Vietnamese Manicurists

Vietnamese Manicurists: Are Immigrants Displacing Natives or Finding New Nails to Polish?
Author(s): Maya N. Federman, David E. Harrington, Kathy J. Krynski
Source: Industrial and Labor Relations Review, Vol. 59, No. 2 (Jan., 2006), pp. 302-318
Published by: Cornell University, School of Industrial & Labor Relations
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25067522
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ARE IMMIGRANTS
VIETNAMESE MANICURISTS:
DISPLACING NATIVES OR FINDING NEW NAILS TO POLISH?
MAYA
N. FEDERMAN,
many
research
Although
economic
natives'
tion
in
1987-2002,
the total number
increase
in
that
that
immigrants
has
immigration
outcomes
in California
of manicurists
over
the
who
entered
appears
displacement
of non-Vietnamese
the
number
of
for
natives.
current
Some
economists,
these
concerns.
however,
The
does
result
not
period,
market,
to have
been
this
(35,500).
authors
two
non-Vietnamese
Over
the
data for
that
estimate
were
for
dis
to a reduction
due
rather
occupation
ques
influx
exceeded
Using
the
primarily
the
than
in
an
to
it.
leaving
more
of a deep
gulf?actually
and the
chasm?dividing
public
opinion
from
academic
studies"
findings
(Borjas
This disagreement
1999:62).
may emanate
in part from a difference
in focus, with
"wide
economists
concentrating
reduce
the
migrants
on
overall
im
whether
employment
rates
of natives, while
is pre
the public
take
concerned
that
dominantly
immigrants
away specific jobs.
support
been
the
entering
manicurists
Ameri
has
in 1987
16-year
the
cans believe
that immi
they do, worrying
from
native
workers.
take
grants
jobs away
evidence
Most of the empirical
produced
by
most
workers,
on
adverse
effect
native
no
a
in the de
of the central questions
over
is
bate
policy
One
immigration
affect
labor
whether
adversely
immigrants
market
displace
or
little
KRYNSKI*
outcomes.
of
areas
34 metropolitan
five Vietnamese
every
This
placed.
the number
believe
people
finds
and KATHYJ.
to
An
unusual
opportunity
explore
labor market
is afforded
defined
narrowly
by
into California's
market
for manicurists.
immigrants
new
entrants
the number
of these
(35,700)
slightly
employment
the context
of Vietnamese
years
E. HARRINGTON,
DAVID
a
We
ese
estimate
manicurists
from 1987
of Econom
isAssistant
Professor
*Maya Federman
ics at Pitzer College,
and David Harrington
and Kathy
are Associate
at
of Economics
Professors
Krynski
thank W Bowman
The
authors
Kenyon
College.
Linus
Cutter
Levine,
IV, David
Woodbury,
Stephen
at Claremont
and members
of the workshops
Yamane,
for
rate
the
manicurists
at which
Vietnam
non-Vietnamese
displaced
over the 16 years
in California
to 2002. The California
market
manicurists
makes
an
case
interesting
and College
Clemson
University,
College,
for helpful
They also thank
suggestions.
of Consum
Rick Lopes
of the California
Department
ers Affairs
of
for information
about
the licensing
the financial
manicurists.
support
They
appreciate
in
Chair
by the J. and Paul G. Himmelright
provided
at Kenyon
and research
funds
Economics
College
McKenna
and Pitzer
College
by Claremont
provided
can be purchased
of Consumer
Affairs,
Department
Public
Information
400 R Street,
Suite
2000,
Unit,
CA 95814.
of the Stata programs
Sacramento,
Copies
to generate
in the paper
used
the results presented
are available
from David E. Harrington,
Department
College.
of Economics,
McKenna
of Wooster
Industrial
and Labor Relations
Review,
Vol.
data
Licensing
from the California
59, No.
2 (January
0019-7939/00/5902
302
$01.00
on manicurists
Kenyon
2006).
?
College,
by Cornell
Gambier,
University.
OH
43022.
VIETNAMESE MANICURISTS
303
70,000
0
J_I_I_I_I_I_I_I_I_I_I_I_I_I_I_L
1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Year
Figure
1. California Manicurists,
study for several reasons. First, manicurists
are easier to track than most other types of
low-skilled
labor because
they are required
to be licensed.
For this study, we use infor
from
of
mation
the licensing
records
who held a California
121,761 manicurists
license
in any of the years from 1987 to
name records together
2002. The detailed
names
of Vietnamese
with the uniqueness
allow us to accurately
identify Vietnamese
manicurists.
Second,
the
number
of Vietnamese
mani
curists increased
tenfold over the years of
our sample, from 3,900 in 1987 to 39,600 in
the num
2002 (see Figure 1). In contrast,
ber
of
non-Vietnamese
manicurists
grew
for a few years and then steadily declined,
from 31,600 in 1987 to 27,300 in
decreasing
of mani
2002. As a result, the composition
curists changed dramatically,
with the pro
Vietnamese
10% in
portion
rising from
1987 to 59% in 2002. The total number
of
manicurists
also increased substantially over
in
the years of our sample,
from 35,500
for popu
1987 to 66,800 in 2002. Adjusting
lation growth,
the total number
of mani
curists grew from 1 manicurist
per thou
in 1987 to 1.45 per thousand
sand residents
1987-2002.
in 2002, an increase that ismore than three
in real per capita
times the 12% increase
income.
rates using
estimate
We
displacement
areas in
annual data for 34 metropolitan
over the 16 years from 1987 to
California
sources of
2002. We correct for potential
the
Vietnam
that
bias, including
possibility
ese manicurists
were replacing,
not displac
ing,
non-Vietnamese
manicurists,
using
in
from previ
tercity supply shocks resulting
ethnic enclaves and from
ously established
the introduction
of a Vietnamese
language
exam in 1996. The
version of the licensing
licensing data also allow us to characterize
as stemming
the displacement
primarily
from
either
inflows
exit
of
discouraging
into manicuring
non-Vietnamese
non-Vietnamese
or hastening
the
manicurists.
the estimates
Like
produced
by most
other empirical
studies of the labor market
ours are based on
impact of immigration,
comparisons.
cross-metropolitan
However,
we estimate
on a
the effect of immigration
narrower
much
labor market
than have
other studies, which have usually compared
na
the employment
levels of low-skilled
tives
across
metropolitan
areas
with
differ
INDUSTRIAL AND LABOR RELATIONS REVIEW
304
or different
immigrant
populations
Most
of these
inflow
histories.
immigrant
of
studies have found little or no evidence
is
be
effects.
This
puzzling
displacement
cause it appears to be inconsistent
with the
of demand
standard model
and supply un
der the reasonable
that de
assumptions
is less than perfectly
elastic and na
mand
in
tive labor supply is less than perfectly
ent
elastic.
the focus to a single occupa
Narrowing
to yield
tion might
be expected
reasonably
more
of displacement,
evidence
especially
of the increase
in
the magnitude
given
supply caused by the entry of Vietnamese
in California.
On the other
manicurists
hand, demand may be quite elastic. More
over, Vietnamese
immigrants appear to have
in the
been
for innovations
responsible
of manicures,
marketing
such
as stand-alone
the
nail salons,
that may have increased
for manicurists
demand
and thus damp
effect. Our hope is
ened the displacement
that documenting
the changes
that have
in the market
for manicurists
will
occurred
on
of
shed
the
studies
light
why
puzzle
help
find little or no
of broader
labor markets
of displacement
effects.
evidence
The
Economic
Economists
Theory
use
a
of
theoretical
to describe
the likely effects of im
on
the
market
labor
opportuni
migration
of
native
workers.
