SYNCRETISM BETWEENTOURISTS` AND LOCAL CULTURE

SYNCRETISM
BETWEENTOURISTS’ AND LOCAL CULTURE
The Impact of Tourism on Balinese Culture, Economy and Environment
By
I KETUT BUDARMA
No Étudiant 20104253
Université d'Angers
UFR Ingénierie du Tourisme,
du Bâtiment et des Services
IMIS – ESTHUA
Angers, FRANCE
2011
1
AKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all I would like to express my gratitude to the Indonesian and French
government for initiating a bilateral partnership in realizing the double degree master program.
Financial and academic support provided by two countries have enabled us to work together
for the human resources development in Indonesia. I also personally would like to extend my
appreciation and gratitude to Mr. Philippe Violier as the director of UFR Ingénierie du
Tourisme, du Bâtiment et des Services IMIS-ESTHUA, University of Angers-France, in
cooperation with Tourism Studies, Udayana University, Bali-Indonesia for giving me an
opportunity to study Management of Art, Culture and Heritage in 2010-2011 academic year
with a wonderful academic atmosphere and facilities.
I would like to gratefully and sincerely thank my supervisor, Madame Sylvine Pickel
for her guidance, understanding, patience, and most importantly, her friendship during my
post-graduate studies at IMIS-ESTHUA, University of Angers-France. Her invaluable
contribution from the initial to the final level of the memoir enabled me to develop an
understanding of the subject. Without her support and expertise this memoir would not be
successfully completed.
I owe my deepest gratitude to Mr. Jean-Rene Morice as the head of Management of
Art, Culture and Heritage for his support, guidance and advices that have made me possible to
attend the programme and learn a great deal of valuable thing for my career as a university
lecturer.
I offer my regards and blessings to all of those who supported me in any respect during
the completion of the project, especially my European and Australian friends and colleagues
for answering my questions, as well as Balinese respondents for giving me a great data.
My deepest gratitude goes to my family for their unflagging love and support
throughout my life. My wife Rai Erawati, my son Ade Budi Nugraha and my daughter Ester
Anggarani for being supportive, cooperative and sensible during the period of my study.
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CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION ……………………………………………………………………… …..5
A. Background of the Research ……………………………………………………… ...5
B. Research Problem …………………………………………………………………. …..7
C. Hypothesis ………………………………………………………………………..........8
D. Research Field ……………………………………………………………………... …..9
E. Methodology ………………………………………………………………. …………10
PART I CHAPTER 1 -
BALI: NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL
TOURIST DESTINATION……………………………………………….......12
A PRESENTATION OF BALI: A SMALL ISLAND OF INDONESIA….13
1. 1 The Context and Theoretical Review…………………………………………………. ...13
1.1.1 Cultural Tourism in Bali…………………………………………………………….......15
1.1.2 Environment and the Philosophy of Tri Hita Karana …………………………………16
1.2 . The Concept…………………………………………………………………………….. 17
1.2.1 Tourist and Typology of Tourists……………………………………………………….17
1. 2.2 Acculturation………………………………………………………………………... ...20
1.2.3 Syncretism…………………………………………………………………………… ...20
1.2.4 Appropriation………………………………………………………………………… …21
1.2.5 Commoditization…………………………………………………………………… …21
1.3 Presentation of Bali …………………………………………………………………… …22
1.3.1 Bali in general…………………………………………………………………………...22
1.3.2 The History of Bali………………………………………………………………… …24
1.3.3. The Distinctive Feature of Bali……………………………………………………… ...24
1.3.4 Geographical Advantages of Bali …………………………………………………… …27
1.3.5 Tourist Visiting Bali…………………………………………………………………. …30
1.3.6 Reason for Choosing Bali, Europe and Australia…………………………………… …31
CHAPTER 2 - THE EVOLUTION OF INTERNATIONAL TOURISM IN BALI ……… …35
2.1 Tourism Before the independence (1920-1945)……………………………………….. …39
2.2 Tourism Between the Independence of Indonesia and Civil War (1945-1965)……….. .40
2.3 Tourism from 1966 to terrorism attack 2002………………………………………….. …41
2.4 Tourism after the Terrorism Attack…………………………………………………… …43
CHAPTER 3 - THE SITUATION OF TOURISM ACTIVITY NOW………………….. …45
3.1 Number of visitors……………………………………………………………………. …45
3
3.2 Tourism Activity……………………………………………………………………… …49
3.2.1 Cultural…………………………………………………………………………….. …49
3.2.2 Nature and Environment………………………………………………………………...50
3.2.3 Leisure Tourism……………………………………………………………………… …51
3.2.4 Marine Tourism……………………………………………………………………… …52
3.2.5 Adventure Attraction………………………………………………………………… …53
3.2.6 Business Tourism……………………………………………………………………. …54
3.2.7 Retreat Tourism……………………………………………………………………… …55
CONLCLUSION…………………………………………………………………………... ...56
PART II DOES A” MASSIVE” TOURISM ENDANGER
THE LOCAL BALINESE CULTURE……………………………. …59
CHAPTER 1 -
TOURISM PARTICIPATION TO THE
DEVELOEPMENT OF BALINESE CULTURE …………………….60
1.1 Acculturation and Syncretism………………………………………………………… …61
1.2 Balinese Culture as a product of Acculturation……………………………………….. …73
1.3 The Change and Alteration of Balinese Culture……………………………………… …78
1.4 Cultural Conflict and Co-modification. ……………………………………………… …86
1.5 Tourism and Crime…………………………………………………………………… …89
CHAPTER 2 -
OR A SYNCRETISM PUTTING IN VALUE TO
THE EVOLUTION OF THE BALINESE CULTURE?.......................93
2.1 Evolution of painting……………………………………………………………………...93
2.2 Evolution of carving………………………………………………………………………94
2.3 Evolution of music and dance……………………………………………………………..96
CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………………………108
PART III -
IS TOURISM ECONOMICALLY
AND ENVIROMENTALLY BENEFICIAL FOR BALINESE PEOPLE?..... ..110
CHAPTER 1 THE AMBIVALENT IMPACT
OF TOURISM ON ECONOMY…………………………………………….111
1.1 The Positive Impact of Tourism on Bali’s Economy…………………………………….111
1.2 The Limit Impact Of Tourism On Bali’s Economy…………………………………….. 115
CHAPTER 2 - TOURISM IMPACT ON ENVIRONMENT: IS IT A DISTRUCTION
OR AN OPPORTUNITY FOR PRESERVATION?......................................125
2.1 Adverse Impact of Tourism on Bali’s Environment…………………………………… ..125
2.2. An Opportunity for Preservation………………………………………………………..136
CONCLUSION…………………………………………………………………………….. ..145
GENERAL CONLUSION…………………………………………………………………. ..147
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BIBLIOGRAPHY …………………………………………………………………………. ..152
TABLE OF PICTURE AND FIGURE…………………………………………………….. ..156
APENDIX………………………………………………………………………………….. ..161
INTRODUCTION
This research is the realization of all subjects and knowledge, particularly the cultural
interaction between the tourist and the host, taught during the program of master one on
tourism studies in Udayana University Bali, Indonesia and master two on Culture, Art and
Heritage management in ESTHUA, the University of Angers, France. The two countries
provide a strong motivation to study and to understand the subject of tourism and its
implication to the host country, from two different perspectives and contexts. The main aim is
to better understand the relation between tourism and culture, particularly the interaction
between Australian and European tourists and Balinese community. The interaction will be
seen from the theory of acculturation and its cultural, economic and environmental impacts.
The ground of choosing Australia and Europe is pertaining to their geographical and
historical aspects. The distance between Bali and Australia is 3011.22 kilometers or 1871.14
miles1 with 3 hours average flying time2. While Europe selected based on the history of the
tourism in Bali, which was initiated by European, particularly during the Dutch occupation.3
The other countries are excluded in this research due to the time frame of this research. Of
course there is a certain background why the research is carried out.
A. Background of the Research
The reason for writing this research has been fully based on the result of previous
researches, and the data collected from both Balinese and the tourists who have visited Bali.
Bali as one of the small islands in Indonesia, well known for its natural diversity and
distinctive culture has been successfully attracted tourists from various countries with its
1
http://www.mapcrow.info/Distance_between_Bali_ID_and_Perth_AS.html
http://www.trueknowledge.com/q/how_long_is_the_flight_from_perth_to_denpasar
3
Historically, the genuine interest for Bali began during the Dutch conquest. By I Made Bandem
2
5
natural and cultural attractions.4 However from the beginning of the tourism development in
the island, there have been a lot of concerns on the preservation of the Balinese culture.
Balinese culture has been an important asset for Bali to attract tourists, and to improve the life
quality on the island, on the other hand the constant exposition of the culture for tourists’
consumption, will obviously influence the originality of the culture5. The term “preservation”
mean to protect or to safeguard and the term “promotion” means to reveal and to expose, the
problem in the context of Bali is how to preserve the Balinese culture and at the same time to
expose to tourists.
Art, Culture and religion in Bali are inseparable, because arts works and cultural
performances are originally dedicated to the religious ceremonies or religious context. Even
art as the religious expressions and religion is the way of life of the Balinese people.6 The
cultural expositions to tourist means a holistic exposition that may endanger the sacred values
of the culture. The presence of the visitors in a tourist destination like Bali influences the
mode of life and the attitudes of the local people. The lifestyle of the visitors while they are in
Bali and also the pattern of the visitors and Balinese people relationship, in particular when
visitors and the local people, start developing social interaction and mutual appreciation and
respect between the visitors and the local people.7 Such a social interaction between local
people and visitors will develop cross-cultural communication, followed by a social process
and as a result social and psychological changes occur for both visitors and the local people.
This sort of interaction is called acculturation.8
As a logic consequence tourism utilized as the media of the process of cross-cultural
interaction has been exposed and packaged for the sake of satisfaction of its visitors, without
preserving and excluded the sacred ones. The issues raised in 1971, finally the local
4
Bali is widely represented as a small island with amazing natural features and a highly distinctive culture. It is evident that
this mix of natural and cultural attractions, especially, “sea-sand-sun” attractions, brings tourists to visit Bali (Noronha, 1979).
5
Michel Picard,1986 Thus the ambivalent attitude evinced by colonial authorities with respect to tourism. On the one hand the cultural traditions of Bali were the major asset for the tourist promotion of the island. But on the other hand, if the Balinese culture was to be preserved, measures had to be taken to protect it against the corrupting contact with the modern world brought about by the presence of foreign visitors to the island. 6
Gerard Francillon,1977:6 7
McIntosh et al,1995:223 8
Interaction between the host community and visitors will result in cross cultural dialectic and finally there will
be a social processes and consequent social and psychological changes that occur when people from different
cultures come into contact, this process is called acculturation
6
government set a legislation and prohibit the exposition of scared cultures and arts for the
tourists. The separation of sacred and secular culture was complicated process, because the
term secular or profane were new jargon for Balinese. Michel Picard in his paper entitled
Cultural Tourism in Bali: Cultural Performance as Tourist Attraction stated that there is a
leakage in the boundary between sacred and profane culture, even there is confusion among
the Balinese community in deciding between them. Some art performances which were
originally sacred and only performed for religious purposes, then freely exposed for tourists,
on the other hand some performances which were designed for tourist performances made
sacred and performed in the religious rituals.9
This phenomenon is examined by going
through several researches done by Balinese and interviewing them.
Bali is not only inhabited by renowned artistic and friendly people but also home for
diverse vegetations and animals. The appeal of Balinese tourism is also the beauty of its
environmental surroundings. The following testimonies written by two prominent tourism
researchers, Michel Picard and Adrian Vickers, show the natural potency of Bali.
«La séduction balinaise résultait d’une harmonie rare entre la fécondité d’une culture
traditionnelle et la fertilité d’une nature tropical » Michel Picard, on the other hand Adrian
Vickers said « Le première ouvrage a célébrer la nature paradisiaque de Bali a été aussi la
première invitation au voyage : dans le livre maintes fois réédité de l’Allemand Gregor
Krause, paru en 1920, les photos de lumineux corps nus et de luxuriantes forets – la nature
en abondance-côtoyaient
celles des sculptures sophistiquées , de rites étrangers et des
splendeurs de la royauté-la culture a profusion » Bali L’ordre Cosmique et la quotidienneté,
Catherine Basset et Michel Picard,1993 :21
B. Research Problem
There are three major problems exposed and focused on the research. The first one is
“"What is the impact of tourism on the Balinese culture?" The question raised based
on optimistic views and the worries of world community and sociologists on the positive and
negative impacts of tourists - local people interaction. Major impact of tourism in Bali is on
the life of the society, lifestyle culture and mentality of the Balinese who have built direct or
9
Michel Picard, 1993
7
indirect contact with foreign visitors.10 The effort of the Balinese to separate or clearly
differentiate between sacred culture and performances which are traditionally only exposed
for the religious and ritual ceremonies, and avoid their profanation and commercialization and
the cultural creations which merely designed to give cultural experience for the visitors and
commercially exposed for tourism.11 The impact of tourism on the environment and economy
will also be taken into account. Pertinent problem caused by tourism on the island is the lost
of cultural function of the land and also erosion along the coastal areas, and the functional
shift of land from traditional non lucrative to commercial one. Economically the distribution
of the income generated from tourism is not equally and fairly distributed, as a result a great
economic gap between those benefited by the tourism and the ones who are not.
The second question is “: "Does Syncretism endanger the local culture" or "does it
contribute to the evolution of the local culture? This problem will be seen through the
interaction between foreign tourists and Balinese people, and it is examined by previous
results of researchers, and the survey done with the Balinese and the foreigners, especially
European and Australian.
Finally “ Is Tourism Economically and Environmentally beneficial for Balinese?”
This question has to be asked to find out whether the exposition of Balinese culture, could
improve the economic and environmental quality of Balinese people.
The long interaction between Balinese and tourists is thoroughly examined to find out
whether foreigners have contributed valuable thing in the evolution on the culture, and how it
happens. Then hypothesis has to be drawn to foresee the final result of the project.
C. Hypothesis
Those three questions above then allow result in three hypothetical answers, viz.
Tourism has an impact, which is syncretism. Over exposition of the local culture, has
10
Gerard Francillon 6 Thus it is that, while striving to keep ritual separate from entertainment in order to prevent the profanation of
the sacred dances by indiscriminate exploitation for commercial ends, the measures adopted by the regional
authorities might in fact have contributed to the confusion between performances reserved for the Balinese and
those destined for the tourists. Michen Michel Picard 11
8
caused cultural contact, and created a great interest among Balinese and foreign visitors to
learn and to take and give part of their culture. Syncretism brings a positive effects to the
enrichment of Balinese culture, especially for the touristic culture. The second hypothesis is
“Syncretism is not a destruction but a construction of something new in Balinese culture
and it has been also for almost a century a contribution of the evolution of the Balinese
culture”. Tourism is expected to alleviate poverty and improve environmental quality of
Balinese life, thus the last hypothesis is “Tourism has given financial contribution for
Balinese to have a better living standard to preserve their culture and environment”. The
long contact and interaction between Balinese and foreigners has encouraged the positive
evolution of the culture, and ideally it brings prosperity to the local people. The three
hypotheses have given a strong context in choosing the following title of the research:
Syncretism Between Tourists’ And Local Culture : The Impact Of Tourism On Balinese
Culture, Economy And Environment.
D. Research Field
The research is done in Indonesia, especially Bali as the receptor of the tourists or as
the locus where the interaction take place, and in Europe and Australia especially for those
who have been to Bali. The three countries are well justified fields based on the fact that Bali
has been a commercial tourist object since 1920s, and since then the number of European and
Australian tourists visiting Bali keep increasing. Based on the official information of Bali
Statistic Board, the number of European tourist who visited Bali in 2010 is 613.774 people,
and the number of Australian tourists is 647.872 in whole year of 2010 or 25,99 % of the
total tourists visiting Bali. This trend has been confirmed by Jean-Marc Lavergne in La
Gazette de Bali n° 57 – février 2010 « Dans les années 80, il y avait environ 20 000 touristes
français par an en moyenne. En 2009, nous avons passé la barre des 110 000. En 1990, à mon
arrivée ici, la France était en 15ème position du marché global et 4ème du marché européen,
contre 7ème et 1ère respectivement aujourd’hui », explique ce diplômé de l’école de tourisme
de Chambéry12
12
La Gazette de Bali n° 57 – février 2010
9
The realisation of the research has to be supported by reliable data and information to
meet the highest validity of the result. For that purposes several methodologies are diploid.
E. Methodology
This research applies four methodologies, they are selected by considering their
effectiveness in completing the research. The four methodologies are explained below.
1. Literature Review
A literature review is an account of what has been published on a topic by accredited
scholars and researchers13. By using this method, valid information having been done though
previous researches could be applied to support the data and analysis of the research.
2. Questionnaire
A questionnaire is a series of questions asked to individuals to obtain statistically
useful information about a given topic. When properly constructed and responsibly
administered, questionnaires become a vital instrument by which statements can be made
about specific groups or people or entire populations.14
3. Observation
The observational method of research concerns the planned watching, recording, and
analysis of observed behavior as it occurs in a natural setting.15 As Balinese who was born and
grown up there, the behavior of both local people and tourists could be easily seen.
4. Interview
The interview method of research, typically, involves a face-to-face meeting in which a
researcher (interviewer) asks an individual a series of questions.16
13
14
15
http://www.writing.utoronto.ca/advice/specific-types-of-writing/literature-review
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Questionnaire_construction
http://www.gerardkeegan.co.uk/resource/observationalmeth1.htm 10
The quantitative and qualitative data collected by implementing the method above is
descriptively elaborated in this research and divided into three parts. The first part is Bali:
National and International Tourist Destination, the second part is “Does A Massive
Tourism Endanger the Local Balinese Culture ?....and the last one is “Is Tourism
Economically and Environmentally Beneficial for Balinese?”
16
http://www.sasked.gov.sk.ca/docs/social/psych30/support_materials/research_methods.htm 11
PART I
BALI
NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL
TOURISTS’ DESTINATION
12
Bali as one of major tourist destinations in Asia and is the object of this research, has
to be examined from several aspects that have made it famous all over the world. This part
focuses on two prominent things that are relevant to the subject of the research. It elaborates
the context and theoretical review of the research, the history of tourism activity in Bali and
the current situation of tourist activity in Bali.
CHAPTER 1 - A PRESENTATION OF BALI: A SMALL
ISLAND OF INDONESIA.
As a scientific research, the bibliographical review and context is an essential part of
this work, because some relevant issues have been previously discussed by other researchers
and writers and have given a significant contribution to this research. They may confirm and
reinforce the finding or on the other way around.
1.1 The Context and Theoretical Review
Bali
has been a prominent tourist destination in Asia for years and it has been
considered as Asia’s favorite holiday destination. The image and reputation of the island is an
integrated product of people and nature. From the people aspect it is very much related to the
culture, religion, tradition and lifestyle, while from the natural aspects it deals with the natural
diversity and landscape. The synergic blend between the two has manifested a featured tourist
attraction, having lured the visitors to come. The highest award received by Bali is "World
Best Island in Asia 2010". The award was presented in the World’s Best Award 2010 in New
York July 21, 2010. Bali is the icon of Indonesia’s tourism. Although tourism in Bali has
undergone several difficult problems, but the statistic shows that, the number of tourists
13
visiting Bali has been consistently increasing. The current fact occurs trough several historical
stages that has to be significantly comprehended.
The great number of tourists visiting Bali has brought several impacts, especially in the
domain of Social and culture, environment and economy. The direct, spontaneous and nonmediatized contact between visitors and Balinese people bring several implications,
particularly in the Balinese culture. Since the great in umber of visitors to the island, Balinese
have shown their best to welcome their visitors by exposing their culture, in the hope that their
visitors will get optimum cultural experiences, and maximized the economic reward, as a
result over exposition of the culture has made confusion among Balinese regarding sacred and
religious culture and the profane culture that can be freely commercialized for tourist
consumption.
Bali as an island has a carrying capacity or a limit to accommodate visitors, ideally
tourism development in Bali should safeguard the natural beauty and diversity of the island,
not only for the current tourism benefit but also for the benefit of all steak holders in the
future.17 The fact the rigorous tourism development on the island requires appropriate facilities
such as hotels, restaurants, golf courses, parks and other relevant touristic facilities that may
confiscate the agricultural and traditionally owned land that finally causes several
environmental and ecological problems.18 Other environmental problem caused by the tourism
on the island is the lost of cultural function of the land and also abrasion along the coastal
areas, and the function shift of land from traditional non lucrative to commercial one.
The other problem being faced by Balinese now is shortages of water supply and
electricity, water resources have been swallowed by hotels and their swimming pools, from
small sized to the Olympic sized ones, and other water based tourist attractions. Average water
needed by a hotel room per day is 400-500 liters.19 The official statistic shows that in 2009
17
Article 3.1 Tourism, a factor of sustainable development. Allan Beaver 2002:335 18
Accordingly, the irrigated paddy fields have decreased by as much as 8,224 hectares or 1.46% of the entire area
of Bali; 82% of this occurred in 9 years period (1980-1989) (Drysdale, 1995). Ravines, gorges, riverbanks, and
sloping areas near forests that in the past had no economic significance are now prime locations for the
development of tourism facilities; which in the long run would create damage to the landscape and disturb the
ecological system. I GEDE AGUS PUTRA JAYA
19
The increasing activities in tourism in Bali have resulted in some negative impacts on the environment. It is
estimated that around ten square kilometers of irrigated rice-fields are lost to tourist development every year
(Reader 2000:488-499). Golf courses are a notoriously land and water hungry aspect of this kind of development.
14
there are 40.45920 hotel rooms in Bali, it means that they need 20.229.500 liters of water every
day.
In WTO global code of ethic for tourism, especially article 5, point 1 and 2 has been
clearly stated that the local people, in this case Balinese people have to be associated with
tourism activities and share equitably in the economic, and the tourism development has to
raise the standard of living of the local people, and the priority have to be given to the local
manpower.
21
The fact shows the massive tourism visit to Bali cannot significantly alleviate
poverty in Bali, the increase of tourists visiting Bali and the increase the of GDP is not in line
with the poverty decrease. Even the poverty line tends to increase.22 Economically the
distribution of the income generated from tourism is not equally and fairly distributed, as a
result a great economic gap between those benefited by the tourism and the ones who are not.
Balinese culture as the asset of tourism industry in Bali is the result of cultural
acculturation and syncretism of several cultures, the touristic performance is a result of
cultural appropriation. The cultural syncretism and acculturation has enriched the Balinese
culture, and made it special and had a special feature.23 The coming of tourists to the island,
had been a great worry for Balinese traditional community and government, it could
threatened the culture and the lifestyle of the people, then in 1970s it was positively responded
by Balinese, and they could show to the world that Balinese culture is resistant to threat, and
even tourism has been considered as opportunity to develop it, tourism is the trigging factor of
the vibrant cultural development on the island.
1.1.1 Cultural Tourism in Bali
Water shortages have already been reported for downstream agricultural areas in Bali, Five-star hotels require an
average of 500 liters of water per room per day, compared with 400 liters in non-star accommodation. As an
agricultural economy based on the cultivation of rice, water is a life and death issue in the island. If the
continuing use of water on tourist continues one could say the quality of life for Balinese will deteriorate.
http://www.custom-essay-writing.com/2010/02/tourism-economic-development-planning
20
Statistics Indonesia <http://www.bps.go/tab_sub/view.php?tabel>
21
Article 5.1, 37,3712 Allan Beaver 2002:335
Official poverty statistic Bali 23
The Balinese have been readily praised for their ability to borrow whatever foreign influence suits them, while nevertheless maintaining their identity over the centuries. Michel Picard 22
15
Tracing back to the beginning of tourism evolution in 1920s, the Dutch colony had
realized that the charm of Bali is its culture, its people and nature. Even far before 1920s, since
the days of Raffles Bali has been considered as a living museum, due to its distinctive culture
and its people lifestyle, which has a great potential for tourism. 24
After the independence, the local government continued developing cultural tourism in
Bali by publishing a regional tourism laws No 3/1971 and renewed with the regional tourism
laws No 3/1991. It has been clearly stipulated that cultural tourism is a type of tourism whose
progress and development using local culture, inspired by Balinese Hindu, part of national
culture, as the most dominant potential basis, in which the ideals implied that there is a
reciprocal relationship between tourism and culture, thus both shall be harmoniously, equally
and proportionally developed.25
This research examines the impact of the tourism toward the culture, and their mutual
benefit.
1.1.2 Environment and the Philosophy of Tri Hita Karana
Balinese has a distinctive way to perceive an environment, lexically environment is the
air, water and land in or on which people, animals and plants live26. Balinese has two layers of
environment, the first one is the man himself is considered as the microcosm, or the small
world where the soul resides, and the world is considered as macrocosm, the microcosm has to
harmonize himself with the macrocosm (universe)
to survive. The second concept of
environment is called tri Hita Karana, or three causes of happiness. In this concept Balinese
belongs to three environments, natural environment, social environment and spiritual
environment. To live a happy and rewarding life, he has to build an harmonious relationship to
God, by conducting religious obligation, such as temple festival and other rituals. The second
environment is the social environment, where he has to build social gathering and build a
mutual relation. For Balinese serving others, including foreigners is one of devotions. The last
24
25
26
Michel Picard, Regional TourismLaws No 3/1971/1991
http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/british/environment_1
16
environment is the natural environment where he lives, he has to take care of them, plants,
animals, water, sun, moon etc considered as the manifestation of God, thus he has to pay
special homage for them.27 In general all offerings, rituals and ceremonies on the island
dedicated to God, to the environment and to the welfare of human beings.
Since 2000 Bali regional government has done environmental auditing for hotels
located on the island, and presented Tri Hita Karana Award for hotels which have met the
environmental standard set forth by the award committee. The Environmental management
System of the establishment has to reflect the value of the Tri Hita Karana philosophy.
This research focuses on the impact of tourism on Bali’s environment by examining
the three aspects of harmonious relationship.
Picture 1.2 : Tri Hita Karana award
Given to Bali Intercontinental Hotel Resort, 5 January 2011
Resource: http://www.google.co.id/imglanding?q=tri+hita+karana+award
1.2 The Concept
Concept is an important part in the academic writing, in this research the concepts
below are utilized in the subsequent topics of discussion.
1.2.1 Tourist and Typology of Tourists
27
The concept of harmony in the philosophy of the Balinese is utilized as the basis for achieving prosperity and
welfare which, in its application, has developed and religiously imbued to become the concept of Tri Hita
Karana or literally ‘three causes of goodness’ (Kaler, 1983; Surpha, 1991; Pitana: 1994). In human settlement
environmental planning and design, this concept is essentially intended to establish a particular set of
relationships between human beings and God (Sang Hyang Widhi Wasa), human beings and the environments,
and human beings among themselves. An Exploration Of The Balinese hindu’s principles of sustainable
environmental management, T. Nirarta Samadhi, 2004
17
The main subject of this research is tourism; it means that all of the discussion will be
encompassed by tourists and its implications to the local people, their culture, environment
and economy. WTO has defined tourists as people who are traveling and staying in places
outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year business and other
purposes not related to the exercise of an activity remunerated from within the place visited.28
The phrase outside their usual environment means new environment and social
surrounding; the tourists will be adapting themselves to the new world, in term of culture,
social and nature. Their interaction with the local people varies depending on their objective
and motivation of traveling. Cohen has created tourism taxonomy and grouped them into four
types, and he also identified tourists from what sort of experiences they expect from their trip.
a. The organized mass tourist
This type of tourist does not want to have something too different from his home; he is
looking for comfort, convenient environment. Before his departure, he has arranged
everything; he prefers all inclusive tour, and a guided tour. The accommodation arranged has
to be as close as possible to his home comfort. He has no significant contact with the host
community, and his entire program organized by tourism companies.
The organized mass tourists just look for recreational experience, they expect the same
comfort as they have at home, and novelty is not a quest.
b. The Individual Mass Tourist
The main difference of the organized mass tourist and the individual mass tourist is
that the first one always bind with a group in term of itinerary and schedule, while the former
is not bound to any of them, but all of his travel arrangement has been organized by a tour
28
Definition of the World Tourist Organization (WTO): Tourists are people who are "travelling to and staying in places
outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes not related to
the exercise of an activity remunerated from within the place visited"
18
operator prior to his vacation, it means that he would like to have comfort and familiar
ambience.
By seeing the characteristic of the individual mass tourist, he just looks for different
experience; temporary escape from daily routine, Cohen called this as diversionary
experience.
c. The Explorer
The cultural and social impact of tourism in a host country will be significantly take place
when a tourist arranges his tour by himself and tries to get away from the tourist hub, he tries
to meet local people and does his best to interact with them and experience local culture as
much as he can. An explorer looks for something new and different from his own country,
however he still bother looks for a comfortable accommodation and transportation. In another
words, he would like to explore something new and different, from his comfortable bed and
vehicle.
The explorer can be associated with experiential experience and experimental
experience. He travels to another country to search authenticity and meaning in the live of
others. He also may compare different varieties of authenticity and he tries to find the one that
suits him in another country, but he does not know exactly what he is long for, thus the quest
continues.
d. The Drifter
A drifter is totally different from the mass organized and individual mass tourism, or the
opposite of them. He organizes his travel by himself without involving any tourist
establishment. In the host country he avoids seeing other tourists, he looks for a high degree of
new experience and novelty by completely involve in the local culture. This type of tourist
will have a significant contribution to the evolution of local culture.29
A drifter is looking for an existential experience, he commits and immerses in foreign
culture, although as a tourist he may not live permanently in the host country. In term of
acculturation, a drifter plays an important role.
29
Tourism Review,Vol 59, No 3/2004 : 35‐37 19
This research mainly focuses on the explorer and drifter, because both of them have
close cultural contact with the local people, where cross-cultural process among them takes
place as the process of acculturation.
1. 2.2 Acculturation
Interaction between the host community and visitors will result in cross cultural
dialectic and finally there will be a social processes and consequent social and psychological
changes that occur when people from different cultures come into contact, this process is
called acculturation30. The acculturation of foreign cultures brought by tourists to Bali,
presumably has several impacts on the social and psychological changes of Balinese people
since the island opened to the international world. Some parts of the tourists’ culture are
absorbed by the local people through the process of syncretism.
1.2.3 Syncretism
This term has been frequently used by researchers especially when they are dealing
with culture. Literally the verb to syncretize means to fuse or to unite, thus syncretism means
union or fusion. But the cultural science defines that as the process where by two or more
independent cultural systems or elements thereof, conjoin to form a new and distinct system.31
Balinese people in the process of adopting new cultural elements brought by foreigners they
always acculturate the new elements then syncretized them in the Balinese culture, and make
the new syncretized culture as their distinctive culture.32The process of syncretism takes place
to enrich the Balinese culture itself, or due to the Balinese dependency on tourism.
30
31
Jafar Jafari 2000:6
http://www.encyclopedia.com/searchresults.aspx?q=SYNCRETISM
32
This appears to have been the story throughout Bali’s history, outside cultures have come, perhaps as conquerors, perhaps only as visitors and traders but Balinese society and culture have remained distinctive, accepting outward forms, but molding them to its own different purposes. Michel Picard 1986:38 20
1.2.4 Appropriation
The increase of tourist visit to Bali, has made Bali dependent on the tourism sector, as
a result the economy on the island has been dictated by foreign-dominated tourism industry,
because the conventional agriculture has been no longer capable to support the economy. The
culture has been exposed to meet the need and satisfaction of the foreign tourists. The
appropriation, where the local community becomes economically and culturally dependent on
the mass foreign dominated industry is unavoidable.
33
The appropriation of Balinese culture,
makes Balinese fall on the weak bargaining point, thus commoditization is inevitable.
1.2.5 Commoditization
After a long domination of tourist business, and being severely dependent on the
tourist business, Balinese have to do their best to make benefit out of the presence of the
tourists on the island by selling services and products that formerly were not merchandisable
.Some sacred dances that used to have only religious and ritual values, now exposed to
tourism industry to meet the demand of the market, and treat them as a merchandise. Sacred
places like temples which used to open only on the day of the temple ceremony, and only for
the congregation of the temple, now they are opened every day for tourists, as a tourist object.
