Mega Science Lab - Smithsonian Store

THE SMITHSONIAN
INSTITUTIONFACTSHEET
SMITHSONIAN®
THEFIRSTBUILDING
TheSmithson~n
Institu~nBuilding,more
commonly
known
asthe Castle,w~sdesigned
by architectJames
Renwick
andconsb’uoled
between
1847and1855.Th~C~s~
houses
the Smithson~n
Information
Center,
administrative
officesandtheWoodrow
Wilson
Internabonal
Center
for Scholars,
aswallestheJames
Smith~on
cr~pL
MUSEUM
VISITORS
Theinstitution’smuseums
andgalleysrepod
more
than25mill,onvis~a year.TheNe~ona}
Zoohas
another
es~maled
3 mill*onvisitorsa year.Admis~/,on
to all Smithsonian
museums
in Washington,
D.C.is free.Hours
are
from10a.m.to 5:30p.m.daily.(TheCastle
opens
at 9 a.m.andAnaoostia
Museum
closes
at 5 p.m.National
Zooanimal
buildings
areopen
from9 a.m.to 4:30p.m.wi~lseasonal
hours
for thegrounds).
TheSmithsonian
is dosed
on
December
25.
THESIZE ANDSCOPE
OFTHESMITHSONIAN
COLLECTIONS
Thetotal number
of objects,wor~
of art =mclspeomens
at theSmithsonian
is estimated
at more
than140
million,most
of which
is in theNa~ona)
Museum
of Natural
Histon/(120
millionspecimens
andaJlifacls).Many
artifacts
aredonated
to theSmithsonian
byindividuals,
privatecollect:Ks
endfederal
agenc~s;
others
coma
to thecollect*o~
through
field expedi~ns,
bequests,
exchanges
wffhothermuseums
andorganizatons,
andpurchases.
:THIS
SET CONTAINS CHEMICALS
I& APPARATUS THAT MAY BE
I HARMFUL IF MISUSED. READ
CAUTIONS ON INDIVIDUAL
CONTAINERS CAREFULLY.
NOT TO BE
USED BY CHILDREN
EXCEPT
UNDER ADULT SUPERVISION.
~
~~.
THISSETCONTAINS
THEFOLLOWING:
MONOAMMONIUM
PHOSPHATE,
SAND
PLASTER
MIX, PHENOLPHTHALEIN,
UNIVERSAL
INDICATOR
AND:
COBALT CHLORIDE
CALCIUM NITRATE
X
HARMFUL
HARMFUL
IF SWALLOWED.
POSSIBLE
RISKS
OF IRREVERSIBLE
EFFECTS.
MAYCAUSE
SENSITtZATION
BY SKINCONTACT.
X
IRRITANT
CONTACT
WITHCOMBUSTIBLE
MATERIALS
MAYCAUSE
FIRE. IRRITATING
TO THEEYES.IN CASEOF CONTACT
WITH
THEEYESRINSEIMMEDIATELY
WITHPLENTY
OF WATER
ANDSEEKMEDICAL
ADVICE.
IRON |111) SULFATE
METHYLENE BLUE
X
X
HARMFUL
HARMFUL
IF SWALLOWED.
AVOIDCONTACT
WITHTHESKIN.
Archives
o! American
Art - Anorganizabon
thata,.~luiresandpreserves
documents
andmemorabilia
of/u~encan
arlists,
collectors,
criticsandart societies.
Regional
canlar~
arelocated
in New
York,Boston,
Detroit,LosAngeles
and
Washington,
D.C.
Consen,ation
andResearch
C~n~r
- This3,100acrewooded
areain ~hefoothills of theBlueRidge
Mountmns
(Front
Royal,
VA)is a breeding
preserve
andstudycenterfor the Ne~:~I
Zoo’srarea~l e~angere~
ammals.
M~rin=
_~_.~.
2; ’,.i;,~, Fu~l- ~,tentists
working
el thisresearch
cantw
located
in FoilPierce,
FLstudy
e~tuenne
marine
environments
alongFlorida’s
eastcoam’~ine
andadjacent
ocean
shelves,
seeking
b~sicinformation
about
n~tural
andman-made
causes
of stressandenvironn’~n~
d~n~.Thestationis opera(ed
by the Nat,~na/Museum
of Nature#
History.
Smi~bsonian
Astrophysical
Observe/on/
- The
organization
is p=’i of theHervard-Smithsonian
Center
for Astrophysics.
TheSmithsonian
Astrophysical
Obsewatonj
hasa ma)yor
lecillty - theWhipple
Obse(vatory
onMount
Hopkins,
near
Tucson,
AZ-and,jointlywiththeUniversity
of Arizona,
operates
~ewodd’s
fir= Multiple
MirrorTelescope,
alsoonMount
Hopkins.
Smi~b~onian
Environmental
Research
C~n=r
- Sc~ntists
~ msearchars
at this Edgewatar.
IVE)facifiiy nearthe
Chesapeake
Baystudyland-water
ral~tionships
andplanpublicprograms
to increase
awareness
ol ~,’oiogicalsystem
andto detan~ine
how
theyareaffectedbyhuman
disturbance.
Smi~h=oman
Tropica/Research
lnstY~ut~
- Sdentists
fromtheSmithsonian
andall overtheworldstudytheevolution
and
beh=,v~
ol tropicalorganisms
at various
facill~esof this ins~tute
in theR~blic
of Panama,
FOIl MEMBEIISHIP
INFORMATION
ORPIIEVI$1TPLANNING
@,/L4TER~L,
PLEASE
WR#TE
OIl CALL:
SMITHSONIAN
VISITOR/NFORI~TION,
SMI’#~SOMAN
INST~’(,q’IoNWASHINGTOt(
OC20550
TDDFORHEARING
IMPAIRED
v~rroIl$, 2o2-35z-~~
HARMFUL
HARMFUL
IF SWALLOWED.
DO NOTBREATH.
THEDUSTAVOIDCONTACT
WITH
THESKINANDEYES.
ARNING!oNt,~
FoR
BYCHILDREN
OVeR
ONLYUNO~R
~PERVIS}~.
NOT
.~.UCT~,S
us~.
~ILDREN~D ~IM~S AWAY F~ ~PERIMEN).STORE THIS ~ ~ OF REACHFR~ CHILDREN.
PL~SEKEEPA
NOTEOF OURNAME
ANDADDRESS
DETAILS
FORF~URE
REFERENCE.
IN EUROPE
C0~ACT: (
E~R ~E DET~LS
--I Ill" --"
D ~StS= ~BLSBUHi
GERMANY
4~ o?2s.sm.szs
(
~D ~P~NE NUM~R OF ~E LOCAL ~lSON
~TAL IN ~E BOX BELOW.
! INCASE
O~ACCIDE~TAL
INTAKE
OFA CHEMICAL
~N~ACT:
I,
,
,
CE~ER OR ~
,
,,
PLEA~ BE ~RE TO RE~ THE AD~CE FOR SUPER~SING ~LTS ~D ~E SALTY
RU~S CONT~NED IN ~IS ~K~T.
~ 1997S~TH~N~N
~ INS~T~N
NA~L
~IENGE
[N~S~iES,LTD.910 0R~N~
AVE.
THE SMITHSU~ .~,
YOUR SET CONTAINS THE FOLLOWINGITEMS:
....
~:~~=-"~POUCH
CONTENTS:
TheSmithsonian
Institution
is a museum,
education
andresearch
complex
of 16museums
andgalleries,
andtheNational
Zoo.Fourteen
museums
andgalleries
arelocated
in
Washington,
D.C.,twoarein New
YorkCity,andtheNational
Zoois in Washington.
Nine
of the
museums
andgalleries
arelocated
ontheNational
Mallbetween
theU.S.Capitol
andthe
Washington
Monument.
4 PIPETTES
MICROPLATE
WITH
CHEMICALS
F~L~;E~
9~9E~
i_~, o ~_~. :.~..-~
ATOM
SHEET
FULLCOLOR
CLOUD
CHART
LABSTATION
~E
VOLCANO
SUBSTRUCTURE
!
BAGOFSAND
MIX
MEASURING
CUP
GOGGLES
¯ .. ~.~
- .~
PIPETTE
~~BASE
~
ROCK
TWEEZERS
RIODIC BAGOFCRYSTAL 3
HER
STATION
WOODEN
SPATULA
TABLEOF ELEMENTS
GROWING
CHEMICAL
VOLCANIC
ROCKS
CAUTION:THE vOLCANICROCKOBSIDIANMAYHAVESHARPEDGES.USE CAUTIONWHENHANDLING.
NOTE:THE TRADEMARKS
OF THIRD PARTYPRODUCTS
MENTI(bNEDHEREINARE USEDFOR
GENERALFIRST AID INFORMATION:
IN CASEOF EYEcONTACT:WASH
EXJT WITHPLENTYOF WATER,HOLDINGEYEOPENIF NECESSARY¯
SEEKIMMEDIATEMEDICALADVICE.
IF SWALLOWED:
WASH
OLIT MOUTH
WITHPLENTYOF" WATER,
DRINKSOMEFRESHWATEI~. DONOTINDUCEVOMITING.SEEKIMMEDIATEMEDICALADVICE. IN CASE
OF INHALATION:REMOVE
PERSON
TO FRESHAIR. IN CASEOF CONTACT
ANDBURNS:WASHAFF:ECTED AREAWITHPLENTYOF WATER
FOR5 MINUTES.IN CASEOF INJURYORIF IN DOUBT,SEEKMEDICAL
ADVICEWITHOUTDELAY. TAKETHE CHEMICAL
PRODUCT
WITH THECONTAINER
WITH YOU.
NOTE:FIRST AID INFORMATION
ANDTHESAFETYRULESMAY’ ALSOBE FOUND
IN THE INSTRUCTIONS
FORCARRYING
OUr THE ~.XPERIMENTS
ORON THECONTAINERS.
ADVICE FOR SUPERVI@INGADULI~:
READANDFOLLOW
THESESAFETYINSTRUCTIONS,
THESAFETYRULESANDTHEFIRST AID INF()RMATION ANDKEEPTHEMFO~REFERENCE.
,,THE INCORRECT
U~E OF CHEMICALS
CANCAUSEINJURY
ANDDAMAGE
TO HEALTH,ONLYCARRYOUTTHOSEEXPERIMENTS
WHICHARE LISTED IN THE
INSTRUCTIONS.
¯ BECAU,~ECHILDREN’S
ABILITIES VARYSO IMUCH,EVENWITHINAGEGROUPS,
SUPERVISING
A~)’OLTSSI’~OULDEXEFIC’~EO~SCPtETIOI’,IA,~ T~ W~CI.-I EXPERIMENTS
ARE~U~AISLE
ANDSAFEFORTHEM.THE INSTRUCTIONS
SHOULD
ENABLESUPERVISORS
TO ASSESSANYEXPERIMENTTO ESTABLISH
ITS SUITABILrTYFORA PARTICULAR
CHILD. ¯ THESUPERVISING
ADULTSHOULD
DISCUSSTHE WARNINGS
ANDSAFETYINFORMATION
WITH THE CHILD ORCHILDRENBEFORECOMMENCING
THE EXPERIMENTS.
PARTICULAR
ATTENTIONSHOULD
BE PAID TO THE SAFEHANDLING
OF
ACIDS, ALKALIS, ANDHOTLIQUIDS. ,, THEAREASURROUNDING
THEACTIVITYSHOULD
BE KEPTCLEAR
OF ANYOBSTRUCTFIONS
ANDAWAYFROMSTORAGE
OF FEXTD.IT SHOULD
BE WELLLIT ANDVENTILATED ANDCLOSETO A WATER
SUPPLY.° THEMICE)CHEMISTRY
ANDCRYSTAL
GROWING
AcTIVITIEs ARE
FORUSEBY CHILDRENOVER10 YEARSOF AGE.
SAFETY
RULES:
.......¯ ..
¯ DE) READTHESEINSTRucTIONSBEFOREUSE, FOLLOW
THEMANDKEEPTHEMFORREFERENCE.
¯ DOKEEP YOUNG
CHILbRENANDANIMALSANDTHOSENOTWEARING
EYE PROTECTION
AWAYFROM
THEEXPERIMENTAL
ARI-~,. ¯ DOALWAYS
WEAR
EYEPROTECTION.
¯ DOSTORECHEMICAL
SETs OUT
OF REACHOF YOUNG
CHILDREN.° DOCLEANALL EQUIPMENT
ANDWASHAFTERCARRYING
OUTTHE
EXPERIMENTS.
¯ DONOTEAT, DRINKORSMOKE
IN THEACTIVITYAREA.° DONOTUSEEQUIP~4ENT
WHICHHASNOTBEENSUPPLIEDORRECOMMENDED
IN TFIE SET. ¯ DONOTEAT, DRINKORSI~oKE IN
"T~E EX.PER~MENTAL
A~EA., DONOTALLOW
C~EMtCALS
TOCOME
INTO CONTACT
WITHTH, E ~:-."/E,~ ~
MOUTH.
¯ DONOTREPt.ACEFOODSTUFFS
IN ORIGINALC~aNTAINER.
DISPOSEOF IMMEDIATELy.
One
oftheworld’s
leading
scientific
research
centers,
theinstitution
has
facilitie~
in
eightstates
andtheRepublic
of Panama.
Research
projects
in thearts,history
andscience
are
carried
outbytheSmithsonian
all overtheworld.
Thenew
National
Museum
of theAmerican
Indianis scheduled
to open
ontheNational
Mallin 2001.
Thecenterpiece
of themuseum
is thepriceless
collection
of Native
American
artifactstransferred
to theSmithsonian
fromtheMuseum
of theAmerican
Indian,Heye
Foundation
(New
York).TheNew
Yorkexhibition
facility-theHeye
Center
of theNational
Museum
of the
American
Indianopened
October
30,1994,in lower
Manhattan.
Another
newmuseum,
theNational
PostalMuseum,
is now
open
nearUnion
Station
on
Capitol
Hill. Devoted
tothehistory
of theU.S.mailservice,
themuseum
houses
theworld’s
largest
and
most
comprehensive
collection
of its kind,withmore
than16million
stamps,
covers,
and
artifacts.
HISTORY
James
Srnithson
{1765-1829),
a Bdtish
scientist,
drew
uphiswill in 1826
naming
his
nephew,
Henry
Janles
Hungerford,
asbene|idlary.
Smithson
stipulated
that,should
thenephew
diewithout
heirs(ashedidin1835),
theestate
would
goto theUnited
States
tofound
"at
Washington,
under
thename
of theSmithsonian
Institution,
anestablishment
for theincrease
and
diffusion
of knowledge
among
men."
OnJuly1, 1836,Congress
accepted
thelegacy
bequeathed
to thenation
byJames
Smithson,
andpledged
thefaithoftheUnited
States
to thecharitable
trust.In 1838,
following
approval
of thebequest
bytheBritish
courts,
theU~ited
States
received
Smithson’s
~state
- bags
of goldsovereigns,
thentheequivalent
of $515,169.
Eightyears
later,onAugust
10,1846,
an
Actof Congress
signed
byPresident
James
K.Polk,established
theSmithsonian
Institution
in its
present
~orm
and
provided
|ortheadministration
o~1hetrust,independent
ol~egovernment
itself,bya beard
ofregents
and
secretary
oftheSmithsonian.
NOTES
TM TABLE
FIVE-IN-ONE MEGA-SCIENCE-LAB
OF CONTENTS
- ITEM #750
BIOLOGY
.............................................................
Pat! One: Uelng your B~o~oe"
pad
Two:
Botany
....................................
SeCliOn
Of~:
FlUKI
Tmn~oort
* CaD~lla~f
Act~ ..........................
~,=,cl~on
Two: Capdlary
AC~,o~ ¯ Xytam ....................................
Sect~o~ Three:
Capillary
Action
¯ Turgo~ Pressure
..........................
Secllon
Four:
Osmosis ¯ Turgot
Preesgre
..................................
Section Seven At~-~ & Below ¯ Tubers ......
Sectk:)nEighl Roof Structure¯ Mon(x;ots& D~cots.....
Section Nine: Pt~mt Resp~ratg)n ¯ Stomate Locebon.......
Section Ten: Tr.~nlpiratlo~
¯ Water trom Leavee ......
...................
...............
.............
..............
GIoasary
Part Thr~
2
3
8
8
9
10
tt
18
22
...................
...........
.................
26
33
WEATHER
...................................................................................................................................................................................................
37
Pert One. Overwew and Ralto~ale
............................................
37
Part
Two:
What )s
Weather?
..........................................
39
Procedu~’a
el.
Home Meleorok~y
.....................................
Procedure #2 The Clouds and What They Can Tell You .......................
/,2
P~ocedure e3: Weather and Wee!her ForecaSting ..........................................
43
Procedure
1~4’ Hurncanes end Hurocana Pro!ring
................................
45
VOLCANOES
...............................................................................................................................................................................................
48
Pad One. Inlroduct~on
.......................................................
48
48
Section
O~e. Building
and Erupting
your VoK;ano ................................
Sect’;on
Two. Whet ~s a Volcano and Where o~ Earth are They? ........................
49
Sectfon
Three:
Who Studies
Volcanoes
and Why? ..........................
51
SectionFour" Different K~ndeo! Volcanoes
contro"edby the ThreeV’S of Magma:
Section
Five:
S~x
Volcano
Types
............
Section Six Ddferant Kir~ls o~ En~pt=one and Vokcanic Rocl(~ .........
Section
Seven,
Erupho~l
Forecastlr~
and Prediction
.........
Section Eight: SomeCc~’nmon
Queshons
about Vulcanoes
,,
SectionNine: TheTh~’eeVolcanicRocksIncluded~nth~s Kit
Pad Two Books end Edgcal~ona~ References eboul V¢canoel ......
Glossary
..................
54
58
60
63
65
68
MtCROCBEMISTRY
....................................................................................................................................................................................
71
Pad Or, e: A Wo~ to Parents
.....................................
7t
Pa~ Two:
A Wo~ to the
"Chemist"
, ....................................
72
Pad Three,
The Mtcrochemistry
System ...............................................
74
74
Sechon (~te: Preg~.ratto.
o! LaboratoP~" Equipment ....................................
Section Two, Prepanng the Chem..el V~al Wail ................................................
76
SecrJCnThree: Properties o! the Microchemistry System .............................................
77
Secl~on Four: How to Oestroy Sudece Tension .............................................
78
Section Five AJcohol and Sudeca Tension ...................................................
79
Secbon Six: A Visible tltusfrel/on
Of Surface Tar~sion ....................................
79
80
PUt Four Chemral Models - Chemical Raectmns..............................................................
S~tton O~e: Cardboard Chemistry Lab 1 ..........................................................
82
Sechon Two Ca.rdbe~rd Chemistry ~ 2 .................................................
83
Section Three Synthes~. ................................................................
o.~
Sectio~’,
Three-A Synthes~s ....................................................
84
~ec~o~,FOOr-BUsingMolecularMod~s
II ..............................................................................
Sac,on Five, Oecomposrtion of Water, a Chemical Change .........................................
Section S#x; Paper Chem~slry4 ......................................................................
PanFive Acid and Acid BaseSofu~tons...................................................................................
~ection O~e’The pH~cale arid lndtcators .........................................................................
SectionOne-A
O~t~t~o~
ot Ac~...............................................................................................
Sectiof~Two,NaturalIndicators..........................................................................................
Section
Three’Naturalindicators.......................................................................................................
Section
Four:OtherNaturalIndicators..................................................................................................
Sac!loB
Five:Testingfor AcidsendBases
.................................................................................................
Section
Six: TestingRainWafer
for pHValue............................................................................................
Secbon
Seven:
Testingthe pHo! OtherChemicals
.....................................................................................
Appendix
A: Answers
to Experiment
Questions
.............................................................................................................
Apf>endlx
B: ANote~oAdultsandParents
..................................................................................................................
86
87
88
89
90
92
93
93
93
94
95
95
CRYSTAL
GROWING
..................................................................................................................................................................................98
PartOne:Crysta/sandCrystalG~ow~ng
Procedures
..............................................................................................
t 00
Set.on(~e: Contents
of YourCrystalGrowing
Lab.................................................................................
101
SectionTwo:Mateha)
Needed
to be Supplie~byYou.............................................................................
101
Section
Three:
CrystalCategories
..........................................................................................................
102
P~rtTwo:Growing
"Golden
Citrate"Crystals
.............................................................................................................
102
Secbon
O~e:
Overwaw-P.’ocedum
...................................................................................................................
10~
108
1
NOTES
BIOLOGY
Biology is the study of plants andanimalsandother riving things.
Biologists study the structure of riving things: howindividual organisms
are put together,
what each part does, and howthese parts work together. They also study life processes,
including motion, growth, reproduction, and death.
Plants and animalsare able to use food, water, and light to developenergy,and to make
living tissues of manykinds. Eventhe smaller, simpler forms of life such as algae, fungi,
bacteria, and viruses are able to generate newindividuals which, after several stages,
becomeremarkable likenesses - passing on characteristic forms and life patterns from
generation to generation.
Ourwor!dis thus populatedwith a great variety of life forms which- in close dependence
upontheir physical chemical, and natural envifonments-contin~e to grow, adapt, evolve,
or decline through the seasonsand over the centuries.
This universeof riving organisms
providesexciting opportunities fo,- study - not only for
the professional scientist, but also for everyoneof us.
For generations, before television or evenradio, folks entertained themselveswith the
parlor gameTwentyQuestions. The best first question (to narrow the field quickly) was
always: "Animal, vegetable, or mineral"?
Now,however,biologists recognizethat someliving things - mostly microscopic - are
neither plant nor animal but somethingearlier, simpler, or different. Taxonomistshave
classified living things into five broad "kingdoms": monera,protista, fungL plantae, and
animalia.
Moneransare microscopic, single cells without a nucleus, including bacteria. Most
protists are also single cells, but havea nucleus, andmaybe as large as the barely" visible
parameciumor amoeba;algae and somemolds are also protists. Fungi are nearly all
terrestrial; yeast, breadmold, andedible mushrooms,
for example,are fungi. Whenthinking
about plan ts, don’t overlook ferns and mosses.Andthe animal kingdom,of course, includes
- in addition to mammals,
birds, reptiles, andfish - invertebrate sponges,worms,andall the
insects in the world!
Editorial Note: Important newwordsare underlined the first time they are introduced.
Definitions of newwordsare in the Glossaryor in the text.
2
107
NOTES
BIOLOGY
PART ONE: USING YOUR BIOSCOPE"
Usingthe transparentcylindrical live box,
you can actually observelive specimens
- even
watchlive specimens
movingaroundin waterl
YOUR BIOSCOPE"
Veryoften, a personstudyingbiology would
like to seea larger viewof a small object or
wishesto examine
moreclosely a smallpart of a
specimen.
O~course, howlarge a thing appearsdependsonhowclose youare to it. Thecloseryou
get,themore
nearlyit will beginto fill yourfield of
vision.
For a really goodlook, however,
mostpeople
can’t get muchcloser than 25.4 cm.(10 inches)
awayandstill beableto seedetailsclearly. That
is wheremagnifierscomein. A magnifyinglens
addsto the focusingpower
of the lens in youreye
so that youcanlook at smallobjects really "up
closeandpersonal."
T,%G,u~COPE"
is sucha magnifyinglens.
It is a uniquetool designed
especiallyfor young
scientists working with this Mega-ScienceTM.
Lab
Theadvantagesof the BIOSCOPE"
are not
onlyits magnification,
but alsoits versatility:
PARTSOF YOUR~!OSCOPE"
Figure #2
Youmayview preparedmicroscopeslides,
andprepareyour ownslides. Thatis a goodway
to focusonvery smallobjects - frominsect and
flowerparts to fiber andcrystal identification.
(Use the plastic slides in the Mega-ScienceTM, with transparentsticky tape to ho~dthe
Lab
specimen
flat.)
~
LARGF OBJECTS CAN BE
~}~
HELD tN TWEEZERS FOR --,~
~W~NGW, TH ~oscoP~
~WEEZERS
106
~
With the ~eezers,you mayhold androtate
in front of the lenssmallobjects,like the method
used by Antony van Leeuwenhoekmore ~an
300yearsago.
~
3
~
Figure #3
SP~C|MEN
Figure #1
~
Figure #4
SE’I’rlNG UP THEBIOSCOPE"
SOCKET
~
~
The BIOSCOPE"
in your Mega-ScienceLabTM has beenpre-assembled.
Thelens in its
greenmounting
is fitted alreadyinto the lower,or
objective,endof theopticalcylinderof thepistolgrip handle.
Thegreeneyecupis fitted alreadyinto the
hole abovethe lens.
NOTES
THE BIOSCOPE"WITHALL OF ITS PARTS
JOINT
SUOE....
~
Figure#5
Bysliding the pistol-griphandleoff its base,
you can conveniently carry your TM
E~IOSCOPE
magnifierinto the field, for close-upexamination
of specimensyou mayencounter.
Hereis howto set upandget started:
YOUR WORKSPACE
Finda placewhere
youcansit comfortably
at
a small deskor table with goodlighting, and
perhapswith a drawer(or box) for your equipment, supplies, and specimens.Youwill want
roomenough
to rest your wrists, or evenelbows,
while holdingsteadya specimen
in onehandand
KEY WAY
TM ATeyelevel in the other hand.
B~SE/~
~
.....
the BlOSCOPE
In addition to storagespacefor specimens,
andfor supplieslike clear adhesive
tape1.27cm.
Figure
#6
(1/2 inch), note paperandpencils, youwill want
Already
youhavea working
instrument
with
to haveat handsomewhitecardsor other clean,
whichyoucanapproach
an object
andseeit
whitesurfaceuponwhichto viewobjects.A black magnified.
card or black plastic surface will serve as a
Fora ve~first
look,
youmight,
withthe
contrastingbackground
for viewinglight-colored
TM in onehand,
BIOSCOPE
puttheeyecupupto
objects.
youreyeandlookatyourotherthumbnail
at
about
halfaninch
away~
This
isthemode,
bythe
TM
UGHTING
way,in whichyoumaycar~your~IOSCOPE
intothefield
onpre~
days.
Good
illuminationis essential,especiallyat
Witha printed
pagelaidflat
onyourdesk,
highermagnifications,
andto observe
finer detail.
andlooking
straight
downwiththeTM
~IOSCOPE
Brightdaylight- alongside
or in front of a window lensnotquite
touching
thepage,
youcansee
- is fine. If thespace
is sunlitat times,thatcanbe enlarged
le~ersorperhaps
the"halftone
dots"
of
useful. At other times,youwill needa smallbut
a picture.
bright, shaded
lamp.
To complete
assembly
of theBIOSCOPE",
Attentionto especiallygoodilluminationat
slidethegrayhandle
ontothematching
ke~ay
your workspace
will richly repayyour efforts.
ofthegray
base,
sothescope
will
stand
alone
at
Ideally,yourelectric light should
beeasilyadjust- yourwork
station.
ableso that youcanspotlight the smallareayou
are observingwithout havingthe bulb glare into
SAFETYWARNING
youreyes.(A smallflashlight, suchas a Maglite~
- even handheld - can be focused for side
or anyotherlens!Youcouldseriously
injureyour
illumination,fromvariousanglesto highlightdifeyes.
ferentaspects.)
105
(9) Placethe plastic lid whichfits the top of your
crystal solution cup to cover and protect the
crystal growing process.
(10) Set your "Golden Citrine" crystal growing
cup in a place whereit will not be disturbed by
movementor changes in tnmperature.
(11 ) Recordin your RecordKeepingLogall of the
steps which you haveperformedduring this procedure, including time, date, and which crystal
type you are growing. You mayuse the Record
KeepingLog as a handyplace to record your data
and results.
(12) Yourcrystals will stall growingin just a few
hours. Youmayuse your flashlight to look down
into the crystal growingcup and watchthe crystallization process.
(13) Allow the crystals to grow without being
disturbed for three or (our days. At that time you
mayremoveyour crystals from the solution or
you maytake off the lid and let the solution
evaporate for a few more days (to makelarger
crystals). If youremove
the lid andlet the solution
evaporate,a crust of crystals mayform at the top
of the solution or at the top rim of the crystal
growing cup. In any case remove your grown
crystals before the top of your crystals are exposedthrough the sudaceof the solution. If the
crystal massand the base rock have formed a
rectangular shapedue to the shapeof the growing cup, you maywant to break off excesscrystals which form a rectangular shapein order to
makeyour crystal massdisplay look more geoIogical(y natural.
(14) Whenyou are satisfied with the shapeand
size of your crystal massspecimen,set it aside on
a piece of newspaper
or paper towel and allow to
dry completely’ for oneday.
Eye Position
Carefully, put your eye right downclose to,
even gent~y against, the green eye cup. The eye
cup is designed bolh to protect your eye andto
shut out glare from extraneouslight.
Figure #7
Slide the yoke and/or the tweezersonto the
shaft of the socket. Snapthe socket onto the ball
ioint of the base.
You are now prepared to view an object of
interest, whetherheld before the lens (1) in the
tweezers,(2) on a slide placedin the slots of the
yoke, or (3) in the cylindrical live box held between the armsof the yoke.
RECORD KEEPING LOG
(2) Type of base rock used (limestone, granite, etc.)
(3) Numberof base rocks used ...........................
(4) Nameof chemical used ..............................
Polybag No.
g.
(5) Weightot chemicalused ................................
’C.
(7) Temperatureof crystal growing room
(8) Temperatureof solution at beginning of procedure
~,~J) Temperatureot solution at end of procedure ...........
(10) Temperatureof roomat end of procedure ...............
crystal growth observed ................
(12) Estimatedsize of first
Figure #8
VIEWING TECHNIQUE
(6) Amount of water used
(11) Date whenfirst
Time
crystals seen growing
(13) Estimated growth rate of crystals seen growing
(14) Date procedure ended_
Time
104
Depth of Field
Whenviewing an object of somethickness,
like a bugor a tangle of fibers, slowly movingit a
little waytowardor awayfrom the lens will bring
different parts into sharp focus successively.
LIGHTING THE OBJECT
Timestarted ...............
(1) Date this procedurestarted
Field of View
Thearea you are looking at will be within a
c~rc{e no larger than .95 cm(3/8 inch) in diameter.
That is aboutthe samesize as the aperture of the
eye cup and of the lens. Whenpreparing to view
a specimen,anlicipate seeing an enlargementof
a spot about that size, and position your object
accordingly.(If your eyeis not close up to the eye
cup, youwill seea smatlerfield.)
Object Position
Whether
on a slide, in the live h~v, on .~;;’c~
~,~.r ~, ,,,=.u hutO, the object you wish to view
must be a little
more than 1.27 cm (1(2 inch)
beyondthe green lens mount.
Arrangethe yokeon its ball andsocket joint
so that it {s squarely across your viewing direction. Movethe object from side to side a bit, and
up or down,so that the part you wish to see is
centeredin the field of view.
A slight adjustment back and forth will
sharpenthe focus.
STAYALERT
C~r~osi~
is ~ scientifict~ad~t~on!
Keep
you~eyesopen.
When
youspotsomething
interesting,youmaywishto
inspec~
o~~ol~ect
it: a feather,or anunfamiliar
leaf,
blossom,
acorn,or otherseedyouhavenot examined
before.Some
scientistscarrysmallenvelopes,
or a
coupleof empty
pill boxes
in casetheycome
acrossan
interestingspecimen.
Familiar to all microscopists are the two
modesof illuminating any magnified specimen:
by incident lighting, or by transmittedlighting.
I_n_.c_i~_en_L~_i,g_h_bn_~g,
light falling onthespecimenfrom above, is used for opaque(not transparent) objects. It canbe angledin fromeither the
right or left side, or fromabove.
Experimentingwith different angles of incident light will often provide a remarkablevariety
of views. A lower angle of light maybring surface
features into sharpre|ief, for example.
Onceyou have a specimen in position and
focused, and have madea preliminary inspection
of it, the scenem~.v~’e!! bc ;~;,~.uvuu oy aiming
the light froma different angle. Movingthe light
to the opposite side could showfeatures you did
not notice before.
_~Ea_nsm.i
.tt_~ ~.q.htingis usedwith transparent
objects. It is light from below,shining up through
the object being viewed. Very thin material
positioned on microscopeslides is examinedby
transmitted lighting. For example,medical technicians prepare paper-thin anatomical "sections"
just for this purpose.
To view a slide or transparent specimenby
transmitted light with your B¢OsCOPE",
simply
hold it in front of a light source(not the sun).
your desk, a good technique would be to lay a
white 7.62 cmx 12.7 cm(3 x 5 inch) card or even
a white handkerchief, out in front of the
TM base, about wherethe line of sight is
BioscoPE
aiming.
Shiningyour lampon the white card will then
providea bright background
for viewing. (Avoid
havingthe bulbitself in yourline of sight, but
angle the lamp and white backdropfor best
results.)
TryBoth!Objectsshowdifferent characteristics
underincident, or by transmittalS,light. When
a
specimen
perm~ts
the useo~either method,
it can
bequite revealingto useone,andthenthe other.
Athin leaf will showsurfacetextureby incidentlight, but a bdghtnetwork
of veinsby transmittedlight. Grainsof salt look quite different
underlight from aboveor below. Sodoesthe
wovenwebof an ordinary white handkerchief.
Observingthesecontrastingviewsis often
TM andaiming
as easyas pickingup the B~OSCOpE
it at thelight!
You
wi((seelittle whiteblockswithabsolutely
square
corners.Notflat like a book,or longlike
a brick,butall perfectlittle cubes
- like dice.They
are crystals of sodium
chloride(NaCI).
Viewthe salt crystalsby incidentlight from
above,andby transmitted light from behind.
(Youcan learn moreaboutan object this way.)
EPSOM
SALT:Ask a parent if there is some
epsom
salt (bath salt) in the house.Examine
fewof theselargegrainsir~thepalmof yourhand,
then with a magnifier.Thewhitecrystals look at
first ~ike miniature"hotels" fromTM
a Monopoly
game,little houses
with pointedroofs.
When
you look moreclosely, however,you
will seethat the endoppositethe "roof" is also
slanted - but crosswise.Themagnesium
sulfate
crystal is eight-sided
-. four sidesaround,
plusa
peaked"roof" at eachend.
PEPPER:
Sprinklea little pepperon a pieceof
tapeandviewit, as youdid with the salt. Jagged
pieces,quiteirregularin shape,size, andcoloroccurbecauseit is a ground-uppeppercorncertainlynot a crystal.
SOMEINTERESTINGTHINGSTO LOOKAT
PARTTWO: BOTANYand PARTTHREE:
ZOOLOGY
of this section will provide you with
manyexamples
of interesting things to look at
withyourB~OSCOPE".
In addition, hereare a few
suggestions
for your consideration:
SAND:
Sprinkle a few grains of beachor river
sandon a piece of sticky tape. Prepareand
positionyourslide as youdid with salt. Whatdo
you see through your BIOSCOPE’"?
Thegrains of sandare similar in size, but
irregular. Nosharpcornersthis time. Theyhave
been worn rounded. There are a great many
light-coloredgrains, but a surprisingnumber
of
black, brown,evena few red or greenones,
whichyou wouldneverhaveseenbefore in the
yellowsandpile.
Thesandis mostlys’fi~ca(Si(]~). tts grains
areoften translucentby transmittedlight, which
remindsus that glassis made
fromsilica sands.
Sand
fromdifferent locationswill differ considerably in compositionand character. You
mightwantto start a collection of small sand
samples,
identified by locationanddate.
WOOD
FIBERS:
Collect several different kinds
of paper:papertowel, toilet tissue, newspaper,
magazine
pages,businessletterhead, envelopes,
or a brownpaperbag. A small piece of eachis
plenty! Try tearing eachsamplelengthwiseand
crosswise.
Ibo~)o~noticea difference,especially
SALT:Sprinkle a few grains from a pinch of
common
table salt onto the sticky side of a piece with newspaper?
Examineeach samplewith your BIoscoPE"
of clear tape. Fastenthe salted tape onto a
TM.
plastic slide from your Mega-Science-Lab
magnifier,first in anuntornspot, thenat a torn
Insert the slide in the slots in the yokeof your edge.(If the towelor tissue is "2-ply", separate
TM. Positionit in front of the lens, about
B~oscoPE
theplies.)
1.27cm(half an inch) away.
Then
tear off a smallscrapof paper,anduse
Puttingyour eyeto the greeneyecup, focus the tweezers
to positiona paperscrapbeforethe
by moving
the slide with its saltedtapeslightly
BIOSCOPE"
lens. Try light fromdifferent sides
forwardor back.
(or lookat a tomwhiteedgeagainsta blackcard).
6
SECTIONONE
Overview- Procedure
In this procedure,
youwill growcrystalclus(3) After youhaveexamined
the crystals, put .61
ters of a goldenamber
color on a baserock. The ml (about 1/8 teaspoon)of thembackinto poly
crystal growing chemical contains
bag#1 for useas seedcrystals.
monoammonium
phosphateand a concentrated
food dye colorant. After you havegrownthe
(4) Using your graduatedmeasuringcup, mea"GoldenCitrine" crystals, keepthemas cleanand sure out 70 ml (about14.2 teaspoons)of water
dry as possible. If they become
dusty, they may andpourthis waterinto a smallsaucepan.
Place
be cleanedwith a soft brushor with air froma
the saucepan
onto the stoveandheatuntil water
gentle blowersuchas a hair dryer. Protectyour is boiling.
finishedcrystalsfromharsh~igb,t a~dmoisture.
(5) Pour’[he boiling waterfromthe smallsauceYouwiil needthe followingmaterialsto complete paninto the plastic growingcup in the MegaTM, whichcontainsthe contentsfrom
this procedure:
Science-Lab
potybag#1. Stir this mixturewith oneof your
MATERIALS
wooden
spatulasuntil all of the chemicalgrains
r.3 Safety goggles
havedissolvedcompletely.
Polybag#1 containing"GoldenCitrine"
crystal growingchemical
Crystalgrowingcupis molded
in to yourlab
station. Youw(ll usethis crystal growing
cup for the growingof your "Golden
Citrine"crystals.
Plastic coverfor top of crystal growing
cup
Plastic graduatedbeaker(for measuring
liquid andsolid amounts)
Wooden
spatula(for stirring)
Saucepan
for boiling water(let yourparents
help youwith boiling water) ORstyrofoam
cupif wateris boiled in microwave.
Donot
useanalum_i__n_u__m_sa.ucepan,
Useonlya nonstick pansuchas a stainlesssteel saucepan
Carefullypourboiling waterinfo crystal growing
cupand
Baserock piecesto placein the bottomof
dissolvethe cPjstal chemicalsby stirring with a wooden
plastic crystal growing
cupfor yourcrystals
spatula.
to growupon(suppliedin this set)
Newspaper
or plastic sheetingto coveryour
Figure #6
workingareato reducethe hazardof spills
(6) Placethe graniterockfragments
in the bottom
ontable or floor
of the lab station plastic growing
cup.Thesebase
Flashlight
rocksshouldonly comeup fromth~ bottomof the
TM
Bioscope
growingcup about2 cm(about3/4").
Smallnotebook
andpencil for recordingthe
steps of procedureor you mayuse the
(7) Let the solution cool until lukewarm.
RecordKeepingLog. SeeChart #1.
(8) Fromthe poly bag,take the fewseedcrystals
BE SURE TO WEARYOUR SAFETY GOGGLESWHEN
whichyou saved,andcarefully deposittheseat
PREPARINGSOLUTIONS AND WHENDEALING WITH
different placesonthe top of the rockswhichare
CHEMICALS
IN THIS CRYSTALGROWING
KIT(
onthe bottomof the plastic crystal growing
cup.
Youmayjust let these seedcrystals sink down
DIRECTIONS
through
the liquid andland onthe rocks.
(1) Open
PQlybag#1, the "Golden
Citrine" crystal
growingchemicalandpo~rt~e contentsinto the
crystal growingcup whichis molded
in to your
TM. Thecrystal growingcup is
Mega-Scier~ce-Lab
therectangular
depression
onthe left sideof the
lab station shown
in Figure#4.
(2) Usinga clean dry wooden
spatulaandyour
TM, carefully
Bioscope
lookat thesmallgrainsand
crystalsof the chemical
fromthe polybag#1.
103
Figure#7
THE SEVENCRYSTALSYSTEMS
S
RHOMBOHEDF~AL
CUBIC
ORTHORHOMBIc
~
TETRAGONAL
J
MONOCLINIC
HEXAGONAL
J
TRICLINIC
SECTIONTHREE
Crystal categories
All naturalcrystalscanbeidentifiedas belonging
to one of these sevencrystal systems. The
crystals that yougrowwith your crystal gro~ing
set mayalso beclassified underoneor the Other
of these~ategories(shapes).
All crystals whichare known
havebeenclassified
into oneof the sevencategorie
s called crystal
systems.
PART TWO: Gp, owt,
It is plainto seethatpaperis really a tangle
of fibers - wo~:lpulpfibers in fact. (some
paper
towelsare impressed
with’ a pattern that makes
themlook WOven.)
Newsprintcomes
fromthe papermill in huge
-rollS, withth.e"grain"running
thelongwaY...Mag,
a
zinc
paper
has
been"coated"
with
fine wn=te
clay
smoo~(~
ar~d~
~r~¢jht
needed
especially
for
color
’
filling the spacebetween
f~,bers. ~h~tm~,es~
If youcantransfertheinsectwitha little earth
into the live box,you
canSpyonits activities
TM
pE
through the B~osco
. 1.2 cc (a quarter teaspoonful)will fill the live box,by the timeyou
screwit together.
POND
WATER:
Onfield .trips , carry along a
coupleof small bottles hawn~
printing. TheWood
fibers in a brownkraft paper youget a chance
to doso safetycollect a water
baghavenottbeenbleached.(Thewordkraft is
satanic from a pondor stagnant ool Youwant
derived fromhe German
wordfor tough.)
a placewherealg.~ (gre_ek scu~.)hasgrown
the edgeof the water./a.~.e Y~.~rsample
wher.e
PLASTIC:
Confirmyour impressionthat plastic
thereis only a little algae.Youaon’tneeda thiCK
bags
an.,d,fil.m, arenot fibrousor woven
byt.ak!n.g mator clump.
a magnmea
~ook.Plastic is not porous.It I~o~os
When
home,put someof the water with its
moisture
in or out andis ordinarilyairtight. It has floating greenish
andetherstuff in the live box,
nograin. Plastic stretchesbut won’teasily tear.
not morethanhalf full, so the top will haveroom
somepapers are now being madefrom
to screwon, Putthe live boxin the yokeof ~tour
plastic, however.For example,the newpostage B~osco~E",
set u~ ~/our ~E~b.td~3
andsee what
stampsare printed on a plastic
you have.
