nambe pt 1.qxp - New Mexico Office of Archaeological Studies

Transcription

EXCAVATIONS AT LA 103919,
A DEVELOPMENTAL PERIOD SITE NEAR NAMBE PUEBLO
STEPHEN C. LENTZ
A DEVELOPMENTAL PERIOD SITE NEAR
NAMBE PUEBLO, SANTA FE COUNTY,
NEW MEXICO
Lentz
Museum of New Mexico
Office of Archaeological Studies
AN
199
MNM
~
OAS
MUSEUM OF NEW MEXICO
OFFICE OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL STUDIES
ARCHAEOLOGY NOTES 199
2005
OFFICE OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL STUDIES
MUSEUM OF NEW MEXICO
A DEVELOPMENTAL PERIOD SITE NEAR
NAMBÉ PUEBLO, SANTA FE COUNTY,
NEW MEXICO
Stephen C. Lentz
With contributions by
Nancy Akins
Joan K. Gaunt
Richard G. Holloway
Janet Spivey
Sonya Urban
Laurie Webster
Natasha Williamson
C. Dean Wilson
John Zackman
Submitted by
Timothy D. Maxwell, Ph.D.
Principal Investigator
ARCHAEOLOGY NOTES NO. 199
Santa Fe
2005
New Mexico
ADMINISTRATIVE SUMMARY
Between June 15 and October 5, 1994, the Office
of Archaeological Studies completed a data recovery program at LA 103919 along NM 503 near
Pojoaque and Nambé Pueblos.
LA 103919 is a multicomponent site located on
both sides of NM 503, on private land and highway
right-of-way acquired from private sources.
Prehistoric (A.D. 900–1200) and historic
(1880s–1940s) resources were investigated.
Preliminary ceramic data suggest that the western
component of LA 103919 dates between A.D. 900
and 1000 while the eastern component dates somewhat later, possibly between A.D. 1000 and 1200.
No further investigations were recommended for
either the prehistoric or historic portions of LA
103919.
MNM Project No. 41.579 (NM 503 Nambé)
CPRC Excavation Permit SE-100
NMSHTD No. SP-BS-1511(200)
CN 2388
NMCRIS Activity No. 44010
Submitted in fulfillment of the Joint Powers
Agreement D0 5486 between the New Mexico
State Highway and Transportation Department and
the Office of Archaeological Studies, Museum of
New Mexico, Office of Cultural Affairs.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The Office of Archaeological Studies, Museum of New Mexico, is grateful for the support and the cooperation provided by the local landowners, Jack and Joan Konopak, the Smith family, and representatives
of Pojoaque and Nambé Pueblos. This report is dedicated to Edith Clinton Truslow (1911–2002), Helen P.
Lilly (1910–1998), and our beloved friend, Natasha Williamson (1946–2005).
ii
CONTENTS
Administrative Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ii
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ii
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
Physiography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
Geology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
Flora . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
Fauna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
Cultural History Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
The Developmental Period (A.D. 600–1200) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
The Coalition Period (A.D. 1200–1325) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
The Classic Period (A.D. 1325–1600) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
The Historic Period of the Tewa Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
Nambé Pueblo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
Pojoaque Pueblo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
Field and Laboratory Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
Excavation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
LA 103919W: Component Description by Stephen C. Lentz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
LA 103919E: Component Description by Joan K. Gaunt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58
Ethnohistory of LA 103919 and the Historic Period of Pojoaque Pueblo by Janet Spivey and
Stephen C. Lentz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59
Pojoaque Pueblo: The Historic Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59
Land History and Use Associated with LA 103919 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62
Lithic Artifacts by John Zachman and Stephen Lentz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70
East Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
West Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
Ceramic Artifacts by C. Dean Wilson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89
Attribute Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89
Stylistic Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93
Reconstructible Vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93
iii
Typological Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93
Gray Ware Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95
Brown Ware Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
White Ware Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
The Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114
Identification of Ceramic Resource Availability and Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .118
Geology and Ceramic Resources in the Nambé Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120
Exchange and Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .123
Functional Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .140
Reconstructible Vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .147
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .147
Ground Stone Artifacts by Sonya O. Urban . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .151
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .151
Summary of Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .156
Ornaments and More: The Miscellaneous Artifact Assemblage by Sonya O. Urban . . . . . . . . . . . . .159
Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159
Miscellaneous Artifact Analysis Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159
Discussion of Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .165
Trade at LA 103919 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .173
Conclusions of Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .176
Historic Analysis by Natasha Williamson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .179
Analytical Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .179
Homestead Testing Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .179
Results from Excavation of the Pit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .180
Artifacts with Maker’s Marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .181
Dating the Deposit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .181
Bone Assemblage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183
Comparison of the Two Proveniences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
Unidentifiable Artifacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
Historic Component Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
Fauna by Nancy J. Akins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .187
Research Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .187
Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .187
Taxa Represented . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .187
Environmental Alteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .195
Animal Alteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .197
Seasonality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .197
Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .197
Modified Bone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .197
Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .200
Human Remains by Nancy J. Akins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .203
Burial Descriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .203
Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .211
iv
The Nambé Site and the Settlement of the Tewa Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215
Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215
The Ceramic Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .216
Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .218
Migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .220
Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .224
Chronology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .224
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .225
Summary and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .227
Architecture and Site Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .227
Site Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .228
Subsistence: Botanical Remains and Fauna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .228
Ceramic Assemblage and Temporal Affiliation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229
Burials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229
Textile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .230
On-site Activities and Lithic Artifacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .231
Chronometric Data and Ceramic Artifacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .231
Ethnological Research and the Historic Period at Nambé . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .231
Concluding Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .232
References Cited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .233
Appendix 1. Petrographic Analysis of Ceramics from LA 103919 by David V. Hill . . . . . . . . . . . . .251
Appendix 2. Macrobotanical Materials from Middle and Late Developmental Phase
and Historic Components of LA 103919, near Nambé, NM by Mollie S. Toll . . . . . . . . . . . . . .261
Appendix 3. Pollen Analysis from LA 103919, Santa Fe County, New Mexico by
Richard G. Holloway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .279
Appendix 4. Textile Analysis by Laurie Webster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .285
Appendix 5. Radiocarbon Report for Textile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .289
Appendix 6. Site Location and Legal Description (removed from copies in general circulation) . . .291
v
FIGURES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Project vicinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2
The boundaries of the Tewa Basin . . . . . .10
The Enrique Martinez map . . . . . . . . . . . .18
LA 103919, East and West Components .24
West Component, LA 103919 . . . . . . . . .28
Stratigraphy of West Component . . . . . . .30
(a) Plan view and profile of Feature 1 . . .31
(b) Final photograph, Feature 1 . . . . . . . .32
8. Plan view and profile of Feature 2 . . . . . .33
9. Plan view and profile of Feature 3 . . . . . .33
10. (a) Plan view of Feature 4 . . . . . . . . . . . .34
(b) Profile of Feature 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
(c) Final photograph of Feature 4 . . . . . .35
11. Feature 5, LA 103919W . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
12. (a) Plan view of Feature 11, LA103919W
(b) Profile of Feature 11, LA 103919W . .37
13. Feature 12, LA 103919W . . . . . . . . . . . . .38
14. Feature 20, LA 103919W . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
15. (a-b) Feature 24, LA 103919W . . . . . . . .42
16. East Component, LA 103919 . . . . . . . . . .44
17. Profile of backhoe trench, LA 103919E . .45
18. Plan and profile of Feature 27 . . . . . . . . .46
22. (a) Plan and profile of Feature 31 . . . . . .48
(b) Final photograph of Feature 31 . . . . .49
23. Feature 32, LA 103919E . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
25. Feature 37, LA 103919E . . . . . . . . . . . . .51
27. Final photograph, Feature 39 . . . . . . . . . .52
28. Plan and profile of Room 3 . . . . . . . . . . .53
29. Final photograph of Room 3 . . . . . . . . . .54
30. Plan and profile of Room 4 . . . . . . . . . . .55
31. Final photograph of Room 4 . . . . . . . . . .56
32. Profile of Room 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56
33. Historic component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60
34. Homestead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
35. Homestead in early 1960s with Barrancas
and Jemez Mountains in background . . . .64
36. View of entrance to Trusty and Lil's house,
Acequia del Caño and historic homestead,
1950 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65
37. Cores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
vi
38. Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
39. Projectile points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
40. Wide Neckbanded types . . . . . . . . . . . . .102
41. Narrow Neckbanded types . . . . . . . . . . .103
42. Corrugated types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106
43. Red Mesa style ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . .109
44. Pueblo II solid and hatched designs . . . .111
45. Reconstructed and whole vessels;
(a) Vessel 1, corrugated pitcher, (b) Vessel
2, corrugated cooking-storage jar,
(c) Vessel 3, plain gray olla, (d) Vessel 4,
neck-coiled cooking–storage jar; (e) Vessel 9,
corrugated pitcher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .148
46. Trough metate, Feature 1, LA 103919W 156
47. Mano converted to a maul, LA 103919E 157
48. Metate with multiple use surfaces . . . . .157
49. Shell morphology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .160
50. Modified shell used in mosaic inlay . . . .160
51. San Andrés chert pendant and partial shell
pendant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .161
52. Clay bear effigy, LA 103919E . . . . . . . .161
53. Sandstone concretion and Apache Tear
associated with Burials 4 and 5 . . . . . . .162
54. Turquoise pendants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .162
55. Freshwater mussel shell pendant . . . . . .162
56. Discoidal beads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .162
57. Olivella shell beads, bone bead, and
unidentified shell bead . . . . . . . . . . . . . .163
58. Cordage, LA 103919E . . . . . . . . . . . . . .164
59. Textile, LA 103919W . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .164
60. White ware serving dish . . . . . . . . . . . . .180
61. Screw pin clevis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .182
62. Doll's face and head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183
63. Toy vehicle wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183
64. Unidentified copper item . . . . . . . . . . . .183
65. Burial 1, porotic hyperostosis . . . . . . . . .205
66. Burial 2, healed trauma . . . . . . . . . . . . . .206
67. Burial 3, enthesophyte on distal humerus
shaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .207
68. Burial 4, Schmorl's node . . . . . . . . . . . . .208
69. Burial 5, right maxillary teeth . . . . . . . . .208
70. Burial 5, healed compression fracture . .209
71. Burial 6, abscess of maxillary canine . . .210
72. Burial 6, second and third cervical
vertebra articular surfaces . . . . . . . . . . .210
73. Burial 6, healed compression fracture . .210
TABLES
1. Entradas and important historical dates in
relations between the Pueblos and
the Spanish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
2. Possible Nambé ancestral sites . . . . . . . . .16
3. Features of LA 103919, West and East
Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
4. Frequency of morphology type, East
Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
5. Frequency of material type, East
Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
6. Frequency of material quality, East
Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72
7. Frequency of cortex, percent increments,
East Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72
8. Frequency of core flake cortex, percent
increments, East Component . . . . . . . . . .72
9. Frequency of cortex increment for
angular debris, East Component . . . . . . . .72
10. Frequency of portion type, East
Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
11. Frequency of platform type, East
Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
12. Frequency of heat treatment forms,
East Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
13. Frequency of wear patterns, East
Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
14. Frequency of core type by material type,
East Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
15. Frequency of formal tools, East
Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
16. Frequency of morphology type, West
Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
17. Frequency of material type, West
Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
18. Frequency of material quality, West
Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82
19. Frequency of cortex, percent increments,
West Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82
20. Frequency of core flake cortex, percent
increments, West Component . . . . . . . . . .82
21. Frequency of cortex increment for angular
debris, West Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82
22. Frequency of portion type . . . . . . . . . . . .82
23. Frequency of platform type, West
Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83
24. Frequency of heat treatment forms,
West Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83
25. Frequency of wear patterns, West
Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
26. Frequency of core type by material type,
West Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
27. Frequency of formal tools, West
Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
28. Distribution of ceramic types . . . . . . . . . .98
29. Ceramic type distributions from earlier
and later components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119
30. Ceramic clay sources collected in the
Nambé area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .122
31. Ceramic clay sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .122
32. Refired color of selected sherds associated
with different ceramic traditions for both
components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .123
33. Natural color of selected sherds associated
with different ceramic traditions for both
components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .123
34. Distributions of ceramic traditions . . . . .124
35. Ceramic ware distributions . . . . . . . . . . .125
36. Surface treatment distribution of Gray
Ware tradition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125
37. Ceramic distributions of Developmental
phase White Ware styles . . . . . . . . . . . . .126
38. Temper distributions associated with
different ceramic traditions for West
component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .127
39. Temper distributions associated with
different ceramic traditions for East
component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .130
40. Temper distributions associated with different
ware groups for West component . . . . . .133
41. Temper distributions associated with different
ware groups for East component . . . . . .134
42. Vessel form distributions associated with
different ceramic traditions for the West
component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .136
different ceramic traditions for the East
component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137
different ware groups for the West
component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .142
different ware groups for the East
component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .143
46. Form distributions associated with distinct rim
forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .144
vii
47. Rim radius measurements for gray ware
cooking–storage jars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .145
48. Rim radius measurements for white ware
bowls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .145
49. Complete or reconstructed vessels . . . . .147
50. Ground stone artifacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . .152
51. Ground stone material types, East
Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .153
52. Ground stone material types, West
Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .153
53. Ground stone material types and textures,
East Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .153
54. Ground stone material types and textures,
West Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .153
55. Preform morphology, East component . .154
56. Preform morphology, West Component .154
57. Mano cross section, East component . . .154
58. Mano cross section, West component . .154
59. Artifact plan view, East component . . . .154
60. Artifact plan view, West component . . .154
61. Heat alteration and function, East
component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .155
62. Heat alteration and function, West
component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .155
63. Ground stone portion remaining, East
component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .155
64. Ground stone portion remaining, West
component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .155
65. Ground stone function, East component .155
66. Ground stone function, West component 156
67. Miscellaneous artifacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . .166
68. Artifact types according to gross
morphology, West component . . . . . . . .167
69. Artifact types according to gross
morphology, East component . . . . . . . . .167
70. Ornament material, morphology, and final
shape, West component . . . . . . . . . . . . .168
71. Ornament material, morphology, and final
shape, East component . . . . . . . . . . . . . .168
72. Material sources, West component . . . . .168
73. Material sources, East component . . . . .169
74. Average measurements by gross morphology,
East component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .170
75. Average measurements by gross morphology,
viii
West component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .170
76. Ornament material, morphology, and drill
hole types for the West component . . . .171
77. Ornament material, morphology, and drill
hole types for the East component . . . . .171
78. Ornament material, morphology,
manufacturing stages and surface treatment
for the West component . . . . . . . . . . . . .172
79. Ornament material, morphology,
manufacturing stages and surface treatment
for the East component . . . . . . . . . . . . . .173
80. Artifact number and percentages by
analysis category for the homestead
testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .179
81. Artifact number and percentages by analysis
category for Feature 14, pit . . . . . . . . . .181
82. Artifact number and percentages by analysis
category for two proveniences . . . . . . . .184
83. Taxa recovered from LA 103919 . . . . . .188
84. Faunal counts by major provenience . . .189
85. Environmental alteration by major
provenience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .196
86. Taxon age by major provenience . . . . . .198
87. Fragmentation by major provenience . . .199
88. Burning by taxon and major
provenience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .200
89. Processing by taxa and major
provenience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .201
90. Modified bone from LA 103919 . . . . . . .202
91. Comparison of large and small body forms
by time period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .202
92. Human burials recovered . . . . . . . . . . . .203
93. Isolated human bone from LA 103919 .204
94. LA 103919 age and sex distribution
compared to other Southwestern
populations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .205
95. Estimated age of formation of hypoplasia
lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .211
96. Summary of hypoplasia lines by half-year
increments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .212
97. Selected postcranial metrics . . . . . . . . . .212
98. Chronology and associated pottery types for
the Tewa Basin compared to the Pecos
Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .225
INTRODUCTION
At the request of Mr. William L. Taylor of the New
Mexico State Highway and Transportation
Department (NMSHTD), the Office of Archaeological Studies (OAS), Museum of New Mexico,
conducted a data recovery program for a site along
NM 503, Santa Fe County, New Mexico (Fig. 1).
LA 103919 was first reported by Sandra L.
Marshall in A Cultural Resource Survey along NM
503 near Pojoaque and Nambe (1994). Later that
year, LA 103919 was recommended for data recovery (Lentz 1994). This report summarizes the
results of the data recovery program at that site.
LA 103919 was a multicomponent site located
on both sides of NM 503, on private land and highway right-of-way acquired from private sources.
Prehistoric and historic (1880s–1940s) resources
were investigated. Although LA 103919 was
recorded as a single site, two components (LA
103919 East and LA 103919 West) were defined
during excavation and investigated separately. The
total area of each component was approximately
7,500 sq m (total site area, 15,000 sq m). Standard
OAS archaeological excavation methods were
used, including horizontal and vertical controls
based on a main datum and metric grid system, and
transit mapping. Four backhoe trenches were initially excavated to determine the depth and stratigraphic characteristics of the site. A total of 400 sq
m was excavated by hand, allowing the recovery of
approximately 98 percent of the materials present.
An estimated one-third of the eastern component
of LA 103919 was located outside of the right-ofway and was not investigated. At the conclusion of
the project, four additional backhoe trenches were
excavated outside of the core area of investigation
to ensure that no materials had been overlooked.
The site contained a small pit structure, 4
rooms, 6 human burials (one with an associated
cotton manta[?] fragment), 1 animal burial, and 40
interior and extramural features. These included 12
thermal features (primarily roasting pits and
hearths), 10 pits, 3 burial pits, 2 historic features,
10 postholes, 2 stain features of unknown function,
and a human footprint. Absolute dating in associa-
tion with ceramic dates indicate that the western
and eastern portions of LA 103919 were not contemporaneous. Some portions of both components
suffered substantial bioturbation and erosion, particularly LA 103919 West. Artifact preservation
was good, but architectural preservation was not.
The lack of architectural integrity was more pronounced on the western component, probably
because of its location on a steep (17 percent)
north-facing slope. Ceramic data suggest that LA
103919 West dates A.D. 900–1000 and that LA
103919 East may date somewhat later, probably
between A.D. 1000 and 1200. Analysis focused on
the chronological relationship between the two
components and local and regional economic pursuits practiced by the site occupants. Unless further
undertakings are scheduled for this portion of NM
503, no additional research is recommended for
LA 103919. At the northeastern portion of the site,
substantial archaeological resources are present
adjacent to the right-of-way and protective measures were recommended for the portions of LA
103919 that are not within the project limits from
accidental intrusion.
The ethnohistoric study of the historic component of LA 103919 collected data to determine
ownership history of the land, site functions, economic activities of owners, identification of features not archaeologically visible, past land-use
strategies, and the placement of this site in a larger
sociocultural context. Research methods included
site visits, a study of land title records, historical
documents and archival records, a review of pertinent published sources relating to the general prehistory and history of the local area, and interviews
with knowledgeable individuals.
Three historic features were identified on LA
103919 for research consideration. They are an
adobe historic structure, acequias or irrigation
ditches, and a hill that is known as La Loma de la
Cruz to some local residents.
Prior to conducting interviews regarding LA
103919, archival research showed that before
1937, LA 103919 was part of the Pojoaque Pueblo
Introduction
1
2
A Developmental Period Site near Nambé Pueblo
Grant and had been settled by several individuals
who made private claims to the Pueblo Land Board
for land patents around 1930. The Office of the
State Engineer and the Pojoaque Irrigation District
provided information concerning the El Caño ditch
and irrigation history. The canal is still in use.
Information about La Loma de la Cruz was found
lacking in written documentation.
During the archaeological fieldwork, ethnohistoric interviews were conducted with local residents including current and previous land owners
who had potential knowledge of the site. Several
residents provided a local history of La Loma de la
Cruz. During the NMSHTD construction activities,
the operation of the canal was not affected, its gen-
eral appearance was not changed, and it continued to function as originally designed. No
additional research was recommended.
The project director was Stephen C. Lentz, the
supervisory archaeologist was Joan K. Gaunt, and
the ethnohistorian was Janet Spivey. The crew was
composed of archaeological assistants Susan
Moga, Sonya Urban, Patrick Severts, Eric Carlson,
Cynthia Laughlin, Carolyn Count, Marcy Snow,
and Sam Sweesy. Also assisting were Institute of
American Indian Arts interns Heather White Man
Runs Him and Zenja Hyde. The report was edited
by Robin Gould and the figures were produced by
Ann Noble, Rob Turner, and Eric Carlson. Timothy
D. Maxwell acted as principal investigator.
Introduction
3
4
ENVIRONMENT
PHYSIOGRAPHY
GEOLOGY
Pojoaque and Nambé pueblos are located in a faultzone feature known as the Española Basin, one in
a chain of six or seven basins composing the Rio
Grande Rift extending from southern Colorado to
southern New Mexico (Kelley 1979:281). This
basin, which is considered an extension of the
Southern Rocky Mountain Province (Fenneman
1931), is enclosed by uplands of alternating mountain ranges and uplifted plateaus, and the Rio
Grande flows along the long axis of the feature
(Kelley 1979:281). The northern boundary of the
Española Basin is composed of the eroded edge of
the Taos Plateau. The Sangre de Cristo Mountains
form the east edge, and the southern boundary is
marked by the Cerrillos Hills and the northern edge
of the Galisteo Basin. The La Bajada fault escarpment and the Cerros del Rio volcanic hills denote
the southwestern periphery. The basin is bounded
to the west by the Jemez volcanic field, and the
Brazos and Tusas Mountains form the northwestern boundary. Elevations along the Rio Grande
through the basin vary from 1,845 m in the north to
1,616 m in the south, and altitudes in the surrounding mountains reach 3,994 m in the Sangre de
Cristos, 3,522 m in the Jemez Mountains, and
2,623 m in the Brazos and Tusas (Kelley
1979:281).
The Española Basin is centered about the
confluence of the Rio Grande and the Rio
Chama, its principal tributary (Kelley 1979:281).
This juncture is 18.4 km north of the present
study area. The principal perennial drainages
within the Pojoaque Pueblo Grant consist of the
Rio Pojoaque and the Rio Tesuque, which have
their headwaters in the Sangre de Cristo
Mountains, 25.6 km to the southeast. Both
drainages form narrow valleys that range
between 400 and 800 m wide. These valleys
merge just northwest of Pojoaque Pueblo, at
which point the Rio Pojoaque flows west to the
Rio Grande.
The Rio Grande Rift was established during the
late Oligocene epoch (ca. 30 million years B.P.)
when a cycle of crystal downwarping and extensional faulting succeeded a period of regional
uplift (Kelley 1979:281). As the subsidence of the
Española Basin proceeded through the Miocene
and Pliocene epochs (ca. 3 to 25 million years ago),
erosion from the Nacimiento, Jemez, and Brazos
uplifts to the north and northwest and the mature
Laramide Sangre de Cristo uplift to the east provided most of the sediments for what is known as
the Santa Fe Group, the prominent geologic unit
within the Española Basin. Other sources of sediments of this geologic unit include volcanic fields
in the Jemez, Brazos, and Sangre de Cristos (in an
area northeast of the Española Basin). Formations
within the Santa Fe Group, such as the Tesuque
Formation, consist of deep deposits (over 1 km
thick) of poorly consolidated sands, gravels and
conglomerates, mudstones, siltstones, and volcanic
ash beds (Lucas 1984).
The Española trough was subjected to extensive tilting and faulting during the late Pliocene,
after which time widespread tectonic stability set
in. The resulting geologic structure of the basin is
characterized by west-dipping strata that are traversed by numerous north-trending normal faults.
These stratigraphic characteristics, coupled with
rapid sedimentation, allowed deposition to reach a
maximum depth of 2 km at the western periphery
of the basin. The subsequent erosion of upturned
beds and elevated scarps has resulted in the highly
dissected, rugged topography found in much of the
project area (Kelley 1979; Lucas 1984).
A second notable geologic unit found in the
vicinity of the project area is the Quaternary valley
and Arroyo alluvium (Lucas 1984). The Ortiz
Pediment gravels once covered the Tesuque
Formation of the Santa Fe Group. Because of
extensive erosion, these gravels are now found
only on isolated high ridges and hilltops, such as
Environment
5
Las Barrancas badlands area northwest of the Rio
Pojoaque and Rio Tesuque confluence (see Kelley
1979, fig. 1). The Cerros del Rio volcanic field lies
along the Cañada Ancha drainage southwest of the
project area. This field extends some distance to
the west and consists of a variety of volcanic features. The Quaternary terrace gravels in the vicinity of LA 103919 are river gravel deposits that are
exposed in the bottoms of the tributary arroyos
between the higher piedmont deposits and the
lower valley bottom alluvium.
CLIMATE
Latitude and altitude are the two basic determinants of temperature; however, altitude is the more
powerful variable in New Mexico (Tuan et al.
1973). In general, mean temperatures decline faster
with increased elevation than with increased latitude. Cold air drainage is a common and wellknown feature of New Mexico valleys (Tuan et al.
1973). Narrow valleys create their own temperature regimes by channeling air flow: the usual patterns are warm, up-valley winds during the day and
cool, down-valley winds at night. In contrast, shifts
in temperature over broad valley floors are influenced by the local relief (Tuan et al. 1973).
Climatic data for the immediate Pojoaque area
are unfortunately incomplete (see Reynolds 1956a,
1956b; Gabin and Lesperance 1977). The comparative data presented in the following discussion are
taken from the Santa Fe and Española weather stations. The Santa Fe station, which is 24 km south
of the study area, is at an elevation of 2,195 m. The
Española station lies 12.4 km to the north at an elevation of 1,732 m. These stations, therefore, bracket the study area, which is at an elevation of 1,799
m.
The mean annual temperatures reported by the
Santa Fe and Española stations are 48.6–49.3
degrees Celsius and 49.4–50.7 degrees Celsius,
respectively (Gabin and Lesperance 1977). The climatological data further indicate that the study area
conforms to the general temperature regime of
New Mexico, that is, hot summers and relatively
cool winters.
The average frost-free period (growing season)
in Santa Fe is 164 days. The earliest and latest
recorded frosts are May 31 (in 1877) and
6
September 12 (in 1898) (Reynolds 1956a:251). In
contrast, Española reports an average growing season of 152 days, with an extreme first-frost date of
September 12 (recorded in 1898) and a last frost
date of June 6 (in 1927) (Reynolds 1956a:250).
The shorter growing season for Española, which is
about 450 m lower than Santa Fe, may be attributable, in part, to cold air drainage through the Rio
Grande and Rio Chama valleys. Although a frostfree season of 130 days is sufficiently long to allow
the growing of most indigenous varieties of maize
through dry farming (Schoenwetter and Dittert
1973; Hack 1942), the unpredictability of late
spring and early fall frosts creates agricultural risk.
The best agricultural strategy is to plant late
enough that seedlings will not erupt above the
ground until after the last frost, but early enough
that they will be able to fully mature prior to the
first killing fall frost (Anderson and Oakes 1980).
The lower Española area reports an annual precipitation mean of 237–241 mm (Gabin and
Lesperance 1977). Annual precipitation records
from these stations, as from much of the northern
Southwest, vary greatly from year to year. For
example, a maximum of 630 mm of precipitation
was recorded in Santa Fe during 1855, compared to
a minimum of 128 mm in 1917 (Reynolds 1956b).
The amount of precipitation is even more variable
for any given month in successive years.
Late summer is the wettest season in the annual cycle of the study area, whereas June is one of
the driest months. Precipitation records from Santa
Fe and Española indicate that more than 45 percent
of the mean annual precipitation falls between July
and September (Gabin and Lesperance 1977).
Although October is drier than September, it is
nevertheless, the fourth wettest month of the annual cycle in the Española records. Significant precipitation (7.6 percent of the annual total) also falls
in Santa Fe during this month. Late summer and
fall moisture is derived from the Gulf of Mexico,
when air masses from this region push inland to
bring the economically important monsoons (Tuan
et al. 1973:20). Summer rains tend to be violent
and localized. This saturates the ground surface in
the beginning of a storm, resulting in the loss of
much of the moisture through runoff.
Moisture is also lost through evapotranspiration (ET), the combined evaporation from the soil
surface and transpiration from plants when moisture is unlimited (Chang 1959). Mean annual ET
losses are 932 mm in Española (Gabin and
Lesperance 1977), creating a potential annual
moisture deficit of 691 mm. June, which is a critical time for the germination of plants, suffers the
greatest moisture deficits.
The temperature, precipitation, and potential
evapotranspiration data suggest that Pojoaque is
climatologically a high-risk area for dry-farm agriculture. The dates of the first and last frosts are
unpredictable, and frost damage may result in significantly reduced crop yields in some years even
though the long-term mean growing season is more
than adequate for maize agriculture. Cold-air
drainage within the valleys increases the risk of
frost damage. Precipitation levels are clearly not
sufficient to overcome the deficits of potential
evapotranspiration, and the amount of precipitation
in any given year cannot be predicted from year to
year, let alone from month to month. The seasonality of rainfall is a third problem since there may be
too much moisture in the early fall when many
agricultural plants need to dry for harvesting and
storage.
SOILS
Soils found within the project area fall into two
geomorphic groups: soils of the Dissected
Piedmont Plain and soils of the Recent Alluvial
Valley (Folks 1975). The former, which is most
common, is composed of Pojoaque-Rough Broken
Land Association. Pojoaque soils are derived from
Quaternary period surficial deposits, as well as
mixed sandstone, shale, and siltstone alluvium of
the Tesuque Formation of the Santa Fe Group
(Lucas 1984). These well-drained soils are characterized as moderately sloping to moderately steep
(5–25 percent), deep, loamy and gravelly deposits
that are often covered with lag gravels (Folks
1975:4). Pojoaque soils are intermingled with
Rough Broken Land soils and most often occur on
the ridgetops between drainages. This soil association is not used for farming today.
Soils of the Recent Alluvial Valley geomorphic
group are composed of the El Rancho-Fruitland
soil association. These deep, loamy soils, which
commonly occur on the low terraces of the Rio
Pojoaque and Rio Tesuque drainages within the
vicinity of the study area, are derived from Tesuque
Formation sedimentary rocks and Sangre de Cristo
granitic rocks (Folks 1975:3). Slopes range from 0
to 5 percent. This soil association is used today for
irrigated crops.
FLORA
Pojoaque and Nambé pueblos are located in or near
three habitat types: (1) Piñon-Juniper Grasslands;
(2) Dry Riparian; and (3) Riparian/Wetlands.
Piñon-Juniper Grasslands, which supports a variety of plant and animal species, is the most common habitat. The characteristic vegetation includes
piñon, juniper, prickly pear, cholla, yucca, and several species of muhly and grama grass (Pilz 1984).
The Dry Riparian habitat occurs in arroyo bottoms, on their banks, and in the level to nearly level
floodplains adjacent to some of the wider
drainages. In the project area this habitat occurs in
the Calabasa Arroyo, Arroyo Cuma, and in a narrow finger of the Arroyo Ancho. Some of the more
common plants found are rabbitbrush, fourwing
saltbush, mountain mahogany, Gambel oak, Rocky
Mountain beeplant, and numerous grasses, including Indian ricegrass, three-awn, side-oats grama,
and flax (Pilz 1984).
The Riparian/Wetlands habitat is found only
along the perennial streams, such as the Rio
Pojoaque and Rio Tesuque. Modern vegetation
includes willow, cottonwood, salt cedar, rushes,
and sedges (Pilz 1984). In the wider valley bottoms, ditch irrigation is practiced, including the
area north of the present study area.
FAUNA
Fauna found within the project area includes coyote, badger, porcupine, blacktailed jackrabbit,
desert cottontail, spotted ground squirrel, and
many species of birds. Mule deer and black bear
are known to occur, but in low numbers (Pilz
1984). Use of the area by elk and black and grizzly
bear may have been more common prior to the turn
of the twentieth century (Carroll 1984:2). Plains
animals, such as buffalo and pronghorn, may have
also been present or within a few days' access.
Environment
7
8
CULTURAL HISTORY OVERVIEW
To place the prehistoric and historic developments
of the northern Rio Grande (and specifically the
Tewa Basin) in perspective, an overview in the
vicinity of the project area is given in the following
section.
Researchers in the Rio Grande area have perceived the developments in that area as departing
from the traditional Pecos Classification (Kidder
1927), although developments in the Tewa Basin
may have more closely paralleled the Pecos
Classification. As defined in this report, the geographical boundaries of the Tewa Basin are:
Tesuque to the south, the northern edge of San Juan
Pueblo to the north, along the eastern piedmont of
the southern Rocky Mountains to the east, and the
west bank of the Rio Grande drainage to the west,
not including the foothills of the Pajarito Plateau
(Fig. 2).
In 1955, Wendorf and Reed redefined the
Pueblo I–Pueblo V periods in the Rio Grande
Valley based on the occurrence of ceramic types,
changes in settlement patterns, and economy. The
principal temporal intervals outlined by Wendorf
and Reed include the Developmental, Coalition,
and Classic periods.
THE DEVELOPMENTAL PERIOD
(A.D. 600–1200)
The Developmental sequence has been subdivided
into the Early Developmental (A.D. 600–900) and
the Late Developmental (A.D. 900–1200) periods.
The early portion of the Developmental period
in the northern Rio Grande dates between A.D. 600
and 900 and is comparable to the late Basketmaker
III and Pueblo I periods of the Pecos Classification.
Late Basketmaker sites are rare and tend to be
small with a ceramic assemblage composed primarily of Lino Gray, San Marcial Black-on-white, and
various plain brown and red-slipped wares. The
majority of the documented Early Developmental
sites are in the Albuquerque and Santa Fe districts
(Frisbie 1967; Reinhart 1967; Peckham 1984). The
settlement of the Rio Grande drainage has typical-
ly been attributed to immigration from either the
southern areas (Bullard 1962; Jenkins and
Schroeder 1974), or from the Four Corners/San
Juan area (Judge 1991; Stuart and Gauthier
1981:49; Lekson and Cameron 1995:185).
However, arguments for alternative settlement and
colonization patterns are discussed during the
course of this report.
A sample of some known Developmental period sites in the Santa Fe/Tewa Basin area include
the following.
Pindi Pueblo (LA 1). Located in the Agua Fria
area of south Santa Fe, Pindi Pueblo (though primarily a Coalition period site) has an ephemeral
Developmental period component represented by a
single jacal room and a pithouse. Kwahe'e Blackon-white ceramics were recovered and a tree-ring
date of 1218+vv was recovered below the jacal
structure (Stubbs and Stallings 1954:24–25;
Robinson et al. 1972:38).
Arroyo Negro (LA 114). Excavated in the
1950s, the single available report on this site is
brief and can be quoted in its entirety:
This small pueblo, located along the north side
of the Santa Fe River, consists of several
roomblocks. At least 7 rooms and 4 kivas were
excavated. Ceramic artifacts recovered from the
site consist of Red Mesa Black-on-white, "Chaco
II" Black-on-white [probably Red Mesa, Rio
Grande variety], Kwahe'e Black-on-white, Santa
Fe Black-on-white, Socorro Black-on-white, and
Wingate Black-on-red. The dendochronological
samples yielded dates between the middle A.D.
1000s to the mid A.D. 1100s. (Smiley at al.
1953:22–23; Robinson et al. 1972:27–29)
Mocho (LA 191). This site, located on the
north bank of the Arroyo Hondo River, is composed of two to three small pueblos. At least five
rooms, one kiva, and one pithouse were excavated.
The ceramic artifacts recovered from the site consist of Red Mesa Black-on-white, "Chaco II"
Black-on-white (again, probably Red Mesa, Rio
Grande variety), Kwahe'e Black-on-white, Santa
Fe Black-on-white, and Wingate Black-on-red.
Cultural History Overview
9
Figure 2. The boundaries of the Tewa Basin.
10
The tree rings are simply described as "early and
late A.D. 1100s" (Smiley et al. 1953:25–26;
Robinson et al. 1972:61–62).
Red Snake Hill Site (LA 6461). Part of the
1968 Cochiti Dam Archaeology Salvage Project,
two pithouses were excavated at this site. Ceramic
artifacts consisted of Red Mesa Black-on-white,
Kwahe'e Black-on-white, Wingate Black-on-red,
and Gallina Black-on-white. No chronometric
samples were recovered (Bussey and Honea
1968a:4–11).
North Bank Site (LA 6462). Also part of the
1968 Cochiti Dam Archaeology Salvage Project,
nine pithouses were totally excavated and two pithouses were only partially excavated. Associated
ceramic artifacts include Red Mesa Black-on-white,
Kwahe'e Black-on-white, Santa Fe Black-on-white,
Gallup Black-on-white, Chaco Black-on-white, and
Socorro Black-on-white. No absolute dates were
recovered (Bussey and Honea 1968b:12–72).
The KP Site (LA 46300). At the KP site, located on top of a ridge along the north side of the
Santa Fe River valley, a single trash-filled burned
structure was tested (Wiseman 1989). Red Mesa
Black-on-white, Kwahe'e Black-on-white, "Chaco
II" (Red Mesa, Rio Grande variety?) Black-onwhite, Escavada Black-on-white, Gallup Black-onwhite, Chaco Black-on-white, Puerco Black-onred, Cebolleta Black-on-white, Socorro Black-onwhite, and Los Lunas Smudged were the pottery
types recovered during testing. Obsidian chipped
stone predominated, although local chert types,
particularly red jasper, were also used. Eleven treering and two radiocarbon dates indicate that the
occupation of the structure occurred in the mid- to
late 1000s and the fill accumulated in the early
1100s. Dendrochronological cutting dates of A.D.