The
standard
text
of demand
and supply implies
book model
in the supply of immi
that an increase
of natives
the number
grants will reduce
derived
the
(1980)
Johnson
employed.
effect, dem
displacement
corresponding
occurs
that more displacement
onstrating
as native labor supply becomes more elastic
less elastic. Altonji
becomes
and demand
a more
com
and Card
(1991) developed
and immi
allows
natives
model
that
plex
to be complements
in production
grants
the demand of immi
and also incorporates
The
for locally produced
grants
goods.
to have
former feature causes immigrants
an ambiguous
of
effect on the employment
natives and the latter feature dampens
the
effect.
displacement
and
Vietnamese
into
immigrants
manicurists
ap
textbook model
complex model
seems unneces
manicur
native
in production
ists are close substitutes
and
'
sdemand for manicures
women
Vietnamese
is a very small component
of the overall
economic
demand.1 Hence,
theory implies
manicurists
should have
that Vietnamese
non-Vietnamese
unambiguously
displaced
over
manicurists
the
past
years
twenty
un
was perfectly
less demand
How
elastic.
were
if demand
the
ever,
fairly elastic,
amount
of displacement
would
be much
less
one
than
namese
one.
for
manicurists
In
appear
Viet
addition,
to have
intro
duced
innovations
that
several marketing
for mani
the demand
may have increased
lessen the dis
curists, which would further
effect.
placement
Vietnamese
have
manicurists
Many
nail salons by
started their own stand-alone
or seeking advice from
money
borrowing
members
and
friends, many of whom
family
to help
also own salons and are willing
them start similar businesses
(Badie 1999).
the shift toward stand-alone
Indeed,
(often
years
ated
models
ties
since
sary
nail
discount)
of Displacement
variety
The entry of Vietnamese
market
for
the California
for
tailor-made
the
pears
of immigration.
The more
and Card (1991)
of Altonji
appears
with
the
salons
to
be
entrance
over
an
the
twenty
associ
past
innovation
of Vietnamese
mani
curists (Dang 1999). These new salons may
increase
for manicures
the demand
(and,
hence,
manicurists)
vices
by
and by reducing
walk-in
service
at
new
offering
ser
time costs via quick
convenient
locations.2
In
his profile of aVietnamese
manicurist,
jour
that
nalist William
Booth
(1998) argued
she "is the kind of immigrant who does not
interviewed
Vietnamese
manicur
(1996)
^uynh
in the mid-1990s
and found
that
ists in Los Angeles
were
or other
few of their customers
Vietnamese
Asian Americans.
a model
similar
(2003),
2Angrist and Kugler
using
to that of Altonji
showed
that the
and Card
(1991),
ef
the displacement
entry of new firms will reduce
is tied to
the entry of these new firms
fect. However,
the
increase
rectly,
through
in the
supply of
lower wages.
immigrants
only
indi
305
VIETNAMESE MANICURISTS
so much
compete
new
creates
but
the
against
economic
native-born
possibilities,"
having started her own nail salon within an
immi
industry "built largely by Vietnamese
The
grants."
of Vietnamese
entry
manicur
ists also may have increased
for
the demand
are a fashion trend,
ifmanicures
manicures
in demand
increases
cascading
exhibiting
consumers
were
who
sparked by
originally
attracted
by a lower price.3 The idea that
inflows may
the de
increase
immigrant
mand for low-skilled
labor via mechanisms
other than lower wages has been discussed
as
a
possible
for
explanation
cross
why
rarely find that
metropolitan
comparisons
low-skilled
natives
immigrants
displace
(Train 2003).
One would expect
that analyzing
such a
as manicur
defined
narrowly
occupation
ing should increase the observed
displace
ment
to induce
since it is easier
effect,
to switch occupations
native workers
than
to
leave
the
work
or
force
an
to
migrate
area.
It is possible,
metropolitan
or
no
little
will
that
however,
displacement
if either the demand
for mani
be observed
cures is very elastic or the entry of Vietnam
other
ese
manicurists
increased
like
novations
the
in
via
demand
stand-alone
nail
9which
variables, X
explanatory
rate and per
the unemployment
come
in
error
term,
servable
We
estimate
market
for
manicurists
the
residents
over
on
(Nmt)
manicurists
per
for
observations
(Vmt) using
areas
metropolitan
v /
(1)
1,000
re
by
non-Vietnamese
of Vietnamese
1,000 residents
cation
of
number
per
number
rate in the
manicurists
time.
Our
specifi
is
N
t +X'amt
+ SV mt +e
mt,
area m in year t. This
for metropolitan
and
includes
specification
metropolitan
a
vector
of
and
fixed
and
X
effects,
year
vt,
and Welch
3Bikhchandani,
Hirshleifer,
(1998)
in the price of an experience
that a decrease
argued
as
cascade,
good may start a positive
raising demand
the fashion
imitate
choices
of others.
people
year.
over
of unob
that vary within
Nmt
We
time.
esti
also
a specification
the met
that replaces
number
of
fixed
the
effects
with
ropolitan
manicurists
in
residents
1987
1,000
(an
per
indicator
for initial tastes) and the initial
area. All of
of the metropolitan
population
mate
our
are
regressions
estimated
using
least
squares with weights
weighted
to the population
of the metropolitan
equal
ar
eas.
Our
of 8 will
estimate
namese
manicurists
and
be biased
native
if Viet
manicurists
were
areas that
both drawn tometropolitan
increases
in the
unobserved
experienced
over the years from
for manicures
demand
1987 to 2002. The estimated
displacement
effect will be too small (in absolute value) if
of Vietnamese
in
the number
manicurists
correlated
with
(1) is positively
equation
error
term
to unobserved
due
were
that
areas
over
demand
metro
within
occurring
time.
In
this
case,
we
a smaller displacement
ef
would
observe
fect because
cities with many Vietnamese
manicurists
also
would
manicurists.
have
the
However,
native
many
number
of
na
even
tive manicurists
would
have been
not entered
had the Vietnamese
greater
the
market.
Our
estimate
Vietnamese
mt=X m +v
of
areas
metropolitan
politan
the displacement
California
the
gressing
Specification
each
effect
the
captures
e^,
determinants
shocks
Empirical
area
metropolitan
rate is measured
The displacement
by 8,
in the number
which
is the change
of non
Vietnamese
manicurists
due to the entry of
an additional Vietnamese
manicurist.
The
the
salon.
the
includes
in
capita
of 8 will
also be biased
were
manicurists
areas
metropolitan
due
if
to
drawn
to unobserved
de
creases in the supply of native manicurists.
In this case, the estimate will be too large
were re
if Vietnamese
(in absolute
value)
no
to be
natives
who
wanted
placing
longer
manicurists.