Thefine greenthreads,or filament,~,
CLO3’t4FIBERS:Examinethe wovenwebof
bea~gae.Each~hreadis a long String of single
whitecotton handkerchief.Othertabrics canbe r:ells. Thecelts containthe samegreenchlorojust as interesting. Youcantell whichpatterns I~hyll aslandplants.
areprinfed,andwhichare
woven.Wool,hair, fur,
Youmayhavehadthe .goodluck to capture
velvet,leatheran~~an-made
fibers will all reveal a.n ~m_oeba
or a IZ~E~.~-ec~um.:
I~oth are tiny
freshqualities undermagnification.
anima
-i
ke
members
of
the
g.E0.ti_~
kingdom.
The
movearoundandto capturetO~d’particles"
’t~
amoeba
is an irregular blob, whichChan(les
shaoe
’~
FORGET
rrt
--""-Theparamecium
is slipper-sha,.ped,andpropels
itself by waving
tiny hairs or
DON’T
mess
witht~rokenglass,broken
or rusty
metal,or other discarde
man-made
stuff.
The
d
sharp
edg~,S
andhardpointsarenote,t,~eHs
p~a~n
t~see-~n~t~/~
~t ~r s~.~,c~,,/~ur~e~t~.
Always
knoW
where
to find afirst-~.idkit. Always
askfor help.
NG "GOLDENC~qlNE" CRYSTALS
Actualc_i_trin_p~
crystals
ar~a varietyof quartz
whichshowa light yellow Crolor. The"Golden
Citrine" crystals whichyou~Vill growwith your
Mega.Science.Lab TM us~, the chemical
monoammonium
phosphate~nd a yellow food
dyeto simulateactualcitrine Quart7Rothyc, ur
,:.hc,~,,;c&~
,.~ y~ta~s
andactual~:itrinecrystals
do,
however,
form in the hexagonal
crystal system,
Crystals of the samechhmical substance
mayexhibit a widevariety of Shapes.
Thescientific wordused
insteadof shape
~,sha~o;,t,,Cwsta~~eoja~he~s
refer to the ~ab~’~whicha specific
crystal exhibits. However,
itisP~ssibletochoos
e
threereferencelines, or ~_~e~
rcalled crysta/Iographicaxes),that uniquelyd.efi’ne the geometry
of eachcrystal. TheSe
axes=nt~rsectat a commonpoint at the center of the crystal. For a
representation
of theselines, SeeFigure#5.
~3onot eXPect
to seetheseaxesin the crysthl
s
whichyou~Jrow.Thelines are simplya reference
crystal’s
gebmetry
highly
regular
lille
on the drawing
in’ For
order
to define
ashapes
partiCUlar
cubes(high symmetrv~,
the=
;ungm,andthe anglesbetween
the axesare 900.
mineral
halite)
There
am
seven
combi.
.
An
example
of
this
~pe
of
c~stal
isdifferent
tablesalt
(th
e
nationsof c~stallographic
axes.TheSe
are calle~
c~stal systems(see F~gu~e
C~ne"¢~ta~s that you will grow with your
Mega’ScienEe-Lab~
c~sta~ize in one of ~ess
systems.Canyou determinewhichone?
Thec~statswhichyou will growin a water
(aqueous)
SOlutionare not actual¢itrine qua~z
but are,as
nonetheless
golden
cwstal
cWstals
Seenin jewel~
’ beautiful
stores
or mu~ums,
stru~ures.
102
SOIL: In the yard, garden, or flowerbox, or
arounda growingplant, find somegoodsoil.
Poke
it witha stick to S~eif it is darkcrumbly,
and
~r~,
a
bit moist.Youwon’tfind much
goinqonin h
drY. v~llnWC!-’tY. T,~k~a spoonfulor twoof the
goo(Jearthinside.
¯ Wh.~td~_o~y~ou~n,d
pebbles,hollOW
3 Perhaps
veinsof a brokenleaf,
stemsot gra~o..... ~%n
old white root threaas, an emptyseed, amon~
other
the,rigs.
Puta sample
of the soil in the clear plastic
live box to examiner~ore closely underyo~Jr
B/oscoPE’.Eachtypfi of so//is different. How
muchof your sa.mple i~ sand, and howmuch
humus,
the decay.¢ng
Ve~etabl
organicmatter
e or and
that providesnutrientsfor plants
holdswater
in the soil?
Youmayhave capturedsomeresidents of
that patchof grounda..s..Well" Perhaps
anant or
rolled-up pill Dug,a ~=tt~, worm,anearwig,or
beetle.
AMOEBA
F~ VACUOLE
C yT~LASM
PARAMECIUM
Figure #9
Youmightalso seea C_y_clops,
or a _Daphni_a_ LEAVES,PETALS
ANDINSECTS:If you pro"waterflea". Orevena "waterbear"huntingin the ceedto PART
TWO:BOTANY
of this section, you
algaeforest. Therecould be r0~tifers zipping will find manyopportunities to use your
around.
~,~oscoPE’"andto apply the magnifyingtechAll areone-cellcreatures
- tiny but visibleat
niqueswith whichyouare nowfamiliar.
low magnification - and rewardingobjects of
Insects whichare safe to collect are defurther study. Thedrawingsshowenlargedviews scribed in PARTTHREE:ZOOLOGY
of this
of theseprotists.
section.If alive, youcanseea moving
picturein
the live box.(If the insectis too lively to permit
observation,its metabolism
canbe sloweddown
by spending
severalminutesin the refrigeratorasif it is wintertime.)
Dead
insects,foundunderthe porchlight for
example,
canbetakenapart- anda leg, antenna,
wing,or otherbodypart fastenedto a slide with
sticky tape for BIOSCOPE’"
examination.
Goodhunting!
NEVERMIND
AVOID
discardedtissues, combs,old socks
andother personalstuff someone
hasthrown
away.Youdon’t needit.
Yournoseshouldtell youto stay awayfrom
garbage,deadanimalsandrotting things.
TAKE A BREAK
ROTFERS
Figure #11
NO MATTER WHAT THE EXPERIMENT,
EQUIPMENT OR PROCEDURE,THE ONE
THINGTO CONSIDER
AT ALL TIMESIS S-AF-E-T-Y,
SECTIONONE
Contentsof YourCry,sial GrowingLab
Yourcrystal growing
sectioncontainsthe following materialsandequipment
for growingbeautiful chemical
crystals:
MATERIALS
Safety goggles
Plastic growing
vesselin your lab station
Plastic coverlid for growing
cup
1 poly bagof crystal growingchemicals
1 wooden
spatula
Graduatedmeasuringcup markedin "ml"
(milliliters), cc (cubiccentimeters),
well as in oz (ounces)
TM
Bioscope
Po~ybagcontaininggranite baserocks
Labstation whichcontainsa crystal
growingcupmolded
into the lab station
CHEMIC,~L
VIALWELLS
TM LaboratoryStaTheFive-in-One Mega-Science-L.ab
tion with pipettes, microplate,chemicalvia! wel!~, and
crystal growingcup.
Figure #4
SECTION TWO
Material Needed
to be Suppliedby You
Make
a noteof where
youleft off. Puta few
thingsin order.Takea break.Youwill return
refreshedandmorealert!
Gathertogetherthe followingmaterialsandconNever_use
a_nal_u_m_i_n_._u__m~n.
Theboilingwater
tainers to help yourprocedures
run moresmoothly will be usedto dissolve chemicals.When
using
andto insure that your crystal growingwill be
boiling water, alwayshaveparentsor an adult
moresuccessful.
help you.
Botanyis the branchof biology that deals with plants. If you engagein the experiments
in Section Onethrough Section Twelve,you will not only learn about suchinteresting things
as capillary action and osmosisand viscosity, but also useful descriptions of "xylem",
"phloem", "cambium",and what a "corolla", a "corona", and a "cotyledon" maybe!
In fact, these experimentswill give you a pretty goodstart toward becominga young
botanist, and a basis for pursuing in the future your newbotanical interests.
SECTIONONE
Fluid Transport
Capillary Action
EQUIPMENT
TM
~] Twoplain slides from Mega-Science-Lab
(9) Disposeof usedchemicals
in a manner
which
is environmentally
safe.
Talk to your parentsor schoolscienceteacher
aboutthe best wayto disposeof chemicals.
Don’twearyourselfout or strain youreyes.
Relax,sit upstraight, standandstretchfrom
timeto time.
PART TWO: BOTANY
Goal:Toshowhowwatercan rise in tiny spaces
{8} It is important
to coverclothingwith a protective layer of cloth, plastic or rubber.Youshould
obtainan apron(like a workshop
apron)andwear
it while you are doingthe procedures.
7.62 cmx 12.7 cm(3x5 inch) card
Scissors
Adhesive
plastic tape
Foodcolodng
Smalldrinking glass
Youwill need:
(1) A roomor location in your homewherethe
temperatureremainsrelatively constant and
wherethe crystals maygrowand not be disturbed. Onceyou havepreparedyour crystals
andthey are readyto grow,try not to disturb
them.
(2) A mediumsize saucepanin whichto heat
waterto boiling. Always
usea stainlesssteel or
a non-stickpan.
(3) Plentyof newspaper
or plastic sheeting
protect your workareafromspills andfromthe
dyeswhichare addedto manyof the chemicals.
Thepowerfuldyesmaystain floors or table tops
if the cotoredsolutions are spilled onto these
surfaces.
(4) A supplyof papertowelsor tissue paperfor
dryingcrystals andcleaningupanyspills.
(5) A flashlight
Ii
LWAYSWEA~’YOUR SAFETYGOGGLES
WHENPEI~FORMINGEXPERIMENTSWITH~’~
HEMICALS OR DOING THE PROCEDURES
OUTLINED FOR CRYSTAL GROWINGANDI
OLUTIONMAKING! BE CAREFULWHENHANDLINGHOT WATERt
J
101
TM allows you to gain
YourMega-Soence-Lab
an appreciationof both the beautyandthe scienceandtechnologyof crystals. Youwill grow
severaldifferent typesof crystals andcanobservethe regularities of eachtypewhichmakes
it different fromothertypes.Bymounting
themon
rocks whichare themselvesmadeof crystals,
youcanappreciate
the beautyof your crystals in
an appropriate
setting.
Alsothe different baserocks on whichthe
crystalsaregrown
canaffect their size andshape.
Foodcolor dyeshavebeenaddedto enhance
the
naturalbeautyof yourcrystals. If youfollowthe
instructions,youwill berewarded
with beautiful
crystalsandcrystalclustersgrown
onbaserocks.
Thesemaysurprise and delight you and your
friendswith their interestingshapes
andcolors,
PART ONE:
CRYSTALS AND CRYSTAL GROWING PROCEDURES
WARNINGI READALL SAFETYPRECAUTIONS BEFORE
STARTING.ALL CHEMICALS
ANO PROCEDURES
HAVETHE POTENTIAL
TO CAUSEHARMI
(2) AVOID
contactof anychemicals,
solutions
crystalswith the skin, eyesandmouth.
Becareful
with stirring sticks andcontainerswhichhave
beenusedwith the chemicalsor solutions. Alwayswashyour handsandarmsafter handling
chemicals,crystals,
or solutions. Keepyour
work
areacleananddust-free!
Crystalswhicharefoundin naturemayhavetaken
thousands
or evenmillionsof yearsto growinto the
final shapeandsize whichwerecognize.Some
naturalcrystalsformin hotsolutions
of chemicals
deep (3) READINSTRUCTIONS
for each procedure
withintheearth.Crystalsmayalsoformas theresult before actually doingthe procedure.Makesure
of mineralscoolingin moltenrockor superheated you haveall of the equipmentand materials
vapors
of minerals
or elements.
readyfor the procedure
beforestarting.
Bothnaturallyoccurringcrystalsandman-made
crystalsare chemical
compounds.
Thecrystalswhich (4) Ifchemicalsaccidentallycomeincontactwith
youwill growin this sectionareman-made
or synthetic skin, washthe areawith soapandwater. If eye
crystals.Yourcrystalsgrowveryrapidly,needing
only contactoccurs,carefullyflush eyeswithwaterfor
a fewhoursor daysto complete
their growth.Boththe fifteenminutes.
If irritationoccurs,
or if it persists,
crystalsfoundin natureandthe onesyougrowfrom get medicalattenlion. Some
chemicalsmayform
TM are actual crystals with
your Mega-Science-Lab
or containDUST.
If a chemicaldustis inhaled,
internal structures
much
the same,
exceptyoudonot seekfresh air. If symptoms
occur, seekmedical
have
to waitthousands
of years
to seetheresultof your attention.If anychemicals,
crystals,or solutions
crystalgrowth!
are swallowed,immediatelyrinse your mouth
In this crystalgrowing
section,the chemicals withmilkor water;drinkseveralglasses
of milkor
used and the proceduresoutlined have been water. Seekmedicalattention or call a Poison
made
as safe as possiblethroughcareful testing
ControlCenter.
andpackaging.However,they are not withn~=t
sorn~h--,z~r~3~nc,~
ALLcnemicals
arepotentially (5) Keepchemicals,
solutions,andcrystalsout
dangerous.Be sure you read the warningsand the reachof smallchildrenandpets.
cautionstatements
on the individual containers
andfollow the proceduresanddirections care(6) Always
workwith the safety gogglesthat are
TM.
fully.
supplied in your Moga-Science-Lab
NOTE:
This crystal growingsection maybe used
by youn
9 children only with adult supervision!
(7) Makesure your workarea is coveredwith
several sheets of newspaperor a waterproof
plastic sheetingto reducethe problem
of spills
fromchemicals
andfromthe dyeswhichare used
in the chemical
solutions.If thereis a spill, clean
the areaimmediately
with papertowels.
(1) NEVER
put any chemicals,crystals or solu.
tions into the mouth.Neverswallowor eat any
chemicals,crystals or solutions. Donot eat or
drink whenhandlingchemicals,crystals or Solutions.
100
First: To observe ~.,~3_qL~, we would like
to havea very thin, transparenttube. Wecould
touchits endin coloredwaterandseeif the water
inside the tubule rises to the samelevel as
outside,did not doso, or roseevenhigher.
Makeyour owntransparentcapillary tube:
DIRECTIONS
(1) Fromthe7.62cmx12.7cm(3xSinch)card,
cut a coupleof narrowstrips - eachoneas long
as the plastic microscope
slides, but less than
half as wide.
~ooo
WATER
(2) Placethe strips between
the twoslides, one
onthe left, the otherto the right, leavinganopen
spacedownthe middlebetween
the two strips.
(3) Holdingthis slide =sandwich"
firmly together,
lay a strip of stickytapeonthe left half of the top
slide, foldingit overto holdthe bottom
slide.
(4) Do the samething with another piece
tape, to holdthe other side of the =sandwich."
DIRECTIONS
Puta fewdropsof foodcoloringinto a smallglass
of water.Watch
it disperse.Stir a little.
(1) Takethe slide "sandwich"
andhold it above
the glassof coloredwater,pointingdown,so you
can watchthe capillary tube spacebetween
the
strips of card.
(2) Touchone end of the "sandwich"to the
surfaceof the coloredwater.Holdit therefor a
fewseconds
andobserve.Doesthe waterrise in
the narrowspacebetween
the two slides, apparently againstgravity? Abouthowfar?
~’]MICROSCOPE
co~,oPJ
l~
SOLUTION
~
Figure #12
the stemsof plants, but also in holdingmoisture
in loosely-packed
soil. C’,apillarityis aneffectyou
mayobsewein manyapplications - including a
papertowelif youspill thejuice/.
Variations:In nearly eve~scienceexperiment,
it is useful to change
the experiment
somewhat,
oneparameter
at a time, in orderto find out just
whatis goingon.
Doyou think it wouldmakemuchdifference
mthe heightof the liquid raisedby capilla~action
if the slot betweenthe card strips weremuch
wider? Or evennarrower?
Whatif the small spacebetween
the slides
weregreater? Or smaller? That wouldbe well
wodhexploring fudher:
(A) Undothe "sandwich"andremakeit with
doublethicknessof 7.62cmx 12.7cm(3 x 5 inch)
card strips. Doesthe liquid rise abouthalf as
high?
(B) Try a "sandwich"
with thinner strips, say
(3) Whatif youpushthe slide "sandwich"
deeper ordinary writing paper.Is the capillary action
twice as effective, perhapsto the top of the
into the liquid andwait a fewseconds?
slides?
(~11it nn2t-!~, 3-’-’~. & ~¢~i¢,?
weare nowobservingthis effect in small
(4) What
happens
if VOU
on the orderof severalthousandths
of an
~n¢,dchcase,doesthe liquid rise aboutthe same spaces
inchor tenthsof a millimeter.
distance?
(C) Whathappens
if youtip the capillary tube
Youhavejust observed
capillary action.It is
a very importantphenomenon,
not only in botany a very shallowangle?Mightthe liquid be drawn
for the transportof nutrient-richfluids upthrough farther along,but nohigher?Try it.
SECTION"TWO
CapillaryAction
Goal:To showhowplants drink water
EQUIPMENT
Twotall juice or drinkingglasses
Whitecarnation,longstem(flower stall)
Foodcoloring, red andblue
Xylem
Precaution:
A little dyecanstain a lot. Keepthe
foodcoloringcapped,andplacewhereit will not
be knockedover.
DIRECTIONS
(1) Fill eachof the twoglasseshalf full of warm
9 water.
(2) Addseveraldropsof bluedyeto the water
oneglass,moreof red to the other, until youget
nice deepcolors.
(3) Locatea window
sill or othersafeplaceto put
yourexperiment
for twoor three days.Placethe
glassesside by side in yoursafeplace.
I
(4) Aska parentto makea fresh cut acrossthe
endof the carnationstem,andthen to carefully
split it in two, fromthe endto abouthalf wayup
towardthe flower, so youcanarrangethe carnation to "drink" frombothglasses.
XYLEM
~~
~
" PiTH
WOODY STEM
(5) Put the carnationwith its dividedstemin the
dividedblue-red"vase,"andleaveit there.
Result:Aftertwoor threedays,the carnationwill
befringedwith redononeside, blueonthe other.
Thethin layer of unspecialized
but continually dividingcambium
cells is busyturningitself
into moreliving phloem
tissue onthe outside,and
Whathappened?
The stemof the carnation is
into tubesof woody
xylemfromits inner surface.
wrappedarounda bundleof tiny, long tubes
Soit is fromthe cambium
that the stem,branch,
called ~l_e__m.
cells. Thecoloredwaterwasdrawn or root growsin width.
upthroughthe xylemtissue by capillary action.
This organizationof xylem, cambium,
phThisis the wayall floweringplants, andseed
loem, supporting tissue and epidermis runs
plants, get water- including any mineralsand
throughoutthe plant’s vascular~3LS_t_em,
from
nutrientsdissolved
in the water.
roots throughstem,branches,andleaves.
Eventrees?Yes, xylemis the Greekwordfor
"wood."Plants that live morethan oneseason
growanotherlayer of xylemtissue eachyear.
Therings youcountin a crosscutbranchor trunk
to find its age, for example,
are rings of xylem
tissue. Fast spring growthmakes
larger cells,
whichlook lighter than the moredenselypacked
summer
growth.In everybeautiful pieceof wood,
the "grain" is showing
youxylemcells!
Summary:
Wehave beenexploring the microplumbingsystemof vascular plants. Vascular
tissues are composed
of long cells with thick
walls, whichsupportthe plant. Utilizing capillary
action, osmosis,turgot pressureandother effects, thesevascular tissues carry waterand
mineralsfromrootlets to leaf tips. Vascular
tissues also return the nutritious productsof
photosynthesis
fromthe plant’s greenleavesto
its branches,
stemandroots. Theefficient vasof the seed-producing
andflowerIs the stickysapin the xylemtissue?No. But cular systems
ing plants haveenabledthemto developin stunclosely associatedwith the xylemare somewhat ning variety andrange.
similar bundlesof phloemtissue. Thesephloem
or sieve-tubecells havethicker walls, andtransWellnow,that wasquite a garden
of informaport the sugarysap.
tion to growfroma red, whiteandblueflower!
Theliving phloem
tissue is foundjust inside
the outerbarkof trees. (In early spring,whenthe Alternatives:
Insteadof purchasing
a whitecarnation,if it is springtime
youmighttry this experisapis dsing,Vermonters
tap their mapletrees’
ment
with a daffodil. Orif it is summertime
look
phloem
for syrup!)
at a hydrangea
bushbig blossom
fromyour own
Between
the woodyxylem tissue andthe
of course,froma friendly
surrounding
sieve-tubephloem
is a separating yardor, with permission
neighbor.
layerof c.,ambium.
SECTIONTHREE
Turgor Pressure
CapillaryAction
Goal:Whywilted plantsperkup whenwatered
EQUIPMENT
[3 Ddnkingglass
10
Scissors
Bluefoodcoloring
Wiltedstalkof celery
OVERVIEW
z
Since before recordedhistory, peoplehave
beenfascinatedwith crystals. Theyfoundcrystals
along streambedsand in rock outcroppings./n
somecases,they evenminedcrystals in caves.
Peoplemayhavebeenattracted mostlyby the
beautyof crystals. Certaincrystals wereparticularly valuedfor their color andrarity, andbecame
knownas gems. Beyondthat, people cameto
believe that crystals hadmagicalproperties or
medicinal qualities. Theywereused as valued
itemsof barter. Today
mostsocietiesworldwide
still
valueandusecrystals in variousroles fromjewelry
to electronic components
in the mostadvanced
and
complexelectronic instruments.Crystals can be
either natural or man-made.
Youcan find crystals
all around
youin yourdaily life. Television,radio,
Computer
drawing
of the atomicstructureof beryl (variety
andcomputers
all havecrystals usingthe principals emerald). Thesilicon and be~liumatomsoccupythe
of the blue andgreentetrahedra,respectively.
ofsolidstatephysics. Manybuildingmaterialssuch centers
The aluminumatomswhichare shownas red spheres,
as stone, brick, andconcreteconsist largely of
are surrounded
by six, rather than four oxygens.Lines
havebeendrawnfrom eachaluminumto the cornersof
crystalline materials.Snowflakes
andice cubesare
neighboringtetrahedrato indicate the closest oxygen
crystalline. Common
medicinessuch as aspirin
atoms.A small numberof these aluminumatoms in
~,
andAlka-Seltzed andfoodstuffslike salt, sugar, emeraldare replaced by chromium.A characteristic
of the atomicarrangement
is the six-sided(hexandbakingsodaare all crystalline. Mostchemicals feature
agonal)rings of silicon tetrahedra.Therings are located
canbe put into the formof crystals. Because
the
aboveeachother to formchannelsthat run throughthe
repeatingarrangement
of units in mostcrystals only structure. Atomsor ions (chargedatoms)canenter these
channelsduring growthof the crystal
allow roomfor the correct units (atoms,ions, or
molecules)
to fit, crystalsareoftenthe purestform
of a substance.A common
waytopudfy something
is to crystallize
it.
Crystalsrangein size fromthosewhichcanonly be seenwith a microscope,
to quartzcrystals that
weighmorethan 36.2 metric tons (40 tons) andmeasure
morethan 12.1 meters(20 feet) in length!
Thesize of crystals is dependent
ona number
of factors, includingthe time availablefor atoms
to
orderthemselves
into regular pattems.In nature,crystals mayformin hot moltenrock (magma)
as
ascends
towardthe earth’s surface.If the magma
reachesthe surfaceandflows froma volcano,it cools
very rapidly, andthe resulting rock (basalt) is characterized
by the presence
of smallcrystals. Gas
bubblesfrozenin basalt, as it cools, areresponsiblefor the formationof quartzgeodes
andzeolites.
In somecases, magma
crystallizes into a rock beneaththe surface at a very slowrate. This
TM, granite "base
promotes
the development
of larger crystals (granite). In your Mega-Science-Lab
rocks" are includedto providemineralgrowingbasesfor your crystals.
Silicon is the majorcomponent
of the mineralsfeldsparandquartz. Silicon is also oneof the most
common
elements
in nature.Quartzandfeldsparare the majorbuildingblocksof sandandsoil. Silicon
can be removed
from thesecommon
substances,purified andcrystallized in long cylinders called
boules.Theboulesare sliced into thin circular wafersandthe wafersare chemicallyandphysically
modifiedinto complexindividual chips. Eachof thesechips maytake the place of hundredor even
thousands
of traditional tubeandtransistorcircuits.
Crystalscanbeformed
in air as a hot liquid coolsto a solid," theycanbeformed
in wateras a solid
is formedor the waterof the solution evaporates;
andthey canbe formedunderspecialconditionsot
heatandpressure.Thehardanddurablenaturalcrysta/sthatarecutandpolishedintogemsandjewe/s
are formed
deepin the earth underheat andpressure.
Scientists have found waysto approximatethese extremeconditionsandmakesyntheti<
gemstones
suchas corundum
(vadetyruby andsapphire),beryl (variety emerald),andevendiamonds
99
.................. ................
CRYSTAL
GROWING
Ct~,stals are solid substancesin whichthe smallest units (atoms, ion.~ n~ molecules)are arranged
in repeating geometrical patterns. You can see this in the drawingspresented below for quartz, a
mineral that occurs fn all types of earth matenat5#ore beachsandsto rocks that form mountains.In
the atomic structure of quartz, the silicon ~tomis surroundedby four oxygensarrangedat the comers
of a pyramid (called a tetrahedron). Tetrahedra ale repeated as shown below to produce the
characteristic six.staled co/stals so commonly
observedin quartz (see Figure # I).
Theatomicstructure is responsihlefor importantproperties ex,btbited bF crystats. Whenan electric
currentis passedth rougha quartzcrys tel, for e ×a topic, it canbemade
to vibrate at its na tural frequency
(a property called piezoeloctrictty). Th~sproperty has beenput to practical use tn quartz watches.
rluatlz crystal inside the clock vibrates whenplacedin an e(ectnbalcircuit. Thevibrating crystal is then
coupled to the movement
of the hour and secondhandson the face of the watch.
Although the regular shapeota crystal implies a regular arrangementOf underlyint 2 atoms, th~s
observation wasnot confirmed by experimentuntil the early part of this century. Shortly after the
discovery of X-radiation in 1895, the Germanphysicist Maxyon L aue found that whena &mall crystal
~0. 1 mm(.004 inches) w,~s placed in an X-ray beam,it produceda geometricpattem of dots on black
and white film located behind the crystal. Yon Laue’s pattern looked muchlike that shownbelowfor
emerald, a highly-prized gemthat contains beryllium, aluminum, silicon, and oxygen. Each dot
representsan X-ray beamthat wasdiffracted (bent) by the crystal Notethe striking similarity between
the shapeof the X-ray patlern and the shapeof the atomic pattern of emerald(see Figure #3). (Hint.
Look closely at the nngs of tetrahedra). Do you see why X-rays can reveal ~nformation about the
arrangementof atomsin crystals (see Figure #2)?
Editona~note: Important~ewwordsare underlinedthe first t~methey are introduced. Oe(initions el new
wordsare in the Glossaryor in the text.
DIRECTIONS
(1) Cut off the last inch of the celery stalk, at an
angle. (Wealwaysdo this with cut flowers, too.)
A fresh cut across the end ensures that the
exposedxylemcells are not cloggedup or dried
out.
Result: The celery leaves turn blue-green. The
stalk becomes
firm and crisp.
(2) into the glass half full of water,put a fewdrops
of dyeto turn it dark blue.
(3) Place the glass wherei}’ will not be knocke~
over. Put the celery stalk in the blue water.
(4) Wait until the next mom(ng.
Explanation:Plants usually stand erect and wilt
return to their original position if gently bent and
released. This happensbecausethe plant ceils
are normallyfu~l ot water and firm.
Thepressureinside the firm water-filled cells
ts called_t _u.r.gerpres.s.ur_~,
All the water-filledcells
together makethe entire plant firm.
If deprivedof water, the plant wilts whenthe
turgor pressuredrops andits cells shrink up. As
cells collapse, leaves wrinkle and stemsdroop.
Osmosis
SECTION FOUR
Turgot Pressure
(6) Test the slices by bendinc~them. Whichare
limp and loose? Whichare firm and taut?
Goal: Howwater movesin and out ot living ceils
EQUIPMENT
:,J A pair of shallow bowls
Felt tip marker
Teaspoon
Salt
Cucumber
Result: Theslices in water are firm and crisp.
Theslices in salt water are limp and bendeasily.
D;C~E,,., t t~N~
(1) Markone of the bowls "Salt" and the other
"Water". (If glass, try writing backwardson the
bottom; if it is goodchina, you’d better usemask~ngtape.)
X-rayphotograph
of a beryl(varietyemerald).
Each
dot
represents
anX-raybeam
thatwasdiffracted(ref(ected)
bythec,’3,st.aL
Thearra.~gament
ot d~t~s
~s.Totaled
to th~
geometry
of thecrystal.Thesix-sided
(hexagonal)
shape
of theX-raypallem,’eflecfs theshap~
of the atomic
palletns
ltetrahedral
ringS)
in emerald.
If youlookclosely
at thephotograph,
youwill alsonoticethatsome
dotsate
darkerthanothers.Thisis dueto thedifferenttypesof
atoms
that make
upthecrystalByca(efu~ly
analyzing
Xfay data,scientistshave
beenableto unravel
theatomic
DNA
to high-temperature
superconductors.
Figure #1
98
Figure #2
What happened?Bundles of xylem tissue run
the ~ength of the celery stalk. These xylem
tubules soakup water by capillary action, all the
w~y to the leaves.
The xylem tissue also provided water to
surrounding bssues, ~p and down the stark,
through osmosis.
Thewater-filled ceils madethe plant tissues
firm, and acting together madethe plant structure
morer}gid.
(2) Half fill
eachbowl with water.
What happened,’?The cucumbercells already
contained~"~C’.’.&to, ,~d a ~tttle dissolved
terial. Plain water, enteringbyosmosis,stretchecl
the ceils, makingthemfirm andstiff.
But in the salty solution, wateralreadyinside
the cucumbercells movedout through the cell
membranes
to dilute the salt solution, leaving the
cells loose and limp.
Explanation: Water movesin and out of living
cellsthrough
thecell _m._e__.m~_r.an___e
- its thin, enclosing wrap. This water transport through a membraneis called
In osmosis, water always moves’through a
membrane
from the side having more water, to
the side having moredissolved material. That is,
water moves through the membraneto reduce
the moreconcentrated solution.
(3) Dissolve a teaspoonfulof salt in its bowl.
(4) Aska parentto cut 6 or 8 roundslices fromthe
cucumber,
not too thick; like for salad.
(5) Place3 or 4 slices in eachbowl. Let themsoak
at least 30 minutes.
11
tVhenwatermoves
into a cell by osmosis,
it fills
he cell andthen builds up pressureinside the
:e~, cal~edturgor pressure.
Turgotpressurecanbecome
intense- bursting fruits andvegetables
duringthe rainy season.
Turgotpressurecanbe so strongthat growing plants moverocks, breakthroughconcrete!
SECTIONFIVE
Sweetand Sour
Goal: To showhow temperature changesthe
behaviorof manyliquids
Viscosity
The
abilityof aliquidto flowis calledv~_s_c._o_s:
it_y. Thesyrupis quite _viscous.Thevinegaris
muchless viscous.
Viscosityis critical wherever
a liquid must
movethrough small passages.Examples
would
rangefromthe oil lubricating a bearing,to the
sugarsolutionsmoving
throughplant tissues, or
the bloodmovingthroughveins.
To measure
viscosity, scientists andengineersclock the timeit takesfor a certainvolume
of the liquid to drain througha smallhole- at a
standardtemperature.Youcan easily explore
the effect of temperature
uponviscosity.
EQUIPMENT
Whitevinegar
Cornsyrup
A pair of saucers
F.J Teaspoon
3 or 4 toothpicks
Papertowel
DIRECTIONS
(1) Put 9.8 ml (two teaspoons)
of vinegarin
first saucer.
DIRECTIONS
CoolerLiquid:
(1) Placeeachof the saucerswith liquid in the
refrigerator.
(2) Put 9.8 ml (twoteaspoons)
of corn syrup
the other saucer.
(3) Rinseanddry the teaspoon.
APPENDIXB
A NOTETO ADULTSANDPARENTS
Withthis set, youhavestarted your child on the path of learningaboutscienceandthe wonders
foundin the worldof chemist~,biologyandphysics.But remember
also that too little knowledge
can
bea dangerous
thing. Realscientists use powerfultools, substances
whichcanbe poisonous
andmay
causeharmif misusedor misapplied. Becauseof this, the WARNINGS
on this set are REAL.They
applyto the materialswhen
usedin larger quantities! But, that is not the casehere! HERE’S
WHY!
The
amounts
are deliberately made
small anddilute. Theyare less likely to causeharmbecause
of the
limited quantity andform. BUT,we still wantyou and your child to READ,
HEED
ANDUNDERSTAND
the instructions given you in the set. In this way,wetrust that powerfulchemicalsmaybe SAFELY
USED,in manyfun experiments. Remember,
too, if you have any questions about CHEMICAL
HEALTH
ANDSAFETY
contact your local physician or PoisonControl Center, or Natural Science
Industries.
Chemicals
suppliedin your microplateare:
Well B-l: CobaltChloride
Well B-2: CalciumNitrate
Well B-3: FerrousSulfate
Welt B-4: MethyleneBlue
Well B-5: Phenotphthalein
WellB-6: UniversalIndicator
CHEMICALPROPERTIESAND WARNINGS
VIAL
#
SIZE OF
NAME OF
VIAL OR
CONTENTS
(CHEMICAL
NAME)
3ONTAINER,
CHEMICAL
FORMULA
WARNING
ON LABEL
(2) After 5 or 10minutes,retrieve yoursaucers.
Flowtest: Whichliquid pouredeasily? Which
poureda blob?
Whichspreadout in the saucerand could
easily slop out? Whichliquid stayed put, or
flowedonly very slowly?
Smelttest: When
sniffed, whichliquid stings in
the nosewith a pungentor sharp,acddodor?
Fromtheir odor, whichof the liquids doyou
think is morevolatile andlikely to evaporate?
Touch
test: Touchthe vinegar, andrub the drop
betweenthumbandfinger.
Dothe samewith syrup- whichwill prove
thick andsticky, insteadof thin andclean.(Rinse
anddry fingers.)
Floattest: Breaka toothpickin half. Drophalf in
eachliquid. Observe
differences.
Stir test:Withanother
toothpick,try stirring each
liquid.
In the ordinarycourseof events,youwill
notice variouscharacteristicsof the materials
youhandle.Youwill doso evenwithoutcarefully
definingor preciselymeasuring,
thosecharacteristics, as youhavejust shown.
Suchobservations
are important.Notonly in
everyday
life, but especiallyin science.
(3) Bystirring witha toothpick,test the viscosity
of each~iquid.
Whichhas becomemuchthicker, almost
stiff? Couldyou eventurn the syrup saucer
upside down?
Donot try that withthe vinegar.Instead,put
the vinegar
saucerin a safeplace,to seeif it will
evaporateafter a coupleof days.
Precaution:
In the followingtest, donot runthe
microwave
on "high" for morethan ten seconds.
Warmer
Liquid:
(1) Askparent tohe~p. Putthe syrup sauc
er
(with its half-toothpickboat) in the microwave.
Set andrun the microwave
for ten seconds
only.
(2) Carefully remove,as the bottom of the
saucerwill bequite hot. Donot touchthe veryhot
syrup.
(3) Testthe viscosity of the hot syrupby again
stirring witha toothpick.
Result:Theviscosityof the syrup- whichat room
temperaturewasalready far greater than the
viscosity of the vinegar- increasedevenmore
whenthe twoliquids werecooled.
Theviscosity of the syrupdecreased
a very
greatdeal whenthe syrupwasheated,
COBALT
CHLORIDE
#8
CALCIUM
~41 6 ml NITRATE
Ca(NO~)~
¯ H~O
FERROUS
~44~ 6 ml SULFATE
FeSO
4 ¯ 7H~O
!METHYLENE
BLUE
#47
6 m(
#65
6 ml !PHENOLPHTHALEIN
Methyl Red-C,~H~N~O
#7C 6 rnl
UNIVERSAL Phenolphthalein
INDICATOR Bromthyrnol Blue
onpaperstrips Thymo| Blue
Methyl Yellow
12
97
FIRSTAID
SECTION
5
t2)
The
wateronce
again
falls outof thewells.Alcohol
alsodestroys
the surfacetensionof water.The
resultsof this partaresimilarto SECTION
2.
17)
SECTION
6
5)
5) Thebaby
powder
or fln~rcoated
the surface
of the
water.When
the detergent
wasadded
the surface
tensionof the waterwasdestroyed
andthe pewderor flourwas
forcedtoward
thewallsof thewell.
Theflour or powder
sunkto thebottom
of thewell.
Thepositiveelectrodeis producing
oxygen
gas.
Hydrogen
gasis beingproduced
at the negative
electrode.
Theformula
for watergivesustheclue.HzO
tells
us that a molecule
of waterhastwohydrogen
atomsfor everyoneoxygenWhen
wedecomposewater,twotimesas much
hydrogen
is produced
than oxygen.
This is whytwiceas many
bubbles
of hydrogen
come
out of the solutionat
thecathode
asdooxygen
bubbles
come
out of the
solutionat the anode.
SECTION
9
Part 4
Acharged
atom
is calledanion.
SECTION
1
6)
A 3-Dmodelis bailer thana cardboard
or 2-D
model
sincethe 3-0model
givesa clearer,more
usefulpictureof whattheactualmolecule
is believedto looklike. The3-Dmodel
lets youlookat
thestructureof themolecule.
SECTION
2
4) Thecombination
of ironandoxygen
requiresthat
the ironandoxygen
formanalternatingstructure
of oxygen-iron-oxygen-iron-oxygen.
Thepaper
modelmayshowthis but the 3-0 model
is more
informative.
SECTION
3
7) &8)
TheUniversal
Indicatorturnstwodiflerentcolors
in the twowells. Thepositiveelectrodewell
produces
oxygen
gas(whichis soluble)and
orange
or redcoloris seen
when
theindicatoris
present.Thenegative
electrode
produces
hydrogenandis colored
blue.
Part 5
SECTION
1
3) Bydilutingtheacidbya factorof 10,the amount
of acidperunit volume
is decreased
by anequal
amount.
7) Bydilutingthe base
bya factorof t0, theamount
of acidperunit volume
is decreased
byanequal
amount.
11)Thenails whichwerecovered
with solutionshow 10) Theuniversal
indicatorw~.ltt~rndifferentcolors
greaterrustingthannails which
were
onlycovered
dependent
onthe amount
of acid or basein the
withwater.Thenails tendto berustyabove
the
solutionin each
well.
lineof thesolution.
Thered-brown
colorof thenail
is dueto theformation
of ironoxideor rust.
is differentthanUniversal
Indica11) Phenolphthalein
tor sinceit hasonlyonechange
of color.Phenolthemostchange
is the nail
phthalein
is a singlechemical
indicator.Universal
12) Thenail whichshows
which
is in a salt solution.In orderfor nails to
Indicator
is a mixfure
of several
indicators.
change
into rust,theironmust
beableto reactwith
oxygen
in thewateror oxygen
in theair.
SECTION
4
SECTION
3A
11)Thenails whichwere
covered
with~t~lut=~R
"h~’~,
~,~."tc: ~,~,g~manthe nails whichwereonly
covered
withwater.
andaluminum
nails areresistantto chemi12) Copper
cal change.
Adiscolorationshows
whichchemicals tendto change
copperandaluminum.
SECTION
5
9) Theoxygen
ion hasa negative
(-) charge.
10)Thehydrogen
ion hasa positive(+) charge.
(Thevinegaris also affectedbycold andheat,but
It depends
not only uponthe molecularstructure
not critically in this temperature
range.)
of eachliquid, but especiallyuponits temperaTheviscosityof mostliquids changes
greatly
ture.
with temperature.
Especiallyfor oils (whichare
lighter thanwater),andfor sugarsolutions(wtlich
Worthremembering:
Small changesin temare heavierthanwater).
peratureoftencausecritical changes
in viscosity,
Some
petroleums,
like tar, are so stiff when with significant consequences.
cold as to appearalmostsolid. But weare not
talking here abouta changein state, as when Observation:Whenyou took the saucer of
waterfreezesto ice.
chilled syrupout of the refrigerator andran a
Viscosity is a propertyof fluids whichis
toothpick through it, you mayhave noticed a
crucial in a host of mechanical
applicationsand bunchof ripples, runningwell aheadof the point
biological processes.
For example,
in mid-winter of the toothpick!
Alaska, automobileengineswill not turn over
This illustrates whathappensin another
unlessthe engineoil is kept warm.And,after a
fluid, the air, whena fighter pilot approaches
dormantwinter, the sapof mapletrees can rise
Mach1, the speedof sound.
andfeed newgrowthonly whenit beginsto warm
Pressurewavesare set up in the fluid, in
upin the spring.
front of and aroundthe movingobject, even
Peoplecommonly
refer to a viscous, slowthoughit is "streamlined"or pointed. When
a
flowingliquid as "heavy"-althoughsuchoils may planepasses
throughthis "soundbarrier," on its
well belighter thanwater.Or theymayrefer to a
waytowardMach2, it creates an evensharper
"light" sewing-machine
oil. Actually, viscosity
pressurewave,whichreachesearth as a "sonic
haslittle to dowithweightor specificgravity.
boom."
All indicatorsshow
a change
in colorat a particular
concentration
of
Each
indicatorchanges
colorat onlyoneconcentration
of acidor base.Often,a sing(echemical
indicators
may
befoundin morethanonesource.