1116, 1117, and 1120 are associated with Kwahe'e
Black-on-white pottery. A wide variety of plant
remains were recovered, including corn, squash,
and beeweed. The fauna consisted of deer, antelope, and cottontail (Wiseman 1989:139).
LA 6579. Beneath the historic component at
LA 6579 (a four-room Colonial/pre-Santa Fe Trail
house) lies a Late Developmental site consisting of
one shallow pit structure, a four-post ramada, and
miscellaneous pits containing trash deposits
(Boyer, pers. comm. 15 Dec 1997).
Other large archaeological projects in the
Santa Fe area with Developmental components
include the Cochiti Dam Project (Biella and
Chapman 1979; Chapman and Biella 1977a,
1977b), the White Rock Canyon Project (Traylor
1977), the Waldo Dam Project (Kayser and Ewing
1971), and Arroyo Hondo Projects I and II
(Schwartz and Lang 1973, 1986; Habicht-Mauche
1993).
LA 111364 (Santa Fe Relief Route). Located
north of the Santa Fe River at the west end of
Buckman Road above the Arroyo de los Frijoles,
this site consists of a stain (possibly representing a
fieldhouse) with associated jar and bowl sherds of
Kwahe'e Black-on-white and corrugated ceramic
artifacts (Post 1996)
LA 116. This site is located south of Santa
Clara Pueblo along the Rio Grande floodplain. H.
P. Mera (1935:6) proclaimed "LA 116 shall be the
type site for Kwahe'e Black-on-white." No other
information is available on this site.
LA 835 (The Pojoaque Grant Site). An
important Developmental period community, LA
835, is located on the Pojoaque Pueblo Grant. The
site is composed of 12 to 15 small roomblocks with
associated kivas and a great kiva. Ceramics recovered through excavation in conjunction with treering dates suggest an occupation of between A.D.
800 and 1150. The site suggests that LA 835 may
have served as a regional economic center (Stubbs
1953; Wiseman 1995a, 1995b), or may simply be
typical of a Tewa Basin Late Developmental site
(Wilson, pers. comm. 1999). LA 835 was excavated by Wiseman and Boyer from the OAS (within
the NMSHTD right-of-way only) in 1997 and the
report is still in preparation. Pit structures and other
architectural features have been exposed, including
shell trade items possibly originating from the
Hohokam area. A large Kwahe'e Black-on-white
ceramic component is present on this site (Wilson,
pers. comm. January 1998).
The Santa Fe to Pojoaque Corridor Project.
LA 388, LA 389, LA 835, LA 3119 all have Rio
Grande Developmental components (Boyer and
Lakatos 2000).
LA 110971. This site is located in El Rancho
near San Ildefonso Pueblo on the west bank of the
Rio Grande. This site dates to the Kwahe'e Blackon-white ceramic period. Subsurface structures
may be present (Creamer 1992).
11
LA 101412. Test units located two hearths and
a charcoal stain. The hearths and stain were isolated features with no associated structures or activity areas. Much of the cultural material accumulated in the site area was due to colluvial washing.
The artifacts and features are most likely associated with LA 61, the ancestral Pojoaque Pueblo site,
which lies north and east of the site.
Limited testing and data recovery at the site
encountered fairly dense deposits of prehistoric
artifacts dating from the Developmental to the
Classic period and a possible occupation surface.
THE COALITION PERIOD (A.D. 1200 TO 1325)
The Coalition period (A.D. 1200 to 1325) in the
northern Rio Grande is marked by a shift from
mineral pigment to organic paint (primarily Santa
Fe Black-on-white) in decorated pottery. There are
substantial increases in the number and size of
habitation sites coincidental with expansion into
previously unoccupied areas. Although aboveground pueblos were built, pit structure architecture continued into the early phases of this period.
Rectangular kivas, which are incorporated into
roomblocks, coexisted with subterranean circular
structures (Cordell 1979:44). Frisbie (1967) notes
the shift away from less optimal upland settings
and a return to the permanent water and arable land
adjacent to the major drainages.
In the northern Rio Grande, the Coalition period is characterized by two interdependent trends in
population and settlement reflected in population
growth. Whether this growth is due to immigration
or indigenous population expansion is problematic
(see discussion at the conclusion of this report).
The Chama, Gallina, Pajarito Plateau, Taos, and
Galisteo Basin districts, which had been the focus
of limited Anasazi use prior to A.D. 1100 to 1200,
are settled (Cordell 1979). Little growth is seen in
the Tewa Basin at this time (this volume). In excess
of 500 Santa Fe Black-on-white sites are listed for
the Pajarito Plateau, although many of these sites
are poorly documented (New Mexico Cultural
Resource Information System [NMCRIS],
Archeological Management Section, Historic
Preservation Division). Among the representative
sites of the Coalition period are LA 4632, LA
12700, and Otowi (or Potsuwii, LA 169).
12
THE CLASSIC PERIOD (A.D. 1325–1600)
The Classic period (A.D. 1325–1600) postdates the
abandonment of the San Juan Basin by sedentary
agriculturalists. It is characterized as a time when
regional populations may have reached their maximum size, and large communities with multiple
plaza and roomblock complexes were established
(Wendorf and Reed 1955:13). The beginning of the
Classic period in the northern Rio Grande coincides with the appearance of locally manufactured
red-slipped and glaze-decorated ceramics in the
vicinity of Santa Fe, Albuquerque, Galisteo, and
Salinas after ca. A.D. 1315, and biscuit wares in the
Pajarito Plateau, Santa Fe, and Chama areas (Mera
1935; Warren 1979). In the Santa Fe area, the
Galisteo Basin saw the evolution of some of the
Southwest's most spectacular ruins. Many of these
large pueblos were tested or excavated by N. C.
Nelson in the early part of the twentieth century
(Nelson 1914, 1916). Possibly the first stratigraphic excavation in the United States was executed by
Nelson on the roomblocks and the midden of San
Cristobal Pueblo (LA 80). Other projects in the
Galisteo area include those by Smiley, Stubbs, and
Bannister (1953); the School of American
Research (Lang 1977); San Lazaro (LA 91, LA 92;
Ware and Blinman, pers. comm. 1997); and Pueblo
Blanco (Creamer 1992). The majority of these
Classic period sites were established in the early
1300s. By the late 1400s, this area appears to have
experienced a substantial decline in population.
Sites of the Classic period are characterized by
a bimodal distribution—large communities associated with small structures, fieldhouses, or seasonally occupied farmsteads. This contrasts with the preceding Coalition period, where a greater range of
site types characterized the settlement pattern.
Investigations of the large biscuit ware pueblo sites
on the Pajarito Plateau include initial studies by
Adolph Bandelier (1882), Hewett (1953), and Steen
(1977), who recorded sites within Frijoles Canyon
including Pueblo Canyon, Tshirege, and Tsankawi.
Several large archaeological projects have included
Cochiti (Biella and Chapman 1979), a UCLA intensive survey and limited excavation project (Hill and
Trierweiler 1986), and a National Park Service survey of Bandelier National Monument (McKenna
and Powers 1986; Powers and Orcutt 1999).
The biscuit ware series and incised wares were
produced in the study area. Beginning with Wiyo
Black-on-white (A.D. 1300–1400), the series
includes Biscuit A (A.D. 1350-75–1450), Biscuit B
(A.D. 1400–1500 or 1550), and Sankawi Black-oncream (A.D. 1500–1600) (Breternitz 1966). The
appearance of Potsuwi'i Incised, about the time that
Biscuit B became common, suggests contact with
the Plains. The Chama Valley and Pajarito Plateau
were mostly abandoned by the end of this period,
and population was concentrated along the Rio
Grande at the time of the Spanish arrival in A.D.
1540. The addition of a red slip to Sankawi Blackon-cream was the origin of the Tewa Polychrome
series, ancestral to types still produced in the Rio
Grande pueblos.
Native groups underwent numerous changes in
lifestyle, social organization, and religion after the
Spanish settlement of New Mexico (Table 1). The
introduction of new crops and livestock contributed to major changes in subsistence, as did
mission programs that taught new industries
(Simmons 1979:181). Incursions by Plains groups
caused the abandonment of many pueblos and a
constriction of the region occupied by Pueblo
groups (Chavez 1979; Schroeder 1979). A combination of new diseases to which the Pueblos had no
natural defenses, intermarriage, conflict attendant
with the Pueblo Revolt of A.D. 1680–1692, and
abandonment of the traditional life for that of the
Spanish contributed to a significant decrease in
Pueblo populations over the next few centuries
(Dozier 1970; Eggan 1979).
THE HISTORIC PERIOD OF THE TEWA BASIN
The first European contact with the Tewa Basin
occurred in the late winter or early spring of 1541
when a foraging party of Coronado's men set up
camp near San Juan Pueblo (Hammond and Rey
1953:244, 259). Having heard of Coronado's earlier plundering farther south, these pueblos were
hastily abandoned by their occupants. The
Spaniards looted the deserted villages (Ortiz
1979:280; Winship 1896:476).
In 1591, San Juan was visited by the Gaspar
Castaño de Sosa expedition. Castaño de Sosa erected a cross, received obedience to the King of
Spain, and appointed a governor, a mayor, and various other administrators (Schroeder and Matson
1965:121, 129).
With the goals of missionization, territorial
expansion, and mineral wealth, the colonizing
expedition of Don Juan de Oñate arrived at Oke
Owinge on July 11, 1598, and proclaimed it the
capital of the province. During the winter of
1600–1601 the Spaniards moved across the river to
a partially abandoned 400-room pueblo village,
which they renamed San Gabriel de los Caballeros.
The first Catholic mission church, called San
Miguel, was built at the southern end of the village.
Soon, New Mexico was divided into seven missionary districts. A Spanish alcalde (magistrate)
was appointed for each pueblo, and all were under
Oñate's leadership (Spicer 1962:156). In January
1599, in retaliation for the death of Juan de
Zaldivar (one of two of Oñate's nephews), 70 of
Table 1. Entradas and Important Historical Dates in Relations Between the
Pueblos and the Spanish
1535
1540-1542
1581
1582
1598
1600
1610
1630
1680
1681-1682
1692
1696
Cabeza de Vaca learns of Rio Grande Pueblos
Coronado expedition into New Mexico
Chamuscado-Rodríguez expedition
Espejo expedition
Oñate's colony of San Gabriel founded at San Juan Pueblo
Siege of Acoma
Pedro de Peralta moves capital to Santa Fe
Father Benavides reports on conditions among the Pueblos
Pueblo Revolt
Otermín's attempted reconquest, burns all pueblos south of Cochiti
Vargas's reconquest
Second revolt of the Pueblos
(Lentz 1991; after Dozier 1970)
13
Oñate's men attacked Acoma Pueblo. After a threeday battle, the Spanish troops prevailed. In retribution, 500 Acoma prisoners over the age of 25 had
one foot severed and were sentenced to twenty
years of hard labor in the mines of Zacatecas. The
Acoma women were forced into prostitution and
the remaining population over 12 years of age was
enslaved (Spicer 1962:157).
The Spanish colony at San Gabriel did not survive the first decade of the seventeenth century.
Oñate returned to Mexico in disgrace and in 1610
the capital was moved from San Gabriel to the current site of Santa Fe by Oñate's successor, Don
Pedro de Peralta (Ortiz 1979:281; Pearce
1965:146; Spicer 1962:157).
During the next twenty years, churches were
built in all the pueblos. Native secular and church
officers were also established in each of the villages. These included governors, alcaldes, fiscales
(tax collectors), and others. During the 1620s the
villages were peaceful, and conversions to the
Catholic Church increased. By 1630, 50
Franciscan missionaries were working in 25 missions, and a school was operating in each (Spicer
1962:158).
In 1676, there began a series of events that ultimately led to the Pueblo Revolt of 1680. Fortyseven Pueblo religious leaders were jailed and
flogged in Santa Fe for their adherence to traditional Pueblo beliefs. Among them was the San
Juan moiety chief Popé, under whose leadership
the Pueblo Revolt was subsequently planned and
carried out (Spicer 1962:162–163). Twenty-one of
the Franciscan friars in the territory were killed,
along with 400 Spaniards. Santa Fe was besieged
by an alliance of Pueblo forces, and on August 21,
1680, Governor Otermín was forced to surrender
and evacuate the city (Hackett and Shelby 1942:11,
56–57). That same year, a similar insurrection successfully ousted the Spanish from the isthmus of
Tehuantepec, Mexico.
The Pueblos held firm to their independence
for 12 years. During the winter of 1681–1682 an
attempted reconquest by Governor Otermín was
turned back. Otermín managed to sack and burn
most of the pueblos south of Cochiti before returning to Mexico. Taking advantage of inter-Pueblo
factionalism, the definitive reconquest was initiated in 1692 by Don Diego de Vargas (Dozier
14
1970:61; Simmons 1979:186).
Between 1692 and 1821, the Spanish government granted free title tracts of land to colonists to
encourage resettlement of the New Mexico
province. By 1696 northern New Mexico was reoccupied, and the Hispanic colonists lived on approximately 140 land grants. The pueblos were granted
their own "Pueblo Leagues," but were frequently
encroached upon by the Spanish colonists, and
later, Anglo-American settlers. The first of the
many Spanish settlers to occupy the Tewa Basin
after the reconquest was Don Ignacio Roybal, who,
in 1793, settled within the Pojoaque Pueblo land
grant at Jacona. He began building an irrigation
ditch, the Acequia Larga de Jacona on what is now
primarily San Ildefonso lands. This particularly
flagrant Spanish intrusion on Native American
lands is still one of the longest standing waterrights cases in U.S. history (Hall 1987). In 1695,
the second villa decreed in New Mexico by the
Spanish government was established 2 miles east
of present-day Española. Founded by Don Diego
de Vargas, "La Villa Nueva de Santa Cruz de los
Españo Mejicanos del Rey Nuestro Señor Carlos
Segundo" is usually referred to in old Spanish
records as "La Villa Nueva de Santa Cruz de la
Cañada." (Santa Fe was the first official villa in
1610, Santa Cruz the second in 1695, and
Albuquerque the third in 1706; Pearce
1965:148–149.)
With the signing of the Treaty of Cordova on
August 24, 1821, Mexico secured its independence
from Spain, and New Mexico became part of the
Mexican nation. That year brought the opening of
the Santa Fe Trail, and expanded trade networks
brought new settlers and goods for industrial manufacture. By the Treaty of Cordova, all Indians
residing in New Mexico were granted full Mexican
citizenship (Jenkins and Schroeder 1974:34–37).
Following the short-lived Mexican period,
General Stephen Kearny accepted the surrender of
acting Governor Juan Bautista Vigil y Alaríd. The
U.S. flag was run up over the Palace of the
Governors in Santa Fe on August 18, 1846. By the
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which ended the
Mexican War, United States dominion was established in New Mexico. In 1850, New Mexico was
officially made a territory of the United States.
During the Territorial period, Pueblo Indians were
tacitly afforded the same rights as all U.S. citizens
under U.S. laws (Lentz 1991:10).
In the middle to late eighteenth century,
numerous expeditions brought explorers and
traders into New Mexico, and Plains Indians (particularly Comanches), Pueblos, and Anglo traders
were exchanging goods at annual trade fairs held at
Taos Pueblo. At this time, New Mexico was still a
territory of Spain, and the Spanish government
maintained tight control over its frontier communities. Spain's colonial borders were closed to any
type of commerce with foreigners to the east.
Spain's new frontier settlements were supposed to
have exclusive economic ties with Mexican communities to the south via the Camino Real from
Chihuahua. When Mexico gained independence
from Spain in 1821, the borders of New Mexico
were opened, and trading with the United States
began by means of the Santa Fe Trail. The Santa Fe
Trail was the first American trans-Mississippi pathway to the West and the only route that entered into
another country (Simmons 1988; National Park
Service 1963). The trade, centered in Santa Fe,
eventually overflowed into the Mexican provinces,
where merchants found lucrative markets for their
wares. The Santa Fe trade drew Mexican silver
coins, furs, wool, and raw material into the United
States. It also precipitated a minor economic boom
in Santa Fe, which had previously been a depressed
frontier area (A. Simmons 1984; M. Simmons
1988). The arrival of the first train of the Atchison,
Topeka & Santa Fe Railway into Las Vegas, New
Mexico, on April 4, 1879, signaled the end of the
Santa Fe Trail.
A few Hispanic Territorial sites have been
studied. They include Sena Plaza (LA 55368) in
Santa Fe (Elliot 1986), Paraje de Fra Cristobal (LA
1124) in south-central New Mexico (Boyd 1984,
1986), the Trujillo House (LA 59658) near Abiquiú
(Moore et al. 2003), the Ontiberos site (LA 27573)
near Roswell (Oakes 1983), and Plaza de San José
(LA 6992) (Schaafsma and Mayer n.d.).
Other historic occurrences near the project area
include the Salazar House (LA 39962) and Mill
sites (LA 39963) (NMCRIS files), the Jean
Bouquet Ranch (LA 5139, State Register Property
No. 212), and the Bouquet Archaeological District
(National Register Property No. 888). The complex
is located on the northeast corner of the NM 503
and U.S. 84/285 Interchange. The district is unique
in that many of its components represent an occupational continuum from the eighteenth century to
the present. There are a variety of late nineteethand early twentieth-century structures and a property that may have been developed during the late
eighteenth or early nineteenth century, the Acequia
de los Trujillos, and the "River House" (Marshall
1993).
NAMBÉ PUEBLO
Both Pojoaque and Nambé Pueblo members claim
LA 103919 as ancestral to their current pueblos.
The site is approximately equidistant from both
Pojoaque and Nambé, so it is difficult to determine
the prehistoric cultural affiliations of either site,
especially in light of the various abandonments,
intermarriages, and outmigrations the pueblo has
sustained through time. It is quite possible that LA
103919 could be ancestral to either pueblo.
The prehistoric origins of Nambé Pueblo are
uncertain. Based on archaeological evidence,
ceramic data indicate that Nambé Pueblo has occupied its present location since approximately A.D.
1350 (Ellis 1964:34). Prior to that time, a number
of sites have been identified as possibly being
ancestral to modern-day Nambé (Table 2). Sites
from the Rio Grande Developmental period (A.D.
600–1200) have been recorded on the terraces
south of Nambé Pueblo (Lentz 1994) and along
NM 503 near Wooley Arroyo (LA 103919, the
topic of this overview). Site LA 104589, located
along the second bench south of Pojoaque Creek,
contained a rubble mound and two possible pit
structures dating to approximately A.D 900–1200
based on the presence of Red Mesa Black-on-white
(Rio Grande variety) and Kwahe'e Black-on-white
ceramic artifacts. Adjacent to this site to the east is
LA 100680, which dates from the Rio Grande
Coalition period (A.D. 1220–1350) through the
Rio Grande Classic (A.D 1350–1600) and into the
early historic Tewa period (A.D. 1600 to present).
This site has four major roomblocks, four plaza
areas, five possible kivas, two middens, a shrine,
and an array of impressive agricultural features
including gravel-mulch gardens, large, complex
cobble-bordered grid gardens, and checkdams. The
ceramic artifacts include glaze wares, biscuit
15
Table 2. Possible Nambé Ancestral Sites
Developmental
(A.D. 600-1200)
Classic-Biscuit Ware
(A.D. 1350-1550)
Tewa
(A.D. 1550-1700)
LA 104589
LA 103919
LA 835 (also claimed
by Pojoaque)
LA 100680
LA 31 (Cundiyo)
LA 18 (Sahkiowinge)
LA 100680
Nambé Pueblo
LA 254 (Nambé Bugge Owinge)
LA 264 (K’ate Owinge)
LA 51858 (Yohe’kwaiye
Owinge? Agawano Owinge?)
Nambé Pueblo
wares, and polished Tewa wares. This site was
identified by local interviewees as being an ancestral Nambé site. This site could also be
Yohe'kwaiye Owinge (Ellis 1964:41), Agawano
Owinge (Ellis 1964: 41), LA 51858 (unknown
agency), or possibly one of Mera's (1934:5) biscuit
ware sites. Locational descriptions given by Ellis
(1964), Mera (1934), and Harrington (1916) are
rather vague. Ellis describes a shrine on
Yohe'kwaiye Owinge that roughly matches the one
at LA 100680, but the remainder of the description
is closer to the features observed at LA 51858,
including a preponderance of biscuit ware ceramics. According to Ellis, Yohe'kwaiye Owinge is
located "on a high mesa . . . a few hundred yards
across the river south of Nambé Pueblo" (Ellis
1964:41). This is approximately the location of LA
100680; however, the physical description of the
site: "two sections separated by a rocky ledge"
does not match the landform of LA 100680, and is
more reminiscent of LA 51858. Nambé Bugge
Owinge (Old Nambé, Harrington's 25:30; Mera's
LA 254) is located 3 miles northeast of present-day
Nambé, along the Rio Sarco. According to Ellis
(1964:40), informants identified this adobe-walled
pueblo as their main village before they moved
down to the present location. Other sites that may
possibly be ancestral to Nambé are Cundiyo
(Harrington's 25:8; Mera's LA 31), K'ate Owinge
(Mera's LA 264, Harrington's 25:23), roughly contemporaneous with Bugge Owinge as a biscuit
ware site (A.D. 1350 to 1550) and LA 18.
First identified by Mera (1934:13), Ellis
describes LA 18 as the site of Oya'widi, a "small,
horseshoe-shaped ruin . . . of only 10 to 12 houses
that may have served as a summer farming puebli16
to (sic) for families from a larger and more distant
village." It is probable that Ellis confused LA 18
with another site because LA 18 (also known as
Sahkiowinge or Sake Bugge Owinge) is a Rio
Grande Classic period biscuit ware site with several large roomblocks, plazas, and kivas near the village of Chupadero along the Rio En Medio. Nambé
interviewees also consider this site ancestral to the
present-day pueblo. Also, inside the pueblo and
adjacent to the Franciscan church, is a large rubble
mound with exposed walls and associated biscuit
ware ceramic artifacts. This area is currently the
pueblo's cemetery (camposanto). Many of the prehistoric, protohistoric, and historic pueblos that
may or may not have contributed to the population
of Nambé are located on elevated areas overlooking large drainages or rivers. This settlement pattern has been attributed (during historic times) to
Comanche, Navajo, and Pueblo raiding.
Prehistorically, however, the selection of mesa tops
for site locations may have been determined by a
number of factors, including population demographics, ecology, and defense.
According to Ellis (1964:34–42), the settlement system developed in this order: between A.D.
1350 and A.D. 1425 there were five villages in a
north-south line, and two villages in an east-west
line in the high foothills above the Pojoaque River
drainage adjacent to the Sangre de Cristo piedmont. The pueblos were located at high elevations
for defensive purposes. However, the adjoining
farmlands were insufficient to support the population, so some of the inhabitants came down to the
site of the present Nambé during peaceful times to
farm the areas where water and arable land were
more available. From A.D. 1425 to A.D. 1550 only
a few sites in the high foothills continued to be
occupied, the others were abandoned, and groups
moved down to live at Nambé on a year-round
basis. Finally, between A.D. 1550 and A.D. 1700,
the last highland sites were abandoned and Nambé
Pueblo housed the tribe. The old lands near the
ruins were still used for hunting and foraging, as
well as religious activities (usually shrines) and
dry-farming. The abundance of water-control features in the foothills south of the pueblo testify to
extensive horticultural practices (cf. Lentz 1994).
Thus, pottery type sequences (Ellis 1964:34–41)
and associated tree-ring dates (Breternitz 1966)
indicate that Nambé Pueblo has been continuously
occupied since the thirteenth century. A population
rise in the 1300s may have been due to immigration from the Four Corners area (cf. Cordell 1989;
Ellis 1964, and others) or may have been an independent local development based on population
demographics, climate, or subsistence. However,
Bandelier (1966–1976:2:173) states that Nambé,
along with Tesuque and Pojoaque, was formed
after 1598 by people of Santa Clara, San Ildefonso,
and San Juan, although he does not document his
claim. At present, Nambé Pueblo has a population
of over 400 individuals (Northern Pueblo Agency
1992).
The first church was established by the
Franciscans in the 1600s and the fullest account of
the Pueblo is given in 1776 by Dominguez
(1956:51–60) during his inspection tour of missions and churches of the area, included in which
are incidental accounts of Pueblo life. The thenextant church had been built around 1729 to
replace the other that had been gutted in the Pueblo
uprisings of 1680 and 1696, during which the
assigned priests had been killed. The second
church stood until 1909, when it was destroyed in
a storm. A more recent structure stood there until
the 1960s, and a newer building was dedicated in
1975 (Speirs 1979:318). There are ruins of a former pueblo west of the church, where the current
cemetery is located.
Kidder (1958:271) describes the pueblo in the
1920s:
The single round, free-standing kiva of this
very small Pueblo is the only one I have ever
been in. The town, when I first visited it in
1922, seemed moribund. Various Indians saw
me taking photographs. As they had no objection to that, my wife and Singleton Moorehead
and I climbed down the ladder. Entirely undisturbed, we took notes and measurements. The
interior was unkempt, the plaster flaking from
the adobe walls. When we returned five years
later the whole atmosphere of Nambé was
changed. The kiva had been completely done
over. A native came over to greet us and
politely invited us to use the fine new longpoled entrance ladder to inspect the kiva. It
would be interesting to know what brought
about this renaissance.
Bandelier attributed the steady decline of the population of Nambé to infanticide, abortion, outmigration, intermarriage with outsiders, and mass
executions for witchcraft (Bandelier 1966–
1976:2:172). Although Tewa is still spoken in
Nambé, as early as 1776, Spanish was entrenched
to the point that confession was made without the
aid of an interpreter (Dominguez 1956:59). At
present, most of the residents speak Tewa, Spanish,
and English. As in many of the Rio Grande pueblos, the use of Tewa as a first language is rapidly
declining, replaced by English, and, to a somewhat
lesser degree, Spanish. In 1967–1968, Nambé was
the first pueblo to accept federal government housing (Speirs 1979:322). More Department of
Housing and Urban Development (HUD) houses
were built in the 1970s and 1980s. Traditional pursuits are giving way to a reliance on a cash economy, though probably less than at Pojoaque. Many
Nambé Pueblo members hold wage-earning jobs
with tribal or federal agencies, or local utility companies, but fine arts and local crafts also occupy a
relatively important position in the Pueblo economy. As of this writing, few modern enterprises
exist at Nambé; however, a casino may be constructed in the near future. In 1996 there was significant political strife between the administration
and disgruntled Pueblo factions.
POJOAQUE PUEBLO
Little is known of the prehistory of Pojoaque
Pueblo. Local inhabitants indicate two sites as
being ancestral to the current pueblo–these are LA
17
Figure 3. The Enrique Martinez map of the Rio Grande pueblos in 1602.
18
61 and LA 835. LA 61 is a large site distributed
over most of the western half of Pojoaque Pueblo
mesa, directly east of the intersection of U.S.
84/285 and 300 m south of the Rio Pojoaque. The
scatter extends east into the modern pueblo north
of the cemetery and includes rubble mounds, associated plazas, kivas, and the old Franciscan church.
This building fell into ruins shortly after the turn of
the century and was never rebuilt. The oldest
extant map of the Rio Grande pueblos in the sixteenth and early seventeenth century was drawn in
1602 by Enrique Martinez, the King's Mexican
cosmographer, on the basis of information provided by Juan Rodriguez, a member of Oñate's party.
It shows Pojoaque Pueblo in its seventeeth-century
locale (Hammond and Rey 1953:1; Fig. 3).
Ceramic data from LA 61, as described by Ellis,
consisted of "Chaco II Black-on-white" (probably
local or imported Red Mesa Black-on-white), Pueblo
II–III corrugated and Tewa Polychrome. Ellis esti-
mated this site to date between A.D. 1100 and 1300,
with "some use in the 18th or 19th century" (Ellis
1979:5–7). The presence of Tewa Polychrome would
also indicate an occupation around A.D. 1550 or
1600 to A.D. 1700. It is now commonly thought that
the occupation of LA 61 is relatively unbroken, starting about A.D. 950, and continuing through the Rio
Grande Late Developmental, Coalition, and Classic
periods (approximately A.D. 950 through 1600).
Historically, the site was intermittently active from
the seventeenth century to modern times.
The other possible Pojoaque ancestral site is LA
835 (the Pojoaque Grant site), located a short distance north of Cuyamungue. LA 835 is a cluster of
15 small mounds, associated pit structures, and a
great kiva. It was originally excavated by Stubbs
(1953) and additional work was done by Wiseman
(1995b:237–248). The historic events affecting
Pojoaque Pueblo are included in the ethnohistory
section.
19
20
FIELD AND LABORATORY TECHNIQUES
To implement the research objectives defined during the testing program (Maxwell 1994:42–68), a
crew was fielded consisting of a project director, a
supervisory archaeologist, and an ethnohistorian.
The crew was composed of eight archaeological
assistants and two Institute of American Indian
Arts' interns.
Initially, LA 103919 was recorded as a single
site (Marshall 1994). Two components (LA 103919
East and LA 103919 West) were defined during
excavation and investigated separately. Horizontal
and vertical controls were established in reference
to the NMSHTD right-of-way centerline, and the
metric grid system was superimposed over the two
site components. During the ensuing data recovery
program, the following excavation procedures
were used.
1. The horizontal 1-m-grid system left in place during the test excavations was reestablished. Hence,
excavations units consisted of 1-by-1-m grids until
features or rooms or other bounded areas were
defined. These units were then used as the primary
provenience, e.g., Room 1, Layer 2, Feature 3
(hearth).
2. The backfilled test units were reexcavated to
expose the underlying stratigraphy.
3. Vertical controls using Datum A (West component) and Datum B (East component), were established (both calibrated at an arbitrary +10.00 m).
The difference between Datum A and Datum B was
6.096 m (20 ft, Datum A was higher). Horizontal
controls were located at the central point of grid
system A (on the western component) at 50N/50E,
and on the eastern component at 100N/100E, and
subdatums were established when necessary.
4. At the beginning of excavation, limited surface
stripping and arbitrary 10- and 20-cm levels were
used. When cultural stratigraphy was exposed,
excavations were adjusted according to the natural
strata and contours. Excavation by strata was con-
sidered optimal because it tends to represent specific depositional episodes. Therefore, exploratory
units were excavated into features to aid in defining their natural vertical and horizontal structure.
The base of all excavation units were augered until
sterile soil was obtained.
5. All units were excavated until sterile soil was
attained (unless otherwise indicated), and the base
of the units were augered to ensure no material
remains were overlooked.
6. All fill was screened through ¼-inch mesh, and
all lithic, faunal, ground stone, and miscellaneous
artifact categories were collected. With sensitive
features, greater resolution was achieved by
screening the fill through 1/8-inch mesh hardware
cloth. Artifacts were bagged and provenienced separately. Artifacts found on floors or other occupational surfaces were piece-plotted, mapped in
place, and bagged separately.
7. Features associated with culturally deposited
contexts were mapped, recorded, and photographed. Data concerning technique and style of
construction as well as use were collected. These
data contributed to the analysis of site residence
patterns, construction sequence, and remodeling.
8. Dendrochronological, obsidian hydration, and
radiocarbon samples were collected from appropriate contexts. Since Developmental sites are fairly
underrepresented in the archaeological record,
emphasis was placed on obtaining accurate
chronometric data. Macrobotanical and palynological data were systematically collected from occupational surfaces, activity areas, structures, and
features to provide information on prehistoric subsistence strategies. Pollen and flotation samples
were collected from all prehistoric cultural strata
and from the surfaces of the floors and occupational surfaces found. In addition, an off-site pollen
control sample was collected to aid later analysis.
Flotation samples were taken from each cultural
Field and Laboratory Techniques
21
stratum and feature encountered. When available,
charcoal, tree-ring, and archaeomagnetic samples
were collected to aid in identifying the period of
occupation.
9. State of New Mexico permits were obtained
from the Historic Preservation Division to use
mechanical equipment. Mechanical equipment was
not used as a discovery strategem, but to ensure
that, at the completion of the hand-excavation portion of the site, no deeply deposited features or
materials were overlooked.
10. A site map was prepared at the conclusion of
the field work showing the intrasite distribution of
the structures, features, and artifact concentrations
in relation to the excavations. All excavation units
and features were mapped using a transit and stadia
rod or 30-m tape. Artifacts were provenienced by
grid and excavation unit (either arbitrary 10-cm
levels or by natural stratum) or by exact location
when such treatment was warranted as outlined
above. Plans and profiles of individual features and
exploratory grids were drawn, and standard recording forms were completed. Features were photographed before and after excavation.
11. When it had been determined that all information potential had been exhausted, the site was
backfilled mechanically and by hand.
12. At the request of the landowners, all artifacts
collected from private lands were returned to the
landowners. When human remains were discovered, standard archaeological excavation techniques were employed. They included definition of
the burial pit, use of hand tools to expose skeletal
materials, mapping and photographing the position
of the skeleton and any grave goods, and retrieval
of soil for pollen analysis. Field treatment of
human remains and other sensitive cultural discov-
22
eries was based on the Museum of New Mexico's
policy adopted March 20, 1986, "Collection and
Display of Sensitive Material" (SRC Rule 11) and
MNM Rule No. 11 "Policy on Collection, Display
and Repatriation of Culturally Sensitive
Materials," adopted January 17, 1991. When
human remains or other sensitive materials were
uncovered, no person was allowed to handle or
photograph those remains except as part of scientific data recovery efforts. Photographs of sensitive
material will not be released to the media or general public. Pojoaque Pueblo officials requested that
the burials be repatriated and reburied according to
Pueblo customs.
At the completion of the excavation program, all of
the recovered artifacts were cleaned and labeled.
The collected samples were processed and submitted for analysis to various professional laboratories
contracting with the OAS. Lithic, ceramic, and faunal artifacts were analyzed by qualified members
of the research staff. All field notes, photographs,
maps, and other documentation are on file or in
storage at the Laboratory of Anthropology,
Museum of New Mexico, Santa Fe.
Analysis of the artifact assemblages emphasized site structure, site function, and temporal data
through the use of diagnostic items. Site structure
data provides information on group size, structure,
internal site organization, site reuse, and past logistical strategies. Site function has typically been
inferred from site location, faunal and floral analysis, and assemblage composition.
Statistical analyses applied to the artifact classes focused on both pattern recognition and pattern
evaluation. Analyses were framed at both artifact
and assemblage levels to obtain variation within
classes. Data were entered on SPSS and Paradox
data processing systems. Additional information
on data processing is presented at the beginning of
each analysis section under "Analytical Methods."
EXCAVATION RESULTS
Results of the data recovery program at LA 103919
yielded the remains of several architectural features, extramural features, and material culture dating to the Rio Grande Middle and Late
Developmental period (A.D. 900–1200) (Fig. 4).
The stratigraphy of the site and the features are
described below. Table 3 lists the features encountered.
LA 103919W: COMPONENT DESCRIPTION
STEPHEN C. LENTZ
LA 103919W is the Early Developmental (approximately A.D. 900 to 1000) component of the site,
located on the west side of NM 503, on private
land (Konopak) and highway right-of-way (Fig. 5).
It was dominated by Red Mesa Black-on-white,
corrugated, and plain ware ceramic artifacts.
Methodology
The excavation of the western portion of LA
103919 was concentrated around the top and northern slope of a large knoll that was bisected by NM
503. The historic component of the site, located
mainly to the west, was investigated and is discussed later. The chronology of the archaeological
work was as follows: excavation began in the
vicinity of 53–54N/49–51E in a possible deflated
feature, and Test Pits 1–3, dug during the testing
phase, were reopened to expose the stratigraphy
defined during this phase (Strata 1–3, see descriptions below). At 51N/50E, a large pit feature
(Feature 1) was exposed, Pit Features 2 and 3 and
Room 1 were defined in association with Feature 1.
An adobe-capped earthen wall was attached to the
west side of Feature 1 (Fig. 5). Burial 1, a juvenile
interment located underneath a large sandstone
slab, was discovered adjacent to a low bedrock outcrop. A 12-m-long utility trench, no longer in use,
passed near Features 1–3 and Room 1. According
to the landowner, this utility trench may have been
excavated in the 1970s. Wall stubs and truncated
portions of architecture were defined. A backhoe
trench measuring 50 to 80 cm deep and 1-m wide
was placed near the top of the knoll. A second
backhoe trench, measuring 80 cm to 1-m deep and
1-m wide, revealed the southern portion of Room
1, which was not visible in plan view, but was
detected in the profile, along with Feature 21, a
small thermal feature. The remaining features were
excavated in the following order: 12, 14, and
18–26. Burial 6, that of a woman between the ages
of 35 and 45, was buried underneath a substantial
cairn of burned rock. Feature 14 was a historic
trash pit, associated with the homestead to the
west. Feature 18, eroding out of the cutbank overlooking NM 503, was an intact hearth or roasting
pit.
Stratigraphic Summary
The western component of LA 103919 was located
on a steep (17 percent), degraded, north-facing
slope. Because of "graviturbation" (Rathje and
Schiffer 1982:142), architectural integrity was not
optimal, although artifact preservation was generally good.
A series of 10- and 20-cm arbitrary levels were
used to define the subsurface stratigraphy into
three natural layers (Fig. 6). These were:
Stratum 1. This layer included organic topsoil
(with vegetation and rootlets) within the first 5–10
cm, followed by well-consolidated, compacted
sandy soil with an average of 10 percent sandstone
spalls and gravel inclusions, charcoal, and cultural
materials. It averaged between 10 and 30 cm in
thickness (Munsell 10YR 5/3 brown).