Some antique objects or archeological remains have been sold and exposed to tourists. 34
The concepts aforesaid works are thoroughly examined through the history of tourism
activity on the island, which provides general overviews, preceded by exploring Bali and its
potential aspects as a tourism destination.
33
Jafar Jafari, 2000:27 34
In the context of tourism analysis, this term has usually been used not just for items which are ordinarily for sale, but particularly for the sale of items which are not normally or originally design for trade. Thus commoditization has a pejorative connotation, especially when applied to cultural patrimony, sacred performance, child abuse, sexual services or rare and endangered species. Jafar Jafari 2000: 91 21
1.3 Presentation of Bali
1.3.1 Bali In General
Bali is a major tourist destination in Indonesia for various exceptional touristy
activities. The diamond shaped island situated between Indian and Pacific oceans is one of the
17000 islands of Indonesian archipelago that lies between 8 to 9 degrees South of the equator
between Java in the west and Lombok in the East. Bali covers a small areas of only 5,632
square kilometres , where vast chains of volcanic mountains between 1,350 meters and 3,000
meters high stretch across from the West to East end. Surrounded with beautiful beaches, the
island holds lush tropical forests, pristine crater lakes, fast flowing rivers and picturesque rice
terraces. The South coast consists of white sand beaches, while in other parts of the island the
beaches are covered with exotic black volcanic sand.
The beauty of Bali is also enriched by the sincerity of its people. The population has
grown to over 3.890.757 people with an overwhelming majority of Hindus. The island’s
largest city and administrative centre is the fast growing Denpasar with population of over
530,000.Tourism is spreading rapidly in all directions, making it the largest industry in Bali.
The traditional tourism area includes a vast area between Denpasar, Kuta, Sanur and Ubud.
Smaller towns such as Jimbaran, Tuban, Legian, Seminyak, and Canggu are also developing
into busy tourist areas.35
1.3.2 The History of Bali
Prior to a discussion of the history of tourism activity in Bali, it would be relevant to
see the word of BALI etymologically. The name of Bali was found in Blanjong pillar
35
Tourism in Bali: A cultural Approach to Development, by I Made Bandem
22
inscription written by Sri Kesari Warmadewa in 914 AD, it was written as Walidwipa.36The
word consists of Wali and Dwipa, wali is an old Balinese language that means offering37, and
dwipa, is a Sanskrit word meaning island38, thus Walidwipa means the island of offering.
Then the word Wali changed into Bali due to the strong Indian influence in Bali. The word
Bali also means offering or something offered during worshiping.39From its name Bali has
indicated massive rituals on the island from the time it was inhabited by humankinds.
Bali was firstly inhabited by about 2000 BC by Austronesian people who migrated
originally from Taiwan through Maritime Southeast Asia. Culturally and linguistically, the
Balinese are thus closely related to the peoples of the Indonesian archipelago, the Philippines,
and Oceania. Stone tools dating from this time have been found near the village of Cekik in
the island's west. It means that Balinese culture is an amalgamation of several cultures blended
and united and characterized as Balinese culture. In one of the Balinese temples, called
Penataran Sasih temple located in the eastern part of Bali, a bronze nekara well kept as a
sacred religious element called bulan Pejeng, the moon of Pejeng. Based on the result of
archeological researches, the temple was founded before Hinduism influence came to Bali.
The bronze nekara is one of the artifacts during the Donson age in China 300 years BC, while
Hinduism came to Bali in the eighth century40. From the name of the island and the origin of
the Balinese people then an attention could be paid on how the culture and belief has evolved
and created such uniqueness that has attracted and lured the eyes of the world.
36
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balinese culture was strongly influenced by Indian and Chinese, and particularly
Hindu culture, beginning around the 1st century AD. The name Bali dwipa ("Bali island") has been discovered
from various inscriptions, including the Blanjong pillar inscription written by Sri Kesari Warmadewa in 914
AD and mentioning "Walidwipa". It was during this time that the complex irrigation system subak was
developed to grow rice.
M. Atmojo 223 The occurrence of the word wali (cf. modern Balinese puja-wali, "offering") in line 2 (backside) supports this meaning.
38
http://www.spokensanskrit.de
39
http://www.spokensanskrit.de
40
http://www.babadbali.com
37
23
1.3.3. The Distinctive Feature of Bali
a. Culture
The current Balinese culture and religion cannot well perceived without looking back to
the prehistoric Balinese and the coming of Hinduism to the island. In general prehistoric
Balinese is divided into four phases, viz the period of hunting and gathering food simple level,
the period of hunting and gathering food advanced, early planting and the period
perundagian41.
During the period of hunting and gathering simple level, Balinese lived nomadically, and
they lived dependent on natural resources, they chose regions containing enough supply of
food and water for them to survive. Hunting was organized in a small group, and only for men,
while the women was in charge to collect fruits, leaves and roots with tools made of stone.
Still on the same period but more advanced, they continued the first period tradition but they
were less nomadic, they lived in caves and used more modern tools of stone and bone. Their
effort to find food had brought them to the land cultivation, and development of culture and
civilization, the tradition of food gathering shifted to the food production and economy
development. And the last period is called the period of perundagian , remains from this
period had shown a remarkable progress of human’s life such as the discovery of bronze
artifacts made by metal melting and molding techniques to produce some kinds of home tools,
sharp weapons like: axe, point of a lance, cooking pot, jewelry such as : wrist bracelet, ankle
bracelet, earrings, necklace and ring; and the most interesting thing is the finding of a nekara
(huge bronze drum) which is now kept in Penataran Sasih Temple at Pejeng village known by
the name of Bulan Pejeng (pejeng moon). The community in that age had adhered a belief of
animism especially the worship towards their ancestors that could be seen from the burial
system by using a sarkophag (stone coffin), and earthen pot.42
41
42
ANCIENT HISTORY OF BALI, BaliKind Online Bali Museum collections
24
From the findings above, Bali has demonstrated that it has been visited by foreigners even
during the prehistoric period, and Bali has adopted several foreign elements in its local culture.
The finding of the huge bronze drum in the Hindu temple, explains to us that Balinese culture
is opened to absorb foreign culture, by putting it in the temple, the absorption of the culture is
a process of naturalization.
Picture 1.3 : Archeological remains of the prehistoric Balinese
Resource : http://blog.baliwww.com/guides/349 Museum Bali
b. Religion
The prehistoric period ended after the coming of Hindu influence in Bali in the eighth
century. The Hinduism brought by a priest called Empu Markandeya from Javanese Hindu’s
Monastery. His mission and his followers from Java was successful to built the first temple in
Gianyar Regency called the Murwa temple, meaning the first temple, then they moved to the
slope of mount Agung, the highest volcano in Bali and build Besakih temple, the biggest
temple in Bali.
43
Since then Hinduism developed quickly in the island and temples
construction took place all over Bali, and now there are about 20.000 temple on the island,
make it popular as the island of a thousand temple.
43
Based on the details found on the inscription to the 8th century AD it be said that the Ancient Balinese historical period covering the period between the 8th century AD to 14th century AD with the arrival of the expedition mahapati Gajah Mada from Majapahit who can defeat the Balinese. Balidwipa name is not a new name, but has existed since ancient times. 25
What make Balinese Hindu unique is that before the Hinduism came to Bali, the origin
people of Bali had had a belief based on animism, then they accepted Hinduism without
leaving their original belief, on the other word they syncretised Hinduism and animism.
Bali-Hinduism dominates the everyday lives of most Balinese, and has blended with
culture, architecture, literature, philosophy, and mythology. One of the oldest names for the
Balinese religion is Agama Tirtha, or “religion of the holy waters”. The name depicts not only
the sign of water as a tool of purification, but also the role of irrigation in the overall socioecological system. Balinese believe all religions are like rivers, which all flow from the
mountain heights and all end up in the same large sea. Only their beds are different. Some
meander, others do not. To the Hindu-Balinese, the truth, although it may exist, is not
knowable. In Bali there is no attempt at religious uniformity. Such religious tolerance makes
Balinese open to all manners of social coexistence.44
The traditional belief of Balinese people was considered as polytheism, they worshiped
many gods, it was not in line with the state five principles called Panca Sila. The first
principle is believe in one almighty God, the second one is just and civilized humanity, the
third one is the unity of Indonesia, the forth is democracy and the last one is social justice for
all people of Indonesia. There were a lot of criticisms stated that agama tirtha was not a
religion. Then they had to work hard and they decided to make agama tirtha a monotheistic
religion by making Ida Sanghyang Widhi Wasa as a Balinese word for God. Finally agama
tirtha recognized as Hindu Religion in 1958.
« Après l'intégration de Bali dans l’Indonésie indépendante, en 1945, leur situation
est devenue critique, dans la mesure où le Ministère des Cultes, contrôlé par les musulmans,
imposait aux citoyens indonésiens d’adhérer à une religion professant une conception
strictement monothéiste du divin et qui ne soit pas limitée à un groupe ethnique particulier. En
conséquence, si les Balinais voulaient éviter d'avoir à se convertir à l'islam ou au
christianisme, il ne leur restait plus qu’à réformer leur religion de manière à obtenir sa
44
www.baliadvisor.com/pages/BaliCeremonies.pdf 26
légitimation officielle. À cette fin, les réformateurs balinais se sont tournés vers l'Inde, tout en
réinterprétant leur héritage indo-javanais en référence aux dogmes et aux modes
d'organisation de l'islam et du christianisme. Leurs efforts ont abouti en 1958 à la
reconnaissance de la 'religion hindo-balinaise' par le Ministère des Cultes. »45
Then they established an institution to officially represent the Balinese belief in the
regional level and national level. The institution was called Parisada Hindu Dharma or the
council of Balinese Hinduism. The first institution was officially opened in the city of
Denpasar in 1961, and the national level was built in 1965.46
From the history of the Hindu Balinese above can be obviously seen that Balinese
Hindu is very unique, a manifestation of prehistoric, old and modern blend of belief and
culture, which is from the beginning of Balinese in contact with foreigners the uniqueness of
their culture has been seen as the strongest potential for tourism development and activity on
the island. It was the fetus of the history of the tourism activity in Bali.
1.3.4 Geographical Advantages of Bali
Before seeing Bali as an autonomic island, it is important to see the island in the map of
Indonesia and in the world map. One of the advantages of Bali as a tourist destination is its
geographical position and its accessibility. Bali is located between Java and Lombok island,
and it is accessible by sea and air. Bali has four harbours and one International airport. From
1920s to 1950s almost all foreign visitors came to Bali by sea, especially through Dutch
commercial harbour in the northern part of Bali. But since 1969, the opening of Ngurah Rai
international airport most international tourists come by air. Its accessibility has made Bali a
convenient tourist destination in Indonesia. Although European countries geographically far
45
http://www.reseau-asie.com/edito/les-editos-du-reseau-asie Auteur : Michel Picard (CNRS-LASEMA) Date de
l'article : 01-11-2003
46
Catherine Basset and Michel Picard,1993: 127
27
away from the island, the airport has made it possible. Until recently Australia is the top
market share for Bali’s tourism, it is possible due to its geographical closeness. It takes 2 hours
from Western Australia to the island.
Picture 1.4 : Bali in the map of Indonesia Resource : http://www.google.fr/search?q=Map+of+Indonesia Bali is a major tourist destination in Indonesia for various exceptional touristy
activities. The diamond shaped island situated between Indian and Pacific oceans is one of the
17000 islands of Indonesian archipelago that lies between 8 to 9 degrees South of the equator
between Java in the west and Lombok in the East. Bali covers a small areas of only 5,632
square kilometres , where vast chains of volcanic mountains between 1,350 meters and 3,000
meters high stretch across from the West to East end. Surrounded with beautiful beaches, the
island holds lush tropical forests, pristine crater lakes, fast flowing rivers and picturesque rice
28
terraces. The South coast consists of white sand beaches, while in other parts of the island the
beaches are covered with exotic black volcanic sand.
Picture 1.5 : Bali in the world globe http://www.worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/islands/au/bali.htm The beauty of island is also enriched by the sincerity of its people. The population has
grown to over 3.890.757 people with an overwhelming majority of Hindus. The island’s
largest city and administrative centre is the fast growing Denpasar with population of over
530,000.Tourism is spreading rapidly in all directions, making it the largest industry to date. In
Bali. The traditional tourism area includes a vast area between Denpasar, Kuta, Sanur and
29
Ubud. Smaller towns such as Jimbaran, Tuban, Legian, Seminyak, and Canggu are also
developing into busy tourist areas.47
48
Picture 1.6 Map of Bali
Resource : http://www.bottles‐up‐diving.com
After examining its geographical aspects, it would be relevant to explore the history of
Bali, and its correlation with the tourism.
1.3.5 Tourist Visiting Bali
This island has been visited by millions of foreigners since 1920s because of its culture
and natural diversity, and the numbers of visitors constantly increase even though Bali had
ever undergone several difficult situations, for instance terrorism attacks in 2002 and 2005.
The number of foreign tourists visiting Bali in 2010 is 2.493058 people, and domestic tourists
4.646.343 people49, this number is expected to increase in the future.50
Since the beginning of tourism development on the island, its visitors have been very
loyal and even Bali was awarded as the best island of the world. The island of Bali as the best
because its natural state is uniformly attractive (both mountain and coastal areas), tourism
47
Tourism in Bali: A cultural Approach to Development, by I Made Bandem
http://www.baliguide.com/bali_map1.html
49
http://www.disparda.baliprov.go.id/archive/all/2011 50
Bali’s tourism office.
48
30
objects are diverse and spread out, the availability of restaurants / food (international and
local) and its people are friendly and valued friends.51
Picture 1.7 Bali award as the best island of the word.
Resource: http://www.info-bali.net/2010/07/bali-awarded-as-world-best-island-in.html
1.3.6 Reason for Choosing Bali, Europe and Australia
The field research will be done in Bali as the receptor of the tourists or as the locus
where the cultural syncretism, interaction and acculturation takes place while Europe and
Australia selected based on the historical and geographical aspects. The three countries are
well justified field, based on the fact that Bali has been a commercial tourist object since
1920s, and since then the number of European and Australian tourists visiting Bali keeps
increasing. Historically tourism in Bali was initiated by European, since the Dutch officially
set Bali as one of tourist destination in their colony in 1920s. Their travels to Bali had inspired
them to write books, take pictures and films that made Bali well known in Europe. Even some
of them had given significant contribution to the enrichment and evolution of Balinese culture.
In regard with Australia, geographically the distance between Bali and Australia is 3011.22
kilometers or 1871.14 miles52 with 3 hours average flying time53. Australia is the most
prospective market for Bali.
51
Bali is remains a tourism icon of Indonesia. In the midst of government efforts to pursue targets seven million
of foreign tourists in 2010, a leading travel magazine based in New York, Travel & Leisure, awarded "World
Best Island in Asia 2010" to the island resort, Balihttp://www.info-bali.net/2010/07/bali-awarded-as-world-bestisland-in.html
52
http://www.mapcrow.info/Distance_between_Bali_ID_and_Perth_AS.html 53
http://www.trueknowledge.com/q/how_long_is_the_flight_from_perth_to_denpasar 31
Based on the official information of Bali’s Statistic Board, the number of European
tourist who visited Bali in 2010 is 613.774 people,54 and Australian tourists is 647.872 .
Australia contributes top market share 25,99%, France 4,26% and Germany 3,38%. The
constant increase of Australian and European tourists visiting the island, has constituted the
open possibility for them to build contact with Balinese local people that may bring cultural
exchanges and acculturation among them.
This tendency has been confirmed by Jean-Marc Lavergne in La Gazette de Bali n° 57
février 2010 as follows :
« Dans les années 80, il y avait environ 20 000 touristes français par an en moyenne.
En 2009, nous avons passé la barre des 110 000. En 1990, à mon arrivée ici, la France était
en 15ème position du marché global et 4ème du marché européen, contre 7ème et 1ère
respectivement aujourd’hui », explique ce diplômé de l’école de tourisme de Chambéry55
The following table shows the European tourists visiting Bali in 2010, it means that the
visit of European since the Dutch occupation until recently constantly stable.
Figure 1.8 The figures of European tourists
Source: Central Statistics Agency Bali (BPS) 201056
54
http://balitopproperty.com/html/news/latest/bali‐booming‐tourist‐numbers‐foreign‐tourist‐arrivals‐in‐q1‐2010‐up‐
18.48.html 55
La Gazette de Bali n° 57 – février 2010 56
See Central Statistics Agency Bali (BPS) 2009 32
A survey shows that 61% of the tourist visiting Bali is interested in culture, 32%
interested in nature and only 7% interested in other thing.57 The figures implied that Balinese
nature has been exposed for tourist attraction, as a result tourism in Bali has a significant
contribution on the downgrading of the environmental quality. Thus both culture and nature
have to be equally preserved not only for the need of the recent tourism but also for the
sustainability of the sector.
The vast development and investment in tourism sectors have confiscated the
agricultural land. After the tourism development on the island, agricultural sectors have been
neglected by both the government and the investors. Agriculture has been considered as an
unprofitable one. The figure below shows the scale of investment in Bali.
The negative impact of the tourism development on the island does not merely on the
physical environment but also culture and historical assets. The area for rice terraces that has
been a legend of Bali’s natural beauty for ages, and with its traditional irrigation system has
been continuously decreasing. The environmental impact of the tourism has trigged up social
problem that might be contra productive with the goal of tourism development in Bali.58
The main objective for exposing the Balinese culture and the beauty of its nature to
tourism is to earn financial revenue for the welfare of the Balinese people as the sole owner of
the diverse culture and nature. The question is whether Balinese economically benefited by the
“massive” tourism development on the island. Michel Picard stated the following «Toujours
est-il que, si le tourisme entre pour un large part dans la croissance économique spectaculaire
qu’a connue Bali depuis les années 70, en revanche, la distribution inégale de ses revenues
57
THE CONSERVATION OF GREEN OPEN SPACES IN BALI I GEDE AGUS PUTRA JAYA : 63
Source: Asian Journal on Hospitality and tourism vol. 1 p 63 58
The continuing development of tourism facilities creates an unending need for cleared land. Land for housing, hotels,
streets, etc gradually increased, while paddy fields, and other environmentally sensitive land (forests, mangroves, swamps,
etc) gradually decreased. All in all, the whole concept of land use in Bali has undergone tremendous changes. The more
intensive tourism development occurred in one place, the more serious consequences were resulted (Manuaba, 1995: 33),
including: First, the physical consequences such as: damage to the physical environment, historic and cultural assets;
crowding, traffic jams, and pollution. Second, social consequences that include: inaccessibility of the local people to the
venues of tourism and community services; the resentment of local residents towards tourism; lack of appreciation on the
benefit of tourism. THE CONSERVATION OF GREEN OPEN SPACES IN BALI: I GEDE AGUS PUTRA JAYA,
http://www.google.co.id/search?hl=en&q=THE CONSERVATION OF GREEN OPEN SPACES IN BALI%3A I GEDE AGUS
PUTRA JAYA
33
dans la population et entre les départements ainsi que la mainmise croissante de intérêts
étrangers ne laissent pas d’être préoccupantes » Catherine Basset and Michel Picard 1993 :29
Thus this research thoroughly examines the economic impact of the tourism toward the
Balinese community, whether they have gained equally of something they have given to
tourism.
34
CHAPTER 2 - THE EVOLUTION OF INTERNATIONAL
TOURISM IN BALI
Talking about the history of tourism in Bali, the name of a German doctor Mr. Gregor
Krause
has to be taken into account. After the final conquest of the island, the Dutch
government needed to make sure that their officials who were in charged in Bali got an
appropriate health services, and of course to get sympathy from the community of Bali as one
of their regional colony, they had to do something for them. For that purposes the Dutch
government sent dr. Gregor Krause to Bali, he arrived in Bali in 1912, six years after the
Dutch final conquest of the island. He got along very well with the Balinese people, he
travelled around Bali with his small camera and took thousands of pictures of men, women,
villages, temples, ceremonies, and the Balinese daily life. He was enchanted by the local
culture and people.
59
Then he sorted out the photos, four years later his collection was
published in Germany as a classic book on Bali. The book was illustrated by 400 pictures he
took in Bali and his notes and complements about his work and life experiences in Bali, the
island was nicknamed “ The Island Of God”.60
Dr. Gregor Krause's Island of God and other publication in 1926 called Gergor
Krause’s Bali: Volk,Land, Tanze, Feste and Tempel (Folk, country, dance, festivals and
temples) were very well known allover Europe, they became reliable resources and
information about Bali, and of course the readers of this book dreamt of seeing the reality of
the island. Moreover in the early 1930 some documentary films about Bali, taken by Dutch
59
Krause became a young medical officer enlisted in the Dutch East Indies Company's army, and was initially assigned to the adjacent island
of Java. On August 26th, 1912, Krause was transferred to the rural town of Bangli, in the island of Bali, where he was assigned the
responsibility of maintaining and preserving not only the health of the colony's soldiers and administrative/military officials, but that of the
local inhabitants as well, who had not yet developed modern medical care.
60
Four years later, in 1920, the first edition of his soon-to-be classic book on Bali was published in Germany: it included a selection of 400
black and white photographs, complemented by the author's written reports from the nicknamed “Island of the Gods
35
during their colony in the island were distributed in America and Europe made the traditional
Balinese culture exposed to foreigners and became the attention of the world.61 Picture 1.9 Market and Balinese family in 1920s
Resourcehttp://www.google.co.id/imglanding?q=gem+de+lesser+Sunda+isles+to+Bali+tourists+Dutch
Historically, the genuine interest for Bali began during the Dutch conquest where the
Colonial government strove to protect and promote Bali as a living museum following the
respect for the indigenous tradition and culture.
Bali had inspired the Dutch Colony in Indonesia to establish a tourism office in Batavia in
1908, or Jakarta now. The office was called Official Tourist Bureau, the main objective of the
establishment of the office is to promote the tourism in the regions of Dutch Colony which
was called Dutch East Indies. After the fall of Bali’s last Raja during the massacre in the same
year, Dutch gained a total control over Bali, thus they could extend their tourism services to
Bali, with their first brochure entitled “The gem of the Lesser Sunda Isles”.62 The word “gem”
means precious stone, jewel, pearl or treasure63, while Lesser Sunda Isles means the
archipelago of Indonesia64, thus it means “The Pearl of Indonesian Archipelago”. From the
brochure could be seen that Dutch government used Bali as the icon of the tourism promotion
in Indonesia. Bali is the pearl of Indonesian Archipelago.
61
The publication in 1926 of a remarkable book of photographs, Gregor Krause's Bali: Volk, Land, Tanze, Feste,
Tempel, had mesmerized all of Europe. Krause's priceless photos, taken while he was a government doctor on
Bali between 1912 and 1914, revealed a culture which had remained unchanged through the centuries. In the
early 1930s a few documentary films, such as The Island of Demons from Germany and Goona Goona, out of the
U.S.A., were distributed in America and Europe, bringing this isolated cultural outpost to the attention of the
world (http://www.baliadvertiser.biz/articles/tokobuku/2004/island.htm
62
Michel Picard, 1986
63
http://dictionary.sensagent.com/gem/en‐en/#synonyms 64
http://dictionary.sensagent.com/Lesser Sunda Islands 36
Four years later the Dutch government withdrew the military occupation in Bali and
replaced them by police, it means that the condition of the island got normal and safe. By 1924
the Royal Packet Navigation Company (KPM) started regular cruise to Bali and appointed its
office in Buleleng, northern part of Bali as a Tourist Bureau representing Bali. Since then the
Dutch government converted the guest houses that were formerly used to accommodate
Dutch officials for catering tourists. This is the fetus of tourism in Bali.
The initiative resulted in the arrival of wealthy aristocrats and intellectuals during the
early 1920s, that came from all around the world to sample the so-called last paradise.65The
campaign about Bali as the gem of Sunda Isles was very successful, it was indicated by the
number of tourist visiting the island increased significantly from several hundreds in 1920s to
several thousands in 1930s.66
The early tourists who visited Bali were elites, aristocrats, writers and researchers.
Although their number were not as many as the number of the tourists now, but their presence
at that time were very significant especially on developing and promoting Bali though their
traveling notes, books, photos and their contribution Balinese culture.
67
68
Picture 1.10 : Brochure produced by Dutch
Resource:http://www.google.co.id/imglanding?q=gem+de+lesser+Sunda+isles+to+Bali+tourists+Dutc
One of the visitors who wrote a lot about Bali is a Mexican painter, historian,
ethnologist and writer José Miguel Covarrubias Duclaude and his wife Rose, a photographer.
65
Michel Picard , 1986 Michel Picard , 1986 67
http://www.google.co.id/imglanding?q=gem+de+lesser+Sunda+isles+to+Bali+tourists+Dutc 68
http://www.google.co.id/images?um=1&hl=en&biw=1272&bih=391&tbs=isch%3A1&sa=1&q=Pictures+the+K
PM+Buleleng 66
37
Before they came to Bali, they had been famous artists in America. They first came to Bali by
ship organized by Bali Tourist Bureau organized by KPM, the Dutch company in 1930. He
wrote about his trip and arrival by ship in Buleleng, north coast of Bali and his admiration
about Bali in the book entitled “Island of Bali”. He described his adoration about the natural
beauty of Bali island, especially beautiful rice terraces and the green palm leaves and sea
breeze as the image of waving palms. He also described a lot about Balinese people, life style
and how they lived, for example women who carrying baskets of fruits on their head.69 Other
prominent visitors who were noted in the history of tourism are Walter Spies, Rudolph
Bonnet, Le Mayeur who made contribution to the Balinese painting and arts, while Margaret
Mead and Buckminster Fuller were anthropologists, ethnologists, intellectuals, and musicians
who contributed meaningfully to the enrichment of Balinese culture and music.70
71
Picture: 1.11 José Miguel Covarrubias Duclaude and his paintings.
Resource : http://hopmusikkteater.no/miguel‐covarrubias&page=3
Seeing the success of the tourism campaign through the increase of the visitors to Bali
and also the progressive publication abroad, especially in Europe and America, KPM in 1930
published some documentary films about Bali, established two hotels, one at city centre of
Denpasar called Bali Hotel and one at Kintamani, eastern part of Bali, with lake and crater
69
Mexican artist and writer Miguel Covarrubias and his wife Rose first came to Bali in 1930. His book Island Of Bali tells about their arrival by ship in Buleleng (Singaraja) on the north coast. They had been filled with images of waving palms, women carrying baskets of fruit in their heads and picturesque rice terraces.
http://www.northbali.com/index.php/article-details/about-north-bali/
70
The influence of such foreign artists as Walter Spies, Rudolph Bonnet, and Le Mayeur during the 1930s made a
significant impact on the development of modern Balinese painting. An elite circle of foreign anthropologists,
ethnologists, intellectuals, and musicians - Margaret Mead and Buckminster Fuller among them - were also
drawn to Bali, devoting themselves to studying its culture.
71
http://www.google.co.id/images?um=1&hl=en&biw=1272&bih=391&tbs=isch%3A1&sa=1&q=Miguel+Covar
rubias+and+his+wife+Rose
38
view of mount Batur. Since then they could accommodate more tourists in the city centre that
is very close to Sanur, Kuta and Nusa Dua beaches, and also accommodated those who
enjoyed the beauty of mount and lake Batur.72
Tourism activity in Bali is categorized into three parts, tourism before the
independence, from 1920 to 1945; tourism between the independence and civil war, from
1945 to 1965 and the post-war tourism, from 1966 to 2002 and tourism post terrorism attack
from 2002 until now. Each period has it own characteristic and need to be separately
examined.
2.1 Tourism Before the independence (1920-1945)
Tourism before the independence was initiated, regulated and administered by the Dutch
colony, and the main objective of the tourism within the period was not economic profit but
mostly political one. The Dutch government was internationally criticized for the massacre
and imbalanced war between Balinese and the Dutch troops. The embarrassment was
recovered by an ethical policy and blew out Balinese culture preservation and developing it as
a unique touristic attraction. 73 74
Picture:1.12Tourists attraction in 1920s.
Resource : warungsobat.tripod.com and http://www.google.com/search?q=gregor+krause
Although official figures were not found in regard with the number of the tourists
within this period, but the Dutch effort to promote Bali by launching “The gem of the Lesser
Sunda Isles” as a new product by using Bali as its core product was very effective. The
campaign was also supported by the publication of dr. Gregor Krause’s books in Europe in
72
73
Michel Picard, 1986 : 40
The scar in the liberal imagination of the Nederland produced by these massacres had to be healed, and preservation of Balinese culture, in combination with tourism, were the most effective balms for the healing process. Summed up by Adrian Vickers. 74
http://www.google.co.id/images?um=1&hl=en&biw=1047&bih=391&tbs=isch%3A1&sa=1&q=Buleleng+Bali+1920 39
1920 and 1926 and the distribution of documentary films made by Dutch in Germany and
America. The success of the product could be seen from the increase of the visitors to Bali
from several hundreds in 1920s to several thousands toward the end of the 1930s.75
Most tourists during this period were scholars, researchers, artists, musicologists,
painters, archaeologists and photographers. Their coming to Bali was not merely as a tourist
but also did some research, wrote books, took pictures, painted and taught Balinese to enrich
their culture, especially performances that could be exposed to tourists. In other word, they
created tourist products for the future tourists, tourists created touristic product for future
tourists. Geographically the flow of the tourists during this time was from north Bali, because
the capital of Bali during the Dutch Occupation was Buleleng and all of the tourists travelled
by ship and arrived in Buleleng.
The development of the accommodation was also started from the north beach, the first
ones were the conversion of the KPM guest houses into tourist accommodations, then in 1928
the colonial government built Bali hotel in Denpasar and hotel Kintamani in the northeast part
of Bali. This period terminated by the political tension between the Dutch colony and the
Japanese occupation in 1942, they occupied Bali for three years, and within that period there
was no record of tourism in Bali, it could be characterized as “dark period”.
2.2 Tourism Between the Independence of Indonesia
and Civil War (1945-1965)
Although the independence of Indonesia declared by President Soekarno on August 17,
1945, but the struggle against Dutch (NICA) lasted until 1949. During the period the first
visitors disappeared, and number of tourists were very limited. According to directorate
general of tourism there were 35,915 tourists visiting Indonesia in 1964 and 29,367 visitors in
1965, there was no record for Bali.76 This is the second dark era of Balinese tourism, Gerard
Francillon said that the political situation from 1940 to 1965 had killed the Balinese Cultural
Tourism.
75
76
Michel Picard,1986:40 Gerard Francillon, 79:11 40
2.3 Tourism from 1966 to terrorism attack 2002
This period has to be examined because this period has made significant history for the
tourism in Indonesia. The impact of the civil tension in 1965 was very significant on the
number of the tourist visit to Indonesia, especially Bali, and also the number of the visitors fell
dramatically after the terrorist attack on October 2, 2002. The number of tourists in 1966 was
2.250 people, in the same year Bali Beach hotel funded by the Japanese war reparation was
opened in Sanur Beach. There was no record in 1967, could be due to the transitional period
between old order regime under Presiden Soekarno and the new order regime under President
Soeharto. The visitors seemed confident to visit Bali again from 1968, reaching the number of
5.767 people. Coincidently the beginning of Soeharto period was also the beginning of
tourism recovery in Bali, to see that prospective opportunity Ngurah Rai International Airport
was opened in 1969, since then the flow of tourists visiting Bali was tremendous, five years
after the opening of the airport, exactly in 1973 the number of tourist visiting Bali was 53,775.
The airport development was considered as the beginning of the mass tourism in Bali.77 Since
then the number of tourists increased constantly, 20 years later in 1993 the number reached
885,518 people, the highest was in year 2000, 1.412.839, and by the year of the terrorism
attack on 12 October 2002, the number was 1.285.944. The attack significantly affected the
tourism activity in Bali.
78
Picure: 1.13 Turtle releasing at Kuta Beach Bali
Resource: http://www.google.co.id/images? the+most+crowded+site+at+Kuta+beach+Bali
77
78
Gerard Francillon, 79:11
http://www.google.co.id/images? the+most+crowded+site+at+Kuta+beach+Bali
41
Soon after he was in power, President Soeharto set the framework of the first five year
development plan 1969-1974, in which the plan and the strategy of national tourism
development officially stated. They encouraged the tourism development in Indonesia due to
the economic crisis, caused by political tension for the last six years. Bali which has been a
legend and has become focal attention of the international world since 1920s was chosen by
the president as a strategic model of tourism development in Indonesia.79 Since then Bali has
become the marketing mark of Indonesian tourism, other parts of Indonesia were promoted
from Bali Tourist Information Centre, as a result Bali is more popular than Indonesia itself. In
response to the massive number of tourist visit to Bali, the government developed a tourist
resort in Nusa Dua, southern peninsula of Bali. The development was funded by the World
Bank and consulted by a French consulting company SCETO. The resort under the
administration of BTDC (Bali Tourism Development Centre).
