Biology of the Root Parasitic Rhinanthoid Orobanchaceae
Transcription
Biology of the Root Parasitic Rhinanthoid Orobanchaceae
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" K JL '" + ," ?M )* " K !" #$ ' - !1 ;2 28 ) 8 ; N 8 8<8 #*+ ,-94 ,- $ & /1 $ 0 %% - 1 $ % % B7 0 % - 1 0 %5 "C 2% 5% U2UP<" % 5% U+2U+ "%% % % 0 % 5% % %% % 2 & 0 &0 % % & 8 1 Phylogeny, life history evolution and biogeography of the Rhinanthoid Orobanchaceae Jakub Těšitel*, Pavel Říha, Šárka Svobodová, Tamara Malinová, Milan Štech Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, Branišovská 31, CZ-370 05, České Budějovice, Czech Republic * for correspondence: [email protected] Abstract The Rhinanthoid Orobanchaceae form a monophyletic lineage including the hemiparasitic genera Euphrasia, Melampyrum, Tozzia, Bartsia, Nothobartsia, Odontites (s. l.), Rhinanthus, Rhynchocorys, Parentucellia, Hedbergia and holoparasitic Lathraea. In this study, we aimed to reconstruct the phylogeny, evolution of life history traits (life cycle and seed size) and explain the extant biogeographic patterns in this group. For the phylogenetic reconstruction, we used molecular data obtained by sequencing of the nuclear ITS region and chloroplast trnT-trnL intergenic spacer and matK+trnK region. The genus Melampyrum was found to occupy the sister position to the rest of the group. The other genera were assembled in the sister Rhinanthus-Rhynchocorys-Lathraea and Bartsia-Euphrasia-Odontites subclades. The reconstruction of life cycle evolution yielded ambiguous results suggesting nonetheless substantially higher likelihood of perenniality compared to annuality in most ancestor lineages. Seed size varied across two orders of magnitude (average weight per seed: 0.02-7.22 mg) and displayed a notable pattern characterized by tendency to reduction in the Bartsia-Euphrasia-Odontites subclade compared to the rest of the group. Seed size evolution was found to be correlated with life history evolution in the group if the generally smallseeded Bartsia-Euphrasia-Odontites subclade is excluded. We formulated hypotheses relating the extant biogeographical affinities of individual genera to the geological history of the EuroCaucasian diversity centre of the group. Notable dispersal events in Euphrasia and Bartsia were hypothesised to be allowed or at least facilitated by a specific combination of the life history traits. The full version of this paper is protected by copyright. Therefore, it is archived by the Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia only in the original print version of the Ph.D. thesis. The final version of the full paper is available at: http://www.springerlink.com/content/w02lvq6307346m25/ The final publication is available at www.springerlink.com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'" %("(((')(&&""-!'"&%"'!()% ";,'%.'"N"",'%"BM3D('*%%''&')" ( *"! % '% *"! * % H, * C-"" B"', * D% :%! - . '(')"(*"!N"'(.;"" F%$&3 - D('*%%''(- )"-"!("('%'!'*"&&"? % '(-' )" !( 1 8 1 ! '=" &' - ''" * - ; !&'()'%(="F'(.O!P! "3*"'''*-"!%' -")%!(!',!!"'"'*"-"')%%""'&('% !&'*'%'')%"%'('*%8&"!%!&"''&')" (%&'('&!%&",'(%&(-,.H-3%'('- *(%'&" * %&"'( - "')%)-%%'"' ''%)%!*%&'.H-3C%-%%'(!'"(%- '"'' * . !"11< $J!"11@3 (%&"'' '" "'"' *"! %' '&' . !" ( D 11@3 % ('- * % & *"%" ("''%&",*,") * (%"*"&')" !("("!%!")%,*#9%-%1Q (19%(" 6Q . "4&- (3%'("-%,""'&('"(' ''!(*"%'"&&'*%%!&"''&'-")-'!!"'' "(61Q*%"%"(* '(-' .-"!( !' *" &&" #Q 3 )" ') (', * '(-&"&9#!*"!%%'& *"?(,'*%'(&!%"& &' . R 1 *" % %'9%!&"' !3 )" ""-( "(!'( ('- ( )"( ", (, %"' >'' (% &"' 3 )"-"!(%'!),(&( '!& ((( &' - O .P "3'(!&'!8"C"&&' . R1*"%%'9%!&"'!3 )" ( -")%9 % H, * D B"', * D% :%! )% , * #9% -% ( 19% ("'!&"" * ?Q C*"# )'*!")'%"'((("( ?1 *"#?%$')")'%((8!( *" % &"' * %'" '" %!)%%%'&%'' * % %!&"'' )" 8(( *"! % ''&,'''%,)"&"(( "&%, *" % %! % .3 %-"&% *%8&"! '& %'%'!&')"%!-F('&", &'%)-%%'&&"'("*" (69S-''*%'&")' &.- . 3(.3 '%! ,'( *" , '9*) (-"!*%8&"!'&&.3'%)- !'' '&"!",.T E"& 11 /'& %' & &"' ("*"&'&! $;''D&"!"./$;D3&( .3('''".3 TCN C5D&"&"D" ( ") %'%"BM3)"(' 33 Tšitel et al.: Heterotrophic carbon gain by root hemiparasites Paper2 atom % 13C and re-expressed as delta values relative to the Pee Dee Belemnite standard (G) using equation 1. G 13C ( RSample / RStandard 1) 1000[‰] 13 12 where RSample = C: C ratio in the sample and RStandard standard. Eqn 1 = C: C ratio in the Pee Dee Belemnite 13 12 Assessment of host derived carbon in hemiparasite biomass Rhinanthus minor, E. rostkoviana and wheat perform C3 photosynthesis while maize performs C4 photosynthesis. As a result of their photochemical processes, C4 plants are usually significantly more enriched in 13C than C3 plants. Hence, it is possible to infer the extent of heterotrophic carbon gain of a hemiparasitic plant by measuring the relative change in the G13C value of the C3 parasite attached to a C4 host compared to when it is attached to a C3 host. We used an adjusted form of a linear two-source isotope-mixing model (Marshall & Ehleringer 1990), adapted from Gebauer & Meyer (2003), to calculate proportion of host-derived carbon in hemiparasite biomass (Equation 2). § G 13C P (C4 ) G 13C P (C3 ) · ¸ 100 [%] % H ¨ 13 Eqn 2 ¨ G C H (C ) G 13C H (C ) ¸ 4 3 ¹ © where %H = the percentage of carbon in parasite biomass that is derived from the host, GCP(C3) = G13C of the parasite growing on the C3 wheat host, GCP(C4) = G13C of the parasite growing on the C4 maize host, GC+C3) = G13C of the infected wheat host and GC+C4) = G13C of the infected maize host. For each replicate, GC P(C4) and the GC H(C4) of the corresponding host plant were entered into the model calculation and the average values of GCH(C3) and GC P(C3) were used as the baseline reference value. The outcome of this model provides an estimate of proportion of heterotrophic carbon in hemiparasite biomass produced by an adult host-attached plant. This value integrates organic carbon flows from the host to the hemiparasite, the actual values of which can be variable in time. The model assumes that there is no fractionation during the assimilation of host-derived nutrients by the parasite or that the fractionation has the same effect on G13C in parasites cultivated with both maize and wheat. Such assumption is reasonable since direct luminal continuity exists in R. minor haustoria (Cameron et al. 2006). In case of E. rostkoviana, absence of luminal continuity cannot be excluded; nonetheless, a study on Olax phyllanthi which conducts nutrient transfer via contact interfacial parenchyma does not report any substantial bias connected to isotope discrimination during the transfer (Tennakoon & Pate 1996). In addition, xylem G13C is assumed to be of the same value as the bulk leaf dry matter. Information on isotopic composition of xylem sap is unfortunately missing from literature probably due to difficulty in measuring this value, caused by low organic carbon concentration. Variation in G13C across main structures of a normal autotrophic plant however tends to be fairly restricted (Bowling et al. 2008). Moreover if any significant fractionation effect occurred, it could be assumed to be equal in both host species resulting in an equal effect on both terms in the mixing model numerator. Statistical analysis Differences between treatment means were analysed by ANOVA followed by Fisher’s multiple comparison test or using Student’s t test using Minitab version 13 (Minitab Inc., PA, USA). Where necessary, to satisfy the test assumptions, data were arcsine square root transformed. Welch’s estimation of degrees of freedom was used for t tests performed on data with unequal samples sizes. Untransformed means and associated standard errors are presented. The isotope-mixing model outcomes were tested for significant difference from 0 (i.e. no carbon gain from heterotrophy) using Student’s t test. 34 Tšitel et al.: Heterotrophic carbon gain by root hemiparasites Paper 2 "'&!