Stratum 2. Munsell 10YR 6/4 light yellowish
brown, sandy, silty, loosely consolidated soil with
large pockets of yellowish and orangish sand, and
chunks and specks of charcoal, an average of 5 percent sandstone spalls and gravels and cultural
inclusions. This layer averaged between 20 and 75
cm in thickness. Bioturbation was noted throughout the layer. Most of the features and architecture
were encountered at this level. Calibrated (2sigma) radiocarbon dates from Feature 1 and
Excavation Results
23
trash
mound
historic
structure
0
15 meters
50 feet
Caño Acequia
gravel access road to
Konopak guest house
LA 103919 West
(prehistoric)
gravel access road
to Konopak house
acequia
(not in use)
ad
t ro
dir
0
ote
osed
prop
ce
fen
W
R-O-
limits of prehistoric
artifact scatter
coy
Figure 4. Main site map with East and West components, LA 103919.
limits of historic
artifact scatter
NM
503
N
0
0+0
. 10
Sta
24
x
x
fenceline
x
LA 103919 East
(prehistoric)
Sta. 105+00
x
x
x
x
x
propo
ad
dirt ro
x
sed
x
R-O-W
Table 3. Features, LA 103919
Feature
No. Type
Shape
1
Roasting
Pit
Oblong
2
Ash pit
Hemispherical
3
Pit
Oblong
4
Cairn
5
6
Footprint
Posthole
Circular
7
Posthole
Circular
8
Posthole
Circular
9
Posthole
Irregular
10
Posthole
Irregular
11
Cairn and
burial pit
Inverted bell
12
Pit
Oblong
13
Posthole
Oblong
14
15
Historical
trash pit
Posthole
Circular
16
Posthole
Circular
17
Posthole
Circular
18
Oblong
19
Roasting
Pit
Pit
Oblong
20
Pit
Oblong
21
Thermal
feature
Oblong
Dimensions
Association
WEST COMPONENT
0.82 m N-S by 1.20
Features 2, 3,
m E-W by 0.55 m
Room 1, Floor 1
deep
0.20 m N-S by 0.26
Features 1, 3
m E-W by 0.20 m
deep
0.31 m N-S by 0.40
Features 1, 2
m E-W by 0.29 m
deep
1.80 m N-S by 1.32
Burial 2
m E-W
0.17 m N-S by 0.18
m E-W
0.13 m N-S by 0.15
m E-W
0.16 m N-S by 0.13
m E-W
0.15 m N-S by 0.23
m E-W
0.25 m N-S by 0.13
m E-W
1.20 m N-S by 1.10
m E-W by 1.00 m
deep
0.42 m N-S by 0.24
m E-W by 0.15 m
deep
0.20 m N-S by 0.30
m E-W
1.07 m N-S by 1.40
m E-W
0.22 m N-S by 0.25
m E-W
0.21 m N-S by 0.20
m E-W
0.30 m N-S by 0.25
m E-W
0.77 m N-S by 1.53
m E-W
1.50 m N-S by 3.0
m E-W by 1.10 m
deep
1.04 m E-W at top
by 1.64 m E-W at
bottom by 1.05 m
deep
0.80 m N-S by 0.92
m E-W
Room 1, Floor 1
Features 7-10,
13, 15-17
Features 6, 8-10,
13, 15-17
Features 6-7, 910, 13, 15-17
Features 6-8, 10,
13, 15-17
Features 6-9, 13,
15-17
Burial 6
Locus
Comments
53N/50E
54N/51E
Subfloor feature with
2 ash pits
53N/51E
52N/51E
48N/53E
48N/54E
Slumped mass of
charred rock with
associated adobe
51N/52E
Heavy charring
49N/52E
Associated with
adobe; charring
Adobe; some
charcoal
Pebbles at base;
some charcoal
Pebbles at base;
some charcoal
Charred rock and
adobe atop plasterlined burial pit
Badger burial pit
under Floor 1
48N/52E
51N/49E
53N/48E
54-55N/
45-46E
Feature 5, Room
1, Floor 1
54N/49E
Features 6-10,
13, 16-17
Trench cut
50-51N/
54E
55N/6061E
52N/47E
Pebbles at base;
some charcoal
Bisected by trench
cut
Base on bedrock
50N/51E
Flat slab at base
Features 6-10,
13, 16-17
Features 6-10,
13, 15, 17
Features 6-10,
13, 15-16
Trench cut
54N/47E
55N/5960E
58N/4547E
Two informal ash
dumps connected
Dense artifact
assemblage
53-54N/
63-65E
Bisected by trench, 2
small pits to east
and west
56N/53E
Deflated hearth
Excavation Results
25
Table 3. Continued
Feature
No.
Type
Shape
22
Oblong
Oblong
23
24
Stain
2 contiguous
pits
Circular
Bell-shaped
Cobble
Concentration
Circular
25
Dimensions
Association
WEST COMPONENT
0.66 m N-S by 0.80 m
E-W
0.50 m N-S by 0.55 m E-W
East pit: 035 m N-S by
0.52 m E-W; West pit:
0.46 m N-S by 0.62 m
E-W
0.76 m N-S by 0.60 m
E-W
Locus
47-48N/ 5556E
51N/63E
57N/ 5253E
59N/ 4445E
Comments
Adobe cross wall
Heavily charred
Room 1 Structure
Irregular
4.4m NW by 2.0 m SE
Features 1-3, 5, 54N/49E
12
Not well defined
Room 2 Designation
omitted
Burial 1 Human
n/a
see Description
Burial 3, cloth
fragment
50.5N/47E
14
Burial 2
Human
n/a
see Description
Feature 4
50.5N/46E
Burial 3
Human
n/a
see Description
Burial 6
Human
n/a
26
Historic fence
Oblong stain
27
Hearth
Circular
28
Hearth
29
26
Burial 1, two
vessels,
turquoise
1.25 m by 0.55 m by
Feature 11,
1.2 m deep
cairn, burial pit
EAST COMPONENT
0.35 m N-S by 1.6 m EW
0.77 m N-S by 0.70 m
E-W by 0.14 m deep
50.5N/46E
Oblong
Hearth
30
C A.D. 1325-1340
and 1390-1460
Probably amalgam
of two females
Contemporaneous
with Burial 1
54N/45E
Plaster-lined burial
pit
59N/44E
Six small postholes
100N/95E
Well defined and
intact
0.75 m N-S by 0.60 m
E-W by 0.13 m deep
2 m SE of
subdatum D
3 projectile points on
surface
Unknown
0.60 m N-S by 0.20 m
E-W by 0.03 m deep
104N/9899E
Mechanically
disturbed
Ash dump
Semicircular
0.40 m N-S by 0.30 m
E-W by 0.02 m deep
102N/9495E
Rests atop Stratum
3
31
Burned
cobble cluster
Circular
0.30 m N-S by 0.35 m
E-W by 0.09 m deep
32
Burial pit
Oblong
2.2m long by 0.80 m
wide by 1.2 m deep
Burials 4 and 5
5.5 m SE of
subdatum D
Burial 4 atop Burial 5
33
Raw clay
concentration
Irregular
0.62 m N-S by 0.70 m
E-W by 0.02 m thick
Room 1
104105N/97E
Possible clay for
pottery
34
Hearth
Irregular
0.46 m N-S by 0.33 m
E-W by 0.13 m deep
Room 1
102N/98E
East interior of
Room 1
35
Possible
posthole
Oblong
0.23 m N-S by 0.40 m
E-W by 0.12 m deep
Room 1
102N/97E
Feature 27
101N/105E
Table 3. Continued
Feature
Type
No.
Shape
Dimensions
Association
Locus
Comments
EAST COMPONENT
37
Possible
ash pit
Oblong
38
Unknown
Irregular
39
Hearth with
associated
ash pit
Both circular
Hearth with
associated
deflector
and floor
Room Pit structure
3
1.55 m N-S by 0.85
m E-W by 0.25 m
deep
0.21 m N-S by 0.25
m E-W by 0.14 m
deep
104-105N/
106E
Room 3
104N/97E
Possible posthole
Hearth: 0.55 m N-S
by 0.65 m E-W by
0.15 m deep; Ash:
0.46 m dia. By 0.12
m deep
Room 3?
102N/9495E
Abuts one another
Indeterminate
0.80 m E-W
Room 5
104.5N/91.
8E
Circular
1.73 m S by 2.0 m EW by 0.25 m deep
Features 34-35,
38
102.2N/96.
8E
14
Room Large pit
4
Circular
1.9 m N-S by 1.39
m E-W
Cibola White
Wares
50N/51E
Room Pit structure
5
or kiva
13.5 m E-W by 1.10
m deep
Feature 40
104.5N/91.
3E
Burial 4 Human
Unknown,
probably
circular
n/a
Clay pit. May have
been used during
pottery production
Revealed in profile,
not excavated
2.2m by 0.80 m by
1.2 m deep
Burial 5 Human
n/a
2.2 m long by 0.80
m by 1.2 m deep
Small
corrugated
pitcher
Large plain ware
vessel
5.5 m SE of
subdatum
D
5.5 m SE of
subdatum
D
40
Burials 2 and 6 were 165 B.C. to A.D. 250; A.D.
695 to A.D. 1030, and A.D. 665 to A.D. 960.
Stratum 3. Munsell 10YR 6/3 pale brown soil,
sandy and silty texture with a lower density of artifacts and some rodent disturbance. Layer 3 was
between 17 cm and 1.5 m thick.
Sterile was defined by decomposed sandstone
bedrock.
FEATURE DESCRIPTIONS
Feature 1
Feature 1 was a subfloor, bell-shaped pit associated with Room 1 measuring 0.82 m north-south by
1.2 m east-west by 0.55 m deep (Fig. 7a–b). The
top portion of the pit was displaced when it was
C 800 + 70 B.P.
Male, 45-50; on top
of Burial 5
14
C A.D. 780-1020
bisected by a utility trench. An arc of orangebrown staining from burned sand defined the rim
of the feature to the south and west. The feature
articulated with Floor 1 and a contiguous ash dump
to the east (Feature 3), and possibly another ash
dump to the southeast (Feature 2) (Fig. 8). During
excavation, a profile revealed adobe wall stubs
associated with Room 1 directly above discontinuous plaster on the surface of the floor, and some
plaster remains on the south wall of the feature.
The fill contained 20 fire-cracked rocks and 17
charcoal-stained rocks, which may have lined or
encircled the pit. The matrix consisted of silty ash
and charcoal-stained sandy soil (Munsell 10YR
5/3) with small chunks of charcoal. One Rio
Grande Gray Ware was located within the fill. A
large fragmented metate was located midway
Excavation Results
27
road
Feature 25
(fire-cracked
rock)
c ut b
NM
503
ank
hard-packed soil,
possible floor
Feature 26
(charcoal stain)
metate
Feature 24
(storage pits,
adobe wall)
Feature 19
(pit)
coyo
te fe
backhoe trench
nce
Feature 21
(thermal)
Feature 11
(burial pit and cairn),
Burial 6
Feature 5
(footprint)
Feature 17
Room 1
Feature 10
Feature 12
(badger burial)
Feature 1 (pit)
Feature 3 (ashpit)
Feature 2 (pit)
edge
utilit
y tre
nch
Feature 15
of be
drock
Feature 9
Feature 13
prop
Burial 3
ose
dR
50N/50E
Burial 1
Feature 6
datum
-O-W
bac
Feature 16
Feature 7
kho
e tre
nch
Feature 8
Feature 4
(burial cairn)
Feature 22
Burial 2
= ashy soil
= hard-packed adobe wall
= adobe remnants
(use surface)
= posthole
0
2 meters
N
Figure 5. West Component, LA 103919.
28
NM
503
road
c ut b
ank
Feature 18
(hearth with cobbles)
coyo
te fe
n
ce
Feature 14
(historic dump)
ba
ck
ho
et
Feature 20
(storage pit)
ren
ch
Feature 23
pro
pos
ed
R-O
-W
0
2 meters
N
Excavation Results
29
30
match line
base of cut
compacted
sandy soil
adobe
& ash
56N/56E
Stratum 3
Stratum 2
Stratum 1
55N/64E
57N/54E
Feature 20
(storage pit)
sand
ashy sandy soil
(rodent burrow?)
fire-cracked rock
54N/66E
57N/52E
57N/62E
Feature 14
historic pit
metal
= ash and charcoal stained soil
Stratum 3
Stratum 2
Stratum 1
Figure 6. Stratigraphy of West component at road cut bank, LA 103919.
adobe & ash
57N/58E
54N/68E
west end of road cut profile
= adobe
slumped
mound
where
tree was
located
58N/50E
base of cut
57N/60E
Feature 18
(hearth)
0
compacted
sandy soil
1 meter
adobe
& ash
59N/48E
east end of road cut profile
fire-cracked
rock
57N/58E
match line
Feature 1
0
(pit)
30 cm
N
A
Floor 1
A'
53N/50E
A
A'
Stratum 1
pit fill
metate
fragment
inclusions of
Stratum 1
deer
bone
base of pit
Stratum 3
S below pit bottom)
(excavated
unexcavated
Figure 7a. Plan view and profile of Feature 1, LA 103919.
Excavation Results
31
Figure 7b. Feature 1, LA 103919W.
between the top and the base of the feature. A mano
was recovered northwest from the edge of the pit,
in contact with Floor 1. Two artiodactyl long bones
were located in the fill towards the east wall. A
radiocarbon date (calibrated, 2-sigma) revealed an
age of 1950 ± 90 B.P. (165 B.C. to A.D. 250). This
result is inconsistent with the ceramic seriation and
the absolute dates from other features. This specimen is undoubtedly "old wood." Botanical samples
taken for analysis showed ample quantities of
prickly pear, goosefoot, ricegrass, and corn. These
economic taxa are harvestable at very different
segments of the growing cycle (early fall, midsummer, and late spring, respectively), signifying
repeated use of this feature for food storage. Cob
fragments of Zea mays were recovered from this
provenience as well as purslane, dropseed, and
miscellaneous grasses. A juniper cone was also
present in the flotation sample. The purslane may
have been used medicinally (Toll, Table A2.1, this
volume).
32
Feature 2
This feature consisted of a small, well-defined subfloor pit, measuring 0.20 m north-south by 0.26 m
east-west by 0.20 m deep (Fig. 8). It may have
functioned as an ash dump for the roasting pit
(Feature 1) associated with Room 1. The fill was
sandy soil with some charcoal staining (Munsell
10YR 5/3). It also contained several artifacts and
intrusive pockets of orange sand from Stratum 2.
One Red Mesa Black-on-white sherd was recovered near the top of the feature.
Feature 3
Feature 3 was a small pit adjacent to Features 1 and
2 (Fig. 9), and may have served as an ash receptacle for the roasting pit (i.e., an ashpit). The feature
measured 31 cm north-south by 40 cm east-west by
29 cm deep. The fill consisted of silty-sandy soil
with inclusions of charcoal, gravel, and artifacts.
One Rio Grande Gray Ware sherd was located in the
feature. Flotation analysis from the fill showed the
presence of cupules of Zea mays and small quantities of Sporobolis (see Table A2.1, this volume).
53N/
51E
Feature 1
Feature 4 and Burial 2
Feature 3
52N/
51E
Feature 2
Stratum 1
Red Mesa sherd
pit fill
0
N
10 cm
unexcavated
Figure 8. Plan and profile of Feature 2.
53N/ 50 E
53N/51E
N
utility trench
Feature 1
A'
A
Feature 3
(possible ashpit)
Feature 2
A
A'
unexcavated
0
Figure 9. Plan and profile of Feature 3.
20 cm
This feature consisted of a disturbed burial cairn
and its associated material, which measured 1.8 m
north-south by 1.32 m east-west (Fig. 10a, b, c).
Below the cairn rested Burial 2. Few elements
remained in place. These were both lower legs, the
left shoulder, radius, cranium, and mandible.
Except for the lower legs, the remaining elements
were not articulated or in anatomical position.
Bones found in the backdirt were assumed to
belong to this individual and were collected with
the burial. Duplicate elements (another lower leg
and two vertebra) indicate that at least two individuals are represented. Two reconstructible ceramic
vessels may have been associated with either burial. Since both are similar in size and condition, it
was not possible to separate out the individuals,
and all but the duplicate parts are treated as one,
largely complete individual in this analysis. Thus,
Burial 2 probably represents an amalgam of two
females (Akins, this volume). Macrobotanical
remains directly associated with Burial 2 include
goosefoot, pine, Zea mays (including a whole corncob), ricegrass, dropseed, and other possibly cultural seeds. The cairn, originally constructed on a
gentle slope, had collapsed and slid downslope
over time. Rodent burrowing and a nearby utility
trench also contributed to the feature's deteriorated
state. A total of 176 rocks, 87 of which were burned
or fire-cracked, were found to be in association
with this feature. Two large slabs, possibly used to
seal the burial pit beneath the cairn, were in a vertical position at the center of the feature. The
slumped configuration of the cobbles and stones
suggest that they may have been coursed with
adobe on top of the burial pit, and then set on fire.
The loose sandy loam within the burial (Munsell
10YR 6/3) migrated downslope with the disarticulated remains of the burial. The loamy fill within
the burial and beneath the two large slabs (Munsell
10YR 5/2: grayish brown) was rich with charcoal
and burned macrobotanical remains, most notably
corn. A large quantity of lithic and ceramic artifacts
was recovered, as well as shell, turquoise, and
Excavation Results
33
A'
40 cm
0
48N/54E
adobe slump
(possible walls)
rocks /
slabs
N
skull
47N/54E
scapula and
humerus
A
burial pit
bac
A
kho
e tr
enc
h
47N/54E
48N/54E
Stratum 2
rock
Stratum 3
adobe
0
40 cm
Figure 10. (a, upper) Plan view of Feature 4; (b, lower) profile of Feature 4, LA 103919.
34
A'
Figure 10c. Feature 4 during excavation, LA 103919W.
burned animal bone. The majority of ceramic artifacts were Rio Grande Gray Wares (75 percent),
with Cibola White Wares (17 percent) and nonlocal
plain ware (8 percent). Flotation samples from the
fill of this feature contained goosefoot, fairly large
quantities of Zea mays (including a corncob fragment), dropseed, other probably cultural seeds,
numerous carbonized corn cupules and kernels and
some unknown "starchy material." Apricot and
plum remains attest to contamination from postsixteenth-century deposits. Piñon and juniper were
the principal species of wood found in association
with this feature (see Toll, Tables A2.4, 5, and 7,
this volume). A radiocarbon sample provided a
date (2-sigma, calibrated) of 1140 ± 80 B.P. (or
A.D. 695–1030), which is consistent with the occupational range for this component of the site.
Feature 5
Feature 5 consisted of a solitary footprint cast
imbedded in the plaster of Floor 1. It appears to be
associated with the interior activity area of Room
1. The impression was of a small right foot, per-
haps of a female or juvenile. It was apparently
made when Floor 1 was wet (Fig. 11). The impression of the foot was exposed when loose, sandy
soil was brushed away from the plaster surface
while defining the perimeters of Floor 1. The footprint was located at the northern edge of the floor.
The boundaries of Floor 1 were defined by an
excavation trench rather than the original architectural design.
Postholes (Features 6–10, 13, 15–17)
Nine postholes were excavated at LA 103919W.
They were arranged in a relatively evenly spaced
semicircle around the center of the western component of the site (see Fig. 5). Five of the nine postholes had flat rocks or river cobbles at their bases,
possibly used as shims to prevent posts from sinking further into the soil.
Feature 6. This posthole consisted of a circular depression measuring 17 cm north-south by 18
cm east-west by 8 cm deep. The fill was a heavily
stained sandy soil with charcoal inclusions
(Munsell 10YR 5/2). No artifacts were recovered.
Excavation Results
35
Figure 11. Feature 5, footprint, LA 103919W.
Goosefoot, an unidentifiable seed, and Zea mays
were recovered from the flotation sample (Toll,
Table A2.3).
Feature 7. This posthole, a circular concentration of slumped adobe with charcoal and ashstained fill (Munsell 10YR 5/3), measured 13 cm
north-south by 15 cm east-west by 15 cm deep. It
is halfway between Features 6 and 8. There were
pebble inclusions throughout the fill and charcoal
staining around the edge of the feature. One lithic
core was recovered.
Feature 8. This feature was a cylindrically
shaped posthole measuring 16 cm north-south by
13 cm east-west by 12 cm deep. It contained a small
amount of adobe and charcoal staining around the
edges. This feature seemed to be aligned with
Features 6 and 7, which are 2.3 m and 1.0 m to the
north, respectively. No artifacts were recovered.
Feature 9. This posthole was cylindrically
shaped in profile and kidney shaped in plan view.
It measured 15 cm north-south by 23 cm east-west
by 6 cm deep. This represents the base of the feature because the top portion was removed during
mechanical activities. The fill was a loosely com36
pacted ashy soil (Munsell 10YR 5/3) with chunks
of charcoal throughout. The base of the feature
contained pebbles that may have served as a basal
support for the post. Feature 6 is located 3 m to the
east. One Rio Grande Gray Ware sherd was recovered from this posthole.
Feature 10. This posthole was irregularly
shaped, measuring 25 cm north-south by 13 cm
east-west by 8 cm. The fill within this feature was
a loose sandy loam, darkly stained by ash and charcoal (Munsell 10YR 5/3). There were small rocks
at the base of the feature that may have served to
prevent the post from sinking too far into the
ground. One obsidian flake was recovered from the
fill. A cupule of Zea mays, ricegrass, and dropseed
were recovered from the flotation sample of this
feature.
Feature 13. This oblong-shaped posthole was
truncated by mechanical activity. The dimensions
of this feature were 20 cm north-south by 30 cm
east-west by 12 cm deep. The fill was a sandy loam
with dark ash staining and charcoal inclusions.
Pebbles lined the base of the feature, possibly
placed to help support a post. A soil sample was
taken for flotation analysis.
Feature 15. This circular posthole measured
22 cm north-south by 25 cm east-west and 8 cm
deep. It was located 2.5 m west of Feature 9 and its
base rested directly on bedrock. The fill consisted
of gray-brown sandy soil with charcoal and gravel
inclusions. No artifacts were recovered.
Feature 16. This feature consisted of the base
of a truncated posthole, measuring 21 cm northsouth by 20 cm east-west by 8 cm deep. The fill
was a homogeneous silty loam, all of which was
collected for flotation analysis. At the base of the
feature was a flat slab that may have acted as a
shim to support a post.
Feature 17. This feature was a cylindrical
posthole measuring 30 cm north-south by 25 cm
east-west by 17 cm deep. The fill was dark brown
silty soil with charcoal flecking throughout
(Munsell 10YR 5/3). A Rio Grande Gray Ware
handle and one lithic artifact were recovered.
trench
55N/45E
metates
N
manos
mano
A'
A
Kana'a
sherd
dark
stain
0
rocks
20 cm
Feature 11 and Burial 6
This feature, a well-preserved cairn burial, measured 1.2 m north-south by 1.1 m east-west by 1.6
m deep. Burial 6 was found in this plastered-floor
Figure 12a. Plan view of Feature 11, LA 103919W.
55N/46E
A'
55N/45E
background
rocks, pedestals
A
Stratum 1
Stratum 1 / 2
Stratum 2
0
rock
adobe
20 cm
charcoal
Figure 12b. Profile, Feature 11, LA 103919W.
Excavation Results
37
pit, covered with fire-cracked river cobbles and
adobe mortar. On top of the rock cairn were
Developmental period sherds and a scraper. No
offerings were placed with the burial. This individual was resting on her left side with the top of the
head to the northwest and facing north. The legs
were flexed about 90 degrees at the hips and tightly flexed at the knees. The left upper arm is under
the torso and the right is straight forward at the
shoulder. The missing lower arms were probably
removed by a carnivore. The right distal humerus
has what appears to be carnivore gnawing and pits.
The cairn was constructed of 97 river cobbles
and 114 small stones, many of which had been
modified (Fig. 12). There was an overall uniformity in the rocks (averaging 10 cm in diameter) that
suggested deliberate size-selection. The cobbles
had been mortared in place with adobe and then
fired. One hundred of the cobbles and rocks were
fire-cracked, the rest were charred and darkly
burned. This ovate conglomeration of rocks and
mortar was 32 cm high, set directly above a bellshaped, plaster-lined burial pit. A large basket-
Figure 13. Feature 12, badger burial, LA 103919W.
38
impressed sherd, Kana'a Neckbanded sherds, and a
chert scraper were recovered near the top of the
burned cairn. A dark, stained sandy soil (Munsell
10YR 5/2) mixed with chunks of charcoal (samples taken for dendrochronological analysis) was
present throughout the upper portion of the cairn.
Towards the base, this associated soil became
black (10YR 3/1) and the rocks were more densely
concentrated. Immediately below this layer was a
thin plaster surface. The limits of Feature 11 are
defined by the plaster, which extended for an average of 30 cm beyond the elliptical opening of the
burial pit.
The burial was encountered 15 cm lower in the
pit fill. Plaster lined the base and edges of the cistlike pit. Pieces of plaster were occasionally seen
in the fill. Plaster was noted on the pelvis and a
femur was imbedded into the plaster. Charcoal
was abundantly present throughout the feature.
Two sherds were in direct association with the
skull, both from the same vessel. Several small
pieces of shell and turquoise were recovered from
the fill around the upper portion of the pit. The
majority of ceramic artifacts recovered were Rio
Grande Gray Ware (75 percent), other ceramics
included Cibola White Wares (14 percent), nonlocal gray wares (8 percent), and San Juan White
Wares (3 percent). Macrobotanical remains associated with the pit and cairn include pine, Zea
mays, ricegrass, dropseed, and other indeterminate seeds (probably cultural). Flotation remains
from the pelvic fill contained goosefoot, Zea
mays, purslane, and other unidentified (but possibly cultural) seeds along with carbonized juniper
and piñon (Toll, Tables A2.2 and A2.4, this volume). Cheno-am pollen and clumped corn pollen
were present in the pelvic cavity of Burial 6. This
may represent the intestinal contents of the individual at death (see Holloway, Appendix 3).
Feature 12
Feature 12 consisted of a badger burial in a small
formalized pit associated with Room 1, Floor 1
(Fig. 13). The shallow subfloor pit was bowl-like
in profile, oval in plan, and measured 42 cm long
by 23 cm wide. The feature was discovered below
the plastered surface of Floor 1 and there was evidence in the profile of additional plaster on the
walls of the pit. The badger's remains were prone
with its head oriented northeast. No artifacts were
recovered in association with this curious feature.
Feature 14
This feature, a historic trash pit or dump, measured
107 m north-south by 140 m east-west. It was
bisected by the road shoulder at the north end of
the site. A dense artifact assemblage, possibly from
the 1920s or 1930s, was slumped and spilled from
the feature. The base of the pit may have been lined
by large, flat, metal scraps. The miscellaneous assortment of materials collected from the fill included 64
glass fragments, 16 shoe leather fragments, 139
metal fragments, 1 wooden bobbin, 1 pencil, 1 salt
shaker top, 3 shell fragments, 2 doll head fragments,
the metal heel of a cobbler's anvil, 1 copper frame, 1
bone handle, and 1 metal and 1 shell button. The fill
was a light-gray ashy soil with charcoal inclusions.
Apricot and peach remains were recovered from the
flotation sample (Toll, Table A2.7).
Feature 18
Feature 18 included a rock-lined hearth or roasting
pit and two associated ash dumps to the west and
south. Together, all components of the feature
measured 0.77 m north-south by 1.53 m east-west.
The hearth or roasting pit was shallow and concave
in profile and oblong in plan. The fill consisted of
a dense black charcoal-stained sandy soil (Munsell
10YR 2/1), rich with charcoal and burned corn kernels. The closely set rocks lining this portion of the
feature were heavily burned and charred; 33 were
fire-cracked. Two fire-blackened white ware
sherds were recovered in contact with the lining.
Sixteen other sherds, 23 lithic artifacts, and 1 bone
fragment were collected in all. The two thick,
asymmetrical ash dumps adjoining the hearth were
also filled with burned corn and chunks of charcoal. The soil within a 1.5-m radius of this thermal
feature was mottled with ash and charcoal. Most of
the ceramic artifacts were Rio Grande Gray Wares
(66 percent) with Red Mesa (17 percent) and nonlocal gray ware (17 percent) represented. Flotation
results from this hearth also yielded goosefoot, Zea
mays, sedge, and dropseed (Toll, Table A2.1).
Corncob fragments were also present. Wood
species identified in this feature included juniper,
piñon, ponderosa pine, and undetermined conifer.
A radiocarbon sample yielded a 2-sigma, calibrated date of 1100 ± 70 B.P. (A.D. 785–1035). This
date is consistent with the chronometric pattern
observed elsewhere on the site (e.g., Feature 4,
Burial 2).
Feature 19
This feature consisted of a pit, oblong and irregular
in profile, and kidney shaped in plan, measuring
1.5 m north-south by 3.0 m east-west. It was first
observed after mechanical exploration revealed a
dense concentration of fire-cracked rock and associated stained soil (Munsell 10YR 5/3: graybrown) that measured 1 m north-south and 0.5 m
east-west. The stain was excavated to a depth of
1.1 m, where a hard-packed floor of gray soil was
encountered. The floor and the walls of the feature
were well defined except for the upward-sloping
western boundary. The artifact assemblage collect-
Excavation Results
39
Figure 14. Feature 20, bell-shaped storage pit, LA 103919W.
ed from the fill was extensive and diverse. Three
shell ornaments (2 fragmentary), 3 beads (1 shell, 1
travertine, and 1 bone), 1 piece of turquoise, 3 bone
awls, 1 spoke-shave, 1 drill, 1 utilized flake, 3 projectile points, 12 biface fragments, 1 fragmentary
metate, the fragments of 8 ground stone items, 58
potsherds, 82 bone fragments, and 710 pieces of
lithic debitage were recovered from this feature.
Because the western edge of the feature remained
undefined, excavation was arbitrarily terminated.
The morphology of the upslope portion of the feature led to the speculation that the feature may represent an arroyo or natural accumulation of artifacts
due to erosion rather than a storage pit or midden.
Ceramic artifacts from this feature were dominated
by Rio Grande Gray Wares (73 percent), with some
Cibola White Wares (18 percent), and nonlocal gray
wares (9 percent). Goosefoot, purslane, and Zea
mays were recovered from the flotation sample.
Feature 20
This feature, a bell-shaped storage pit with plaster40
lined floor and sides, measured 1.1 m north-south
by 1.2 m east-west (Fig. 14). Several pieces of
heavily burned adobe casts were extracted from the
charcoal-stained loamy fill (Munsell 10YR 5/3),
indicating thermal activity in the structure. A large
quantity of burned corn kernels, two manos, and
nonhuman bone fragments were recovered from
the pit. The profile showed evidence of at least one
and possibly two small formalized pits located
contiguous to the east and west base of the structure. Corncob fragments with two or more cupules
were encountered in this feature. Zea mays, piñon,
goosefoot, unidentifiable seeds, and Cheno-ams
were present in this feature.
Feature 21
Feature 21 consisted of a oval-shaped dense charcoal stain (Munsell 10YR 5/3) that may have been
the remains of a deflated thermal feature. The feature measured 0.80 m north-south by 0.92 m eastwest. The fill beneath the circular brown stain contained 14 fire-cracked rocks, concentrations of
charcoal, and a few lithic artifacts. The stain ended
at a sterile layer of very fine sandy soil (Munsell 10YR
6/4) that was mixed with sandstone concretions.
Feature 22
This feature was an anomalous circular charcoal
stain, bowl-shaped in profile and measuring 66 cm
north-south by 80 cm east-west. The fill was of a
homogeneous charcoal-stained loamy soil
(Munsell 10YR 5/4) with pea-sized lumps of charcoal distributed evenly throughout. Ceramic artifacts included 67 percent Rio Grande Gray Ware
and 33 percent Cibola White Ware. Other artifacts
recovered from this feature were four lithic artifacts, one piece of nonhuman bone, and one ground
stone fragment.
Feature 23
Feature 23, an oval-shaped rocky area of amorphous charcoal staining (Munsell 10YR 3/1,
black), measured 50 cm north-south by 20 cm eastwest. The feature terminated abruptly on a layer of
sterile orange-brown sandy soil (Munsell 10YR
6/4). This may be the remains of a disarticulated
thermal feature or pit. However, no artifacts were
recovered from the black, ashy fill.
Feature 24
Feature 24 consisted of two bell-shaped storage
pits and the remains of an adobe cross wall
(Munsell 10YR 7/3, very pale brown) that existed
between the two cists at the top of the feature. The
fill of both pits (Munsell 10YR 5/3) contained substantial quantities of burned corn kernels, charred
rock, chunks of collapsed adobe, and 28 firecracked rocks. There were fragments of interior
wall plaster (Munsell 10YR 6/3) surrounding the
pits. The east pit (Fig. 15a) measured 35 cm northsouth by 52 cm east-west by 40 cm deep. This pit
appeared to have been adobe and possibly lined
with plaster. Some burning was evident on the
southern and western edges. Large burned cobbles
were located in the pit fill. These cobbles and
adobe chunks continued down to the base of the
pit. Some of the adobe pieces retained the impressions of plant materials possibly used in construction. The west pit (Fig. 15b) measured 46 cm
north-south by 62 cm east-west by 53 cm deep. It
was carved out of the sand and maintained hardened walls and some of the adobe lining. The fill
appeared to have been washed in and contained
many chunks of adobe. This pit contained more
rock than the east pit, including several large
burned river cobbles toward the base. One Rio
Grande Gray Ware sherd was recovered from the
fill. Zea mays cob fragments were also recovered
from the fill. Goosefoot, chenopodium, and corn
were recovered from the west pit, and pigweed,
goosefoot, tansymustard, dropseed, and cupules of
Zea mays were recovered from the east pit. Wood
species included juniper, ponderosa, and undetermined conifer (Toll, Table A2.3, A2.5).
Feature 25
This feature consisted of an irregularly shaped concentration of blackened and fire-cracked rocks that
measured 76 cm north-south by 60 cm east-west.
The fill was a loamy gray-brown sandy soil with
flecks of charcoal. Sterile soil was encountered
directly below the stones and charcoal lens. Both
historic and prehistoric cultural materials were
recovered from the matrix between the rocks.
Artifacts included one projectile point, two ground
stone fragments, one Rio Grande Gray Ware sherd,
one San Juan White Ware sherd, fourteen lithics,
and several pieces of historic glass.
Feature 26, Coyote Fence
This oblong-shaped feature was a very ashy charcoal stain with charcoal inclusions containing an
intrusive root system of a nearby elm tree. An
alignment of six charcoal-filled postholes was
located and represented a 1.6-m-long section of a
historic "coyote" fence once bordering the
landowner's property. Elsewhere on the site, surface evidence of the burned fence was noted before
excavation. Recovered materials included twenty
lithic artifacts, one Rio Grande Gray Ware sherd,
and five bone fragments.
Burials 1 and 3
Burials 1 and 3 were juvenile burials located adjacent to one another (see Fig. 5). These were
uncovered by the backhoe, disturbing and mixing
Excavation Results
41
Figure 15a. Feature 24, east pit, LA 103919W.
Figure 15b. Feature 24, west pit, LA 103919W.
42
some of the elements. Both were on bedrock, a pit
was not discernable for Burial 1. Burial 1 was a
child oriented east to west with its head to the east
and on its left side. The femora were north-south
suggesting a flexed or semiflexed position. A fragment of cotton cloth was found near one arm and
two slabs covered the burial. The fragment was
directly radiocarbon dated. The cotton weaving
appears to have a 2-sigma calibrated range of 510
± 50 B.P. (A.D. 1325 to 1340 and A.D. 1390 to
1460). Bright red pigment is present on the interiors of two left and one unsided rib fragments and
the right radius.
Burial 3, the second child, was placed in an
ovoid pit excavated to bedrock (no feature number
was assigned to the pit feature). The body was
flexed with some crushing and movement, caused
by the backhoe and drifting. The head was to the
east and face up, apparently on its back with the
arms along the sides and the hips and knees flexed.
Two ceramic vessels and a piece of turquoise were
in association. The pollen sample contained pine,
Cheno-ams, grasses, sunflower, and sagebrush. A
small amount of Zea mays pollen was also present
(Holloway, Appendix 3).
Room 1
Considerable erosion was present in this area of the
site, and therefore Room 1 was not well defined.
Since this area was located on a north-facing slope,
much of it was disturbed. Although several adobe
walls and wall stubs remained intact, most were
deflated (Fig. 5). A bewildering patchwork of
adobe slump marked much of the site, but was concentrated towards the north. It is possible that two,
or maybe even three rooms were present at this
location. Because of the presence of walls and a
floor, the area was conflated into a single large
unit. The designation "Room 2" was used for a
while, but since this definition was basically arbitrary, it was disbanded. The boundaries of Room 1,
particularly the northern and eastern walls, were
absent. Room 1 included Features 1–3, 5, and 12
and were united by one consistent element, which
was Floor 1. Occurring at a relatively constant elevation, Floor 1 connected these separate features
under a single designation. Arbitrarily defined, the
dimensions of Room 1 were 4.4 m northwest by
2.0 m southeast.
LA 103919E: COMPONENT DESCRIPTION
JOAN K. GAUNT
LA 103919E is the eastern part of LA 103919 that
has Kwahe'e Black-on-white ceramics and dates to
the Late Developmental period (approximately
A.D. 1100–1200). It is located on private land and
highway right-of-way on the east side of NM 503.
The excavated portion of this site measured 8 m
north-south by 45 m east-west. The site consisted
of 2 rooms, 13 features, and 2 burials (Fig. 16).