The supply of native mani
curists may have exogenously
decreased
over the last few decades
as better
alter
natives
example,
police
women
became
the
officers,
increased
to women.
available
share
and
of
mail
over
real
estate
carriers
the
years
For
agents,
are
who
of
our
INDUSTRIAL AND LABOR RELATIONS REVIEW
306
If these supply shocks varied
sample.4
areas over time, then
within metropolitan
the estimate of the displacement
effect will
In this case, many
of the
be too large.
natives
displacing,
to be
were
manicurists
Vietnamese
not
replacing,
no
who
wanted
longer
manicurists.5
sources
We can correct for these potential
of bias with instrumental
variables that help
in the number of Viet
the variation
explain
namese
are
but
manicurists
of
native
enous
In
manicurists.
we
instruments,
use
variation:
Vietnamese
our
constructing
sources
of
two
variation
across
enclaves
uncorrelated
in both the de
the labor supply
with unobserved
changes
mand for manicurists
and
exog
in the
size of
metropolitan
areas in 1980, and the introduction
of the
Vietnamese
language version of the licens
ing exam in 1996.
were
enclaves
Vietnamese
estab
largely
immi
lished by the first wave of Vietnamese
States be
the United
grants who entered
tween 1975 and 1978.6 Their
initial place
ment was dictated
the
federal
by
policy of
to be
dispersing
refugees,
causing groups
in
the
all
with
states,
fifty
placed
largest
to California
(21%). How
going
of
had
relocated
these
ever, many
refugees
1980
These
first-wave
(Gordon
1987).
by
to be
tended
Vietnamese
immigrants
middle-class
urban residents who were bet
ter educated
in
and more
likely to be fluent
waves
To
than
later
(Hung 1985).
English
the extent
that their relocation
decisions
were
condi
market
influenced
labor
by
that these conditions
tions, it is unlikely
unobserved
would
be correlated
with
or
in
manicurists
the
for
demand
changes
in
the
native manicurists'
later
pe
supply
number
riod.
Figures 2a and 2b reveal that the trends
in the number
of Vietnamese
and non
manicurists
resi
Vietnamese
1,000
(per
across metro
were very different
dents)
areas with and without
in
enclaves
politan
as
areas are defined
1980. Metropolitan
an enclave
if the density
of their
having
was
in
1980
Vietnamese
larger
population
than the median
density of 0.7 Vietnamese
across all 34 metropoli
per 1,000 residents
tan
areas.
the
number
ists were
and 51.1%,
increased
32.6%,
by 14.9%,
4They
over
1988 to 2002
the years from
(Em
respectively,
1990 and January
2003),
ployment and Earnings, January
that are part of a longer process
of occupa
changes
tion desegregation
and
(Blau, Simpson,
by gender
Anderson
1998).
inflows on the
5Studies of the effect of immigrant
such as Filer
of natives,
and Card
outflows
(1992)
assume
flee from cities
that natives
(2001),
usually
experiencing
large inflows of immigrants.
that
evidence
(2000)
presented
Jaeger
are more
in metropolitan
likely to locate
numbers
of natives,
implying
declining
with
tion may run in the other direction,
However,
tinued
exodus
rather
a trickle
in Southeast
warfare
of several
hundred
from Vietnam
another
spike
between
in Vietnamese
Asia
led
to
the mass
thousand
boat people
to
1978 and
1980,
leading
immigration.
the
surprisingly,
of
number
of
also
manicur
non-Vietnamese
very
across
different
the
two
areas, with the de
groups of metropolitan
earlier
and being more
cline beginning
areas with
in
pronounced
metropolitan
enclaves.
larger
ber of Vietnamese
The
increase
manicurists
in
the
visibly
num
accel
of a Vietnam
erated after the introduction
ese language version of the licensing
exam
areas
in 1996, especially
in metropolitan
the
with Vietnamese
enclaves.7
However,
immigrants
areas with
that causa
immigrants
than displacing
natives.
entered
of Vietnamese
immigrants
6Only
to the end of the Vietnam
the United
States
prior
a year over the
less than a thousand
War,
averaging
two decades.
As the war ended
in 1975, the
preceding
turn
U.S. government
evacuated
125,000 Vietnamese,
The flood
into a flood.
for a
subsided
ing the trickle
in Vietnam
turmoil
and con
few years until political
replacing
Not
was higher and had
manicurists
Vietnamese
amuch
areas
steeper trend inmetropolitan
The trends in
with Vietnamese
enclaves.
have
7The supply
increased
of Vietnamese
around
this
manicurists
also
might
due to the Personal
time
and Work Opportunity
Reconciliation
Responsibility
federal
Act
of 1996, which
eliminated
(PRWORA)
dur
welfare
subsidies
for post-enactment
immigrants
in the United
States.
Borjas
ing their first five years
in California
reduced
that immigrants
found
(2002)
after 1996 even though California
their use of welfare
In this
most
benefits.
of their lost welfare
replaced
the differential
also capture
instruments
case, our
across metro
reform
supply shocks caused by welfare
areas with different-sized
enclaves.
Vietnamese
politan
VIETNAMESE MANICURISTS
307
2.5
2.0
-
4-4-
-
-
Total
1.5
1.0
Non-Vietnamese
Vietnamese
Trend
0.5
Vietnamese
J_L
J_I_I_I_I_I_I_I_I_I_I_I_L
1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Year
Figure
2a. California MSAs
with Vietnamese
Enclaves.
2.5
2.0
0.5
Vietnamese
etnamese A
i A
i A
l Az
i *
Trend
A )
1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Year
Figure
decrease
in the
number
2b. California MSAs
of non-Vietnamese
does not appear
manicurists
after 1996.
accelerated
Our first-stage
specification
to have visibly
is
without Vietnamese
(2) Vm,
Enclaves.
=
+
+
+
xm V( X>J>
Yl(VEnclave^
+
+
Y2(VExami
VEnclave^,,)
Y3(VExam(VEnclavem80T)+^/)
T)
308
INDUSTRIAL AND LABOR RELATIONS REVIEW
where
V mtt is the number
of Vietnamese
manicurists
per 1,000 residents,
im and \|/
are
and year fixed
effects,
metropolitan
unem
and Xmt includes
the metropolitan
rate
and
income.
per capita
ployment
VEnclave
of Vietnamese
on is the number
in the metropolitan
per 1,000 residents
area in 1980;
is an indicator
vari
VExam^
exam was
able for whether
the licensing
in Vietnamese
available
in year t; and T is a
time
trend.
We expect
the trend in the number
of
to be higher
Vietnamese
manicurists
and
areas
in metropolitan
that had
steeper
in 1980. While
enclaves
larger Vietnamese
the metropolitan
fixed effects capture
the
in levels, y measures
difference
the in
crease in the slope of the trend line due to
We
enclaves.
larger
ing the licensing
cause
the trend
become
steeper
be more
should
tan
areas
While
with
also
statewide
offer
will
and
thereafter,
that
changes
in metropoli
pronounced
Vietnamese
larger
the year fixed
any
that
expect
exam in Vietnamese
to shift up in 1996
effects
changes,
y2
enclaves.8
should
and
y3
capture
measure
in the upward shift and changes
differences
in slope across metropolitan
areas with dif
ferent-size
Our
and
stage
regression.
recent studies (Borjas 2003; Card
have also sought
2001; Friedberg
2001)
better estimates
of wage and employment
effects by narrowing
the definition
of labor
a
markets,
though they have not examined
Several
as
market
strategy
empirical
follows
the
evolu
defining
labor
markets
more
narrowly.
studies
of the labor market
effects of
use instrumental
to
variables
immigration
effects. Start
identify wage and employment
and Card
(1991), many
ing with Altonji
studies
1992; Pischke
(Card 2001; Hunt
and Veiling
and
1997; Winter-Ebmer
Zweimuller
1996, 1999) have used the ini
tial size of immigrant
enclaves as an instru
ment
in the number
for changes
of immi
over
time
later
the
While
grants
periods.9
Data
should
increase with enclave
size both
are more Vietnamese
living there and
a
because
contain
ethnic
enclaves
disproportionate
share of immigrants
who do not speak English
well.
distribu
(2001) used the occupational
9Friedberg
in their home
as an instru
tion of immigrants
country
ment
and Angrist
and Kugler
used
the dis
(2003)
tance traveled
to escape wars.
that
for
manicurists.