The first project built was not a hotel but the Construction of Hotel and Tourism
Management Training Centre (BPLP) and a hotel for training . This project was focused on the
professional services that have to be given to the tourists. In short before inviting visitors to
the resort, the human resources have to be well prepared. Then the first hotel built was Nusa
Dua Beach Hotel in 1983, followed by the opening of Putri Bali Hotel, Government under
supervision of HII Co.,Ltd. , now Hotel Indonesia Natour (HIN Co.,Ltd.), Melia Bali Sol,
which was funded by a Spain investor, now Melia Bali Resort, Villas and Spa, Club Med,
another foreign investment, funded by a French Investor opened in 1987, six other
establishments built in 1991, they are Nusa Indah Hotel & Convention Centre, now Westin
Resort Hotel and Bali International Convention Centre (BICC), Sheraton Lagoon, now Laguna
Resort, Grand Hyatt Bali, Bali Hilton, now Ayodya Resort, Bali Golf and Country Club,
Galleria Nusa Dua (Amenity Core), now Bali Collection Shopping Centre with a Sogo Store,
Bali Desa Service Apartment.80 The main objective of this project was to provide high-quality
rooms and professional services for ever increasing number of visitors.81
79
80
Michel Picard 1986:41
http://www.balinusaduaresort.com Nusa Dua Tourism Resort was created because of objective requirement of high‐quality rooms to accommodate the ever increasing visitor. The previous study showed that a significant amount of international‐quality hotels and lodging 81
42
2.4 Tourism after the Terrorism Attack
Bali has been known as a peaceful tourist destination for ages, with its friendly population,
natural beauty, unique cultural performance and values. They are very welcoming people and
always do they best to share with others. At a sudden unexpected suicide bomb blasted in Kuta
on October 12, 2002. It was shocking Balinese and also the international world. Two bombs
blast simultaneously in Kuta broke the peaceful atmosphere of Bali and killed 187 people,
most of them were Australian young tourists. 82
Since then the image of Bali as a safe tourist destination has been deteriorating, especially
for Australian. Around 22.6% of respondents stated that they thought about holidaying in Bali
and then changed to another destination. However, as the findings show, a substantial number
of travelers remain confident about holidaying and traveling to Bali83. The statistic shows that
the number of tourists visiting Bali fell from 1.285.944 in 2002 to 993.029 in 2003, the figure
decreased 22,8%.
84
Picture 1.14 Bali blast 12 October 2002 and Kuta Beach 2003, a year after the blast
Sesource: http://www.fugly‐bali.org/bombing.html
After Bali blast, tourism sectors in Bali had to work hard for the recovery and
convinced the international world that Bali is still a safe place to travel, one year after the
compounds is required for accommodation. In 1975, there were only 1800 rooms available around Kuta and Sanur, meanwhile according to study conducted up until 1980 showed that around 3800 – 4700 international‐quality rooms was required. http://www.balinusaduaresort.com 82
The bombs killed 187 people; most of them were Australian young t ourists. Indeed, this incident was the largest loss of Australian lives in one operation since World War II (Suter, 2003). Dian Yulie Reindrawati www.journal.unair.ac.id/.../04‐
Dian%20Yuli‐the%20impacts%20of%20bali%20blasts.pdf 83
Dian Yulie Reindrawati www.journal.unair.ac.id 84
http://www.google.co.id/images?um=1&hl=en&biw=1272&bih=391&tbs=isch%3A1&sa=1&q=Kuta+Beach+i
n+2003
43
number of visitors increased up to 1470.525 and in 2005 the second terrorism attack took
place in Jimbaran and Kuta, as a result the number of tourists dropped to 1.260317 people,
since then the number of visitors grows constantly, and the last official statistic shows that the
number of foreign tourists in 2010 is 2493.058 people. The constant increase of visitors to
Bali, have significantly contributed to the current tourism activities in the island.
44
CHAPTER 3 - THE SITUATION OF TOURISM
ACTIVITY NOW
3.1 Number of visitors
After tracing the history of tourism in Bali, the current situation of tourism has to be
examined especially the number of tourist visiting and the tourist facilities development on the
island.
The influx of tourists visiting Bali started after the development of a nine storey hotel
called Hotel Bali Beach, situated on the eastern coast of south Bali precisely at Sanur beach.
The hotel was built in 1963 during the period of the Indonesian first president Mr. Soekarno
and inaugurated in 1966. The hotel was mostly used to accommodate the state official
visitors85.
Seeing the number of foreign visitors visiting Bali and its international reputation, then
the new government under the second president of Indonesian Mr. Soeharto, built an
international airport called Ngurah Rai International Airport and it was officially opened in
August 1969. The government set a first five year development framework, and ordered and
regulated the tourism in Bali. After the opening of the airport the inflow of the visitors to Bali
rose significantly from nearly 5800 in 1968 to over 53000 in 1973. With this evidence could
be said that tourism started with the involvement of the government and made Bali more
accessible.
Tracing back the phenomenon started in 1969, the graph below can illustrate more how
tourism activity on the island from that time until recently.
85
In 1963 founded Hotel Bali Beach (Grand Bali Beach right now) and was inaugurated in November 1966.
Hotel Bali Beach (Grand Bali Beach) has its own history which is the only hotel floors 9 (nine) more than 15
meters high
45
Figure 1.16: Number of visitor for the last 20 years
(Figures collected from Bali Statistic office)
The statistic information above clearly shows that the number of foreign visitors in
Bali keep increasing, and even in 2010 Bali targeted between 2,3-2,5 million and the
realisation was 2.49 million86, this increase seems very significant compared to the number of
the visitors in 2009 viz. 1.988.048 people.
Bali department of immigration published an official information concerning the
number of tourists visiting Bali by grouping them into 5 parts basing on the continents where
they are from. The table below shall illustrate better.
86
The projection of domestic tourist visiting Bali in 2010 was about 3,5-3,8 million people, the realisation was
4.4 million. The projection of foreign tourists visiting Bali was about 2.3-2.5, the realisation was 2.49 million.
This figure according to Mr. I Ketut Teneng from the Bali Statistic Bureau of Bali, Bali was visited by 6.924
visitors , increasing 1.172.978 people (20,39%) http://infopariwisata.wordpress.com/2011/01/29/menyoalkunjungan-wisman-ke-bali-dan-penurunan-wisman-jepang-china/
46
No
Countries
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
1
Asia Pacific
820.520
703.994
973.305
1.126.028
1.129.403
1.451.965
2
Asian
119.127
129.406
168.103
205.694
224.941
294.421
3
America
76.630
68.895
83.717
99.848
109.728
113.094
4
European
362.474
352.157
427.686
523.224
590.047
613.774
5
Middle East
936
1123
2055
2658
4502
6.600
TOTAL
1.386.449
1.260.317
1.664.854
1.968.892
2.229.945
2493.058
Figure 1.17 : Number of tourists visiting Bali from 5 countries
Resource : Bali Regional Office and Human Right
The increase of foreign tourists has been followed by almost double the increase of
domestic tourists. The number of domestic tourists visiting Bali in 2010 is 4,646,343 people.
Total tourists visited Bali in 2010, either foreign or domestic were 7, 139, 392 people.
5000000
4500000
4000000
3500000
3000000
2500000
Series1
2000000
Series2
1500000
1000000
500000
0
Year
2004
Year
2005
Year
2006
Year
2007
Year
2008
Year
2009
Year
2010
Figure 1.18 Number of domestic tourists visit 2004-2010
Resource: http://www.disparda.baliprov.go.id/informasi/2010/12/statistics From the number of countries supplying tourists to the island, they are grouped in
market supply of tourism in Bali. Australia, due to its geographical location has contributed
47
25.99% of the total market, followed by other Asian neighbouring countries, and France post
the first European market share.
Figure 1.19 Bali’s Tourism Market Share
Resource : Bali’s Tourism Bureau
The increase of visit has attracted investors to build several tourists facilities on the
island. The most outstanding thing that we can see is the development of accommodation all
over the island. The graph below show the development of starred and non-starred hotels and
accommodations in Bali.
Figure 1. 20 Non-Starred hotels 2005-2009 Resource: http://bali.bps.go.id
48
For the last ten years especially after the terrorism attack in Bali, the development of
villas has been significantly increased. The tendency to response the interest of the tourists to
stay in a small accommodation, such as villas that are normally located in the residential areas,
and they think that there won’t be targeted by terrorists. As a result, a lot of Balinese modified
their residences into villas, and investors built villas in remote areas, mostly in the rural
quieter villages. Now there are about 1000 villas in Bali and most of them are not licensed.
87
3.2 Tourism Activity
Tourism activities in Bali mostly focus on cultural attractions, due to the history of the
Balinese tourism, and also in line with Bali’s Regional regulation on tourism, stating that
tourism has to be developed in the frame of Balinese culture which is originated from the spirit
of Hinduism.88 Currently, tourism object has moved to a wider segment. It is not merely
leisure, a general tourism interest, but also nature, environment, sports and adventure, marine
tourism, retreat and spiritual.
3.2.1 Cultural
Tourism as Balinese icon grows from a balance product of culture and nature and
expressed in their art works of architecture, music, paintings, dances and crafts almost in every
villages. This culture basically is reflected from agricultural life in Hindu rituals and believes.
Cultural tourism includes cultural history and attraction such as dances and cultural festival,
cultural sites such as Hindu temples, museum and monuments. And the other part of this
segment is social life environment or the living culture of the Balinese people. The main
clients of the attractions are families, retirements and couples mostly American, European and
87
Soemarlan estimates that there are approximately 1,000 villa operating in Bali, the majority of which are operating without licenses. Because of this, the BVA, in cooperation with the Government and PHRI, are undertaking steps to inventory the villas and provide guidance to its members to fulfill regulatory requirements on licensing. http://www.balidiscovery.com/messages/message.asp?Id=3197 88
Regional Law No. 3, 1991, jo regional law No. 1, 1974: Cultural Tourism: Tourism in its manifestation and its
development shall utilise Balinese culture with the spirit of Hinduism.
49
Japanese visitors.89 This product enjoyed at least by one million of foreign tourists every year,
seeing the statistical figure of the three countries of origins, namely European visitors in 2009
is 590.047 people, American visitors in the same year is 109.728 and Japanese in 2000 is
362.370 people, and of course other visitors from other countries which are not written in the
general segment, have also consumed this type of product.
Picture: 1.21 Besakih temple festival and Kecak Dance at Jimbaran Bali
Resource: yahoo image.com/Besakih/Uluwatu
3.2.2 Nature and Environment.
Besides its unique culture, Bali has a stunning natural beauty, it has beautiful
beaches shaded by palm trees, white and black sandy beaches. They are ideal places for
relaxing, sunbathing, swimming, surfing, diving, cruising and fishing. There are two national
parks that have been famous for its vegetation and animal diversity for ages. The unique
irrigation system has created a special scenery, and it will be a unique natural attraction. Two
actives volcanoes, mount Agung and mount Batur offer a special sight for visitors.
The nature and environment attractions consist of interaction with nature such as trekking,
wild life watching, interaction with specific social life such as agro tourism and village living.
This nature and environment attractions and mainly consumed by couples, visitors with
special interest, retirements and juveniles from Europe, Australia and Japan.90
89
90
Investment Coordinating Board (BKPM) Japan International Cooperation Agency Investment p.32
Investment Coordinating Board (BKPM) Japan International Cooperation Agency Investment
p.32
50
The development of natural tourism in Bali, or scientifically called eco-tourism is to
anticipate the stagnation of the cultural tourism, and also considering the diversity of the
tourist visiting Bali. When tourism considered as a product, it will follow the stage of product
cycle, viz. development including discovery, launch, stagnation and declination.91 Bali tourism
that was originally started from the cultural one will evolve accordingly, thus ecotourism
could be an innovative product to anticipate the decline stage.
Picture 1.22 Trekking in Bali
Resource: balirasasayang.net
3.2.3 Leisure Tourism
Lexically leisure means time free from the demands of works or duty when you can rest
or enjoy hobbies or sports92. The leisure activities consist of Sport and physical recreation,
Arts and entertainment, Countryside recreation , Home-based leisure, Play- and activity-based
leisure. To meet the need of the leisure tourists, Balinese tourist sectors provide relevant
91
According to Butler (1980), quoted by Gilbert (1990, the stage of tourism development comprises discovery stage, launch stage, stagnation stage, and decline stage. Bali tourism life cycle from 1969 to 2007 that’s as an economic sector, tourism also follows a product life cycle; that determine the tourism sector in Indonesia and especially in Bali are developed accordingly the stage of tourism development. Agrotourism Project Research By I Gusti Bagus Rai Utama. 92
www.dictionary.reference.com
51
activities such as white water rafting, bungee jumping, mountain biking, cooking and dancing
classes, shopping complexes etc. The major clients of the leisure attractions are couples,
families and retirement from Australia, Japan, Asia and domestic tourists.93
In response to the interest of tourists who would like to do their hobbies in Bali,
several travel agents offer art classes such as painting, batik work, carving and cooking. Local
languages classes have been popular among the tourists who would like to learn local
language and make their traveling in Bali more rewarding. Other benefit of tourists to master a
bit of Indonesian language is that, by speaking Indonesian to the sellers on beaches of streets
they will get better price.
Picture: 1.23 Cooking classes in Bali
Resource:http://www.google.co.id/images? Cooking+Classes+for+tourist+in+Bali
3.2.4 Marine Tourism
Marine Tourism includes those recreational activities that involve travel away from
one’s place of residence and which have as their host or focus the marine environment (where
the marine environment is defined as those waters which are saline and tide-affected).94
Bali has developed marine tourism with various products such as cruising from Benoa
harbour to several islands near by. Menjangan island situated in the western part of Bali has
been well known for its under water beauty, and it has been the main destination of tourists
who are interested in diving and snorkelling. One of the famous tour packages to northern Bali
is dolphin watching tour.
93
94
Investment Coordinating Board (BKPM) Japan International Cooperation Agency Investment p.32
Mark Orams, 1999, Marine Tourism, London: Routledge
52
The consumers of the marine tourism are European, Japanese and American couples,
families and special interest tourist.95
Picture 1.24 Diving in Bali
Resource: http://www.bidp-balidiving.com
3.2.5 Adventure Attraction
Some tourists, especially young American, Australian and Japanese love adventurous
attractions. Adventure tourism means trips with an element of excitement, discovery,
discomfort and risk.96
Bali Adventure Tours is a long established Bali tours operator with world class
activities ranging from Bali rafting adventures, river kayaking, white water rafting in Bali,
jungle trekking Bali and mountain cycling as well as world class facilities such as the Bali
Elephant Safari Park where visitors can touch, feed and ride an elephant through the tropical
jungle of Bali. Celebrate the wedding or vow renewals at the Elephant Park or stay at the
luxury Elephant Safari Park Lodge and Wellness Spa. See elephants painting and take home
an elephant artwork helping to save this endangered species, wander through the elephant
95
96
Mark Orams, 1999, Marine Tourism, London: Routledge
A dictionary of travel and tourism terminology.
53
museum or tropical botanical gardens. All tours are owned and operated by 'Bali Adventure
Tours. 97
98
Picture: 1.25 Adventurous activities in Bali
Resource : http://www.baliadventuretours.com
Based on the research carried out by Bali Investment Coordinating Board, the major
clients of the adventure tourism are young couples, tourists with special interest, juveniles and
mostly they are from Australia, Japan and America.99
3.2.6 Business Tourism
According to McIntosh et al. business tourism is characterized by convention, meeting and
seminar as an important form of travel. The business tourism is frequently combined with one
or more the types of tourism already identified.100
This type of tourism has been well responded by tourism sectors in Bali, and Bali has
hosted several international summits. The establishment of Bali convention centre in Nusa
Dua is designed to meet the need of the business tourism. Reliable data on the convention and meeting venue revealed that Bali is one of
Indonesia’s MICE destinations. A report from Bali Tourism Authority (Diparda Bali) revealed
that the Bali hotel/venue for meeting and conference represented 177 events on averages total
National and International event in 1997-2002. It is noticeable that the conference and meeting
activities are more in Bali than in Jakarta (Department of Culture and Tourism, 2001).
According to Bali MICE Guide Book 2003, there are 36 hotels/venue with
97
98
99
100
http://www.baliadventuretours.com
http://www.baliadventuretours.com
Source: MCI from Various Source(2005)
Tourism, Principles, Practices, Philosophies: McIntosh et al, 1995:200
54
conference/convention and meeting’s facilities. The MICE business in Bali has shown a
growing tendency. Hotels are no longer the sole venue provider;
Bali International
Convention Center (BICC) is the one big venue diversifying and offering conference facilities.
101
From the quotation above, could be understood that Bali has been a popular venue for
MICE activities and it has been proven by the United Nation Climate Change Summit in Nusa
Dua, attended by 10.000 participants from 180 countries.102
103
Picture 1.26 MICE tourism in Bali
Resource: http://unfccc.int/meetings/cop_13/items/4049.php
3.2.7 Retreat Tourism
Modernity and hectic community has caused a lot of stress, tension and pressure, in such a
situation one need to retreat. Lexically retreat means a place affording peace, quiet, privacy, or
security, a period of seclusion, retirement, or solitude, a period of group withdrawal for
prayer, meditation, or study. From the meanings above could be understood that retreat
An Analysis of Conventional Tourist-jurnal, http://www.scribd.com/doc/29348530/An-Analysis-of
Conventional-Tourist-jurnal
102
The Conference, hosted by the Government of Indonesia, took place at the Bali International Convention
Centre and brought together more than 10,000 participants, including representatives of over 180 countries
together with observers from intergovernmental and nongovernmental organizations and the media. The two
week period included the sessions of the Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC, its subsidiary bodies as well
as the Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol. A ministerial segment in the second week concluded the
Conference.
103
http://unfccc.int/meetings/cop_13/items/4049.php
101
55
tourism is a a tourist attraction by providing quiet, secluded and peaceful place to visitors to
do some activities such as meditating, yoga and study. This new trend has been responded by
tourist sectors by providing relevant services.
104
105
Picture 1.27 : Retreat Tourism
Resource: http://www.divinerevelation.org/Bali.html/ & http://www.yogaretreatadventures.com/retreats The statistic as quoted from the research done by Bali Investment Coordinating Board
(BKPM) shows that this activities mostly taken by European and American tourists especially
retirements, tourist with special interest.
CONLCLUSION
Before discussing about Bali as a national and international tourists destination, part
one is preceded by presentation of context and theoretical reviews that embody the analysis of
data and findings in this project. Part one has given a significant picture about Bali especially
the history of Bali, from the prehistoric one to the current situation. Bali is a small island
compared to the other main islands in Indonesia, and historically Bali has been occupied by
people from different ethnic
group of Indonesia, especially Javanese who migrated to Bali
during Maja Pahit Kingdom. They spread Hinduism in the island by syncretizing Balinese
indigenous belief. Even before Javanese came to Bali, Balinese had been visited by Chinese
traders, and priests.
104
105
http://www.divinerevelation.org/Bali.html
http://www.yogaretreatadventures.com/retreats/
56
The welcoming tradition inherited by Balinese from generation to generation, and their
openness to foreigners and foreign culture, has made Balinese culture rich and endure.
Balinese acculturated foreign elements to their culture and molded it in such a way and finally
packed it in their tradition as their sacred property. As a result Bali has a distinctive culture
that enables it to attract tourists to the island. Their culture is deeply rooted in Hindu Balinese
religion, and inseparable. Their philosophy of harmony and balance, called Tri Hita Karana,
namely live in harmony with God, fellow beings and nature has resulted in a great potential
for Bali as a tourist destination. Religious arts, cultural performances and natural beauty, such
as rice terraces are the manifestation of their life’s philosophy. Those potentials have been
packed as tourism attraction in Bali. Since culture is the dominant interest for tourists, then
Bali develops cultural tourism.
Since the Dutch occupation Balinese culture has been exposed to international world
through pictures, film and cultural missions to Europe. Tourist visit to the island started in
1920s, and they have also helped Balinese people to create and modify some artistic products
for tourists.
Geographically Bali is accessible from all part of the worlds, since the opening of
Ngurah International Airport; Bali has been flooded by international visitors and domestic
tourists. Bali is not just accessible by air but also by sea, it has two harbors in northern part of
the island, one in the east, one in the west and one in the south. The accessibility of the island
is one of Bali’s potentials as an international and national destination.
International tourism evolution started from 1920s, is grouped into four phases, the
phase before the independence, organized and managed by Dutch government a period when
traditional and religious arts replicated as tourists attraction. The phase between 1945 and
1965, this period is called a dark period due to the political conflict between Indonesian and
Dutch and between nationalist and communist. Then followed by revival phase between 1966
and 2002, characterized by mass tourism, rigorous touristic development and issues of
terrorism attack. Bali which was a legend of peaceful place, lost its reputation, then finally
followed by a phase after the terrorism until now. The evolution of tourism in Bali, with its
several hardships, shows that the number of visitors to the island keeps leveling up.
Since the opening of Ngurah Rai international airport, number of tourists visiting Bali
keep increasing, in 2003 and 2005 due to Bali bombing the tourist visits declined, but after
57
that increases reaching 2493.058 foreign tourists and 4.646.343 domestics in 2010. This
figures show that Bali is a favorite tourist destination for either foreign or domestic tourists.
Part two examines whether mass tourism has endangered Balinese culture or not, the
implications of acculturation may bring supporting and threatening impacts on the culture.
58
PART II
DOES A” MASSIVE” TOURISM,
ENDANGER LOCAL BALINESE
CULTURE?
59
Cultural tourism developed in Bali based on the living culture of Balinese people and
deeply rooted in Hinduism. The massive tourism has brought several impacts to the Balinese
lives in general, and in their culture in particular. The exotic Balinese culture has resulted in
acculturation, and the great influx of tourists to the island. Their presence brings economic and
environmental impacts. Those three prominent impacts are examined in this part.
CHAPTER 1 - TOURISM PARTICIPATION TO THE
DEVELOPMENT OF BALINESE CULTURE.
Preceding the discussion of acculturation, it will be helpful to review the concept of
acculturation.
Acculturation is defined as phenomena which result when
groups of
individuals having different cultures come into continuous first-hand contact, with subsequent
changes in the original cultural patterns of either or both groups. 106It is also comprehended
as a process whereby the attitudes and/or behaviors of people from one culture are modified as
a result of contact with a different culture. Acculturation implies a mutual influence in which
elements of two cultures mingle and merge. It has been hypothesized that in order for
acculturation to occur, some relative cultural equality has to exist between the giving and the
receiving culture. The acculturation process affects a range of behaviors, values, and
beliefs.107Tourism as a Transcultural phenomenon of many forms and aspects can benefit from
the adoption of such a scheme .Indirect anthropological studies of tourism which so far have
been confined to issues associated with the impact of tourism on the development of native
culture as well as the concept of development. It refers to the social process and consequence
social and psychological change that occur when people of different culture come into contact.
108
The acculturation in this part examines the changes of Balinese culture as the result of
acculturation process.
106
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com
http://www.answers.com/topic/acculturation#ixzz1P7ntxliO
108
Encyclopedia of Tourism Jafar-Jafari
107
60
The interaction between foreign tourists and Balinese is an interaction between two
different cultures consisting of belief and ideology. Balinese collectivist culture and western
individualist culture, religious culture and secular culture. The encounter of the two different
cultures has made Balinese culture rich and also threatened.
1.1 Acculturation And Syncretism
This chapter examines the impact of mass tourism toward the Balinese culture through
the process of acculturation, syncretism and its various implications. Tourism has been
considered as the most profitable worldwide business and has been quickly developed. Apart
from its economic benefit, tourism aggressive manifestation can endanger the local culture and
environment.109 The worries started arising when a small scale tourism develops into a mass
tourism and mass tourism is associated with numerous negative effects, such as the destruction
of ecological systems and loss of cultural heritage.110
In the context of Balinese Tourism, mass tourism started soon after the development of
Ngurah Rai international airport in 1969, and the opening of Bali Beach Hotel at Sanur. The
figure recorded from the UNESCO research, the number of tourists visiting Bali in 1966 was
estimated at 2150 people111 and this figure increases significantly from 33.033 in 1970 to
2.493.058 people in 2010.112 After the independence and the instigation of the New Order, the
era of mass tourism was welcomed in Bali as the foreign exchange generator. Later, the
development of infrastructure and the great response of the Balinese people towards the
industry have positioned Bali as the focal point of the development of Indonesian tourism.
Naturally Balinese are very open and have long tradition of entertaining their visitors. With
109
There is an increasing awareness in developed and developing countries alike that tourism , in its most aggressive and intensive manifestations, might not be merely a harmless and easy to exploit source of foreign currency, but also a powerful and sometimes dangerous instrument of social ,cultural and environmental change. Geral Francillin, 1979:1 110
http://www.springerlink.com/content/b667751227h383wu Unesco research, 1979
112
jumlah kunjungan wisatawan mancanegara ke Bali mencapai angka 2,5 juta orang pada tahun 2010. Angka ini
melampaui target 2,3 juta orang sehingga menjadi kunjungan tertinggi sepanjang sejarah.
http://www.portalbali.web.id/wisata-bali/eat-pray-and-love-dongkrak-kunjungan-wisman-ke-bali.htm
111
61
their simplicity, genuine hospitality they have welcomed their visitors for ages. They like to
share any possibility and learn something new that my benefit them. The following old
pictures may illustrate it better.
Picture 2.1 : Balinese dance live show on one of Beaches
Resource: Yahoo images, tourism Bali 1920s*
These natural characteristics have been advantageous for Bali as a tourist destination.
As describe by Peter M Burns “ …interactions of people form the major part of tourism, it is
important that visitors feel comfortable in the new environment, and also if they have a good
image of the host community, they can provide good publicity when they return to their
respective countries of origin. For this reason both the host community and the visitor have to
be as culturally relativistic as possible, which means that their members should suspend
judgment, and to try to understand the way that cultures being brought together by the act of
tourism see the world113”.
When the tourists asked whether they think Bali is a paradise?
66.6% of them
answered yes, by giving several reasons, from the responses, can be summarized that Bali is
characterized by friendly and welcoming people, unique culture, peaceful, relaxed, nice
weather and beautiful scenery.
114
The image of Balinese characteristics as expressed by the
113
114
‐
Carr, 2003, in Peter Burns 2007:72
Some opinions of the tourists about Bali: A une époque ou Bali ne s’américanisait pas encore, je suis certaine que c’était un paradis. Malgre la pauvreté actuelle induite par un système capitaliste mondial, les habitants de l’ile reste extrêmement solidaire ! J’imagine donc que la vie y était plus qu’agréable quand les balinais se fichaient des modes de vie occidentaux. 62
respondents of the questionnaires, even before they visited Bali, give the visitors a positive
energy and motivation to explore and make their dream come true in the island.
Prior to their visit, they already have a perception about Bali, most of them would like
to visit because they are interested in culture and the beauty of nature.
Figure 2.2 Percentage of tourists’ idea before visiting Bali.
While they are in Bali, another question posted to them” After visiting Bali, which of
the following is the most interesting? The responses show that they found Balinese culture is
the most interesting for them, and then they enjoyed the beautiful natural diversity of Bali’s
‐
‐
‐
‐
Oui, Parce que la culture balinaise me semblait très forte pour conserver les traditions et les photos de Bali (la nature : les rizières, les volcans, la mer) et aussi les cérémonies, les costumes, les sourire, me faisaient rêver. I loved the people, the children and all of their smiles Yes, primarily because the weather is lovely, the beaches are lovely and it is a place you can happily relax and enjoy yourself. Peaceful welcoming people and very artictic. 63
island and getting along with the hospitable population, and four other leisure activities such
as shopping, attraction, beach activities and dances.
Figure: 2.3 Tourist’s interest while they are in Bali
Resource: Survey
The figure above can describe that Balinese distinctive culture and the beauty of nature
play an important role in the process of interaction between the tourists and local people.
During the interaction there is a process of cultural exchange, some culture could be
assimilated, syncretized and adapted. Interaction between the host community and visitors will
result in cross cultural dialectic and finally there will be a social processes and consequent
social and psychological changes that occur when people from different cultures come into
contact, this process is called acculturation115.
115
Jafar Jafari 2000:6
64
The process of acculturation has taken place intensively between the tourists and
Balinese people, from 50 tourist respondents, 95% said that they have Balinese friends.
Figure : 2 .3 Tourist’s topic of discussion
Resource : Survey
The chart above shows that 76,2 % tourists are interested to share their culture to the
local people, meaning that they contribute something important either for the enrichment or
for the negative impacts of the local culture. The figure also demonstrates that tourist are eager
to know and to learn the life of Balinese people, they have the same interest as sharing their
culture, there is a balance of giving and taking. The other three importance things that they are
interested to discuss are visit of Bali (61.9%), life in their country (57.1%), language and
gastronomy (42.8%). While they were in Bali, they would like to know about tourist interests
in the island, they also share the life in their country. Some of them learn either local and
Indonesian languages and would like to share the food culture.
65
While Balinese respondents have different topics of interest when they are talking to
tourists, 75.3% respondents are interested in discussing about tourist objects, 11.2% in
culture, 13.5 % interested in daily life, and no one is interested to talk about religion.
Figure : 2.4 Balinese topic of discussion
Resource : Survey
The chart shows that Balinese prefers to expose tourist attractions, including natural
and cultural attractions which are specially designed for tourists, from where they may
generate financial benefit. They also share their life style to tourists by realising that it is part
of the tourist attraction. The figures of culture and religion have a significant sign that
Balinese do not want to commercialize their sacred culture and religion. They have a clear
understanding that religion and sacred culture cannot be exposed and intentionally promoted
as a commercial tourist attraction.
All Balinese agree that Balinese culture is divided into sacred/religious culture and
traditional culture, and they can differentiate between them. When they were asked whether
cremation ceremony sacred or profane, 89 respondents said it is sacred, only 2 respondents
said that it is profane. They also realize that cremation ceremony is carried out in a public
sphere, thus Balinese and Tourists can see it (87 said for Balinese and 50 said also for tourist).
When they were asked whether Bali art festival sacred or profane, 100% said it is profane, and
66
all said that it is for Balinese and also for tourists. The confusion occurred when they were
asked whether Barong and Kris Dance, that is regularly performed at Batu Bulan village
sacred or profane, 87,6% said sacred, 16,9% profane but 96,6% said for Balinese and 84%
said that is for tourists. The figure 87,6% sacred and 84% for tourists, show that they cannot
distinguish between sacred barong that is only performed during a certain temple festival and
the profaned ones performed regularly on a live show stages at Batu Bulan Village.
Figure : 2.5 Balinese opinion about Barong Dance
Resource : Survey
The confusion happens because the profane Barong Dance has no significant differentiation,
in regard with the mask, and the movement of the dance. The profane dancers tried to copy the
original ones, thus lay people find it hard to differentiate between them. However Balinese
agree not to expose all of their culture for tourists consumption, when they were asked “ Do
you think all Balinese culture can be exposed for tourist consumption?” 8,9% respondents
said Yes, but 91% said No . They suggested making a strict division between sacred culture
and touristic culture.
Balinese have a unique characteristic, they are very open and also they have a strong
sense of ethnicity. The more ethnocentric a person or community is the harder it will be to
cope with new situation visitation from people foreign to the cultural group. This is also true
67
for the visitors to a new cultural environment116. The ethnocentric character of Balinese is very
obvious, they are proud of being Balinese, they prefer to characterize themselves as Balinese
to as Indonesian, even though Bali is one of 17000 islands in Indonesia. This character clearly
demonstrated by responding the question asking them about their preferences in identifying
themselves. 90% of the respondents prefer to be identified as Balinese, not as Indonesian, only
10 % of them prefer to be identified as Indonesian.
This ethnocentric character even getting stronger since the opening of the International
Airport Ngurah Rai in 1969, and the international direct flight services brought the visitors
from their country of origins directly to Bali. As a result Bali is better known than Indonesia.