&'*%%'&'*)(&"'8&(*"'&'('&,- ( #!'!.H-3E8&"!%!&"'&'%(%)%%''' ('&,(Y ',&*" &'()"'-*,(**"*"!%'*%" %''.9),CN7XCA-Z1163.H-3%Y '*%!&"''%(!F )"'-*,"%(!&"(%'%()%.H-3(-" *%'"%!&"'!''%(**"Y )&"''%(!F ()%)'!"&"( * % 3 >)" Y ' * ('&,(%-%"" .3 δ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šitel et al.: Heterotrophic carbon gain by root hemiparasites Paper 2 -R1?3%'!&'%%"&"-*'9"'&"", 7 %"('"""' '%)"'%"'**'%Y *%%!&"'' :89(9)%'" & "&"'- % !( .',!3 ="' .83 !8!! 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Cameron4 1 Department of Botany, Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, Branišovská 31, 370 05 České Budějovice, Czech Republic 2 Department of Plant Physiology, Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, Branišovská 31, 370 05 České Budějovice, Czech Republic 3 Department of Renewable Resources, University of Alberta, 4-42 ESB, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2E3, Canada 4 Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Alfred Denny Building, Western Bank, Sheffield, S10 2TN. *for correspondence: [email protected] Abstract Hemiparasitic plants display a unique strategy of resource acquisition combining parasitism of other species and own photosynthetic activity. Despite the active photoassimilation and green habit, they acquire substantial amount of carbon from their hosts. The organic carbon transfer has a crucial influence on the nature of the interaction between hemiparasites and their hosts which can oscillate between parasitism and competition for light. In this minireview, we summarize methodical approaches and results of various studies dealing with carbon budget of hemiparasites and the ecological implications of carbon heterotrophy in hemiparasites. The full version of this paper is protected by copyright. Therefore, it is archived by the Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia only in the original print version of the Ph.D. thesis. The final version of the full paper is available at: http://www.landesbioscience.com/journals/10/article/12563/ The definitive version is available at www.blackwell-synergy.com. 4 The role of heterotrophic carbon acquisition by the hemiparasitic plant Rhinanthus alectorolophus in seedling establishment in natural communities: a physiologicalperspective. Jakub T³šitel1*, Jan Lepš1,2, Martina Vráblová3 & Duncan D. Cameron4 1 Department of Botany, Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, Branišovská 31, 370 05 Zeské Bud[jovice, Czech Republic 2 Institute of Entomology, Biology Center, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Branišovská 31, 370 05 Zeské Bud[jovice, Czech Republic 3 Department of Plant Physiology, Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, Branišovská 31, 370 05 Zeské Bud[jovice, Czech Republic 4 Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Alfred Denny Building, Western Bank, Sheffield, S10 2TN. * for correspondence: [email protected] Introduction Most plants are photoautotrophic organisms fixing carbon through photosynthesis. Plants are however dependent also on water and mineral nutrients which are acquired from the environment (either directly through plant roots or rhizoids or through symbiotic relations with other constituents of ecosystems, principally mycorrhizal fungi). Despite the prevailing autotrophic strategy, several plant lineages have evolved heterotrophic means of resource acquisition parasitising fungi (mycoheterotrophy; Leake 1994, Selosse & Cameron 2010) or other plants (plant-parasitism; e.g. Irving & Cameron 2009) for either all or a subset of resources required to support their vital processes. Among these strategies, hemiparasitism is a plant-specific mechanism of resource acquisition based on both autotrophy and heterotrophy. Hemiparasitic plants are green performing photosynthesis but at the same time attack vascular system of other species exploiting the host xylem sap which contains both mineral nutrients and organic carbon (Irving & Cameron 2009). Hemiparasitic species occur in the majority of terrestrial ecosystems however in temperate Eurasia, grassland communities represent the principal habitats containing the highest diversity of the hemiparasitic flora. Moreover, parasitic plants are more than botanical curiosities, their ability to suppress host species growth and affect nutrient flows in the ecosystems (Quested et al. 2003, Cameron et al. 2005, Phoenix & Press 2005) results in the hemiparasites often being considered keystone species or ecosystem engineers regulating the structure and function of host communities (Cameron et al. 2005, Press & Phoenix 2005). The genus Rhinanthus (Orobanchaceae) is a common and widely distributed example of a northern-temperate root-hemiparasitic group. All of its 25-35 species are annual hemiparasites occurring in grasslands of low and medium productivity in Europe and North America (Meusel et al. 1978). As root-hemiparasites, Rhinanthus spp. attach to roots of their hosts by a specialized organ called haustorium providing direct luminal continuity between host and parasite xylem vessels via open conduits called oscula (Cameron et al. 2006). Host-to-parasite solute transfer therefore occurs through mass-flow, driven by a water potential gradient between the host and the parasite induced by high transpiration rate of the parasite and accumulation of osmotically-active compounds, particularly mannitol, in parasite tissues (Cameron et al. 2006). While direct luminal continuity as a mechanism for solute extraction from a host is not common to all parasitic plants, it is shared by many hemiparasitic species within the family Orobanchaceae, including the noxious hemiparasitic tropic weed Striga spp. (Dörr 1997). The connection to the host’s xylem and the absence of a phloem connection implies that water and mineral nutrients are the most important resources obtained from the host. Their flows have indeed been quantified in numerous 49 Tšitel et al.: The role of heterotrohic carbon in Rhinanthus seedling establishment Paper 4 hemiparasitic systems accounting for a substantial proportion of total host resources (Jiang et al. 2003, 2004, 2010) although the potential for acquisition of organic carbon is often ignored (but see T³šitel et al. 2010a). Despite low organic carbon concentration in xylem, the extensive amount of solutes acquired from the host can result also in significant heterotrophic carbon gain (T³šitel et al. 2010a) observed not only in Rhinanthus but also in numerous representatives of other roothemiparasitic species including Euphrasia (T³šitel et al. 2010a), Striga (Press et al. 1987) and Olax (Tennakoon & Pate 1996) species. The host-derived carbon can account for 20-80% of hemiparasite dry-mass (see T³šitel et al. 2010b for a review). The hemiparasitic lifestyle provides notable advantages to Rhinanthus spp. supplying relatively rich and stable resource of inorganic and organic nutrients without need of carbon investment in extensive root network or mycorrhizal associations. The efficient exploitation of host resources is