Description
The California Department
of Consumer
us with information
on all
Affairs provided
who held a license
in
121,761 manicurists
the state at any time from 1987 to 2002.
The information
their full names,
includes
home
addresses,
license
and
numbers,
the
issue and expiration
dates (month and year)
of their licenses. We identified Vietnamese
manicurists
the names of the
by comparing
manicurists
in our sample with common
Vietnamese
that is
names, using a process
in the appendix.
described
It is relatively
to identify
straightforward
Vietnamese
First,
8The effect
there
because
as
narrow
are a diverse group with
Since immigrants
a variety of skills and
each
occupations,
wave of immigrants
affects a variety of labor
a pattern
of shocks that
markets,
creating
on
the
of their skills.
distribution
depends
Several of these studies have found employ
ment
effects of immigrant
inflows on na
tives, ranging from "modest" (Card 2001:58)
to "sizable"
In con
(Borjas 2003:1370).
trast, older studies
(summarized
by Borjas
and Hunt
[1994] and Friedberg
[1995])
re
found
little evidence
that immigrants
rate of natives.
duce the employment
enclaves.
tion of strategies
in the larger literature on
variables
immigration
by using instrumental
Most
initial size of Vietnamese
is a com
enclaves
the fact that it is
ponent of our instruments,
interacted with a time trend and an indica
tor variable
for a licensing
policy
change
allows us to include
the full set of metro
and year fixed effects
in our first
politan
for
manicurists
Vietnamese
names
several
are
very
reasons.
distinc
tive. Second, many of the California
records
have more
than one name listed in the first
name field,
and middle
giving us names
such as Hoang
Thi Le Ngan
and Huong
a small number
Smith.
of
Third,
Nguyen
last names are shared by large numbers
of
Vietnamese.
For example,
10% of the mani
curists in the sample
(and 28% of the Viet
VIETNAMESE MANICURISTS
Table
1.
for Vietnamese
Means
Sample
and
Non-Vietnamese
Manicurists,
Non-Vietnamese
Vietnamese
Characteristic
0.988
Immigrant
0.323
(0.469)
(0.108)
Years
in U.S.
Wage
(dollars
Hours
Week
per
for
13.46
Immigrants
per
16.66
10.51
hour)
(6.16)
(11.01)
(24.15)
(12.04)
10.86
35.03
33.80
42.57
43.63
(14.31)
(15.09)
Weeks
Year
per
(12.94)
(13.53)
0.630
0.253
Self-Employed
(0.435)
Age
(0.483)
39.98
39.32
(8.47)
Female
(11.25)
0.949
0.847
(0.360)
340
Sample Size
Census.
2000
in Parentheses)
Deviations
(Standard
309
(0.220)
257
of Californians
micro-data
from the 2000
is from the 5-percent
Notes: The sample
(PUMS)
sample
public-use
in
workers"
code = 452) who worked
Census
and includes
"miscellaneous
appearance
(occupation
personal
to include
care services"
restricted
code = 899). The sample was further
"nail salons and other personal
(industry
or positive
in 1999.
income
who either had some labor income
self-employment
only people
??mese
Nguyen
curists
share the last name
manicurists)
mani
and 45% of the Vietnamese
share
one
of
the
three
most
com
mon
last names
(Nguyen, Tran, and Le).10
the shares of mani
The similarity between
in the 2000
curists who are Vietnamese
Census,
57%, and in the 2000
licensing
in our
data, 53%, also gives us confidence
identification.
The California
licensing data do not tell
us whether
were
manicurists
individual
However,
immigrants.
Vietnamese
whether
dominantly
Vietnamese
we
manicurists
immigrants
manicurists
can
investigate
were
and whether
were
1 presents
Table
Census.11
sample means
for characteristics
of Vietnamese
and non
manicurists
from the 2000 Cen
Vietnamese
sus. Nearly all of the Vietnamese
manicur
ists were
with
of them
99%
immigrants,
been
born
outside
of
the
United
having
States. Although
32% of the non-Vietnam
ese manicurists
to the United
earlier,
ese and
than
pre
non
predomi
two
were
on
average.
non-Vietnamese
immigrants
categorizations
they
immigrants,
States
We
more
than
to Vietnam
refer
manicurists
and natives,
are
came
3 years
although
rather
the
similar.
The
of California
sample
from the 2000 Census
reveals
manicurists
that the typi
natives
the 597 California
nantly
using
found in the 5-percent
manicurists
public
use micro-data
sample (PUMS) of the 2000
names
for Vietnamese
10As a test, our algorithm
names
identified
91 % of the 44 Vietnamese
correctly
in Elliott
and misidentified
(1999)
only 1.5% of the
names
in Chang
69 Chinese
(1991).
includes
"miscellaneous
nThe
sample
personal
workers"
code = 452) who
appearance
(occupation
care ser
in "nail salons and other
worked
personal
vices"
code = 899).
The
code for
(industry
industry
nail salons does not appear
prior to the 2000 Census,
over
in this industry
the dramatic
reflecting
growth
the
1990s.
INDUSTRIAL AND LABOR RELATIONS REVIEW
310
Table
2.
for
Statistics
Summary
the California
Data.
Licensing
Standard
Mean
Variable
Total
Manicurists
Residents
per 1,000
Manicurists
Non-Vietnamese
Manicurists
per
Rate
Unemployment
Income
($1,000)
per Capita
MSA Manicurist
per
Original
Original
Vietnamese
MSA
over
the 16-year
and
non-Viet
similar
wages
(between $10 and $11 per hour) and worked
a similar number
of hours per week and
weeks
However,
per year.
only 25% of
were
manicurists
Vietnamese
ists were
at
booths
only
of
5%
were
the
men
major
com
manicurists
in
and
met
each
statistical area (MSA) in the years
ropolitan
the number
from 1987 to 2002 by counting
who had active licenses for at
of manicurists
least
would
of
six months
be
the
year.
issued a license
as
counted
30.40
16.94
3.56
9.23
31.94
1.31
0.44
0.24
2.42
44.80
0.18
106.96
0.00
7.53
an
active
Thus,
some
inMarch
1990
manicurist
manicurists
dents.
Hence,
our
annual
observations
sample
(N
=
1.95
The means
544).
and
standard
nia MSAs, resulting
in a total sample size of
rate
The unemployment
544 observations.
for
and income per capita were collected
in each year and aggregated
each county
to get MSA-level
weights
using population
We aggregated
the data by MSA rather
than county because MSAs better capture
Since the Cali
labor markets.
the relevant
fornia licensing
rather
data give us home
1,000
per
consists
of
work
namese
resi
on each of 34 Califor
we
addresses,
we
because
ese
16
were
manicurists
were
concerned
concerned
across
of their desire
enclaves.
likely
lines
county
to live in Vietnam
the
Comparing
Viet
that
be more
might
to commute
natives
places
of
resi
dence and work for the California manicur
that
ists from the 2000 Census, we found
were more
manicurists
Vietnamese
likely
to commute
from Orange
than natives
to
thus cross
Los
County,
County
Angeles
an
a
not
MSA
line.
line
but
county
ing
However,
for 1990, but not someone who was issued
a license in September.
