law merely
emphasises the admissibility of email evidence, but does not explain what is meant by
the term ‘electronic evidence’.113 This absence of any specific provision explaining this
term may leave judges in the UAE with scant opportunity to make meaningful decisions
about what electronic evidence is.
It is noted that, in the UAE courts there is a preference for terms such as ‘computerproduced evidence’ or ‘computer printout’. However, it is not clear whether these terms
are intended to extend to electronic evidence. It is consequently appropriate to look at
the definition of the term ‘computer’ under UAE law.
110
The UAE Federal Law No.5 of 2012 on the Prevention of Information Technology Crimes, Article 1.
Ibid.
112
There are many people who make the mistake of classifying analogue evidence as electronic evidence,
which it is not, Schafer and Mason made it clear that there is a clear difference between analogue
evidence and electronic or digital evidence. For further information, see: Stephen Mason (n 20).
113
Such as: Criminal Case of UAE Federal Supreme Court No. 50/2011 date of decision 19th April 2011
unpublished.
111
47
1.8.2 Interpretation of the term ‘Computer’
The word ‘computer’ is defined as ‘a system or a device that is capable of carrying out
a progression of operations in an explicitly and distinctly defined method’.114 It is also
described as a machine that can accept data in prescribed form, process it, and provide
the consequence of processing it using a machine or process.115 As a result, the word
‘computer’ has been defined as a generic term to include almost any kind of processing
unit. Nevertheless, not all machines can be defined as computers.116
In the Oxford English Dictionary, the term computer is described as: ‘An electronic
automatic device that performs mathematical or conceptual operations freq. with
definition of word prefix as some, analogue, digital, electronic computer’.117
In the UAE, the word ‘computer’ is not defined in Federal legislation or by any
evidential statutes. However, the national legislation of other states (such as the US,118
Singapore,119 Australia120 and South Africa121 ) has provided such a definition. In the
UK the term computer is defined by the Civil Evidence Act 1968,122 as ‘a machine for
storing and processing information’. 123 This definition extends the scope of the
computer by looking at the capacity of a device. Any device can be regarded as a
computer if it is capable of recording, storing, processing, retrieving or producing
information. However, in later Acts124 the UK decided to make no attempt to define
what a computer is. This is because the word ‘computer’ is now in common usage in
the English language and judges are capable of construing its meaning.
Since there is no statutory definition of the word ‘computer’ in the UAE, it is submitted
that different interpretations may be given to the meaning of the word, creating
opportunities for lawyers and prosecutors to argue over its applicability in computer114
Christopher Millard, Legal protection of computer programs and data (Sweet and Maxwell 1985)1-15.
Ibid.
116
Stephen Mason (n 20)1.
117
Oxford English Dictionary (electronic edition) (3rd edn, 1997 and Additions).
118
In the US the word ‘computer’ is defined by the Federal legislation on Computer Fraud and Abuse Act
of 1986 (CFAA) 18 U.S.C, s1030.
119
The Singapore Evidence (Amendment) Act No.8 of 1996, s 3(1)
120
South Australia Evidence Act (SAEA) of 1929, s 59A.
121
South Africa Computer Evidence Act (SACEA) No.57 of 1983, s 1.
122
The UK Evidence Act 1995 replaces the UK Civil Evidence Act 1968.
123
The UK Civil Evidence Act1968, s 5 (2) and the relevant reference is now the meaning of a
‘document’, which is provided for in Section 13 of the Civil Evidence Act 1995.
124
For examples, the UK Computer Misuse Act of 1990, the Police and Criminal Evidence Act of 1984
and the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act of 1988.
115
48
related cases. Consequently, they must be capable of explaining and defining the
technical aspects or the working processes of the computer itself; otherwise, they may
have to hire a computer expert to explain technical details. In practice, the meaning of
‘computer’ in the UAE will be construed by the judge, and so will be interpreted based
on the facts of the particular case.
Nonetheless, lawyers, prosecutors and judges must be prepared for possible objections
that may arise around the technical and general definition of ‘computer’. Accordingly, a
clear definition must be established, because different interpretations will result in
diverse outcomes when determining the relevance, reliability and acceptance of
electronic evidence.
1.9 Conclusion
With the rapid advancement in the features of crimes, the crime rate could lead to the
birth of a new branch of legal studies and a new set of evidence when conducting
investigations. This increased rate of crime has greatly increased the importance of
electronic evidence. Investigating cases of crimes containing electronic evidence is a
somewhat more difficult task than the traditional investigation strategy. As electronic
media has its own features, and needs to be dealt with accordingly, it requires a unique
treatment in the legislative system. This requirement of electronic evidence requires
alterations to the structure of the legal systems of those countries that are too traditional
in nature and capable of dealing only with physical evidence. Changes in the system
will help the electronic evidence to work effectively. Electronic evidence serves the
same purpose as investigation procedures, as do the other sorts of evidence, because it
is also a piece of information that serves to present the facts of a case. However,
electronic evidence is sensitive in nature and relevant experience and training is
required for its handling.
Aside from this discussion, the fundamental question to ask is, whether and to what
extent, criminal procedure law is sufficient to govern the process of the gathering and
the preservation of electronic evidence. The Council of Europe’s Recommendation No
R (95) was the first to attract attention to electronic evidence by connecting criminal
49
procedural law with information technology.125 As the process of collecting electronic
evidence becomes more technical, legislation becomes more challenging when mens
rea must be proved beyond reasonable doubt. In future it will be further complicated,
since everything will be stored in digital format or in similar intangible forms.
Investigating crimes and prosecuting criminals may also be difficult and challenging,
and any negligence in the process of gathering and preservation of electronic evidence
will result in failure in prosecuting cases. Therefore, UAE lawmakers must strive to
improve and update the rules covering the processes of handling electronic evidence.
This chapter has discussed the significance of the thesis and shown why academic
research is important in field of electronic evidence. Setting the objective of the thesis
as to examine the problems and challenges of electronic evidence in the UAE, the thesis
aims to contribute to the body of academic thought in the area. Such a contribution
seems appropriate for the UAE, where the law lacks sufficient academic input,
especially in the area of electronic evidence.
Thus, the method of applied study is appropriate for collecting more information
concerning the UAE law to sustain the arguments of this study. It is felt that the
combination of two methods is the best way of achieving the objectives of this thesis. It
should be made clear that in the discipline of law there is a distinct concept of research
methodology. There is a distinct legal methodology for solving legal problems. A mere
legal discussion of a problem involves, for instance, interpretation, case law and
comparison. The difficult task here lies in attempting to combine social science research
methodology with legal methodology to construct a comprehensive thesis. It is true that
socio-legal thought has developed considerably in recent years, but legal thought still
relies on a unique research methodology in argumentation. The researcher in this thesis
will attempt to combine legal methodology with applied social science methodology.
Chapter One also reviewed some literature to deliver an overview of key challenges
facing the treatment of electronic evidence. The chapter concluded by clarifying some
useful terminology.
In brief, this chapter has provided a background to the thesis in order to open up the
discussion points covered by the research questions in the coming chapters. In order to
125
See: ‘Explanatory Report to the Convention on Cybercrime’ (ETS 185) (2001)
<http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/en/Reports/Html/185.htm> accessed 15th April 2013.
50
understand physical and electronic evidence, and the different kinds of investigations,
the next chapter will look at the distinction between two types of evidence, and
introduce the UAE’s legal system.
51
CHAPTER TWO: THE JUDICIAL SYSTEM IN THE UAE AND THE NATURE
OF ELECTRONIC EVIDENCE
Following on from the road map for this thesis in Chapter One, this chapter aims to
provide a general review of the legal system in the UAE. In addition, it aims to provide
a fundamental overview of the nature of electronic evidence. The law defines the
principles and rules governing relations between nations and within nations; the legal
system is the form taken by a state or party when establishing the principles and rules of
law to be used for protecting people, the maintenance of their honour and security of
their money. In general, the legal system is based on one of three basic systems:
common law, civil law and religious law or combinations of these.
The UAE is a civil law country that has been influenced by the legal systems of civil
law countries including Egypt and France. In the first part of Chapter Two, the
researcher aims to introduce the judicial system and explore evidentiary rules. The
researcher also aims to track the development of the UAE’s CPL since its foundation in
1992, until its most recent amendment in 2005. Understanding of basic information
associated with the legal and judicial system is essential as background providing an
explanation and understanding of the legal system, and how the law handles electronic
evidence.
This chapter also aims to describe the distinction between cybercrimes and physical
crimes; and offers a brief analysis of cybercrime, explaining the legal response to such
crimes. Currently, cybercrimes is taking on many shapes and forms. ICT has
revolutionised communication, commerce and entertainment; it has given rise to cyber
or modern crime, also called ‘computer-related crime’ and ‘high-tech crime’, i.e. the
use of electronic communication networks for criminal purposes or for the purpose of
destroying information or systems.
Traditional crime and cybercrime are similar in nature, as they both result in violations
of the rules and laws of a state; however, the background to cybercrime differs from
conventional crime, as modern technology and computers are key requisites. As a
result, law enforcement agencies in the UAE are facing complex challenges;
particularly as cyber criminals are often educated, organised and well-equipped, making
52
it difficult to combat their activities, gather evidence, locate criminals and prosecute
offenders. Difficult questions are also arising in relation to the development of suitable
criminal procedural laws, which is necessary to ensure that electronic evidence is
adequately dealt with.
In order to demonstrate the characteristics of electronic evidence, the remainder of this
chapter will address the manner in which electronic evidence differs from other forms
of evidence, by examining the types and the nature of electronic evidence. Pursuant to
the above, it is appropriate to include the following:
I.
II.
A brief overview of the judicial system and evidentiary rules;
Review the UAE legal system and the development of the UAE’s criminal
procedure law;
III.
Define physical crime and cybercrime parameters;
IV.
Discuss the types and the nature of electronic evidence; and
V.
Detail the processes for criminal investigation of cybercrime and physical crime.
2.1 The judicial systems and evidentiary rules
The legal system is based on one of a combination of three basic systems: common law,
civil law and religious law.1 In most countries, the system of criminal justice is in a
constant state of transformation. This is mainly due to the introduction of political,
social and economic reforms intended to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of
judicial proceedings’.2 For instance, the legal systems of some countries, such as Italy,
have transformed to become combative and adversarial systems, diminishing
investigatory and inquiring components. 3 Investigative and adversarial systems are
diverse, and united under specific conditions.4 Prior studies show that the inquisitorial
1
There are many views regarding to legal systems, some scholars say there are two legal systems, others
say three and some say five. See further: Peter Cruz, Comparative law in a changing world (3rd edn, NY:
Routledge-Cavendish c 2007).
2
See: Arie Freiberg, ‘Non-Adversarial Approaches to Criminal Justice’ (2007) 16, 4 Journal of Judicial
Administration 205.
3
Ibid.
4
Kristi Kernutt, ‘Civil Law V Common Law Systems: Are They So Different?’ (1999) Oregon Review of
International Law 31.
53
system originated from a foundation of laws, codes and statutes, 5 whereas judicial
decisions rely on case precedents and legislation. Hence, judges in such systems have
more concrete decision-making powers than civil judges do. In fact, they tend to take on
judicial autonomy. 6 Inquisitorial judges only implement legislative laws in specific
cases; whereas adversarial judges take into account a combination of diverse aspects.
They tend to consider factual evidence, analyse statues, and exercise great discretion
over their vast decision-making powers. Thus, they can exploit authority to reach a
conclusive decision.7
However, judicial precedents tend to restrict the decision-making power of judges in
adversarial systems, while an inquisitorial judge is free of such restrictions. Hence,
inquisitorial judges are able to independently concede to or repudiate the views of their
seniors. However, in reality, they are under pressure to support the judicial precedents
set in higher courts because otherwise their decisions are subject to challenge therein.8
2.1.1 Evidentiary rules of civil law versus common law systems: regimes and
implication
The description of legal systems as either common law or civil law 9 is commonly
recognised, although there is no agreement as to the exact categorisation of global
systems. Nearly every jurisdiction inclines towards one or other of these groups in some
way. It is essential in this section to understand the differences between the two legal
systems, before studying the dissimilarities as they apply to particular rulings on
electronic evidence.10 Before any discussion of the traditional dissimilarities between
the two systems, it is imperative to mention that both systems share many elements.
Indeed, distinctions that were previously very noticeable are rapidly diminishing.
Primarily, the main differences between civil law and common law legal systems result
from their routine methods and principles; especially in terms of: (a) overall rules that
adjust the admission of evidence; (b) use of judicial precedent; (c) the activity and role
5
Peter Cruz (n 1) 46.
Ibid.
7
Kristi Kernutt (n 4).
8
Ibid.
9
This could be an interesting topic, and the reader might begin by considering the relevance of
practitioner texts, such as: Mirjan Damaska, The faces of justice and state authority: a comparative
approach to the legal process (New Haven; London: Yale University Pressc1986).
10
Chapter Three will seek to address how electronic evidence is regulated in common law countries, as
represented by the England and Wales, and civil law jurisdictions as represented by China.
6
54
of counsel in court proceedings; (d) activity of parties and their control of court
proceedings; and (e) the relationship between the legislature (as characterised by
legislative provisions) and the courts (as exemplified in court explanations). 11 Since
these differences underpin the judicial system, they form a vital context within which
evidentiary regulation regimes are anchored. Thus, it is beneficial to examine the
differences between civil and common legal systems on an evidence basis generally,
before examining variations in specific regulations on electronic evidence.
2.1.1.1 Rules on the admissibility of evidence
The common law system works by first establishing complex rules of evidence, which
are considered general rules. 12 However, there are some exceptions and restrictions,
which commonly effect regulations pertaining to the administration of hearsay
evidence. 13 Case law, which is now commonly coded, was the reason for the
development of complex exclusionary rules of evidence. This is now an important
element of the whole system. As different cases were heard, different rulings in court
led to alterations in the rules of evidence. 14 New rulings changed subsequent rules,
leading to a clear distinction between former rules and new rules, with the latter taking
precedent over the former. This is the reason for the complexity that is found in
common law.15
The civil law system works so that assessment of evidence is established on a ‘free
evaluation principle’.16 This relies on the presiding judicial officer making a judgment
or ruling according to the case at hand, rather than being restricted to strict rules and
those formed according to the relevant codes. This system shares some similarities with
the essential exclusionary regulations formed in relevant codes.
The ‘free evaluation principle’ permits a broader scope for the admission of evidence
11
See: Charles Koch, ‘Envisioning A Global Legal Culture’ (2003) Social Science Research Network.
Matthew King, ‘Security, Scale, Form, and Function: The Search for Truth and the Exclusion of
Evidence in Adversarial and Inquisitorial Justice Systems’ (2001) 12 International Legal Perspectives
186.
13
Colin Tapper and Rupert Cross, Cross and Tapper on Evidence (12th edn, Oxford University Press
2010) 66.
14
Kevin Clermont, ‘Standards of Proof in Japan and the United States’ (2004) 37Cornell International
Law Journal 273.
15
See: Mirjan Damaška, Evidence law adrift (New Haven; London: Yale University Press 1997).
16
For a discussion on the free evaluation of evidence in civil law jurisdiction courts, see: Mark Klamberg,
Evidence in International Criminal Trials: Confronting Legal Gaps and the Reconstruction of Disputed
Events (Martinus Nijhoff Publishers 2013) 117.
12
55
than that under exclusionary rules, which is limited. This aspect differs from common
law’s systematic and complex exclusionary rules. The civil law system does not usually
require juries. Thus, the judge is the sole fact finder and applier of the law. Given their
professional competency they are believed to be better equipped to rule on what
evidence is to be admitted or otherwise. This explains why there is less motivation in
civil law to form complex exclusionary rules.17 It has been debated that the reason for
many of the exclusionary rules in the common law system is due to the dependency on
jurors to pass verdicts. Without knowledge of the rules, there is more scope for them to
make errors when measuring the evidence, failing to assess accurately what should or
should not be admitted. The trial process by jury as it is intended to stimulate a just,
impartial and lawful fact finding procedure is consequently controlled by a complex set
of court rules.18
2.1.1.2 Court proceedings and parties activity
Court procedures in common law systems are mostly confrontational, whereas civil law
jurisdictions are typically interrogational. In confrontational systems, the parties,
through their attorneys play a leading role in identifying issues, carrying out
examinations, presenting evidence and involving experts to resolve evidential concerns
and even for discovery. In an interrogational approach to court proceedings judges are
generally likely to play a leading role. This is specifically in relation to the desire to
frame concerns for determination, the involvement of experts and the investigation of
witnesses.19
2.1.1.3 The judicial function
Common law is defined by judicially active explanations, according to which, the
courts are involved in forming interpretations, not only to implement statutory
provisions, but also to resolve issues associated with unfinished, confusing or
contradictory statutory provisions.20 Thus, common law jurisdictions include numerous
cases of laws formulated by judges in the form of judicial practices. This occurs to such
17
William Pizzi and Luca Marafioti, ‘The New Italian Code of Criminal Procedure: The Difficulties of
Building An Adversarial Trial System on A Civil Law Foundation’ (1992) 17, 1 The Yale Journal of
International Law (YJIL).
18
See: David Johnson, ‘Crime and Punishment in Contemporary Japan’ (2007) 36, 371 LexisNexis 385.
19
See: Valerie Hans, ‘Introduction: Citizens as Legal Decision Makers: An International Perspective’
(2007) 40 Cornell International Law Journal 303-304.
20
Paul Finn, The common law in the world: the Australian experience (Centro di studi e ricerche di
dirittocomparato e straniero 2001) 1-3.
56
an extent that common law courts have traditionally played a substantial law-making
role by means of active judicial interpretations. In contrast, the courts in civil law
systems are not usually as involved in the law making process. They implement the preexisting law, rather than forming judicially active explanations. This is based on the
assumption that the making of judicially active judgments would involve a separate law
making process, which would be political based, and so should be reserved for the
legislature. The making of any changes or resolutions by the court would reduce the
importance of parliamentary supremacy over legislative issues.21 Therefore, in a civil
law system any injustice or confusion in the law should be referred back to the
legislature.
2.1.1.4 The judicial precedent
The idea and role of judicial precedent is an important aspect of the judicial and
legislative relationship and has a differing role in the two jurisdictions. The decisions of
the courts have less precedential value under civil law jurisdictions.22 The supposition is
that it is the responsibility of the legislature to devise adjustable laws that can be
applied to multiple cases, on a case by case basis by the court, after formation. Any
unfinished, confusing or contradictory issues would then be handled by a code
promulgating body or the legislature, and not the court. Thus, even when higher courts
form a ruling on an issue, that court or a lower court will not be under any obligation to
follow this. This means that civil law systems are of the opinion that judges should not
be the sources of laws and that their adjudications are simply the application of existing
codes and should not bind decision-makers in later cases. In recent years, civil law
courts have followed the precedents set by the higher courts, even though such
decisions are guides rather than obligatory.23
Conversely, judicial precedents are a prominent characteristic of common law systems.
Decisions made by the higher courts are obligatory for lower courts to follow when
ruling on similar matters. Practically, judicial precedent is used because it is unlikely
that the legislature, in the development of law making, would have predicted all
21
Ibid.
Oscar Chase and Helen Hershkoff, Civil Litigation in Comparative Context (Thomson West 2007) 260262.
23
Linda Greenhouse, ‘The Nation: Judicial Intent; The Competing Visions of the Role of the Court’ (New
York Times 7thJuly 2002) <http://www.nytimes.com/2002/07/07/weekinreview/the-nation-judicial-intentthe-competing-visions-of-the-role-of-the-court.html> accessed 10th January 2013.
22
57
possible situations that could arise. Higher courts cannot pass laws, to cover all possible
situations.
24
Theoretically, the reason for judicial precedent in common law
jurisdictions is that applying the same law to a similar set of facts should result in a
similar result and lead to equality and consistency. This is why courts carry out active
judicial interpretation when seeking to resolve unfinished cases or those with
questionable features.25
2.1.2 UAE’s legal system 26
The UAE is a federation comprising seven Emirates,27 and its jurisdiction is based on
civil law. Egyptian, French and Islamic law heavily influences the legal system. There
are three main sources of law in the UAE: legislation, Islamic Sharia and custom. The
judiciary does not engage in law making; however, reference is sometimes made to the
decisions of higher courts; such as legal principles issued by the Cassation Court or the
UAE Federal Supreme Court. The judiciary is divided into the local and federal
judiciary by virtue of Article 104 of the Constitution, which provides that “the local
judicial authorities in each Emirate shall have jurisdiction in all judicial matters not
assigned to the Union judicature in accordance this Constitution”. Consequently, each
Emirate deals with legal affairs locally. Article 105 of the Constitution allows that parts
of, or an Emirate’s entire jurisdiction can be transferred to the federal courts upon the
request of the Emirate. Abu Dhabi,28 Ras Al Khaimah 29 and Dubai 30 established and
maintained their own judicial systems, which are therefore not dealt with federally.
Regional or Federal UAE courts are similar to most other courts and as such are divided
into criminal and civil courts. The Sharia court is a separate third division, which was
initially created in order to adjudicate personal disputes. Both criminal and civil courts
have a Court of First Instance, Court of Appeal, and Court of Cassation, the latter
24
Christopher Mueller and Laird Kirkpatrick, Evidence (4th edn, Wolters Kluwer Law and Business 2009)
34.
25
See: Anne Kuhn, ‘Societe Nationale Industrielle Aerospatiale: The Supreme Court’s Misguided
Approach to The Hague Evidence Convention’ (1989) 69 Boston University Law Review
LexisNexis1011-1014.
26
This section based on the content of article has been published as: Khaled Aljneibi, ‘Search and seizure
for electronic evidence: procedural aspects of UAE’s legal system’ (2013) 10 Digital Evidence and
Electronic Signature Law Review.
27
The United Arab Emirates (UAE) is a federal country that comprises seven Emirates, namely: Abu
Dhabi, Dubai, Sharjah, Ajman, Umm Al-Qaywayn, Ras Al-Khaymah and Al-Fujayrah.
28
Law of 1968 concerning the establishment of Abu Dhabi Courts and amendment Law No. 23 of 2006.
29
Law of 1971 concerning the establishment of the Ras Al Khaimah Courts and amendment Law No. 3 of
2011.
30
Law of 1970 concerning the establishment of the Dubai Courts.
58
having the same status as the Federal Supreme Court of the UAE.31 Federal laws are
applied in the courts of the UAE, and local courts apply federal laws first, that is a Civil
Code or Criminal Laws. In areas where there are no federal laws, the emirates of Abu
Dhabi, Ras Al Khaimah and Dubai pass laws and issue decrees.
Each of the three courts, the Court of First Instance, the Court of Appeal and the Court
of Cassation, requires a different number of judges to hear each case. The Court of First
Instance is presided over by one judge; the Court of Appeal is presided over by three
judges; and, the Court of Cassation is presided over by five judges. The highest court in
the UAE is the Federal Supreme Court, which is presided over by five judges.32 There
are only Courts of Cassation in three of the emirates: Abu Dhabi, Dubai and Ras Al
Khaimah; elsewhere cases are heard by the Federal Supreme Court, the latter only
addresses issues of law. 33 The lower court has to adhere to the legal principles and
decisions developed by the Federal Supreme Court and the Court of Cassation.
The prosecutorial service in the UAE is a part of the judicial system,34 and is divided
into a local and federal prosecution. Ras Al Khaimah,35 Dubai 36 and Abu Dhabi 37 have
formed an independent public prosecution office, so are not overseen by the Federal
Public Prosecution Authority. A federal and local public prosecution are responsible for
interrogation,38 and accusation,39 and are also responsible for referring the indicted to
the court if found guilty.40 Another obligation is the overseeing of detention facilities
and penitentiaries.41
Generally, in the UAE, 42 when a criminal offence has occurred, the act will be
prosecuted and reported within the state where the act took place.43 Upon report of the
crime at the local police station the investigator will take statements and gather
31
The UAE Constitution of 1971, Article 95.
Ibid, Article 96.
33
Ibid, Article 99.
34
The UAE Criminal Procedure Law, Article 5.
35
Decree No. (11) of 2006 concerning the establishment of the Ras Al-Khaymah Public Prosecution
Office.
36
Decree No. (8) of 1992 concerning the establishment of the Dubai Public Prosecution Office.
37
Law No. (23) of 2006 concerning the establishment of the Abu Dhabi Public Prosecution Office.
38
The UAE Criminal Procedure Law, Article 65.
39
Ibid.
40
Ibid, Articles 120 and 121.
41
Ibid, Article 6.
42
UAE state security cases will be prosecuted in the Abu Dhabi, the capital of UAE.
43
The UAE Criminal Procedure Law, Article 142.
32
59
information from relevant persons. 44 After preliminary investigation of the case is
complete, the local police will send details to the public prosecutor within 48 hours of
the defendant’s arrest.45 Thereafter, the public prosecution office will investigate the
case, listen to witnesses, and take statements in order to decide either to drop the matter,
or to refer it to the court within 21 days of receiving the case from police.46 If the matter
has not been completed and the prosecutor requires further time, they may apply for
extension from the court.47
The UAE’s legal system is similar to the legal system of common law countries,
including the UK. The same standard of proof applies to criminal cases, and in both
countries, the prosecution has the burden of proof. Similarly, the police have to gather
evidence for the prosecution to establish the case. There is no jury and also no
Magistrates Court in the UAE and different evidentiary rules exist; although in both
countries evidence can be declared inadmissible and unreliable in certain
circumstances.
2.1.3 Developing UAE’s criminal procedure law
The UAE’s CPL normally contains all applicable procedures for criminal cases and thus
determines the legal norms and standards, which have to be followed when gathering
evidence. The agency administering the UAE’s CPL also helps parties with trial
preparation, thereby ensuring that an impartial verdict can be reached.
The UAE’s CPL divides the investigation into three core stages. In the first stage,
evidence is gathered. In the second stage, a preliminary investigation is undertaken and
in the third stage a trial takes place. The main objective of the UAE’s CPL is to ensure
that the relevant authorities follow all the appropriate procedures, thereby safeguarding
the rights of the suspect. The UAE’s CPL is different from the Penal Code, which
details different criminal offences and sentences. The UAE’s CPL developed in stages
and is heavily influenced by Egyptian and French law, whilst the law of evidence is
44
Ibid, Article 30.
Ibid, Article 47.
46
Article 110 of the UAE Criminal Procedure Law provides that the detention period is 7 days, renewable
up to 14 days by the prosecutor.
47
Article 110 of the UAE Criminal Procedure Law provides that judges may extend the detention period
for another period not exceeding 30 days renewable at the request of the public prosecutor after hearing
the accused’s statements.
45
60
based on custom and Islamic laws.48 When initial procedural laws came into existence,
no records were kept and each case was decided on a case by case basis with no system
of precedent.
On the 15th June 1992, the UAE’s CPL, which established modern procedures for the
investigation of criminal cases, 49 rendered it mandatory to record decisions and
established rules for cross-examinations, as well as appeals.50 Various articles51 of the
UAE’s CPL were changed on the 14th March 2005, but these changes did not affect the
rules governing evidence, or pertain to the gathering of evidence stored on computers.52
However, sophisticated technology has made it more difficult to gather information;
and it is important that capabilities are enhanced.
2.1.4 UAE legal system and evidentiary rules
The three crucial concepts of evidence law are: burden of proof, relevance and
admission. The first concept refers to the obligation to prove or disprove certain facts;
i.e. those that arise as a result of a dispute between two parties in a case. However, the
second refers to the ability to recognise the existence of facts in the form of evidence.53
This helps in making decisions that would not otherwise be applicable in the absence of
evidence. The third element is admissibility of evidence, which is a question of law and
is determined by the court.54
Prosecutors apply two concepts to physical and electronic symptoms simultaneously.
Formerly, it was the obligation of prosecutors to provide necessary the facts when
bringing cases. This role remains the same, even in the case of the diversity of evidence,
such as physical or electronic evidence. Similarly, it is the duty of the judge to assess
the relevance of evidence, irrespective of its nature. Besides, admissibility of evidence
is a process based upon two steps, namely the legislative and the judicial. The former
48
Jodat Jihad, Brief explaining of the UAE Criminal Procedure Code (2nd edn, Dubai Police Academy
Publications 2008)18. (Author’s translation from the Arabic).
.18‫( ص‬2008،‫اﻟﻮﺟﯿﺰﻓﻲ ﺷﺮح ﻗﺎﻧﻮن اﻻﺟﺮاءات اﻟﺠﺰاﺋﯿﺔ ﻟﺪوﻟﺔ اﻻﻣﺎرات )أﻛﺎدﯾﻤﯿﺔ ﺷﺮﻃﺔ دﺑﻲ‬،‫ﺟﻮده ﺣﺴﯿﻦ ﺟﮭﺎد‬
49
The UAE Criminal Procedure Law, Chapter Two.
50
Ibid, Chapter Three.
51
Articles 3, 16, 17, 20-24, 28, 33, 36, 44, 75, 85, 87, 92, 107, 111, 115, 119-120, 126, 128, 134-135, 137,
156, 158, 160, 165-166, 168, 172, 179-181, 184, 187-188, 194, 229, 234, 236, 240-241, 244, 249, 286,
306, 315-316.
52
For example, the Singapore Criminal Procedure Code ss 39 and 40 allows the police to access
computers and encrypted information.
53
See: Peter Murphy and Richard Glover, Murphy on evidence (12th edn, Oxford University Press 2011).
54
Ibid.
61
refers to the admissibility of law and the latter to the admitting of reliable decisions by
judges. Legal provisions initiate and form an evidential basis, whether this is acceptable
or not. Secondly, the judge will scrutinise the accepted evidence and decide upon its
probative value. There is a diversity of physical evidence: for instance blood,
fingerprints and weapons, which judges scrutinise to assure admissibility. However, in
the case of electronic evidence, neither the legislation nor the judiciary can address or
evaluate it. Therefore, it is appropriate to consider the role of the judge in admitting this
form of evidence in the UAE.
2.1.4.1 Determining the judges’ role in admitting evidence under the legal system
of the UAE 55
In the UAE, any method can be followed to prove a crime under the UAE criminal
system. This evidential freedom enables judges to decide what is the most authentic
material by which to reveal the truth.
The expectation is that judges must not determine a case based on personal belief,
opinion or emotions. The rules of law has to be followed by judges when reaching
decisions; and decisions must be based on logical justification. The way in which
decisions are decided by judges may not be challenged by the Court of Cassation or
Supreme Court, as it is not in their capacity to review any decision. Nevertheless, the
court will consider whether the judge has followed the precedents and made a logical
judgment. Although a judge is not required to provide justification for their
understanding, they are responsible for supporting their decisions with inferences. A
judge is required to provide information about the previous decisions that they have
used as a precedent when reaching their judgment. There is no need for a judge to
provide details of why they have used particular evidence. To reach a decision, a judge
is not bound to establish facts, but must take responsibility to provide evidence to
support their own conclusions. At all grades, the criminal judiciary is bound to the
doctrine of freedom of proof and judicial understanding to reach decisions.
Article 209 of the CPL provides the judge with the power to identify what evidence is
to be considered material to the case. Article 209 was applied by the Emirates Federal
Supreme Court when it held ‘In criminal proof, the judge has the ultimate power to take
55
(n 26).
62
any evidence from any source to reach the truth …’.56 Accordingly, in the UAE Federal
justice system, evidence must be appraised by the judge, and, furthermore, the judge
must evaluate whether any contravention of the law has taken place such as to render
the evidence inadmissible.
The principles on which judges’ conclusions are based are also used in trials and by
other judges. This helps judges to assess, through using their own knowledge when
presiding over legal proceedings, whether the evidence is obtained from reliable
sources. The decision noted down by the judges in the court is to be based on truth and
fairness. Judges are required to review evidence, providing affirmation about the
appropriateness of the evidence for the prosecution. Article 179 of the CPL provides
that: ‘the court may of its own accord, during the examination of the case, order the
producing of any evidence deemed necessary to reveal the truth’. It is the duty of a
judge, before convicting an alleged perpetrator, to scrutinise the evidence and check
that it is sufficient to find a person guilty of the crime.57 During the prosecution stage,
all doubt relating to the evidence necessary to find the perpetrator guilty would be
interpreted. 58 For evidence to be acceptable in any case, it must, in essence, be
legitimate and judicially acceptable. The principle of legitimate and judicially
acceptable evidence adduced in criminal proceedings means that not only must criminal
procedure respect the rules of law, but also the suspect’s rights. Article 26 of the UAE
Constitution provides that:
‘Personal liberty is guaranteed to all citizens. A person may not be arrested,
searched, detained or imprisoned except in accordance with the provisions
of the law.
A person may not be subjected to torture or to degrading treatment’.59
To build a case on the evidence, it is important to present that evidence in the court
during proceedings. According to the provisions of Article 209 of the CPL, the case
document must include evidence that is presented before the judges during the course of
56
Criminal Case of UAE Federal Supreme Court No.50/2011date of decision 19th April 2011
unpublished.
57
Criminal Case of UAE Federal Supreme Court No.10/2011 date of decision 6th April 2011 unpublished.
58
Criminal Case of UAE Federal Supreme Court No.211/2010 date of decision 25th March 2010
unpublished.
59
The UAE Constitution, Article 26.
63
the trial.60 The evidence is collected during interrogation, trial, and investigation phases
respectively. Having such security measures in place confirms that judges have made
decisions in the light of professional learning, not on the basis of personal knowledge.
With this principle in place, the importance of oral pleading is enhanced, as judges will
arrive at their decisions and obtain understanding from the evidence unveiled before the
court. Oral pleading is conducted before the parties to a case.61 Therefore, judges need
to be given training on how to appraise new types of evidence, for example electronic
evidence.
The UAE’s legal position is somewhat similar to that in civil law jurisdictions. For
example, in some jurisdictions, judges are permitted to use all types of proof, 62 as
demonstrated in the following examples:
In France, Article 427of the Code of Criminal Procedure provides:
‘Except where the law provides otherwise, violations may be established by
any mode of proof and the judge decides by his personal conviction.
The court may not base its decision on evidence that it made during the
discussions and contradictory submissions discussed before him’.63
In Italy, Article 192(1) and (2) of the Code of Criminal Procedure provides:
‘Evaluation of the test;
I.
II.
The judge evaluates the evidence giving an account in the reasoning
of the decision and the criteria used.
The existence of a fact cannot be inferred from evidence unless it is
serious, precise and consistent’.64
In Germany, Section 261 of the Code of Criminal Procedure provides:
‘Free Evaluation of Evidence;
60
The Court of First Instance is presided over by one judge; the Court of Appeal is presided over by three
judges and the Court of Cassation and the Federal Supreme Court is presided over by five judges.
61
The UAE Criminal Procedural Law, Articles 165 to 170.
62
See: the relevant jurisdictional chapters for more detail in Stephen Mason, gen ed, International
Electronic Evidence (British Institute of International and Comparative Law 2008).
63
Criminal Procedure Code of the French Republic Inserted by Law No. 516-2000, Article 427.
64
Criminal Procedure Code of the Republic of Italy 1988, Article 192(1) and (2).
64
The court shall decide on the result of the evidence taken according to its
free conviction gained from the hearing as a whole’.65
It is for the judge to measure the extent to which an item of proof can be relied upon.
The selection of the type of evidence by the parties is therefore unfettered, regardless of
whether that evidence is in physical or electronic form. In contrast, in common law
jurisdictions, complex rules exist to govern evidence, based on both statute and case
law.66
To summarise, when deciding to accept evidence in a case, a judge’s professional
knowledge and understanding plays a vital role. The only disadvantage in this field is
that electronic evidence requires expertise at times, and not all legal professionals in a
case will have such skills. The courts in the UAE do not have equipment to evaluate
electronic evidence. There are no standards provided by legislation or the judiciary
against which evidence obtained can be compared. The UAE court also lacks relevant
rules, making the regulation of electronic evidence challenging.
Certainly, a better understanding of electronic evidence is pivotal for law enforcement,
and this requires systematic and modern methods to identify criminal behaviour and to
gather evidence, so that perpetrators can be brought to justice. In this context, it is
particularly important to confirm that electronic evidence has been gathered in a correct
way, when brought forward for the purpose of criminal proceedings. As the gathering
of electronic evidence relies on very different procedures to the traditional seizure of
physical goods by the police, and requires relevant technical expertise, it is important
that only skilled electronic evidence specialists are involved, and that standard
procedures are followed in order to ensure that electronic evidence is less subject to
challenge and being declared inadmissible.67
International co-operation is also pertinent, as very often websites, which may be used
to commit crimes, are located outside the UAE. Thus, it is desirable to adopt global
65
Criminal Procedure Code of the Federal Republic of Germany 1987, s 261.
For which see: Stephen Mason, gen ed, Electronic Evidence (3rd edn, LexisNexis Butterworths 2012)
for the following jurisdictions: Australia, Canada, England and Wales, European Union, Hong Kong,
India, Ireland, New Zealand, Scotland, Singapore, South Africa and the United States of America.
67
See generally: Arthur Cockfield, ‘Towards a Law and Technology Theory’ (2004) 30, 1 Manitoba Law
Journal 383-399.
66
65
procedures, similar to regional measures such as the European Council Directive on
Cybercrime,68 because this will enhance the prosecutor’s ability to secure, collect and
exchange electronic evidence. This will enable pursuance of a globally harmonised
approach, as all countries are affected in similar ways by cybercrime.69
It would be beneficial to have clearly defined rules on the subject of electronic
evidence, to specifically deal with its collection, presentation, preservation and how to
assess its weight. It would also be helpful to have agreed standards for the electronic
equipment that is used to copy electronic evidence. Introduction of these elements
would strengthen the integrity of the criminal justice system.70 Thereby allowing for the
adoption of a particular legal framework for crimes, as well as best practice guidance
for the investigation and prosecution and up-to-date handling of maintenance and
archival procedures,71 as well as procedures for how to present evidence in court; all of
which are significant elements when dealing with criminal acts.
2.1.4.2 Determining the role of the parties in providing evidence under the legal
system of the UAE 72
Under the Federal laws of the UAE, all facts must be proven by evidence. In criminal
proceedings, the prosecutor must prove their case beyond any reasonable doubt.73 They
must also establish that the accused intended to commit the crime. Article 5 of CPL
provides that: ‘The public prosecution is part of the judiciary; it investigates crimes and
directs indictments in accordance with the provisions of this Law’. Article 7 also
provides that the public prosecutor is responsible for initiating and proceeding with the
lodging of the criminal action. In fact, the burden of proof in criminal proceedings
alternates between the parties, much as it does in other jurisdictions, since Article 179
of the CPL provides that: ‘The court may of its own accord, during the examination of
68
Convention on Cybercrime (Budapest 23.XI.2001).
P. I. Yong, ‘New China Criminal Legislations in the Progress of Harmonization of Criminal Legislation
against Cybercrime’ (December 2011) Wuhan University China 5
<http://www.coe.int/t/dghl/cooperation/economiccrime/cybercrime/documents/countryprofiles/Cyber_cp
_china_Pi_Yong_Dec11.pdf> accessed 10th April 2013.
70
Ibid, 4.
71
Stuart Cameron, Digital Evidence (FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, August 2011) – note his references
<https://www.fbi.gov/stats-services/publications/law-enforcement-bulletin/august-2011/digital-evidence>
accessed 4th October 2013; see also Stephen Mason, (n 66) chapter 3 for further discussions and
additional references.
72
(n 26).
73
Reasonable doubt is doubt, which makes one hesitate as to the correctness of the conclusion.
69
66
the case, order the production of any evidence deemed necessary to reveal the truth’.
This article was applied by the Emirates Federal Supreme Court when it held: ‘… The
judge has the power to search for evidence to prove the fact’.74 In criminal cases, the
defendant is not asked to present evidence to prove his innocence: the prosecution must
establish evidence against the defendant. In contrast, the defendant has the right to
challenge the evidence and present his own evidence to refute claims that he committed
the alleged acts.75
For the purposes of investigation, an alleged perpetrator is required to provide the pass
codes for any lockers and his computer system to the authority. There are different
approaches involved here. The first is when the person who is charged is not liable to
provide security codes, to provide facsimiles of the documents stored in his computer,
or to insert a command to outstrip viruses. The second approach is when the accused is
required to give security information to access their safe, which only applies if
legitimate orders have been issued from the court. The second approach is of great
importance as it helps to obtain passwords, which can then be used to obtain additional
information during the investigation. This rule is applied where information is kept
safely in the safe, but is not password protected information held in electronic format. 76
In the UAE, only the first approach is applied when the accused is not required to
present evidence in order to prove their innocence. On the contrary, it is up to the
prosecution to prove that the accused is guilty.
Basic information about the legal and judicial system is essential in providing
background to explain and further understanding of the legal system, and how crimes
and electronic evidence are handled in the UAE.
2.2 Physical crime and cybercrime
Computers and networking technologies are used for routine work in developed
countries and this same trend can be observed in developing countries. A dramatic
information revolution has taken place over the course of the second half of the
74
Criminal Case of UAE Federal Supreme Court No.75/2011 date of decision 31st May 2011 unpublished.
The UAE Criminal Procedure Law, Article 2.
76
Abdel Fattah Hijazi, principles of the criminal proceedings in the computer and Internet crimes (Dar Al
Fikr Al jami Egypt 2006)198. (Author’s translation from the Arabic).
.198 ‫( ص‬2006 ‫ ﻣﺒﺎدي اﻻﺟﺮاءات اﻟﺠﻨﺎﺋﯿﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺟﺮاﺋﻢ اﻟﻜﻤﺒﯿﻮﺗﺮ واﻻﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ )دار اﻟﻔﻜﺮ اﻟﺠﺎﻣﻌﻲ ﻣﺼﺮ‬،‫ﻋﺒﺪاﻟﻔﺘﺎح ﺣﺠﺎزي‬
75
67
twentieth century, which continues, and is intrinsic to nearly every field: education,
finance, telecommunications, health care, businesses and government.77
ICT (Information and Communication Technology) has had an immense impact, and
the whole world has become a global village due to the internet, as the Internet connects
all countries.78 ICT does not only refer to collecting, transmitting and storing electronic
data and information, but also enables communication, broadcasting and computing.79
ICT is used to describe a combination of hardware and software; hardware is the
devices or machines, such as televisions, routers, phones, fax, switches and computers,
etc. and infrastructure such as fibre optic and landline cables, transmitters for radio
activity, systems with microwave technology and ground satellite stations. Software
covers applications and operating systems, as well as additional ICT features, which
exchange, store and process information and data. Expert human input is required for
the installation, operation, management and maintenance of software and hardware,
which in turn requires information, planning and designing.80
Therefore, electronic evidence has become extremely important for cybercrime
investigations. Nowadays, most documents are stored digitally, as the storage capacity
of hard drives has continuously increased and is also inexpensive. 81 Hence, large
quantities of information are stored electronically. 82 Any electronic documents,
including text, digital videos and pictures,83 can assist investigators in solving crimes
and therefore constitute important evidence at trial. 84 There are multiple types of
crimes, and this thesis recognises that electronic evidence can be implicated in both
cybercrimes and physical crimes. However, this thesis will focusing predominantly on
77
United Nations, ‘International review of criminal policy – United Nations manual on the prevention and
control of computer-related crime’ (1999) Global Centre for Information and Communication
Technologies in Parliament <http://www.ictparliament.org/node/2128> accessed 10th October 2012.
78
Ibid.
79
Jabiri Bakri, ‘A Holistic Approach for Managing ICT Security in non-Commercial Organization’
(DPhil thesis, Stockholm University Sweden 2007) 3.
80
Ibid.
81
Scott Giordano, ‘Electronic Evidence and the Law’ (2006) 6, 2 Information Systems Frontiers 161.
82
Chet Homer, ‘Proving the Integrity of Digital Evidence with Time’ (2002) 1, 1 International Journal of
Digital Evidence <www.utica.edu/academic/institutes/ecii/publications/articles/9C4EBC25-B4A3-6584C38C511467A6B862.pdf> accessed 4th October 2012.
83
Jill Kwiatkowski, ‘Can Juries Really Believe What They See? New Foundational Requirements for the
Authentication of Digital Images’ (2002) 10 Journal of Law and Policy 267.
84
Eoghan Casey, Digital Evidence and Computer Crime: Forensic Science, Computers, and the Internet
(3rd edn, Waltham Mass.: Academic Press/Elsevier 2011) 14.
68
electronic evidence in relation to cybercrime, rather than physical crimes; this does not
preclude the fact that electronic evidence pertains to cybercrime and physical crime.
It is furthermore important to distinguish cybercrime from computer crime. When a
computer is used to commit an offence, a cybercrime has been committed, whereas a
computer crime takes place when a computer, data, program or similar object is
targeted. 85 Accordingly, it is necessary to explain some of the similarities and
distinctions between physical and cybercrimes.
2.2.1 Physical crime and cybercrime: similarities and distinctions
Cybercrime and physical crime are similar, since unlawful activities are undertaken in
both cases and certain basic elements can be established.86 In relation to both kinds of
crime, one can identify three elements: a causal relationship, a result and conduct; 87
however, when a cybercrime is committed, the computer is used as the means to
commit the crime and the crime may also have global consequences. It is unnecessary
for the criminal to be close to the victims during an attack. Instead, the perpetrator may
be located in a different country. Another distinction is that cybercrime can take place
automatically and rapidly, affecting many victims simultaneously; it can also be carried
out anonymously. 88 Thus, when a person breaks into a home to steal something,
a physical crime takes place, whilst hacking into a computer or a network in order to
gain illegal access to files constitutes a cybercrime.
Fraud can be either a physical crime, or a cybercrime. When a person tries to profit
through dishonest or unfair means, or by breaching customer confidence or trickery,
a physical crime takes place, although when this takes place over the internet, this
fraudulent conduct constitutes a cybercrime. Another example is child exploitation.
When someone victimises minors for indecent reasons (i.e. abuse or pornography),
a physical crime is committed, whilst a cybercrime takes place if the criminal uses
85
Marc Goodman and Susan Brenner, ‘The Emerging Consensus on Criminal Conduct in Cyberspace’
(2002) 3 Journal of Law and Technology
<http://www.lawtechjournal.com/articles/2002/03_020625_goodmanbrenner.php> accessed 6th October
2012.
86
Susan Brenner, ‘Is There Such a Thing as "Virtual Crime"?’ (2001) 4, 1California Criminal Law
Review 1.
87
Ibid.
88
Report to Congressional Requesters, Cybercrime, Public and Private Entities Face Challenges in
Addressing
Cyber
Threats
US
Government
Accountability
Office
(2007)
<http://www.gao.gov/assets/270/262608.pdf> accessed 7th October 2012.
69
networks and computers to illegally victimise/abuse the minor(s).
Having differentiated between cybercrime and physical crime in general, it is now
apposite to look at the classifications of cybercrimes in the UAE.
2.2.2 UAE law and cybercrimes
It is important to assess whether the UAE law distinguishes between physical crime and
cybercrime. Cybercrimes are regulated by Federal Law No.2 of 2006 of the Prevention
of Information Technology Crimes (this law repealed and replaced by Federal Law
No.5 of 2012 on the Prevention of Information Technology Crimes), which outlaws the
following kinds of crime:
Threatening or blackmailing people to perform or not perform any act over the
internet.89 Intercepting, receiving or unlawfully eavesdropping on any communication
sent over the internet or any other technological device.90 Committing forgery of any
documentation that belongs to a corporation, local or federal public entity or the local or
federal government. 91 Gaining unauthorised access to any network or computer
system.92 Usually, all major cybercrime activity involves gaining access to a computer
or system without obtaining the consent of the person who either owns or is in charge of
the computer, system or network. Typically, a hacker gains access to the system or
network by copying and/or reading information, modifying data or information stored
and/or downloading data. 93 Sexual exploitation takes place when men or women
commit online acts of fornication or prostitution. 94 Concealing profit and money
laundering can also take place online.95
In cyberspace, one of the most profitable areas for criminals is computer fraud and
unfortunately, this takes many different forms. The most typical computer fraud
involves contractual crimes, credit card scams, offering fake jobs, etc. Computer fraud
is the act of stealing property, money, cheques, credit or services with the help of a
89
The UAE Federal Law No.5 of 2012 on the Prevention of Information Technology Crimes, Article 9.
Ibid, Article 8.
91
Ibid, Article 4 (1).
92
Ibid, Articles 2 (1), 5, 6, and 7.
93
David Bainbridge, Introduction to Computer Law (6th edn, Ashford Colour Press Ltd. 2008) 291.
94
The UAE Federal Law No.5 of 2012 on the Prevention of Information Technology Crimes, Article 13.
95
Ibid, Article 19.
90
70
computer.96 There are two types of computer fraud:

Data fraud is committed when an information technology machine, or the
internet, is used to obtain details and numbers associated with a credit card or a
similar card illegally.97