SECTIONSIX
Osmosis
TheCell
Goal:Howa cell maychangethrough osmosis
EQUIPMENT
Wide-mouthed
small jar
Freshegg(in the shell)
Whitevinegar
Cornsyrup
Postalscale
When
peelingthe shell off a hard-boiled
egg,
youmayhavenoticed a thin, white membrane
or
"skin" immediately
underthe eggshell,enclosing
the rest of the egg. (Youmaynot havenoticed
this paper-thin but tough membrane
whenyou
cracked
a rawegg,because
it usually~ti(.k? to the
ins!de
,3f t,~’~u~heii.)
In this experiment,
youwill dissolvethe shell
of the eggin order to observehowthat outer
membrane,
called the ~h__.orion,maypermit or
preventfluid fromenteringor exitingthe eggcell.
SECTION
5
4)
Youwill beableto tell if each
product
is acidor
base
bythecolorof theuniversal
indicator.It is
veryunusual
to find a product
which
is neutral.
SECTION
6
11) Thepossibleproducts
formed
at the positivewire 8) Anindicatorwhichturnscolornearthe rangeof
of the batteryare: gaseous
hydrogen
andgaseous
purewaterwould
bemostuseful.
oxygen.Thegasreleasedis gaseous
oxygen.
96
DIRECTIONS
(1) If youhavea postal scale(or evenan oldfashionedeggscale), weighthe egg.
(2) Recordits weighton the first line of your
sciencelog, alongwith the time anddate. The
science
log is provided
at the endof this section.
13
(3) Tippingthe jar sideways,
slide the uncooked
egginto the small wide-mouthed
jar. (A peanut
butter jar shouldwork.)
(4) Pourin enough
vinegarto coveror float the
egg. Thebubblesyou see formingare from the
reactionbetween
the 5 percentacetic acid solution (vinegar)andthe calciumcarbonate
(chalk)
eggshell. Theywill be carbondioxide. Soyour
experiment
is working.
(5) Coverthe jar andput it in a safeplacefor
least 24 hours.[If youcheckuponit meanwhile,
it would
nothurt to stir ~ lilt!e, 3; ,-~b i.i~d snell
,,j~[ly, to exposefresh CaCO~
(calciumcarbonate, or egg shell material) to the CH~COOH
(vinegar).]
Result:Theeggshell will havegradually dissolved(exceptperhapsat the endwhichfloated
out of the vinegar). Theeggis nowrubberyand
translucent,andswollen.
Thevinegarnot only dissolvedthe eggshell.
Thevinegar,whichis 95 percentwater, hasalso
movedthrough the semi-permeable
membrane,
the chorion,into the cell itself. It hasdonesoby
osmosis.
Theeggis swollen,andits envelopingmembraneis taut fromosmoticor turgot pressure.
(6) Workingin the kitchen, or over newspaper (14) Recordthis newdatain your sciencelog.
just in case, remove
the egg. Roll it dry, very
gently, ona papertowel.
At this point, youmaycontinuethe experimentif youwish. To do so:
(7) Weighthe egg. Notice whetherit is larger
thanbefore.Record
this datain yoursciencelog.
(15}Replace
the eggin the jar, andcoverit with
Osmosis
Into the eggis only half the story! There plainwater.Setit aside,andin onlythreeor four
is more:
hoursit will haveswollenupagain.
Theeggcell has again absorbedfluid by
(8) Pourthe usedvinegardownthe sink. Rinse osmosis
- this timewater,rather thanvinegar.
anddry the smalljar.
(16) Pouroff the water,andcarefully placethe
(9) Placethe rubbery,swollen
eggin the jar. (Still
nakedeggin corn syrupagain.
workingin the kitchen,because
if it breaks,you
will havea big puddleof wateryrawegg.)
Overnight
the eggwill againshrink, as water
is drawnout throughthe permeable
membrane,
(10) Pourin enough
cornsyrupto coverthe egg.
diluting the syrup.
It will float.
Youmaycontinuethis experiment
until you
runout of cornsyrup,until the eggbreaks,
or until
(11 ) Againset yourexperiment
asidefor at least
youare convinced
that osmosisreally workst
6 hours,or overnight.
Biology: The mechanism
you have nowdemonResult:Theeggwill haveshriveledandshrunk stratedis at workthroughout
botanyandzoology.
and sunk!
Plantsandanimalsare composed
of cells, as you
know,witheachcell havinga n_o_u.cle.us_,
a surOsmosis
has reversedthe slow but steady roundingcytoDlas.m,and an enveloping.memtransportof fluid throughthe outer membrane
of
bran_e,alongwith other components.
the eggcell. Watermoleculesinside the egg
Theegg, with its yolk, albumen,andmemmovedout throughthe semi-permeable
chorion,
braneprotectedby eggshell,is onehugecell. It
diluting the concentrated
sugarsolutionof syrup. is really enormous,
consideringthat mostcells
(Youcantell that by pouringoff some
of the water, are microscopic,andthat only a few, suchas
whichis resting abovethe heaviersyrup.)
onion-skin
or cottonfibers, arelargeenough
to be
ordinarilyvisible.
(12) Overthe sink, pourthe egginto yourhand,
Byusingthis uniquelylargesingle cell, you
letting the waterysyruprun down
the drain. Rinse can moreeasily seehowosmosismayphysically
theeggunderthecoldwatertap. Layor roll it very changea tissue composed
of bound-together
gentlyon a towel.
cells - changing
it froma looseor "wilted" condition, to a taut andfirm structure.
(13) Weighthe egg(in the kitchen). It may
Chemically,the fluid transport of osmosis
only half its swollensize andweight- a major canimportnutrients, or exportwasteproducts,
change.
for example.
C~rt#1
Date
SCIENCE LOG
Time
Weight
Eggin shell
placed
in vinegar
Nakedegg
placed
in syrup
Shrunken
egg
placed
in water
Swollenegg
againin syrup
14
Condition
SECTION SEVEN
Testing the pHof OtherChemicals
Nowthat youknowthat an indicator suchas
(6) Observe
anycolor change
in all of the wells
Universal
Ind.ica_tor$o_[l.utiortor Phenolphthalein tested (a piece of white paper under your
Solution maybe usedto tell the chemistif a
microplatemayhelp showthe colors).
solutionis anacid or base,youcandetermine
the
acidity andbasicityof the otherchemicals
in your (7) Usingyour colored pencil set, record any
chemistryset.
color changeon DataTable#5.
Youwill needthe followingmaterialstO complete this experiment:
(8) Some
of your chemicalsolutions will show
no change.Somewill be acids. Somewill be
MATERIALS
bases.Witha black pen, put an"A" by the ones
Microplateof indicatorsfromSection1
whichshowan acid color present. Put a "B" by
(with indicatorcolorsin smallwell rows
the oneswhichshowa basepresent. Put an "N"
A andB)
(neutral) by the oneswhichappearto have
Plastic pipette
change.
Water
Data Table #5
Coloredpencil set
SOLUTIONS
TESTED
Calciumnitrate solution (from your MegaTM
)Science-Lab
Ferroussulfate solution (from your MegaTM)
Science-Lab
Cobaltchloride solution (from your MegaTM)
Science-Lab
Citric acidsolution(obtainfromlemon
juice)
Ammonium
hydroxidesolution (obtain from
household ammonia)
Vinegar(obtain fromkitchen or grocery)
7_J Universal
Indicatorsolution(as anindicator)
Pheno/phthalein
solution(as an indicator)
Goggles
Labstation stand
BE SURETO WEAR
GOGGLES
WHENDOING
EXPERIMENTS
IN THIS CHEMISTRY
SECTION!
DIRECTIONS
(1) Usingthe small well rowsC-1throughC-12
andD-1throughD-12,place9 dropsof waterinto
eachsmall well in row C and row D of your
microplate.
(2) Place9 dropsof waterin large well A-1and
largewell A-1.
APPENDIXA
ANSWERS
TO EXPERIMENTQUESTIONS
Part 3
SECTION
2
10) Theliquid whichhasbeenaddedto the well
remains
in the well.Therome
of cohesion
of water
(3) Pipetteonedropof eachsolutionlisted above
(surface
tension)andadhesion
to the plastic
greater
thantheforceof gravity.
in smallwells C-1throughC-6andlarge well A1. Againdothe same
for smallwellsD- 1 through
Waterin the largewellshasgreatermass
anda
D-6 andlarge well A-2. Donot usethe phenollaKjersurfacearea.Thewaterin the largewells
phthaleinor UniversalIndicatoryet.
falls outof the wells.Thesurface
tensionof the
wateris notgreatenough
to keep
thewaterin the
wells.
(4) Pipetteonedropot Universellndicatot solulion to smallwells C-1throughC-6andlargewell
SECTION
3
A-I.
7) Dishdetergentdestroysthe surfacetension¢
(5) Pipetteonedropof phenolphthalein
indicawater.Thewater
falls outof thewells.The
wettin
tor to eachof the smallwellsD-1throughD-6and
powerof detergentis whatmakes
detergent
valuable
cleaningagent.
to largewell A-2.
95
El
El
Whichproducts are acids? Whichare bases?
Wereany of the materials you tested neutral?
Goggles
Lab station stand
Data Table #4
As stated before, manyof the products which
are in your homeare acids and bases. You can
test homeproductsfor acid, baseor neutral pHin
the following way.
As youpursueyour inquiries in biolo~Jy, thi
experiment should help you form a rough idea c
how osmosiscontributes to the life of tissue~
which are composedof billions of expanding
shrinking, fluid-exchangingcells.
Biologically, the functions of the orangelles,
which are within the cells of every kind, maybe
facilitated, or inhibited, whenosmosistakes place.
SECTION SEVEN
Tubers
Above & Below
DIRECTIONS
(1) Place a small sampleof each of the liquids
mentioned
in the materials list separatelyin large
wells of your microplate.
For this demonstration you need a bunchof
carrots fresh out of the ground,with leavesintact,
unscrubbed. Try a roadside vendor or farmer’s
market. Or better still, a friend with a vegetable
garden. Or best of all, from your own garden.
If youhaveonly supermarket
carrots - topped,
skinned, scrubbedand plastic wrapped- they are
lovely for chewingand cooking. But just proceed
to the next experiment.
(2) Add somewater to each large well containing your samples.
(3) Add2 dropsof Universal Indicator to each of
the large =A" wells containing samples.
Nowthat you havea pretty goodidea of this
tuber’s plumbing system, you maycheckit out.
DIRECTIONS(PART TWO)
(7) Ask an adult to slice the top off the other
carrots. Savethe orange tops with leaves for
PARTTHREE.
(8) Run the drinking glass about three-fourths
full of water.Adddropsof foodcoloring for a nice,
deepcolor.
Goal:To take a closer look at the familiar carrot
(4) Compare
the colors of the wells with samples
to the control wells with Universal Indicator you
prepared in SECTION
1. Record the solutions
you test on Data Table #4. Use your colored
pend(s to show changes.
SECTION SIX
Testing Rain Water for pH Value
Contraryto popular opinion, rain water is not
purewater. As rain falls from the sky, it picks up
particles and chemicals. The particles maybe
pieces of dust, dirt or smoke.
The chemicals may be gases which have
been released from a factory or home. In any
case, rain water mayabsorb this material and
changethe pH of rain water.
Youwill needthe following materials to complete this experiment:
MATERIALS
Microplate of indicators from SECTION
I
Rain water
Plastic cup
Plastic pipelle
Universal Indicator solution
PhenolphthaleinIndicator solution
Goggles
Lab station stand
BE SURE TO WEARGOGGLESWHENDOING
EXPERIMENTS
IN THIS CHEMISTRY
SECTIONI
DIRECTIONS
(1) Obtain a sampleof rain water in a plastic cup.
(2) Transfer ten drops of the rain water to each
of 4 small wells in the microptate.
94
(3) Adda drop of Universal tndicator to one
the wells with rain water.
(4) Addone drop of phenolphthaleinindicator
the next well.
(5) Finally, test someof your rain sampleswith
your natura~indicator solutions.
(6) Compare
the color of the indicator in the rain
samplewell with the control Universal Indicator
wells you preparedin Section 1.
(7) Comparethe color of the indicator in the
phenolphthaleincontrol with the rain sampleand
phenolphthalein.
(8) Finally, comparethe natural indicators and
rain samplewith the colors noted in Section 2.
Whichindicator wasthe best for telling the
pH of rain water?
Whichindicator would be the worst?
Whatwouldyou expect the pHof rain to be?
Are your results different than what you expected?
Extendthe spaceson your Data Table #4 to
include the rainwater sampleyoutested. Color in
any changesnoticed.
CARROT
.TOP REMOVED
EQUIPMENT
3 or 4 carrots au nature/
Drinking glass
0 Bowl
Blue food coloring
Toothpicks
Fine gravel
DIRECTIONS(PA~T O~E)
(1) Select a carrot. Lay the others aside for
PARTTwo ANDPAe~THREE
Of this experiment.
(2) Inspect the carrot, noticing colors andstructure; leaf shapes,texture (both sides) andveining; root skin androotlets.
Figure #15
(3) Snapthe carrot in two. And again, further
alongthe root. (If fresh, it will befirm andcrisp.)
Notice the outer skin or epidermisth~
tc, yo~5u; cortex, andfinally, like the lead in a fat
pencil, the inner tube of xy(em.
(9) Nearthe tol~ of vol~r pn~,~tedc~;~,~;, =~ick
~woor three toothpicks into or through the sides
of the carrot so it will stand up somewhat
in the
center of the glass. (Donot stab yoursetl!)
(4) Break open one of the pieces, lengthwise.
Nowyoucan strip out that central tube of tissue,
which showsitself to be quite separale. It will
bring with it the vascular connections to side
rootlets; you can see howthey feed water to the
main plumbing pipe.
(10) Stand the carrot up in the glass, with its
sliced-off top sticking up an inch or so abovethe
blue water. Put in ~ safe place.
(11) Check up in a day or so. The blue dye
should show wherethe xylemtissue of very fine
tubules havebrought water up from the rootlets by osmosisand capillarity, as we know.
(5) Wherethe leaves join the root, in the very
short stemof the carrot, do the mainveins of the
leaves appearto spring from the xylemat the top
of the root?
(6) You have already noticed how the main leaf
vein divides into branches,and subdivides.
Nowwhereare those ~eafy carrot tops?
15
DIRECTIONS(PART THREE)
(12) Ask an adult to slice off the leaves of the
carrot tops (or use your scissors).
.eave about an inch of greenish stems, and
~bout2.54cm.(oneinch) of orangerawcarrot.
13)Preparea shallowbow~
by’ placinggravel in
.he bottom,whichis moistened
but net covered
with water.
CARROT TOP
(14)Pushthe carrot topsinto the gravel.Putthe
bowlof carrot tops in a warm,sometimes
sunny
p~ace.
(15) Keepthe gravel wet, anddayby day, watch
tiny greenstemsandleavesbeginto grow!
DIRECTIONS
(1) Placea tablespoonsampleof the plant
flowerinto the plastic measuring
cup.
Thetissuesat the baseof the stemandthe
top of the root carryall the information
needed
to
makea completeplant. Responding
to gravify
andlight, onegrowsdown,the otherup, developing newtissues andfunctionsas they go.
(2) Add1/2 pipetteof ethyl or isopropylalcohol.
Mixwell. Crushthe petals with a plastic soda
strawto squeeze
alcoholthroughoutthe sample.
Figure #16
SECTIONEIGHT
RootStructure
Monocots& Dicots
Goal:Howfibrous andtap root systems
differ
(If youknow
a golfer, hecouldget youa "divot.")
EQUIPMENT
Lawngrass
t3 Lawn dandelion
Trowel
Plastic washbasinor old pot
(4) Usingyour trowel, cut out a small clump
grass.Thistimeyouwill only haveto go5 cmor
7.6 cm(2 or 3 inches)deep.Leavethe soil
place.
(5) Bring your grassdivot andyour dandelions
into the kitchen.(Don’tforgetthe trowelf)
l~llOSC OPE"
For this examinationyou needa clumpof
grassanda dandelion.A goodtime to get them
wouldbe after a rain, or whenever
the soil is
reasonably
moist- not dry andhard.
D}RECTIONS
(1) Finda thrivingdandelion.
Withthe pointof the
trowelplaced5 cmor 7.6 cm(2 or 3 inches)out
from the center of the dandelionplant, push
straightdown,
wiggling
thetrowela little, asfar as
youcango. Dothis on eachside, andaboveand
belowthe plant. Thensee if you can pry that
rather ~argeclod out of the ground,perhaps
helpingit alongby gathering
the leavesin onefist
andtugginga bit. Beprepared
to find a longtap
root - by late summer
15.2cmto 25.4 cm(6 to 10
inches)~ong!
(2) Withthe backof your trowel, knockoff the
larger clumpsof dirt. If surrounded
by grass,
gently pull awayanddiscardthe grassyclumps.
Trynot to breakoff the smallerdandelionroots;
youwill wash
awaythe rest of the soil later.
(6) Keep
the strainerin the sinkdrain. Usingthe
plastic washbasinor old pot in the sink, let the
grassclumpanddandelionsoakin waterfor five
or ten minutes.Swishthemarounda bit, perhaps
gently squeezingsoil lumpsbetweenthumband
finger so they will crumbleaway.But you are
trying not to tear awaythe very fine, fibrous
grassroothairs.
(7) Aboutthis time, youmaywantto lift a corner
of the basinor pot, runningmuch
of the waterover
the sideinto the sink. Butafter layingyourplant
andgrassaside, you hadbetter dumpthe rest
into the backyard,so as not to clogthe sinkwith
twigs andstones.
(8) Holding the dandelionroot underrunning
water, you canrub gently to remove
soil: it is
pretty tough.Theultra-fine grassroot hairs will
stubbornlycling to fine soil particles, however.
Soexpectyour grassto stay mattedtogether.
(9) Lay the dandelionandthe grass on paper
towels,andput themin a placeto dry out. (Clean
up the trowel, the basin or pot, andthe sink;
emptythe sink strainer in the garbage.)
(3) Finda placewherea clumpof grasswill not
be missed.Kentuckybluegrasswouldbe nice,
but anyfine lawngrass
wi{t do.
16
DO NOTMIX SKINS OR FLOWERS!
BE SURETO EXTRACTEACHPLANTOR
FLOWER
INDIVIDUALLY
(3) Allowthe plant materialto stay in the alcohol
for at least 5 minutes.
(4) Pouroff the liquid into a large"A" well of the
microplate.
(5) Savethis liquid as your_natura_l_i_ndicato._r
sol____ut_Lo_n_
in furtherexperiments.
If youwish,you
maysavevarious natural indicators whichyou
havepreparedby storing themin small clean
bottles or jars. Besureto label yourindicatorsas
to the contents.
SECTION THREE
NaturalIndicators
Youwill needthe followingmaterialsto com- DIRECTIONS
plete this experiment:
(1) RepeatSECTION
1 Steps1-9 in anotherrow
of sma~wells (RowsC andD).
MATERIALS
Flowerpetals, plant skin, or red cabbage (2) Add6-8 dropsof yourindicatorto eachof the
wellsin the row.
extraction(from previousexperiment)
Plastic measuring
cup
(3) Recordthe color changeon DataTable
Isoprepylalcohol(rubbingalcohol)
by coloringin the correctwell circles with your
Microplate
coloredpencils.
~ Household
vinegar(acetic acid)
[3 Householdammonia
Put the correct name
at the endof the row
(ammonium
hydroxide)
youare recordingas to whatindicator you used
El Plasticpipette
andthe colors indicated.
El Coloredpencils
Note:Youmayhaveto repeatedlyclean out
the wells in rowsC andD andre-usethemafter
El Water
eachrecording andexperimentwith different
r_.3 Goggles
indicators. Try to find as manycolorednatural
El Labstation stand
indicators possible. Alwaysrecord the color
changeson Data Table #3.
SECTION FOUR
OtherNaturalIndicators
Repeatthe procedurein SECTION
3 until
Whatis different abouteachof the indicatots?
youhavetestedall of yournaturalindicators,
Besure to record,on DataTable#3withyour
Whatdo a)~ of the indicators havein comcoloredpencils,all of the color changes
observed
men?
fromthe testing of yournaturalindicators.
SECTIONFIVE
Testing for AcidsandBases
Now
by usingthe tests andthe color changes ~J
whichyourecorded
in previousexperiments
which
to~dyouthe color changes
occurringat specific El
acid or baseconcentrations,
youcannowtest for
~J
the acid and basechangesandconcentrations ~
with someunknownso{utions. Again compare ~
any color changeswith what you already re~J
corded from previous experimentsand color
El
changes.
El
Youwill needthe followingmaterialsto corn- ~J
pletethis experiment:
~
MATERIALS
El
i3 Microplateof indicators fromSECTION
1
El
(small rowsA & B)
93 E3
Householdsoapsolution (example:DiaP
liquid soapor dishwashing
liquid soap)
Shampoo
solutions
Liquid laundrydetergent
Pet shampoo
Vinegar
Clear soda(sparklingwater)
Toothpaste
Milk
Lemonjuice
Grapefruitjuice
UniversalIndicator solution
Plastic pipettes
Coloredpencil set
DIRECTIONS
(1) Place 9 drops of water in small wells 13-3 and
B-10in the microplate.
(2) P~ace10 drops of vinegar (which contains
acetic acid) in small well B-2.
(3) Takeone drop Hut of small well B-2 and mix
it with the water in small well B-3. Youhavejust
madethe acid in sma~twell 13-3 ten times less
than small well B-2 by a factor of 10. Why?
(4) Takeone drop out of small well B-3 and mix
it with the walerin small well 13-4.
(5) Repeatthe above process with small wells
13-5 and 13-6. DONOTDOANYTHING
TO WELL
7. Why?
(6) Place 10 drops of household ammonia(ammoniumhydroxide) in small well 13-11.
(7) Takeone drop out of small well ~,-11 and mix
it with the water in small well 13-10. Youhaveiust
madethe base in small well B-10, ten times less
than small well 13-11. Why?
(8) Takeone drop out of smal~well 13-10 andmix
it with the waterin small well B-9.
(9) Takeone drop out of small well B-9 and mix
it with the water in small well B-8.
(10) DO NOT ADD ANYTHING TO SMALL
WELL B-7. Why?
(11) Add one drop of phenotphthalein solution
(anotherindicator) to eachof the wells in this row.
Compare
the results of your experiments.Howis
phenolphthaleindifferent from Universal Indicator?
(12) On Data Table #3, using your colored pencils, flit in the colors whichthe phenolphthalein
indicator Solution char~ged
to in eachof the small
wells 13-2 through 13-11. Mark this row (B-2
through B-10) Phenolphthalein Indicator Row.
MATERIALS
Flowerpetals (obtain from plant flowers with
colored petals)
Plant fruit skin (examg~,-,-cherrics, blueberries, etc.)
Red cabbage leaves from your grocery
Householdtea (from tea bag)
Isopropyl alcohol (rubbing alcohol)
(from drugstore or grocery)
Microplate
Householdvinegar (acetic acid)
Household ammonia(ammonium
hydroxide)
Plastic pipette
Plastic soda straw
Scissors
Goggles
Measuring cup
3
Lab station stand
92
(10) Whenthey are dry, examine your samples
with your magnifier, and then close up, with your
~.
1310SCOPE
NOTE: DO NOT DISCARD YOUR INDICATORS!!
You can save the Universal Indicator and
pheno|phthaleinfor useas c,,9n_tr_9~, for experimentsyouwill do later. Sealthe indicators in their
wells by coveringthe wells with a piece of transparent tape. Covereach rowof wells with a long,
single piece of tape. Runyour finger over each
welt to seal the contentsin the well.
SECTION TWO
Natural Indicators
Oneof the most fascinating discoveries is
that manyplants also have natural indicators
included in the flowers, leaves or stemsof the
plant. Wecanuse these as indicators for our acid
and base change experimenls.
Youwill needthe following materials to complete this experiment:
Result: Youhave already noticed that the dandelion andthe grassare entirely different kinds of
plants.
The dandelion has broad, spreading leaves,
raggedin outline, with a straw-like centra( tube
and branching veins. The grass has fine, long
leaves with parallel veins.
Thedandelion - almost like a carrot - has a
large "tap root" going really deep, with rather
short, bristly rootlets sticking out alongits length.
Thegrass iS growing from a fibrous webof very
fine root hairs.
Cowseat grass and give milk. Somepeople
like dandeliongreensin their salad.
WARNING:
Ethyl or isopropyl alcohol and their
vapors are highly flammable.Do not use alcohol
in the presenceof an openflame. Usealcohol ~n
an area with goodventilation.
Somenaturally occurring chemicalsare indicarom. They must be separated from natural
sources
in order to seethemwork. Wewill extract
the natural indicators with ethyl alcohol or with
isopropyl alcohol (rubbing alcohol).
Almostatt bl~nr ,"~!crc ~a,u~,(~) are indicators. Usethe skin, rind, or petal of a plant. The
indicator will bein the coloredor tinted part of the
p{ant.Green
leavescontainE~_hlo__ro...,~L.~t~.
Chlorophyll is not an indicator. Thepeta{s of flowers,
evenwhite flowers, contain indicators. Thefollowing is a list of plant sourcesof indicators. Red
cabbage,cherry skins, tea, blueberryskins, blackbern/skins or flower petals are goodsources of
natural indicators.
To extract the indicator, follow these directions.
Besure to usea microtip pipette for this experiment.
Keep your pipettes, chemical vial and
microplate securedin your lab station stand.
Thedandelionrootlets appearto spring from
nodules on the tuberous taproot, not unlike the
"eyes" on a potato. 13rokenapart, the white pith
of the root containsan easily separatedcore - and
now you see the source of the side sprouts. The
vascular systemof the plant - its plumbingsyslem
- is continuous:rootlets to mainroot and stem, to
leaves.
Thefibrous massof grass roots, on the other
hand, whenteased apart are seen to continually
branch and divide, twist and turn, and sprout
ever-finer root hairs.
13etweenthe fibrous web of root hairs and
the greengrass, youwill find a confusedlayer of
brownish and greenish stems. Ordinarily, these
horizontal stemsor "runners" escapenotice, because they hug the ground. From their nodes
spring not only the blades of grass, but also the
roots.
Several blades of grass grow from a single
node. We know they grow from the bottom because we mowth<, !op;! ;’;~w~d unoer the
131OSCOPE",
the longitudinally folded blade of
grass clearly showsten or a dozenribs on its
inside surface, and is easily torn lengthwise. It
looks like a miniature corn leaf - which is no
surprise if you knowthat Indian corn, or maize, is
a hugegrass plant.
Observation:If you investigate dandelions when
they bloomin the spring, watchfor the beautiful
seed puffs. Theyare perfectly symmetrical and
nearly spherical! Checkout the little umbrellas
with your BIOSCOPE".
Do you supposeeach puff
has the samenumberof small seed parachutes?
And howdid they get spacedaround the central
volleyball so perfectly?
17
Botanists classify all seedplants undertw,
broad headings. Theflowering plants - of whic~
there are thousandsof kinds, wildly different an
called dL~2~l~__m.m~,which means"coveredseed’
Seedplants which do not form flowers, like pin~
treesandother conifers, are called gJQm_ng_~e.r_m_~,
which means"naked seed".
The flowering plants, or angiospermsas we
nowsay, are in turn divided into two classes:
.~OPg~gt~ and dicPt~. The/eaves of monocots
have parallel veins, their vascular bundles are
scatteredin the stem, andtheir flower parts are in
multiples of three.
Theleaves of dicots have branching veins,
vascular bundles in rings, and flower parts in
multiples of four and five. (If you must know,
monocotis short for mono-£o.t.yl~_ns_,meaning
that the seed contains a single tiny embryonic
leaf Whereasthe seed of the dicot contains two
embryonicleaves or cotyledons.)
Massiveroot systemsanchor a plant. Often,
more of the plant system is underground than
aboveit. Theroots of alfalfa, for example,may
reach down6.09 meters (20 feet.) Two common
types of roots are tap roots andfibrous roots.
Plants like carrots, turnips, beets and radishes - and dandelions- are tuberS. Theyhave a
single large taprO_O.textendingdeepinto the soil,
with smaller roots branching from it. Taproots
store food for the future growth o/the plants.
Without this stored food, they could scarcely
survive dry spells or through the winter.
/n dicot roots, underthe outer skin or
m__isare the unspecia/izedfood-storagecells - the
white E.o_rt_p~we sawin the dandelionroot. And
within the cortex is the inner core of vascular
tissues - the xylemwehaveexploredbefore - with
armsthat reachoutwardto formthe lateral roots.
Plantslike= ~.£ ,~,Z,’~U ¢~ ;i~J~uus root system,
with millions of fine branchingroots. Whyshould
this be so?
First, minerals are boundto soil parlicles,
and plants must extend their root systems in
order to find new sources of minerals. Second,
the minerals are in very low concentrations phosphorusat about one part per million, for
example. So plants need a large surface area
from which to absorb minerals.
A branching fibrous networkhas astonishing
fength and surface area. Someagricultural scientists counted and measuredthe roots of a
single rye plant: 6,400roots had12.5 million root
hairs; total length 250 kilometers (155 miles);
surface area 750 square meters (899 square
yards).
A lawnbecomes
a thick mat, or turf, by the
Dreading
of s_toIon~andrhizomes~
- thosehoriontal stemsor "runners"that growalongandjust
mderthe surfaceof the ground.L eavesgrowup,
~ndroots growdownfromtheir nodes.
Runners
let a plant moveby spreadingover the
surfaceof the ground.
(8) Takeonedropout of smallwell A- 10andmix
it withthe waterin smallwell A-9.
Nowyou can appreciate better whatthe
grassandthe dandelionwerehiding fromyour
(9) Takeonedropout of small well A-9andmix
it withthe waterin smallwell A-8.
(10)DO NOT ADD ANYTHING TO SMALL
WELLA-7, Why?
SECTIONNINE
Plant Respiration
StomataLocation
Goal:Whichside of plant ~eavesbreathe?
EQUIPMENT
~ House plant
Q Petroleum Jelly
(3) Onanotherpart of the plant, pick out 3 or
healthy, growingleaves.Coatthe bottomsurface
of theseleaveswith a thick layer of petroleum
jelly.
(4) Record
in yourlog the locationof the bottomcoatedleaves,togetherwith the starting date of
The
secret
of plantlife is hp__b_0~_s_yr~th__esis.
In
your experiment.
photosynthesis,
plantsusetheir green.chlor_o~h~ to capture light energy. Theyuse this
(5) Checkup on the plant everyday for a week
energy in a chemical processwhich combines or two. Recordany changes
you observein your
waterwiththe carbondioxidebreathed
in, to form sciencelog.
carbohydratesand sugars. For example,the
energyconvertedto sugar in the leaves of a
Result:Theleaveswith petroleumje~) on their
potato plant maybe stored as a starch in the
underside have not donewell, and mayeven
potatotuber.
have died. Becausetheir stomatabreathing
Webreathe in to get oxygen,andexhale
poreswerecloggedup by the petroleum
jelly.
carbondioxide.But plantstakein carbondioxide
Onthe top side, the epidermis
of the leaf is
in daylight, andexhaleoxygen
at night. Theydo entirely coveredby the waxycuticle, without
so through
tiny pores- ~ittle openings
in the leaves stomata.Sothe petroleum
jelly on the top, waxy
- called~stqrnata.
side of the leaf did noharm.
By this experiment,you wish to find out
Plants breathe(andalso releasemoisture)
whether
the plant’s breathingapparatus,
the stomata,are locatedonthe top or the bottomof the throughthosetiny poreson the bottomside of
their leaves.Theyturn the top of their leaves
leaf structure.
towardthe light to catchenergyfromthe sun.
While the chemistryof pholosyr~tt~e~s
is
EPIDERM)S
WAX LAYER
complex,it maybe summarized
as:
6CO
+ O~
2 + 6H~O= CsH~O~
(catt~on dioxide) (water)
Guard Cells and Stomata: Embedded
in the
lower epidermisof the leaf are crescent-shaped
guardc__ell__s.
Each
pair of guardcells surrounds
an
opening called a stoma. The stoma (plural
F.P~BE.P~$
stomata)is a pore that opensandcloses, de,~TOMA
pendingon the shapeof the twoguardcells that
Figure #17
surround
it.
Because
the guardcells containchloroplasts,
theyare able~o carryout photosynthesis.
During
DIRECTIONS
photosynthesis,
the guardcells become
swollen
(1) Pick out 3 or 4 among
a groupof healthy
with water, or t~. (Remember
the swollen
leaves.Usinga finger, coat the top of eachleaf
egg?)As the guardcells become
turgid, this
withpetroleum
jelly.
changein shapepulls openthe stomata.
Whenthe stomata are open, gases can
(2) Make
a notein yourscience
log of the location move
in andout of the leaf. In this way,the guard
of the top-coatedbunchof leaves.
cells andthe stomataregulate the exchange
of
18 gasesbetweenthe leaf andthe atmosphere.
~
(12) OnDataTable#3, using your colored pencils, fill in theco~ors
whichthe Universal
Indicator
solutionchanged
to in eachof the smallwells A2 throughA- 11. Markthis row(A-2throughA- 10)
the UniversalIndicator Row.
Figure #18
SECTION ONE-A
Dilutionof Acid
In this experiment
youwill seehowto dilute
MATERIALS
an acid, moreand more,and to showhowthe
Microplate
dilution canbeseenby the useof an"indicator."
Pipette
Theindicatorusedin this exper~m~r~t
~s PhenolWater
phthalein whichwill changecolor in a basic
Vinegarfromkitchenor ~oca~groce,~
solutionandnot in anacid solution.Youwill need
Ammonia
(obtain householdammonia
the color changeinformation to comparewith
fromkitchenor Iooal grocery)
acid andbaseexperiments
later. Usea microtip
Phenolphthalein
solution indicator
TM)
pipette for theseexperiments.
(from your Mega-Science-Lab
Youwill needthe followingmaterialsto com- ~ Goggles
plete this experiment:
~
Labstation stand
Data Table #3
(sugar) (oxygen~
Thatis, carbondioxide andwater, in the presenceof sunlight, formsugarsandoxygengas.
ACES
(11) Addonedropof Universal
Indicatorto all the
wells. Whathappens
in eachof the wells?
PHENOLPHTHALEIN
,.~,~.~o..ow
00000 0000
NATURAL-,.o,o.~o..ow- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
NATURAL,.o,c.~o..o~. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
800800888
NATURAL..,..__...,_
INDICATORROW
NATURAL_
O0
,.o,~.~o..ow
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 O0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
I~~""°~
,.o,o.~o..0w
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
NATURAL,
91
Water(HzO)containstwodifferent chemical
parts. Theseparts are called IONS.Thehydrogenion (H’) whichhasa positive chargeandthe
hydroxideion (OH)Whichhas a negativecharge.
Acidsaddextra H" ionstowater, basesaddextra
OH-ions to water.
In purewaterthe amount
of H" ion exactly
equals the amountof OHion.
When
any chemicalis addedto water the
balanceof H¯ andOH-inthe solution changes.
For example,
when
SUlfuricacid is addedto water
to make
a solutionfor a car battery,the amount
of
H" increaseswhile the amount
of OHdecreases.
ThisSOlUtion
is Saidto beacidic.
When
calcium OXide,unslakedlime, (CaO)
is added
to waterto formslakedlime, the amount
of OH"increases while the amountof H+decreases. This solution is said to be ~; or
alka(ine.
Almost
allsolutions
areeither
acidic
oralkaline.
Very
fewsolutions
areneutral.
Scientists
measure
theamount
ofacidity
or
alkalinity
byusing
a special
scale
calted
the
ThepHscale rates solutions from1 to 14 based
onthe amount
of H" or OHion in the solution. A
SOlutionwhichhasa rating of between
1 to 6 is
COnsidered
acidic (1 is the highest amountof
acid,6 is theleastJ.Asolutionwhichis rated8 to
14is alkalineor basic(a solutionwhichhasa 14
pHhasthe highestamount
of base,While8 is the
least basic). A solution whichis exactly 7 is
neutral.
Thechart belowmayhelp you to understand
this important
scale.
MATERIALS
Household
vinegar(acetic acid) obtain from
kitchenor grocery
Householdammonia(ammonium
hydroxide
solution) obtainfromkitchenor grocery
Microplate
Plasticpipette
Water
Universalindicator
solution(fromyourMegaTM)
science-Lab
Phenolphthalein
solution (from your Me~laTM)
Sci~nr~=-!~b
Transparenttape
Set of coloredpencils
Goggles
Labstation stand
BE SURETO WEAR
GOG(~LES
WHENDOING
EXPERIMENTS
IN THIS CHEMISTRY
SECTION!
Transpiration
EQUIPMENT
A growing,leafy plant
Twoor three sandwichbags
Adhesivetape
Petroleum
Jelly (optional)
DIRECTIONS
(1) Place9 dropsof waterin eachof the small
wells A,-3 andA-10in the microplate.
(2) Place10 dropsof vinegar(whichC(~ntains
aceticacid) in well A-2.
(3) Takeonedropout from small well A-2and
dropit i~to the waterin smallwell A-3.
Yo~havejust made
the acid in smallWellA3 ten timeslessthantheacidsolutionin smallwell
A-2. Why?(see Figure #8).
(4) Tak~nn?d;cp~,u~v~=m.~iiwell A-3an~lmix
it withthe waterin smallwell A-4.
(5) Repeatthe aboveprocesswith well 5 ahd
DONOT ADDANYTHING
TO WELL7. Why?
(Hint: smallwell A-7will beusedas ne~Jtrai
or iust plain waterwhichis neutralpH.)
(6) Place10 drops of household
ammonia
(~,mmonium
hydroxide)in small well A-11.
Thisexperiment
will showyouthe characteristics of boththe pHscaleanuthe wayindicators (7) Takebnedropout of smallwell A- 11and~.dd
it to the wa,ter in smallwell A-10.YouhaveJust
work.
the t)ase in smallwell A-10ten timesIr~ss
Usea microtippipette for theseexperiments. made
than(weaker
than)the basicsolutionin smallWell
Keepyour microplate andGipettes securedin
A-11. Why?
yourlab station stand.
9O
Observstlon:If you are lUckyenoughto ha,,
some
daylilies in yourside Yard,the epidermis
a lily leaf shows
the microscopic
stomata
clearl~
~1
BtosL~pk~
~otuthw~ll
~)ePe
~fa/ahl~ellr~fge~itchloYs°e~
spaced,like a fine corduroysurface.
Butontheundersideof the lily leaf,.youwil
seehundredsof tiny bumps,scattered
where,c)osetogetherbut nevertouching.Thos~
amthe guardcells aroundthe stomata.
SECTIONTEN
Waterfrom Leaves
Goal:To showleavesdelivering waterto the air
SECTION ONE
ThepHScaleandIndicators
Youwill needthe followingmaterialsto complete this experiment:
Onsunnydays, whenphotosynthesis
is pro.
ceeding
rapidly, the cells in the leaf requirecar.
bondioxide.At that time, the stomata
are usually
open.
When
it is dark, of course,photosynthesis
cannotoccur. Thenthe guardcells lose water,
andbecomelimp, closing the stomata. Carbon
dioxide - no longerneededat night whenphoto.
synthesis
doesnot occur-doesnot enterthe lea f,
andthe closedslom,~lacop.Fe/’ve,~
water.
This water movesup the stem to the leaves
wheremostof it is lost throughthe poresof the
leaf.
A large tree mayreleasemorethanfive tons
of watera daythis way!In fact, forecasters
refer
to sometrees as "water pumps."Plants affect
temperatures
andhumiditya great dee)wherec~et"
theythdve.
This loss of waterby evaporation,through
the stomata
of the leaves,is called|r~nspiration.
Doplants seekwaterin the soil, carry it
throughroot, Stem,branchandleaf, andrelease
somewaterto the sky throughevaporationfrom
the leaves?
CELLULARRESPIRAT/ON
Wehavealreadyexploredcapillarity, working throughthe Xylemtubulesin root, stemand
Oxygen
is essentialto human
life. Youknow
branch. Andwe have explored osmosis, which
what would happento any person depdvedof
moves
waterfror~ the xylemto the surrounding oxygen
foras
even
a short time.
breathing
"respiration."
However
is
, breathing
phloemandsupportingtissues.
In everyday
/anguage,peopleoften
speakof
Uponreachingthe greenleaf, photosynthesis usessomeof this water, alongwith carbon simplya mechanical
processthat providesoxydioxide, to makecarbohydratesand sugars gento an animal’scells. Once
in the ce/Js,/,~,~
foodsusedby plants (andby youandby me).
o,~/~en
/~u..~ed
in~//u/ar resoirat~.
Is additional water releasedto the atmoIn cellular respiration, the Sugarglucose
sphereby evapor~.tionfromthe leaves?Let us
combines
with oxygento releasee~ergyandgive
find out.
off carbondioxideandwater.This takesplacein
~hernitcK:hondria- oneof the severalkindsof
DIRECTIONS
organized
structures
that functionCritic, a/Iv within
(1) In the morning,usingthe sticky tape, tie
sandwichh~tg ~*,
,.. uvu~unelarge leaf (or
.~,.~,~
Althoughcellular respiration a~dDhotosvn.
t_.hesis eachinclude manycomplexsteps, the
severalsmallleaves).
reactionsare almostthe reverseof oneanother.
as:
(2) If you havedohethe previousexperiment, Cellular respiration maybe summarized
andwishto makea Comparison,
coverthe bottom
of another
leaf with Detroleum
jelly, andbagit the
sameway.
Thatis, glucose(a simplesugar)whenoxidized
(3)/n the evening,
Check
to seeif the insideof the
breaksdowninto carbondioxide andwater, resandwich
bagis clo~dy,andif dropletsof water leasing energy.
havecollected inside the bag.
Photosynthesisproducesa carbohydrate,
while cellular respirationinvolvesthe Oreakdown
(4) If youcoatedthe bottomof anotherleaf with
of ~ carbohydrate.Photosynthesis
is an energypetroleumjelly, andbagged
it, seeif that bag StOrage
process,while cellular respirationis an
showsless moisture.
en~.rgy-useprocess.In photosyntf~esis,light
ene~rgyis changedinto ~hemic.~_energy.