Three stratigraphic layers that defined this
occupation are Stratum 1, 2, and 3 (Fig. 17). A 14C
sample collected from Stratum 2 provided a date of
1060 ± 70 B.P. Three tree-ring samples taken from
this stratum provided dates of A.D. 1024+vv,
1053++vv, and 1061++v. The pit fill from Burial 5,
which was dug into Stratum 3 and contained
Stratum 2 fill, provided a 14C date of 1130 ± 60 B.P.
Similar to Stratum 2, Stratum 3 represents the
Kwahe'e component of the Developmental period.
The majority of ceramic artifacts were Rio Grande
Gray Wares. 14C samples taken from two hearth
features within Stratum 3 provided dates to support
the Developmental period occupation; Feature 34
in Room 3 dated 800 ± 70 B.P. and Feature 39
dated 850 ± 70 B.P.
Methodology
Excavation began on the west side of the Smith's
driveway adjacent to Test Pits 6 and 7, which were
dug during the testing phase. These two test pits
were reopened and the stratigraphy examined.
Three distinct strata were defined during the testing phase, Strata 1–3. Contiguous units were
opened to follow these strata. Strata 1 and 2 proved
to be a perplexing conglomeration of amorphous
stains, charcoal concentrations, abundant artifacts,
and large, sterile, sandy-silt pockets. A backhoe
was then used to scrape approximately 50 to 70 cm
from the surface over the entire site area west of
the driveway. This allowed for the shapes of features or distinctly stained areas to be located and
defined. Close to the right-of-way fence line, a
large, amorphous stain was uncovered. Hand excavation in this area followed the stains but found
only more of the same conglomeration that was
found near Test Pits 6 and 7. Features began to appear
1.0 m below datum. Room 3, the deepest feature, was
Excavation Results
43
existi
ng R
possible
postholes
x
x
x
x
-O
nce
-W fe
unexcavated
Feature
30
Feature
27
roa
dc
ut
Feature 31
burned adobe and
rock concentration
100 E
Feature 36
Feature 34
Feature 35
Figure 16. East component, LA 103919.
x
siltstone
bedrock
x
100 N
x
Feature
39
x
telephone pedestal
mail box
turn out
(dirt road)
mail
boxes
x
burned adobe
x
x
Room 4
x
x
x
Feature 37
(ash pit)
x
x
x
Room 3
W
Smith's driveway
utility pole
trenches
x
Feature 29
ed RO
x
Feature
38
Feature 33
propos
x
Room 5
(possible dimensions)
x
2 meters
N
x
x
0
= backhoe trenches
= posthole
= adobe remnants
(use surface)
x
x
44
= pit
x
x
= ashy soil
x
x
x
Burial 4
Burial 5
Feature 28
(hearth)
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
op
d
x
NM
503
x
h
W
ck
x
ba
RO
Feature 32
pr
e
os
x
t
oe
re
x
nc
he
x
bla
s
ea
x
ce
fen x
W
OR- x
ng x
i
t
is
ar
ex x
d
de
x
x
x
x
modern surface
Stratum 1
Stratum 2
Stratum 3
bedrock
0
1 meter
Figure 17. Profile of backhoe trench, LA 103919E.
located at 1.60 m below datum. The vertical provenience
of all other features varied between 1.0 and 1.6 m.
On the east side of the Smith's driveway, a small
hearth, Feature 28, was located and excavated.
During this time, a few miscellaneous human bone
fragments were uncovered. Two hand-dug trenches
were placed on either side of the utility pole next to
the fence line; these trenches measured 3.0 m long
by 0.40 m wide by 0.50 m deep, and 2.0 m long by
0.40 m wide by 0.50 m deep. At the south end of the
southern trench, a collection of stones was located in
an otherwise homogeneous sandy-silt stratum.
These stones were the top of the six layers of stones
that enclosed Burial 4. After the excavation of both
Burials 4 and 5 from this area, the backhoe bladed a
large area to the east in search of other stone concentrations that would similarly represent additional
burials. The bladed area measured 14-by-5 m. No
stone concentrations or stains were located. Two
trenches were excavated by backhoe through the
center of this bladed area to examine the stratigraphy for buried cultural deposits. None was found.
Stratigraphic Summary
Stratum 1. This stratum consisted of a fine silt
with 5 percent small gravel (Munsell 10YR 6/4,
light yellowish brown). Small fragments of deteriorating siltstone had migrated up from the underlying layer, Stratum 2. It averaged in thickness
between 15 and 20 cm. Numerous artifacts were
recovered from this stratum. Ceramic artifacts
recovered from this stratum indicate a Kwahe'e
component date of A.D. 1050–1150 (Fig. 17).
Stratum 2. This stratum consisted of a mix of
sterile silt pockets, charcoal, and stained areas
(Munsell 10YR 5/4, yellowish brown; 10YR 6/4,
light yellowish brown). It ranged in thickness
between 30 and 70 cm. There was a mixture of
small gravels to large stones of fragmented
bedrock. Fragmented pieces of bedrock were noted
throughout this stratum. Some of these pieces had
an appearance of being stacked together; it was difficult to discern whether they were cultural or natural. The majority of features was located within
this stratum. This stratum represented a Late
Developmental period occupation, a Kwahe'e component, as ceramic artifacts ranged between A.D.
1050 and 1150. Tree-ring samples from three
proveniences within this stratum provided dates of
A.D. 1024+vv, 1053++vv, and 1061++v.
Stratum 3. Stratum 3 was generally a fine silt
with occasional pieces of siltstone bedrock
(Munsell 10YR 6/4, light yellowish brown). The
thickest portion measured 40 cm, yet the bottom
measurement of this stratum could not be determined as it continued considerably deeper than the
level of occupation and excavation. Several features located in this stratum were dug into the
underlying stratum of deteriorating siltstone
bedrock. Numerous artifacts were recovered from
this stratum. The ceramic artifacts date to a
Kwahe'e component in the Late Developmental
period between A.D. 1050 and 1150.
Stratum 4. This stratum was the upper fill
from Feature 32. Feature 32 contained both Burials
4 and 5. The fill consisted of a fine silt with occasional small pieces of deteriorating siltstone
Excavation Results
45
bedrock (Munsell 10YR 5/4, yellowish brown).
The fill surrounding the burials was assigned individual stratum numbers. The upper fill was
assigned a separate number. When the excavation
began, it was thought to be a single feature. When
it was apparent that two burials were present rather
than one, the provenience of each recovered excavated artifact could not be exactly relocated. At
that point, all artifacts in the upper fill of Feature
32, overlying both burials, were assigned as
Stratum 4. This stratum contained numerous artifacts including 960 ceramic artifacts, 315 lithic
artifacts, 1,025 microflakes, 7 pieces of ground
stone, 3 projectile points, eggshell, 1 turquoise
fragment, and 2 sandstone concretions. The number of artifacts in the fill immediately around the
burials was comparatively fewer than the number
of artifacts in this upper fill.
Stratum 5. This stratum consisted of the fill in
direct association with Burial 4. It was culturally
sterile silt with occasional small pieces of deteriorating bedrock (Munsell 10YR 6/4, light yellowish
brown). The burial pit had been dug into the sterile
silt of Stratum 3. The fill above the burial pit contained numerous artifacts (see Stratum 4). The only
artifact directly associated with Burial 4 was a
small Rio Grande Smeared Corrugated pitcher.
Stratum 6. Stratum 6 consisted of the fill
directly associated with Burial 5. The fill consisted
of a culturally sterile silt with only a few siltstone
inclusions (Munsell 10YR 5/4, yellowish brown).
The pit had been dug into the sterile silt of Stratum
3. Above the burial, there were five layers of stones
surrounded in fill that was dense in artifactual
material (see Burial 5 description). These five layers of stones measured an average of 1.04 m deep,
from the top of the first layer of stones to the bottom layer of stones that was just above the burial.
lated to form the circular-shaped pit for the hearth.
Small peck marks were evident along the interior
southern edge of the hearth. The hearth consisted of
30 stones of various sizes that lined the base of the
hearth and formed the north, east, and south sides of
the feature. The average size of the stones was 10 to
15 cm; 28 were siltstone and 2 were fire-cracked
igneous stones. All stones had been intensely
burned and fire-blackened. The fill consisted of a
homogeneous black (Munsell 7.5YR 2/5, black)
charcoal ash mixed with silt. A whole corncob was
recovered from the hearth fill. Flotation results
yielded Zea mays, pigweed (a noncultural annual),
purslane and dropseed, and carbonized piñon and
juniper (probably fuelwood) (Toll, Tables A2.9,
A2.12, this volume). Seven lithic artifacts and two
bone artifacts were recovered from this feature.
Ceramic artifacts included one Rio Grande Plain
Ware and two indented corrugated sherds.
charcoal / ash pit
20 cm
0
A
A'
A'
clean tan silt
94E/99N
N
FEATURE DESCRIPTIONS
siltstone outcrop
burned siltstone, rock
Feature 27
A
A'
rock pecked to form hearth wall
Feature 27, a circular hearth located at the west end
of the site, measured 0.77 m north-south by 0.70 m
east-west and varied in depth between 0.03 and
0.14 m (Fig. 18). The feature was located vertically
within Stratum 2. The west and south edges of the
hearth were formed by an edge of the siltstone outcrop. The siltstone had been intentionally manipu46
charcoal / ash pit
clean tan silt
Figure 18. Plan and profile of Feature 27, LA
103919E.
Feature 28
Feature 29
Feature 28 was a hearth situated in the eastern portion of the site, approximately 2 m east of the
Smith's driveway (Fig. 19). It was located vertically within Stratum 2 and measured 0.75 m northsouth by 0.60 m east-west by 0.13 m deep. The
hearth consisted of a stone-lined shallow pit with a
use surface which extended outward from the exterior by 0.25 m. Three projectile points were located on this surface. The stones at the base of the
hearth were burned only on one side. The soil
beneath the fire-blackened stones was not oxidized
or hardened by fire. Fill consisted of dark gray
(Munsell 7.5YR 3/1, very dark gray) silt with small
siltstone gravels and occasional pieces of charcoal.
Numerous artifacts were recovered from this feature, including 118 lithics, 93 ceramics, 31 pieces
of bone, 3 projectile points, 2 beads, and 2 eggshell
fragments. The majority of ceramic artifacts were
Rio Grande Gray Ware. Two of the ceramic artifacts were Kwahe'e Black-on-white.
Feature 29 was the remnants of a hearth that was
largely removed during backhoe activities. When
the feature was located, a small portion was all that
remained, measuring 20 cm east-west by 60 cm
north-south by 3 cm deep (Fig. 20). It was located
within Stratum 2 on the west side of the site. The
fill consisted of a blackened silt with small flecks
of charcoal (Munsell 7.5YR 2.5, black). One flotation sample was collected from this feature. No
artifacts were recovered from the feature fill.
use surface
(with ashy areas)
A
Feature 30
Feature 30 appeared to be an ash dump associated
with a hearth, Feature 27 (Fig. 21). It is located
0.60 m northeast of Feature 27 within Stratum 3. It
The southwest section of this feature was removed
before the feature was defined. It consisted of a 2cm-thick ash lens (Munsell 7.5YR 3/1, very dark
gray) on a compacted sandy surface. It appeared
that the feature was not dug into the stratum, rather
deposited on top. This ash lens was taken as a flota104N/99E
104N/98E
N
Projectile Point 1
A'
N
hearth fill
ash-mottled
area
hearth
A
Projectile
Point 3
kh
bac
Projectile Point 2
oe t
renc
h
rodent disturbance
A'
0
30 cm
= burned rock
A
= cobble
A'
0
20 cm
A
hearth fill
A'
hearth
unexcavated
Stratum 2
Figure 19. Plan and profile, Feature 28, LA
103919E.
103919E.
Excavation Results
47
A'
ashy fill area
A
sherd
eggshell
ashy fill
N
= cobbles
0
100N/104E
ashy
hy
fill fill
ashy
atum 2
Stratum
flfloor
oor
flfloor
N
A
A'
surface
unexcavated
Figure 22a. Plan and profile, Feature 31, LA
103919E.
A'
0
A
20 cm
20 cm
101N/ 95E
Feature 32
ashy fill
A
A'
surface
Stratum 2
unexcavated
103919E.
tion sample. Two Rio Grande Gray Wares were
recovered from this feature.
Feature 31
Feature 31, a small burned cluster of six cobbles,
was located 9.5 m east of Feature 27 (Fig. 22a, b).
It is circular in shape and measures 0.30 m northsouth by 0.35 m east-west. The fill consisted of a
2-cm-thick compact gray ashy sand (Munsell
7.5YR 3/1, very dark gray). Fragments of eggshell
were located within the fill. At the bottom of the
ashy fill, a compacted burned sand was encountered. This compact sand extended along the western edge of the feature and then sloped into the feature. The eroded eastern edge of the feature precluded determining its original shape. Six sherds
and four lithics were also recovered from the fill.
Small quantities of Zea mays were found in association with this feature, as well as some noncultural
grasses and spurge (Euphorbia). The charcoal from
this feature was composed primarily of juniper and
unidentified conifer (Toll, Table A2.11–12;
Holloway, Appendix 3).
48
Feature 32 was the pit in which Burials 4 and 5
were recovered (Fig. 23). This pit was an extramural feature located 25 m east of the central activity
area of the site. It was an elongated bean-shaped pit
measuring 2.2 m long by 0.65 m to 0.80 m wide
and ranging in depth from 0.75 m for Burial 4 to
1.20 m for Burial 5. The pit was formed by digging
into the homogeneous silt stratum. The fill
removed from the immediate vicinity of both burials was a homogeneous silty sand and culturally
sterile. The fill in the upper portion of the pit had a
high artifact concentration suggesting perhaps this
fill was taken from a midden area. The primary or
original pit was for the interment of Burial 5. This
burial was covered with six layers of stone. Burial
4 was subsequently interred and placed 0.40 m
above Burial 5 and overlapped the east end of
Burial 5 by 0.50 m. The pit dug for Burial 4 displaced some of the stones associated with Burial 5.
As a result, a few of these stones ended up in the
fill for Burial 4 (see burial descriptions).
Artifacts recovered from this feature were
numerous: 960 ceramic artifacts, 1,025
microlithics, 315 lithic artifacts, 7 pieces of ground
stone, 3 projectile points, 1 turquoise fragment, 2
sandstone concretions, eggshell fragments, and
nonhuman bone fragments. The majority of ceramic artifacts were Rio Grande Gray Wares (97 percent); 0.5 percent Tewa White Wares, including
Kwahe'e; 0.2 percent San Juan White Wares, 1.9
percent Cibola White Wares, including Red Mesa;
0.1 percent San Juan Red Wares, and 0.1 percent
Figure 22b. Feature 31, LA 103919E.
White Mountain Redwares. The pit and associated
burials were radiocarbon dated 1130 ± 60 B.P. (or
A.D. 780 to 1020), which places them within the
Rio Grande Developmental period. Cob fragments
were also present in the fill of the feature. Zea
mays was present in the fill surrounding Burial 4.
Botanical remains from the soil near the pelvic
modern surface
top of burial pit
Burial 4
Burial 5
0
1 meter
Figure 23. Profile of Feature 32, locations of
Burials 4 and 5.
cavity of Burial 5 include goosefoot, grasses,
Arizona poppy, and a cupule of Zea mays (Toll,
Tables A2.11–12). For additional information on
the botanical remains from this provenience, see
Burials 4 and 5 below.
Feature 33
Feature 33 was a concentration of raw clay located
0.33 m north of Room 3 (Fig. 24). The clay defining the top of the feature measured 0.62 m northsouth by 0.70 m east-west. The clay is lighter in
color (Munsell 10YR 8/1, white) than the surrounding stratigraphy. The feature is not lined and
is simply a layer of clay atop Stratum 3. A cut
through the clay showed that the layer was between
0.5 and 2.0 cm thick. Directly below the clay layer
was charcoal and ceramic artifacts. The charcoal
was concentrated in a small area. This feature
could represent an area of clay preparation for perhaps the floor of Room 3 or for pottery manufacture. Samples of the clay from this feature and the
floor of Room 3 were taken to determine if the
Excavation Results
49
104N/96E
104N/98E
104N/97E
Feature 33,
clay concentration
large rocks
N
A
A'
20 cm
0
103N/97E
103N/96E
A
103N/98E
large rock
clay
A'
Stratum 3
Figure 24. Plan and profile, Feature 33, LA 103919E.
same clay was used in both locations. Ten ceramic
artifacts were recovered from this feature; 90 percent were Rio Grande Gray Wares and 10 percent
were Gallup Black-on-white. Botanical remains
included pigweed, pine tree bark, and cupules of
Zea mays. Wood species included juniper, piñon,
ponderosa pine, and undetermined conifer (Toll,
Table A2.1–2).
Feature 34
Feature 34, a hearth located along the eastern edge
of Room 3, was constructed of approximately 25
river cobbles that lined the bottom of a shallow pit.
The extent of the stones measured 0.46 m northsouth by 0.33 m east-west. The fill consisted of a
blackened silt and charcoal flecks. A 14C sample
taken from the fill of this hearth provided a date of
A.D. 800 ± 70 B.P. (calibrated 2-sigma A.D. 1045
to 1105 and A.D. 1115 to 1300). No artifacts were
recovered from this feature. Small quantities of
Zea mays cupules and pine bark were recovered
from the flotation sample. Other species recovered
(in charcoal form) were piñon and juniper, and
50
remains of Rosaceae, or wild rose (Toll, Tables
A2.11–12).
Feature 35
Feature 35 was of unknown function but could possibly have been a posthole located along the southern edge of Room 3. A shallow pit measuring 0.23
m north-south by 0.40 m east-west by 0.12 m deep
comprised the upper portion of this feature. The fill
within this pit consisted of silt and four fist-size
stones; two ceramics were also found in this pit.
Beneath the pit was a smaller hole that measured
0.15 m wide and extended 0.20 m to bedrock. Pine
bark and Zea mays were recovered from the flotation sample (Toll, Table A2.8).
Feature 36
Feature 36 was a small circular feature that measured 0.62 m north-south by 0.50 m east-west by 4
cm deep. Its function appeared to be that of an ash
dump. It was located 60 cm off the southeast corner of Room 3. There was a slight depression area
of 4 cm with three areas of burned sandstone in the
northern half. It was unknown whether this was an
ash dump for Feature 27, the hearth south of Room
3, or Feature 34, the hearth within Room 3. No artifacts were recovered from this feature.
Feature 37
Feature 37 was a shallow oblong-shaped pit that
measured 1.55 m north-south by 0.85 m east-west
and 0.25 m in depth (Fig. 25). Its placement was
isolated from the main group of features on the
west side of the site, located 8 m east-northeast of
Room 3. Its function was unknown yet its fill suggested it may have been an ash pit. The fill consisted of a compacted sand with gray ash and charcoal flecks. There was a cluster of three large cobbles in the southern half of the feature. Burned
ceramics were also recovered from the southern
half of the feature. The total number of artifacts
include 64 ceramics, 23 lithics, and 1 bone.
Ceramic artifacts included mostly Rio Grande
Gray Wares (96.8 percent), 1.6 percent Kwahe'e,
and 1.6 percent Cibola White Ware. The flotation
sample contained pine and three cupules of corn.
The charcoal was composed of piñon and juniper
(Toll, Tables A2.9–10).
An episode of accelerated erosion occurred during the excavation of this site. Feature 37 had been
excavated, mapped, recorded, and left open. During
an intense rain, runoff from the original ground surface above the excavated area poured over the site,
filling grids and washing away defined stratigraphic
layers and features. Once the rain had ceased,
Feature 37 was completely filled in, leaving no distinguishing marks that this had once been a feature.
This deluge allowed us to observe the larger erosional picture of this landform. It became evident
that rain and wind had played a significant role in
shaping the development of the natural and cultural
stratigraphic events.
of the feature, a surface of hardened clay existed.
This was also part of a continuous surface that
encircled the north half of the room from east to
west. In the top portion of the fill a 5-cm-thick
charcoal stain was present. Directly beneath the
stain was 11 cm of silt containing one ceramic and
two lithic artifacts. At the bottom of this layer of
silt there was a hardened surface that articulated
with the edges of this feature and the surrounding
surface. This surface was present on the bottom of
the west side of the feature but not present on the
east side. Rodent disturbance was evident in this
feature. One Rio Grande Gray Ware sherd was
recovered. The charcoal specimens present in the
feature were mixed piñon and juniper. An uniden-
Feature 38
Feature 38 was a small feature of unknown function in the center of the north wall of Room 3. It
Initially, this feature was thought to be a posthole.
The interior fill of the feature had a soft texture
compared to the surrounding clay. Around the edge
Figure 25. Feature 37, ash pit, LA 103919E.
Excavation Results
51
tifiable seed and some Zea mays cupules were also
recovered from Feature 38 (Toll, Tables A2.11–12;
Feature 39
Feature 39 was located 1.2 m west of the southwest
corner of Room 3. It consisted of a hearth and associated ash pit (Figs. 26, 27). The hearth was constructed into the sterile sand of Stratum 3 and
measured 0.55 m north-south by 0.65 m east-west
by 0.15 m deep. The base of the hearth consisted of
seven large sandstone river cobbles. The hearth fill
consisted of a silty sand with charcoal and artifacts.
The ash pit, also constructed into the silty sand of
Stratum 3, abuts the west side of the hearth and is
slightly oriented northwest. The circular ash pit
measures 0.46 m in diameter and 0.12 m deep. Ash
found in the ash pit was also found along the south
and southeast edges of the hearth. The ash varied in
width from 2 cm on the east side to 18 cm on the
south side. Artifacts were found in the hearth fill as
well as in the ash and charcoal fill within the pit. A
total of 59 artifacts were recovered in this feature.
ash and silt
102N/94E
A
ash pit
Figure 27. Feature 39, hearth, LA 103919E.
The majority of the ceramics (91.6 percent) were a
variety of Rio Grande Gray Wares, 5.1 percent
Tewa White Ware, and 3.4 percent Cibola White
Ware. A 14C sample obtained from this feature provided a date of (calibrated, 2 sigma) 850 ± 70 B.P.
(A.D. 1025 to 1290). This date places the feature
well within the Rio Grande Developmental period.
A variety of botanical remains were recovered
from this feature, including Cheno-am, pine, fairly
high quantities of corn, and pigweed. A whole cob
of Zea mays was also present as well as carbonized
juniper, piñon, and unidentified conifer (Toll,
Tables A2.11–12).
Feature 40
Feature 40 consisted of the central hearth associated
with the pit structure visible in the site profile (see
Fig. 32) and not excavated. It is composed of a concentration of oxidized cobbles with intermixed charcoal. Available dimensions are 0.50 m east-west.
A'
hearth fill
ash
N
Room 3
101N/94E
= cobble
30 cm
0
Projectile Point 3
A
Projectile Point 2
A'
Projectile Point 1
ash
hearth fill
ash pit
p
Stratum 3
Figure 26. Plan and profile, Feature 39.
52
Room 3 was a circular-shaped room on the east
side of the site in the center of the main activity
area (Figs. 28, 29). It had been constructed into the
silt of Stratum 3 and measured 1.73 m north-south
by 2.0 m east-west by 0.25 m deep. The floor
appeared to be a prepared compact silty clay surface or roughcast plaster. This clay or plaster was
similar to Stratum 3, which also comprises the fill,
yet is slightly lighter in color (Munsell 10YR 6/4,
Feature 38
use surface
95E/ 103N
A'
Room 3
N
A
hearth
cobble
bedrock
Feature 35
(pit)
95E/ 101N
98E/ 101N
Feature 36
(pit)
0
50 cm
A
bedrock
plastered edge
A'
hearth
Figure 28. Plan and profile of Room 3, LA 103919E.
light yellowish brown). The interior surface continued up the walls and extended onto the ground
surface around the exterior north half of the room.
This surface varies between 7 and 45 cm in width.
The southwest corner of the structure was formed
by a large segment of siltstone bedrock. There were
three features within the construction of this room:
Feature 34 was a concentration of burned stone
defined as a hearth located along the east side of
the room; Feature 35 was a pit of unknown function in the south-central portion of the site; Feature
38 was also a small pit of unknown function situated in the center exterior of the north wall (see specific feature descriptions above).
Excavation Results
53
Figure 29. Room 3, after excavation, LA 103919E.
Forty-nine ceramic artifacts were recovered
from this room. The majority of these were Rio
Grande Gray Wares (93.9 percent); the remaining 6
percent were Cibola White Wares, including a Red
Mesa and a Gallup Black-on-white sherd. The
range of ceramics dated this room to a Kwahe'e
component, A.D. 1050 to 1150. Cheno-ams were
recovered from the flotation sample taken from the
floor of Room 3 (Toll, Table A2.8).
Room 4 (Clay Pit)
Room 4 consisted of circular-shaped room that was
partly removed by backhoe. The largest remaining
portion was the southern one-third of the room.
This measures 0.52 m north-south by 1.39 m eastwest (at the widest diameter) and averages 12 cm
deep (Figs. 30, 31). Together, the two portions of
the structure formed a room that originally measured 1.90 m north-south by 1.39 m east-west. The
floor consisted of a compact clay (10YR 6/4, light
yellowish brown) that extended up the walls. The
fill consisted of three distinct layers. The top layer
54
was a deposit of raw clay (Munsell 10YR 5/4
brownish gray) varying from 4 to 7 cm in thickness. Below this top layer, a 2- to 4-cm-thick lens
of raw clay (Munsell 10YR 5/4, brownish yellow)
was defined. The third layer was a light brown
(Munsell 10YR 6/3, pale brown) clay ranging
between 2 and 9 cm in thickness. The stratigraphic
profile shows a 4-cm-thick layer where the third
layer of clay permeated through the floor of the
room and mixed in with the silt of Stratum 3. No
interior features were located. Samples of all three
clay layers were collected to be tested for possible
on-site utility ware manufacture (see Ceramic section). A total of 25 ceramic artifacts were recovered
from this room. The majority of these artifacts are
Rio Grande Gray Wares (84 percent), 12 percent
are Cibola White Wares, and 4 percent Mogollon
Brown Wares.
Room 5
Room 5 was visible in the north profile on the
western side of the east component of the site (Fig.
Room 4
ench
backhoe tr
A'
103N/95E
A
rodent
disturbance
bone
N
A
brown clay
brown clay
sherd
red clay
Red Mesa Sherd
0
filtered clay with sand
floor of Room 4
10 cm
A'
Stratum 3
Figure 30. Plan and profile of Room 4, LA 103919E.
32). In the profile is a basin-shaped structure that
appears to represent a subterranean structure (pit
structure, or because of its size, possibly a kiva).
Associated with Room 5 was a floor. This surface
may have been foot-compacted or formally prepared. Near the center of the structure, associated
with the floor, is a hearth feature with a possible
deflector to the east. Room 4, which is located to
the south of Room 5, is a truncated shallow pit. It
was suggested that this may have been an associated antechamber, although (1) the deflector is in the
wrong location, and (2) antechambers are more
commonly found in the San Juan Basin than in the
Rio Grande Valley. The south half of the structure
Excavation Results
55
Figure 31. Room 4, LA 103919E.
104.5N/91.3 E
modern surface
Stratum 1
Stratum 2
Stratum 3
bedrock
possible deflector
rock
Feature 40 (hearth)
sterile silt
Figure 32. Profile of Room 5, LA 103919E.
56
0
floor of Room 5
1 meter
was mechanically removed and it was not excavated (outside of the right-of-way); the only dimensions available are about 10 m east-west by 1.10 m
deep. The east and west walls could not be defined.
Kwahe'e Black-on-white pottery is associated with
Room 5.
Burial 4
Burial 4 was situated within a large pit (Feature 32),
located 25 m east of the main activity area. This burial pit contained both Burial 4 and Burial 5. The pit
had an elongated bean shape and was U-shaped in
profile; it was oriented northwest to southeast;
Burial 4 was at the east end and Burial 5 at the west
end. The feet of Burial 4 overlapped the head of
Burial 5 by 22 cm horizontally and 36 cm vertically.
The pit was excavated in undisturbed soil, Stratum
3. The pit for Burial 4 measured 2.20 m long by 0.65
to 0.80 m wide and averaged 0.77 m in depth.
The burial was lying on his back in a semiflexed position; the bent knees were upright, leaning towards the south side of the burial pit. The
individual was male between 45 and 50 years of
age (see Akins, Human Remains, this report).
Directly below the burial, there was a blue clay or
pigment lining the bottom of the pit. This discoloration could have been part of an intentional
preparation or soil discoloration from a chemical
reaction during decomposition. A small Rio
Grande Smeared Corrugated pitcher had been
placed to the north of the head. The fill immediately surrounding the burial was culturally sterile, yet
the fill in the upper portion of Feature 32 had an
extremely high concentration of artifacts, similar to
Stratum 2. The remains of globemallow were
encountered in the body cavity. Inside an offering
vessel associated with Burial 4, botanical remains
included pigweed, Zea mays, and dropseed. Large
amounts of pollen were present in this vessel. Pine
pollen and indeterminate pollen dominated the
assemblage, with smaller amounts of juniper, elm,
Cheno-am, and prickly pear. The elm is a post1600s contaminant. Pollen from a second small
vessel included evening primrose and grasses.
Evening primrose (Onagraceae) may have been
used for medicinal purposes (Toll, Table A2.11;
At the west end of the pit, over the feet of
Burial 4, were six layers of large stones used to seal
Burial 5. This included two metates, a small plain
ware vessel, and one large corrugated jar. Resting
in the fill around these stones were large chunks of
obsidian, beads, turquoise, ground stone, a maul,
and substantial amounts of ceramic and lithic artifacts. These were all associated with the interment
of Burial 5 (see Burial 5), situated 36 cm below
Burial 4. The placement of some of these stones
suggested that during the interment of Burial 4,
stones overlying the east end of Burial 5 became
displaced and fell within the burial pit of Burial 4.
There was no method of closure in evidence or any
indication that this burial was sealed in any way.
Burial 5
Burial 5 was recovered from Feature 32, a large pit
that contained both Burial 4 and Burial 5. The pit
was originally used for the interment of Burial 5
and subsequently Burial 4. Burial 4 was placed
slightly above and just east of Burial 5 so that the
feet actually overlapped the head of Burial 5 by 22
cm horizontally and 36 cm vertically. Several of
the stones used to seal Burial 5 were displaced during the interment of Burial 4.
Burial 5 was located in an oval-shaped pit,
1.25 m long by an average of 0.55 m wide by 1.20
m deep. It consisted of the remains of a female in
her early to middle twenties (see Human Remains,
this report). The head was to the east and the body
extended east-west. The upper body was placed
face down with the head pointing south. The lower
body was in a flexed position; the pelvis rested on
its left side with the right leg on top of the left leg.
This burial had an extensive and deliberate form
of closure. It was covered with 77 stones of various
sizes in six layers. The top layer of stone was
encountered 50 cm below the ground surface, and the
sixth layer of stone was 1.04 m below the top layer.
The burial was 10 cm below the last layer of stones.
Numerous artifacts were recovered within the
upper fill of Feature 32 surrounding the six layers of
stone. There was a distinct difference between the
high number of artifacts in the upper fill (the fill
around the six layers of stone) and the low number
of artifacts in the lower fill (surrounding the burial).
A Rio Grande Corrugated jar was located on top of
the first layer of stones. Seven pieces of ground
Excavation Results
57
stone, 3 projectile points, eggshell fragments,
turquoise fragments, 2 sandstone concretions, 1,006
ceramic artifacts, 1,025 micro-flakes, and 315 lithic
artifacts were located among the layers of stone.
Artifacts located within the pit fill in proximity
to the burial were drastically fewer in number than
the upper pit fill. These appeared to be spatially
related to the burial and purposefully placed at the
time of interment. These artifacts included the
lower third of a large Rio Grande Plain Ware vessel
located next to the left shoulder, 2 ceramic vessels,
1 miniature ceramic vessel, 5 hammerstones, 1
piece of ground stone, 2 shell fragments, 1
turquoise fragment, 4 beads, 2 turquoise pendants,
2 stone pendants, 1 trough metate, 33 ceramic artifacts, and 43 lithic artifacts. A 14C sample obtained
from the fill in the pit, Stratum 6, provided a date of
1130 ± 60 B.P. (or A.D. 780–1020). This places the
burial in the Rio Grande Developmental period.
Ceramic artifacts associated with this burial
(n=103) were largely locally produced. Almost all of
these artifacts were Rio Grande Gray Wares (98.1 percent) and the remaining 2 percent were Cibola White
Wares, including Red Mesa and Escavada sherds.
Botanical remains contained in a vessel associated with Burial 5 include goosefoot, unidentifiable seeds, pigweed, and purslane. The pollen from
this same vessel was dominated by Cheno-am and
large amounts of pine. Grass grains were also high
along with sunflower and prickly pear. Minute
58
quantities of spruce and grains from the nightshade
family were also documented. Corncob fragments
and juniper charcoal were present (Toll, Tables
A2.11–12; Holloway, Appendix 3).
Lining the bottom of the burial pit was a bluegray clay or pigment. It could not be discerned during
excavation if this was part of the pit preparation or
soil discoloration from a chemical reaction during
decomposition.
SUMMARY
In summary, excavation results from LA 103919
show a multicomponent site located on both sides
of NM 503, and divided into LA 103919 West and
LA 103919 East. These were investigated separately. The site dates to the Rio Grande Developmental
period (A.D. 900–1200). Based on the results, a
clear temporal division exists between the two prehistoric components. The western component dated
between A.D. 900 and 1000, was dominated by Red
Mesa Black-on-white pottery, and contained one
room, numerous pit features, postholes, and four
burials (Table 3). The eastern component features
Kwahe’e Black-on-white ceramics dating between
A.D. 1000 and 1200, and contained two pit structures, numerous hearths and pit features, and two
human burials. The implications of these findings,
and their relevance to local and regional prehistory,
is discussed in greater detail in subsequent sections.
ETHNOHISTORY OF LA 103919 AND THE HISTORIC
PERIOD OF POJOAQUE PUEBLO
Janet Spivey and Stephen C. Lentz
The ethnohistoric study of LA 103919 was conducted during the summer and fall of 1994, during
which time data were collected to determine ownership history of the land, site functions, economic
activities of owners, identification of features not
archaeologically visible, past land-use strategies,
and placement of this site in a larger sociocultural
context.
Research methods included site visits; a study
of land title records, historical documents, and
archival records; a review of pertinent published
sources relating to the general prehistory and history of the local area; and interviews with knowledgeable individuals.
103919 for research consideration. They are an
adobe historic structure, acequias (Acequia del
Caño, El Caño Ditch [caño means pipe in
Spanish]) or irrigation ditches, and a hill that is
known as La Loma (Lomita) de la Cruz to some
local residents (Fig. 33).
Prior to conducting interviews regarding LA
103919, archival research was conducted at the
BLM State Office, the New Mexico State Records
Center and Archives, the Office of the State
Engineer, the Pojoaque Irrigation District, and the
Santa Fe County Courthouse. BLM plat survey
maps and field notes, Pueblo Indian Land Claim
records, U.S. and Territorial Census records, tax
records, property deeds, baptismal and marriage
records, and water rights were examined to determine land ownership and history. The National
Archives were also consulted concerning the private claims made under the Pueblo Land Act. The
Office of the State Engineer and the Pojoaque
Irrigation District provided information concerning
the Acequia del Caño ditch and irrigation history.
Although information about La Loma (Lomita) de
la Cruz has been found lacking in written documentation, local residents were able to provide
some information.
During the archaeological fieldwork, ethnohistoric interviews were conducted with local resi-
dents, including current and previous land owners
who had potential knowledge of the site. These
individuals visited the site and were interviewed by
the ethnohistorian and supervising archaeologist.
The interviewees were able to contribute a substantial amount of information about the historic
adobe structure and the use of the ditches, helping
to place them within the appropriate cultural context. One interviewee had extensive expertise and
documentation in the history and management of
the Acequia del Caño (El Caño Ditch). Several residents provided a local history of La Loma
(Lomita) de la Cruz.
POJOAQUE PUEBLO: THE HISTORIC PERIOD
The first known mention of Pojoaque Pueblo was
made in 1582 by Antonio de Espejo (Hammond
and Rey 1966). Pojoaque Pueblo became the seat
of the Spanish mission of San Francisco in the
early seventeenth century (Hodge 1910). Before
the eighteenth century, the Pueblo Indians seem to
have been entitled under Spanish law to whatever
they habitually occupied or used. Sometime after
1700, they evoked the doctrine of a given league, a
sort of recognized minimum right of the Pueblos.
In Spanish law, "current use" was the key.
Measuring 1 league, or 5,000 varas (vara = 32.91
inches), in each of the cardinal directions from the
cross in the mission cemetery, the standard "pueblo
grant" contained 4 sq leagues, roughly 27 sq miles,
or more than 17,350 acres (Kessell 1979). The first
authorization to make Indian land grants was in
1684 by Governor Jironza Petriz de Cruzate. The
purpose was to protect Indians from encroachment
and guarantee their land holdings (Brayer 1939).
During the Spanish period, the viceroy of New
Spain and governors of New Mexico granted land
in New Mexico for settlement, agriculture, and
mining. A hundred grants were made to civilians,
soldiers, towns, and Indian pueblos before 1822,
three-fifths of them to individuals (Beers 1979).