Money fraud is committed when the internet is used to steal money from
others.98
There are many ways to manipulate electronic devices illegally. The aforementioned are
the most prevalent, however, there are a range of other crimes that can be committed
using the internet or on any other technological device. For example, public morals are
prejudiced when the internet is used to arrange, produce, distribute or sell products,
which are contrary to public morals.99 A person’s or a family’s privacy can be abused
through the distribution of online news, and pictures, etc.100 Religious abuse can also
take place online. 101 Online access can be gained to websites and contents can be
modified or destroyed. 102 Not only this, but online access can also be gained to
confidential data or government held information. 103 The sale of narcotics can take
place online, or can be facilitated.104 Public order and morals can be disturbed online
through the promotion of ideas, which disrupt the peace.105 Terrorist organisations can
be assisted through websites or the sharing of information. 106 Websites can be
established for the purpose of human trafficking or to facilitate human trafficking.107
All of these matters are addressed by the law, thereby ensuring that many aspects of
cybercrime can be prosecuted. The issue is that most cybercrime is an expansion of a
conventional crime, it is only the medium that has changed. Therefore, it can be argued
that existing laws, which deal with traditional crime, are not inadequate and
96
Ibid.
Ibid, Article 11.
98
Ibid, Article 10.
99
Ibid, Article 12.
100
Ibid, Article 16.
101
Ibid, Article 15.
102
Ibid, Article 14.
103
Ibid, Article 22.
104
Ibid, Article 18.
105
Ibid, Article 20.
106
Ibid, Article 21.
107
Ibid, Article 17.
97
71
inappropriate, but just that combating cybercrime raises additional problems. The most
efficient way to combat cybercrime and all crime linked to computers involves focusing
on developing methods to collect electronic evidence.
2.3 The types and the nature of electronic evidence
Developments in cybercrime have added a new electronic and digital dimension, that is
making it difficult to apply traditional legal concepts. Millions of computer users
worldwide can easily utilise advanced technology for unlawful practices and it is
therefore important to explore in what ways electronic evidence differs from traditional
evidence. It is also important to distinguish evidence that displays class characteristics
and evidence that has individual characteristics, as it is only the latter that can be used
to link a criminal to the crime.108 This distinction is particularly important in relation to
cyberspace as users are often anonymous and trade is conducted without a unique
identification number. Whilst class characteristics can prove helpful in relation to
identifying whether electronic evidence has been deleted or encrypted, individual
characteristics can identify particular evidence, for example the unique number that a
printer assigns when a page is printed.109 Hence, “the value of class physical evidence
lies in its ability to provide corroboration of events with data that are, as nearly as
possible, free of human error and bias. It is the thread that binds together other
investigative findings that are more dependent on human judgments and, therefore,
more prone to human failings”.110 By classifying electronic evidence into categories, it
is easier to establish a case, since class evidence suggests that it was likely that a person
was involved, whereas individual characteristics establish a strong link between the
person, their electronic trail and the crime.
2.3.1 Types of electronic evidence
As per the manual issued by the USA Department of Justice (DOJ), log files, cookies,
metadata, and IP addresses are among the forms of electronic evidence generated by a
computer.111 This evidence is found on different programs, in various data and formats.
108
Eoghan Casey (n 84) 17.
Ibid, 18.
110
Richard Saferstein, Criminalistics: An introduction to forensic science (10th edn, Prentice Hall
2010)18-19.
111
See: USA Department of Justice<http://www.justice.gov/> accessed 7th October 2012.
109
72
It can be obtained from e-mail, social interaction sites, and from different websites.112
Certain multimedia gadgets like audio-video devices, digital photos and words must be
presented before the court. These forms of evidence can be either printed as a hard copy
or displayed via a projector screen. Some scholars divide electronic evidence into three
categories, namely: computer storage, hybrid, and computer generated evidence.113 All
three evidence-recording methods are explained from a diverse perspective. Kerr
explains that computer-stored evidence is based upon individual interference in
computer programmes. This programmer-based interference, such as word-processing
files, forms one type of electronic evidence. However, computer-generated evidence
has led to a generation of evidence not involving humans. This type of evidence
includes programs such as cookies and metadata, etc. 114 However, the third type of
evidence refers to a combination of both types above mentioned. The measures of
difference between various forms of electronic evidence are their integrity and
volatility.115
There are three different forms of cyber trails, each having specific characteristics.
These forms serve as a foundation stone for differentiating between two types of
electronic evidence, namely computer-generated and human-generated electronic
evidence. The first is explicit, though not printable: for instance metadata, net browsing
history or log files. The fragility of the evidence requires a special forensic tool
specified for proper treatment: such tools are needed for collecting, examining and
presenting in court. Admittedly, this helps when attaining accurate information because
it lacks human involvement. Careful scrutiny must be undertaken to ensure the absence
of interference during the process of collecting and examining evidence.116
The second form is referred to as explicit and printing-specific: for instance, powerpoint slides, digital pictures, Word, and Excel spread-sheets, etc. These types of
evidence are printable in their existing forms and have two advantages over computergenerated evidence. Firstly, they provide the law with the ability to address current
electronic
evidence.
Secondly,
they
make
112
comprehending,
addressing
and
Ibid.
Orin Kerr, ‘Digital Evidence and the New Criminal Procedure’ (2005) 105 Columbia Law Review 279.
114
Ibid.
115
Ibid.
116
Ibid.
113
73
differentiating between evidence relatively easy for the legislature.117
UAE legislation, for example, neither classifies electronic evidence nor addresses
evidence forms. It is useful to consider the kinds of evidence admissible in court. These
can generally be divided into three main categories. The first category is ‘documentary
evidence’, which originates from documents. The second category of evidence is
‘physical evidence’, which is derived from diverse sources, such as fingerprints,
photographs, handwriting and electronic machines. The final category is ‘expert
evidence’, i.e. evidence prepared by experts in the field, who provide their opinions at
trial. Thus, a question arises, regarding into which category the electronic evidence
falls, although answering this question is far from easy.
A. Electronic evidence as documentary evidence
The term ‘documentary evidence’ refers to evidence that is taken from a document,
which has been prepared during the investigation and may include direct or hearsay
evidence. A document may also be produced as real evidence. The normal
understanding of the word ‘document’ appears to require writing or some other mode of
inscription through which information is communicated. Some researcher118 consider
electronic evidence to be documentary evidence since ‘documentary evidence’ denotes
evidence in the form of text, symbols, drawings, etc. and its essential characteristics are
also no different to documentary evidence; as both help in establishing the case.
In the UAE, the words ‘document’ and ‘computer output’ are not defined by statute,
although the term ‘electronic document’ is defined in Article 1 of Federal Law No. 5 of
2012 concerning the Prevention of Information Technology Crime. 119 In the UK, 120
Section 13 of the Civil Evidence Act 1995 defines a ‘document’ as: ‘Anything in which
information of any description is recorded’. Hence, a broad definition has been adopted,
which also covers computer output.121
117
Ibid.
Such as: Peter Stephenson and Keith Gilbert, Investigating Computer-Related Crime (2nd edn, CRC
Press 2013).
119
See: section 1.8.1.
120
See also: the Singapore Computer Misuse Act of 1993, s 2 (1).
121
UK Law Commission Report, the Hearsay Rule in Civil Proceedings (Law Com No 216, 1993). The
Law Commission proposed a broad definition for the term “document”, so that any format is covered,
including computer-generated information.
118
74
However, electronic evidence is different from documentary evidence. Electronic
evidence is often in paper form as a medium, but expressed in writing in the form of
electronic evidence in text, graphics, and other electronic equipment electronic
information transformation processes. However, with documentary evidence, the
symbols are essentially different. Writing is not equivalent to documentary evidence;
expert conclusions, inquests and records, e.g. witness testimony can be expressed in
writing but it is not documentary evidence. In addition to writing, electronic evidence,
in the form of information held by the network server, smart card, IP Address, phone
SMS or camera pictures, can be used to help prove a case.122
B. Electronic evidence as physical evidence
‘Real evidence’ refers to evidence, which exists in a physical form and which can be
inspected and produced in court. Real evidence is found on a wide variety of physical
objects including fingerprints and handwriting, etc. each of which are obtained using
similar investigative processes.123 Some consider124 that electronic evidence constitutes
physical evidence, particularly if physical evidence is broadly construed. However, this
may not be persuasive for three reasons. Firstly, the term ‘physical evidence’ would
become too broad and would include types of evidence with different characteristics to
those in the physical evidence group. Secondly, electronic evidence is different from
physical evidence since it maintains its properties and is thus authentic. In contrast, the
physical evidence does not always retain its properties and authenticity. Thirdly,
electronic evidence is based on information, that is stored on computers and other
equipment and so the data has no physical form, whereas real evidence by definition
has a physical form. Thus, it is difficult to say whether electronic evidence is physical
or ‘real’ evidence.
C. Electronic evidence as expert evidence
Some researchers125 believe that electronic evidence constitutes expert evidence since it
122
See: section 2.3.2.
Hjn Rooyen, The A-Z of investigation: A practical guide for private and corporate investigators
(Crime Solve 2004) 8.
124
Such as: Eoghan Casey (n 84), and Debra Shinder and Michael Cross, Scene of the cybercrime (2nd
edn, Arlington: Syngress Publishing Inc. 2008).
125
Such as: Larry Daniel and Lars Daniel, Digital Forensics for Legal Professionals: Understanding
Digital Evidence from the Warrant to the Courtroom (Syngress 2011).
123
75
represents the conclusions of experts, particularly because electronic evidence is
scientific. However, others argue that expert reports only confirm the authenticity and
integrity of the electronic evidence and do not constitute reports on content.126
In conclusion, since electronic evidence is available in digital or binary form the
characteristics of this evidence make it extremely difficult to classify. It could be said
that electronic evidence is a mixture of several categories.
In the UAE, the choice of evidence is ordinarily unfettered and, in principle, any means
are permissible. However, the weight of evidence depends on the form of the evidence.
There are two forms of relevant evidence: direct such as the confession of the accused
and witness testimony and indirect, such as the fact that the accused was arrested whilst
carrying objects related to the crime. Direct evidence bears greater weight than indirect
evidence. With regard to electronic evidence or computer-generated evidence, the
question is generally one of evidentiary value: What value or weight should be attached
to the evidence? In the UAE, statute law does not provide any guidance on this issue;
but instead the court has to consider in each case how much weight it should attach to a
particular form of electronic evidence. Thus, electronic evidence is independent
evidence, that differs from other types of evidence and requires special attention.
Therefore,
it
is
important
to
consider
the
particular
characteristics
of
electronic evidence.
2.3.2 The nature of electronic evidence
It is vital for the court to identify the particular characteristics of electronic evidence.
Undoubtedly, the characteristics of evidence, electronic or physical, cannot be
compared as like for like, since each form has a different criteria. 127 Evidence in
electronic format has a number of features, which create challenges that are not found
in relation to physical evidence. The essential point about electronic evidence, which is
not readily understood by many judges, prosecutors and lawyers, goes to the complexity
of the topic and the nature of the characteristics of electronic evidence.128 By failing to
have a fundamental knowledge of the field, prosecutors and the electronic evidence
specialists responsible for investigating a case are in danger of committing serious
126
The examination and the expert report will further discussed in Chapter Four.
See: Stephen Mason, Electronic Evidence (n 66) chapters 1 and 2.
128
See: the result of the applied study on section 5.3.
127
76
errors. It is for this reason that judges, prosecutors, lawyers and electronic evidence
specialists should consider it vital that they begin to gather electronic evidence.
Consequently, it is essential to clarify some of the characteristics of electronic evidence,
as outlined below.
A. Electronic evidence is scientific evidence
Electronic evidence consists of data or information in an intangible electronic format,
which cannot be understood by applying natural human senses, but which requires
hardware and software to enable the data and information to be rendered readable. As a
result, a user cannot falsify or create data or information in electronic format without
proper hardware devices.129 A special characteristic of electronic evidence requires a
specific skill in the electronic evidence field. The expert should have expertise or skills
such as knowledge of hardware devices and software. Their expertise is extremely
crucial when establishing whether there is a loss of any electronic evidence due to using
any programs or tools or being destroyed. Thus, specialised training is of the greatest
value for forensic experts as a means of keeping up to date.130
B. Electronic evidence is variable evidence
Technological changes are taking place rapidly and electronic evidence is vulnerable, as
the IT environment can be variable, a fact that can affect discovery and disclosure.
Whilst eyewitnesses, fingerprinting and other evidence has been used in trials for
hundreds of years, the way in which such evidence is gathered and interpreted in legal
proceedings has hardly changed. This is in marked contrast with electronic evidence
that requires judges, prosecutors and lawyers to remain abreast of changes.131 It could
be argued that this characteristic of electronic evidence, and the rapid changes in
technology, make it extremely difficult to adopt specific procedural or evidentiary rules
for managing electronic evidence as new rules will swiftly become outdated. Following
this line of reasoning, it can be said that the absence of these rules could do more harm
than good. 132 Within the last decade, conducting criminal activities and gathering
129
Stephen Mason, Electronic Evidence (n 66) 28.
There are more than 69 worldwide universities and colleges lists by the Electronic Evidence
Information Centre offering tertiary qualifications in digital forensics.
131
Stephen Mason, Electronic Evidence (n 66) 29-30.
132
See: section 5.3.
130
77
criminal prosecution evidence is considered to be a constituent of both computers and
communication technology. No doubt, judges, lawyers, investigators and prosecutors
face criminal issues pertaining to electronic evidence. Admittedly, certain new features
of electronic evidence are making old laws obsolete and impracticable. Although judges
can conduct an evaluation and acceptance of electronic evidence, they will be unable to
judge electronic evidence confidently, due to short provisions and guidance.
Consequently, appropriate legislation must be presented for tackling electronic
evidence. Technology is growing rapidly and as it does, the rules are also evolving.
C. Electronic evidence can be transmitted and replicated
Electronic evidence can be transmitted and replicated, in contrast to physical evidence.
For example, documentary based evidence exists in the physical world and is sent by
one party to another, by courier or postal service, it is also uncopied.133 In contrast,
electronic evidence in the digital world can be sent to an unlimited number of
individuals via telecommunications and computer networks. This phenomenon is
described as networked communication. In essence, electronic evidence is a duplicate
and can be copied.134 The volume of information or data, which has to be inspected for
the prosecution to establish a case, can often be enormous.135 The ability to copy and
transfer electronic evidence does not only cause jurisdictional issues, but also
introduces problems in relation to its gathering and preservation. In this regard, Rashid
Lootah Head of the Electronic Evidence Unit at the Criminal Evidence and
Criminology Department- Dubai Police said:
There is no doubt that electronic evidence has a different nature from other
evidence. As an example, fingerprints indicate the offender’s presence in a
place and do not need an explanation or analysis. However, it is not easy to
determine electronic evidence locations. It needs more searches and
analysis.136
133
Ross Anderson, Security Engineering (2nd edn, Wiley Publishing Inc. 2008) 78.
George Paul and Jason Baron, ‘Information inflation: Can the legal system adapt?’(2007) 13, 3
Richmond Journal of Law and Technology 1-41.
135
For an estimate of the volume of data, see: ‘How much information?’ (2000) University of California
at Berkeley <http://www2.sims.berkeley.edu/research/projects/how-much-info/> accessed 27th January
2012.
136
See: translated transcript of the interview with Major Lootah in Appendix 5.
134
78
D. Electronic evidence is challenging
Investigators encounter several challenges when they deal with electronic evidence, as
most information is usually found on a system comprising many layers; and only a
small amount of the data held will be important for the purpose of the investigation.137
In addition, electronic evidence does not represent original evidence, but is only an
abstract version of the evidence and the entirety of which may be irretrievable. 138
Moreover, where evidence has been changed or deleted, the level of abstraction is
further increased and the added abstraction can result in mistakes. 139 Electronic
evidence is usually circumstantial evidence, as for example another individual may
have used the computer. 140 Another challenge for investigators to overcome, occurs
where there is an element of evidence dynamics that impacts on electronic evidence.
For example, data can be overwritten or the time on all files can be falsified, so that
reconstruction and documentation of evidence becomes more difficult. 141 Additional
problems encountered by investigators include the fact that electronic evidence is often
stored in different locations, for example on cloud computing systems located in
different countries, or on other computers; and that the amount of data stored may be
substantial.142 More fundamentally, cybercrime is executed by powerful computers and
is extremely difficult for investigators to identify offenders, which in turn renders it
much more difficult to trace and evaluate electronic evidence.
E. Electronic evidence contains embedded information
Unlike physical evidence, electronic evidence can provide information about the time
and date that changes were made, when a copy was printed and can also help in tracing
the person who created the record; whereas a paper record does not generally provide
information as to its history.143 As a result, electronic evidence is inherently richer in
information than physical evidence,144 providing metadata. 145 Metadata also provides
137
Eoghan Casey (n 84) 25.
Ibid, 25.
139
Brian Carrier, ‘Defining digital forensic examination and analysis tool using abstraction layers’ (2003)
1, 4 International Journal of Digital Evidence 3-5.
140
Eoghan Casey (n 84) 26.
141
Ibid, 27.
142
Ibid, 32.
143
Amanda Ngomane, ‘The Use of Electronic Evidence in Forensic Investigation’ (DPhil Thesis,
University of South Africa 2010) 34.
144
Ibid, 35.
138
79
information about events; regarding the time when documents came into existence.146
This additional metadata may also be employed to assess whether certain theories,
proposed by either the defence or prosecution, are true.147 Undoubtedly, there are many
other differences between physical and electronic evidence, which impact on the
applicable procedures governing gathering and investigation. Thus, it is necessary to
understand the methods that can be employed in order to investigate cases involving
electronic evidence.
2.4 The criminal investigation of cybercrime and physical crime: procedural
aspects of UAE’s legal system
Criminal investigations are a prerequisite for criminal proceedings, in that the purpose
of an investigation is to instigate the legal process.148 Therefore, a criminal investigation
is an organised, systematic way of investigating the truth,149 which commences upon
the commission of a crime and continues until the beginning of legal proceedings.150
Thus, investigation leads to prosecution.151
In any crime, misconduct can be detected through a detailed investigation by
management, an internal auditor reviews, internal controls and notifications from
employees and customers. Conversely, investigation and detection involves the process
of identifying and tracking electronic evidence in a digital world. Evidence can take
many forms, for example charts, graphics, diagrams, tunes, images and sounds. This is
also referred to as an electronic trail, and can be important evidence due to its probative
value.152
Whilst the detection of cybercrime can be fraught with difficulties, it is possible to
establish a link between individuals and online activities and to perceive the internet as
145
Mark Krotoski, ‘Effectively Using Electronic Evidence Before and at Trial’ (2011) 59, 6 United States
Attorneys' Bulletin <http://www.justice.gov/usao/eousa/foia_reading_room/usab5906.pdf> accessed 13th
October 2012.
146
Ibid.
147
Ibid, 54.
148
Ross Gardner, Practical crime scene processing and investigation (2nd edn, Taylor and Francis 2011)1.
149
Hjn Rooyen (n 123) 25.
150
C. Joubert, ed, Applied law for police officials (3rd edn, Juta Legal and Academic Publishers 2009) 223.
151
Hjn Rooyen (n 123) 25.
152
Fred Galves and Christine Galves, ‘Ensuring the Admissibility of electronic evidence forensic
evidence and enhancing its probative value at trial’ (2004) 1, 19 Criminal Justice Magazine
<http://www.americanbar.org/publications/criminal_justice_magazine_home/crimjust_cjmag_19_1_elect
ronic.html> accessed 17th February 2012.
80
an extended crime scene.153
In the UAE, the investigation of physical crime or cybercrime is governed by Federal
Law No.35 of 1992 concerning the Criminal Procedure Law. The UAE’s CPL outlines
several provisions, which authorise the police to report criminal cases, gather
information, take statements, carry out searches of premises and equipment, seize
evidence, execute summons and warrants and conduct prosecutions. Part III of Chapter
II of the UAE’s CPL gives the prosecution the power to investigate criminal cases,
including the right to attend court. The investigative process is always the same,
irrespective of whether cybercrimes or conventional crimes are being investigated.
However, the issue raised is whether it is sufficient to rely on the prosecution to
investigate the case, especially since the UAE’s CPL is more suitable for noncybercrime offences. Therefore, we should ask: to what extent does the UAE’s CPL
cover cybercrime cases?
Regarding the first point, cybercrime investigators maintain that the UAE’s CPL is
comprehensive and sufficient for the purpose of cybercrime investigations. For
instance, the requirement to record how evidence has been gathered, as well as the
investigation process itself is a requirement under Chapter II of the UAE’s CPL,154
which has to be strictly adhered to; relevant procedures must be followed using the
prescribed forms. However, there are no UAE laws requiring that the recovery process
for electronic evidence be only undertaken by authorised persons such that there, is no
interference with the electronic evidence.
Whilst electronic evidence is recognised by common rules, no distinction is made
between evidence produced by a computer and original statement documents.
Therefore, the UAE’s CPL should be followed when a crime is being investigated and
electronic evidence collected. As crime investigations can be complex, it is also
important to develop specific procedures for investigating electronic evidence. For
example, the investigation phase could be divided into the following five phases: (1)
using early triage steps to focus on key events and transactions, (2) identifying leads
from both the forensic examiner and the agent, (3) addressing user attribution issues, (4)
153
154
Eoghan Casey (n 84) 29.
The UAE Criminal Procedure Law, Articles 30-138.
81
filling gaps in the evidence, and (5) proving events abroad.155 The first phase ensures
that voluminous data is rendered more manageable. Through discussions between the
parties, during the second phase, evidence is exchanged. The third phase focuses on
who the owner of the computer is and who the author was, and the fourth phase assess
evidentiary gaps. Meanwhile, the last phase is useful when there is an international
element to the crime, and also to establish a timeline.156
However, as the UAE’s CPL does not currently detail any particular procedures for the
search and seizure of electronic evidence, the police can choose what action they take.
Normally, the police visit the physical location where an incident took place in order to
collect information and to document the crime. The complainant’s statement, witness
statements and possibly statements of any suspects are recorded as required under Part
III of the UAE’s CPL. Relevant devices and equipment are then transferred to the
Forensic Laboratory for further examination and to extract evidence. This process is set
out in the UAE’s CPL and applies to all crimes and all evidence. It is therefore
important to supplement the CPL by detailing procedures for gathering and seizing
electronic evidence. Judge Al Kaabi said regarding this:
In reality, we used the general rules; in some cases it is difficult to apply
these rules for electronic evidence. Electronic evidence is different from
other evidence, so we face some challenges when used these rules.157
Unlike the UAE, in the UK, the Association of Chief Police Officers (ACPO) has
developed a Good Practice Guide for Digital Evidence, which details procedures for
evidence recovery, search and seizure processes, disclosure and the preservation of
evidence. 158 Similarly, in 2003, Australian authorities adopted ‘Guidelines for the
Management of IT Evidence’ for computer-based crime and which address important
topics, such as rights, custody, investigation, management and evidence.159
Whilst cybercrime has persistently increased, law enforcement agencies, as well as the
judiciary have struggled to cope with the peculiarities arising from electronic evidence,
155
Mark Krotoski (n 145) 55.
Ibid, 55-58.
157
See: translated transcript of the interview with Judge Mohamed Al kaabi in Appendix 5.
158
Association of Police Chief Officers (ACPO) ‘Good Practice Guide for Digital Evidence’ (March
2012).
159
Standards Australia Handbook: HB- 171: Guidelines for the Management of IT Evidence.
156
82
and the problem is likely to be compounded if legislation does not close existing
regulatory gaps.
Thus, it is particularly important to assess how far existing common rules and principles
can be applied to cybercrime cases, which rely on electronic evidence. The gathering,
conservation, communication and presentation of electronic evidence has to comply
with the rules and principles governing evidence and electronic evidence. Electronic
evidence, that contravenes these rules and principles, since it has been obtained through
unlawful means, has to be declared inadmissible in order to preserve the integrity of the
UAE’s criminal justice system. For example, it is important that it clarifies whether the
particular searches, which are undertaken, have to be clearly stated in any search
warrant and to confirm which search protocols have been followed; whether any search
can be conducted; or whether a particular team has to be set up to provide certain
information, i.e. to filter the data and furnish only what is permitted by the warrant.160
Similarly, the weight of electronic evidence is negated or decreased if the integrity of
security has been breached, the electronic evidence has been changed or the evidence
has been contaminated.161
2.5 Conclusion
Technological advances have given rise to crimes in a great variety of forms. This
chapter has provided a brief overview of the legal system in the UAE, discussed the
development of the UAE’s Criminal Procedure Law, including Federal Act No. 35 of
1992 concerning criminal procedure and its amendment, as well as Federal Act No. 5 of
2012 on the Prevention of Information Technology Crimes, and has concluded that
rules and procedures must be developed for handling electronic evidence as it is
becoming more common. Public companies should also be subjected to standard
regulatory checks, for example, by regularly gathering electronic evidence, thereby
subjecting industry sectors to more vigorous scrutiny. This could increase corporate
160
Howard Cox, ‘Recent Developments and Trends in Searching and Seizing Electronic Evidence’ (2011)
59, 6 United States Attorneys' Bulletin 72-73
<http://www.justice.gov/usao/eousa/foia_reading_room/usab5906.pdf> accessed 13th October 2012.
161
Richard Boddington, Valerie Hobbs and Graham Mann, ‘Validating digital evidence for legal
argument’ (2008) Edith Cowan University Australia 3
<http://ro.ecu.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1041&context=adf > accessed 23th October 2012.
83
accountability and safeguard against corporate fraud.162
It is also important that underreporting of crime is addressed, particularly since
companies often fear that reporting crime will be detrimental to a company’s reputation
and financial standing, as it diminishes investor/shareholder trust. However, if crime is
not reported and investigated, criminal behaviour continues. Despite this, many
companies often prefer to pursue civil proceedings, as only the civil burden of proof has
to be supported, although electronic evidence still plays an important role and the same
holds true in relation to audits.
The remainder of the chapter reviewed the types and characteristics of electronic
evidence and found that electronic evidence takes on different characteristics from
physical evidence. Finally, the chapter examined crime investigation, as well as the
procedural aspects that currently govern crime investigations in the UAE, and
concluded that it is important that rules and procedures be specifically developed for
electronic evidence, particularly for gathering evidence, as electronic evidence gives
rise to new facts, which in turn require new regulations. 163 For example, traditional
search and seizure rules are conceptualised on the premise that a property is searched
and items retrieved; however, in relation to computer searches, the police has to first
seize the device/computer and subsequently carry out a search of that device/computer,
meaning there are two stages.164 It is also important that any new criminal procedural
rules are also in line with existing investigative procedures.165 In this context, it is also
important to take inspiration from other countries, which face the same difficulties, in
order to promulgate the most suitable criminal procedure rules for handling electronic
evidence.166
162
Linda Volonino, ‘Electronic Evidence and Computer Forensics’ (2003) 12, 27 Communications of the
Association for Information Systems 2
<http://faculty.usfsp.edu/gkearns/Articles_Fraud/Fraud_Deterrence.pdf> accessed 23th October 2012.
163
Orin Kerr ‘Digital Evidence and the New Criminal Procedure’ (n 113) 62.
164
Orin Kerr, ‘Search Warrants in an Era of Digital Evidence’ (2005) 75 Mississippi Law Journal 85.
165
Brian Carrier and Eugene Spafford, Getting Physical with the Digital Investigation Process (2003) 2, 2
International Journal of Digital Evidence.
166
Orin Kerr, ‘Digital Evidence and the New Criminal Procedure’ (n 113) 62.
84
CHAPTER THREE: REGULATION OF ELECTRONIC EVIDENCE IN CIVIL
LAW AND COMMON LAW SYSTEMS: A CASE STUDY OF CHINA AND
ENGLAND AND WALES 1
Recent dynamic changes in technology have significantly affected the characteristics of
transactions, and the storage and exchange of information and intelligence, with almost
all information now being saved or exchanged in electronic form. 2 Important
information can now be saved electronically using electronic tools, which can be a good
source of evidence. In particular, taking the relevance of data into consideration this
would lead to the finalisation of relevant facts and solve pertinent issues. Moreover,
numerous crimes can now be committed by employing electronic means using the
internet, as highlighted in the previous chapter.
The significant increase in electronic documents, dealings, crime and fraud is affecting
many different sectors. 3 Different jurisdictions are experiencing difficulty with the
management of electronic evidence. There are some specialised rules in place, but many
states still utilise traditional rules of evidence, particularly in relation to documents, and
then implement corresponding analyses. Even those countries with specialised rules are
still facing a number of obstacles. It is important to work on certain omissions that
would not have been thought of previously, because technology tends to keep evolving
and such changes cannot be forecast in legislation.
The consequence of the dearth of specialised or comprehensive rules suggests that the
nature of the legal system, and the jurisprudence of any state will have a substantial
impact on the rules for administering electronic evidence.4 This chapter investigates
how electronic evidence is regulated by the two legal systems; the common law and the
civil law systems. It is important to recognise that while there are some prominent
features distinguishing the two legal systems, there may not be noticeable similarities in
particular rules in areas where laws extend across territories that belong to the same
legal system. For example, Brazil, Germany and France are traditionally civil law
1
Scotland and Northern Ireland have different legal systems and are not the same as England and Wales.
Jill Anderson, Neil Williams and Louise Clegg, The New Evidence Law: Annotations and Commentary
on the Uniform Evidence Acts (2nd edn, Sydney: LexisNexis 2009) 105.
3
Ibid.
4
Ibid.
2
85
jurisdictions. However, these countries do not have identical rules of evidence as each
country frames its own rules to suit its legislative intent and judicial values. 5 In the
same way, the UK, the US, Canada and Australia are all characteristically classified as
common law jurisdictions, although the rules of evidence are exclusive to each country
and depend on statutory provisions and standards set out by each countries’ courts.6 For
ease of discussion, and because of imbalance, the researcher has decided to contrast the
regulations pertaining to electronic evidence in common law countries with that in civil
law countries. To achieve this a case study will be discussed for each jurisdiction.
England and Wales will represent common law jurisdictions, while China will represent
civil law jurisdictions. Both countries were selected on the basis that each has
prominent characteristics associated with common law and civil law systems
respectively.
The object of this chapter is to produce an organised study that addresses the regulation
of electronic evidence across the two systems. Some may argue that China and England
and Wales might not be examples of best practice for each jurisdiction; notwithstanding
they are valuable examples, as there are many significant lessons to be learned from
both. 7 The problems in each system concerning the presentation, acceptability,
verification and authentication of evidence are also investigated. The study will also
ascertain the advantages and disadvantages of each system, offering information
regarding how each model deals with the process of gathering, analysing and presenting
electronic evidence.
3.1 Common law jurisdiction: England and Wales
England and Wales follow the common law system. This fact has played an important
role in spreading this jurisdiction internationally, as the system was disseminated to
other countries during the era of colonisation. Court proceedings in England and Wales
are mostly adversarial, particularly at the discovery stage and when the prosecutor is
formulating the trial issues.8 The main feature of English law is the obligation of the
5
Matthew King, ‘Security, Scale, Form and Function: The Search for Truth and the Exclusion of
Evidence in Adversarial and Inquisitorial Justice Systems’ (2001) 12 International Legal Perspectives
185-192.
6
Ibid.
7
See: section 3.7.
8
See: Gary Slapper and David Kelly, The English Legal System (9th edn, London: Routledge-Cavendish
2009) Chapter 1.
86
lower courts to follow the decisions of the higher courts, under the principle of stare
decisis.9 In this case, the doctrine of judicial precedent is followed, which recognises
the need to follow the previous ruling from a higher court whenever similar matters
arise. Judges in England and Wales are active in finding solutions that support legal
lacunae. The principle of stare decisis and judicial activism make it compulsory to
scrutinise any statutory provision closely, with relevant judicial precedents, to find out
the actual legal position on any issue. Many laws controls on admissibility of evidence
have been formed through judicial precedent and laws made by judges. All the courts
are supposed to follow the decisions of the Court of Appeal and Supreme Court,
because of the quality of the principle of the judicial precedent from these sources.10
3.2 Civil law jurisdiction: China
There is no agreement as to whether China is a civil law jurisdiction; however, it there
is agreement that it is definitely not a common law jurisdiction.11 For this reason, before
categorising and sampling the People’s Republic of China (PRC) as a civil law
jurisdiction some explanation must be given. Classification of the PRC as a civil law
jurisdiction did not agree by some scholars. From the top-down view of law, Jane Fu
argues that the PRC is a common law legal system. One expressive source that China
has to access to a common law jurisdiction is Hong Kong legal system which is
jurisdiction based on common law and has continued to enjoy rule of common law after
returning to China.12 He believed that since the reform and opening up policy which
was applied since the 1980s, China started to look into the common law jurisdictions
especially in the areas which are related to the business and economy issues.13
According to Peerenboom the Chinese legal system could be characterized as common
law with respect to political law issues, family law and professional law with respect to
commercial cases.14
9
John Langbein, ‘Historical foundations of the Law of evidence: A view from the Ryder sources’ (1996)
96, 5 Columbia Law Review 1168-1194.
10
Charles Arnold-Baker, The Companion to British History (3rd edn, Loncross Denholm Press 2008) 484.
11
John Quigley, ‘Socialist Law and the Civil Law Tradition’ (1989) 37 American Journal of Comparative
Law 781-792.
12
Jane Fu, Corporate Disclosure and Corporate Governance in China (Kluwer Law International 2010)
12.
13
Ibid.
14
Randall Peerenboom, ‘The X-Files: Past and Present Portrayals of China’s Alien Legal System’ (2003)
Global Studies Law Review 47.
87
However, studying the rulings of the court in comparison to the literature confirms the
view that the PRC is a civil law jurisdiction. When a law or rule is decreed by the
legislative arm (National People’s Congress, NPC) or the NPCs Standing Committee,
then the Court’s explanation of rules and laws is restricted. Courts cannot rule on the
legitimacy, validity or constitutionality of a rule or law.15 This is in accordance with
civil law traditions. The court’s role over the application of laws is restricted, rather
than delivering active interpretation, as it ad confines the court’s law making powers.16
In accordance with the Resolution on Strengthening the Legal Interpretation of Laws,
and also of the PRC's Constitution it is only the authority of the Standing Committee for
the National People’s Congress that is a legislative division.
The PRC's Constitution makes the court accountable to the NPC. It is not possible for
Chinese courts to practice active judicial interpretation due to the lack of a separation of
powers.17
Chinese court practices are typically interrogational, with judges playing a leading role
during court case and trial, including the taking of evidence. For example, in Chinese
civil procedures, judges make a substantial proportion of decisions. The parties and the
court are not restricted to what the parties have pleaded, while in common law
jurisdictions parties are restricted by the proceedings in the content of their pleadings.18
When it comes to the presentation and admission of evidence, judges in Chinese courts
reserve the choice to inspect evidence at any phase of the proceedings, without having
to wait for a single evidence-taking phase, as is usually the routine with common law. It
is a prominent feature of a typically civil regime to lay more stress on substantive
justice than on procedural technicality. This is in contrast with the common law regime.
As Zhong and Yu stated:
‘It is the aim of the Chinese civil court to find out the "objective truth"
completely. This would mean that the truth found out by the court and the
facts given must be compatible with each other. The court is supposed to
look into, investigate and find evidence to prove a certain fact when a party
15
Peter Corne, ‘Creation and Application of Law in the PRC’ (2002) 50 American Journal of
Comparative Law 369-396.
16
Ibid.
17
Jianhua Zhong and Guanghua Yu, Establishing the Truth on Facts: Has the Chinese Civil Process
Achieved This Goal? (Florida State University College of Law 2004) 413-416.
18
Margaret Woo, ‘Law and Discretion in the Contemporary Chinese Courts’ (1999) 8, 3 Pacific Rim Law
and Policy Journal 588-589.
88
is not able to do so. Thus, the court has to check all the appropriate facts
even if they haven't been claimed or are undisputed’.19
Therefore, throughout the court case and trial phase, judges are involved participants
and are able to undertake a detailed questioning of the parties or witnesses, so as to
collect evidence. The main feature of the civil law system is active participation, as was
mentioned above. Legally qualified professional judicial officers oversee all of the
issues dealt with in Chinese courts, because Chinese courts have no jury or assessor
system and have restricted exclusionary rules of evidence.20 This is typical of a routine
civil law jurisdiction, and signifies the commitment of the Chinese court to the ‘free
evaluation principle’, which is fundamental to the civil law system.
The lack of stare decisis is another characteristic of China’s legal principles that places
it within the civil law system is that stare decisis is not a principle of China’s
jurisprudence. 21 But like many other contemporary civil law countries, the Chinese
courts have developed a form of practical stare decisis. The Supreme People’s Court,
the country’s highest court, provides descriptions to the lower courts on how law should
be interpreted and applied. 22 There are two major reasons for this. First, while the
Supreme People’s Court has the power to interpret the law, it shares this power with
both the legislative body and the executive branch; this shared responsibility has led to
inconsistent interpretations. Second, the Chinese courts are more concerned with
substantive justice than with consistent results, so even given the Supreme People’s
Court’s suggested interpretations, precedent is not a concept the Chinese view as
dominant.23
3.3 Electronic evidence regulation in civil law and common law systems
The positions of the PRC and England and Wales as typical civil law and common law
jurisdictions respectively, have been recognised. This section will now study the rulings
19
Jianhua Zhong and Guanghua Yu (n17) 437- 438.
Mo Zhang, ‘International Civil Litigation in China: A Practical Analysis of the Chinese Judicial
System’ (2002) 25, 59 Boston College International and Comparative Law 93.
21
June Dreyer, China’s Political System: Modernization and Tradition (8th edn, Pearson 2011) 173.
22
Jianhua Zhang and Guanghua Yu (17) 437.
23
Ibid, 437–438.
20
89
on electronic evidence in the two countries. This section begins with an overview of
electronic evidence rulings in both countries. Then the legal status in close reference to
comparable concepts of evidence is compared and contrasted in both systems.
3.3.1 An overview of electronic evidence regulations in England and Wales
The most significant legislative provisions to this research are found in the UK’s Civil
Evidence Act 1995. The law in the England and Wales identifies and indirectly
provides for electronic evidence; however, there is no specific law for electronic
evidence and no express or direct reference to electronic evidence in England and
Wales statutes per se. Discussion regarding the position of England and Wales’s on
electronic evidence rulings must be based on the general rules of evidence. An example
of this is Section 20 (1) of the Police and Criminal Evidence Act of 1984 which states
that evidence includes ‘any information stored in any electronic form contained in a
computer’. This certainly means electronic information, which brings electronic
evidence into the jurisdiction of general rules of evidence.
3.3.2 An overview of electronic evidence regulation in China
The courts of the People’s Republic of China usually follow the basic laws and
principles of Chinese evidence law to decide upon the implementation, admissibility
and management of electronic evidence. This is because the PRC has no focused or
comprehensive regulatory system for handling electronic evidence. For this reason, to
understand the regulations on electronic evidence in the PRC, as a civil law jurisdiction,
there are key procedural laws to understand court proceedings, including presentation
and admission of evidence. The two key procedural laws are: (a) Civil Procedure Law
of the People's Republic of China24 and (b) Criminal Procedure Law of the People’s
Republic of China, which regulates criminal procedure.25
There are also some regulations that are not thorough, but are important in the
assessment, admissibility and probative value of electronic evidence. This is because
24
Civil Procedure Law of the People's Republic of China [China]. Adopted at the Fourth Session of the
Seventh National People's Congress on 9th April 1991 and promulgated by Order No. 44 of the President
of
the
People's
Republic
of
China
on
9th
April
1991
<http://www.china.org.cn/english/government/207343.htm> accessed 23th January 2013.
25
Criminal Procedure Law of the People's Republic of China [China]. Adopted by the Second Session of
the Fifth National People's Congress on 1st July 1979, and amended pursuant to the Decision on
Amending the Criminal Procedure Law of the People's Republic of China adopted by the Fourth Session
of
the
Eighth
National
People's
Congress
on
17th
March
1996
rd
<http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ddbcd4e7.html > accessed 23 January 2013.
90
they are relevant to several elements of electronic evidence. These comprise the
Certification Authority Regulations and the Electronic Signature Law of the People’s
Republic of China (referred to as the Electronic Signature Law). The Certification
Authority Regulations have provisions associated with verification and certification.
These are the main matters affecting the admission of documentary evidence, including
those in electronic form. The Electronic Signature Law allows for the admissibility of
electronic evidence and thus has an effect on authentication as a concept of evidence.
Certain provisions of these laws and the exact way in which they control electronic
evidence are observed below comparative to the England and Wales electronic evidence
regulation.
Besides the current enacted laws, decisions made in the China Supreme People’s Court
would be considered as playing a crucial role in understanding and explaining the
legality and admissibility of electronic evidence. This is because it has been observed
that while China as a civil law jurisdiction does not maintain the concept of judicial
precedent and state decisis, the judicial interpretations that have been given by the
China Supreme People’s Court on the rules of electronic evidence remain powerful and
persuasive legally. The procedural laws have clear specifications related to conditions
for admissibility. This is why the court interpretation is of greater value for assessing
the probative force of the electronic evidence presented. The law tends to give judges a
wider option from which to discover information based on all evidence presented.
3.4 A comparison of electronic evidence regulation: selected aspects
The following comparison and contrast between the two judicial systems discusses only
those few cases of evidence that are comparable between the systems. This is for two
reasons. Firstly, the scope of the law of evidence is so extensive that in this limited
study it is not possible to discuss all elements of the law in relation to electronic
evidence regulation in both systems. Secondly, it is a challenge to compare or contrast
two systems, as each system does not have exactly equal or contrasting regulatory
provisions. Civil law systems, as represented by the PRC and common law systems, as
represented by England and Wales, have different, but also some similar requirements
which electronic evidence must meet in order to be admitted in court. Provided below
are the requirements mentioned in the procedural laws of the two countries.
91
3.4.1 Scope and admissibility of electronic evidence: England and Wales
There is a basic rule in relation to documentary evidence that only original documents
can be presented, except when it can be proven that it is appropriate to the situation of
the case to allow an exception. It is also stated that electronic documentary evidence
consisting of computerised communications, including e-mails, are subject to the
documentary rules of evidence.26
In 1993, the Law Commission recommended eight points for consideration by the
Government relating to hearsay evidence. The recommendations were fully accepted
and adopted within the Civil Evidence Act, issued in November 1995.
Section 1 of the Civil Evidence Act 1995 provides that:
1. ‘In civil proceedings evidence shall not be excluded on the ground that it
is hearsay.
2. In this Act:
a) ‘Hearsay’ means a statement made otherwise than by a person while
giving oral evidence in the proceedings which is tendered as
evidence of the matters stated; and
b) References to hearsay include hearsay of whatever degree.
3. Nothing in this Act affects the admissibility of evidence admissible apart
from this section’. 27
Sections 2 to 6 of the Civil Evidence Act 1995 imposed a number of safeguards and
supplementary provisions with regard to the admissibility of hearsay evidence.
However, no statutory regulation regarding the probative value of hearsay evidence has
been provided.28 Thus, electronic evidence falls under the hearsay rule but computerproduced evidence may be regarded as either real or hearsay, depending on the facts of
the case. 29 For example, a computer printout was regarded as real evidence in the
26
See: Peter Murphy and Richard Glover, Murphy on evidence (12th edn, Oxford University Press 2011).
235.
27
Civil Evidence Act 1995, s 1.
28
Steven Teppler, ‘Digital data as hearsay’ (2009) 6 Digital Evidence and Electronic Signature Law
Review 9-24.
29
The computer evidence does not fall comfortably within the traditional classifications of evidence.
Nevertheless, a confession made online is admissible under s.76 of the Police and Criminal Evidence Act
1984. Furthermore, a confession will be excluded if the prosecution does not disprove beyond reasonable
doubt any claim that the confession was either obtained by oppression of the person who made it, or “in
consequence of anything said or done which was likely, in the circumstances existing at the time, to
render unreliable any confession which might be made by [the defendant] in consequence thereof”. See:
Colin Tapper, Computer Law (4th edn, Longman 1989) 375.
92
Sapporo Maru (Owners) v Statue of Liberty (Owners) 30 and R v Wood,31 while in the
DPP v Bignall 32 the printout was regarded as hearsay.
The court in England and Wales has been given broader options to decide the degree to
which documentary evidence can be presented. This was undertaken through the Civil
Evidence Act 1995, which included a legislative amendment to the documentary rules
of evidence. This led to a change of focus, from stressing the original as a standard for
acceptability as evidential value.33 The acceptability of evidence is linked to the weight
of the electronic evidence and its actual evidential value according to the Civil
Evidence Act 1995. This is mentioned in Sections 8 and 9 of the Civil Evidence Act,
which provides a basic guideline for the admission of any document for the purposes of
presenting evidence in the court. Section 8 of the Act provides as follows:
‘(1) Where a statement contained in a document is admissible as evidence in
civil proceedings, it may be proved(a) By the production of that document, or
(b) Whether or not that document is still in existence, by the production of a
copy of that document or of the material part of it, authenticated in such
manner as the court may approve.
(2) It is immaterial for this purpose how many removes there are between a
copy and the original’.34
As long as the document is authenticated, this provision allows the use of any document
with evidential value to prove pertinent facts in civil court proceedings. In civil
30
[1968] 1 WLR 739. In this case, the record of radar readings showing the location of two ships involved
in a collision is real evidence. The readings were automatically recorded by mechanical devices without
human intervention. ‘Mechanical’ means ‘automatic’ and includes electrical, electronic and chemical
methods of recording as opposed to just mechanisms made up of machines.
31
[1982] 76 Cr App R23. In this case, the computer printout of a calculation was put forward by a chemist
who had performed an analysis on a metal stolen by the accused, which was admissible as real evidence
because the computer was used as a calculator. While in R v Spiby [1990] Crim App R 186, the telephone
printouts from the hotel’s computer, which had automatically logged the lifting of the phone receiver and
the making of the call, were admissible as real evidence.
32
[1998] 1 Cr App R 1. In this case, the respondents (two police officers) were charged with hacking
under s.1 of the UK Computer Misuse Act 1990 and were convicted by the Magistrate’s court. On appeal
to the Crown Court, the officers contended that their use of a computer even for private purposes was not
an unauthorised access offence under s.17 (5) of the UK Computer Misuse Act 1990. The court allowed
their appeal. The prosecutors then appealed to the Queen’s Bench. This appeal was dismissed. The
Queen’s Bench held that no offence committed under s.1 of the Computer Misuse Act 1990. The
respondents had the authority to access this under s.17 (2) (s) and (d) of the Computer Misuse Act 1990.
Therefore, they did not fall within s.17 (5) and thus, they had not committed an offence.
33
See: Hodge Malek, Jonathan Auburn and Roderick Bagshaw, Phipson on Evidence (17th edn, Sweet and
Maxwell 2010).
34
Civil Evidence Act 1995, s 8.
93
proceedings, the parties do not have to authenticate any form of evidence unless the
opposing party requires them. This means that at the disclosure stage, providing both
parties do not challenge the authenticity of the evidence, the evidence is admitted and
the judge accepts the evidence as being reliable.35
Obiter dicta of English judges appears to prove that the best evidence rule is no longer
of any value in civil cases. For example, Parker LJ in Masquerade Music v
Springsteen36 stated as follows: ‘(i) in my judgment, the time has come when it can be
said with confidence that the Best Evidence Rule, long since on its deathbed, finally
expired’. 37 Although this view was held, it may not be regarded as a final judicial
interpretation, but points rather towards the court’s willingness to raise reliable and
legitimate secondary evidence to equal primary evidence. Through Section 8 (2) of the
Civil Evidence Act 1995, moves between an original and a copy will affect
acceptability as long as the copy is legitimate.
There are some additional guiding principles related to electronic evidence in Section 9
of the Civil Evidence Act 1995. These relate specifically to cases where original or
physical evidence has been modified into electronic form. The section provides as
follows:
‘(1) A document, which is shown to form part of the records of a business
or public authority, may be received in evidence in civil proceedings
without further proof.
(2) A document shall be taken to form part of the records of a business or
public authority if there is produced to the court a certificate to that effect
signed by an officer of the business or authority to which the records
belong’.38
Acceptance of records, without any constraint of form, allows electronic data to be part
of the records and therefore brings electronic evidence within the capacity of Section
9’s regulation of evidence. To prevent any type of uncertainty, Section 9 (4) explains
the meaning of records as ‘records in whatever form’.39 Extensive judicial discretion in
relation to Section 9’s provision are to be found in Subsection 9 (5), which permits the
35
Stephen Mason, Electronic Evidence (3rd edn, LexisNexis Butterworths 2012) 317.
[2001] EWCA Civ 563.
37
Ibid.
38
Civil Evidence Act 1995, s 9.
39
Ibid, s 9(4).
36
94
court to order that some provisions of the section will not be implemented.
Consequently, the subsection states: ‘the court may, have regard to the circumstances of
the case; direct that all or any of the above provisions of this section do not apply in
relation to a particular document or record, or description of documents or records’.40
The English (Divisional) High Court noted that the rule only applied to written
documents, not to tapes or films, by taking the stance that, whenever an original
document does not exist then it should be not accepted (Kajala v Noble).41 The ruling
was linked to acceptability of a videotaped copy of original news footage by the BBC,
and this is what Ackner LJ said:
‘The best evidence rule had been completely ruled out by the board now,
whereby only the best evidence had to be presented in court. What remains
of the rule is that original documents are required when they are available.
In such a case, secondary or copy of the document would not be enough.
Therefore, at present, the rule of the board is not limited to the best
evidence. In fact, all appropriate evidences can be submitted… In our
judgment, the old rule did not encompass videos or tapes and was limited to
written records, while in the new rule videos and tapes are included and the
positivity or negativity of evidences affects weight and not present
ability’.42
Later in R v Governor of Pentonville, ex p Osman, Lloyd LJ stated that the best
evidence rule had become a rule of practice or procedure.43
The Criminal Justice Act 2003 also brought about a change in relation to criminal trials,
whereby it simply removed the best evidence rule in criminal processes. Section 133 44
of the Act provides:
‘Where a statement in a document is admissible as evidence in criminal
proceedings, the statement may be proved by producing either (a) the document, or
(b) (whether or not the document exists) a copy of the document or of the
material part of it, authenticated in whatever way the court may approve’.45
40
Ibid, s 9(5).
[1982] 75 Cr App R 149.
42
Ibid.
43
[1990] 1 WLR 277, DC.
44
Section 27 of the Criminal Justice Act 1988 has similar provisions.
45
Criminal Justice Act 2003, s133.
41
95
However, observers have remarked that the English and Welsh courts currently place
less emphasis on the original than ever, and even electronic evidence is being admitted
into criminal courts without proper authentication.46
Originality of documents is a key issue when presenting documentary evidence when
working with the best evidence rules in England and Wales. Section 9 of the Civil
Evidence Act 1995 imposes that documents tendered are correct for records of public
authority or a business. It also calls for the production of a certificate of authenticity
signed by the corporations and businesses to which the records belong. Section 9
provides:
‘(2) A document shall be taken to form part of the records of a business or
public authority if there is produced to the court a certificate to that effect
signed by an officer of the business or authority to which the records
belong’.47
Normally, the Civil Evidence Act 1995 presents no thorough guidelines regarding how
validation of a document should be done. This makes it a judicial option to decide the
approach and standards through which the legitimacy of documents in doubt should be
decided.
3.4.2 Scope and admissibility of electronic evidence: China
The wide range of records that can be presented as evidence in Chinese courts is
apparent in their definition of evidence and also in the statutory specification of what
can be categorised as evidence for use in civil and criminal trials. It is stated in Article
42 of the Chinese Criminal Procedure Law that: ‘All facts that prove the true
circumstances of a case shall be evidence’. 48 This shows that the criterion for the
admittance of evidence in China is easier than that for England and Wales, which are
comparatively more constrained. Whether electronic material would be sufficient
evidence is not stated in Criminal Procedural Law. However, this can be understood by
the general definition, which accepts any fact proving the true conditions of a case as
suitable evidence. In Yang Chunning v Han Ying the Beijing Hai Dian District People's
46
For which see: the IALS Think Tank proposal to the Law Commission
<http://ials.sas.ac.uk/news/IALS_Think_Tank.htm> accessed 30th October 2013.
47
Civil Procedure Act 1995, s 9 (2-3).
48
The Chinese Criminal Procedure Law, Article 42.
96
Court accepted evidence of text messages to prove a contract for a loan and noted that
the name in the text message was an electronic signature.49
It was further accepted in Article 42 that ‘video and audio materials’ which are
basically electronic materials are good evidence.50 Civil Procedure Law is also more
thorough in its listing and acceptance of a broad range of types of evidence. Three
classifications that seem to match electronic evidence under Chinese Civil Procedure
Law comprise: ‘material evidence, audio-visual reference material and documentary
evidence’.51 Verification appears to be the main measure for admissibility. In criminal
cases there is a provision that verification is required for any evidence to be used before
being admitted as proof of any fact. In addition, in civil cases admission of audio visual
evidence has more judicial discretion, as is shown in Article 69 of the Civil Procedure
Law which states that: ‘The people's court shall verify audio-visual materials and
determine after examination whether these can be taken as a basis for ascertaining the
facts’.52
In many situations, electronic evidence, instead of being primary or original evidence,
has taken the form of secondary evidence. This is because of the common nature of
electronic evidence as reproducible, and the ease of converting physical evidence into
electronic form (for example by way of scanning). However, this leads to doubt as to
the extent to which Chinese laws would accept electronically reproduced evidence.
Article 69 of Chinese Civil Procedure Law relates to this issue; it states:
‘Any document submitted as evidence shall be the original one. Material
evidence shall also be original. If it is truly difficult to present the original
document or material, then reproductions, photographs, duplicates or
extracts of the original may be submitted’.53
Article 69 of the Chinese Civil Procedure Law is comparable to the Common Law Best
Practice principle of presenting evidence. This is an essential characteristic of common
law rules of evidence, as mentioned in the Code of Practice on Legal Admissibility and
49
Yang Chunning v Han Ying (2005) hai min chuzi NO.4670, Beijing Hai Dian District People’s Court.
For more information about this case, see: Case Translation: (2008) 5 Digital Evidence and Electronic
Signature Law Review 103–105.
50
Ibid, Article 42 (7).
51
The Chinese Civil Procedure Law, Article 63(1-3).
52
Ibid, Article 69.
53
Ibid, Article 68.
97
Evidential Weight of Information Stored Electronically (referred to as the BSI Code of
Practice) and Sections 8 and 9 of the UK’s Civil Evidence Act 1995.54 As per the BSI
Code of Practice the following standards must be achieved to enable electronic
evidence to be used: ‘the authenticity, integrity and availability of electronically stored
information, to the demonstrable levels of certainty required by an organisation’.55
In England and Wales the judge has the discretion to decide how and by whom the
authentication is handled. In contrast, China has strict regulations concerning the
authentication and verification of documents. Authentication has only to be undertaken
by a Certification Authority, which is a government agency, or by Certification Service
Providers, which are organisations assigned and authorised by the government to
conduct third party certification and the verification of authenticity. It could be said that
this is beneficial because the authentication and verification processes are given to
experts found in the certification agencies. For example, only organisations properly
licensed by the National Government’s nominated regulatory agency, Ministry of
Information Industry (MII), can conduct authenticity verification, as stated under the
Electronic Signature Law.56 This is in contrast to the position in England and Wales,
where judges with a lack of extensive knowledge of electronics retain the right of
discretion to evaluate and conclude whether and how authentication should be
performed. It is stated in Section 9(2) of UK’s Civil Evidence Act 1995:
‘(2) For the purposes of paragraph (2)-57
(a) A document purporting to be a certificate signed by an officer of a
business or public authority shall be deemed to have been duly given by
such an officer and signed by him; and
(b) A certificate shall be treated as signed by a person if it purports to bear a
facsimile of his signature’.58
54
Standards Institution (BSI) BIP0008, the ‘Code of Practice for Legal Admissibility and Evidential
Weight for Information Stored Electronically’ (BIP0008).
55
Ibid.
56
Law of the People’s Republic of China on Electronic Signature (“Electronic Signature Law” or “ESL”)
Order No. 18 of the President of the People’s Republic of China. For more information about the
Electronic Signatures Law of China see: Minyan Wang and Minju Wang, Electronic Signatures Law of
China, translation and introduction (2005) 2 Digital Evidence and Electronic Signature Law Review 79 –
85.
57
In reference to (2), which mandates these bodies or officers to authenticate their documents.
58
Civil Evidence Act 1995, s 9 (2).
98
In brief, China allows public authorities and officers of businesses to participate in the
authentication and verification of documents initiating from them. Conversely, in
England and Wales, the rule is that there is a presumption that documents from a public
authority are presumed to be correct, but it does not prevent another party calling into
question whether the document is actually correct.
3.5 The process of gathering, analysing, preserving and presenting electronic
evidence in the England and Wales compared to China
Before distinguishing between the advantages and disadvantages of each system it is
necessary to illustrate the roles that an investigator may have with respect to the
gathering, analysing and presentation of electronic evidence in criminal proceedings in
China’s and England and Wales’s legal systems.59
The common rules for evidence in China guide the process of gathering, analysing and
presenting electronic evidence. In contrast, in England and Wales the handling of this
evidence is guided by the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 (PACE). Reference is
also made to the Association of Chief Police Officers (ACPO) guidelines, which are
recommended steps for the procedure of gathering, analysing and presenting electronic
evidence in order to ensure it is acceptable in a legal case. The guidelines require that
parties collecting any evidence should not tamper with the evidence stored on an
electronic device. Original data can be accessed by a third party as long as they are
experts and can explain their actions. Finally, any process performed on the electronic
evidence should be preserved for verification by a third party.
Although the regulation of electronic evidence in China and England and Wales is not
at the same level, the process of gathering, analysing and presentation is almost
identical. For the evidence to be acceptable in a legal case the process should be
carefully undertaken in order to avoid tampering with the original information. In China
the evidence rules advocate that evidence presented should be in its original
state.60Aside from issues over the admissibility of electronic evidence, the weight of
original evidence in a legal case is crucial. In England and Wales a judge might
determine whether an item of evidence is authentic first, and then remove it from the
case if they determine that it is not authentic. Once evidence is admitted, it is the
59
60
The scope of this thesis is limited to electronic evidence in the criminal proceedings.
The Chinese Civil Procedure Law, Article 69.
99
members of the jury who decide whether the accused is guilty of the allegations or not.
The members of the jury do not determine the authenticity of the evidence. In addition,
Section 78 of the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 (PACE) is an exclusionary
rule exercised by the judge.61
3.5.1 Search and seizure process for electronic evidence
Nelson noted that evidence gathering is a complex and expensive process that depends
upon the type of evidence to be gathered.62 There are two main methods used in the
process of gathering electronic evidence. One is the use of searches, raids or
inspections, which are performed by those agencies undertaking the process of
gathering. Some agencies confiscate digital information, while others make a copy or
take images of the digital information. 63 In England and Wales searches, raids or
inspections are permitted by search warrants; and this system also operates in China.64
Rules governing these searches are stated under PACE 1984 part II. Different chapters
of PACE 1984 part II explain what an officer can do under different circumstances.
In China, the Criminal Procedure Law governs the gathering process. Under Chinese
criminal procedure law judges, prosecutors and investigators have the authority to
gather evidence.65 Recently according to the amendments in criminal procedure law, the
authorities responsible for gathering evidence can obtain help from a technical expert or
institution if necessary. 66 Confiscation is a widely used method in China because it
retains the originality of the evidence.67
With regard to copying and detaining data, the Chinese use rules prescribed for video
and voice data. However, in 2010 a new judicial explanation detailed special
stipulations in respect of copying, collecting and preserving electronic data. 68 With
61
See: Rupert Cross and Colin Tapper, Cross and Tapper on Evidence (12th edn, Oxford 2012).
See: Sharon Nelson, Bruce Olson and John Simek, The Electronic Evidence and Discovery Handbook:
Forms, Checklists And Guidelines (New York: American Bar Association 2006) 1-2.
63
Ibid.
64
See: the Chinese Criminal Procedure Law, Articles 109 -113.
65
Ibid, Article 43.
66
Ibid, Article 10.
67
Adam Cohen and David Lender, Electronic Discovery: Law and Practice (2nd edn, London: Aspen
Publishers 2011) 101.
68
PI Yong, ‘New China Criminal Legislations in the Progress of Harmonization of Criminal Legislation
against Cybercrime’ (2011)
<http://www.coe.int/t/dghl/cooperation/economiccrime/cybercrime/documents/countryprofiles/Cyber_cp
_china_Pi_Yong_Dec11.pdf> accessed 10th January 2013.
62
100
regard to the seizure of electronic evidence, the Chinese have special rules dealing with
mail and telegrams. 69 In England and Wales, seizure is permitted by Section 19 of
PACE, 1984. Section 20 of PACE extends the authority of seizure to computerised data
or information. It also depends on the level of authority the gathering agency has, as
there are some agencies that do not have the authority to confiscate. Finally, the consent
of the party being investigated can be given consideration in some cases.
The other method used in the gathering process is compelled discovery. This occurs
where the party being investigated is asked to produce the required information. This is
in contrast to search, raid and inspections in which investigators search for the
evidence. The Criminal Procedure and Investigations Act 1996 (CPIA) covers the
disclosure method in England and Wales. Later, in 2007 the Investigation of Protected
Electronic Information: Code of Practice was published to deal with encrypted
materials. The Code provides guidance that can be followed when requiring the
disclosure of protected electronic data.70 In this case, the company or individual being
investigated is supposed to produce the evidence in a format, which is acceptable in
court. This method is commonly applied in cases where additional information is
required after a search, inspection or raid is performed.71
Using the above methods there are steps that must be followed in order to ensure that
the evidence collected is valid for use in a legal case, and to prevent any alterations.
Firstly, one must try to stop any attempt at evidence destruction by the party being
investigated. For example, in a case where emails are to be used as evidence the
automatic delete feature can be disabled. If investigators suspect that there are some
deleted files then hard drives can be confiscated. This right exists under PACE, 1984
Section 19. This applies mostly when using the raid, inspection and search method.
The second important step in this process is the identification of data relevant to the
legal case. In a case where the search or raid method is used, after ensuring that all data
destruction possibilities are eliminated then the evidence gathering team has to
determine where the evidence may be located.
69
See: the Chinese Criminal Procedure Law, Article 116.
See: Investigation of Protected Electronic Information: Code of Practice, Paragraph 3.12.
71
Ronald Rivest, The MD5 Message Digest Algorithm (MIT Laboratory for Computer Science 1992) 21.
70
101
Once the requisite data has been gathered the professionals collecting it are supposed to
examine the process followed and determine if it was forensically correct. If so, then the
last step before starting to analyse the data is to make a copy of the evidence collected
for security purposes. This ensures that during the analysis process any procedure
performed on the evidence does not cause alterations to the original data, and if it does,
that the original can be used as proof. Finally, the custodian of the evidence should be
known from the analysis stage until presentation. In China, the gathering process has
been a disadvantage in many legal cases, because alteration mostly occurs at this stage
and then leads to nullification of the evidence.
3.5.2 Preservation process for electronic evidence
The People’s Republic of China has no specialised and comprehensive regulatory
regime for preservation electronic evidence. In dealing with electronic evidence preexisting Chinese evidence rules are applied.72
In the case of England and Wales, The Good Practice Guide for Computer Based
Evidence, which was initially published by the Association of Chief Police Officers in
England and Wales in 2009, provides more precise guidelines. This later became known
as the ACPO Guide and is of great help to investigators dealing with various kinds of
electronic evidence, covering some areas such as internet, video and CCTV evidence as
well. Guidance for the forensic examination of computers is also contained in this
document, along with the methods for copying a disk, giving the investigators detailed
insights into the gathering of electronic evidence and concerning how to deal with it.
Audit trails, biometric data, application logs, application metadata, badge reader logs,
intrusion detection system reports, internet service provider logs, network traffic,
firewall logs, transaction records and database contents are among the kinds of
electronic evidence that an investigator must learn about.
It is also noted in this document that mobile devices, mini computers and portable
media players and gaming consoles can contain evidence. This can be an issue for the
forensic expert, as knowledge that is more technical is required to deal with such
evidence, though the guidelines for dealing with this type of evidence are established.
Investigators may also have to deal with cases that involve substantial servers, storage
72
The Chinese Civil Procedure Law, Article 74.
102
devices, and evidence on different networks; this requires technical skill and expertise.
This is a challenge that many investigators have to face, even though the process of
handling this evidence is not clearly spelled out by current best practice guidance. This
makes it particularly crucial to have better and more detailed insights into forensic
science and how to use it properly, which makes it difficult for investigators to possess
the necessary skills and knowledge necessary for all the techniques and scenarios.
However, it is true that one person cannot know everything, and therefore knowing
when to ask for help is essential. Because of this, the ACPO Guide contains an entire
section discussing when the investigators must seek help. A document cannot possibly
include all possible scenarios, as various cases may need different approaches that have
not been incorporated in the document. There is no separate section pertaining to
investigations on the internet, but it is recommended in the document that the
investigator should have knowledge of this area.
It is extremely beneficial for evidence to be forensically sound. That is, the accuracy
and validity of the original data must not be lost when handling the electronic evidence.
The following are the four principles suggested by the ACPO Guidelines on how
electronic crime scenes should be dealt with:
Principle No 1: The data that has been acquired and is in the computer or on any
storage device should not be edited by any action that the agencies of law enforcement
or its agents make, as the court relies upon it.
Principle No 2: If any person accesses the original data from the computer or the
storage device that has been seized as evidence, then they must give a valid explanation
for doing so.
Principle No 3: It is necessary to save the audit trail and other means that are used to
obtain the electronic evidence, in order for the third party to have a detailed insight
about the process used.
Principle No 4: The officer in charge of the case must make sure that all the laws and
principles are abided by.
Although it may not be possible for the investigators to apply all these principles in all
103
cases, it is still necessary for them to know them. In contradiction of Principle No. 1, in
practice it is not possible to use an original system without causing any changes to it if
one wishes to collect electronic evidence. However, the originality of the evidence is
not questioned if Principles No.2 and No.3 are abided by. If any piece of information is
changed due to the investigator accessing it, this must be documented and proper skills
and expertise are required to do so.73
3.5.3 Analysis process for electronic evidence
Analysis refers to the process of interpreting the gathered evidence and putting it into a
coherent and meaningful format. The process determines the importance of the
evidence in a legal issue. Depending on the type of case, electronic evidence has to be
analysed by a forensic expert before it is presented in a court of law. Analysis of
electronic evidence should not be done on the original evidence in order to avoid any
alterations. There are different types of analyses that are undertaken on gathered
evidence before it is presented in a court.
The first type of analysis is the determination of the time when the events in the
gathered evidence occurred; this is referred to as timeframe analysis. This is important
in a case where there is the need to associate the use of the electronic device to an
individual at a particular time. Another type of analysis is undertaken to discover and
recover hidden data; this is referred to as data hiding analysis. All information related to
the issue is gathered during the evidence gathering process. In the analysis stage the
applicability of the information is determined in a process called application analysis;
this also determines the relationships between files.74
Finally, in some case, an analysis is undertaken in order to determine the individuals
who may have used an electronic device at a particular time. In this case the responsible
parties can be identified even if they are unknown. The steps above should lead to a
conclusion about the gathered evidence in relation to the legal case in question. After
drawing a conclusion based on the analysis process the expert involved is required to
document their findings for presentation in a court of law. In China the use of
73
Eoghan Casey, Digital Evidence and Computer Crime: Forensic Science, Computers, and the Internet
(3rd edn, Waltham Mass.: Academic Press/Elsevier 2011) 232.
74
See: Joan Feldman, Essentials of Electronic Discovery: Finding and Using Cyber Evidence (New York:
Glasser Legal works 2003).
104
professional agencies like KPMG are used for analysis electronic evidence. 75 In
England and Wales, ACPO has set out guidelines on examination and analytical
procedures for electronic evidence.
3.5.4 Presentation process for electronic evidence
The presentation process involves explaining the analysed evidence in a simple manner
so that all interested parties can understand. The law of evidence in China requires a
forensic expert.76
In England and Wales PACE, 1984 Section 81, provides for advanced notification of
an expert to be present to a court of law. All the steps followed in the analysis should be
written down in a comprehensive format for presentation. Presentation is made to the
jurisdiction and also to any interested audiences. The forensic expert should present
detailed findings, supporting documents and a glossary. If, during the gathering and
analysis process there was a process that altered the original data this should be
explained during the presentation stage.77 It should also be proven that precautions were
taken to prevent any additional materials affecting the original data.
When presenting electronic evidence to the court it is very important to be able to
account for what has happened from the time the evidence was gathered to the time a
forensic expert examined it. This is why possession of the evidence should be known at
all times. Failure to account for the whereabouts of the evidence at any one time may
mean there have been alterations and thus invalidation.
During presentation of electronic evidence the analysis steps and results should be
presented together with the evidence analysed. The documents help the court determine
the validity of the evidence. Under PACE, 1984 Section 78(1) the evidence can also be
termed invalid. Both the prosecution and defence counsel use documents to find points
to prove legally. In England and Wales, this is referred to as points to prove. As the
documents are presented to an interested audience, it is crucial to make the evidence
understandable in order for it to be effective. This is done by communicating the
75
For further information about KPMG’s work in this regard, see:
<www.kpmg.com/CN/en/IssuesAndInsights/ArticlesPublications/Documents/digital-evidence-recovery0906.pdf> accessed 16th April 2013.
76
The Chinese Civil Procedure Law, Article 61.
77
See: Rupert Cross and Colin Tapper (n 61) 541-542.
105
meaning of the evidence in laymen’s language.
3.6 Evaluation of each model with regard to electronic evidence regulations
A number of advantages and disadvantages affecting each system, particularly in
relation to the regulation of electronic evidence have been presented above. The
advantage of the England and Wales common law active judicial interpretation is its
flexibility and ability to adapt in a way that leads to impartial and just results. However,
this active judicial interpretation can also be a reason to revert to doctrines that cause a
hindrance when obtaining justice. As depicted in the Kajala v Noble case, discussed
above, the English court generally considers the best evidence rule to be no longer
applicable, thus it has now been removed. 78 However, shortly after this case an
exception to the rule was brought in stating that when the original document exists then
it should be presented in the court instead of the secondary one. Such exceptions to the
general rule cause uncertainty to litigants, since a litigant would not be able to forecast
the outcome. Such exceptions are quite typical of common law systems.
This differs from civil law where the court will usually apply the law as it stands to the
particulars of the case. The limited systematic exceptions to general rules help achieve a
better understanding of the law for those litigants who might want to use electronic
evidence in their cases. Moreover, with the civil law position, the result would be
comparatively easier to forecast because there is barely any judicial activism and the
courts usually implement the law as it is, following a plain and ordinary application of
meaning.
Both systems of jurisdiction have benefits and drawbacks in terms of their requirements
for the authentication and verification of electronic documentary evidence. As
demonstrated by England and Wales’s position, the Common law allows for a
presumption of regularity that can be challenged. The discretion of the judge in
authentication and verification allows them to control the proceedings to a broader
extent. The judge can also alternate with easier means of authentication, whenever the
suggested method becomes challenging or excessively unsatisfactory to litigants. This
leads to minimal bureaucracy and backlog of documents to be verified. 79 Conversely, in
78
See: section 3.4.1.
By way of example, see the article by Stephen Mason, ‘Electronic evidence: A proposal to reform the
presumption of reliability and hearsay’ (2014) 30 Computer Law and Security Review 80-84.
79
106
the civil law system, as demonstrated by the Chinese position, where expert and
particular authentication agencies carry out verification and authentication neither
litigants nor courts have substantial control.
The executive agencies or certification organisations are given a significant role in
judicial processes by the civil law position. When these agencies are slow to carry out
their roles, either due to bureaucracy or work backlog, then the same delay will also
occur affecting the proceedings of the court. However, an advantage of the civil law
position is that reliability of authenticity is guaranteed. This is through the participation
of expert agencies that use experts with capable skills to verify the authenticity of
electronic documents. Electronic evidence is a product of complicated technology.
Giving powers to a judge, who might not have the necessary knowledge of how that
technology works, could lead to unreliability.
From the discussion it is clear that electronic evidence has a wide range of definitions in
various regions. There are no specific rules governing the process of gathering,
analysing and presenting electronic evidence as these vary from one region to another.
This is an advantage in England and Wales and China, and the world at large.
Improving technology has helped a great deal when solving criminal cases. Whilst the
process may be a solution to many issues in legal cases, one of the major disadvantages
is that it is a very expensive process.
Gathering evidence is the most crucial stage. If care is not taken at this stage, the
evidence can be termed as invalid due to simple mistakes. Due to this, different regions
have guidelines for the performance of this process. For instance, we have the ACPO
guidelines in England and Wales and KPMG forensic technology services to ensure a
successful process of gathering, analysing and presenting electronic evidence. The
analysis is crucial. If an expert is not able to relate evidence to the legal issue in
question then it is useless. Finally, if the presentation is not effectively made then the
other two stages are pointless because the jurisdiction has to be convinced by the
presentation. All three stages must be undertaken effectively if electronic evidence is to
be termed valid for resolving a legal issue.
3.7 UAE lessons from comparative approach
Some may argue that England and Wales and China may not be the best international
107
models with regard to the regulation of electronic evidence. However, there are many
lessons to be learned from each country. The regulation of electronic evidence is not
confined to one legal system or a specific geographic area, but it is a worldwide issue.
The previous discussion of the regulation of electronic evidence in different legal
systems seeks to establish that each system faces the same issues and each are seeking a
solution. The overwhelming presence of electronic evidence in England and Wales and
China encourages each seek to implement solutions to those problems which have
emerged. The ‘macro-comparison’ approach used in this chapter aims to offer many
lessons for the UAE to learn from the experiences of England and Wales and China in
this field. The first lesson can be learnt from England and Wales in relation to the
gathering, preservation, analysis and presentation of electronic evidence. As
exemplified by the specialised and specific methods set as reference when dealing with
electronic evidence within legal rules in the English and Welsh model.80
In general, crime may be explained by the concurrence of three factors: motivation,
opportunity and the absence of regulation. Presently, in the electronic era, crimes have
shifted from their traditional conception, with the rapid proliferation and astuteness of
digital technology. In the absence of guidelines in the UAE, there should be procedures
in place to help lawyers, prosecutors, judges, investigators to deal with electronic
evidence, once it is agreed that obtaining and seizure of such evidence is necessary.
There are a set of published guidelines, which spell out the basis of how to handle
electronic evidence properly. This could prove to be a huge support for investigators
seeking to fulfil their requirements regarding the collection of evidence. Further to the
ACPO guide there are many others such as; the Electronic Crime Scene Investigation:
A Guide for First Responders which is a set of guidelines published by the U.S
Department of Justice (USDOJ) in 2001.81
Many sources of electronic evidence are referred to in this guide, in particular how
certain evidence should be dealt with. Best Practices for Seizing Electronic Evidence: A
Pocket Guide for First Responders is was published by the US Secret Service in 2006.82
80
The situation in the UAE will be further discussion in Chapter Four.
See: Forensic Examination of Digital Evidence: A Guide for Law Enforcement
<https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/199408.pdf> accessed 11th January 2013.
82
See: Best Practices for Seizing Electronic Evidence v.3A Pocket Guide for First Responders
<http://info.publicintelligence.net/usssbestpractices.pdf> accessed 11th January 2013.
81
108
This guide details electronic crimes in which computers have been used and could serve
as a foundation on which to create a standardised operating procedure. This is also of
immense help for obtaining a better perception of how to detect electronic evidence
exhaustively, ensuring that a convenient method is adopted which makes the
investigation error free.
Due to the various challenging situations that may arise with regard to electronic
evidence, it is necessary for the investigator to use forensic science principles in
accordance with various situations. The guidelines for guaranteeing that electronic
evidence is gathered, stored and investigated properly are presented. However,
eliminating and reducing the risk of error is mandatory when selecting a proper method
to handle electronic evidence in court. Lessons can also be learned from the
requirements for authentication and verification of electronic documentary evidence in
each system and their advantages and disadvantages.
3.8 Conclusion
This chapter discussed the rules concerning electronic evidence in civil law systems and
common law systems through means of a case study of the People’s Republic of China
and England and Wales as respective representatives of each system. Recently the use
of electronic evidence has increased tremendously leading to alterations in different
jurisdictions and legal systems concerning the rules of evidence to enable utilisation of
electronic evidence. Most of the major and similar points in relation to the acceptability
of electronic evidence in both systems have been noted. Some dissimilarities were also
illustrated, due to the general interpretative traditions of the two systems.
As per the above study, the English and Welsh and Chinese laws relating to the
acceptability of electronic evidence, principally where there are (electronic) copies of
the original would be acceptable in both jurisdictions, assuming their reliability can be
recognised. The Civil Evidence Act 1995 and the BSI Code of Practice stress the
reliability of documents. This is similar to Chinese procedural laws, which stress the
requirement for authentication and verification of documents. Both regimes have
regulatory systems, especially civil procedural laws, that have changed the debate on
electronic evidence from one of acceptability to probative or evidential value. This is a
similarity of both systems. The most significant matter relating to electronic documents
109
is their authentication and verification, because evidential weight will be highest where
the requisite document can be validated. In a civil law system (China’s position) the
authentication and verification processes are well defined by law and in the domain of
authentication agencies that falls under the executive label. This differentiates them
from the common law system, where the judge exercises more discretion regarding the
integrity of electronic evidence. The next chapter discusses the regulation of electronic
evidence in the UAE, also presenting a case study.
110
CHAPTER FOUR: IT ENVIRONMENT AND UAE’s CRIMINAL PROCEDURE
LAW: PROCEDURES GOVERNING SEARCH AND SEIZURE,
PRESERVATION, EXAMINATION, PRESENTATION, AND
AUTHENTICATION OF ELECTRONIC EVIDENCE
A successful criminal investigation depends on the analysis and gathering of evidence.
The use of electronic evidence has increased in the past few decades as courts have
permitted into evidence e-mails, digital photographs, word processing documents, and
files saved from accounting programs, internet browser histories, the contents of
computer memory, computer backups, digital logs, computer printouts and
digital
video or audio files. However, in the age of the computer and networked devices, the
remit regarding investigation and disclosure of electronic evidence is extremely wide,
ranging from files on a digital camera to the complex operation of algorithmic codes
used. As reliance on ICT increases, so does vulnerability; increasingly, the availability
of connectivity and communication through the Internet exposes people to the activities
of e-criminals.
Technology has facilitated the commission of many forms of cybercrimes and powerful
computers are used for the execution of such crimes. The Internet allows fraudsters
instantaneous direct access to millions of potential victims around the world at minimal
cost.
The ability of a computer to send, save, and delete information and rendering data
intangible poses a challenge to the normal process of collecting evidence in a criminal
investigation. Naturally, this influences the theory and process of evidence collection by
permitting electronic evidence restoration and data recovery. In a normal system,
evidence is palpable and gathered via the direct handling of materials. In contrast,
evidence gathered in the electronic environment needs to be handled by applying a
different methodology. This method is often guided by programs that go into the core of
the computer system in order to restore data that has been ‘deleted’. It may also provide
links to connections made over the network system, including to whom, when, where,
what and how a message has been transmitted. This, however, requires the employment
of an electronic evidence specialists.
111
The methods of electronic evidence recovery are increasingly relevant, in view of the
rapid advances in ICT. Often the criminal leads the way in creating opportunities to
commit hi-tech crimes by utilising various technologies. It is recognised by both law
enforcement and technology analysts that the use of advanced technology to support or
perpetrate crime will increase as the ability of offenders rises in conjunction with the
rapid advancement of electronic communication and technology devices.1 As a result,
judges, prosecutors, lawyers and computer experts need to be more technologically
perceptive. Not only this, they need to be more knowledgeable and skilled than the
offenders they pursue,2 especially when investigating and detecting cybercrime cases.
High-tech facilitated cybercrimes present a considerable challenge to UAE law
enforcement and criminal procedural law, and so this chapter aims to examine whether
the UAE Criminal Procedure Law is sufficient to govern the process of gathering,
preservation, examination and presentation of electronic evidence. It will ask: Can
existing regulations stand alone or is supplementary legislation needed? It is therefore
appropriate to examine the following:
I.
II.
The collection of electronic evidence;
The UAE’s search and seizure procedures for electronic evidence;
III.
The preservation of electronic evidence in the UAE;
IV.
The examination of electronic evidence in the UAE;
V.
The presentation of electronic evidence in the UAE and the importance of expert
reporting; and
VI.
The authentication of electronic evidence in the UAE.
4.1 Collection of electronic evidence
The primary responsibility of law enforcement agents has been the investigation and
1
Fred Galves and Christine Galves, ‘Ensuring the Admissibility of electronic evidence forensic evidence
and enhancing its probative value at trial’ Spring (2004) 19, 1 Criminal Justice Magazine
<http://www.americanbar.org/publications/criminal_justice_magazine_home/crimjust_cjmag_19_1_elect
ronic.html> accessed 17th February 2012.
2
Michael Coren, ‘Digital evidence: Today’s fingerprint, Electronic world increasingly being used to solve
crimes’ (Cable News Network CCN 31st January 2005)
<http://edition.cnn.com/2005/LAW/01/28/digital.evidence/> accessed 30th January 2012.
112
gathering of evidence.3 The purpose of obtaining such evidence is to find a connection
between the suspect and the crime, which has occurred.4
According to successive investigations, according to Bryant, the electronic evidence
gathered is implemented in a supportive enquiry.5 Stephenson noted that, in order for it
to be admitted by the court, evidence should be legally and adequately collected. 6
Therefore, according to Bryant, the investigator should be an expert with experience
utilising the methods necessary to gather evidence of this kind.7
First, an investigator must have a clear idea of how supporting evidence, as related to a
crime is likely to be composed.8 This means that the investigator must have adequate
direction with regard to the search for electronic evidence, and recognise such evidence
when it is found.9 According to Gahtan, the investigator must have relevant information
about how to select what software applications and computer systems should be
searched to obtain evidence.10 Lange and Nimsger, indicate that the process of finding
electronic evidence is a complex one, as it is difficult to locate the evidence held in a
computer storage system.11
This is mainly due to the intangible and often transient nature of the information and
data, especially in a networked environment. Technology makes it possible to record
information and data, but also renders the process of investigation for evidence
vulnerable to defence claims of technical errors, detrimental interference, malfunction
or fabrication. Such claims can lead to an admissibility of evidence ruling from the
court.12
Hence, it is pivotal that the methods used to preserve such evidence are forensically
sound and remains unaltered wherever possible. However, the acquisition of data,
3
Debra Shinder and Michael Cross, Scene of the cybercrime (2nd edn, Arlington: Syngress Publishing Inc.
2008) 30.
4
Anthony Reyes and Jack Wiles, The Best Damn Cybercrime and Digital Forensics Book Period
(Syngress 2007) 12.
5
Robin Bryant, Investigating digital crime (John Wiley and Sons Ltd. 2008) 50.
6
Peter Stephenson, Investigating computer-related crime (CRC Press LLC. 2000) 88.
7
Robin Bryant (n 5) 77.
8
John Lentini, Scientific protocols for fire investigation (Taylor and Francis Group LLC. 2006) 115.
9
Gregory Kipper, Wireless crime and forensic investigation (Taylor and Francis Group LLC. 2007) 58.
10
Alan Gahtan, Electronic evidence (Carswell Thomson Publishing 1999) 31.
11
Michele Lange and Kristin Nimsger, Electronic evidence and discovery: What every lawyer should
know (2nd edn Chicago: ABA Publishing 2009) 23.
12
Ian Walden, Computer Crimes and Digital Investigation (Oxford University Press 2007) 205.
113
which is stored on a hard drive, causes changes to the original hard drive, as is the case
with most other computer systems and mobile phones. 13 As a result, it has become
important to retain data on live systems; for example, in Columbia Pictures Indus v
Bunnell,14 the Court pointed out that discoverable information also extended to data
held on Random Access Memory (RAM) on a Web server. However, this does not
mean that investigators should be legally required to preserve all evidence, or that they
should not be permitted to change anything; instead, investigators and forensics should
be required to properly document the way they handle electronic evidence, so that the
risk of that evidence being invalidated is at least minimised.15
Hence, the handling of the evidence and the documentation of the handling is key to
establishing forensic soundness, although care should be taken to ensure that minimal
changes are made to the electronic evidence, so that it remains accurate and authentic.16
Furthermore, investigators, who deal with volatile electronic evidence, ought to
additionally note down the date, the time and the tools, which they employed, as well as
the MD5 hash value of the outputs.17
Another important concept when investigating cyber-crimes through electronic
evidence trails is evidence integrity. Integrity is important for assuring the validity of
the evidence and is normally established by comparing digital fingerprints taken when
the evidence was collected with digital fingerprints taken at a later stage. This requires
knowledge of cryptographic hash values and message digests, the latter consisting of an
algorithm, which generates a particular number in relation to particular input. A
different input generates a different number and this makes it possible to compare
digital fingerprints, since a different number will be created for the same output if the
digital fingerprint is changed.18 MD5 and SHA-1 are frequently used algorithms that
use a particular input and create a particular output, known as a message digest or
fingerprint. For example, the MD5 algorithm employs the data to calculate a 32 letter
and number combination code rendering duplication nearly impossible. The MD5 or
13
Eoghan Casey, Digital Evidence and Computer Crime: Forensic Science, Computers, and the Internet
(3rd edn, Academic Press 2011) 19.
14
Columbia Pictures Indus v Bunnell 2007 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 46364 (C.D. Cal. 19th June 2007).
15
Eoghan Casey, Digital Evidence and Computer Crime: Forensic Science, Computers, and the Internet
(n13) 20.
16
Ibid.
17
Ibid.
18
Ibid, 22.
114
other algorithms prove to be useful tools for establishing evidence integrity and should
be employed when carrying out a digital investigation; thus, investigators should
document the MD5 value at the collection stage and subsequently, so that it can be
established that the electronic evidence acquisition process has not altered the electronic
evidence.19
However, MD5 and SHA-1 cannot establish whether the evidence has been altered by
the person, who collected the evidence prior to generating the MD5 or SHA-1 value;
that suggests that much depends on the integrity of the person, collecting the electronic
evidence. MD5 and SHA-1 can also serve as class evidence or individual
characteristics, since for example the value is placed in a class of similar parts. A
unique MD5 value can serve as an individual characteristic, and is superior to a file
name or size, as, instead of carrying out a keyword search, a hash value search can be
conducted since an identical hash value can be used to identify files, even when the
names do not match.
Another key aspect of any investigation is that it has to be objective and free of bias;
this requires the evidence to be conclusive; Casey suggests that ‘a peer review process’
is undertaken, which scrutinises whether there is any prejudice or flaw.20 Investigators
should ensure that their findings can be repeated, so that they can be verified by
independent experts. Therefore, it may therefore be useful to adopt a procedure that
ensures an independent forensic expert can repeat the tests. This also requires that
methods be documented, as this makes it possible for verification to take place.21
4.2 Search and seizure for electronic evidence
The objective of any investigation is to find the truth and prove the facts. All persons
involved in gathering evidence must have these objectives in mind when searching for
and seizing evidence. Regarding this, a question arises as to what the possible sources
of electronic evidence are.
Undoubtedly, the identifying and probable confiscation of evidence is the first step in
the gathering of electronic evidence.
19
Ibid, 23.
Ibid, 24.
21
Ibid, 25.
20
115
Electronic evidence can be found in the following places:
Gateway log files and servers;