In
Result:Plantsabsorbwaterfromthe soil through rest~iration, chemical
energy
is chang~.d
into
their roots.
I(Jlar andheatener_qv.
19
Theorganellewithin the cell whichcarries
Jut photosynthesis
is calleda g_hloroplast,
perormingin its ownwaythe reversereactionof the
;imilarly membrane-bound
mitochondrion.
But mostof it hasbeenbroughtupthroughroots
andstemby the capillarity of xylemtissue, and
into the stomata
fromadjacenttissue by osmosis.
If youhavefollowedthe experiments
of your
TM in order, learning about
Mega-Science-Lab
Of the waterwhichevaporates
into the air
capillarity, osmosis,
andturgor pressure;about
from plant leaves, a small portion maybe the
xylem, phloemand cambiumtissues; about
productof cellular respiration.
photosynthesis
andcellular respiration- youare
well on yourwaytowardhavinga usefulgraspof
botany!
SECTIONELEVEN
Flower Structure
Nomenclature
Thecrowning
glory of the angiosperm
is its
flower. In fact, the term"flower" has cometo
mean,
by analogy,the finest part of anything.
Doubtless
it is no accidentthat flowersare
beautiful.Theblossoms
attract butterflies, birds,
andbees,- essentialcontributorsto continuation
of the flowerspecies.
Whether
by a riot of garden
colors, or by the
subtleshadingof a single bloom,our ownspecies
is also charmed
by floral hues. Themultiple
symmetries
of form, the reduplicationof patterns
andthe refreshingvariations uponeachtheme,
all attract ourmind’seyeandappealto our sense
of beauty.
Youwouldfike to mention
fragranceas well?
Of course.
Granted
that beautyis nostrangerin science
- evenin mathematics
- youare hereconcerned
with botanyrather thanwith art for its ownsake:
Botanically,the floweris organized
to reproduce
the plant that grewit - by creating the seed
needed
to establish a succeeding
generationof
the species.
SECTIONSEVEN
Electrolysisof FerrousSulfate
Thesecret in understanding
this experiment
andthe unseenreactions taking place at the
molecular
level is to think aboutthe positiveand
negativechargeat the endsof the wire (electrodes)whicharein different wells. Alsoremember that whencompounds
dissolve in waterthe
moleculesseparateinto positive chargedand
negativechargedions (in this caseFe++and
S04--).
Thenegativeelectrodesattract the positive
chemical
ions. Thepositiveelectrodes
attract the
negativechemicalions.
Youwill needthe followingmaterialsto complete this experiment:
Besure that the wells selectedare nextto each
other for comparison
(remember
the third well is
the control).
(2) Placeonedropof universalindicator in each
of the wells. Keepyour microplate securedin
yourlab station stand.
(3) Cuta pieceof filter paper6 mm
x 60mmwith
scissors.Wetthe strip of filter paperwith ferrous
sulfatesolution.
Usuallythin, delicate, andsmooth,petals
(4) Placeoneendof the filter paperin onelarge
are not always
so. Theyoftenclosethe wayto the
well A-1 andplacethe other endof the paperin
honeyed
part of the blossom
to preventaccessby
an adjoininglarge well A-2whichalso contains
smallinsects(whosevisits wouldbe uselessfor
MATERIALS
the ferroussulfate solution.
pollination).
Ferroussulfate solution
The petals maybe quite separate, partly
El UniversalIndicator solution
(5) Connect
a 9-volt batteryto a batteryclip.
joined, or united.Theymightevenbeseparateat
Plasticpipette
their base,yet joinedat the top, asin vine blosEl Microplate
(6) Placethe red wire fromthe battery clip into
soms.Occasionally,between
the corolla andthe
9-volt battery
onewell with the paperconnectorandthe black
stamens,
there is a crownor "corona"as in the
9-volt battery clip (fromyourMega-Science- wire fromthe battery clip into the well whichis
daffodil.
TM)
Lab
connected
to the other endof the paperconnecThird, withinthis cupof sepalsandpetalsis
Paperstrip (SeeSection5)
tor.
a circleof male
pads
- the~’andr_o_ec~i_u_m_._"._._o_f Goggles
st.am_e__ns_.
Each
stamen
consistsof a longfilaLabstation stand
(7) Waitfor about3 minutesfor the reaction
ment,bearingat its top ananther- the tiny pod
take place. Whatdo you observein eachwell?
whichcontainsthe pollen.
(1) Usingyourpipette, place10dropsof ferrous
Sometimes
the thread-likefilamentsarevery
sulfate solution in eachof 3 large wells of the
(8) Whatdoyou think is produced
at eachelecshodor absent,so that the antherssurroundthe
trode connectedto the battery? Whatis promicroplate.
Use
large
wells
A-l,
A-2
and
A-3.
pistil at the bottom
of the receptacle
or cup.The
ducedat the red (+) electrode?Whatis produced
Next,pipette 30dropsof waterinto eachof the
stamens
usually alternate with petals in oneor
at the black(-) electrode?
ferroussulfate wells, A-l, A-2andA-3.
morewhorls.
In someflowers, stamensmaybe found
PART FIVE: ACID AND BASE SOLUTIONS
adheringto the petals, or to the pistil. Andthe
numberof stamensin a single blossomvaries
FLOWERSTRUCTURE
Acidsandbasesare two types of chemicals base- a chemicalthat separates
from oneto hundreds!
(disassociates)
whichyou havecontact with every day. Common in waterto formOHions.
Fourthandfinally, at the centerof the blosBeingradial, the differentpadsof flowersare somis the femalepad- the ~qy~o_e_c_i.u_rn"
acids can be found in manyman-madeand
of
natural products. Acids which you mayhave extract- to usea solventto isolateanindividual
arranged
in circles or .whorls.Thereareonlyfour c.c.~arpels.Thecarpels,where
therearemore
than
mainparts to remember,but howremarkably one,are the segments
(either separateor fused)
seeninclude ascorbicacid (vitamin C), acetic
chemicalfrom a source.
acid (vinegar),autobatteryacid (sulfuric acid),
they maydiffer between
species!
of thecentralpistil.
Likegroups
of animals
- a "pride"of lions, or
tea(tannicacid), andsourmilkandyogurt(lactic
Mostinteresting of all is the L~istil. This
indicator- a chemicalwhichturns color at a
a "gaggle"of geese,for example
- thereare also central organ of the blossomincludes, deep
acid).
particularpH.
Basesare also quite common.
Milk of maggroupnamesfor eachof the four padsof the
withinthe flower, its ovary.Withinthe ovaryare
blossom.Workingfromthe outside in...
the ovule~sor eggcells which,when
fertilized,
nesia (magnesium
hydroxide), lye (sodiumhyion - a chargedatomor groupof atoms.
First, coveringthe bud,andthen splitting
droxide) and household ammonia(ammonium
become
the seedor seedswithin the fruit of the
hydroxide) are somecommon
bases.
opento releasethe delicatepetals, is the outer maturedflower.
ionization- the breakingapartof a molecule
into
envelope
- or "calyx_"of sepals.
Usually,the ovaryat the baseof the pistil
padswhichhavea positive (+) or negative
Thesepals are usually green, but some- extendsupward
in a neckcalled the ~tyle, which
TERMS TO KNOW
(-) charge.
times nearly the samecolor andshapeas the
is topped
bya stickyhatcalledthestigma.It is the
petalstheyprotected.(Sometimes
the calyx falls
acid - a chemicalwhichseparates(disassocistigmawhichcatchesthe pollen, broughtthere
neutral- neither acid norbase.
off beforethe floweropens,as in poppies.Orit
fromanotherplant of the same
species,by breeze
ates) in waterto formH̄ ions.
mayevenpersist until it enclosesthe dpened or busybee.
pHscale- a scalewhichtells the relative amount
acidic- a solutionwhich
hasa pHless than7.
fruit.)
Oncestuck on a stigma, the microscopic
of acid or basein a solution.
Second,
within the calyxlies the inner enve- grain of pollensendsdown
a fine tubule,through
lope-or "corolla"of Petals.In luscious,attractive the style to the inside of the ovary,wheresperm
alkaline- a solutionwhich
hasa pHgreaterthan salt - the chemical
whichresultswhenan acid
colors,the petalsalternatewith the sepalsaround are releasedfromthe pollen to fertilize anegg
7.
reactswitha base.
thecircle.
2O cell.
89
(10) Whatcharge is on the hydrogenion? (See
your cardboardion collection for the answer,if
necessary.)
(11) If unlike charges attract each other, what
possible gaseouselementsare being given off at
the positive chargedwire?
(12) Whatgaseousproducts are given off at the
negative charged wire?
(13) You are decomposingwater (Hz0) into
two basic elements. These two basic elements
are oxygen and hydrogen.
(14) Since hydrogen and oxygenare both gaseousat normal conditions, you should see bub0les
forming at the wires, and bubbles movingup the
wires to the surfaceof the liquid.
(15) Since hydrogenions are positive (H’) these
will be attracted to the negative wire (negative
electrode). Since the oxygen(0) ions are negative, they will be attracted to the positive wire
(positive electrode).
(16)The vinegar was used on}y to make the
water conduct electricity better. The vinegar
helpedthe water be an electrolyte.
(17) Lookclosely at the positive electrode and
the negative electrode. Whichelectrode seems
to be producing morebubbles than the other?
(18) Since water is madeup of two hydroge~s
every one oxygen(H20), there will be twice as
much hydrogen gas produced as oxygen gas.
(19) Morebubbleswill be producedat the negative electrode (where hydrOgengas is produced)
than at the positive electrode (where oxygenis
produced).
(20) Thewet filter paper betweenthe wel(s
only conductselectricily betweenthe wells but it
also lets any ions go backand forth to get to the
electrode to which they are attracted.
Thefertilized ovule growsinto a seed, carried within the fruit, whichwhenshedin a favorable site will becomea newflowering plant. But
only after a dormanttime (usually ~ year), and
with warmth,moisture, a~=dlight.
Someof the terms used here maybe newto
you, but they are goodtO knowi~ case you talk
about flowers to a fellow botanist, or with a
gardening neighbor.
Botany developed rapidly near the beginning of the scientific revolution, in the 17th and
18th centuries. At that time, educatedmenand
womenkept in touch across national borders in
Latin, which soon becamethe international lan.
guageof science.
In t.a_x__~qo..m__v
westill uselatinizednames
to
classify all living things by kingdom, phylum,
cl,~s~, order, family, genus,and species.
Nowyou can apply this nomenclatureto real
flowers as you view them close up, or take
blossomsapart!
MATERIALS
Paper models of
,",=put modeJsof oxygen
Onered pencil
Oneblack pencil
’.3) Break the molecules of water up to form
~ydrogen gas at the negative wire (negative
:lectrode).
88
PETAL
TULIP
Figure #2~
. .....................
. ........
FLOWERINSPECTION AND ANALYSIS
EQUIPMENT
U Sheet of ~eavy white paper
White glue
Tweezers(supplied in set)
Twoblossoms (with lower than a dozen
petals)
DIRECTIONS
(1) Put oneof the blossomsaside, in a small vase
or cup of water.
(4) Break the molecules of water up to form
oxygengas at the positive wire (positive electrode). Remember
oxygenis diatomic gas (0~).
CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS
AND CHEMtCAL SEPARATIONS
Iso~a’~ion of Elements from Compounds:Compounds are NOTmixtures. A mixture can be
separated byphysical means.Examplesofphysical meansinclude: boiling, condensing,melting,
thawing, etc. The substancesin a mixture keep
their own physical properties. Compounds
can
only be separated into elements by chemical
means.A comnm~n~_
!2 c, G,~r~cally different
oubstancefrom the reactants which formedit.
Elementscan be isolated or separated from
cc~mpounds
by using electrical, chemical, or heat
energy. The compoundcontaining the element
to be isolated must receive enough energy to
allow the splitting of the compound
i~to elements.
For the experimentbelow, attention will be focusedon the isolation of a single elementby the
use of electrical energy.
(2) P~acetwo pencils downon the table top.
These two pencils represent the red and black
wires in the water electrolyte.
................
~
Remember
hydrogen is diatomic gas (H2).
THE SEPARATION OF ELEMENTS FROM
THEIR COMPOUNDSALWAYS REQUIRES
THE USE OF ENERGYFROM c~OME
OUTSIDE SOURCE
(1) Build two cardboard models of water
~
’~
~IOSCOPE
SECTION SIX
Paper Chemistry IV
Again, you get to use modelsto let you see
and understand something that is happeningon
the atomic and molecular level which you cannot
actually see with your eye. Remember
the way in
which the hydrogen and oxygengo together and
comeapart. This is an important reaction to know
about.
Hydrogen~nd ~xygenonly go together in a
very cenain way to makewater molecules Water
only decomposes
in a very certain w&~/to produce hydrogen gas and oxygen gas. Can you
see the simple mathematical way that this happens?
Youwill needthe following materials to complete this experiment:
Keepthis pagehandyfor reference, or us~
dictionary or encyclopedia.Quite often, the di
ti~rtary or referencebookwilt supplya draw~r~g
the very flower you are looking up, with its par
labeled.
(2) Carefully examinethe b/ossamyou are going
to take apa~.
TYPICAL FLOWER
....................
Fi~e~’~~.......................
(3) Locatethe calyx of sepals. Locatethe corolla
of petals.
~
(4) Obsemethe individual sepals. Obsewethe
individual petals. If you are takina
their enl~r~ ~?,~ ~h~peS.HOWsimilar are the
sepals and petals? Do they alternate aroundthe
cup? E~aminethe s~ats and petals moreclosety
with your B=osco~E’.
/o o
STA! IEN
Figure #19
LS) F~nOthe androecium of stamens. Do the
stamenshave tong, sho~, or no filaments suppo~ing their anthers? How many stamens are
there in this blossom?Examinethe stamenswith
your g}o~OPE’". Pluck one stamen, and examine with your B~oscoPE’".
(6) Find the gynoeciumof carpels
segmented).If the pistil is not divided into carpels, simply take note of its style or neck,andits
sticky top, the stigma. Examinethe pist~{ more
closely with your
PISTIL
Figure #20
Nowyou are ready to take the blossomapa~.
21
asidein a cupof water, to seehowmuchbetter
youunderstand
it, andwhata scientific beautyit
Carefullypull off the sepals,countingas you
Witha spotof glue, stick eachsepalto your
leet of paper,so the sepalsline up acrossthe
3ttomof the sheet.
Alternative:If youprefer, you can,of course,
arrangethe flower parts in the order youfound
them:sepalsin an outer circle, protectingthe
petalsin the next whorl,with stamens
surroundingthecentralpistil.
~) Pull eachpetal off at its narrow
lowerendor
claw". Arrangethe petals abovethe sepalson
four sheet of paper. Spacethembetweenthe
~epals,if youlike. Fix eachpetal in placewith a
spotof glue.
Nowthat you haveseenhowonellower is
put together, you maybe eagerto examineand
(9) Workingyour wayaroundthe androecium
you have a chance
stamens,howmanystamensdoesthis blossom ana/yzeanother. Whenever
contain?Write the numberdownon the paper,
to collect a blossom
or two, it is instructive and
abovethe row of petals. Howdoesthis number oftenfascinatingto seehowdifferently that new
speciesorganizesits reproductivesystem.
of stamens
correspond
to the number
of sepals,
andto the number
of petals?
Donot expect
all flowersto haveall the parts
(10) Next,usingthe tweezers,try to pluckaway discussedhere, or to presentthemin quite the
the stamens.
Stick at least a fewon your paper sameway. Do expectsurprises: spiral whods,
convoluted
forms,bilateral symmetry
only, a host
in a rowabove
the petals.
of otherdifferences.
Nearlyeveryvariation youcan imaginehas
(11) Finally, youare down
to the pistil. Youmay
alreadybeentried out in the courseof evolution.
glueit to the top of your sheet,abovethe stamens.Theremainingflower cup or stemcan go
Youdo not haveto be an artist to makea
at the bottomcomerof the sheet.
usefulsketchof the flowerfor yourbotanynotethepartsin vertical
(12) If youwish,andthe pistil is largeenough, book.Onewayis to represent
breakit openat its bulbousbase.Whatis inside
cross section, as in our drawingof a "typical
flower."
the ovary?Examine
inside the ovarywith your
Botanistsoften drawa symbolicplan viewof
BIOSCOPE",
a blossom,usinga different representative
symbol for eachof thefour parts- pistil in thecenter,
Youhavedissecteda single blossom.Nowis a
by stamens,petals, andsepals.
goodtimeto find the blossom
that youearlier put surrounded
SECTIONTWELVE
LeafCollection
TreeIdentification
Buildingyourown"memop:/
libraq/" of plants
youknowandrecognizeis not only a fascinating
and challengingendeavor,it can also be the
basisfor a lifetime of pleasure,to befoundfrom
workingwith plants - or simply enjoyingtheir
company/
Flower,fruit andseedareall importantandmust
be taken into account.But the convenientand
indispensable
keyto plant identification is its
leaves.
Some
cluesto teat identification ot course
include size andshape,outline andedgeshape,
and vein patterns. But you should also pay
attentionto the top andbottom
surfacetextureof
the leaf, andhowfiat, wrinkled,or wavythe leaf
flat).
Whenever
youseea plant, youwill already is (beforebeingpressed
To describea leaf, you needto knowthe
be awareof its location, andthe environment
in
of its four mainparts, andcommonly
used
whichit is strugglingor thriving- whether
marshy names
shapenames.
Leavesdiffer greatly in size and
or mountainous.
Plant size, form andarchitecshape(see Figure #22)
ture first come
to notice.
22
ETHYLENEMOLECULE
CARBONTETRACHLORIDE
MOLECULE
ACETONEMOLECULE
METHANE
MOLECULE
ETHANEMOLECULE
PROPYLENEMOLECULE
Figure #16
SECTIONFIVE
Decompositionof Water, a ChemicalChange
Youwill needthe followingmaterialsto complete this experiment:
MATERIALS
Plasticpipette
El 9-volt battery
El 9-volt battery clip (suppliedin yourVegaTM)
Science-Lab
El Microptate
A strip of filter paperandscissors
Vinegar(acetic acid) - obtain from your
kitchen
El Goggles
El Labstation stand
(4) Cut a piece of filter paper6 mmx 60 ram.
Wetthe entire strip of filter paperwith vinegar
solution.
(5) Placeoneendof the filter paperin largewell
A*I andthe other endof the filter paperstrip in
large well A-2.
(6) Connect
a battery clip to a 9-volt battery.
(7) Placethe bare wire end of the red coated
wire (+ charge)in oneof the wellscontainingthe
paperandthe barewire endof the blackwire (charge)
in the well containingthe otherendof the
paper(see Figure #17).
BE SURETO WEARGOGGLES
WHENDOING
EXPERIMENTS
IN THIS CHEMISTRY
SECTION!
(~) Place~/4 pipe~lefull of vinegarJn a small
plastic cup.
(2) Addthree pipettesof tap waterto the vinegar
andstir withthepipetteby drawing
the solutionup
into the pipetteandthensquirtingit backin the
cup.Dothis severaltimesto insurea goodmixing
of the vinegarandwater.
(3) Placeonepipette of the water-vinegar
solution in eachof threelargewellsof yourmicroplate.
Usewells A-l, A-2andA-3. Twoadjoiningwells
arefor the experiment.
Thethird well is a control.
Keepyour microplatesecuredin yourlab station
stand.
87
Figure# 17
(8) Observe
the bubblingfromeachof the wells.
(9) Whatchargeis on the oxygenion? (Seeyou~
cardboard
ion collectionfor the answer,
if neces
sary.)
(2) Decompose
the two molecules of sodium
chloride by breakingthe twochlorineatomsaway
from the sodiumatoms.
(4) Eachof the two atomsof sodiumremair~
individual atomsof sodium.
(5) The compound
sodiumchloride has been
decomposed
into the elements sodium and
chlorine.
(3) The two atomsof chlorine combinewith
eachother to forma m~tecute
ot chlorine. This
molecule
of chlorinehasthe .~ymbolCI=.
SECTIONFOUR-B
UsingMotecu)arModels
Lookat the labels on the vials of chemicals For axamgte,reacting hydrogen
with oxygen
providedin your chemistry section. Thereis
result in the formationof water. Thereaction
tisted on eachlabel the name
of the chemicalas lookslike this:
well as the formula of the chemicalcom~und
whichthat name
represents.
Write downon the chart belowthe name
of
the ch emicalcompound,
and~extto it, the chemical formula of that compound.
Thechart has
started a fewenlries t~r you. Nowyoucomplete
(herest.
DATATABLE#2
ChemicalName
onleVI of vial
, CALCIUM
NITRATE
FERROUS
~ULFATE
COBALT
CHLORIDE
Edge Forms
Figure #22
Figure #25
The(yp~ca!leaf hasfour basicparts: blade,
veins, midribandpetio}e.
Figure# 14
Chemical
Formula
o! the compound
FeSO,
Youmightlook aroundyourhousefor things
like styrofoam
bails, modeling
ctay, toothpicks,
pipe cleaners,andstraws. Thesemakeexcellent
materialsfor building I~rget mo;ecutar
models.
Gum
drop candies and toothpicks makegreat
mo(ecularmode;s!
Vein Patterns
Figure #26
Figure #23
CARBONDIOXIDE
MOLECULE
After you havelisted all of the names
and
formu(as,andusingyour cardboard
metiers,construct as manyof the compounds
as you canwith
the cardboard
models.
Thiswill let .vn,, ~h!.-.~cf
thc ,-;;,,~;, ,~ (~:umpos~t~
o~~,hemic~l
compounds
HYDROGEN
CHLORIDE
in the samewaychemiststhink of them.
MOLECULE
Some
formu|asmaybe too long or complex
HYDROGEN
PEROXIDE
MOLECULE
to dowith yourmodels,
sodon’t worryif youdon’t
get all of them.Youshould,however,
becareful
with mostof the chemicats.
At right areincludedsome
examples
of simple
a~dcomplexmolecularmodels.
As yo~dothe variousexperimentsin this
set, try buitdingmodels
of the reactions.Thiswill
METHANOLMOLECULE
helpyouto understand
whatis happening
in each
reaction.
Figure #15a
Figure #~5
86
Leavescan be characterizedby shape,by
edgeform, andby vein pa.ttem:
Everyone
wantsto be a collector of
(u~oi severe(thingst)
’NC!LIl SPEAR~
som.thi~!
Goal:A leaf collection will not only become
a
privatepleasure,
it will alsoproveto bea valuable
addition to your "memory
library," and~ ready
referencetool to boot.
O ~,L
Collectas many
different :eavesas youcan,
identifying each.When
you find plants you wish
to record andremember,
but cannotidentify,
checkoneof the manyexcellent field guides.
Theyare usuaIlyavailablein the library for your
use, as well as in bookstores.
Leaf Shapes
Figure #24
23
FAMILIAR
WIll
TREES
BLACK OAK
FLOWERING
DOGWOOD
AMERICAN HOLLY
NOTE:Coppernails are copper colored (like
newpePny)andwill not be attracted by a magnet.
Aluminum
nails will seemvery light in weight and
will be shiny silver in color. Aluminum
nails will
not be attracted by a magnet.Obtain the copper
and aluminumnails at your local hardwarestore.
(6) Place one small copper nail in emptysmall
well A-4. Place one small aluminumnail in small
emptywell A-9. Theseare control wells.
DIRECTIONS
(1) Using your microtip pipette, place ten drops
of sodiumchloride solution in small wells A-1 and
A-12. Rinse the pipette. Place ten drops of
calcium nitrate solution in small well B-1 and B12. Repeatthis processplacing ferrous sulfate
solution in C-1 andC-12, cobalt chloride in small
wells D-1 and D-12. Besure to rinse the pipette
betweeneach chemical solution.
(B) Place one small aluminumnail in deep well
A-6. Completelycover the nail with water. Let the
nails remain undisturbed for two days.
(2) Add four drops of water to each solution.
D-4 and D-9 (see Figure #13).
(7) Place one small copper nail in deepwell
1. Completelycover the nail with water.
(9) Observethe nails for the next two days.
(10) Did the nai s change?
(11) Comparingreactions of the iron nails from
Section 3 and the aluminum and copper nails
from Section 3A, which nail showed change?
Which nail showed no change? What can you
nails insteadof iron nails? Recordyour resuffs on
Data Table #1.
DATA TABLE #1
’ CI~EMICALS
USED
IRON coPPER ALUMINUM
NAILS NAILS NA#LS
SODIUM
CHLORIDE
...............................
CALCIUM
NITRATE
FERROUS
SULFATE
Figure #13
(4) Place one small coppernail in small wells
1, B-l, C-1, D-l, D-3 and D-4.
(5) Place one small aluminumnail in small wells
A-12, B-12, C-12, D-12, D-9 and D-IO.
BLACK WALNUT
Youwill needthe following materials to complete this experiment:
MATERIALS
(~ Cardbo,~rd models of atoms
24
WATER
WATER
(SUBMERSED)
SECTION FOUR
CardboardChemistry Lab III
BEECH
Fi ure
COBALT
CHLORIDE
Nowthat you have seen the way chemicals
can combineto form a new substance, let’s take
the same chemical apart. The compound, sodium chloride can be separatedinto the original
elements by adding the correct amount of energy.
The process of makinga compoundreturn to the
elements from which it was formed is called
decomposition(dee’ kompo zi shun)or a, naly.~_s
(an al’ fee sis).
DIRECTIONS
(1) Join one sodium atom to one chlorine atom
to form a sodium chloride molecule. Maketwo
paper moleculesof sodiumchloride. This is th~
process of synthesis.
Plasticpipettes
Water
Goggles
Labstation stand
BE SURETO WEARGOGGLES
WHENDOING
EXPERIMENTS
IN THIS CHEMISTRY
SECTION]
DIRECTIONS
(1) Usingyourmicrotip pipette, placeten drops
of sodiumchloride solution to oneof the small
wellsin the microplate.Rinsethe plastic pipette.
Placeten dropsof calciumnitrate solution in
anothersmall well. Repeatthis processwith
ferroussulfate andcobaltchloridesolutions.Be
sure to rinse the pipette between
eachchemical
solution.
(6) Fill the largewell withwater.
(7) Placeonesmalliron nail in the largewell
that the nail is totally underthe water’ssurface.
(8) Observe
the positronof the smalliron nails
the smallandlarge wells in the microplate(see
Figure#12).
(2) Addfour dropsof waterto eachsolution.
(3) Place fourteen microdropsof water in
adjacentwell (seeFigure#11).
Figure #12
(9) Let all the iron nails remain,
undisturbed,
for
two days.
(10) Observe
the iron nails over the next two
days.
1 ) How
did the iron nails change?
Where
have
you seenthis color before?Whatchemicaldo
youthink has(ormed
fromthe iron nail?
(1
Figure
#1 1
(4) Placeonesmalliron nail in eachof the wells
containinga solution.
(12) Whichnail showed
the mostchange?
Which
nail showedno sign of change?Whatother
(5) Placeanotheriron nail in anadjoiningempty chemical
is necessary
for iron to change
the way
well. Thisis a control.
it did?
SECTIONTHREE-A
Synthesis
In this experiment
youwill goevenfurtherin
teaspoon)
of table salt to 15 ml. I1 t~hlemakingnewmaterials. The main tasks of the
c, poon)u| waler myour plastic measuring
chemist.=.re ~,~ ,3^t.,~limenlmg
cup)
, (2) observing,
and(3) recordingthe resultsso that the synthesis ~ Calcium
nitrate solution
of newmaterials and newsubstancescan be 53 Ferroussulfate solution
provenand doneagain by another chemistin
53 Cobaltchloridesolution
anotherlab! If a friend also hasa chemistry
set,
Q Microplate
compare
dataandresults with your friend as you 53 Plastic pipettes
eachdo the sameexperimentseparately!
53 Coppernails
Youwill needthe followingmaterialsto com- 53 Aluminum
nails (obtainfromyourlocal hardplete this experiment:
warestore)
Water
MATERIALS
Goggles
Sodiumchloride solution (preparesodium
Labstation stand
chloridesolutionby adding0.61 ml. (1/8
BE SURETO WEAR
GOGGLES
WHEN
DOING
EXPERIMENTS
IN THIS CHEMISTRY
SECTION!
84
GLOSSARY
mltochondrls (myt uh KAHN
dree uh):
androeclum
(an DREE
shee uhm): the whorl
of stamens~n a blossom.
organellesin whichenergyproductionfor the
cell occurs.
angiosperm
(AN jee uh sperm): a flowering
plant havingseedsproduced
within an ovary.
monocot(MAHnoh kaht): a seed plant with
anther:the part of the flower stamen
that
oneseedleaf, or cotyledon.
producesandreleasespollen.
osmosis(ahz MOH
sihs): the movement
water moleculesthrough a membrane
from an
calyx(KAYliks): the outer protectivecovering
areaof low soluteconcentration
to anareaof
of a flower,consisting
of a seriesof leaflike,
highsolute concentration.
usually greensegments
called sepals.
cambium
(KAMbeeuhm):the layer of cells
phloem
(FLOHuhm):the vascular tissue that
the stemsandroots of vascularplants that
transportssugarsandstarchesthroughoutthe
plant.
gives rise to phloem
andxylem;unspecialized
cells that divide to produce
newcells which
photosynthesis
(fob toh SIHNthuh sihs):
processby whichplants, using chlorophyland
causea plant to growin width.
energyfrom the sun, manufacturecarbohycapillary acllon, cap|llarlty: the forceof
attraction that causes
a liquid to moveup
drates fromcarbondioxide andwater.
narrowtubes.
pistil (PIHStihl): the seed-bearing
organof
flower, includingthe stigma,style, andovary.
carpel(KAHR
puhl): the central ovule-bearing
femaleorganof a flower, formingoneor more
rhizome
(REYE
zohm):a rootlike, usually
horizontal stemgrowingunderor alongthe
sectionsof the pistil.
ground,andsendingout roots fromits lower
chloroplast(KLAWR
uh plast): carbohydratesurface,andleavesor shootsfromits upper
producing
organellewithin plant cell containing
surface.
chlorophyll.
sepal(SEEpuhl): a modifiedleaf that encloses
chorlon (KAWR
ee ahn): a thin membrane
insidethe shell of a landegg.
the flowerbeforeit opens.
corolla(kuh ROH
lab): the inner en~etope
of
stamen(STAYmehn):the matepart of the
flower,consistingof a seriesof petals.
flowerthat produces
pollen grains.
stigma:the sticky tip of the stamen,where
corona(kuh ROH
nuh): a crownlikepart of
pollenfirst collects.
flower, usuallybetween
the petals andstastolon (STOH
luhn): a stemgrowingalong
mens,but sometimes
an appendage
of the
corolla,as in daffodils.
underthe groundandtaking root at the nodes
or apexto formnewplants.
cortex (KAWR
teks): the layer of tissue
~,=~,a,=
~3Tortmuh),plural stomata(STOH
roots andstemslying between
the eeid~=rmis
,~i ,d ii=u vascular
tissues;a foodstoragearea.
muhtuh): a tiny porein the epidermisof a leaf
cotyledon (kaht uh LEEDuhn): the embryonic that allowscarbondioxideto enter the leaf and
waterandoxygen
to exit.
leaf of a seedplant.
cytoplasm(SYTuh plaz uhm):the material
style: the neckof the pistil; the long, tubular
part of a pistil that supports
the stigma.
inside the cell membrane
containingthe
taxonomy:
the scienceof classifying living
necessary
components
for cell life; all orthings.
ganellesandmaterialswithin a cell between
turgot pressure:osmoticpressureexertedby
the plasmamembrane
and nuclear envelope.
the contentsof a plantcell againstthe cell wall.
dlcot (DEYE
kaht): a seedplant with twoseed
viscosity(vihs KAHS
uh tee): the property
leaves,or cotyledons.
havingrelatively highresistanceto flow.
gymnosperm
(JIHMnuh sperm): a plant that
xylem(ZEYE
luhm): vascular tissue that
produces
its seedwithin cones.
transportswaterandmineralsthroughoutthe
gynoeclum
(jin NEEsee uhm):the circle
carpelsin a flower;the pistil or pistils collecplant.
tively.
25
PART THREE: ZOOLOGY
In botany,the branchof biology studyingthe plant kingdom,you learnedhowthe millions of
different kindsof plantsare classified- that is, arranged
in orderfor comparison
andstudy.
In zoology,the branchof biologystudyingthe animalkingdom,
we/earn
that there are millions of
different kindsof animals
to befoundin the world,andtheyal/ arearranged
according
to bodystructure.
Animalswith certain featuresin common
belongto onegroup;thosewith other similar featuresbelong
to other groups.
Theanima/kingdom
is divided into rnajor categodes
ca//ed phyla. Eachphylumis brokendown,
onthe basisof bodystructure,into groups
calledqlasse,~.Classes
arefurtherdividedinto orders,orders
into families, familiesinto genera,andfinally generainto species.A house
cricket, for example,
would
beclassifiedlike this:
Phylum
Arthropoda
Class
Insecta
Order
Orthoptera
Family
Gryflidae
Genus
Acheta
domesticus
Species
ANIMAL KINGDOM
Therearemorethana million different species in the animal kingdom,divided into the
followingphyla:
Phylum
Examples
Poriferans
bath sponge,Venusflower
basket
Coelenterates hydra,jellyfish, coral
Platyhelminthstapeworm,
liver fluke
Nematodes hookworm,roundworm
Rotifers
microscopicwater animals
Annelids
earthworm,sandworm,
leech
Mollusks
clam,snail, octopus
Arthropods horseshoe
crab, shrimp,
spider,bee,ant, flea
Echinoderms starfish, seaumhin,
sanddollar
Hemichordates
acorn worm
Chordates
lancelet, lamprey,shark,
sturgeon,frog, lizard, snake,
penguin,robin, elephant,
rat, sea cow,whale,man
So, youngscientist, wheredoyouthink you
can begin your study of the animal kingdom?
Believeit or not, youcanbeginin yourownback
yard.
Onandin the ground, you can find such
organisms
as earthworms,
grubs, snails, slugs,
ants, spiders, beetles, bacteria, andtermites.
Grasses
are loadedwith insectslike aphidsand
lice. Beesspenda lot of time collecting nectar
fromflowers, andmothsfly aroundlights in the
night.
Pondsandstagnant pools teemwith life
during warmweather,commonly
providing homes
for leeches,daphnias,hydras,flatworms,water
lice, mosquitolarvae, snails, frogs, minnows,
mussels,
anddiving beetles(just to name
a few).
26
That’s outside. Inside your house,youcan
find deadinsects on windowsills or in light
fixtures. Basements,
closetsandgarages
harbor
many
different species,providingthemwithplaces
to live andbreed.
Yousimply have to knowhowto collect
specimens,
and, whenappropriate, howto preservethem.
WARNING:
Whencollecting specimens,always
look beforeyouput yourhandsundera rock, in a
hole, or in the water. Youdo not wantto grab
something
that mightcut, sting or bite you,or cut
yourselfonanold pieceof glassor metal.
STUDYING
ANIMALSIN THEIR
NATURALENVIRONMENT
With notebookandBioscope"in hand, begin studyingvariousanimalswheretheylive. The
ideais to get a good,closelook withoutupsetting
yoursubjects.
Makesketchesof, and notes about, what
you see. Answersuchquestionsas:
(1) Whatis the animaldoingas youwatchit?
(2) Doesthe animaltake notice of you?
(3) Where
did youfirst spot the animal?
(4) Were
there anyother animals,alive or dead,
in the immediateenvironment?
Accurate
descriptionsare veryimportant.If
youhavethe useof a camera,
all the better, and
if youcanget binoculars,you caneasily study
largeranimalslike birds, rabbits, anddeer.
This compound
is sodiumchloride. The
formula(model)for sodium
chloride is NaCI(see
Figure#9).
SODIU M
Chlorine wasusedin war as a poison. Sodium
chlodde
is a substance
whichis essentialto life.
Sodium
chloride is also known
as table salt. We
usetable salt to seasonour food. Sodium
chloride is a simplecompound
whichhasthe properties of neithersodium
nor chlorine.
Thereaction of two or moresubstances
producesa new set of substanceswhich are
different thanthe original chemicals.
CHLORINE
Figure #9
Sodium
metalis a silvery substance.
It is an
active elementwhichwill react violently with
water. Chlorineis a green-yellow
gas.
Twoor moreelementscan react with each
other to forma newchemicalcalled a compound.
Theprocessof forminga compound
from the
elements
is calledsynthesi~(sin’ the sis).
SECTIONTVVO
CardboardChemistryLabII
Iron is a metal. Iron cancombine
with many
non-metals.Themost common
compound
formed
by iron is iron oxide.Theoxideof iron is known
asrust.
Someelements, you mayremember,are
diatomic.Oxygen
is diatomiclike chlorine. Iron
is not diatomic.
Youwill needthe followingmaterialsto complete this experiment:
(3) Rearrange
the atomsto form two molecules
or
3. iron oxide,or rust. Rusthasthe formulaFete
(4) Visualize a 3-Dmodelof iron oxide. How
the atomsarrangethemselves?Doesthe paper
modelshowthis? (see Figure #10).
OX~CI~NATOMS
/" ,,,
MATERIALS
I~ Cardboardmodelsof Iron +2 andC1-1
DIRECTIONS
(1) Select four cardboard
iron atoms.
(2) Makethree oxygenmolecules(that’s six
atoms,combined
to formthree molecules).
IRON ATOMS
This is anothersynthesisreaction
Figure #10
SECTION THREE
Synthesis
Synthesisis oneof the mostimportantand Youwill needthe followingmaterialsto complete
interesting areasof chemistry.You,as a chem- this experiment:
ist, areputtingtogether,perhaps
for the first time
ever, chemicalswhichhavenever beenput toMATERIALS
getherbefore!
Sodiumchloride solution (makeyour own
Eventhoughthe reactionsyou are doingare
sodiumchloride solutions by adding0.61 ml
"known"... you will be makingbrandnewchemi(1t8 teaspoon)of table salt to 15 ml.
cals and compounds
which werenot present in
tablespoon)
of waterin yourplastic measurthe materials you are workingwith before you
ing cup)
Calciumnitrate solution
started your experiment!
Ferroussulfate solution
As a goodchemist,youmustobserveclosely
andyoumustrecordor write downyour results.
Cobaltchloride solution
Thechart andtables are providedfor your new
Microplate
dataat the endof this section.
Iron Nails fromyourlocal hardware
store
83
Themostimportantorganizationof all elementsis the division of the elementsinto two
generalclasses.
The two generalclasses of elementsare:
Metals and Non-Metals.
Metalstendto give upor releaseelectrons.
Non-metals
tend to gainor takeonelectrons.The
cardboard modelsof atoms have been organizedinto thesetwogroups.
SECTIONONE
Cardboard
ChemistryLab 1
Mostof the timechemistsneveractually see
the atoms and molecules which makeup the
chemicalreactions they study andexperiment
with.
Whatwe, as chemists, can "see" in our
mind’seye,arethe representations,
or models,
of
atomsandmofeculest
Youare urgedto completethis experiment
fully because
eachof the models
youwill seeand
study,will represent
for youthe pictureof unseen
atomsandmoleculesandhowthese very small
building blocks of our woddcombineandform
newsubstances~
Youwill needthe followingmaterialsto complete this experiment:
MATERIALS
~ Cardboardions andatoms(pink and blue
sheet of cardboardions from your MegaTM)
Science-Lab
Q Pair of scissors
BE SURETO WEARGOGGLES
WHENDOING
EXPERIMENTS
IN THiSCHEMISTRY
SECTION!
DIRECTIONS
(1) Cut out or separateall the cardboard
atoms
whichare metals. Notice that the metalatoms
havelittle trianglesononeside. These
triangles
represent(are modelsof) the electrons which
metals lose whenthey form compounds.
Each
elementhasa symbol.A symbolis like a special
initial or name
(model)
whichis written instead
usingthe wholewordfor the element.
Thesymbol
is usedh.v ~’homists.~ a snort;~=, ,d wayot talking aboutchemical
e~ements
or
chemicalions.
For example,sodiumis a metal element.
Sodium
has a symbol.Thesymbolfor sodiumis
"Na" (the Na standsfor the original namefor
sodiumwhichwasNatrium). The symbolNa is
;till usedtoday.Sodium
acts aloneas a chemical
.~lement.
Manyof the elementson the Periodic Table
ave symbols
takenfromtheir original names
in
ireek or Latin. Iron wasoriginally calledferrum.
hesymbol
for iron is Fe. Goldwascalled aurum.
"~esymbol
for goldis Au.
82
Usually, the symbolfor the elementis the
first letter or first twoletters in its English
name.
Oxygen’s
symbol
is O, hydrogen’s
is H, nitrogen’s
is N, helium’sis He,etc.
(2) Cutout or separateall the cardboard
atoms
whichare non-metals.
Noticethat the non-metal
atomshavelittle
notcheson oneside. Thesenotchesrepresent
(are modelsof) the sites whichnon-metals
use
whenthey form compounds.
(3) Chlorineis a non-metal.Thesymbolfor
atomof chlorineis CI. Chlodne
existsin natureas
a gas made
of twoatomsjoined together. Chlorine is diatomic(die’ ahtomik). Thismeans
two
atomsof a particular elementjoinedtogetherto
forma molecule.
(4) Selecttwo cardboard
atomsof chlorine.
(5) Slide the twoatomstogetherin suchwa
y
that theside tabandnotchof onechlorinefill the
side notchandtab of the other(see Figure#8).
BIOLOGISTAS TRAPPER
If youneedto look at an organism
underthe
Bioscope",
andyoucan’t find a deadone,youwill
haveto catchit.
Following are someeffective methodsof
trappingvery smallanimalslike bugsandworms.
THE BUTTERFLYNET
Anet is the bestwayto catchflying insec
without damaging
them. Nets can be purchase
throughyourlocal toy store.
If the insecthasalightedona floweror lea
approachit with caution so that your shadm
doesnot passoverit, or it will fly away.
TO BE AN ENTOMOLOGIST
~_n_!_Om__ology
is the scientific studyof bugs
(insectsandrelatedanimals,like spiders).Until
about two hundredyears ago, every entomologist wasan amateur- just like you. Theywent
aroundinvestigating bugswherethey could be
found, and bugs can be found almost everywhere!