The Mexican colonization law of August 18, 1824,
Ethnohistory of LA 103919
59
15 meters
0
trash
mound
historic
structure
50 feet
0
coyo
Caño Acequia
gravel access road to
Konopak guest house
gravel access road
to Konopak house
acequia
(not in use)
ad
t ro
dir
Figure 33. Historic component, LA 103919.
limits of historic
artifact scatter
NM
503
N
St
a
.
100
+00
te fe
nce
prop
osed
R-O-
W
x
fenceline
proposed R-O-W
x
limits of prehistoric
artifact scatter
x
x
60
x
x
x
x
ad
dirt ro
empowered the states to enact legislation governing land grants to individuals and communities.
Many of the Hispanic land grants encroached upon
the Pueblo Indian land grants in spite of governmental protection.
The United States acquired sovereignty over
New Mexico as a result of the Mexican War of
1846. After New Mexico became a U.S. Territory,
the United States was bound by the Treaty of
Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848) to recognize the full
rights and property of Mexican citizens. Prior to
the treaty, the Mexican government had declared
Indians to be citizens. The adjudication of land
grants that had been made by the Spanish and
Mexican governments and their survey became the
responsibility of the United States. It was not until
July 22, 1854, however, that Congress provided for
the appointment of a surveyor general. The
Surveyor General of New Mexico was to investigate the claims and report to the Secretary of
Interior, who reported to Congress. Many
claimants, including the Pueblo Indians, were
afraid to part with their documents, and hindered
the examination by the Surveyor General (Beers
1979). On December 22, 1858, Congress acted
favorably upon the report of the Surveyor General
for the Territory of New Mexico, confirming
pueblo land claims to the following pueblos:
Jemez, Acoma, San Juan, Picuris, San Felipe,
Cochiti, Santo Domingo, Taos, Santa Clara,
Tesuque, San Ildefonso, Pojoaque, Zia, Sandia,
Isleta, and Nambé. In 1876, a Supreme Court decision held that the Pueblo Indians had complete title
to their land and could dispose of it according to
their wishes. Also, the decision stated that the
Pueblo people were not considered Indians and
Indian laws did not apply to them. The 1876
Supreme Court decision was reversed in 1913.
This decision affected about 3,000 claimants or
12,000 people. The experience of several decades
showed that the approval of land grants by legislative enactment was an unsatisfactory procedure.
Consequently, an act of Congress on March 3,
1891, provided for a Court of Private Land Claims
to adjudicate titles to land in the regions acquired
from the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo and the
Gadsen Purchase Treaty of 1853. This act required
the commissioner of the General Land Office and
the surveyors general of states and territories to
supply papers relative to land claims to the court.
The court was organized in Denver on July 1,
1891, but soon moved to Santa Fe. Sessions of
court were held in those cities and in Tucson. Upon
conclusion of the court's sittings in 1904, its
records were deposited with the Surveyor General
of New Mexico (Beers 1979). The Pueblo Land
Act of 1924 established a commission to determine
the status of all claims within the Pueblo grants
after which a suit to "quiet title" all unextinguished
claims would be filed for the Pueblos and a means
was provided for non-Indian claimants to obtain
title. Title could be obtained if the land had been
held in adverse possession under "color of title"
since January 6, 1902, or had been in adverse possession since March 16, 1899, with its taxes paid in
full. The decision of the board had to be unanimous
in order to extinguish Indian title to a parcel. The
board began operations in 1925 and held hearings
at each Pueblo. The U.S. Government then had to
eject the claimants whose titles had been declared
invalid. By 1938 the complicated adjudication of
Pueblo titles was completed, and non-Indians without patents were evicted.
Pojoaque Pueblo had no official documents of
their land grant. On June 28, 1856, the Pojoaque
governor, war chief, and preserver of the peace,
testified before the Surveyor General of the United
States that the Pojoaque land grant was said to have
come from the King of Spain. They stated that 40
years earlier the papers were given to the alcalde
(mayor) of Chimayo during a land suit between
Pojoaque Pueblo and a Mexican-American. The
papers were never returned. Further proof was
given that the pueblo had been occupied from at
least 1710 as the date on the church bell suggested.
The grant was approved by the surveyor general in
1856 and patented in 1864. The claim was for 1
league in four directions.
Bandelier claims (although this is not documented) that the population of Pojoaque (along
with Tesuque and Nambé) was formed after 1598
by people of Santa Clara, San Ildefonso, and San
Juan (Bandelier 1966–1976:2:172). However, in
the early twentieth century, Pojoaque was
described as abandoned by Indians (Hodge
1910:274). In 1916 Harrington found no one living
there, although he located two Pojoaque families
living in Santa Fe, and one family in Nambé. Five
61
houses north of the old church were occupied
between 1909 and 1910 (Ellis 1979:27). There is
also some evidence that Pojoaque Pueblo was not
occupied between 1912 and 1934, although some
Pojoaque Pueblo members may have lived in the
vicinity. It is likely that, during the early part of the
twentieth century, the population of Pojoaque was
severely diminished, and the pueblo itself virtually
abandoned. This allowed many landgrabbers and
interlopers to appropriate Pueblo land for their private use (Stanley 1965). In the 1930s these individuals were evicted from what had turned into a
Spanish-American settlement. Livestock owners
were forced to remove their animals from the land,
and by 1934 the Pojoaque Grant was fenced
(Lambert 1970:70).
At Pojoaque Pueblo, traditional subsistence
practices are rapidly giving way to a reliance on a
cash economy and entrepreneurial ventures that
benefit from the sovereign status assumed by the
tribal government. Local crafts are still offered,
and a new kiva and cultural center were built in the
1990s. The last few years have seen an explosion
of retail stores, the sale of tax-free commodities
(cigarettes, fireworks), and a casino. Revenues
from these businesses have generated scholarships,
healthcare, and other subsidies for the Pueblo population. The implications of this commitment to
venture capitalism is a subject that may warrant
future study because of possible long-term effects
on traditional Tewa values.
LAND HISTORY AND USE ASSOCIATED WITH
LA 103919
The Homestead
Before its destruction, the historic adobe structure
was located on T 19N, R 9E, Section 9 of the
Pojoaque Pueblo Grant (Figs. 34–36). Interviews
with local residents, landowners, and landowner's
family members identified the historic adobe structure as having been built by a member of the Ortiz
family as early as 1880. Mr. Leslie Redman, a local
resident and neighbor of the current landowners,
stated that he was told by Filiberto Ortiz that his
(Filiberto's) father, Eliceo, had built the historic
adobe structure around 1880. Although the date is
unknown (probably in 1904), Filiberto Ortiz
62 A Developmental Period Site near Nambé Pueblo
expanded an existing structure on what is now Mr.
Redman's property, and he and his wife (Rosana)
and family moved in. A son, Meliton Ortiz, was
born in this house on February 12, 1929. The
Community Ditch Book of 1904 to 1955 for the
Acequia del Caño (El Caño Ditch) showed
Filiberto Ortiz and his brother Raphael (sometimes
spelled Rafel) Ortiz having ditch rights in 1911–12,
1922, 1936–37, and Juan Estevan Vigil being
active on the Acequia del Caño with ditch rights
from January 1904 to August 24, 1936. The BLM
and Santa Fe Courthouse records show Juan
Estevan Vigil and his wife, Crestina Montoya de
Vigil, filing for Private Claim No. 313 (the site of
the old homestead) in 1929. Since the land reverted to Pojoaque Pueblo in 1937 (see below), it is
likely that the homestead was abandoned by Juan
Estevan Vigil on or around that time.
The Survey of Private Claims for the Pojoaque
Pueblo Grant showed Private Land Claim No. 313
being eliminated in accordance with the findings of
the Pueblo Land Board and the U.S. District Court
of New Mexico. A supplemental plat showing private claims in Section 9 of the Pojoaque Pueblo
Grant based on a survey performed by a U.S.
Surveyor dated January 23, 1929, and approved by
the Commissioner of the General Land Office on
February 13, 1929, that Private Claim No. 313 is
not included on the map and that the land reverted
back to the Pojoaque Pueblo Grant.
The Pueblo Land Status Book of 1940, prepared by the U.S. Department of Interior Land
Division, showed lands relinquished by the
Pojoaque Pueblo in connection with land
exchanges. Mr. Heath Moore, a non-Indian
claimant, was involved in a land exchange with
Pojoaque Pueblo, which included Private Claim
No. 313. The date of deed was December 20, 1937.
Prior to acquiring Private Claim No. 313, Mr.
Moore had acquired Private Claim No. 314 from
Anacleto Montoya and his wife, Irene Lujan de
Montoya, on August 4, 1937. According to Santa
Fe Courthouse records and informant testimony,
Heath Moore and his wife Elizabeth of Jackson
County, Missouri, owned this land from 1937 to
1946. In 1946, Heath Moore sold Private Claims
No. 313 and No. 314 to Helen Lilly. Helen Lilly
and Edith C. Truslow ("Trusty" and "Lil") owned
the land from 1946 to 1962. In May of 1962, they
acequia
x
x
x
x
gas meter
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
existing
R-O
x
x
x
e
-W fenc
sandstone
pot cover
x
N
x
x
its
test pit
sit
el
im
proposed
-R-O-W
stake
11 meters to NM 503
adobe
structure
window glass
site limits
40 meters
window glass
Tewa sherd
Konopak
driveway
site continues
across driveway
trash
mound
charcoal stain
charcoal stain
purple glass
historic sherd
old Acequia
Caño
window glass
burned bone
glass
scatter
sit
e
its
lim
0
2 meter
Figure 34. Homestead, LA 103919.
63
Figure 35. Homestead in early 1960s with
Barrancas and Jemez Mountain Range in background, looking northwest.
sold the land to the current landowner, Joan Pace
Konopak.
A life-long local resident who is now in his 80s
recalled playing with the Vigil boy at this homestead site when the informant was 10 or 12 years
old, placing the time in the 1920s. Also, former
landowners of the historic adobe structure (Trusty
and Lil, 1946–1962) recalled hearing stories of a
Mr. Vigil, a hunter and trapper, who had lived at the
site. Meliton Ortiz, Filiberto's son, remembers
catching glimpses of Juan Estevan Vigil through
the trees shrouding the homestead from his house
(now Redman's). He thought that Vigil "might have
been an Indian," but he did not specify from what
pueblo. Trusty and Lil said they had heard the man
who lived in the adobe structure (Vigil) was a
hunter and a trapper and "possibly an Indian." The
Konopaks also speculated that the owner of the
homestead might have been a Pueblo Indian. Since
the homestead was located on Pojoaque Grant land
until the land swap in the 1930s, it is entirely plausible that Mr. Vigil was a Pojoaque Indian. There
are numerous Vigils living at both Pojoaque and
Nambé pueblos. The woman who constructed the
fireplace for Trusty and Lil was named Vigil and
was from Nambé Pueblo (see below). Mr. Redman
said that Filiberto Ortiz had stated his father had
built the adobe homestead around 1880, and that
Filiberto had lived in it as a boy. Meliton would
occasionally see Vigil while crossing the Caño
Ditch to go play with his friend Carmelito Romero
on the hill (Lomita de la Cruz).
Meliton Ortiz stated that he was quite young at
the time (younger than 10 years old) and it was
probably during the 1930s. Meliton Ortiz was born
February 12, 1929, either at home or in the building that formerly housed the Hispanic worker's
union, the Sociedad Proteccion Mutua de
Trabajadores Unidos hall, located approximately
one-half mile east along NM 503, on the north side
of the road. A midwife assisted at his birth, who
may have been a Montoya or a Lopez. His father,
Filiberto, was 41 years of age when Meliton was
born. Meliton recalls when the structure was occupied, but cannot say precisely when the structure
was abandoned. This may have been before
Meliton was 10 years old, which would place the
abandonment of the house at a date prior to 1939.
This is consistent with the courthouse records,
showing that Heath Moore acquired the parcel in
1937, which is the probable abandonment date for
the homestead. Meliton remembers that while "still
a kid," he explored the interior of the abandoned
homestead, and played "Tarzan" games in the trees
that surrounded the homestead. He was uncertain
whether his grandfather actually built the structure.
He is certain, however, that there were never any
structures or a cross on top of the Loma. There
was, however, a large communal barbecue pit
scooped out of the fill of the west bank of the hill,
which was shared communally. He recalls that the
area, roughly bounded on the east by the church,
west by Wooley Arroyo, and south of the river, was
an active community, "where everyone knew each
other." He lauded the McCormicks (owners of Las
Acequias, see below) for their philanthropy (primarily building the school, which now houses the
Headstart program). He declared, as have many
Figure 36. View of entrance to Trusty and Lil’s house, Acequia del Caño (treeline to left) and historic
homestead (barely visible through fence), 1950.
other older residents, that the Loma was more or
less "community" land, and that people would
drive up to the top of the hill for the view, and
sometimes have parties. Meliton recalls only seeing Juan Estevan Vigil at the homestead, yet the
BLM and Santa Fe County Courthouse records
show that Juan Estevan Vigil and his wife, Crestina
Montoya de Vigil, filed for the claim on lot No.
313 together in 1929. There are no further records
of the wife anywhere, and no interviewees recall
Crestina, but one interviewee (mentioned above)
recalls playing with Vigil's son. It is possible that
this structure was only used part time by Juan
Estevan, perhaps for his hunting activities, and that
the family may have also spent time across the
river at Private Claim No. 308.
Helen Lilly and Edith Truslow, however, made
collections from the midden in the vicinity of the
homestead, and the artifacts from these collections
suggest a domestic role for the structure, with substantial amounts of purple glass and other household-oriented items in evidence. A whetstone was
among the artifacts Edith Truslow collected. She
still has it in her possession and uses it frequently.
The whetstone, and the presence of high quantities
of butchered bone in the archaeological assemblage, suggest that whoever was in residence probably did hunt and process game. Meliton recalls the
interior of the structure when it was still roofed,
because he remembers birds making their nests in
the beams. The floor was dirt, and the structure was
subdivided into two or three rooms, with a doorway to the south and a window to the north. There
were no remaining furnishings, and the building
was crumbling rapidly. This description matches
later descriptions of the homestead in the 1960s
provided by Kari Konopak Dirlam and her brothers, John and Peter.
Many local residents recalled seeing the historic adobe structure and agreed that the structure
was very old–possibly 100 years old. Former
landowners Trusty and Lil described the historic
adobe structure as being in a state of collapse with
only three walls standing when they came there in
1946. Some of the adobes had been used for construction in other structures on the property. There
65
was a lot of debris, especially old bottles, which
they carried off. The Konopaks, current property
owners, moved there in 1962. Their children used
to play around the adobe structure. The Konopak's
oldest son, who was sixteen when the family
moved there, recalled the adobe structure as having
three standing walls with one interior wall. He
recalled the structure's doorway having a cottonwood lintel with no hinges. The door faced the current driveway. There was a saddle-shaped area facing north that might have been a window. One of
the Konopak's daughters, Kari, played inside the
structure (she was eight years old when the family
moved to the property). She remembered the structure being in an "E" shape with no roof. The structure was oriented north-south. The structure was
divided into two rooms with the walls about 4 ft
high. She recalls a white enamel pan and a lot of
purple glass inside and some outside the structure.
Other types of glass found were blue-green and
amethyst. The area was overgrown with cactus and
had many ants.
Another brother recalled that the structure was
made of single-brick-width adobe. The north wall
was the most intact, the east wall was 2 ft high. He
thought it was puddled and plastered on the back
side. The structure was about 15–20 ft on a side,
with a lot of very fine sand in the middle. There
was a stone foundation, and stones can still be seen
near the structure. The earliest information concerning a description and use of the land comes
from former landowners, Trusty and Lil. In 1946,
when they first saw the land and three standing
structures, they described them as being in a state
of collapse with debris and weeds all around. The
main house (the one currently occupied by the
Konopaks) was boarded up, there was no water, no
electricity, or plumbing–"just four walls." One
structure was a guest house, which consisted of
two rooms, and was across the ditch from the main
house. Trusty and Lil lived in the two-room guest
house, which was in good shape, while rebuilding
the main house. They had the guest house replastered and put in a fireplace. The main house was a
four-room square adobe house with 2-ft-thick
walls. The Montoyas, who lived there prior to
1937, had wallpapered the inside of the main
house, which saved the adobe on the inside. One
room was older with split cedar ceilings. The other
66
rooms consisted of a kitchen, bathroom, and living
room. The living room had a mud floor cured with
ox blood; it was dark and "hard as marble." Trusty
and Lil did a lot of the improvements themselves,
but had help with the plumbing, electricity, roof,
wells, and septic system. They owned power tools
and made cupboards, doors, and drawers. A Nambé
Indian family helped them rebuild. An elderly
Indian woman (whose surname was Vigil) made all
their fireplaces and replastered the walls. They do
not know who built the main house but were
informed by the local people that it was over 200
years old. Another adobe structure, perhaps built
by the Montoyas, was falling apart. Trusty and Lil
put in a cement floor, and roofed and plastered it. It
was used as a storehouse. They felt this structure
was not as old as the main house but older than the
guest house.
The Acequia del Caño
In the summer of 1946 a well was dug to river level
but was not successful. Apparently, Heath Moore
had leveled the land into bench terraces, and
because the land had been abandoned for so many
years, it needed releveling. Mr. Moore had also
lined the ditch with rocks. The Acequia del Caño,
located in the NW¼ NW¼ SW¼, Sec. 10, T 19N,
R 9E, supplied the water for irrigation (see Fig.
33). The ditch diverts in a northerly direction from
the Rio Pojoaque in Nambé and runs about 2.5
miles to a terminal pond. Ellis (1979:5) says:
The Caño ditch is the uppermost of the three
used to water this portion of the north side of
the Pojoaque Valley. Today it coils through
approximately four miles of winding ditch
and finally puts its remaining water into a
concrete lined ditch. Originally it irrigated
some land west of the present Santa Fe-Taos
highway, as well as the area to the east of it
and debouched into an arroyo which sloped
down to the Pojoaque River.
The discrepancy between these two descriptions is
noteworthy. The first description is probably more
reliable than Ellis's, who frequently relied on anecdotal information.
The project area adjoins the Louise Trigg ranch,
later bought by the McCormicks (owners of
International Harvester machinery and vehicles), and
is now currently owned by McCormick's daughter,
Robin McKinney. The two ditches that water Las
Acequias, the Ortiz and the Rincon, were given dates
of 1739 and 1789, respectively, by the Office of the
State Engineer. The annual report on the use of public
water for the years ending December 31, 1935 and
1936, prepared by the Office of the State Engineer
states that the Caño Ditch is more than 200 years old.
The Caño was dated April 1, 1859, based on a statement of inheritance by Miguel Gonzalés submitted to
the Court of Private Land Claims as evidence of land
privately owned within the Pojoaque Pueblo (State
Engineer's Abstract of Documents of Water Rights
Priorities for Ditches within the Rio Pojoaque Stream
System, March 20, 1984, for the Estate of Miguel
Gonzalés, April 1, 1859, submitted as part of Private
Claim No. 291, Pueblo Lands Board, Abstract 85, file
300, 7-8-9). However, the earliest deed found supports
the property carrying a date of March 5, 1831. This
describes a sale of 145 varas from Francisco Ortiz to
Juan Trujillo for 262 "pesos de la tierra," and locates
the land in an area bordered by Wooley's Arroyo and
the Caño Ditch (Santa Fe County, Deed Book S.
257–258, Recorded January 28, 1888). The Acequia
del Caño is believed locally to be prehistoric. The
claims filed with the Office of the State Engineer are
on lands on which the Caño Ditch was already operating, suggesting that the ditch was in use prior to the
claim. Given the testimony by both Pueblo groups and
local scholars and residents, it is entirely feasible that
the Caño Ditch was a Native American feature used
during prehistoric and historic times.
Modern Use and History of the Property
Trusty and Lil had one ditch use-right to the
Acequia del Caño (Fig. 33). They helped take care
of their own ditch when cleaning time came. As
ditch officers, they instituted new methods of using
water more efficiently. They decided to build a
pond to store the irrigation water. A pond was built
(100-by-100-by-11 ft) in clay soil above the ditch.
This utilized unsuitable land for cultivation, and,
because it was clay soil, held water. Water was
piped under the main ditch from the pond to smaller stone-lined channels irrigating each level. It then
dropped from level to level without loss of water.
This irrigation system proved very successful and
allowed for watering of a variety of fruit trees, such
as apple and native plum. Lil carried on a successful truck garden, which consisted of a variety of
vegetables such as watermelon, tomatoes, squash,
pickles, onions, eggplant, and even green chile.
Trusty was actively involved in a flower garden.
Both ladies won numerous awards for their produce and floral arrangements at the Northern New
Mexico State Fair.
The Cross. Trusty and Lil's place was called
La Loma Blanca by the locals. The name La Loma
(Lomita) de la Cruz has been familiar to local residents for as long as some can remember. One elderly resident, who is in his 80s, has heard this name
applied to a hill that was considered by some as,
historically, a resting place between Santa Fe and
Santa Cruz. He had heard this place called this
name by his dad when he was growing up but did
not recall being given a reason for the name. Some
residents recalled that at one time a white cross was
on top of the hill and there was a large tree under
which people would rest for shade on the walk
between Pojoaque and Nambé. A local resident
who was born in 1929 recalled, as a child, seeing
the white cross on the hill. The place was called La
Loma de la Cruz. When the informant was in the
first grade there was an Easter-egg hunt conducted
on the hill and recalled the white cross was there.
The cross was about 3.0 m high, made out of wood,
and was easily seen from the bottom of the hill.
The informant also recalled that no one seemed to
take care of the cross. It was painted white and was
very weatherbeaten. As a child, when the informant's family walked to Pojoaque from Nambé,
they would stop and rest under the trees near the
bottom of the hill. This informant recalled the
white cross being on the hill during the 1930s but
does not recall it any later. This interviewee also
recalled seeing the historic adobe structure (OrtizVigil) as a child but did not know who lived there.
Twitchell (1914) provides a description of a
cross used as a boundary marker for a piece of land
given to Vicente Duran de Armijo in 1739.
Whether or not this cross is the same La Loma de
la Cruz is not known at this time. However, the following details make the correspondence between
the two features an interesting possibility.
Apparently in 1739, Vincente Duran de Armijo
67
made application to Governor don Gaspar
Domingo de Mendoza in Santa Fe for a tract of
land near the pueblo of Nambé. Armijo described
himself as a resident of the Villa de Santa Fe, and
settler and conqueror of the Kingdom of New
Mexico. He had experienced "innumerable sufferings and hunger and nakedness" from having lost
his personal labor in the corn and wheat fields and
could not meet his obligations. The Nambé Indians
objected to the tract of land Armijo requested, but
were willing to grant him a piece of land to the
west of Nambé Pueblo on the borders of their land.
This land was north of the Rio Nambé and contains
740 varas in latitude, which is understood to be
from east to west, and from north to south containing 550 varas. The boundaries are: on the north
some stone mounds scattered along some barren
hills, which form the boundary of the lands of
General Juan Paez Hurtado, and on the south is
bounded by the river (Rio Nambé) of said pueblo:
on the "East the boundary is a cross, on the side of
the main road and lands of the indians of said town;
and on the west lands of General Juan Paez
Hurtado, which boundaries are marked by several
mounds of stone, and on one of them is a holy
cross, which is to serve as a boundary and division." Armijo received this land on October 5,
1739. Gaspar Ortiz bought the land from Armijo
and lived on the property from 1789 until his death
in 1824. At that time his grandson, Don Gaspar
Ortiz, inherited the land.
In sum, ethnohistorical investigations suggest
that during historic times a Native American population was present in the Pojoaque-Nambé area by
at least 1582, when they are mentioned by early
Spanish explorers. Information on the historic
homestead shows that it was originally constructed
by a local family in the 1880s. The current
Konopak residence was expanded from a preexisting structure in 1904. Data were also collected on
the Caño irrigation ditch, whose first mention in
the archival records dates to 1831. However, oral
history suggests that the ditch was of Native
American origin and may have been used by the
Pueblos prior to Spanish entradas.
LITHIC ARTIFACTS
METHODS
Chipped stone artifacts were studied to provide
data on material procurement and selection, activities, and alterations to enhance flaking quality.
Certain attributes were studied on all chipped stone
artifacts. Material type and texture provided data
on selection and source, and in particular whether
materials were procured locally or from distant
locations. The type of cortex present was used as
an indicator of material origin, for example, while
some types suggest procurement from the source,
others indicate secondary deposits. In conjunction
with other studies, these data provided information
on mobility and ties with other regions. Chipped
stone artifacts were classified by morphology and
presumed function, which provided a basic categorization of activities employing chipped stone tools
as well as a basis for more intensive analyses.
Lithic artifacts were also examined for evidence of
thermal alteration to enhance flakeability, a process
that is tied to reduction strategy and the suitability
of materials for reduction. The "flakeability" of
some materials can be improved by heating, an
important aid in strategies aimed at formal tool
production. Strategies based on informal tools
were also monitored.
Other attributes were also examined, depending on artifact morphology. Information on group
mobility and tool production can be derived from
an analysis of the reduction strategy employed.
The reduction process produces three basic byproducts: debitage, cores, and formal tools.
Debitage and cores are the immediate by-products
of this process, while formal tools are by-products
that were modified to produce a specific shape.
While the former categories provide information
about the reduction strategy employed, the latter
provide data on tool-using activities. Thus, different attributes were examined for each of these
broad categories.
Debitage and cores provided information on
reduction strategies. Attributes used for this analysis included debitage type, amount of cortical sur-
face, artifact portion, and size. Cores were morphologically identified by the direction of flake
removal and the number of striking platforms, providing basic information on how they were
reduced. Flakes are debitage that were purposefully removed from cores, and can provide critical
data on reduction technology. Hence, several
attributes were analyzed on this class of artifact
including platform type and modification, platform
lipping, direction of dorsal scarring, and distal termination.
Formal tools were identified by morphology
and wear patterns. Informal tools were identified
by the presence of marginal retouch or use-wear
patterns along one or more edges. A binocular
microscope was used to identify and classify
retouch and wear patterns on all tools, and utilized
or retouched edge angles were measured. All evidence of edge modification was recorded for informal tools, while evidence of use or modification
unrelated to production was recorded for formal
tools. These attributes provided information on
activities employing chipped stone tools.
According to the data recovery plan (Lentz
1994), data from lithic artifact analysis are important to the investigation of LA 103919.
Information concerning basic site function, mobility, and ties with other regions can be derived from
these studies. The study of this category of artifact
will also help in examining questions of intrasite
variability in activities, and should aid in defining
formal tool manufacturing loci. The chipped stone
assemblage should reflect an expedient reduction
strategy, with biface manufacture mostly limited
to the production of tools with specialized shapes
and purposes (as defined by Kelly 1988).
Evidence of large unspecialized bifaces serving as
cores as well as tools should be rare. A wide range
of subsistence-related, manufacturing, and maintenance activities should be represented in the
assemblage. While local materials should predominate, exotic materials, particularly obsidian, could
occur in significant quantities, and may reflect ties
to other regions.
Lithic Artifacts
69
ANALYSIS
JOHN ZACHMAN
A total of 9,643 lithic artifacts were analyzed from
the two separate components of LA 103919.
Included in this were 186 formal tools, 58 projectile points, and 35 cores. The analysis format was
based on the Office of Archaeological Studies'
Standardized Lithic Artifact Analysis: Attributes
and Variable Code Lists, modified during the
analysis to accommodate the methods proposed in
the data recovery plan (Lentz 1994:50–51). The
analysis concentrated on whole flakes as technologically diagnostic artifacts (Flenniken et al.
1990), and noted the presence of, but did not record
variables for broken flakes and angular debris. The
artifacts were examined under a 40x Nikon binocular microscope for possible wear patterning.
Laboratory analysis was performed by Eric
Carlson. The lithic artifacts were collected and
sorted according to component location (east or
west) and analyzed on an assemblage basis by
component. Variables monitored on individual artifacts during the analysis included material type,
artifact type, percentage of dorsal cortex, portion,
flake dimension, presence of retouch, presence of
utilization, platform type, quality and texture, and
heat treatment.
Biface flakes were defined using a modified
polythetic set (Beckner 1959) developed primarily
through experimental observations (Acklen et al.
1983). The following list presents the variables
monitored for biface flakes with platforms present,
and those on which the platforms were collapsed or
missing. Flakes meeting 70 percent or more of the
criteria listed were considered to represent some
later stage of lithic reduction; that is, biface thinning, tool manufacture, or retouch.
Morphological attributes on 9,643 items of debitage were monitored. There were 5,584 items from
the east component and 4,059 from the west component. The results are presented below. Both actual
counts and percentages will be presented in the text
and associated tables. Only those artifacts considered to be technologically diagnostic were analyzed.
This included 64.0 percent (n = 6,176) of the total
assemblage. However, when cross-tabulations and
chi-square analyses were performed, only whole
flakes and formal tools were used in the analysis
Polythetic Set for Biface Flakes with Platforms
1. Platform type is (a) multifaceted; (b) prepared (retouch and/or abraded).
2. Platform is lipped.
3. Platform angle is less than 45 degrees.
4. Dorsal scar orientation is (a) parallel; (b) multidirectional; (c) bidirectional.
5. Dorsal topography is regular.
6. Edge outline is even.
7. Flake is less than 5 mm thick.
8. Flakes have a relatively even thickness from proximal to distal end.
9. Bulb of percussion is weak.
10. There is a pronounced ventral curvature.
Biface Flakes with Collapsed or Missing Platforms
1. Dorsal scar orientation is (a) parallel; (b) multidirectional; (c) bidirectional.
2. Dorsal topography is regular.
3. Edge outline is relatively even.
4. Flake is less than 5 mm thick.
5. Flake has a relatively even thickness from proximal to distal end.
6. Bulb of percussion is weak.
7. There is pronounced dorsal curvature.
(56.0 percent of the total assemblage, n = 5,401).
The data are presented below by component.
Table 5. Frequency of Material Type, LA 103919,
East Component
EAST COMPONENT
Material Type
Artifact Type and Material Selection
Artifact type was recorded using a set of attributes
designed to assign form and function to the artifact.
The function category was not used in all cases,
especially when dealing with artifact types such as
core flakes (no function other than unutilized debitage would have been appropriate).
The dominant artifact category for the east
component was core flake (46.6 percent, n =
2,047), followed by biface flake (34.8 percent, n =
1,532), and angular debris (15.7 percent, n = 693)
(Table 4). The ratio of core flakes to angular debris
was 2.9 to 1. The ratio of core flakes to biface
flakes was 1.3 to 1.
The primary material type was chalcedony
(32.0 percent, n = 1,789), followed by Polvadera
Peak obsidian (19.3 percent, n = 1,083), Pedernal
chert (18.7 percent, n = 1,047), Jemez (generic)
obsidian (16.9 percent, n = 945), and undifferentiated chert (9.3 percent, n = 522) (Table 5).
Table 4. Frequency of Morphology Type, LA
103919, East Component
Morphology
Indeterminate
Angular debris
Core flake
Biface flake
Notching flake
Potlid
Biface edge fragment
Unidirectional core
Bidirectional core
Multidirectional core
Undifferentiated cobble
tool
Middle-stage uniface
Late-stage uniface
Middle-stage biface
Late-stage biface
Total No.
of
Artifacts
Percent
of Total
15
693
2047
1532
20
20
3
1
1
10
1
0.3
15.7
46.6
34.8
0.4
0.4
0.06
0.02
0.02
0.2
0.02
1
15
15
31
0.02
0.3
0.3
0.7
Undifferentiated chert
Pedernal chert
Tecolote chert
Tecovas chert
Cerro Gordo chert
Chalcedony
Undifferentiated silicified
wood
Jemez obsidian
Polvadera Peak obsidian
Cerro del Medio obsidian
Nonvesicular basalt
Limestone
Sandstone
Siltstone
Mudstone
Undifferentiated quartzite
Quartz crystal
Total No. of Percent of
Artifacts
Total
522
1047
2
1
3
1789
13
9.30
18.70
0.03
0.01
0.05
32.00
0.20
945
1083
10
62
21
1
6
3
21
53
16.90
19.30
0.10
1.10
0.30
0.01
0.10
0.05
0.30
0.90
The dominant category for material texture
and quality was glassy (36.5 percent, n = 2,038),
followed by fine grained (34.4 percent, n = 1,922),
fine grained and flawed (20.5 percent, n = 1,146),
medium grained (3.7 percent, n = 207), and medium grained and flawed (3.6 percent, n = 206)
(Table 6).
Cortex
Dorsal cortex was recorded in increments of 10
percent coverage of the dorsal surface of a flake, or
for angular debris, the entire surface.
The leading cortex increment was 0 percent
cortex (90.6 percent, n = 3,972), followed by 10
percent cortex (2.2 percent, n = 100), 20 percent
cortex (1.9 percent, n = 87), and 30 percent cortex
(1.5 percent, n = 70). The remaining intervals are
represented by less than 1 percent each (Table 7).
The leading cortex increment among the core
flakes for the east component was again 0 percent
cortex (87.3 percent, n = 1,787), followed by 10
percent cortex (3.2 percent, n = 66), and 20 percent
cortex (2.1 percent, n = 44) (Table 8).
The leading increment for angular debris was
Lithic Artifacts
71
Table 6. Frequency of Material Quality,
LA 103919, East Component
Material Quality
Total No. Percent of
of Artifacts
Total
Glassy
Glassy and
flawed
Fine grained
Fine grained and
flawed
Medium grained
Medium grained
and flawed
Coarse grained
2038
61
36.50
1.00
1922
1146
34.40
20.50
207
206
3.70
3.60
1
0.01
Table 7. Frequency of Cortex
Percent Increments, LA 103919,
East Component
Cortex
Increment
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Artifacts
Total
3972
100
87
70
36
17
16
18
19
13
36
90.6
2.2
1.9
1.5
0.8
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.8
0 percent cortex (79.9 percent, n = 554), followed
by 20 percent cortex (6.0 percent, n = 42), and 30
percent cortex (5.7 percent, n = 40) (Table 9).
Portion
Portion refers to the part of the artifact that is represented. By definition tools and cores are whole.
However, flakes may be either whole or fragmentary, and based upon the criteria set established in
the polythetic set of attributes, only whole flakes
were analyzed while partial flakes were noted.
72
Table 8. Frequency of Core Flake
Cortex, Percent Increments, LA
Cortex
Increments
Total No. of
Artifacts
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Percent of
Total
1787
66
44
26
19
10
11
17
19
13
34
87.3
3.2
2.1
1.2
0.9
0.4
0.5
0.8
0.9
0.6
1.6
Increments for Angular Debris, LA
Cortex
Increment
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Total No. of
Artifacts
554
28
42
40
16
5
5
1
0
0
1
Percent of
Total
79.9
4.0
6.0
5.7
2.3
0.7
0.7
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.1
The leading portion category for the East component was whole (74.6 percent, n = 4,163), followed by incomplete (21.3 percent, n = 1,190), and
distal (2.5 percent, n = 140) (Table 10).
Flake Platform Type
Flake platform type refers to the point of impact on
whole or the proximal portion of core flakes. The
type of platform is determined by a set of attributes
that include platform modification.
The principle platform type in the east compo-
Table 10. Frequency of Portion Type, LA
Portion Type
Indeterminate
Whole
Proximal
Medial
Distal
Lateral
Incomplete
Total No. of
Artifacts
Percent of
Total
20
4163
38
4
140
21
1190
0.30
74.60
0.60
0.07
2.50
0.30
21.30
Table 11. Frequency of Platform Type, LA
Platform Type
Cortical
Cortical and
abraded
Single faceted
Single faceted
and abraded
Multifaceted
Multifaceted and
abraded
Retouched
Collapsed
Crushed
Absent
Total No. of
Artifacts
Percent
of Total
234
6
6.4
0.1
1429
28
39.5
0.7
943
4
26
0.1
4
255
559
150
0.1
7
15.4
4.1
nent assemblage was single-faceted platform (39.5
percent, n = 1,429), followed by multifaceted (26.0
percent, n = 943), crushed (15.4 percent, n = 559),
collapsed (7.0 percent, n = 255), and cortical (6.4
percent, n = 234) (Table 11).
Heat Treatment
Heat treatment was determined using a set of
attributes designed to recognize attributes resulting
from a thermal alteration process.
The principle category for heat treatment for
the east component was potlids, ventral and dorsal
surface (64.7 percent, n = 206), followed by crazed
(21.3 percent, n = 68), potlids, ventral surface (3.4
Table 12. Frequency of Heat Treatment Forms,
Types of Alteration
Potlids, ventral surface
Potlids, dorsal surface
Potlids, other surface
Crazed
Crazed and potlids,
ventral surface
Crazed and potlids,
dorsal surface
Potlids, dorsal and
ventral surface
Potlid
Artifacts
Total
11
8
2
68
8
3.4
2.5
0.6
21.3
2.5
1
0.3
206
64.7
6
1.8
percent, n = 11), potlids, dorsal surface (2.5 percent, n = 8), and crazed and potlids, ventral surface
(2.5 percent, n = 8) (Table 12).
Wear Pattern
Wear patterns were determined using a set of criteria designed to monitor edge attrition, edge damage, and purposeful modification.
The results for wear patterns for artifacts in the
east component assemblage included: unidirectional utilization (59.2 percent, n = 48), bidirectional
utilization (6.1 percent, n = 5), unidirectional
retouch (6.1 percent, n = 5), bidirectional retouch
(6.1 percent, n = 5), battering (4.9 percent, n = 4),
unidirectional retouch and wear (4.9 percent, n =
4), and bidirectional retouch and unidirectional
wear (4.9 percent, n = 4) (Table 13).