Recycle bin folders or temporary folders;

Instant messages or electronic mail;

Records of times of user creation, access or deletion and;

Internet/intranet folders.
However, in general, most data and information is stored on personal computers and
company servers.22
After detection of adequate evidence, that evidence must be retrieved from the
location. 23 An understanding of the vital foundations related to electronic proof is
mandatory for helping the investigator to secure vital evidence.24
The ways in which the evidence detected is captured must be legal, otherwise the
evidence loses its integrity and value, and the court may not accept it. 25 Moreover,
Kanellis says that the general rule with a forensic procedure is to gather evidence
securely and with extra care. This rule should never be neglected. 26 During the
investigation, it is almost impossible for investigators to maintain the safety and
security of electronic evidence. 27 Therefore, when collecting evidence investigators
should keep in mind its importance in the criminal proceedings.28 In legal proceedings,
evidence that has been improperly handled is inadmissible.29
22
Olen Hrycko, Electronic discovery in Canada: Best practices and guidelines (2nd edn, CCH Canadian
Limited 2007) 143.
23
Steve Anson and Steve Bunting, Mastering windows network forensics and investigation (Indianapolis:
Wiley Publishing Inc. 2007) 11.
24
Michele Lange and Kristin Nimsger (n11) 89.
25
Christopher Brown, Computer evidence: Collection and preservation (2nd edn, Rockland MA: Charles
River Media 2009) 47.
26
Panagiotis Kanellis, Digital crime and forensic science in cyberspace (Idea Group Publishing 2006) 58.
27
Ibid, 273.
28
Debra Shinder and Michael Cross (n 3) 211.
29
Steve Anson and Steve Bunting (n 23) 11.
116
4.2.1 Search and seizure for electronic evidence: procedural aspects of the UAE’s
legal system 30
In the UAE, procedures with regard to the investigation and gathering of evidence are
given in Part III of the UAE’s CPL. Chapter 1 clarifies the process of investigation;
Article 30 explains the gathering of general information about crimes and evidence by
the police; Article 35 explains the reporting of crimes, and Article 36 details the
documentation procedures. Chapter IV outlines several provisions that give powers to
the police to search and seize evidence under the supervision of the prosecutor. Articles
51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, and 59 explain the search for evidence; Articles 60 and 61
cover the seizure of evidence. All these procedures comprise the general rules for all
crimes and offer no guidelines as to best practise. In other words, they cover traditional
crimes such as theft, rape and murder as well as crimes involving the use of information
technology.
An
interviewee
who
practices
as
a
forensic
expert
at
the
Telecommunication Regulatory Authority of the UAE supported this finding. When
asked, in what manner it can be said that the UAE’s CPL is appropriate to cover
electronic evidence, he stated:
I believe electronic evidence needs special care, because electronic evidence
has a different nature and criteria. For example, if we need to seize a
computer, which is a tool of crime, we can use general rules of search and
seizure. However, if the evidence cannot be found on that computer it could
be in another place, so we need take other procedures. As a result, I think it
becomes extremely difficult to seize electronic evidence by general rules of
the UAE’s CPL.31
The problem of a lack of guiding principles for the search and seizure of electronic
evidence proceeds from the ease with which electronic evidence can be altered, lost or
destroyed. For example, the RAM in a computer will contain a great deal of information
relating to the state of the computer, such as the processes that are running, whether it is
connected to the Internet, and what file systems are being used. Immediately that a
computer is switched off, a large part of this volatile data is lost. In an interview
30
This section is based on the content of an article has been published as: Khaled Aljneibi, ‘Search and
seizure for electronic evidence: procedural aspects of UAE’s legal system’ (2013) 10 Digital Evidence
and Electronic Signature Law Review.
31
Ahmed Al Ketbi, forensic investigator at Telecommunications Regulatory Authority of the UAE,
Interview conducted (January 2013Dubai-UAE). See: transcript of the translated interview with Al Ketbi
in Appendix 5.
117
conducted in the UAE, one of the interviewees interviewed by the researcher stated:
We use traditional methods when dealing with technology; we use no
update rules when evidence is seized, we do not use databases to ensure
preservation of evidence etc. All of this could lead to lots of opportunity to
prove and discover crimes. For example, switching off the electricity when
seizing a computer can lead to the loss of evidence. 32
4.2.2 Search and seizure for electronic evidence: with a warrant 33
If a person is accused or suspected of a crime, it is important for the investigator to
present suitable evidence against that person. His home or office can be searched to
establish where there is any incriminating against him. In the case of the presence of
considerable evidence of proof of the crime, the evidence of that crime must be
confiscated.34After seizing the evidence, investigators must put all the relevant devices
in a bag and seal it to be sent to the laboratory.
When defining search-warrants, one needs to elucidate the sphere of influence of the
investigatory methods. Legal judges and scholars have a broader scope at their disposal
to explain search warrants. This can be defined as a private area, used to discover
obsolete and hidden material that is necessary for conducting an investigation.35
Arcaro regards it as a written document that provides judges with the authority and
enables officers to enter and search a specific place for a specific item.36 Moreover, it
gives them the authority to confiscate offensive items of evidence. Thirdly, search
warrants are also defined as documents intended for searching for evidence in a private
place.37
Evidence is initially collected by the investigators and police, typically, after the crime
has taken place. In the course of collecting evidence, investigators not only interrogate
but also search items, confiscate evidence, enter private property and detain and arrest
suspects. Search warrants must be obtained from the authority that has the appropriate
32
See: translated transcript of the interview with Professor Elbushra in Appendix 5.
(n 30).
34
The UAE Criminal Procedure Law, Article 75.
35
Amal Osman, Criminal Evidence and Scientific means of Investigation (Dar Nahda Al Arabiah, 1975)
4. (Author’s translation from the Arabic).
.4 ‫( ص‬1975‫ اﻻﺛﺒﺎت اﻟﺠﻨﺎﺋﻲ ووﺳﺎﺋﻞ اﻟﺘﺤﻘﯿﻖ اﻟﻌﻠﻤﯿﺔ )دار اﻟﻨﮭﻀﺔ اﻟﻌﺮﺑﯿﺔ ﻣﺼﺮ‬،‫أﻣﺎل ﻋﺜﻤﺎن‬
36
Gino Arcaro, Basic Police Powers: Arrest and Search Procedures (4th edn, Emond Montgomery
Publications 2009) 222.
37
Ibid.
33
118
power to issue notices. Police must acquire a permission letter before commencing the
search. 38
The search warrant must be obtained to gather sufficient information for obtaining
sufficient and appropriate evidence. This evidence helps to confirm that the accused
person is responsible for the crime. The evidence collected during the course of an
investigation is crucial. The law extends privacy in the public interest and that of the
parties, as is their legal right, by keeping evidence confidential. 39
In line with the CPL, after receiving a report from the complainant, the police
investigator will search and seize the suspect’s computer for data recovery purposes.
Article 30 of the CPL provides that: ‘… the judicial police shall inquire about crimes,
search for their perpetrators and collect the necessary information and evidence for
investigation and indictment’. Police search and seizure must be carried out properly,
because it determines the admissibility of any evidence presented in court. 40 Thus,
before any search or seizure of evidence can be carried out, a police investigator must
take into consideration that she or he needs to obtain a search warrant, as set out in CPL
Article 53:
‘The judicial police officer may not inspect the dwelling of the accused
without a written authorization from the public prosecution unless the crime
is in the process of being of committed and there are strong indications that
the accused is hiding in his house, objects or papers which may lead to the
truth ...’.41
This Article provides that any search for evidence requires a search warrant that has
been issued by a public prosecutor.
The CPL outlines several requirements for obtaining a search warrant. Committing a
38
Jodat Jihad, Brief explaining of the UAE Criminal Procedure Code (2nd edn, Dubai Police Academy
Publications 2008)18. (Author’s translation from the Arabic).
‫( ص‬2008 ‫اﻟﻄﺒﻌﺔ اﻟﺜﺎﻧﯿﺔ‬،‫اﻟﻮﺟﯿﺰ ﻓﻲ ﺷﺮح ﻗﺎﻧﻮن اﻻﺟﺮاءات اﻟﺠﺰاﺋﯿﺔ ﻟﺪوﻟﺔ اﻻﻣﺎرات )ﻣﻄﺒﻮﻋﺎت أﻛﺎدﯾﻤﯿﺔ ﺷﺮﻃﺔ دﺑﻲ‬،‫ﺟﻮده ﺣﺴﯿﻦ ﺟﮭﺎد‬
.18
39
Mahmoud Mustafa, Explain Criminal Procedure Law (Dar Nahda Al Arabiah1998) 240. (Author’s
translation from the Arabic).
.240 ‫( ص‬1998‫ ﻣﺼﺮ‬،‫ ﺷﺮح ﻗﺎﻧﻮن اﻻﺟﺮاءات اﻟﺠﻨﺎﺋﯿﺔ )دار اﻟﻨﮭﻀﮫ اﻟﻌﺮﺑﯿﺔ‬،‫ﻣﺤﻤﻮد ﻣﺼﻄﻔﻰ‬
40
In any event, for the evidence to be admissible, it must be judicial and legitimate. See: section 2.2.4.1.
41
The UAE Criminal Procedure Law, Article 53.
119
crime is the first of these. 42 The commission of a crime gives the prosecution the
assurance that a crime has occurred and needs to be investigated. Moreover, it must be
demonstrated that the crime committed is of a grave nature and punishable. A search
warrant cannot be obtained if no crime has been committed. There is also no need to
obtain a warrant merely to assuage doubt.
Hence, to issue a search warrant, the crime must be categorised as a felony or
misdemeanour, that if proven would incur a prison sentence. The criminal law of the
UAE classifies punishments into three categories:
1. Felonies, punishable by three years or more of imprisonment, or by death.43
2. Misdemeanors, punishable by a minimum of one week to three years in prison, or by
a fine not exceeding 1000 Dh.44
3. Petty misdemeanors, punishable by a minimum of 24 hours to 10 days in prison or by
a fine.45
It is important to draft and execute the search warrant in the light of the requirements
for electronic evidence collection. Hence, the officer involved in the search process
must take great care when applying for a search warrant.
4.2.2.1 The subject of search warrants 46
Normally, search warrants are intended for the search and seizure of physical items.
The search warrant is meant to facilitate the acquisition of the fruit of the crime, related
objects and instrument, for instance cash, drugs and stolen property. The investigator
searches all areas covered by the warrant and confiscates any objects obviously or
likely to be related to the crime.
Regarding the seizure of evidence, the CPL does not mention the requirement to list the
things that have to be seized. This is possibly due to the nature and scope of the CPL, in
that it covers crimes in a general sense. Article 61 of the CPL provides that:
42
Ibid, Article 72.
The UAE Federal Penal Code, Article 28.
44
Ibid, Article 29.
45
Ibid, Article 30.
46
(n 30).
43
120
‘… The judicial police officers have to sequestrate the objects which may
have been used in the perpetration of the crime, resulted therefrom or if the
crime has been committed thereon; in addition to whatever may lead to the
truth in the matter’. 47
Taking into account the broad scope of Article 61 of the CPL, it can be said that an
electronic device may be seized pursuant to a search warrant.
As a result, the seizure of materials outside of the search warrant will not entirely
negate that seizure. However, it is suggested that because electronic evidence can be
found on physical items such as CDs, diskettes and computer hard drives this justifies
the seizure of these physical items for further investigation to follow the electronic trail
associated with the gathering of additional evidence. As a head of the Electronic
Evidence Unit at the Criminal Evidence and Criminology Department- Dubai Police,
noted:
There is no doubt that electronic evidence has a different nature from other
evidence. As an example, fingerprints indicate the offender’s presence in a
place and do not need an explanation or analysis. However, it is not easy to
determine electronic evidence locations.48
The other issue of concern relates to what to seize, and can be compounded when an
entire computer system or a computer linked to a network and sources of electronic
evidence exist in a number of different geographical locations. For instance, it is usually
necessary to establish the number of computers on a network, and the different types of
network connections, such as the internet, e-mail, cellular data networks and wireless
connections. In addition, it may also be necessary to establish whether or not there are
any third party services on the internet that can be used to store data remotely. Data can
be deleted on the remote server before being captured.
4.2.2.2 Scope of the search warrant 49
The sphere and influence of items to be searched and that are liable to be seized are
defined by the search warrant. 50
47
The UAE Criminal Procedure Law, Article 61.
See: translated transcript of the interview with Lootah in Appendix 5.
49
(n 30).
50
Mahmoud Mustafa (n 39). (Author’s translation from the Arabic).
48
. ‫ ﻣﺮﺟﻊ ﺳﺎﺑﻖ‬،‫ﻣﺤﻤﻮد ﻣﺼﻄﻔﻰ‬
121
Law enforcement officers should describe the evidence and materials that are the
subject of the search warrant, as officers can only confiscate objects covered by the
search warrant. 51 The search warrant can be regarded as a map or guide to use to
perform a short and immediate investigation.
Different search warrants are issued to secure two different classes of evidence,
hardware and software. A computer is made up of two critical components. One is the
hardware and the other is the digital component. Computer monitors, storage devices,
and motherboards are examples of hardware. Programs and other data in soft form are
examples of software. Each component is interdependent and cannot be used in
isolation. Procedures used to use investigate these two vital components of computers
are distinct. Highly sophisticated forms of data are stored in digital form, in programs,
and the hardware component is the container-storage device. Data can include
information that should not be dispersed, instruments of crime and evidence, etc.
Consequently, in the case of hacking a computer system, the hardware cannot be
regarded as criminally illegal, or as having evidential use or being instrumental in the
criminal act. The hardware is merely the location of the crime. In such circumstances,
investigators should obtain search warrants to form mirror copies of hardware, rather
than confiscating it.52
The obtaining of evidence is difficult when the evidence searched for is part of a
complicated network, as in the case of a local area network. Although it is not a difficult
task for an investigating officer to seize the entire suspect infrastructure, network,
peripherals and PC-workstations, this is not necessarily practical, as it will affect the
business or the offices of the organisation, to such an extent that business might cease.53
It is complicated and problematic to locate electronic evidence. It is particularly
important to carefully search for influential data. Mostly, investigating officers face a
51
Jodat Jihad (n 38) 359. (Author’s translation from the Arabic).
.359 ‫ ص‬،‫ ﻣﺮﺟﻊ ﺳﺎﺑﻖ‬،‫ﺟﻮده ﺣﺴﯿﻦ ﺟﮭﺎد‬
US Department of Justice, Computer Crime and Intellectual Property Section Criminal Division,
Searching and Seizing Computers and Obtaining Electronic Evidence in Criminal Investigations (2009)
43.
53
This is a significant topic, and the reader might begin by considering the following US technical texts,
as well as the relevant practitioner texts written by lawyers: Eoghan Casey (n 13); Carl Franklin, The
Investigator’s Guide to Computer Crime (Charles C Thomas Publisher 2006); Ralph Clifford,
Cybercrime: The Investigation, Prosecution and Defense of a Computer-Related Crime (3rd end, Carolina
Academic Press 2011).
52
122
large amount of tangled data and are in only limited contact with the real investigation.
Much of this data is irrelevant to the subject of the investigation, or to those who are not
accused as culprits or the crime act evidence.54 Moreover, searches may cover legal
data or privileged files. These incidences unavoidably expand the sphere of the
influence of the search beyond the boundaries of the search warrants. This only occurs
when the search subject’s documents are not fully incorporated in the warrant.55
Specifically this may be when the investigating officer is oblivious to the scope of the
search documents, or it may be due to the practical difference between diverse
documents and the criminal data.56 Conducting a complete examination of the crime
site and a forensic investigation can be assisted by making a mirror copy of a hard
drive. However, with information present that is not relevant to the investigation, the
difficulty is separating important data from surplus.57 Consequently, nowadays scholars
and the courts minutely examine the scope of searches. There is dual point of view here,
which focuses on the language and nature of the warrant. In some cases, warrants may
be concealed when searching for something specific.58
The next approach to the subject is the anti-particularity approach and is supported by
many scholars. Franklin says that in cases where individuals have a lot of time and
uncertainty at their disposal one may adhere to an extensive and understandable search
warrant. This can assist in sorting the evidence. Moreover, he says that if it is going to
be possible to locate the desirable evidence it is important to limit the search warrant.59
Clifford states that the computer related data might be added to the search warrant.60
Computers can help when searching different forms of data hidden on another
computer. This can limit extra time needed and financial costs incurred when executing
searches. The skill of the cybercriminal means that they are able to conceal evidence
that incriminates them more effectively than traditional criminals, thus technology
54
Ibid.
See: Susan Brenner and Barbara Frederiksen, ‘Computer Searches and Seizures: Some Unresolved
Issues’ (2001/2002) 28 Michigan Telecommunication and Technology Law Review.
56
Ibid.
57
Eoghan Casey, Digital Evidence and Computer Crime: Forensic Science, Computers, and the Internet
(n13) 110.
58
Jonathan Jacobson, Antitrust Law Developments (6th edn, American Bar Association 2007) 740.
59
Carl Franklin (n 53) 162.
60
See: Ralph Clifford (n 53) 134.
55
123
based searchers are essential.61 Furthermore, such searcher can help officers to recover
files deleted by the criminals. The mirror copy approach is quite helpful here also.
With regard to where the authorities might conduct the search and seizure process,
Article 51 of the CPL states: ‘... Inspection means the search of the body, clothes or
luggage for any trace or things related to the crime or required for the investigation’.
Thus, the police investigator is only allowed to search a suspect’s body, clothes,
luggage or things. The word ‘things’ in Article 51 of the CPL is defined widely enough
to cover searching a computer to find electronic evidence because a computer falls
within the scope of the word ‘things’.
The main question arising here is whether computer software is also subject to
inspection on this basis. Although the wide scope of the word ‘things’ in Article 51 of
the CPL, would allow computer software to be inspected, between 1992 (the date of
issue of the CPL) and 2013, this provision was not tested. There remains a need to test
that the word ‘things’ covers electronic evidence.
Conversely, the national legislation of countries such as France, the US, Canada and the
UK, incorporates rules governing the search for evidence from computers. In France,
Article 57(1) of the France Criminal Procedure Code inserted by Law No.239-2003
allows judicial police officers, or judicial police agents under judicial police
supervision, to access computer systems and search for any data stored on a suspect’s
computer or other computer systems, provided the data is accessible from the initial
system or is available to the initial system. In the US, the Federal Criminal Procedure
Act 1930, after amendment, extended the scope of inspection to include computers,
phones and other electronic devices. In Canada, section 16 of the Competition Act
allows a person who has been authorised, to search any data contained in or available
to, a computer system. In the UK, section 1 of the Computer Misuse Act 1990 allows
authorities to search computer software.
To draw the preliminary limitations of a search is a difficult task. It is important that it
is structured to help get evidence outside of the knowledge of the officer. It may assist
in concealing, disguising and encrypting the evidence. Thus, limitations to the
61
John McLean, ‘Homicide and Child Pornography’ in Eoghan Casey (ed), Handbook of Computer Crime
Investigation (Academic Press 2010) 361-373.
124
investigation resulting from the search may create hurdles in the process of searching
and confiscating electronic evidences. Moreover, it can bring an untimely end to police
collection of evidence.
Consequently, law-enforcement officers frequently employ the mirror-copy approach
when conducting forensic investigations. In the UAE, officers can create a mirror copy
and perform limitless searches under the extensive language of the UAE’s CPL.
However; this can only be done in cases of non-availability of provisions to perform the
work. Admittedly, police officers are offered a broader horizon to perform the task.
These are not limited by specific rules affecting their actions when seizing and
searching items. These officers are empowered to confiscate anything that they suspect
to be relevant to the investigation, aside from items directly related to the evidence.
This grants flexibility to investigators when performing research, something that is vital
when managing the novel characteristics of electronic evidence.
4.2.2.3 Execution of the search warrants 62
The act of executing a conventional search warrant precedes the searching of in some
cases, where a warrant is necessary to grant entrance to and search of a site. 63
Traditionally, executing a search warrant occurs in three stages. First, to knock and
notify, second, to observe the place of the search to insure a search pattern that is
applicable to the crime scene.64 For instance, searching small places such as bedrooms
is regarded as a zone search, while a search of a larger or outdoor space, for example a
backyard, may be require a grid search.65 Conducting a search occurs in the second
stage: for instance, searching and dragging items in order to open and empty
containers.66
Entering the property defined on the warrant without permission is the final stage, when
evidence is collected and confiscated.67 Searches for the evidence are made thoroughly.
The search operation is carried out as per the techniques established in the previous
stages.
62
(n 30).
Gino Arcaro (n 36) 232.
64
Ibid.
65
Ross Gardner, Practical Crime Scene Processing and Investigation (2nd edn, CRC Press 2012) 125.
66
Ibid.
67
Ibid.
63
125
In contrast, the execution of an electronic evidence search warrant relates to the
execution of the procedure of forensic data analysis. This search is categorised as either
a pre-digital or a digital search. The former refers to site-based searches and is regarded
as an initial stage when compared with a traditional search. It is sub-categorised into
two stages: first, as the means to notify and observe the search location’s tangibility,
and second to nominate the mechanism for an accurate search. In the final stage, it will
identify the specific digital devices covered by the search warrant and media, such as
documents, audio recordings and video events. 68
These processes are essential to show that initial responders do not corrupt the crime
scene. They also provide evidence in real form. Moreover, they track the evidential
collection process from the real data to that to be shown in the courtroom.69 The next
sub-stage includes a specific process related to the computer hardware. For instance,
labelling computer wires, connections and power endings. This is something frequently
suggested by most forensic investigating officers.70 To save and close certain programs
like RAM running programs is necessary to implement these procedures. 71 RAM
preserves the temporary data and helps it to travel between the internet and hard disk.
Admittedly, if the power is switched off any temporary data not properly saved in the
RAM will be lost.72
It is necessary to give due importance to operating systems such as Linux, UNIX,
Macintosh and Windows XP, 7 and 8. Every system employs a different mechanism to
store and run the files previously preserved in the RAM.73 For instance, in a Windows
Operating System, if the computer is shut down the RAM data will be immediately
removed.74 It is important to label all the cables attached to the computer. This is to
68
Hilali Abdullah, Inspect Computer Systems (Dar Nahda Al Arabiah 1997)125. (Author’s translation
from the Arabic).
.125 ‫( ص‬1997 ‫ ﺗﻔﺘﯿﺶ ﻧﻈﻢ اﻟﺤﺎﺳﺐ اﻵﻟﻲ )دار اﻟﻨﮭﻀﺔ اﻟﻌﺮﺑﯿﺔ ﻣﺼﺮ‬،‫ھﻼﻟﻲ ﻋﺒﺪاﷲ‬
69
Jay Siegel, Forensic Science: The Basics (Taylor and Francis Group 2007) 43.
70
Anthony Reyes, Kevin O'Shea, Richard Brittson, and James Steele, Cyber Crime Investigations:
Bridging the Gaps between Security Professionals, Law Enforcement, and Prosecutors (Syngress 2007)
147-149.
71
Ibid.
72
Scott Mueller, Upgrading and Repairing PC (20th edn, Que Publishing 2011) 417.
73
Ibid.
74
Allen Kent, James Williams and Albert Holzman, Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Technology
(Marcel Dekker Incorporated 1987) 161.
126
facilitate reassembly of the computer system.75
The next cyber search stage is digital searching. This does not rely on tangible
movements when executing a search. This is because it works with the help of the data.
Moreover, it employs certain novel off-site processes that can be adopted by the
investigating forensic officer.76 No doubt, different people at different times employ
diverse methods to achieve and explore evidence. This can be done by exploiting the
hardware devices confiscated in the initial stages. It is important for investigating
officers to keep themselves abreast of computing developments. This can help them to
differentiate between database programmes, electronic mail files, telephone lists, as it
stores visual and audio data from one to the other. The evidence gathered at this stage is
necessary to insure positive outcomes from the crime or the crime scene object. The
historical data provided on the defendant’s computer can show the demographics of the
data accessed by the hackers. The second type refers to child pornography, spoof
website-making tools, etc. Both of these searching stages are distinct but related. The
pre-digital processes are likely to have an implicitly negative impact upon the digital
searching procedure. It is important to apply the notifying processes in a narrow
manner, since it is responsible for informing residents when executing search warrants.
Concealing the scope of the warrant will prevent the suspect from destroying,
contaminating or hiding criminal evidence.77 Consequently, it is important for the initial
responder to secure the site of the crime and the digital and tangible searching sites in
case of the application of procedures of announcement.
Physically it is crucial to prevent the suspect from reaching the crime scene and search
sites. Moreover, people must be prevented from reaching and accessing cyber data by
the various means afforded by wireless connections and networks.78 Certain techniques
can be adopted to protect the seized data, such as disconnecting phone lines, inspecting
booby-traps placed on the computer and terminating the network connections between
75
Robert Moore, Search and Seizure of Digital Evidence: An Examination of Constitutional and
Procedural Issues (University of Southern Mississippi 2003) 86.
76
Orin Kerr, ‘Search Warrants in an Era of Digital Evidence’ (2005) 75 Mississippi Law Journal 85-91.
77
Ralph Clifford (n 53) 135.
78
Eoghan Casey, Digital Evidence and Computer Crime: Forensic Science, Computers, and the Internet
(n13) 627.
127
crime scene computers.79
O’Shea described at least one area of danger. He stated that it is crucial to bridge the
gap between prosecutors, law enforcement and security professions.80 He believes that
some clues are more helpful that others for identifying digital media’s tangibility,
because it allows the processing of important opportunities to acquire evidence in the
form of data. This data may be included in search warrants.81 For instance, in a case
where there are two computers involved in a hacking investigation, for instance if the
suspected family has two computers one in the lounge and one in the bedroom, the
investigating officer may first confiscate the computer placed in the bedroom.82
Moreover, it is usually difficult to predict the location of electronic evidence due to
computer networking. He underscores the fact that criminals and subjects being
investigated must show an accurate digital container to the investigating officer.83 For
instance, when investigating a case of child pornography, officers should aim to collect
evidence from a large container, such as a removable disk or hard drive.84
It is important for investigating officers to examine digital media thoroughly instead of
relying upon clues. Officers may choose to access electronic crime scene evidence
using wireless techniques, even at the time of a crime site inspection.85 The greatest
problem when using a designed network connections is that any outsider can destroy or
control the crime scene evidence, even remotely. They can do so by erasing data and
implanting false evidence. For instance, a new cybercrime called piggybacking can use
wireless network connections to attain a wire free connection.86 Certain processes are
considered as tampering with evidence of contamination and involve wire-free
methods, such as applying certain methods to preserve the crime site and the search
subject.87
79
Anthony Reyes, Kevin O'Shea, Richard Brittson and James Steele (n 70) 142.
Ibid.
81
Ibid.
82
Ibid.
83
Ibid.
84
Ibid, 145.
85
See: Gregory Kipper (n 9) 58.
86
Ibid, 17-21.
87
James Byrne and Donald Rebovic, The New Technology of Crime, Law and Social Control (Criminal
Justice Press 2007) 29.
80
128
In the UAE, search warrants can only be incorporated and implemented by the
prosecuting officer. It is the public prosecutor’s role to execute the search warrant
personally, or to give it to the investigation officer and the police officers enlisted in
Article 33 of the CPL. Where the public prosecutor hands the execution of the warrant
over to police officers, it is obligatory for these officers to follow the warrant and
execute the procedural instructions of the public prosecutor. Moreover, they must
execute the warrant under the rule of law and within the scope timeframe specified.
Under UAE statutory law, there are no time limits for search warrants; the public
prosecutor when issuing the search authorisation will define the search time.
The CPL authorises police officers to search and seize evidence because they represent
the competent authority. However, searching and seizing electronic evidence requires
not only an authorised person be present but also an appropriately qualified person.
The CPL outlines several provisions, which authorise the police to report on criminal
cases, enabling them to gather information, take statements, carry out searches of
premises and equipment, seize evidence, execute summons and warrants and conduct
prosecutions. There are no rules in the UAE regarding the necessity for qualified digital
evidence specialists to accompany the police officer searching for electronic evidence.
Thus, the possibility of loss of electronic evidence may be high due to lack of
experience or skill.
In addition, observance of legal requirements, such as the need for a search warrant and
police officers to engage in search and seize activities in the hunt for evidence is
particularly beneficial, because any contravention of the law or a court order will result
in irregularity that may effect the evidence derived from the seized computer.
Moreover, if the knocking and notifying technique is applied to a site search it will
place the integrity of the undiscovered evidence in jeopardy. This is because the suspect
can easily destroy the electronic evidence utilising simple techniques like Hotkey (a
technique that uses a combination of different computer keys, like Shift-Ctrl-A, to
permit the user to implement keyboard specific applications). A search process can be
easily executed by conducting surprise visits and adopting snooping techniques. These
will help assist the police in avoiding the concealing and destruction of evidence.
Consequently, it seems that a sneak and peek search warrant may be preferred over the
129
classical knock and notify warrant when there is a need to perform a more thorough
search.
With the advancements that have occurred in information technology, a change in the
pattern of criminal offences has been seen. This means that current laws are not as
effective as they were previously. The American Patriot Act
88
and the Australian
Crimes Act of 1914 contain a series of exclusions and corrections made in response to
recent crimes, such as rules associated with sneak and peek search warrants. Significant
legal orders have been established to keep pace with the changes to the pattern of search
warrants.
According to the Australian Crimes Act of 1914, the system of search warrants has
been altered and the officer carrying out a search is required to provide notification in
advance when carrying out a search. 89 It is also mentioned in section 3H of the
Australian Crimes Act of 1914 that an officer carrying out a search must reveal his
identity and produce a search warrant. The search warrant should contain all relevant
data related to the search, including the title of the officer, and the date and / or place of
the warrant’s issuance. It is also decreed that the officer should show himself to the
suspect when the search is carried out.90 There are cases, however, when officers have
been allowed to go inside a residence without prior notice or declaration.91 According to
the new legal order presented to the Federal Parliament, officers will also have the
authority to enter premises and carry out a search without an announcement. 92 The
Crimes Act claims that officers have the right to keep all necessary instruments ready
when carrying out a search. These instruments are to be used to inspect and evaluate
information, in order to decide whether or not it should be confiscated.93
The conventional process of informing the suspect of a search operation increases the
risk of losing potential evidence, as the suspect is likely to delete it. Deleting electronic
evidence is extremely easy; it takes just a single click. Section 213 of the Patriot Act in
the USA makes it legal for officers to run a search without making an announcement.
88
The US Patriot Act, 18 USC 201-16 (2001).
The Australian Crimes Act 1914, s 5 S 3ZS (1) (A).
90
Ibid, s P 1AA Div 2 S 3H (4).
91
Ibid, s Div 5 S 3ZS (2).
92
Tom Allard, ‘New Secret Search Powers’ (the Sydney Morning Herald (Sydney) 1st August 2007)
<http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2007/07/31/1185647903263.html> accessed 20th September 2013.
93
The Australian Crimes Act 1914, s 3k (1).
89
130
The officer can look into, save and transfer data (which might be potential evidence)
without informing the owner of the premises, or any other person present at the time of
search. It must, however, be confirmed that there is a chance that were the search
announced the suspect would delete all potential evidence before this type of search
being carried out. While it is more efficient to search without prior notice so that the
suspect is taken by surprise and cannot delete any evidence, searching without warning
should be restricted to protect people’s privacy.
4.2.2.4 Search location 94
Today computers have emerged as an important constituent of a person’s life. Everyone
ranging from individuals and organisations to the public and private sector are
dependent upon computer systems to perform their day-to-day activities. For instance,
certain activities like financial transactions, communications, and internet-based social
events, banking, shopping, social networks; entertainment and education are performed
via computers. Police officers often remove hardware devices such as CDs and floppy
disks, to perform off-site examinations of a crime scene.
Consequently, most searching and confiscating processes have both a specific and a
general effect on the person or organisation that is the subject of a search. This is
because digital techniques nowadays serve as crucial to conducting a business. In the
case of the interruption or deprivation of these, businesses can suffer harmful effects.
Concisely, one can say that a majority of people, organisations and businesses are now
engaged in computer-based or computer-reliant ventures. In such circumstances, it is
difficult for the police officer to conduct on-site and off-site searches for an extended
period time. Indeed, most businesses are against the removal of computers off-site. This
stance is the result of fear of losing their position in the market due to loss of
technology and information upon which their work activity depends. Consequently, the
site of a search tends to result in practical difficulties when performing a search and
confiscating both crime scene and external evidence. The execution officer’s analysis of
a crime scene is necessary to conduct an onsite electronic evidential search. This can
help them with gathering information available relating to the search warrant.95
94
(n 30).
Some of the problems are illustrated (amongst other authors) by Anthony Reyes, Richard Brittson,
Kevin O'Shea and Jim Steel, Cyber Crime Investigations Bridging the Gaps Between Security
95
131
Moreover, it is probable that investigators will conduct an on-site search by accessing
different files and folders and examining hard-copy documents and the properties of the
files.96 For instance, when conducting cyber-stalking offences, a person may employ email and chat rooms to perform victim harassment.
Information is usually saved in the RAM of a computer, so in the case of issuance of a
search warrant against the computer of an offender, the investigating officer may
conduct a wholly on-site search.97 It is important to do this because RAM is a volatile
and non-permanent storage device. If the power supply to the computer is cut off, the
entire RAM data is deleted.98
An off-site search may be defined as a laboratory search. This takes place when the
investigating officer shifts an entire set of computer-based data such as documents,
files, and programs to a laboratory setting to conduct a thorough search, in order to
obtain evidence and exclude unnecessary data.99 There has been much debate over onsite and off-site search performance among investigators, forensic officers and scholars.
It is argued that officers may face certain technical and logistic restrictions when
conducting search operations. This may arise due to processes such as electronic
evidence recovery and analysis procedures, which generate a potential for research.100
Therefore, off-site search is recommended by US DOJ guidelines in general and by
most forensic officers in particular.101
It is mostly argued that certain extraneous variables are controlled in a better way in
laboratory settings, rather than at search locations. For instance, such circumstances as
time, expert and technical assistance, temperature, and resolving password protection
problems are easier in a laboratory setting.102 However, Bernner believes that it is not
important to perform off-site cyber searches.103 She argues that adaptation of automated
search techniques, for instance key-word searches, is more time effective than the hard
Professionals, Law Enforcement, and Prosecutors (Elsevier/Syngress 2011); Susan Brenner and Barbara
Frederiksen, ‘Computer Searches and Seizures: Some Unresolved Issues’ (2002) 8, 39 Michigan
Telecommunication and Technology Law Review.
96
Ibid.
97
Anthony Reyes, Kevin O'Shea, Richard Brittson and James Steele (n 70) 169.
98
Allen Kent, James Williamsand Albert Holzman (n 74) 161.
99
Susan Brenner and Barbara Frederiksen (n 55).
100
Ibid.
101
Peter Toren, Intellectual Property and Computer Crimes (Law Journal Press 2003) 8-27.
102
Anthony Reyes, Kevin O'Shea, Richard Brittson and James Steele (n 70) 169.
103
Susan Brenner and Barbara Frederiksen (n 55).
132
drive searching approach.104
The UAE public prosecution has greater authority to execute search warrants. They are
authorised to decide the place of a search and whether it should be conducted on-site or
off-site. 105 In practice, the effect of searching and seizing electronic evidence on
businesses and third parties is ignored under the searching procedures prevalent in the
UAE. This is due to the lack of limitations upon the authority of the investigating
officer. The execution officer is regarded as the leader and expert when assessing
relevant methods to employ to execute the search warrant under the CPL.
Consequently, it is important to give the issue due importance rather than not. No
doubt, UAE-based investigating officers may continue to enjoy the authority to create a
mirror copy and other crime scene evidence for a detailed search. However, this
authority should be situation specific. It should not be applied in impractical situations
under which it is impossible to perform a site-based digital search. It is important for
law enforcement officers to demand off-site search permissions in their search warrants.
Justifiably, a search may be done on the grounds that the crime scene search is usually
less achievable and because of the absence of other relevant method. The conciselydesigned criminal procedural laws serve as a basis for a more effective and efficient
crime investigation. The reason behind this is that it underscores the new quality of
evidential searches. In the case of obtaining electronic evidence, many of the searching
and confiscating rules have become inappropriate and inapplicable. The best may be
taken from a range of other jurisdictions and may serve as a role model for UAE
electronic searching techniques, thus they may gain assistance from them for the
effective search and confiscation of evidence.
4.2.3 Search and seizure for electronic evidence: without a warrant 106
Laws and judicial regulations should be followed to collect electronic evidence. These
regulations are the same as those followed when collecting physical evidence. The
reasons for developing and following these standards are not only that personal privacy
is maintained but also that appropriate and reliable evidence is collected. Hence, laws
have been developed that permit investigators to enter a person’s private property using
104
Ibid.
The UAE Criminal Procedure Law, Article 53.
106
(n 30).
105
133
search warrants and to call for the accused after issuing subpoenas to obtain sufficient
and appropriate evidence. There are also exemptions available to the law. These
exemptions are constructive from the perspective of the accused, as they have prevented
investigators from entering their private property to collect evidence, on several
occasions. Warrants for searches are very important in those situations where obtaining
evidence is very critical for case proceedings. However, search warrants on the other
hand play a crucial role in preventing human rights violations. Admittedly, if the law is
not embedded with such exceptions then it is not easy to apply provisions to provide
timely justice based in truth.
In conclusion, statute law not only ensures the privacy of accused persons but also
bestows officers, who assure laws are in place, with unprecedented powers. 107
These exceptional powers do not require official search warrants for confiscation and
search, and some exemptions become impractical when warrants are obtained. This
may make it apparent that a crime has occurred. Hence, with the help of judicial
precedents and statutes, an investigator can enter private premises without any
authorisation or official search warrants.
In line with the CPL, the police are allowed to enter a suspect’s premises and search for
relevant materials without the provision of a search warrant. These circumstances are
provided for in Article 53 of the CPL: ‘... The crime is in the process of being
committed and there are strong indications that the accused is hiding in his house
objects or papers which may lead to the truth’.108 In this situation, the police need not
obtain a search warrant. The second exception provided for in Article 54 of the CPL
covers the situation in which:
‘… The judicial police officer, even in cases other than a crime that is in the
process of being committed, may inspect dwellings of persons put under
surveillance, either according to a provision of law or a decision by a judge,
should there be strong indications that they may be suspected of
perpetrating a felony or a misdemeanour’.109
107
Mohammed Abdull Mohsen, Protection of the Private Life and individuals Rights facing computer
crimes (Al salasel for printing and publishing 1992)11. (Author’s translation from the Arabic).
.11‫( ص‬1992 ‫ ﺣﻤﺎﯾﺔ اﻟﺤﯿﺎة اﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ ﻟﻼﻓﺮاد ﻓﻲ ﻣﻮاﺟﮭﺔ اﻟﺤﺎﺳﺐ اﻻﻟﻲ )ذات اﻟﺴﻼﺳﻞ ﻟﻠﻄﺒﺎﻋﺔ واﻟﻨﺸﺮ‬،‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻋﺒﺪاﻟﻤﺤﺴﻦ‬
108
The UAE Criminal Procedure Law, Article 53.
109
Ibid, Article 54.
134
Searches conducted without a warrant, and confiscation of electronic evidence is not
entertained in the CPL. For historical objects, law enforcement officers and public
prosecutors are bound to follow the law in warrantless searches. For example, as occurs
when the wrong key is put into a lock, and the key fails to open the lock. However,
there are no circumstances, for instance, in which there is authority issued to seize data
where that data may become lost. There are no options available to avoid the
destruction of software and hardware components. Digital material is more vulnerable
to searches through digital media.
4.3 Impact of other laws in relation to electronic evidence: regional issues
Due to the unseen and temporary nature of electronic evidence, the collection of such
evidence to investigate crimes, and in order to the prosecute criminals involved in such
crimes can be challenging. This is especially the case in a networked environment,
which is based in different localities. This is due to the globalisation of the cybercrimes. Therefore, the collection of electronic evidence has become a challenge for
regulators due to the ‘location problem’. Major jurisdictional issues can arise due to the
temporary nature of crimes, and the fact that people and evidence in different countries
can be involved. Relevant evidence may be available on a server, which is in another
location, while the person who carried out the crime and the person accused of it are in
the same jurisdiction. The case of the Queen v. Steven Hourmouzis supports this
argument. 110 In Australia, in 1999, Hourmouzis sent between six and seven million
emails dispersing misleading financial information, causing the price of the Rentech
company shares on the US NASDAQ to double. Steven then sold his own shares in the
company and made a profit of $17,000 before the information was repudiated and the
price of the shares fell. However, because the case was subject to a criminal prosecution
requiring a high standard of proof, the prosecution was compelled to prove the time of
the incident, its location, determine the jurisdiction, identify the method, and find and
gather evidence. The case showed the ease of access to millions of online victims at no
financial cost to the criminal. It also demonstrated the problems involved in gathering
evidence to prove a case and in determining judicial authority and competence.
Practical examples of this issue in the UAE arose when the Dubai police received a
110
R v Hourmouzis (unreported Victorian County Court, decided 30th October 2000) 85. See also: SEC v
Hourmouzis (unreported, District Court of Colorado, no 00-N-905 decided 1st May 2000) 85.
135
report that there was hacking on a company’s exchange, the system had been breached
and funds transferred out of the state. 111 In another example, a European hacked a
company in the UAE and addressed its customers through email, asking them to change
their bank account numbers, and sending them his account number. The accused
managed to grab three million dollars. The company discovered the penetration when
they received emails from customers asking for goods that had not arrived. These issues
are still being prosecuted, due to the difficulty obtaining evidence from abroad.112
The location of the crime is the first problem faced. As per the common international
law principle, a trial must take place in the same state territory that the crime was
committed. However, the law of criminal territory does not synchronise with the
sovereignty of the territory. According to the law in the UAE regarding the
determination of jurisdiction, when any person commits a crime in any jurisdiction of
the state which can include any part of the land, water or even air space under the
country’s sovereignty, this law is applicable to them. If the crime or any part or activity
related to that crime is committed, or if the result has been, or is intended to be, realised
therein, than the same law is applicable. 113 This concerns the site where the crime
occurred, but to add crimes that are carried another country has implications for
jurisdiction.
To prosecute international cyber-criminals, there have been changes in criminal law and
territorial reach has been extended. Hence, the conflict of jurisdiction has been
acknowledged mainly in the environs of cyberspace. The UAE government is also
planning to implement an extra territorial principle in order to address activities
associated with cybercrime. This is because there has been an increase in cybercrime
that has adversely affected society. This involved implementing the national law to
crimes committed and terminated outside the jurisdiction and the principle of the
territory as the norm of jurisdiction for criminal law. The nature of these crimes makes
it impossible to extend jurisdiction when it comes to dealing with cybercrimes. The
jurisdiction question is commonly seen as a problem for criminal law, and it has a
crucial impact on the investigation of these crimes and proceedings within the domain
111
Khamis Al Mazeina, General Commander of the Dubai Police-UAE, ‘New criminal phenomena in the
UAE’ (conference, Dubai 22nd February 2012).
112
Ibid.
113
The UAE Federal Penal Law No. 3 of 1987, s 16.
136
of criminal prosecution.
Another issue that is reported in other countries is the presence of electronic evidence as
part of a network, or where there is a connection to the Internet or another computer.
Issuing search and seizure warrants for electronic evidence is an issue that arises from
this. The general principle regarding the search and seizure of evidence according to the
law in the UAE states that only the computer system that is found in the suspect’s house
can be seized or searched and no other computer can be, whether it is on the premises or
not. According to Article 53 of UAE’s CPL, the suspect’s entire house can be searched
for papers and objects.114 However, if there is another computer in a remote jurisdiction
this may raise an issue in relation to sovereignty and territory. If there was greater
understanding between national law enforcement agencies, these issues could be
handled. A mutual understanding would include assisting one another in gathering
information and sharing it in the form of intelligence or evidence. Therefore, pursuant
to this matter, it is appropriate to illustrate some of the legal procedures in place to
obtain evidence from abroad.
4.4 Legal procedures to obtain evidence from outside country
It is essential for law enforcement agencies and investigating officers to gain sufficient
understanding of the methods used when obtaining evidence from other nations. If no
procedures are developed to help in the searching and seizure of electronic evidence
then conventional approaches must be followed to obtain sufficient appropriate audited
evidence.
4.4.1 Mutual Legal Assistance (MLA)
MLA instruments are used to transfer evidence from one jurisdiction to another. These
instruments help where cases are being committed in different jurisdictions.115 In other
words, MLA can also be defined as the method under which one state requests
assistance from another state.116 The reason is to commence or continue a trial for a
criminal offence. The definitions of MLA focus on two completely different aspects but
114
Article 103 of the German Criminal Procedural Act extends the search warrant to other places and
persons for the purpose of apprehending the accused, or to follow up traces of a criminal offence or to
seize certain objects.
115
See: Jody Westby, International Guide to Combating Cybercrime (American Bar Association 2003)
44.
116
William Gilmore, Mutual Assistance in Criminal and Business Regulatory Matters (Cambridge
University Press 1995) xii.
137
are of equal importance. The techniques established in MLA are easily executed and not
readily overwhelmed by political factors. The reason for this is that the courts and
lawyers demand them. As per the second definition of MLA, the mechanism can be
performed after acceptance of an accord from both states.
4.4.1.1 Bilateral Mutual Legal Assistance Treaty (MLAT)
This technique binds countries to assist each other when obtaining evidence for a public
trial. Applying this mechanism, evidence is collected for the petitioning country by the
other country.117 It is an important tool for collecting information from other countries.
In it, details are provided to address difficulties that have arisen when interacting with
law enforcement. Details are also provided to redress dual criminality and changing
cooperation requirements.118
Agreements between countries under MLAT are limited to a set number of offences and
methods.119 This is the reason that a bilateral MLAT does not exist that can contribute
to resolving issues to obtain evidence electronically. Even today, the conventional style
of legal assistance is made available for the searching and collection of electronic
evidence from different countries. During investigations, bilateral MLAT agreements
also assist when the conviction policies in countries are unequal and all the information
required is received and sent from the person with authority. 120 Electronic evidence is
easily altered and can be lost with a single click. This is the reason why traditional
styles of mutual assistance are deemed to be inappropriate for the collection of evidence
using an electronic source. 121 The MLAT is also incompatible when it comes to
collecting electronic evidence, because strict and decisive actions need to be taken.
4.4.1.2 Multilateral Mutual Legal Assistance (MMLA)
Efforts are now being exerted to bring about improvements in performance and cooperation. This is done by adopting various measures, such as sending the accused or
the person guilty of a crime to the country in which he committed the crime, giving
117
Jamel Al Saqer, The Procedural Aspects of Internet crimes (Dar Nahda Al Arabiah 1998) 82.
(Author’s translation from the Arabic).
.82‫( ص‬1998 ‫ اﻟﺠﻮاﻧﺐ اﻻﺟﺮاﺋﯿﺔ ﻟﻠﺠﺮاﺋﻢ اﻟﻤﺘﻌﻠﻘﺔ ﺑﺎﻻﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ )دار اﻟﻨﮭﻀﺔ اﻟﻌﺮﺑﯿﺔ ﻣﺼﺮ‬،‫ﺟﻤﯿﻞ اﻟﺼﻐﯿﺮ‬
118
Ibid.
119
Ibid.
120
Hisham Rustom, The Procedural Aspects of Cybercrimes (Modern machinery 1994) 100. (Author’s
translation from the Arabic).
.100‫( ص‬1994 ‫ اﻟﺠﻮاﻧﺐ اﻻﺟﺮاﺋﯿﺔ ﻟﻠﺠﺮاﺋﻢ اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺗﯿﺔ )ﻣﻜﺘﺒﺔ اﻻﻻت اﻟﺤﺪﯾﺜﺔ ﻣﺼﺮ‬،‫ھﺸﺎم رﺳﺘﻢ‬
121
Ibid.
138
legal assistance in additional circumstances, and also supporting co-operation by
arranging combined training programs. The best examples of this are the Council of
Europe, Asian-Pacific Economic Co-operation, G8,122 and the UN. All the countries
within each group have an agreement to assist and respond to each other to minimise
the suppression of criminal prosecution.
4.4.2 Rogatory Letters
These are letters of request issued from the judiciary of one country to another.123 These
are usually only relevant if the required help falls outside the MILAT’s sphere of
influence. That is to say, in a case when the requesting country does not hold any kind
of multilateral or bilateral MILAT along with the requested country. 124 Therefore, these
may be regarded as a default mechanism for following international courtesy rules.
Moreover, these prevent law enforcement officers from issuing rogatory letters to attain
evidence.125 On the other hand, scholars have suggested that modern methods like emails should be adapted for the purpose of processing rogatory letters. 126 Adopting
emails as the basic letter-transmitting medium will give rise to transformations that will
profit cross–border searches in the pursuit of criminals. It will also assist in accelerating
rogatory letter processing.
Although there is a Federal law in the UAE regulating matters of international
cooperation, to date, the participation of the UAE in efforts of international cooperation has been insufficient. The UAE Federal law No.36 of 2006 concerns
International Judicial Cooperation in Criminal Matters covering the procedure of the
extradition 127 and retrieval 128 of persons, and the procedure of the mutual judicial
assistance in criminal matters.129 However, there are no rules covering procedures for
obtaining evidence from abroad. The established rules and regulations in the UAE are
not effective or sufficient to control the retrieval of electronic evidence. Regarding this
122
The G8 is group of eight countries; France, Canada, Germany, Japan, Italy, the UK, the Russian
Federation, and the US.
123
Ilias Bantekas and Susan Nash, International Criminal Law (2nd edn, Cavendish Publishing 2003) 143.
124
Hisham Rustom (n120) 102.
.102 ‫ ص‬،‫ ﻣﺮﺟﻊ ﺳﺎﺑﻖ‬،‫ھﺸﺎم رﺳﺘﻢ‬
125
Ibid.
126
Ibid.
127
The UAE Federal law No.36 of 2006 concerning International Judicial Cooperation in Criminal
Matters, Articles 6-32.
128
Ibid, Articles 33-37.
129
Ibid, Articles 43-63.
139
matter, Judge Al kaabi said:
In terms of crimes committed outside the country, there are rules governing
this issue. But, in terms of evidence I think there is a gap in the laws in this
field, there is no rule regulating this issue.130
These provisions are also not adequate to underwrite events that entail cross-border
searches. There are no covenants available to drive Internet Service Providers’ (ISP) to
withhold information or help in investigations. Today, using letters to perform the
search and property confiscation is a challenge in the UAE. These letters define precise
actions and are intertwined with procedures central to bureaucracy and diplomacy.
Consequently, MLA is the most commonly recommended method for the cross-border
transfer of electronic evidence. Attaining cross border evidence is a difficult procedure
in the UAE, and there are no rules covering this. When the researcher queried the
President of the UAE’s Federal Supreme Court, Judge Abdul Wahab Abdul, on this, he
said:
…The UAE laws did not deal with this issue [obtaining electronic evidence
from abroad], so we are facing a gap. I think this issue must deal with the
new law of electronic evidence.131
They may adopt the rogatory letters method but it is an impractical method for
performing the necessary tasks. This is because it can impeded the essential timely
nature of a response, depending upon the demographics and properties of the electronic
evidence. Lieutenant-Colonel Al Hajiri, Director of the Criminal Investigation
Department’s-Electronic Crime Section- Dubai Police supported this view:
We are facing difficulties in gathering evidence from abroad. There are no
conventions and effective international cooperation in this field. As an
example, our department has been applying for evidence from abroad since
2010 and even now we have not had it. It can take more than 3 years to get
evidence.132
4.5 The preservation of electronic evidence in the UAE
The location of the crime is the starting point for criminal investigators to detect crime.
130
See: translated transcript of the interview with Judge Mohamed Al kaabi in Appendix 5.
See: translated transcript of the interview with Judge Abdul Wahab Abdul in Appendix 5.
132
See: translated transcript of the interview with Al Hajiri in Appendix 5.
131
140
Thus, success or failure with regard to procedures for detecting crime is dependent on
the preservation of evidence. Undoubtedly, the key element of any criminal
investigation is the preservation of evidence, because any error maintaining evidence
cannot be corrected. A practical example of this was given by forensic experts from the
UAE when he stated: ‘there are many cases where we lost the evidence due to bad
handling…one of the cases is when the analyst deletes evidence when handling the case
and we cannot get it back again’.133 In this regard, Article 35 of the UAE’s CPL states:
‘… They have to take all precautionary measures necessary for the preservation of the
crime’s evidences’. Therefore, when seizing evidence, a police investigator must ensure
that evidence is marked, identified and preserved to maintain its integrity. Thus, when
dealing with electronic evidence, the police investigator should be aware of the nature
of the information system because he or she may have overlooked or ignored evidence,
thinking that it is not of importance, and may have destroyed or changed it
inadvertently.
The preservation of electronic evidence demands clear procedures, requiring precision,
resulting in trust with regard to the electronic evidence. Judge Abdul Wahab Abdul, the
President of the UAE Federal Supreme Court, supports this argument, when calling for
reform to the UAE laws with regard to gathering evidence and the creation of special
rules for handling electronic evidence. 134 Police investigators need to prove that no
information has been added or changed, and that all media has been secured during the
seizure of the evidence.135 This view was also supported by Major Lootah, head of the
Electronic Evidence Unit at the Criminal Evidence and Criminology Department-Dubai
Police. When asked about whether the UAE needed to regulate electronic evidence by
law, he said:
Yes, to ensure that all procedures were followed properly and all evidence
had not been tampered with. The existence of rules will help us to ensure
that all forensic experts or police members follow all the correct procedures
and can also be checked by a third party.136
133
See: translated transcript of the interview with Al Ketbi in Appendix 5.
The 4th International Conference on Cyber Crimes (UAE 14th December 2011).
135
See: Johan Vacca, Computer Forensic: Computer Crime Scene Investigation (2nd edn, Charles River
Media Inc. 2005) 154-155.
136
See: translated transcript of the interview with Lootah in Appendix 5.
134
141
In criminal law, there is no rule in the UAE concerning the preservation of electronic
evidence. However, the process of preserving electronic evidence begins prior to its
seizure. In practical terms, the process starts when an individual takes a photograph of
the computer system once the relevant computer has been located. The wires
connecting it to the system must be marked for future identification or reconnection; the
computer must also be marked as evidence and must eventually be transported to a safe
place. Finally, the seized computer must be stored properly and preserved in a suitable
environment, because high temperatures can destroy the data on a hard drive. Thus, the
storage conditions should be stable, safe and moderate.137
All preventive measures need to be taken to guarantee that there is no tampering with
the evidence gathered, especially when there is variable data in the memory of a
computer that is still running. Under such conditions, a computer specialist should make
a copy of the hard disk to preserve the data before shutting down the computer. In
contrast, some believe that the investigator should conduct a full backup of all computer
data before it is processed or reviewed, because if data is not backed up then evidence
can become vulnerable to modification or damage by the investigator.138 In an interview
conducted in the UAE, a forensic expert interviewed by the researcher said:
When we reach the search and seizure place, we must take an overview of
the location and imagery. We then look at the device and determine its
condition, is it in running or not. Are there any other devices connected to it
or not. Is there a Wireless Access Point or not. All these things and more are
important because it affects the search and seizure of the evidence and any
oversight could lead to the loss of evidence.139
In this process, data can be analysed in detail, and the investigator should navigate
through all computer files, without touching the original hard drive. Once an
investigator detects evidence, then they are under an obligation to preserve it. 140
However, when insuring the security of the evidence, care should be taken to guarantee
that it does not lose its originality. For the surety of the evidence we must attain a
137
The temperatures in the UAE during the summer months can reach to 50°C.
In Australia, Standards Australia 2003 has established a set of generic standards for managing
electronic evidence.
139
See: translated transcript of the interview with Al Ketbi in Appendix 5.
140
Brian Paperback, Hacking exposed Linux (3rd edn, McGraw-Hill Osborne Media 2008) 567.
138
142
holistic understanding of how to preserve evidence. These should adopt a cautious
manner, such as that suggested in the United States Secret Services’ Pocket Guide for
First Responders, which suggests the following guidelines:
1. Do not try to use an ‘off’ computer in search of proof;
2. All the devices associated with the computer must be photographed from all
sides, including cords and other attachments;
3. Do not start up an “off” computer;
4. In the event that the computer is already “on”, take photographs of the screen;
5. If the computer is “on” and in a sleep state, press the space bar or move the
mouse in order to display the current image. Take a photograph of the active
image;
6. Unplug the power cord from the computer;
7. For subsequent recognition of connected devices, label or draw and illustration
of the cords;
8. Remove or disconnect all devices and cords from the computer;
9. Store elements such as fragile cargo/packages and parts that have been used for
transportation;
10. Other additional storage media must be seized;
11. Other hazardous material such as magnets, radio transmitters etc., must be kept
separate;
12. Along with the computer and its accessories, the instruction manual, documents
and notes must be gathered;
13. Make a sequential written statement about the process of confiscating the
computer and its components;
14. In the event that the computer is attached to a network server, expert help must
be sought; and
143
15. Make sure that no one interferes with the crime scene with the exception of
accredited staff.141
Evidence that has been corrupted, damaged or not handled with care is inadmissible in a
court of law. Therefore, securing the evidence gathered in proximity to its natural
condition is mandatory, and accordingly, the above guidelines must be followed.142
In brief, electronic evidence needs to be validated if it is to have any evidentiary value.
It is essential to put into place a legal strategy for electronic evidence, to prove that the
method used for its preservation is appropriate and that the evidence has not been
altered since it was seized. Undoubtedly, existing rules and regulations will help to
avoid any accusations of tampering with evidence. A lawyer interviewed by the
researcher said:
We now apply the general rules of evidence, which I think we can use as a
framework. However, the nature of electronic evidence requires us to look
beyond these rules. Undoubtedly, electronic evidence needs more attention
concerning search, seizure or examination. The general rules cannot cover
this process.143
4.6 Examination of electronic evidence
Examination of electronic evidence, describes the study of the legal aspects of the
techniques and computer investigation methods used for examination, identification,
preservation, and presentation of possible electronic evidence, so that it will be
acceptable at trial. The aim of the forensic process is to comprehend fully the extent of
the suspect’s crime related computer activities. The forensic examination of electronic
devices involves analysis of the electronic device that has been collected as evidence
through the use of a variety of techniques and tools.144
To conduct a forensic investigation, examination skills and knowledge of electronic
devices and systems is particularly essential. This is especially the case when forensic
analysis is conducted parallel to the investigative process, and both the prosecutors and
141
For more information see: the US Secret Services’ Pocket Guide for First Responders
<http://info.publicintelligence.net/usssbestpractices.pdf> accessed 22nd October 2012.
142
Johan Vacca (n135) 224.
143
See: translated transcript of the interview with the anonymous Lawyer in Appendix 5.
144
See: Computer Crime: The UN Manual adapted by Editor Michael O’Brien
<http://www.unlimitedinvestigations.com/computer_crime.htm> accessed 22nd October 2012.
144
investigators clearly understand the process, particularly so as to ensure the reliability
of evidence.
Forensic analysis is becoming more prominent worldwide, particularly as it offers
security to e-commerce. Consequently, this method has been adopted in many
countries, such as the US and the UK, in the search to solve criminal cases, intellectual
property disputes and cyber-crimes.145
Therefore, forensic investigators typically act to identify, retrieve and recover evidence
from any technology device with the aim of combating crime. Forensic investigators
must have fundamental up to date knowledge and skills. 146 For instance, a forensic
investigator should acquire expertise or skills such as identification of cyberspace
issues, knowledge of investigative crime, and knowledge of types of evidence, and of
the presentation of findings. In this respect, it is appropriate to look at the background
and definition to electronic device forensics, the procedures associated with electronic
evidence examinations and techniques and tools of electronic evidence examination.
4.6.1 Electronic device forensics: background and definition
The law of evidence is founded on a paper-based system, in which evidence is physical
in nature. Nevertheless, with the advance of information, communication and computer
technology the nature of evidence is becoming more elusive.
In accordance with the Cambridge International Dictionary of English, the meaning of
the word ‘forensic’ comes from the Latin word referring to the study of data or
information relating to a crime. It has also been described as the process of exploration
of details about a crime, by scientifically examining the substances or objects involved
in the crime.147
Since at least 1966, courts of law have been faced with challenges relating to the
admission of computer-related evidence. 148 In such instances, most litigation has
145
See: Peter Sommer, ‘Computer Forensic: An introduction’ vial virtual city <http://www.
virtualcity.co.uk/vcaforens.htm> accessed 22nd October 2012.
146
See: Jack Bologan, Fraud auditing and Forensic Accounting: New tools and techniques (John Wiley
and Sons 1987) 86-88 and 92.
147
See: Cambridge International Dictionary of English, Economy edition (Cambridge University Press
1995).
148
US v Bennett, [1966] 4-66-Crim. No. 89 (D. Minn, 1966). This case is the first success fully prosecuted
case (in a federal US jurisdiction) and involved the criminal case of a computer programme who worked
145
followed existing rules of evidence for guidance as to whether to admit evidence into
proceedings. Consequently, there have been many notable evolutions towards
standardisation in electronic evidence forensics; however, the field remains in
transition. Its origins are in practical acquisition and there are a series of evidence issues
related to inspections that have now been overcome, predominantly by law enforcement
personnel using training in technology. The field has progressed to a point where, at the
national level, best practice standards and certification are being considered. However,
internationally, there is no single intervention or standard practice to apply, nor is there
a generally-accepted governing body for the field.149
The transitional nature of the field impacts upon attempts to characterise or analyse it.
The following sections examine the essential properties of electronic evidence forensics
by reflecting upon milestones in practice, definitions and perspectives achieved by
those actors who have shaped the field’s history.
The 1980s saw a burgeoning need to manage computer-based evidence, mainly
involving mini-systems or mainframe computers. Use of the PC platform proliferated
during the 1980s and early 1990s, resulting in widespread recognition that new
techniques were required for the preservation of electronic evidence.150 In 1984, New
Scotland Yard in the UK formed a Computer Crime Unit. In the UAE, the Dubai police
established the Department of Criminal Laboratory in 1981, which was then
transformed into a general department in 2000 with the creation of a special unit for
managing electronic evidence. The first specific forensic imaging tool, IMDUMP,
emerged in the USA, and was superseded in 1991 by a tool called Safe Back.151 In the
UK during the same year, another disk-imaging application, entitled Data Image Back-
on a reporting system for overdrawn checking accounts for the National City Bank of Minneapolis. The
defendant, whose personal checking account was with the same bank, and subject to the same processing
system, accessed the program to hide a growing personal debt. The situation was discovered when a
computer failure caused processing to revert back to manual methods. See: Donn Parker, ‘Rules of ethics
in information processing’ (March 1968) 11, 3 Communication of the ACM 198-201; and Kevin Quinn,
‘Computer Crime: A Growing Corporate Dilemma’ (1978-79) 8, 1 Maryland Law Forum 48-62.
149
Alan Brill, Mark Pollitt and Carrie Whitcomb, ‘The Evolution of Computer Forensic Best Practices:
An update on Programs and Publications’ (2006) 1, 1 Journal of Digital Forensic Practice 2-11.
150
George Mohay, Alison Anderson, Byron Collie, Olivier De Vel and Rodney Mckmish, Computer and
Intrusion Forensics (Artech House Inc. 2003) 7.
151
Ibid, 113.
146
up System (DIBS), was produced.152
Computer forensics practitioners begin to organise and evaluate their techniques and
practices. In 1993, the FBI led and hosted the first global Law Enforcement Congress
on computer evidence. Subsequent conferences let to the 1995 formation of the
International Organisation on Computer Evidence (IOCE), and the 1997 meeting
resolved to develop best practice standards. 153 Around this time, audio and video
technologies were moving from analogue to digital, leading practitioners to consider
whether the same principles of computer forensics could be applied to all types of
electronic evidence.154
Efforts to define the principles of computer forensics resulted in 1999 in the adoption
by the IOCE of proposals authored by member organisations, namely the Scientific
Working Group on Digital Evidence (SWGDE),155 from the USA, and the Association
of Chief Police Officers (ACPO) from the UK. In 2001, the first Digital Forensics
Research workshop was held, bringing together experts from the private sector, military
and academic circles to examine cardinal problems and research requirements in the
field.156
Currently, much attention has been focused on the improvement of policies intended to
address the challenges associated with handling electronic evidence.157 There are two
key reasons for this close attention: first, electronic evidence has necessitated a number
of strategies and requirements to ensure that the evidence gathered is admissible.158 In
the electronic evidence gathering process, inspections must meet certain conditions and
fulfil set out procedures, such as the careful handling required to ensure that evidence is
152
Austen, J., ‘Some stepping stones in computer forensics’ (2003) 8, 2 Information Security Technical
Report 37-41.
153
Alan Brill, Mark Pollitt and Carrie Whitcomb (n149).
154
Carrie Whitcomb, ‘An historical perspective of digital evidence: A forensic scientist’s view’ (2002) 1,
1 International Journal of Digital Evidence 2.
155
In the US, a Scientific Working Group (SWG) has been formed by the US Federal Bureau of
Investigation (FBI) Laboratory to work on computer evidence. The works include improving discipline
practices and building consensus with the federal, state and local forensic community partners. The
Scientific Working Group Image Technology (SWGIT) is closely associated with the Scientific Working
Group Digital Evidence (SWGDE).
156
The Digital Forensic Research workshop also gives new life to an idea recommend several years
earlier - reviewed journals, leading to the institution of the International Journal of Electronic Evidence.
157
Eoghan Casey, Digital Evidence and Computer Crime: Forensic Science, Computers, and the Internet
(n 13) 9.
158
Ibid.
147
preserved. Law enforcement authorities require definitive procedures in order to
conduct effective inspections: the ability to identify and prosecute a criminal effectively
is based on a legitimate gathering of electronic evidence. 159 For this purpose, many
countries have endeavoured to establish guidelines and develop electronic investigation
systems.
Secondly, the way in which judges, prosecutors and other law enforcement authorities
deal with evidence in court may also be affected by the use of electronic evidence.160
Evidence is usually presented in court; however, electronic evidence, such as computer
output evidence, may not be suitable for representation as conventional forms of
evidence.161
4.6.2 The procedures law on electronic evidence examination
In the UAE, forensic examination of electronic devices is extremely new, and at
present, there is no specific statute to explain the details of forensic examination of
electronic devices. Conversely, many countries have guidelines about how to examine
electronic evidence. For example, in the UK, 162 experts must follow an established
Code of Practice and General Professional Principles, as is the case in the USA,163
Australia164 and Singapore.165
In line with normal practice in the UAE, experts begin by first conducting a physical
check of seized electronic device; this is then photographed and registered as an item
for forensic examination (The process will be further elaborated on when discussing the
techniques and tools used for forensic examination of electronic evidence).
159
For further details in a formalisation of computer forensics see: Axel Krings, ‘A Formalisation of
Digital Forensics’ (2004) 3, 2 International Journal of Digital Evidence.
160
For observations on the challenges of dealing with electronic evidence on the basis of traditional
procedures and doctrines see: Robert Moore, ‘To View or not to View: Examining the Plain View
Doctrine and Digital Evidence’ (2004) 29, 1 American Journal of Criminal Justice 57.
161
For further argumentation about the use of computer printouts in the court see: John Robinson, ‘The
Admissibility of Computer Printouts under the Business Records Exception in Texas’ (1970) 12 South
Texas Law Journal 291. Also see: John Vacca, Computer Forensics: Computer Crime Scene
Investigation (2nd edn, Cengage Learning 2005) 3.
162
See: the UK Code of Practice, via Academy of Experts <http://www.academyofexperts.org/> accessed
22nd October 2012.
163
See: Handbook of Forensic Services, revised 2007 US Department of Justice, FIB Laboratory Division
<http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/lab/handbook-of-forensic-services-pdf>.
164
See: Australia High Tech Crime Centre (AHTCC) via Australia Federal Police (AFP)
<http://www.afp.gov.au/> accessed 22nd October 2012.
165
See: Singapore Techno Forensic Branch, Technology Crime Division, Criminal Investigation
Department (CID) via SPF <http://www.spf.gov.sg/abtspf/cid.htm> accessed 22nd October 2012.
148
Certainly, establishing procedures and rules for the examination process is particularly
beneficial in order to offer a framework for handling electronic evidence that ensures
the quality of any examination. When an expert is called to testify, the details of the
procedures and techniques used will be revealed as the focus is on the duty of the expert
to establish that the evidence is original, has not been altered during the investigation,
and that the result of the forensic examination is genuine and reliable. Subsequently, the
UAE will need to remain cognisant of this issue in the future, and also work on
upgrading laboratories with the latest devices and equipment to guarantee both accuracy
and reliability. 166 Thus, it is necessary to understand what tools have been used by
forensic investigators to conduct forensic examinations.
4.6.3 Techniques and tools of electronic evidence examination
In an interview conducted in the UAE, forensic experts interviewed by researcher
explained the techniques and tools utilised in electronic evidence examination in the
UAE. One participant said:
Electronic evidence can be examined and analysed using several techniques.
These can be divided into two main types of tools; tools for copying and
tools for analysis. All these tools must be accredited by organizations and
bodies. If not, we must test the tool internally.167
He also added: ‘where the original evidence is retained and analysed we use the copy
only. But there are cases where you cannot take a backup of the evidence then we
examine the original evidence’.168
When conducting an investigation, it is essential for the forensic investigator to
consider the appropriate tools and techniques for the investigation and analysis of
electronic evidence in relation to the three main stages “[a]cquisition, [a]nalysis [and]
[presentation]”. 169 ‘An essential toolkit should consist of various software such as
166
For instance, in the US, there is a project known as the NIST CFTT (the National Institute of Standards
and Technology Computer Forensic Tool Testing), which is supported by the US Department of Justice’s
National Institute of Justice (NJI) Federal, state, local enforcement agencies and the NIST itself to
promote efficient and effective use of computer technology in the investigation of crimes involving
computers; available at <http://www.cftt.nist.gov/> accessed 22nd October 2012.
167
See: translated transcript of the interview with AL Ketbi in Appendix 5.
168
Ibid.
169
Brain Carrier, ‘Open Source Digital Forensics Tools’ (September 2003) <http://www.digitalevidence.org/papers/opensrc_legal.pdf> accessed 26th March 2012.
149
backup, authentication, decryption, disk editing, log file auditing, IP tracking, data
recovery, and file examination’, though recovering data also requires a “hardware
imaging tool”, so that ambient data can also be recovered.170 During the first stage, the
digital system is saved; this step is comparable to taking pictures or fingerprints, and
since it is not known at that point what may be considered important evidence all
electronic evidence must be saved. Frequently, this involves taking copies of hard disk,
also known as images. It is crucial that the tools that are chosen minimise any scope for
alteration to the electronic evidence. 171 During the second stage the saved data is
examined and identified and grouped into the following three categories of evidence:

‘Inculpatory evidence: That which supports a given theory;

Exculpatory Evidence: That which contradicts a given theory; and

Evidence of tampering: That which cannot be related to any theory, but shows
that the system was tampered with to avoid identification’.172
Hence, it is important that at this stage, files and directory contents are examined and
also that deleted data is recovered and the scientific method employed in order to arrive
at conclusions on the basis of the evidence obtained.173 The scientific method consists
of observation, formulating a hypothesis, based on the observations, and then making
predictions, which can be tested before a conclusion is drawn.174 Tools are employed so
that, for example, deleted file names or other contents can be listed; it is also important
that a copy be used that matches the original so that a MD5 check can also be
performed.175
Techniques vary and depend on the type of operating system the criminals use, for
example Unix, Windows and Macintosh. Moreover, forensic analysis requires
investigators to be aware of the different versions of these operating systems that exist,
170
Brett Pladna, ‘Computer Forensics Procedures, Tools, and Digital Evidence Bags: What They Are and
Who Should Use Them’
<http://www.infosecwriters.com/text_resources/pdf/BPladna_Computer_Forensic_Procedures.pdf>
accessed 20th April 2012.
171
Ibid.
172
Ibid.
173
Ibid.
174
Eoghan Casey, Digital Evidence and Computer Crime: Forensic Science, Computers, and the Internet
(n13) 204.
175
Brain Carrier (n169).
150
for
example:
“Windows
XP,
Windows
Vista,
Windows
Server
2003
or
2008....Windows CE” 176 or Linux, BSDs. Solaris, AIX, HP-UX, IRX to name a few.177
Hence, a Windows forensic analysis differs from a Macintosh forensic analysis.
Investigators therefore have to consider whether they are investigating a handheld
device, a network, embedded systems or wireless networks, since for each the method
of investigation differs and requires specific expert knowledge. 178 Furthermore, as
technologies grow rapidly, electronic evidence experts must constantly update their
knowledge to adopt a positive attitude when conducting quality based investigations to
reduce crime.
In the marketplace, there are a variety of forensic tools available to assist in the
recovery of electronic evidence; such as Get Slack, NTI-DOC, GetTime, Net Threat
Analyser, Get Free, and so on. The forensic expert must ascertain which are the most
suitable techniques and tools for each investigation.179 They must, therefore, be familiar
with a variety of practices and tools with which to search the relevant software.
Whilst the first two stages of an investigation can be rather technical and thus similar
from country to country, the final presentation stage differs depending on the particular
rules pertaining to evidence in the jurisdiction where the case is being prosecuted.180
Hence, electronic evidence gathers also must have clear guidance in legal matters as
well as understanding the tools necessary to perform the task.181 This is particularly
important since the tools and techniques used by forensic experts, could be subject to
cross-examination and the underlying scientific structure and methodology of such
techniques and tools may be questioned.182
The forensic expert also has to be able to explain the process of gathering and
176
Eoghan Casey, Handbook of Digital Forensics and Investigation (n 61) 210.
Ibid, 302-303.
178
Wayne Jansen and Rick Ayers, ‘An overview and analysis of PDA forensic tools’ (2005) 2.2 Digital
Investigation 120-132.
179
See: Albert Marcella and Robert Greenfield, Cyber Forensics: A Field Manual for Collecting,
Examining and Preserving Evidence of Computer crimes (Auerbach Publications 2002) 380-387; Current
Computer Forensic Tools (Module 6) The Computer Hacking Forensic Investigator (CHFI) via Tiburon
Technical <http://tiburontechnical.com/computer_hacking_forensic_investigator.htm> accessed 6th
February 2012.
180
Brain Carrier (n169).
181
Irons A., Stephens P. and Ferguson R., ‘Digital Investigation as a distinct discipline: A pedagogic
perspective’ (2009) 6.1and 6.2 Digital Investigation 82-90.
182
Lei Pan and Lynn Batten, ‘Robust performance testing for digital forensic tools’ (2009) 6.1and 6.2
Digital Investigation 71-81.
177
151
recovering electronic evidence to the judge. Hence, “a tool must be reliable and
relevant” in the UAE.183 However, in the UAE there is no specific guideline dealing
with this issue, unlike in the USA; where the Daubert 184 guidelines have been
developed in order to scrutinise reliability of evidence.185 In the USA, a pre-hearing
takes place during which it is determined whether the evidence is reliable and relevant;
this requires the judge to assess the techniques and methodology employed. 186 The
following questions may be asked by the judge in order to reach a decision:

‘Testing: Can and has the procedure been tested?

Error Rate: Is there a known error rate for the procedure?

Publication: Has the procedure been published and subject to peer review?