So, youwantto know,what’sthe difference
betweenthe entomologistand everyoneelse?
Theentomologistis an observerandorganizer
... keepingcarefulrecordsof howbugslive
andwherethey are found.
... analyzingthat information to see how
bugsare alike, andhowthey are different.
... collecting bugsto studyin a {aboratory
environment.
Sl~fety First: Beforeyou begin your study of
bugs,youmustunderstand
that youcanget hurt.
ReallyfThelittle creaturescanbite or sting, but
that’s not all; so follow thesesimplerules and
everything
will befine.
Figure #28
Makea sidewayssweepingmovement
and
the insectwill becaughtinsidethe net.
At the endof the sweep,turn your wrist so
that the net is folded and the insect cannot
escape.
It is harderto catchbutterflies that are in
motion.Let onego by youandthen sweepthe
net
downoverit.
RULE
1: Neverlook at a stronglight source,
~. Todoso could
like the sun,througha Bioscope
causepermanentdamage
to your eyes.
A modelof a moleculeof chlorine. A chlorine molecule
wouldhavethe symbolCI
z.
Fig.re #e
(6) Select a sodiummetalatomanda chlorine
non-metalmoleculefrom your supply.
(7) Slide the sodiummetalatom’striangles into
the notchin the chlorineatom.
(8) Oncethe sodiummetalhas beenplacedinto
contactwiththe chlorine,the sidetie to the other
chlorine is broken. Pull awaythe combined
chlorine with the attached sodiumfrom the
uncombined
chlorine.
What do you think happens to the
uncombined
chlorine atom?The combinationof
sodium,a metal,with chlorine, a non-metal,has
formeda newsubstance,a compound.
RULE
2: Keepshardnhjr=~’t~_,!!,v,C ;;,~ui
.--..~,~,,.~;,g pmns,awayfromyoureyes.Always
remember
that your eyesare very delicate organsthat are easily damaged.
RULE3: Whencollecting specimensoutdoors, alwayslook before you put your hands
undera rock, in a hole, andsoon. Youdon’t want
to accidentallygrab something
that mightcut,
sting, or bite you.
RULE4: Never assumethat a bug - any
bug, alive or dead- is harmless.Alwayshandle
themwith care.
RULE
5: ff youhurt yourselfin anyway,tell
your parentsimmediately.
27
Figure #29
INSEGTTFtAP~
Another
wayto catdhcertainkindsof insects
witha trap. YoucanbuildoneI~indof insecttrap
, hedge,
or ;,n a shad~J
spotn~,r a compost
9i~e
~r woodp~,e. Thetop ot.~t~r shouldbe~eve%
vith the top o~ the g~o~n~t~E~p~ace~ sma~
~tonesaround
the top of the Jar andplacea sma~
squareof cardboard
ontop of the stones.
Theinsectsgo underthe Cardboard
lid seek,ng shelter andthen fall_i~.the ~ar wherethey
cannotcrawlout b~auuse
u, [, . hesmooth
gtas~of
the jar. Wes~gestthat youleavethe jar in place
overnight.
Useyour l~ezersto put thoseyou wishto study
in a jar aneetthe rest 9ohome.
TERRARIUM
If youcreate,in a closedcontainer,a plac~
similarto. a bug’snaturalenvironment,
youh..ave
made
a te~r~i.~
m. uriC,assit’s a vcaterDug;may
~eed an ~. It ~s easy to do. A~ ~ou ~eE~
big jar, o~, sandgrave~a con~a~n~
~er ~at~r, a
fewpl~s, andsomescreening(like wire screen
or lees. Y Woven
cloth) to makea cocer,
ti t~ePlaceis like home,withadequate
ood,
w~ter,andShelter, andpropertemperature
an~
lighting, YOur
little bugwill
e treat it/i~e ~ ho~
awayfrom home.
BUTTERFLY PALACE
6.u.t!~rt~ies
andmoths
requirea lot of S.P,ace.
Tobu~-~
sucha p~ace,
~io~,ew
these’~nstruc
Figure #a0
~n~ sm~ll creatures move
Fireflies, for example,~cause
they fly about ta~ly, can be
scooped
out of the ~=r.
~
In order to talk aboutthe atom,
havedeviseda modelof whatanatom_lOOks
like.
Th!s modelis called the lap_~t_~or ~ model
of the atom.Themodell’snamedaftereecientist,
Niels @ohr,whocameup with the idea. Further,
basedon the reactions of atomS,they havean
reactionare far too smallto beseenevenwith the
mostpowerful micr°~COPe.
idea (model)of whatthe moleculesof Chemical
A m~eiis an ~itation of the real thing.
compounds
look like.
~e~s ~e use%~in t~n9 to understand how
Thenucleusis the center of the atomand
things work. sc~ent’=st~
. otton use
ha~,~lmosta~the ~e_~ht_
or m_~a_%s,
of the atom.
hasa different n~’~J~°’
’~,
exgta~unseen~o~ce~.~ ~s~ m~delsto make Eachelement
an ideaeasier to understand.
chartresin the cen’~e~
b*,~,.%e
~,tom.These
charges
Theadvantage
of a modelis in its easeof
~re Called ~00~. The numbm
o~tL~Eqharges
use. For example,
it is ce~ainlyeasier to show ~n the center of the atomis called the atomiq
someone
a ~odelof a plane, rather than a full
~.ber. Each element has a distinct atomic
s(ze one.
nUmder.
A modelairplane is an imitation. A model
Thepositive paniclesor protons,alongwith
planeis not a real plane.It is a smallerrepresen" n~utral
panicles, called ne~t(O8~,ma~eup the
rationof a real plane.It canbeusedto imitatethe ~¢~g~of an atom (see~gu
re #7).
workingsof a real Diane. A modelcan help to
Theatomalso contains negativ~charges,
~icture something
r~al but unseen
or unfamiliar.
Calledelectrons,whichare locatedat different
me ~
di~t~nces~romthe nucleusin ~it~ or energy
~ ~ sad
~ ~ to scal~do~n,r epresent or mo6~
of
=
the ~nc~ . ~EAL c~em’~ca~s.
3%~~ at electrons in an airment is the
When
chain=tale combinethey are
Same
as t~e n~m~o( grotons ~n fne
£~act. Reactionscanbe of several~pesinvolvelement.Thenumber
of electrons (-) mustequ~
ing few of manyChemicals.By using cut-OUt
of protons(+) in a ~eutralatom.The
m~e~ions you can ~ee howdifferent chemicals the number
electrons are NOTI~ated in menucleus.
can combineto f~r~ the manycompounds
w~ich
chemists
find so =~t~resting"
~ ~s¯ useful only ~o showhOW
ThepapeF
,_~el
manyions comolh~with others to fern com~unds,Themethodof telling howmanyions of
onec~micalreact~ with howmanyions of an-
. ~.
Mo~EL ELEMENTSAND
~
~~
It is importantto knowhowchemicals
react
YO~canmakea simplelight
trap ~ith a pieceof paperanda
jar. ~O~itio
n it nearan outside
light ~ wait for the bugsto
drOP
=n.
Youcan get
~
bugsoff the
fimbs andout
of the foliage
of trees and
busheswith a
goodstoot
stick anda
s~;~.~,
,.~
" ~o~
piece of white ~.
~.
cardboard.
Figure #31
Figure #32
STAPLE
ANDTAPE
STEP
:~
Figure#93
~n ~ is a chemical which has onlY one
kind ot atom.ne~eatomsare neutral in charge.
An~ is ~n ~tomor groupof atomswhich
NOT
electrica Y heutral. Some
ions are positive
in charge"?;~l;r.ions are negativein c~arge"
A ~ ~ a chemically combined unit or
two or more ~to~s The atoms maybe of the
sameetement~(~h as two hydrogens)in order
to ~akea ~oteq~le ot hy~roge~~,
molecule ma~~ ~ ~ er more different
mentS,suchas NaCL~ ~%~salt which~smaO~
of a~ atom ot Sodium(Na) and an ato~
Chlorine(CI). & moleculeis of neutral charge.
Ch~mt~ts
9xperimentwith e/emeptS,ions,
and motecues
AtomS,thdugh very stoat, are m~deuP
pa~. T~e pa~s makethe atom what it is.
Atoms
are [no basicbuildingblocksof all chemicals.
81
F~ure ~7
~um
tithe number
of electronSdo~
s not equalthe
numberof protons the atomhas ~ charge.What
is a chargedatomcalled? I~ Pure #7ais an
example
of a positively charged
ion.
Eventhoughthe electrons are locatedat a
distance from the nucleus, ELECTRONS
MAKE
CHEMICAL
REAC%’~ObtS
£,~’~t~~.a.~teorganiz.ed~llthe known
atrJ, I-i’st theycall {he
oms
into anorg~.~’~z-~
Table(see separatesheetW~thtable printed or
it).
EachelementI~as only
k t,e sametype
atoms. By organizing the nOWn
atoms, or
mentsinto a table, chemists~avebeenable t
predict’the properties
of mah..y
other elemen
andthe chemicalcompounqs
they form.
In this experimentweare using fine powders, whichwecan see, to help us observethe
changestaking place with the surface tension
layerof a liquid.
Youwill needthe followingmaterialsto complete this experiment:
BE SURETO WEAR
GOGGLES
WHENDOING
EXPERIMENTS
IN THIS CHEMISTRY
SECTIONI
The name(nsecta comesfrom Latin, an
means
"in sections,"whichis the wayaninsect’
bodyis made.
Seehowthis worker ~
ant’s bodyis dividedinto
sections.
Thereare morekinds of insects than any
otherclassof animals.In fact, estimates
of their
numberrange from 700,000 to more than a
million specieslOthermajorclassesof Arthropods
are crustacea(animalslike crabs, shrimpand
lobsters), ar~¢hnida
(animalslike spiders,ticks
andscorpions), £_hilopod~,(centipedes),
dip!~12_o@_
(millipedes). Thereare also several
very smallclasses.
STEP3
DIRECTIONS
(1) Fill twolarge wells of the microplatewith
water. Uselarge wells A 1 andA-2.
(2) Fill twoother wellswith ethyl or isopropyl
alcohol. Uselarge wells A-3andA-4.
MATERIALS
’_l Microplate
Ethylor isopropylalcohol,fromdrugstore
Water
Liquid dishwashing
detergent
Plasticpipette
Babypowder,talcumpowderor flour
Goggles
Labstation stand
(3) Dustthe surfaceof eachof the four wellswith
babypowder,talcumpowder
or flour.
(4) Add1 dropof dishwashing
detergentto one
well withalcohol(A-3)andonewell with water(A1).
(5) Describe the result.
change?
Whatcausedthe
PART FOUR: CHEMICAL MODELS- CHEMICAL REACTIONS
TERMS TO KNOW
atom* the smallestpadicle of anelement.
chemical
means
- methodsof treating matedal
whichseparatepure substancesinto newcompoundsor elements.
compound
- a chemicalcombinationof two or
moreelements.A compound
has different properties fromthe elementswhichmakeit up. Compoundscannotbe separatedinto their elements
by physical means.
electrode- a wire whichis placedin anelectrolyte andthroughwhichanelectrical chargeflows.
Sodiummetal atomwill then become
a sodium
metalion (Na+).
Figure #34
STEP
4: Now,
its timeto find a big, fat caterpillar
happily munching
on a plant. Thatplant is its
preferredfood source,andyouwill needto know
this to keepthelittle fellowwell fed.
STEP
5: If the plant is smallenough,
transplantit
to a flowerpot.
If, onthe otherhand,the plant is large, take
somecuttings andplacethemin a jar of water.
CHARTOF THE FIVE MAJORCLASSES/
PHYLUMARTHROPODA
CLASS
INSECTA
modelo a representationof something
else.
molecule
- the smallestunit of a compound.
A
moleculecontainstwo or moreatomswhichare
chemicallycombined.
¯ 6 legsIn 3 ~irl
¯ 3 body regions, called head, thor~, ancl a~n
¯ 1 or 2 pm~of w~gs (s~etim~ e~ent)
non-metal- a chemicalelementwhichtendsto
gain electrons. Example:A Chlodneatomwill
acceptanelectronto become
a ChlorineIon (CI).
CLASSARACHNIDA
Spldlm, ~¢orplone, Mlte~, "ncke
periodictable - a list of the different elements
andsome
of their properties.
electrolyte - a solution whichconductsanelectric current.
electron- the particle outsidethe nucleusof an
atomwhichcarries a negative(--) charge.
element- a substance
whir, h containsonly one
k;,,~uia~om.
P_xample:
iron,
sulfur
orcarbon
are
each elements.
equation- a statementshowingthe waychemicals combineor break up. Anequation shows
howreactants becomeproducts in a chemical
reaction.
ion - an atomor a groupof atomswhichare not
electrically neutral.Ionswill either bepositive
chargedor negativecharged.
product- a substancewhichis producedin a
chemicalreaction.
planetarymodel- a modelof the positionof the
nucleus
and~.l~¢’trnns C.~ -’~-,% ,~ll wilicn p~ctures
the components
similar to the arrangement
of our
sunandplanets.
proton- the particle in the nucleuscenterof an
atomwhichcarries a positive (+) charge.
reactant - a substancewhich combineswith
anotherin a chemical
reaction.
reaction- the chemical
combination
or change
of
two or moreelementsor compounds.
stolchlometry- the combining
ratios of chemicals in a chemical
reaction.
metal- a chemicalelementwhichtends to lose
electronsin a chemicalreaction. Example:
So:lium metal(Na) will give off oneelectronper
ztomduringa chemicalreaction.
weight- a measurement
of the force by whichan
amount
of mass
is attractedto the earth.
8O
Insects, class Insecta, belongto the phylum
Arthropoda.Also included in this phylumare:
spiders, scorpionsandticks (class Arachnida);
millipedes(class Diplopoda);centipedes
(class
Chilopoda);sowbugs,
crayfish, lobsters, crabs
andbarnacles(class Crustacea).
Mostarthropods
belongin oneof thesefive majorclasses:
(head& chest), andthe back, the ~bdomen
Figure #35
SPECIAL
NOTE:
If you are
usingcuttingsinwater,vn.
~,..
CLASSDIPLOPODA
Ullllpedea
flower pot with soil, and
cover the top of the jar
with a pieceof cardboard.
This is necessary
because
mothcaterpdlars crawl
down
to the soil to pupate.
, ..
~uc~,.
co~rA,~E,
WATER
- 3
s
WHATARE INSECTS?
Theanimal kingdomis divided into major
groupingscalled phyla, andeachphylumis dividedinto c_~lasses.
Insects are members
of the
class insectaof the phylumarthropoda.
Arthropodsare animalswithout backbones
that havejointed appendages
(an appendage
is
a part of the bodythat sticksout, like a leg).
29
CLASSCHILOPODA
CLASSCRUSTACEA
Sowbugl,Crayfl~,h, Lobetera, Ccebe,Barneclea
¯ f 0 or morelegs in ~ir~
¯ 2 bodyregions, called cephalothora~andabdomen
¯ 2 pairs of antennae
¯ mostly rnanne,somefreshwaterandterrestda~
In our examples
whichfollow, only classes
~sectaandArachnida
will be covered.In addiion to the physical
distinctions
listed onthechart,
)ther featuresfurtherset apartthesetwoclasses.
~,rachnidsare soft-bodiedcreaturesthat cannot
ly, andprey onother animals.Insectsgenerally
navetougherbodies(exoskeletons),are capable
of flight, andmostfeedonplants, not animals.
Hereare someexamples
of howthis classification systemworks:
A houseflyis of the order Diptera, the family
Muscidae, the genus
Musca,andthe species
Domestica.
MONARCH
BUTTERFLY
INSECT ANATOMY
Anadult insect never"grows"because
it has
a hard, external skeleton composed
of a tough
substance
called chitin. Thisexoskeleton
covers
all partsof the bodyincludinglegs, eyes,antennae, andtracheae(breathingtubes). Younginsectsshedall thesesurfacesseveraltimesduring their lives in orderto growto adult size. The
development
fromeggto adult, called metamorphosis,is a series,then,of fixed stages.
Hereis howa grasshopper
changesfroman
eggto a fully mature
adult:
(6) Finally, carry the microplateCAREFULLY
the sink. Turnthe microplateupsidedownover
the sink.
(7) Whathappens?Whatdoesthe dishwashing
DIRECTIONS
soapdo to the water?Whyis this property of
detergent valuable? Answer:Dishwashing
soap
(1) If youhaveany methylene
blue dye solution
left in yourcupfromthe last experiment,
youmay destroysthe surfacetensionof water. Thewater
useit here.If not, mixa little more
methylene
blue falls out of the wells. Thewettingpowerof the
it a valuablecleaning
dye solutionwith waterin the plastic cup. (see detergentis whatmakes
agent.
SectionTwo,steps 2 and3).
EXTENSION
Try this sameexperimentusing a drop of hair
shampoo.
Try this sameexperimentusing dishwasher
"Jet
(3) Drawup someof the water/dye/soapmixDryra" liquid.
lure into thepipette.
Try this sameexperiment
using a dropof liquid
(4) Place 7 or 8 drops of the water/dye/soap handsoap.
mixtureinto smallwellsof the micreplate.Usethe
BE SURETO WEARGOGGLES
WHENDOING
samewellsas before:smallwells A- 1, A-2, A-3,
EXPERIMENTS
IN THIS CHEMISTRY
SECTIONI
A-12, B-12andC-12.
2
Themonarch
butterfly is
of the orderLepidoptera,
the family Danaidae,the
genus Darius, and the
speciesPlexippus.
Japanese
beetles are
of the orderColeoptera,the family
Scarabaeidae,the
genusPopillia, andthe
speciesJaponica.
JAPANESEBEETLE
(5) Lookat the colorof the wells with the mixture
in them.Turnthe plate andlook at the wellsfrom
the side of the micreplate.
(2) Addone drop of dishwashingsoapto the
methylene
blue/watermixture.Stir andmixthoroughly.
HOUSEFLY
EGG
-1
Methylene
bluedyesolution(fromyourMegaTM)
Science-Lab
Liquid dishwashing
soap(obtain from
groceryor kitchen)
TM)
Microplate(from your Mega-Science-Lab
Goggles
Pipette
Labstation stand
SECTIONFIVE
Alcohol andSurfaceTension
7 - FULLY~IATURED
A;~ULT
If younoticedthat all of the names
sound
like
Latin, youare right. Theyare generallyderived
fromLatin anddescdbe
specific characteristics.
For example,the ordercoleopterais named
from
the Latin phrasethat means
"sheathed(or covered)wings."
FROMWHEREDID INSECTS COME?
Insectshavebeenarounda longtime; scientists estimateas longas 300million years!Many,
like dragonfliesandcockroaches
werenot unlike
their modern-day
cousins. Insect fossils have
beenfound in coal minesin England,embedded
in copal( a naturalresin)in Zanzibar
(anisland
the eastcoastof Africa), andin sedimentary
rock
in Colorado
- just to name
a fewplaces.
NowYOUcan find insectsjust abouteverywhere.
Thereare insectsliving in
forests, deserts andeven
oceans.
INSECTFOSSIL
3o
Otherchemicalsbesidessoapproductshave
the propertyof destroyingor lesseningsurface
tension. This experiment
exploresthesechemi-
Figure #36
Andtheseare the changes
that a mothgoes
throughas it develops
fromaneggto anadult:
EGG
1
LARVA
(CATERPILLAR)
2
WARNING:
Ethyl alcohol, isopropyl alcohol
andrubbingalcohol are flammable
~iquids. Keep
these liquids andtheir vaporsawayfrom any
openflame. Usethesechemicalsonly in a wellventilatedarea.
Youwill needthe followingmaterialsto complete this experiment:
MATERIALS
Plastic measuring
cup
Water
MethyleneBlue DyeSolution
Isopropyl,or rubbingalcohol,or ethyl
alcohol(fromthe drugstore)
El Plastic pipette
~3 Microplate
El Goggles
El Labstation stand
DIRECTIONS
(1) Throwawaythe wateddye/detergentmixture fromthe previousexperiment.
(2) Rinsethe plastic cup andadd40 drops
waterto the cup.
(3) Adda few drops of methylene blue dye
solutionas youdid previously.
(4) Add20 dropsof ethyl orisopropylalcoho~
the waterin the pl3stic cup.
(5) Repeatsteps 6.7, 8, 9 and10 fromSection
2 experiment.
Howis the result similar to either
Section2 or Section3?
SECTIONSIX
A Visible Illustration of SurfaceTension
4
Figure #37
As in manyexperimentsin chemistry, even eyes. Sometimes
we needto use somethingw~
thoughchanges
go on at the atomicor molecular can see to showus things wecannotsee.
level, weoften cannotseethe effects with our
79
(2) Fill the small plastic measuring
cup about
half full of water.
(3) Addtwo dropsof methylene
blue dyeto the
waterin the cup.Besure to useyour microlil~
pipettefor this experiment.
(4) Returnthe blue dyewhichyouhavenot used
backto its originalvial well.
Normally,you wouldexpectthe solution to
fall out of the wells¯ This doesnot happen
because
the solution holds onto itself andthe
surfaceof the plastic well by surfacetension.
Surfacetensionis the romewhichbindswaterto
itself andthe surfaceof the containerin whichit
is stored. Thesurface tensionof the water(a
force) is greaterthangravity (anotherrome).
the waterstaysin the plate.
(6) Drawup someof the water/dyemixtureinto
the microtippipette.
(11) Nowplace someof the blue dye/watermixture In threeof the largewells-- largewell A-1,
A-3 andA-6. Usemoreliquid since the large
wells canhold moreliquid.
(7) Place7 or 8 dropsof the water/dyemixture
into smallwells A-l, A-2, A-3, A-12,B-12,Co12.
(seeFigure#6).
(12) Lookat the color of the largewellswith the
dropsof coloring.Turnthe plate andlook at the
dropsfromthe sideof the plate.
(5) Stir the waterwith the stemof the pipette.
ee~oooooo
ooooooooo
ooooooooo
000000000
o o e,
o o e,
o o e~
0 00~
OOO000"
Q QQO.O.O~
Figure #6
(8) Lookat the color of the wells with the drops
of the coloring. Turnthe plate andlook at the
dropsfromthe side of the plate.
SlMP~LE
NOTE:PERFORM
THENEXTSTEP#13 OVER
THE
SINKt OONOTTRYTHIS UPSIDEDOWN
OVER
YOURHEAD!
(14) Nowwashthe microplate out with water,
beingcarefulto cleanandrinseall of the wellsof
the water/dyemixture.
EYE
~ANE
HEAD THORAX
(13) Carry the microplate CAREFULLY
to the
sink. Turnthe microplateupsidedownover the
sink. Whathappened?
(HEARING)
SECTIONFOUR
Howto DestroySurfaceTension
Justthink howdifficult it wouldbeto washyourself or otherthingsif the surfacetensionof the
waterwasso strongthat it wouldnot penetrate
dirt or cloth or whatever
youare trying to wash!
In this experiment
wewilt destroyor lessen
the effect of surfacetensionby the useof something that makes
watermorewet. A dishwashing
soaphasthe propertyof a wettingagent,or in
otherwords,it will makewaterwetter!
Youwill needthe followingmaterialsto complete this experiment:
MATERIALS
Plastic measuringcup (from your MegaTM)
Science.Lab
BUGS BUTNOTINSECTS
Thereare someanimalsthat wethink of as
bugsthat are not insects (members
of the class
Insecta). A goodexamplewouldbe spiders. Do
you remember
to whatclass they belong?
Compare
thesespidersto the grasshopper
noticingdifferencesin things like the number
o!
legs, antennae,
andso on. Alsopayattention to
howtheyare alike.
This is a garden
spider, a makerof
beautiful webs¯
Thewebstrap flying insects,like flies,
whichthe spider then
GARDENSPIDER eats.
Garden
spidersmakeir~teresting pets. They
needno morethan onelive fly a dayfor food.
Theyalsoneedwater,
soprovide
a dampsponge
onwhich
thespider
cansuck.
AB~N
Figure #38
RaftSpiders
live
by the water. In
fact, they walk
onwaterwithout
sinking
by
spreadingtheir
legs out wide
andtakingquick,
gentlesteps.
This is a closelook at a grasshopper’s
head:
~IIMPLEEYE
Question:Thewater/dyemixtureacts differently
in the largewellsthanit did in the smallwells.
Why?
Answer:Waterin the large wells has greater
(9) Holdthe plate upto a light source.Observe mass
anda larger surfacearea. Thewaterin the
the color of the wells throughthe bottomof the
large wells fails out ot the wells. Thesurface
plate.
tensionof the wateris not great enough
to keep
the waterin the largewells.
(10) Finally, turn the plate upsidedown
overthe
BE SURETO WEAR
GOGGLES
WHEN
DOING
white paper. Doesanything unexpectedhapEXPERIMENTS
IN THIS CHEMISTRY
SECTIONI
pen?
Sudace
teqsjon, asyouhavelearned,is the
propertyof a liquid’s surfaceto forma thin layer
of particles or molecules
at the surfaceof the
liquid whichpull ononeanotherso that a surface
layer is fom~ed.
Thistendsto hold in the liquid
below.
Onwater,for instance,the surfacetensionis
strong enoughto supportthe weight of small
insectswhichlive onthe surfaceof the waterin
ponds and lakes. You can see how surface
tensionfom~ssucha layer by carefully floating a
needleonthe top surfaceof a containerof water.
Thereare chemicalswhichwill destroy or
lessenthe effect of surfacetension.
78
You’venoticedthat the changesin the appearanceof a mothare muchmoredrastic than
thoseof the grasshopper.
Inthecaseofthe moth,
the metamorphosis
is complete,while that of the
grasshopper
is gradual.
Let’s havea closer look at a grasshopper
to
seethe partsof the insect, generally:
F
RON~,
~
LO~R
~
.
/
RAFT SPIDER
~~
~PP~R
Lm
LIP
~
~.~.....~
¯ "-’~""
(PALP)
.- ..~
¯
Thespitting spideris
very slow moving,
; but it cancatcha fast
" movinginsect, like a
Figure #39
Howdo you tell the difference ~eenmoths
andbuffe~lies?Oneeasyw~yis to I~k at their
~len~e:
MOTH
ANTENNAE
,/~~ fly. Thespider
spits
a net of poisoned
gluethatpins
its prey
to the ground.
SPITTING SPIDER
The brazilian wandering spiderk~
is the deadliestin the wodd.
"~. ~,~
It hashugefangsthat
ject its victims with poison when ~
BU’I-I’ERFLY
ANTENNAE
BRAZILIAN WANDERING
SPIDER
Figure #40
31
WORKE~
R
GOODBUGSVERSUSBAD BUGS
Termiteseat wood
- includingthat in houses
- andcausea lot of damage,
an estimated$100
million eachyear.
Thiswill allowyouto insert the pipetteinto
thesevials andwill make
it easierto fill anduse
later.
~
Figure #42
PACIFIC
WHEEL_~R.S EASTERN
WESTERN
(~ AMPWOOD DESERT SUBTERRANEAN
SUBTERRANE~t-:
TERM~3"E TERM!TE
TERMITE
I~RM~TE
Figure#41
Thisis a fierce lookingbunch,isn’t it? They
areall soldiersof their respective
species.Workers andreproductivefemaleslook muchdifferent. For example,here are two moreEastern
Subterranean
termites:
Honeyhasbeenobtainedfromwild andkept
beecolonies since the beginningof recorded
h~stm3’, and ea~er. ~n makinghoney, bees
pollinate fruit trees andother plants. Keepin
mindthat for a plantto produce
fruit - sayanapple
tree to produce
apples- the plant’s flowershave
to bepollinated;andthat is just whata beedoes
as he gatherspollen to makehoney.
Canyoumakea list of bugsthat help us and
a list of bugsthat harmus?Try it! Youwill be
surprisedat whatyoufind out.
PRACTICAL
ADVICEANDSAFETYTIPS:
Take
greatcarewhen
lookingfor insectsor little creaThis is a reproductivefemale tures.Theyare verydelicate. Try not to squash
anyinsectswhen
lifting andlookingunderstones,
after her wingshavefallen off.
as manyinsects hide underneathstones and
Sheis the queenof a termite
colony, andproduces
thousands rocks. This is whenyou can use your plastic
tongsto gentlypick upinsects.
uponthousands
of eggs.
Takecare whencatchingbuttertlies, since
somespeciesare protected. If you do catch a
REPRODUCTIVE
protectedbutterfly, limit yourobservation
time
FEMALE
andset it free whenyouhavefinished.
Alwaysconsult your InformationChart so
that youcanavoidcapturinginsectswhichmight
Thisis a workertermite.
sting.
Workers makeup the
Askyourparentsto saveanyempty
jelly jars
majority of a termite
or babyfood jars for you. After washing
out the
colony.
old contents
anddryingthe jar andlid, thesejars
TERMITE
are excellentfor carryinginsects, caterpillars,
frogs, worms,andother small creatureswhich
you mayfind.
Honeybees, on the other hand, are exCarefully prepareyour workarea, makingit
tremelyusefulandimportant,andcontributebilclose
lions of dollarsa yearto ouragricultureindustry. readywith all of your tools andequipment
at hand.Try not to workwith live animalsinside
In fact, they are so importantthat an entire
after
scientificdiscipline,
.aJ:)icu!ture,
is devoted
to them. the houseandcleanall of the instruments
you have used them. Alwayswashyour hands
after touchingearth,leaves,insects,etc.
Neverleaveanyof yourtools or samples
you
havecollectedwithin the reachof smallerchildrenor tittle brot~,ers
andsisters.
32
MethyleneBlue (#47)
FerrousSulfate(#44)
DRONE
QUEEN
Nowpushthe tip of the pipettethroughthe inner
sealswith the "H" cut on themandsqueeze
out 3
MLof distilled waterinto onlythe vial wellswith
the BLUEtops. ADDTHEDISTILLEDWATER
ONLY TO THE VIAL WELLS WHICH HAVE
BLUECOLORED
SEALS!Thesevials which will
get the 3 MLof distilled waterare listed below:
CobaltChloride(#8)
CalciumNitrate (#41)
(3) Youare nowreadyto fill someof the other
vials with alcohol. YoumayuseIsopropyl (rubbing)alcoholor Ethylalcohol.(Obtainthe alcohol
fromthe local pharmacy
or grocerystore.) Using
En)arging
"PI"seals
withb~II
pointpensopipette
canbe
the
same
technique
as
you
did in step2, place3
used.
ML(threemilliliters) of alcoholinto the measuring
Figure #4
cup. Thenusing your pipette, suckup the 3 ML
of alcoholinto a pipetteandtheninsertthe pipette
(2) Find the plastic measuring
cup in your set.
the following vials. PUTTHEALCOYouwill seeit is marked
with variousmeasure- into ONLY
HOL ONLY INTO THE VIALS WHICHHAVE
ments.Usingthe"ML"measurement
scale ("ML"
SEALS:
standsof milliliter), fill the cupto the 3 MLmark YELLOWCOLORED
withdistilled water.
Phenolphthalein
(#65)
UniversalIndicator (#70)
IMPORTANT:
After activation of the chemicals,
alwayskeepthe microplateflat on its base.Do
not storeit onedgeor onits side,as the chemicals
mayleak out over time. Besure to keep the
microplatein its pouchwhen
not using.
Review of Terms
Adding water to the chemical vial wells
Figure #5
Usingyourplastic pipettes, andyour measuringcupwithdistilled waterin it, drawup(suck
upinto the pipette)3 ML(threemilliliters) of
DISTILLEDWATER.
MICROPLATE
- A plastic plate containing a
seriesof smallandlargewells in whichchemicals are tested andreactions observed.The
wells are arrangedin numbered
columnsand
lettered rows.
PLASTIC
PIPE’FrE-A plastic one-piecedropper. Themicrotipendof the pipetteis usedto
deliversmalldropletsof liquids for reactions
in
the microplate.
SECTIONTHREE
Propertiesof the MicroChemistry
System
Areyoureadyto doyourfirst experiment?
It
MethyleneBlue DyeSolution
is a goodthing to knowhowyour equipment
Plastic pipette
worksbeforeyouuseit.
El Microplate
Youwill needthe following
materialsto com- El Goggles
pletethis experiment:
Labstationstand
DIRECTIONS
MATERIALS
(1) Place your microplateon a white piece
C3 Plastic measuring
cup
paper,or placewhitepaperunderthe microplate
El Water
77in yourlab station stand.
MEASURINGCUP
Oftensolid materialwill berequiredin your
experimentation.
In order to measure
out correct
amounts
of solid materials,youwill needto use
the plastic measuring
cup (seeFigure#3).
Thismeasuring
cupis providedin this chemistry section andis printed on the sides with
different lines andmeasurements.
There are
measures
in teaspoons,
andalso in fluid ounces.
Thereare measures
in cubic centimeters(cc)
and
in milliliters(,w~,’).
Always
keepthe plastic measuring
cupclean
anddry.
THE ANIMAL/INSECT INFORMATION
AND IDENTIFICATION CHARTS
Plastic Measuring
Cup
Youwill see that there are two separate
informationcharts. The(ires, c~,a~w~showyou
the animals
andinsectswhichit is safefor youto
collect. Thesecondchart will shoWyou the
animalsandinsectswhichyoushouldnot collect.
Figure#3
Always
usayourchartsandthe Information
on
themwhen
youbeginto capture
or havecapluredaninsector animal,YouCangeta good
Ideaof whatcreature
youhavecollected.If
youhavecaptureda creaturewhichis NOT
shown
onyourcharts,consulta textbook
or
reference
book
to Identifythecreature.
SECTION TWO
Preparingthe Chemical
Vial Well
BE sURETO WEARGOGGLES
WHENDOING
EXPERIMENTS
IN THIs CHEMISTRY
SECTIONI
All of thechemical
v_ial_w.
~_1_!
n/
~ in thischemist
sectionwhichwill produce
the chemical
solutions
youwill useare made
in a specialway.
Thesesg~ta’~’vial wells are actually the
large microplatewells in the "B" row of your
microplate.Eachof the chemical
wells is capped
with an "H" seal, andis labeled as to what
chemical
it contains.
Affixedto thetop of the vial well is the vial
sealingdisk. Lookclosely at the sealing disk.
Youwill observethat there is a sma~"H" shaped
cut in the top of the seal. Thisis the "H"septum
sealingdisk.
The"H"cut in the sealis a specialopening
for
the stemandtip of yourpipette. Try pushing
the
tip endof yourpipettethroughthe "H" cut in the
seal.Noticehowit operas
to a’,~ow~.~,ep~pe~e
to
enXetthe chemical
vial. Noticehowit closesback
upafter youtakethe PiPetteout.
Youmayhaveto usea pencil or bat) point
pen’spointto initially openandwidenthe"H"cuts
in the sealsso that your pipette caneasily be
insertedinto the vial well.
Thechemicalin eachvial well is either on
small~tri,n~of ~pq.c~,&~
pdp~ror assolidsin precisely measured
amounts.
When
a solvent is addedto the vial, the
chemicalsdissolveuponshakingthe microptate,
andformsthe chemicalsolution whichyouwi~)
use in your experiments.
"Thechemical’sname
is printed onthe label
onthe exterior portionof eachvial welt. Specia~
receptacles
are provided
in yourlab station stand
to holdthe microplateandits contents.
Eachchart featuresa small picture ot the
animal
or insectonthe left handSideof the chart.
If youfollow across~ndreadthe squareswhich
are onthe same
line with the picture, youwill see
thes_c._ie_n,
ti_fi_c~f_a._.m~ily
to which
thecreature
belongs
andnextto that, the_s~_i~n_~i_f.ic_9_rrJ~
to which
the
creature belongs. Scientists havenamedall
creaturesthis way.Youwill see the common
or
every-day
name
for the creatureright nextto the
picture.
ADDINGSOLVENT
Youare nowreadyto activateyour chemical
vial wellswitheither wateror alcohol.Besureto
follow the directionsexactlyso that Youwill put
the correctliquid into the correctchemical
vial.
Youwilt needto gatherthe followingmaterials to complete
this procedure:
MATERIALS
Observe
that someo!the chemical
vial wells
in your microplate have YELLOW
TOPS.
LJ Observe
that some
of the chemical
vial wells
in your microplate haveBLUE
TOPS.
;-J Twoplastic pipettes (medicinedroppers)
fromyour set
Oneplastic measuring
cup fromyour set
~harppointedpencil or ball ~oint
A,t,~oho~
- either isopr~py(atcoho~
(~ubbing
alcohol) or ethyl alcohol, fromyour /oca~
Pharmacy
or grocerystore.
Distilled water,fromyourlocal supermarket
or pharmacy.
TheHABI"TAI
t~oc~o~ ~,~o~mation
can give
youcluesto wherethis particular creaturemight
befound.
The OTHER
DATAblock will give you some
additional information andsometimes
cautions
aboutthe particular creature.
NOTE:In the top of each of the YELLOW
or
BLUE
caps
of thech~mi~’=l
,,.._ "~.,,..," ^"-¢,,ti~t~re
c~n
beseenan"H"shaped
letter. This"H"is the place
whereyouwill puncture,or make
a hole, in the
chemical
vial well. Youshouldusea pencil point
or a ball point pento breakthroughthis "H", and
the rebyopenupthe chemical
vial so that youmay
addliquid or take out %iquid.The"H" cut will
actually seal itself between
uses.For now,however, go aheadandproceedwith the stepsoutlined next.
Thesize in millimetersblocktells you the
rangein sizesof the creature.Youwill noticethat
somemeasurements
of somecreatures are small
numbers.This means
that the creature is very
smallin size. Thelarger numbers
in millimeters
meansthat somecreatures are muchbigger.
When
there are two numbers
with a (-) between
them,this indicatesthat youmightfind a creature
of this type ,~s small as, or as large as, the
numbersshown.
DIRECTIONS
(1) Usingthe point of a pencilor ball point Pen,
IMPORTANTNOTE: READTHESE
pokethroughthe plastic inner seal of all the
RECTIONS
~.~ F__~ADDING
ANY’LK~UII3
TOYOUR chemical
via~ wells whichhavethe small"H" cut
CHEMICALSt
onthe innerseals.
76
33
INSECT/ANIMAL INFORMATION CHART
|N~ECTS/ANIMALSWHICHARE SAFE TO COLLECT
Pictureof
Insect or Animal
Scientific
Scientific
FAMILYNameORDER Name
Acrididae
Orthoptera
GRASSHOPPER
Formicidae
ANT
Gryllidae
onplants
andgrass
in fields
in soil
Hymenopteraand
sanD’
Orthoptera
CRICKET
Chrysomelidae Coleoptera
BEETLE
Noctuidae
Usual
Habitat
Lepidopter~
MOTH
;on plants
andin
lawns and
fields
in helds
and
forests
Forficulidae
:lamages
;rops at
30-45 tara
~arvest
/me
~ ~,~6-.,~-
:ire ants
3.5-6.5mm
fangerouS
Dermaptera
~etation
eed on
3arkandis
generally
~armless
the air in the
bulb
Figure #2
28-50ram
)lncers
~avet30
~ting
10-15
2,~4".
BUTTERFLY
around
flowering
plants
Papilionidae Lepidoptera
.,ery
!ragile
Thepipette is made
of op_g~e_Eh~le_._n_e.
This
formof plastic is soft andis very d~ucti!e(stretchable),. Examineone of the pipettes provided in
your chemistry set. Youwill observe that is has
an enlarged area called a bulb, a long tubelike
section called a st_~_em_.Youmaywish to form a
microtip on one of your pipettes. This can be
doneby pulling the tubelike portion of the microtip
until it stretches into a thinner diameterand then
cutting the lowerportiort off with scissors, allowing only the very thin tip to be the endof the stem.
Lacertidae
Squamata
underrocks; .~ila
mmI
-sometimes
i ,~onsters, 60-120
izardsare ~~:~’"’~z3f~’l
in trees
LADYBUGBEETLE
foliage and oliage &
stemsot
plants
;plants
DRAGONFLY
eggsare
l around
laid onthe ¯ 2o-6o
ram
pondsand water
~. 2 ~3~.
lakes
surface
TRUEE~UG
cropfields,
orchards,
gardens
Aeschnidae
Odonata
Pentatomidae Hemiptera
34
Slowlyreleasebulb
anddrawliquid
upinto pipette
gently squeeze
bulb,
Figure #2b
10-150 mm
2~/64’. 5 29r32-’
~xcept f~r ~
LIZARD
~
;~4-25m~
~.~’.
SNAIL
Gastropoqa
PLASTIC PIPETTE
(medicine dropped
MicroChemistryusesa plastic pipette, such
as in Figure #2.
)lant material
~ Slug-like
moist areas
a~d,J,solt 2-25rnm
;and on
& sticky- & ~-.
i vegetation a hardshell
Mollusks
Theuseo,~ the pipette is just the sameas the
use of a conventional medicine dropper or eye
dropper.Whenthe tip is placed t~etowthe surface
of a liquid and the bulb is squeezedand then
released, the pipette will drawup liquid into the
bulb¯ The pipette can then be used to deliver
drops of liquid or chemicals to your microplate
~edson
:rumbs.
14-30mm
oodscraps,
in woodland=eedson
¯
andfields
attractedto :)lants
light
sandysoil
EARWIG
Other" Size
Data
These columnnumbersfor the large wells
appear at the base of the microplate near the
bottomedge. Thedeepwells are lettered as rows
A and B. TheB row (large wells) is used for your
chemicals, which will be USedin later experiments.Youcan identify individual large wells by
the samemethodyou identified the small wells,
~or example,
"L~r~ewet,~, A-~ or ~,areje v~,~, ~-?.".
Your microplate is kept and used in the special
lab station stand¯
all have
riangular
~ection
)n backs
2-5 mm
~. ¯
Figure #2a
Theplastic pipette will be usedto dispense
drops of chemicalliquids to the microplatewells
whereyour chemical reactions will take place.
75
Thepipette can be used over aga=hby simply rinsing the stem and bulb betweenchemicals.
Waterandchemicalsolutions do not "stick" to the
plastic inside the pipette the waythey might if the
pipette wasmadeof glass or rubber. -l’he plastic
surface of the pipette is non-wetting. This means
that allthe contents o~ the 9~getteca~ be ~’~sperusedwith noneof the chemicalleft behind.