Cores
There were three principle core types recorded for
the combined core assemblage (n = 35). These
included unidirectional, bidirectional, and multidirectional cores.
A total of 12 cores were reported for the east
component. One was a unidirectional core composed of undifferentiated chert (8.3 percent of the
count) (Fig. 37), and 1 was a bidirectional core
composed of chalcedony (8.3 percent). Ten of the
12 cores were multidirectional. Two were composed of undifferentiated chert (16.6 percent), 1
Lithic Artifacts
73
Table 13. Frequency of Wear Patterns, LA
Artifacts
Total
Type of Wear
Unidirectional utilization
48
59.2
Bidirectional utilization
Unidirectional retouch
Bidirectional retouch
Rounding
Battering
Rotary
and wear
Abrasion
Serrated-denticulate
Bidirectional retouch and
unidirectional wear
5
5
5
1
4
2
4
6.1
6.1
6.1
1.2
4.9
2.4
4.9
1
1
4
1.2
1.2
4.9
Table 14. Frequency of Core Type by Material Type,
Total
No. of Percent
Artifacts of Total
Material Type
Type of Core
Undifferentiated
chert
Undifferentiated
chert
Pedernal chert
Chalcedony
Chalcedony
Undifferentiated
quartzite
Unidirectional
1
8.3
Multidirectional
2
16.6
Multidirectional
Bidirectional
Multidirectional
Multidirectional
1
1
5
2
8.3
8.3
41.6
16.6
was composed of Pedernal chert (8.3 percent), 5
were composed of chalcedony (41.6 percent), and
2 were composed of undifferentiated quartzite
(16.6 percent) (Table 14).
Figure 37. Cores, LA 103919 East.
Projectile Points
The projectile point assemblage from the east component included 1 unidentified projectile point, 3
unidentified corner-notched projectile points, and
14 Pueblo side-notched points (Table 15) (Fig. 39).
Tools
WEST COMPONENT
Within the lithic artifact assemblage for the east
component the dominant tool type was the undifferentiated biface (41.5 percent, n = 22), followed by spokeshave (7.5 percent, n = 4), and
drill (5.6 percent, n = 3). The remaining categories—hammerstone, chopper-hammerstone,
core-hammerstone, undifferentiated uniface, and
biface, broken in manufacture—are each represented by 1 artifact (1.8 percent each) (Table 15,
Fig. 38).
74
Artifact Type and Material Selection
The dominant artifact type for the west component
was the core flake (39.3 percent, n = 1,227), followed by biface flake (35.1 percent, n = 1,096),
angular debris (18.1 percent, n = 566), and late stage
biface (2.4 percent, n = 76) (Table 16). The ratio of
core flakes to angular debris was 2.1 to 1. The ratio
of core flakes to biface flakes was 1.1 to 1.
Figure 37. Continued. Cores, LA 103919 West.
Lithic Artifacts
75
Figure 38. All tools, LA 103919.
Table 15. Frequency of Formal Tools, LA
103919, West Component
Total No.
of
Percent
Artifacts of Total
Tool Type
Hammerstone
Drill
Spokeshave
Chopper-hammerstone
Core-hammerstone
Undifferentiated uniface
Undifferentiated biface
Biface, broken in
manufacture
Undifferentiated
projectile point
Undifferentiated cornernotched projectile point
1
3
4
1
1
1
22
1
1.8
5.6
7.5
1.8
1.8
1.8
41.5
1.8
1
1.8
17
32
Table 16. Frequency of Morphology Type,
LA 103919, West Component
Morphology
Indeterminate
Angular debris
Core flake
Biface flake
Notching flake
Bipolar flake
Potlid
Biface edge
fragment
Tested cobble
Unidirectional core
Bidirectional core
Multidirectional core
Undifferentiated
uniface
Middle-stage
uniface
Late-stage uniface
Undifferentiated
biface
Early-stage biface
Middle-stage biface
Late-stage biface
Reworked middlestage biface
Reworked latestage biface
Artifacts
Total
30
566
1227
1096
17
2
7
4
0.90
18.10
39.30
35.10
0.50
0.50
0.20
0.10
1
4
2
17
1
0.03
0.10
0.06
0.50
0.03
2
0.06
8
1
0.20
0.03
6
40
0.10
1.20
76
1
2.40
0.03
1
0.03
Table 17. Frequency of Material Type, LA
Material Type
Undifferentiated chert
Pedernal chert
Tecovas chert
Cerro Gordo chert
Chalcedony
Undifferentiated
silicified wood
Zuni wood
Jemez obsidian
Polvadera Peak
obsidian
Cerro del Medio
obsidian
"Mahogany" obsidian
Undifferentiated
igneous
Nonvesicular basalt
Rhyolite
Limestone
Sandstone
Siltstone
Mudstone
Quartzitic sandstone
Quartz crystal
Total No. Percent of
of Artifacts
Total
705
211
1
45
1191
10
17.30
5.10
0.02
1.10
29.20
0.20
1
1201
449
0.02
29.50
11.00
10
0.20
14
3
0.30
0.07
55
4
36
1
17
17
4
91
1.30
0.09
0.80
0.02
0.40
0.40
0.09
2.20
The dominant material type for the west component was Jemez (generic) obsidian (29.5 percent,
n=1,201), followed by chalcedony (29.2 percent, n
= 1,191), undifferentiated chert (17.3 percent, n =
705), Polvadera Peak obsidian (11.0 percent, n =
449), Pedernal chert (5.1 percent, n = 211), and
quartz crystal (2.2 percent, n = 91) (Table 17).
The leading category in material texture and
quality in this component was glassy (37.0 percent,
n = 1,507), followed by fine grained (34.4 percent,
n = 1,401), fine grained and flawed (11.8 percent,
n = 483), and glassy and flawed (8.1 percent, n =
333) (Table 18).
Cortex
The principle cortex increment for the west component was 0 percent cortex (87.8 percent, n = 2,723),
followed by 10 percent cortex (2.9 percent, n = 93),
100 percent cortex (2.0 percent, n = 63), and 20 percent cortex (1.7 percent, n = 54) (Table 19).
Lithic Artifacts
77
Figure 39. Projectile points, LA 103919.
Figure 39. Continued.
Lithic Artifacts
79
Lithic Artifacts
81
Table 18. Frequency of Material Quality,
Material Quality
Glassy
Glassy and flawed
Fine grained
Artifacts
Total
1507
333
1401
37.00
8.10
34.40
Fine grained and
flawed
483
11.80
Medium grained
Medium grained
and flawed
Coarse grained
Coarse grained
and flawed
247
87
6.00
2.10
5
5
0.10
0.07
Percentage Increments, LA 103919,
West Component
Cortex
Increment
0
1
7
10
15
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Total No. of
Artifacts
2723
2
4
93
1
54
49
25
20
18
10
19
20
63
Percent of
Total
87.80
0.06
0.10
2.90
0.03
1.70
1.50
0.80
0.60
0.50
0.30
0.60
0.60
2.00
The leading increment among west component
core flakes was again 0 percent cortex (81.7 percent, n = 996), followed by 100 percent cortex (4.3
percent, n = 53), 10 percent cortex (4.0 percent, n
= 49), 20 percent cortex (2.0 percent, n = 25), and
30 percent cortex (1.8 percent, n = 23) (Table 20).
Among the angular debris the leading increment was 0 percent cortex (76.1 percent, n = 431),
followed by 10 percent cortex (7.1 percent, n = 40),
20 percent cortex (4.6 percent, n = 26), 30 percent
cortex (3.5 percent, n = 20), and 40 percent cortex
(1.9 percent, n = 11) (Table 21). There was no
waterworn cortex.
Percentages for Core Flake Increments,
Cortex
Increment
Total No. of
Core Flakes
Percent of
Total
0
1
10
15
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
996
1
49
1
25
23
13
11
9
6
16
16
53
81.70
0.08
4.00
0.08
2.00
1.80
1.00
0.90
0.70
0.40
1.30
1.30
4.30
Increments for Angular Debris, LA
Cortex
Increment
Artifacts
Total
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
431
40
26
20
11
9
5
4
2
3
8
76.1
7.1
4.6
3.5
1.9
1.5
0.8
0.7
0.3
0.5
1.4
Table 22. Frequency of Portion Types,
Portion
Indeterminate
Whole
Proximal
Medial
Distal
Lateral
Incomplete
Artifacts
Total
58
2669
120
22
199
39
952
1.4
65.7
2.9
0.5
4.9
0.9
23.4
Table 23. Frequency of Platform Types, LA
Total No. of
Artifacts
Percent
of Total
Cortical
Cortical and abraded
227
2
8.90
0.07
Single faceted
Single faceted and
abraded
Multifaceted
Multifaceted and
abraded
Retouched
Abraded
Collapsed
Crushed
Absent
Biface edge
710
80
28.10
3.10
704
45
27.90
1.70
2
2
211
185
350
1
0.07
0.07
8.30
7.30
13.80
0.03
Platform Type
Table 24. Frequency of Heat Treatment
Forms, LA 103919, West Component
Heat Treatment Type
Total No. of Percent
Artifacts of Total
Potlids, ventral
surface
12
6.4
Potlids, dorsal surface
10
5.3
Potlids, other surface
4
2.1
Crazed
Crazed and potlids,
dorsal surface
37
1
19.7
0.5
Potlids, ventral and
dorsal surface
106
56.6
13
6.9
Potlid
Portion
The dominant category for portion in the west
component was whole (65.7 percent, n = 2,669),
followed by incomplete (23.4 percent, n = 952),
and distal (4.9 percent, n = 199) (Table 22).
Platform
The leading platform type for the west component
assemblage was the single-faceted platform (28.1
percent, n = 710), followed by multifaceted (27.9
percent, n = 704), absent (13.8 percent, n = 350),
cortical (8.9 percent, n = 227), and collapsed (8.3
percent, n = 211) (Table 23).
Heat Treatment
The dominant category for heat treatment in the
west component was potlids, ventral and dorsal
surface (56.6 percent, n = 106), followed by crazed
(19.7 percent, n = 37), potlids (6.9 percent, n = 13),
potlids, ventral surface (6.4 percent, n = 12), and
potlids, dorsal surface (5.3 percent, n = 10) (Table
24).
Wear Pattern
The results for the wear pattern analysis for the
west component were unidirectional utilization
(58.7 percent, n = 97), bidirectional utilization (9.0
percent, n = 15), bidirectional retouch (7.2 percent,
n = 12), unidirectional retouch (6.0 percent, n =
10), bidirectional retouch and wear (6.0 percent, n
= 10), rotary (4.8 percent, n = 8), and unidirectional retouch and wear (4.2 percent, n = 7) (Table 25).
Cores
A total of 23 cores was reported for the west component. Four of the cores were unidirectional; two
were composed of undifferentiated chert (8.7 percent of the assemblage), and two were composed
of chalcedony (8.7 percent). Two of the cores were
bidirectional, one was Jemez (generic) obsidian
(4.3 percent), and one was siltstone (4.3 percent).
Seventeen of the cores were multidirectional. Five
of the multidirectional cores were composed of
undifferentiated chert (21.7 percent), two were
Pedernal chert (8.7 percent), one was Cerro Gordo
chert (4.3 percent), seven were chalcedony (30.4
percent), and two were multidirectional cores composed of limestone (8.7 percent) (Table 26, see Fig.
37).
Tools
The primary tool type for the west component was
the undifferentiated biface (48.6 percent, n = 70),
followed by drill (9.7 percent, n = 14), and spokeshaves (5.5 percent, n = 8). These categories were
followed by choppers, undifferentiated unifaces,
Lithic Artifacts
83
Table 25. Frequency of Wear Pattern Type, LA
Artifacts
Total
Wear Pattern
Unidirectional utilization
Bidirectional utilization
Bidirectional retouch
Rounding
Battering
Rotary
and wear
wear
Serrated-denticulate
unidirectional wear
Chopper edge
97
15
10
12
1
2
8
7
58.7
9.0
6.0
7.2
0.6
1.2
4.8
4.2
10
6.0
1
1
0.6
0.6
1
0.6
Table 26. Frequency of Core Type by Material Type,
Total
No. of Percent
Artifacts of Total
Material Type
Type of Core
Undifferentiated
chert
Undifferentiated
chert
Pedernal chert
Unidirectional
2
8.7
Multidirectional
5
21.7
Multidirectional
2
8.7
Multidirectional
1
4.3
Unidirectional
Multidirectional
Bidirectional
2
7
1
8.7
30.4
4.3
Cerro Gordo
chert
Chalcedony
Chalcedony
Jemez obsidian
Limestone
Multidirectional
2
8.7
Siltstone
Bidirectional
1
4.3
side scrapers, and end/side scraper, each represented by two artifacts (1.3 percent, respectively). The
remaining categories were hoe, scraper-graver,
core-hammerstone, and biface, broken in manufacture are each represented by one artifact (0.6 percent) (Table 27, Fig. 38).
Projectile Points
The results for the projectile point analysis for the
west component are 1 Tesuque point base, 8
Table 27. Frequency of Formal Tools, LA
Total No. of Percent
Artifacts
of Total
Tool Type
Chopper
Hoe
Drill
Spokeshave
Scraper-graver
Core-hammerstone
Undifferentiated uniface
2
1
14
8
1
1
2
1.3
0.6
9.7
5.5
0.6
0.6
1.3
Side scraper
End/side scraper
Undifferentiated bifact
Biface, broken in
manufacture
Tesuque point base
Unidentified projectile
point
Unidentified cornernotched projectile point
Unidentified small
corner-notched
projectile point
Unidentified sidenotched projectile point
Pueblo side-notched
projectile point
2
2
70
1
1.3
1.3
48.6
0.6
1
8
0.6
5.5
24
16.6
1
0.6
1
0.6
5
3.4
unidentified projectile points, 24 unidentified corner-notched projectile points, 1 unidentified small
corner-notched projectile point, 1 unidentified
side-notched projectile point, and 5 Pueblo sidenotched projectile points (Table 27, Fig. 39).
DISCUSSION
The lithic artifact analysis for the two separate
components of LA 103919 suggests that nonlocal
material was primarily used in a reduction strategy
designed to produce bifacial tools in the east component and unifacial and bifacial tools in the west.
There is greater morphological and material variation within the west component, and the volume of
specific material types increases within the east
component. The differences between the west and
east components are subtle yet may indicate differing emphasis on material type selection and tool
production.
Core flake cortex percentages indicate that a
majority of material had been introduced to the site
as decortified cores (0 percent cortex: 87.3 percent,
n = 2,046). The dominant material type in the east
component was obsidian (36.3 percent), however
no obsidian cores were recovered. It is possible
that obsidian cores were totally expended and
could not be detected archaeologically, or documented as angular debris. However, another possibility is that the obsidian was transported from the
source as large flakes and reduced further at the
site. Pedernal chert and Jemez obsidian can be
obtained from lag gravels along the Rio Grande,
but not locally because no tributaries that originate
near these material sources drain into the river at
this point. However, some obsidian and Pedernal
chert can be scavenged off of Archaic sites, where
nodules of raw materials are often discarded or
even stockpiled. The presence of a small percentage of bipolar flakes (0.5 percent) recovered from
the west component does not necessarily mean the
use of cores of limited size, such as river gravels,
but the use of anvils to obtain flakes, a common
reduction technique used throughout the Archaic
and the Developmental period (Lentz 1991; Moore
2001:77–126).
Six of the cores recovered from the east component were made of chalcedony, and chalcedony
comprises 32.0 percent of the material type for the
assemblage. The remaining cores were made of
chert, and chert comprises 28.0 percent of the
material type. Undifferentiated chert was by far the
dominant material type, although Pedernal,
Tecolote, Tecovas, and Cerro Gordo chert were
present. Other material types listed for the east
component are igneous and sedimentary rocks as
well as quartz crystal. These materials and the
chert may have been found locally and may represent the use of available material. The obsidian and
nonlocal chert indicate that these materials were
being brought in from outside sources and in large
quantities.
There is a shift in material volume between the
west and east components. The counts for Pedernal
chert and Polvadera Peak obsidian rise in the east
component versus the counts for the same material
types in the west component. In the case of
Pedernal chert the recorded volume increases 15.1
percent (n = 674 vs. n = 94 for the west compo-
nent), and for Polvadera Peak obsidian the recorded volume increases 11.7 percent (n = 744 vs. n =
202 for the west component). There is an obvious
shift in volume of Pedernal chert, which may indicate a change in preference over time. This may
also be true for the shift in volume of the obsidian.
Both of the material types are recorded for the west
component, yet, as in the case of the Polvadera
chert, there is quite a difference in the observed
quantity.
The dominant production activity within the
east component appears to have been core reduction resulting in biface production. Unlike the west
component, no unifacial tools were recorded.
Following core flakes, biface flakes were the most
dominant artifact form from the east component
(34.8 percent, n = 4,392). Forty-six bifaces (15
middle stage and 31 late stage) were recovered as
well as 18 projectile points. Biface reduction and
tool manufacture appear to have taken place, and,
combined with the volume of biface flakes, suggest
that marginal retouch was also occurring. The presence of hammerstones, drills, chopping-stones,
scraper-gravers, unifaces, and bifaces indicate that
a wide array of activities were taking place.
However, only 1.4 percent of the assemblage (n =
81) exhibit wear patterns, and of those, 59.2 percent show unidirectional utilization. This may indicate tool production on a massive scale, one in
which many tools were produced to the point that
pre-made tools exceeded need. An alternative
hypothesis is the tools recovered from the site
exhibit little use because tools that were used were
either lost in the field, broken, or carried away
when the individuals departed the site. A second
alternative is the combination of these two ideas, in
which production exceeded need and used tools
were either lost or broken in the field or were curated, maintained and left with the departing individuals. These hypotheses are grounded in the
assumption that tools, especially projectile points,
were created specifically to fulfill the needs of a
specific task.
Thermal alteration of lithic material occurred
in both components; 5.6 percent of the assemblage
from the east (n = 318) and 4.5 percent of the
assemblage from the west exhibited some form of
heat treatment (n = 183). On the east 64.7 percent
of the heat-treated artifacts had potlids on the ven-
Lithic Artifacts
85
tral and dorsal surfaces and on the west 56.6 percent. This may indicate that a substantial portion of
the heat-treated artifacts were accidentally heated,
although in the west component there was a wider
range of material types, especially nonlocal material types (as noted above), and the production of
bifacial tools does not appear to have taken place
on the scale recorded for the east component.
Core flake cortex percentages suggest that
cores were being introduced in a decortified state.
Among the core flakes, 81.7 percent exhibit no cortex (n = 1,219). The dominant material type in the
west assemblage was obsidian (40.7 percent), and
only one obsidian core was recovered. It is probable, as with the east component, that the material
was being introduced onto the site as large flakes.
Nine of the cores recovered from the west
component were composed of chalcedony, and
chalcedony comprises 29.2 percent of the assemblage. The remaining cores were made of chert,
limestone, and siltstone. Undifferentiated chert
was the most dominant (17.3 percent), and
Pedernal chert represents only 5.1 percent of the
assemblage. Cerro Gordo chert was also present.
Other material types include mahogany obsidian,
basalt, and quartz crystal. The obsidian and nonlocal chert indicate that these materials were being
imported in large enough quantities to comprise an
important portion of the assemblage.
The principle production activity for the west
component appears to have been core reduction
resulting in the production of bifacial tools. After
core flakes, biface flakes were the dominant artifact type in the west component (35.1 percent, n =
1,096). Seventy-one bifaces were recovered as
well as 46 projectile points. The assemblage also
included choppers, one hoe, drills, spokeshaves,
one scraper-graver, one core-hammerstone, two
unifaces, side scrapers, and two end/side scrapers.
The presence of these artifacts indicates that a
diverse set of activities was taking place in the west
component. However, only 4.0 percent of the
assemblage (n = 165) exhibit wear patterns, and of
those, 58.7 percent show unidirectional utilization.
The lack of evidence of use on many of the tools
from the west component is similar to the situation
encountered at the east component. This may lend
support to the notion that formal tools were more
than mere functional items. However, there is no
evidence from the west component or the east component that directly indicates a use or meaning
beyond the functional, so it must be maintained
that either production was greater than need or all
used tools were left in the field or curated.
A total of 46 projectile points were recovered
from LA 103919 (Fig. 38). These artifacts were
analyzed on an assemblage basis. The dominant
material type was chert (including chalcedonic
chert) 60.3 percent (n=28), obsidian 34.3 percent
(n = 16) and other materials—such as basalt and
silicified wood—5.3 percent (n = 2). It has become
usual to eschew typology. For example, Binford
(1994) heatedly objects to what he considers
"Kriegerian" (Krieger 1944) classificatory systems,
in which he insists that the use of stylistic indicators
and corresponding phases by Southwestern archaeologists "are inappropriate for use in process-oriented studies" (Binford 1994:558). However, IrwinWilliams (1994:633–634) feels that "It is entirely
appropriate to develop hypotheses about the nature
of processes." We feel it is worthwhile to recognize
style, as such, to be a primary repository for information relating to various aspects of a cultural system—not only ideotechnic, or cognitive, but also
sociotechnic and functional.
The majority of the projectile points recovered
from LA 103919 are arrow points (Fig. 39). Thirtyfive (76 percent) are of the rounded base, cornernotched Pueblo I–II variety, the remainder are
unidentifiable (Table 15). These diagnostic types
are consistent with arrow points used during this
time from other sites dated between A.D. 900 and
1200 in the Rio Grande Valley and elsewhere.
Since nearly every time a projectile is fired,
the point is damaged (Hames 1979), it is not surprising that a high degree of end-shock is seen on
the majority of the points. It is apparently important to recover the arrow, primarily for the shaft.
Modern experiments show that it is far easier to
make a projectile point than it is to find a straight
piece of wood, or straighten a piece of wood.
The projectile point data at LA 103919 provides several important insights into hunting
behavior. The first is that there appears to have
been a strong emphasis on hunting, particularly
during the A.D. 1000–1200 period This is corroborated by the faunal data (see Akins, this volume).
Projectile points are distributed in a pattern that
suggests that there were discarded because they
were no longer serviceable. Many had end-shock,
or only the base remained. This pattern reflects
either a missed shot where the arrow breaks on
something hard, or the tip breaks when it punctures
an animal and hits a bone. This may suggest processing, as the embedded projectiles fall out when
the animal is butchered. Refurbishing and re-armament operations include the discard of broken projectiles and replacement of new ones (rehafting),
and the reworking and resharpening of existing
points, as evidenced by biface flakes occurring on
the east component. The presence of 20 notching
flakes testifies to the manufacturing of projectile
points on the east component.
There was a higher frequency of projectile
points recovered from the east component (n=28).
As Akins (this volume) argues, the hunting strategies suggested by the assemblages from each component may be qualitatively different. She reasons
that early in the Developmental sequence, hunting is
often limited to "garden hunting," which yields
small game, such as rabbits. Later in the sequence,
when the population is more established and agriculture becomes increasingly important, groups tend
to schedule hunting activities during certain times of
the year and travel greater distances for animal
resources. Comparing the lithic data to the faunal
data, this pattern appears to be reflected in the division of activities evident in each component.
Smaller game and less repair and manufacturing of
projectile points occur in the western, earlier component, while larger game and evidence for the
maintenance and production of lithic tools and projectile points characterizes the later, or eastern, portion of the site.
The results of the chi-square analysis calculated for each component of LA 103919 support the
suggestion that there are subtle differences
between the two components. (There is a high level
of significance with a 99 percent level of confidence.)
However, the variations existing between the
lithic artifact assemblages from the east and west
components of LA 103919 do not exhibit substantial
variation. The volume of material types differs
between the two components as does material type
selection (e.g., there are more nonlocal types, such as
obsidian, on the west). There is also a morphological
variation between the two components, i.e., on the
west, more debitage was derived from biface manufacture. The west component was dated between
A.D. 900 and A.D. 1000, while the east component
has been dated between A.D. 1000 and A.D. 1200.
Therefore, the variations within the lithic artifact
assemblage may indicate a change of material type
selection for tool production over time.
Lithic Artifacts
87
CERAMIC ARTIFACTS
C. Dean Wilson
This section discusses the analytical strategy and
categories employed during analysis of 8,771
sherds and 9 whole or partial vessels recovered
from LA 103919 near Nambé Pueblo. Resulting
data form the basis of discussions concerning characterizations of ceramic assemblages and examinations of ceramic trends presented elsewhere in this
volume. Ceramic data were recorded in a manner
providing information relevant to the examination
of various trends. These examinations rely on
information allowing for the dating of associated
contexts and components and the examination of a
variety of issues. Issues that may be addressed
through ceramic data include the determination of
the time of occupation and areas of origin of early
Anasazi immigrants into the Tewa Basin, examinations of patterns and influences of local material
resources on the ceramic technology, recognition
of interaction and exchange of vessels between
Anasazi groups in different areas, and the identification of activities associated with various vessel
forms.
In order to address these issues, a variety of
classes of data were recorded during ceramic
analysis. These include associated provenience,
descriptive attributes, typological categories,
counts, and weights. Categories identified during
the present study are listed in Appendix 1.
Descriptive attributes and typological categories
provide the basis for examining various issues and
trends. Ceramics are linked to a particular provenience by recording the associated field specimen
(FS) number. Sherds from each FS number that
exhibit similar combinations of typological and
descriptive attribute categories are separated into
discrete groups. Each of these groups was assigned
to a specific lot number recorded on a distinct data
line along with combinations of type and attribute
coding. Sherds, segregated into discrete lots, were
placed into separate bags along with a label containing information noting associated site, FS, and
lot numbers. Quantitative data recorded for each
line include total count and weight.
ATTRIBUTE ANALYSIS
Descriptive attributes recorded for all sherds
include temper, paste profile, pigment, slip, vessel
form, and modification. In addition, information,
such as refired paste color and decorative styles,
was recorded during special analysis of subsamples of selected sherds. A sample of 50 sherds was
also submitted for petrographic analysis. The
results of this analysis are described elsewhere in
this volume (see Hill, this volume). Additional
attributes concerning dimensions and evidence of
wear and sooting were recorded for nine whole or
partially reconstructible vessels.
Temper
Temper categories were identified by examining
freshly broken sherd surfaces through a binocular
microscope. Temper, as defined here, refers to
either aplastic particles intentionally added to the
clay or natural clay inclusions serving the same
purpose as added temper. Temper categories reflect
distinctive combinations of color, shape, size, fracture, and sheen of observed particles. It is often
impossible to differentiate rock types based on
microscopic analysis of temper fragments. Thus,
the temper categories employed refer to groups
exhibiting similar visual characteristics rather than
specific rock and mineral classifications. Still, temper category codes indicate a range of characteristics that may be associated with sources utilized
within a particular area. While petrographic analysis substantiated most of the categories recognized
during microscopic identifications, petrographic
characterizations resulted in some revisions.
Granite with mica refers to the dominant temper type found in gray ware sherds from LA
103919. This category reflects combinations of
local alluvial clays and crushed igneous river cobbles as temper. Even without microscopic examination, sherds with this temper are usually easy to
recognize by the presence of numerous mica fragCeramic Artifacts
89
ments visible through the vessel surface.
Fragments are relatively large and subangular to
subrounded in shape. These particles are usually
white but occasionally are clear, light gray, or pink.
These fragments often contain mica or black fragments. Petrographic analysis conducted on both
local cobbles and gray ware sherds indicate the
presence of medium-sized quartz and feldspar
grains and brown biotite. These characteristics
indicate the use of crushed granite that could come
from either the Sangre de Cristo Mountains or local
stream cobbles or gravel deposits ultimately
weathered from the Sangre de Cristos (Hill, this
volume). Similar temper dominates local utility
ware from sites in the Tewa Basin dating to most of
the Anasazi occupation of this area.
Temper with similar characteristics are placed
into three additional categories based on the presence or dominance of mica fragments. The most
dominant of these is that previously described consisting of pastes with fairly numerous mica fragments. Another category is identified by the presence of very similar rock fragments derived from
granite without mica. Granite with olivine refers to
similar temper with additional distinctive bright
green olivine fragments. Still another category is
differentiated by the presence of extremely high
frequencies of mica, and may reflect the intentional addition of crushed mica. Sherds displaying this
combination of temper are classified as highly
micaceous.
Fine tuff or ash refers to the presence of fine
volcanic fragments presumably derived from ash
or tuff deposits. This category consists of small,
clear, dark vitreous, angular to rod-shaped particles
or light-colored dull pumice particles. The presence of such particles may indicate either the use of
self-tempered ash-derived clays or the addition of
crushed or weathered tuff or ash to the clay.
Petrographic analysis indicates the use of self-tempered clays apparently derived from volcanic ash.
Variation in particles noted in this temper was
used to define several different types of igneous
tuff or ash deposits potentially indicative of different areas of origin (Warren 1979). We were unable
to consistently make such divisions during the
present study. We found it more efficient to collapse many of these categories into a single category, although occasional attempts were made to
distinguish varieties of tuff or ash. Sand and fine
tuff or ash refers to the presence of similar temper
with small sand particles probably representing
clay inclusions. Fine volcanic other refers to similar volcanic material possibly of local origin. Large
tuff fragments consists of poorly ground tuff dominated by pumice. Ash, as defined here, is similar to
temper described as fine tuff and ash but tends to
be extremely fine and contain small dark spicules.
Again, many of the examples assigned to these categories may reflect various combinations of materials resulting in the use of self-tempered clays. In
some cases the addition of ash, tuff, or pumice may
be reflected.
Sand refers to rounded or subrounded, wellsorted sand grains. These grains are transparent,
white to gray in color, and may be frosted. This category is distinguished from sandstone temper by
the presence of large, even-sized quartz grains, and
the absence of matrix. Some of the sand-tempered
ceramics identified during the present study were
most likely produced in the Cibola (or Chaco)
region of the Colorado Plateau. Petrographic
analysis, however, indicates that some sherds identified as having this temper reflect rolled granitic
rock that may have originated in the Rio Grande
region, while others may contain sandy clay inclusions. Sandstone exhibits similar grains along with
angular matrix fragments. Grains derived from
these sandstones are usually smaller than those
found in sand temper.
Crushed andesite or diorite refers to fragments
from either crushed andesites or diorites. This category represents the predominant temper used by
Anasazi potters in most of the northern San Juan or
Mesa Verde region. It is possible, however, that
some of the sherds assigned to this category could
represent variations of local volcanic rock. This
category is characterized primarily by angular to
subangular lithic particles that are clear to milky
white and sometimes reddish in color. Small,
black, often rod-shaped crystals are present, and
may occur individually. These are within the larger
particles. This temper may occur with sand fragments resulting in the recognition of an andesite
diorite and sand category.
Basalt refers to the presence of similar greenish, gray, to black-colored angular rock fragments
representing crushed basalt.
Sherd refers to the use of crushed potsherds as
temper. Crushed sherd fragments are usually white,
buff, gray, or orange in color. These fragments are
often distinguished from crushed rock tempers by
their dull, nonreflective appearance. Fragments of
tuff, however, are often similar in appearance.
Small reflective rock particles may be included
inside or outside the sherd fragments. In some
cases, the presence of fairly large particles along
with crushed sherd may indicate the addition of
both crushed rock and sherd. In cases where both
sherd and distinctive rock fragments occur together, the combination of the two materials were
noted. Examples of such categories include sherd
and sand, tuff or ash and sherd, and crushed sherd
and andesite/diorite. Unfortunately, petrographic
analysis indicated that some of the sherds classified as having crushed potsherd temper actually
contained tuff particles. I reexamined some of
these sherds, and in many cases could not visually
discern some of the tuff-tempered sherds from
those tempered with potsherds. Thus, it should be
emphasized that some of the sherds classified here
as having crushed sherd temper may actually contain large, dull-colored tuff fragments.
Indeterminate refers to rare cases in which
associated temper fragments could not be identified.
Paste Color
Cross sections and paste color of sherds reflect a
combination of clay sources used and firing conditions to which a vessel was exposed. Vessels fired
in reduction atmosphere tend to exhibit dark paste
profiles. Those fired in a low oxidizing or neutral
atmosphere are usually light gray or white. Profiles
of oxidized vessels are usually reddish or yellow
depending on the iron content of the clay. Paste
color profiles were recorded because previous
studies indicated possible differences in paste colors dominating assemblages from different
Anasazi regions. Thus, this attribute was recorded
in order to document differences in pastes from
vessels associated with different traditions.
Because the nature of variation of paste color was
different between ware groups, paste color categories were subdivided by these groups. Paste
color attributes recorded during the present study
include dark gray to black, light gray to white, distinct dark core, and reddish or oxidized categories.
Pigment Type
Pigment categories refer to the presence, surface
characteristics, and color of painted decorations on
each surface. Most pigments were divided into
organic (or carbon) and mineral pigment groups
based on appearance (Shepard 1963). Pigment type
on unpainted sherds were simply recorded as none.
Mineral pigments refers to painted decorations
applied with ground minerals, usually iron oxides.
These are applied as powdered compounds, often
with an organic binder. The pigment is a physical
layer, and rests on the vessel surface. Mineral pigments are usually thick and exhibit visible relief.
Mineral pigments cover and obscure surface polish
and irregularities. The firing atmosphere to which
iron-based mineral pigments were exposed affects
color. Those fired in a neutral or reduction atmosphere are black, while those fired in an oxidizing
atmosphere are reddish in color. Mineral pigment
categories identified during the present study
include mineral (black), mineral (brown), and mineral (red).
Organic paint refers to the use of organic or
vegetal pigment only. Organic paint soaks into the
vessel surface. Streaks and polish are often visible
through the paint. The painted surface is generally
lustrous, depending on the degree of surface polishing. Decorations in organic pigment may be
gray, black, bluish, and occasionally orange in
color. The edges of the painted designs range from
sharp to fuzzy, and decorations are often faded.
Slip and Polish
Slip refers to the intentional application of a distinctive clay, mineral, or organic layer over the
entire vessel surface. Such applications were used
to achieve black, white, or red surface colors, not
obtainable using paste clays or methods normally
employed. These categories also included information concerning the presence of surface polishing.
Polishing implies intentional smoothing with a polishing stone to produce a compact and lustrous surface. The presence of a slipped or polished surface
is often used to distinguish unpainted white ware
Ceramic Artifacts
91
sherds from gray wares. The absence of slips or polishing on a given surface was recorded as not polished
or slipped. The presence of polishing on unslipped
surfaces was recorded as slipped unpolished.
In Anasazi pottery types, slipping is most commonly represented by distinct polished clay slips.
White wares exhibiting a clay slip or wash applied
in a distinct low iron clay were classified as polished white clay slip. Red wares exhibiting slips
applied using a distinct high iron red clay slip were
coded as polished red clay slip. Micaceous slip
refers to a glittery surface produced by the application of a layer of finely ground mica. Polished
smudged refers to the intentional application of
black carbon deposits during the firing process to
the polished interior surfaces to produce a black
lustrous effect.
Vessel Form
Observations relating to sherd shape and surface
manipulations of sherds provide clues concerning
the vessel forms from which they derive. The resolution of vessel form characterizations are usually
dependent on sherd size, manipulations, and portion
of vessel represented. Thus, functional inferences
based on sherd collections are difficult and may
sometimes be misleading. The consistent placement
of sherds into form categories of varying degrees of
resolution provides for basic functional distinctions. Rim sherds are normally assigned to more
specific categories than body sherds.
Indeterminate refers to vessels whose form
cannot be immediately recognized.
Bowl rim refers to rim sherds exhibiting inward
curvature indicating they were derived from bowls.
Bowl body refers to body sherds exhibiting polishing or painted decoration on the interior surface
indicating they originated from bowls.
Most of the sherds recovered represented
unpolished body sherds for which the precise vessel form could not be determined. While all unpolished gray body sherds were assigned to a jar body
category, some of these could have derived from
bowls. Polished body sherds were assigned to this
category only if they exhibited evidence of painting or polishing on the exterior surface only. Jar
neck includes nonrim jar sherds with a curvature
indicating they were derived from the neck of a jar.
Most sherds assigned to this category were probably derived from cooking/storage jars. A variety of
jar forms were recognized based on rim diameter
and shape of these sherds. Cooking/storage rim
refers to jars with relatively wide rim diameters.
Such sherds appear to have been utilized for cooking or storage. Wide-mouth jar sherds are distinguished from other jar rim forms by wide rim
diameters relative to vessel size. Olla rim refers to
forms with relatively narrow rim diameters and
elongated necks. Vessels of this form often have
handles near the base that presumably aided in
transporting and storing water. Many of the handles identified during this study may have derived
from this vessel form. Seed jar rim refers to rims
derived from spherically shaped vessels without a
distinct neck, but with rim openings near the top.
Dipper with handle refers to ladles consisting
of bowls and attached cylindrical handles. This
form is identified either by evidence of a long
coiled or hollow handle attachment, or the presence of distinct dipper wear on the rim. Gourd dipper refers to dippers without handles, shaped like
elongated gourds.
Pipe refers to forms with an open combustion
chamber connected by an air passage to a mouthpiece. For the Anasazi country, pipes usually consist of straight, conical-shaped forms with small
openings extending lengthwise through the center
of the pipe. Single coil refers to rolled unattached
coils.
Figurine refers to solid objects of clay shaped
into human or animal forms. Canteen rim refers to
small spherical-shaped vessels with very long
necks, a narrow rim diameter, and lug handles near
the top of the vessel.
Various forms of attached and unattached handles were also recognized. Categories recorded for
handles include jar body with strap handle, jar
body with lug handle, jar body with unspecified
handle, indeterminate coil handle, indeterminate
strap handle, and olla rim with handle.