Acceptance: Is the procedure generally accepted in the relevant scientific
community?’187
The first guideline, requiring testing, aims to establish accuracy and two kinds of tests
are employed. The false negative test establishes that the tool lists all data from the
input, whilst the false positive test establishes that no new data is added to the output;
the National Institute for Standards Technology’s Computer Forensic Tool Testing
group has promulgated methodologies for testing tools.188
Error rates refers to whether the digital forensic tools deliver either of one of two types
of error: ‘Tool Implementation Error or Abstraction Error’. The former can result due to
incorrect details or bugs contained in the code, and the latter arises when decisions
made are not 100% certain because the data has been processed differently or due to
‘data reduction techniques’. 189 The third requirement is that the method has been
published and reviewed, whilst the last guideline requires that the procedures have been
carefully evaluated.190 Thus, it would be advisable to have similar rules of guidance in
the UAE.
183
See: translated transcript of the interview with AL Ketbi in Appendix 5.
Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals Syllabus (92-102) 509 U.S. 579 (1993).
185
Brain Carrier (n169).
186
Ibid, 3.
187
Ibid.
188
Ibid, 4.
189
Ibid, 5.
190
Ibid, 6-7.
184
152
The techniques and tools employed to examine electronic evidence, therefore have to be
carefully selected, as otherwise, a case may be lost, since evidence, which has been
obtained during a search and seized, is considered unreliable. Therefore, it has to be
assessed whether the UAE’s current procedures for managing electronic evidence are
sufficient to deal with crimes. This means it is important to discuss expert opinions and
rules.
4.6.4 The forensic expert opinion rule in the UAE
The aim of using an expert is to provide the court with information that would
otherwise be unavailable. This means that expert evidence will only be admitted if the
court is not in a position to make a decision regarding a fact by itself.
In the UAE, the use of expert evidence in court is regulated by the Federal Law No 8 of
1974. The expert is regarded in the same manner as any other witness, with the judge
retaining the power to determine whether his or her evidence is admissible. Article 26
(1) of the Federal Law No 8 of 1974 provides that: ‘The advice given by the expert
shall not constrain the work of the court’. Forensic expert evidence is admissible as the
medium for demonstrating the reality in matters of concern; as explained by the
Emirates Federal Supreme Court: ‘The judge has a power to accept or reject the
forensic expert report’.191
The above must be understood by the forensics expert, because the general rules of
expert evidence include the field of technology. The range of technological evidence is
vast and continually expanding. An obvious point to consider here, is the extent to
which ‘experts’ must have qualifications and/or experience and whether lack of the
same influences the weight of his or her evidence and its admissibility. It is submitted
that the answer to this depends on the circumstances of each case. If, for example, the
case requires exceptional skill and knowledge on technical aspects, its lack would
obviously affect both the weight and the admissibility of electronic evidence presented
by the forensics expert. Thus, it is essential for the forensic expert to possess ICT
qualification or have experience handling electronic evidence. The significance of this
contention is supported by one forensic expert who commented:
191
Criminal Case of UAE Federal Supreme Court No. 371/2002 date of decision 14th May 2002
unpublished.
153
Merely turning on a subject’s computer without following forensic
procedures may alter critical data stamps and erase data contained in
temporary files. An experienced computer forensic technician can quickly
identify potential evidence.192
Nevertheless, according to Allinson, the perception that any person working within the
IT field is an expert and, therefore, could serve as an expert witness is untrue, because
not all will meet the definition of a ‘responsible person’ having fulfilled the required
level of responsibility, knowledge, skill, experience or training. These requirements are
extremely influential in establishing the reliability of a computer audit trail within an
organisation.193
Furthermore, forensic expert testimony can be questioned when the evidence produced
is open to interpretation because a complex computer system may have unanticipated
operating errors that can result in catastrophic crashes and data corruption. Therefore,
the forensic expert must be able to explain in detail how the analysis has been
conducted and also learn how to quantify and account for resulting uncertainties,
including those affecting the system clock on the computer that represents the time, date
and sequence of events. Determining whether the system clock is accurate can be a
challenging task in a networked environment.194
According to Palmer, the techniques and conclusions reached by forensics experts are
acceptable in today’s courts, because they have been used previously in court or other
similar settings as persuasive evidence for authorities. In fact, forensic analysis is yet to
be tested to any great extent by lawyers in judicial proceedings or analysts ‘in
investigations of computer misuse’.195 In the UAE, no challenge has yet been posed by
a lawyer to expert evidence produced by a forensics expert. This situation indicates
either that expert testimony is reliable or that lawyers do not yet understand how best to
challenge it. In this regard, a forensic expert, when asked if there have been any
objections or questioned conclusions when presenting expert reports at court, he said:
192
Grant Bayley, ‘Cyber sleuths on e-crime trail’ (22nd May 2001) Australian IT
<http://archive.2600.org.au/archives/2600-list/msg10716.html> accessed 11th January 2011.
193
Caroline Allinson, ‘Audit Trails in evidence: Analysis of Queensland case study’ (2003) 2 The Journal
of Information, Law and Technology.
194
Eoghan Casey, ‘Error, Uncertainty and Loss in Digital Evidence’ (2002) 1, 2 International Journal of
Digital Evidence.
195
Gary Palmer, ‘Forensic Analysis in the Digital World’ (2002) 1, 1 International Journal of Digital
Evidence.
154
In fact, no, the judge is only looking for the conclusion not for the
procedures. In contrast, the level of lawyers’ knowledge about electronic
evidence or expert report is very low. Therefore, she or he cannot discuss
the reports.196
In addition, expert prosecution witnesses must be prepared to undergo crossexamination conducted by lawyer capable of testing the accuracy of the scientific
evidence presented. In this regard, it must be stated that the method used to crossexamine in an adversarial system may be not appropriate when testing scientific
evidence. Erroneous inferences may be drawn from the results presented or from
leading questions, and, with the growth of this type of evidence, it is anticipated that
‘challenges’ to expert scientific evidence will increase.
Therefore, it is proposed that judges, prosecutors, lawyers and other court officers have
much to learn about electronic devices systems and that this should be urgently
addressed. They require additional knowledge to enable them to understand the
opinions of, and technological terms used by, forensic experts when describing how
electronic devices and systems work, and the methods of retrieving and preserving data.
For the purpose of effectively using electronic evidence, a forensic expert must
establish the reliability of the computer software used in any part of the analysis and
also note that there has been no mishandling of the evidence presented. In other words,
a forensic expert must be prepared to explain the integrity of his or her methods because
a single small error may adversely affect the perceived quality of any evidence. In
addition, the laboratory itself must have standard operating procedures. The forensic
expert must comply with Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) and its protocols, which
will protect the evidence from challenges relating to reliability made by lawyers.197 As a
result, the issue of authenticating will arise; this is discussed below.
4.7 Authentication of electronic evidence
Authentication is an essential principle applied in digital forensics; it has been described
as a process designed to ensure that the evidence acquired is the same as the original;
however, this is technically inaccurate, since an active computer changes all the time
196
See: translated transcript of the interview with Lootah in Appendix 5.
See further: Shayne Sherman, ‘A digital forensic practitioner’s guide to giving evidence in a court of
law’ (conference, Australia 2006) <http://ro.ecu.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1032&context=adf>
accessed 26th January 2011.
197
155
and any evidence acquired is only representative of a particular moment in time. This is
also true for computers that are networked, so that in these instances, it is necessary to
acquire evidence in transit.198 Reed explicates:
‘Authentication means satisfying the court that (a) the contents of the record
have remained unchanged, (b) that the information in the record does in fact
originate from its purported source, whether human or machine, and (c) that
extraneous information such as the apparent date of the record is accurate.
As with paper records, the necessary degree of authentication may be
proved through oral and circumstantial evidence, if available or via
technological features in the system or the record’.199
Authentication can be divided into two distinct processes; firstly, the investigator who
obtains the evidence, must confirm that the evidence, which has been acquired, is the
same as the evidence that is shown to the court, and secondly, it has to be confirmed
that the files, which are shown in court, have originated from the defendant’s
system. 200 Another issue related to authentication is that the chain of custody of
electronic evidence has to be maintained; this enables each person to give evidence in
court and confirm that the electronic evidence shown corresponds with what was found
at the investigation stage. Casey proposes that a chain of custody form is employed, so
that electronic evidence chain is properly recorded, so that when it has been transferred,
the name of the person to whom it has been transferred and the reasons for the transfer
are known.201
During the interview process, the researcher found that in the UAE, there is an internal
procedure
used to ensure the authentication processes. For example, the
Telecommunications Regulatory Authority in the UAE have internal procedures
accredited by the US ASCLD/LAB (ISO 27001: 2005). On the other hand, the
Electronic Evidence Unit at the Criminal Evidence and Criminology Department of the
Dubai Police use internal procedures. Almost all of the interviewees agreed that these
procedures are not enough to ensure that all are followed properly, and the UAE needs
to identify existing legal rules to ensure that all forensic experts or other legal members
198
Eoghan Casey (n13) 21.
Reed, C., 2 CLSR (1990-1991) 13-16, cited from Peter Sommer, ‘Downloads, logs and captures:
Evidence from Cyberspace’ (1997) 5, 2 Journal of Financial Crime 14.
200
Eoghan Casey, Digital Evidence and Computer Crime: Forensic Science, Computers, and the Internet
(n13) 21.
201
Ibid.
199
156
follow the correct procedures.202
In terms of truthfulness, another issue is legitimacy. Notwithstanding, it can be
perceived as problematic whether or not data has been tampered with or distorted; after
origination from a particular source, electronic evidence can be altered or reformulated.
For example, a video or audio tape can be tampered with or edited by removing parts,
or by the laying on of one image over another, etc. The original or first form is
dissimilar, basically, to the latter in terms of the content which is due to later
alteration.203
One can bypass a password, or manipulate data in various ways and save information
on a computer’s hard disk or as emails. Text messages can also be captured, read, and
even changed by a corrupt operator working for the GSM network on which the
conversation or message was sent. Likewise, telefaxes may be captured and changed at
will. This is in contrast to a letter or parcel, which is sent by a courier or the Post Office.
These are rarely affected in this way, and so it is not normally practicable to alter a
letter. Therefore, it is clear that an electronic copy can be easily altered as compared to
a hard copy of a document.204
Confidentiality is another issue of authenticity. To store sensitive information in a safe
place and to restrict access to authentic users is dependent on a network’s or a system’s
capabilities. By using secrecy measures, one can ensure that only designated parties can
access the specified information available on computers. The word ‘access’ now has a
diversified meaning, such as reading as well as viewing, printing, or acquiring the
knowledge that a specific asset exists. Therefore, only those with admission rights will
enjoy access.205
Easy access on the part of third parties or unwanted readers of electronically generated
information can subject such information to forgery, imitation, alteration, and change.
202
See: transcript translated of the Interviews in Appendix 5.
Eoghan Casey, Digital Evidence and Computer Crime: Forensic Science, Computers, and the Internet
(n13) 234.
204
Ibid.
205
Charles Pfleeger and Shari Pfleeger, Security in Computing (4rd edn, Pearson Education Inc. 2006) 10.
203
157
Consequently, confidentiality is in question.206
The integration of evidence is of significant importance. A guiding rule must be
followed in any investigation. 207 Regarding the evidence in court, the leading party
ought to offer details of time, location and date of gathering, and should also indicate if
the evidence has not been manipulated since its collection.208
In terms of the exhibition of electronic evidence, certain standards must be adhered
to.209 According to Schetina, Green and Carlson, the dependency of electronic evidence
at trial relies on that evidence having not been tampered with.210
The defence usually relies on challenging the truthfulness of evidence in court.211 Many
authors claim that it is the chief aim of the defence to cast doubt on, and highlight the
ambiguity of the prosecution’s evidence when it is presented to the court. This point is
also long-established by Casey, who emphasises that cross examination is when
attorneys seek to disclose hidden facts and flaws in the evidence that may be due to the
investigation process.212
It has been demonstrated above that the court must have adequate confidence that the
evidence has not been altered. Thus, the investigator must be able to exhibit the
truthfulness of that evidence in court. Similarly, the prosecution should be capable of
showing that any evidence has not been altered between the time it was gathered and
the time it was presented in court. Thus, the prosecutor attains an edge by proving at
trial that the evidence has been retained secure from any change or alteration.213
Furthermore, the investigator should always engage in the best practices of law
enforcement, for instance by working through standards for the confiscation of
206
Andrew Chukwuemerie, ‘Affidavit Evidence and Electronically Generated Materials in Nigerian
Courts’ (2006) 3, 3 Social Science Research Network 185.
207
Albert Marcella and Doug Menendez, Cyber forensics: A field manual for collecting, examining, and
preserving evidence of computer crimes (2nd edn, CRC Press LLC. 2007) 12.
208
Thomas Duerr, Nicholas Beser and Gregory Staisiunas, ‘Information Assurance Applied to
authentication of Digital Evidence’ (2004) 6, 4 Forensic Science Communications 1.
209
Paul Bergman and Sara Berman, The criminal law handbook: Know your rights, survive the system
(12th edn, Nolo 2011) 400.
210
Erik Scheting, Ken Green and Jacob Carlson, Internet site security (Addison-Wesley 2002) 351.
211
Russell Smith, Peter Grabosky and Gregor Urbas, Cyber criminals on trial (Cambridge University
Press 2004) 81.
212
Eoghan Casey (n13) 75.
213
Peter Stephenson and Keith Gilbert, Investigating computer-related crime (CRC Press LLC. 2010)
133.
158
computers and for obtaining electronic evidence. In short, ascertaining the real status of
the evidence or documents is called authentication. Challenges with regard to
genuineness, veracity and discretion of the pieces of evidence gathered are difficult to
handle because of their implications regarding broadcasting, usage and storage. These
are the main challenges associated with using electronically generated evidence.
The extraction of evidence from a computer system to make certain that it is as original
as the legitimate initial computer record, requires validation through authentication. For
example, there may be some doubt that evidence was altered before it was gathered;
such doubts can have a negative impact on the evidence. There are many examples
where lawyers have criticised the authenticity of electronic evidence. They claim that
theoretically there is a possibility of fabrication that arises with such evidence. On the
other hand, were judges more familiar with electronic evidence, they might require
additional proof to determine the truthfulness behind the doubts of the attorney. As a
result, requisite standards for electronic evidence are becoming increasingly prominent
with advancements in ICT.
4.8 The presentation of electronic evidence in the UAE
After the investigation has been carried out, and once what appears to be sufficient
evidence has been obtained, the final stage in the criminal justice system is the
prosecution of the case. The prosecutor will exhibit evidence with the purpose of
presenting it in accordance with criminal standards; that is noting that the accused is
guilty of committing some, or all, of the crimes with which he has been charged. In
contrast, the lawyer will be concerned about tendering evidence that either contradicts
or challenges the story of those events indicated by the prosecution, or alternatively
offer a different story, with the purpose of raising doubt in the mind of the judge to
assure acquittal of the accused. The essence of any event is to provide information to
uncover the truth, whether in the form of argument or evidence in an opening statement,
or in a closing or evidential argument. As a result, a clear presentation of evidence in
court by the forensic expert or the prosecutor is necessitated, as summed up by Burns,
who states:
159
‘The presentation typically takes the form of a report, and the scientist must
be prepared to explain this report in such a way that a typically sciencephobic judge is able to comprehend it. Presentation is everything’.214
The process of the disclosure of evidence is governed by rules and procedures designed
principally to protect the rights of the accused. Under UAE laws, the process of
disclosure of evidence and presentation in court is governed primarily by the UAE’s
CPL.215 The UAE’s CPL details the nature of the duty placed upon the investigator and
the prosecution to disclose the evidence obtained. As regards electronic evidence,
whether obtained from the accused, the victim, third parties or generated by the
investigators themselves, it may reveal a range of issues that need to be addressed,
whether by a lawyer, the prosecution, or by the judge.
A first issue the problem associated with electronic evidence arises from the failure by
the prosecutor to disclose in court the process involved in the collection of electronic
evidence. This failure may result in evidence being inadmissible. The reason for this
may be due to the absence of rules and regulations governing processes for collecting
electronic evidence. In a criminal case in the UAE, a functionary of a company was
accused of promulgating inside information about commercial projects by sending
emails to the firms competitors. The Judgment stated in the First Instance Court 216
found the defendant innocent of any charges. The court did not find the evidence
convincing, and ruled that there was no accuracy in the process of search and seizure.
Moreover, more than one employee used the computer. The Appeal Court 217 upheld the
First Instance ruling, noting that the prosecutors’ presentation did not explain how the
electronic evidence had been obtained, thus the court was not convinced, and threw out
the conviction.
In another criminal case in the UAE, defendants gained unauthorised access to a banks
214
Burns, D C, ‘When used in the criminal legal process forensic science shows a bias in favour of the
prosecution’ (2001) 41.4 Science and Justice 271.
215
See: section 2.1.4.1.
216
Criminal Case of First Instance Court Dubai: UAE No.7690/2012 date of decision 20th September 2012
unpublished.
217
Criminal Case of Appeal Court Dubai: UAE No.6732/2012 date of decision 6th January 2012
unpublished.
160
computer system (HSBC Bank) and stole (45000Dh). The First Instance Court 218 ruled
that after careful perusal of all evidence, the evidence was insufficient for a conviction.
The Appeal Court 219 supported this judgment, ruling that it is not enough for a
conviction that there is evidence, but that it should be shown clearly how this evidence
was gained, and the evidence must be linked to the accused, something not confirmed
by the forensic report.
The second aspect to consider is when a crime occurs abroad and, therefore, foreignsourced evidence may comprise a key element of the prosecution’s case and will be
subject to the disclosure obligations of the court. This situation may present particular
problems, arising from the traditions in the different foreign jurisdiction when
disclosing evidence, and a lack of standardised rules in the area of the presentation of
electronic evidence.
Briefly, the presentation of evidence during the judicial trial process is critical to a case.
However, in order for electronic evidence to be effective, the evidence must not only
tell the story, but must also be easily understood. The judiciary has little information
about the process undertaken during the evidence collection. It may not be fully aware
of the process, and its scientific and technological understanding may be insufficient
with regard to securing and examining electronic evidence. Therefore, forensic experts
have an upper hand when presenting electronic evidence. 220 To this end, the
presentation of electronic evidence in court should involve an incessant search for new
and innovative ways to present electronic evidence.
4.9 The case of the UAE’s Ministry of Education as an example of electronic
evidence practices in the UAE
4.9.1 The facts of a case
On 5th April 2010, the Public Prosecution referred the respondent to the Al Qusais
police station for the following:
First: Gaining unauthorised access to a computer system (the computer server at the
218
Criminal Case of First Instance Court Dubai: UAE No.9913/2010 date of decision 9th May 2010
unpublished.
219
Criminal Case of Appeal Court Dubai: UAE No.3422/2010 date of decision 26th August 2010
unpublished.
220
See: section 5.3.
161
UAE Ministry of Education) without obtaining the consent of the person who owns or
is in charge of the computer, with the result of deleting stored data and personal
information.
Second: Malfunction of access to the UAE Ministry of Education service and data
sources through an information technology device.
The Prosecutor called for punishment under Articles 1, 2, 3, and 5 of the Federal Law
No. 2 of 2006 on the Prevention of Information Technology Crimes (before modifying
and replaced by Federal Law No. 5 of 2012). The accused denied the accusations.
In accordance with the above-mentioned facts, the respondent committed two
cybercrimes. The first was unauthorised access, and deleting data from the computer
server of the UAE Ministry of Education. The second type was malfunction, i.e.
preventing people from using the e-service.
The defendant had worked with the UAE Ministry of Education for eight years as an
administrator of its networks, and by virtue of this work experience he knew the
password on the computer server and how it worked. The defendant had been
transferred to work in Abu Dhabi. At 8:09 a.m. on 5 April 2010, the defendant used the
Director-General’s computer in Abu Dhabi to penetrate the computer server at the UAE
Ministry of Education located in Dubai.
As stated in the forensic report the respondent had:
I.
Deleted files running the email system resulting in the stoppage of internal email systems in the Ministry.
II.
III.
Deleted storage files for photocopiers.
Deleted database files for the Web portal at the Ministry, which led to a stop in
all e-services.
IV.
Deleted all backup files.
Witness (A) testified that the defendant knew the password for the computer service
and also how it worked. He also added that the password for the computer service had
not been changed since the defendant’s transfer to work in Abu Dhabi.
162
Witness (B) testified that he saw the defendant enter the Director-General’s office at
about 7:30 a.m.
A forensic expert testified that he had checked all devices and found the penetration
took place via the Director General’s computer using a password (Administrator),
which gave access to the administrator’s network. He added that the hack was
successful on the first attempt, demonstrating the hacker’s full knowledge of the
device’s password and system.
The defendant’s solicitor argued that the accusation was fabricated, and the DirectorGeneral stated, in a newspaper a week after the incident, that there had been no
breakthrough in the case. The defendant argues that the technical failure had been due
to the use of a CD-ROM containing a virus. He added that the forensic report had not
proven who the hacker was, and could not confirm that the device in the Director
General’s office was used for the hack. They argued that another device may have
afforded access and that the accused was not the only one who knew the password.
The Dubai Court of First Instance 221 considered the case and concluded that there was
not enough evidence to find the defendant guilty. The court’s decision depended upon
the forensic report used to prove the truth of the case. The court acknowledged that the
forensic report did not prove the defendant had been responsible for the action.
Moreover, as there were no clear procedures to show how the evidence to identify the
accused was obtained, the charge was based on conjecture. The recommendation, was
therefore, acquittal. The case then became the subject of an appeal by the Public
Prosecution.
The Appeal Court 222 accepted both the appeal and the subject.223 The court of appeal
ruled that the first court had the authority to decide upon the weight that should be
attached to given evidence that may repudiate or prove a crime. Decisions by courts are
not supervised, as long as they lead logically to a ruling. Based on this reasoning the
court ruled to deny the appeal and endorsed acquittal of the defendant.
221
Criminal Case of First Instance Court Dubai: UAE No.15432/2010 date of decision 24th November
2010 unpublished.
222
Court of appeal in the UAE it can hear and or make a decision in both fact and point of law, while
court of cassation deals with legality issue which may be raised.
223
Criminal Case of Appeal Court Dubai: UAE No.6962/2010 date of decision 17th March
2011unpublished.
163
The Public Prosecution contested this ruling, claiming that it was based solely on
insufficient evidence and there was evidence not presented to the court, in the form of
the defendant’s confession when asked in a pre-trial detention session. The Court of
Cassation 224 held that the court has the power to take or reject evidence as long as it
leads logically to a court ruling.225 However, it stated that judgment must mention all
facts and evidence included in the case, and since the court did not mention the
confession of the defendant in the pre-trial detention session, the case must be returned
to the appeal court to rule again.
On 7th June 2011, the Court of Appeal 226 ruled that the accused was guilty of the
charge, based on the defendant’s knowledge of the password for the computer service
and knowledge of how it worked, and the accused’s expertise. The defendant contested
this ruling.
The Court of Cassation 227 dismissed the appeal and upheld the conviction. The court
was satisfied with the overall conclusions of the appeal court and held that the appeal
court had full freedom to make such decisions.
4.9.2 Observations of the case
The case of the UAE Ministry of Education raised several significant issues about the
legal system relative to electronic evidence.
First, the case raised the issue that cybercrime and electronic evidence requires a high
standard for burden of proof; therefore, if the respondent is to be convicted, the judge
must be satisfied beyond doubt that the respondent is in fact guilty. The decision of the
first instance court was legally acceptable and initially upheld by the Appeal Court,
despite the fact that it was later rescinded.
Second, in this case the procedures for gathering electronic evidence were challenged
by the prosecutor and the forensics expert on the grounds that the plaintiff had failed to
clarify how the evidence was gained; thus, the judges were unable to understand how
224
Criminal Case of Cassation Court Dubai: UAE No.153/2011 date of decision 2nd May 2011
unpublished.
225
The Court of Cassation is considered the last resort in the UAE. The UAE court legal system is alike to
its French counterpart, while different to the UK.
226
Criminal Case of Appeal Court Dubai: UAE No.7003/2011 date of decision 7th June 2011 unpublished.
227
Criminal Case of Cassation Court Dubai: UAE No.268/2011 date of decision 22nd August 2011
unpublished.
164
the evidence had been obtained. In addition, the forensic expert’s report proved only the
damage and not the perpetrator.
Third, in the present case there were several additional points to be taken into
consideration for the future. For example:
I.
Failure to regulate electronic evidence may lead to different judgments; the
Judge did not convict because there were unclear procedures. Therefore, clear
procedures must be set out for gathering electronic evidence.
II.
There is no trustworthiness directed toward the forensic report; therefore, the
report can easily be challenged. Since the forensic report was unable to prove
the perpetrator, it is recommended that criminal procedures should provide
specific provisions on the above matter.
III.
The prosecutor and forensic expert were unable to explain the extremely
complex IT methodologies and concepts to the court. This reveals a need to
prepare and develop the capabilities of the legal specialists to establish the
veracity of such evidence.
IV.
Absence of protection programs and precautionary measures. The password on
computer had not been changed since the transfer or termination of the
employee, and so stricter interior precautionary measures must be regulated for.
This case clearly demonstrates the importance of establishing regulations on electronic
evidence. The rules used for electronic evidence may not always cover cybercriminals
practices or fill in the gaps left by Criminal Procedure Law.
4.10 Conclusion
As technology rapidly grows, the process of collecting electronic evidence becomes
increasingly technical. The detection and investigation of crimes is becoming more
challenging, as accusations must be proven beyond a reasonable doubt. In the future,
this task will become more difficult, since all data will be stored in electronic format or
in other invisible forms. This situation with regard to the detection of electronic
evidence can lead to unsuccessful prosecutions. Prosecuting criminals becomes more
complex when the prosecutor is indecisive about whether to charge an individual under
165
UAE Federal Law No.5 of 2012 for Information Technology related crime, or under the
UAE’s CPL, because the description of the charge will be found in UAE Federal Law
No.5 of 2012 and the process of collecting evidence and burden of proof will be found
in the UAE’s CPL.
However, the fight against the crime will be rendered more effective if laws and
procedures that are more effective are introduced to govern the process of detection and
investigation. It is therefore of the utmost necessity to update laws. The (TWGECSI)
Technical Working Group for Electronic Crime Scene Investigation presented their
opinion in this regard, stating: ‘In order to win the case; the investigators must follow
proper procedures required in collect electronic evidence’.228
Criminal offenders such as fraudsters are constantly progressing in their mastery of the
skills needed to perpetrate fraudulent activities using ICT. In order to succeed in the
prosecution of crimes, the law must be effective at curbing unlawful activities.
This chapter has provided details about the rules and methods for gathering electronic
evidence under the UAE’s Criminal Procedure Law, in order to answer the question of
whether the UAE Criminal Procedure Law is sufficient to govern the process of
gathering and preserving electronic evidence in cases of crime. Can it stand alone or
does it need supplementary legislation? However, this chapter also aimed to present
some of the challenges facing the prosecution of crimes in relation to electronic
evidence. Indeed, electronic evidence has different characteristics creating several
challenges for judges, prosecutors, lawyers, forensics experts and investigators when
collecting, preserving and presenting it.
The following points highlight the current inadequacies in the system, and propose
recommendations for the improvement of rules regarding electronic evidence:
1. Due to lack of a specific provision in the UAE on the manner of gathering electronic
evidence in voluminous form or in a complex situation, detailed provisions on how to
handle complex evidence, such as electronic evidence, must be set out. The procedures
for gathering electronic evidence under the UAE’s CPL must be complemented and
228
See: TWGECSI, ‘Electronic Crime scene investigation: A guide for first responders’ (2001)
<https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/187736.pdf> accessed 28th October 2012.
166
supplemented by additional rules, in order to provide an efficient working procedure
with regard to crime detection and investigation. The UAE’s CPL cannot stand alone or
remain static and needs to be reviewed, particularly in the area of the right of search and
seizure of electronic evidence. This is because any shortcomings in the process of
investigation result in failure to prosecute a case successfully.
Therefore, specific rules for the search and seizure of electronic evidence are necessary.
The importance of this is further underscored because the rules contained in the UAE’s
CPL are insufficient to address the various investigation techniques required for
electronic evidence. These rules also effect the administration of the criminal justice
system in the UAE. Furthermore, the UAE Government must play a pivotal role, by
providing more skilled computer forensics experts and enforcement officers.
2. Due to the lack of a specific provision in the UAE, or guidelines relating to forensics
expert reports regarding electronic evidence presentation to the court, it is
recommended that the Criminal Proceeding Law or the UAE Federal Law No 8 of 1974
should provide specific provisions on the above matter. Insufficient understanding on
the part of forensics experts, who are untrained in the legal requirements for tackling
electronic evidence, mean that their efforts cannot be presented in court. Furthermore,
the status of cybercrime is not well defined.
3. There is no specific provision about who has the authority to access computer data or
appropriate methods of dealing with encrypted evidence. There is a need to find
reference or rules to manage electronic evidence.229
The above recommendations are made in order to provide ideas to legislators when
reviewing existing provisions, and further, to help them prepare better to cope with the
challenges raised by the development of ICT.
In summary, in order to effectively combat criminal crime cases and make full use of
electronic evidence, the evidence collected must not only be relevant, reliable and
authentic but should also be communicated and presented effectively to the judge. The
judge, on the other hand, must apply IT concepts to cybercrime cases and provide
effective grounds for judgment when either rejecting or admitting electronic evidence.
229
Such as: France, the US, Canada and the UK. See: section 4.2.2.2.
167
According to Cross, poor understanding of technology on the part of ‘makers of the
law’ is the reason for this failure.230 Moreover, the prosecutor must be smart enough in
assembling and presenting electronic evidence at trial such that its credibility and
lucidity cannot be challenged. Clearly, the electronic evidence may be as substantial in
quantity as possible.
In this age of technology, the improvement of the UAE’s legal rules relating to
electronic evidence can only properly take place by considering international
cooperation. This is one area of the law of evidence in which it becomes feasible for the
developed UAE to acquiesce to a set of uniform rules of evidence in order to regulate
its use in cybercrime cases. Therefore, the above challenges, problems and
recommendations must be taken into account by legislators to guarantee that UAE
judges will be able to deal with the issues associated with electronic evidence and
cyber-crimes more effectively.
230
Debra Shinder and Michael Cross (n 3) 655.
168
CHAPTER FIVE: APPLIED STUDY: CURRENT ISSUES IN RELATION TO
ELECTRONIC EVIDENCE FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF LEGAL
EXPERTS AND OTHER SPECIALISTS, TOWARDS THE REGULATION OF
ELECTRONIC EVIDENCE IN THE UAE
A number of aspects relating to electronic evidence regulation are discussed in the
preceding chapters on the basis of the descriptive legal study. Nevertheless, the
dimensions of practical experiences were left ambiguous and so require more
investigation and study. For this purpose, research tools relating to social science
research will be employed in the remainder of the thesis. Quantitative and qualitative
methods will be used. The goals set out by the researcher will be accomplished and a
new understanding of relevant problems will be provided by presenting the perspectives
of various legal experts and practitioners.
The main objective of this chapter is to delineate the practical issues effecting electronic
evidence in criminal practice in the UAE. This will make a valuable addition to
literature on the regulation of electronic evidence in the UAE, and will be done by
filling the existing lacuna that prevails due to the dearth of academic resources. This
applied study will comprise questionnaires and interviews. Hence, it will offer a basis
for testing the hypotheses and provide evidence to support those arguments put forward
in the previous chapters.
The author’s primary hypothesis is that the legal regime and Criminal Procedure Law in
the UAE is insufficient to govern the process of gathering, preservation, presentation
and examination of electronic evidence. The researcher focuses on supporting this
hypothesis with both empirical data and legal investigation. Additions must be in
compliance with the UAE laws, and fill areas that are currently lacking in adequate
scholastic contribution.
The viewpoints and stances of the legal experts, forensic expert, and academics will
provide valuable supporting evidence, by offering an insight into current thinking on
the regulation of electronic evidence in the UAE. Applied methodology offers a
practical approach to indicate the problems associated with electronic evidence in the
UAE. It must reflect information based on the theoretical background discussed in the
169
earlier chapters and reveal existing practical issues regarding electronic evidence in the
UAE.
The chapter is divided into two main sections. The initial part provides a discussion of
the research methodology used for this applied study. In this section, the plan of the
study, including the formation of research questions, hypotheses and research methods
is discussed in detail. The second section deals with the outcomes and gives an
evaluation of the applied study. It provides both a description and a concise discussion
of the outcomes from both the questionnaire and the interviews. At the close of the
chapter, a summary of the results derived from the study is provided.
5.1 The research methodology
The most basic definition of the term “methodology” is that it is a plan of action, the
process or design on the basis of which particular methods are chosen and used. It
offers a connection between the research questions and the methods used to achieve the
intended results.1 Therefore, it can be said that methodology influences the choice of
methods, techniques and procedures employed to collect data related to a research
question or hypothesis.2
There exists a distinct understanding of what comprises research methodology in law.
Legal problems can be solved using a discrete legal methodology. Intricate
understanding is required to merge social science research methodology with legal
methodology in order to compose a thorough thesis. During recent years, the socio-legal
idea of research has progressed substantially, however legal thought still continues to
apply a distinctive research methodology when delivering arguments.3 The vital issue
here is: what is its relationship to this study?
The answer is, that in this study, the author is attempting to merge legal methodology
with social science methodology. The research methodology comprises of two main
approaches, i.e. qualitative and quantitative.4 The first is suitable for the researcher to
1
Michael Crotty, The foundations of social research: meaning and perspective in the research process
(Thousand Oaks, Calif.; London: SAGE 1998) 3.
2
Ibid.
3
Lee Epstein and Gary King, ‘Rules of Inference, the Exchange Empirical Research and the Goals of
Legal Scholarship’ (2002) 69, 1 The University of Chicago Law Review 122.
4
Ian Dobinson and Francis Johans, ‘Qualitative Legal Research’ Research Methods for Law by Mike
McConville and Wing Hong Chui (eds) (Edinburgh University Press Ltd 2007) 18-19.
170
conduct a thorough study of the research phenomena. A qualitative approach raises
questions such as ‘why’ and ‘how’ when investigating research phenomena. On the
other hand, a quantitative approach includes answers to questions like ‘what’, ‘where’,
and ‘when’. The first approach is appropriate when focused samples are used instead of
large samples. The second approach is employed for studying research phenomena
when mathematical data is required. It usually involves gathering data from a large
sample, using survey techniques and statistical models to investigate research
hypotheses.5
Methodology can also be defined as the rationale behind the research, as methods are
created for use in reference to the methodology. The interview is a popular method that
is widely used in practice, to support researchers pursuing a qualitative methodology. In
the case of quantitative research, the method commonly applied is the questionnaire. It
is increasingly the case that researchers are employing a combination of qualitative and
quantitative methods. In such studies, the results derived using quantitative methods are
then explained in depth with the assistance of the findings from qualitative methods.6
The significance and role of planning a research methodology and methods connects to
the logical foundation for the study. In this regard, the researcher attempts to provide
logical reasons for why one method is used for collection instead of another.
It is extremely important for the researcher to choose a suitable research methodology,
as the appropriate strategy is determined by the application of vital factors: the type of
data gathered, and where and when to gather it. The research methodology must be
chosen when considering the nature of the research issue at hand and the information
required to resolve the issue. In other words, the researcher needs to decide on an
approach, which he wishes to follow when carrying out the study, yet the selected
approach must also be appropriate to the issue being researched.7
The primary intention here, considering lack of resources, is to gather more data to
answer the questions raised by the thesis. For this purpose, the author will combine
questionnaire and interview methods as the tools for gathering and evaluating
5
Nigel Gilbert, Research Social Life (2nd edn, Sage Publication 2001) 32-34.
Ibid.
7
Ian Dobinson and Francis Johans (n 4).
6
171
information that is essential for answering the research questions. The interviews and
questionnaires used will be designed so that are suitable for collecting information
regarding the lack of electronic evidence regulations under UAE’s Federal Law No. 35
of 1992 in Criminal Procedure Law. The interviewer will facilitate discussion regarding
the laws in place for dealing with electronic evidence, and the level of awareness and
understanding of electronic evidence in the UAE.
5.2 Research methods
The given chapter uses a variety of approach methods for the purpose of gathering and
analysing data. The process of combining mixed methods for research has now become
an articulated and renowned method, as the third major research approach or research
paradigm, when combined with qualitative research and quantitative research. 8 This
method is called data triangulation and applies widely in the field of social sciences.
The mixing methods, for example employing survey data and interviews, can be
considered as more in depth forms of triangulation.9
The thesis is based on the assumption that combining questionnaires and interviews to
gather data will help the researcher understand more complicated problems regarding
the matter under study, thereby producing an image of electronic evidence. The items
asked were tailored according to the pilot study. Three questionnaire items were
eliminated following the pilot, and one open-ended question inserted to allow more
opportunity for the participants to convey their viewpoints.
The participants answering the questionnaire were chosen on a random basis from
Federal and local courts, Federal and local police departments, and Federal and local
prosecution services across seven Emirates. However, the selection of the interviewees
was done according to a purposive sampling technique. These processes will be
discussed in more detail later.
5.2.1 Questionnaire
The questionnaire is one of the most commonly employed and effective tools employed
for data collection. Its main advantages are that it is not only easy to develop but is also
8
Burke Johnson, ‘Toward a definition of Mixed Methods Research’ (2007) Journal of Mixed Methods
Research 112.
9
See: Abbas Tashakkori and Charles Teddlie, SAGE Handbook of Mixed Methods in Social and
Behavioral Research (2nd edn, Thousand Oaks, Calif.; London: SAGE 2010).
172
flexible and appropriate for the swift collection of large amounts of information in a
form that can be easily processed.10
The questionnaire issued was designed in such a way that the anonymity of the
respondents would be guaranteed. Moreover, the questionnaire did not request any
personal information. It is hoped that this will have encouraged the participants to
express their opinions freely when answering. Interviewer bias is not a concern as it is
completely excluded when using this type of questionnaire.
Using a questionnaire is a valid, consistent and appropriate technique for data
acquisition and well-suited to the objectives of the study. Brace is of the view that the
function of the questionnaire is to draw out the necessary data in order to help the
researcher answer the aims of the study.11 Many questionnaires are formed with the
objective of assessing an individual’s behaviour towards a specific matter of concern,
which is referred to as a state of promptness, a propensity to respond to or act in a
particular way when certain stimuli are encountered.12
To obtain qualitative data, open-ended questions are used to which the respondents then
give written responses, which can be used as illustrative quotations, or to identify new
avenues and issues for exploration. In an open-ended question, there are no response
options available to the respondents. Instead, there is a blank space, which they are
required to complete. An example of an open-ended question would be: Do you have
Comments? If yes, write them below.
The researcher attached an ‘Abstract of Study’, a ‘Letter of Consent’, and a ‘Letter from
the research Supervisor’ with the questionnaire to explain the reason for gathering the
data. The rights of the respondents and important details about the research are also
highlighted on the questionnaire cover page. These were important steps to insure that
the response rate would be high and that the responses given would have reliability and
10
Ibid.
Ian Brace, Questionnaire Design: How to Plan, Structure and Write Survey Material for Effective
Market (2nd edn, London; Philadelphia: Kogan Page 2008) 6.
12
Abraham Oppenheim, Questionnaire Design and Attitude Measurement (London: Continuum 2001) 2425.
11
173
credibility. 13
The questionnaire was peripherally developed around the broad aims of the thesis. The
research questions formed the primary basis for developing the questionnaire and it was
carried after the second year of study. This enabled the researcher to be clear on the
general ideas that required testing. The first step was to brainstorm, after which the
research questions were written down and were further narrowed down to determine
those that would be included in the questionnaire. The basis of the questionnaire was
logical and practical because an important concern for the researcher was the need to
save time. A few comments from academics were also put forward by the researcher.14
After this, the questionnaire was checked by academics and legal consultants to verify
the content of the questionnaire items.15 The Arabic version of the questionnaire was
modified so that it could be easily understood by the respondents. After this, the
researcher asked four apposite legal experts (judge, lawyer, prosecutor and police
officer) to examine the questionnaire. This step was significant since it delivered
valuable observations with regard to the design of the questionnaire, its transparency,
and the way in which the respondents interpreted the questions. When the final version
of the questionnaire was prepared, all these observations were taken into consideration.
Two requirements were taken into account when developing the questionnaire. The first
one was to keep the questionnaire short, because the respondents may not have
sufficient time to complete a lengthy questionnaire. The second was that only a few
personal questions be asked in the questionnaire. These related to position and
experience and did not cover broader demographic data such as income, family
members and education. All the closed questions were designed to be ‘opinion
questions’, which required the respondent to give a response on a scale or using a
ranking system.16
The questionnaire, in its final form, was comprised of four sections. In the first, the
respondents were required to choose profession-type and average practical experience.
13
Details of adopted ethical research principles were explained to the participants through letters and on
the cover page of the questionnaire. See Appendix 3: translation of the questionnaire (English); and
Appendix 1: translation of letter of consent (English).
14
The comments were provided by the supervisor Dr. Yvonne McDermott and the College’s Ethics
Committee.
15
The checks were performed by two academics from UAE University.
16
Bill Gillham, Developing a Questionnaire (London: Continuum 2000) 34.
174
The second section consisted of eight statements with which to explore the level of
knowledge and understanding of electronic evidence. In this section, the respondents
were asked to choose one of the multiple options available (I know/I don’t know).
Then, in the third part, the respondents were asked to select one of the given (Yes/No)
choices in relation to twelve statements. This part of the questionnaire was comprised of
questions intended to discover what aspects affect the regulation of electronic evidence
in the UAE.
The next set of questions were based on a Likert scale design. This was a simple threedegree scale, with the options agree, unsure or disagree. The respondents were also
asked to give their comments, recommendations, and opinions regarding the supporting
arguments, if any, at the end of the statements. The main focus of this section was on
measuring how far the respondents agreed or disagreed on the regulation of electronic
evidence in the UAE. The intention behind asking for comments was to understand the
reasons underlying their attitudes. The order of the questions was from general to
particular. Various questions belonging to different categories were directed towards
assessing the legal expert’s attitudes towards electronic evidence regulation in the UAE.
There are a set of rules on the basis of which a sample is chosen. One of the essential
steps in any research study is “Sampling”. Hence, it was extremely important for the
researcher to choose a suitable sampling strategy. In this case, the researcher chose a
‘simple random sample’. There were two factors that determined the size of the sample.
Standard errors can be reduced significantly if a larger sample is used. Meanwhile, cost
and time also have to be considered. Therefore, the size of the sample should be chosen
taking into consideration these two factors.17
Four groups were formed to administer the sample: prosecutors, lawyers, police
officers, and judges. These participants were randomly selected from: Federal and local
courts, Federal and local prosecution, and Federal and local police departments, across
seven Emirates. There is no credible total figure for the number police officers, lawyers,
prosecutors, and judges in the UAE. For this reason, a sample of 200 appears to be
suitable for this research. With regard to reliability, the researcher decided to use
17
Arlene Fink, How to Sample in Surveys (2nd edn, Thousand Oaks [Calif]; London: SAGE 2002) 43-49.
175
Cronbach Alpha’s reliability scale in SPSS to measure the questionnaire’s reliability.18
After deciding on the aspects relating to the size and method of sampling, the researcher
embarked on the fieldwork. The completion rate after the primary responses was 63%;
the researcher decided to do improve in this by asking respondents to answer face-toface. This action increased the response rate to 94.2%, a rate, which is high enough for
the study purposes. After checking the questionnaires, only the completed
questionnaires, with no skipped questions, were adopted for analysis.
5.2.2 Interview considerations
Interviews were used as a second method in this research. Any conversation that
follows a structure and has an objective is called an interview. The interview is
something more than the impulsive exchange of opinions in daily conversations, and
includes a vigilant questioning strategy and methodology with the aim of acquiring
knowledge that can be systematically tested.19
Interviewing is suitable when the objective of a research study is to research an
organisation, a company, a process or a policy.20 In the case of interviews, researchers
have the opportunity to gather information from a number of stances relating to a
specific matter. It is a suitable method for illuminating the complexities of the problem
and allows the researcher to explore unofficial truths regarding a process or
organisation.21
The main issue of concern in this study relates to electronic evidence as gathered by
specialised persons in the field. “How” and “Why” questions assist with the collection
of such information in an effective manner. The results from the questions will be
confirmed by carrying out a comparison with academic writing that is available in the
field of electronic evidence, and the experience of other jurisdictions in its regulation.22
Despite the fact that interviews are both -money and time- consuming, the study is
18
The researcher would like to thank Dr. Jani Kassab Statistics Supervisor at Bangor University for
re-checking the results of the questionnaire.
19
Steinar Kvale and Svend Brinkmann, Interviews: Learning the craft of Qualitative Research
Interviewing (2nd edn, Los Angeles; London: SAGE 2009) 3.
20
Keith Punch, Introduction to Social Research: Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches (London: Sage
Publication 2004) 144.
21
Christine Daymon and Immy Holloway, Qualitative Research Methods in Public Relations and
Marketing Communications (London: Routledge 2002) 105-106.
22
For a discussion; see Robert Yin, Case Study Research: Design and Methods: Third publication:
Applied Social Research Methods Series (4th edn, SAGE Publications 2008).
176
small-scale and conducted in an easily accessible geographical area: the UAE, the
researcher’s home country. Thus, costs were kept to a minimum.
While questionnaires are appropriate in cases where a large sampling is required,
interviews are also ideal for groups of smaller numbers. The selection of interviewees
has to be vindicated. In view of this, it was ensured that the selection of interviewees
was based on logical reasons. Although there was some choice when it came to
interviewing officials, there were a very small number of experts available to be
interviewed. There were a limited number of interviews conducted, and most were
undertaken with members of the official authorities who were considered ‘key’, thus,
the selection process was “purposive”.23
The researcher had to select interviewees with a particular objective in mind, since their
opinions would be vital to the investigation. The act of choosing the interviewees in a
deliberate manner was completely justified. The researcher purposively selected twelve
participants for interview (two each from the categories judges, academics, police
officers and forensic investigators, and one each from the categories lawyers, and
prosecutors, and the Minister of the UAE Justice and the General Director of the
Institute of Training and Judicial Studies).
It is often considered that in face-to-face interviews respondents are likely to disclose
more information when they consider the researcher to be a trustworthy and a reliable
person.24 Consequently, the researcher anticipated that the interviewees might ask him
to prove his credibility. The first step taken by the researcher was to contact the
interviewees. Following this step, the researcher delivered a ‘Letter of Consent’, a
‘Letter from the research Supervisor’ and an ‘Abstract of Study’, to each informant via
e-mail or fax. The third step was to contact the interviewees and communicate the time
and place arranged to conduct the interviews. The time allocated for each interview was
between 30 and 45 minutes. Following return of the consent forms the interviewer
obtained spoken permission from the interviewees to record their interviews. A digital
voice recorder was used to record the interviews. This device was such that the
recorded files could be transferred to the computer. In total, nine interviews were
required but three interviews could not be recorded since those interviewees did not
23
24
Martyn Denscombe, The Good Research Guide (Buckingham: Open University Press 1998) 15.
Ibid, 110-111.
177
agree to the recording. The interviews were conducted in Arabic so that the
interviewees did not face any difficulty in communicating their message clearly and
confidently. All the interview questions and responses were translated into English.
Two translation specialists reviewed the translations so that credibility could be
confirmed.25
There are three major classifications for interviews, these are: structured, semistructured and unstructured. 26 In this study, the most suitable method for gathering
information from the selected participants was deemed to be to conduct a semistructured interview. The interviews conducted can best be described as ‘elite’
interviews. The definition of the term ‘elite interview’ is:
‘When an interview is carried out with a person who holds a position of
authority, or particularly expert or authoritative, individuals who have the
ability to give responses with deep understanding and an ample knowledge
of the topic being studied by the researcher’.27
The type of interview was semi-structured. This required that the researcher would only
ask questions of an open-ended nature. The underlying assumption here was that the
interviewees were experts who could introduce new avenues of exploration.28 For the
purposes of the study, the researcher arranged interviews with people who hold
authority and occupy top positions; for example the Minister of UAE Justice, the