Citing Boyle’s theory of Ethnocentrism, characterized by difficulty of receiving people
from different cultural background, partly works and partly does not work for Balinese people.
They have an ambivalent character, open and at the same time ethnocentric (close). What we
need to find out is in which case they are open and in which case they are closed. Because
acculturation only takes place when there is an interaction and dialogue between the host
community and the visitors.
To understand more of how they play the open and closed game, and where the tourist
culture acculturation possible, we have to understand how they split their culture, the culture
for religious rituals and the customary culture that could be secularized, commercialized and
exposed to tourists. It means that they were open but they were also closed, closed in term of
safeguarding their culture and Balinese identity. The interest of visitors to see the Balinese
cultural attraction in Bali was responded by modifying sacred Barong Dance under the advisor
of a German artist and musician Walter Spies. The idea has been applied to other sacred
dances and other sacred work of arts. The cultural appropriation takes place because there is a
strong demand from the visitors, and a strong financial motivation from the Balinese as the
cultural performance providers. The mutual benefit for culture and tourism has been driving
both sectors towards defining common economic targets. The conservation of cultural
resources and the process of transformation into tourism products can be a real incentive to the
116
Boyle, 2003, 255-256 in Peter M Burns:2007:73
68
process of reviving cultural identity on the community117. The idea of cultural conservation
and transformation is an interesting fact to discuss. The word conservation means prevention
of injury, decay, waste or lost, while the word transformation a change in form, appearance,
nature or character. In the context of cultural acculturation between Balinese and tourists,
there has been an awareness of which parts of their culture have to be preserved and which
parts could be transformed into a tourism product.
From the beginning of the tourism in Bali, religious leaders and chiefs of traditional
villages had warned orally that tourists were welcomed and the Balinese culture had to be
preserved. They were worried that the intense interaction between Balinese and foreign
visitors would erode or even make the Balinese culture extinct. Especially on the exposition of
the sacred cultures to tourists. The worries also expressed by the group of French consultant
called SCETO by saying “the cultural manifestations will probably have appeared by
1985”118. The worries of the local community and the worries of tourism experts had morally
supported the development of the tourist resort in the southern peninsula of Bali, called Nusa
Dua in 1971.119 The idea of developing a tourist enclave is to minimize direct contact between
tourists and local people, or isolate the Balinese culture from the tourist’s influences.
The development of the resort was on contradiction with the original interest of the
tourist visiting Bali. The appeal of Balinese tourism since 1908 is culture and art and Balinese
life style. The tourism phobia had made a geographic boundary, resulting in artificial
impressions of the tourists who stay in the resort hotels. They are in Bali, but they do not feel
in the island, because they are away from the real life of Balinese people.
The development of the tourist enclave could not stop tourism development in other
villages in Bali, where the tourist business grew naturally years before the development of
Nusa Dua resort. Touristy villages such as Kuta, Sanur and Ubud have lured visitors since the
117
Douglas G.Pearce and Richard W. Butler : 1999: 89
118
Michel Picard, 1986:43
Catherine Basset et Michel Picard, 1993:224
1971 Publication du “ plan directeur pour le developrment du tourisme a Bali” con çu par des consultans
française, qui pr éconise de concentrer les équipements touristiques sur la côte sud de l’ile et en particulier
d’aménager une station de luxe à Nusa Dua.
119
69
beginning of tourism development in Bali. The challenges of the culture pollution were
responded by religious leaders, representative of traditional villages and local government, via
Bali Department of Culture and Education by organizing a seminar on culture and tourism in
Bali in 1971.
The main result of the seminar was separation between ritual culture and performance
culture or religious culture and customary culture. The religious culture is sacred one, while
the customary culture is profane. Since then, the decision of the seminar has been used by
Balinese community to control and regulate the tourism development in the island. They
started to register their cultural property, and grouped them which ones could be
commercialized and which ones were sacred and only performed during the ritual ceremonies
and only for locals. Since then acculturation between Balinese and tourist culture dramatically
developed, Balinese culture is open to be learnt by foreigners on the other hand Balinese
culture adopted several aspects of foreign culture to enrich it. Bali Art Festival initiated in
1979, is one of significant examples how Balinese culture exposes to tourists. Even now
cultural creativity has been considered as a creative industry, and strongly motivated by the
local government120.
However the boundary between the sacredness and profane sometimes melted,
especially when the sacred cultural activities are also consumed by the tourists. But thing that
have to be kept in mind is that the sacred or religious cultural events consumed by the tourists
by chance, are not designed and promoted as a commercial tourist consumption.
International community has seen the tourism as a cultural activity and trade of
services. As cultural activity tourism is a media of cultural process, a media of cultural
presentation and a media of cultural interaction and acculturation. As a trade in services
activity, tourism sells services, tourism as a product such as transport services,
accommodation, food and entertainment, event organizer and other services including cultural
and tradition introduction of a certain community121.
120
121
Dr. Ni Made Ruastiti, SST. MSi :2009
Wyasa Putra IB in Ardika Wayan, 2004:94
70
Cultural interaction takes place effectively when a group of people from different
cultural background understand each other. Language as a mean of communication plays a
significant role. As stated by Hudman Lloyed and Jancson Rechard as follows:
” Language is one of the most important aspects, for it is the means by which ideas and
concepts are transmitted within and between groups. It is one of the most important means of
preserving a way of life from one generation to another. Language is important for tourism in
two ways. First tourists often develop travel patterns in visiting countries where people speak
their language. The second major element of language is that it can act as deterrent to tourists.
Fear of being unable to communicate inhibits many potential tourists from traveling to a
particular destination’’.
The cultural interaction between the community in the visited country and the tourists,
may change the culture of the local community, primarily on the traditional values and
lifestyle, as a result the distinctive features of the culture fades and leads to the cultural
homogenization. Harrison has clearly affirmed the following :
“When a country opens doors to international tourism, its traditions however marketable are going to be
changed, if not threatened.” (Harrison 1992: 162).122
Balinese has been known of their capability to preserve their culture since the
prehistoric period. The question is “ Do Balinese people absorb something from their visitors
and acculturate them as part of their culture?”
A cartoon depicting Balinese young generation who wants to copy the tourists and
abandon part of their traditional culture published, in a local newspaper on December 8th,1991
as quoted by Michel Picard in his book Bali Tourisme Culturelle et Culture Touristique.
There were three characters in the cartoon, an old lady symbolizing old and traditional
generation who wants to preserve the Balinese culture, a young woman who was admiring the
tourist's culture and wantes to dress and behaved like them, the last one is a dog who tried to
explain the tendency of the young generation.
122
http://www.custom‐essay‐writing.com/2010/02/tourism‐economic‐development‐planning 71
The old woman
Nengah (the young lady)
Dog
: Why do you put off your dress (traditional dress)
Nengah?
: I've been bored of being tied up by the traditional dress, I
feel like living in the prison.
: That's true; she wants to dress freely like the tourists.123
The cartoon above is a criticism of the social-cultural phenomenon occurred in the
Balinese people as the impact of acculturation. The fact shows that the acculturation of tourist
culture by Balinese people is inevitable. The acculturation not just demonstrated in the
lifestyle but also in the artworks.
Tourist and Balinese interaction shows that both parties have an opportunity to take
and to give. What Balinese have taken from the tourists have changed the social cultural of
Balinese life. I Wayan Nika in his article entitled “The Role of Traditional Village for
Supporting Cultural Tourism in Globalization Era”, explained that due to tourism influences
Balinese social relationship has changed, from personal into impersonal relationship, that
finally results in individualistic community, collective and cooperative values change into
commercial values, traditional norms is fading.124 The survey shows the opinions of Balinese
people on the adverse impact of tourism in Bali is the degradation of cultural value (67%).
Increase the living cost (12%), affected the environment (10%) and provokes crime (3%)
123
« La première femme : Pourquoi tu retires tes bijoux Nengah ? » « Deuxième femme : J’en ai assez de me ficeler tous les jours en costume traditionnel, j’ai l’impressions de vivre en prison » « Le chien : C’est vrai, les gens ont envie de s’habiller librement pour faire comme les touristes » 124
After Balinese people get in contact with large community, not only with other locals, but also with people from other regions, even with international community, mainly in relation with tourism. Thus the intimate relationship among the local community member changes, personal relationship shifted to impersonal, collective values as the principle of the community changed into individual one. Mutual cooperative work, that used to be part of Balinese life, now changes into a commercial activity by calculating lost and profit. They apply different norms and values in their attitudes and behaviors. 72
1.2
Balinese Cultures as a Product of Syncretism
Far before the coming of tourists, syncretism had been taking place, that made
Balinese culture evolve and rich. The belief of Balinese culture is the syncretism of Hinduism,
Buddhism and the indigenous belief of Balinese aboriginal. The architecture of the Balinese
temples is a blend of several components, local and foreign ones. They are very well
integrated, and finely enveloped with Balinese culture. This phenomenon is demonstrated by
one of the buildings in a main Balinese Hindu temple in Bali called meru, it looks like Chinese
Pagoda. Even in one of temples in Northern Part of Bali, we can fine the miniature of Pagoda,
and Chinese carving style is very obvious.
The mixture is sometimes still visible, in a Hindu temple found some building
representing other beliefs, such as a stupa, Chinese shrine, a mosque like building, shrines
dedicated to other believers. Balinese people acculturated the foreign elements in their culture
in their efforts to preserve harmonious relationship and make everyone welcomed in the
island.
Below are some pictures showing visible acculturation and syncretism in Balinese
temples architecture. Balinkang temple located in Northern Part of Bali, is believed by
Balinese as the miniature of Chinese pagoda.
Picture 2.6 Chinese Liuhe Pagoda, Balingkang temple, Bali http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Liuhe_Pagoda.jpg http://www.google.fr/imgres?imgurl=http://4.bp.blogspot.com 73
Islamic culture has also been acculturated, in one temples in northern part of Bali even has a
special building dedicated to Ratu Mekah, the Lord of Mekah, and one temple located in eastern part
of Bali, in a village called Bunutin, Bangli regency has a building resembles a mosque, and the
temple called Langgar temple, it was built 300 years ago . The temple shows the history of
harmonious relationship between Balinese and migrants from other islands. Picture 2.7 Langgar Temple, Bunutin village, Bangli Regency‐Bali http://embassyofindonesia.it/pura‐langgar‐a‐temple‐providing‐harmony‐for‐both‐hindu‐and‐islam Islamic community from Java, visit and pray as pilgrims in the temple, they get along
with the Hinduism worshipers in the same temple. It has been done for a long time as a
tradition, because they believed that the temple was built by their ancestors. 125 The other unique acculturation happens is that the immortalization of a Dutch painter
and a photographer, W.O.J. Nieuwenkamp who introduced bicycle and camera the first time
to Balinese.
126
He was carved on the wall of a temple; he has such a special place in Balinese
125
Bangli, Bali. On first impressions, it may not seem that there is anything different about Pura Dalem Jawa in
Bunutin Village, Bali, but on entering the Hindu temple you may be surprised see in one corner there are
facilities for Muslim ablutions.
“This temple has traditionally been visited by Muslim visitors, especially from Java, since they believe this temple was established by the descendants of the Blambangan King in East Java,” Anak Agung Gede Wiatna, a guardian of the shrine, told The Jakarta Post here Wednesday.
126
On the northern wall of the innermost shrine is a famous one-meter-high relief of a Dutch official riding a
floral bicycle, a reproduction of a 1904 carving destroyed by an earthquake. The cyclist is W.O.J. Nieuwenkamp,
a famous Dutch landscape and portrait artist who rode his bike around Bali in the early 1900s, painting as he
went. During restoration the bicycle was born anew with lotus-flower spokes; even Nieuwenkamp’ssarong and
the bush in the background feature floral patterns. Between his feet and the wheels is a rat and small dog;
Nieuwenkamp’s initials and moustache, however, are gone. To view this wonderment, ask for the key, then leave
your donation in the shop opposite. http://blog.baliwww.com/guides/307 74
community because he was the first European artist visiting Bali. Balinese learnt a lot of thing
from him, and he also loved and appreciated the local culture, he drew several temple gates
and also he discovered the bronze nekara that is now called the moon of Pejeng, kept in a
temple called Penataran Sasih temple. Then in 1925 he discovered carved rock cave Goa
Gajah. He lived in Bali between 1900-1937.127
Picture 2.8 Carving of W.O.J. Nieuwenkamp , in a temple at Kubutambahan Village. Resource : http://northbali.org/buleleng/research/woj‐nieuwenkamp‐and‐bali
The process of acculturation went on productively, Balinese acculturate life style of
their foreign visitors, then molded that into something valuable in their culture. In the domain
of performing arts Balinese has acculturated foreign ideas and elements, assimilated them in
such away and manifested in a mixed element and gave them Balinese name. In performing
arts, Balinese has acculturated the concept and ideology of individualist and secular. The
dances below is the manifestation of the acculturation.
2.1.1 Barong Dance
Barong Dance, as the mascot of Balinese tourism was acculturated from Chinese Lion
dance. The word Barong derived from “beruang” means bear. The Chinnese lion dance was
127
discovered rock carvings and sanctuary of Goa Gajah near Bedulu (Nieuwenkamp 1925)
75
created during T’ang Dynasty (seventh to tenth centuries).128 Barong dance is a sacred dance and it is only performed during a temple ceremony, and performed not by artists by someone who
was believed to get a revelation for entertaining gods.
The dance has been secularized, danced by trained artists, organized by professional
group and performed to tourists.
2.1.2 Kecak Dance
Kecak dance, as the most spectacular dance in Bali, involving hundred of dancers is a
modification of a sacred dance called Sanghyang Dedari.129 The dance was very sacred and
only performed during a temple ritual ceremony, and performed by untrained dancers as an
offering to God. The dance has also been dragged out from temple premises, and exposed to
tourists.
2.1.3 Sleeping Beauty Ballet and Oleg Tamulilingan ( Bumblebee Dance)
The art’s secularization has encouraged artists to creates performances specially
designed for entertainment. The idea is adopted from western visitors to the island who would
like to enjoy virtuoso dances ala Bali. Among others is Oleg Tamulilingan dance.
The dance was created in 1950, the dance depicts young lovers enjoying their
romantic time in a flower garden. This dance is considered to be the most romantic dance, that
never existed before the era of tourism.
128
The ancestor of the Barong is surely the Chinese Lion dance, which appeared during
the T’ang Dynasty (seventh to tenth centuries) and spread to many part of Eastern Asia.7 Originally it seems
to have been showman’s substitute for a real “lion-acts”, performed by itinerant professional entertainers
who followed seasonal fairs and festival. Associated with Buddha, the Chinese Lion dance acquired
exorcist connotation, which is still possessing today. We do not know when Indonesian Barong appeared,
but existed in many places in Java and Bali,
untilthepresentcentury.IMadeBandem(http://sem2008.blogs.wesleyan.edu/files/2008/10/imadebandempap
er.pdf) 129
The modern Kecak dance developed from the Sanghyang. Once again the priest must be on hand to break the
trance at the close of the dance. (http://www.indobalihotel.com/bali_dance.html)
76
2.1.4 Baris Cina Dance
Baris Cina or Chinese Baris, from its name it is obviously originated from China.
There is no written document for its exact date of creation, but it is predicted that it was
created 300 years ago. One day a Chinese ship was broken in the eastern coast of south Bali,
called Sanur beach now, the crew of the ship asked some Balinese fishermen to fix it. While
the Balinese were fixing the ship, the crew of the ship did an exercise on the beach, during the
exercise they used swords and did it like a martial art. When the ship was ready to sail again,
they left Sanur beach to continue their voyage.130
Their physical exercise impressed the Balinese fishermen, and they started to imitate
their movement. Then they did the exercise in their village accompanied by music. The dance
then adopted as a Balinese dance, and until now considered as a sacred dance . It is only
performed during a temple festival in a village called Renon, at Denpasar. This dance is not
exposed for tourists.
Picture 2.9 Baris Cina dance http://blog.baliwww.com/arts‐culture/2070
130
The story in relation with the origin of Baris Cina goes that a Chinese ship was beached along the Sanur
coast hundreds year ago. While the ship was being repaired the Chinese camped on the beach and, during their
spare time, went through group exercises something like manual of arms with their swords. The Chinese were the
only people in Bali who wore long pants in those days. The Balinese had never seen anything like this, and so,
when the ship had been repaired and gone away, they imitated the action of the sailors and the instruments that
were used in to accompany the military exercise. http://blog.baliwww.com/arts-culture/2070 77
From the four dances above can be clearly seen that even the original Balinese art is
the product of acculturation. Then followed by conceptual and ideal acculturation, from sacred
and religious concept of art and culture into secular one. The adoption of the concept resulting
in the division of Balinese culture into religious culture, any cultural manifestation which is
specially handed down from generation to generation and designed for religious purposes and
customary culture or profane culture, a cultural manifestation designed for public exposition,
some of them are the copy or replication of the sacred culture. The acculturation has dragged
out some cultural elements from sacredness and temple premises, and exposed them to
tourists. The acculturation within this context has made Balinese art and culture enriched and
developed as creative industry.
However acculturation has brought positive and negative issues, especially on the
preservation of Balinese culture. The exposition of the secularized culture has attracted
tourists to visit the island, the Balinese become dependent on tourism businesses, Balinese
culture regarded as a salable commodity, cultural conflict and even crime are unavoidable.
As what has been discussed in part one, the art, culture and tradition of Balinese people
are inseparable from their religion, but since the influx of tourists visiting the island Balinese
became dependent on tourism business, and the touristic culture. Touristic culture generates
foreign exchange to finance the cultural preservation in the traditional world, thus change and
alteration of the traditional world is inevitable.
1.3 The Change And Alteration Of Local Culture
The word change and alteration used in this section due to the phenomenon occurred in
Balinese culture as a consequence of tourism in the island. The word “to change” means to
transform or convert or to substitute, while the verb “to alter” means to reproduce or to adjust.
Appropriation and co-modification are associated with cultural transformation, conversion and
substitution, reproduction and adjustment to meet the need of tourism demand.
78
1.3.1 Appropriation
The long history of the tourism development in Bali, initiated by the Dutch company,
makes Balinese economically and culturally dependent on the domination of tourism industry
and leave the agricultural professions because the employment in the tourist industries is more
prestigious and economically more profitable.
131
There are 726.287 people working in
agricultural sector in 2008, and the GDP earned from the sector is only 9.118.368.68 Rupiahs,
while the number of people working in trade, hotel and restaurant is 481.818 people and this
sector contributes 14.492.977.84 Rupiahs.132
The figures above demonstrate that the tourism sectors are more labor intensive and
the income generated from the sector is almost double. This fact makes Bali get exploited for
tourism industry by inviting foreign and local investors to develop tourism facilities on the
island. The promising income generated from tourism sector has made Balinese economically
dependent on the tourist industries, and they adapted their culture based on the taste of the
tourists.
Bali as one of small islands in Indonesia, which has at least 5 reasons, why tourism is
considered to be the right choice.
1. Bali is lack of natural resources to exploit for export earning.
2. The market sizes are too small to develop a feasible manufacturing industry.
3. Tourism related industry is regularly small skill and labor intensive.
4. Cultural and natural diversity can be a tourist appeal
131
Appropriation is the process whereby local community become economically and culturally dependent
on a foreign dominated tourism industry. Jafar Jafari, 2000:27
132
Bali Statistic Office 2008, Bali.pbs.go.id
79
5. Accessibility due to its geographical position.133
The first two points are the weakness of Bali as a small island, with 3.409.484 total
population and 605 /km2 density shows that Bali even has not enough space for residential
areas, and due to its size Bali is not a suitable place for large scale manufacturing
industries. While the last three points are the positive factors for developing tourism, to get
maximum economic benefit.
The appropriation has resulted in changes and alterations in Balinese culture, because
the existence and the economic multiplier effect created has been very much dependent on
the tourists as its commercial audiences, then co-modification follows.
1.3.2 Co-modification
Com-modification is generally taken to the process whereby ways of life, traditions
and the complex symbolism which supports these, are imaged and transformed into saleable
products (Cohen 1987) in Tourism and Cultural Conflicts, Mike Robinson and Priscilla
Boniface, 1999: 11 Center for Travel and Tourism University of Nirthtumbria at Newcastle
UK . Com-modification of the Balinese culture is very much related to the authenticity of the
culture. According to Stramo Cole, the moment culture is defined as an object of tourism its
value is automatically reduced. Stramo Cole,2008: 245
This part examines some sacred arts especially sacred dances which have been
modified and exposed as a tourism product, among others is Barong dance that used to be
performed only for religious events, with religious theme and story, but since 1930s it has
been performed at live show performance stages for entertaining tourists in a village called
Batu Bulan. This cultural replica or falsification is done by design, event though Picard said
that there is no clear boundary between the sacred and the profane arts, because sometimes
133
Tourism in Bali: A culture Approach to Developement 80
the profane art can be treated as sacred and vise versa , but the survey shows that 90% of
Balinese people know which dances are sacred and cannot be exposed to tourism and which
ones are creative dances specially designed for public entertainment.
Picture: 2. 10 Sacred Barong is being consecrated in a temple
Resource: http://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://a5.sphotos.ak.fbcdn.net/hphotos‐ak‐snc1 This part goes through the process of secularizing a religious dance, how the
replication of the original made, and what factors differentiate the sacred one and the profane
one. By knowing that one has capability to describe whether the dance performed a sacred
performance or just the replication of the original one.
This research examines how Barong dance is secularized and com-moditified. From
several aspects that make the profane Barong possible to be exposed to tourists, and the sacred
one remains untouched by touristic influence. There are ten components have to be
discovered, namely: the process of making mask, ceremonial, function, objective,
organization, actor, dancing structure, place of performance, the audience and magical
81
ambience.
134
This research only discuses 8 of them, because they have given a clear idea
about their differences.
Picture 2.11 Sacred Barong : Purification Ceremony
http://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://3.bp.blogspot.com
Picture 2: 12 Sacred and Profane barong dance are being performed
Resource: baliluwih.blogspot.com and http://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.nakbali.com
134
The Barong dance element having desacradness was the process of making mask, ceremonial; pace and the level of ceremonial; place and the level of ceremony, performance ritualism, function, and performance objective, rating organization, actor, dancing structure, place of performance, organization structure, dynasty nation, magical ambience and the audiences and the audiences of Barong dance performance. I Gusti Ngurah Sudiana, AKADEMIKA, Jurnal KebudayaanVol. 4, No. 1, April
2006, page:41
82
a. The Mask Fabrication
The first one is to examine the process of the mask fabrication, and the material used.
For making a sacred barong mask, the ritual has to commence from the wood cutting and the
consecration of the mask. The time of cutting the wood is determined by a good day as
detailed in the Balinese lunar calendar, after the completion of the mask, it has to be
religiously consecrated led by a high priest of the traditional village, while for the fabrication
of a profane barong the aforesaid procedures are not required.
b. Time of Performance
The sacred barong is only performed based on the fall of religious events, the main
purpose of the performance is to deliver the community of the village from bad spirit,
especially the epidemic, and it is often performed in the same time of the temple festival of a
village. The profane barong can be performed any time; any day based on the request of the
tourists or travel companies, and can be commercially scheduled.
c. The history
The history of the sacred barong dance is Calon Arang, and it is always the same, and
has religious purposes. Balinese believe that the history performed in the sacred dance can
prevent the epidemic in the village. The common story acted during the performance of the
profane one is Kunti Sraya, a romance. The plot of the story will be easy to follow and more
interesting for the tourists.
83
d. The Artists
The artists who perform the sacred dance are not necessarily the trained ones, but they
have to be previously ordained and then they have a religious obligation to do that. The
profane one is freely performed by the members of the artist group, and they do not need to be
ordained to do that . They are well trained to dramatize the movement of feet, head and mask
to give an optimal satisfaction of their audiences.
e. The Objective
The main and even the sole objective of the sacred barong dance is religious ritual,
while the profane one is to entertain visitors to get economic reward.
f. The Audience
The audience of the sacred Barong Dance is members of the traditional village or the
congregation of a temple, and since the performance aimed to pay homage to gods, the
audiences are also gods. The audiences of the profane barong are tourists and their mediators
and public.
g. The Organization
The sacred dance organized by the member of the traditional village or the
congregation of a temple, while the profane one organized by the group of artists
independently and commercially managed.
h. The Place
The place also plays an important role to determine whether they are sacred or not.
Sacred dance is performed within a temple premise or a traditional village, while the profane
one is freely performed, can be on a regular live show stage or in the hotel or restaurants.
84
Type
Sacred
Fabrication
Time
Story
Artist
Good day and
Special time
Calon Arang
Member of the
Traditional
Sacred
time/religious
based on the
artists from
traditional
village or
premises
consecration
ritual
the
village ,
temple
traditional
congregation of
village
a temple and
Ordained
Objective
Religious
The Audience
Oraganisation
Place
gods
Any time/day
Any time
Kunti Sraya
based on the
Profane
Religious
request:
consecration
not required.
Freely
Economy
danced by
Romance
Tourists and
The artist
Any where
public
groups
depend on
the request
the group of
artists
booking from
industries
Figure 2.13 : The difference between Sacred and Profane Barong Dance
Resource: I Gusti Ngurah Sudiana, AKADEMIKA, Jurnal KebudayaanVol. 4, No. 1, April
From the table above can be seen that sacred barong dance is only for the religious
purposes and never intentionally exposed for tourists. While the profane barong dance is a
modified or falsified form of the dance and specially designed for tourists' consumption.
The question now is “ Do tourists know that the dance they have enjoyed in Bali the
authentic one or not?”. When they were asked “ What Do you think of the culture that you
have seen in Bali?”. From the question 71,4% said that they are authentic, 23% touristic, no
one said that they are new creations, and 23% said modification and adaptation.
The answers show that tourists have never seen the authentic ones, and most of them
just enjoy the Balinese touristic culture not the authentic Balinese culture. In this point the
impact of tourism on the degradation of the authenticity of Balinese is very significant.
According to I Gusti Ngurah Sudiana, the profanation
of the sacred barong dance followed
by other cultural elements.
85
1.4 Cultural Conflict And Commodification
Balinese culture com-modification started from the conflict of interest
by which
tourists experience culture, by the way culture is utilized by the tourist industry and Balinese
as the host community.135 The cultural conflict in regard with the exposition of the Balinese
culture to tourism industries occurred soon after the opening of the Ngurah Rai International
Airport, followed by the beginning of the mass tourism in Bali. The climax of the conflict is
the Tourism Seminar held in 1971, attended by government, and community's representatives.
They made a joined decision or consensus, containing the prohibition of exposing sacred
dances to tourists. This commitment made Balinese aware of their authentic culture, and they
started facing a dilemma, on one hand tourists coming to Bali because of the distinctive
features of the local culture, and tourism has been the main economic resource even since the
Dutch occupation, on the other hand the exposition of the culture affected their sacred
religion.136
In the effort of finding amicable solution of the conflict the government and the
community tried to find the best solution that could make the tourism business flourish and the
Balinese culture is not sacrificed. The answer of course falsification of the sacred dances,
popularly called profanation or co-modification. There are five groups involve in the conflict
of interest, viz. the government, the traditional institution, religious institution, artist group and
tourism industry.137 The government in this case is quite ambivalent; they have to be part of
the traditional community but also the business community, because they generate income
from the tax levied from them. The tradition and religious groups want to preserve the culture
and prevent it from the western intrusion, while the artist and the tourist industry want to
commercialize it for the economic benefit.
135
Mike Robinson and Priscilla Boniface, 1999: 2 Center for Travel and Tourism University of
Nirthtumbria at Newcastle UK
136
The desire to make contact with one's own culture in all its forms and the search for experiences of other cultures is very much at the heart of tourism; But the processes by which tourists experience culture, and the way culture is utilized by the tourism industry and host community are increasingly characterized by conflict.
137
I Gusti Ngurah Sudiana, AKADEMIKA, Jurnal KebudayaanVol. 4, No. 1, April, 41
86
According to I Gusti Ngurah Sudiana in his research on the desacredness of barong
dance, the 5 groups have contributed in the profanation of the culture, especially barong
dance. The local government continued developing cultural tourism in Bali by publishing a
regional tourism laws No 3/1971 and renewed with the regional tourism laws No 3/1991. It
has been clearly stipulated that cultural tourism is a type of tourism whose progress and
development using local culture, inspired by Balinese Hindu. The laws even mandated the
tourism in Bali to utilize the Balinese culture, or in the more vulgar term, they ordered the
tourists industries to sell the cultures.
On the other hand the traditional and religious groups are also on the cross road, they
are worried of loosing tourism but also worried of loosing the culture, or they have to
encourage a holistic development, by sustaining culture and environment, in the same time
sustaining tourism. On the other hand the artist and the tourist industry of course want to
exploit the culture to get maximum economic advantages.
Wayan Nika one of the Balinese Hindu’s intellectuals said the following:
“All parties realize that the tourism development in Bali has a positive impact for the life of
Balinese, but it cannot be absent from negative side, and if it is not well handled could be a
decease that may erode the Balinese culture, rooted in Hinduism, its leaf and flower have
manifested in tourism, which has been benefited by tourists and its profit has been taken by
tourism sectors. If the investors are solely profit oriented, and extremely exploit Balinese
culture, they become the Dracula of the Balinese culture, suck the blood and the potency of the
Balinese culture and then they leave”138
The article contains the acceptance of tourism in the tradition and religious domain and
the impact of the tourism, and an idea how to prevent the negative impact and Bali is not just a
victim of the investors who benefited by tourism, and leave Balinese suffer.
138
http://tresnabali.blogspot.com/2010/12/peranan-desa-adat-dalam-menunjang.html
87
Guruh Soekarno Putra, the son of Indonesian first president, whose part of his family is
Balinese origin, composed a song entitle” RETURN MY BALI TO ME”. The song represented
Indonesia in the World Popular Song Festival in Tokyo Japan in 1987, and it was successful to
win the Kawakami Award and Audience selection, and it was also awarded as the national
most popular song in 1987.
KEMBALIKAN BALIKU PADAKU RETURN MY BALI TO ME
Hai oya hayo
kembalikan Bali ku padaku
Return my Bali to me
Hai oya hayo
kembalikan Bali ku padaku
Laut nan menderu
The noisy sea
Gunung nan membiru
The blue mountain
Tanah pusakaku
My land of heritage
Berawan kelabu
Has a grey cloud
Seni yang terpadu
The integrated art
dalam jiwa lugu
In the innocent soul
Gamelan berlagu
The sound of music
membuatku sendu
Make me sad
Alam nan menghimbau
The nourishing nature
Seantero pulau
Entire the island
Di manakah engkau
Where are you?
Citra nan memukau
The enchanting image
The song demonstrates that Bali has been confiscated by tourism and investors, the sea,
the mountain, the air, the art, the innocent Balinese, the music, the nature and the image have
been taken and offered for the merit of tourism that may dominantly enjoyed by the investors,
not for the well beings of Balinese. Now they propose to recover the island, the people and
their culture.
88
The song has become very popular thanks to its mission and the context of the song.
Even though some researchers convinced that tourism culturally and economically beneficial
for Bali, but the fact of cultural co-modification has endangered Balinese culture.
Figure : 2.14 Impact of tourism on Balinese culture from tourist’s perspective
Figure : 2.15 Balinese opinion on the impact of tourism against their culture
From the charts above, 43% of the tourists think that tourisms contributes bad impact
on the Balinese culture, but at the same time tourism makes Balinese culture more creative,
especially on creating touristic cultural attraction, by reducing its authenticity and improving
its attractiveness to meet the taste of the tourism. Majority of Balinese respondents do not
agree if tourism can strengthen their culture, although 100% agree and support the tourism
industry on the island. It implies that although tourism endangers their culture, they have to
accept it due to its economic benefit, and their dependency on the international tourism.
1.5 Tourism And Crime In Bali
International tourism development in Bali, is expected to increase the foreign exchange
revenue to support Bali’s regional economy and aslo national economy. The investment and
tourist accumulation on the island does not only lure the investors but also criminals. The
increase of tourist visit follows by the increase of criminal rate on the island.