Similarly, manicur
late in the year
ists whose
licenses expired
but not those whose
be counted,
would
licenses expired
early in the year. We then
in each year
divided by the MSA population
to generate
and
the number of Vietnamese
non-Vietnamese
1.79
1987-2002
period
than
data, we
licensing
manicurists
one who was
2.13
particular,
and
of Vietnamese
number
non-Vietnamese
0.00
3.05
than
manicurists.
the California
Using
vast
women;
non-Vietnamese
calculated
0.48
6.76
suffer from measure
that our results would
In
ment bias if we aggregated
by county.
manicur
The
salons.
beauty
15% of Vietnamese
prised
of non
rented
manicurists
of manicurists
ity
discount
stand-alone,
and a larger proportion
Vietnamese
ing
at
employees
salons
0.61
measures.12
self-employed,
to 63% of non-Vietnamese
mani
compared
the fact that a
curists.
This likely reflects
manicur
of Vietnamese
larger proportion
nail
2.55
3.42
MSAs
earned
manicurist
2.71
0.24
population.
manicurist
Vietnamese
cal
namese
0.24
0.36
50.50
(100,000s)
Population
in 1980
per 1,000 Residents
on data for 34 California
are weighted
by MSA
Based
deviations
0.40
1.05
Residents
1,000
Maximum
Minimum
1.66
1,000 Residents
1,000 Residents
per
Vietnamese
Deviation
we
found
that
very
across MSA
ists commuted
ample, from Orange County
dino County.
few
manicur
lines, for ex
to San Bernar
and income
of the MSAs'
12Estimates
population
per capita were calculated
using county data from the
Bureau
of Economic
Analysis
(www.bea.gov/bea/re
rates are from the
and unemployment
gional/reis/),
Rand California
database,
www.rand.org.
VIETNAMESE MANICURISTS
Table
3.
Explaining
the Number
311
of Non-Vietnamese
Manicurists.
WLS TV
IndependentVariable
Manicurists
Vietnamese
per
1,000 Residents
Income
Original
MSA
Manicurists
-0.506***
-0.493***
-0.401***
-0.376***
(14.52)
(7.03)
(9.52)
0.022**
0.020***
0.022**
0.022***
(2.33)
(3.59)
(2.42)
(3.98)
0.041***
0.009**
(5.38)
(2.12)
?
MSA
0.006
0.039***
(5.49)
(1.64)
?
0.634***
1,000 Residents
Original
(5)
(10.56)
?
per
(4)
-0.386***
?
per Capita
(3)
(11.63)
?
Rate
Unemployment
(2)
(1)
0.632***
(15.54)
Population
?
(100,000s)
?
(15.98)
?
-0.001**
-0.001***
(2.22)
(4.08)
No
MSA Fixed Effects
No
Yes
No Yes
Year Fixed Effects
Yes
Yes
Yes Yes
Observations
544
0.36
544
544
544
544
0.90
0.81
0.90
0.81
R-Squared
Notes:
regressions
Absolute
t-statistics
calculated
using
are weighted
by MSA population.
*Statistically
significant
at the
.10 level;
standard
heteroskedasticity-robust
**at
the
means
Table
the weighted
2 presents
and standard deviations
of the MSA vari
The number
ables used in our regressions.
across MSAs
of manicurists
varied widely
and over time, ranging from 0.24 to 2.7 per
the fraction
thousand
residents.
Similarly,
an MSA who were
of manicurists
within
Vietnamese
varied widely, especially
by the
In 1987, the share of
end of the period.
held by Vietnamese
manicurists
licenses
was largest in the Santa Clara MSA (29%),
followed
(16%)
by Los Angeles/Orange
the other
and Sacramento
(12%). However,
31 MSAs had less than the state average of
less than 2%. By
10%, with most having
manicurists
2002, the share of Vietnamese
had grown to 60% statewide, with the larg
est shares still being found
in Santa Clara
Los
and
(72%).
(85%)
Angeles/Orange
While
the Vietnamese
held substantial ma
in several cities,
jorities of all the licenses
still
less
than
10% of the
they
represented
in half of the MSAs. There was
manicurists
in the size of Vietnamese
similar variation
enclaves across MSAs. The number of Viet
namese
in 1980
residents
per thousand
our
in
construction
of
instru
the
(used
.05 level;
***at
the
errors
.01 level
are
Yes
in parentheses.
(two-tailed
All
tests).
varied from 0 to 7.5. Though
these
ments)
levels are small in terms of the overall popu
to important
differ
lation, they translate
ences
and
in
the
enclave
concentration
Results
Regression
Table
our
3 presents
that
explain
gressions
of Vietnamese
strength.
for
results
the
number
re
the
of
non
Vietnamese
manicurists
per 1,000 residents
in California
MSAs.
Columns
(l)-(3)
the results using weighted
least
present
are
where
the
squares (WLS),
weights
equal
to the population
of each MSA.
The esti
mates
of
the
rate
displacement
are
all
statis
to
and range from -0.39
tically significant
an
of
addi
that
the
-0.51,
entry
implying
tional
10 Vietnamese
manicurists
would
4 to 5 non-Vietnamese
mani
have displaced
curists. Column
(1) shows the results from
the
regressing
of
number
non-Vietnamese
manicurists
per 1,000 residents on the num
ber of Vietnamese
manicurists
(and year
fixed effects) without
any other explana
tory
variables.
sented
The
in columns
other
(2) and
regressions,
pre
(3), also control
INDUSTRIAL AND LABOR RELATIONS REVIEW
312
rate and per capita
for the unemployment
income, but differ in how they control for
the invariant characteristics
of metropoli
tan areas.
in column
The regression
(2)
fixed effects, while
includes metropolitan
the regression
in column
the
(3) includes
initial number of manicurists
per thousand
residents and the initial metropolitan
popu
lation.
The signs of the other estimated
coeffi
one must
cients seem plausible,
although
remember
that these are reduced
form
on
unem
The
the
equations.
positive
sign
rate
ployment
be
may
due
to non-Vietnam
ese manicurists
being more
likely to enter
in it when outside
the field or remain
op
are less plentiful.
The sign on
portunities
income per capita may reflect the positive
effect of an increase
in the demand
for
in high-income
manicures
cities on the
of
number
non-Vietnamese
manicurists.
taste
for
or
native
potential
ments
in
manicures
cities
initially prevalent.
estimates
of the displacement
if there were
biased, however,
shocks to either labor demand
labor
problem,
to measure
supply.
we
To
use
variations
address
a
set
of
this
instru
in inter-metro
to differ
politan
supply shocks attributable
ences
en
in the size of their Vietnamese
claves
in
namese
In
1980.
the increase
particular,
we
in the rate of growth
manicurists
associated
with
measure
of Viet
enclave
size as well as the differential
in
increase
rate of Vietnamese
the level and growth
manicurists
after the introduction
of the
in 1996. The
licensing exam in Vietnamese
three
shocks
are
measured
using
an
manicurists
grew
of
in met
faster
areas with larger enclaves
in 1980.
ropolitan
on the interaction
The coefficient
between
exam in Vietnamese
the licensing
offering
and the enclave
trend is statistically
signifi
cant in the specification
with metropolitan
fixed
that metropolitan
effects,
implying
areas
with
enclaves
larger
also
experienced
in the growth rate of Viet
larger increases
namese manicurists
after the licensing exam
was offered
in Vietnamese.13
The
second
of the dis
stage estimates
are
effect
in columns
placement
presented
of
(4) and (5) of Table 3. Both IV estimates
the displacement
effect are statistically
sig
with
nificant,
These
a
rate
displacement
coefficients
Vietnamese
imply
of-0.4.
that for every five
manicurists
two
roughly
the
entering
non-Vietnamese
for
the
number
mar
manicur
ists were displaced.