President of the UAE Federal Supreme Court, the Head of the Fujairah Federal Court of
the First Instance, the Legal Advisor to the UAE Ministry of Interior, the chief
prosecutor and lawyer and other officials.
The questionnaire findings assisted the researcher to design interview questionnaire
taking into account themes resulting from the initial surveys. The interview questions
were devised to elicit extra information and insight into the topic under study.29 Taking
into consideration the fact that these were elite interviews, the researchers asked for
comments on topics instead of asking direct questions. Adequate time was given to the
25
Abdullatif Peran (PhD in Translation) and Ashraf Mahmud, certified legal translators at the UAE
Ministry of Justice.
26
Colin Robson, Real World Research: A Resource for Social Scientists and Practitioner Research (3rd
edn, Chichester: Wiley 2011) 270.
27
Bill Gillham, The Research Interview (London: Continuum Press 2000) 81.
28
Bill Gillham, Case Study Research Methods (London: Continuum 2000) 64.
29
All transcripts are included in Appendix 5.
178
interviewees to express their knowledge and understanding and explain their
interpretations of the problem.30
The first interviewee was Ahmed Al Ketbi, forensic investigator for the
Telecommunications Regulatory Authority of the UAE. The questions asked when
interviewing
him
related
to
technical
procedures,
practical
problems,
and
recommendations for reform.
The second interview was with Judge Dr. Mohammed AL kaabi, President of the UAE
Federal First Instance Court-Fujairah. The questions in this interview related to
practical problems faced by judges with regard to electronic evidence in the UAE, and
his opinion regarding the rules covering electronic evidence. The interview was not
recorded since Judge Mohammed did not agree to this.
The third interviewee was with Professor. Mohamed Elamin Elbushra, Managing
Director of the African Centre for Criminal Justice Researches and Studies, Legal
Advisor at UAE Ministry of Interior, and Dean of the Studies and Research Centre at
the Arab League – Naïf Arab University. The questions in this interview related to the
rules covering regulation of electronic evidence. The interview concentrated on how far
the UAE’s Criminal Procedure Law rules could be interpreted and applied to electronic
evidence, shortcomings, recommendations, and proposals for reform.
The fourth interview was with Major Rashid Lootah, head of the Electronic Evidence
Unit at the Criminal Evidence and Criminology Department of the Dubai Police. The
questions in this interview focused on all examination procedures and analysis of
electronic evidence, highlighting the difficulties and challenges requiring further
regulation.
The fifth interview was with Lieutenant-Colonel Saeed Al Hajiri, Director of the
Criminal Investigation Department’s electronic crime section of the Dubai Police. The
main aim of this interview was to attain verification of the practical difficulties and
challenges faced by police officers when gathering and sizing electronic evidence.
The sixth interview was with Judge Dr. Abdul Wahab Abdul, President of the UAE
Federal Supreme Court. Judge Dr. Abdul Wahab provided an important outline of
30
Ibid.
179
opinions regarding the shortcomings in electronic evidence regulation and the necessity
for a special procedural law to regulate all processes associated with handling electronic
evidence.
The seventh interviewee was Younis Al belooshi, Chief Prosecutor, Dubai Public
Prosecution. The questions in this interview focused on the challenges faced by
prosecutors with regard to electronic evidence and on providing solutions and
recommendations.
The eighth interviewee was a lawyer, and since he asked for anonymity this is
preserved. He has over 15 years of experience and the interview was not recorded. The
objective of this interview was to cover the problems faced by lawyers with regard to
electronic evidence.
The ninth interviewee was Dr. Mohammed Al Kamali, General Director of the Institute
of Training and Judicial Studies in UAE. The questions in this interview focused on the
problem of the authenticity of electronic evidence in the UAE and the importance of
training and development in this area.
The tenth and eleventh interviews were with Dr. Ali Hamouda, Head of the Dubai
Police Academy and a police officer, who asked for anonymity and that the interview
be unrecorded. The aim of these interviews was to clarification their opinions towards
regulation of electronic evidence in the UAE. These interviews were an important
which represented a dissenting opinion to regulate electronic evidence in the UAE.
The twelfth interviewee was the Minister of the UAE Justice, Dr. Hadef Al Dhahiri.
The purpose of this interview was to discuss the opinions introduced in the previous
interviews and to discover the UAE’s views on the regulation of electronic evidence.
The interviews demonstrated widespread agreement about the weaknesses associated
with electronic evidence regulation in the UAE. Almost all the participants 31 agreed
that the UAE’s Criminal Procedures Law is not adequate to cover electronic evidence
processes and that we must propose a Federal law and adopt relevant guidelines in order
to regulate electronic evidence.
31
Three out of twelve of the interviewees’ believe that the UAE does not need to regulate electronic
evidence by imposing special rules.
180
5.3 Analysis and results of the applied study
The questionnaire for this study was a mixed-survey instrument including open and
close-ended questions. The open-ended items provided space for the respondents to
answer with their own subjective comments. The open-ended questions were included
in section four of the questionnaire. The questionnaire was written in Arabic for the
Arabic speaking participants, but it has been translated into English as accurately as
possible, although there may be some linguistic variances.
Although this was a social science interview, it was relatively easy to evaluate the
questionnaire. Multiple variables demanding thorough analysis using correlation
packages were absent in this study. Hence, “Microsoft Excel” was sufficient to handle
the data. The data was fed into the software so that it could be processed in a form that
would be helpful to fulfil the study objectives.
With reference to demographic information and questions about average amount of
practical experience, the figure (1) shows that approximately 33% of respondents have
7 to 10 years practical experience. In addition, around 28% of participants have 11 to 15
years practical experience. Thus, the majority of the respondents 61% can be considered
to have sufficient practical experience to give valuable responses. Figure (1) shows the
results of the analysis.
Figure 1: Average practical experience.
Average practical experience.
What is your profession type
Answer Options
3-6 Years
7-10 Years
11-15 Years
16 Years and over
Judge
Prosecutor
Lawyer
10
12
13
15
25
14
10
1
14
22
11
3
Response
Percent
4
26.5%
17
32.5%
21
27.5%
8
13.5%
answered question
skipped question
Police officer
Response
Count
53
65
55
27
200
0
1- Awareness and understanding level of the electronic evidence in the UAE
The respondents were asked to choose one of two options available (I know/I don’t
know) to rate their own familiarity with eight statements to explore the depth of their
knowledge and understanding of electronic evidence in general.
181
A. The difference between electronic evidence and other kinds of evidence
The familiarity of the participants with: “The difference between electronic evidence
and other kinds of evidence”, is show in figure (2). The majority of the participants,
68%, were able to differentiate between electronic evidence and other kinds of
evidence. The highest success rate can be found amongst judges (78%), with 54% for
lawyers. This means that almost half of lawyers could not differentiate between
electronic evidence and other kinds of evidence. This is supported by the one lawyer
who was interviewed; he said: ‘The main challenge is the understanding of the
electronic evidence. I think the level of understanding concerning electronic evidence
and how it is collected and analysed is low’. 32 Figure (2) shows the results of the
analysis.
Figure 2: The difference between electronic evidence and other kinds of evidence.
The difference between electronic evidence and other kinds of evidence.
What is your profession type
Answer Options
I Know
I don’t know
Judge
Prosecutor
Lawyer
78%
39
22%
11
68%
34
32%
16
54%
27
46%
23
Police officer
Response
Percent
72%
68.0%
36
28%
32.0%
14
answered question
skipped question
Response
Count
136
64
200
0
B. Methods of gathering electronic evidence
To investigate whether police officers, lawyers, prosecutors, and judges were familiar
with methods for gathering electronic evidence or not, the participants were asked a
question on this. The total number of sample claimed not to have any knowledge was
79%, while the highest percentage (26%) of police officers replied that they applied
these procedures. Figure (3) shows the results of this analysis.
32
Anonymous lawyer Interview conducted (February 2013 Sharjah-UAE). See: transcript translated of the
interviews in Appendix 5
182
Figure 3: Methods of gathering electronic evidence.
Methods of gathering electronic evidence.
What is your profession type
Answer Options
I Know
I don’t know
Judge
Prosecutor
Lawyer
18%
9
82%
41
24%
12
76%
38
16%
8
84%
42
Police officer
Response
Percent
26%
21.0%
13
74%
79.0%
37
answered question
skipped question
Response
Count
42
158
200
0
The most serious problem that faces those gathering electronic evidence is lack of
knowledge; this can lead to lost or inadmissible evidence. In support of this view,
forensic investigator said:
There are many cases where we lose evidence…The problem is the nature
of electronic evidence. Electronic evidence is intangible evidence it’s not
like other evidence. The difficulty lies in how to find the evidence and get
it. The investigator’s experience plays an important role in finding evidence
and the recovery. If the investigator doesn’t have enough experience we will
not be able to find the evidence. The error here was not a procedural or
criminal intelligence problem, but the investigator’s experience.33
An investigation should be carried out to determine the admissibility of any evidence
adduced in court. A police officer must ensure that all relevant procedures have been
strictly followed. Thus, before any action leading to the search and seizure of electronic
evidence is carried out, the investigator must take into consideration that he/she needs a
search warrant first, and must follow all the rules written in the warrant. Searching
without a warrant is not allowed in the UAE legal system, except under circumstances,
as stated in Chapter Four.34
However, some cases need urgent action, especially those where electronic evidence is
key. Time getting a search warrant can lead to loss of evidence. To probe this issue, the
researcher asked Lieutenant-Colonel Saeed Al Hajiri about it, he said:
33
Ahmed Al Ketbi, forensic investigator at Telecommunications Regulatory Authority of the UAE,
Interview conducted (January 2013 Dubai-UAE). See: transcript translated of the interviews in Appendix
5.
34
See: section 4.2.2.3 and section 4.2.3.
183
Our department received a report that there is hacking on the government
website, after proving this status and during our taking of action, the
suspects were deleting the evidence and we cannot prove the crime.35
It is therefore appropriate to look at this issue when regulating electronic evidence.
Furthermore, knowledge of the methods for gathering electronic evidence is extremely
important because lack of knowledge can result in inefficiency that will affect the
collection of electronic evidence.
C. Placement of electronic evidence in the cybercrime scene
The statement, ‘placement of electronic evidence in cybercrime scene’, was put to the
participants. The aim of the above statement was to investigate whether or not the
respondents know that electronic evidence can be found in different places, also that it
can be found in the UAE or abroad. The analysis revealed that 83% of the participants
claimed not to have any knowledge where to look for electronic evidence, or where it
could found. This is shown in figure (4).
Figure 4: Placement of electronic evidence in the cybercrime scene.
Placement of electronic evidence in the cybercrime scene.
What is your profession type
Answer Options
I Know
I don’t know
Judge
Prosecutor
Lawyer
16%
8
84%
42
26%
13
74%
37
4%
2
96%
48
Police officer
Response
Percent
22%
17.0%
11
78%
83.0%
39
answered question
skipped question
Response
Count
34
166
200
0
It is important that investigators be aware of the potential locations where electronic
evidence may be found. Without this knowledge, some evidence may not be seized.
Lack of expertise or skill of the investigator is among the factors leading to loss of
evidence and inefficient combating of criminals. As a result, qualified people must
collect electronic evidence to avoid loss of evidence. Chief Prosecutor Younis Al
belooshi supported this view:
35
Lieutenant-Colonel Saeed Al Hajiri, Director of the Criminal Investigation Department’s-Electronic
Crime Section- Dubai Police, Interview conducted (January 2013Dubai-UAE). See: transcript translated
of the interviews in Appendix 5.
184
There are a number of issues and challenges are faced with regard to
electronic evidence in the UAE. There are issues relating to how to get the
evidence, challenging on the search, seizure, and preservation processes.
Most of these procedures are understood by police officers, lawyers,
prosecutors, and judges. There is no technician present during a seizure of
electronic evidence.36
Professor, Elbushra 37 argued that we should rely on qualified people when handling
electronic evidence; he added: ‘The person must have qualifications and must pass a
number of courses’.38
With regard to evidence located abroad, UAE law enforcers face challenges such as
time to obtain evidence and lack of international cooperation. Lieutenant-Colonel, Al
Hajiri gave a practical example of this issue, stating that the Criminal Investigation
Department’s Electronic Crime Section of the Dubai Police had applying for evidence
from abroad since 2010, and even then did not have it.39 When asked about the regional
issue of electronic evidence and whether UAE laws can deal with this issue, Judge Al
Kaabi said (and almost all of the interviewees also supported this view)40:
…I think there is a gap in the laws in this field, there is no rule regulating
this issue [obtaining evidence abroad]. I guess this can be dealt with by
standard international criminal procedures.41
D. Methods of preservation of electronic evidence
As shown in earlier chapters, electronic evidence can be altered, lost or destroyed and
there is possibility that it may not be possible to retrieve all evidence or data, as a
consequence of poor handling when collecting electronic evidence. This is one of the
main reasons for lost evidence. Therefore, in order to investigate this issue, the
participants were asked if they were familiar with what preservation methods should be
36
Younis Al belooshi, Chief Prosecutor–Dubai Public Prosecution, Interview conducted (February
2013Dubai-UAE). See: transcript translated of the interviews in Appendix 5.
37
Professor Mohamed Elamin Elbushra, Managing Director at African Centre for Criminal Justice
Researches and Studies, Legal Advisor at UAE Ministry of Interior, Dean of the Studies and Research
Center at Arab League – Naïf Arab University, Interview conducted (January 2013Abu Dhabi -UAE).
See: transcript translated of the interviews in Appendix 5.
38
Ibid.
39
See: translated transcript of the interview with Al Hajiri in Appendix 5.
40
See: transcript translated of the interviews in Appendix 5.
41
See: translated transcript of the interview with Judge Al kaabi in Appendix 5.
185
used when gathering electronic evidence. The analysis of the participants’ answers
revealed that the majority (80%) of police officers were claimed unfamiliar with the
procedures to be followed to guarantee the preservation of electronic evidence. As a
result, the percentage of possibility to lose electronic evidence is extremely high. In
fact, this was one of the main reasons for suggesting a pertinent need to regulate
electronic evidence. Figure (5) demonstrates the result of the analysis. Interviews
supported this view, Forensic investigator Al ketbi said: ‘…There are many cases where
we have lost the evidence due to bad handling...’. He also gave an example of bad
handling:
Without naming names, one of the authorities in the UAE told us that one of
its staff disseminated and misused a body of information. After
investigation we found that the authority had formatted the computer. As a
result, we were unable to get the evidence. It was due to bad handling from
the authority.42
Figure 5: Methods of preservation of electronic evidence.
Methods of preservation of electronic evidence.
What is your profession type
Answer Options
I Know
I don’t know
Judge
Prosecutor
Lawyer
2%
1
98%
49
18%
9
82%
41
4%
2
96%
48
Police officer
Response
Percent
20%
11.0%
10
80%
89.0%
40
answered question
skipped question
Response
Count
22
178
200
0
E. Procedures for electronic evidence examination
As discussed earlier, the procedures for examining electronic evidence should be clear
to any party, and must be documented. Accordingly, participants were asked to rate
their familiarity with the “procedures for electronic evidence examination”. 89% of all
respondents claimed not to have any knowledge regarding the procedures of electronic
evidence examination. Figure (6) shows the result of the analysis.
42
See: translated transcript of the interview with Al ketbi in Appendix 5.
186
Figure 6: Procedures for electronic evidence examination.
Procedures for electronic evidence examination.
What is your profession type
Answer Options
I Know
I don’t know
Judge
Prosecutor
Lawyer
8%
4
92%
46
18%
9
82%
41
2%
1
98%
49
Police officer
Response
Percent
Response
Count
16%
11.0%
8
84%
89.0%
42
answered question
skipped question
22
178
200
0
Therefore, the statement raised the issue of a guarantee when examining procedures and
reaching valid conclusions. As one of the interviewee said:
I think that we need own procedures dealing with all processes starting with
seizure, preservation and examination of electronic evidence. When it has;
nobody can argue and also it will be assurance that all procedures have been
followed by the investigator.43
Regarding reaching valid conclusions, the head of the Electronic Evidence Unit at the
Criminal Evidence and Criminology Department- Dubai Police said:
The results from the forensic expert’s report are only a personal view of the
expert. We can ensure by internal audit that all procedures were followed
are correct, but we cannot ensure the conclusion.44
Forensic examination is very new in the UAE and at present there are no specific rules
to explain the detailed aspects of a forensic examination. As a result, one of the benefits
of finding rules covering the examination procedures is convincing the judge. Through
the existence of rules we can ensure that all forensic experts or members of the police
follow the correct procedures.
F. Techniques and tools for electronic evidence examination
The participants were presented with the following statement to discover their
familiarity with ‘Techniques and tools for electronic evidence examination’. The
analysis showed that almost all the respondents (94.5%) claimed not to have any
43
44
See: translated transcript of the interview with Al ketbi in Appendix 5.
See: translated transcript of the interview with Lootah in Appendix 5.
187
knowledge about the techniques and tools used for examining electronic evidence.
Despite the fact that this is a technical matter, police officers, lawyers, prosecutors, and
judges should have basic knowledge about the tools and techniques used for restoring
and analysing electronic evidence. Such understanding is extremely important for
discussing forensic reports, as is essential to know that evidence deleted from a device
can be backed up or recovered using certain tools and techniques. Not only that but it is
also important to ensure that the tools used are upgraded to guarantee an appropriate
level of reliability and accuracy. Figure (7) shows the result of the analysis.
Figure 7: Techniques and tools for electronic evidence examination.
Techniques and tools for electronic evidence examination.
What is your profession type
Answer Options
I Know
I don’t know
Judge
Prosecutor
Lawyer
4%
2
96%
48
12%
6
88%
44
2%
1
98%
49
Police officer
Response
Percent
4%
5.5%
2
96%
94.5%
48
answered question
skipped question
Response
Count
11
189
200
0
G. Forensic expert’s reports of electronic evidence
The next statement focused on the forensic experts’ reports. The participants were
asked to respond to the statement: ‘Forensic expert’s reports of electronic evidence;
how to get the results, presented and discussed’. The analysis of the participants’
knowledge revealed that many of the respondents (87%) claimed not to have any
knowledge on how to attain forensic reports results or how to present and discuss these
reports. Only a small percentage (26%) of the prosecutors had this knowledge.
However, only 4% of the police officer and lawyers respondents reported that they had
this knowledge. Judge Al kabi said: ‘…It is hard for judges to understand the technical
terminology’.45 One forensic investigator said: ‘In fact, the judge is only looking for the
conclusion not for the procedures. In contrast, the level of lawyers’ knowledge about
electronic evidence or what should be in an expert’s reports is very low. Therefore,
he/she cannot discuss the reports’.46 Figure (8) demonstrates the result of the analysis.
45
46
See: translated transcript of the interview with Al kabi in Appendix 5.
See: translated transcript of the interview with Lootah in Appendix 5.
188
Figure 8: Forensic expert’s reports of electronic evidence.
Forensic expert’s reports of electronic evidence (how to get the results, presented and discussed).
What is your profession type
Answer Options
I Know
I don’t know
Judge
Prosecutor
Lawyer
18%
9
82%
41
26%
13
74%
37
4%
2
96%
48
Police officer
Response
Percent
4%
13.0%
2
96%
87.0%
48
answered question
skipped question
Response
Count
26
174
200
0
H. Challenges and problems of cybercrimes in relation to electronic evidence
Section two of the questionnaire concluded with the following statement: ‘challenges
and problems of the cyber-crimes in relation to electronic evidence’. The aim of this
statement was to probe into police officers’, lawyers’, prosecutors’ and judges’
knowledge about the challenges and problems resulting from the need to collect
electronic evidence. The results demonstrated that a significant percentage of the
participants (74.5%) claimed not to have any knowledge regarding the difficulties that
can arise as a consequence of utilising electronic evidence. Figure (9) illustrates the
result of this analysis.
Figure 9: Challenges and problems of cybercrimes in relation to electronic
evidence.
Challenges and problems of cybercrimes in relation to electronic evidence.
What is your profession type
Answer Options
I Know
I don’t know
Judge
Prosecutor
Lawyer
28%
14
72%
36
30%
15
70%
35
26%
13
74%
37
Police officer
Response
Percent
18%
25.5%
9
82%
74.5%
41
answered question
skipped question
Response
Count
51
149
Judge Al kabi said:
We face many challenges, the main challenge I think is a lack of
experienced judges, and a low level of understanding and awareness. The
reason for this could be the limited number of cases that contain electronic
189
200
0
evidence and the age of the judges, as well as, the lack of training and
specialised workshops.47
This idea was supported by another interviewee, a legal advisor at UAE Ministry of
Interior. Elbushra affirmed that cybercrime and electronic evidence is a new topic with
global implications, and that in the UAE handling of this issue is in the early stages. At
present, the level of understanding and awareness is very low. In the UAE, there are no
academic courses, training courses or workshops in the field of electronic evidence or
cybercrime. Cybercrime is a high tech crime, which requires a high level of knowledge.
Many members of society are victims of cybercrime; they do not know how to handle
this type of crime or even maintain the evidence. Many people lose accounts, and their
crimes are discovered only accidentally. Thus, we need more focus on such topics, as
they will help us to increase our level of knowledge and find ways to fill the gaps in the
law.48 According to David Wall, one of the main problems when studying crimes is the
lack of statistical evidence because many offences are not reported.49
A practical example, between 2010 and 2013 was that many people in e-government
services in the UAE had their accounts hacked and experienced fraudulent use of their
credit cards; 16 million UAE Dh was stolen, but the crime was only discovered
accidentally.50
Raising knowledge and awareness of this issue is extremely important since at present
defendants are more knowledgeable than the judges, prosecutors and investigators. In
order to raise the level of knowledge of judges, prosecutors and lawyers, the United
Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute (UNICRI) conducted a twophase program called “Cybex” over a period of three years (2008-2010), across 21
European and 3 South American countries, with the result that they improved judges’,
prosecutors’, and lawyers’ knowledge of electronic evidence.51 A similar project would
47
See: translated transcript of the interview with Al kabi in Appendix 5.
See: translated transcript of the interview with Professor Elbushra in Appendix 5.
49
See: David Wall, Crime and the Internet (Taylor and Francis Group 2001).
50
Mohammed Fodah, ‘Gang stolen credit card data of banks customers’ Emaratalyoum Newspaper
(Dubai, 19th September 2013) <http://www.emaratalyoum.com/local-section/accidents/2013-09-191.607865> accessed 19th September 2013.
51
For further information see:
<http://www.coe.int/t/dghl/cooperation/economiccrime/cybercrime/Documents/ReportsPresentations/2079if09pres_cybexrev.pdf>.
48
190
be of great benefit to the UAE. As one of the interviewees commented: ‘I think we need
to focus more on training, we need qualification courses’.52
The core aim of the above statements was to investigate whether levels of awareness
and knowledge about electronic evidence in the UAE are sufficient to effectively
support the full use of that electronic evidence, and to explain whether all of forensic
experts and legal specialists can overcome the difficulties and problems that may occur
when using electronic evidence. The analysis illustrates that on average almost 80
percent of respondents,53 did not have sufficient knowledge of the processes used to
obtain electronic evidence. As a result, from the evidence in section two of the
questionnaire we can say that in general the participants did not have adequate
knowledge about electronic evidence gathering or preservation processes, nor did they
understand the relevant procedures for examination of this kind of evidence.
2- Practical issues of electronic evidence in the UAE
In section three of the questionnaire the participants were asked to select one of options
given; they were to answer either yes to affirm applicability and no to affirm lack of
applicability and presented with twelve statements. The main aim of this section was to
measure attitudes of the police officers, lawyers, prosecutors, and judges towards
aspects of the electronic evidence field, which they found applicable to the UAE, in
order to demonstrate the most significant issues associated with electronic evidence
regulation in the UAE. The analysis of results of this section of the questionnaire are
represented in Figure (10).
52
53
See: translated transcript of the interview with Al Hajiri in Appendix 5.
The percentage who said I don't know: 32+79+83+89+89+94.5+87+74.5×100 ÷8= 78.5%
191
Figure 10: Ranking of twelve principle issues of electronic evidence in the UAE.
T he re s p o nd e nt is a s ke d to s e le c t fro m twe lv e ne g a tiv e a sp e cts o f e le c tro nic e v id e nce fie ld whic h the y tho ug ht we re
a p p lica b le in the U AE (Yo u ca n s e le c t a n uns p e c ifie d numb e r).
W ha t is y o ur p ro fe s sio n ty p e
Ans we r Op tio ns
Jud g e
Pro s e c uto r
There are no specific rules’ governing search and seizure of electronic evidence.
Yes
46
44
No
4
6
Response Count
50
50
There is no procedures guide for electronic evidence preservation.
Yes
46
36
No
4
14
Response Count
50
50
Procedures for examining electronic evidence are not documented.
Yes
7
21
No
43
29
Response Count
50
50
Unqualified people collect electronic evidence.
Yes
1
25
No
49
25
Response Count
50
50
There is no technician present during a seizure of electronic evidence.
Yes
13
34
No
37
16
Response Count
50
50
Limited specialists of electronic evidence.
Yes
33
32
No
17
18
Response Count
50
50
Do not update laboratories of electronic evidence.
Yes
1
14
No
49
36
Response Count
50
50
Absence of international cooperation.
Yes
31
31
No
19
19
Response Count
50
50
Non-reporting of cyber-crimes.
Yes
7
18
No
43
32
Response Count
50
50
Absence of protection programs.
Yes
10
14
No
40
36
Response Count
50
50
Lack of coordination between departments and the regulatory bodies.
Yes
7
21
No
43
29
Response Count
50
50
Absence of awareness and indicative programs.
Yes
44
37
No
6
13
Response Count
50
50
R e sp o ns e
Pe rce nt
La wy e r
Po lic e o ffice r
35
15
50
35
15
50
80%
20%
43
7
50
40
10
50
82%
18%
16
34
50
7
43
50
25.50%
74.50%
5
45
50
19
31
50
25%
75%
22
28
50
24
26
50
46.50%
53.50%
20
30
50
35
15
50
60%
40%
5
45
50
14
36
50
17%
83%
24
26
50
26
24
50
56%
44%
5
45
50
21
29
50
25.50%
74.50%
10
40
50
14
36
50
24%
76%
6
44
50
10
40
50
22%
78%
31
19
50
39
11
50
a nswe re d q ue s tio n
s k ip p e d q ue s tio n
77.50%
24.50%
200
0
This table reveals that respondents found the top five most significant issues regarding
electronic evidence regulations, as applicable in the UAE, were as follows:
I.
There are no procedures or guidance for electronic evidence preservation. 82%
192
of the respondents believed that in the UAE there are no guidelines or principles
to follow when gathering electronic evidence and that this is the most prominent
issue.
II.
There are no specific rules’ governing search and seizure of electronic evidence.
This problem ranks second, with 80% of the respondents suggesting action is
needed.
III.
Absence of awareness and indicative programs was the third issue, with 77.5%
of respondents confirming that there is lack of awareness or sensitising
programs.
IV.
The idea that there are: ‘limited specialists in the field of electronic evidence’,
took fourth place at 60% of total responses.
V.
The fifth most significant issue was the lack of international cooperation or
agreements; 56% of the participants stated that there is no agreement between
the UAE and other countries for handling electronic evidence.
This means that regulation of electronic evidence was thought to be a significant
problem by police officers, lawyers, prosecutors, and judges. In fact, these five
principles are the foundation of this thesis; in particular, that electronic evidence must
be regulated in the UAE. The results of section three returned the same results as found
in section two, where the regulation of electronic evidence was reported as important. It
is the researcher’s opinion that electronic evidence falls under the umbrella of the
UAE’s Criminal Procedure Law. All such procedures for handling electronic evidence
require tougher regulation.
This view is also supported by the findings of the interviews; the President of the
UAE’s Federal Supreme Court said:
I agree with you that we face many challenges and difficulties with regard
to electronic evidence, the Emirates is an advanced technology State and
must have legislation, laws, and judges adapted to this development. I
believe that we face procedural problems related to electronic evidence.
There are no rules covering search and seizure processes, we don’t know
how to preserve electronic evidence or how to examine it. The judges now
apply general rules of evidence which I think is not commensurate with the
nature of electronic evidence and Criminal Justice. I have a viewpoint in
193
this respect; the UAE must have procedural law, which regulates electronic
evidence. We have a penal law on cybercrimes but we don’t have
procedural law. The judge faces many challenges when handling electronic
evidence, it is very difficult to understand procedures or how to deal with
this kind of evidence, a judge is trying to apply general rules, but I think
they do not apply. On the other hand, the cognitive level of judges
concerning electronic evidence is low because lack of courses and lack of
law regulates this field. Finally, I must restate my opinion that we need the
creation of a new law dealing with electronic evidence.54
He also added when asked, ‘How can the Emirates judges be sure of the reliability and
authenticity of the electronic evidence?’:
Clearly, because there is a shortage of laws we depend on the forensic
report and for me this represents a weakness in judgment. When a judge
rules, based on the opinion of another person not his mind, this can lead to
the prejudicing of justice. However, if we have clear rules the judge will be
able to make a decision.55
Another perspective in this argument is given by Judge Al kaabi, who points out that a
lack of regulatory procedures represents a real challenge in the UAE. He adds that in
reality, the UAE’s judges apply general rules; thus, in some cases it is difficult to apply
these rules for electronic evidence. Electronic evidence differs from other evidence, so
the UAE’s judges face challenges when applying general rules. 56 Similarly, a Chief
Prosecutor 57 and Lawyer 58 interviewed by the researcher in an interview conducted in
the UAE stressed that there is a gap in the UAE law. The UAE’s Criminal Procedures
Law cannot cover electronic evidence processes. In the UAE the judge now applies the
general rules of evidence, which are useful as a framework only. However, the nature of
electronic evidence requires that we look beyond these rules. Undoubtedly, in the areas
of search, seizure and examination, regulations that are more specific are necessary to
handle electronic evidence. General rules cannot cover this process, so it is essential to
introduce procedural law designed for electronic evidence. In contrast, three of the
interviewees believe that the UAE’s CPL rules are appropriate to cover electronic
54
See: translated transcript of the interview with Judge Abdul Wahab in Appendix 5.
Ibid.
56
See: translated transcript of the interview with Judge Al kaabi in Appendix 5.
57
See: translated transcript of the interview with Younis Al belooshi in Appendix 5.
58
See: translated transcript of the interview in Appendix 5.
55
194
evidence.59 Ali Hamouda, Head of the Dubai Police Academy, believes that finding a
procedural law for electronic evidence will restrict the authority of the judge. Judges in
the UAE legal system have freedom when sentencing. A new law will prevent judges
from needing to rely on this, because there will be legal rules to apply when deciding to
admit or reject evidence.60
He added, when asked, that some people believe that the CPL suffers from procedural
problems, especially when dealing with electronic evidence, such as the use of search
warrants, and that new rules are needed:
The UAE has modern laws, and the CPL is also a modern law and is always
being reviewed. In 2005, the CPL was reviewed and many rules were
changed, but there was no change in evidence rules, so this rule is adequate
and there is no need for change. Finding special rules requires special
people to apply them, which is currently not available in UAE.61
A police officer interviewed by the researcher mentioned some practical problems
associated with applying special rules of electronic evidence. He said:
In practice, the application of specific rules is trickier than the application of
general rules. If we have specific rules for electronic evidence, that means
we must follow up all these rules and this is very difficult. The police
officer must follow all the rules, and if he violates this order, the evidence
will not have any value. The police officer must take action fast in order to
seize evidence, and fast action may lead to not following some rules, and
therefore may make the proceedings null and void. General rules give police
more freedom over search and seizure.62
3- Measuring attitudes of the police officers, lawyers, prosecutors, and judges
towards the regulation of electronic evidence in the UAE
Section four of the study was designed to elicit a ‘scale response’; the questions related
to the key task on the questionnaire, which was to measure the attitudes and opinions of
the respondents relative to possible solutions, in order to regulate electronic evidence in
the UAE. A 3-point Likert scale was used rather than a 5-point scale, as the researcher
59
Ibid.
See: translated transcript of the interview with Ali Hamouda in Appendix 5.
61
Ibid.
62
See: translated transcript of the interview with anonymity police officer in Appendix 5.
60
195
wanted to find agreement or disagreement, the strength of the agreement or
disagreement was not relevant. After each statement the participant was asked to
provide recommendations and comments, if any, to support their choice. The core
objective for asking for recommendations or comments was to discover why the
participants held their opinions; there were a number of useful comments, to offer
clarifications for the numerical quantitative results.
The figures below have been designed to illustrate the percentages of the participants’
responses, beginning with the respondents’ opinions regarding possible solutions that
can be offered to regulate electronic evidence.
A. Legal term of electronic evidence
There has always been controversy regarding whether to define electronic evidence or
not. Respondents were asked their opinions, and the results illustrated that 75.5%
thought that there should be a legal set of terms to define electronic evidence (Figure
11). Only 8% of respondents disagreed. Some of the respondents commented by giving
some important indicative comments: ‘Defining electronic evidence may lead to narrow
scope of electronic evidence’. Another one thought: ‘Finding rules to regulate electronic
evidence process is more valuable than defining electronic evidence’. On the other
hand, another respondent thought: ‘The definition of electronic evidence should be
clear’. Another one agreed, stating: ‘To differentiate between electronic evidence and
other evidence’.63
With reference to the results of the first question ‘the difference between electronic
evidence and other kinds of evidence’, this shows that only 32% were able to
distinguish between the two types of evidence, and two-thirds were unable to do so.
Therefore, applying a uniform definition to electronic evidence is very important. Some
may argue that any definition of electronic evidence will be out of date after a few
years, due to technological developments. This point of view may be true, however with
such a low level of knowledge, it has become extremely important to provide a broad
definition.
63
See: questionnaire respondent comments (open-ended questionnaire question) in Appendix 4.
196
Figure 11: There should be legal terms for electronic evidence.
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
Agree 75.5%
50%
Unsure 16.5%
40%
Disagree 8%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Judge
Prosecutor
Lawyer
Police officer
B. Promulgate clear guidelines on how to deal with electronic evidence in the
UAE
When asked whether we need to promulgate clear guidelines on how to deal with
electronic evidence in the UAE, 94% of the respondents agreed. Only 0.5% of
respondents disagreed, while 5.5% were unsure (Figure 12). They commented: ‘In order
to have clear rules’, ‘In order to perform correct procedures for search and seizure of
electronic evidence’, ‘To ensure that all process of search and seizure for electronic
evidence is correct’, ‘So we can easily check all procedures’.64
Those who were interviewed also argued this point (regulating electronic evidence by
applying special rules and stating guidelines). A majority of those interviewed stated
that the rules in the CPL are insufficient to regulate electronic evidence. Others believed
that we do not need to amend the CPL and apply rules to electronic evidence.65 This
difference in opinion opens up a new area of discussion, as each group has its own
arguments. In fact, the UAE has new laws, but these laws have not been tested yet, as
few cases have raised procedural problems. However, the Emirates have no statistics on
this issue and therefore cannot measure the magnitude of the problems. Other countries
are evolving their laws, and so it seems incumbent on the UAE to improve its laws also.
Crime has become global. What happens on the other side of the earth can affect those
64
Ibid.
See: translated transcript of the interview with anonymity police officer and Ali Hamouda in Appendix
5.
65
197
living in the UAE. The limited number of such cases should not be a reason for not
updating laws. There may be many cases that have not yet been reported or even
discovered. An example of this issue is the credit card case affecting the Ras Al
Khaimah Bank. The defendants were able to penetrate the electronic system and steal
customers’ data. They were then accused of fraudulent use of credit cards, changing the
withdrawal limit, and stealing 17 million US dollars. This robbery was discovered only
after the accused tried to withdraw money from a US bank in Manhattan.66
Figure 12: We need to promulgate clear guidelines on how to deal with electronic
evidence in the UAE.
120%
100%
80%
Agree 94%
60%
Unsure 5.5%
Disagree 0.5%
40%
20%
0%
Judge
Prosecutor
Lawyer
Police officer
C. Gathering electronic evidence
Respondents were asked whether they thought that the collection of electronic evidence
should be done by qualified persons. 94.5% of respondents agreed that electronic
evidence should be gathered by qualified persons, while only 5.5% were unsure (Figure
13). Respondents commented that: ‘When electronic evidence collection is done by
unqualified people this can lead to inadmissible evidence’, ‘Is extremely essential to
avoid loss evidence’, ‘It is inconceivable all police officers have knowledge of how to
deal with electronic evidence, so there should be collection of electronic evidence by
qualified people’. In contrast, one of them said: ‘I agree, but there are unqualified
persons (they do not have certificates) having knowledge and experience in the
66
Amal Al Minshawi, ‘RAKBANK confirm penetration credit card balances worth 17 million US dollars’
Emaratalyoum Newspaper
(Dubai,
11th May
2013)
<http://www.emaratalyoum.com/localsection/accidents/2013-05-11-1.573717> accessed 11th May 2013.
198
technical field who may help’.67
Although a significant percentage of respondents think that gathering electronic
evidence should be done by qualified persons, there are many difficulties associated
with putting this into practice. The limited number of technicians, and the extensive
time needed for searches may cause difficulties. The UAE government authorities
would be wise to classify those cases requiring a technician and those that do not. The
authorities would also benefit from putting procedures in place to facilitate access to
technical assistance.
Figure 13: Gathering electronic evidence should be by qualified persons.
120%
100%
80%
Agree 94.5%
60%
unsure 5.5%
Diagree 0.0%
40%
20%
0%
Judge
Prosecutor
Lawyer
Police officer
D. Examining electronic evidence
The researcher asked respondents whether the processes associated with the
examination of electronic evidence should be documented. Only 5% of respondents
were unsure and the majority (95%) agreed (Figure 14). They commented that: ‘We
need to document all the procedures when examining electronic evidence. As a result,
we can guarantee the examination process’, ‘In order to be referenced and we can refer
to it’.68
Legal rules have more impact than administrative rules. Administrative rules do not
guarantee the proper functioning of proceedings. Thus, we need legal rules to ensure
67
68
See: questionnaire respondent comments (open-ended questionnaire question) in Appendix 4.
Ibid.
199
checks and balances are in place to guarantee reliability. Attaining a result is easy but
following proceedings and ensuring reliability is a complicated process. Although most
UAE laboratories are internationally recognised, they must set conditions and criteria
commensurate with UAE laws.
Figure 14: Examining electronic evidence should be documented.
120%
100%
80%
Agree 95%
60%
Unsure 5%
Disagree 0.0%
40%
20%
0%
Judge
Prosecutor
Lawyer
Police officer
E. Update laboratories for handling electronic evidence
Subsequent to the above question, the respondents were asked: ‘should we update
laboratories that handle electronic evidence continuously’. The response illustrated that
a substantial majority of participants (95.5%) agreed, and only 4.5 were unsure (Figure
15). They commented that: ‘There should be updated laboratories to effectively combat
criminals’, ‘To keep up pace with the technological development’, ‘This field is
developing fast.’69
Nobody can argue that the development of laboratories is important. However, we
should not overlook the adoption of examination devices from competent agencies. It is
also important to attach expert reports to certify devices that were used in examinations.
69
Ibid.
200
Figure 15: Should we update laboratories of electronic evidence continuously.
120%
100%
80%
Agree 95.5%
60%
Unsure 4.5%
Disagree 0.0%
40%
20%
0%
Judge
Prosecutor
Lawyer
Police officer
F. Professional training on electronic evidence
It was extremely important to measure the participants’ attitudes towards knowledge
and qualifications, in particular whether they needed more training and rehabilitation.
The researcher asked the participants to comment on the statement: ‘police officers,
lawyers, prosecutors, and judges need more professional training on electronic
evidence’. The results were as follows: the majority of respondents (97%) agreed, while
only 3% were unsure (Figure 16). Those who agreed stated that: ‘I think we need to
focus on training people especially police officers’; ‘Training is beneficial for
admissible electronic evidence’; ‘We must raise awareness among all people who deal
with electronic evidence’; ‘There is a government trend towards qualifying prosecutors,
and judges on cybercrime’; ‘Frankly, there is a delay in preparing forensic reports and
level of understanding and awareness is extremely low. Police officers use primitive
methods when handling electronic evidence’; ‘Training is particularly powerful’, ‘To
raise knowledge level’.70
It may be that training and raising the level of knowledge held is the most important
consideration when building an integrated system of electronic evidence regulation. If
we have the most up to date laws and laboratories, but do not have qualified people,
they are of no value. Increasing knowledge is a starting point for effective application
of the law. Therefore, the UAE requires more courses and seminars, and more academic
70
Ibid.
201
research studies. The UAE also needs media to disseminate awareness programs.
Figure 16: Police officers, lawyers, prosecutors, and judges need more professional
training on electronic evidence.
120%
100%
80%
Agree 97%
60%
Unsure 3%
Disagree 0.0%
40%
20%
0%
Judge
Prosecutor
Lawyer
Police officer
G. International cooperation and coordination
Another significant hypothesis tested by the questionnaire was the need to adopt
international cooperation. Participants were asked to comment: ‘There must be strong
international cooperation and coordination between regulators to succeed in the
effective prosecution of cyber-crimes and make full use of electronic evidence’. The
analysis of the results revealed that a great proportion of the respondents (96.5%)
agreed, and only 3.5% were unsure (Figure 17). The respondents made the following
comments: ‘Because cybercrime is international crime, we need international
cooperation and coordination’, ‘Cybercrime is intercontinental crime, facilitating the
commission and difficulty of reaching to the defendants’, ‘Electronic evidence can be
found outside the UAE’, ‘To sharing experiences’, ‘To increase the level of knowledge
and sharing experiences’.71
One of the problems facing the prosecution of crimes was obtaining evidence.
Electronic evidence can be found in different places, either in the State or abroad. Thus,
the UAE requires good methods for attaining evidence, that are covered by legal rules,
71
Ibid.
202
and which guarantee the safety of procedures. The UAE also needs to acquire effective
international cooperation joining international treaties and conventions.
Figure 17: There must be strong international cooperation and coordination
between regulators to succeed in the effective prosecution of cyber-crimes and
make full use of electronic evidence.
120%
100%
80%
Agree 96.5%
60%
Unsure 3.5%
Disagree 0.0%
40%
20%
0%
Judge
Prosecutor
Lawyer
Police officer
A clear result was provided in section four and this was emphasised by the fact that it
was supported by the results in the survey. Indeed, it supports the general attitudes of
police officers, lawyers, prosecutors, and judges, who, according to the questionnaire,
think that electronic evidence is a problem they face and that regulation should be
developed to high standards.
5.4 Conclusion
The most vital part of this study was the applied methodology. A number of questions
were highlighted during the course of conducting this thesis. The present chapter
attempts to provide answers to these queries with the help of the reasoning and selection
of a mixed-method (quantitative and qualitative). To some extent, the results derived
from both quantitative and qualitative methods were consistent. To investigate
electronic evidence from the viewpoint of legal specialists, two different approaches
were employed.
A clear image of the opinions, ideas and attitudes of legal specialists towards electronic
evidence was delivered as an outcome of the study. The attitudes and behaviour of the
203
participants and interviewees, taken as a whole, cohered with the thesis proposition.
They confirmed the idea that the regulations that exist for handling electronic evidence
are insufficient and generally, this favours the researcher’s arguments. These facts were
explored in the previous chapters.
In conclusion, it is important to represent the main results of the applied study briefly:
I.
The applied study showed that most police officers, lawyers, prosecutors, and
judges were not familiar with:
A. Gathering methods of electronic evidence.
B. Methods of preserving electronic evidence.
C. Procedures for examining electronic evidence.
D. Techniques and tools for electronic evidence examination.
E. Forensic expert reports.
F. Challenges and problems associated with cyber-crimes in relation to electronic
evidence.
II.
The issues which police officers, lawyers, prosecutors, and judges complained
about most in the UAE with regard to electronic evidence were:
A. Lack of procedural guidance for electronic evidence preservation.
B. Lack of specific rules governing search and seizure of electronic evidence.
C. Absence of awareness and indicative programs.
D. Limited specialists to handle electronic evidence.
E. Absence of international cooperation.
III.
Most police officers, lawyers, prosecutors, and judges think that there should be
legal terms set that are unique to electronic evidence.
IV.
The majority of police officers, lawyers, prosecutors, and judges think there is a
need to promulgate clear guidelines on how to deal with electronic evidence in
204
the UAE.
V.
The majority of police officers, lawyers, prosecutors, and judges believe that
electronic evidence should be collected by qualified persons.
VI.
The majority of police officers, lawyers, prosecutors, and judges believed that
examinations of electronic evidence should be documented.
VII.
The majority of police officers, lawyers, prosecutors, and judges believed that
we must update the laboratories handling electronic evidence continuously.
VIII.
Almost all of the police officers, lawyers, prosecutors, and judges think that they
need more professional training to evaluate and handle electronic evidence.
IX.
The majority of police officers, lawyers, prosecutors, and judges believe that
there must be strong international cooperation and coordination between
regulators if they are to succeed in the effective prosecution of cyber-crimes and
to make full use of electronic evidence.
X.
The applied study showed that the level of awareness and understanding of
electronic evidence in the UAE is very low. This is supported by the interviews,
in which there was found a consensus that awareness and knowledge level of
electronic evidence is low.
In brief, both the interviewees and the respondents to the questionnaire explained their
views in-depth in regards to the current regulation of electronic evidence. The study
supported our proposition that there are overall deficiencies in the regulation of the
electronic evidence system, as explained in the previous chapters. The best solution to
address this insufficiency is to propose a Federal law that clearly regulates electronic
evidence. Those legal experts who were interviewed supported this view; Judge Al
kaabi said:
Proposed Federal law can be a best solution, which should clearly regulate
electronic evidence. If we cannot do this, we can adopt guidelines. From a
legal point of view, the last solution is partial. A guideline has no power
equivalent to the law in front of a court. From my point of view, there
should be a completely new law in regard to this.72
72
See: translated transcript of the interview with Judge Al kaabi in Appendix 5.
205
Another interviewee said:
There should not only be a law. There should also be guidance under the
adopted law covering all procedures for electronic evidence, starting with
how to search and seize and in the end how to examine this evidence. Who
is must be based procedure, and what qualifications have. In the UAE, there
is Federal Law No. 5 of 2012, which covers crimes and penalties, but there
is no law regulating the procedures for search and seizure of evidence.
Several crimes cannot be able to be proven because of the lack of rules.73
Another interviewee stated: ‘There is a vast area in electronic evidence that needs to be
regulated’.74
73
74
See: translated transcript of the interview with Professor Elbushra in Appendix 5.
See: translated transcript of the interview with Al ketbi in Appendix 5.
206
CHAPTER SIX: NEW STRATEGY FOR ELECTRONIC EVIDENCE IN THE
UAE
This thesis is an analysis and evaluation of the UAE laws regulating electronic
evidence. It is also an investigation into the existing procedures underpinning such
evidence. To date, despite reported misuse of electronic evidence, there have been few
suggestions concerning the resolving of such issues. 1 The previous chapters have
demonstrated that there is currently not sufficient legislation in place for this system of
electronic evidence.
In Chapter Two, there was a discussion concerning the development of the UAE’s CPL
and its specific legal system. At the same time, an overview of criminal investigation
was undertaken, including a comparison of physical and electronic evidence.
Despite the fact that leading figures from the legislature, politics and the police have
agreed the need for regulation in this area, reforms have not yet been implemented.2
Hence, the author has undertaken a thorough investigation into the legislation, policies
and methods of collecting proof in the UAE. Following this research, the situation in
the UAE is compared with other locations. Two cases (the UK and China) were
compared and evaluated in order to prepare an effective argument for the regulation of
electronic evidence.
In Chapter Four, there was an investigation of the difficulties in using electronic
evidence in the UAE. This included the various loopholes found in the UAE’s CPL and
an overview of current regulation.
This study supports the proposition that there are regulatory shortcomings in the
electronic evidence system, the most notable being: (1) the regulation of search and
seizure; (2) preservation of evidence; (3) international cooperation and coordination.3
The study also reveals a low level of awareness regarding the use of electronic evidence
in the UAE4 : hence, it can be argued that electronic evidence is problematic. It may
1
See: pervious example cases in Chapter Four.
See: transcript translated of the interviews in Appendix 5.
3
See: section 5.3.
4
Ibid.
2
207
also be a problem in other countries, either developed or emerging. Cybercrime, and the
obtaining of evidence with which to prosecute, is a global issue. Evidence is frequently
lost, either because there are too few rules to regulate electronic evidence, or due to a
lack of international coordination and cooperation.5
There were a number of aims to this research. Primarily the researcher wishes to
identify current shortcomings related to electronic evidence in the UAE’s CPL.
Secondly, the author aims to examine the key issues surrounding electronic evidence,
including the awareness of legal experts concerning this area and improving the
knowledge gap regarding electronic evidence in the UAE. Finally, the researcher aims
to put forward improved approaches to the use of electronic evidence and suggestions
for further areas of research.
This chapter has been split into two parts. The first outlines the evidence uncovered
during this study, while the second puts forward suggestions on improvements to the
current legislature of the UAE.
6.1 Part one: challenges and problems facing the law enforcers with regard to
electronic evidence and gaps in the existing criminal procedures of the UAE
Reliable evidence is essential when undertaking research. Electronic evidence appears
in various forms and originates from many different sources. 6 It can therefore be
unpredictable and requires protection in order to maintain its credibility.7
Law enforcement officers, judges, lawyers and prosecutors are currently unaware of the
importance of information attained from electronic sources. As electronic evidence is
unique, the system surrounding it requires its own set of regulations and procedures and
also demands that investigators understand all of its procedures. The forensic
investigator at the Telecommunications Regulatory Authority of the UAE supports this,
stating:
5
See: practical examples given by some interviewees, the transcript translated of the Interviews in
Appendix 5.
6
See: Nigel Jones, Esther George, Fredesvinda Insa, Uwe Rasmussen and Victor Völzow, ‘Electronic
evidence guide, A basic guide for police officers, prosecutors and judges’ (2013) Version 1.0 Council of
Europe.
7
See: section 2.3.2.
208
I think that we need own procedures dealing with all processes, starting
with seizure, preservation and examination of electronic evidence. When it
has (been achieved) nobody can argue and also it will be assurance that all
procedures have been followed by the investigator.8
It is therefore recommended that the investigators secure the original form of evidence
and create backups. There follows a discussion of the shortcomings previously
mentioned regarding the regulation of electronic evidence in the UAE. Before
highlighting the shortcomings in the regulation of electronic evidence, it will be helpful
to highlight a number of challenges facing the judges, prosecutors, lawyers and police
officers.
6.1.1 Challenges and problems to the investigation and disclosure of crimes in
relation to electronic evidence
Criminal judges, prosecutors, lawyers, electronic evidence experts, and investigators
face a number of challenges due to crime committed on a global scale and the rapid
advance in information technology. It is difficult for the judges handling criminal cases,
law enforcement, legal practitioners and computer experts to resolve cases concerned
with the misuse of this technology. It is difficult for judges to make a decision when it
comes to cybercrime, because the accused are frequently more proficient in information
technology than those investigating, prosecuting or judging the case. The issues that
arise from the legal side will be discussed later, following an investigation of those
faced by the investigators, experts, lawyers, prosecutors and judges.
6.1.1.1 Challenges and problems faced by investigators
The main responsibility of an investigator of these crimes is to identify and preserve
computer evidence. When handling crimes that are beyond their geographical borders,
the investigators require both expertise and experience. Issues faced by the investigators
include:

Contacting the correct individual within the relevant jurisdiction can prove
complex;
8
See: transcript translated of the interviews with Ahmed Al Ketbi in Appendix 5.
209

The investigator may not comprehend the language in which the document is
written;

The investigator might not comprehend the language of the witness 9 and;

The investigator might not have the skill and experience required to deal with
the electronic evidence.10
The best means of addressing this problem is to synchronise laws and procedures
globally (as this is an issue faced by all countries), alongside improving investigators’
technical capabilities. Saeed Al Hajri, Director of the Criminal Investigation
Department’s-Electronic Crime Section-Dubai Police in the UAE states that in order to
obtain improved results, investigators need to obtain professional training in computer
forensics in order to improve their approaches to analysing the electronic evidence.11
The critical issue faced by the police investigators when dealing with cybercrimes is the
identification of the criminal; this is due to the fact that identity in such cases is difficult
to establish. Any individual can commit cybercrime by using their own, or any
publically available, computer.12 The result of a study conducted on on-line anonymity
concluded that criminals mainly use Internet service providers affording the maximum
level of anonymity.13 To identify and prosecute the suspects thus becomes difficult for
the investigator, increasing the time span of the case, because traditional techniques are
still used for investigations. 14 It is also difficult to investigate on the basis of an
9
There are 200 nationalities living in the UAE, according to study presented at the Third Annual
Conference ‘In the eyes of the communities Emirates’ (conference, UAE 20th March 2013)
<http://www.alkhaleej.ae/portal/150131e3-9689-42e8-b700-9424c35ccad3.aspx>
accessed
25th
September 2013.
10
Toni Makkai, Media Release on ‘Effective investigation of high tech crime’ (2004) Australian Institute
of Criminology <http://www.aic.gov.au/media/2004/december/20041202.aspx> accessed 4th March 2012.
Toni stated, ‘Conducting investigation across national borders raises many practical problems. These
include investigators having to contact people on the other side of the globe, documents having to be
translated and witnesses speaking other language needing the assistance of interpreters. All of these
impediments can be overcome by harmonizing laws and procedures globally, and improving the technical
capabilities of investigators’.
11
Saeed Al Hajri, ‘4th International Conference on Cyber Crimes’ (conference, UAE 14th December
2011).
12
Beryl Howell, ‘Real world problems of virtual crime’ (2005) 7, 1 Yale Journal of Law and Technology
<http://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/yjolt/vol7/iss1/5/> accessed 14th January 2012.
13
Russell Smith, ‘Impediments to the successful investigation of transnational high-tech crime’ (2004)
Australian Institute of Criminology <http://www.aic.gov.au/publications/current%20series/tandi/281300/tandi285/view%20paper.html> accessed 11th March 2012.
14
Ibid.
210
individual’s password or PIN (Personal Identification Number), as these can be stolen
by criminals from various individuals, making it difficult for the investigators to
identify the real criminals. It has been suggested by the Australian Transaction Report
and the Analysis Centre (AUSTRAC) that prosecutors should put in place a number of
actions to support investigators in solving a case. These include:

That incriminating information can be obtained by seizing the computer of the
suspect to obtain its data; or

That the investigator can use the information found in the victim’s own
computer to prove that the victim has been defrauded; or