The increase of the crime rate in Bali, as the result of tourism development on the
island coud be a threat for both local people and tourists. Crime can cease tourists to visit Bali,
or even the countries of origin where they are from, may enact travel warning and then travel
ban. As a result Balinese may economically suffer, and the rate of unemployment will follow.
89
The crime rate in 2008 is 8, 090 cases and in 2009 10,430 it increases at 22.49 percent.139 The
crime in Bali starting from petty crimes to trans-international ones such as robbery, rape, drugs
murderer, bank fraud, human trafficking, spate of ATM.
The crime has badly affected Bali’s prestige and reputation as a popular tourist
destination, especially when
the rate of crime against foreigners keeps increasing. The
government have done their best even Bali’s police has been ordered to shoot criminals on
sights. Government also claims that crime is still a big issue in Bali, and this issue is also
articulated by Andrew Marshall in his article entitled Holidays in Hell: Bali's Ongoing Woes
published Times Magazine on Friday, Apr. 01, 2011.140 This article has evoked pro and contra
in Bali, the head of government public relation blamed the writer for not being accurate and
collecting data from unreliable resources. On the contrary the governor of Bali did not
complain about the article, hoping that the article could build awareness for Balinese people
on the facts in the community.141
The most worrying thing is that when the criminals starts focusing on foreigners as
their targets, and of course it will affect the comfort and the trust of tourists while they are
traveling to Bali. Bali as a popular international tourist destination, always become a focus of
the world’s medias, thus any criminal issue occurs will worldwidely spread out at once. The
139
The crime rate in Bali could affect the island’s tourism industry, with 10,430 cases repoted in 2009, a 22.9
percent rise compared to the 8,090 cases in 2008, Bali Police Insp. Gen Sutisna told repoters on Tuesday.
http://www.the jakartapost .com/news/2010/02/03/ high-crime-rate-may-hurt-tourism.html
140
And don't forget crime. In January, amid a spate of violent robberies against foreigners, Bali police chief
Hadiatmoko reportedly ordered his officers to shoot criminals on sight. Equally damaging to Bali's prestige is the
perception among some expatriates that the island is increasingly unsafe. Lusiana Burgess, the 46-year-old
Indonesian wife of a retired British pilot, was robbed and killed in her North Kuta home earlier this year and her
murderer remains at large. An Australian woman awoke in her villa to be gagged and assaulted by four thieves.
Then an American man was stabbed during another robbery attempt in Kuta. A week after that, police arrested
and — following an apparent escape attempt — shot dead 34-year-old M. Syahri, from the neighboring island of
Lombok, who was suspected of robbing a number of foreigners.
141
“The facts are there and Time only wrote what it saw,” Pastika said. “It is a magazine with a high level of
credibility. We should look at this as a chance for introspection. <The Jakarta Post>
90
tendency of the crime involving tourists happens for the last three years.142 High criminal rate
could affect potential visitors to the island, their postponement affect the national and regional
income generated from tourism sector. Travel ban or travel warning from just tree countries,
USA, UK and Australia Indonesia had suffered lost at USD 850 millions.143This lost had a
significant impact to the local economy.
Australia as the biggest market share of international tourists in Bali (25.99% in 2010)
was the biggest victim during the bomb blast on 12 October 2002 killing 187 people. The
Australian government claimed that t it was the biggest lost after the world war II.144 As a
result, 47,1 percent of young Australian do not want to tarvel to Bali because they are worried
of the terrorism attack, as a potential threat that might happen to them as well.145
After the two bomb blasts the Australian government issued a travel warning for their
citizens to visit Bali, then the degree reduced to travel advisory. Australians gradually trust
Bali and their visit trend keeps increasing, for the last three years Australian tourits are on the
top record and fall to the top market share of Balinese tourism ( almost 30% of the total tourist
visit to the island). The tragedy has taught them to be more cautious visitors, they have to be
sensible on vulnerable areas and avoid risky places.
The number of international tourists visited Bali in 2001 is 1.358.774, due to the blast
in October 2002 the number diclines into 1.285.844, the impact felt one year after the blast, in
142
In the last three years there has been a tendency for criminals to target foreign visitors and expatriate staying in Bali :http://www.the jakartapost .com/news/2010/02/03/ high‐crime‐rate‐may‐hurt‐tourism.htm 143
…according to the National Statistic Bureau (BPS), Indonesia lost potential foreign exchange of US$ 850
million caused by the travel bans of only three countries: USA, UK, and Australia. However, the Australian
government has already changed its policy of travel warnings (Bali for the world, 2003).
144
The bombs killed 187 people; most of them were Australian young tourists. Indeed, this incident was the
largest loss of Australian lives in one operation since World War II (Suter, 2003).
145
Further, fear of terrorism is the reason most often chosen by young Australians’ not to travel to Bali (47.1%).
This finding supports the theories presented in the literature review that the potential risk in a destination will
impact in decision making process
(Cook, 1990, cited in Sonmez, 1998).
91
2003 dropped to 993,029 or declined 22.8%. While the bomb blast in 2005, caused less
declination compared to the first one, viz 5.7% in 2005 and 9.1% in 2006.146
This chapter deals with the cultural problems as the consequence of tourism industry
on the island. The pressure and income gap between the rich and the poor caused social and
criminal problem. Culture as the capital of the industry, supposedly brings economic benefit
for Balinese as the proprietor and steward of the culture. Thus the next chapter will examine
the economic impact of tourism in Bali.
146
2010 CNI Master Class: Bali http://cnibali2010.blogspot.com 92
CHAPTER 2 – OR A SYNCRETISM PUNNTING IN VALUE TO THE
EVOLUTION OF BALINESE CULTURE?
Syncretism has been frequently used by researchers especially when they are dealing
with culture. Literally the verb to syncretize means to fuse or to unite, thus syncretism means
union or fusion. But the cultural science defines that as the process where by two or more
independent cultural systems or elements thereof, conjoin to form a new and distinct
system.147 In the context of Balinese tourism, it is applied to refer to the process of Balinese in
integrating and co-joining several elements in their culture, resulting in a richly syncretized
culture both tangible on intangible one.
As what has been previously mentioned that tourism in Bali is Cultural Tourism,
officially stated by the Indonesian government in its tourism law and also the regional law.
According to Keith Dewar cultural tourism is the commercialized manifestation of the human
desiring to see how others live. It is based on satisfying the demand of curious tourists to see
other people in their authentic environment and to view physical manifestation of their lives as
expressed in arts and crafts , music, literature, dance food and drink, play, handcraft language
and rituals. (Jafar Jafari :2000: 126)
By exposing Balinese culture to tourism industry, some part of the culture is opened
and could be freely accessed by foreigners, and for those who are having a special interest in
culture, they contribute several elements in the evolution of Balinese culture. When Balinese
people asked about the part of culture which has absorbed the foreign elements, most of them
agreed that painting and carving (86%), 19% said handicraft, and 5% said music and dancing.
2.1 The Evolution of Balinese Painting
It could be understood because after the first world war a lot of famous artists fled to
Bali and influenced Balinese religious painting into a painting of daily life, nature, and
animals. The influence also promoted Balinese painting as one of touristic products, exposed
and exhibited in painting museums. Among those artists are Bonnet, Rembrandt, Arie Smit,
147
http://www.encyclopedia.com/searchresults.aspx?q=SYNCRETISM
93
Walter Spies, José Miguel Covarrubias Le Majour etc. Their skill and talent have enriched
Balinese painters, and they have promoted Balinese artists as world class painters such as Ida
Bagus Tilem, Rudana and many others.
Picture : 2.16 Balinese religious painting and Bonnet's painting
http://blog.baliwww.com/people-community/766 http://www.ralphmag.org/FA/bali.html The two paintings demonstrate the function and value of the original Balinese painting
which is considered to have religious value and power, shifted into a modern one with a
romance and entertaining function. The function from religious one to the entertaining one,
enable the Balinese culture in this point the painting, to attract tourists to the island, they come
to enjoy the masterpiece of the paintings exhibited in Balinese museums or they can buy them
in art shops. Painting activities previously considered as part of traditional obligation now
turns into an industrial activities.
2.2 The Evolution of Balinese Carving
The carvings also shifted from religious values to the commercial ones, the first statue
is carved by a famous Balinese carver Ida Bagus Tilem, he adopted western anatomical statue,
94
and totally different from the traditional pattern and values. The first one is a decorative statue
that normally exposed in hotels or personal collection, while the second one is a sacred one,
normally placed in a temple and believed by Balinese to have a supernatural power.
Picture : 2.17 Modern and Sacred statue
Resource : lindsayrgwatt.com and balicarving.com
Tourism which is exposing culture, creates several fundamental conflict of interests,
especially in Bali where culture originates from religion, the religious paintings and carving
have never exposed and sold in the art shops or market. Tourists might have been confused
because some commercial paintings or statues look like the sacred ones, but actually they just
the copy of their modification. Some painters and carvers paint
Picture 2.18 Balinese Art shops
http://travcult.com/tag/sukawati/
http://rsstutz.com/gallery/main.php?g2_itemId=984 95
and carve based on the order from their clients. Thy are no longer idealistic artists, but they are
pragmatic ones, as the nature of industrial businesses.
From the two pictures above could be seen that tourism has been taking part in
enriching the Balinese culture and made it as source of economic income, and even now tend
to be a cultural industry due to the mass production of paintings and statues.
Even though only 5 % of the respondents said that tourism has influenced the evolution
of music and dancing, but the history shows that the coming of the first intellectual tourists to
the island have helped Balinese to enrich their music and dancing. The birth of Gong Kebyar (
Balinese rhythmic music orchestra)
in northern Bali in 1915s, followed by creation of
entertaining dances such as Oleg Tamulilingan,148 depicting a young couple falling in love,
Truna Jaya, showing the spirit of a young man who works heroically for his future. Those
Balinese dancing is considered as the performing arts that could be freely exposed to
tourists.149 The presence of the new performing music and dance which separates the ritual
and religious context from performance is the birth of touristic performance in the island.
148
It was at this time that Balinese artists and Western expatriates increasingly began to show an interest in the cak chorus as an art form and no longer just as part of a ritual. This fact becomes apparent in the collaboration between Spies, the villagers of Bedulu and the Balinese dancer Wayan Limbak. A choreography for the cak cho‐
rus was invented. This new cak, which was again filmed in great detail for a silent documentary by Vicki Baum (1888‐1960) in 1935, is different in many ways Shortly after the kecak's first few performances, the art form began to spread, and Walter Spies played a significant role in the process. In a letter to Jane Belo and Colin McPhee dated 10 May 1935 he writes: “You can't imagine Jane, what Bali looked like on those days the GG [General Governor of the Netherlands Indies] was here! [...] I had to arrange the Ketjaks of course. The whole Samoetiga temple in Bedoeloe was illuminated; gates, walls etc. with 5,000 [...] lamps. The Ketjaks were sitting under a specially built bale surrounded by concentric rows of damars – beginning very low and getting higher and higher towards the back – amphitheatrically. It looked absolutely the most incredible thing you ever saw, and not at all too light or too dark, just right.“23//Under the influence of European scholars and artists, mainly Walter Spies, working closely with Balinese artists in the 1930s, a new and highly creative, lively art form was established in Bali. It is still existent today as a flexible and strong part of the Balinese culture.28 The kecak has become a typically and traditionally Balinese icon, inspired ironically enough, by a German. The Genesis of a Dance‐Genre: Walter Spies and the Kecak KENDRA STEPPUTAT 149
It is not without significance that the arrival of the first tourists early 1920s was contemporary to the artistic
revolution of the Kebyar, whose major result was to separate dance from its dramatic content as well as from its
ritual context, thus converting it into a form of independent entertainment. Michel Picard, 1986
Au début du XXème siècle, l’aristocratie balinaise perd beaucoup de son influence en raison de la colonisation hollandaise. Avec la disparition du soutien des familles princières, les Gamelans de la cour sont vendus ou donnés aux villages, dépareillés, puis reconstitués par le peuple dans les rues, initiant du même coup un nouveau genre : le Gong Kebyar. Adaptation populaire, moderne et 96
2.3 The Evolution of Balinese Music and Dances
This chapter strive for examining evolution of Balinese music and three Balinese
dances, they are traced back through literature evidences, to find their original ideas and their
present existence. Those three dances are Kecak Dance, Oleg Tamulilingan and Barong
Dance.
a. Gong Kebyar
In Bali there are two main types of Balinese music orchestra, the first one is gong gede
or a complete set of music primarily played in a temple. This is considered to be the first and
original Balinese music. In 1914 a new type of music appeared in north Bali called Gong
Kebyar, this is the first modification of Balinese music and preformed outside Balinese
temple. In 1925 several dances were created to follow the music, the creation of the dance and
music was very much influence by the European especially Dutch people interest to enjoy
Balinese music as an entertainment. 150
Gong kebyar is performed in public places, in accord with its type as an entertaining
music. Local government, especially during Bali Art Festival, invites gong kebyar music
flamboyante des compositions anonymes séculaires, le Kebyar va rapidement devenir le style de prédilection des balinais et se rependra dans l’île comme une traînée de poudre au point de devenir un véritable standard citoyen de la musique balinaise.http://francoisemassacre.wordpress.com/2011/02/24/mondo‐carne‐le‐gamelan‐gong‐
kebyar‐bali‐indonesie/ 150
In 1914, musicians from North Bali started to play in unison introduction and syncopation, never played before. According to Anak Agung Gede Gusti Jelantik44, a year later, Gong Kebyar competition took place in Jagaraga village. A new dance composition, Kebyar Legong, was composed by I Wayan Wanderes and I Gede Manik for this occasion. Since that event, until 1925, gamelan Gong Kebyar played only instrumental pieces and did not accompany dances. Kateřina Nová, 2008: 41
97
groups to join competition, even groups of gong kebyar from other countries can join in. The
music has become part of Balinese daily life, and performed either for tourists or locals.
Picture : 2.19 Gong Kebyar Resource: http://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://2.bp.blogspot.com b. The Evolution of Kecak Dance
When Balinese asked whether kecak dance belongs to
sacred or profane dance, 78% of them said it is profane, but still 22% think that it is profane.
When they were asked if the dance mostly for the local Balinese or for the tourists, 88% of
them said for local Balinese and 89% said for touristic attraction. They may not realize that
kecak dance originated from a sacred religious dance.
Kecak dance was modified by Walter Spies, a German painter, musician and a
choreographer and I Wayan Limbak a Balinese artist in 1930s. They modified Sanghyang
Dedari dance, the sacred religious dance which was originally danced by two young virgin
girls, possessed by a divine spirit and they danced in trance. The dancers were not
professional, or trained, after a long ritual procession they danced under the control of the
divine spirit. A woman was chanting and a man shouted “ cak”, as the back ground of the
dance. When they stopped chanting, the dancers fell on the ground, the priest in charge
98
sprinkled holy water, and they regained. The dance is only performed in a temple courtyard
during a temple festival. 151
Walter Spies and I Wayan Limbak removed the ritualistic elements, thus abandoned
the trance and developed the dance into a dramatic scene, normally take the Ramayana epic as
the main classical story. They added a solo dancer and enlarged the number of the “Cak”
groups. Since then kecak dance getting very popular and exposed to tourists, and trough its
evolution it is claimed as Balinese traditional dance, who was inspired by a Walter Spies, a
German artist and painter.152 He even considered as the pioneer of the Balinese drama and
theatre, especially in adapting the Balinese performing arts for the need of foreign audiences
.153
Kecak dance started getting more and more popular, since it exposition as a sound
track in the film entitled “Insel der Dämonen”, in 1935. Walter Spies was responsible for
organizing the soundtrack under the request of Mr Friedrich Dalsheim ,the film producer.154
Some group of kecak dance were invited to performed in Europe and America. Until now
kecak dance is the most popular tourist live performance attraction on the island of Bali.
151
Sanghyang Dances the Sanghyang trance dancea originally developed as a means of driving out evil spirits from a
village. The Sanghyang is a divine spirit which temporarily inhabits the trance dancers. The Sanghyang Dedari is performed
by two young girls who dance a dream-like version of the Legong. The dancers are said to be untrained in the intricate pattern
of the dance and, furthermore, the dance in perfect harmony but with their eyes firmly shut. A female choir and a male Kecak
choir provide a background chant but when the chant stops the dancers’ slump to the ground in a faint. Two women bring
them round and at the finish a priest blesses them with holy water and brings them out of the trance. The modern Kecak dance
developed from the Sanghyang.Once again the priest must be on hand to break the trance at the close of the dance.
(http://www.indobalihotel.com/bali_dance.html)
152
First and most importantly, no trance is invoked. In addition, the female chorus has been abandoned while the male group
of pengecak was much enlarged. For the first time the chorus began acting, transforming into “demons” or “monkeys” that
fought in groups. However, the most important addition was the solo-dancers. Contrary to performances today, the solodancers in the early kecak were all male members of the chorus with no elaborate costumes, stepping out from the choir when
it was their turn to perform and joining the group again afterwards. The choreographic arrangement of space changed again,
now that the solo-dancers no longer took their place outside, but for the first time inside the circle of pengecak, as it still is the
case today. With the abandoning of all ritualistic elements, the addition of dramatic scenes taken from the Ramayana and the
introduction of the role of the dalang, the kecak became what it is today: a dramatic dance performance.
153
De Zoete and Spies’s pioneering Dance and drama in Bali set itself the task of introducing the various main genres of Balinese theatre to a readership with no background to Indonesia. 154
ethnomusikologie.kug.ac.at/.../Stepputat_Walter_Spies_and_the_Kecak.pdf
99
Picture 2.20 Kecak Dance and its origin Sanghyang Dedari Dance
Resource: http://dwiparamasma3dps.files.wordpress.com/2010/09/tari-kecak
http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&biw=1280&bih=699&q=sacred+Cak+sanghyang+Dedari c. The Evolution Of Oleg Tamulilingan Dance.
Oleg Tamulilingan dance popularly translated into English as Bumblebee
Dance. Oleg means the body movement and tamulilingan means bumblebee. The inspiration
of the dance was give by John Coast, an artist and writer who was born in Kent England.155
His books entitled Railroad of death and Return to the river Kwai were best seller during year.
In 1950 he started living in Indonesia, he was interested to write book on the Indonesian
independence. He then married Supianti, the daughter of Pasuruan regent, and decided to live
in Bali. He was appointed by Soekarno, the first president of Indonesia as the attaché of
Information. 156
Coast planned to organize a cultural and art mission to Europe by bringing
Balinese music and dance. He worked with Balinese musician AA Gede Mandra, from
Peliatan Village, Gianyar Bali and I Ketut Marya, known as I Mario now, to create a new
romantic Balinese dance.157 During the creation of the dance, Coast tolled I Mario a story of
155
John Coast was born in Kent, England on October 30, 1916. As Britain entered World War II, he left
a comfortable post in the City to serve in the Coldstream Guards and then as an officer in the Norfolks.
He was one of the few survivors of that regiment when it was trying to defend Singapore against the
.
Japanese. http://www.johncoast.org/biography.htm 156
After the war, Coast joined the press department of the Foreign Office in Bangkok and then became press
attaché to President Sukarno during the Indonesian struggle for independence. He described his adventures in
Indonesian poltics in his book Recruit to Revolution (1952). http://www.johncoast.org/biography.htm 157
Coast’s love to the art of Balinese culture began to grow when touched by tradition and
communitylife. Art was very enticing, and hisobsession to organize a cultural missionto Europe. During his
adventures observing some sekeha gong in Bali, the
Coastattracted by theappearance sekaha Peliatan gong. In 1952,the Coast assess thatgames drums Gong Peliatan
with AA Gde Mandera is expressive enough to deservedisplayed on the international stage. In
100
“The Sleeping Beauty” and gave him a book on Ballet Dancing, containing photos of duet
ballet dancers depicting princess Aurora and the Charming Prince. With that inspiration
Mario created Oleg Tamulilingan Dance and AA Gede Mandra arranged its music.
Then John Coast brought a group of dancer for a cultural and art mission to Europe and
United States, since then Balinese dancing lured the attention of the world. To give a deeper
understanding for the mission and Balinese culture, Coast wrote a book on titled Dancers of
Bali.
158
The dance is purely designed for entertainment, and now the dance exposed for
tourists’ consumption.
Picture 2.21 John Coast’s book “Dancers of Bali” with a famous dancer “ Raka”, from Peliatan village.
Resource: http://www.johncoast.org/dancingoutofbali.htm
a plan that trip to Europe, the Coast wanted toalso bring a beautiful and romantic dance, in addition to some
of the dances that areoften seen.
On the advice of Mandera, Coast then contact renowned dancer and teacher of
dance I Ketut Marya who then familiarly called I Mario. Mario who was then alreadycreated
a dance that later became Kebyar Sitting dance Terompong, willing to join
the Gong Peliatan. Coast "stimulate" Mario to becreative again with classical danceballet show book that
contains photographs duet "Sleeping Beauty" is about the love
story princess Aurora with herboyfriend Prince Charming. So terinspirasilah Mariocreates dance Oleg. This
is the desired Coast.Kusuma A.A.A Arini, lecturer ISI Denpasar (http://zeigon.blogspot.com/2010/10/olegtamulilingan-th1950terinspirasi.htm)
158
Dancing out of Bali tells the daring and remarkable adventure that took them from revolution in Indonesia, via
Europe, to the footlights of Broadway where the Balinese captured American hearts in a few short weeks.
101
Balinese dance that we can still see performed nowadays. The dancers are male and female
who perform smooth swaying dance routines. They carry our imagination to a garden where
the flowers are blooming and the bees are enjoying their mealtime imbibing the flowers’
essence. The dancers are transformed into bees that are attracted to each other so the male bee
is chasing female so on. Flirtation happens over a mealtime which ends up into a beautiful
love story where they are finally caressing each other. The whole performance creates such an
intense romantic atmosphere also shows that both sexes naturally need each other.159
Even though the dance finally recognized as a Balinese traditional dance, but from the
origin of the idea and the inspiration of its birth, can be said that Oleg Tamulilingan is the
Balinese version of The Sleeping Beauty.
Picture 2.22 Oleg Tamulilingan Dance (Bumblebee dance ) and Sleeping Beauty
Resource:http://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.artoflegendindia.com/images/detailed/plaa011_oleg_dance. http://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://image.kazaa.com/imagesAndre_Previn/Tchaikovsky_Sleeping_Beauty
159
http://blogevolve.com/oleg‐tambulilingan‐a‐dance‐of‐love‐a‐balinese‐dance 102
The evolution and adoption of Balinese dances has been closely related to the western
perception of the dance, the virtuoso dance known in the west, like ballet. 160
d. The Evolution of Barong Dance
Barong dance is one of the Balinese dances which has been adapted and modified from
the religious and ritual dance into a performance dance, especially for the foreign audiences.
Originally the sacred Barong is called Ratu Gede, only preformed in relation with temple
ritual and ceremony.161 Picture 2.23 Sacred Barong Dance, performed in a temple. http://balivillashotels.blogspot.com/2009/05/barong‐dance‐ratu‐gde‐mesolah.html 160
For it would appear that virtuoso dance was a complex cultural response to political and social changes going
on in Balinese society. The old feudal order, faced with defeat by the Dutch, committed mass suicide and Bali
became the favourite playground for an international artistic élite and, subsequently, tourists. To meet the
demands of these visitors, who expected something similar to their idea of virtuoso dance, such as ballet, the
Balinese adapted their theatre and temple dances, by creating tari lepas - 'free dance', that is dance stripped of its
historical, literary and cultural context.The earliest, and still the most famous, of these dances, Lègong
161
Barong or usually Balinese called "Ratu Gde" are made and believed to protect their accompanist in a various
scope like village or Banjar. It is definitely different with Barong that performed for tourists amusement. For
example the mask for Barong Ket, although look the same it has maredly difference, the mask for Ratu Gde are
made from Pule wood / alstonia scholaris (see previous story) and mostly decorated with gold and gems. There
are some production stages in making Ratu Gde which ending with Pasupati ceremony to ask for the certain
spirit to descend and reside and endow it with its spirit and powers. Ratu Gde dance only for a temple ceremony
event as a devotional dance to God (Ratu Gde mesolah). http://balivillashotels.blogspot.com/2009/05/barongdance-ratu-gde-mesolah.html 103
The evolution of this dance started from functional evolution, it evolves from religious
into performance, and the original one is kept untouched. The original function of the dance is
to protect the village and its people from bad spirit influence or epidemic. The second
evolution is the thematic one; the theme of the new version of the dance is roman and changed
into a dramatic scene. Its audience has also evolved from Balinese, limited to the member of a
certain temple congregation, into a public one. Balinese respondents demonstrated that 84% of
them said that the dance is for Balinese, and 75% said for tourists. The other significant
evolution is temporal, the original dance takes almost one night long, and this long
performance does not meet the need of the tourists, by changing the theme and timing it is
suitable for tourist’s consumption.
2.24 Barong Dance for tourist’s entertainment http://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=https://lh4.googleusercontent.com The sacred version of this dance, before its adaptation take the story of Calon Arang,
the witch Rangda , spread plaques on her enemies, then her evil power was eradicated by the
spiritual power of a high priest called Empu Bharadah. The performance of the dance followed
104
by a set of ritual procession, in the effort to clean the village from an epidemic and neutralized
the evil spirit.162
The new version of the barong dance, which has become the mascot of Balinese
tourism, and has made the dance world widely known, is the one that was modified by a
German painter and musician Walter Spies in 1930s.163 The new performance takes the story
of Kunti Seraya. A lady Called Dewi Kunti, from a royal family of Hastina Pura Kingdom, is
seriously sick, as the follower of goddess Durga, she asks for help. Goddess Durga agrees to
help as long as Dewi Kunti gives her son, Sahadewa as a reward of her recovery. Dewi Kunti
agrees with the deal and she recovers. She regrets her decision, but she cannot stop it. Then
one of Durga’s followers make her trance and enters her body by his spirit, she changes into a
terrible creature and unconsciously attacked attacks her son. Then she takes her son to a
162
The better‐known story in which Barong and Rangda meet is, of course , that of Calon‐ Arang. In this story a human queen acquires powers of witchcraft by‐praying to Durga and then unleashes plagues on her enemies. Finally she is defeated by the greater powers of the sage.Mpu Bharadah.Western scholars seeking explanations of the meaning of Rangda and Baronghave concentrated on this tale, rather than seeing it as simply one of severalnarrative vehicles for the meeting of Barong and Rangda in dance/drama.According to one of my most knowledgeable informants, Ida Bagus Sutarjaof Mas, Calon Arang is important because it is a historical tale, dealing withactual persons, the widow of Dirah being the ancestress of all Brahmana andReturning to Original Form 89Ksatria in Bali. By contrast, the story of Sahadewa, Durga and Kalika is set inmythological times. Like Durga, who was cursed by Siwa and sent to earthalone, Calon Arang is a woman alone ‐ a 'rangda'. Like Durga, she vents her spleen by bringing on plagues and instructing her followers in witchcraft. An end is finally put to her evil doings 'by the masculine powers of Mpu. Bharadah, who is identified with Siwa. Some versions relate that Rangda is killed by Mpu Bharadah, while he enables her soul to go to heaven. I think this ending should be understood in the context of the transformations from destructive into positive powers which we have examined here. The terrible queen, like Durga, is transformed and returned to heaven in a gentle form M. Stephen : Returning to original form; A central dynamic in Balinese ritual (http://www.kitlvjournals.nl/index.php/btlv/article/viewFile/3130/3891) 163
The Barong-Rangda dance was a dangerous rite of exorcism until, in the 1930s, the German painter Walter
Spies
modified
it
into
dance
drama
for
tourists.
MariposaMuseumandWorldCultureCenter.
http://www.mariposamuseum.org/oceania.htm
105
jungle, and tied him in a tree, God comes and immortalized Sahadewa and finally she can safe
her son.164 The story of the Barong performance has been dramatized in such away, and regularly
performed to meet the need of the tourists. Its exposition to tourists actually has been a
controversial, because the dance is actually still sacred (the original one), while the other one
is for tourists. Since 1930s, some villages have sacred barong, and commercial one.165
e. The Evolution of Pendet Dance
Pendet dance was originally a sacred dance, it was danced by all temple rituals
participants in a temple ceremony, they were not trained dancers. The purpose of the dance is
to welcome the God with offering and flowers. Pendet derived from “pendak” means to
welcome, especially to welcome the coming of God.
In 1950s I Wayan Rindi created a new version of pendet dance, wholly originated from
the sacred pendet dance. Since then pendet dance dragged out from the temple sacred
performance and used to welcome visitors, especially tourists. The dance getting very popular,
164
It is told that Dewi Kunti, from the royal family of Hastinapura, was very ill. As a devotee of the Goddess
Durga, she seeks help, however, the Goddess tells her that the price of health is her own son, Sahadewa. It seems
that the Goddess fancied Sahadewa's young and luscious flesh for her dinner.
Dewi Kunta recovers from her illness and it is time to pay the price. She regrets her decision to pay the
price but a promise is a promise. One of the Goddess's followers put her into a trance and enters her body. She
becomes a terrifying creature and unconsciously beats Sahadewa mercilessly. She then takes him to an
unpenetratable jungle and ties him to a tree. Later Sahadewa is given immortality by God and she overcomes the
wrath of the Goddess and she is able to release her son.
165
Tourism, Bali’s chief industry, has provided the island with a foreign audience that is eager to pay for
entertainment, thus creating new performance opportunities and more demand for performers. The impact of
tourism is controversial since before it became integrated into the economy, the Balinese performing arts did not
exist as a capitalist venture, and were not performed for entertainment outside of their respective ritual context.
Since the 1930s sacred rituals such as the barong dance have been performed both in their original contexts, as
well as exclusively for paying tourists. This has led to new versions of many of these performances which have
developed according to the preferences of foreign audiences; some villages have a barong mask specifically for
non-ritual performances as well as an older mask which is only used for sacred performances
106
danced by four young girls with offering and flowers. While dancing the dancers throwing
flowers to the audiences, symbolizing they are warmly welcomed.166
Picture 2.25 Sacred and modern pendet dance
Resource : jaunsurapradja.co.cc - theamazingofindonesia.blogspot.com
166
Bali Post, Monday 25, 2010, http://www.balipost.co.id 107
CONLUSION
Part II examined the impact of massive tourism on Balinese culture. The intent contact
between host community and tourists has resulted in acculturation. Acculturation as the
process of cross-cultural exchanges involving, behavior, value and belief. Balinese has been
obviously acculturated belief and values then manifested in their behavior and perception on
their culture and art.
Balinese has been well-known for their capability to acculturate foreign elements to
their culture, molded them in their original culture, then enveloped in Balinese sacred culture
for the purpose of enhancing the quality of their offering to their God. Before tourism
flourished in the island, the audience of their culture is God and locals. Their tradition to make
their audience happy and satisfied has also been applied in welcoming tourists in the island.
The adoption of
individualist culture has made Balinese communal relationship
change from personal to impersonal. The cultural change then has good and bad impact.
Balinese started building self-actualization, and expressed their artistic talents, and getting rid
from king, priest and tribal chief patronage or traditional community leaders. It has made them
professional artists and lived on their artistic talent. Professional artist’s associations and
groups become a new professional institution where they have to share their obligation. Thus
they have traditional obligation and professional one.
The shift of art perception from religious to secular one, or preserving the original
culture and secularizing it by making the replication, has made Balinese culture world widely
known and exposed for tourism. Balinese acculturated belief, values and behavior may
improve their life quality without sacrificing the sacred one. Since then Balinese live in two
culture, original traditional culture and Balinese touristic culture.
Tourism directly and indirectly has impacted development of Balinese touristic culture.
The pre-war tourists, between 1920-1945 have been noted for their contribution in promoting,
adapting and inspiring Balinese culture, made them possible to be presented to tourists.
Changes, alterations, adaptation new artistic creation evolved and now it become cultural
industry in Bali.
However the evolution of Balinese culture from 1920s until now, especially over
exposition of Balinese culture to tourism industries has caused cultural conflict, especially in
108
respect of the sacred and profane culture. The strong demand of tourists to enjoy authentic
Balinese culture, pushed some sacred dances out of their sacred domain. Traditional
community and institutions expressed their great concern about that, and in 1971 they held a
notable meeting and clarified which culture can and cannot be exposed, by dividing it into
two, namely sacred culture and customary culture.