probably closely related to the annual life history (Press et al. 1988, Ehleringer & Marshall 1995), which is shared with most of the temperate hemiparasitic Rhinanthoid Orobanchaceae and evolved independently in individual genera from perennial ancestors (T³šitel et al. 2010c). The annual life history combined with the absence of a long-living seed bank (ter Borg 1985, van Hulst et al. 1987, Kelly 1989) however requires successful seed production and seedling establishment in every season imposing an apparent constraint on persistence of Rhinanthus spp. populations growing in dense-sward communities dominated by perennial species. Rhinanthus spp. and some other hemiparasites (e.g. Melampyrum species; T³šitel et al. 2010c) compensate for this constraint by production of large, resource-rich seeds enabling fast growth of seedlings at the start of the growing season and hence allowing them to inhabit sites of medium productivity where no other annuals persist (Kelly 1989, Strykstra et al. 2002). Highly productive, nutrient-rich sites are however, generally unfavourable for persistence of hemiparasite populations including Rhinanthus spp. (van Hulst et al. 1987, Cameron et al. 2009, Fibich et al. 2010, Hejcman et al. 2011) underpinned by high intensity of competition for light at such sites (Hautier et al. 2009). In addition, the sensitivity of hemiparasites to light competition was confirmed experimentally (Matthies 1995, Keith et al. 2004, Hejcman et al. 2011) and is further supported by theoretical mathematical models suggesting an unstable population dynamics with high extinction risk (Cameron et al. 2009) or competitive exclusion (Fibich et al. 2010) at highly productive sites. Limitation of Rhinanthus spp. to low and intermediate productivity grasslands by interspecific competition might appear in conflict with the reported ability of Rhinanthus to withdraw substantial (up to c. 50% of dry biomass for Rhinanthus minor; T³šitel et al. 2010a) amounts of organic carbon from its host, especially given that Hwangbo & Seel (2002) reported no effect of shading on biomass production of R. minor. However, this latter study is based on analyses of adult plants that were shaded immediately prior to anthesis, limiting their predictive power over the competitive exclusion hypothesis detailed above. As a facultative hemiparasite, the seeds of Rhinanthus spp. germinate without host induction, produce green leaves and then attach to their host’s roots several days after emergence. They are thus entirely reliant upon their seed reserves and own photosynthetic activity for carbon and nutrients during the short period before the attachment (Irving & Cameron 2009). This is in direct contrast to the obligate hemiparasites which usually require host-borne signalling compounds, such as strigolactones, to induce germination and that attach to their host prior the formation and emergence of green shoots (Irving & Cameron 2009). In Rhinanthus, the seedling stage can be therefore hypothesized as the bottle-neck stage of the populations when most mortality occurs due to competition for light and nutrients. Competitive exclusion of established Rhinanthus spp. is, on the other hand, hard to imagine since the mature plants can grow relatively tall and their growth can be further supported in moderately productive ecosystems (Fibich et al. 2010, Mudrák & Lepš 2010) In the present study, we investigate the effect of light competition on performance of Rhinanthus alectorolophus in the context of its heterotrophic carbon acquisition. Experimental R. alectorolophus plants were cultivated in pots with wheat (Triticum aestivum; C3 photosynthesis) and maize (Zea mays; C4 photosynthesis) as host species. This allowed estimation of the amount of host- 50 Tšitel et al.: The role of heterotrohic carbon in Rhinanthus seedling establishment Paper 4 derived carbon in hemiparasite biomass using natural abundance of carbon stable isotopes (method introduced by Press et al. 1987 for Striga spp. and adapted by T³šitel et al. 2010a). The shading treatments were imposed on plants at different stages of development simulating competitive pressure from co-occurring species. The main aim of this experiment hence was to test the hypothesis that the highest susceptibility of Rhinanthus to competition for light is at the seedling stage and to uncover a possible role of heterotrophic carbon acquisition regulating the population dynamics of Rhinanthus spp. Materials and Methods Experimental species Rhinanthus alectorolophus (Scop.) Pollich is an annual hemiparasitic species occurring mostly in calcareous grasslands (Karlík & Poschlod 2009), however, R. alectorolophus was a weed in agroecosystems prior to the industrialisation of agriculture, infesting cereal crops most likely including wheat and maize, the species used as hosts in the present study (Skála & Štech 2000). Together with two closely related species in the genus, R. minor and R. angustifolius, R. alectorolophus is one of frequently used model species in ecological and ecophysiological studies of root-hemiparasites (e.g. Joshi et al. 2000, Matthies 2003, Hautier et al. 2010). Seeds of R. alectorolophus used in this study were collected from fruiting plants of a natural population close to Zechovice near Volyn³, Czech Republic (N 49°09'28'', E 13°52'13'', 510 m a.s.l.). Resolving the photosynthetic performance of R. alectorolophus in the field A light-response curve of net photosynthesis over a range of actinic light intensities (0 – 1500 Ámol photons m-2 s-1) was resolved for R. alectorolophus plants (n = 5) at the site from which the seeds originated in order to capture characteristics of species photosynthesis under natural conditions. Each measured leaf was first allowed to accommodate to the maximal light intensity (1500 Ámol photons m-2 s-1) until steady-state assimilation rate developed, which was consequently recorded followed by decrease of the irradiation level and steady-state assimilation rate recording in a series of 1500, 1000, 800, 500, 300, 150, 100, 50 and 0 Ámol photons m-2 s-1. Gas-exchange measurements were conducted on leaves of R. alectorolophus plants using an infra red gas analyser coupled to a Li-6400 portable photosynthesis system (Li-Cor Biosciences, Lincoln, USA). Individual curves were fitted by a non-linear regression models using an equation in Lambers et al. (2008): II Amax {(II Amax ) 2 4TIIAmax }0.5 Eqn 1 An Rd 2T where An = rate of assimilation, Amax = light-saturated rate of CO2 assimilation, I = apparent quantum yield, = curvature factor, Rd = dark respiration during photosynthesis. A mean light-response curve (Fig. 1) was obtained by averaging the five individual light-response curves, which also allowed calculating its confidence limits. Assessment of host-derived carbon in hemiparasite biomass Experimental R. alectorolophus plants were cultivated in pots containing wheat or maize host plants in order to assess the proportion of host-derived carbon in hemiparasite biomass. R. alectorolophus and wheat display C3 photosynthetic pathway while maize performs C4 photosynthesis. As a result of their photochemical processes, C4 plants are usually significantly more enriched in 13C (expected G13C value ranges between -12 and -18‰; Smith & Epstein 1971) than C3 plants (expected G13C value ranges between -23 and -35‰, Smith & Epstein 1971; expected G13C of Rhinanthus assimilates is close to the lower limit of the C3 range due to its high