Modified Sherds
Modified sherds display evidence of modification
or breakage including abrasion, drilling, chipping,
or spalling. Modification categories combine information concerning the size, shape, and associated
wear patterns of a modified item. While most of the
sherds analyzed did not exhibit post-firing modifications, data concerning such treatments provide
information concerning use and remodification of
sherds and vessels. Drilled hole for repair refers to
the presence of drilled holes presumably used in
the mending of vessels by using drilled repair holes
to tie vessel fragments together. Repair holes are
usually located within 2 cm of an old break.
Ceramic scraper refers to small shaped forms
exhibiting shapes and wear patterns indicating
their use in finishing ceramic vessels. Beveled edge
refers to the presence of one or more abraded edges
resulting from intentional shaping of a vessel or
sherd. Spall refers to splintered items resulting
from traumatic changes during the firing of a vessel. Punched hole refers to holes punched in a vessel prior to firing.
rugation width, and distance between corrugations.
Attributes recorded during stylistic analysis of
white ware rim sherds include wall thickness 1 mm
from rim, rim profile, rim decoration, degree of
polish, design orientation, and design motifs.
Refired Color
Each ceramic item examined was also assigned to
typological categories. Type categories were
assigned based on combinations of characteristics
known to be of spatial, functional, or temporal significance. The assignment of sherds to types
involved first the determination of associated tradition, ware group, and finally ceramic type.
Recognition of ceramic traditions involved the separation of pottery into broad groups indicating
region of origin or "cultural" association. Sherds
from LA 103919 were assigned to a number of
ceramic traditions or series defined for areas of the
northern Rio Grande and the Colorado Plateau
based on temper, paste, and paint characteristics.
Finally, these items were assigned to ceramic types
based on temporally sensitive painted decorations
or textured treatments. During the present study,
ceramics were assigned to a large number of types
based on differences in surface manipulation, texture, and painted decoration. This approach resulted in the recognition of more type categories than
recognized in most previous studies. Despite the
higher number of categories recognized, it is easy
to group and compare types used here to those
defined in earlier studies. Ceramic type categories
recognized during those analyses provide the basis
for the examination of various trends and models.
For example, the placement of sherds into spatially sensitive traditions allows for the examination of
issues pertaining to interaction and exchange. The
Refired paste color was recorded for a subsample
of 207 sherds as well as clay samples from local
sources. Refiring analysis involved the firing of
small sherd clips and clay tiles to standardized oxidation atmospheres and a temperature of 950
degrees Centigrade. Refiring samples in similar
conditions controls the effects of both previous firings and organic material on paste color (Franklin
1980; Shepard 1939, 1963; Windes 1977). This
provides for a very rough matching of clay sources
based on the influence of mineral content, particularly iron, on refired color. The color of different
refired sherd and clay samples was recorded using
Munsell Color Chart categories. Unfortunately, the
nature of color characterizations are fairly gross so
that sherds firing to a particular source could originate from a number or sources. This technique
may, however, help identify clays not available
locally, and thus assist in the recognition of nonlocal ceramics.
STYLISTIC ANALYSIS
A series of attributes was also recorded for gray
ware and white ware rim sherds assigned to several formal types. A series of measurements (in mm)
were recorded for a small number of gray ware rim
sherds and include wall thickness, coil width, cor-
RECONSTRUCTIBLE VESSELS
Data concerning sherds from the same vessel, but
exhibiting different attribute combinations, were
initially recorded separately. The association of
sherds with reconstructible vessels, however, was
recorded during initial analysis. Reconstructible
vessels were later analyzed separately. Attributes
concerning overall vessel shape, dimensions, modification, and sooting were recorded.
TYPOLOGICAL CATEGORIES
Ceramic Artifacts
93
recording of ware categories allows for the examination of basic functional trends. The grouping of
sherds into distinct types provides for the examination of temporal trends.
Characteristics of ceramic paste, temper, paint,
and style were used to place ceramics from LA
103919 into several distinct regional traditions
defined for the Rio Grande and Colorado Plateau.
While stylistic similarities in ceramics from
regions in the northern Rio Grande and Colorado
Plateau may reflect widespread interaction and
communication between different groups, differences in paste and temper reflect the distinct geology of these regions. The wide range of ceramic
traditions identified at this site reflects patterns of
pan-regional exchange and interaction.
Classification schemes and terminology used
to differentiate ceramics from early northern Rio
Grande sites are often confusing and inconsistent.
Ceramic items exhibiting traits indicating they
were produced at LA 103919 or nearby sites in the
Tewa Basin were assigned to local northern Rio
Grande or Tewa tradition types. The Tewa Basin
includes much of the area presently occupied by
the six modern Tewa-speaking pueblos from
Tesuque to San Juan. This is roughly equivalent to
the area referred to by others as the Española Basin
or Española district (Lang 1982). The Tewa Basin
includes the area along the Rio Grande between
Velarde and Tesuque, and includes the Santa Cruz,
Pojoaque, Nambé, and Tesuque valleys. It encompasses the eastern and southern portions of the
physiographic feature designated as the Española
Basin. The Jemez Mountains border the Tewa
Basin to the west and the Sangre de Cristo
Mountains form the eastern boundary.
The combination of distinct geographic and
geological barriers, and the historic presence of
Tewa-speaking Puebloan groups contributes to the
recognition of a distinct local northern Rio Grande
or Tewa pottery tradition series. These local ceramic traditions are defined and recognized here by the
combination of resources, technologies, and
resources long-used by potters in this area. The
assignment of early local pottery types to a Tewa
tradition or series does not necessarily imply that
the original inhabitants of the Tewa Basin spoke
Tewa or were even the direct ancestors of modern
Tewa groups. It does, however, imply a long con-
tinuum of pottery development and resource use in
this area. Types of this tradition were assigned both
to utility ware sherds containing granite temper
and mica, and white ware sherds exhibiting paste,
tempers, and styles known to have been employed
in this area of the northern Rio Grande.
Intrusive pottery from regions in the Colorado
Plateau are identified by pastes, tempers, and other
characteristics such as surface treatment and design.
Ceramics from these regions exhibit blocky and light
pastes indicating probable use of distinct sedimentary clay outcrops found over much of the Colorado
Plateau. Pottery from the Chaco or Cibola region
usually contains sand or sherd and sand temper.
Ceramics originating in the San Juan are tempered
with andesite/diorite or andesite/diorite and sherd.
Ceramics were next assigned to wares and
types defined for various regional traditions.
Ceramics were placed into gray, white, red, brown,
or indeterminate ware categories based on surface
treatment and color. Gray or utility ware refers to
unpainted and unpolished vessels fired in reduction
or neutral firing atmospheres. This category may
sometimes include sherds lacking paint but derived
from painted unpolished white ware vessels. White
ware refers to painted and/or polished vessels fired
in a reduction, neutral, or low-oxidizing atmosphere. Red ware refers to polished or painted
ceramics with high iron pastes and fired in an oxidizing atmosphere.
Ceramic artifacts were assigned to specific
types based on temporally sensitive manipulations,
painted designs, or textured treatments. Categories
employed during recent analyses include both formal descriptive names defined for various regional
traditions of the northern Rio Grande and Colorado
Plateau (Mera 1935; Hawley 1934), as well as
more recently employed descriptive types (Wilson
and Blinman 1995). Formal type categories include
a geographic name followed by a ware designation
(for example Kwahe'e Black-on-white). Because
of the difficulty in applying previously defined
types to all sherds, recent studies have employed
informal descriptive categories that indicate basic
surface treatments or decorations. Examples of categories identified during the present study include
indented corrugated and polished white. Ceramic
type categories recognized during the analysis of
ceramics from LA 103919 are described below.
GRAY WARE CATEGORIES
Because very different materials and technology
were used in the production of vessels belonging to
different ware groups, the basic approach and criteria employed to assign sherds of different ware
groups into ceramic traditions and types differs.
Therefore, the basis for the recognition of characteristics of various ceramic typological categories
are discussed separately for different wares.
While paste and temper characteristics indicate that the great majority of the gray ware sherds
recovered from LA 103919 could have been locally produced, very low frequencies of intrusive gray
wares from other regions were identified. While
paste and temper characteristics sometimes
allowed for the recognition of nonlocal gray ware
types, sherds belonging to all the ceramic traditions
identified contained similar ranges of surface treatments and manipulations. Gray wares are almost
always unpolished on both surfaces, and the temper often protrudes through the surface. The great
majority of gray ware sherds exhibiting various
textures are derived from cooking or storage jar
forms. Exterior surfaces are often dark gray or
black resulting from sooting during cooking.
Because of similarities of treatments found in gray
wares with a variety of paste characteristics, gray
ware sherds belonging to various traditions were
assigned to similar type categories based on surface texture. Discussions of the various gray ware
type categories identified during the present study
follow.
Northern Rio Grande Gray (Mica-Tempered)
Tradition
While Rio Grande Developmental phase sites are
dominated by gray utility ware sherds, few gray
ware sherds from these occupations have been adequately described or typed. Although there is a
great deal of variability in the potential texture
treatments and forms of Developmental phase gray
wares, previous studies have usually placed this
pottery into two or three types at most. Because of
the large number of forms and textures represented, it was possible to recognize large numbers of
type categories during the present study. The
recognition of a large number of gray ware cate-
gories allows for the better documentation of the
associated variability.
The great majority of utility ware sherds from
LA 103919 and other sites in the Tewa Basin
exhibit similar paste characteristics. These sherds
are easily distinguished from clearly nonlocal utility wares by the presence of numerous readily visible mica flecks. Closer examinations of gray ware
sherds with visible mica fragments from temporal
components in this area indicate similar paste and
temper characteristics. Both paste clay and temper
in local Developmental phase gray wares are similar to Coalition and Classic period gray wares,
although the mica content is usually higher for the
"micaceous" gray ware types from Classic period
occupations. These similarities probably reflect the
long-term use of similar resources in the production of local gray ware vessels.
Warren (1979) describes "micaceous" pottery
types of the Rio Grande region. It is unclear
whether she would include the early pottery from
LA 103919 and surrounding areas containing moderate amounts of mica into the micaceous utility
ware category, or if this category was limited to
late utility wares containing extremely high
amounts of mica and mica slips. Warren's (1979)
definition of micaceous pottery, however, seems to
include the Nambé material, as she defines micaceous pottery as any vessel exhibiting visible mica
flecks on the surface. She further defines three
varieties based on the probable source of the mica
(Warren 1979). These include (1) those which have
a separate mica slip applied to the surface, (2)
those made from residual clays with mica fragments, and (3) those tempered with rock containing
mica. Examinations of local clay and temper
resources in the Nambé area indicate that mica
fragments were probably added through both the
clays and temper, although mica slips were not utilized during the early periods.
The earliest "micaceous" types discussed by
Warren (1979) were described as reflecting the use
of local mica-containing cobbles as temper, and
were postulated to have been introduced at about
A.D. 1300. Examination of pottery from Tewa
Basin Developmental phase sites (McNutt 1969;
Mera 1935; Wiseman 1989), however, indicate that
gray wares with similar pastes and tempers
described for "micaceous" pottery from Coalition
Ceramic Artifacts
95
sites were produced as early as the late ninth or
early tenth centuries.
Thus, very similar gray wares with significant
amounts of mica dominate Tewa Basin assemblages dating to both the Developmental and
Coalition periods. During the Classic period the
geographic distribution of mica-tempered ceramics
expanded to include much of the Rio Grande
region. While the rock particles present in the temper of Classic period gray wares were very similar
to those in earlier gray wares, there appears to have
been an increase in the total frequency of mica particles. This may reflect a shift to certain clay
sources with higher amounts of mica inclusions, or
the addition of crushed mica and mica slips to local
utility wares. Still, it is important to note that
despite this shift, a very long-lived technology
reflecting the use of similar firing technologies and
resources was employed in the Tewa Basin for
almost a millennium. Thus, while it may be desirable to limit the term "micaceous utility wares" to
Classic types with the highest mica content, these
technologies are probably part of a continuum
deriving from earlier Developmental period technologies. I recommend the assignment of all local
gray wares with distinctive mica flecks into a
northern Rio Grande Mica-Tempered Gray Ware
tradition. Most broadly defined, this tradition
would include both the earlier mica-containing
gray wares produced in the Tewa Basin as well as
the later "micaceous" and mica-slipped gray wares
found over much of the northern Rio Grande area.
While it may be possible to distinguish a large frequency of utility wares associated with the earlier
(Develomental and Coalition phase) and later
(Classic and historic phase) sites, a certain amount
of overlap is represented. Because the paste characteristics of gray ware pottery from temporally
separated components in this area are often very
similar, types are defined here based on variation
of surface texture and manipulation.
Mica inclusions consistently noted in sherds at
LA 103919 and nearby sites reflect the use of
crushed granite and clays containing mica. While
mica grains are commonly visible through the surface, the largest particles consist of relatively large
white to pink fragments. The great majority (98.6
percent) of gray ware sherds from this site exhibit
similar tempers and pastes. Other tempers, noted in
extremely low frequencies, include fine tuff or ash,
tuff or ash and sand, large tuff fragments, and
crushed igneous with olivine fragments. These
temper groups occur in sherds that are probably
local in origin.
Paste cross sections for most (86.3 percent) of
the gray wares from LA 103919 are dark gray to
black. Low frequencies of sherds display a wide
range of paste colors or combinations. Surfaces
range from black through tan to gray, to red. Pastes
consistently fire to red (76.5 percent) or yellow-red
(23.5 percent) colors when exposed to oxidation
conditions. Paste tends to be relatively soft and surfaces are often exfoliated or weathered. Paste easily breaks and crumbles in an uneven and blocky
texture. Paste is also fairly porous and silty.
Sand-Tempered Gray Wares
The presence of distinct rounded sand particles
without mica was used to distinguish sherds
belonging to a distinct gray ware tradition. Sand
temper may occur in pottery produced in other
areas of the Rio Grande as well as a wide area of
the Colorado Plateau. Sand-tempered utility wares
from LA 103919 include a mixture of sherds with
dark and light pastes. Sand-tempered gray ware
sherds tend to fire to light colors, virtually absent
in the local "micaceous" utility wares. Some of the
sand-tempered sherds recovered from LA 103919
probably originated in the Cibola region of the
Colorado Plateau. Petrographic analysis suggests
that some of these sands derived from a granitic
source, and could indicate gray ware vessels produced in other areas of the northern Rio Grande.
Other sherds assigned to this category may represent "anthill" sand reflecting the dominance of
quartz phenocrysts in sorted tuffs. This represents
the dominant temper in gray ware produced in the
Pajarito Plateau. Other temper types present in
very low frequencies are also indicative of nonlocal utility wares and include sherd, sherd and sand,
and basalt.
Gray Ware Type Categories
A very wide range of surface treatments and textures were noted in the gray ware sherds from LA
103919. Gray ware sherds exhibiting various tem-
pers and pastes were assigned to a series of type
categories based on surface texture. As the two
components from this site date to different phases
of the Developmental period, the type categories
employed reflect possible changes in surface treatments during this span. A few gray ware sherds
exhibit surface treatments associated with later
occupations, and represent contaminants from
nearby Coalition, Classic, and historical period
sites.
Gray ware sherds from both Developmental
phase components exhibited a very wide range of
surface textures. Surface treatments identified
include various plain, neckbanded, and corrugated
textures. While a variety of surface treatments
were noted in gray wares from both components of
this site, significant differences in overall frequencies of gray ware types were noted for the two
components. These differences reflect gradual
changes in surface textures through time, which
may contribute to the dating of Developmental
components. Similar progressions of gray ware
textures from plain to neckbanded to corrugateddominated assemblages have been noted throughout most of the Anasazi country.
The majority of gray ware sherds from both
components had smoothed unpolished surfaces,
although the frequency of plain gray ware sherds
was higher at the west component (Table 28). Most
of these plain gray ware sherds were probably
derived from completely or mostly obliterated vessels, common at Anasazi sites dating prior to the
common occurrence of corrugated textures. These
plain ware sherds may have derived from any portion of a completely smoothed vessel, representing
a local version of Lino Gray or from a smoothed
lower portion of neckbanded or corrugated vessels.
Smoothed rim sherds from early completely
smoothed vessels were classified as plain rim. Rim
sherds, which were too small to indicate the overall surface texture, were classified as unknown rim.
Smoothed body sherds that could have originated
from plain vessels or smoothed portions of neckbanded or corrugated vessels, were classified as
plain body. The dominance of plain utility ware
sherds may indicate an occupation dating to the
early part of the Developmental period. Because
sherds belonging to this category could have
derived from a wide range of vessel forms, they are
common at sites dating over a very long span.
Their relative abundance, however, is expected to
be highest during earlier Developmental phase
occupation. Indeterminate textured refers to cases
where the type of surface texture was unknown.
Other gray ware types were distinguished by
various textured treatments on smoothed vessels.
Striated gray refers to plain sherds exhibiting small
striations formed by wiping the wet surface with a
fibrous tool. Basket impressed refers to textured
basket impressions created by forming a wet vessel
in a basket. Impressed and striated refers to the
joint presence of impressed and striated decorations. Plain incised refers to plain sherds with
incised decoration. Fingernail incised includes the
presence of rows of small fingernail-shaped decorations. Polished gray refers to sherds, presumed to
have been derived from gray utility ware forms,
exhibiting a polished surface. Smudged interior
refers to the presence of plain textured sherds with
intentionally applied black sooting over a plain
polished interior surface. Indeterminate smudged
refers to sherds with unknown textures and intentionally sooted surfaces.
Other gray ware sherds examined display textures created by leaving the exterior coil junctures
along the vessel neck unobliterated. Neckbanded
sherds occurring at sites in this region are often
assumed to represent a local form of Kana'a Gray,
a type commonly occurring at Pueblo I and early
Pueblo II period on sites in the Colorado Plateau.
Neckbanded types from LA 103919 exhibit a very
wide range of thickness, shape, and overlap of the
associated coils (McNutt 1969). Other studies have
demonstrated changes in the frequency and type of
coil treatments of neckbanded forms over short
periods in regions of the Colorado Plateau
(Blinman 1988a). Because of the possibility of
similar changes in the Rio Grande region, neckbanded sherds were separated into a series of categories based on thickness, shape, and degree of coil
overlap. During the present study variation noted
in these characteristics was used to divide neckbanded sherds into several categories.
Sherds with unobliterated neck coils were
placed into several different categories (see Fig.
40). Wide neckbanded refers to sherds with wide
coils or fillets. These coils are clearly separated by
distinct junctures, rest vertically to each other, and
Ceramic Artifacts
97
Table 28. Distributions of Ceramic Types from LA 103919
Type
West Component
No.
Rio Grande Gray Ware
Plain rim
Unknown rim
Plain body
Wide neckbanded
Wide neckbanded wiped
Incised neckbanded
Coiled neck
Clapboarded neckbanded
Wiped striated
Basket impressed
Indented corrugated
Plain corrugated
Smeared indented corrugated
Smeared plain corrugated
Sapawe micaceous
Indeterminate textured
Indeterminate smudged utility
Striated gray
7126 polished gray
7127 plain incised
Fingernail incised
Basket impressed and striated
Smudged interior, micaceous
slip exterior
Zoned corrugated
Incised corrugated
Sand-tempered plain rim polished
Sand-tempered unknown rim
?
Sand-tempered plain body
Sand-tempered wide neckbanded
Sand-tempered wide
neckbanded wiped
Sand-tempered plain corrugated
Sand-tempered smeared
indented corrugated
Sand-tempered polished gray
Indeterminate White
Unpainted
Mineral paint undifferentiated
Early Pueblo II indeterminate
P II parallel lines
Rio Grande White Ware
Unpainted white
Pueblo II indeterminate
Percent
East Component
No.
Percent
Total
No.
Percent
65
3
1328
79
92
0
22
11
17
7
40
0
2
0
1
5
1
6
34
1
0
1
2
3.2
0.2
66
3.9
4.6
0
1.1
0.5
0.8
0.3
2
0
0.1
0.4
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.3
1.7
0.1
0
0.1
0.1
237
0
3551
80
921
47
34
1
37
0
1254
32
82
2
5
7
0
7
12
8
2
0
0
4
0
53
1.2
14
0.7
0.5
Trace
0.5
0
19
0.5
1.2
Trace
0.1
0.1
0
0.1
0.2
0.1
Trace
Trace
0
302
3
4879
159
1013
47
56
12
54
7
1294
32
84
2
6
12
1
13
46
9
2
1
2
3.4
0
55.6
2
12
0.7
0.8
0.1
0.6
0.1
14.8
0.4
1
Trace
0.1
0.1
Trace
Trace
0.5
0.1
Trace
Trace
Trace
0
0
3
0
0
0.2
1
2
0
Trace
Trace
0
1
2
3
Trace
Trace
Trace
1
75
4
11
0.1
3.7
0.2
0.6
0
3
0
0
0
Trace
0
0
1
78
4
11
0.1
1
0.1
0.2
4
0
0.2
0
9
1
0.1
Trace
13
1
Trace
Trace
9
0.5
2
Trace
11
0.2
6
5
0
3
0.1
0.1
0
Trace
9
7
1
4
0.1
0.1
Trace
Trace
61
13
0
1.0
0.2
0
86
15
3
10
0.2
Trace
3
2
1
1
25
2
3
0.2
0.1
Trace
0.1 3
1.2
0.1
0.2
Table 28. Continued.
Type
Red Mesa Black-on-white
Kwahe'e Black-on-white
Pueblo II thin parallel lines
Pueblo II thick parallel lines
PII hatchure style
Santa Fe Black-on-white
Abiquiu Black-on-gray
Bandelier Black-on-gray
Tewa unpainted polychrome
San Juan White Ware
Unpainted
Cortez Black-on-white
P II squiggle hatchure
P II thin parallel lines
Hatchure (Mancos) style
Cibola White Ware
Unpainted white
Kiatuthlana Black-on-white
P II indeterminate
P II squiggle hatchure
Escavada solid designs
P II thin parallel lines
P II thick parallel lines
Gallup Black-on-white
Chuska White Ware
Chuska tradition unpainted white
Chuska thin parallel lines
Tusayan White Ware
Kana'a Black-on-white
San Juan Red Ware
Unpainted red
Deadmans Black-on-red
Indeterminate slipped red
White Mountain Redware
Unpainted
Indeterminate painted
Indeterminate red
Mogollon Brown Ware
Polished brown
Red slipped brown
Los Lunas smudged
West Component
No.
Percent
East Component
No.
Percent
No.
Total
Percent
1
7
2
4
1
1
0.1
0.4
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.1
2
90
1
0
0
1
Trace
1.3
Trace
0
0
Trace
3
97
3
4
1
2
Trace
1.1
Trace
0.1
Trace
Trace
2
1
0
0.1
0.1
0
2
1
1
Trace
Trace
Trace
4
2
1
0.1
Trace
Trace
8
1
7
1
1
5
0
0.4
0.1
0.3
0.1
0.1
0.2
0
3
2
0
0
1
1
4
Trace
Trace
0
0
Trace
Trace
0.1
3
7
1
2
6
4
Trace
Trace
0.1
Trace
Trace
0.1
0.1
25
25
1
11
22
1
0
7
0
1
1.2
1.2
0.1
0.5
1.1
0.1
0
0.3
0
0.1
55
54
0
4
31
1
4
38
7
22
0.8
0.8
0
0.1
0.5
Trace
0.1
0.6
0.1
0.3
80
79
1
15
53
2
4
45
7
23
0.9
0.9
Trace
0.2
0.6
Trace
0.1
0
0.1
0.3
1
0
0.1
0
0
1
0
0.1
1
1
Trace
Trace
2
0.1
0
0
2
Trace
0
3
1
0.1
0.1
0.1
1
0
0
Trace
0
0
1
3
1
Trace
Trace
Trace
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
1
0
Trace
Trace
0
1
1
1
Trace
Trace
0
9
0
0
0.4
0
0
0
3
1
0
Trace
Trace
9
3
1
0.9
Trace
Trace
Ceramic Artifacts
99
generally do not overlap. Sherds assigned to this
category are very similar to those described for earlier forms of Kana'a Gray and Moccasin Gray.
Incised neckbanded refers to forms similar to those
noted for wide neckbanded, where the coil juncture
has been incised emphasizing the space between
coils (Figs. 40d, 41). Wiped or undulated neckbanded are similar to wide neckbanded, but the
junctures between the coils have been partially
obliterated (Fig. 40). The area originally occupied
by these coils is still visible, and reflect an undulating or ribbed surface. This effect is similar to
that noted for Sapawe Micaceous Washboard
sherds occurring in this area at much later Classic
phase components. Sherds exhibiting characteristics resulting in their assignment to the wiped or
undulated neckbanded categories are probably
more common at Late Developmental sites in the
Tewa Basin than at contemporaneous sites in other
Anasazi areas. Wiped striated necked refers to
sherds exhibiting similar textures described above
along with distinct striations on the obliterated surfaces.
Sherds exhibiting narrow coils or treatments
common in later neckbanded forms were placed
into two different categories. Coiled neck includes
neckbanded forms with narrow rounded coils (Fig.
41). Clapboarded neck refers to overlapping coils
or fillets. Sherds belonging to this category are
similar to plain corrugated sherds, although they
tend to be narrower and limited to neck sherds.
Other gray ware sherds identified had corrugated exterior surfaces. Corrugated gray ware vessels have thin overlapping coils that are often
indented. These coils usually cover the entire exterior surface, although corrugated treatments are
sometimes limited to the vessel neck. In some
cases, corrugated types were further distinguished
by other temporally sensitive attributes such as the
type and pronouncement of coiled treatment and
rim eversion.
Indented corrugated includes sherds with narrow coils, regular indentations, and moderate to
high contrast between coils. The more extreme
relief between coils is most common in earlier corrugated gray ware forms, and is sometimes referred
to as exuberant corrugated. Indented corrugated
sherds are more common in Developmental phase
and Early Coalition phase sites (Fig. 42). Plain
corrugated refers to gray wares with similar coil
treatments and relief as described for indented corrugated, but without regularly spaced indentations.
This category differs from similar neckbanded
groups by thinner coils and coiled manipulations
along the vessel body.
Smeared indented corrugated refers to sherds
with indented corrugations that have been subsequently smeared, resulting in the partial obliteration of indentations and coil junctures. Rio Grande
Gray Wares exhibiting these treatments have been
previously classified as Tesuque Smeared
Corrugated (Mera 1935). In the Rio Grande region,
smeared indented represents the later form of corrugation, and dominates sites dating to the Late
Coalition and early Classic phases. Smeared plain
corrugated refers to similar treatments without visible indentations. Zoned corrugated refers to items
exhibiting alternating rows of treatment similar to
those described for indented corrugated and plain
corrugated. Incised corrugated refers to incised
decorations over corrugated treatments.
Sherds clearly representing utility ware types
dating after the Developmental period were limited
to a few examples of Sapawe Micaceous
Washboard. This type dates to the Classic period
and tends to exhibit extremely micaceous pastes.
Sapawe Micaceous Washboard is associated with
decorated Biscuit Ware types (Fallon and Wening
1987). Sapawe Micaceous Washboard is tempered
with micaceous schist that is most likely a natural
clay inclusion (Fallon and Wening 1987). Surfaces
consist of a series of slightly obliterated coils similar to those noted in some earlier forms but distinguished by a late highly micaceous slip.
BROWN WARE CATEGORIES
Brown ware sherds, as described here, have characteristics similar to those described for Mogollon
Brown Ware types. These include the occurrence
of brown and polished surfaces on culinary vessel
forms and the presence of volcanic temper.
Mogollon Brown Ware types identified during the
present study include plain polished brown ware,
red slipped brown ware, and Los Lunas Smudged.
WHITE WARE CATEGORIES
The other major ceramic ware group identified at
LA 103919 is represented by mineral-painted
Developmental phase white wares. These sherds
exhibit the wide range of painted treatments
employed throughout much of the Anasazi world
during the Pueblo II period. Because similar painted styles were used in most Anasazi regions, white
wares belonging to different regional traditions can
only be differentiated by paste and temper characteristics. White ware types identified during the
present study represent a fairly even mixture of
types belonging to northern Rio Grande and
Colorado Plateau traditions. White ware sherds
were first assigned to regional ceramic traditions
mainly on the basis of paste and temper characteristics and then to type categories based on painted
design styles. White wares belonging to various
regional traditions were assigned to a series of
roughly equivalent styles.
Rio Grande White Wares
In previous studies, mineral-painted white wares
exhibiting Rio Grande pastes and temper and
Pueblo II styles were assigned to Kwahe'e Blackon-white. Kwahe'e Black-on-white represents the
earliest type usually defined for the Tewa series
(Fallon and Wening 1987; Wendorf 1953). The
Tewa series, as previously described, represents a
very long-lived tradition of painted white ware pottery manufactured with local clays and tempers
found along the northern Rio Grande (Fallon and
Wening 1987; Harlow 1973; Wendorf 1953).
While glaze ware types were produced in areas of
the northern Rio Grande, this technology was later
introduced from Western Anasazi areas, and may
be considered a separate tradition occurring mostly in areas south of Santa Fe. For the Tewa series,
a shift to the use of organic paint occurred during
the Early Coalition period (about A.D. 1200) and is
reflected by the production of Santa Fe Black-onwhite. The manufacture of organic-painted white
wares continued in areas north of Santa Fe into the
Classic and historic period with the production of
Biscuit Ware and Tewa Polychrome types.
The distribution of Tewa series types is similar
but not identical to that noted for Rio Grande micatempered gray wares. Earlier types, such as
Kwahe'e Black-on-white and Santa Fe Black-onwhite, were produced over most of the northern
Rio Grande region. During the late Coalition-early
Classic periods in the southern part of this region
organic-painted types were replaced by glazepainted types. This resulted in a significant
decrease in the geographic area over which Tewa
series white wares were produced. After the
Coalition phase, the production of Tewa White
Wares appears to have been limited to areas north
of Santa Fe (Lang 1982).
A large proportion of the decorated white ware
sherds from LA 103919 represents mineral-painted
types from regions of the Little Colorado Plateau.
Both components also contain white ware sherds
with paste and temper indicating they belong to the
early local Tewa White Ware tradition. While this
study is mainly concerned with Tewa series types
of the Developmental phase, a few later local Tewa
series types were identified. These appear to represent contaminants from nearby later sites.
The earliest painted types produced in the
northern Rio Grande are decorated with mineral
paint and include a local form of Red Mesa Blackon-white and Kwahe'e Black-on-white (Mera
1935). These types were distinguished from contemporaneous pottery from other regions by distinctive pastes and tempers (Honea 1965; McNutt
1969; Mera 1935; Sudar-Murphy 1977; Wiseman
1989, 1995b), although petrographic analysis indicates that some the sherds assigned to other regional traditions based on paste characteristics could
have been actually produced in areas of the Rio
Grande (Hill, this volume). Pastes are dark gray in
color and are often vitrified. In most cases, ceramic pastes of early local Tewa White Wares reflect
the utilization of clays derived from volcanic ash
deposits interfaced with alluvial deposits in the
Tewa Basin. These clays have high iron content
and vitrify at relatively low temperatures.
While temper fragments in Kwahe'e Black-onwhite were originally described as having finely
ground sherd (Mera 1935), a fine volcanic rock
such as tuff is actually represented. The fineness of
this temper contrasts with that noted for pottery
from regions to the west. The great majority (92.8
percent) of Tewa White Wares from LA 103919
are tempered with some variety of tuff or ash,
although low frequencies of sherds assigned to this
tradition contained fine sand, sherd, and crushed
igneous metamorphic rock temper.
Paste is fine and sherds often break along an
even plane fracture. Paste is often soft, and is dark
gray to brownish gray. Interestingly, a minority of
Ceramic Artifacts
101
Figure 40. Wide Neckbanded types; (a) wide neckbanded, (b) wide neckbanded wiped.
Figure 40. Continued; (b) wide neckbanded wiped; (c) wide neckbanded incised.
Figure 41. Narrow Neckbanded types; (a) coiled neckbanded; (b) clapboard neckbanded.
Ceramic Artifacts
103
Figure 41. Continued. Narrow Neckbanded types; (a) coiled neckbanded; (b) clapboard neckbanded.
white wares from LA 103919 exhibit pastes resulting in their assignment to local Tewa series types.
This is consistent with trends noted for other
Developmental phase occupations in this area
where western white ware types outnumber local
Tewa series types, particularly during the period
associated with Red Mesa-style white wares (Lang
1982; Wiseman 1995a).
Other studies have divided Kwahe'e into a
series of geographically distinct types based on differences in temper and surface manipulation
thought to be spatially distinctive (HabichtMauche 1993; Honea 1965). While such divisions
were not made during the present study, distributions of attributes that may be spatially significant
were monitored.
Bowl interiors and jar exteriors of local white
wares usually exhibited a thin streaky white slip
applied over gray paste. A total of 61.7 percent of
the Tewa White Ware sherds from LA 103919 with
polished or painted decorations on the interior surface were slipped on the interior. A total of 41.3
percent of the sherds with exterior polished or
painted decorations are slipped on the exterior surface.
Decorations were applied with iron-oxide pigment, which varies from black, to brown, to red. A
total of 41.9 percent of the local Tewa series Red
Mesa or Kwahe'e Black sherds from LA 103919
have decorations in black mineral paint while the
remaining 57.2 percent exhibit brown to red decorations. While local white wares were decorated
with designs similar to those utilized in regions to
the west, execution tends to be poorer, although
well-executed examples are represented. Rims are
usually tapered and may be either unpainted or
solidly painted.
Western White Ware Traditions
Earlier studies of Developmental phase ceramics
separated white wares into distinctive spatial
groups based on paste characteristics (Lang 1982;
Wiseman and Olinger 1991). While sherds with the
previously described local pastes were assigned to
local Tewa White Ware types, others were placed
into a Western group indicative of a probable origin in regions of the Colorado Plateau. Paste characteristics noted in various regional ceramic tradi-
tions ultimately reflect differences in clays and
tempers available to potters in different geological
settings. White wares produced in much of the
Colorado Plateau are white to gray, and usually fire
from white to pink colors in oxidizing atmospheres. These paste characteristics reflect the use
of low-iron clays occurring in sedimentary exposures throughout much of the Colorado Plateau.
Distinct dark cores are often present, although
paste exteriors tend to be light. Temper fragments
are usually coarser than those occurring in Rio
Grande types, and include fragments of sand, sandstone, sherd, and crushed igneous porphyries.
White ware sherds exhibiting these pastes were
further assigned to distinct regional traditions of
regions to the west based on the occurrence of different temper and pigment types or technological
characteristics (Franklin 1980; Goetz and Mills
1993). While the separation of paste and temper
groups into distinctive traditions allows for the
monitoring of basic paste characteristics, it should
be noted that more detailed analysis indicates that
some of these sherds are actually tempered with
tuff commonly used in areas of the Rio Grande.
The distinction of Rio Grande from "Western"
white ware types from areas in the Little Colorado
Plateau should be considered a statistical rather
than absolute distinction. Thus, criteria and techniques used in such distinctions still need to be further refined.
Cibola (or Chaco) Tradition White Wares
Ceramics produced over an area covering much of
the northwestern part of New Mexico, encompassing much of the area south of the San Juan River
and north of the Mogollon Highlands, have been
assigned to types from the Cibola Tradition. Cibola
Tradition types dominate white ware assemblages
as far east as the Puerco Valley of the East and as
far west as eastern Arizona. Sites dating to both
early Pueblo II and late Pueblo II are common
throughout most of the Cibola region. Thus, Cibola
White Ware types from LA 103919 could have
originated at sites over an extremely wide area.
As previously indicated, petrographic analysis
shows that some of the sherds assigned to Cibola
White Ware types, based on the presence of sherd
and sand, actually contain tuff fragments, indicat-
Ceramic Artifacts
105
Figure 42. Corrugated types; (a) smeared and indented; (b) zoned corrugated; (c) indented corrugated.
ing possible production somewhere in the Rio
Grande region (Hill, this volume). Given the difference in the appearance of the light paste and
temper in these sherds from "local" Kwahe'e
sherds, it is unlikely that they were derived from
vessels originating in the Tewa Basin. A possible
source may be the Jemez or Zia area. In these
areas, light geological clays and tuff temper
sources may overlap, and Developmental phase
sites are fairly common. While the initial assignment of some of these sherds to the Cibola
Tradition may be incorrect, a Western origin may
still be indicated. Stylistic and technological similarities also indicate technology in this area was
strongly influenced by groups from the Cibola
region.
Sherds are usually assigned to Cibola White
Ware types based on the presence of sand, sand and
sherd, or sherd temper, light paste, and mineral
paint. Tempers noted in the Cibola White Ware
sherds identified at LA 103919 include sand (17.5
percent), sherd (1.9 percent), sherd and sand (70.6
percent), and sandstone.
Sherds from areas of this region may also contain thin washy slips. At LA 103919, 74.6 percent
of the Cibola White Ware sherds with interior
painted decoration also exhibited interior slipping.
A total of 63.1 percent of the Cibola White Ware
sherds with exterior polishing were also slipped on
the exterior surface.
The majority (75.2 percent) of the painted
Cibola White Ware sherds from LA 103919 had
black mineral paint, while the remaining examples
were decorated with red or brown paint. Cibola
White Ware sherds from LA 103919 displayed
painted styles previously described for several
types including Red Mesa Black-on-white (Fig.
43a–c) (Franklin 1982; Toll and McKenna 1987;
Windes 1977; 1984; Windes and McKenna 1989).