The survey shows that Balinese is capable of differentiating the sacred and profane
culture by seeing them from several aspects, such as the organization, time, place, objective,
material, artist, theme etc. Sacred performance organized by traditional village and temple
congregation, while the profane one organized by professional artists association, in term of
time, sacred one is performed based on the lunar calendar and temple festival, while the
profane one, any time based on the request. The profane culture is the replica of the original
one. They look alike but they are the replication of the original one.
Part two found that tourists have been directly participated in the evolution of the
Balinese culture, Arie Smit, Walter Spies, José Miguel Covarrubias Le Majour are among
others who have made painting and carving as a creative industries nowadays. They inspired
Balinese to be a professional artists and live on art, they also initiated artistic association and
museums on the island. In the domain of performing arts Walter Spies had given a lot of
contribution in the evolution kecak and barong dance. The replication of sacred sanghyang cak
and barong, that is now generally known as Cak and Barong Kris dance, has enriched tourist’s
cultural experience, hence Balinese can earn a life without feeling guilty. John Coast
contribution in the creation of Tamulilingan Dance (Bumblebee dance), has to be valued in the
evolution of Balinese performing arts. Inspiring by those western artist, Balinese artists then
modified other sacral dances such pendet dance, and creating new contemporary ones.
109
PART III
IS TOURISM ECONOMICALLY AND
ENVIROMENTALLY BENEFICIAL
FOR BALINESE?
110
CHAPTER 1 - THE AMBIVALENT IMPACT OF TOURISM
ON ECONOMY
Tourism in Bali undoubtedly has been an utopia of Balinese economy, it has a great
capacity in providing employment opportunity for local Balinese people. The influx of tourist
visit to Bali is the manifestation of Balinese power in acculturating the Balinese culture into a
touristic one. On the other hand, the distribution of the economic multiplier’s effects are not
fairly distributed due to the leakage caused by several aspects. This chapter examines the
positive and negative impacts of tourism on Balinese local economy.
1.1 Positive Impacts
When Balinese were asked about the most advantageous thing of tourism development
in the island, 89% responded economic, 5% environmental, 1% cultural and social. Their
response demonstrates that tourism development is mainly focused on the economic rewards,
by ignoring other impacts that may occur as the consequence of the tourism business. Even
though they realize that Balinese role in the tourism sectors is not dominant.
However tourism in general, economically has been improving the quality of Balinese
life, the uneployment rate, eventhough still quite high but from year to year it reduces because
they are accommodated in tourism employment demand. Refering to the statistic information
on the data recorded by Indonesia’s central Statistics board in 2009, Bali has 1515 non-starred
hotels with 21.775 rooms and 149 starred hotels with 18.684 rooms, total hotel rooms in the
island is 40.459.167 Average number of workers in each starred hotel is 194.8 people and in
non-starred hotel 14 people. Thus the total hotel workers is a starred hotel is 194.8 X 149 =
29025.2 people in the non-starred hotel is 14 X 1515 = 21210 people. The number of workers
167
http://www.bps.go.id/tab_sub/view.php?tabel=1&daftar=1&id_subyek=16&notab=2 http://www.bps.go.id/tab_sub/view.php?tabel=1&daftar=1&id_subyek=16&notab=1 111
in hotel sector in Bali is 50235.2 people. Although most of them on the service level, but
tourism has a great capacity to employ local Balinese people.
14%
1%
Agriculture
29%
3%
Trade
Industry
4%
Construction
8%
Transport
Finance
13%
Service Sector
28%
Others
Table :3.1 Bali’s employment situation Resource : http://baliholidayinfo.com/content/balis‐employment‐picture The above table shows that most of the employment in Bali emanates from the farming
sector, it is relevant because Bali has been known as an agricultural area, with its irrigation
system and rice terraces ( in 2011 it contributes 29.29%). While trade, consisting of tourism
related businesses falls to the second place (28,28%), the different is only 1 %. This figure
undoubtedly shows that tourism has brought money and welfare for the local people.
Tourism has pushed the investment in Bali, almost 60% of the total investment held by
tourism sector. The foreign investment has brought also huge of foreign exchange, and
correlated with employment absorbed in the sector.
Figure 3.2 : The scale of investment in Bali
Resource: www.pma-japan.or.id/admin/download/J-1-4-06a-ENG.pdf 112
The economic effect of tourism, has also been demonstrated by tourists who have
frequently visited Bali, or stay in Bali more than a month. When they were asked two relevant
questions whether the money they spent while they were in Bali went to the local people or to
the big investors, who mostly were non Balinese. All of them said most of their money went to
the locals because Australians and European tourists prefer to do shopping in locals markets,
and eat in small scale restaurants owned by locals. But they also said that some of their money
went to the investors especially for their accommodations. ( The response of the interview
attached in the appendix 1, p….)
The tourists’ opinions above have clearly demonstrate that their stay in Bali have given
a great contribution to the development of the local economy, despite some of them said that
half of their money gone directly to local people, and half to hotels where they stayed.
I Made Antara in his research on linkage between tourism and agricultural in Bali
Indonesia by using a social accounting Matrix Approach, said that, the positive impact of
tourism in Bali are, (1) to generate foreign exchange for host country, (2) to expand the
opportunity of job, at the direct linkage sectors like hotels, restaurants, travel agents as well as
at indirect linkage sectors such as handicraft industry, agricultural products supply, culture
attraction, retailer business, other services and so on; (3) to create the multiplier and spread
effects toward economic sectors; (4) to stimulate antistatic creativity, small industry artists as
well as music and singing accompanied by a gamelan artists for tourists consumption.
The old photos below presenting how the professional shift of Balinese women, from
agricultural to touristic ones.
Picture 3.3 Balinese women making pottery, and transporting them on their heads to a market place. Resource : My beautiful Bali http://mindofleroi.blogspot.com/ 113
Picture 3.4 Market before and after tourism in Bali
http://www.google.com/search? market+in+1910 and allvoices.com
Picture 3.5 A souvenir seller and a spa therapist in Amandari Resort‐Ubu, Bali Resource : hhttp://www.123rf.com/photo_8028734_bali-indonesia-24-february-2008ttp://www.balidiscovery.com/hotels
114
1. 2 The Limit Of Tourism Impacts On Bali’s Economy
In 1.1 of this part a critical analysis has been presented by using official data and
research finding in relation to the impact of tourism in Bali’s local economy. The GDP seems
increasing; poverty rate decreases and unemployment are improving. However, Balinese in
general and tourists may observe it differently
The Rome conference held in 1963 ended up to a resolution and discussed the role of
tourism industry on national economy and international commerce, and also its social,
educative and cultural influences.168 The conference tried to ensure that tourism development
could bring welfare for the host community, and the social and cultural consequence could be
managed and minimized by applying proper policy.
The question now is how do we identify the economic impact of tourism in Bali?
According to Sinclair and Stabler, there are 4 indicators that could demonstrate the success of
a tourism development in a certain area or country. There are income, employment,
investment, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) or Gross National Product (GNP).169 This chapter
discusses the correlation between the number of tourist visit to the increase of income (per
capita), to the level of unemployment, foreign investment, contribution of tourism sector in
Bali’s GDP and the rate of poverty.
168
Le rôle fondamentale que joue le tourisme dans les économies nationales et le commerce international, ainsi que son influence sociale, éducative et culturelle, et la contribution qu’il peut apporter a la cause de l’amitié et de la compréhension entrer les peuples ( Michel Picard ,1992 : 109) 169
Tourism creates income and employment directly in the sectors in which expenditure or tourism related
investment takes place and also induces further increases throughout the economy as the recipient of rises in
income spend a proportion of them. The Keynisain income multiplier model involves the use of a range of
equation to estimate the aggregate multiplier values associated with different type of tourists expenditure or
investment and the alternative definitions of income which can be measured: gross domestic product (GDP) or
gross national product (GNP) at market prices or factor cost or disposable income (Sinclair and Sutcliffe,1998 in
Sinclair and Stabler,1998)
115
Tourism development in Bali occurred before laws and policies and master plan set to
regulate the tourism. The master plan and legal policy was formulated in 1971, meaning that
the tourism development since 1920s was absent from the Indonesian and Balinese
government intervention.
The question is whether Balinese economically benefited by the “massive” tourism
development on the island. Michel Picard stated the following «Toujours est-il que, si le
tourisme entre pour un large part dans la croissance économique spectaculaire qu’a connue
Bali depuis les anées 70, en revanche, la distribution inégale de ses revenues dans la
population et entre les départements ainsi que la mainmise croissante de intérêts étrangers ne
laissent pas d’être préoccupantes » Catherine Basset and Michel Picard 1993 :29
The statement above shows that the revenue of tourism development on the island is
not equally distributed to the community, in the other word, that tourism in Bali does not
maximize the economic living standard of the local people. Due to the lack of tourism know
how and financial capital of the local people and also the lateness of the legal frame of the
tourism development, Balinese cannot be the major players in the industry. When Balinese
were asked whether they have played the main role in tourism business in Bali, 93% said
“No”. The economic development demonstrated by the per capita’s increase is not mainly
enjoyed by the local people, but other people from other regions who work and do tourism
related business in Bali. Even Balinese getting less and less access in getting good position in
tourism business, because most of the tourism enterprises owned by capitalists from Jakarta or
foreign investors in cooperation with national companies. In such a situation, the board of
directors and management is controlled by managerial level workers entrusted by the business
owners, local people then just fill in staff level position.170
Balinese claimed that the ownership of the tourism related businesses in Bali are
foreigners, meaning foreign investment, non-Balinese investors, joint ventures between
170
La majorité des Balinaise ont de moins en moins accès aux bénéfices du tourisme. Si le revenu per capita est apparemment élevé dans le département de Badung, c’est parce que les gross fortunes non balinaise y font monter la moyenne. La plupart des terrains et des grands hôtels sont aux mains de capitalistes de Jakarta, tandis que la police fait la chasse aux balinaise qui n’ont d’autre issue que devenir vendeurs a la sauvette s’ils veulent réservoir des miettes de la manne touristique.« Synthèse de Catherine Basset :1993 » 116
Balinese and foreign investors, and non of them said that professional big scale businesses
own by locals.
0.45
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
Joint venture
foreign+Balinese
Foreign
ownership
Non-Balinese
ownership
Balinese
ownership
0
Figure 3.6 Balinese opinion on Company’s ownership in Bali Resource : Survey 2011 The chart shows that non of the Balinese respondent said that most of the touristic
enterprises in Bali belong to the local Balinese, 26% responded that most of the ownership is
non-Balinese, 40% said most of them belong to foreigners and 33% said joint-venture
ownership between Balinese and foreign investors.
The ownership proportion of the tourism related businesses in Bali made the recent
governor of Bali Made Mangku Pastika in February 2010 expressed his concern related to the
non Balinese monopoly, especially in the ownership of the hotels in the island. One of his
ideas is to build hotels in Nusa Dua and Jimbaran areas, owned by the Balinese local
government and Balinese people. He was convinced that the local ownership of the hotels will
contribute economic reward and other benefits to Balinese community. He also said that the
117
recent situation does not significantly benefit Bali, because the owners of the hotel are not
Balinese, the money has also gone out from Bali. 171 Below is the quotation of his concern.
“Observe the starred hotels in Nusa Dua and Jimabaran tourist resort, non belongs to
Balinese. The owner of the hotels is non Balinese, or international hotel changes. The
condition made the top leader of Bali concerned. Then he said, do Balinese and the
government have no capability to have hotels? Or Balinese have been just proud of being a
room boy, a gardener or a security guard, warmly greet the international guests staying in
the hotels.” Bali Post, 19 February, 2010.
The dominant ownership of the hotels and other tourist businesses in Bali has a great
influence in the professional and employment distribution. When the Balinese respondents
were asked, who hold the management and managerial position in the touristic companies in
Bali? Their answer as demonstrated below.
m
em
be
rs
C
lu
b
ia
n
eIn
do
ne
s
N
on
B
al
in
es
Fo
re
ig
ne
rs
B
al
in
es
e
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Figure 3.7 Percentage of management and managerial position in tourist businesses in Bali. Resource : Survey 2011 171
Bali Post, 19 February, 2010. in www.balipost.co.id/mediadetail.php?module=detailberita&kid
118
The chart represents the opinion of Balinese regarding the distribution of management
and managerial position held in tourist businesses in the island. 20% said that the companies
owned by Balinese, 46.6% by foreigners, 26% by non-Balinese Indonesians, 6.6 % by club
members, such as club Mediterranean. They also realized that Balinese do not play main role
in tourist businesses in the island. Whet they were asked if Balinese have played an important
role in tourist businesses, 93.3 % said No and 6.7% said Yes.
They also realized that they enjoyed the smallest portion of the money spent by tourists
while they are spending their vacation in Bali. When they were asked to order the recipients of
the tourist expenditure, they put travel companies and tour guides as the party who received
most of the tourists’ money, the second place is hotel and restaurant, then art shops, finally
crafters. Most Balinese are crafters such as wood carvers, stone carvers, painters, gold and
silver smiths, tailors and other tourism related home industries. The facts are closely related to
Michel Picard findings, that crafters still receive the least.
In WTO global code of ethic for tourism, especially article 5, point 1 and 2 has been
clearly stated that the local people, in this case Balinese people have to be associated with
tourism activities and share equitably in the economic, and the tourism development has to
raise the standard of living of the local people, and the priority have to be given to the local
manpower. 172 The mandate of the WTO global code of ethic for tourism has been in line with
the objective of tourism development stipulated in the Indonesian Tourism Laws No. 10, 1991.
The first three objectives are to enhance the economic growth, to enhance the people welfare
and to alleviate poverty. Since the locus of the tourism activities is on the island of Bali, the
objective has to be prioritized to the economic growth of Balinese people, to the welfare of
Balinese people and to the alleviation of poverty in Bali.
172
Article 5.1, 37,3712 Allan Beaver 2002:335 119
To examine the multiplier’s effect of tourism development in Bali, in relation to the
economic growth, poverty and unemployment, the following figures can demonstrate, whether
the increase of tourist visit brings economic benefit to them.
N
YEAR
0
TOURIST VISIT
Number
%
POVERTY
Number
%
UNEMPLOYMENT
Number
%
1
2008
1.968.892
18.5%
215.700
6.17%
95.512
2.56%
2
2009
2.229.945
13.26%
181.700
5.13%
69.495
2.95%
3
2010
2.493.058
11.80%
174.900
4.88%
75.635
3.37%
Figure 3.8 Correlation between tourist visit, poverty and unemployment
Resource: National and regional Statistic Office
The table demonstrates that the increase of tourist visit to the island has contributed to
the decrease of poverty rate on the island, the average increase on tourist visit for the last three
years is 14,52%, and the average poverty rate is 5,54%, the decrease of poor people from
2008 to 2009 is 34000 or 1,04%, from 2009 to 2010 only 6800 or 0,25%. The revenue
generated from tourism is not equally distributed to Balinese people, especially for those who
live in the village and lack of education and knowledge in tourism business. The evidence
demonstrated by the percentage of the poor people in the village is always higher than in the
city.
120
YEAR
VILLAGE
CITY
VILLAGE
CITY
AVERAGE
2008
115100
100600
6.81%
5.70%
6.17%
2009
92100
89700
5.98%
4.50%
5.13%
2010
91300
83600
6.02%
4.04%
4.88%
AVERAGE
99500
91300
6,27%
4,74%
5.59%
Figure 3.9 Poverty percentage in the village and in the city 2008-2010
Resource : National and regional statistics office
The average poverty rate in the village for the last three years is 6,27% and in the city
4,74%, the gap between village and city is 1,53% or 8200 people. The average poor people in
Bali every year is 190.766 for both in the village and in the city. Based on the national statistic
of population, the number of Bali’s population in 2010 is 3.890.757 if it is multiplied by the
poverty percentage in 2010 (4,88%) the result is 189.868, the figure is 14.968 higher than the
official statistic figure (174.900).
The distribution of the income generated from tourism sector, is not equally spread,
crafters who produce souvenirs for tourists enjoy only 20% of the total price on an item sold in
the art market, 35% taken by the company and 45% taken by intermediary, such as tour guide.
From the distribution can be seen that crafters who normally villagers are dependent to the
owners of the art shops, and the art shops depend to the tour guide who bring tourists to the
art markets. The tour guides will get 45% commission from any price of the merchandises
bought by the tourists.
121
Figure : 3.10 Income distribution
Resource : Catherine Basset et Michel Picard, 1993:212
The division demonstrates that although tourism on the island has been growing very
fast and the trend of the tourist visit keeps increasing, its contribution on the poverty
alleviation is very samll paralels to the portion received by the crafter. The most benefited
party is mediary companies like travel agents and tour guides, then the artshop owner. The
leakage of the international tourism revenue from Bali due to the role of the local people in the
sector. Even the developement of tourist resorts in Nusa Dua areas cannot stop the the poverty
in Bali, because those hotel developement was under the control of trans national comapanies,
on their ineterst.173
Most of the big tourism interprises owned by non Balinese, they belong to investors
from Jakarta or foreign investors, and the management staff are usually non Balinese.
Catherine Basset and Michel Picard do not specifically mention the proportion of the Balinese
workers and the ownership of the property, but they indicated that the revenue generated from
173
The developments of some resorts in Bali are controlled by foreign trans-national companies (TNC’s) including hotel chains
such as Hilton, Sheraton and Hyat (Shaw, 1999). Since Indonesia’s government supports the enclave model of development, it is very
much dependant on TNCs to develop resorts, as is the case of Nusa Dua (Shaw, 1999). Lea (1999) has suggested that the enclave model is
built on structural inequalities in world trade, and essentially is not a good model to reduce poverty and inequality. Shaw (1999) has
suggested that due to enclave tourism, local people, businesses and entrepreneurs have suffered. This is because the dependency on TNCs
enables external control of the tourism industry in a subtle manner. http://www.custom‐essay‐writing.com/2010/02/tourism‐
economic‐development‐planning 122
tourism sector in Bali is not significantly enjoyed and for the welfare of the local people174.
The leakage of tourism in Bali is caused by the tourism related companies ownership,
distribution of menegerial posisition between Balinese and non Balinese, education and
expertise gap between local people and non-locals,and last one is the financial capacity
between Balinese and the non Balinese.The fact shows that tourism mostly benefits investors
or developers in tourism sectors, normally they are non-Balinese.175
The success of tourism developement in Bali characterized by the number of starred
hotels or non starred hotels in the island, tourism sector contribution in regional GDP, the
level of foreign or local investment, the leakages due to non local ownership of the big
entreprises, where tourists spend most of their money. This fenomenon makes the multiplier’s
effect of tourism in Bali is not desireable. The objective of the Bali’s tourism is to alleviate
poverty, to enhance the Balinese wefare as mandated by the Bali regional tourism laws, has
not been sufficienlty reached, because the poverty and unemployement rate is still quite high.
Balinese tourism cannot maximize it role because of several factors, among others, lack of
capital, lack of local ownership, lack of local employement, and in some villages people are
still poor, uneducated and they have no experience in tourist business.176
However previous study carried out by Mr. Antara by using Social Account the
number of international tourists visit to Bali within the three year period has no significant
influence on the reduction of the unemployment rate, the statistic shows even a paradoxical
trend, ideally the increase of tourist visit to the island directly or indirectly creates more job,
thus it contributes to the reduction of the unemployment rate, the fact is the number of tourist
visit increases, the unemployment rate increases as well. It happens due to the fast growth of
174
La plupart des terrains et des grands hôtels sont aux mains de capitalistes de Jakarta, tandis que la police fait la
chasse aux balinaise qui n’ont d’autre issue que devenir vendeurs a la sauvette s’ils veulent réservoir des miettes de la manne
touristique.« Synthèse de Catherine Basset :1993 »
175
by far the greater benefits flow to developers and investors (often multi-national companies, hotel chains and
international airlines) rather then to local communities (Trevor H.B. Sofield: Re-thinking and Re-conceptualizing Social and
Cultural Issues of Tourism Development in South and Southeast Asia)
http://www.istp.murdoch.edu.au/ISTP/casestudies/Case_Studies_Asia/toursea/toursea.html
176
The reasons for the high leakage in peripheral tourism destinations are multifaceted. Some of the main
proximate reasons are the lack of capital, local ownership, local employment and inability to link tourism to the
local economy. The ultimate reasons are caused primarily by the nature of peripheral regions because they tend to
be poor, uneducated and unfamiliar with the tourism industry.
123
the working age population in Bali is higher than the employment demand. The statistic
figures of unemployment in Bali from 2008 to 2010 consecutively show that the number of
unemployed people as follows:
YEAR
WORKING AGE
UNEMPLOYEMENT
PERCENTAGE
2008
2.703.767
95.512
2.56%
2009
2.714.301
69.495
2.95%
2010
2.748.117
75.635
3.37%
Figure: 3.11 Employment condition in Bali Resource: Bali’s statistics office
The growth of the working age between 2008 and 2009 is 10.534 and between 2009
and 2010 is 33.816. From the data could be concluded that the increase of the tourist visit and
the employment capacity created, cannot accommodate Balinese working age population, or
the working force supply is bigger that the employment demand. This finding is confirmed by
a research carried out by UNESCO in cooperation with Udayana University in 1979, and
written by Gêrard Francillon , that the tourist industry in Bali is only capable of absorbing
48% of the total population of Bali which numbered 2,117,475 at the time of the 1971 census.
The number is further reduced to 44% as it leaves out the 1000 non-Balinese full-timers.
Tourism it seems sufficiently clear, does affect Bali and the Balinese but only about 1 % of
them are more or less directly involved at the present time.177
177
Gêrard Francillon, 1979: 52
124
CHAPTER 2
TOURISM IMPACT ON ENVIRONMENT:
IS IT A DISTRUCTION OR AN
OPPORTUNITY FOR PRESERVATION?
2. 1 Adverse Impact of Tourism on Bali’s Environment
Tourist visit to Bali requires supporting facilities such as accommodation, transport
facilities, shops, restaurants and other faculties that may change the physical environment in
the destination, including expansion of the built environment.178 Bali as one of popular tourist
destinations in the world has the environmental problem as the impact of the tourist visit to the
island.
Balinese have several traditional concepts that make them in harmony with nature, and
perceive environment as an integral part of their live. In this research two concepts will be
discussed and how tourism has affected the traditional environmental concepts and on the
contrary how the concepts have given significant contribution to the sustainable tourism
development on the island.
The first concept is psycho-cosmic concept, a concept that explains the relation
between human and environment. Human being is considered as a small world or microcosm
and the environment or the universe considered as the big world or macrocosm. Both the
microcosm and the macrocosm consist of the same elements. Balinese believe that the human
body consists of earth, fire, water, air and space, those elements are also the elements of nature
or environment. This concept makes them love the nature as themselves, hurting the nature
means hurting themselves.
The second concept is the concept of three harmonies called Tri Hita Karana (three
causes of happiness). The only thing that makes Balinese happy is when they able to build a
harmonious relation between human and God, between human with his other fellow beings
and between human to his natural environment. By applying this concept Balinese divide the
environment into three parts viz. sacred or Devine environment, social environment and
178
Sinclair and Stabler, 1998: 158
125
natural environment. The environmental impacts of tourism development in Bali correlate to
the three types of environment.
2.1.1 Sacred Environment.
Tourism in Bali since its existence has utilized Balinese culture as its main appeal,
realizing the fact; some investors built tourism facilities such as hotels, restaurants and villas
with temple’s view. From the hotel tourists can enjoy temple festivals and other religious
activities carried out in the places of worshiping, they have more competitive advantages
compared to other enterprises. The development of tourist enterprises in sacred zone has
caused tension between the investors and the local Balinese especially with the congregation
of the temple close to the enterprise premises.
Picture 3.12 Nirwana Resort Hotel‐Bali Resource : http://www.tripadvisor.com/Hotel_ReviewNirwana_Bali_Resort-Bali.html
The development of tourist facilities on the island has violated the rule and regulation
set by the local government on the Bali’s master site plan, especially the utilization of beach
front and sacred zone for ritual purposes.179 The most serious case happened in Tanah Lot
temple, located in south-west coast of Bali,
the temple was built in 15th century, and
considered as the most beautiful temple in the island and very famous for its stunning sunset.
During the development of Bali Nirwana Resort and golf course owned by an investor from
179
I Wayan Nika in his aricle “The Role of Traditional Village for Supporting Cultural Tourism in Globalization
Era”
126
Jakarta, Balinese complained because the building of hotel very close to the temple, and even
the position of its swimming pool utilizing the temple as its view. The location of the resort
and its related facilities has affected the sacredness of the temple, and may reduce the spiritual
value of the temple.
Balinese intellectual association and the Hinduism Religion Council of Bali then issued
bhisama, a kind of religious convention that has to be complied and respected with all parties,
government as a regulator who has the right to issue a building permit and operational license
for tourist enterprises. The convention stipulated the temple sacred radius, for six main
temples in Bali, the distance of resident houses or other types of building has to be in a great
eye sight ( apeleng agung) estimated at 5 km, and for smaller temples has to be in a small eye
sight (apeneleng alit) estimated at 2 km180. Tanah Lot temple is grouped as the main six
temples, thus the location of the hotel has to be at least 5 km from the temple.181
The case of Nirwana Resort is very dilemmatic, the hotel has been in operation,
meaning that officially they have got permit and license to do their business in the location, on
the other hand bishama is not a legislative product thus the Hindu council cannot enforce it
without a legal support from the government.
The most recent case occurs is that, the local government backs up the enforcement of
the bishama by ordering the regents allover Bali to take a strict action to any enterprise who
does not respect the bishama, as a consequence there will be some hotels or villas closed.
Local community where the hotels and villas are located, have enjoyed economic benefit of
the companies and they against the instruction of the government to close the business, and of
course Indonesian Hotel and Restaurant Association as well as Bali’s Tours guide association
support the existence of the companies because they know that the companies have been
legally established. The other dilemma from the government side is, does the government have
enough money for the compensation of the business closure?.182
180
The content of the bhisama (convention) on the sacral radius of a temple. For the six main temple, the distance
between the residential houses other buildings has to be in a great eye sight or at least 5km. and for other small
temples the distance has to be in a small eye sight or at least 2 km. This bhisama issued to safeguard the holiness
of the temple, said I Ketut Wiana as the representative of the Hindu’s Council Secretary General.
181
Decision of Central Parisada Hindu Dharma Indonesia, No. 11/Kep/I/PHDIP/1994 on Convention of Temple’s
Sacredness.
182
Bali Post, 30 Agust, 2009 http://www.balipost.co.id/mediadetail. 127
Based on the survey done by the government, there are 25 buildings erected within the
sacred zone of the Uluwatu temple Jimbaran, in the southern peninsula of Bali. Some of them
are hotels and elite villas, which also have done their obligation to pay tax, and economically
benefited Bali’s foreign exchange revenue. The other contribution that they have done is to
provide employment, and other economic sectors in the area. Until now government,
community and tourism business still have debate on the issue.
2.1.2 Natural Environment
As the psycho-cosmic concept of Balinese people, where the humankind is created
from the same substance as nature, Balinese respect the nature the same as himself. They also
believe that both human being and nature are created by God, meaning that the two worlds are
creation of divinity, respecting the nature is respecting God through His creation.183 Ideally
and philosophically has to be like that, but since the development of tourism, which promises
better income, make them think pragmatically. Economic pressure allows him sell or lease
their land to investors without respecting the traditional concept.
Total land area of Bali is 5.632,86 Km2, this area is divided into 8 regencies and one
municipality, and 57 sub-districts. Buleleng regency (north Bali) has the largest area (1.365,
88km2) about 24, 25% of the total area and the smallest area is the municipality of Denpasar
(123,98Km2) or 2, 20% of the total area. There is an economic development gap among the
regencies that is shown by the GDP contribution, 67% of the GDP contributed by the southern
areas and the rest 33% by other areas.184
Rigorous development of tourism industry in Bali has confiscated green areas of the
island, and converted them into tourism retaliated activity development, such as hotels, villas,
golf courses etc. One of the natural beauties of Bali, and has been known for ages due to its
special irrigation system is rice terraces, formerly they could be found in all part of Bali. Now
183
In Hinduism the earth is called “ Bhuana Agung” or macrocosms and human beings are called “ Bhuana Alit”,
microcosm. Both are created by God, God is the spirit of the two worlds. It means that no part of the two worlds
is absence from the presence of divine power. ( Wiana I Ketut, 2007: 30).
184
Bali Province’s Regulation Number 6, 2009, on long term regional development of Bali Province year
2005-2025 In Hinduism the earth is called “ Bhuana Agung” or macrocosms and human beings are called “
Bhuana Alit”, microcosm. Both are created by God, God is the spirit of the two worlds. It means that no part of
the two worlds is absence from the presence of divine power. ( Wiana I Ketut, 2007: 30).
128
their existence is endangered, one day they may totally disappear, without counting their
contribution in attracting many tourists to the island, its disappearance may be followed by the
decrease of the tourist visiting Bali.
The apprehension based on the fact that the area of rice field in Bali had decreased by
8,225 hectares within nine year period, from 1980 to 1989, the decrease is equal to 1.46% of
Bali’s total area.185 The decrease due to the need of land for tourism development, such as
conversion of rice terraces into golf courses owned by Bakrie group next to Tanah Lot temple,
Tabanan regency. The regional government of Bali has claimed that 1.005 hectares of rice
field disappeared every year, calculated within the period of 2000-2005.186
The trend threatening the future of Bali, especially in the food supply sufficiency, the
price of rice will go up, because the supply cannot suffice the demand, as a result Bali has to
import rice from other regions or even from other countries. The farmers or villagers who have
no connection with tourism multiplier effect will suffer the most. They lost their job as farmers
and they do not have buying force, and also they have to compete with other buyers, such as
restaurants and tourism sector workers who benefited by the disappearance of the rice field.
This phenomenon has triggered the poverty in the villages in Bali, this paradox happens
because the rural tourism development focuses on the physical tourist facilities, without giving
significant human resources development to empower the villagers to take part in tourism
activities.
Year
2010
Village
91300
City
83600
%
6.02%
%
4.04%
Average
4.88%
Figure 3.13 Poverty rate in 2010
Resource: National and regional statistics office
The table clearly demonstrates that the number of poor people in the village in 2010 is
higher than the one in the city and table of unemployment shows that the number of
185
Accordingly, the irrigated paddy fields have decreased by as much as 8,224 hectares or 1.46% of the
entire area of Bali; 82% of this occurred in 9 years period (1980-1989) (Drysdale, 1995).
186
Bali Province’s Regulation Number 6, 2009, on long term regional development of Bali Province year
2005-2025: 2.1.2 Economy, point c.
129
unemployed people increase in 2010, even though the number of foreign tourists increase
significantly (2.493.058 people).
Forest area has also been affected by the tourism development on the island, the ideal
forest area in Bali is 30% of Bali’s total area, the number decreases up to 23.2% in 2005, some
part of the forest has been converted into tourism facilities.
The existence of corral is also under pressure due the sea exploitation as tourist
attraction such as diving, surfing, cruising and other related marine activities. The actual
condition is that 20,8% categorized as bad condition, 39,6 fair, 35,8% good and only 3,8% is
in excellent condition187. Coastal areas where most starred beach resort hotels located have
also been in a critical condition.
BAD
FAIR
GOOD
EXCELLENT
Figure 3.14 Corral Condition in Bali
Resource : Bali’s Government Regulation
Most hotels extended their beach front by blocking sea water with concrete then fill the
block with sand, and the reclamation in Bali Turtle Island Development has worsened the
beach erosion on the island. Referring to the record exposed by the government of Bali
province in their 25 year development plan revealed that 20, 73% of the total Bali beaches
have eroded, the trend of the erosion cases increases every year. The record made between
1987 to 2005 shows the trend below.
187
Bali Province’s Regional Regulation Number 6, 2009, on long term regional development of Bali Province year
2005-2025: 2.1.7, point f.
130
Figure : 3.15 Beach erosion
Resource : Bali’s Government Regulation
The erosion in 1987 is 50, 50 km, ten years later in 1997 the erosion grows up to 64,65
km or 1415 km higher than 1987, six years later level up to 7011 km in 2003 it grows 546 km,
the worst is between 2003 and 2004 within one year the growth touch 1918 km referring to the
erosion recorded by the government in 2004 is 8929 km. The erosion is threatening the future
of Bali in general and especially touristic attraction on Bali’s beaches.