stomatal conductance and low water use efficiency; Press et al. 1988, Lambers et al. 2008). It is hence possible to infer the proportion of host-derived carbon in biomass of a hemiparasitic plant by measuring the relative change in the Ä13C value of the C3 parasite attached to a C4 host compared to when it is attached to a C3 host using a linear two-source isotope mixing model (an adjusted form of models of Marshall & Ehleringer 1990 and Gebauer & Meyer 2003, adopted by T³šitel et al. 2010a), relating the excess of 13 C in hemiparasites attached to the C4 host compared to those attached to the C3 host to the 51 Tšitel et al.: The role of heterotrohic carbon in Rhinanthus seedling establishment Paper 4 difference in isotope composition between the C3 and C4 hosts themselves (Eq. 2). § G P ( C 4 ) G P ( C3 ) · ¸ 100 [%] %H ¨ Eqn 2 ¨ G H (C ) G H (C ) ¸ 4 3 ¹ © Where %H = the percentage of carbon in parasite biomass that is derived from the host, GP(C3) = G13C of the parasite growing on the C3 wheat host, GP(C4) = G13C of the parasite growing on the C4 maize host, GH(C3) = G13C of the infected wheat host and GH(C4) = G13C of the infected maize host. G13C Fig. 1 Light-response curve displaying dependence of the rate of photosynthesis on the intensity of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) in leaves of five Rhinanthus alectorolophus plants growing under natural conditions. The summary light-response curve (full line) and the confidence intervals (dashed lines) were calculated as means and 2 u standard errors of values predicted by light-response model of individual plants. Symbols represent raw data and are classified by plant sample identity. Mean (± standard error) parameters of the light-response curve models: Amax = 22.69 (±1.26) Ámol CO2 m-2 s-1, Rd = 2.00 (±0.31) Ámol CO2 m-2 s-1, I = 0.085 (±0.004), = 0.467 (±0.094), compensation point: 24.81 (±3.7) Ámol photons m-2 s-1. Grey dashed lines represent PAR intensities resulting from the shading treatments: 50 Ámol photons m-2 s-1 under shaded conditions, 450 Ámol photons m-2 s-1 under full irradiation. 52 Tšitel et al.: The role of heterotrohic carbon in Rhinanthus seedling establishment Paper 4 samples were taken of leaves of hosts and a leaf and stem of the upper and lower part of each parasite since we expected variation in isotopic values between these separate parts of individual hemiparasitic plants. Subsequent calculations of the proportion of host-derived carbon in the separate parts of the hemiparasite plants was based on our experimentally derived values for GP(C4) of the separate parts of the R. alectorolophus plant and the GH(C4) of leaf of to which the parasite was attached. The average values of GH(C3) of corresponding treatment and GP(C3) of corresponding separate part of R. alectorolophus plants cultivated under corresponding treatment were entered into the model as the baseline C3 reference values. Total amount of host-derived organic carbon in above-ground hemiparasite biomass was estimated as a product of biomass dry weight and mean proportion of host-derived carbon concentration in the samples of the four separate plant parts. This approach assumes that 13C flows from the host only in a form of xylem-mobile organic compounds and no significant refixation of root respired CO2 by the hemiparasite occurs, effect of which was experimentally excluded by T³šitel et al. (2010a). In addition, the model assumes that no carbon isotope fractionation occurs during the transfer of solutes through haustoria and that potential difference in G13C between host bulk-leaf and xylem mobile organic compounds is either negligible or identical in both species. Cultivation and experimental design Seeds of the hosts were germinated on Petri dishes with moist filter paper. The seedlings were moved to 10 cm x 10 cm square pots containing substrate of peat and washed quartz sand (1:1,v/v ratio) after successful germination. Each pot contained one host plant. The plants were cultivated in a growth cabinet of Faculty of Science University of South Bohemia under light intensity of 450 (400-500) Ámol m-2 s-1 (photosynthetic active radiation - PAR) with a cycle of 14h day and 10h dark at 18°C. R. alectorolophus seedlings (germinated on moist filter paper at 4°C) were sown at a density of three seedlings per pot c. 3 to 4 cm from the host plant after 7 days of host development. After having produced green cotyledon, the parasite seedlings were thinned to one per pot by removing the most and least advanced seedlings to obtain a homogeneous cohort of seedlings. Pots were divided into four experimental groups arranged in a completely randomised design. Shading was imposed on Rhinanthus plantlets 8 days after sowing in the first group (referred to as shaded seedlings, n = 18). In the second group (n = 18), the same shading was imposed to young plants on day 24 after sowing (referred to as shaded young plants). The third group (n = 17) consisted of plants that were kept under completely dark conditions imposed at the same time as the young plant shading. The fourth group (n = 19) was the control growing under full light. The host plants received full light in all treatments. Shading was adjusted and checked every day to prevent direct light from coming on any part of the shaded plants. Moreover, the position of each of the pots was exchanged randomly every c. 7 days to diminish possible effects of irradiation heterogeneity (although this was rather minimal as indicated by the ranges of irradiation values). The shading imposed on the experimental plants decreased the PAR intensity from 450 (400-500) Ámol photons m-2 s-1 to 50 (40-60) Ámol photons m-2 s-1 corresponding to rates of photosynthesis 14.25 Ámol CO2 m-2 s-1 (62.8% of Amax in plants growing under natural conditions) and 1.82 Ámol CO2 m-2 s-1 (8.0% of Amax, Fig. 1) respectively. This PAR intensity ratio of c. 0.1 corresponds well to values typical of light conditions above the grassland canopy and in the understory (Hautier et al. 2009). The shading was imposed by a square shield made of thick green paper (8 x 8 cm, 218 g m-2) blocking the direct light. The shaded plants therefore received just indirect irradiation similar to a plant growing under natural conditions shaded by nearby competitive species. The shading shields were fixed 20 cm above the pots by a wooden support inserted into the pot substrate. This simple shield design allowed selective shading of Rhinanthus plants only and did not block air circulation preventing modification of air water potential or vapour pressure by shading. Several Rhinanthus plants grew sufficiently tall to almost interfere with the shading shield at the end of the experiment. The shield was moved upwards by several centimetres in such cases; however an additional shield was placed to the pot to keep the irradiation level within the desired range of 40-60 Ámol photons m-2 s-1 (confirmed by PAR measurements). The complete 53 Tšitel et al.: The role of heterotrohic carbon in Rhinanthus seedling establishment Paper 4 darkness treatment was imposed by covering the Rhinanthus plants by a 1 cm thick isolation polypropylene tube (inner diameter of 5 cm, length 20 cm) which was covered by a small tray and perforated by holes (c. 1 cm in diameter, 1 hole on c. 25 cm2 of the tube) pointing downwards to allow as much ventilation as possible while preventing light from coming in. This experimental design was designed to provide sufficient