The estimate
of the displacement
decreases
from 0.5 to 0.4 when we
ment
mani
where
Vietnamese
ket,
on the initial
And the positive
coefficient
number
of manicurists
thousand
resi
per
in 1987 may capture an unobserved
dents
curists were
The WLS
effect will be
unobserved
fications
with
and without
metropolitan
fixed effects,
that the number
implying
of Vietnamese
effect
instru
mani
curists
using
inter-metropolitan
supply
in the size
shocks associated
with variation
of Vietnamese
enclaves
and the introduc
tion of the Vietnamese
language version of
the
licensing
uncorrected
exam.
estimates
This
may
our
that
implies
suffer more
from
the fact that some Vietnamese
ignoring
not displacing,
immigrants were replacing,
native manicurists
(unobserved
supply
than from ignoring
the fact that
shocks)
immigrants
and
natives
were
drawn
to
ex
markets
demand
(unobserved
panding
In
the
with
contrast,
literature,
shocks).
the exception
of Friedberg
(2001),
gives
to the potential
of
greater weight
problem
unobserved
demand
shocks.
en
two
clave
trend
T) and
(VEnclavem80
terms that interact whether
the licensing
exam was offered
in Vietnamese
with the
enclave
size
and
(VExam^
VEnclave^^
with
enclave
the
trend
(VExami
VEnclave^T).
The results for the first-stage
regression
are presented
in Table 4. The estimated
on the enclave
coefficients
trend are posi
tive and statistically
in the speci
significant
in the number
13The observed
increase
of Viet
namese
manicurists
associated
with
the introduction
exam
of the Vietnamese
that poli
suggests
language
exams
cies of offering
affect
English-only
licensing
as a barrier
to their entry.
by acting
By
immigrants
state
of Vietnamese
the number
manicurists
2002,
wide had increased
24% over the pre-1996
by roughly
trend.
effects;
politan
The
only
areas
statewide
is captured
increase
by the year
across metro
increase
the differential
to instrument.
is used
313
VIETNAMESE MANICURISTS
Table
4.
First
the Number
Predicting
Regressions:
Stage
IndependentVariable
Enclave
Trend
Manicurists.
of Vietnamese
(2) (3)
(1)
Size
(Enclave
in 1980
*
(4)
0.018***
0.016***
t)
(17.30)
(20.79)
Exam
Vietnamese
* Enclave
(l=Yes)
Size
in 1980
-0.002
0.007
(0.18)
(0.64)
Exam
Vietnamese
* Enclave
(l=Yes)
0.004
0.009***
Trend
(1.17)
(2.96)
Rate
Unemployment
(2.72)
(1.93)
(4.18)
-0.045***
0.027**
-0.013***
(2.56)
(5.80)
(0.12)
Income
per Capita
0.024**
($1,000)
(2.23)
MSA
Original
Manicurist
MSA
Original
Population
1,000
per
?0.011
? ?
?
(100,000s)
? ?
MSA Fixed Effects
Year Fixed Effects
Yes
Yes
Observations
544
0.90
R-Squared
Joint
of Instruments
Significance
(8.97)
?
Residents
(F-test)
unbiased
produce
comparisons
14Cross-city
if cities
effects
of wage
and displacement
estimates
are a valid
for
control
with
few immigrants
group
if
of immigrants.
cities with
However,
large numbers
native workers migrate
from cities with large numbers
the dif
of immigrants
to those with few immigrants,
in wages
these cities will decrease,
between
ference
to an underestimate
and
of the wage
effect,
leading
will
the difference
will
of native workers
in the number
to an overestimate
of the displace
and Katz
1992;
Freeman,
Borjas,
increase,
leading
ment
effect
(see
Borjas
1994).
Yes
544
.01 level
0.79
0.97
of
entry
Vietnamese
errors
439.98
are
in parentheses.
or
slower
of
numbers
smaller
having
manicurists.
All
tests).
(two-tailed
to areas experiencing
of them moved
rates
No
?
standard
the
0.002***
(11.29)
YesNo
YesYes
544
544
429.29
t-statistics
calculated
Absolute
using heteroskedasticity-robust
are weighted
by MSA population.
regressions
*
at the .10 level; **at the .05 level; ***at
Statistically
significant
0.093***
(7.64)
(0.36)
? 0.005***
(10.57)
0.99
?
Notes:
effect
Our estimate of the displacement
if non-Vietnamese
still be biased
would
to the entry of Viet
manicurists
reacted
to other
namese
manicurists
by moving
areas in California.14
Using
metropolitan
from
manicurists
the sample of California
the 2000 Census, we find that only 6.2% of
moved
manicurists
the 257 non-Vietnamese
areas
in
California
between
metropolitan
five years and less than half
the preceding
-0.010***
-0.016*
-0.014***
-0.001
(%)
is un
it
Thus,
likely that our estimate of the displacement
effect is biased for this reason.
Characterizing
Entrants
Deterring
the Displacement:
or Hastening
Exits?
of native workers by immi
Displacement
in two ways: lower
grants can be manifested
our li
outflows.
inflows or higher
Using
censing
namese
data,
entry
we
examine
into
the Viet
whether
was
manicuring
deter
the
from choosing
ring non-Vietnamese
or hastening
the exit of current
occupation
manicurists.
these two effects
Separating
us
some
may give
insight into the costs of
entrants who
since
displacement,
potential
choose other occupations
may incur lower
costs
vested
ence.
than
current
workers
who
have
in
in training and accumulated
experi
It may also shed light on why the
314
INDUSTRIAL AND LABOR RELATIONS REVIEW
Table
5.
the
Explaining
and
Inflows
Exit
Rates
of Non-Vietnamese
Manicurists.
Exit Rate for
Manicurists
Inflows of
Non-Vietnamese
Manicurists
Descriptive
DescriptionStatistics
Mean
of Dependent
TV
TVWLS
WLS
?
Variable
0.073
Non-Vietnamese
0.082
(0.055)
Manicurists
in Vietnamese
Change
per 1,000 Residents
in the Unemployment
Change
Rate
0.076
-0.462***
-0.630***
0.090***
0.112***
(0.050)
(10.66)
(10.28)
(4.85)
(4.98)
0.055
(1.118)
in Income
Change
(0.651)
0.003
(1.12)
Fixed
Effects
?
No
No
No
No
Year
Fixed
Effects
?
Yes
(0.47)
510510
510
?