The downgrading quality of environment on the island has also affected the quality and
the quantity of the drinking water in the island. The water consumption of tourist enterprises
has threatened farming production especially the irrigated rice field. Swimming pools, water
based tourist attraction such as Bali’s Water Boom Park. The average water consumption of
one hotel room is 450 litres per day, 500 litres for starred hotel and 400 litres for non starred
hotel.188 Based on the data recorded by Indonesia’s central Statistics board in 2009, Bali has
188
The increasing activities in tourism in Bali have resulted in some negative impacts on the environment. It is estimated that around ten square kilometers of irrigated rice‐fields are lost to tourist development every year (Reader 2000:488‐499). Golf courses are a notoriously land and water hungry aspect of this kind of development. Water shortages have already been reported for downstream agricultural areas in Bali, Five‐star hotels require an average of 500 liters of water per room per day, compared with 400 liters in non‐star accommodation. As an agricultural economy based on the cultivation of rice, water is a life and death issue in the island. If the continuing use of water on tourist continues one could say the quality of life for Balinese will deteriorate. http://www.custom‐essay‐writing.com/2010/02/tourism‐economic‐development‐planning 131
1515 non-starred hotels with 21.775 rooms and 149 starred hotels with 18.684 rooms, total
hotel rooms in the island is 40.459. Thus the average water consumption per day is 18.206.550
litres per day this data excluding water consumption by home stay and swimming pool of the
hotels. The water supply for the hotels generated from the governmental water supply and by
taking under ground water, especially in the southern part of Bali. The annual under ground
water taken is 3.225.720 m3, the sea water intrusion is another crucial problem for the region.
The water volume of four lakes on the island keeps decreasing, some rivers dried up.189 The
massive use of water in the tourist businesses has dried up some irrigated rice field in the
island, the farmers affected no longer able to cultivate their land, as a result they have no job,
have no buying force finally resulted in unemployment and poverty problem.
The quality of the water and air is also decreasing due to the chemical pollution. Bali
has four lakes as the resource of water supply in the island, three lakes located in the northern
part of Bali, namely Lake Tamblingan, Buyan and Beratan and lake Batur located in the
eastern part of Bali. In general the water quality of the four lakes has been deteriorating, the
research carried out by Udayana University found that the water of lake Beratan contains
BOD5 (2,24 ppm) and COD (10,75ppm) exceeding the quality standard water class I, the
pollution has also occurred in lake Buyan, its water contains BOD5, COD, Nitrat, Fosfat and
Cuprum, exceeding quality standard of water class II. Sea water has been polluted especially
in the areas where tourist activities take place. Rivers especially those found in the cities or
towns have been polluted by domestic wastes. The air pollution is also a big concern because
the increase of vehicle on the street related to the tourist transportation and private cars190.
The sea water that is also badly polluted, especially during the rainy season the trash
and other substance washed out to the sea and carried away by the rivers. The trash problem
has made the Bali’s authorities warn tourists not to swim in Kuta beach. This condition was
exposed in Times Magazine by Andrew Marshall on Friday, Apr. 01, 2011 entitled “Holidays
189
Bali Province’s Regional Regulation Number 6, 2009, on long term regional development of Bali Province year 20052025: 2.1.7 point i and j 190
Bali Province’s Regional Regulation Number 6, 2009, on long term regional development of Bali Province year 20052025: 2.1.7 point k. 132
in Hell: Bali's Ongoing Woes”.
191
This fact even has previously officially stated by the
regional government of Bali in their long term regional plan, that the lake, river and sea water
is badly polluted, for the lakes were openly mentioned, lake Buyan and Beratan, but for the
sea they did not refer to a specific area.192 The governor of Bali confirmed that the issues
exposed by Andrew Marshall is the same as the result of survey carried out by Bali’s Tourism
Office, where most complaints are on the garbage and littering in the island.193
All of these natural environmental problems are associated with tourism development
in the island, from the decrease of green areas, coral destruction, beach erosion, water and air
pollution and water shortages. The disturbance of sacred and natural environment could
provoke social problem in the island.194
2.1.3 Social Environment
Tourism development in Bali stimulates migration of people from some regions where
there are not tourist enterprises to the ones intensively developed for tourist industry. As a
result there is a population accumulation in one area with high density level, on the other hand
some areas left deserted. South Bali is the most populous area in Bali, because majority of
tourist facilities and businesses concentrated there. While west and North Bali are less
populated.
Bali as the window of Indonesian tourism business does not only attract investors to do
their business in Bali but also attracts job seekers either national or international to work in the
191
Andrew Marshall’s Holidays in Hell: Bali's Ongoing Woes <http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2062604,00.ht
ml>
192
Water pollution is becoming crucial problem recently. In general the quality of lake water has deteriorated
and polluted. Environmental research Department of Udayana Univercity (2003) found that water pollution
occurred in lake Beratan, shown by the BOD5 substance (2,24 ppm) and COD (10,75 ppm), exceeding water
standard quality class I. Pollution has also occurred in lake Buyan, shown by the substance of BOD5, COD,
Nitrate, Phosphate and cuprum, exceeding the water standard quality class II. Sea water pollution occurred in
some beaches in Bali. Rivers situated in the cities were contaminated by domestic wastes.
193
The magazine article covered similar issues to those uncovered in a Bali Tourism Office survey that found one
of the first complaints tourists made after arriving in Bali was that litter was out of control, Pastika said.
194
Most of Bali's woes stem from a problem that rival resorts would love to have: too many tourists.
133
tourism sectors in the island. As a result the population growth in Bali is very high 1.47% per
year, the growth is influenced by the birth, migration and mortality. In 2000 the number of
population in Bali is 3.151.162 and in 2010 3.890.757, the annual growth is 73959,5 ,195with
density rate at 608,76 people/km2.
a. Homogeneity to Heterogeneity
Prior to the tourism development in the island, Balinese community was homogeneous,
they were united by traditional institution called traditional Banjar, Subak (Traditional
irrigation institution) and Pemaksan an institution organizing the ritual. All Balinese belong to
the three organizations, and they obey the customary laws organized by the traditional
organizations. The three organizations are under a traditional village organization, whose
members are Hindu Balinese and they also have to be the member of the traditional village. A
Hindu Balinese who lives in the territory of a certain traditional village, but he is from another
village, cannot be part of the village organization because he is already the member of a
traditional village in his village of origin.
The question now is which organizations do Balinese and non Balinese belong to when they
live in the traditional village territory? There are other official organizations based on the
national hierarchy. Those organizations are official village and banjar.
The conflict of values arises between the two organizations, traditional and official. In
the traditional institution they are tied by awig-awig (traditional customary laws) jointly
designed and they are committed to comply with it, and all members know their right and
obligation and consequence if they violate it. While the official institution is the representation
of the government in the village level. As a result according to I I Ketut Nika the solidarity as
the foundation of the community life is deteriorating, cooperative values shift to individual
195
Indonesia’s National statistics bureau
134
and commercial values.196 There is also a dichotomy between the native inhabitant of the
village and the migrant either the ones who are from other villages in Bali or from other
provinces in Indonesia.
The social problem occurs when the harmony disturbed, for example after the first
bomb blast in 2002, the Balinese harmonious social relationship was threatened, the result is
that they started suspicious to migrant community, this situation is also triggered by the local
policy on population regulation, by utilizing resident card identity. Those who have no valid
residence card identity are illegal inhabitant, and they have to leave the village and in some
cases they have to pay fine. Balinese are recommended by the government to be always
vigilant to the new comers in their neighborhood, and families who accommodate them have
to report their presence within 24 hours, if not the family have to pay fine.
Realizing the strong terrorism threat that may affect the Balinese culture and tourism
industry on the island, they took an action to safeguard the culture and tourism by establishing
a movement called “ Ajeg Bali”, meaning Bali which is firm, strong and stable. This
movement was welcomed and manifested in several activities, for instance empowering
Balinese economy by giving them entrepreneurship programs. Balinese getting more and more
exclusive, and implement ajeg Bali principles in all course of Balinese lives.197
196
Thus the intimate relationship among the local community member changes, personal relationship shifted to impersonal, collective values as the principle of the community changed into individual one. Mutual cooperative work, that used to be part of Balinese life, now changes into a commercial activity by calculating lost and profit. They apply different norms and values in their attitudes and behaviors. 197
A prominent feature of this post-bomb discourse on culture, religion and traditional values has been repeated
allusions to and praise for the idea of ajeg, a phenomenon seen by some to be part of the revivification process
alluded to above. The problem is that there is no consensus as to what ajeg actually means in this particular
context. As a general guide, the somewhat glib explanation provided by a government official at a community
meeting in Denpasar would seem to suffice: ‘Making Bali ajeg is defending our traditions and customs and the
Balinese values that are beginning to fade in Bali at the moment.’ AJEG BALI: MULTIPLE MEANINGS,
DIVERSE AGENDAS By PAMELA ALLEN AND CARMENCITA PALERMO, page :3
(http://eprints.utas.edu.au/918/1/IMW_article.pdf) 135
b. Land Related Social Conflicts
Tourism development in Bali has made the price of land in the island is getting more
and more expensive. The land that formerly has no economic value and even abandoned by its
owner, due to the need of land for tourism industry, the land has high economic value as a
result the conflict of ownership is unavoidable.
The most outstanding conflict in Bali is land related one, either privately owned land,
collectively owned land or even the land for graveyard. Formerly the conflicts can be
amicably resolved by using traditional customary laws, but now the problem is more complex
due to various conflicts of interest involve. 198
2.2 An Opportunity To Enact The Policy Of Preservation
The environmental issues caused by the development of tourism in Bali, has made
Balinese government and religious and traditional organizations work hand in hand to realize
legal basis in preserving the natural diversity, and environment in the belief of Balinese. Bali’s
regional government has published a special laws and the traditional institution has published
a convention called Bhisama, specially designed to protect sacred and spiritual sphere of
Balinese people.
However the new laws and convention have raised debates and conflict of interest,
however the special laws and the convention have to be complied with if they want to stop
environmental degradation, and natural resources crises. Experts and researchers believe that
the legal basis will help Bali, provided that they are properly enforced.199
198
The most outstanding source of conflict recently in Bali is land, either individually, collectively owned or the
property of sacred traditional temple, as well as land for graveyard.
199
An agricultural scientist from Udayana University, Dr. Ir. IGN. Alit Susanta Wirya, said on Thursday (5/5)
that in the next 20 years Bali will no longer have agricultural land. One of the main factors is the increasing level
of land use being very high, with as many as 1,000 hectares per year undergoing development. “It’s true that Bali
136
Picture 3.16 Agro‐tourism Coffee plantation in Bali http://www.google.combest+agro‐tourism+object+in+Bali+cofee++picking The serious impact of the tourism on environmental issues in Bali, especially in
relation with the land conversion and the use of water, and also the importance of environment
in Balinese community, since 1991 the central government in cooperation with local
government reoriented the tourism development in the hope that it would be more proenvironment. Alternative tourism was started, such as eco-tourism and a agro-tourism. This
model of tourism is relevant with Balinese philosophy of Three Harmonies(Tri Hitha Karana).
200
is experiencing a surplus of rice, but as a matter of fact it is coming from outside. Bali’s spatial law (RTRW)
must properly be enforced. If RTRW is implemented seriously, Bali will still be able to maintain the remaining
agricultural land,” he added. At the same event, Drs. I Wayan Arjana, M.M. (Dean of the Faculty of Economics
at the University of Warmadewa) asserted that a synergy between agriculture and tourism will reduce the
occurrence of land conversion. Meanwhile the agriculture observer from Third World Network, Hira Jhamtani,
pointed out at the function shifting of agricultural land into housing residents, caused by rapid population growth.
In the period between 2005 - 2010 the total loss of rice paddies was around 5206 hectares. Bali also looks set to
be facing a clean water crisis by 2015. This is due to population growth and rapid construction of buildings,
especially in southern areas like Badung and Denpasar 200
http://www1.american.edu/ted/balitour.htm 137
Balinese do not see the significant benefit of tourism toward environment, when they
were asked the benefit of tourism, 89% of them said that tourism bring economic reward, 5 %
thought it brings benefit to environment, 1% thinks it bring social and cultural benefit. From
Balinese perspective, the objective of tourism is financial benefit. But it seems that they do
not also realize the negative impact of the tourism on environment, when they were asked
about the negative impact of tourism, only 10% think that tourism destroys environment, 89%
of them concerned that tourism has degraded values of Balinese culture, only 3% realized that
tourism provokes crimes and 12% thinks that it has made high living cost to the local people.
12%
3%
10%
Destroying
Environnement
Degrading
Cultural values
Increasing Crime
High living cost
89%
Figure 3.17 Balinese opinion on the negative impact of tourism
Resource : Survey
But when a specific question ask, whether tourism development in Bali could improve
the quality of the environment, destroy the environment, beautify the landscape and improve
the comfort of Balinese lives. 73.3% responded that tourism development destroyed
environment, 13.3% of them said that it improved the quality of the environment and 13.3% of
them said it has beautified the landscape, and non of them agreed that tourism development
had improved the comfort of Balinese lives.
138
All European and Australian tourists respondents also think that tourism development
on the island of Bali has been a threat for the environment. They think that tourism has
affected the environment especially deforestation, the conversion of rice field areas for tourist
development and the waste problem especially plastic. They also consider that Bali is too
small to welcome such a big number of tourists, so carrying capacity is the cause of the
environmental impacts. They proposed small scale touristic development and make a thorough
planning and research before starting a touristic project.(Quotation of the tourist’s opinion on
environment can be seen in appendix 5, p 171)
Picture 3.18 Local Balinese and Tourists are planting mangrove
http://www.vivaasiamagazine.com Picture 3.19 Enviromental Education in Balinese Primary School
Photo by Russel Darnley
139
Their opinions show that either local Balinese or tourists have strongly demonstrated
that environmentally tourism development has been threatening the beauty and preservation of
the environment. Bali is naturally beautiful, its beauty is not manmade, as what has been
mentioned in chapter one, the appeal of Bali is its natural beauty and its cultural diversity.
Michel Picard recognized it in his research by saying:
« La séduction balinaise résultait d’une harmonie rare entre la fécondité d’une
culture traditionnelle et la fertilité d’une nature tropical (Michel Picard) »
The ambitious tourism development in Bali, in the hope that the increase of the visit to
the island, both international and local tourists could bring financial benefit for the local
people. The goal of the ministry of culture and tourism to bring more tourists to the island in
2010, is successfully reached. The number of foreign tourist was 2493.058 people to Bali, it
increased significantly since the last 6 years.
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
1.386.449
1.260.317
1.664.854
1.968.892
2.229.945
2493.058
Table 3.20
Resource : Bali Statistic Office
The increase of tourist visit is in line with the responses given by tourists respondents,
has created environmental problem, because the carrying capacity of the island cannot
accommodate the number of the visitors, as a result Bali has got a lot of complaints especially
on the over-developed, over-crowded, traffic, pollution and cleanliness.
140
On April 09, 2011 Balinese government and of course the tourism business on the
island was shocked by an article written by Andrew Marshall entitled: Holidays in Hell:
Bali's Ongoing Woes.
201
The article described mainly environmental and security issues.
Rubbish, contaminated sea water, over crowded and over developed areas, traffic congestions and the increase of crime rate. The article was written in such a prestigious magazine with a worldwide audience, could be very influential for the reputation of the island, as one of the best tourist destinations in Asia. The tourists have also given good feedback when they were asked to give advices to make tourism in Bali more sustainable and beneficial for the local economy, culture and environment.
They have given a valuable feedback based on their perception as tourists. Their opinion can
be summarized as follows:
‐
Massive tourism development has to be avoided because they need massive
infrastructure and facilities that cause traffic congestion and pollution. In developing
tourism on the island the main priority is the comfort of Balinese people. They
recommended that tourism development has to make both tourists and local people
comfortable.
‐
Regulation on waste management proposed by tourists, especially on littering and
prohibition to burn trash, especially near temples. Education on environment has to be
given from early school program, thus the environmental awareness will be the
201
-Rivers swell and flush their trash and frothing human waste into the sea off Kuta Beach, the island's most
famous tourist attraction, where bacteria bloom and the water turns muddy with dead plankton.
- Itchy ocean? Just add it to Bali's growing list of seemingly intractable problems: water shortages, rolling
blackouts, uncollected trash, overflowing sewage-treatment plants and traffic so bad that parts of the island
resemble Indonesia's gridlocked capital Jakarta. And don't forget crime. In January, amid a spate of violent
robberies against foreigners, Bali police chief Hadiatmoko reportedly ordered his officers to shoot criminals on
sight. You've heard of the Julia Roberts movie Eat Pray Love, which was partly filmed in Bali? Now get ready
for its grim sequel: Eat Pray Duck.
Read more: http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2062604,00.html#ixzz1N9JJL5Au 141
lifestyle of Balinese. They are convinced if this phenomenon carries on, tourists will
not come to Bali.
‐
The environmental impact study when planning tourist development ; research
problem impact on local community-social and economic, prioritize areas of local
culture that may be impacted. (E.G.Do not disturb village communities, build by pass
road if possible; tap into changing tourist demand for eco-tourism but do not
compromise natural environment; help tourist to understand real culture of Bali rather
than potted version. (This will enhance international relationships and lead to more
sharing of environmental and other strategies.(Interview transcript see appendix 5, p
171)
Balinese respondents have also contributed their opinions in relation between tourism
and environment. They strongly expect that tourism development on the island does not
negatively affect the environment, and does not confiscate the green areas of Bali and convert
them into buildings.(See appendix 5 p 171)
The suggestion given by foreigners and locals show that either foreigners or locals
have the same perception and idea about tourism development on the island. Both foreigners
and locals expected that the tourism development on the island is sustainable, limited and has
taken into account the capacity of the island. Environmental preservation, hygiene and
development planning has to be carefully done preceded by reliable research.
The interest of the local community and the tourist on how they would like tourism
organized and developed on the island, has been in line with the vision of Bali’s Tourism
Board, namely: “To enhance the quality of life of the local community through
sustainabletourism”.202 Normatively the vision of the government is to develop the quality of
202
http://www.bali‐tourism‐board.com/vision‐and‐mission.html 142
life holistically, the quality of spiritual life, social, environmental and economic. It
means that the concept of sustainable development has to be sufficiently applied.
Even though majority of Balinese and tourists perceived tourism development in Bali
does not given a positive contribution to the environment, 27% of Balinese respondents agreed
that tourism has an important role in natural preservation and improves the beauty of Balinese
environment. The perception of negative impacts emanates from the massive conversion of
farming land, and water crises allover the island. The minority group of Balinese (27%)
perceives differently due to the improvement of living quality environment such as sewages,
drainages and public parks. Cleanliness and hygiene plays an important role in promoting the
tourism . The picture below show a painting of Sanur Beach before tourism and the current
situation of the beach.
Picture 3.21 : Sanur Beach before and after tourism
www.volkenkunde.nl/publicaties
http://tripwow.tripadvisor.com/slideshow‐photo/the‐beauty‐of‐sanur‐beach From the painting of Sanur Beach ( by W.O.J.
Nieuwenkamp) can be seen that the
environment at that time looks more natural, but not as comfortable as the current situation of
the beach. Sanur beach as the fishing port at that time did not need beautiful sand and flowers
grown along the beach like now. The role of tourism in preserving beach front and prevent it
from erosion has been obviously positive for the environment.
A vital element in the relationship between tourists and local populations is
the role tourism can play in raising the standard of living , o f education and of
health for the local populations , in terms of resources a n d jobs . On the other hand ,
tourism should not be allowed to dominate the local economy ; resources (water ,
arable land ) should be set aside for agriculture and to provide those natural spaces
necessary for the socio - economic harmony o f the community. Culture , tourism,
development : (C r u c i a l i s s u e s f o r t h e X X I s t c e n t u r y P a r i s , 2 6 - 2 7 J u n e 1 9 9 6 )202
143
The spirit of Bali Province’s spacial laws and eco-tourism in the island has been in line with
the UNESCO’s document as quoted above. Tourism cannot exist without support from other
sectors, such as agriculture, husbandry and fishery. The economic benefit emanates from
tourism has to be fairly invested to the development of the other supporting sectors. 144
CONCLUSION
Part three focuses on the impact of tourism on Bali’s economy and environment. The
research found that tourism has been economically beneficial for Balinese people in general. It
can be seen in the number of hotel rooms and the number of people employed in tourism
sector. The fact has also been demonstrated by the survey, 89% of Balinese agree that tourism
has been economically beneficial for them. Tourism sector has been the second employment
generator after agriculture, and has become the first foreign exchange machine for Bali.
Tourists also agree that the money they spent while in Bali partly gone to local.
Even though economically beneficial for Balinese, there are still several limits where
tourism in Bali has not fairly and evenly contributed its economic multiplier’s effects to local
Balinese. This chapter found that leakages happened due to the ownership proportion of the
tourism related companies in Bali. All of the large scale companies on the island belong to
Trans National Companies, international hotel changes and non Balinese investors. The
uneven proportion of the ownership resulted in the managerial level workers in tourism
sectors. Most of the managerial position held by non-Balinese, and politically Balinese
bargaining power is very weak. The number of tourism to the island cannot reduce the
unemployment rate, because the employment created smaller than the growth of working age
population. Poverty in villages increases, because farming areas keep reducing, due to land
conversion into tourism related facilities. Balinese as crafters get the smallest portion from the
money spent by tourists.(20%), the rest taken by travel and hotel.
The number of tourists visiting the island requires facilities, such as hotels, restaurants,
access road, parks, golf courses etc, consequently tourism has badly impacted the
environment. The confiscation of green areas has resulted in pollution, water crises, sewage
and waste problem. The spiritual environment has been affected and made Balinese spiritually
suffer due to the development of tourist’s facilities in Balinese sacred sphere. Bali as the main
tourist destination in Indonesia has lured immigrants from other island to work there, and has
made Bali densely populated. Crime and social conflict is unavoidable.
145
However tourism has encouraged Balinese to safeguard their environment, realizing
that environment is an important part of tourism in the island. National and local government
enact new national and regional laws to regulate the development, Bali’s special laws can be
effective if consistently enforced and complied by all parties concerned. Alternative tourism
has been rigorously promoted, such as eco-tourism, agro-tourism and sustainable tourism. The
money generated from tax and entrance fees in several tourists objects have been invested to
the environmental maintenance and preservation.
146
GENERAL CONLUSION
The general review of concept and theory, Bali and its tourism evolution is discussed
in part one. Part two observes the impacts of tourism, particularly on the local culture, the role
of tourism in enriching and preserving it, but how tourism threatens it as well. The positive
and negative impacts of tourism on Bali’s economy and environment examined in part three.
Before commencing the research, three questions were exposed, then they were
answered by three hypothesis as well. The first question is “ What is the impact of tourism on
Balinese culture?”. The hypothesis of this question and on is “Syncretism is the effect of
tourism”. The second question is “ Does Syncretism endanger the Balinese culture or does it
contribute to the evolution of Balinese culture?”. Its hypothesis is “Syncretism is not
destructing but constructing something new in Balinese culture, it has been also for almost a
century, a contribution for the evolution of Balinese culture . The last hypothesis is “Is
tourism economically and environmentally beneficial for Balinese?”. The last hypothesis is
“Tourism has given financial contribution for Balinese to have a better living standard to
preserve their culture and environment”.
After the completion of the research the first hypothesis is valid. It is found that even
prior to the coming of international tourists in the island Balinese had syncretized foreign
elements brought by Chinese, Javanese and other traders. It is proved by the architectural
elements found in Balinese Hindu’s temples. Meru and Chinese pagoda, some shrines
dedicated to other religions. In the domain of sacred performances, barong dance and Baris
Cina is the manifestation of acculturation between Balinese culture and Chinese culture. The
acculturated elements molded in such a way, and enveloped them in a sacred Balinese culture,
and limited its audience only for Balinese and gods.
Since the emergence of foreign visitors in the island, Balinese has acculturated and
syncretized firstly the concept and ideology related to culture and art. Originally Balinese
culture was a religious culture, any cultural element is part and inseparable elements of
religious activities. For Balinese culture and art is an offering to God, or art and culture is the
religion for them, while western people seen culture and art as ways of living and a creative
147
works to produce something aesthetic, l’art pour l’art. Artist is trained and professional and
his works exposed or exhibited or sold to public for living. Balinese religious concepts then
adopted secular ideology from tourists, as a result they replicated the sacred arts such as ritual
dances, paintings and carvings. They reserved the sacred ones and secularly develop their
replicas as creative arts, and acculturation rigorously takes place in this domain.
The second hypothesis is partially valid, several favorable and negative implications then
emanate from the interaction between tourists and host community. Historically a continuous
contact with foreigners has resulted in acculturation and syncretism in Balinese culture, with
mixed traditions and made it difficult to differentiate. Balinese culture is mainly consisting of
Indian, Chinese and Balinese indigenous belief. Balinese adopted Hinduism from Indian
traders and in 1343 Bali was conquered by East Java Hindu Kingdom of Maja Pahit. The
coming of Islamism and western values to the island has made the Balinese culture a home for
the world. The existence of shrine and mosque replication and the carving of western artist in
Balinese temples obviously demonstrate that Balinese hospitable and open character has a
great contribution to the richness of their culture. The acculturation can be seen in visual art
like carving, painting, ritual such as art of offering and traditional performances.
But in a way acculturation is a construction of something new in Balinese culture.
During Dutch occupation in Bali, tourism has been packaged as cultural tourism, meaning that
culture is the main product and attraction for tourists. It has enriched the Balinese culture;
performing arts like dancing evolved and even now become performing industries. In the
process of syncretism, they took foreign ideas and concepts and molded them into Balinese
ones, and the product of the newly syncretized culture is marked as Balinese culture. The
replication of Balinese culture has resulted in Balinese touristic culture. The replica of Barong
dance, kecak dance, pendet dance and the replica of offerings used as decoration in hotels or
restaurants etc, show that syncretism has made the Balinese culture more creative, expressive
and given Balinese artists more space to improve the culture without feeling guilty, because
they work in the domain of touristic culture. The copies of sacred dances which are perceived
by tourists as authentic ones, have become prominent tourists attraction on the island, and of
course as one of foreign exchange generators. It has to be realized that the issue of comodification in Bali is the commercialization of profane culture. They look alike as the sacred
ones, but the religious elements have been abandoned, e.g. they are not religiously
148
consecrated, their themes have been modified, and the time of their performance is conformed
to the reservation made by travel companies.
The research has also found that interaction between tourists and Balinese people
has degraded moral value of Balinese people, especially in the case of co-modification, the
sale of antiquities that are believed to be sacred, exposition of sacred dances for tourists and
creating confusion among Balinese in perceiving the sacred culture and profane one, because
the frequentation of the profane culture exposition is much higher than the sacred ones. The
boundary between the duplicative and original art is obscure. It has brought value degradation,
where Balinese has been overwhelmed by foreign culture, some traditional values
disappeared, e.g. the communal and mutual cooperation, they tend to be individualistic, leave
traditional institution and attached with more professional associations. Even the idea of
dividing Balinese culture into a sacred and profane one, an inventive terms, adopted into
Balinese culture terminology since 1971, when a cultural conflict emerged due to the over
exposition of sacred culture to tourists, this problem also emanated from the acculturation, as a
conflict of interest between commercial and traditional sphere.
The shift from agricultural to tourism sector, especially since the opening of Ngurah
Rai international airport, and resort development in Nusa Dua, southern peninsula of Bali,
both government and Balinese community have done they best to exploit Bali’s cultural and
natural potential to attract tourist as much as possible. As a result, Balinese economically and
culturally dependent on the domination of tourism industry and leave the agricultural
professions because the employment in the tourist industries is more prestigious and
economically more profitable. Cultural dependency means that Balinese culture is potted to
meet the taste of tourists and the consumers of the culture.
It has raised the issue of
appropriation.
The other issue following the tourism negative impact is co-modification, or culture
commercialization. Exposition of the touristic culture and performance, the copy of sacred
culture by falsifying and potted several elements from its origin for the sake of maximizing
their satisfaction has triggered up the issue. The co-modification, although theoretically
considered as the adverse impact of tourism development, but the fact, it has made Balinese
culture more creative and alive.
149
Tourism is a business that has magnetized hundreds until millions of people to Bali,
those people based on their nature and purpose is called tourist. Their presence in the island
has become new audiences for Balinese culture. Before tourism era, they had only Balinese
and gods, their culture is for the merit of Balinese by offering their best to gods. After the
tourism era, they have to please their new audience, the way to please them is totally different
from their former audiences. The new audience, especially the pre-war tourists (1920s) even
inspired Balinese to modify and replicate their culture; hence they would like to be
entertained. The history of Walter Spies’ involvement in modifying cak-sanghyang dedari into
kecak dance, sacred barong dance with calon arang theme, replicated by changing its theme
into Kunti Sraya, John Coast with his sleeping beauty inspired the creation of Oleg
Tamulilingan dance demonstrates that the second hypothesis is valid.
The last hypothesis is also partially valid. Tourism has been economically benefited
Balinese people by providing employment opportunity, poverty alleviation, better public
facilities but on the other hand it has also caused several negative impacts such as gap between
those benefited by tourism and those who are not.
The exposition of exotic Balinese culture has been able to attract millions of tourist
to the island (2493.058 in 2011). Tourism has contributed a great deal in the evolution of the
culture, some art works inspired by foreign artists especially in painting and performing arts.
Economically the visit of the tourists has benefited Balinese in general, especially in its
capacity to accommodate the employment supply, and poverty rate reduction. The fact shows
that tourist business on the island controlled by foreign investments, and national-non Balinese
investors, consequently ownership of the business a not-Balinese, and strategic positions such
as managers and management’s staff dominated by non-Balinese.
The increasing number of tourists visiting Bali, followed by development of public
facilities, hotels, restaurants, golf courses, shops, banks, villas and many other tourism related
facilities that take a large scale of land, water and energy, as a result Bali has a critical
environmental problem, and it will get worse if prevention and reorientation of the touristic
development are not crucially done. Bali has become densely populated, the size of Bali
cannot hold the number of population, visitors and migrant workers on the island. Security is
being questioned due to the increase of the crime rate targeting foreigners. Social gap between
150
people who are benefited by tourist business and those are not, is widening. Traffic jam
getting worse, air and water pollution has been an important issue. Water and energy crisis
shows that Bali’s carrying capacity cannot hold mass tourism.