The chemicals in your chemistry set will
most often be in solution. This meansthat the
chemical has beendissolved in water. Solutions
of chemicalsreact faster and moreevenly than if
the chemical werein the powderedo~’solJd form.
In fact, manyof the experiments which will be
donnein this manualwouldnot be Pqssible if the
chemicalswere not in solution. Yourpipettes are
kept in the receptaclesprovided in ~,our lab stalien stand.
PART THREE: THE MICROCHEMISTRYSYSTEM
Yourchemistry
set is different! It usesspeBy usingMicroChemistry
youwill be ableto
cial methods
in experimentalchemistry.These do moreexperiments,get better results in a
methodswere developedto makechemistry a
shorteramount
of timeandhavea saferenvironsafer science. TheMicroChemistry
Systemuses mentin whichto work.Yourworkin the laborasmaller amounts
of chemicalsthan nther chem- tory will bemore
efficient. Thatmeans
youwill be
istry sets. The hazardsof glass have been able to havemoretime to explorechemistryand
minimizedby the use of plastic labware.If a
havemorefun doingit!
chemical
reactionmustbe heated,hot waterwill
Youwill needthe followingmaterialsto comprovide the neededheat. Openflamesor burnplete this seriesof experiments.
ers are NEVER
usedin MicroChemistry.
SECTIONONE
Preparationof LaboratoryEquipment
BE SURETO WEARGOGGLES
WHEN
DOING
MATERIALS
EXPERIMENTS
IN THIS CHEMISTRY
SECTIONt
’3 TM)
Microplate(fromyourMega-Science-Lab
"3 Plastic pipettes(fromyourset)
.... F ;;- :"~-~--i: ~_~.........
"3 Measuring
cup (from your set)
"3 Distilled water(fromgrocery)
.r-I Rubbing
alcoholor isopropylalcohol (from
groceryor drugstore)
~,o~,,~/~- ,,-.~ ¢;. .
LI Goggles
r’3 LabStation stand(from your Mega-Science)TM
Lab
YOUR WORKSPACE
MicroChemistry
usestwo basic tools, The
_m{c_r_Qpl_a._t__e
andtheplastic
CHEMICAL
V~AL ~LLS
TM La~ralo~
The5-in-1Mega.Science-Lab
Station.wi~
ptpettes,
microplate,
chemical
vtalwellsandc~stal
gfowi~
cup.
Figure#1
THE MICROPLATE
in color, or any other changesin a
Thefirst is a plastic traycalleda microplate. Changes
to
This tray is very sturdy. Thetray has shallow reaction can be easily seenwhencompared
rowof the microplate
wells arranged
in orderof rows(runningacross) the control. Also,the bosom
containsthe variouschemicals
youwill be using
andcolumns
(runningup anddown).Thesewells
in your experiments.Thesechemicalsare perareusedinsteadof test tubes,flasks andbeakers manently
keptin this rowof large microwells.
(see Figure#la).
Thechemicals
suppliedin the Bwells of your
microplateare:
B-l: CobaltChloride
B-2: CalciumNitrate
IFIOOOOOOOoOo o o,ll
~-3. F~rousSulfate
B-4: Methylene
Blue
IlslOOC~oooooo o o o,
B-5: Phenolphthalein
B-6: Universalindicator
INSECT/ANIMAL
INFORMATION
CHART
INSECTS/ANIMALS WHICH YOU SHOULD NOTTRY TO COLLECT
Picture of
Insect or Animal
Apoidea
Vespoidea
WASP
l
ql Q O.qO:J
Figure #1a
Thetray is dividedinto twoparts. Eachhas
a series of rowsandcolumns.This makesthe
microplateveryorderly. It also makes
a groupof
experimentalchemicalreactions easyto compareto a control group.
74
trees&
Hymenoptera[ house
eaves
stingeron
endof
17-18
rnm
4~,,6~"
abdomen ~,,~".
12 mm
rotling
tree
trunks
very
destructive 6-9 mm
to wood ~t~-. 2~-
ponds
poisonous
& lakes
saliva
Rinotermitidae
Isoptera
Notonectide
Hemiptera
Arachnida
Araneae
Mantidea
Mantodea
Tipulidae
Diptera
Blattidae
Blattodea
Arachnida
Scorpionida
Arthropoda
Chilopoda
Muscidae
Diptera
can carry 15-22mm
everywhere:
diseases ~,~.-. ~r~-
Culicidae
Diptera
everywhere
PRAYING
MANTIS
CRANEFLY
COCKROAC~
SCORPION
CENTIPEDE
MOSQUITO
Size
stingeron
endof
abdomen
SPIDER
HOUSEFLY
Other
Data
Hymenopteraflowers
TERMITE
I101ooooooooo o o o011
Thereare 48smallwells, or depressions,
in
the microplate. Theseare numbered
as columns
#1 through#12. Theseare also lettered as rows
A, B, C, D. Duringtesting of reactions,youcan
identify individualreactionwellsby usingthe row
and column.For example,"Small well A-7 or
Smallwell C-10".
Thereare12 largewells, or depressions,
in
the microplate. Theselarge wells are located
directly downfromthe smallwell section. The
large wells are numbered
as columns
1,2, 3, 4,
5,6.
Usual
Habitat
BEE
II01ooooooooo
o o o~11
ii.loooooo,~
Scientific
Scientific
FAMILY Name ORDER Name
35
1-4
:~,~-.
some
widely
2- tOO
mm
distributed canbe
poisonous
fields&
gardens
feedson
other
insects
fields &
very
gardens
fragile
behind
kitchen Contacabinets
& minate
woodwork food
50 mm
, ~..:~.
1-22 mr~
;v~..~,~20-40mm
2.~3~"
-
under
stones
dangerous
houses,
barns,
gardens
nocturnal 25 mm
50 mm
~ 3~m"
can carry 3-4 mm
diseases
Theinsects in your charts are identified by their family andorder. TheOrdernamesare
Greekwordsthat describe the Orders’ unique characteristics:
Members
of the Order Odonata("tooth") have teeth on the mandiblesthat allow them
to chewtheir foods (Darner Dragonflies and BroadwingedDamselflies).
Members
of the OrderOrthoptera("straight wings") havefour wingsthat fold and lie
flat on the back (Grasshoppersand Cockroaches).
Members
of the Order Hemiptera("half wings") havefront wingsthat are thickenedand
leathery at the base,andmembranous
(thin) on the outside half of the wing (Stink Bugs
and Giant Water Bugs).
Members
of the Order NeuropteLa_("nerve wings") have four wings that are crossed
and divided by manyveins (Antlions and Lacewings).
Members
of the Order Coleoptera("sheath wings") have hardenedwings that cover the
moredelicate hind wingsused for flight (Ladybird Beetles andScarabs).
Members
of the Order Lepidoptera ("scaled wings") have wings with delicate scales
that brushoff like dust if handled(MonarchButterflies and Tiger Moths).
Members
of the OrderDiptera ("two wings") have only onepair of wings andcommonly
havethe word"fly" in the name(HouseFlies andFruit Flies).
Members
of the Order Hymenoptera_
("married wings") have two front wings that are
connected to the hind wings by tiny hooks (CuckooWaspsand BumbleBees).
Members
of the Order Homoptera("same wings") have membranous
wings that cover
muchof the upper body (Cicadas and Aphids).
THE NATURALIST’S CODE
Do not catch any more insects than
necessaryfor your studies.
Onceyou have finished, collect all of
your traps.
When
you are collecting leaves, try not
to break any branches.
Whenyou take creatures hometo observe them, make sure you can feed
them.
Neverhurt an insect or any other creature in any way.
Whenyou are in the countryside, always leave the area as unspoiled as
possible.
Always ask permission to enter pdvate
property.
36
Notes:
SAFETY
Nomatterwhatthe experiment,
equipment,
or procedure,
onething shouldbe the first to think
about:
SAFETY
Followthesesimplerules to insurethat yourinterest in chemistrywill not bestoppedby an
injury or sicknesscausedby mishandlingyour experiment.
SAFETY RULES
(1) NEVEREAT ANY CHEMICALOR THE PRODUCTS
OF YOUREXPERIMENT!
NEVEREAT FOODWHENYOU ARE EXPERIMENTING.
DO NOTDRINKANY LIQUID WHILEYOUARE EXPERIMENTING.
USE A CHEMICAL
(2) NEVERHANDLEA CHEMICALWITH YOURBARE HANDS.
SCOOP.FOLLOWDIRECTIONSON PAGE4 FORMAKINGA PLASTIC SCOOPTO
MEASURE
OUTSOLID CHEMICALS.
(3) DISPENSELIQUID CHEMICALSWITH CARE. USE ONLYDROPSOF CHEMICAL
FROMA SPECIALMEDICINEDROPPER
CALLEDA PIPE1-FE. THESEPLASTIC
PIPETTESARE PROVIDED
IN YOURCHEMISTRY
SET.
(4) USE CHEMISTRYSET EQUIPMENTFOR EXPERIMENTSIN YOURCHEMISTRY
LAB MANUALONLY.
(5) ALWAYSWORK
WITH GOGGLES,IN PLACE, OVERYOUREYES.
(6) YOUSHOULDWORKUNDERTHE SUPERVISION
OF AN ADULTAT ALL TIMES.
(7) IF THEREIS A SPILL OF ANY CHEMICAL,THE AREASHOULDBE CLEANED
THOROUGHLY.
MATERIALSUSEDTO CLEANTHE AREASHOULDBE DISPOSED
OF IN A SAFEMANNER.
TO COVERYOURWORKAREAWITH A PROTECTIVE
NEWSPA(8) IT IS IMPORTANT
PER, LAYEROF CLOTHOR PLASTIC.
WHICHIS ENVIRONMENTALLY
(9) DISPOSEOF USEDCHEMICALSIN A MANNER
SAFE. TALK TO YOURPARENTSOR SCHOOLSCIENCETEACHERABOUTTHE
BEST WAYTO DISPOSEOF CHEMICALS.
Notes:
73
(6) IF THERE
IS A SPILL OFANYCHEMICAL,
Whileit is fitting that yourchild learnssome
THE AREA SHOULDBE CLEANEDTHORideas
andprinciples aboutchemistrywhile exOUGHLY.
perimenting
with his/her newset, it is important
(7) WASTECHEMICALSFROM EXPERIthat he/shehavefun while exploringanddiscovMENTSAND MATERIALSUSED TO CLEAN
havebeenprovidedto help the
AN AREAOF SPILL OR ACCIDENTSHOULD ering! Questions
"home
in" onthe principlesof chemBE DISPOSED
OF IN AN ENVIRONMENTALLYexperimenter
SAFE MANNER.
istry. Some
answers
are givenright in the experiment,
while
other
answerscan be foundin the
(8) IT IS IMPORTANT
TO COVER
CLOTHING
WITH A PROTECTIVELAYER OF CLOTH,
Appendix
at the endof the section.
PLASTIC OR RUBBER.YOUNGSCIENTISTS
It is hoped
that by providing
interestingquesSHOULD
OBTAINAN APRON(LIKE A WORKtions
along
with
the
experiments,
the young
chemSHOPAPRON)AND WEARIT WHILE THEY
WORK
WITHTHEIRCHEMISTRY
SET, A PROist will developa basicknowledge
of chemistry
TECTIVEPIECEOF PLASTICSHEETSHOULD alongwith the workings
of chemistry.
BE USEDUNDERTHE WORKAREATO PROTECT THE SURFACETHEY ARE WORKING
ON.
WEATHER
PART ONE: OVERVIEW AND RATIONALE
Haveyou ever gotten readyto go to schoolandhadsomeone
say "Takeyour raincoat. It looks
like it’s goingto rain. "? Thatperson
waspredictingthe weather
for yourbenefit-- to keepyoudry and
healthy. Thereareagreatmanypeopleandorganizationsthatneedtoknowabouttomorrow’sweather:
farmers,airlines, commodity
brokers,fishermen,anyone
planninga picnic or a skiing vacation.So,
predictingthe weather,called weather~_r~_~.~n~,
is extremelyimportant.
Informationaboutthe weather
is availableto everyone
andis literally at ourfinger tips. Radioand
television weatherreports describelocal andnational conditionsandprovideinformationaboutthe
comingweek.
Virtually all of the weatherinformationwereceiveis providedby the NationalWeather
Service.
Agenciesmaintaina worldwideinformation gatheringnetworksupportedby sh~ps,airplanes, radar
stations, vast computer
systems,andsatellites (see Figures# 1 and#2).
Editorial Note:Importantnewwordsare underlinedthe first time theyare introduced.Definitions
of newwordsare in the Glossary
or in the texl.
PART TWO: A WORDTO THE "CHEMIST"
Youlive in anexcitingworld.It is a worldfull
of the latest in technology
(the useof scientific
principlesin everydaylife) andinvention.Many
of the thingsin today’sworldwereneverconsidered to be possible a few years ago. Theadvancements
in technologycould only be possible
by advancement
in the basic sciences. For
example,
scientistsfoundthat by treatingsilicon
waferswith certainchemicals
that the electrical
conductingability of the silicon wafers was
changed
in certain ways.This discoveryopened
up a wholeworldof "electronicmicrochips"which
helped in the developmentof computersand
other electronicdevices.
Yourchemistryset is an excellentstarting
point to advance
yourskills as a scientist.
Thewodd
of scienceis a worldof questions.
Whileyouare workingon yourexperiments
in this
manual,
a seriesof questions
will helpyouunderstandthe howsandwhysof whatyou are seein0.
Th~
~,,~.’.’.’c Pc*,c, 3~,,,,uquestions
will begiven
right after the questions
in the experiments.
The
answers
to other questionswill begiven in the
Appendix
at the endof the section.
Theworldof scienceis the worldof observation. Scientific observationmeans
that the experimenter
looksfor andwrites down
(records)all
the changes
whichhappen
to the subject of the
expedmant
that can be seen. If the experiment
can assigna number
or an amount,or howmuch
of a change,then a quantitative measurement
maybe recorded. Anexampleof this wouldbe
recordingyour weightby steppingon the bathroomscale andrecording, day by day, changes
in yourweight.
72
Everythingthat scientists do depends
on
their ability to makecareful observationsand
measurements
with the subject of their experiments.
An~_~p_e~_m_ent
is a carefullycontrolled
set
of situationsappliedto the subject.Thisallowsa
scientist to seewhateffects a change
in a single
variablewill haveonthe rest of the experiment.
A
variableis a single part of the experiment.
Suppose,for example,the subject of our
experiment
wereplantsandthe effect of a change
importantto a plant. Wewouldstart with twosets
of plants. Thetwo sets of plants haveto be
identical to eachother. Theymustbeof the same
species, size, age, etc. Oneset wouldbe a
£,,g_n_tr_EoJ,
or standard.
Thecontrolset would
be
compared
with an experimenta~
group. Thecontrol plants wouldbe treatedas wewouldalways
treat e plant. Anexperimental
set of plantswould
havethe sametreatmentas the control, except
for onep~rt. T,",;.~ ;0 ii~u v~,~l~.In ourexperiment,let’s select temperature
as the variable.
In the experiment,
the controlandthe experimentalplantswouldhavethe identical soil, receive the sameamountof water, andhavethe
samelighting. Thetemperature
of the air surroundingthe experimental
plants, however,
would
be different thanthe control plants. Bymaking
carefulobservations,
the scientist wouldbeable
to seewhateffect temperature
hasonthe growth
of plantsby comparing
the experimental
plantsto
the controlplants.
In this sectionyouwill alwaysbeaskedto
comparean experimental group to a control
group,or subject.
GOESI-M
SPACECRAFT
Froma figu~ by
FOKIAerospace
AdvancedTIROS-N(ATN)
NOAA
- PolarOrbiting Satellite
Figure#1
Oneof the mostimpodant
weathersatellites
in use today is called GOES,
whichstandsfor
"GecstationaryOperationalEnvironmental
Satellite’. Thesesatellites providea great dealof
information aboutthe surface of the earth and
sea, and about the earth’s atmosphere.They
gather pictures andother informationandsend
themto groundstations for useby weatherforecasters. TheGOES
satellites are in "geostationary" or "geosynchronous"
orbit, whichmeans
that
they moveat approximatelythe samespeedas
the earth moves
andwouldlook as if they are
remainingat onepoint abovethe earth if they
could be seenfromthe ground.
Eachsatellite hastwomajorinstrumentson
it. Oneinstrument
is calledthe Ima_oer.
It sends
Figure #2
backimages,or pictures, whichprovideinformation on clouds, watervaporin the atmosphere,
fires, smoke,wind,andtemperature.
Theother instrumentis called the Sounder.
It sendsbackinformation"ontemperatures
in the
atmosphere
andon the land andsea surface. It
also transmits data on ozoneandcloudsandon
watervaporin different layersof the atmosphere.
Theinformationfromboth of theseinstrumentshelps weatherforecasterspredict severe
stormsandother types of weathermoreaccurately than ever before. Thesemoreprecise
predictionswill helppeopleget out of the wayof
dangerous
weather- saving lives andreducing
the amountof property damage
causedby severeweather.Weatherstations all aroundthe
UnitedStatesandin othercountriesuseinformation from GOES.
Thesesatellites are owned
andoperatedby
the NationalOceanicandAtmospheric
Administration (NOAA).NOAA
transfers funds to the
Nationa~AeronauticsandSpaceAdministration
~NASA),
whichmanagesthe
building andlaunching of eachspacecraft.
GOES
satellites are also usedto helplocate
people whoare lost and who have emergency
transmitters. SearchandRescue
Satellite Aided
Tracking (SARSAT)
is a worldwiderescuesystemthat usesGOES
to immediatelyreceive and
relay a distress signal 24 hoursa day. Search
andrescue-equipped
satellites in polarorbit give
preciselocationsbut arenot always
in rangeof a
distress signal. Together, GOES
andSARSATequipped
satellites increasethe probabilityof a
prom~)t,successfulrescuemission.
NOAA
also operatestwo polar-orbiting satellites whichgatherinformationworld-widefor
normalweathercoverage(see Figure #2).
Theycircle the globein a north-soulh
orbit,
passingover both the North andSouthPoles,
Onecrossesthe equatorin the morningandthe
other in the afternoon. Theycircle in a Sunsynchronous
orbit of approximately
810-850
kilometers(503-527miles), andeachobservesthe
entire earth twice a day. Because
they are Sunsynchronous,
thesesatellites circle the earthso
that theycrossthe equator
at the same
timedaily.
Themorning
satellite crossessouthward
overthe
equatorat 7:30 a.m.andthe afternoonsatellite
crossesnorthwardat about2:30 p.m. Operating
togetheras a pair, thesesatellites assurethal
measurements
for anyregionof the earth are no
morethansix hoursold.
Thesepolar orbiters providevisible andinfrared radiometer
data that are usedfor imaging
purposes,radiation measurements,
andvertical
temperature
profiles, andcanhelpcalculatewater vaporcontentat severalatmospheric
levels.
They send some16,000 global measurements
daily to NOAA’s
Weather,Service computers,
addingvaluableinformationto forecastingmodels, especially for remoteoceanareas, where
conventional
data are lacking.
THE VALUEOF WEATHER
SATELLITES
Thevalueof weather
satellites to savelives
hasbeenknown
fromthe beginning.Their ability
to track stormsandpermit early warningshas
beentheir greatestcontribution.However,
their
benefits do not endwith observingthe tops of
cloudsandstorm systems.
38
NOAA
Polar Orbiting Satellites
N
MICROCHEMtSTRY
Gilmore
Creek,
Alaska~~K’ ,,~. (st,nd, Wallops
530 ~i;
Stat,ons
~ Per Orbit
S
OrbitPlane
RotatesEastward
1= PerDay
...........................................
F~gure#3
Satellites canpinpointdifferent temperature
boundariesin oceansurface areas and give
commercial
fishermenvital clues to the whereaboutsof commercial
fish suchas tuna, herring,
and swordfish. Theycan provide early frost
warnings,
whichcansavemillionsof dollarsa day
for citrus growers
whomustthenheattheir groves.
In Hawaii, rain warningsare provided,giving
crucial information for sugarcane
harvesting.
Satellites also play a role in forest management
andfire control.
NOAA’s
polar-orbi’~ng satellites observe
snowandice meltingconditions,enablingwater
supply managers
to plan irrigation andflood
control. Thisis especiallyimportant
to the multibillion dollar agriculturaleconomies
of our western states, wheremountainrunoff providesan
estimated70percentof the watersupply.Satellite ice monitoringhelps extendthe shipping
season
onthe GreatLakesinto the wintermonths,
generatingextra economic
activity for middle
Americaand neighboringCanadian
provinces.
SEVERESTORMSUPPORT
Geostationary
satel/ite~ continuouslywatch
atmosphericconditions that breedtornadoes,
squall lines, andother severestorms.The"triggers" for sucheventsoften can be detectedby
satellites beforethe actualstormsdevelop.When
theydodevelop,the satellites monitorstormlife
cycles, andtrack movements.
Thevalue of this
information
is increasingsteadilyas newapplications andsmallinteractive computer
systems
are
developed
from the partnershipof government,
industry, andour highschoolsanduniversities.
PART ONE: A WORDTO PARENTS
Thislaborator~manual
is preparedwith one
main concern: SAFETY!
In recent yearsthe ecological andhealth
scienceshavestated that exposureto certain
chemicals,
either in work,school,or at home,
can
causeserious health problems.Yet your young
scientists needthe "handson" experience,the
thrill of experimentation,
andthe satisfactionof
discoverywhichis possibleonly throughlabs.
The MicroChemistry approach has been
adopted
by high schoolsandcollegesthroughout
the UnitedStates. Theuse of small amounts
of
chemicals
to investigatethe workings
e~ chemis.try in no waylessensthe excitement
of experimentation.Yet, this approach
reducesthe possibility of exposure
of the experimenter
to harm
from chemicalsnecessaryfor the experiment
itself.
This is not to say that ALLCHEMICALS
and
CHEMICAL
PROCESSES
in the MicroChemistry
approach
are absolutelysafe.
Some
of the experiments
in this manual
are:
QUANTITATIVE
This means
that youngchemistswill be able
to tell, for example,
howmuch
starchthereis in a
sampleof food.
Prior to the MicroChemistry
approach,quantitative experiments
by youngscientists werenot
possible.
EventhoughMicroChemistryis safer than
the chemistrywhichrequiresmorematerial,it is
importantthat parentsrealize that youngscientists are still handlingsome
potentially harmful
materials.
Thesafest wayto handleanychemicalis to
treatit asif it were
ALL CHEMICALSAND PROCEDURES
HAVE
A POTENTIALTO CAUSEHARM.
Followthesesimplerules to insure that an
interest in chemistrywill not be stoppedby an
injury or sicknesscausedby mishandlingthe
experiment.
Safety Rules
MicroChemistry
lessensthat possibility by
reducing,considerably,the amountof materials (1)
NEVERALLOWA CHILD TO EAT ANY
used.By using plasticwareandminimalamounts CHEMICALOR THE PRODUCTSOF THEIR
of glassware,by eliminatingthe useof fire or
EXPERtMENTt
burnersandrestricting the useof heat, anaddiNEVER ALLOW THEM TO EAT FOOD
tional safety factor is prey(deal.MicroChemistry WHENTHEYAREEXPERIMENTING.
DO NO-I
equipment
is safe andeasyto use.
ALLOWANY LIQUID TO BE DRUNKWHILE
Fromthe scientific viewpoint,for the first
EXPERIMENTATION
IS BEING CONDUCTED.
time in any chemistryset, your youngexperimenterswill beable to tell howmuchof a sub- (2) CAUTION
A CHILDNEVERTO HANDLE
CHEMICAL
WITHTHEIR BAREHANDS.USEA
stancereactsor is presentratherthanonly lookSCOOPOR FOLLOWDIRECTIONSFOR MAKing at generalproperties.
ING A PLASTIC SCOOPTO MEASURE
OUT
Editorial Note: Important newwordsare
underlinedthe first time they are introduced. SOLID CHEMICALS.
Definitionsof newwordsare in the Glossary
or in
(3) LIQUID CHEMICALS
AREALWAYS
DISthe text.
PENSEDWITHA SPECIALPIPE’fq-E. USE
ONLYDROPSOF CHEMICALFROMTHIS PI
Some
of the e~periments
in this manualare:
~
PETTE. DONOTUSETHIS PIPETTEOR AN
OTHER
EQUIPMENT
IN THIS SETFOROTHEI:
QUALITATIVE
PURPOSES!
Thismear~s
that if a test is donethe young
scientistswill, for example,
beableto tell ff starch
is present
in a food.
71
(4) ALWAYSWORKWITH GOGGLES.
(5) CHILDRENSHOULDWORKUNDER
SUPERVISION
OF AN ADULTAT ALL TIME~
mixturesof ash, pumice,androck with a wide
rangeof padiclesizes(seeFigure#10).
¯ elsmogreph:
an instrumentthat recordsearthquakewaves.Motionof the groundis detected
by a seismometer,
either attachedto the seismographor far away. Theearthquakewavesare
recordedas a set of wigglylines onpaperor on
a computerscreen.
selsmometer:
an instrumentthat detectsground
motionscausedby earthquakes.Modernseismometers
detect motionsin three separatedirections, onevertical andtwohorizontal.
shieldvolcano:broad,gently slopedvolcanoes
- named
for their resemblance
to a warrior’s
shield - are formedby repeated
eruptionsof very
fluid, non-viscous
lava, whichcanflow far from
the vent (see Figure#6d).
silica: the chemicalcomponent
silicon dioxide
(SiO2)is the majorcomponent
of mostvolcanic
rockson eadh,rangingfromless than40 percent
by weightto morethan 75percentby weight.The
amount
of silica in a volcanicrockis oneof the
parameters
usedin assigningit a name,suchas
basaltor andesite.
spreadingridge: mountainranges on the sea
floor where
earth’s tectonicplatesare spreading
apart andgrowingby symmetricaladditions of
newigneousrockson bothsides. It is estimated
that 75pement
of the magma
that reachesearth’s
surfaceerupts at spreadingridges (see Figure
#2).
stratosphere:
the secor~tlowestportionof earth’s
atmosphere.
At the baseof the atmosphere
is the
troposphere,whereall weathertakes place. The
tropospherevaries in thicknesswith latitude,
from- 9 kilometersnearthe polesto 16 kilometers (9.9 miles)at the equator.Above
it is the
stratosphere,
a regionof dry, thin, cold, clearair
that is 32 kilometers(19.8 miles) thick. Tt~e
stratosphere
includesearth’sozonelayer, at 1948kilometers(11.8-29.8miles). Theozonelayer
blocks the sun’s ultraviolet rays, whichwould
otherwise
m."-kc;;f~ u, our planetimpossible.
strato volcano:steep-sidedconical volcanoes
that growfromthe repeatederuptionof viscous
magma.
Explosive eruptions of gas-rich magmasproducelayers of pumiceand ash. Eruptions of gas-poormagmas
sendout short, thick
flows of blocklava. Oneafter anotherthesetwo
processes
build the cone(see Figure #6c).
subductlon
zone:an arcuatezoneonEarth’s
surface whereonetectonic plate descends
beneathanotherandis resorbedinto the mantle.
Theseare sites of abundant
large earthquakes
andbelts of explosivevolcanoes
(seeFigure#2).
tectonic plate: on~of the approximately20
independently
movino~
segments
of earth’s outer
shell. Theyincludethe crust andthe upperrigid
portion of the mantle.Thesetwolayersformthe
lithosphere, or "rocky sphere*(see Figure#2)
andhavea thicknessof 100-200kilometers(62124miles). Tectonicplates are formedat oceanic spreadingridges andconsumed
at subduction zones.Theymoveatop a flowing layer of
solid mantlerock belowcalled the asthenosphere(see Figure#2).
tiltmeter: an instrumentthat can detect tiny
changesin the slope of the ground. With a
network
of tiltmeters installed arounda volcano,
geophysicists
canmonitorinflation anddeflation
ofthe cone.Suchmotionscanbe associatedwith
the movement
of magma
underground.
vent:a crater or fissure at the earth’s surface
throughwhichmagma,
steam,andold rock fragmentscan erupt.
viscosity:a physicalpropertyof liquids that
measureshowrigid they are. Waterhas low
viscosity, whereas
hot tar is veryviscous.Magmassimilarly showa rangeof viscosities that
affect the waytheyerupt.
volatiles: gaseouschemicalcomponents,
such
as steam,carbondioxide, hydr~ens~ffide, and
sulfur dioxide. Thesecan dissolve in molten
silicate liquids underhigh pressure,but at low
pressuretheyconvertto gas.Rapidexpansion
of
this gasdrivesexplosiveeruptions.
volcanic-hazards
map:a mapthat indicates
areasthat are likely to beaffectedby various
volcanicevents(lava flows, pyroclasticflows,
pyroclasticfalls, mudflows,
etc.) duringfuture
eruptions.
vo!c=n.~;og;~i,a sc=ent=stwhostudies volcanoes,volcanicrocks, or volcanicprocesses.
volume:
Herethis termrefers to the quantityof
magma
erupted,measured
in units of cubic kilometers(kinz) (.239 milesZ):a giganticcubemeasuring1 kilometer(.621miles)ona side.
7O
PART TWO: WHAT IS WEATHER?
The earth is surroundedby a layer of gas - the atmosDher~.
Extendingfrom the surface
of our planet out into spacesome600 kilometers (3 7~ miles), most of the atmosphere’smass
andall of whatwecall weatheroccurs in the lowest 15 kilometers (9.3 miles).
Whenwe talk about weather, we are really discussing the properties of our atmosphere
that are constantly changing:wind speedanddirection, air pressure, air temperature,re~ative
humidity, precipitation, and cloud formations. All of these can be observedand measured,
andtogether they give us data that is usedto predict future weatherconditions (see Figure
#4). Peoplewhodo this job are called meteorologists.
Figure #4
PROCEDURE
#1
HomeMeteorology
Youmightthink that only trained, professional
meteorologists,usingvery advanced
instruments
andeeuiprn~n~czn .cluny wud=i~er.Not true!
Anyone
with curiosity, patience,andsomebasic
equipmentcan do the job. Start by assembling
andinstalling the mini-weather
station provided
TM (see Figure #5).
in your Mega-Science-Lab
DIRECTIONS
(1) Locatea placeoutdoorswhere
the unit can
installed. Lookfor somewhere
that is far fromany
windobstructions(like a building, big trees, or
denseshrubbery). Themini-weatherstation is
mountedwith screws, so you needsomething
like a postor fencerail uponwhichto mount
your
weatherstation.
(2) Mountthe swivel(part 6) with the twoscrews
(part 9). Install withthe helpof anadult.Forbest
results,it should
not betilted.
39
PA~T 7
PART2
/SWWEL CAP
RAIN GAUP~F
PART 5
\"
!~..
~~,TOTAI" RAIN~..INDICATOR
8.."
COMPASS__~"~
ROSE BASE
I
v~ .....
~i
~T
9
Figure #5
,~ ....
PART4
~"
WIND
J VELOCITY
Figare6 is an actualphotograph
qf the weatheraverthe middle~lndeas’ternUnitedStates. This photowax
takenfroma GOES-8
Weather
Satellite, andthe irax~gexweretran,~’mitted
to Weather
Servicereceiving
onthe earth.Thispartlcular.vatellile
appeared
a~vfewedfr~m_t ff, OOO
km(21, 735 miles)alo~.Thedifferent
shadesof black,white,andgra),arethe resultof ~erentte~ttper~ttures.
Generall.v
highcloud.¢,whicharevet3.,
cold, arewhite.Middlecloud.rarea bit warmer
andare ligh¢ gt’ay.Lowcloud.~"aredarkgray,Theearth~"
surfaceis blackbet~auJe
it i.r warme,~t
Icompared
to the air aboveit).
Figure #6
(3) Assemble
the following parts on the body
DIRECTIONS
(part 1): rain gauge
(part 2); thermometer
(part
RECORDINGDATA
windvelocity indicator (part 4); andtotal rain
TimeandDate. Eachobservation.
indicator(part 5).
SkyConditions.Wasit sunny,ctoudy,overcast,
etc.?
(4) Placethe swivel compass
rose (part B), the
assembly
from step 4 above,andthe swivel cap CloudType.Whatdirection werethey moving?
Fast?
(part 7) onthe swivel.
Background Temperature.
That’s a
meteorologist’swayof sayingair temperature.
(5) Usinga compass
as a guide, position the
Dothis morning
andnight, andyouwill beableto
swivelcompass
rose ona north-southline. "(’he
calculatethe average
temperature
for the day.
compass
rose on the baseof your weatherstaWindDirection. Checkthe readingof the comtion will remainstationaryandthe windwill turn
station and
the upperpart of the weatherstation to indicate passroseat the baseof yourweather
the direction the wind is comingfrom. Wind whichwaythe "vane"is pointedas blownby the
wind.
speedcan be determinedby the wind velocity
WindSpeed
Velocity. Howfast the windis blow"arm"on your weatherstation.
ing.
AtmosphericPressure.This can be determined
Next,youwill needa weather
Io9, a recordof all
reports.
conditionsthat you are able to observeand/or by listening to weather
measure.
A sampleweatherlog is provided(see Humidity.Did the air feel dry? Damp?
Figure #7). Youcan keepsuch a log in your
sciencenotebook.
eruptive
urtit: the deposits
left by a single eruption. Geologists mapthese in the field and
distinguishoneunit fromanother.
floodbasaltplateau:
giganticflowsof fluid, nonviscouslava erupt fromswarms
of fissures and
spreadover vast areas.Repeated
eruptionsover
geologicallyshortperiodsof t{mebuild up thick
lava plateauswith verygentleslopes(seeFigure
#~f).
forecast:an eruption forecast is a statement
aboutfutureeruptiveactivity that is lessspecific
thanan eruptionprediction. Typicallyforecasts
are based
onrecordsof pasteruptiveactivity and
concerneventsthat are months
to decades
in the
future. Asvoicanologists
continuetheir research
efforts, erup(ionforecastsmaybecome
increasingly specific andevolveinto predictions.
geophysicist:
a scientist whoapp}}esprinciples
of physicsto geo(ogica~
problems.
Geophysicists
measure
earthquakewaves,gravity, magnetics,
andelectrical currents,am<ang
otherparameters.
geothetmah
refers to earth’s inner heat. Geothermalareasare usually (ocatedin regionsof
youngvolcanoes,whereheat from cooling magmascaneasily reachthe surface,
glass:naturalvolcanicglassis the ((quid part
a magma
(molten rock) that has beenquickly
"frozen" (cooledandsolidified), if magmas
cool
mores~owiy, they havetime to growcrystals
insteadof formingglass.
harmonic
tremor:a continuous,rhythmictype
of earthquake wavecaused by magmamovementunderground.Harmonictremor can be an
importantwarning
sign of aneruptionin the near
future.
hotspot:a relatively stationaryplume
of hot solid
rock that rises fromdeepin the earth. Partial
meltingabovehot spotsbuilds volcanoes,which
are carriedawayby tile moving
tectonicplatesat
earth’s surface.Thisconveyor-belt
processforms
linear volcanic chainscalled "hot-spot chains"
(seeFigure#2).
lava: magma
that erupts non-explosively and
flows as a liquid. Rocksformedwhenthe flowing
liquid solidifies arealsocalledlava. Consult
this
glossary
for definitionsof differentlavatypes:as,
block, pillow, andpahoehoe.
lava dome:a thick mound
of viscous, gas-poor
lava that piles uparounda vent like toothpaste
squeezed
from a tube (see Figure
magma:
moltenrock belowground.It consists of
crystals andgas bubblessuspended
in a liquid
portion.
mantle:
the silicate portionof the earththat lies
between
the crust andthe core.
69
monitoring:to otaserveand measure
something
that changes
over time.
mudflow:a dense mixture of water and rock
fragmentsthat flows rapidly downstreamchannels with the consistencyof wet concrete.The
enormousenergy of mudflowscan carry them
tensof kilometersacrossflat landsat the foot of
a volcanobefore they cometo rest. Theseare
very destructive phenomena
that can crush
bridgesandbury towns.
pahoehoe
lava: (pa-HOY-hoy)
a type of fluid,
nor~-viscous
lava with a smooth
to twisted, ropey
surface.Asthe fluid lavaoozesdownhill,its skin
co~{s,solidifies, andwrinkles,whileits molten
interior continuesmoving(see Figure#12).
pillow lava: a typeof lava that resembles
a stack
of pillows. Thesepillows develop whenhot
magma
erupts into cold water andoozesforward
as a series of bulbous masseswhosecrusts
immediately
freezeto glass(see Figure#11).
plagioclase:
a silicate material containingsodium,calcium, andaluminum.
plate tectonics:see tectonic plate andFigure
#2.
prediction:
an eruptionpredictionis a detailed
statementabout eruptive activity in the near
future, just hoursto a fewweeks
away.A prediction shouldspecifythe timeof the eruption,the
locationof the eruptiveventonthe volcano,the
eruptionstyle (explosiveor non-explosive),
and
its size. Lessprecise statementsabout future
eruptiveactivity arecalled forecasts.
pumice:an inflated volcanic fragmentwith a
sponge-liketexture. Innumerable
holes are surroundedby thin films of glass and embedded
crystals. Theterm pumiceis usually usedfor
white-grayfragments(silica-rich) that can
brokenby hand.Cinderis usedfor darker, m~re
sturdyfragments
(silica-poor)with similar spongelike textures.
pyro¢last:greekfor "fire broken."Describesa
fragmentof any size producedby an explosive
volcanic eruption, including ash, andpumiceas
well as larger blocks andbombs.
pyroclasticfail: e×plosivevolcanic eruptions
generateclouds of hot gas, ash, andpumice.
This termdescribesthe processof thesesotid
particles tailing to the ground,wheretheyform
"p’jroclastic-fall deposits"
of .oumice
or ashwitha
restrictedrangeof particle sizes(seeFigure#8).
pyroclssticflow: in someexplosiveeruptions,
hot cloudsof gas,ash, andpumiceflow alongthe
groundat highvelocities like anavalanche.
These
are among
the most destructive volcanic phenomena.Whenthese clouds cometo rest they
produce"pyroclastic-flowdeposits",chaotio
Volc,~noWorld
h tip : //volcan o. ur~d.
nodak,
edu/
This is a site devotedto educatingschool
children andvisitors to U.S. Nationalpa~sand
Monuments
aboutvolcanoes.It is run out of the
University of NorthDakotaandfundedby NASA.
VolcanoWorldincludes modern
andnear realtime volcanoinfor~nation,with extensiveuseof
remote-sensingi~agery Undertheir section
LearningAboutVolcanoes
are the topics: As~a
Votcanolog;,st,an~VolcanoFacts.
Particular emphasis
is placecl on volcanohazardsmitigation, remote-sensir~g
_ of volcanoes
anderuptionclouds,andhistorical eruptionsof
Guatemalan
volcanoes.It also includes a geographiclist of individualvolcano
pages
with eruption reports.
Ol~Bon
8~
P~um
U.S. GeologicalSurvey:
CascadeeVolcanoobservatory
hV~p:llvulcan.wr.usgs.gov/home.html
TheCascades
VolcanoObServatory
is foCusedon the eruptive history an~1hazardsof
MichiganTechnolocjical
active volcanoesin the Cascade
Range,which
Univer.~ity HomeP~ge
runs fromnorthernCalifornia, through Oregon
htfp:/IwWw.geo.mt~.edu/volcanoesl
and Washington,and into British Columbia
Thissite contair~slots of volcano
information (~anada).
Thissite providesa wealthof information aboutthesevolcanoes
as well a~ exce~ent
andimagesabout recent andon-goingeruptive
generalinformationaboutvolcanicfeaturesand
activity.
Phenomena,
volcanic hazards,andVOlcano
monitoring techniques.
aa lava: (ah-ah) a form of lava, common
on
Hawaii,with a roughsurfaceandspiny protrusions (see Figure
ash:the smallestsoliq particles produced
by an
explosiveeruption,definedas tess than 2 5 m
timeters (3/32 inches} across. Ash particles
include glass andcrY~tals from newlyerupted
magma
as well as ejected fragmentsof older
rocks.
blocklava: a type of lava, commonly
eruptedin
subduction zones, that movesas a iumble
separateblocksr=~r~g~.r~
frompebbles
up to the
size of smallhouses~S~e
Figure# 13).
caldera:a circular to Oval.shaped
depression,
across, tormeY P~eof a pre-existing vol~no or vol~nic terrain ,--- =
#19and#20). Hapioeruhtion of magma
empties
an underground
cavil, ;ht~wS~ch
ihe land surrace collapses.
cinder: an inflated volcanic fragmentwith a
s~nge-like tenure. Innu~erabl
e holes are surrounded ~::2ilc:;:~i
glass and embedded
c~stals.