contrast between the light treatments rather than analyse performance or physiology of R. alectorolophus under exact levels of irradiation used. The shaded plants also performed better than might be expected from the lightresponse curves of the R. alectorolophus plants (Fig 1.) due to higher the effectiveness of diffuse light photosynthetic utilization (e.g. Sinclair & Shiraiwa 1992, Gu et al. 2002); nonetheless the shading apparently created a contrast of light-deficiency stressed vs. non-stressed plants. Biomass harvesting and stable isotope analysis Plants were harvested 46 days after sowing of R. alectorolophus. Height of each of the R. alectorolophus plants was measured prior to the harvest. Above ground biomass of both host plants and parasites was sampled in addition to the sampling for stable isotope analyses. All samples were dried at 80°C for 48 hours and weighed immediately. Dry weight of samples used for stable isotope analyses was included in the weight the total above-ground dry biomass produced. The samples for carbon stable isotope analysis were homogenized separately and a 0.4 mg subset of each constituent part was analysed for 13C content by a Vario MicroCube elemental analyzer (Elementar Analysensysteme, Hanau, Germany) connected to an isotope ratio mass spectrometer (IRMS Delta XL Plus, Finnigan, Germany) at the Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia. Data were collected as atom % 13C and re-expressed as delta values relative to the Pee Dee Belemnite standard (d) using Equation 3: Ä13 C ( RSample / RStandard 1) 1000[‰] Eqn 3 13 12 13 12 where RSample = C: C ratio in the sample and RStandard = C: C ratio in the Pee Dee Belemnite standard. In addition to the Ä13C data, the atomic N/C ratio was determined in the samples during the mass spectrometry analysis in order to resolve the nitrogen status of the experimental plants. The delta values were related to the internal working standard (cellulose, Ä13C = -24.389‰) which is related to the international standard saccharose (Ä13C = -10.40‰) obtained from the International Atomic Agency, Vienna. Quantity calibration for N/C ratio measurements was conducted using an atropine standard. Data analysis Factorial analyses of variance (ANOVA) were used to analyse the effects of treatments and host species identity on height and dry weight of biomass of R. alectorolophus and dry weight of biomass of the hosts and the estimated amount of carbon present in the hemiparasite biomass. The response variables were log-transformed to improve normality and homoscedasticity of residuals. Tukey honest significant difference post-hoc tests were calculated to test differences among individual levels of statistically significant multilevel terms. Linear mixed-effect models were used to analyse the carbon isotope composition and N/C ratio of R. alectorolophus plants and the proportion of host-derived carbon in individual parts of its biomass. The analysis of “split-plot” design was used: the host species, shading and their interaction represented the “main plot” fixed factor tested against the variability among individual plants (plant identity was a random factor nested in the interaction of host species u shading). The plant parts represented the split plot factor tested against the residual variability, similarly to its interactions. A priori defined contrasts were employed for further detailed analyses of model results and their interpretation. The contrasts for the light treatments were defined to compare both shading treatment with the control (treatment contrasts; Crawley 2007). Custom contrasts were defined for separate R. alectorolophus plant parts from which isotope samples were taken, testing i) upper vs. lower part of the plant ii) leaf vs. stem in the upper part of the plant and iii) leaf vs. stem in the lower part of the plant. All statistical analyses were conducted in R version 2.12 (R Development 54 Tšitel et al.: The role of heterotrohic carbon in Rhinanthus seedling establishment Paper 4 Core Team 2010). Linear mixed-effect models were calculated in package nlme version 3.1-97 (Pinheiro et al. 2010). Results Survival and growth of the experimental plants All plant on which the total darkness treatment was imposed died within five days. In the other treatments, Rhinanthus plants survived until the harvest except for three shaded seedlings and one control plant. These plants were excluded from further analyses. Shading had a significant effect on biomass production in R. alectorolophus (Table 1, Fig. 2a). Plants of both shading treatments produced significantly less biomass compared to unshaded control plants and shaded seedlings produced significantly less biomass than shaded young plants (Fig. 2a). A different effect of shading treatments on hemiparasite height was observed (Table 1, Fig. 2b) as shaded seedlings grew significantly smaller compared to control plants while shading imposed later had no statistically significant effect on plant height (Fig. 2b). Host species identity had no significant effect on either biomass production or height of the parasites (Table 1, Fig. 2a, b). Host biomass production significantly differed between the host species (wheat produced less biomass than maize) and across the treatments (Table 1, Fig 2c). Hosts of shaded young plants of R. alectorolophus produced a similar amount of biomass as hosts parasitized by control plants while the amount of biomass produced by those parasitized by shaded seedlings was significantly higher (Table 1, Fig. 2c) Table 1 Summary of factorial analyses of variance testing the effects of shading treatments and host species identity on above-ground biomass production and height of R. alectorolophus and biomass of the hosts. Data were transformed by natural logarithm prior to the analysis. Statistically significant test results (P < 0.05) are indicated in bold. Effect df 1. Host species 1,41 2. Shading treatment 2,41 2,41 1. u 2. Residuals 41 Rhinathus biomass dry weight Sum Sq. F 0.03 0.12 30.37 58.04 0.32 0.62 10.73 Rhinanthus height P Sum Sq. 0.73 0.01 -9 <10 2.08 0.55 0.05 3.91 host biomass dry weight F P Sum Sq. 0.08 0.77 9.58 10.9 < 0.001 3.59 0.24 0.79 0.078 4.03 F 97.49 18.24 0.4 P <10-10 <10-5 0.68 Carbon stable isotope composition and N/C ratio in biomass of the experimental plants Carbon stable isotope composition of host species corresponded to values expected for C3 and C4 plants (Fig 3a). Ä13C values detected in the individual parts of R. alectorolophus biomass displayed substantial variability which was significantly influenced by host species identity, shading treatment, plant part (from which the sample originated) and the interactions between these factors (Table 2). R. alectorolophus attached to wheat was in general slightly depleted compared to the host as expected due the low water use efficiency of the parasite (Fig. 3a). R alectorolophus plants attached to maize were significantly enriched in 13C compared to those attached to wheat (t41 = 2.45, P = 0.0001). Leaves were significantly depleted in 13C compared to stems (t130 = -5.04, P < 0.0001 in the upper part of the plants; t130 = -4.76, P < 0.0001 in the lower part of the plants) while the difference in Ä13C between the upper and the lower part was non-significant (t130 = 1.64, P = 0.10). The main effects of the shading treatment did not yield statistically significant contrasts (t41 = 0.57, P = 0.57 for shaded seedlings; t41 = 0.84, P = 0.40 for shaded young