151
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Laws
1. Indonesian Tourism Law No. 10/2009
2. Bali’s Regional Tourism Law No. 3/1971
3. Bali’s Regional Tourism Law No. 3/1991
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TABLE OF PICTURES
1. Picture 1.2 : Tri Hita Karana award
Given to Bali Intercontinental Hotel Resort, 5 January 2011
Resource: http://www.google.co.id/imglanding?q=tri+hita+karana+award
2. Picture 1.3 : Archeological remains of the prehistoric Balinese
Resource : http://blog.baliwww.com/guides/349 Museum Bali
3. Map 1 : Bali in the map of Indonesia
Resource : http://www.google.fr/search?q=Map+of+Indonesia
4. Map 2 : Bali in the world globe
http://www.worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/islands/au/bali.htm
156
5. Map 3: Map of Bali
Resource : http://www.bottles-up-diving.com
6. Picture 1.1 Bali award as the best island of the word.
Resource: http://www.info-bali.net/2010/07/bali-awarded-as-world-best-island-in.html
7. Figure 1.2 The figures of European tourists
Source: Central Statistics Agency Bali (BPS) 2010203
8. Figure 1.3 : The scale of investment in Bali
Resource: www.pma-japan.or.id/admin/download/J-1-4-06a-ENG.pdf
9. Picture 1.4 Market and Balinese family in 1920s
Resourcehttp://www.google.co.id/imglanding?q=gem+de+lesser+Sunda+isles+to+Bali+tour
ists+Dutch
10. Picture 1.5 : Brochure produced by Dutch
Resource:http://www.google.co.id/imglanding?q=gem+de+lesser+Sunda+isles+to+Bali+touris
ts+Dutc
11. Picture: 1.6 José Miguel Covarrubias Duclaude and his paintings.
Resource : http://hopmusikkteater.no/miguel-covarrubias&page=3
12. Picture:1.6 Tourists attraction in 1920s.
Resource : warungsobat.tripod.com and http://www.google.com/search?q=gregor+krause
13. Picure: 1.7 Turtle releasing at Kuta Beach Bali
Resource: http://www.google.co.id/images? the+most+crowded+site+at+Kuta+beach+Bali
15. Picture 1.8 Bali blast 12 October 2002 and Kuta Beach 2003, a year after the blast
Sesource: http://www.fugly-bali.org/bombing.html
16. Figure 1.4 : Number of visitor for the last 20 years
(Figures collected from Bali Statistic office)
17. Figure 1.5 : Number of tourists visiting Bali from 5 countries
Resource : Bali Regional Office and Human Right
18. Figure 1. 6 Number of domestic tourists visit 2004-2010
Resource: http://www.disparda.baliprov.go.id/informasi/2010/12/statistics
19. Figure 1.7Bali’s Tourism Market Share
Resource : Bali’s Tourism Bureau
203
See Central Statistics Agency Bali (BPS) 2009 157
20. Figure 1. 8 Starred hotels 2005-2009
Resource: http://bali.bps.go.id
21. Figure 1. 9 Non-Starred hotels 2005-2009
Resource: http://bali.bps.go.id
22. Picture: 1.10 Besakih temple festival and Kecak Dance at Jimbaran Bali
Resource: yahoo image.com/Besakih/Uluwatu
23. Picture 1.11 Trekking in Bali
Resiurce: balirasasayang.net
24. Picture: 1.12 Cooking classes in Bali
Resource:http://www.google.co.id/images? Cooking+Classes+for+tourist+in+Bali
25. Picture 1.13 Diving in Bali
Resource: http://www.bidp-balidiving.com
26. Picture: 1.14 Adventurous activities in Bali
Resource : http://www.baliadventuretours.com
27. Picture 1.15 MICE tourism in Bali
Resource: http://unfccc.int/meetings/cop_13/items/4049.php
28. Picture 1.16 : Retreat Tourism
Resource: http://www.divinerevelation.org/Bali.html/ &
http://www.yogaretreatadventures.com/retreats
29.Picture 2.1 : Balinese dance live show on one of Beaches
Resource: Yahoo images, tourism Bali 1920s*
30. Figure 2.2 Percentage of tourists’ idea before visiting
31. Figure: 2.3 Tourist’s interest while they are in Bali
Resource: Survey
33. Figure : 2 .3 Tourist’s topic of discussion
Resource : Survey
34. Figure : 2.4 Balinese topic of discussion
Resource : Survey
35. Figure : 2.5 Balinese opinion about Barong Dance
Resource : Survey
36. 2.6 Chinese Liuhe Pagoda, Balingkang temple, Bali
158
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Liuhe_Pagoda.jpg
http://www.google.fr/imgres?imgurl=http://4.bp.blogspot.com
37. Picture 2.7 Langgar Temple, Bunutin village, Bangli Regency-Bali
http://embassyofindonesia.it/pura-langgar-a-temple-providing-harmony-for-both-hindu-andislam
38. Picture 2.8 Carving of W.O.J. Nieuwenkamp , in a temple at Kubutambahan Village
Resource : http://northbali.org/buleleng/research/woj-nieuwenkamp-and-bali
39. Picture 2.9 Baris Cina dance
http://blog.baliwww.com/arts-culture/2070
40. Picture: 2. 10 Sacred Barong is being concecarted in a temple
Resource: http://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://a5.sphotos.ak.fbcdn.net/hphotos-aksnc1
41. Picture 2.11 Sacred Barong : Purification Ceremony
http://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://3.bp.blogspot.com
42.Picture 2: 12 Sacred and Profane barong dance are being performed
Resource: baliluwih.blogspot.com and
http://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.nakbali.com
43. Table 2.13 The difference between Sacred and Profane Barong Dance
Resource: I Gusti Ngurah Sudiana, AKADEMIKA, Jurnal KebudayaanVol. 4, No. 1, April
44. Figure : 2.14 Impact of tourism on Balinese culture from tourist’s perspective
Figure : 2.15 Balinese opinion on the impact of tourism against their culture
45. Figure 2.16 : Correlation between tourist visit, poverty and unemployment
Resource: National and regional Statistic Office
46. Figure 2.17 : Poverty percentage in the village and in the city 2008-2010
Resource
: National and regional statistics office
47. Figure : 2.18 Income distribution
Resource : Catherine Basset et Michel Picard, 1993:212
48. Figure: 2.19 Employment condition in Bali Resource: Bali’s statistics office
49. Picture 2.20 Nirwana Resort Hotel-Bali
Resource : http://www.tripadvisor.com/Hotel_ReviewNirwana_Bali_Resort-Bali.ht
50. Figure 2.21 : Poverty rate in 2010
159
Resource: National and regional statistics office
51. Figure 2. 22 Corral Condition in Bali Resource : Bali’s Government Regulation
52. Figure : 2.23 Beach erosion
Resource : Bali’s Government Regulation
53. 3.1 Impact of tourism on Balinese Culture.
Resource : Result of survey
54. 3.2 Tourist’s idea about Bali prior to their visit.
Resource: Result of survey 2011
55. 3.3 Tourist’s idea about Bali after their visit.
Resource: Result of survey 2011
56. 3.4 Tourist’s interesting topic to talk to locals
Resource: Result of survey 2011
57. Figure
3.5 Balinese Topic of Discussion with tourists
Resource: Result of survey 2011
58. Picture : 3.6 Balinese religious painting and Bonnet's painting
http://blog.baliwww.com/people-community/766 http://www.ralphmag.org/FA/bali.html
59. Picture : 3.7 Modern and sacred satue
http://www.nealprincetrust.org/id300.html and
http://www.baliexist.com/products/carving/lionantiquestatue.html
60.Picture 3.8 Balinese Art shops
http://travcult.com/tag/sukawati/
http://rsstutz.com/gallery/main.php?g2_itemid=984
61. Picture : 3.9 Gong Kebyar
Resource: http://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://2.bp.blogspot.com
62. Picture 3.10 Kecak Dance and its origin Sanghyang Dedari Dance
Resource: http://dwiparamasma3dps.files.wordpress.com/2010/09/tari-kecak
http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&biw=1280&bih=699&q=sacred+Cak+sanghyang+Ded
ari
63. Picture 3. 11 John Coast’s book “Dancers of Bali” with a famous dancer “ Raka”, from
Peliatan village.
Resource: http://www.johncoast.org/dancingoutofbali.htm
160
64. Picture 3.12 Oleg Tamulilingan Dance (Bumblebee dance ) and Sleeping Beauty
Resource:http://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.artoflegendindia.com/images/de
tailed/plaa011_oleg_dance.
http://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://image.kazaa.com/imagesAndre_Previn/Tchaiko
vsky_Sleeping_Beauty
65. Picture 3.14 : Sacred Barong Dance, performed in a temple.
http://balivillashotels.blogspot.com/2009/05/barong-dance-ratu-gde-mesolah.html
66. 3.15 Barong Dance for tourist’s entertainment
http://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=https://lh4.googleusercontent.com
67. Picture 3. 16 Sacred and modern pendet dance
Resource : jaunsurapradja.co.cc - theamazingofindonesia.blogspot.com
68. Table 3.17
Resource : Bali Statistic Office
69. Figure 3.18 Balinese opinion on Company’s ownership in Bali
Resource: Survey 2011
70. Figure 3.19 Percentage of management and managerial position in tourist businesses in
Bali.
Resource : Survey 2011
71. Figure : 3.20 Income distribution
Resource : Catherine Basset et Michel Picard, 1993:212
72. Table :3.21 Bali’s employment situation
Resource
: http://baliholidayinfo.com/content/balis-employment-picture
73. Picture 3.22 Balinese women making pottery, and transporting them on their heads to a
market place.
Resource : My beautiful Bali http://mindofleroi.blogspot.com/
74. Picture 3.23 A souvenir seller and a spa therapist in Amandari Resort-Ubu, Bali
Resource : hhttp://www.123rf.com/photo_8028734_bali-indonesia-24-february2008ttp://www.balidiscovery.com/hotels
APENDIX
1. Questionnaire for Australian and European Tourists (French +English
Version)
2. Interview question for European and Australian (French)
3. Interview question for European and Australian (English)
161
4. Questionnaire for Balinese respondent (English) + Indonesian.
Apendix 1
QUESTIONAIRE FOR EUROPEAN AND AUSTRALIAN TOURISTS
Bonjour. Je suis étudiant indonésien ( Bali ), et je fais une étude sur le tourisme , pourriez vous répondre à mes questions. Merci. I am an Indonesian student (Balinese), I study Tourism in the University of Esthua, Angers, France. I am writing my final project on Acculturation, could you please help me fill in the questionnaire. Thank you. Avez vous déjà été à Bali? Have you been to Bali ? Oui/yes Non/No A. Fréquentation 1. Combien de fois avez vous visité Bali dans les 5 dernières années ? How many times have you been to Bali ?............................................ 2. Combien de temps avez‐vous passé à Bali à chaque voyage ? How long (average) did you stay in Bali for each visit ?...................... 3. À quelle période êtes-vous allé à Bali ? 4. Which months of the year did you go ?.............................................. B. Représentation Avant.
5. Avant de visiter Bali quelle image de Bali aviez-vous ?
Before visiting Bali, what image did you have in mind about Bali ?
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------6. Donc vous pensiez avant tout à :
So what you primarily thought was :
a. La beauté des plages/The beauty of beaches
b. La beauté de la diversité des paysages /The beauty of scenery
c. La richesse de la culture/The richness of culture
d. Un endroit paisible /A peaceful place
e. Un endroit vivant, animé/A lively and creative place
f. Un endroit pas cher/A less expensive place
g. Un shopping accessible. /Good place for shopping
h. Une population accueillante. /A welcoming community
i. Autre /other ------------------------------------------------7. Est que vous imaginiez c’était un paradis ? Et pourquoi ?
Did you imagine that it is a paradise ?
Why ?
C. Présentation après.
8. Après avoir été à Bali, qu’est-ce qui vous semble le plus intéressant à Bali ?
After visiting Bali, which of the followings you found the most interesting?
a. La culture/Culture
b. La plage
/Beach
c. La population/Population
d. Les paysages/Scenery
e. Le shopping/Shopping
162
f. Les animations/Activities
g. La visite différent danses
/Visiting different dances
h. Autre/other :………………………………………
9. Lorsque vous avez visité Bali, est que vous avez communiqué avec les populations locales?
When you visited Bali, did you communicate with Balinese people ? Oui /Yes
Non/No
10. Si vous avez rencontré des balinais, de quoi avez vous parlé? When you talked to Balinese people, what did you talk about ? a. De leur culture et religion/Culture and religion b. De leurs visites des touristes/The tourist visits
c. De leur quotidien /The daily live
d. Du Mode de vie/Life style
11. Selon vous quel est le meilleur lieu pour rencontrer la population locale ? In your opinion what is the best place to meet local people?
a. sur la plage /beaches
b. lors d’événements culturels/cultural events
c. au restaurant /restaurant
d. chez l’habitant /their houses
12. Avez‐vous des amis balinais? Do you have Balinese friends ? Oui /Yes Non/No
Si oui, qu'est‐ce que vous faites avec eux? If yes, what have you shared with them ?
a. La culture française / your culture
b. Langue / language
c. La mode de vie/ life style
d. Gastronomie/gastronomy in general
e. Des visites de Bali/the visit of Bali
f. Discutez de différences culturelles /culture differences
g. Discutez de la vie à Bali/the life in Bali
h. Discutez de la vie en France/the life in your country
i. Gastronomie de Bali/gastronomy of Bali
j. Gastronomie de France/gastronomy of your country k. Autre/other :………………………………………………………
13. Avez‐vous déjà participé à des cérémonies balinaises ? Oui/yes Non/no
Have you participated in Balinese ceremonies ?
14. Si oui, les quelles ? If yes, which ones ?
a. Crémation /cremation b. Festival Temple /temple festival c. mariage traditionnel /Balinese wedding d. Limage des dents /tooth filing 15. Qu’ avez-vous pensé de la cérémonie? /What did you think of the ceremony ?
163
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Très ennuyeux /boring
intéressante /interesting
étrange
/strange
Impressionnant/impressive
Autre/other……………....
16. Que pensez-vous de la culture que vous avez vue à Bali?
What did you think of the culture that you have seen in Bali ?
a. Authentique /authentic
b. Très touristique /very touristic
c. Nouvelle création /new creation
d. En mutation, en plus de changement /modification and adaptation
17. Selon vous les séjours touristiques ont-ils influencé la culture de Bali ?
In your opinion, do tourists influence the Balinese culture ?
Oui/yes
Non/no
18. La rendent-ils : Then they make it :
a. Vide /empty
b. Créative/creative
c. Riches /rich
d. Ils la détruisent/they are destroying it
19. La culture de balinaise a enrichi et a changé votre vie. Non Oui
Balinese culture has enriched and changed your life. Yes No
Si oui qui des éléments de culture suivants a la plus grande influence ?
If yes which of the following elements have the greatest influence ? (You may choose
more than one)
a. la langue/language
b. le style de vie /life style
c. la conviction/religion/belief/religion
d. la vie sociale/social life
e. la musique/music
f. la danse/dance
g. la tradition/tradition
Pourriez‐vous nous donner les informations suivantes? Please give us the following informations - Quel sexe /sex a. masculin b. féminin - Quel âge avez vous ? Age ? …………………………………………. - Quel est ou était votre métier ? Your job ?............................... - Etes‐vous toujours en activité ? Are you still active ? OUI/yes NON/no - Vivez‐vous en couple ? Marital status ? a. célibataire single b. married c.
widower Veuf / ve - Avez‐vous des enfants à charge ? Children ? OUI/yes NON/no - Combien ? How many ?........................................................... 164
Apendix 2. QUESTIONAIRES FOR BALINESE RESPONDENTS 1. Apakah Anda setuju dengan usaha pariwisata di Bali ? Ya Tidak 2. Apakah Anda setuju dengan pandangan bahwa budaya Bali dibagi benjadi dua, yaitu budaya sakral atau ritual dan budaya kebiasaan atau adat ? Ya Tidak 3. Mohon Anda tandai dari daftar kegiatan budaya berikut, yang mana termasuk sakral yang mana termasuk budaya kebiasaan (profan) yang bisa dinikmati oleh umum, baik wisatawan maupun orang Bali. Komponen Sakral Profan Orang Bali Wisatawan Budaya Ngaben Mekepung Odalan Pesta Seni Tari Barong dan Keris Barong ngelawang Hari raya Nyepi Melasti Potong gigi Mekotek Perang Pandan Tari Legong Tari kecak Sendratari 4. Menurut Anda apakah semua budaya Bali dapat dikemas menjadi produk wisata komersial? Ya Tidak
Berikan alasan : 5. Menurut Anda seni budaya yang dijual sebagai produk wisata selama ini merupakan : a. Budaya asli Bali c. Budaya sakral b. Budaya kreasi hanya untuk wisata d. Budaya tiruan dari yang asli. 6. Ketika Anda melakukan upacara agama atau ritual, ada wisatawan asing yang menonton dan mengambil foto, bagaimana perasaan Anda? a. Bangga b. Terhormat c. Terganggu d. Biasa‐biasa saja 165
7. Bali telah menjadi obyek wisata internasional sejak tahun 20‐an, dan Bali dikembangkan sebagai pariwisat Budaya, artinya budaya Bali telah berinteraksi dengan budaya asing yang dibawa oleh wisatawan. Dari interaksi itu unsur‐unsur yang paling banyak diserap adalah: a. Seni musik dan tari b. Seni lukis dan ukir c. Gaya hidup d. kerajinan 8. Budaya Bali yang begitu kuat juga telah banyak diserap dan dipelajari orang asing. Unsur budaya Bali yang paling berpengaruh terhadap orang asing adalah : a. Gaya hidup b. Agama c. Seni d. Bahasa 9. Ketika Anda punya waktu senggang, Anda ngobrol dengan seorang turis asing, topik pembicaraan yang paling Anda sukai adalah: a. Agama b. Budaya c. Gaya hidup d. Kehidupan sehari‐hari. 10. Anda berinteraksi dengan wisatawan asing di: a. Pantai b. Hotel c. Obyek wisata budaya d. Di rumah 11. Dalam interaksi Anda dengan wisatawan asing, yang paling sering ditanyakan oleh mereka adalah: a. Obyek wisata b. Budaya c. Agama d. Kehidupan sehari‐hari. 12. Dengan semakin banyaknya orang asing mempelajari budaya Bali, ini menunjukkan bahwa budaya Bali. a. Terbuka bagi semua orang b. Unik dan menarik c. Memiliki nilai‐nilai universal. d. Gampang ditiru. 13. Apakah Anda setuju bahwa kehadiran wisatawan di Bali justru Ya Tidak
memperkuat budaya Bali? Berikan alasan: 14. Manfaat pariwisata yang paling Anda rasakan adalah : a. Manfaat budaya b. Manfaat ekonomi c. Lingkungan d. Social 15. Dampak buruk yang paling Anda rasakan dari dunia pariwisata adalah: a.Rusaknya lingkungan hidup b. Menurunya nilai‐nilai budaya c.Meningkatnya kriminalitas d. Beaya hidup menjadi mahal 16. Seandainya Anda melakukan perjalanan ke luar negeri, ketika ditanya “Anda berasal dari mana?” Jawaban yang Anda berikan adalah a. Saya berasal dari Bali, saya orang Bali. b. Saya berasal dari Indonesia, saya orang Indonesia. c. Saya berasal dari Nusantara, saya orang Nusantara. d. Saya berasal dari Asia tenggara saya orang Asia. 17. Yang paling membuat Anda bangga menjadi orang Bali adalah: a.Keunikan budaya b. Keramah‐tamahan c. Keindahan Alam d.Gaya hidup. 18. Apa saran Anda dalam pengembangan pariwisata budaya di Bali agar budaya Bali tetap lestari, dan wisatawan mendapat pengalaman budaya yang baik ? 166
Data Responden Umur :____________________________________ Jenis Kelamin :____________________________________ Pekerjaan :____________________________________ Daerah tempat tinggal:___________________________________ Apendix 3 Questionnaire sur l’impact du tourisme à Bali 1. Combien de fois êtes‐vous allé à Bali ? 2. . Quand vous étiez à Bali, logiez‐vous dans un hôtel ? Précisez‐nous si vous avez logé dans un autre type d’hébergement. 3. Pensez‐vous que l’argent que vous avez dépensé à Bali a servi au développement de l’économie locale ou au contraire, pensez‐vous que la grande partie de cet argent a servi aux grosses entreprises touristiques et aux investisseurs ? Merci de justifier votre réponse. 4. D’après votre expérience à Bali, pensez‐vous que la population locale bénéficie économiquement du tourisme ? Merci de justifier votre réponse 5. Selon vous, est‐ce que le développement touristique à Bali a eu un impact positif ou négatif sur l’environnement ? Pourquoi ? 6. Pensez‐vous que le tourisme à Bali a contribué à la préservation de la culture Balinaise ou au contraire, la met‐il en danger ? Pourquoi ? 7. Selon vous, que faudrait‐il faire pour rendre le tourisme à Bali bénéfique à la fois pour l’économie locale, pour la culture et pour l’environnement ? 8. Qu’avez‐vous préféré le plus quand vous étiez sur place ? Qu’est‐ce qui vous a le plus ennuyé/déplu ? Pour quelles raisons Nom :______________________________ Âge :______________________________ Pays/nationalité : _____________________________ 167
Profession : _____________________________ The response Questionnaire sur l’impact du tourisme à Bali 1. Combien de fois êtes‐vous allé à Bali ? 1 fois (première fois en Fevrier 2011) 2. Quand vous étiez à Bali, logiez‐vous dans un hôtel ? Précisez‐nous si vous avez logé dans un autre type d’hébergement. Je logeais chez mon maitre de stage + à l’hôtel (Sayang Sanur – appartement) 3. Pensez‐vous que l’argent que vous avez dépensé à Bali a servi au développement de l’économie locale ou au contraire, pensez‐vous que la grande partie de cet argent a servi aux grosses entreprises touristiques et aux investisseurs ? Merci de justifier votre réponse. Nous pensons que notre argent a servi au développement local car nous avons utilisé des prestataires locaux (agence réceptive, excursionnistes, taxis, restaurants locaux en zone touristiques, warungs, location de scooter,…) 4. D’après votre expérience à Bali, pensez‐vous que la population locale bénéficie économiquement du tourisme ? Merci de justifier votre réponse Oui. Ex : lors d’une excursion à dos d’éléphant, j’ai appris qu’il y avait 200 personnes à travailler dans ce parc de loisirs. Lors d’une autre excursion sur l’ile des tortues, nous avons utilisé des petits bateaux locaux dont les propriétaires sont également des locaux et non des grandes chaines. De plus la présence des touristes favorise le développement du commerce avec l’artisanat. A termes, les infrastructures de l’île s’amélioreront forcément. 5.
Selon vous, est-ce que le développement touristique à Bali a eu un impact positif ou
négatif sur l’environnement ? Pourquoi ?
Impact négatif sur l’environnement car les infrastructures de l’île ne sont pas en adéquation avec le nombre de touristes accueillis qui sont de plus en plus nombreux. 6. Pensez‐vous que le tourisme à Bali a contribué à la préservation de la culture Balinaise ou au contraire, la met‐il en danger ? Pourquoi ? Les deux. La présence forte du tourisme sur l’île contribue à la conservation de la mémoire de la culture Balinaise mais a contrario, les balinais vont vouloir de plus en plus vivre comme les touristes. Mais l’île de Bali porte bien son nom : lîle des Dieux. Je pense que la religion est un 168
facteur important pour la préservation des traditions (ex : port du sarong, offrandes, cérémonies, crémations,…). Le tourisme ne changera rien à cette culture très ancrée. 7. Selon vous, que faudrait‐il faire pour rendre le tourisme à Bali bénéfique à la fois pour l’économie locale, pour la culture et pour l’environnement? Il faudrait implanter sur l’ile des règles encourageant la préservation de l’environnement (je pense au tri des déchets, à la manière de les traiter). J’ai été choqué par le nombre de sacs plastique qui polluent la mangrove de Sanur et des monticules de déchets près des temples qui sont brulés à ciel ouvert ; ces phénomènes ne peuvent pas continuer au risque d’avoir un impact négatif sur la présence des touristes qui ne voudront plus venir sur Bali à cause de la pollution trop importante. Il y a donc un enseignement à faire dans les écoles afin de les encourager et de les habituer à respecter leur environnement. Ceci peut être accompagné par des règles plus strictes (amendes) et la mise en place d’une politique environnementale faite par le gouvernement. Améliorer les infrastructures de l’île et savoir les entretenir. 8. Qu’avez‐vous préféré le plus quand vous étiez sur place ? Qu’est‐ce qui vous a le plus ennuyé/déplu ? Pour quelles raisons Préférence : gentillesse et accueil de la population en général, diversité et beauté des paysages, conservation des traditions. Déplu : difficulté de déplacement sur l’île avec un trafic non réglementé sur des routes non adaptées, utilisation du tourisme comme moyen fort de rentrée de devises dans le pays (ex : différence de prix en fonction des nationalités), marchandage incessant sur les lieux touristiques Nom
: DEMANESSE Aurélie
Âge
: 23 ans
Pays/nationalité
: France
Profession
: Etudiante tourisme Apendix 4 : Question For Balinese QUESTIONNAIRE FOR BALINESE RESPONDENSES
1. Peruahaan pariwisata di Bali seperti hotel, restaurant, travel, villa dan perusahan jasa
pariwisata lainnya adalah
a. kebanyakan milik orang Bali
b. kebanyakan milik orang luar Bali
c. kebanyakan milik orang asing
d. kebanyakan usaha patungan asing dan Bali.
169
2. Jabatan penting dalam perusahan pariwisata Bali seperti menejemen dan menejer
diduduki oleh
a. kebanyakan orang Bali
b. kebanyakan orang asing
c. kebanyakan orang bukan suku Bali
d. kebanyakan anggota club
3. Dalam tahun 2010 Bali dikunjungi oleh hampir 3 juta wusata asing, ini berarti
peredaran uang yang dikeluarkan oleh tamu tersebut cukup tingggi. Menurut Anda
siapa yang menerima masukan paling banyak ( beri angka 1-4) sesuai dengan porsi
penerimaannya.
a. hotel dan restaurant
b. travel dan guide
c. art shop
d. pengerajin.
4. Apakah orang Bali telah pegang peran utama dalam usaha jasa pariwisata Bali?
a. Ya
b. tidak
5. Agar orang Bali bisa ambil peran penting dalam dunia pariwisata, yang mana dari hal
dibawah harus dilakukan.( tulis angka 1-4 sesuai dengan prioritasnya)
a. Memberdayakan masyarakat desa untuk mengelola potensi wisata yang ada.
b. Menigkatkan pendidikan dan latihan dalam pariwisata.
c. Memberikan modal untuk menjadikan rumah penduduk sebagai wisma wisata
d. Mempekerjakan masyarakat di hotel-hotel yang dimiliki investor.
6. Pembangunan sarana pariwisata di Bali dapat
a. meningkatan kwalitas lingkungan di Bali
b. merusak lingkungan Bali
c. memperindah tata ruang Bali
d. meningkatkan kenyamanan orang Bali.
7. Pembangunan sarana pariwisata di Bali telah menimbulkan berbagai krisis, dari
masalah di bawah berikan angka 1-4 sesuai dengan tingkat keparahannya
a. krisis air
b. krisis listrik
c. krisis gas
d. bensin
8. Dari empat pernyataan di bawah yang mana paling tepat untuk Bali dalam situasi saat
ini.
a. Meningkatkan jumlah pembangunan sarana dan perusahaan pariwisata.
b. Menghentikan pembangunan hotel baru, memperdayakan masyarakat untuk mengelola
rumah mereka untuk pondok wisata.
c. Membangun hotel berbintang di desa-desa terpencil
d. Membangun villa di kawasan penduduk
Umur
:..........................................................
Pekerjaan
:.......................................................... 170
Apendix 5 IMPACT OF TOURISM ON ENVIRONMENT
Question: English : In your opinion does tourism development in the island has made environment in Bali more beautiful of even worse? Tell us why? French : Selon vous, est‐ce que le développement touristique à Bali a eu un impact positif ou négatif sur l’environnement ? Pourquoi ? 1. Souvent négatif (déchets, déforestation, destruction de rizières) mais parfois positif
(infrastructure en faveur de la défense de l’environnement et attention des médias
sur la nécessité de préserver l’écosystème)
2. Impact négatif sur l’environnement car les infrastructures de l’île ne sont pas en
adéquation avec le nombre de touristes accueillis qui sont de plus en plus
nombreux.
3. Les balinais ignore tout ou presque de ce qui occupe l’occident en terme d’environnement. Et personne ne semble vraiment s’inquiéter de la question qu’il s’agisse de ces mêmes occidentaux (expatriés, touristes…) ou des indonésiens. Il sera pourtant vite temps de se poser de vraies questions. J’ai vu des villages balinais dont le sol n’était que tapis de sacs plastiques et la déforestation de Bornéo sans parler de la pollution de Jakarta….. 4. I personally don’t like big western style hotels in places like Nusa Dua, because
they do not reflect Balinese culture or help visitors to understand Balinese culture.
I don’t think any Tourism development made Bali’s environment more beautiful,
although may be some areas have been “cleared up” to attract tourists. I think
some environmental problems e.g. rubbish and flooding are worse because tourism
development especially replacement of farming areas with building.
5. Touristic aspects have in several cases been integrated in local business and
cultural aspects: Art, food, clothing. Still the touristic exploitation of land is less
than for example in European countries (for example Spain).
6. In the tourist areas the environment is worse; it even disappears because of the
many hotels they build. Other parts of Bali are beautiful.
171
TOURIST’S SUGGESTION ON ENVIROMENTAL DEVELOPEMENT
1. Ne pas développer le tourisme de masse (grandes infrastructures hôtelières,
bus de tourisme énormes créant embouteillages et pollution) et maintenir
un rapport très fort avec le peuple balinais.
2. Il faudrait implanter sur l’ile des règles encourageant la préservation de
l’environnement (je pense au tri des déchets, à la manière de les traiter). J’ai
été choqué par le nombre de sacs plastique qui polluent la mangrove de Sanur
et des monticules de déchets près des temples qui sont brulés à ciel ouvert ; ces
phénomènes ne peuvent pas continuer au risque d’avoir un impact négatif sur
la présence des touristes qui ne voudront plus venir sur Bali à cause de la
pollution trop importante.
Il y a donc un enseignement à faire dans les écoles afin de les encourager et de
les habituer à respecter leur environnement. Ceci peut être accompagné par
des règles plus strictes (amendes) et la mise en place d’une politique
environnementale faite par le gouvernement.
Améliorer les infrastructures de l’île et savoir les entretenir.
3. Keep tourism within limits – an open tourism of any kind, any time, any place,
anywhere, will lead to a heap of ruins.
4. The development is very well done and looks beautiful but I hope it doesn’t get
too big so Bali becomes like any other city in the world.
5. The environmental impact study when planning tourist development ; research
problem impact on local community-social and economic, proritise areas of
local culture that may be impacted. (E.G.Do not disturb village communities,
build by pass road if possible; tap into changing tourist demand for ecotourism but do not compromise natural environment; help tourist to understand
real culture of Bali rather than potted version. (This will enhance international
relationships and lead to more sharing of environmental and other
strategies.
Local People’s Suggestions
1. Do not destroy the environment and the tourist object, improve facilities,
hygiene and safety. Improve the cultural education, thus Balinese
community love their culture.
172
2. Develop rural tourism, enhance the community creativity, and preserve the
green areas and do not convert them into buildings that may destroy them.
APENDIX 6. TOURIST’S OPINION ON ECONOMIC IMPACTS
English
: Do you think the money that you have spent in Bali has developed the local economy or most of it taken by big tourist companies and investors? Why do you think so? French
From your experience in Bali, does tourism economically beneficial for local people? Why do you think so? : Pensez-vous que l’argent que vous avez dépensé à Bali a servi au
développement de l’économie locale ou au contraire, pensez-vous que la grande
partie de cet argent a servi aux grosses entreprises touristiques et aux
investisseurs ? Merci de justifier votre réponse. D’après votre expérience à Bali, pensez-vous que la population locale bénéficie
économiquement du tourisme ? Merci de justifier votre réponse.
1. Nous pensons que notre argent a servi au développement local car nous avons utilisé des prestataires locaux (agence réceptive, excursionnistes, taxis, restaurants locaux en zone touristiques, warungs, location de scooter,…) Oui. Ex : lors d’une excursion à dos d’éléphant, j’ai appris qu’il y avait 200 personnes à travailler dans ce parc de loisirs. Lors d’une autre excursion sur l’ile des tortues, nous avons utilisé des petits bateaux locaux dont les propriétaires sont également des locaux et non des grandes chaines. De plus la présence des touristes favorise le développement du commerce avec l’artisanat. A termes, les infrastructures de l’île s’amélioreront forcément. 2. Ayant vécu sur place, je crois avoir contribué au deux. J’ai consommé pour
l’économie locale comme je l’aurais fais en France en faisant mes courses,
mangeant aux warung2, en étant locataire etc… Et j’ai également fais du
tourisme et dîné dans les restaurant d’Ubud ou autres lieux hautement
touristiques ou en quittant l’île pour Jawa. Je n’ai cependant jamais pris
contact avec les services d’exportation ou les compagnies touristiques. 173
L’île est très absolument attractive et le commerce de souvenir abondant.
J’ignore quels sont les chiffres d’affaires des sociétés vivant de tourisme ni
des vendeurs à la sauvette mais je crois que
sans le tourisme l’île et ses habitants seraient bien plus pauvres. Donc
d’une certaine manière oui.
3. I think most has gone to local economy through market sellers – i don’t stay
in big hotels or take expensive tours, just use the local providers.
For those who can live near tourist areas yes but i think many have given
up other forms of income so if tourism suffers a slump they also lose income. 4. Half and half. I usually stay in a hotel but only eat and shop at the markets
and smaller local eating places
5. Yes because I think most tourists are like me and shop locally because they
enjoy the cultural experience and the Balinese are so easy to get along
with.
6. Most of the money I spent went to local economy
Of course there is benefit for the local people, they work in hotel,
restaurants, shops and have their own business
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