0.69
0,68
0.52
standard
t-statistics
calculated
Absolute
using heteroskedasticity-robust
are weighted
are weighted
The means
by MSA
by MSA population.
are in parentheses.
at the .10 level; **at the .05 level; ***at the .01 level
significant
*Statistically
ing native
areas
has
of measuring
from
labor
practice
outflows
migration
us
across metropolitan
mixed
produced
in
native
markets
of
evidence
of immigration
(see Filer 1991; Frey
1996; Card 2001 ;Card and DiNardo
2000).15
Table 5 presents
results from regressions
in the
of inflows and exit rates on changes
of
fects.
Inflows
manicurists
Vietnamese
1,000 residents,
and per capita
changes
income,
are measured
of non-Vietnamese
manicurists
the
are
in parentheses.
All
and the standard
tests).
(two-tailed
current
exited.16
non-Vietnamese
As
before,
we
manicurists
correct
for
who
potential
sources of bias using
the size of the Viet
namese
in 1980 and the introduc
enclave
exam as
tion of the Vietnamese
language
The WLS and IV estimates
instruments.17
ef
number
per
1,000
15WhileFiler (1991) and Frey (1996) found that
to
related
of natives
is negatively
the net migration
Card
the influx of immigrants,
(2001) and Card and
a small positive
Filer
effect.
found
DiNardo
(2000)
are more
that natives
also found
likely to leave and
that have experienced
less likely to enter cities
large
In con
in their
increases
immigrant
populations.
are
that natives
evidence
trast, Card
(2001 ) presented
to cities
more
that have experienced
likely to move
skilled
in the number
of similarly
increases
large
immigrants.
errors
population
per
in unemployment
and year fixed
as
0.52
in
who entered
the occupation
residents
each year and exit rates as the proportion
of
the
effects
number
(0.72)
Yes
Yes
Yes
510
Notes:
and
-0.001
(0.63)
regressions
deviations
common
(0.63)
(0.53)
-0.001
510
R-Squared
flows
-0.001
-0.001
-0.002
(1.09)
MSA
Observations
0.002
(0.90)
-0.004
0.149
per Capita
(0.018)
as those whose
are defined
16Inflows or entrants
or exits
is first issued in a given year; outflows
license
are those whose
The
latter may be
license
expires.
with error since some may
leave in the year
measured
to the expiration
license.
We
of their two-year
prior
use
of non
than
the number
the exit rate rather
who
exit per 1,000 because
manicurists
Vietnamese
with decreases
decrease
outflow
levels will necessarily
in the number
manicur
non-Vietnamese
of current
in their exit rate.
ists even when
there is no change
between
the relationship
17Since we are estimating
in Vietnamese
and non-Viet
manicurists
changes
we use a
namese
inflows and exits from manicuring,
of our empiri
consistent
with a first difference
model
instru
for the levels.
The corresponding
cal model
in 1980
are the size of the Vietnamese
ments
enclave
of the availability
with an indicator
and its interaction
of
the Vietnamese
language
test.
VIETNAMESE MANICURISTS
show substantial
displacement
of inflows. Roughly,
for every
in the case
two Vietnam
ese
market,
manicurists
the
entering
one
315
ists in the state
to
some
Their
of
displacement
at a rate
but
ists,
in 1987.
far
native
entry
led
manicur
below
one-to-one,
not to enter. As
non-Vietnamese
decided
for the exit rate, the estimated
is
coefficient
the effect is small. These
positive, although
estimates
in
imply that the large average
that Vietnamese
manicurists
implying
new nails
found many
to polish.
More
we
find
for
that
every five
specifically,
Vietnamese
manicurists
the
entering
crease
market,
of
one
about
manicurist
Vietnamese
1987 and 2002
per 1,000 residents between
caused 9% to 11% of non-Vietnamese
mani
curists to exit the occupation,
less than 1%
per
the
Overall,
year.18
regression
results
that the entrance
of the Vietnam
suggest
ese was largely
non
potential
deterring
entrants rather than hastening
Vietnamese
the
exit
of
current
non-Vietnamese
mani
curists.
for
non-Vietnamese
manicurists.
The
Vietnamese
also appear to have been much
more committed
to the occupation,
having
a
lower
rate
of
exit
non-Vietnamese
after
had
after
six
years
two.
than
the
Summary
on the
18A regression
of outflows
in the
change
number
of Vietnamese
cor
shows a negative
actually
non
the fact that fewer
relation,
likely reflecting
were
Vietnamese
manicurists
left to exit. The coeffi
cients
for inflows are somewhat
to
sensitive
changes
in specification,
but the size of the economic
effect
is
and
is much
larger
than what
is seen
in
manicurists
the
entire
versus
manicurists
for
in demand.
While
was
expansion
it is possible
due
in
that
to movement
curve, the entrance
along a fixed demand
of Vietnamese
to have
manicurists
appears
been associated
with new forms of service
in the form of walk-in
salons that
delivery
demand
may have increased
by reducing
time
costs.
While
Vietnamese
and na
immigrants
tives do not compete
for a fixed number of
manicuring
jobs, our estimates
imply that
were dis
native
manicurists
14,000
roughly
1987 and 2002,
placed in California between
that "native workers'
suggesting
apprehen
sions are not completely misguided"
(Borjas
At the same time, we find that
1999:63).
most of the displacement
stemmed
from a
reduction
Between
1987 and 2002, the number
of
in California
Vietnamese
manicurists
in
creased by 35,700, a number
slightly larger
than the total number of licensed manicur
always
large,
exit rates.
demand
creases
ese
and Conclusions
non-Vietnamese
in the number of
increase
the entry of Viet
manicuringjobs
following
namese
should dispel
the no
immigrants
tion that immigrants
and natives compete
for a fixed number
of jobs. We
cannot
determine
the extent to which
the increase
in the number
of jobs was due to a very
elastic
how quickly mani
Finally, we examine
curists
left the occupation
for different
cohorts
the per
entering
by calculating
who became
licensed
centage of manicurists
in a given year and left the market within
two years and within
six years. The pattern
of spells was relatively stable for the years of
our
and
sample for both non-Vietnamese
if anything,
Vietnamese
there
manicurists;
was a slight reduction
in the speed at which
the non-Vietnamese
exited. This finding
is
consistent
with the small estimated
effect
on the exit
of the entry of the Vietnamese
rate
two
were displaced.
The dramatic
in
choosing
the
number
to enter
the
of
non-Vietnam
rather
occupation
than a quickened
exit of those already work
Our empirical
results
ing as manicurists.
to
the
the com
gap between
help
bridge
mon public
that immigrants
take
perception
jobs from natives and economists'
findings
or no overall effects on
of modest
employ
ment
levels.
For a narrowly
defined
job
we find evidence
of appreciable
market,
displacement,
broader
markets
whereas
do
many
studies
of
not.
Our results would be consistent with small
overall
if displaced
effects
employment
manicurists
in similar
(and natives working
low-skilled occupations)
find
other
quickly
The costs of displacement
jobs.
may be
can easily
small if displaced
manicurists
INDUSTRIAL AND LABOR RELATIONS REVIEW
316
move
to other jobs at similar wages or if, as
we saw here, much
of the displacement
not
to enter
involves
choosing
people
the
rather
occupation
than
non-Vietnam
ese manicurists
being
is no
there
However,
that the displacement
as
they may be viewed
displaced
workers,
to leave.
induced
reason
to believe
costs are zero, and
substantial
by the
if
it
takes
especially
Identifying
to find new jobs
time
in
the
labor
market.
of friction
because
the
By
same
token,
the costs may not be trivial to those
benefits
there are substantial
displaced,
while
from
the
The
ists.
entry
of
Vietnamese
manicur
entry
of
Vietnamese
manicur
with innovations
ists has been associated
in the market,
and expansions
making
service
once-exclusive
Appendix
Vietnamese
a
commonplace.