That the victim is made aware that his computer has been misused by
criminals.15
Extra territorial crimes and extradition have to be dealt with by the investigators in the
above scenarios. In the UAE, one of the challenges faced by the investigator is the
deficiency of appropriate training courses. The UAE is in need of more officers
proficient in cybercrime to investigate and obtain electronic evidence. This is to ensure
that police officers will always be appropriately prepared to fight the rising number of
crimes. The analysis of the applied study illustrates that 77% 16 of police officers in the
UAE did not possess sufficient knowledge concerning electronic evidence.17
6.1.1.2 Challenges and problems faced by forensic experts
Included in the role of the electronic evidence expert is advising judges (and others who
are not experts) information that they can access and easily understand. The expert must
also possess the ability to compile evidence in such a way that it can be used by the
court. This can be done by retrieving the related information from the system,18 and to
inform the concerned parties (including the judge) of the means of retrieval.
Dealing with technology that is changing rapidly is one of the most complex tasks an
15
See: Australian Transaction Report and Analysis Centre (AUSTRAC), ‘Evidence and the Internet’
Action Group into the law Enforcement Implication of Electronic Commerce (AGEC) Issues paper
(2010).
16
The percentage who said I don't know: 28+74+78+80+84+96+96+82×100 ÷8=77.25%.
17
See: section 5.3.
18
In the UK, the Forensic Science Service of a Home Office Agency is handling computer forensic
examination.
211
expert has to deal with. This is supported by the forensic investigator of the
Telecommunications Regulatory Authority of the UAE, who states:
Technology is rapidly evolving and it is extremely important to update the
laboratory to ensure that the tools are always upgraded. We in the
Telecommunications Regulatory Authority update tools continuously.19
An example of this is the greatest rapid changes that occur in computer hardware,
operating systems and application programs. To ensure that the criminal does not adopt
any new technology that will destroy evidence from the past, the expert must remove as
much information as possible from the computer. The crucial issue here is when
adopting new technology that has not been tested, thereby risking the conviction of an
innocent person, or being forced to wait until the new technology is tested.
Issues are also created for experts by the need to upgrade software and computer
forensic tools following any kind of development. There is a high cost related to the
upgrading of software and procedures to recover the computer. A high cost is also
attached when the data recovery service is used by a third party computer.20 A number
of countries face issues due to the fact that experts are not properly trained. An example
of this is the fact that electronic evidence can be managed by only 1000 police officers
out of the total 140,000 in the UK. Less than 250 personnel have an adequate grasp of
forensics. 21 This emphasises the urgent need for training to fill this gap in the UK,
which has a much larger police force than the UAE, and therefore it must be presumed
that such a need also arises in the UAE. As a result, expert witnesses are usually called
to present evidence. In order to ensure the data produced is correct, the lawyer can
19
See: translated transcript of the interview with Al ketbi in Appendix 5.
In the US, for example, the third party data recovery service depends on a number of variables, namely
Resource requirements, Project Lead Times, volume of data, type of storage media, data format,
condition of media and operating system.
21
In addition, Michael Chissick, states that it is a reasonable conclusion that in the 21st century, the UK
system can no longer receive forensic examination in computer evidence. The judges and lawyers do not
have the ability to undertake this task. There is no ordinary funding to commission experts to accomplish
this task. Thus, it is probable that over the years ahead people will be convicted for crimes they did not
commit on the basis of incorrect computer evidence or misunderstood computer evidence. See: Michael
Chissick and Alistair Kelman, E-commerce: Law and practice (3th edn, Sweet and Maxwell Ltd A
Thompson Company 2002) 197. For another, slightly more up-to-date argument that supports this, see:
Stephen Mason and Nicholas Bohm, ‘Banking and Fraud’ a written submission to the House of
Commons
Treasury
Committee
on
17th
January
2011,
available
at
<http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201011/cmselect/cmtreasy/430/430vw25.htm> accessed
30th October 2013.
20
212
cross-examine these experts and ask them to give their own analysis.22
6.1.1.3 Challenges and problems faced by lawyers
It is essential for lawyers to keep up to date with developments in IT, as it is important
for them to understand the issues surrounding electronic evidence, particularly from
experts, and to be in a position to challenge it, including cross-examining witnesses, etc.
In an interview conducted in the UAE, a head of the Electronic Evidence Unit at the
Criminal Evidence and Criminology Department of Dubai Police stated that:
The level of lawyers’ knowledge about electronic evidence or expert report
is very low. Therefore, he/she cannot discuss the forensic expert’s report.23
However, it is possible for a lawyer to understand the importance of electronic
evidence, dealing with investigative tools and techniques used in the investigation. In
order to recognise loopholes in a case involving electronic evidence, it is necessary to
understand IT and its related laws. Such knowledge can also help to deal with the
means used by police and other experts to obtain electronic evidence.24 However, many
lawyers in the UAE do not possess such relevant knowledge. The current study
illustrates that over two-thirds (86%) 25 of lawyers felt that they did not have sufficient
expertise when it came to electronic evidence.26
It is necessary for lawyers to be aware of the major issues of the IT, where to look for
answers and also to be in possession of general background knowledge and therefore
aware of the questions they need to put to an electronic evidence specialist.
6.1.1.4 Challenges and problems faced by prosecutors
Framing the charge against the accused is a challenge faced by the prosecutors in such
cases, accompanied by lack of all the facts of the criminal investigation.
In cybercrimes, those who abuse the technology must be initially identified by the
22
See: section 4.6.4.
See: translated transcript of the interview with Lootah in Appendix 5.
24
See: Craig Ball, ‘Cross-examination of the computer forensic expert’ (2004)
<http://www.craigball.com/expertcross.pdf> accessed 11th March 2012. This article could be a good
reference for a lawyer who wants to be a trial lawyer as well as an expert in computer forensics.
25
The percentage who said I don't know: 46+84+96+96+98+98+96+74×100 ÷8=86%.
26
See: section 5.3.
23
213
prosecutor, who will determine if there is any breach of the law. The evidence given by
the prosecutor will be challenged by the lawyer. It is therefore vital that the prosecutor
is aware of all the facts concerning the evidence, as this will assist in charging the
accused with the correct crime according to the relevant law. Most importantly, the
prosecutor should be familiar with IT and the relevant evidence gathering techniques.
Without this, the prosecutor will be unable to make a solid case against the accused, and
will be unable to draw up the charge sheet.
In order to investigate the prosecutors’ level of familiarity with electronic evidence, the
analysis conducted in the UAE by the researcher reveals that over two thirds
(72.25%) 27 of prosecutors did not have sufficient awareness of electronic evidence.28
The problem can be highlighted in the case of the UAE's Ministry of Education.29 Here,
the prosecutor was unable to explain the extremely complex IT methodologies and
concepts in a court. This tested the skill, knowledge and ability of the prosecutor, the
police officer and the judges in handling the electronic evidence, and it revealed their
lack of relevant skills and ability in this area. The case demonstrates that unclear
procedures and an inability to explain the methods of obtaining evidence lead to
different judgments in one case. In the absence of clear rules on electronic evidence, the
prosecutor may be subject to rigorous cross examination by lawyers, who may accuse
him of mishandling the evidence, or other misconduct.
One of the main issues that a prosecutor has to face when the crime is committed in two
countries is one of jurisdiction. Judge Dr. Mohammed Al Kamali states:
Let's talk first about the problems of jurisdiction within the State. There are
problems of jurisdiction between the Emirates. For example, if the case was
in Abu Dhabi and the electronic evidence in Fujairah, the police officer
could directly get a search warrant issued by prosecutor in Abu Dhabi based
on the evidence only, or might need another from Fujairah. There are
procedural problems of evidence that must be resolved. At the international
level, I think international cooperation takes a long time and the evidence
may get lost. I think this is another important point supporting the fact that
we need to find procedural laws for electronic evidence.30
27
The percentage who said I don't know: 32+76+74+82+82+88+74+70×100 ÷8=72.25%.
See: section 5.3.
29
See: section 4.9.
30
See: translated transcript of the interview with Judge Al kamali in Appendix 5.
28
214
This is the case when the criminal resides in the UAE, but the crime has taken place in
another country or Emirate, or vice versa. Implementation of international law and
obtaining cooperation from the other countries is a complex issue, due to the fact that
countries have differing procedures to deal with such crimes. This can cause an issue
for the prosecutor when drawing up the charge sheet. Success also depends on the level
of cooperation the prosecutor is able to elicit.31
6.1.1.5 Challenges and problems faced by judges
A number of conferences have taken place in the UAE regarding cybercrime and
electronic evidence.32 The main agenda of these conferences has been to make judges
aware of recent developments and the ways to deal with the crimes in cyberspace. The
number of cybercrimes in the UAE has rapidly increased over the past few years. The
head of the Electronic Evidence Unit at the Criminal Evidence and Criminology
Department of the Dubai Police has stated that the numbers of cases dealt with by the
Electronic Evidence Unit in Dubai alone are as follows: 278 cases in 2008; 436 in 2009;
445 in 2010; and 588 in 2011. In 2012, the number reached 772.33
The applied study revealed that (78.50%) 34 of the judges, did not possess sufficient
knowledge concerning electronic evidence. 35 Judges are therefore in need of regular
training on recent developments in cybercrime and electronic evidence, including the
implementation of new laws, as they need to be well versed in the knowledge of IT and
its uses in such cases.
These issues and challenges lead to a need to rethink the regulation of electronic
evidence in judicial proceedings, as the combating of such crimes can be deficient. As a
result, there is a requirement to make essential changes to the criminal law. There is no
doubt that electronic evidence can play a pivotal role in the investigation of crimes by
assisting in establishing the truth. There is a positive aspect to the increased use of
technology by criminals that can be exploited. The fact that computers are connected
31
The First International Treaty to combat crime in cyberspace came into force in 2004. It was prepared
in order to achieve mutual co-operation among the countries in the world and to expedite extradition
proceedings.
See:
‘First
International
Treaty
to
combat
crime
in
cyberspace’
<http://www.assembly.coe.int/ASP/Press/StopPressView.asp?ID=1157> accessed 9th March 2012.
32
Such as: International Conference on Cyber Crimes.
33
See: translated transcript of the interview with Lootah in Appendix 5.
34
The percentage who said I don't know: 22+82+84+98+92+96+82+72×100 ÷8=78.50%.
35
See: Section 5.3.
215
together in a crime results in a multitude of electronic evidence that can be used to
detect and prosecute criminals. Electronic evidence can also illustrate the way in which
the offence was committed, reveal investigative leads, refute or support witness
statements, and identify likely suspects.
In the digital era procedure laws need to adopt a broader view when it comes to
electronic evidence, in order to identify shortcoming and suggest the best solutions to
prosecuting crime. Cybercrime indicate that effective prosecution of crimes at the
global level should address not only the penal code, but also follow the more
sophisticated methods, of crime detection. Combating crime will prove more effective
when there are effective laws and procedures in place to govern the process of detection
and investigation. The UAE Government must also take an important role in providing
more skilled police officers, lawyers, prosecutors and judges, due to the current low
level of expertise.36
6.1.2 The rules regarding collecting, preserving, examining and presenting
electronic evidence.
The prosecution of a crime requires evidence that is correctly formulated, highly
specific and principled. Due to the fact that electronic evidence is not the same as other
types of evidence, 37 it must therefore be queried whether or not it requires its own
special rules.
According to Paul, electronic evidence demands special attention as it offers an entirely
new perspective when it comes to evidence, and therefore advanced hypotheses and
methods must be used when dealing with it.38 Such methods come under the heading of
electronic evidence. However, new rules for electronic evidence cannot be established
in haste, and it is important to set up an appropriate system of handling. Current
regulations for evidence are also applied to electronic evidence. However, in courts
where these are practiced they are given little, or no, credibility when the plaintiff is
unable to demonstrate how evidence was gained. This has been particularly
36
Ibid.
See: section 2.3.2.
38
George Paul, Foundations of Digital Evidence (Chicago: American Bar Association 2008) 13-14.
37
216
demonstrated in the case of the UAE’s Ministry of Education.39
There will now follow a discussion of the possible problems faced by using laws
written for standard evidence for electronic evidence. In order to simplify the structure
of the analysis, the main questions raised in previous chapters will be discussed as
follows.
6.1.2.1 Definition of electronic evidence
It is necessary to define electronic evidence concisely and comprehensively in order to
provide clear rules for its regulation. However, such a definition is not easy. It is
necessary to establish the range of electronic evidence.40 Introducing a legal meaning
satisfies the need for legal certainty, but produces obstacles when put into practice. The
phrase ‘electronic evidence’ is itself not difficult to comprehend, however difficulties
arise when its meaning is put into a legal context. With continuous technological
advances, it is difficult to establish a single definition in legal terms. Nevertheless, due
to the fact there is widespread ignorance of the concept of electronic evidence, it is
necessary to establish a definition. This definition is the subject of this research. A loose
definition is preferable,41 however the author also wishes to establish one that has a
legal context.42
6.1.2.2 Searching and seizing electronic evidence; search warrant issues
Regulations for the searching and seizing of evidences create a number of legal issues,
one of which is the search warrant. Searching for electronic evidence differs
considerably from searching for traditional evidence. It consists of two phases: predigital and digital tracking. 43 Pre-digital is similar to the established search system,
where the suspect is found and searched. Digital tracking is consists of a number of
steps performed by specialised forensic representatives, who work remotely to where
the activity under investigation took place. While these two steps differ, they also have
an effect on each other, as actions performed in the first phase may have adverse effects
39
See: section 4.9.
See: section 1.8.1.
41
Such as the definition of electronic evidence in the Canada Evidence Act of 1998.
42
See: section 6.2.5.
43
Hilali Abdullah, Inspect Computer Systems (Dar Nahda Al Arabiah 1997) 125. (Author’s translation
from the Arabic).
.125 ‫( ص‬1997‫ ﺗﻔﺘﯿﺶ ﻧﻈﻢ اﻟﺤﺎﺳﺐ اﻵﻟﻲ )دار اﻟﻨﮭﻀﺔ اﻟﻌﺮﺑﯿﺔ ﻣﺼﺮ‬،‫ھﻼﻟﻲ ﻋﺒﺪاﷲ‬
40
217
on the second. For example, as the system of search warrants requires the investigator
to reveal their identity and provide the required evidence, it is likely that the suspect
may attempt to destroy the evidence. Therefore, the necessity to reveal the
investigators’ identity needs to be considered in greater detail in order to try and prevent
the suspect from deleting any evidence.
In the UAE, the CPL is not permitted to carry out a search warrant without notice and
the suspect (or a family member) is required to be present.44 These regulations need to
permit investigators to undertake a confidential search in cases where there is a chance
the suspect might delete evidence. While it is important in the UAE to respect the
privacy of an individual’s home, there are certain instances where officers are permitted
to carry out a search without notice, in order to protect lives and property and to search
for, and safeguard, evidence, or to arrest a suspect.45
6.1.2.2.1 The subject of the search warrant
The data in information technology is electronic. Therefore, evidence being sought can
include intangible items, such as electronic pictures, files and data. The search warrant
needs to be accurate in order to seize the correct items. Many countries (i.e. Italy,46
Ireland,47 France,48 and Portugal49) have updated their evidence rules to include a new
means of evidence.
According to the present UAE CPL system, an officer has the right to seize any
suspicious item, but it is a legal requirement that the warrant used has been issued for
substantial evidence.
Article 61 of the CPL, states that:
‘The judicial police officers have to sequestrate the objects which may have
been used in the perpetration of the crime, resulted therefrom, or if the
crime has been committed thereon; in addition to whatever may lead to the
truth in the matter’. 50
44
The UAE Criminal Producer Law, Article 59.
Ibid, Article 53.
46
Computer Crime Code of the Republic of Italy 1993, Article 491.
47
The Irish Criminal Evidence Act 1992, s 2 (1).
48
Civil Procedure Code of the French Republic Inserted by Law No.230-2000, Article 1316.
49
The Portugal Criminal Procedural Code DL 324/2003, Article 164.
50
The UAE Criminal Producer Law, Article 61.
45
218
According to current provisions, the broad scope of Article 61 is ineffective when it
comes to searching for electronic evidence. Article 61 does not directly mention
intangible data or information. However, with the different nature of electronic
evidence (which can include intangible or invisible objects) this could lead to the
seizure of evidence outside the search warrant.
Therefore the laws of the UAE need to be updated to allow for the examination and
confiscation of more insubstantial objects, by providing police officers with the
authority they need in order to search and seize ‘invisible’ evidence.
6.1.2.2.2 The scope of the search warrant
The search warrant must be specific to a location, crime or particular items.51 The two
methods of approach used in electronic investigation are restricted and non-restricted.
In the first, the officer is not permitted to copy the original document, while in the
second it is permissible to investigate all possible locations and confiscate all possible
evidence. While the first safeguards an individual’s privacy, it creates difficulties for
the officer undertaking the search, as it fails to provide them with all the necessary
evidence and limits their ability to differentiate between useful and irrelevant data.52
These two approaches have been applied in the UAE. The UAE CPL allows the officer
to carry out the maximum possible search on the suspect and make copies of the
original documents, if necessary. The system should allow the officer to look at any
data, which may prove to be evidence, and avoid the use of data that appears
unreasonable and irrational. Simultaneously, the law must clarify the meaning of the
word ‘things’ in Article 51 of the UAE’s CPL. The broad scope of word ‘things’ in
Article 51 could lead to different interpretations.53
6.1.2.2.3 Location of the search
Moving the electronic equipment in order to carry out the search operation will
inevitably create problems for the owners of the equipment. Carrying out an operation
at one location for a long period of time can cause problems to both the inhabitants and
the staff. A discussion follows concerning two different points of view related to on-site
51
The UAE CPL outlines several requirements for obtaining search warrant. See: section 4.2.2.
For further details on approaches to electronic investigation see: section 4.2.2.2.
53
Ibid.
52
219
and off-site investigations. The majority of professionals prefer the latter.54 According
to the UAE CPL, investigators are allowed to control all of the steps of an operation.55
The UAE officers should, however, be given guidance on the search location. Officers
should be permitted to carry out the search off-site only when it cannot be undertaken
on-site. It must also be decided who should accompany the investigators executing the
search.
Investigations are systematic and are required to be carried out by specific individuals,
i.e. forensic examiners, technicians, evidence analysts and forensic custodians. In the
UAE, it is important for the suspect to be present while such investigations take place.
This is difficult to achieve in cases where the search for electronic evidence is done far
from the original site. It is therefore important to alter the CPL to allow the search to be
carried out in the absence of the suspect. However, this request must also guarantee the
suspect’s rights.
6.1.2.3 Search and seizure without a warrant
While the UAE does not allow a breach of privacy, there are certain instances where
investigators are permitted to enter an individual’s home without a search warrant, in
order to seize evidence. Exclusions have been seen in the UAE CPL. Article 54 of the
CPL states that:
‘The judicial police officer, even in cases other than red-handed crimes,
may inspect dwellings of persons put under surveillance, either according to
a law provision or a court decision, should there be strong indications that
they may be suspected of perpetrating a felony or a misdemeanour’. 56
Due to the change in patterns of crime, and the advancements made in technology, it is
difficult to use conventional laws effectively. A legal order must be issued to
investigators so that they are able to keep all items which may potentially be evidence,
particularly if there is a possibility that this may be lost if the electronic equipment is
destroyed.
54
Ibid.
The UAE Criminal Producer Law, Article 53.
56
Ibid, Article 54.
55
220
6.1.2.4 Cross-border searches and seizures
Law enforcement agencies are restricted by physical borders, however there are no
physical boundaries in cyberspace.
57
Investigations into cybercrime require
multinational cooperation to be effective. However, political, legal and cultural factors
can substantially influence investigations. There must be political goodwill and cultural
cohesion, as well as a powerful legal system in each jurisdiction. A good working
relationship, and the desire to help another country, leads to successful cross-border
investigations.
Many factors in cybercrime investigations can impact an investigation, due to the
presence of errors in the cybercrime criminalisation policy. The established forms of
combined legal assistance (intended for non-electronic crimes) are not as efficient when
searching for electronic evidence, where rapid and decisive actions are required.
Specific measures have been taken by the Convention on Cybercrime in order to
improve cross-border cooperation in cybercrime investigations.58 The preservation of
data from a computer within the territory of a member accelerates the revealing of
preserved traffic data, locating and seizing evidence across borders, and the acquisition
of traffic data. These are current procedures for cooperative legal assistance with
respect to methodology, and are particularly important for rapid and effective
cooperation in cybercrime investigations. The involvement of the UAE in international
cybercrime investigations is made difficult by its current inadequate legal basis, which
is required in order to set up, help and process mutual legal cooperation. The author
recommends that the UAE urgently reviews domestic laws which could lead to mutual
legal assistance and which are required for a successful cybercrime investigation.
Prosecutors should be empowered by a central authority, formed by statute, to issue
requests for data normally stored by Internet Service Providers, to be preserved and
disclosed as required. Data should be preserved for as long as is deemed necessary.
6.1.2.5 Preservation of electronic evidence
The gathering of electronic evidence for an investigation consists of specific procedures
57
Ritter Nancy, ‘Digital Evidence: How Law Enforcement Can Level The Playing Field With Criminals’
(2006) Journal-National Institute of Justice (NIJ).
58
See: Convention on Cybercrime Budapest 23.XI. 2001.
221
and expertise, which are unlike the conventional methods of information collection. It is
necessary for investigators to be aware of the use of electronic items and also current
technological advancements, and therefore appropriate training is important. The UAE
Government must provide the necessary funds and time for staff training. There is no
specific legal system in the UAE for cybercrime, or for the collecting and storing of
electronic evidence. This, alongside the limited information, skills and weak principles,
is certain to increase the difficulties created when data is lost.
A number of countries (such as the US,59 the UK,60 Romania61 and Australia62) have
recognised the importance of developing rules to deal with electronic evidence during a
seizure and have therefore established appropriate rules. These aim primarily to
preserve electronic evidence and thus reduce the risk of any misconduct by
investigators, which may lead to the loss of such evidence. Similar guidelines would be
useful in the UAE, particularly given its lack of expertise when it comes to dealing with
electronic evidence at a crime scene.
6.1.2.6 Examination of electronic evidence
The examination carried out on electronic evidence is similar to that carried out on any
other form of evidence. Electronic evidence presented in court is required to be precise,
genuine, comprehensive and believable. Accuracy comes from the information
available and it is important to investigate possible loopholes in the evidence, since this
determines its reliability. The trustworthiness of a piece of evidence is depends on its
source: evidence is deemed comprehensive if all details support each other. As the law
of the UAE does not offer any support to the procedure of evaluating electronic
evidence, it is important for the UAE to establish laws regarding the efficient working
of investigators. Legal rules may be the best option to increase confidence in the safety
and accuracy of the procedures followed by the forensic expert.63
6.1.2.7 Presentation of electronic evidence
It is important to present expert evidence effectively to lawyers, judges and prosecutors
59
The US Guide for First Responders. See: section 4.5.
The UK Good Practice Guide for Commuter-Based Electronic Evidence. See: section 3.5.2.
61
Guidelines: Operational procedure to be followed for search of computers (Romanian Police).
62
Guideline for the management of IT evidence produced by: Standards Australia.
63
See: section 6.2.5.
60
222
so that its importance is understood. Evidence needs to convey a point clearly or else it
is worthless. The manner in which evidence is presented is also important.64 In order to
be effective, the presentation should be coherent and easily understood by a layman.
When presenting evidence in criminal proceedings, it should be remembered that
electronic evidence and traditional evidence share the same rules. It is the prosecution’s
obligation in conventional evidence to demonstrate to the court that the evidence has
not been changed since it was first seized by the police. Electronic evidence is usually
modified in terms of its quantity by operating systems and other programmes. This can
happen without the knowledge of the user. It is therefore vital that a sufficiently
qualified electronic evidence specialist present electronic evidence. It is important to be
objective in a court, while also demonstrating the integrity of the evidence. The manner
in which the evidence was obtained needs to be presented step by step. If there were
specific rules for the process of electronic evidence it would be a simple matter to
explain how, where and when the evidence originated. The President of the UAE’s
Federal Supreme Court states: ‘We need only clear rules, when we have these rules then
the judge can check all procedures, not only the judge but also all parties’.65
6.2 Part two: recommendations
In this section there will be a discussion of the origins of the recommendations for the
reform of the UAE law and regulation of electronic evidence. These recommendations
will be supported by the results arrived upon in each of the preceding chapters and by
the later findings of the thesis. The theoretical and applied methods employed, along
with the recommendations for the regulatory reform of electronic evidence regulation in
the UAE, frame the benefits of this thesis.
Prior to conducting a research, the researcher may have certain ideas, which are then
moulded into a final shape by the end of the research. Research works in the manner of
a factory, i.e. converting raw materials into a product. It can be thought of as a means of
supporting a hypothesis, which, if logical, is easily supportable. The role of research is
not only to support a hypothesis, but also to demonstrate its strengths and flaws. In its
initial phase, this research had very limited scope and few hypotheses. However, a
64
Burns DC, ‘When used in the criminal legal process forensic science shows a bias in favour of the
prosecution’ (2001) 41.4 Science and Justice 271.
65
See: translated transcript of the interview with Judge Dr. Abdul Wahab Abdul in Appendix 5.
223
rigorous review of the literature, investigations and analysis have turned these limited
thoughts into a body of ideas. Hence, the outcomes of this thesis could not be limited to
the original ideas and hypotheses, as they now also embody a number of supporting
ideas. The discussion of theories, gathering information and comparing and analysing
the data is sufficient to form the basis for appropriate results and recommendations.
While the regulation of the processing of electronic evidence is the subject of this
thesis, it also necessarily encompasses the regulation of the proving of such crimes,
both in theory and in practice. The wider scientific background cannot be separated
from a particular subject.
During the research for this thesis, it became apparent that the general characteristics of
electronic evidence regulation are interlinked. This thesis therefore aims to divide the
general area of electronic evidence regulation into outcomes and recommendations. It
is, however, impossible to separate these recommendations, due to the fact that
electronic evidence regulation is a single unit. The outcomes and recommendations of
the thesis are therefore divided into the following areas:
6.2.1 Academic findings
This thesis has posed the question of the need for the regulation of electronic evidence.
Due to the fact that differing views on the same problem lead to multiple results, a clear
approach was adopted in order to approach the subject. On this basis, the main question
posed in this thesis has been the potential requirement for the regulation of electronic
evidence. This thesis claims that the lack of regulation governing electronic evidence is
problematic and requires government by a legal system. There is an ongoing debate
regarding support for such regulation. This thesis favours a pragmatic approach, i.e. if
in practice the electronic evidence needs to be readjusted, it should be regulated in order
to prosecute crimes effectively. This can be seen as an outcome of this thesis.
The next important academic point is related to the applied study. There is an overall
lack of research in the UAE into the ways in which electronic evidence can be used to
prove crimes, hence it was difficult to set up a pilot study in this area. The result of the
applied study must therefore be seen in relation to the limits placed upon it by limited
time and resources and also by the lack of any previous studies. Nevertheless, the
224
applied study can be seen as a progression. It will require the resources of an
organisation to research evidence regulation in order to obtain complete
comprehension. This thesis therefore recommends that the officials in the UAE give
further consideration to studying the regulation of evidence.
The methodology of the thesis should also be noted. It is a hybrid of a theoretical legal
study and an applied study. The different methods of the two studies assist in
establishing underlying issues and to search for a solution. The art of combining social
science and legal methodology is still new in the UAE. The recommendation from this
thesis for any academic work in the field is to embody the socio-legal methodology so
that increased practical results can be achieved. It is also recommends that UAE law
schools consider adding electronic evidence regulation as a module. This will result in
an increase of trained specialists in this field and a greater academic contribution. In
support of this view, one interviewee stated:
Cybercrimes and electronic evidence is a new topic at a worldwide level. I
think we are still at the beginning in the UAE. At present, the level of
understanding and awareness is too low. In the UAE, there is no academic
research, training courses or workshops in the field of electronic evidence or
cybercrime. There is also no academic module at the universities.
Cybercrime is a high tech crime which needs a high level of knowledge.66
6.2.2 Coordination and cooperation
It is an undisputed fact that acquiring electronic evidence can be global in nature.
Independent states have always needed to request evidence from others for crimes with
an international element. In such cases, requests are made for cooperation, including
MLA. These involve cross border pleas for assistance, and are particularly important in
cases involving electronic evidence, due to the fact that there is a possibility the
evidence may be modified or deleted. In order to eliminate this risk, the UAE needs to
cooperate with other states and international organisations. In addition, the UAE also
needs to approve and establish conventions regarding coordination between states in
order to address the problem and deal with a global threat in a unified manner. This
claim is supported by Saeed Al Hajiri, who states:
66
See: translated transcript of the interview with Professor Elbushrain Appendix 5.
225
Cybercrime is a global crime. Consequently, electronic evidence is also
international. In other words, you can find part of the evidence in one state
and other part in another country. We are facing difficulties in gathering
evidence from abroad. There are no conventions and effective international
cooperation in this field. As an example, our department has been applying
for evidence from abroad since 2010 and even now we have not had it. It
can take more than 3 years to get evidence. Additionally, suspects could
provide other challenges. The suspects nowadays are using ‘Anti Forensic
Technique’ software and hardware which lead to the clearing of evidence.67
6.2.3 Training of law enforcers
Cybercrime was not prevalent when the majority of the current lawyers, judges,
prosecutors and other law enforcers received their training. The analysis of the applied
study illustrates that majority of the participants in the questionnaire did not possess
sufficient knowledge of the processes of electronic evidence. 68 Therefore, to ensure
justice, it is necessary for them to be trained to the point where they have a basic
knowledge of cyber law and its evidence. Training is used to increase the investigator’s
knowledge of, and handling expertise for, electronic evidence, so that it can be used
during a trial.
These programmes should aim for continuous training of officers with regards to law
enforcement on collection, analysis and ways in which to effectively present electronic
evidence. The programme should also give investigators a working knowledge of the
various aspects of electrical evidence. Both the investigators and judiciary should have
adequate knowledge of the specific technical details used in cases involving electronic
evidence.
6.2.4 Laboratory development
Electronic evidence requires expert assistance from both IT and legal organisations in
order for it to be effective. For a successful investigation, the professional concerned
with digital forensics is required to be knowledgeable about both the legal and IT
professions, due to the rapid growth of technology and developing digital laws, which
attempt to deal with the expansion of information technology. It is also important to
upgrade the tools used, so that the report on the evidence is accurate and reliable. The
67
68
See: translated transcript of the interview with Lieutenant-Colonel Al Hajiri in Appendix 5.
See: section 5.3.
226
UAE needs to increase the number of laboratories, as it currently has only two. In
support of this claim, Judge Dr. Mohammed Al Kamali states:
We must also not overlook the technical side. The UAE currently has only
two laboratories, one in Abu Dhabi and other in Dubai, and the rest of the
UAE has no laboratories. As well as having few specialized cadres in the
UAE now, these specialists need development and training.69
6.2.5 Reforms to the law
It has been put forward that reforms should be made to the system regulating electronic
evidence, and to the ways in which it functions. Any changes to the regulations would
be deemed insufficient if there were no reforms made to the system as a whole. The
researcher has drafted the following recommendations:
Article 1: General: electronic evidence
These rules shall be commonly known as the ‘electronic evidence’ rules. These rules
determine the arrangements for electronic evidence, such as systems, procedures and
management.
Article 2: Definitions
‘Electronic evidence’ is any digital form of information or data, 70 either stored
electronically initially or transmitted in this form, which can be used to prove a fact in a
court of law.
‘Computer system’ refers to a device (or group of interconnected devices) which,
following a programme, results in automatic processing of data or other functions.
‘Computer data’ refers to the portrayal of facts, concepts or information in a manner
suitable for being processed in a computer system, or is defined as a group of
instructions suitable for making a computer system perform a certain function.
Article 3: Search and seizure of electronic evidence
69
See: translated transcript of the interview with Judge Dr. Al kamali in Appendix 5.
There is difference between ‘data’ and ‘information’, data becomes information only if it is
communicated, received, and understood. ‘Data’ is therefore potential ‘information’. See: Raymond
Wacks, Personal Information, Privacy and the Law (Oxford: Clarendon Press 1989) 25.
70
227
The judicial officer has authority to search a computer system, wholly or partially, and
all the computer data stored within, or a medium that can store computer data located
where the suspect can exercise their sovereign authority with the desire of avoiding
criminal investigation or legal proceedings.
Article 4: According to article 3, if a computer system, or part of it, or data or
information from a computer is seized unknowingly in another jurisdiction, the judicial
officer conducting the task shall act as if they have been provided with procedures that
are to be obtained via mutual assistance requests.
Article 5: The judicial officer has the authority to order, for the process of any criminal
investigation, any person who may harbour knowledge concerning the working of the
computer system (or measures utilised to keep data hidden), to reveal all the required
information and to enable the undertakings of the methods referred to in Article 3.
Article 6: The judicial officer is given power to carry out criminal investigations or
proceedings and can (without obtaining a search warrant) go to whatever lengths are
required to preserve the data stored by means of a computer system. This is particularly
so when they have reason to believe that the information is likely to be retained for a
short period or that it could be easily lost or modified. The officer also has power to
compel the safeguarding and protecting of the integrity of the data for ninety days, a
period that is renewable by the judge.
With reference to paragraph 1, the prosecution office must be notified by the judicial
officer within 24 hours from the date of (or information concerning) forceful acquisition
of data.
Article 7: In the UAE, police departments must appoint a place of contact available 24
hour a day, 7 days a week, to provide immediate assistance. This is for the purpose of
investigating criminal offences related to the use of computer systems and its data, or
for the exchange of electronic evidence of a criminal nature. This assistance shall
include giving technical advice and preserving data, as well as collecting evidence,
giving legal information and locating suspects.
Article 8: Electronic evidence obtained from outside the UAE is to have the same
authenticity and evidentiary value as if discovered in the UAE, so long as all the proper
228
procedures have been followed.
Article 9: The UAE’s Minister’s Council must prepare guidelines for handling
electronic evidence.
Article 10: The Minister’s Council should review and update guidelines on an annual
basis, for on special events or as required by circumstances.
Article 11: Special documentation for the examination of all electronic evidence is to
be carried out and made available for court viewing.
Article 12: It is the examiner’s role to ensure that the measures taken on the original or
the copy are suitable and correctly documented. The original document must be
preserved, and in cases where changes are unavoidable, all of these must be
documented appropriately.
Article 13: The judicial officer must be adequately trained with experience and
qualifications sufficient to fulfil their role in collecting, analysing and presenting the
electronic evidence.
Article 14: The authority and measures referred to in the current articles shall be
subject to regulations and safeguards as given by the UAE constitution.
After proposing these rules, it is important establish where they can be inserted:
whether in the CPL, Federal Law No.5 of 2012 on Information Technology Crimes or
in a special procedural law for electronic evidence. The researcher considers it
appropriate to include the new rules in UAE CPL, as insertion in Federal Law No. 5
might lead to a misapprehension that electronic evidence is required and used only for
cybercrimes. It is therefore more appropriate to continue with the same legislation
policy rather than issuing special procedure laws for electronic evidence.
6.3 Obstacles to applying the previous proposals
When applied, all new proposals are confronted with obstacles. The above proposals are
intended as a starting point in attempting to overcome the shortcomings and
disadvantages associated with the regulation systems for electronic evidence in the
UAE. A number of these obstacles are as follows:
229
I.
Financial cost: preparation and qualification of the police officers, prosecutors,
lawyers and judges requires an appropriate budget as training has become
increasingly expensive. This also needs to cover the cost of specialised courses
with qualifications, alongside the development of laboratories with the latest
equipment and tools. Finances could be a reason for the lack of development or
rehabilitation of most law enforcers, as well as for the lack of modernisation of
laboratories.
II.
Law enforcers’ training: UAE is a federal state divided into both local and
federal systems. Each state possesses its own administrative and financial
jurisdiction. If any UAE state decides to enhance the skills of its law enforcers
the project will be run in the state only. This may lead to an imbalance in
education levels between the law enforcers of different states. For example, if
there is a project to train police officers, prosecutors and judges in Dubai
without a similar project in existence in another Emirate, this could lead to a
difference in the educational levels between members in the UAE. There is no
prosecution or specialised courts for cybercrimes in the UAE, which leads to
difficulties in identifying the target group. Development and training entails
identifying the group and the purpose of the training, requiring a database
currently unavailable in the UAE. It is therefore necessary for the UAE to
establish such a database.
III.
New rules for electronic evidence: new legal rules may create significant
procedural problems, particularly at the beginning of the application. A low
level of knowledge, understanding and awareness could be the main
considerations in deciding whether to introduce new procedural rules. It is very
difficult to instigate new rules where the knowledge level of the law enforcers is
low. The applied study revealed that a large percentage of law enforcers were
unable to distinguish between electronic and other types of evidence. The
previous two points (training and new rules) are linked. Education is therefore
the first step that needs to be taken. When officers are educated to a high
standard, then new rules can be proposed. This is the only means of ensuring
that the rules are applied effectively, and therefore the UAE must have both a
long and a medium term plan to increase awareness levels.
230
IV.
Conventions and international cooperation: strong international cooperation
and coordination is extremely important: however, they are also subject to
political influence. Although the UAE is currently peaceful state, its government
may prefer not to organise or attend international conventions or treaties.
The above obstacles should not, however, become a reason for a lack of regulation of
electronic evidence, as for any issue there is usually a solution.
The UAE Ministry of Justice can be offered a financial budget to cover the cost of the
above through the ministry resources, or through financial support from local or federal
departments, or by private enterprises. When it comes to the training of law enforcers,
the UAE Ministry of Justice should have long-and short-term plans for rehabilitation
and training across the UAE. The UAE Ministry of Justice must also work to raise
understanding and awareness levels of law enforcers when it comes to the new rules for
electronic evidence. The UAE Government can pursue the establishment of conventions
and international cooperation through attending international conventions, etc., through
the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC).
6.4 Conclusion
Law enforcement faces a number of challenges when it comes to the collection of
electronic evidence for criminal procedures. The collection method for electronic
evidence is different to that of physical evidence, and so requires the formation of new
rules to govern evidence regulation. Reformation will not be confined to the gathering
of electronic evidence, but also to the investigative process as a whole. This
demonstrates the ways in which technology requires changes to be made to the law.
Technology divides the warrant process from its conventional one-step process to a
new, two-step process, resulting in the need for new rules to govern the second step.
Modifying the rules also gives the legal system an unusual window to experiment with
new laws, in order to made the move towards the use of electronic evidence.
The initial findings of this research have considered the research questions. It can be
seen that there are defects in the procedures concerning collection, presentation and
analysis of electronic evidence. The authenticity of electronic evidence must always be
ensured. Law enforcement can ensure that the evidence is allowed in court if guidelines
231
are followed effectively. It has been noted that law enforcement has difficulties when it
comes to dealing with electronic evidence. This stems from the fact that the usual
protocol is not followed in the analysis, collection and presentation of electronic
evidence. Law officers are not sufficiently trained and there are no programmes to
guarantee the development of officials. The problem is aggravated by the fact that
standards are lacking when it comes to handling, collecting and presenting electronic
evidence. Investigators should be provided with adequate knowledge on how to handle
of electronic evidence through the means of standard operating procedures and training.
A number of recommendations have been made on the basis of the findings of this
thesis. They aim to improve the methods of collecting, analysing and presenting
electronic evidence. Crimes involving computers will become increasingly normalised,
and it is time that the effect electronic evidence can have in investigations is
acknowledged. More research into electronic evidence is highly recommended in order
to keep up to date with developments in cybercrime.
This is the UAE’s first investigation into the regulation of electronic evidence and to
gain an understanding of the level of knowledge required. It is significant in the field of
law and opens the way for further research. This thesis will serve as a basis for future
research by providing new information for electronic evidence. It has also demonstrated
that judges give their decision regarding electronic evidence based on their current
knowledge. Criminal procedure rules must be reworked in the UAE to deal with this
new age of electronic evidence. Amendments in rules can affect the prosecution of
crimes and set an international standard, and this has the potential to assist other
countries facing a similar clash between old rules and new technologies.
232
CHAPTER SEVEN: CONCLUSION
It is appropriate to conclude by summarising the aims of this thesis and how far it has
accomplished its objectives. Specific topics were introduced and there has been an
attempt to add to the overall knowledge regarding the regulation of electronic evidence.
The study seeks to find answers to two main questions: (1) whether the UAE’s Criminal
Procedure Law is sufficient to regulate electronic evidence process and (2) what is the
level of knowledge, understanding and awareness of electronic evidence in the UAE?
Each question may be linked to, and have an influence on, the other. In order to answer
these questions, sub-questions are required, and so the chapters have been designed to
answer both questions and sub-questions.
Chapter One aimed to introduce the significance of the research and map out its
requirements. The chapter also contained a literature review and established relevant
terminology.
It was observed in Chapter One that the subject of electronic evidence has recently
gained considerable attention from many authors and institutions. There is a growing
body of literature examining the relationship between IT and law. 1 Many of these
patterns begin with the classic issue of the crimes being committed and the way they are
being dealt with. Nevertheless, cybercrime can be carried out at the touch of a computer
keyboard, from any location, and (as a result of globalisation) targeting its victims
across the world. This complex problem creates challenges. These include the difficulty
of identifying and locating the offender, ensuring that the detection of these crimes is
very difficult. This results in the rapid increase in the numbers of criminal cases
demonstrating the need to find new ways to combat crime, in order to ensure that the
use of electronic evidence can be an increasingly useful weapon. Chapter One further
provided definitions of electronic evidence and an interpretation of the term ‘computer’,
neither of which are defined by any UAE statutes. The lack of such definitions could
result in diverse outcomes when determining the relevance and authentication of
electronic evidence, something that could create opportunities for disagreements during
1
See: section 1.7.
233
a trial.2 It is therefore necessary to use clear and specific terms in order to be successful
in the practice of criminal prosecutions, leading to a need to reconsider the law from the
point of view of the interpretation of the terminology, rather than to leave such
interpretation to the courts. Such an interpretation is required in the UAE states, due to
the fact that there are no standard definitions of the terms ‘electronic evidence’ and
‘computer’ in their statutes.3
Chapter Two provided an overview of the UAE’s legal system. This included
establishing the development of the criminal procedure law in the UAE and
highlighting the role of the judge and each interested party when it comes to evidence.
The chapter also covered the type and the nature of electronic evidence and the criminal
investigation and distinctions between physical crime and cybercrime.
The main purpose of Chapter Two was to establish a background for the following
chapters. It demonstrated the procedural aspects of the UAE’s legal system and tracked
the CPL development from its introduction in 1992 until its latest amendment in 2005.
It also provided a comparison between traditional and electronic evidence, including
different types of electronic evidence. In summary, the UAE is a federation of states in
which jurisdiction is based on a civil legal system. There is no distinction made
between types of evidence in the CPL. However, Chapter Two demonstrated that there
are a number of differences in the nature of electronic evidence and traditional
evidence. The question then arises as to whether the general rules of CPL are sufficient
to cover electronic evidence Chapters Three and Four then aimed to shed further light
upon these matters.
Chapter Three provided a ‘macro-comparison’ approach to the regulation of electronic
evidence. The chapter explored the nature and the background of the regulation of
electronic evidence in civil and common law systems, through a case study of England
and Wales, and China. Significant points of convergence have been noted in respect to
the electronic evidence across the system, with a few differences presented either by the
respective statutes or general interpretation traditions of the systems. Each system has
its unique merits and demerits over alternative systems.
2
3
See: section 1.8.1.
See: section 6.2.5.
234
This chapter established that the issues of electronic evidence can be ‘universal’. There
are always instances in which ‘evidence’ has been lost due to the fact that there were no
rules with which to regulate electronic evidence, or a lack of coordination and
international cooperation. This results in the problem of electronic evidence being a
universal one. Chapter Three demonstrated that there is a point of convergence in both
regimes, in that their regulatory regimes (particularly the civil procedural laws) have
since adjusted their arguments on electronic evidence from admissibility to probative or
evidential value. Evidential weight will be higher where such documents can be
authenticated. The most important issue relating to the electronic documents, therefore,
is establishing their authentication and verification. In common law, the judges wield
greater discretion in the establishment of the integrity of electronic evidence, while in a
small number of cases business officers and public agencies are permitted to issue
authentication certificates. This contrasts with Chinese civil law, where the
authentication and verification processes are well defined by the statutes and is a
preserve of authentication agencies falling under the executive docket.
Chapter Four provided a ‘micro comparison’ approach to criminal procedure rules and
related issues of electronic evidence. The chapter attempted to support the argument
that there are regulatory shortcomings in the UAE's CPL.
Chapter Four thus attempted to shed light upon the processes of all electronic evidence,
starting with the search for, and seizure of, electronic evidence, then moving on to the
means of its preservation and examination, to the final stage, which consists of its
presentation at trial. The following are legal shortcomings revealed by applying the
UAE’s CPL:

Since electronic evidence has different criteria from traditional evidence, it is
recognised that CPL rules cannot meet the conditions and requirements for
search warrants. As seen in Chapter Four, this may affect the search for, and
seizure of, electronic evidence and the successful prosecution of crime. The
CPL rules therefore need to be modified, due to the fact that using the general
rules of CPL has created a procedure that is cumbersome, and is therefore
235
difficult to use as a successful, regulatory implement.4

Since there are no specific rules, guidelines or any legal framework in the CPL,
electronic evidence can be easily lost, damaged or altered, as has been
frequently demonstrated. Thus it is important to regulate the processing of
electronic evidence in order to avoid any such loss of evidence.

Due to the fact that there are no rules for documenting the process of examining
electronic evidence in the CPL (or any UAE legal framework), it is highly
recommended that a legal framework is constructed to ensure that all forensic
experts and members of the police follow all the correct procedures, which can
also be checked by a third party, and can so ensure a conviction.

Since there are no rules set down in the CPL concerning evidence obtained from
overseas, this evidence would be questioned when presented at court.

The case of the UAE Ministry of Education (as noted in Chapter Four),
highlights the importance of regulating electronic evidence. Evidence that
permits different interpretations can lead to different judgments. In addition, the
importance of the regulation of electronic evidence was also discussed in other
UAE cases, an example of which was given in previous chapters.
Chapter Five examined the issues concerning electronic evidence in the UAE. The
applied study highlighted awareness regarding the use of electronic evidence. There
was an exploration of views of legal experts and other specialists towards the regulation
of electronic evidence in the UAE. Both research methods of social sciences (i.e.
qualitative and quantitative) were used, through the analysis of interview findings and
the statistical results of questionnaires. The findings revealed by the applied study are as
follows:

The statistical results of the applied study demonstrate that the level of
knowledge regarding electronic evidence is generally inadequate.

There is not sufficient knowledge or awareness regarding the methods used in
the search for, and seizure of, electronic evidence, including its preservation,
4
Ibid.
236
examination and presentation.

There is not sufficient awareness concerning the challenges and problems of
crime in relation to electronic evidence.