plants) but there was a significant interaction indicating 13C enrichment in both shaded treatments of R. alectorolophus attached to maize (t41 = 3.40, P = 0.0015 for shaded seedlings; t41 = 2.18, P = 0.035 for shaded young plants). The upper parts of shaded young plants were significantly less enriched in 13C than the lower parts (t121 = -3.601, P = 0.0005) and their upper leaf was significantly less depleted compared the upper part of stem (t121 = 2.95, P = 0.0038) if compared to the situation in control plants. In addition, lower leaves of the parasites attached to maize were significantly depleted in 13C 55 Tšitel et al.: The role of heterotrohic carbon in Rhinanthus seedling establishment Paper 4 compared to the lower part of the stem (t121 = -2.54, P = 0.012). The N/C atomic ratio in biomass of Rhinanthus was clearly affected by the shading treatments and plant part from which the sample originated (Fig 3b, Table 2) although there was also a marginally significant effect of host species identity (parasites attached to maize had slightly lower N/C ratio, t43 = -2.08, P = 0.043). The N/C ratio in unshaded control plants was close that of wheat host plants (incl. parasites attached to maize) while shading caused significant increase of its value in both shaded seedlings (t43 = 8.32, P < 0.0001) and young plants (t43 = 4.39, P = 0.0001). The upper parts of Rhinanthus displayed generally higher N/C ratio (t124 = 2.90, P = 0.0044), which also applied to leaves compared to stems in both upper (t124 = 2.02, P = 0.045) and lower (t124 = 4.93, P < 0.0001) parts of the plants. In addition, there was a pronounced effect of interaction between the shading treatments and plant parts. The upper parts of both shaded seedlings and shaded young plants had higher than additive N/C proportion in their upper part compared to unshaded control (t124 = 2.28, P = 0.024, t124 = 3.78, P = 0.0002, respectively). In addition, shaded seedlings had higher than additive N/C proportion in their upper leaves compared to stems (t124 = 2.85, P = 0.0052) and a similar pattern was present in the lower part of the shaded young plants (t124 = 2.04, P = 0.043). Proportion and total amount estimation of hostderived carbon in hemiparasite biomass Proportion of host-derived carbon in Rhinanthus biomass was significantly affected by the shading treatments and differed across sampled parts of the plants (Fig. 4a, Table 3). Shaded seedlings had significantly higher proportion of host-derived carbon in their biomass compared to control plants (t23 = 4.30, P = 0.0003). A similar, albeit smaller difference was detected between shaded young plants and control plants (t23 = 2.62, P = 0.015). In addition, host-derived carbon proportion was significantly lower in the upper parts of the Fig. 2 Above-ground biomass production and height of R. alectorolophus and above-ground biomass production of its hosts under different shading treatments imposed on the hemiparasite. (a) Dry weight of above-ground biomass produced by R. alectorolophus (b) Height of R. alectorolophus (c) Dry weight of above-ground biomass produced by the hosts to which R. alectorolophus was attached. White bars indicate wheat or R. alectorolophus attached to wheat, grey bars represent maize or R. alectorolophus attached to maize. Note the logarithmic scale of the y-axes. Error bars represent ±1 standard error. Different letters symbolize statistically significant difference inferred from post-hoc pairwise comparisons (P < 0.05). 56 Tšitel et al.: The role of heterotrohic carbon in Rhinanthus seedling establishment Paper 4 plants compared to the lower parts (t64 = -3.40, P = 0.0012). There were also significant interactions caused by higher than additive proportions of host-derived carbon in the upper parts of shaded seedlings (t64 = 3.31, P = 0.0015) and lower than additive proportions in the lower leaves compared to the corresponding parts of the stem (t64 = -4.64, P < 0.0001) in plants of the same treatment. Not only had the shading substantial effect on the proportion of host-derived carbon in Rhinanthus biomass but also on the estimated total amount on carbon incorporated in the aboveground biomass (Fig. 4b, one-way ANOVA summary: log-transformed data, R2 = 0.376, F(2,23) = 6.93, P = 0.0044). In contrast to the observed positive effect of shading on the proportion of hostderived carbon, its total estimated amount was significantly lower in shaded seedlings compared to the other two treatments (Fig. 4b). There was no statistically significant difference between shaded young plants and control plants. Fig. 3 (a) Ä13C values and (b) N/C atomic ratio in biomass of wheat (C3 photosynthesis) and maize (C4 photosynthesis) hosts and individual samples of Rhinanthus alectorolophus plants (C3 photosynthesis) under individual shading treatments. Black, grey and white boxes indicate shaded seedlings, shaded young plants and control treatments respectively. The points in boxes represent medians, boxes represent quartiles and the lines extending from the box boundaries (whiskers) represent the range or non-outlier range of values, whichever is smaller. The non-outlier range is defined as the interval between 25% quantile – 1.5 times interquartile range and 75% quantile + 1.5 interquantile range. Any point outside this interval is considered outlier and depicted separately. 57 Tšitel et al.: The role of heterotrohic carbon in Rhinanthus seedling establishment Paper 4 Table 2 Summary of the general linear mixed-effect models testing the effects of host species identity, shading treatment and part of the plant from which the sample was taken on the Ä13C value and N/C ratio in biomass of R. alectorolophus. Non-significant terms were omitted from the final model of N/C ratio distribution. Overall tests of the final models: Ä13C: Likelihood ratio = 205.23, df = 17, P < 0.0001, N/C ratio: Likelihood ratio = 194.42, df = 12, P < 0.0001 (tested against the null models containing no fixed effect terms). Ä13C value N/C ratio Effect df F P df F P 1. Host species 1,41 89.93 < 0.0001 1,41 4.07 0.050 2,41 14.15 < 0.0001 2,41 40.89 < 0.0001 2. Shading treatment 3. Plant part 3,121 62.74 < 0.0001 3,121 73.38 < 0.0001 1.33 0.28 1. u 2. 2,41 6.86 0.0027 2,41 1.23 0.30 1. u 3. 3,121 3.08 0.0301 3,121 4.75 0.0002 2. u 3. 6, 121 4.16 0.0008 6, 121 Fig. 4 (a) Proportion of host-derived carbon in different samples of biomass of R. alectorolophus attached to maize and cultivated under different shading treatments. The values were calculated from raw Ä13C data (Fig. 3a) using an isotope mixing model (Eqn. 2). (b) Total estimated amount of host-derived carbon in biomass of R. alectorolophus attached to maize and cultivated under different shading treatments. The values were calculated as a product of mean proportion of hostderived carbon in hemiparasite biomass across individual analyzed parts of a plant and the dry weight of its above-ground biomass. Black, grey and white boxes indicate shaded seedlings, shaded young plants and control treatments respectively. The points in boxes represent medians, boxes represent quartiles and the lines extending from the box boundaries (whiskers) represent the range or non-outlier range of values, whichever is smaller. The non-outlier range is defined as the interval between 25% quantile – 1.5 times interquartile range and 75% quantile + 1.5 interquantile range. Any point outside this interval is considered outlier and depicted separately. Different letters in (b) symbolize statistically significant difference inferred from post-hoc pairwise comparisons (P < 0.05). 