Manicurists
the process
of identifying
Vietnamese
We began
common
names
Vietnamese
manicurists
by obtaining
two sources:
Asian Name
from
the Cal Poly Pomona
Pronunciation
Guide
(http://www.csupomona.edu/
to the list of
it was added
last names;
otherwise,
was also a small
shared Vietnamese
last names.
There
of last names
that fell slightly
below
the 50%
group
threshold,
yet we thought were
likely to be Vietnamese
and Adopt Vietnam,
~pronunciation/vietnamese.html)
an internet
for people
Vietnamese
adopting
guide
children
(http://www.adoptvietnam.org).
common
A small number
of these
Vietnamese
names are also common
names for other Asian groups.
is a prevalent
first name
for Viet
For example,
Lam
namese
women
but is also a common
Cantonese
last
our list of common
name.
This
led us to compare
names with
lists of common
Vietnamese
Cantonese,
Fili
Cambodian,
Thai, Japanese,
Mandarin,
Korean,
and Indonesian
lists that were obtained
names,
pino,
Asian Name Pronunciation
from
the Cal Poly Pomona
names
did
of the common
Vietnamese
Guide. Most
us to classify
on these other
not appear
lists, leading
on
last names
based
names.
The Vietnamese
names. When
them as exclusively Vietnamese
they did
on one of the other
them as
lists, we classified
appear
names. We also classified
Vietnam
shared Vietnamese
ese names
as being
shared when
with
they overlapped
such as Bach or Lang.
names,
European
our list of Vietnamese
last names,
To supplement
names
we searched
common
Vietnamese
for other
manicurists.
For ex
the names
of California
using
of the 63 manicur
that 38 (60.3%)
ample, we found
had first or middle
ists with
the last name
of Tieu
names
that were on our list of exclusively Vietnamese
Most of the rest had either first or middle
first names.
names or American
that are shared Vietnamese
the Vietnamese
that are popular
(for
among
us that Tieu
is a
This
convinced
example,
Jenny).
common
it is not listed
last name.
Since
Vietnamese
names
names
a common
as being
we added
it to our
names.
name
for any other Asian
group,
last
list of exclusively Vietnamese
we added
a last name
to our list of
formally,
more
last names whenever
than
Vietnamese
with that last name
manicurists
50% of the California
on our list of
names
that were
had first or middle
If the last name
first names.
exclusively Vietnamese
name
was not listed as a common
other Asian
among
to the list of exclusively Vietnam
it was added
groups,
More
common
ese
their other
first
names
under
and middle
each of our
shared Viet
three categories?exclusively
Vietnamese,
listed at the end
and likely Vietnamese?are
namese,
of the appendix.
as
A computer
manicurists
assigned
algorithm
were
true:
if any of the following
being Vietnamese
was
Their
last name
Their
last name
one or more
and
were
Two
exclusively
Vietnamese.
or shared
likely Vietnamese
names
of their first or middle
names.
Vietnamese
or more
exclusively
exclusively
was
of their first
Vietnamese.
and middle
names
were
names was exclusively
One
of their first or middle
or more
and one
of their first or
Vietnamese
names were
middle
shared names.
was a series of meet
The final
step in the process
cases that "fell
individual
ings in which we discussed
as Vietnamese
by our
assigned
just short" of being
one
for example,
exclusively
only
having,
algorithm,
name.
Most
first or middle
of these
Vietnamese
were
manicurists
Vietnamese,
frequently
obviously
names
Vietnamese
that were mis
additional
having
or appearing
in the
concatenated
spelled,
together,
to avoid pitfalls
fields.
wrong
Finally, we were careful
such as De
manicurists
such as identifying
with names
as being
La Torre, Van Dyke, Le Ann, and Mac Kenzie
com
because
Vietnamese
parts of their names were
names
mon Vietnamese
(De, La, Van, Le and Mac).
Last Names:
Exclusively
Anh
Vietnamese:
Bang Banh Be Bo Bui Cai Cam Cao Chau Chim
Co Cong Cu Cue Cung Dai Dam Dang
Chuong
Dieu
Dao Daole
Diem
Dien
Danh
Dau Dich
Diep
Dinh Doan Don Dong Du Dung Giang Giap Ha Hang
Chu
VIETNAMESE MANICURISTS
Hinh Hoa Hoac Hoang
Hua Hung Huong
Huyen
Huynh Khau Khieu Khoan Khong Khuat Khuc Khuong
Khuu Kieu Ky La Lac Lan Lao Le Lien Lieu Loc Loi
Luc Luong
Luu Luyen
Ly Mac Mach Mai Minh My
Nga Ngac Ngan
Nghe
Nghi Nghiem
Ngo Ngoc Ngu
Nham Nhan Nhieu
Ninh Nong
Nguy Nguyen
Nguyet
Phi Pho Phong
On Pham
Phan
Phu Phuc
Phung
Hao
Phuong
Thach
Sa Son
Quach
Quang
Thai Than
Thanh
Thang
First Names:
Exclusively
Bao Be Bian Bich Binh Cam Canh Chau Chinh
Dae Kien Danh
Dao Dat De Diem
Cong Cue Cuong
Dien Diep Diu Due Due Dung Giang Hai Hang Hanh
Hao Hien
Hoc Hue Hung
Hieu
Hoa Hoang
Hiep
Huu
Ket-Nien
Huong
Huy Huyen
Huynh
Hyunh
Ta Tai Tat
Suong
Thi Thiem
Thien
Tuyet Uong Uy Van Vi Vien Viet Vinh
Vu Vuong
Vuu Vy Xuan Yen
Tuong
Khanh
Kieu
Loc Ly Mai
Lan Lanh Le Liem Lien Lieu Linh Loan
Minh
My Nga Ngan
Ngoc
Ngon
Ngu
Nu Oanh
Nhan
Nhat
Nhu Nhung
Nguyen
Nguyet
Pham
Phu Phuc Phung
Phuoc
Qui
Phuong
Quang
Sinh Son Suong Tham Thang Thanh
Quoc Quy Quyen
Thao Thi Thien
Thinh
Tho Thorn Thu Thuan
Tien
Vo Vong
Toai Toan Tram Trang Tri Trieu Trinh Trong
Tu Tuan
Uoc Uyen
Trung
Tung
Tuyen
Tuyet
Vien Viet Vinh Vu Vuong
Xuan Yen
Shared:
An Au Bach Bi Chung Do Duong
Han Ho Hong
Khan
Kiev Kim Lai Lam Lang Lau Long Lu Ma Quan
Sam
Tan Tang Ung Vang
Likely:
Ba Bao
Ong
Che
Thao
Chiem
Hy Kha Kiem
Kien
Lo Man
Vietnamese:
Anh
Thieu
Thu Thuan
Thong
Thuy Tien Tiet
Thuong
Tra Trac Tram Tran Trang
Tieu To Ton Tong Tonnu
Tri Trieu Trinh Trung Truong
Tsan Tsang Tu Tuan
Voong
317
True
Van
Shared:
Ai An Chi Chien Dong Duong
Ha Han Ho Hong Khan
Kim Lam Long Nam Quan
Sang Si Tarn Tan Thuy
Mong
Thoi
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