The issues which law enforcers complain most about in the UAE with regard to
electronic evidence are:
A. There is no procedural guide for electronic evidence preservation. This supports
the idea that regulation of electronic evidence could reduce the chance of loss of
evidence due bad handling.
B. There are no specific rules governing search and seizure of electronic evidence.
This claim is supported by the majority of respondents who believe that the CPL
rule is insufficient to deal with electronic evidence.
C. Absence of awareness and indicative programs. This claim is supported by the
result of the applied study, which demonstrated that the lack of these programs
resulted in a decrease in the level of knowledge concerning electronic evidence.
D. Limited specialists in electronic evidence. This supports the view that the UAE
needs to increase the number of available specialised training courses.
E. Absence of international cooperation. This supports the idea that the UAE needs
to approve and establish conventions regarding coordination between states.
The majority of the interviewees were of the opinion that the CPL rules were
insufficient to deal with electronic evidence, and that a solution could be found in a
proposed Federal law clearly regulating electronic evidence. However, few
interviewees argued that the CPL is capable of dealing with electronic evidence, as
demonstrated by Ali Hamouda, who states:
There is no reason to find a special procedural law. Finding a procedural
law for electronic evidence will restrict the authority of the judge. Judges in
the UAE legal system have freedom in sentencing. The law will prevent the
judge from using this feature, because the judge will apply the legal rules
and will not be able to reject the evidence or not apply them.5
5
See: translated transcript of the interview with Dr. Ali Hamouda in Appendix 5.
237
On the other hand, Judge Abdul Wahab Abdul, President of the UAE’s Federal
Supreme Court, when asked how Emirates judges can be sure of the reliability and
authenticity of the electronic evidence, replied:
Clearly, because there is a shortage of laws, we depend on the forensic
report and for me this represents a weakness in judgment. When the judge
rules, based on the opinion of another person not his mind, this could lead to
the prejudice of justice. However, if we have clear rules the judge will be
able to make a decision.6
Judge Abdul Wahab’s views are supported during interviews with further specialists,
who express the opinion that electronic evidence needs to be regulated. When the
researcher queried the Minister of Justice of the UAE on the subject of regulation, the
Minister noted:
Realistically, for this academic controversy, if we need to find a new law
we will seek to publish it. The opposing views can be discussed when
discussing the issues of the law, but that is not a reason not to publish it.
Personally, I tend to support special rules for electronic evidence. The CPL
is indispensable. However, if there are some legal shortcomings, it is better
to cover them by special laws, especially for some special aspects. The CPL
may be able to regulate general aspects, but not special aspects such as
electronic evidence or cybercrimes. So it is highly recommended to find
special procedural laws.7
It will be a positive development if the UAE government chooses to examine the
advantages and disadvantages of the regulation electronic evidence.
Chapter Six was divided into two parts. The first raised a number of challenges and
problems facing law enforcers with regard to electronic evidence and gaps in the
existing criminal procedures of the UAE. The second put forward a number of solutions
concerning the regulation of electronic evidence. The recommendations represent the
considerations raised by the thesis’ academic discussions. The final results of the thesis
serve
as
recommendations for
changes
to the
UAE’s regulations.
These
recommendations will prove invaluable if the investigations regarding the failures of
the UAE system prove accurate.
6
7
See: translated transcript of the interview with Judge Dr. Abdul Wahab Abdul in Appendix 5.
See: translated transcript of the interview with Dr. Hadef Al Dhahiri in Appendix 5.
238
7.1 Findings
7.1.1 Is the UAE’s CPL sufficient for the regulation of electronic evidence?
This initially appears a straightforward question. As long as there is a difference in the
nature of electronic and traditional evidence, the method of dealing with such evidence
will inevitably vary. However, when it comes to the legal aspect, the answer is not so
straightforward. The procedural problems likely to occur when applying specific legal
rules are complex, as the law does not distinguish between types of evidence. Hence,
that which is applied to traditional evidence is also applied to electronic evidence.8
The lack of academic studies in the UAE has further increased the difficulty of
answering this question. A review of the literature is the most effective way to address
this issue, as it offers a consideration of differing views, so enabling the researcher to
discuss opinions and indicate the strengths and weaknesses of the various approaches.
This researcher therefore referred to an extensive body of literature from other countries
in seeking to answer the research question. The ‘Admissibility of the electronic
evidence in court: a European project’ provided by the European Commission was
found to be the most useful research project regarding the regulation of electronic
evidence. The project covered sixteen European Union Member States in order to
investigate whether electronic evidence is regulated in European countries, and to
examine the nature of the problems faced in the gathering, analysing and presentation of
such evidence.9
The difficulties in establishing an answer for this question also lies in the lack of cases
in the UAE involving electronic evidence. These issues relate to an interpretation of
legal rules, or the implementation of procedural rules, thus implying the existence of
legal shortcomings. This is the basis of establishing the effectiveness of the rules for the
prosecution of a crime. However, as the Minister of the UAE Justice states:
The small number of cases does not mean that there is no cybercrime in the
UAE. It could be caused by a failure to detect crimes or to not getting
evidence.10
8
See: section 2.4.
See: section 1.2.
10
See: translated transcript of the interview with Hadef Al Dhahiri in Appendix 5.
9
239
In order to investigate this matter the researcher conducted a detailed legal analysis. A
number of observations can be made from cases presented in previous chapters
suggesting that future problems may well arise in relation to electronic evidence.11
Thus, the researcher established that the most effective means of finding an answer to
the key question is through the use of sub-questions. These sub-questions deal with the
four key processes of electronic evidence.
7.1.1.1 What are the difficulties arising as a result of the use of UAE’s CPL rules in
terms of the search and seizure of electronic evidence?
The previous chapters demonstrated that applying the UAE’s CPL in terms of the
process of searching and seizure of electronic evidence introduces legal procedural
problems, i.e. the need for a search warrant.12 This has legal conditions. Article 72 of
the UAE’s CPL provides that:
‘The member of the public prosecution shall search the dwelling of the
accused upon a charge imputed to him of perpetrating a crime or by acting
as an accomplice in it. He may, in this respect search any place and seize
any papers, arms and all what may likely be used in the perpetration of the
crime or resulting there from, as well as anything that may help in revealing
the truth’.13
As a result, the CPL outlines two conditions for obtaining a search warrant: the crime
must have been committed and must be punishable. 14 These requirements must be
fulfilled before a search may begin.
Electronic evidence, however, differs from other kinds of evidence. As a result, the
UAE’s CPL rules may be inappropriate when applied to electronic evidence, which has
the ability to exist in more than one place, including outside the state, whereas a search
warrant is specified in terms of location and time. The UAE’s CPL requires the
presence of the suspect or his representative during the search process,15 something that
is difficult to apply when searching for electronic evidence. These conditions are
11
See: for example the case of the UAE Ministry of Education in section 4.9.
See: section 4.2.2.
13
The UAE Criminal Procedures Law, Article 72.
14
For further discussion see: section 4.2.2.
15
The UAE Criminal Procedures Law, Article 59.
12
240
difficult to fulfil. In support of this view, Judge Dr. Mohammed Al kamali, General
Director of the Institute of Training and Judicial Studies in Abu Dhabi, UAE states:
The CPL is not commensurate with cybercrime and crime scene evolution,
which is no longer in the past. A crime scene in cybercrime is a default
theatre. There are many risks of loss of evidence, and in addition, the
electronic evidence may exist in more than one place. Electronic evidence
needs expertise in how to acquire and preservative it. Current procedural
law has loopholes and does not cover the process of electronic evidence.16
7.1.1.2 Is the UAE’s CPL sufficient to preserve the electronic evidence?
In the UAE there are no rules or guidance on the ways to preserve evidence, whether
traditional or electronic. Shortcomings of the UAE CPL (and a lack of guidance) has
the potential to lead to an increase in the loss of evidence, especially as a result of a lack
of knowledge on the part of law enforcers. Due to the fact that electronic evidence
requires only a single click to be lost, ineffective handling and lack of relevant expertise
on the part of law enforcers leads to the need for more stringent rules to regulate the
electronic evidence process. A forensic investigator interviewed by the researcher
states:
There are many cases where we lost evidence due to technical or bad
handling. Also, the offender is another reason. Sometimes the accused
destroys evidence before reaching through programs and tools and so it
cannot be obtaining as evidence. The problem is the nature of electronic
evidence. Electronic evidence is intangible evidence it’s not like other
evidence. The difficulty lies in how to find the evidence and get it. The
forensic investigator’s experience plays an important role in finding
evidence and the recovery. If the forensic investigator doesn’t have enough
experience we will not be able to find the evidence. The error here was not a
procedural or criminal intelligence problem, but the forensic investigator’s
experience.17
Hence, an investigation should be conducted into the current situation and to the
amendments made to evidence statutes in other countries such as the US, the UK and
Australia.
The process of collecting electronic evidence in criminal cases, crime has become
16
17
See: translated transcript of the interview with Judge Al kamali in Appendix 5.
See: translated transcript of the interview with Al Ketbi in Appendix 5.
241
increasingly technical due to the developments in the technology. Investigating such is
becoming increasingly challenging when mens rea must be proved beyond reasonable
doubt. In future, it will become even more complicated, due to everything being stored
in a digital format, or some equally intangible form. An investigator must be well
prepared and be in possession of the appropriate expertise in order to effectively collect
electronic evidence. An investigator requires the expertise to be able to identify which
parts of the available material are relevant, while at the same time ensuring that the
process of searching leaves the evidence intact. Chapter Four set out the US Pocket
Guide for First Responder, which is particularly relevant to this issue, as it details
electronic crimes in which computers have been used, and could therefore serve as a
basis for creating a standardised operating procedure in the UAE.18
7.1.1.3 What are the procedures for examining electronic evidence in the UAE?
The UAE is in possession of the most up to date laboratories and examination devices,
but does not have the appropriate legislation. The administrative procedural rules
appear to be inadequate and it is necessary to put more effective legal rules in place in
order to convince a judge. The best model available for such rules is the Chinese one, in
which the authentication and verification processes are well outlined by the statutes and
is the preserve of authentication agencies. The Chinese model could prove an
advantageous example for the UAE, in particular the introduction of specialised and
specific authentication agencies to which neither litigant has access to electronic
evidence.19
This view is supported by Major Rashid Lootah, head of the Electronic Evidence Unit
at the Criminal Evidence and Criminology Department- Dubai Police who, when asked
if he considered regulation of the procedures of examining electronic evidence by law
as necessary, stated:
Yes we need to ensure that all procedures were followed properly and all
evidence had not been tampered with. The existence of rules will help us to
ensure that all forensic experts or police members follow all the correct
procedures and can also be checked by a third party.20
18
See: section 4.5.
See: section 3.4.2.
20
See: translated transcript of the interview with Lootah in Appendix 5.
19
242
7.1.1.4 What are the procedures for presenting electronic evidence to a court in the
UAE?
Convincing a judge is a means to achieve a ruling. The judge needs to understand all
the procedures with regard to obtaining evidence and this will only be achieved when
there is effective presentation. UAE laws do not cover the process of obtaining
electronic evidence, and thus the prosecutor may be unable to clarify these procedures
and thus achieve a conviction. Were such rules in place, the prosecutor would be able to
explain and illustrate all the procedures used in terms of search and seizure, and the
examination of electronic evidence.
The case of the UAE Minister of Education is a real-life example of the ways in which
presentation of the evidence can affect a judge’s ruling: when the prosecutor failed to
present evidence convincingly and explain the process of obtaining the evidence,
different sentences were given.21
In the light of this, Judge Dr. Mohammed Al kamali commented in an interview with
the researcher:
If there is a clear rule on search and seizure, and on examining electronic
evidence, the judge will convene and therefore will sentence on
conviction.22
The shortcomings revealed by the answers to the sub-questions illuminate the fact that
the UAE CPL is insufficient to deal with electronic evidence in the UAE. A solution
therefore needs to be found in order to overcome its failings. The CPL may be suitable
in terms of a general framework, but we also need to create a special framework to
regulate some of the details.
7.1.2 What is the level of knowledge, understanding and awareness of electronic
evidence in practical life in the UAE?
Due to an existing lack of statistics and previous studies, the researcher conducted an
applied study in order to measure the awareness and level of understanding of
electronic evidence. At the same time, the study highlighted the current issues
21
22
See: section 4.9.
See: translated transcript of the interview with Judge Al kamali in Appendix 5.
243
concerning the regulation of electronic evidence in the UAE from the perspective of
both legal experts and other specialists. The results support the proposition that there
are overall deficiencies in the regulation of electronic evidence in the UAE, and also in
the level of understanding and awareness with regard to electronic evidence in practical
life in the UAE.
The results of the applied study reveal that the majority of the participants did not
possess sufficient knowledge concerning electronic evidence.
23
Increasing this
knowledge is therefore important in removing any uncertainties, and so ensures its
effective use. There also needs to be a higher level of understanding and knowledge
governing the processes of detection and collecting evidence.
The results of the applied study have been taken into consideration when the researcher
established the suggestions put forward in the thesis.24
7.2 Limitations of the research
It was important that the thesis was aligned in its approach, working and objectives. An
assessment of the thesis is to study its consistency between what was planned and what
was achieved. The limitations of the thesis affected its assessment, due to the fact that it
was carried out by a single researcher with limited time and money. It would have been
beneficial to be able to assess the knowledge of the UAE law enforcement and the
potential effect of regulations for electronic evidence on the results of prosecution.
However, such unrealistic goals were never part of this work. The applied study is one
limited scale study and should be viewed in the light of laying the basis for further work
on this subject. It was ambitious to examine the systems in other countries with a
similar legal framework as the UAE (such as other Arab countries). Limited academic
resources are a barrier to studying such systems, and these systems were found to
contain similar shortcomings to the UAE. If this study had examined a developing
country then the system would have had the potential to serve as a model. However,
studying these systems is difficult due to the language barrier (e.g. French or German).
Constant evaluation of legal rules in a developing country, such as the UAE, is
23
24
See: section 5.3.
See: Part two in Chapter Six.
244
important. 25 This thesis is dedicated to the facts concerning electronic evidence. It
might be argued that regulation of electronic evidence is not the most pressing
regulatory issue, however, its importance lies in the positive results of such regulations
on controlling crime.
As a result of discussions while drafting this thesis, the primary layout was made as
malleable as possible so that all issues could be included. The inclusion and exclusion
criteria are appropriate to the analysis, and the main body of the thesis is divided into
legal theoretical and applied study.
There are many publications relating to the law and IT.26 A number of writers have
chosen to address the law and IT in general, and others have specifically addressed the
application of the relevant laws in IT or cybercrime.27 The issues surrounding electronic
evidence have recently become a subject for a number of authors.28 There are many
areas to be considered in terms of detection in the electronic evidence field. This was
the starting point for the researcher when it came to selecting the subject for study.
Moving from the general to the specific, the researcher then established that an aspect
that had not yet been examined was the regulation of electronic evidence. This thesis
has endeavoured to establish solutions to the procedural issue of whether the UAE’s
CPL is sufficient to govern the process of gathering, preserving, examining and
presenting electronic evidence and if it requires supplementary legislation. It may,
however, require a wider examination in order to obtain a clear picture of the factors
that currently influence the legal aspects. This has led to a number of limitations, which
are discussed below.
7.2.1 Scope of the research question
The research question sought to cover all procedural issues emerging from the
regulation of electronic evidence in the UAE. A number of these (e.g. obtaining
evidence from abroad) could not be addressed in detail. However, the researcher chose
to take a comprehensive view of the procedural issues, rather than adopt an in-depth
25
UAE classified as a high income developing country.
Writers such as: Ian Lloyd, Information Technology Law (6th edn, OUP Oxford 2011).
27
Writers such as: Thomas Clancy, Cyber Crime and Digital Evidence Materials and Cases (LexisNexis
2011). Susan Brenner, Criminal Threats from Cyberspace (Pentagon Press 2012).
28
See: section 1.7.
26
245
research approach focussing on one. The main reason for choosing such an approach is
that all the factors are interrelated. What affects the search and seizure stage will affect
the examination or presentation stage. Furthermore, as far as can be established, this
study is the first in the UAE and it has therefore been necessary to obtain a broad, rather
than an in-depth, view. A comprehensive study such as this will encourage in-depth
research in the future. This thesis is more focused on cybercrime rather than physical
crime, due to the fact that detecting and fighting cybercrime depends a good deal more
electronic evidence than does physical crime.
7.2.2 Legal and geographical scope
This research has sought to consider this issue with regard to UAE Federal Laws, in
particular Federal Law No. 35 of 1992. However, there are references to other states’
laws, which are used as models. While the literature review was drawn from studies
globally, the practical elements (e.g. the questionnaires and interviews) have been
conducted in the UAE, thus placing a UAE perspective on the responses.
7.3 Opportunities for future research
This study seeks to be the basis of future studies concerning electronic evidence, both at
the UAE level and of other countries in the Middle East and elsewhere. However, there
may well be many (as yet uncovered) instances of shortcomings in the regulation of
electronic evidence. This will be of great value for future research. The researcher
recommends the following areas for future work:
-
To analyse and evaluate different legal challenges brought about by computer
crimes and electronic evidence.
-
To examine and evaluate the extent to which UAE laws comply with ICT
developments.
-
To consider the effect of international laws in accepting electronic evidence.
-
To examine and evaluate the extent to which methods associated with search
and seizure for electronic evidence can have a bearing on the rights of the
suspect.
246
There are undoubtedly further areas in need of research. Further research into electronic
evidence can be structured in such a way as to improve the ability of law enforcers
when it comes to the prosecution of crimes. Future research may also apply a number of
the methods used in this research, such as combining applied methods and critical
analytical methods.
7.4 Conclusion
With the amalgamation of IT and the law, electronic evidence comes into being. The
subject of electronic evidence touches on two different professional areas – the law and
IT. Electronic evidence has now begun to feature in legal cases and can play an
extremely important role in prosecuting crime. However, the judicial process is
complicated by the absence of any legal regulation of electronic evidence.
In the light of what this research, it is clear that in the UAE the level of knowledge,
understanding and awareness of electronic evidence is weak in practice. This research
has also raised the issue that UAE CPL is insufficient for the regulation of electronic
evidence. There are a number of areas that need to reform in the CPL due to their
current vagueness.
The researcher has put forward a number of recommendations with the aim of helping
to overcome the gaps in CPL. In order to reach an integrated regulation for electronic
evidence, raising the level of awareness and knowledge among law enforcers is vital at
this preliminary stage.
It is hoped that the present work will represent the first step in encouraging a stronger
understanding of electronic evidence in the UAE.
247
Appendices
Appendix 1: A Letters to the Interviewees
Letter of Consent
Dear………………………….
I am a PhD student at the School of Law, Bangor University, United Kingdom
under the supervision of Dr. Yvonne McDermott. I am conducting research to fulfil the
requirements for obtaining a PhD in law and am sponsored by the Government of
Dubai.
A letter from my supervisor, Dr. Yvonne McDermott from the School of Law, Bangor
University, is also enclosed to verify my accountability and reliability.
I would like you to examine the enclosed summary of the study. It is concerned with the
subject of ‘electronic evidence in criminal procedure’ and is entitled “The Regulation of
Electronic Evidence in the UAE: Current Limitations and Proposals for Reform”. The
summary aims to provide an overall insight into the study and highlights the role and
importance of your participation.
In this respect, I would like to ask your permission to conduct an interview with you. I
assure you this would be conducted under strict ethical research principles. In the
interview (which would be expected to take approximately half an hour) you may wish
to provide opinions based on your expertise and insight.
Your participation in this study is, of course, voluntary. You have the right to choose
not to participate or to withdraw from the study at any time. The results of the research
study may be published, but your name will not be used unless you consent. I give you
my assurance that all information provided by you in the interview will be used for
research purposes only, and will not be conveyed to any third party. It would save both
time and effort for us both if the interview could be tape or digital recorded. Otherwise,
I will have to transcribe it. Following the interview, you will be given the opportunity to
review the transcripts or recordings, and you may ask for alterations to and omissions
from your statement. The transcripts will be kept in the privacy of the researcher's home
248
office and any audio materials containing conversations with the researcher will be
erased following completion of the research. Your identity and quotations from the
interview will only be mentioned in the research if you give your permission. Each
interview will be identifiable only by a random number, and the link between this
number and the identity of the interviewee will be kept only in a confidential file in the
possession of the researcher and will not be disclosed. The interviewing aims to
generate accessible information from your insights and experience, not to access
confidential information illegitimately. I would be grateful if you would confirm that
your organization will allow you to take part in the interview. If you agree to participate
in this study, there are no foreseeable political, legal or economic risks or discomforts.
The interview will not involve any self-incrimination or disclosure of confidential
information regarding yourself or entity to which you belong. In this regard, you have
the right to consent or not to any of the following.
Please tick all of the following boxes to which you agree and leave those to which you
do not agree.
o I understand the purpose of the research being conducted as I have an overview
of the study and the role of my participation.
o I agree to be identified in the research by name and position.
o I understand that excerpts from my written transcripts and tape-recorded verbal
communications with the researcher will be studied and may be quoted in a PhD
thesis and in future papers, journal articles and books that will be written by the
researcher.
o I understand that transcripts on paper and tape recordings and digital files, will
be secured in the privacy of the researcher's home office and that any audio
tapes of my conversations with the researcher will be erased following the end
of the research.
o I understand that my participation is entirely voluntary and that I may withdraw
my permission to participate in this study without explanation at any point up to
and including the interview.
Yours………………,
249
COLEG BUSNES, Y GYFRAITH, ADDYSG A GWYDDORAU CYMDEITHAS
COLLEGE OF BUSINESS, LAW, EDUCATION AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
17 January 2013
Re: Khaled Ali Saleh Aljneibi
To whom it may concern,
This letter is to confirm that the above-named individual is a Ph.D. student at Bangor
University School of Law, United Kingdom. Under my supervision, he is currently in
his third year of doctoral studies on the topic of electronic evidence in the United Arab
Emirates.
An important part of Khaled’s doctoral thesis is an applied study of opinions and
attitudes towards electronic evidence in the UAE. His methodology and action plan
have been rigorously tested and approved by Bangor University’s Ethics Committee. I
hope that you will be willing to participate in this enthusiastic and erudite student’s
applied study. Your opinions will be invaluable to him in assessing attitudes towards
electronic evidence and in formulating recommendations on the use of electronic
evidence in the UAE in future criminal proceedings.
Should you have any queries, please do not hesitate to contact me via my direct
telephone line: +44 1248 388085, or via email at [email protected].
With every good wish,
Yvonne McDermott
Lecturer in Law
PRIFYSGOL BANGOR,
BANGOR UNIVERSITY
CANOLFAN WEINYDDOL
BANGOR, GWYNEDD,
DMINISTRATIVE CENTRE,
BANGOR, GWYNEDD,
LL57 2DG
RO/PROFESSOR PHIL MOLYNEUX BA, Mphil, PhD
ENNAETH Y COLEG/HEAD OF COLLEGE
LL57 2DG
250
251
252
Declaration on ethical issue raised in the research project
Khaled Ali Aljneibi (PhD Thesis) under Supervision Dr. Yvonne McDermott At
School of Law in the College of Business, Social Sciences and Law-Bangor
University.
The research title: The Regulation of Electronic Evidence in the UAE: Current
Limitations and Proposals for Reform.
This statement intends to provide assurance that the above named Ph.D. research
program will be conducted in such a manner that it satisfies the requirements of the
University’s Research Ethical framework. In particular, the research will address the
following ethical responsibilities:
-
Ensure that valid, informed consent is obtained before individual participate in
the research;
-
Avoid personal and social harm;
-
Protect the confidentiality of information about the research participants and
their identities;
-
Ensure dignity, respect and privacy are accorded to research participants;
-
Review the assessment and management of risk to the researchers and the
research participants during the research.
The proposed research requires ethical review and approval from the College Ethics
Committee because the research will be conducted in UAE which is outside United
Kingdom (as enshrined in section 5.3 of the Bangor University Research Ethics
Framework).The research will be conducted in one phase. It will be carried out between
December 2012 and March 2013.In addition to this statement, I pledge to comply with
any other condition(s) the University may so wish to add that will make the propose
research valid and reliable. Enclosed are a copy of signed Declaration for the College
Ethics Committee’s consideration and approval.
Mr. Khaled Al jneibi
Ph.D. Program (Ref: 5000189834)
School of Law
253
‫)‪Appendix 2: Original questionnaire (Arabic‬‬
‫إﺳﺘﺒﯿﺎن‪.‬‬
‫ﯾﮭﺪف ھﺬا اﻻﺳﺘﺒﯿﺎن ﻟﺠﻤﻊ اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت اﻟﻀﺮورﯾﺔ ﻟﻐﺮض ﻗﯿﺎس اﻵراء وﻣﺴﺘﻮي اﻟﻮﻋﻲ واﻹدراك ﺑﺎﻟﻤﺸﺎﻛﻞ اﻟﻌﻤﻠﯿﺔ‬
‫ﻟﻼدﻟﺔ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻮاﻗﻊ اﻟﻌﻤﻠﻲ ﻟﺪوﻟﺔ اﻻﻣﺎرات اﻟﻌﺮﺑﯿﺔ ﺗﺤﺖ ﻋﻨﻮان " ﺗﻨﻈﯿﻢ اﻷدﻟﺔ اﻷﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ‪ ،‬اﻟﻘﯿﻮد اﻟﺤﺎﻟﯿﺔ‬
‫وﻣﻘﺘﺮﺣﺎت اﻻﺻﻼح‪ ،‬دراﺳﺔ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻧﯿﺔ ﺗﻄﺒﯿﻘﯿﺔ "‪.‬‬
‫اﻟﻤﻄﻠﻮب ﻣﻨﻚ اﻹﺟﺎﺑﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ أﺳﺌﻠﺔ اﻹﺳﺘﺒﯿﺎن ﺑﺪﻗﺔ وﻣﻮﺿﻮﻋﯿﺔ ﻣﻊ اﻷﺧﺬ ﺑﻌﯿﻦ اﻻﻋﺘﺒﺎر أن اﻟﻤﺸﺎرﻛﺔ إﺧﺘﯿﺎرﯾﺔ وﻟﻚ‬
‫اﻟﺤﻖ ﻓﻲ اﻹﻧﺴﺤﺎب ﻓﻲ أي وﻗﺖ‪ .‬ﻛﻤﺎ أود أن أؤﻛﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ أن ﺟﻤﯿﻊ اﻟﺒﯿﺎﻧﺎت واﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت اﻟﻮاردة ﻓﻲ ھﺬا اﻻﺳﺘﺒﯿﺎن‬
‫ﺳﻮف ﯾﺘﻢ اﻟﺘﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻌﮭﺎ ﺑﺴﺮﯾﺔ ﺗﺎﻣﺔ ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ اﻟﺒﺎﺣﺚ وﻟﮭﺪف اﻟﺒﺤﺚ اﻟﻌﻠﻤﻲ ﻓﻘﻂ‪ .‬وﻟﻜﻢ ﺟﺰﯾﻞ اﻟﺸﻜــــــــــــــﺮ‬
‫واﻟﺘﻘﺪﯾﺮ‪....‬‬
‫أوﻻ‪ :‬اﻟﺒﯿﺎﻧﺎت اﻷوﻟﯿﺔ‪:‬‬
‫ﺟﮭﺔ اﻟﻌﻤﻞ‪:‬‬
‫اﻟﻘﻀﺎء )‪(.....‬‬
‫اﻟﻨﯿﺎﺑﺔ‬
‫)‪(.....‬‬
‫اﻟﻤﺤﺎﻣﺎة )‪(.....‬‬
‫اﻟﺸﺮﻃﺔ )‪(.....‬‬
‫اﻟﺨﺒﺮة‪ 6-3 :‬ﺳﻨﻮات‬
‫‪ 10-7‬ﺳﻨﻮات‬
‫‪ 15-11‬ﺳﻨﻮات‬
‫‪16‬ﺳﻨﮫ وأﻛﺜﺮ‬
‫ﺛﺎﻧﯿﺎ‪ -:‬ﯾﺮﺟﻰ وﺿﻊ ﻋﻼﻣﺔ )√( ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺮﺑﻊ اﻟﺬي ﯾﻼﺋﻢ رأﯾﻚ‪.‬‬
‫ ﻣﺎ ﻣﺪى ﻣﻌﺮﻓﺘﻚ ﺑﻤﺎ ﯾﻠﻲ‪:‬‬‫اﻟﻌﺒﺎرة‬
‫اﻋﻠﻢ‬
‫ﻻ اﻋﻠﻢ‬
‫اﻷدﻟﺔ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ واﻟﻔﺮق ﺑﯿﻨﮭﺎ وﺑﯿﻦ‬
‫أدﻟﺔ اﻹﺛﺒﺎت اﻻﺧﺮى‪.‬‬
‫اﻟﻌﺒﺎرة‬
‫اﻋﻠﻢ‬
‫ﻻ اﻋﻠﻢ‬
‫ﻃﺮق ﺟﻤﻊ اﻷدﻟﺔ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ‪.‬‬
‫اﻟﻌﺒﺎرة‬
‫اﻋﻠﻢ‬
‫أﻣﺎﻛﻦ ﺗﻮاﺟﺪ اﻟﺪﻟﯿﻞ اﻻﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﻲ‬
‫ﺑﻤﺴﺮح اﻟﺠﺮﯾﻤﺔ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ‪.‬‬
‫‪254‬‬
‫ﻻ اﻋﻠﻢ‬
‫اﻟﻌﺒﺎرة‬
‫اﻋﻠﻢ‬
‫ﻻ اﻋﻠﻢ‬
‫ﻛﯿﻔﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﺤﺎﻓﻈﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻷدﻟﺔ‬
‫اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ‪.‬‬
‫اﻟﻌﺒﺎرة‬
‫اﻋﻠﻢ‬
‫ﻻ اﻋﻠﻢ‬
‫اﻹﺟﺮاءات اﻟﻮاﺟﺐ إﺗﺒﺎﻋﮭﺎ ﻋﻨﺪ‬
‫ﻓﺤﺺ اﻷدﻟﺔ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ‪.‬‬
‫اﻟﻌﺒﺎرة‬
‫اﻋﻠﻢ‬
‫ﻻ اﻋﻠﻢ‬
‫ﻃﺮق إﺳﺘﻌﺎدة اﻻدﻟﺔ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ ﺑﻌﺪ‬
‫ﺣﺬﻓﮭﺎ واﻟﺘﻘﻨﯿﺎت واﻷدوات‬
‫اﻟﻤﺴﺘﺨﺪﻣﺔ ﻓﻲ ذﻟﻚ‪.‬‬
‫اﻟﻌﺒﺎرة‬
‫اﻋﻠﻢ‬
‫ﻻ اﻋﻠﻢ‬
‫اﻟﺘﻘﺎرﯾﺮ اﻟﻔﻨﯿﺔ اﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﺎﻷدﻟﺔ‬
‫اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ )ﻛﯿﻔﯿﺔ اﻟﻮﺻﻮل اﻟﻰ‬
‫اﻟﻨﺘﺎﺋﺞ وﻃﺮق ﻋﺮﺿﮭﺎ وﻣﻨﺎﻗﺸﺘﮭﺎ(‪.‬‬
‫اﻟﻌﺒﺎرة‬
‫اﻋﻠﻢ‬
‫ﻻ اﻋﻠﻢ‬
‫اﻟﺼﻌﻮﺑﺎت اﻟﻌﻤﻠﯿﺔ واﻟﺘﺤﺪﯾﺎت اﻟﻨﺎﺷﺌﺔ‬
‫ﻋﻦ اﻟﺠﺮاﺋﻢ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ ﻓﯿﻤﺎ ﯾﺘﻌﻠﻖ‬
‫ﺑﺎﻟﺤﺼﻮل ﻋﻠﻰ اﻷدﻟﺔ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﺛﺎﻟﺜﺎ‪ :‬ﻓﯿﻤﺎ ﯾﻠﻲ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺴﻠﺒﯿﺎت اﻟﺸﺎﺋﻌﮫ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺠﺎل اﻷدﻟﺔ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ ‪،‬اﻟﻤﻄﻠﻮب ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﺸﺎرك أن ﯾﺨﺘﺎر‬
‫اﻟﺴﻠﺒﯿﺎت اﻟﺘﻲ ﯾﺮى اﻧﮭﺎ ﺗﻨﻄﺒﻖ ﻋﻠﻰ دوﻟﺔ اﻻﻣﺎرات )ﯾﻤﻜﻦ إﺧﺘﯿﺎر ﻋﺪد ﻏﯿﺮ ﻣﺤﺪد(‪.‬‬
‫م‬
‫اﻟﺒـــــــﻨﺪ‬
‫‪1‬‬
‫ﻋﺪم وﺟﻮد ﻗﻮاﻋﺪ ﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﺗﻨﻈﻢ ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺎت ﺗﻔﺘﯿﺶ وﺿﺒﻂ اﻷدﻟﺔ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ‪.‬‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫ﻋﺪم وﺟﻮد ﻗﻮاﻋﺪ إرﺷﺎدﯾﺔ ﺗﻜﻔﻞ اﻟﻤﺤﺎﻓﻈﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻷدﻟﺔ اﻷﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ ﺑﻤﺴﺮح اﻟﺠﺮﯾﻤﺔ‪.‬‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫ﻋﺪم ﺗﻮﺛﯿﻖ اﻹﺟﺮاءات ﻋﻨﺪ ﻓﺤﺺ اﻷدﻟﺔ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ‪.‬‬
‫‪4‬‬
‫ﺟﻤﻊ اﻷدﻟﺔ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ أﺷﺨﺎص ﻏﯿﺮ ﻣﺆھﻠﯿﻦ‪.‬‬
‫‪5‬‬
‫ﻋﺪم وﺟﻮد ﻓﻨﻲ ﻣﺘﺨﺼﺺ ﺑﻤﺴﺮح اﻟﺠﺮﯾﻤﺔ أﺛﻨﺎء ﺿﺒﻂ اﻷدﻟﺔ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ‪.‬‬
‫‪255‬‬
‫اﻻﺟﺎﺑﺔ‬
‫‪6‬‬
‫ﻗﻠﺔ ﻋﺪد اﻟﻤﺘﺨﺼﺼﯿﻦ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺠﺎل اﻷدﻟﺔ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ‪.‬‬
‫‪7‬‬
‫ﻋﺪم ﺗﺤﺪﯾﺚ اﻟﻤﺨﺘﺒﺮات اﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﻔﺤﺺ اﻷدﻟﺔ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ ﺑﺼﻮرة ﻣﺴﺘﻤﺮة‪.‬‬
‫‪8‬‬
‫ﻋﺪم وﺟﻮد إﺗﻔﺎﻗﯿﺎت وﺗﻌﺎون دوﻟﻲ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺠﺎل اﻷدﻟﺔ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ‪.‬‬
‫‪9‬‬
‫اﻷﺣﺠﺎم وﻋﺪم اﻹﺑﻼغ ﻋﻦ اﻟﺠﺮاﺋﻢ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ‪.‬‬
‫‪ 10‬ﻋﺪم وﺟﻮد أﻧﻈﻤﺔ إﺟﺮاﺋﯿﺔ وﺑﺮاﻣﺞ ﺣﻤﺎﯾﺔ ﺗﻘﻨﯿﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﺆﺳﺴﺎت اﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ واﻟﺪواﺋﺮ اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﯿﺔ‪.‬‬
‫‪ 11‬ﻋﺪم وﺟﻮد ﺗﻨﺴﯿﻖ ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﺪواﺋﺮ واﻟﮭﺌﯿﺎت اﻟﺘﻨﻈﯿﻤﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ‪.‬‬
‫‪ 12‬ﻋﺪم وﺟﻮد ﺑﺮاﻣﺞ ﺗﺜﻘﯿﻔﯿﺔ و إرﺷﺎدﯾﺔ ﻻﻓﺮاد اﻟﻤﺠﺘﻤﻊ‪.‬‬
‫راﺑﻌﺎ‪ -:‬ﯾﺮﺟﻰ وﺿﻊ ﻋﻼﻣﺔ )√( ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺮﺑﻊ اﻟﺬي ﯾﻼﺋﻢ رأﯾﻚ ﻣﻊ إﻣﻜﺎﻧﯿﺔ إﺿﺎﻓﺔ أي ﺗﻌﻠﯿﻘﺎت ﻟﺒﯿﺎن وﺟﮭﺔ ﻧﻈﺮك ‪.‬‬
‫ اﻟﻰ أي ﺣﺪ ﺗﻮاﻓﻖ او ﺗﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﻣﻊ اﻟﻌﺒﺎرات اﻟﺘﺎﻟﯿﮫ‪:‬‬‫اﻹﺟﺎﺑﺔ‬
‫م‬
‫اﻟﺒـــــــﻨﺪ‬
‫‪1‬‬
‫ﯾﺠﺐ وﺿﻊ ﺗﻌﺮﯾﻒ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻧﻲ ﻣﺤﺪد ﻟﻼدﻟﺔ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﻮاﻓﻖ‬
‫ﻣﺤﺎﯾﺪ‬
‫ﻏﯿﺮ ﻣﻮاﻓﻖ‬
‫ﺗﻌﻠﯿﻖ‪.....................................................................................................................................:‬‬
‫‪.............................................................................................................................................‬‬
‫‪.............................................................................................................................................‬‬
‫اﻹﺟﺎﺑﺔ‬
‫م‬
‫اﻟﺒـــــــﻨﺪ‬
‫ﻣﻮاﻓﻖ‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫ﻣﺤﺎﯾﺪ‬
‫ﯾﺠﺐ وﺿﻊ ﻗﻮاﻋﺪ ﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﺗﻨﻈﻢ ﻃﺮق اﻟﺤﺼﻮل ﻋﻠﻰ اﻷدﻟﺔ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻌﻠﯿﻖ‪.....................................................................................................................................:‬‬
‫‪.............................................................................................................................................‬‬
‫‪.............................................................................................................................................‬‬
‫‪256‬‬
‫ﻏﯿﺮ ﻣﻮاﻓﻖ‬
‫اﻹﺟﺎﺑﺔ‬
‫اﻟﺒـــــــﻨﺪ‬
‫م‬
‫ﻣﻮاﻓﻖ‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫ﻣﺤﺎﯾﺪ‬
‫ﻏﯿﺮ ﻣﻮاﻓﻖ‬
‫ﯾﺠﺐ ﺟﻤﻊ اﻷدﻟﺔ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ أﺷﺨﺎص ﻣﺆھﻠﯿﻦ ﻓﻨﯿﺎ ﺑﺬﻟﻚ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻌﻠﯿﻖ‪.....................................................................................................................................:‬‬
‫‪.............................................................................................................................................‬‬
‫‪.............................................................................................................................................‬‬
‫اﻹﺟﺎﺑﺔ‬
‫اﻟﺒـــــــﻨﺪ‬
‫م‬
‫ﻣﻮاﻓﻖ‬
‫‪4‬‬
‫ﻣﺤﺎﯾﺪ‬
‫ﻏﯿﺮ ﻣﻮاﻓﻖ‬
‫ﯾﺠﺐ ﺗﻮﺛﯿﻖ ﺟﻤﯿﻊ اﻹﺟﺮاءات اﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﻔﺤﺺ اﻷدﻟﺔ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻌﻠﯿﻖ‪.....................................................................................................................................:‬‬
‫‪.............................................................................................................................................‬‬
‫‪.............................................................................................................................................‬‬
‫اﻹﺟﺎﺑﺔ‬
‫اﻟﺒـــــــﻨﺪ‬
‫م‬
‫ﻣﻮاﻓﻖ‬
‫‪5‬‬
‫ﻣﺤﺎﯾﺪ‬
‫ﻏﯿﺮ ﻣﻮاﻓﻖ‬
‫ﯾﺠﺐ ﺗﺤﺪﯾﺚ اﻟﻤﺨﺘﺒﺮات اﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﻔﺤﺺ اﻷدﻟﺔ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ ﺑﺼﻮرة ﻣﺴﺘﻤﺮة‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻌﻠﯿﻖ‪.....................................................................................................................................:‬‬
‫‪.............................................................................................................................................‬‬
‫‪.............................................................................................................................................‬‬
‫اﻹﺟﺎﺑﺔ‬
‫اﻟﺒـــــــﻨﺪ‬
‫م‬
‫ﻣﻮاﻓﻖ‬
‫‪6‬‬
‫ﻣﺤﺎﯾﺪ‬
‫ﯾﺠﺐ وﺿﻊ ﺑﺮاﻣﺞ ﺗﺪرﯾﺒﺔ وﺗﺄھﯿﻠﺔ ﻷﻓﺮاد اﻟﻨﻈﺎم اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮﻧﻲ )أﻓﺮاد اﻟﺸﺮﻃﺔ‪ ،‬ﻣﺤﺎﻣﯿﻦ‪ ،‬وﻛﻼء‬
‫ﻧﯿﺎﺑﺔ‪ ،‬ﻗﻀﺎه( ﻓﻰ ﻣﺠﺎل اﻷدﻟﺔ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻌﻠﯿﻖ‪.....................................................................................................................................:‬‬
‫‪.............................................................................................................................................‬‬
‫‪.............................................................................................................................................‬‬
‫‪257‬‬
‫ﻏﯿﺮ ﻣﻮاﻓﻖ‬
‫اﻹﺟﺎﺑﺔ‬
‫اﻟﺒـــــــﻨﺪ‬
‫م‬
‫ﻣﻮاﻓﻖ‬
‫‪7‬‬
‫ﻣﺤﺎﯾﺪ‬
‫ﯾﺠﺐ إﺑﺮام إﺗﻔﺎﻗﯿﺎت ﻓﻰ ﻣﺠﺎل اﻟﺘﻌﺎون اﻟﺪوﻟﻲ ﻟﻀﻤﺎن اﻹﺳﺘﻔﺎدة ﻣﻦ اﻷدﻟﺔ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ واﻟﺤﺪ‬
‫ﻣﻦ ﺗﺰاﯾﺪ ﺧﻄﻮرة اﻟﺠﺮاﺋﻢ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻌﻠﯿﻖ‪.....................................................................................................................................:‬‬
‫‪.............................................................................................................................................‬‬
‫‪.............................................................................................................................................‬‬
‫‪258‬‬
‫ﻏﯿﺮ ﻣﻮاﻓﻖ‬
Appendix 3: Translation of the questionnaire (English)
This questionnaire is a method to collect necessary data for the following research:
Title: The Regulation of Electronic Evidence in the UAE: Current Limitations and
Proposals for Reform. (PhD Thesis).
Researcher: Mr, Khaled Ali Aljneibi.
Supervisor: Dr. Yvonne McDermott.
University: Bangor University, United Kingdom.
I ask for your participation, in this questionnaire, which aims to measure attitudes and
experiences towards electronic evidence in the UAE. Initially, I would like to thank you
for accepting to take part in this study. For research purpose, I would need your true and
honest answers to this set of questions. All the information provided by you will be
used for research purposes only and will be secured in the privacy of the researcher's
home office. Your participation in this study is, of course, voluntary. You have the right
to choose not to participate or to withdraw from the study at any time. I would be
grateful if you would answer this questionnaire fully. The questionnaire will be
anonymous.
Section (1): Demographic Information:
Please put a tick (√) in the box that best suits your demographic information
1- Profession Type:
A- Judge (
).
B- Prosecutor (
C- Lawyer (
).
).
D- Police officer (
).
2-Average Practical Experience:
3-6 Years
7-10 Years
11-15 Years
259
16 Years and over
Section (2): How would you rate your own familiarity with?
Please put a tick (√) in the box that best suits your opinion.
Statements
I Know
I don’t know
I Know
I don’t know
I Know
I don’t know
I Know
I don’t know
I Know
I don’t know
I Know
I don’t know
I Know
I don’t know
The difference between
electronic evidence and
other kinds of evidence.
Statements
Methods of gathering
electronic evidence.
Statements
Placement of electronic
evidence in the cybercrime
scene.
Statements
Methods of preservation of
electronic evidence.
Statements
Procedures for electronic
evidence examination.
Statements
Techniques and tools for
electronic evidence
examination.
Statements
Forensic expert’s reports of
electronic evidence (how to
get the results, presented
and discussed).
260
Statements
I Know
I don’t know
Challenges and problems of
cybercrimes in relation to
electronic evidence.
Section (3): The respondent is asked to select from twelve negative aspects of
electronic evidence field which they thought were applicable in the UAE (You can
select an unspecified number).
NU
1
Item
There is no specific rules’ governing search and seizure of electronic
evidence.
2
There is no procedures guide for electronic evidence preservation.
3
Procedures of examining electronic evidence not documenting.
4
Unqualified persons collect Electronic evidence.
5
There is no technician person during a seizure of electronic evidence.
6
Limited specialists of the electronic evidence.
7
Do not update laboratories of electronic evidence.
8
Absence of international cooperation.
9
Non-reporting of cyber-crimes.
10
Absence of protection programs.
11
Lack of coordination between departments and the regulatory bodies.
12
Absence of awareness and indicative programs.
261
respond
Section (4): To what degree do you agree with these statements?
Please put a tick (√) in the box that best suits your opinion.
Answer
NU
statements
Agree
Unsure
Disa
gree
1
There should be legal terms for electronic evidence.
Comments:..........................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
Answer
NU
statements
Agree
Unsure
Disa
gree
2
We need to promulgate clear guidelines on how to deal with
electronic evidence in the UAE.
Comments:..........................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
Answer
NU
statements
Agree
Unsure
Disa
gree
3
Gathering electronic evidence should be by qualified persons.
Comments:..........................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
262
Answer
NU
statements
Agree
Unsure
Disa
gree
4
Examining electronic evidence should be documented.
Comments:..........................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
Answer
NU
statements
Agree
Unsure
Disa
gree
5
Should
we
update
laboratories
of
electronic
evidence
continuously.
Comments:..........................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
Answer
NU
statements
Agree
Unsure
Disa
gree
6
Police officers, lawyers, prosecutors, and judges need more
professional training on electronic evidence.
Comments:..........................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
263
Answer
NU
statements
Agree
Unsure
Disa
gree
7
There must be strong international cooperation and coordination
between regulators to succeed in the effective prosecution of
cyber-crimes and make full use of electronic evidence.
Comments:..........................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
264
Appendix 4: Questionnaire respondent comments (open-ended questionnaire
question
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
Appendix 5: Transcript translation of the interviews from Arabic
Interview (1)
Interviewee: Ahmed Al Ketbi, forensic investigator, Telecommunications Regulatory
Authority of the UAE.
Place and date: Dubai, January 2013.
INTERVIEWER: Can we start with your opinion towards the level of awareness
and understanding of cybercrimes and electronic evidence in the UAE?
INTERVIEWEE: “Personally, I think the level is increasing; this is because the media
now play an important role in raising awareness of cognitive. Also, the
Telecommunications Regulatory Authority of the UAE plays a role in the dissemination
knowledge through visiting schools, universities and the parents of students. We face
several difficulties such as, how to explain technical issues but in the end we are trying
to raise the awareness level”.
Can we discuss search and seizure procedures for electronic evidence, please?
“To answer your question we first need to divide the request for the search and
investigation; there are two types (covert or overt), covert means that the person does
not know about the inspection and overt does; this divide is important because we can
select inspection time. When we reach the search and seizer place we must take an
overview of the location and imagery. We then Look at the device and determine its
condition, is it in running or not. Are there any other devices connected to it or not. Is
there a Wireless Access Point or not. All these things and more are important because it
affects the search and seizure evidence and any oversight could lead to the loss of
evidence”.
Are these procedures documented and authenticated as a guide line and must they
be followed by an investigator?
“If we want to talk about the Telecommunications Regulatory Authority of the UAE it
is accredited by the US ASCLD/LAB and has (ISO 27001:2005) this for quality
assurance as well as all procedures undergoing an internal audit”.
279
So I understand that you follow these procedures only for the convention and
ISO? Did you have your own procedures?
“No, we only use the procedures accepted by the US ASCLD/LAB but it is a good idea
to have our own. I think that we need own procedures dealing with all processes starting
with seizure, preservation and examination of electronic evidence. When it has; nobody
can argue and also it will be assurance that all procedures have been followed by the
investigator”.
Did the Telecommunications Regulatory Authority have the cooperation and
coordination of other regulatory bodies in the UAE?
“There are some agreements signed with a number of bodies such as, the Abu Dhabi
Police. However, this agreement has not become common practice yet. We also seek to
sign another agreement with the Dubai Police”.
In the UAE, the procedures with regards to the gathering of evidence are provided
under general rules of the UAE’s Criminal Procedures Law (CPL). In what
manner can be said that the CPL is appropriate to cover electronic evidence?
“I am not sure, because I have no legal knowledge. But, I believe electronic evidence
needs special care, because electronic evidence has a different nature and criteria. For
example, if we need to seize a computer which is a tool of crime we can use general
rules of search and seizure. However, if the evidence cannot be found on that computer
it could be in another place, so we need take other procedures. As a result, I think it
becomes extremely difficult to seize electronic evidence by general rules. At this point,
I would note that the electronic evidence can be found in different places”.
This is an essential point, as you mentioned that the electronic evidence can be
found in different places, it could be in the UAE or outside, have you encountered
difficulties in obtaining evidence from outside the UAE?
“Yes, there are difficulties in obtaining evidence outside the UAE, this issue needs
international cooperation”.
What is the procedure with regard to this?
“We first look if there is an agreement with the state or not. If yes, we contact them
280
officially. If not, we contact them cordially. The difficulty is if the act was done by the
defendant who is not a criminal in that State, the request will be rejected”.
Could you please explain how to deal with electronic devices after seizure?
“There is something important to know at this point, if the device is running, you must
take data from the RAM directly before shutting down, because if you do not do this
there is a possibility of losing evidence. There are many cases where we lost the
evidence due to bad handling. After seizing the device, all data is copied on a hard disk;
numbering devices and codification data case, date, names…etc. Then we put all the
devices in a bag and seal it and sent to the laboratory”.
Could you please give us a practical example of bad handling?
“Without naming names, one of the authorities in the UAE told us that one of its staff
dissemination and misused a body of information. After investigation we found that the
authority had formatted the computer. As a result, we were unable to get the evidence.
It was due bad handling from the authority”.
Electronic evidence can be altered, lost or destroyed. In practice can we retrieve
all data? If not, have there been cases in the UAE? What is the reason? Is it
technical or bad handling?
“Can be both, yes there are many cases where we lost evidence. Also, the offender is
another reason. Sometimes the accused destroys evidence before reaching through
programs and tools and so it cannot be obtaining as evidence. The problem is the nature
of electronic evidence. Electronic evidence is intangible evidence it’s not like other
evidence. The difficulty lies in how to find the evidence and get it. The forensic
investigator’s experience plays an important role in finding evidence and the recovery.
If the forensic investigator doesn’t have enough experience we will not be able to find
the evidence. The error here was not a procedural or criminal intelligence problem, but
the forensic investigator’s experience”.
Could you please give us a practical example?
“Yes, one of the cases is when the analyst deletes evidence when handling the case and
we cannot get it back again”.
281
Are there specific conditions of storage?
“Certainly, there are conditions for storage such as, humidity and temperature of the
place etc. Electronic devices need special care”.
What techniques and tools are used to examine electronic evidence?
“Electronic evidence can be examined and analysed through several techniques. This
can be divided into two main tools; tools for copying and tools for analysis. All these
tools must be accredited by organisations and bodies. If not, we must test the tool
internally”.
Do you take a backup of the evidence before it’s examined?
“Sure, where the original evidence is retained and analysed we use the copy only. But
there are cases where you cannot take a backup of the evidence then we examine the
original evidence”.
Is a laboratory for electronic evidence updated continuously?
“Of course, technology is rapidly evolving and it is extremely important to update the
laboratory to ensure that the tools are always upgraded. We in the Telecommunications
Regulatory Authority update tools continuously”.
Could you please illustrate how to write forensic reports?
“After examining devices we write the report, which includes details of the case,
description of devices etc. Then we write details of the analysis process and tools used
in the examination. Finally, we state the result which does not include the names of
people, because you cannot prove that, you only can prove the computer did the
action”.
Do you think this matter can lead to unsuccessfully prosecuting cyber-crimes?
“I think so yes, it is very easy for a suspect to deny a related device or he can claim that
his device was penetrated”.
Is there any way to prove a suspect's connection to the device?
“Yes, but it is difficult”.
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How can you check result reliability? Is there any guarantee?
“There is a guarantee for the examination process, for example; in the examination
process the device is checked by more than one person. Furthermore, there is an internal
audit. In contrast, there is no guarantee of a valid conclusion”.
We can check the examination process by internal auditing, however, how can you
prove the guarantee of all these processes if requested by a third party? The
reason I asked this question is that I think there is no rule for examining electronic
evidence in the UAE. Do you agree with me that we need to regulate electronic
evidence?
“I agree. There is a vast area in electronic evidence that needs to be regulated. Also we
need to have specialised (UAE) bodies such as courts, prosecutions …etc”.
Interview (2)
Interviewee: Judge Dr. Mohammed AL kaabi, President of UAE Federal First Instance
Court-Fujairah.
Place and date: Fujairah, January 2013.
INTERVIEWER: In your opinion; what practical problems are faced by judges
with regard to electronic evidence in the UAE?
INTERVIEWEE: “We face many challenges, the main challenges I think is a lack of
experience judges, and a low level of understanding and awareness. The reason for this
could be the limited number of cases that contain electronic evidence and the age of the
judges, as well as, the lack of training and specialised workshops”.
What do you think are the main problems? Is it a lack of regulation procedures
for electronic evidence or the limitations of the laboratories and the lack of
specialists?
“In general it can be said both. However, I think a lack of regulation procedures is a real
challenge. Without rules or regulations how can we check the reliability and credibility
of electronic evidence?”.
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In the UAE, the procedures with regards to the gathering of evidence are provided
under general rules of the UAE’s Criminal Procedures Law (CPL).In what
manner can be said that the CPL is appropriate to cover electronic evidence?
“In reality, we used the general rules; in some cases it is difficult to apply these rules for
electronic evidence. Electronic evidence is different from other evidence, so we face
some challenges when used these rules”.
What can be a proposed solution?
“A solution can be through a proposed Federal law which should clearly regulate
electronic evidence. If we cannot do this, we can adopt guidelines. From a legal point
of view, the last solution is partial. A guide line has no power equivalent to the law in
front of a court. From my point of view, there should be a completely new law in regard
to this”.
Emirates judges appreciate the pertinence of the evidence. In relation to electronic
evidence, how can the judge be sure of the reliability and authenticity?
“In an application we depend on the forensic laboratory report”.
Do you think questioning the credibility of a forensic laboratory report could lead
to unsuccessfully prosecuting cyber-crimes?
“Not really, because in the UAE legal system, the judge has power to take any
evidence; the judge has the discretion to take the report or to refuse it”.
What do we need to make an effective presentation of electronic evidence?
“At this stage, I think we need only a brief presentation, most of the judges are not
interested in hearing details. Also it is hard for judges to understand the technical
terminology”.
One of the challenges of the electronic evidence is a regional issue. Do you think
that the UAE laws can deal with this issue?
“In terms of crimes committed outside the country, there are rules governing this issue.
But, in terms of evidence I think there is a gap in the laws in this field, there is no rule
regulating this issue. I guess this can be dealt with by standard international criminal
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procedures”.
Is it extremely hard to achieve standard international criminal procedures for all
countries due to a lack of global consensuses?
“At the level of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) there is a proposal to regulate
cybercrime and electronic evidence by special criminal procedures. On the international
level, we need at least more international cooperation and coordination”.
Interview (3)
Interviewee: Professor. Mohamed Elamin Elbushra, Managing Director at African
Centre for Criminal Justice Researches and Studies, Legal Advisor at UAE Ministry of
Interior, Dean of the Studies and Research Center at Arab League – Naïf Arab
University.
Place and date: Abu Dhabi, January 2013.
INTERVIEWER: We can start with your opinion towards the level of awareness
and understanding of cybercrimes and electronic evidence in the UAE?
INTERVIEWEE: “Cybercrimes and electronic evidence is a new topic at a worldwide
level. I think we are still at the beginning in the UAE.
At present, the level of
understanding and awareness is too low. In the UAE, there is no academic research,
training courses or workshops in the field of electronic evidence or cybercrime. There is
also no academic module at the universities. Cybercrime is a high tech crime which
needs a high level of knowledge. Many members of the society are victims of
cybercrime; those members do not know how to handle this type of crime or even
maintain the evidence. A lot of people are stealing their account, and the crimes are
discovered only accidentally. So, I believe we need more focus on such topics, which
will help to raise the level of knowledge and find solutions to legal loopholes”.
Do you think the non-reporting of crimes has lead to an increase?
“Of course, most companies prefer not to report because it fears losing the customers
confidence and it prefers to cover losses by insurance companies. Also, a lack of
knowledge of such a crime may be another reason. There are many reasons for the
increasing spread of this type of crime”.
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In the UAE, the procedures with regards to the gathering of evidence are provided
under general rules of the UAE’s Criminal Procedures Law (CPL).In what
manner can be said that the CPL is appropriate to cover electronic evidence?
“There was no law covering cybercrime in the UAE’s Criminal Procedures Law prior to
the coming into force of the Federal Law No. 2 in 2006 concerning the Prevention of
Information Technology Crime. As a result, all rules of the CPL were designed to cover
the offenses of the Penal Code. So, I believe it is notable to cover cybercrime or
regulate electronic evidence”.
Concerning this point of view is the best thing now to discuss if we need to propose
a Federal law to regulate electronic evidence?
“Yes, there should be not only a law. There should also be guidance under the adopted
law covering all procedures for electronic evidence starting with how to search and
seize and in the end into how to examine this evidence. Who is must be based is
procedure, and what qualifications have. In the UAE, there is Federal Law No. 2 of
2006 which covers crimes and penalties, but there is no law regulating the procedures
for search and seizure of evidence. Several crimes will not be able to be proven because
of the lack of rules”.
So, there is a gap in the laws in this field. Have you got an idea why legal
procedures were not issued for cybercrimes?
“In the UAE, federal legislation requires a considerably longer time and is more
difficult to be adopted. The reason for this is complicated legislative procedures and
bureaucracy. The Prevention of Information Technology Crime Law was issued in
2006, whereas the draft of this law was placed in 1999. I was one of the participants of
the development of this law. At that time, there was no awareness of procedural
problems of cybercrime, but now with the practical application the procedural problems
have emerged”.
Could you please mention some of these procedural problems?
“Until recently the courts have not allowed the use of electronic evidence and have
questioned its credibility. We use traditional methods when dealing with technology;
we use no update rules when evidence is seized, we do not use databases to ensure
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preservation of evidence etc. All of this could lead to lots of opportunity to prove
crimes and discovered. For example, switching off the electricity when seizing a
computer can lead to the loss of evidence”.
Do you think we need qualified people when handling electronic evidence?
“Definitely we need that; the person must have qualifications and must pass a number
of courses. There must be also specialized courts and specialized departments of
prosecutions and police. In the future, all crimes will become cybercrime”.
One of the challenges of the electronic evidence is a regional issue. Do you think
that the UAE laws can deal with this issue?
“This is one of the issues which must be deal with by a new law. Also, there should be
a legal definition of the electronic evidence; in this law we should clarify all procedures
for electronic evidence”.
Interview (4)
Interviewee: Major Rashid Lootah, head of the Electronic Evidence Unit at the
Criminal Evidence and Criminology Department- Dubai Police.
Place and date: Dubai, January 2013.
INTERVIEWER: In your opinion; what practical problems are faced with regard
to electronic evidence in the UAE?
INTERVIEWEE: “There is no doubt that electronic evidence has a different nature
from other evidence. As an example, fingerprints indicate the offender’s presence in a
place and do not need an explanation or analysis. However, it is not easy to determine
electronic evidence locations. It needs more searches and analysis, as well as, the needs
from the forensic knowledge, not only about the technical aspects but general
knowledge. For example, when a forensic expert is handing an economic case, he must
also have a basic knowledge on economic subjects. He must also be able to act as an
expert witness. We face challenges in the UAE such as, insufficient number of forensic
experts”.
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Do you think that electronic evidence has more procedures issues than other
evidence concerning the search and seizure of evidence?
“Certainly, traditional evidence does not need more procedures, it end at the seizure
time, while electronic evidence it doesn’t; we need to know whether there are other
devices connected to the computer or not. In some cases the search could be on servers
and that needs more effort and time. All these factors and others, make the searching
processes and procedures for electronic evidence more difficult”.
Is there a technician present during a seizure of electronic evidence?
“In practice, no”.
Why?
“Comparing a numbers of reports and a number of forensic experts it is difficult to send
a technician for every case. Currently police members conduct the seizure process”.
But police members may not have enough experience!
“There is coordination between our department and the electronic crime section. If
there are any difficulties they will contact us and we will send a technician. There are
also procedures on what they have to do when seizing evidence”.
Are the rules which must be followed concerning the search and seizure of
evidence?
“Yes, there are guidelines on how to search, investigate and the preservation. We aim to
be followed by all police members when handling cybercrime”.
Are these rules or guidelines accredited by law?
“By law no, they are only internal procedures”.
Do you think we need to regulate electronic evidence by law?
“Yes, to ensure that all procedures were followed properly and all evidence had not
been tampered with. The existence of rules will help us to ensure that all forensic
experts or police members follow all the correct procedures and can also be checked by
a third party”.
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Electronic evidence could be found in the UAE or overseas, does this matter
represent any challenges?
“Yes, if there is no convention and international cooperation we will not be able to get
the evidence. For example, if the suspect has stored evidence in the ‘Dropbox’ program
how can we get it? In which server can it be found? ‘Dropbox’ has servers in Europe,
Asia, and America”.
Are there any practical examples?
“Yes, there are many cases where we cannot get the evidence because there is no
cooperation”.
Do you think if there is international convention in this field it will help us to get
evidence easily?
“Yes, if we can resolve procedural issues the technical matters can be easily solved”.
Electronic evidence can be altered, lost or destroyed. In practice can we retrieve
all data?
“All evidence can be lost, not only electronic evidence. Fingerprints can be lost as well
as electronic evidence. For example, each device has a storage capacity and if data has
been cleared the possibility that we are not able to retrieve data is extremely high. Also,
if evidence is cleared we cannot decide if there was evidence on the device or not. Even
if I find the evidence I cannot decide that the person has already done the action or not;
I can only decide that the computer was used as a tool to do the action. Malpractices
such as the use of a device by more than one employee with no pass word etc. There is
no strategy for companies to protect themselves from crime”.
So, how can we ensure the result if we cannot decide that the person has already
done the action?
“The results from the forensic expert’s report are only a personal view of the expert.
We can ensure by internal audit that all procedures were followed are correct, but we
cannot ensure the conclusion”.
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Are there any objections or the conclusion questioned when presenting at court?
“In fact no, the judge is only looking for the conclusion not for the procedures. In
contrast, the level of lawyers’ knowledge about electronic evidence or expert report is
very low. Therefore, he/ she cannot discuss the reports”.
How many cases were dealt with by the Electronic Evidence Unit in 2012?
“In 2008 there were 278 cases, in 2009 the number increased to 436, in 2010 the
number reached 445, and in 2011 there were 588 cases. In 2012 the number reached
772 cases, this figure in Dubai only”.
Interview (5)
Interviewee: Lieutenant-Colonel Saeed Al Hajiri, Director of the Criminal
Investigation Department’s-Electronic Crime Section- Dubai Police.
Place and date: Dubai, January 2013.
INTERVIEWER: In your opinion; what practical problems are faced with regard
to electronic evidence in the UAE?
INTERVIEWEE: “Cybercrime is a global crime. Consequently, electronic evidence is
also international. In other words, you can find part of the evidence in one state and
other part in another country. We are facing difficulties in gathering evidence from
abroad. There are no conventions and effective international cooperation in this field.
As an example, our department has been applying for evidence from abroad since 2010
and even now we have not had it. It can take more than 3 years to get evidence.
Additionally, suspects could provide other challenges. The suspects nowadays are using
‘Anti Forensic Technique’ software and hardware which lead to the clearing of
evidence”.
Can you give us practical examples?
“Our department received a report that there is hacking on the government website,
after proving this status and during our taking of action, the suspects were deleting the
evidence and we cannot prove the crime”.
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Could you please explain the search and seizure procedures for electronic
evidence?
“Firstly, we investigate a complaint and then collect enough information.
After
ensuring the complaint is valid we ask prosecutors for a search and seizure warrant.
The second step is to carry out the search and seizure process. When evidence is seized
we mark identify and send it to the ‘Forensic Laboratory’ for examination, this is a brief
summary of search and seizure procedures”.
Is there a technician present during a seizure of electronic evidence?
“Not for all crimes, only when we need that. There is a division of cases in our
department, if the complaint needs a technician then we accompany. In brief, all
hacking cases are accompanied by a technician”.
In the UAE, the procedures with regards to the gathering of evidence are provided
under general rules of the UAE’s Criminal Procedures Law (CPL).In what
manner can be said that the CPL is appropriate to cover electronic evidence?
“We are now applying UAE’s Criminal Procedure Law rules; I think it is appropriate to
cover electronic evidence”.
But there are some challenges when applying this rule to electronic evidence!
“I agree with you”.
Do you think if we proposed Federal law to regulate electronic evidence we could
overcome these challenges?
“I agree, we can overcome them, but I disagree to propose Federal law”.
Why?
“If we have rules, we must follow them. Technology is evolving very quickly, it could
be impossible to use these rules five or ten years in the future”.
But at least we have rules and we can update them!
“Updating rules in the UAE is very slow”.
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We completely updated Federal Law No. 2 of 2006 concerning the Prevention of
Information Technology Crime after 6 years. How do you think we can resolve
electronic evidence issues?
“As it exists in some countries, by guidelines or best practices and we can easily
updated them”.
So, you agree that the UAE’s Criminal Procedures Law cannot only cover the
electronic evidence and we need guidelines?
“Yes”.
Do you think the non-reporting of crimes leads to an increase?
“Yes, most people do not have knowledge on how to deal with cybercrime and others
are afraid about their reputation”.
In your opinion, what do we need in order to effectively combat criminals and
fully use the electronic evidence?
“I think we need to focus more on training, we need qualification courses. The person
who carries out the search and seizure process must have accredited certificates”.
Interview (6)
Interviewee: Judge Dr. Abdul Wahab Abdul, President of the UAE’s Federal Supreme
Court.
Place and date: Abu Dhabi, February 2013.
INTERVIEWER: In your opinion; what practical problems are faced by judges
with regard to electronic evidence in the UAE?
INTERVIEWEE: “I agree with you that we face many challenges and difficulties with
regard to electronic evidence, the Emirates is an advanced technology States and must
have legislation, laws, and judges adapted with this development. I believe that we face
procedural problems related to electronic evidence. There are no rules covering search
and seizure processes, we don’t know how to preserve electronic evidence or how to
examine it. The judges now apply general rules of evidence which I think is not
commensurate with the nature of electronic evidence and Criminal Justice. I have a
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viewpoint in this respect; the UAE must have procedural law which regulates electronic
evidence. We have penal law on cybercrimes but we don’t have procedural law. The
judge faces many challenges when handling electronic evidence, it is very difficult to
understand procedures or how to deal with this kind of evidence, a judge is trying to
apply general rules, but I think they do not apply. On the other hand, the cognitive level
of judges concerning electronic evidence is low because of the lack of courses and lack
of law regulates this field. Finally, I must restate my opinion that we need the creation
of a new law dealing with electronic evidence”.
Emirates judges appreciate the pertinence of the evidence. In relation to electronic
evidence, how can the judge be sure of the reliability and authenticity?
“Clearly, because there is a shortage of laws we depend on the forensic report and for
me this represents a weakness in judgment. When the judge rules, based on the opinion
of another person not his mind, this could lead to the prejudice of justice. However, if
we have clear rules the judge will be able to make a decision”.
Do you think questioning the credibility of a forensic laboratory report could lead
to unsuccessfully prosecuting cyber-crimes?
“Yes, I agree with you”.
What do we need to do for the effective presentation of electronic evidence?
“We need only clear rules, when we have these rules then the judge can check all
procedures. Not only the judge but also all parties”.
One of the challenges of the electronic evidence is a regional issue. Do you think
that the UAE laws can deal with this issue?
“In practice, as far as I know, this issue did not pose a problem before at the UAE
Federal Supreme Court. Also the UAE laws did not deal with this issue, so we are
facing a gap. I think this issue must deal with the new law of electronic evidence”.
Is there any proposal in the UAE to regulate electronic evidence?
“As far as I know no, but there are claims with regard to this”.
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Interview (7)
Interviewee: Younis Al Balushi, Chief Prosecutor–Dubai Public Prosecution.
Place and date: Dubai, February 2013.
INTERVIEWER: In your opinion; what practical problems are faced with regard
to electronic evidence in the UAE?
INTERVIEWEE: “There are a number of issues and challenges. There are issues
relating to how to get the evidence, challenging on the search, seizure, and preservation
processes. Most of these procedures are understood by police officers, lawyers,
prosecutors, and judges. There is no technician present during a seizure of electronic
evidence. There is no law to regulate electronic evidence. There is no effective
international cooperation and coordination”.
You mentioned a number of procedures and challenges. Do you think the main
problem is a lack of regulation concerning the procedures of electronic evidence
more than the technical challenges?
“We can say it’s the most influential. If there are rules or regulations for electronic
evidence that will lead to raised levels regarding professionalism and knowledge. As a
result, there will be no technical problems”.
In the UAE, the procedures with regards to the gathering of evidence are provided
under general rules of the UAE’s Criminal Procedures Law (CPL). In what
manner can be said that the CPL is appropriate to cover electronic evidence?
“I think there is gap. Criminal Procedures Law cannot cover the electronic evidence
processes. We must have procedural law for cybercrime and regulate electronic
evidence”.
How can we be sure of the reliability and authenticity of electronic evidence?
“Now we look at the extent of the application of the general rules. For example, we
look at the search and seizure warrant, had it been applied or not? In brief, we look at
the framework of procedures”.
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Do you think questioning the credibility of a forensic laboratory report could lead
to unsuccessfully prosecuting cyber-crimes?
“So far we have not faced any appeals”.
Can I say the level of understanding and awareness could be the reason?
“It could be also qualitative of cybercrimes. In the UAE there is no organised crime.
Although I think crime has increased in recent years. There are many cases of electronic
fraud and hacking. Also the commit crime methods have evolution”.
One of the challenges of the electronic evidence is a regional issue. Do you think
that the UAE laws can deal with this issue?
“This issue can be dealt with by effective international cooperation and coordination,
and rogatory documents which I think it is not effective. The rogatory needs an
extremely long time to get help”.
Are there any practical examples?
“There are many applications and we are still waiting for a reply”.
In your opinion, what do we need in order to effectively combat criminals and
fully use the electronic evidence?
“For effective prosecution we need to raise understanding and awareness levels, we
need effective international cooperation and coordination, and we need strategies to
combat crimes. In contrast, for electronic evidence we need laws to regulate it”.
Interview (8)
Interviewee: Anonymous, lawyer.
Place and date: Sharjah, February 2013.
INTERVIEWER: In your opinion; what practical problems are faced with regard
to electronic evidence in the UAE?
INTERVIEWEE: “The main challenge is the understanding of the electronic evidence.
I think the level of understanding concerning electronic evidence and how it is collected
and analysed is low, as well as, the lack of specialists and lack of academic research in
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this field”.
What do you think are the main problems? Is it a lack of regulation procedures of
electronic evidence or the limitations of the laboratories and specialists?
“Both, there is no rule to regulate electronic evidence, as well as, the limitations of the
specialists”.
In the UAE, the procedures with regards to the gathering of evidence are provided
under general rules of the UAE’s Criminal Procedures Law (CPL).In what
manner can be said that the CPL is appropriate to cover electronic evidence?
“We now apply the general rules of evidence, which I think we can use as a framework.
However, the nature of electronic evidence requires us to look beyond these rules.
Undoubtedly, electronic evidence needs more attention concerning search, seizure or
examination. The general rules cannot cover this process”.
Emirates judges appreciate the pertinence of the evidence. In relation to electronic
evidence, how can the judge be sure of the reliability and authenticity?
“There is no standard for that. As you know that the judicial system of the UAE allows
the judge to take evidence or reject it”.
How do you view the understanding and awareness level of lawyers with regard to
electronic evidence?
“Frankly, low”.
One of the challenges of the electronic evidence is a regional issue. Do you think
that the UAE laws can deal with this issue?
“There is no problem as long as the evidence is taken from the official body and meets
conditions. The problem with cooperation bodies is in obtaining evidence and the time
it takes to get the evidence”.
What can the solution be?
“I think the best solution is the existence of mandatory agreements”.
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In your opinion, what do we need in order to effectively and fully use the electronic
evidence?
“We have to look at both sides; law and humanity. We should have laws to regulate
electronic evidence or at least guidelines and we must rehabilitate and train people”.
Interview (9)
Interviewee: Judge Dr. Mohammed Al kamali, General Director of the institute of
training and Judicial Studies in Abu Dhabi, UAE.
Place and date: Abu Dhabi, July 2013.
INTERVIEWER: In your opinion, what practical problems are faced with regard
to electronic evidence in the UAE?
INTERVIEWEE: “I believe that the UAE is currently experiencing legal problems
resulting from the lack of special procedural rules governing electronic evidence rather
than from technical problems. Emirates have the financial ability to establish and
develop laboratories. A current obstacle you may encounter is the inability of the
Emirates’ existing laws and regulations to deal with the special nature of electronic
evidence. You must also not overlook the technical side. The UAE currently has only
two laboratories, one in Abu Dhabi and other in Dubai, and the rest of the UAE has no
laboratories. As well as having few specialized cadres in the UAE now, these specialists
need development and training. The CPL is not commensurate with cybercrime and
crime scene evolution, which is no longer in the past. A crime scene in cybercrime is a
default theatre. There are many risks of loss of evidence, and in addition the electronic
evidence may exist in more than one place. Electronic evidence needs expertise in how
to acquire and preservative it. Current Procedural law has loopholes and does not cover
the process of electronic evidence”.
So you believe that current law has gaps and cannot cover the process of electronic
evidence. In your opinion, what is the best solution?
“There are two groups. The first group believes that we only need to improve the
current laws. The second group believes that we need to create a special procedural law
for electronic evidence. I think it would be most suitable for the UAE to create a special
procedural law”.
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But there are people who do not accept this opinion and who believe that creating
a special procedural law may conflict with the UAE legislative policies.
“I disagree with this opinion. There are many examples of special laws that include
procedural rules, such as UAE Federal Law No (28) of 2005 concerning Personal
Status, which include a number of procedural rules. Yes, the Code of Civil Procedure
organizes all procedural matters. However, the Personal Status law regulates some
recent procedures, which were not mentioned in the civil code. These new rules of the
Federal Law No (28) cover the gaps in the Civil Code rules. Cybercrimes both in the
UAE and globally have increased significantly at the present time. In addition, the
perpetrators of such crimes are experienced and clever. These criminals can commit
crimes without leaving any trace and it may be difficult to prove such crimes using
traditional laws. The current CPL has many defects, and the UAE need to reconsider the
law. Emirates have released many of the penal laws: there are special penal laws, as for
example the Information Technology Act. However, they have not updated the CPL,
especially the evidence rules”.
There are some who believe that the current CPL is capable of handling electronic
evidence, so that there is no need for a special law or rules.
“With all due respect, I do not support this view at all. If we do not need special laws
governing some of the issues which are not covered by the general laws, then the penal
code law is enough for the criminalization of all crimes and we do not need for a special
law regulating cybercrimes”.
But some people believe that with the development of technology, issuance of
special procedures of law or rules for electronic evidence will become out-dated
after a short period. Thus we will need to amend the rules continuously, and
amending laws in the UAE takes a long time.
“There is simple solution to this problem. Firstly, amending laws does not need to take
a long time in the UAE: many laws have been amended or issued in a short time. There
have been laws issued in a month. The solution can be found in new laws such as the
Corporate Governance Code, which includes rules allowing the Council of Ministers to
amend the law when the need arises. And this becomes the decision of the Council of
Ministers as a law. This can also be applied to electronic evidence rules. The existence
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of such rules in the law gives us flexibility and speed in the amendment of the law”.
Some countries have resorted to finding guidance without seeking to change law
rules. In your opinion, is it better to find such guidance as a first stage before
changing the rules?
“I belief finding rules is better than finding guidance. Some countries, such as the UK
and the US, have taken this guidance as a definite common law system. The legal
system of these countries allows for the existence of such guidance. Judicial judgments
in the common law system are considered as laws, while we in the UAE follow your
civil system. Therefore we need legal rules, and we can stipulate the guidance in the
law as rules”.
As you pointed out, the UAE is a civil legal system, thus the verdicts are issued
upon the conviction of the judge. In your opinion, do you think that finding such
rules will contribute to convincing the judge?
“I agree with you that if there is a clear rule on search and seizure, and on examining
electronic evidence, the judge will convene and therefore will sentence on conviction”.
How do you explain the existence of a special penal law (Cybercrime Act) without
any procedural rules?
“I do not know the reason for that. It may be that the committee that prepared the law
believed it necessary to keep working on CPL, or that this question was not up for
discussion”.
Does nothing prevent finding rules or laws covering electronic evidence?
“There is no reason. It is important and necessary to find these rules in the UAE, just as
it is necessary find a specialized judge and prosecutor. The lack of laws and specialized
judges is the problem. Significant numbers of existing judges are unfamiliar with the
technological aspects. How can a judge who does not have a basic knowledge of
computer cybercrime cases or understand the electronic evidence? In the absence of any
rules, the judge compares other similar things and this may create problems. For
example, UAE law does not allow unsealed letters without the consent of the General
Attorney, and that also applies to email. There are also many procedural problems. My
question is whether a search warrant with its own terms can be set forth in the CPL as
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appropriate for searching electronic evidence. Searching for traditional evidence differs
from searching for electronic evidence. There are many issues that must be regulated.
The world evolves, so we must develop our laws. Judicial interpretation differs from
one judge to another. This difference could lead to significant problems, and may lead
to the loss of the opportunity to prove crimes. Personal Status Law before its release
was conditional jurisprudence, and has varied judgments despite the similarity of the
facts. But after the issuance of the rules there is no jurisprudence”.
As General Director of the institute of training, what is your opinion regarding the
level of awareness and understanding of cybercrimes and electronic evidence in
the UAE?
“I think the level is low. Judges, especially in the higher courts, are elderly. There have
been only one or two courses or seminars held in the UAE. The saying that ‘the judge is
the highest expert’ may not be true, especially in cases of cybercrime and electronic
evidence. Judges currently build judgments on the experts’ reports, without being able
to discuss the reports. We need specialized courses; we need to raise the level of
knowledge”.
One of the challenges of electronic evidence is a regional issue. Do you think that
the UAE laws can deal with this issue?
“Let's talk first about the problems of jurisdiction within the State. There are problems
of jurisdiction between the Emirates. For example, if the case was in Abu Dhabi and the
electronic evidence in Fujairah, the police officer could directly get a search warrant
issued by prosecutor in Abu Dhabi based on the evidence only or might need another
from Fujairah. There are procedural problems of evidence that must be resolved. At the
international level, I think international cooperation takes a long time and the evidence
may get lost. I think this is another important point supporting the fact that we need to
find procedural laws for electronic evidence”.
Interview (10)
Interviewee: Dr. Ali Hamouda, Head of the Dubai Police Academy.
Place and date: Dubai, September 2013.
300
INTERVIEWER: In the UAE, the procedures with regards to the gathering of
evidence are provided under general rules of the UAE’s CPL. In what manner can
it be said that the CPL is appropriate to cover electronic evidence?
INTERVIEWEE: “I think it is appropriate. We only need to rethink the Penal Code
and Cybercrimes Law, not all procedure law. Cybercrime is advanced crime. We must
improve the penal law so that the procedural law is able to cover and deal with all
evidence and prove the crimes. If we improve our laws we can prosecute crimes easily,
we can prosecute crime by penal law not by procedural law”.
So you think that the UAE does not need to find procedural law to regulate
electronic evidence. Is there any reason for that?
“We will need to develop and train personnel, and to develop the judiciary, police and
prosecutors. In addition, amending laws in the UAE takes a long time. There are many
stages law must pass in order to change. There are specialized courts and prosecutors
for cybercrimes in the UAE. Accordingly, there is no reason to find a special procedural
law. Finding a procedural law for electronic evidence will restrict the authority of the
judge. Judges in the UAE legal system have freedom in sentencing. The law will
prevent the judge from using this feature, because the judge will apply the legal rules
and will not be able to reject the evidence or not apply them”.
In practice, we find that the judges build decisions on the laboratory reports
without the ability to discuss the report, so the judge’s rule is not based on his
conviction.
“This may be true, but judge has the right to accept or reject the expert report”.
Some people believe that the CPL has some procedural problems, especially when
dealing with electronic evidence, such as the use of search warrants, and that we
need to find new rules.
“The UAE has modern laws, and the CPL is also a modern law and always being
reviewed. In 2005 the CPL was reviewed and there were many rules changed, but there
was no change in evidence rules, so this rule is adequate and there is no need for
change. Finding special rules requires special people to apply them, which is currently
not available in UAE”.
301
One of the challenges of electronic evidence is a regional issue. Do you think that
the UAE laws can deal with this issue?
“I do not think there is problem. If the evidence was obtained legally and the procedures
were documented the judge, can take evidence without any problems”.
In your opinion, why has electronic evidence not been adopted as a model for
academic study until now?
“When teaching proof in general as an academic model, you cannot focus on a specific
type of evidence, and leave the rest. Also, electronic evidence is used simply in
practical life”.
Interview (11)
Interviewee: Dr. Hadef Al Dhahiri, Minister of the UAE Justice.
Place and date: Abu Dhabi, September 2013.
INTERVIEWER: There are two groups: one believes that the CPL is appropriate
and sufficient to deal with electronic evidence and the other believes it is inefficient
due to the special nature of electronic evidence and that we need to find special
rules for electronic evidence. Which group do you support?
INTERVIEWEE: “Realistically, for this academic controversy, if we need to find a
new law we will seek to publish it. The opposing views can be discussed when
discussing the issues of the law, but that is not a reason not to publish it. Personally, I
tend to support special rules for electronic evidence. The CPL is indispensable.
However, if there are some legal loopholes, it is better to cover them by special laws,
especially for some special aspects. The CPL may be able to regulate general aspects,
but not special aspects such as electronic evidence or cybercrimes. So it is highly
recommended to find special procedural laws”.
In practice, have there been any claims to find rules for electronic evidence or
special procedural laws?
“So far, there have been no claims. There is a demand on behalf of Dubai Prosecution
just about the adoption of electronic signatures”.
302
Is there anything to prevent the finding of such rules? Are they inconsistent with
the legal system of Emirates?
“Legally there is nothing to prevent finding such rules. But as I mentioned there have
been no claims. In the past, some people have objected to the suggestion of special laws
for cybercrimes, and believed that the Penal Code is enough to cover all crimes. But
when there is a claim there will be a need to find a law concerning it. It is only due to
absence of a claim. There is no reason for the UAE Ministry to look at any claim. In the
UAE there are legislative sessions to review the laws every three years. If there is no
request to find rules for electronic evidence before the date of the session, the Ministry
will ask to discuss the finding of procedural law for cybercrimes, or rules for electronic
evidence. Then the ministry can utilize the results of your research when discussing the
question”.
In your opinion, why have there been no claims to find rules for electronic
evidence even though there are people who believe in the importance of finding
these rules?
“I think the main reason is the lack of the number of cases at present. I think you
encountered the same thing when you were searching for cases”.
Some people believe that the slow pace of issuing and amending laws in the UAE is
the main reason.
“I do not think this argument is correct. Laws in the UAE are reviewed on a continuous
basis. The cybercrimes Law was passed in 2006 and amended in 2012. There are laws
which are reviewed on an annual basis, such as the Drugs Act. If new types appear, we
amend the law and add this type. The Cybercrimes Law is also a sophisticated law, thus
we review it on an on-going basis, in the same way as when we have a special
procedural law. The statistics show that cybercrime has increased in the UAE recently.
The small number of cases does not mean that there is no cybercrime in the UAE. It
could be caused by a failure to detect crimes or to not getting evidence”.
There was a project on establishment of specialized courts for cybercrimes in the
UAE. Why was this not applied?
“We have created criminal circuits as a first stage, until there arises a need to establish
303
special courts”.
In your opinion, do you think that the courses and seminars on cybercrimes and
electronic evidence which are currently held in the UAE are enough to raise the
knowledge level?
“I do not think they are enough. We need to have more, just as we also need scientific
research such as your research. Academic research is currently limited to studying the
penal code or crimes, and there is no academic research on procedure law. I think that
your research will be of importance for the UAE, especially as there are no academic
writings on procedural problems in the UAE. Your research on electronic evidence and
result findings will be of interest and will be discussed by the Ministry”.
Interview (12)
Interviewee: Anonymous, Police officer.
Place and date: Abu Dhabi, September 2013.
INTERVIEWER: In your opinion, is CPL appropriate to cover the process of
electronic evidence or not?
INTERVIEWEE: “Yes, I think it is sufficient to cover all process of electronic
evidence”.
However, there are some who believe that there are some practical problems when
applying CPL.
“I do not think so. On the contrary, if we have special rules for electronic evidence, that
could lead to practical problems”.
Could you explain please?
“In practice, the application of specific rules is trickier than the application of general
rules. If we have specific rules for electronic evidence, that means we must follow up
all these rules and this is very difficult. The police officer must follow all the rules, and
if he violates this order, the evidence will not have any value. The police officer must
take action fast in order to seize evidence, and fast action could lead to not following
some rules, and therefore make the proceedings null and void. General rules give police
304
more freedom in search and seizure”.
Do you think that the conditions and rules of search warrants in the CPL are
sufficient to cover electronic evidence?
“I think so, yes”.
But a search warrant must be specified as to time, place and people, and electronic
evidence could be found in one or more places and maybe networks, in the
suspect's house or somewhere else.
“Yes, this could happen but it will not happen very often”.
So there are loopholes in the CPL and we should find solutions.
“I do not believe these problems are sufficient to issue a special law or rules for
electronic evidence. Retaining the current law is best, and we can overcome the
practical problems”.
How?
“The practical experience of the police officer will help in finding solutions to the
practical problems”.
Do you think the police officers have enough experience to overcome the practical
problems resulting from electronic evidence?
“Yes, a large percentage of them have enough experience”.
Which method you, as a police officer, use to seize electronic evidence when the
evidence is outside the State?
“We try to get it by remote searches first, and if that is impossible, we request
international assistance”.
But remote searching is not allowed in the UAE legal system?
“Yes, when get the evidence then we confront the accused, if it is admitted then the
evidence is the recognition”.
305
In case of denial?
“We discuss the matter and either memorize the issue or send them to the court”.
Is not better to find a legal way to regulate all these matters?
“At the moment I do not think we need it”.
306
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326