~ ~sua~used~o~
g V
~ "’ "
ragments
that cannot
be broken by hand
’ Pumtce"s usedfor lightercoto~(silica-dch) fragments ~th simit~ ~
~i~ te~res, that can ~ b~.okenby hand.
tinder tone=thesesmall Volcanoes
are conical
~iles of cinderthat a~umulat
a vent
e around
~a~mles
fall from an e~ptl~ncloud(see F~um
~).
core:the central portion of the earth, made
of
met~}liciron. It begins
beneath
the silicate mantle
at a depth of 2,885 kilometers(1,7~1 miles)
belowthe surface.Theouter corei.s. liquid and
extehdsto 5,145kilometers(3,195mde,~).There
the ~olid iron innercorebeginsandreachesto
the
centerot the earthat 6,370kilometers.
crater:a circular to oval-shaped
depre,~ion
at a
v°lC~no,generally~essthan 1 kilometer(.621
mile~} across.Craters(ormar~’~ ~r~ eruptive
,~en’~~yaccumulation
of materialor by s~.plosive
removal
of material.
crust:the outermostlayer of the earth, ~ying
abovethe mantle.Continentalcrust
canr~ach70
kilometers(43.4miles)thick, oceaniccr~stis
to 10Itilometers(6.2 miles)thick. Rock~
of the
crust a~eless dense
thanthoseof the mantle,and
thusthe cr,,~t "floct,~"or, ;;,u ~ui~0
mantle,
density:
a
physical
prope~
of
a
ma.teri~l
cube,1 centimeter(25/64incheS)ona sidethat
. Ifa
indicates its massper unit volume.~ma~ine
filled wi.~hwater, it wouldweigh1 grambemuse
wa!e.r h~sa dens~,ty
ol 1 gram
~,03..6ounce~)
per
cuo~cC~ntimater
(25/64 inches), n yousa~md
rock int~ a cubethe samesize # would~/eigh
about 2.7 grams(.09 ounces), becausehlost
common
rocks havedensities of about2.7 gr.am
s
(.09 oun(;es)percubiccentimeter.
dormant:
sleeping;a dormant
vo.lcanoi~ one
that is nc~tpresentlyeruptingbut =s cons~o~red
likely to do soin the future.
p~l~mUon
p~l~tlon
I
¢~
I
Figur~#7
samplewe~the
r (og
Relative Humidity.This is anotherweatherretweenCelsiusandFahrenheitte~beraturereadlated calculationWhichis oftenreportedonTVor
ings, anda total rainfall recordingdevicewhich
Wilt keep
trackof upto 50cm.(20")~f rainfall even
radioweather
reports.Air at anytempbrature
will
only hold just so ~nuchmoistureandno more. though
youractualrainfall tubewill ~nly
Relative humidityis simply a "percentage
num- 10cm(4 inches)of rainfall at onetime.
ber" which compare
Youhaveheardof "wind chill, in weather
s the amountof moisture
whichis heldin the air "relative" to the maximum ~rogramson TV or radiO. Youcah nowpredict
at
a particular
temperature
When
airin becomes
’ be
amount
of moisture
whichcould
held
the air
Yourown"windchill" factor b~. s~m~
no~m_
~ the
~ee~o~ the w~ndandthe readingof the temperahotter it can hold ~ore mo~,sture.When
air is
t~re. Findthe placeonthe "windchil~,, cha~which
colder it can hol~ less moisture. Whenthe
r~presents the speed of ~he w~nd~n~ng
temperatureis very warmand the amounto!
he top of the cha~, and the te~peratur
e
relative f~umidityis high, the air seems
more
~hrenhei~
degrees
of temperature
~longthe left
unpleasant
andunCGmfortabl
to
the
human
skin.
Si~eof the cha~,.,readdown
andacres
e
s until you
fihd the corresponding
windch~ll ~o~that set of
Youcanutilize
. . yourweather
station unit in
Thatis yourwindchill for that day.
variouswaysto oe[ermineother weatherrelated C~ordinates.
phenomenon,
such~.s w_jndchill, conversion
beBelow
is a windchill chart just like the oneon yourweather
station.
~
wIND SPEEI~
~/
5mph
10 mph
15 mph
27
16
11
2
.~.
-9
-18
~
-6,
-~5
-20
~ -22 .
-31
-38
Figure #8
windchill chart
41
-33
-45
-51
PROCEDURE
#2
The Cloudsand WhatTheyCanTel{ You
.C~j_mulus
Hum_ilis& Stratocumulus:
Noticethat
the cloudbasesareat different ~eve~s.
.C=~g_~ulus Congest_us& Strata: These
Eachcloud in the sky gives us a weather
cloudformationsoccurat different levels. There
message,
an advance
notice of whatthe weather
maybe heavyprecipitation, gusty winds, and
will belike in the nextminutes,hours,andeven
thundershowers
orthunderstorms.
days.Takethe timeto learnto recognize
different
cloudformations,
and,togetherwith otherfactors
.~lonimbus
Ca~illat_~U.~:Theupperportionsof
wehave already explored, you can figure out
these clouds are dearly fibrous (~), often
whatthe weathermighthavein store for us and
in the formof ananvil. Precipitation
is likely and
howlongit will taketo happen.
soon. Thesecloudsshowthe distinctive anvil
By using the cloud chart included in your
top.
Mega-Science-Lab,you can observe various
cloud formations, their correspondingIntema- ~tus Tran$1.uc!dus: If the wind is blowing
tiona| Figure Codes(used on weathermapsand steadilyfromnortheastto south,precipitationis
reports), andwhatthey maymean.
likely within 12to 24 hours.Thesunor moon
may
be visible as if being viewedthroughfrosted
_C.u~_m_.
ulus:These
arefair weather
cloudsif they g~ass.
showlittle vertical development.
Fair weather
cloudsthat developvertically maybring aftert_J~_st
r at u s ~Qp_ac_u_s:
These
arethesame,
but are
A
noonshowers.Noticethat thesecloudsare well
denseenoughto hide the sun or moon.
developedwith manyseparatetops. Theoutlines are sharp, andthe basesare darker and A_~Lqqumu_Lus___Tran_s_l_u_cLd_u_s_:
These
cloudsare
almosthorizontal. If cloudsformfromthe south- semitransparent.Theymaychangeslowly and
level. Precipitationis likely
westto the northwest,precipitation with gusty areall at the same
within10or 15hoursif windsaresteadilyfromthe
windsandthunderstorms
(or only windsqualls)
northeastto the south.
are likely within five to ten hours.Thevertical
extentsof thesecloudsare in the formof domes
or towers.
A_!tOc~umul~us
Len|icular~:Patches
of theseclouds
are often almond
or fish shaped.Thegreaterpart
of eachcloud is semitransparent.
Theseclouds
.~__U~u__lul
s Calvus:Thiscloudformationis an
indication that precipitation is likely andsoon canoccurat morethan onelevel, andare continually changing
in appearance.
coming.Distantcloudswill often showananvilshapedcap.
AIt_~_~umulusTranslu¢idu.s U~: Theseare
cloudsthat haveformedin bandsor
_Stratocumulus
Cum
I.~J~genitus.: Theseclouds Attocumulus
are formedby the spreading out of Cumulus fairly continuouslayers. As they move,they
gather,generallythickeningas a whole.Precipiclouds. Cumulus
cloudsmayalso be present.
tationis ~ikely.
Stratocumulus:Theseclouds give the impresCumu!ogenitus:
Theseare focTned
sion of beingtow, andtheyindicate the immedi- A_Jltocumulus
ate threat of badweather.If theyare at the head when Cumulusor Cumulonimbusclouds are
spread
out. Precipitationis likely.
of a cold front, you canexpectgusty windsor
thunderstorms.
~tocumulus
Duolicatg.~:Theseare Altocumulus
occurring
at
different elevations.Precipitationis
Stratus Fractus: Cloudsare in a moreor less
likely.
continuous
sheetor layer. Theymayalso formin
raggedpatches.If precipitationoccursit is very
A~Ius Opacus: Altocumulus clouds occurweak.
ring in twoor morelayers, andusuallyopaque
in
places.Precipitation
is likely.
.C_.u_.~_u)usFractus.~Weat~:Theseclouds
are often seenwith other precipitat)on clouds.
It~Jt.O_E.umulus
Floccu,~:Altocumulus
cloudsthat
Theyformfromrising warmair that coolsas it
havedeveloped
smalltowersor cumuliform
tufts.
movesupward.
Precipitation
is likely.
42
To load the Windows
3.1 version:
gainsanunderstanding
of howa volcanicterrain
(1) Openthe Windows
File Manager
andselect
growsthroughthe accumulation
of depositsfrom
File/CraateDirectory.In the windowthat
popsup
variouseruptions. Theprogramwascreatedby
type: "c:Ivolc’ andclick "OK".Thisis a temporary KennethWohletzof the Los Alamos
National
directory that canbeerasedwheninstallation of
Laboratory.Notethat this program
only workson
the Seismic/Eruption
programis complete.
IBM-typecomputers.
(2) In the browser, scroll down to the
seisvole.readme
link for informationregarding
Tobegin, point your webbrowserto:
this program.
http://geontl .lanl .gov/pagel/directory/wohletz/
(3) Click onthe seisvole.ziplink to download
the
erupt.htm
Seismic/Eruptionprogram.A’SaveAs" dialogue
Thereyou will find optionsfor downloading
boxshouldappearin the "directories" box. Goto different versionsof ERUPT.
Detailedinstrucc:/vo/c andclick "OK".
tions are givenbelowfor loadingthe Windows
3.1
(4) A "SavingLocation"boxwill appearshowing version.
statusof the download.
It maytakeawhileto save (1) Openthe Windows
File Manager
andselect
because
the file is 4.4 Mbin size.
File/CreateDirectory. |nthewindowthat
popsup
(5) Files with the .zip suffix are files compressed type"c:/erupt" andclick "OK".
with the PKZIPprogramand needdecompres- (2) in the browser
select the versionfor Windows
sion, At the lime o~publishing
(,919~)PtKZ’~P
was 3.1 currently version 2.0 - named
~er20-16".A
freewareandcouldbe obtainedoverthe Internal
"SaveAs" dialog boxshouldappearin the direcat the followingaddress:http://www.yosemite.neVtories box.Goto c:/erupt andclick "OK".
help/win31_pkzip.html
(3) A "SavingLocation"boxwil~ appearshowing
status of the download.It maytake a while to
If this addressis nolongervalid, pedorm
a
savebecause
it is 2.6 Mbin size.
websearchusing PKZIPas the key wordandgo
(41In File Manager
goto c:/eruptanddoubleclick
to a site that hasthe program.
onthe file there.Thiswill start theinstallation.
(6) Followthe instruction for downloading
PKZIP (5) Click "Setup"to unzipthe files andget to the
anddecompress
the seisvole.zip file. Makesure "Erupt 2.0 Setup"screen.
to use the -d option. For example,at the DOS (6) Followinstructionsandinstall to the "Erupt
prompttype:
20"director/.
pkunzip-d seisvole.zip
(7} In File Manager,
select c:/erupt, then Fi(e!
(7) Fromthe Windows
ProgramManager
select
Delete to removedirectory. Click "OK"then
file/run/browse,
goto c:/volc/setup.exe,
click "OK" "Yes".
andfollow the dialog onscreento complete
the
(8) In Program
Manager,
openthe groupin which
installation of the Seismic/Eruption
program.
youwantthe Erupticon to reside.
(9) Do File/New. Click "ProgramItem" button
ERUPT
andthen "OK".
This program
allowsyouto designa volcanic (10) A"PropertiesDialog"boxwilt appear.Fill
landscape
as it builds upin crosssectionon the
as below:
screen.Theuserchooses
the eruptiontypes, the
Description:Eruption
location of the vent, andother parameters
such Command
line: c:lerupt2Olerupt.exe
as windspeed.
Click "OK"
Theprogram
can be stoppedat anytime and (11) Tostart E RUPT,doubleclick onthe volcano
a neweruption type selected.In this wayone
icon that appearsin the window.
SITES ABOUTVOLCANOES
ON THE WORLDWIDE WEB
Welist only four sites, but eachcontains FJuffetin,a monthly
reportof all volcanic
activityor
links to manyother volcanosites aroundthe
the planet.
world.
Thisis the same
informationreadby profes
sional volcanologists
aroundthe worldto find oL
newsof recenteruptions.A list of Earth’s150
Smith$onlatt’~ Global VolcanismProgram
volcanoesknownto haveeruptedduringthe
http://www.volcano.si.edu/gvp/
10,000
yearsis also givenalongwith basicinfo
This programis devotedto the study of
mationfor each. This site containsan extol
Ean’h’sactive volcanoes.Hereyouwill find the
siva set of links to other sites aroundthe wod
latest issues of the GlobalVolcanism
Network
organizedby region.
67
LOW-PRICED,EDUCATIONAL
VOLCANO
MATERIALS
Inaide HawaiianVolcanoes
ThMDynamicPlanet
Afull-color wall map,1 meterby 1 ~/2meter
This 25-minutecolor video wasproduced
in
(3.3 feet by4.9 feet) (revisedin 1994)that should 1989by the late Maurice
Krafft, in collaboration
be onthe bedroom
wall of everychild interested with the Smithsonian
Institution andthe U.S.
in our planet, its volcanoes,earthquakes,
mete- Geological
Survey.It is narratedby RogerMudd.
orites, andplats-tectonicactivity. Thiseye-pleasing worldmap
usescolorsto designate
elevation. This video goesbeyondthe beautyof Hawaii’s
surface eruptions andtakes you deepunderSuperimposed
on it are:
¯ Locationsof over 1500volcanoes
active during groundwhereyou will learn about the underplumbingsystems. It contains
the last 10,000
years,plottedin four agecatego- groundmagma
ries.
spectacularviewsof lava fountains andflows,
¯ Locationsof over 24,000earthquakes,
largely scientists at work, as well as rare eady20th
from 1960- 1990, plotted in three magnitude centuryfootageof early eruptionsandscientists.
categoriesandtwo depthranges.
Awarded
5 Stars by the Journalof Geologi¯ Locationsof 139meteoriteImpactcraters.
cal Education:"If youbuyonly onevideo about
Hawaiian
volcanism,this shouldbe the one."
Also includedare:
¯ A three-dimensional
crosssectionof the earth
illustrating its majorzonesof volcanoesand
earthquakes
(a color versionof Figure2 in this
section).
¯ A text treatmentthat gives a primeron plate
tectonics, volcanoes,and earthquakes.This
wonderfulmapcosts only $7.50($4,00 per map
plus $3.50perorderfor postageandhandling).
Ordersshouldbe sent to:
USGS
Information Services
Federal Center, Box25286
Denver, CO80225
Specify "DynamicPlanet" and makecheck
or money
orderin USdollars payable
to "Interior
Department
- USGS".Within the UnitedStates,
mapsmayalso be orderedusinga credit card by
calling toll free 1-800-USA-MAPS.
A teachers’guide(22pages)is alsoavailable.
containsquestionsandanswers
relating to the
video,as well as three laboratoryexercises.
Thevideocosts $20. Pleasespecify VHS
or
VHS-PAL
format. Theteachers’ guidecosts an
additional $5. Makecheckor money
order in US
dollars payableto Smithsonian
Institution. Only
pre-paid orders are accepted.Purchaseorders
cannotbe accepted.
Pleasesendordersvia postalmail to:
RichardS. Fiske
Museum
of Natural History MRC119
Smithsonian
institution
Washington,DC20560, USA
ELECTRONICACCESSTO VOLCANORESOURCES
Programsto Downloadand
Run on your Computer
Segments
of this programare used thm~OhOut
the S~.itl¢~ufl=ansnewGeology,Gems,
andMinerals exhibit in the NationalMuseum
of Natural
History. The programwasdevelopedby Alan
Jonesof the State University of NewYork,
Binghamton,using earthquakedata from the
U.S. GeologicalSurveyanderuption data from
the Smithsonian.
It is well worthyour effort to
retrieve this program.
Notethat this programonly workson IBMtype computers.Current (9/96) requirements
are: Windows
3.1, Windows
95, or IBMOS/2.To
download
this program
follow thesesteps:
SEISMIC/ERUPTION
This program offers a world mapand a
variety of regional andlocal mapsthat show
earthquakes
and/or volcanic eruptions in time
sequencesince 1960. Earthquakesare shown
by circles andvolcaniceruptionsby triangles.
Thesizesof the symbols
indicatethe size of the
eadhquake
or eruption.Colorsindicatethe depth
of the earthquake
or the typeof eruption(lava,
ash or both). When
aneruption occurs,the name
of the volcanois shownnext to it. This is an
DIRECTIONS
extremelyengagingprogramthat dramatically
Point your webbrowserto:
indicatesthat ourplanetis alive.
h ttp Ylwww.
geol.binghamton, edu/faculty
ljones
66
Altocumulusof a ChaoticSky: Thesegenerally
occurin severallayers. Precipitation
is likely.
CirrusFibratu~:Theseare ice clnudsin the form
o| filaments,strands,or hooks.If the windsare
fromthe west-northwest
to the north, the weather
will be good.However,
precipitation is likely
within20to 30hoursif the winddirectionis eastnortheastto the south.
~Dissatus:Ice cloudsoccurringin patches.They
are possibly the remainsof the upperpart of
Cumulonimbus
clouds.
SoissatusCurn_u!0n_Lim_b0genitus:
Denseice
cloudsthat often havean anvil shape,beingthe
remainsof the upperparts of Cumulonimbus.
Cirrus Uncinus:Thesehigh ice cloudsoccurin
the formof filaments,strands,or hooks.Asthey
moveacross the sky, they become
denser.
Cirrus belo~45degrees:Ice cloudsthat form=n
bands,movingtowardoneor two points of the
horizon.Theygraduallyill( part of thesky, generally developing
into a continuous
veil that does
not reach45° abovethe horizon.
Cirrus above45 degre~,~:Formin the sameway,
but developinto a continuousveil that exceeds
45° abovethe horizon anddoesnot completely
coverthe sky.
Cirrostratus.: Ice cloudsthat maycoveror not
coverthe entire sky. These
indicateprecipitation
if the windis steadyfromeast-northeast
to the
south. Otherw)ndsbring overcastskies.
Cirrocumulus:
Ice cloudsthat mayoccuraloneor
with~.~r~,!~.2~,’3~C;*~u~¢~a[us
ClOUdS.
TheCirrocumulus
cloudswill dominate.
PROCEDURE
#3
Weatherand WeatherForecasting
If youknowthe winddirection andbarometric pressure, you can forecast comingweather
patterns.In truth, experience
onthe part of the
observeris important as well becauselocal
weatherconditionsare influencedby many
things.
Thefollowing summary
is usefulin predicting future weatherin the UnitedStates:
43
If the windis fromthe southwest
to the north.
west, andthe barometricpressureis betweer
764.54 and 767.08 mm(30.10 and 30.20
inches),andsteady,the weatherwill befair,
with slight temperature
changes,
for oneor two
days.
If the windis fromthe southwest
to the northwest, andthe barometricpressureis between
764.54 and 767.08 mm(30.10 and 30.20
inches)andrising rapidly, currentweather
will
befair, andwill probably
befollowedwithintwo
daysby rain.
If the windis fromthe southwest
to the northwest, andthe barometricpressureis 767.08
mm(30.20 inches)or aboveandsteady, your
weather
will continue
clear, andtherewill beno
significant change
in temperature.
If the windis fromthe southwest
to the northwest, andthe barometricpressureis 767.08
mm
(30.20inches)or above,andfalling slowly,
the nexttwodayswill probablyseefair skies
andslowly rising temperatures.
If the windis fromthe southto the southeast,
andthe barometricpressureis between
764.54
and767.08mm(30.10 and30.20inches), and
falling slowly, youcanexpectrain within 24
hours.
If the windis fromthe southto the southeast,
andthe barometricpressureis between
764.54
and767.08mm(30.10 and30.20 inches) and
falling rapidly, the windswill increaseandrain
will belikely within12to 24hours.
If the windis fromthe southeast
to the northeast, andthe harnm~tr~C
~’;~3C.L;~~
;~ b~ween
764.54 and 767.08 mm(30.10 and 30.20
inches),andfalling slowly,therewill most
likely
berain in 12to 18hours.
If the windis fromthe southeast
to the northeast, andthe barometricpressureis between
764.54 and 767.08 mm(30.10 and 30.20
inches),andfalling rapidly, the windwill increaseandtherewill mostlikely berain within
twelvehours.
If the windis fromthe eastto the northeast,
and
the barometricpressureis 764.54mm(30.10
inches)or below,is falling rapidly, andit is
summer,
there will belight windsandrain may
notfall for severaldays.If it is winter,youcan
expectrain within 24 hours.
tf the windis fromtheeastto the northeast,
and
the barometricpressureis 764.54mm(30.10
inches)or below,is falling rapidly, andit is
summer,
rain is likely within 12to 24hours.If
it is winter, rain or snowwithincreasingwinds
will often set in whenthe barometer
beginsto
fall andthe windsets in fromthe northeast.
¯ If the windis tromthe southto the east,andthe
barometric pressure is 756.92 mm(29.80
inches)or below,andfalling rapidly, severe
stormsare imminent.Theweatherwill clear in
about24 hours,andin the winter, it will be
colder.
¯ If the windis fromthe eastto thenorth,andthe
barometric pressure is 756.92 mm(29.80
If the windis fromthe southeast
to the northeast, andthe barometricpressureis 762mm
inches)or below,andfalling rapidly, therewill
(30.00inches)or below,andfalling slowly,rain
be severenortheastwindsandheavyprecipiwill probablycontinuefor oneor twodays.
tation. In the winterthere will beheavysnow
followedby a cold wave.
If the windis fromthe southeast
to the northeast, andthe barometricpressureis 762mm
(30.00inches)or below,andfalling rapidly,
Duringthe summer,
the groundandair above
a layer of cool air
there will be rain andhigh winds, followed it are usuallywarm.Sometimes
will formabove
the warm
air. Warm
air is light and
within 36 hours by clearing. In the winter,
wantsto rise. Thecool air, onthe otherhand,is
temperatures
will fall noticeably.
heavierandwants
to fall Theresultinginstability
of the air masses,
with
¯ If the windis fromthe southto the southwest, causesviolent movement
andthe barometricpressureis 762mm(30.00 the heaviercool air sinkingto the groundandthe
lighter warm
air rising rapidly.
inches)or belowandrising, the weatherwill
Therising warmair becomes
saturatedwith
mostlikely clear withina fewhoursandbefair
moisture,anddropletsof waterappearas a cloud
for severaldays.
beginsto form.Asthe warm
air continues
to rise,
the cloud growsandstrong windsdevelop.
CLOUD DEVELOPMENT
Thewatervaporchanging
to liquid results in
the release of heat energy,whichaddsto the
cloud’sgrowth.Eventually,rain beginsto fall.
A thunderstorm
cloud, called a cumulonimbuscloud,maybe severalmilesacrossandeight
mileshigh. Highaltitude windsshredthe top of
the cloud, producingan anvil shape.Theupward
flow of air hasbeenreplacedby a strongdownwardmovement
generatedby the precipitation.
So, wheredoesthe electricity comefrom?
That’swhatlightningis, youknow.
All that violent
air movement
that formedthe thunderstorm
cloud
also createdelectrical charges
in the cloud.The
upperportionsof the cloud acquirea positive
charge, and the bottom becomesnegatively
charged.
As the cloud passesover the ground,the
negativelychargedcloudbottominducesa positive chargein the ground.This groundcharge
follows the stormlike anelectrical shadow.
This
groundchargeincreases;but the air is a poor
conductor
of electricity, so noelectricity flows
until hugeelectrical charges
havebuilt up.
When
the electrical potentialis greatenough,
lightning will strike out fromthe cloud to the
ground.Howmuchelectrical potential, you ask?
Figure #9
It couldbeas much
as 100million volts!t!
TheGeysersgeothermalareain northernCalifornia generatesenough
electricity to meetthe
needsof twomillion people.Volcanoes
also
benefit agriculture becausesoils developed
on
volcanicrocksare extremely
fertile. Volcanicash
falling fromthe air canact as a naturalfertilizer.
SECTIONNINE
TheThreeVolcanicRocksIncludedin this Kit
Thisset containsthree smallvolcanicrocks
for yourrockcollection:p_u_rn~_e.,
ob.sidia_t3,
and
_basalt. Usethe Bioscope’" to observethem
closely,Finda placewith bright sunlight.
crystals.In this case,though,the glassdoesnot
havea sponge-liketexture, andthe crystals are
mainlyplagi_o_cl_ase,
a silicate mineral
containing
sodium,calcium, andaluminum.
Obsidianforms
fromviscous, silica-rich magmas
that havelow
gas contents. Becausethese magmas
are so
viscous,atomscannoteasily migrateto growing
crystal faces, andtherefore few crystals develop. Insteadthe liquid solidifies as glass.
Obsidianis well knownfor the wayit breaks
alongcurvedfractures. Early humans
took advantage
of this featureandlearnedto formrazorsharp blades andarrowheads
from obsidian.
DIRECTIONS
PUMICE:
Thewhiteto gray rock is pumice,which
consists
of about95 percentnatural glassand5
percent
crystalsof quartz(silicon dioxide:
Quartzhas a grey color andyoushouldbe able
to seea crystal or twowith yourBioscope".You
mayalso see a few dark spots. Theseare rare
crystalsof magnetite(iron oxide: Fe304).The
glassin pumiceforms a sponge-likenetwork,
signifyingthat it contains
a lot of empty
holesnow
Thedarkgray rock with the dull finish
filled by air. Some
of the largerholesareobvious BASALT:
onthe surfaceof the pumice,but many
othersare
is basalt. This lava contains abundantsmall
crystals of olivine andDyroxene,twosilicate
too smallto see. Because
of all these holes,
pumice
feels ~ight. More
correctly,it is less dense mineralsthat are rich in iron andmagnesium.
than other rocks. Dropyour pumicein a glassof
These
will appearas smallreflecting spotsunder
that is
water.It floats!All that trappedair makes
pumice the Bioscope".Basalt formsfrommagma
less densethan water. If you leave the pumice poorin silica andhaslow viscosity.Basaltis the
mostcommon
volcanic rockon Earth. Underthe
soakingin waterlong enough,the water will
sediment
on the oceanfloor is a layer of basalt
eventuallyseepin to replace the air andthe
pumice
will sink. Youcanalwaysdry it out in the
lava about2 kilometers(1.24 miles) thick. Hawaii andother volcanicislands are giant mounsunor anovenanddothe trick again.
tains of basaltthat rise upfromthe seafloor.
OBSIDIAN:
The shiny black rock is obsidian.
Like the pumice,this obsidianalso consistsof
about95 percent glass and 5 pement
PART TWO:
BOOKS AND EDUCATIONAL REFERENCES ABOUT VOLCANOES
Volcano& Earthquake, by SusannaVanRose,
1992.A Dorling-Kindersley
bookpublishedin the
U.S.by Alfred A. KnopfInc., NewYorkanddistributed by Random
House
Inc., NewYork, 1992. (A
dchlyillustrated bookwdtten for teenagers
to
adults.)
Volcanoes, by SeymourSimon.MorrowJunior
Books,NewYork,
1988.(Ashort, illustrated book
wdttenfor children ages8-12.)
Mountains
of Fire: TheNatureof Volcanoes,
by
RobertW.DeckerandBarbaraB. Decker.CambridgeUniversityPress,Cambridge,
U.K., 1991.
Volcanoes
of the World,by TomSimkinandLee
(A
well-researched
general
treatment
of volca*
Slebert. Geosclence
Press, Phoenix, 1994.
noes
with
abundant
drawings
and
photographs;
(Smithsonian
compilation
andinterpretationof
rangingfromhigh
dataaboutEarth’svolcanoes;
rich in maps,
pho- written for a wideaudience
students
to professional
volcenologists.)
toe, drawings,
andespeciallydata;wdttenfor a school
wideaudience
as well.)
In addition, peopleliving nearIong-~J.OJ333g~
volcanoesmaybe unawareof the threat In their
backyards.Field and laboratory studies of past
eruptions, instrumental monitoring, improved
communications,and public education are needed
to savelives.
(4) What are the ten most d~adly eruptions
history?
Of the ten mostdeadly eruptions in history,
listed in Table2, all but the icelandicLaki eventin
1783 occurred in a subduction zone. Theseare
sites where descent of an oceanic plate into
Earth’s mantle carries seawaterinto the zone of
melting. As a result, subduction-zone magmas
are rich in water, and expansionof that water as
steamnear the surface drives the explosive eruptions that makesubduction-zone volcanoes so
dangerous.
Volcanoespose a variety of hazards. Many
humandeaths are caused directly by erupted
materials, most commonlywhenpeople are engulfed by fast-moving pyroclastic flows. During
or evenlong after an eruption loose ashand other
debris can be swept up by currents of flood
waters to create destructive mudflows. When
eruptions occur in the sea, they can generate
tidal waves, or ~unami, which can devastate
coastal areas far from the eruption site. Other
deaths are caused by earthquakes, lightning,
disease, and starvation associated with eruptions.
(5) What wasthe largest explosive eruption
historical time?
Thelargest historical explosive eruption took
place in 1815at TamboraVolcano,on Indonesia’s
Sumbawa
Island. The Tamboraeruption ejected
about 50 km~ (31 miles) of magma,which translates to about 150 km3 (93 miles) of pumiceand
ash. An estimated 10,O00 people were killed
directly, and another 82,000 died as a result of
starvation and disease.Theeruption left a circular area of collapse, called a caldera, about 6
kilometersin diameterat T=mbora,~,sur~li laJ~(see
F~gure#20).
Theash and volcanic gasesinjected into the
upper atmosphere by the Tambora eruption
formeda globe-encircling cloud that filtered the
sunlight and affected Earth’s weather. Theyear
1816, following the Tamboraeruption, has been
described as the "Year Without a Summer."In
North America, records of the Hudson’s Bay
3ompany show that the summer of 1816 was
~mongthe coldest ever recorded. Unseasonably
;trong winds from the north andnorthwest brought
hree major episodesof frost in early June, early
uly, and mid-August.
NASA
spaceshuttle photographof Tambora
Volcano.Indonesia.andthe 6.5-kilometer
(4.03mile)
widecalderamarkingits summit,left by the 1815
eruption.Thiswasthe largest explosiveeruption
in hisloricaltime.
Figure #20
Thesefrosts reachedas far south as Philadelphia, PA, and Trenton, NJ, causing poor harvests and food shortages. In Europe, the summer of 1816wasexceedingly wet and cool. This
dismal summeris credited with having inspired
Mary Shelley to write Frankenstein and Lord
Byron his somber poemDarkness, which was
written in June, 1816, on the shores of Lake
Geneva,Switzerland. A short portion is reprinted
here:
Darkness
I had a dream,which wasnot all a dream.
Theblight sun wasextinguish’d, and the stars
Did wanderdarkling in the eternal space,
Rayless, and pathless, and the icy earth
Swungblind and blackening in the moonlessair;
Morncameand went - and came,and brought no
day....
Lord Byron
(6) Howdo volcanoes benefit mankind?
Although most discussions of volcanoesfocu~nn their destructive qualities, volcanoesalso
play manypositive roles in our lives. Theair we
breathe and the water we drink originally was
carried to Earth’s surface in volcanic eruptions.
Volcanic rocks are used all over the world as
construction materials and building stones. Magmasponding beneathvolcanoes help to concentrate copper, silver, gold, andmanyother metals
that our society dependsupon. Volcanic heat is
tapped to generate electricity in manygeothermal areas around the world. For example,
Reykjavik, the capital city of Iceland, hasnearly
100,000people and gets 70 percent of its heat
andhot water from wells drilled into hot volcanic
rock.
Figure #10
PROCEDURE#4
Hurricanes and Hurricane Plotting
Hurricanesare powerful, whirling stormsthat
occurin th~ Atl~qt!c, Pacifk,, ,:=~=din~31anOceans.
They usually measure from 321.8 to 482.7 km
(200 to 300 miles) in diameter (and somehave
been muchlarger), with winds in excess of 120
km (75 miles) per hour.
Figure #10 is a picture of Hurricane Bertha
(July 12, 1996), taken by a National Weather
Service satellite in geosynchronous
orbit above
the earth. You can see that the "eye" of the
hurricane is located just over CapeFear, North
Carolina.
Notice that the clouds are movingin a counterclockwise direction.
45
That is becausethis hurricane is in the northern
hemisphereof the earth. Thosein the southern
h,=m!~_phcr6
~,,uve in a clockwisedirection.
In the middle of the storm is the eye of the
hurricane, an area of calm about 32.18 km (20
miles) in diameter. Immediately around the eye
are wall clouds, wherethe strongest winds and
heaviest rains occur. Thefarther out the winds
are from the wall clouds, the weakerthey are.
Hurricanes are very destructive, causing
death and massive property damageevery year.
Wheneverone appears, the National Weather
Service provides detailed information concerning size andintensity, as well as location. As a
matter of fact, youcan track a hurricane yourself
using the mapwe haveprovided. Instructions for
plotting a storm location are on the map.
SECTION EIGHT
SomeCommonQuestions about Volcanoes
=.
OR[
HURRICANE TRACKING MAP
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
N. MEX.
~
MEXICO
TEX.
(1) Whatis an active volcano and howmanyare
there?
A volcano should be consideredactive if it
hasthe potential to erupt again. But howcan you
tell whena volcano has finally becomeextinct?
There is no easy way. One approach is to
assume
that a volcanois not likely to erupt again
if it hasn’thadaneruptionin the last 10,000years.
Smithsonianvolcanologists list about 1500volcanoesthat erupted on land or in shallow water
during that time, shownin Figure #3. About 540
of these volcanoes
havel~acl historically reported
eruptions. Eachyear, 50-70 volcanoeserupt. As
youread these words, about 15 of Earth’s volcanoes are probably erupting.
(2) Whatwasthe largest volcanic eruption of the
last 100,000 years?
Theeruption that producedIndonesia’s gigantic Tobacaldera (see Figure # 19) about74,000
years ago is the largest nowknown. It ejected
about 3,000 km~ (717 miles~) of pumiceand ash,
roughly 3,000 times as muchas MountSt. Helens
ejected in 1980.
(3) Are fewer people dying from volcanic disasters nowthan in the past?
"Natural calamity strikes at aboutthe time
whenone forgets its terror."
- Japanese proverb
Eventhough scientists have an ever-deeper
understandingof volcanic processes,this knowledgehas not yet led to a decline in eruptionrelated deaths.
From 1900 to 1986, the average numberof
humandeaths from volcanoes per year was 880;
Landsatsatellite photoof the Tobacaldera,
Sumatra,Indonesia.Four separatelarge explosiveeruptionshavetakenplaceherein tl~e last 1.2
million years.Thepresentca(derais 100kilometers (62.1 miles) long and30 kilometerswide.
formedduringthe youngest
of the eruptions,74,000
~ y~.ars ago. LakeToba(black) covers morethan
half of the caldera. Dataacquiredin May,1987.
Figure #19
more than from 1600 to 1899, whenan average
of 620 peopleper year died in volcanic disasters.
Although the numberof deaths causedby posteruption starvation has declined in this century,
the numberassociated with pyroclastic flows and
mudflowshas increased.
A majorreason is that global population has
increaseddramatically in recent centuries - many
more people are living near dangerousvolcanoes. Manynations lack the money,scientific
resources,or political will to monitortheir volcanoes.
TABLE 2
The ten mostdeadly eruptions in history.
Volcano
Country
Year
Deaths
Tambora
Krakatau
Pel~e
NevadodeI Ruiz
Unzen
Kelut
Laki
Kelut
Santa Maria
Galunggung
Indonesia
Indonesia
Martinique
Colombia
Japan
Indonesia
Iceland
Indonesia
Guatemala
Indonesia
1815
1883
1902
1985
1792
1586
1783
1919
1902
1822
92,000
36,417
29,500
23,080
14,524
10,000 (?)
9,350
5,110
4,500(?)
4,011
All volcanoes except Laki are located abovesubduction zones. Data from Volcanoesof the World
(Simkin and Siebert, 1994).
46
63
This wasfollowed by eruption of a lava dome
just north of the most vigorous steamvent. Between June 7 and 11, the lava domedoubled in
size. Eruption of this lava domeconfirmed the
existence of an active magmatic system * a
storage area and channels through which magma
could movethrough the upper crust to reach tl~e
surface.
In the daysof early June, scientists raised
the alert level to a 3 andthen to a 4, Whenthe ~
clomeappeared,they issued a red alert - level 5,
On June 10, Clark Air Force Basewas evacuated
and aircraft valued at one billion dollars were
flown to safety.
On June 12, during Philippine Independence
Daycelebrations, the first of a series of powerful
eruptions blasted an ash columnto 19 kilometers
above sea level (see Figure #17). More eruptions, pyroclastic flows and earthquakes
followed,
and still, the worst wasyet to come.
MountPinatuboeruptioncloud of June12, 1991
rises into the atmosphere.
PhototakenfromClark
Air ForceE3ase,20kilometers(12 miles) east of
MountPinatubo. Photo by David Hadow(U.S.
GeologicalSurvey).
Figure #17
On June 14 an infrared video camera at
C)ark Air Force Baserecorded a sudden, zipperlike passage of brightness (heat) across the
upper east flank of Pinatubo, which volcanologists believed to be a fissure vent opening.
Themaineruption, the secondlargest of the
century, began the following day. Pyroclastic
flows sweptnearly all areas coveredby prehistoric depositsof a similar type, blanketing about
100 km2 (38 miles~) (the dashedline on Figure
16). The eruption columnmushroomed
to heights
of 40 kilometers(24.8 miles), well into the stratosphere.
Below, a typhoon raged, and heavy rains
triggered mudflowsthat swept through several
townsand destroyed manybridges. After June
16, activity decreased
in intensity, but asheruptions continued until September
2. TheJune 1516 eruptions formed a caldera near the top of
MountPinatubo,about2t/2 kilometers(1.55 miles)
in diameterand morethan 650 meters(2132 feet)
deep (see Figure #18). The floor of the new
caldere was about 800 meters abovesea level,
roughly 1.000 meters(3280 feet) belowthe summit of the volcanobefore the eruption.
Theeruptions and later mudflows, spawned
as the new loose ash and pumicedeposits were
stripped away by rains, buried some100,000
homesand affected the livelihood of over a
million persons. Mudflows continued to be a
problemmanyyears after the 1991eruption.
Viewof the new2-kilometer- (1.2 mile-) wide
~.,~idera of MountPinatubo,looking fromabove
towardthe south on August1, 1991. A small
explosionhasjust occurred.Photoby Thomas
J.
Casadevall
(U.S. GeologicalSurvey).
Figure #18
Aboutci.~,’-,;-i ,u~ ~U~ea
people
diedin the eruption, mostly from pyroclastic flows, mudflows,
and post-eruption disease. However, tens of
thousandsof lives were savedby the monitoring
and warningefforts of scientists and government
officials.
Comparethe v01¢anic-hazard~ mapdeveloped for Mount Pinatubo prior to the June 15
eruption with the actual results of the 1991eruption (see Figure #16). Theclose similarity is
graphic demonstration of the successof volcanologists’ efforts at Pinatubo.Unfortunately,volcanologists rarely have the benefit of extensive
and costly monitoring and fieldwork neededfor
reliable forecasts and predictions.
47
Based
on their field andlaboratorystudies,
scientists prepareda volcanic-hazards
mapthat
showed
the courseof ancient pyroclastic flows
(see Figure #16). Some
hadreachedClark Air
ForceBaseand nearby denselypopulated areas.
VOLCANOES
PART ONE: INTRODUCTION
Volcanoes
andtheir eruptions are among
the mostinspiring andawesome
expressionsof the
natural woHd.
Volcanicactivity hasshaped
the history of the earth andmanyotherplanetsandmoof~s
in our Solar System.Whydo volcanic eruptionsoccuron so manydifferent worlds?Theyall happen
for the same
reason.Theseworldsare tryin9 to cool off. Theyarehot inside andlosing that innerheat
to cold outer space.Volcaniceruptions,whichspewhot lava on the surfaceor blast hot pumice,ash,
andgasinto the air, are very goodwaysto lose someof that inner heat.
In this sectionyouwill ,~earnimportant
facts about~arth’s activeandancientvolcanoes,
andthe
peoplewhostudythem(volcanologists)./t also containssuggestions
on locatingother informationon
volcanoes,suchas maps,videos, booksthat youcanborrowfromthe library, computer
programs
you
candownload
for free fromthe Intemet,andvolcanosites onthe WorldWideWeb,whichwill give you
information
onthe latest activity at Earth’svolcanoes.
Editorial Note:}mportant
newwordsare underlined
the first timetl]ey are introduced.Definitions
of newwordsarein the Glossary
or in the text.
HAZARD ZONES
~ Pyroclastic-llow
.
P~yo~
SECTtONO(~E
Building andErupting YourVolcano
Whatyou are about to do -- build a
model--is a gloriousundedaking,
andoneof the
mainwaysthat scientists andengineerslearn
abouthowthings work. Modelsare not the same
as the th}ngstheyrepresent,
and)t )s important
to
understandthe differences. In the caseof the
volcanomodelremember
that:
(1) Compared
to real volcanoes,the modelis too
sma~,steep, and cold. Use a protractor to
measure
the slopear~gleof yourvolcanoafter )t
is built. Youwill find that it is much
steeperthan
the slope anglesof real volcanoes
mentioned
in
this booklet.
(2) Real volcanoes
growover time: eruption
eruption, layer by layer. Theycan take a few
yearsto a fewmillion yearsto develop.Youwill
assemble
your modelin about ten minutes.The
process
of addingthe sandmixtureto the plastic
framework
is a formof artistic sculpture, but
nothinglike the growthof a real volcano.After
youhavebuilt your volcano,it will take about
twentyminutesto dry.
(3) Real volcanoes
haveunderground
pipes that
brihg.magma
(hot moltenrock) to the surface.
erupt your modelvolcanoyou will first place
bakingsodainto a plastic, cup-like9_r~te_r,and
thenadda mixtureof vinegarandfood coloring.
All of thesematerialsare coldandareaddedfrom
above,not frombelow.
(4) Afterreal volcaniceruptions,
newlava._or ash
hasaddeda newsolid layer onthe surfaceof the
volcano,in your model,the magma
is a mixture
of vinegar, food coloring, andbakingsoda.It
never becomes
solid, anddoesnot addto the
volumeof the ’~otc%no.You can rinse ~our
volcanooff in the sink andmakeanothereruption.
48
NOTE:
Thoroughlycover your worksurfacewith
newspaper.
Makesure your volcanois placedon
the newspaper
whenerupting, it mayoverflow
andspilt out of the moat.
E~UILDINGYOURVOLCANO
DIRECTIONS
(1) Attachthe smallplastic craterto the plastic
base.Thenotchesin the crater rim are designed
to channelthe foaminglava in thesedirections.
(2) Cut open the bag of sand mix. Using
measuringcup, measure5 ouncesof warmtap
water.Pourthis waterinto the bagwith the sand
mix.
Aligned craters on the northeast flank of Mount
Pinatubo. These}’omled on April 2, 1991, as one
of the first warningsigns of the majoreruption that
took p’~ace2~’~ months’~aler on June15-16,19~1.
Theventsin the foregroundare inactive, but those
in ~e background are still steaming. Photo by
Ch~stopherG. Newhalt (U.$. Geological Survey).