58 Tšitel et al.: The role of heterotrohic carbon in Rhinanthus seedling establishment Paper 4 Discussion Our study unequivocally demonstrates that the Table 3 Summary of a linear mixed-effect model growth of Rhinanthus alectorolophus is testing differences in proportion of host-derived supported by two sources of organic carbon carbon in biomass of individual parts of R. originating from its own photosynthetic alectorolophus plants cultivated under the activity and host-derived assimilates. shading treatments. Plant identity was used as a Assimilates of autotrophic origin apparently random factor nested within the shading represent the dominant component of carbon treatment. Overall test of the final model: balance in adult R. alectorolophus plants in Likelihood ratio = 71.86, df = 11, P < 0.0001 agreement with the high rates of (tested against null model containing no fixed photosynthesis we detected in R. effect terms). alectorolophus plants under natural field Effect df F P conditions (Fig. 1). The fatal consequences of 1. Shading treatment 2,23 9.91 0.0008 the total darkness treatment for R. 2. Plant part 3,64 8.12 0.0001 alectorolophus identifies photosynthesis as an 1 u 2 6,64 8.22 < 0.0001 absolutely essential physiological process for R. alectorolophus in contrast to the cases of the obligate hemiparasites such as Striga asiatica which was shown to grow and reproduce even in absolute darkness (Rogers & Nelson 1962) or S. hermonthica in which albino mutants occasionally occur (Press et al. 1991). Based on the key role of photosynthesis in the carbon budget of R. alectorolophus, the lower hemiparasite biomass production observed under both shading treatments can be attributed to a reduction of the rate of photosynthesis caused by the shading. This contrasts with the conclusions of Hwangbo & Seel (2002) who recorded little or no effects of shading on hemiparasite growth. This study however only imposed limited shading (decreasing PAR intensity to c. 50%) on adult Rhinanthus minor plants after 4.5 weeks post attachment. Not only did the shading treatments of our experiment affect the rate of assimilation, but also the quantity of host-derived carbon acquired by the hemiparasites. Shaded seedlings had the highest proportion of host-derived carbon in their biomass but we estimated that the total amount was lower compared to shaded young plants and unshaded control, which furthermore decreased their growth. In contrast, shaded young plants abstracted a similar amount of organic carbon from the host as the control plants. In addition, these plants had a larger photosynthetically active leaf area at the onset of shading, resulting in higher rate of assimilation per whole plant compared to shaded seedlings. This in turn allowed production of more leaves leading to a positive feedback underpinning differential performance of shaded seedlings and young plants. A comparison between the proportion of host-derived carbon, its total amount and N/C ratio in the biomass of the hemiparasites (Fig 4a,b) clearly suggests that differences in assimilation rates of plants under individual shading treatment caused the principal pattern in proportion of hostderived carbon in hemiparasite biomass. The low proportion of host-derived carbon and low N/C ratio in unshaded R. alectorolophus were apparently caused by their high assimilation rates resulting in “dilution” of host-derived carbon and nitrogen in the hemiparasite biomass dominated by assimilates of autotrophic origin while in the shaded treatments, this effect was much lower. The detected trend of higher concentration of host-derived carbon in the lower plant parts indicate hostderived carbon being mostly directed to structural components of the lower stem parts while the autotrophic carbon is preferentially used for development of new leaves and vertical growth of the stem, i.e. producing additional photosynthetically active area. On the other hand, nitrogen is mostly directed to leaves and the upper parts of the plants (particularly in shaded treatments). These contrasting patterns suggest an intensive retranslocation and metabolic processing of the host-borne resources in the hemiparasite. A strikingly similar pattern was also detected in Striga hermonthica however the differential allocation of carbon originating from different sources was much more pronounced (Santos-Izquierdo et al. 2008). The elevated proportion of host-derived carbon in the upper parts of shaded seedlings indicates that under extreme deficiency of autotrophic assimilates, 59 Tšitel et al.: The role of heterotrohic carbon in Rhinanthus seedling establishment Paper 4 host-derived carbon can be also directed to vertical growth. The host-derived carbon acquired by Rhinanthus is derived from xylem-mobile organic elements (mostly organic acids and amino-acids, e.g. Alvarez et al. 2008) and the inflow of these compounds therefore occurs through mass flow driven by water potential difference maintained by elevated transpiration rate of the hemiparasite and accumulation of osmotically active sugar alcohols in hemiparasite tissues (Jiang et al. 2003, 2008). Playing the key role in determining sink strength of the hemiparasite, the transpiration rate per whole plant is dependent on its total leaf area, stomatal conductance and water vapour concentration difference between the leaves and ambient air. Of these, the effect of stomatal conductance can be assumed closely similar across Rhinanthus plants which keep their stomata permanently open (Jiang et al. 2003). We did not perform any detailed quantitative analysis of leaf area, but the difference in biomass production between control and shaded young plants appeared to be caused by increased leaf thickness of directly illuminated leaves and their palisade parenchyma (Fig. 5) rather than by lower leaf area of shaded young plants. The pattern whereby the total amount of host-derived carbon in biomass in depends on shading treatment (Fig. 4b) therefore suggests that the total leaf area could be the key factor underpinning the parasitic resource uptake. The last variable potentially affecting the transpiration rate, differences in interior water vapour concentration, might have developed between irradiated and shaded leaves due to their different temperature increasing the transpiration of leaves under full irradiation. Leaf temperature data acquired during the field gas-exchange measurement of lightresponse curves (Fig. 1) however indicated rather low temperature difference (c. 1°C) between leaves irradiated by 500 and 50 Ámol photons m-2 s-1 resulting in relatively small decrease of transpiration rate inflicted by shading if compared to the effect of leaf area. In addition, substantial amount of host-borne resources can be acquired during the dark period of the day when host plants close their stomata while those of Rhinanthus remain open resulting in rather intense night-time transpiration (Press et al. 1988, Jiang et al. 2003). Due to resultant difference in sink strength between the host and hemiparasite shoots in the night, this mechanism is hypothesized to play an important role in parasitic resource acquisition by the hemiparasites (Press et al. 1988, Erhelinger & Marshall 1995) independently of light conditions during the day. The lack of a significant difference in height between shaded young