Figure #15
Earthquake
detectionis an essentialpart of
volcanomonitoring. Before an eruption, rocks
cancrackas they are pushed
apart by ascending
magma. ~ detect this cracking
as
~3,~Make
a knotin the top of the bagto prevent
the mixturefromleak’~ngout. Knead
the mixture
earthquakes.At manyvolcanoesthe numberof
throughthe bagfor about5 minutes
or until you
earthquakes
increasesbeforea large eruption.
notice that all of the sandhasmixedwith the
Alertedby the earthquakes,
scientists recwater.
ommended
evacuation of everyonewithin a 10
kilometer(6.21mile.) radiusof the summit,
(4) Openthe top of the bagandreachin with
Ateamo~scientistsfromthe PhitippineInstiyour handsand scoopout a handful of comtute andthe U.S.GeologicalSurveyset upseven
pound.Applythis compound
to the plastic volseismicstations. Theserecorded50-90earthcanosubstructure. Repeatthe precedingstop
quakeseach day through May10. Data were
until the entiresurfaceareaof the plasticvolcano
processed
at ClarkAir ForceBase,a majorU.S.
is coveredwith the compound.
Donot apply the
facility at the easternfoot of the volcano.
compound
to the moatthat surrounds
the baseof
the volcano. The compound
maybe a little
Volcanologists
quicklybegan
field studiesat
wateryat first, but after 5 minutes,the compound MountPinatubo.Theysoughtto establish its
will begir~to harden,
making
it easyto form.At the
recordof pasteruptions.Thisis anessentialstep
crater rim, build the compound
up over the rim
in monitoringactive volcanoes,Thescientists
abouta half inch to createa deeper
crater. Also,
wereshocked
to find hugedepositsfromearlier
at the crater rim makenotchesin the sandcomexplosiveeruptions,the youngest
just 500years
poundto correspondwith the notchesin the
o(d.
plastic cup.
61
Volcanic-hazard~
mapdistributed onMay23,
1991by the PhilippineInstitute of Volcanology
andSeismology
andthe U.S.Geological
Survey.
Patternsshowzonesexpected
to bea~ectedby
pyroclasticflows andmudflows.
Dashed
lines
show
actualdistributionof pyroc~astic-ftow
deposits followingthe June15, 1991,eruption,which
matches
well withthe pro-eruption
hazard
zones.
Courtesy
of Christopher
G. Newhafl
(U.S.GeologicalSurvey).
Figure #16
Scientists also developed
a warningscheme
with ~iNelevels of alert andsent it to public
officials.
Usinga telescope-like optical instrument
sensitiveto sulfur dioxide(SO~)gas, volcanotogists detecteda ten-fold ~ncreasein SO
z emissions from summitsteamvents during May1328, a sign that magma
wasrisir~ 9 towardthe
surface.
In early Junethe focal point of mostearthquakesshifted 4-8 kilometers(2.4-4.9 miles)
northeast,to the regionbeneath
the steamvents.
Harmonic
tremor- a continuous,rhythmicvibration associatedwith movement
c~f magma
was
detected,alongwith a dropin SO~flux.
Scientistsalsoinstalled twoelectronictilt~ near the active steam vents. These
instrumentsmeasure
changesin the groundsurface that can be causedeither by the movement
of magma
below or by pressurefrom released
gases.Thetiltmeters recordeda bulgingof the
uppereast flank.
(5) Yourvolcano will take approximately2Ominutes to dry. After your volcanohasdried, youmay
wish to paint it using non-water-basedpaints.
Consider white to represent snow and ice near
the top (see Figu=us #6c and #6d). Greenpaint
onthelowerslopescanrepresent trees. Afterthe
paint dries, you can makeyour voicano erupt as
manytimes as you wish.
Theset972 laves on the south/lank of Ki/auea
Volcano,Hawaii,Show
aa lava in the background
andpahoehoe
lava in the foreground.Thewidth
of the photois 4 meters(13 feet). Photo
RichardS. Fiske(Oomithsonian
Institution).
This 1991block lava flow from CottmaVolcano,
Mexicois a iumbleo(t~esh(gray andangular)
oxidized(,red andrough)blocksof Varioussizes.
Thehammer
is 30 centimeters(11 inches) long.
Photoby James
F. Luhr(Smithsonian
Institution).
Figure #13
Figure #12
SECTION SEVEN
Eruption Forecasting and Prediction:
Successat MountPinatubo (PhiSppines) in 1991
If you live near a volcano, you wouldprobably wantfo know:Whenwill it erupt? Will lava or
ash comeour way?Howoften will it happen?Will
we have to leave our home? Whencan we go
back? Scientists monitoring volcanoes cannot
foretell the future, but with intensive efforts they
can provide long-term forecasts and short-term
predictions of likely future eruptive behavior.How
do they do it? By monitoring the volcano with
various ~ns~ruments,through basic geological
studiesin the fie{d,, andby analysisof the historical eruptive patterns,f_0_r_e_c~].,~canbedone.
This is the same approach your medical
doctor takes in monitoring your health. Your
doctor uses instruments to take your temperature, listen to your heartbeat,andtake your blood
pressure. Yourdoctor also asks about the historY
of diseasesin your family, all in an attempt to
keeptrack of your health .~rinr to diagnosis¢u~d
[reatment.
The 1991eruption of MountPinatubo in the
Philippines (see Figure #14) provides an excellent casestudy of successful volcanological prediction. Based maic~ on scientists’ warnings,
some250,000 people safely evacuated before
the maiorJune 15 eruption. This section te#s you
the storY of monitoringefforts at MountPinatubo.
For as long as the oldest villagers could
remember,MountPinatubo had beenquiet. Then,
on Apri~ 2, 1991, people were startled to see an
explosion of steaman~( ash from a ’~ent on the
volcano’s northeast flank (see Figure #15). Within
60
(6) Before erupting your volcano, please read
sections Twothrough Nine and Part Two. This
will give you a goodunderstandingof the dynamics associated with volcanoes.
ERUPTING YOUR VOLCANO
An eruption consists of adding vinegar and
~oodcotod.n9 to ba~ing soda, a~l common
kitchen
items. Baking sode,~sa whi~epowdermadeof the
elements sodium, hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen. The chemical formula of baking soda
(NaHCO~)
tells us that its basic unit containsone
sodiumatom (Na), one hydrogen atom (Hi,
ca~on atom (C), ~nd three oxygen atoms l’O).
Whenbaking soda reacts w~.tb. ,~n~r, an ~d
solution, the sodiumand hydrogenare dissolved
into the liquid. The carbon and oxygen are
released as carbon dioxide gas (CO~). This
causes the mixture to foam. Food coloring is
addedto makethe foam look moreinteresting.
For someeruptions, trY adding a small drop
of dish soap, which helps the foamto }ast.
DIRECTIONS
(1) Add 2.5 ml (one-half teaspoon) of baking
sodato the plastic crater.
(2) In a small cup, place 15 ml. (one tablespoon)
of vinegar. Addseveral drop,~ of food coloring
(and for someeruptions try addingone small drop
o~ liquid dish soapto stiffen the foam).Stir for tire
seconds. A mixture of three drops of red and
three drops of yellow comesclosest in color to
real glowinglava. but havefun andtry someother
color mixtures. A group of six-year-bidS we
workedwith thought a mixture of blue and green
looked the best, althoughit has nothingto do with
real eruption colors!
(3) Quickly add the vinegar mixture to the baking soda in the crater and watchyour eruption!
The foaming mixture should move through the
notches in the crater’s rim and flow downthe
sides. The samething happens with lava and
12JL_ro~l_~icfl~w~ ~ real volcanoes.Yourattempt
to modela volcanoand its eruptions will benefit
from a basic understanding of volcano types,
processes,anddeposits, andsomeof the critical
controls on their eruptive behavior.Thus,in order
to makeyou first-class modelbuilders, weoffer
the following backgroundinformation.
SECTION TWO
What is a Volcano and Whereon Earth are They?
Mapshowingcentre) LuzonIsland in the Phi/ip~ines, an6~.he
location of MountP~natu~
andother
VOlcanoes
that haveeruptedin thelast five million
~’~r~ ~P~oc¢~e{uQudternaw).
FheManilatrench
marksthe I~ation wherethe Egras~an
Plate begins to subducteastwardbeneathLuzOnandthe
Philippine SeaPlate. Th~ss~b~ct~o~
z~negenerates the magmas
~at erupt {n Luzon.Cou~esy
of
ChristopherG. Newha}l(U.S. Geologi~lSuwey).
Figure #14
days, scientists from the Philippine Institute of
Volcanologyand Seismologyinstalled a, portable
~_e._i~.ogr_~_p_b.
just west of Pinatubo.Morethan
200 volcanic earthquakes were recorded in its
first ~,wm’~13~-~io~r
hourso| operation.
Volcanoes and Plate Tectonics
Earth’s volcanoes are places wheremolten
rock, or magma,~rupts on t~,e surface. At most
volcanoesthe eruptedtara, pumice,or ash, piles
up to build a hill or mountain.Manyyoung,active
volcanoes have the smooth and even majestic
profiles that we havecometo associatewith this
word (see Figure #1 ). eider volcanoes may
......... ,0,., ,=, ,u coveredwith vegetation,hiding
their true nature. Becausethey are not easily
recognized as VOlcanoes, these can be especially dangerousWhenthey awakenand erupt.
Whenmagma
reaches Earth’s surface it can
erupt in two basic ways: explosively or nonexplosively. Magma
that is rich in gasesblasts
apart to formfragmentsof different sizes, suchas
pumice ,~nd ash. Magmathat is poor in gases
erupts non-explosively to flow along the ground
as lava. If magma
cools rapidly, the liquid portion
transformsto natural _glass.
Most of the volcanoes discussed here lie
abovesea level, on continents, or islands. These
volcanoes, though, onty account for about onefourth of the magma
that reaches the surface of
the earth.
49
Mayon
Strato Vo{canoin the Philippines is famous
for its beautifully symmetrical
coneshape.Although
this is the classicalconception
of a Volcano,
in this
bookletyouwill seethat volcanoes
actu,~ltycome
in
a wide variety of shapesandsizes. Photo~y Kurt
F~son~°omithsonianInstitution).
Figure #1
EXPLANATIONBOX
_M~,%gm_~
is the name
for moltenrockUnderground.
Magma
consistsof twoor threeparts:(1) the liquid
portion in whichgasesare dissolved, (2) suspended
crystals of variousminerals,andin some
cases(3) suspended
gas bubbles.
Theremainingthree-fourths erupts on the
sea floor, mostlyalonga world-widesystemof
mountain
ranges
called_s.gr~.ading_rid_g_e_.s_
(see
Figure#2). Here,Earth’stecto.g_ni_c,~_p_late~
are
formed.Weknowrelatively little about these
eruptions,whichtypically occurabout1 ~/2 kilometers
(,.93 m~~es~
be~ov~
~e~~evel.At Iceland,
spreadingridge rises abovesea ~eveLa~ow~ng
yolcanolog~t_s
to observetheseeruptionsmore
closely.
Theworldmap(seeFigure#3) showsEarth’s
1,500volcanoesthat are known
to haveerupted
in the last 10,000years.Thesedataare fromthe
Global VolcanismProgramof the Smithsonian
Institution, where
scientistskeeptrack of Earth’s
active volcanoes.Noticethat the active volcanoesmostlylie in belts that borderthe Pacific
Ocean.Thesevolcanoes overlie subduction_
zones,p~aces
where
oneof Earth’stectonicplates
divesbeneath,
anothera.~rJ~escen~s
~ (see Figure #2). As the plate descends,
it heatsup. This drives off seawaterthat was
addedto the oceaniccrust shortly after it formed
at a spreading
ridge. Thishot wateryfluid rises
into the solid rock of earth’s mantleabovethe
subducting
plate. Thereit causes
the mantlerock
to beginmelting-
---.--"
EXPLANATION
BOX-’-’-
-
Theprocessthat generatesmagmas
in subduCtionzonesis very similar to whathappenswhen
salt is sprinkledon anicy sidewalkin the winter.Thewaterthat rises into
the hot mantle
rock, andthe salt added
to the
sidewalkice, both lower the meltingtem9e~at~res
of thesematerialsbelowthe actual temperature,~s’~ t~mto matt.
A third important
environment
for activevolcanoes
is above
Earth’sh_.qot__sL~o.~_ts.
(seeFigure
#2). These
are columns
of unusuallyhot rockthat
extendfor manyhundreds
of kilometersinto the
earth’s mantle, perhapsevento the boundary
with the coreat a depthof 2,885kilometers(1.79
miles). Thesehot columns
of rockmoveonly very
stowlyin relation to oneanother.Overtime, as
the tectonic plates moveacrossEarth’s surface
at muchfaster rates, the hot spots repeatedly
send~’~c~ ~ m~_~..~~gwardto build volcanoes. Oneafter another, volcanoesgTo’~ ~
carried awayfrom the hot spot by the moving
plate. ~n this way,a linear chainof volcanoes
forms,with the volcanoagesincreasingsteadily
in the directionthe plate is moving.
Schematic
cross-section
illustrating plate-tectoniC
processes.
"~h~ee
typeso~p~,ate5~ndedes
areshown:
1)
divergent
(moving
apart)boundaries
at oceanic
spreading
ridges,where
three-fourths
ot Earth’smagma
virtually unnoticedbyhumans;
2) convergent
(moVing
toward
oneanother)
boundaries
at 5ubduction
zones.
ndbeneath
trenchmarksthe placewhere
oneplatebeginsto desce
another.StratovolcanOes
arecommon
above
subductio~
zones;
3) transform
(moving
pastoneanother)
boundaries
that join spreadiPg’ridge
segments:
only
anic
minorvok; eruptions
occurin this environmer~t.
Alsoshown
is anoceanic
hotspotwithits overlying
chainof
ic spreading
shieldvol~anoes,
anda young
continental
rift zone,perhaps
evolving
to become
anocea~
ridge.The
lithosphere
includes
the crust(oceanic
or contir~ental)
andthe dgidpart of the underlying
mantle.
Below
the
lithosphere
is theasthenosphere,
a regionwhere
the solidrockof the mantle
flows.Thisflowage
allowsmotion
of theoverlying
platesto takeplace.
Figure#2
5O
At a largenumber
of field stationstheydescribe
the appearance
of the deposit, andmakemeasurements
of depositthickness,grainsize, color,
andother properties. Theyalso collect samples
for laboratory analysis. Because
particles of
differentsizesanddensitiesfollowdifferent paths
to the ground,a single exposure
of a pyroclasticfall deposittypically hasa verylimited rangeof
particle sizes(seeFigure#8).
Ano~,~e~
~,~,o~L’~tmechanism
of explosive
eruption produces
ground-hugging
cloudso’~
gas, pumice,andash called pyroclastic flows.
Pyroclastic-flow
depositof graypumices
surTheseare commonly
generatedalong the marrounded
by light-coloredash.Notethat a large
gins of explosiveeruptioncolumns,
where
the air
rangeof pumice
andashsizesis present.
Thisis
actsto slowthe upward
rise. Manytimesthe air
the Campanian
Ignimbriteeru ted about34000
yearsagofroma ventjus~wesPl
of Naples,
I~aly.
winsthe fight, andthe dense
cloudof gasandash
collapses backaroundthe vent andflows down
"lgnimbrite"
is a termfor a particularly
dense
type
of pyroclastic-flow deposit. Theheadof a
the flanks of the volcano.Thesehot, churning
geologist’s hammer
providesscale. Photoby
cloudsmove
rapidly downhillat velocities upto
James
F.
Luhr
(Smithsonian
Institution).
100kilometers/hour
(62.1miles/hour),generally
following streamvalleys (see Figure #9). BeFigure #10
~a~~,~j moveso rapidly, andengulf anything
Onthe sea floor, low-viscosity magmas
comin their patios, pyroclas~¢~:
’f~w~ "~ \~
m~%~
~,~%t.~f.o~m~illow laveS.Thehot magma
deadlystyle of volcaniceruption. Because
they
oozesout like toothpastefromatL~e’~
are formedfromthe entire eruptioncloud,
freezes against cold sea water. This produces
elastic-flow_ deposits containa wide rangeof
particle sizes(seeFigure#10).In this way,they elongatedandbulbouspillow shapes(see Figure
canbedistinguished
frompyroclastic-fall depos- #11). Pillow laves a(so formwhenlava erupted
on land reachesa bodyof water. Low-viscosity
its, whichhavea much
narrower
rangeof particle
magmas
erupted from volcanoeson land. such
sizes (seeFigure#8).
as Kilauea andMauna
Loain Hawaii, commonly
take on twoforms.Pahoehoe
lava hasa braided,
ropeyform, whereas
_a_a.hasa spinytexture(see
Figure12). Bothpahoehoe
andaa typescan also
be found among
sea-floor lavas andat subduc(~on-zone
volcanoes.In the latter environment,
however,
viscous~avamb’,~c"~JfeJ~.moves
as very
sluggishjumblesof large ,~ndsmallblocks.This
is calledblocklava (seeI~igure#13).
Apymclastic
flowracesdown
a stream
valleyon
th flankof Arenal
theso~
Volcano,
Costa
Rice,on
July13, 1987.These
hotchurning
cloudsof gas,
gumk;e,
andashmove
at speeds
upto 100kilorne"
tars/hour~,~2.~, ~\~/~. The~,are the n~ost
deadlytypeof volcanicphenomenon,
destroying
everything
in their path.Photoby Willia~G.
Melson
(Smithsonian
Institution).
Figure#9
NON-EXPLOSIVE
ERUPTIONS
AND LAVA TYPES
(3as-poormagmas
erupt to formlav~ flows.
Lava
occurs
in.fourmaintypes:~)illow, g.a~ttoehoe,
59
~,a, andblock.
Pillowlavesphotographed
froma research
submarine
nearthe summit
of Loihi Volcano
onJuly
20,1988.
These
plllow~lie about
1 kilometer
(.621
miles)below
sealevelatoptheyoungest
active
volcano
in the Hawaiian
chain.Photocoudesy
of
HawaiiUndersea
Research
Laboratory.
Fl~’ure#11
SECTION SIX
Different Kinds of Eruptions and Volcanic Rocks
Volcanic eruptions can have manydifferent
styles of activity and can producemanydifferent
depOsits.In this section, volcanic eruptions are
discussed in two broad categories: explosive
eruptions that produce ~Y£0~I~.~_~(Greek for
"fire-broken") deposits of ash, cinder, and pumice; and non-explosive eruptions that produce
lava flows.
A common
pyroclastic eruption style is for
the mixture of hot gasesand magma
to be blasted
straight up fromthe volcaniccrater into the air at
speeds that can reach 500 meters/second or
1,800 kilometers/hour (5905 feet or 1117miles/
hour) (see Figure #7). In the largest explosive
eruptions, the clouds ca~d.se t~ ~,b~,~%5~3 ~\~’lets [31 miles) aboveEarth’s surface.
The largest and densest particles are the
first to fal~ fromthe eruption cloud. TheseaccuEXPLOSIVE ERUPTIONS
AND PYROCLASTIC DEPOSITS
mulate closest to the vent, helping to build the
Explosive eruptions are poweredby rapidly
volcanic cone. The smaller and less dense ash
expanding gases. Usually those gases were
particles fall at greater distances. Suchdeposits
oncedissolved in the liquid portion of the magma generally blanket the landscapeand are called
itself and bubbledout of tl~e liquid as the magma pyroclastic-fa(I deposits. Becausethe ~ruptior~
clouds are carried I~y the wind, the deposits
rose beneath the volcano and pressure on the
magmawas reduced. ~n othe~ cases, hot magma commonlyhave the shape of an oval, elongated
in the direction the wind is moving. Thetotal
comesin contact with water in a lake, as snowor
ice, or underground,with similarly explosive rethickness and the averageparticle size generalt¥
decr~as~w~thall, stance from the volcano. Oneof
suits. In either case, the expandinggasesblast
tb, e ma~ma
~nt~, ~ragmen~s
that range from carthe first tasks for volcanologistsfollowing explosive volcanic eruptions is mappingthe distribusize blocks to fine dust. Thesefragments, retion of the deposits.
gardlessof size, are called py_ro.cJa~,~,and their
deposits
are calledpy._r_o_cl~a_st_ic.
The Hawaiian Islands have the best-known
examplesof hot-spot volcanoes. The active
volcanoes MaunaLoa and Kitauea lie at the
southeasterntip of a 6,000 kilometer (3726 mile)
long chain of island and submarine volcanoes
that has grownabovea stationary hot spot for
morethan 70 million years.
The newestHawaiianvolcano, cal~ed Loihi,
is already ~jrow~n~~ ~,~-~ ~,~ ~,e’a ’floor.
course, it is southeastof Kilauea andMaunaLoa.
Its top is now about one kilometer below sea
level.
EXPLANATION BOX
Units: In this section weusemotric units of
length. Equivalent English units are given
below.
Metric System
1 millimeter (mini
1 centimeter(cn~)
1 kilometer (kin)
~eP~i~o~,
~y’o’~em
0.039 inches
0.394 inches
0.621 miles
worldmapshowing
locations for 1,500volcanoes
that haveeruptedduring the last 10,000years.Datafrom
the Smithsonian’sGlobalVolcanismProgram.
Figure #3
Who studies
~P",/,~x~-.’~,~\~;-~t,\\
d, e1:~bs~
c,’l w~’¢te
pumice
andOccasional gray fragmentsof lava. Notethat a rather
narrowrangeof pumicesizes is present.This is
typicalof pyroclastic-falldeposits.
Fineashparticles
werecarriedawayby the windto fall at much
greater
distances. This deposit waseruptedabout15,000
years ago from San Juan Volcano, Mexico. A
hammer
gives the scale. Photoby JamesF. Luhr
(Smithsonian
Institution).
Cerro NegroVolcano,Nicaragua,viewedfrom the
east, duringan eruptionin 1968.Gas,cinders,~,nd
ashare being blastedinto the air. Photoby "~om
Bretz.
Figure #7
58
Figure #8
Volcanoes and Why?
Thescientists whostudy volcanoesare called
volcanologists. The usual road to becoming a
volcanologist is to study geologyat a college or
university, and then to attend ~raduate~b.~,’,,~,
tece’Weadditional training andto begin conducting re.searchworkfor a Master’sor Ph.D.degree.
Volcar~ologists are principally employedat colleges or universities, and by governmentorganizations, including official volcano observatories
placed near important active volcanoesir~ various p~rts of the world. The U.S. Geological
Surveyruns three volcano observatories located
in Hawaii, the Cascades,and Alaska. It yo~enjoy
51
nature, hiking, and camping, and are good at
math and science, you, too, mayone day become
a volcanologist.
"m addition to this geological road to becoming a volcanologist, ea(th passingyear seesmore
and moreimportant contributions to the study of
volcanoes being madeby scientists trained in
other fields. Major advancesin monitoring volcanic activity have been madeby geoohysicist~
who study earthquakes and precise changesin
the shapeof the land ~urface that can precede
and accompanyeruptions. Chemists and physicists have developedinstruments for analyzing
volcanicrocks andmineralsandfor re-creating
miniature magma
bodies in laboratory furnaces
at high temperatures
andpressures.
Chemists
andphysicistsalso designinstruments
that areplacedonsatellites in orbit around
the earthandcantrack cloudsof volcanicas~hand
gas as windscarry themaroundthe planet (see
Figure#4).
Satellite image
of the spreading
eruptioncloud
fromthe Philippinevolcano
Mount
Pinatubo
as it
looked
4 hours
and45minutes
following
thestart of
the majorexplosiveeruptiononJune15, 1991.
Thevolcanois labeledandblacklines show
the
coastof Luzon
andotherislands.Theimage
was
takenbya weather
satellite ~perated
bythe National Oceanic
andAtmospheric
Administration
(NOAA).
Courtesyof George
Stephens
(NOAA).
Figure#4
Whystudy volcanoes?
Ona personallevel,
manyvolcanologistswouldanswerthat the work
is fun, fascinating,andallowsthemto hike around
in beautifulsettingsdoingthe worktheylove,as
well as getting paidfor it! Ona morepractical
level, societiesneedto understand
the past behaviorof potentiallyactivevolcanoes
as the best
means
of anticipatingthe effects of ~tureeruptions. Mo_n_it_o_ri_ng
of theseactivevolcanoes
using
a variety of instrumentsis also essential for
providingtimely warning
for evacuations
of people
fromthreater~ed
areas.Andyoudon’t haveto live
nearan active volcanoto be threatenedby it!
Manyvolcanic eruptions senddensecloudsof
gasandashparticlesinto the air, where
theydrift
with the windfor hundreds
andeventhousands
~f
kilometers.When
airplanesfly into theseclouds
they can be damaged
in a variety of ways,most
seriouslywhen
their enginesingestashandfail.
Since1980morethan eighty commercial
aircraft
haveflowninto volcanicashclouds.Fortunately,
all wereable to land safely. Still, they had
extensivedamage,
rangingfromscratchedwindowsto ruined engines.Repairbills haveexceededtwo hundredmillion dollars. Onthe
positive side, volcanoes
provideheatthat canbe
tappedto produceelectricity (geothermalenergy). Volcanoes
also help to form mineraldeposits that modern
societiesneed.For theseand
other reasons,the worldneedsvolcanologiststo
paycareful attentionto active volcanoes.
SECTIONFOUR
bifferent Kindsof Volcanoes
Controlledby the
ThreeV’s of Magma:
Volume,Volatiles, andViscosity
Volcanoes
can be touredin a wide rangeof
shapesand sizes. Whatcontrols the type of
volcanothat develops?
In large part the volcano
type is controlledby three things: the volume
of
magma
erupted,the amount
of volatiles or gases
it contains,
andits visc_os~it.y.
CALDERA
Theseare circular to oval-shaped
collapse
depressions
(see Figure#6e- also Figures#18,
#19and#20). Theyformwhena large amountof
magma
is rapidly erupted from a hugechamber
underground.
Theeruption removes
supportfor
the overlyingportion of the volcano,whichcollapsesinto the void, producing
the caldera.They
are common
on strato volcanoes and shield
volcanoes,but giant calderaswith diametersof
30-100
kilometers(18.6-62.1miles)cancut across
a landscape
built by severalearlier volcanoes.
Exceptfor calderason shield volcanoes,most
other caldera-formingeruptionsare extremely
violent. Theyinvolve viscous, gas-rich magmas
and producetowering ash ~olumnsand devastating pyroclastic flows, ground-hugging
avalanchesof hot ash andgas. Thelargest known
explosive eruptions typically producelarge
calderas.
Aerialviewof CraterLake,Oregon,
looking
toward
the east-southeast.
Despite
its name,
this is e
largevolcanic
caldera,
formed
about
5,700
B.C.in
oneof thelargestexplosive
eruptions
onEarthin
the last 10,000
years.CraterLakeis the deepest
bodyof freshwaterin the UnitedStates.Wizard
Islandis a younger
conethat grewwithin the
caldera.Photocourtesyof RoyBailey (U.s.
Geological
Survey).
Figure#6e
TheThreeV’s:
Volume:mediumto high
Volatites:low to high
Viscosity:lowto high
Example:Crater Lake, Oregon
Calderawidth: 8 x 9 km(4.5 x 5.5 miles)
Initial calderadepth:1,220meters
(4002ft.)
Presentlake depth:590meters(1935feet)
Volumeofpum~ce
and 3
ash erupted: 100km
~)
(23.9miles
Active lifespan of volcanicsystem:about
400,000years
FLOOD BASALT PLATEAU
Thesevoluminousfluid lavas erupt from
swarms
of fissures andcovervast areas. They
includesome
of the largest single eruptiveunits
known.Repeatederuptions over geologically
shortperiodsof timebuilcl upthick lava plateaus
with verygentleslopes(see Figure#6f).
Certain flood basalt provinceshaveages
that coincidewithEarth’smajorbiologicalextinction events, andmanyscientists believe that
floodbasalteruptions
playeda critical role in the
evolutionof life onthe planet.
Sm~lloneseject lava or pumice
andashwith
a volumethat is just a small part of a (~ubic
kilometer.Thelargest lava eruptionin recorded
history, at the IcelandicvolcanoLaki in 1783,
produced15 km3 (3.58 miles3) of lava. The
largest~xplosive
eruptionin recorded
history, at
the Indonesian
volcanoTambora
in 1815,ejected
TheThreeV’s:
3 (35.8 miles3) of pumiceandash.
VOLUME:
In the kitchen we measure
volumesin
Volume:high
about150km
units of teaspoons,table~poons,andcups. At
Volatiles: low
Some
hugeexplosiveeruptionspreservedin the
thegasstationweuseunitsof liters or gallons.In
Viscosity:low
geological record, including ones from
a similar way,volcanolo(jists measure
erupted Yellow~tone
Park,ejectedmorethana thoCJsand
volumes
with anappropri~~te
(andreally big) unit,
cubickilometers(239miles3) of pumice
andash.
Example: ColumbiaPlateau, Washingtonand
the cubickilometer(kin"~) or (.239 cubicmiles).
Thevolumeof magma
involved in an erLJption,
Oregon
Imaginean enormous
cubethat is onekilometer the eruptionstyle, andthe frequency
Thickness:up to 4.2 km(2.6 miles)
of erLIptions
(.621 miles)longoneachof its edges:that is
are importantcontrolson volcanotype.
Areacovered:164,000km~ ~)
(63,140miles
~) (.~39cubicmiles). Volca~ ’~)
cubickilometer(1 km
Volume:175,000km
(41,825miles
~
nic eruptionsrangewidely in size (see Figure VOLATILES:
Slope:less than 2
The amountof volatiles or gases
# 5).
Active
lifespan:2 ¯ 3 million years
52
57
Lav~,s
of theColumbia
1rood
basaltplatea,~
blanket~,boutone-quarter
of Washington
and£)regon
states.Herea sequence
of the lavasabout150
meters
thickis exposed
in thewallsof Washihgton’s
PalouseRiver Canyon.Photoby Dor~aldA.
Swanson
(U.S.Geological
SurveyS.
Figure#6f
STRATO
present in the magma
controls howexplosive the
eruption will be. Common
gases in magmasare
water, carbondioxide, sulfur dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide. Whenthe magma
is deepin Earth’s
~L~I.fl~ or crust, th~ tremendous
pressureof the
overlying rocks allows these gases to be dissolved within the liquid portion of the magma.
As
the magmanears Earth’s surface beneath a
volcano, the pressure is dramaticaily towered
and the gasescan no longer be held by the liquid.
VOLCANO
Thesesteep-sided structures grow from the
repeated eruption of viscous magma.Gas-dch
v~scousmagma
can erupt explosively. This b~asts
the magmaapart and blankets the volcano’s
s~opes with the fragments - ash, ~inder, and
pumice. These explosive eruptions are commonly followed by eruptions of gas-poor magma,
which producethick flows of slowly movingblock
lava (see Figure # 13). Thealternation ot ashand
lava layers, or strata, gives rise to the name
strafe
volcano (see Figure #6c).
First
YELLOWSTONEISLAND PARK
¯.
The Three V’s:
Volume: medium
Volatiles: mediumto high
Viscosity: mediumto high
EXPLANATtON BOX
Each time you hold a soda bottle in your
hands you hold a wonderful model of an
explosive volcano that ~n teach you about
the ro~e of vo~afiles in magmas.
A~I carbonated
drinks contain carbon-dioxide (CO
z)
gas. This gas is injected into the sodaunder
high presst~re at the bottling plant andgives
the sodaits fizz. To simulate an explosive
eruption:
~,,:~.,,~..
......
"
Rectangularcubesare scaledto showthe volumes
ot pumiceandashejectedin progressivelylarger
en~ptJons.Thethree largest events showntook
}lace at Yellowstone
NationalPerkduringthe last
Iwo m~l~on
years. ~/,From:TheYel)owstone
Hotspot
(1994)by RobertB. SmithandLawrence
W.Braile.
Journalof Volcanotogy
and Geothermal
Research)]
R~ri~te~
f~rn the Journalof Vole.analogy
andGeo~l",enna}
Reeaa,’ch.
SHIELD
V. 61 by Retort B, SmithandLawrence
W6ro.i(o. TheYe;IowstOne
~. p, 121-187, ( 1994). with kind p~n~issiOn
of Elsevier ~e¢"¢~
NL, S~raSurger~artslraat25,1055KVAmsterdam.
TheNetherlands,
VOLCANO
Thesebroad, gently sloped volcanoes (see
Figure #Sd), namedfor their resemblanceto a
warrior’s shield, are formed by repeated eruptions of very fluid lava (see Figure #12). Eruptions are usually non-explosive, and issue from
the summitor from fissures that mayradiate from
the summitor partly encircle it.
Rgure #5
instead they form countlesstiny bubblesthat
grow larger and larger as the magma
becomesa
moltenfoam. As it erupts, this foambreaksapart
into .n.mice2,":,~ C,31".tJ,,,diuiu~ anOthe rapidly
expandinggases that explosively drive themout
of the volcanic crater¯ This is the sameprocess
that you will model each time you erupt your
The Three V’s:
Volume: mediumto high
Volati~es: low
Viscosity: low
Profile of snow-capped
MaunaLea Shield Volcano,Hawaii,taker~fr~rn the east. Mauna
Leais
oneof Earth’s mostactive volcanoes.Its last
eruption wasin 1984.Photoby RichardS. Fiske
(Smithsonian
Institution).
Example: MaunaLea, Hawaii
Height abovesea floor: 9 km(5.58 mi~es)
Length at sea level: 130 km (80.73 miles)
~
Volume: 65,000 - 80,000 km
~)
( 15,535-19,120miles
°Slope on land: 3 - 10
Active lifespan: about 600,000years
Figure# 6d
56
This helps gas
Second Removethe cap. "The carbon dioxide can no longer be held in the
soda under the newlow pressure.
In response, the soda foams and
shoots out of the bottle. Thesame
thing happens when gas-rich
magma
"feels" the low pressure of
Earth’s atmosphereand foamsbeneatha volcano.It ultimately erupts
as an explosive mixture of pumice,
ash, and hot expanding gases.
Profile of MountRainierStrafeVolcanotakentrom
the east. Theirregular summitwascarvedby
glaciers that still coverthe upperslopes,This
active volcanotowersover the nearbycities of
Seattle andTacoma.
Past eruptionshavemelted
snowandice at the surnmitandproduced
dangerousmudflows
that raceddownthe f~anksandfar
out into the lands beyond.Photoby RichardS.
Fiske(Smithsonian
Institution)¯
Example: Mount Rainier, Washington
Height abovesurroundings:2.3 km(1.4 miles)
Diameter: 8 kilometers (4.96 miles)
Volumeof cone: 86 km3 ~)
(20.5 miles
°Slope: 20 - 35
Active lifespan: abouthaft a million years
Shake the bottle.
bubbles to form.
The magmasformed in different tectonic
settings differ in their gas contentsand eruptive
sty}as.
Magmaserupted in subduction zones are
the most gas-rich, and subduction-zone volcanoes have beenthe sites of Earth’s most explosNeand deadly eruptions durin9 ~istorica~ times
(see Table 1 on the following page).
The main gas in subduction-zone magmas
is water, or more properly steam. This water
53
starts as seawaterthat ~s carried into Earth’s
mantle by the subductedplate. After the plate
descendsmorethan fifty kilometers (31.05 miles)
into the earth, the seawaterrises from it to invade
the overlying mantle. This invasion of water
causesthe mantleto begin melting, and the water
gets caught up in the magmasformed by this
melting. In contrast, the magmas
erupted along
spreading ridges and at hot-spot volcanoesare
generally muchpoorer in gases, and these erupt
muchless explosively. Their eruptions typ~ca=4y
formlav~ in~!e2dcf ~,~-,;,,~ .-,id ~sn.
VISCOSITY:Magmasrange widely in chemical
composition, temperature, amountof crystals,
and percentage of gas bubbles. A}I of these
factors affect how easily the magmacan flow.
Volcano(ogistsuse the term viscosity to describe
howrigid a magma
is. Silicon dioxide (SiO~),
ili~.~, is the most abundantchemical component
in magmas.
It also hasthe strongestinfluence on viscosity. Magmas
that are rich in silica are the most
viscous:they are very d, gid anddonot flow easily.
Crystals and gas bubblesalso increase the viscosity. Temperaturehas the opposite effect. As
it increases, viscosity decreases.
LAVA DOME
TABLE1
LargestExplosiveEruptionsof the 19th and20th Centuries
Year
Volcano
Location
1991
"~3oj’~
1982
1980
1956
1932
1912
1907
1902
1886
1883
1875
1854
1835
1822
1815
Cerro Hudson
Pinatubo
El Chich6n
MountSt. Helens
Bezymianny
Cerro Azul/Quizapu
Novarupta/Katmai
Ksudach
Santa Maria
Tarawera
Krakatau
Askja
Sheveluch
Coseguina
Galunggung
Tambora
Chile
P~.~i~nss
Mexico
Washington,U.S.
Kamchatka,Russia
Chile
Alaska.U.S.
Kamchatka,Russia
Guatemala
NewZealand
Indonesia
Iceland
Kamchatka,Russia
Nicaragua
Indonesia
Indonesia
First Historical
Eruption?
Deaths
no
~jes
yes
no
yes
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
0
~3~
2,000
57
0
0
2
0
>5,000
>150
36,417
0
0
5-10
4,011
92,000
All thesevolcanoes,
except
Askja,arelocatedabove
subduction
Zones.
All theseeruptions
produced
pyroclast~c
deposits
withvolumes
of at least1 cubickilometer
(.239cubicmiles).All butfourwere
thefirst historicaleruption
known
fromthevolcano,
andthehighdeathtolls (in heavilypopulated
regions)
reflect this fact. Reprinted
from
Volcanoes
of the World(SimkinandSiebert,1994.)
Lavasof unusualsilica-poor composition
(40%by weightSiO2) eruptedfrom the African
volcanoNyiragongo
can haveextremelylow viscosities. Theycan flow downslopeas fast as
hou0anddrain awayfrom the landscapelike
flood watersto leavedepositsjust tensof centimeters(3.9’s of inches) thick. Hawaiianlavas
havehighersilica contents(50 percentSiO~)and
so they are moreviscous. Still, they can flow
rapidly awayfromthe ~at velocities of up to 50
kilometers/hour(31 miles/hour) andleave deposits severalmetersthick.
Manylavas erupte~from subduction-zone
volcanoeshave60-70percentSiO~,andcan be
ve~ viscous. Theselavas flow ve~slowly at
rates of meters, or tens of metersper hour.
Viscouslavas pile up aroundthe vent forming
lava domes
or stubby~avaflows that are 50-100
meters(54-109yards)thick.
Theseform whenviscous, gas-poor lava
piles uparounda ventlike toothpastesqueezed
froma tube. Mostlava domes
are the result of a
singleeruptionor a fewcloselyspaced
eruptions,
but in somecasesdomegrowthcan continuefor
decades. Lavadomescommon~,~
emerge~t~e
flanksof strato volcar~oes,
or withintheir summit
craters or calderas- as in the photoof the lava
dome
in MountSt. Flelens’ crater (see Figure
#6a).
TheThreeV’s."
Volume:low
Volatiles: low
Viscosity: medium
to high
Example:
MountSt. I’telens, Washington,
19801986 Lava Dome
Height: 270meters(295 yards)
Diameter:1000meters(1093yards)
~ ~)
Volume:0.07 km
(0.016 miles
Slope:°30- 37
Activelifespan: six years
Following
thepowerful
explosive
eruptior~
of Mount
~t. Helens
onMay
18, 1980,in Washington
state,
a lavadome
grew
insidethe volcano’s
new
crater.
Herea helicopterhoversoverthe steaming
dome
in 1984.Photoby LeeSiebert (Smithsonian
Institution).
Figure #6a
CINDER CONE
- EXPLANATION
BOX ~
Wehaveall experiencedthe influence of
viscosity in our daily lives. Considerthe
differencebetween
catsupandcookingoil.
Pourboth on a plate. Thecatsupis more
viscousandpiles up in a thick mound,
~ust
like silica-rich subduction-zone
lavas. The
cookingoil is less viscousandflowsrapidly
awayto forma thin layer, just like Hawaiian
lavas. Considerthe differencebetween
cold
cookingoil pouredon a plate andhot Cooking oil in a frying pan.Thehotteroil, like a
hotter magma,
is less viscous, flows more
easily, andformsa thinnerlayer.
Theseare built by cindersfalling froman
eruption cloud. Expansionof gases, formerly
dissolvedin the magn~a,
drive the eruption.Redh~clots ot magma
ar~b~s’=ed
~r~tolhea’~r, where
they cool andhardeninto spongycinders. Wind
carries awaythe fine ash. while a hailstormof
coarsecindersfalls to constructthe steep-sided
cone,with a slopeangleof 30-34degrees.Lava
flows can simultaneously
erupt fromvents near
the conebase(see Figure #6b).
Cindercones
canformsinglyor in clustersin
a volcanicfield. Theycanalso format summit
or
flank ventson strato volcanoes
or shield volcanoes,as just oneeventin the growthof these
larger cones.
TheThreeV’s:
Volume:low
Volatiles: medium
Viscos~’ty:medium
SECTIONFIVE
Six VolcanoTypes
Example..Par[cutin, Mexico(1943-1952)
Height: 424meters(463yards)
In this sectionwecontrastsix majortypesof
with regard to the three V’s of magma,
anda
Diameter:900meters(984 yards)
volcanoes:
lava domes,
~;indercones,strato volspecific example
volcanois given. Photographs
~ ~)
Volume
of cone:0.08 km
(.023 miles
canoes,shield volcanog~,calderas, andflood
of thosesix examples
are shownin Fig~Jres6a
°Slope:30- 34
basalt ~lateaus.EachVOlcano
type is discussed throu~jh6f.
Activelifespan: nineyears
54
ParfcutinVolcano
is a famous
cinderconethat
Was
bornin a Mexican
cornfieldonFebruary
20,
1943,
asthe farmer
andhis familywatched.
It was
earefuli,jstudiedall throughout
its r~ine-~/e~r
lifespan.Thisphotowastakenfrom2 1/2 kilometers (1.55miles)to thenorthin March,
1944.
The
landscape
is buriedin ash.Rugged
lavaflows,
erupted
fromventsat thenortheast
basaof the
newcone,are advancing
northward.Photoby
ArgoBrehme.
Figure#6b
55