plants and control and a rather moderate decrease of vertical growth in shaded seedlings achieving more than 50% height of control plants (Fig. 2b) indicate that shaded plants mobilise their resources (acquired both autotrophically and heterotrophically) to support their vertical growth aiming to avoid shading, a fundamental process also observed in non-parasitic plants (Lambers et al. 2008). Shaded young plants were therefore able to grow as tall and suppress host growth to the same degree as the control hemiparasites despite the severe shading. This response would potentially allow the parasites to escape from shading under natural conditions in grasslands when shading is imposed by competing neighbouring plants. However, if shading is imposed in the seedling stage, parasites remain small and are unable suppress the host growth to a sufficient extent or to compete for light with the surrounding vegetation. The sensitivity of R. alectorolophus to shading when imposed in a very early stage of development clearly supports the hypothesis of T³šitel et al. (2010a) explaining the conflict between heterotrophic acquisition of substantial amount of carbon and reported sensitivity to light competition in Rhinanthus (Matthies 1995, Hejcman et al. 2011) by inefficiency of resource uptake by unattached hemiparasite seedlings. In addition, a moderate increase of grassland productivity and hence increase of competition pressure (Hautier et al. 2009) has been reported to increase seedling mortality in hemiparasites but also fecundity of the survivors (van Hulst et al. 1987, Mudrák & Lepš 2010). Similarly, Keith et al. (2004) and Hautier et al. (2010) demonstrated that once survived the seedling stage, hemiparasites growing close to the host or attached to a fast-growing host species achieve comparatively high fecundity. All these results suggest that productivity connected with elevated mineral nutrient uptake support the growth of the hemiparasites after overcoming the seedling stage by increasing effectiveness of their photosynthetic machinery. 60 Tšitel et al.: The role of heterotrohic carbon in Rhinanthus seedling establishment Paper 4 Fig. 5 Light micrographs of transverse semi-thin sections of shaded leaves (a) leaves expose to direct light (b) of the experimental Rhinanthus alectorolophus plants. The shade leaf is represented by a sample of upper leaf of a plant of the shaded young plant treatment and the upper leaf an unshaded plant was taken as sample of a sun leaf. Leaves were fixed in 2.5% glutaraldehyde, dehydrated with an acetone series and embedded in Spurr resin. 400 nm thick sections were cut using a Leica Ultracut UCT ultramicrotome at the Laboratory of Electron Microscopy, Institute of Parasitology, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Ëeské Bud³jovice. Sections were stained by 1% toluidine blue prior to microscopy. The mortality of hemiparasite seedlings caused by light competition pressure from the surrounding vegetation is also determined by the quality of attachment to the host; that is, seedlings attached by multiple haustoria and to lower-order host roots take up host resources more effectively and their mortality rate is consequently lower (Keith et al. 2004). This can, at least in part, compensate for the effect of shading on the carbon balance of the hemiparasite by providing substantial amounts of host-derived carbon. Indeed, some of the shaded seedlings in our experiment managed to acquire as much host-derived carbon as plants in the other two treatments (Fig. 4b) and these individuals also performed best among the shaded seedlings in terms of biomass production. Supporting this conclusion, Hejcman et al. (2011) have demonstrated that R. minor is able to persist even in a highly productive grassland plots requiring however intensive seed rain from surrounding plots of low productivity. These R. minor plants were substantially more vigorous than plants growing in surrounding less productive plots (Hejcman pers. comm.) and probably represented a population subset that was able to acquire substantial amounts of carbon heterotrophically. Nonetheless they were still unable to establish a stable population due to the high mortality rate and subsequent low population density. Wider perspectives Persistence of Rhinanthus spp. populations in grassland communities depends on its ability to complete the life cycle. As annual hemiparasites without substantial long-living seed bank, the species must germinate, grow, flower and produce seeds in every season. This study identified the seedling stage as the bottleneck of the life cycle limiting the occurrence of Rhinanthus spp. to grasslands with low to moderate productivity. Such sensitivity of seedlings is in part addressed by a comparatively large seed size and early germination controlled by environmental factors allowing 61 Tšitel et al.: The role of heterotrohic carbon in Rhinanthus seedling establishment Paper 4 rapid development and overcoming limitation in the critical recruitment stage. The ability to acquire substantial amounts of host-derived organic carbon supporting the growth of young plants however represents a further mechanism enabling Rhinanthus seedlings to escape from competition for light. In this way, the heterotrophic carbon acquisition can broaden the ecological range of the hemiparasites allowing their occurrence in moderately productive environment. Acknowledgements We thank Petra Fialová and Ladislav Marek (University of South Bohemia) for analysing samples for 13C content. We are grateful to Renate Wesselingh and additional two anonymous reviewers for their comments helping to improve the original version of the manuscript. JT, JL and MV are supported by the Grant Agency of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic (grant no. 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S :4,##/@; [81>[ Q1Q8 :#,;; #- 81Q7 QO177 8 0&#;; #- [1> QQ18O >O1O :#,;; #- O1ON N17 8 0&#;; #- >Q1NO O>1Q 81N :#,;; #- Q1[ 818 8 0&#;; #- 1> S :4#@##/@; S :4##/@; 99 Tuleu et al.: Odontites vernus group in Central Europe Paper 7 F ::@4#@--4#-#,&444&9 ##@;-# - 4--#&-&-4#// -;:#-#/;; #:#-1&@;/#@ - -/ - -#, ;/ # #<0@ GS5e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uleu et al.: Odontites vernus group in Central Europe Paper 7 D<#/<0&- ;- /:#-#, #-&;- 0# #- 4 ##/- #/ ;&#,#/@,@;-4& 9 ## , ;#B#C ;/-;@/# &4#// ;#-#/:###/ #-;;; #1S&,&:- 4&@<D-1'/#U -##< #,-#/ -/;/-/#D- 0&--#/;#--;@1L44#-& ;;:4&##< #,#/ --@ -,#4# 2 b 717Q9 /44# #4/ 4: ;-<& @ EFL : ; 101 Tuleu et al.: Odontites vernus group in Central Europe Paper 7 :;-#--;;/GS5e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�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uleu et al.: Odontites vernus group in Central Europe Paper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e+ 3/: T(F/G# P #' #/. /4&;0&-:;#,4&9 #;; #-1 &-- /@0-- ;;/@&#G,#@4&G/:@4F#-4&B&3; 2,##1?GG87N7O7Q9#G,#@4&B&3; 2,##178a7OaE7NN9# G,#@4&W#-@4F &&:2,##1>Oa77a91 $ ,#'E;.*0#-#/B32==79dC,@d#// -;; #-#/:: #-1 -0F#4 #-5D4/1 , ' 2==>9d F@-: #/ B&, / #, 9 # . /0, -11 2F;& 91KOOd>NQV>8Q1 ,'2==89d'#,;&/ #,9 #2F;& 9-0/0#/# #,# # 9 % &$ #/ %#1 A/#08d >[V881 103 Tuleu et al.: Odontites vernus group in Central Europe Paper 7 LZLZ'*SK2==N9dK0@:-:#4# LSG: # #/;/##-2#&#/144#911#1>8d>QV>Q[1 LZ& *F /277[9dC-:#4# LSG###;#- -#,40 @:@1S -d>>VNN1 27779d9 #. /0,1?#F2/9d+#h-i; @181G/: &;;1NN=VNQN1 '& C 2==[9d 5/#- . /01 ?# ! 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