Northern San Juan (Mesa Verde) White Ware
Types
Other sherds were assigned to Mesa Verde (or
northern San Juan) Tradition types based on the
presence of crushed igneous rock, probably representing crushed andesite or diorite (Abel 1955). As
usually defined, the Mesa Verde region includes
the northernmost extension of the Anasazi, including parts of southeastern Utah, southwestern
Colorado, and northwestern New Mexico. It
includes most of the area drained by the tributaries
of the San Juan River (Wilson and Blinman 1995).
During the present study, sherds were assigned to
the Mesa Verde Tradition based on andesite or
diorite temper. Paste characteristics and design
styles noted on the few sherds from LA 103919
assigned to Mesa Verde types exhibit pastes, surface treatments, and painted styles similar to those
noted on Cibola White Wares. Mesa Verde White
Ware sherds decorated with earlier Pueblo II styles
are usually classified as Cortez Black-on-white,
while those exhibiting later Pueblo II styles are
classified as Mancos Black-on-white (Abel 1955;
Breternitz et al. 1974; Oppelt 1991; Reed 1958).
A total of 69.4 percent of Mesa Verde White
Ware sherds from LA 103919, with interior polishing or painted decorations, are slipped on the interior surface. A total of 60.4 percent of Mesa Verde
White Ware sherds with exterior polishing or painted decorations are slipped on the exterior. Pueblo
II types from the northern San Juan region are usually decorated with mineral paint, but organic paint
was employed during the last part of this period
(Hayes 1964). At LA 103919, the majority (95.8
percent) of the painted San Juan White sherds are
decorated with black mineral paint, while the
remaining sherds contain decoration in brown or
mineral pigment. Surface styles and treatments are
very similar to those noted in ceramics from other
regions of the Colorado Plateau.
Tusayan (Kayenta) White Wares
Tusayan (Kayenta) Tradition ceramics were produced in the Western Anasazi area, mainly in northeastern Arizona. Tusayan White Ware types exhibit
sand temper and organic paint. White wares generally display a light paste and pearly polished surface.
Tusayan Gray Wares are usually tempered with
medium to large sand particles, and it is often not
possible to distinguish Kayenta Gray Wares from
Cibola Gray Wares. Types exhibiting late Pueblo II
or early Pueblo II decorative styles have been classified as Kana'a Black-on-white or Black Mesa
Black-on-white, while those exhibiting the wide
range of styles employed during the later span of the
Pueblo II were classified as Black Mesa Black-onwhite (in part), Doghoszhi Black-on-white, and Sosi
Black-on-white (Beals et al. 1945; Smith 1971).
Ceramic Artifacts
107
Definition and Recognition of White Ware Types or
Styles
Pueblo II white wares are placed into ceramic types
defined for various regional traditions based on
temporally sensitive styles. The placement of
ceramics, apparently associated with a variety of
regional traditions, into previously defined Pueblo
II white ware types, presents two dilemmas. The
first quandary encountered stems from the use of
distinctive painted designs to defined white ware
types. This may result in an absence of information
about white ware sherds not exhibiting the distinct
styles of previously defined types, but still displaying decorations or manipulations that may be of
some temporal significance.
The second problem stems from differences in
conventions used to assign white wares based on
painted styles to types of various regional traditions. For example, white ware sherds belonging to
the Cibola and Tusayan traditions, with the range
of painted styles utilized during the late Pueblo II
period, are usually assigned to several different
types based on design. In contrast, those belonging
to Tewa or Mesa Verde traditions, exhibiting the
same range of styles, are assigned to a single type.
These differences result from historical factors
relating to the development of various regional
typologies and naming conventions rather than real
differences in the range of styles from different
Anasazi regions during the Pueblo II period. These
regional differences in typological conventions
limit cross-regional recognition and comparison of
stylistic distributions (Toll et al. 1992).
To resolve both of these problems, a series of
similar categories defined by the presence or type
of decorative styles were used to place white wares
that belonged to all regional traditions into distinct
types. The categories employed provide for similar
characterizations of the wide range of decorations
present in Pueblo II white wares produced throughout the Anasazi region. Discussions of criteria and
significance of the types defined during the present
study and their relationship to previously defined
types follow.
Unpainted White Ware
Unpainted white ware sherds recognized by surface polishing were placed into a unpainted white
ware category. In some cases, it may be possible to
distinguish unpainted white ware sherds produced
during different periods based on thickness, color,
and texture. Such distinctions, however, are less
sensitive and reliable than those based on paint
type and decoration. Because of the consistent
occurrence of white ware sherds with painted decorations, no attempt was made here to further differentiate unpainted white ware sherds.
Pueblo II Painted Styles
Early mineral-painted types of various regional traditions were assigned to categories based on temporally sensitive painted styles. Painted sherds
without distinct styles were assigned to a mineral
paint (indeterminate) category. Temporally sensitive painted styles were used to place Pueblo II
white ware sherds into specific type categories.
Stylistic groups recognized during the present
study include the following.
Pueblo II indeterminate mineral refers to
sherds exhibiting surface manipulations and design
styles characteristic of Pueblo II types, but could
not be assigned further to distinct categories.
Red Mesa style refers to sherds with distinct
painted styles noted for early Pueblo II white wares
(Fig. 43). Designs are usually well executed and
fairly complicated. A number of distinct design
motifs often occur together on the same vessel or
sherd. Design elements commonly associated with
this type include a series of thin parallel lines,
wavy or squiggle lines, pendant dots, ticked lines,
rick rack, scrolls, stepped triangles, and ribbons of
squiggle hatchure. A quartered or banded layout is
often represented, consisting of a series of geometrical opposing sections in which combinations of
design elements are repeated. These sections are
usually divided by a series of narrow lines. During
the present study the use of the Red Mesa style was
limited to sherds with distinct painted styles commonly noted in assemblages occurring throughout
the Anasazi region dating to the tenth century.
Ceramics assigned to this category include much
but not all of the ranges of style recognized for Red
Mesa Black-on-white sherds in the Cibola tradition
and Cortez Black-on-white of the Mesa Verde tradition. Sherds exhibiting this style with local Rio
Grande pastes are very rare but were identified.
Similar pottery has been previously placed into a
Figure 43. Red Mesa style; (a) Kwahe’e Black-on-white, (b) Red Mesa Black-on-white, and (c) Cibola
Squiggle Hatchure.
Rio Grande variety of Red Mesa Black-on-white
(McNutt 1969; Dittert and Plog 1980). A single
sherd containing parallel lines and design styles
that appears to pre-date Red Mesa Black-on-white
was classified as Kiatuthlanna Black-on-white.
Two other categories also refer to decorations
commonly found on earlier Red Mesa Black-onwhite, but are sometimes associated with later
styles. Thin parallel lines refers to the occurrence
of a series of lines less than 2 mm wide. Spacing
between lines is usually relatively wide. This category was employed because of the utilization of
this style over a very long period. This style is
probably most common during the late Pueblo I
and early Pueblo II period, but occurs in contexts
dating to the late Pueblo II period. For Cibola tradition types, early forms of this style include
sherds previously classified as Kiatuthlanna Blackon-white, as well as a minority of sherds that may
have been previously classified as Red Mesa
Black-on-white and Escavada Black-on-white
depending on associated contexts. For Tewa series
pottery, this style is most common on sherds that
may have previously been classified as Rio
Grande-style Red Mesa, but also includes some
later forms classified as Kwahe'e Black-on-white
(Fig. 44). For Mesa Verde tradition ceramics, this
style will also include a mixture of Mesa Verde
sherds previously classified as Cortez Black-onwhite and Mancos Black-on-white. This style was
also present on the few Tusayan tradition sherds
classified as Kana'a Black-on-white and late
Pueblo I or early Pueblo II.
Squiggle hatchure refers to the sole occurrence
of squiggle hatchure decorations. Sherds exhibiting
this decoration were assigned to a unique category
because squiggle hatchure commonly occurs in
early Pueblo II Red Mesa-style in combination
with other forms, but may also occur by itself in
later forms. Most Cibola tradition sherds displaying this style appear to have been assigned to Red
Mesa Black-on-white. Mesa Verde tradition white
wares exhibiting this decoration are sometimes
placed into Cortez Black-on-white and other times
into Mancos Black-on-white, depending on associated manipulation or context.
Pueblo II solid designs refers to the range of
solid designs commonly used during the later part
of the Pueblo II period. Designs are usually boldly
executed, and often consist of a single motif. Solid
motifs common in late Pueblo II white ware vessels include dots, opposing triangles, radiating triCeramic Artifacts
109
Figure 43. Continued. Early or Red Mesa style Black-on-white.
Figure 44. Pueblo II solid designs: (a-b) Kwahe’e Black-on-white solid, (c) Cibola-Escavada/Puerco Black-onwhite, (d) Red Mesa Black-on-white, (e) Kwahe’e wide lines.
Ceramic Artifacts
111
g
Figure 44. Continued. Late Pueblo II hatchured: (e) Gallup Black-on-white; (f-g) Kwahe’e Black-on-white.
angles, step triangles, checkered triangles, checkered squares, and scrolls. Cibola White Wares with
these decorations are sometimes classified as
Puerco Black-on-white and Escavada Black-onwhite. This group also includes the variety of solid
decorations found in sherds belonging with the Rio
Grande and Mesa Verde traditions previously classified as Kwahe'e Black-on-white and Mesa Verde
Black-on-white.
Pueblo II hatchured refers to sherds exhibiting
bold designs often consisting of ribbons filled with
straight hatchure lines (Fig. 44e-g). This design is
sometimes referred to as Doghoszhi style, named
after the Tusayan tradition type. Hatched designs
appear to represent one of the dominant painted
styles in most Anasazi regions during the eleventh
and early twelfth centuries. Cibola tradition sherds
with hatched designs are classified as Gallup
Black-on-white or Chaco Black-on-white, depending on the thickness of framing lines and closeness
of hatchure lines. Hatched designs are also common in sherds previously classified as Kwahe'e
Black-on-white and Mancos Black-on-white.
Pueblo II thick lines styles refers to Pueblo II
white wares exhibiting parallel lines thicker than 2
mm. These designs are often organized into rectilinear patterns. Similar design are sometimes
placed into Sosi, named after the Tusayan tradition
type. Cibola tradition sherds exhibiting similar
styles are sometimes classified as Puerco Blackon-white. This style is also present on sherds previously classified as Kwahe'e Black-on-white and
Mancos Black-on-white.
Later Painted Types
A very small number of painted sherds belonging
to types dating after the Developmental phase were
identified, and reflect contaminants from nearby
late sites. All the later pottery identified represents
local Tewa series types associated with either
Coalition, Classic, or historic phase occupations.
Santa Fe Black-on-white represents the dominant painted type at Coalition phase sites in the
northern Rio Grande. Santa Fe Black-on-white is
easily distinguished from earlier white wares by
decorations in a distinct organic paint. The production of this type reflects a shift from decorations in
mineral to organic paint and the use of Pueblo III
design styles similar to those employed in other
Anasazi areas (Lang 1982). Pastes are often dense,
well-indurated, and range in color from blue-gray
to light gray and brown. Decorated surfaces are
usually polished and covered with a distinct white
slip. Tempering materials include fine sand or
other kinds of finely crushed temper (Bice and
Sundt 1972; Habicht-Mauche 1993).
Santa Fe Black-on-white has the widest distribution of any Tewa tradition white ware type, and
was produced throughout the northern Rio Grande
region (Habicht-Mauche 1993; Sundt 1972, 1984,
1987). The range of characteristics noted in this
type have resulted in the definition of a series of
spatially or temporally distinct varieties of Santa
Fe Black-on-white (Habicht-Mauche 1993; Honea
1965; Stubbs and Stallings 1954; Warren 1979).
Production of Santa Fe Black-on-white is
thought to have begun during the 1100s and continued into at least the middle 1300s, and possibly
as late as the early 1400s (Habicht-Mauche 1993;
Stubbs and Stalling 1954; Sundt 1987). Santa Fe
Black-on-white designs usually consists of panel
bands with or without framing lines. Hatched triangular figures are common. Rims are usually
tapered and undecorated, although occasional flat
or ticked rims, similar to those noted in contemporaneous pottery from the northern Little Colorado
Plateau, have been noted.
Biscuit wares refer to the distinctive painted
white ware pottery technology employed in the
northern Rio Grande during the Coalition period.
Biscuit wares are characterized by the consistent
use of bentonite clays and vitric tuff temper
(Kidder and Amsden 1931). Vessels are characterized by a soft, gray to yellow paste, and contain
finely crushed tuff or pumice particles. Biscuit
wares are distinguished from other organic-painted
Rio Grande white ware types by their distinct paste
color and texture. Biscuit ware pastes are soft and
porous in texture, and gray, brown, or buff in color.
Vessel walls tend to be very thick, particularly
when compared to earlier decorated types. Two
Biscuit ware types are recognized based on the
presence of painted or slipped surfaces on both
vessel surfaces. Biscuit A, or Abiquiu Black-ongray, is distinguished only from bowl forms and is
defined by the presence of slipped or painted
manipulations on interior surfaces only. Biscuit B,
or Bandelier Black-on-gray, is distinguished from
Biscuit A by yellowish pastes (Kidder and Amsden
1931) with slipping and decoration on bowl exteriors as well as interiors.
Painted designs are often organized in banded
patterns with panels of repeating hatched or solid
geometrical elements. These include ticked edges
and parallel or rectilinear lines. Plain bowl rims are
generally ticked, and standing rims are embellished
with repeating dashes or zig-zag lines on the interior below the lip.
While Biscuit wares are found in sites over a
wide area, the geographic area in which they are
the dominant type is much smaller than that noted
for Santa Fe Black-on-white, limited to an area
along the Rio Grande Valley and Rio Chama Valley
north of Santa Fe (Mera 1934). The time production of Biscuit A spans from about A.D. 1375 to
1450, while that for Biscuit B spans A.D. 1400 to
1500.
A single sherd was classified as unpainted
Tewa Polychrome, and refers to unpainted pottery
from a slipped Tewa Polychrome vessel. It was
assigned to this category because of the presence of
a combination of white and red slips. The lack of
painted decorations prevents its assignment to a
specific Tewa Polychrome type. Historic Tewa
Polychromes refers here to historic forms developing out of a long succession of vessel forms produced by groups in the Tewa Basin north of Santa
Fe (Batkin 1987; Frank and Harlow 1990; Harlow
1973; Snow 1982, 1989). These forms are tempered with fine tuff or ash temper, and decorated
with black carbon paint applied over a white slip.
Tewa Polychromes were produced from about
A.D. 1700 and continued into the twentieth century. Thus, the single Tewa Polychrome sherd identified represents a contaminant from a nearby historic component.
San Juan Red Ware (Mesa Verde Red Ware)
A small number of red ware sherds were identified
by red pastes and surfaces, reflecting the use of
high iron paste clays and oxidizing atmospheres.
All of these sherds were tempered with crushed
andesite or diorite temper, and exhibited manipulations and styles identical to those described for San
Juan (or Mesa Verde) red ware types (Abel 1955;
Breternitz et al. 1974; Oppelt 1992). Previous studies indicate that the production of Mesa Verde red
wares may have been geographically restricted,
possibly to areas in southeast Utah (Lucius and
Breternitz 1992). Mesa Verde red ware sherds not
exhibiting slipped surfaces or painted decorations
were assigned to an unpainted Mesa Verde red
Ceramic Artifacts
113
ware category. Red wares with slipped surfaces but
without painted decorations were classified as
Mesa Verde slipped red ware. Painted sherds with
slipped surfaces and design elements such as parallel lines or hatched panels, characteristic of red
wares produced throughout the tenth century and
into the early eleventh century, were assigned to
Deadmans Black-on-red.
White Mountain Redware Types
White Mountain Redware types appear to represent a fairly specialized tradition produced in westcentral New Mexico and east-central Arizona
(Carlson 1970). They are characterized by a light
paste, sherd temper, and a dark red slip. Surfaces
are well polished. Pigment may be applied in either
a black mineral or organic paint. While the presence of sherds with these distinct pastes and slip
combination indicate White Mountain Redware,
the lack of distinctive painted decorations prevented the identification of specific types of this tradition. Unpainted sherds were classified as unpainted White Mountain Redware. Painted sherds not
exhibiting distinct decorations were classified as
indeterminate painted White Mountain Redware.
THE ANALYSIS
This section discusses data deriving from the
analysis of 8,771 sherds and 9 whole or partial vessels recovered during recent investigations of LA
103919 near Nambé Pueblo. Two distinct components, dating to different periods of the
Developmental phase, were identified at this site.
Thus, characterizations of ceramics from various
contexts at LA 103919 provide an excellent opportunity to examine trends associated with the poorly known Developmental phase of the Tewa Basin
in the northern Rio Grande.
A principal use of the ceramic data at this site
focused on dating various contexts and components. In addition, ceramic data provide information relevant to the examination of a variety of phenomena. These include identifying the potential
timing and origin of early Anasazi immigrants into
the Tewa Basin, determining influences of local
material resources on local ceramic technology,
recognizing interaction and exchange of vessels
between Anasazi groups in different areas, and
identifying activities associated with various vessel
forms.
In order to examine these issues, a variety of
data was recorded. These include associated provenience, descriptive attributes, typological categories, counts, and weights. Descriptive attributes
and typological categories recognized during this
study are described in the ceramic methodology
section of this report. Information related to the
documentation of various ceramic trends, relevant
to the dating of components and the examination of
various issues, is presented in the following discussions.
Dating Contexts and Components
The majority of sherds from LA 103919 exhibit
styles and manipulations indicative of both utility
and decorated ware types manufactured during the
Developmental period. The Developmental period
of the Rio Grande Valley refers to the earliest
ceramic-bearing occupations of this area.
Components assigned to the Developmental period
may date from A.D. 600 to 1200 (Wendorf 1954;
Wendorf and Reed 1955). The Developmental period as used in the Rio Grande area is a broadly
defined and sometimes confusing temporal unit.
For example, it may encompass occupations dating
anytime during the Basketmaker III, Pueblo I, and
Pueblo II periods, as defined for most other areas
of the Anasazi.
While ceramic distributions at LA 103919
indicate a fairly lengthy occupation, an association
during the later half of the Developmental period is
indicated. This occupation is roughly equivalent to
the period usually postulated for early Pueblo II to
early Pueblo III (A.D. 900 to 1200) as defined for
other areas of the Anasazi. White wares dating to
the later part of the Developmental phase in the
northern Rio Grande Valley are easily distinguished from those associated with the later
Coalition period by decorations in mineral rather
than organic pigments (Lang 1982; McKenna and
Miles 1995; McNutt 1969). Late Developmental
period gray wares may exhibit a wide range of
treatments, including plain, neckbanded, and corrugated textures (Lang 1982).
Previous schemes used to assign ceramic dates
to Developmental phase sites in the Tewa Basin are
derived from two types of evidence. One source of
dating inferences is based on ceramic distributions
from independently dated contexts in the Tewa
Basin (Robinson et al. 1972; Smiley et al. 1953;
Wendorf 1953; Wiseman 1989, 1995a, 1995b).
Unfortunately, independently dated Developmental
phase occupations are extremely rare in this area.
Furthermore, most of the few dated Rio Grande
Developmental sites are poorly documented, and
the associated ceramics are usually not adequately
typed or described. Therefore, our present understanding of the nature and timing of ceramic change
at Developmental phase sites is poor.
Another source for ceramic dating of Late
Developmental phase sites is using better-dated
intrusive ceramic types and stylistic distributions
from other Anasazi regions. Both the presence of
intrusive types at LA 103919 from sites in the
Cibola and northern San Juan regions of the
Anasazi, as well as potential similarities in the
sequence of stylistic change with regions to the
west, provide clues concerning the dating of
Developmental phase Tewa Basin sites. Given the
presence of both Cibola (Chaco) and San Juan
(Mesa Verde) tradition white ware types at LA
103919, the well-documented Pueblo II ceramic
sequences noted at these regions may assist in the
dating of this site (Hawley 1934; Hayes 1964;
McKenna and Miles 1984; Windes 1987; Toll and
McKenna 1987).
Current dating schemes of Pueblo II Cibola
region ceramic assemblages are primarily derived
from data accumulated during investigations at
Chaco Canyon (McKenna and Miles 1984; Toll
and McKenna 1987). The early Bonito phase dates
between A.D. 900 and 1040, and represents the
beginning of the Pueblo II period in this region
(McKenna 1984). Early Bonito phase sites are
dominated by white wares with painted decorations and surface manipulations noted for Red
Mesa Black-on-white (Windes 1987). The early
Bonito period can be divided into at least two subperiods, mainly based on associated utility wares
(Windes 1987). The earlier subperiod dates from
A.D. 900 to 975 and is characterized by the presence of low frequencies of earlier white ware types
such as Kiatuthlana Black-on-white and White
Mound Black-on-white along with Red Mesa
Black-on-white. Gray utility wares from components dating to the earlier part of this period are
mainly limited to plain gray and neckbanded types.
The late part of the early Bonito phase is characterized by the perseverance of Red Mesa as the
principal white ware type and the addition of corrugated gray wares. The classic Bonito phase is
dated between A.D. 1050 and 1100 and is characterized by hatchured design styles characteristic of
Gallup Black-on-white and Chaco Black-on-white
and solid design characteristics of Puerco Blackon-white and Escavada or Puerco Black-on-white.
The majority of gray wares associated with this
occupation represent corrugated types. Late Bonito
phase assemblages (A.D. 1100 to 1150?) contain
similar ceramics but are characterized by the additional presence of organic-painted types.
A similar sequence of stylistic change has been
noted for ceramics from the northern San Juan
region (Hayes 1964; Hayes and Lancaster 1975;
Wilson and Blinman 1995). The utilization of
crushed igneous rock from andesite or diorite cobbles in most of this region provide the basis for the
recognition of Mesa Verde types. An examination
of ceramic distributions from dated sites in the
northern San Juan region indicate very similar patterns of stylistic changes during the Pueblo II to
those described in other Anasazi regions (Hayes
and Lancaster 1975; Hayes 1964; Wilson and
Blinman 1995).
While sequences of ceramic change are not as
well documented for early sites in the northern Rio
Grande, descriptions of pottery from Developmental period sites indicate a fairly similar
sequence of ceramic change as noted in Pueblo II
occupations in regions of the Colorado Plateau.
The common perception that early developments
in the northern Rio Grande Valley were marginal to
those noted in Anasazi regions to the west has
strongly influenced the ceramic dating of
Developmental phase sites in the northern Rio
Grande (Cordell 1979; Wendorf and Reed 1955).
This often results in a view of considerable cultural lag in ceramic styles between sites in the
Colorado Plateau and Rio Grande Valley (Wendorf
1954). Thus, similar ceramic assemblages from
sites in the northern Rio Grande Valley are often
placed into dating periods that are significantly
later than those noted for similar styles at sites in
Ceramic Artifacts
115
the Little Colorado Plateau. Unfortunately, the
general lack of consistency in ceramic descriptions
from dated northern Rio Grande Valley sites makes
it difficult to evaluate assumptions of cultural lag.
The characterization of cultural lag in this area
is partly based on excavations of the Pojoaque
Grant site (LA 835), a cluster of about 15 small
pueblo room blocks with associated pit structures
and a great kiva (Stubbs and Stalling 1954; Stubbs
1953). Over 200 pieces of datable wood recovered
from LA 835 form the basis for the dating of this
site (Stubbs 1953). Unfortunately, investigations at
this site were never reported in any detail, so it is
difficult to evaluate the few statements concerning
the dating of this site (Stubbs 1953). Ceramic
assemblages were dominated by locally made utility wares described as wide coil, narrow band coil,
and indented coil, and the majority of the white
wares were classified as Red Mesa Black-on-white
or Kwahe'e Black-on-white. Based on six cutting
dates, Stubbs (1953) felt the major occupation of
this site dated between A.D. 1000 and A.D. 1150.
Robinson et al. (1972:52) concluded that tree-ring
dates indicate an occupation from the early
eleventh century until the late twelfth century.
These dates along with a ceramic sequence reflecting a shift from Red Mesa Black-on-white to the
Escavada or Gallup Black-on-white styles with
Kwahe'e Black-on-white, and the transition from
neckbanded to corrugated types, seemed to indicate a significantly later date than sites from the
San Juan Basin exhibiting similar ceramic styles.
Recent evaluations of the large number of noncutting dates have resulted in different interpretations of the date of the Pojoaque Grant site
(Ahlstrom 1985; Wiseman 1995b). Wiseman
(1995) feels these dates indicate a very long history of occupation, starting sometime during the late
ninth and ending in the later half of the twelfth centuries. This evidence indicates a timing and
sequence of ceramic stylistic change similar to that
noted at Pueblo II sites in the Colorado Plateau.
These data partially contradict previous characterizations of culture lag in the Rio Grande. This interpretation is also supported by examinations indicating very similar stylistic changes and distributions throughout much of the Eastern Anasazi
region during the Pueblo II period (Toll et al.
1992). The presence of intrusive ceramics from
116
other regions of the Southwest at Developmental
phase sites in the northern Rio Grande (Mera 1935;
McNutt 1969) indicates interaction between areas
that could have also involved the sharing of information concerning the appropriate decorative
styles. In addition, at LA 103919 and nearby
Developmental phase sites, local Tewa White Ware
types and those from the Little Colorado Plateau
exhibit many similarities in surface treatment and
decoration.
A possible regional difference in ceramics
from sites in the Tewa Basin and Little Colorado
Plateau, however, may be reflected by lower frequencies of corrugated gray wares at contemporaneous Developmental phase occupations at LA
103919 and other sites in the Tewa Basin as compared to those from regions to the west (Lang
1982; McNutt 1969). Another potential areal difference is reflected in the apparent absence of
organic-painted types at twelfth-century sites in the
northern Rio Grande, during which organic painted
types, such as McElmo Black-on-white, occur in
varying frequencies in assemblages at sites
throughout the northern Colorado Plateau.
Other data, contradicting models of cultural
lag and supporting a relatively early date for
Developmental phase sites dominated by Red
Mesa styles, come from the Sheep Chute site. This
is a Developmental phase site along the Jemez
River (Hammack et al. 1983) and is dominated by
white wares that would be classified here as Red
Mesa-style Black-on-white and plain and neckbanded gray wares. Archaeomagnetic dates from
pithouse floors indicate occupations during the
first half of the tenth century (Hammack et al.
1983:88). This indicates a date for the introduction
of Red Mesa Black-on-white at Developmental
phase sites at least as far east as the Jemez River as
early as that noted for other Anasazi regions.
Table 29 illustrates the distribution of ceramic
types for the two components at LA 103919. These
distributions indicate that while all the contexts
from this site date sometime during the Late
Developmental phase, at least two distinct temporal components can be clearly distinguished.
Ceramic dating of various contexts from LA
103919 result from the comparison of distributions
of ceramic types or styles from the two components at this site. The placement of sherds analyzed
during this study into larger and more consistently
defined type categories based on painted styles and
surface treatments provides the opportunity to
examine gradual changes through time. These categories may be combined when necessary for comparison with other studies that record fewer and
more basic type categories. The recognition of
ceramic types, apparently originating from a number of Anasazi regions, also provides the basis for
ceramic cross-dating. The small number of 14C and
tree-ring dates recovered from contexts at LA
103919 also provided for a very limited evaluation
of the ceramic dating scheme employed.
Initial attention focused on the examination of
differences in ceramic distributions between the
two spatially distinct components at LA 103919
(see Table 29). One component was located on the
west side of the road, and the other was on the east
side. While a wide range of similar types was present at both components, differences in the overall
frequency of temporally sensitive types indicate
that the majority of contexts at the west component
date earlier than those from the east component.
Gray ware types dominating both components
exhibit an extremely wide variety of surface textures. The variety and duration of plain and neckbanded types at LA 103919 appears to be greater
than that noted at contemporaneous sites in the
Colorado Plateau. Still, changes in the frequency of
various gray ware surface textures is indicated by
higher frequencies of gray wares exhibiting plain
or wide neckbanded textures at the west component of LA 103919, and higher frequencies of corrugated gray wares at the east component. For
example, while only 2.5 percent of the sherds from
the west component represent local corrugated
gray wares, 20.7 percent of the sherds from the east
component are local corrugated gray wares. The
frequency of plain gray wares is higher for west
component assemblages. Thus, the west component appears to date during an earlier period after
which corrugated vessels appeared, but were very
rare. The east component dates to a time during
which corrugated vessels were more common. It is
interesting to note, however, that the majority of
gray ware sherds associated with both components
exhibit plain surfaces. Examinations of large
sherds and vessels indicates that many of the plain
ware sherds associated with the later component
appear to represent the smoothed lower portions of
corrugated vessels. An observation that was initially puzzling concerned the higher frequency of
plain rims from the east component, because the
frequency of completely smoothed vessels should
be lower in the earlier west component. A reexamination of some of these sherds indicate that many
of the sherds assigned to this category from the east
component were actually from corrugated vessels
with wide fillets. Polished gray wares were also
much more common at west component contexts
indicating that the production of polished gray
wares took place during the earlier components of
this site. This is not surprising because these sherds
are most similar to pottery from the Upper San
Juan region, classified as Piedra Gray, that dates to
the late ninth and early tenth century (Eddy 1966;
Wilson and Blinman 1995). Another interesting
trend is that while there is a decrease in the number
of wide neckbanded sherds with distinct coil juncture, there is an increase in other forms of neckbanded gray wares including wiped, coiled, and
incised varieties. The presence of these forms,
along with the persistence of plain and striated
forms, and an appearance of significant frequencies of corrugated sherds at sites in the Tewa Basin,
indicates a much wider range of diversity of surface treatments at Kwahe'e sites in the Tewa Basin
than contemporaneous sites in other Anasazi
regions and districts.
A slightly earlier occupation for the west component is also supported by higher frequencies of
sherds with earlier Red Mesa-style designs. The
frequency of white ware sherds displaying later
hatchured and solid designs is higher at the east
component. While red wares occur in extremely
low frequencies at both components, the west component has more earlier San Juan Red Wares, and
the west component has more later White
Mountain Redwares.
The sequence of occupation at LA 103919 is
very similar to that noted at the Tesuque By-Pass
site, where Developmental phase components were
divided into earlier Red Mesa and later Kwahe'e
phase components (McNutt 1969). Original dates
presented for these components are modified here
based on previously discussed information; the
dates used here are earlier than those proposed by
McNutt (1969). I think it is more likely that the
Ceramic Artifacts
117
Red Mesa components as represented at the west
component of LA 103919 and the early component
of the Tesuque By-Pass site date to the very early
tenth century to the early eleventh century. These
dates correspond closely with other ceramic dates
postulated for similar ceramic assemblages in this
area (Lang 1982) and seem to reflect the initial
ceramic occupation of the Tewa Basin.
Therefore, differences in the frequency and
variety of types from these two components indicate that contexts associated with the west component date to the Red Mesa phase and east component contexts date to the Kwahe'e phase as previously defined. Stratigraphic evidence indicates a
short occupation at the west component, so it is not
surprising that all contexts from this component
exhibit ceramic assemblages indicative of the Red
Mesa phase. The accumulation of stratigraphic
deposits at the east component of this site indicates
the possibility of a longer occupation. Ceramic distributions from the lower and upper deposits were
compared. This comparison indicates no difference
in the relative frequency of plain and corrugated
utility ware or white ware styles noted in sherd
assemblages from the lower and upper deposits.
Thus, while stratigraphic evidence may indicate
some time depth in the occupation of the east component, ceramic evidence indicates occupation
sometime during the Kwahe'e phase. This does not
necessarily imply that the occupation of this component was extremely short-lived, since the
Kwahe'e phase as defined here spans almost two
centuries.
Several log samples recovered from LA
103919 were submitted for tree-ring dating. Most
of these samples could not be dated due to the lack
of outer rings. Three dates from the east component indicate wood procurement around A.D. 1061
or shortly after. These dates are in agreement with
the previously discussed ceramic-based interpretations concerning the dating of this component.
Ceramic distributions noted at other sites in
the Tewa Basin indicate that trends noted at LA
103919 reflect patterns typical of the earliest occupation of this area (McNutt 1969; Mera 1935;
Wendorf 1953; Wiseman 1989). As part of the
present study, sherds from Developmental phase
sites stored in the Mera Collection were examined.
These examinations indicate the existence of a sur-
prisingly large number of Developmental phase
sites in the Tewa Basin and surrounding regions
dating both to the Red Mesa and Kwahe'e phases.
In contrast, only one collection examined could
represent an occupation dating before the Red
Mesa phase. In the collections examined, Kwahe'e
components outnumbered Red Mesa components
about two to one. Thus, ceramic distributions noted
for early Tewa Basin assemblages indicate that the
earlier west component of LA 103919 may be fairly typical of the earliest ceramic occupations of this
area. These components reflect the widespread
introduction and spread of populations with ceramics very similar to those produced in areas to the
west during the late ninth and early tenth centuries.
This was followed by a population increase during
the Kwahe'e phase. This occupation is reflected by
the east component at LA 103919 as well as a large
number of Kwahe'e phase sites scattered throughout the Tewa Basin. Population growth occurring
during the Kwahe'e phase ultimately gave rise to
the larger and better-known Coalition phase villages of this area.
Smaller numbers of sherds recovered mostly
from the upper levels of LA 103919 were assigned
to types dating after the Developmental phase.
Later types identified include Santa Fe Black-onwhite, Biscuit A, Biscuit B, Tewa Polychrome,
Micaceous Slipped Gray, and Sapawe Micaceous
Washboard. The presence of the very small number
of sherds assigned to these types indicate limited
contamination from nearby sites dating to the
Coalition, Classic, or historic period.
Given the dating of LA 103919, ceramic distributions from the two components at this site provide an opportunity to examine various trends
occurring during the Late Developmental period.
The rest of the discussions presented in this chapter
will focus on the examination of trends in vessel
production, exchange, and use through the comparison of distributions of various ceramic types and
attributes for the two components of this site.
IDENTIFICATION OF CERAMIC RESOURCE
AVAILABILITY AND USE
The production and exchange of ceramic vessels
are closely related phenomenon and cannot be
investigated independently of one another.
Table 29. Ceramic Type Distribution from Earlier and Later Components of LA 103919
Early Component
Type
Number
Percent
Plain rim
24
3.0
Rio Grande Gray Ware
Plain body
454
56.2
Wide neckbanded
8
1.0
Wide neckbanded, wiped
86
10.6
Incised neckbanded
5
0.6
Coiled neckbanded
3
0.4
Wiped striated
7
0.9
Exhuberant incised corrugated
145
17.9
Plain corrugated
1
0.1
7
0.9
1
0.1
1
0.1
Polished gray
2
0.2
Zoned corrugated
0
0
Incised corrugated
0
0
Sand-tempered plain body
1
0.1
Sand-tempered indented corrugated
1
0.1
Indeterminate paint undifferentiated
4
0.5
Indeterminate mineral painted
1
0.1
Indeterminate unpainted white
2
0.2
Rio Grande White mineral plain undiff.
3
0.4
Rio Grande White Kwahe'e B/w solid
7
0.9
San Juan White
Unpainted
0
0
Trace
P II squiggle hatch design
0
Cibola White
Unpainted white
14
1.7
11
1.4
7
0.9
Escavada solid design
0
0
PII thin parallel lines
5
0.6
Gallup Black-on-white
7
0.9
San Juan Red
San Juan Red Ware
0
0
Unpainted
0
0
Indeterminate painted
0
0
Mogollon Brown
Las Lunas smudged
1
0.1
Total
808
Late Component
Number Percent
42
2.9
Total
Number Percent
66
2.9
813
14
251
17
10
7
211
8
4
0
6
1
1
2
0
0
1268
22
338
23
13
14
357
9
11
1
7
3
1
2
1
1
56.5
1.0
17.5
1.2
0.7
0.5
14.7
0.6
0.3
0
0.4
0.1
0.1
0.1
0
Trace
56.5
1
15.1
1
0.6
0.6
15.9
0.4
0.5
Trace
0.3
0.1
Trace
0.1
Trace
Trace
0
0
4
1
8
0
0
0.3
0.1
0.6
4
1
6
4
15
0.2
Trace
0.3
0.2
0.7
1
1
0.1
0.1
1
1
0
Trace
4
9
6
1
4
2
0.3
0.6
0.4
0.1
0.3
0.1
18
20
13
1
9
9
0.8
0.9
0.6
Trace
0.4
0.4
2
0.1
9
0.4
1
1
0.1
0.1
1
1
Trace
Trace
0
143
0.1
1
2243
Trace
Ceramic Artifacts
119
Discussions of pottery production and exchange at
LA 103919 focus first on the examination of factors relating to local ceramic production. These
examinations provide the basis for the identification of local versus nonlocal ceramics, as well as
an understanding of the causes for the differences
noted. These criteria may then be used to document
changing patterns of ceramic vessel exchange
between groups at LA 103919 and those in other
regions.
As part of these investigations, local ceramic
resources were collected, characterized, and compared to materials occurring in pottery from LA
103919. Such comparisons provide criteria used in
the recognition of locally produced ceramics and
the influences of local resources on the development of the unique Tewa ceramic tradition. Steps
and procedures used here to document patterns of
vessel production and exchange include the following (Habicht-Mauche 1993, 1995; Hegmon et
al. 1995; Wilson and Blinman 1985; Wilson et al.
1988; Zedeño 1995).
1. The selection of appropriate characterization
techniques and strategies allowing for the differentiation of local and nonlocal ceramic materials.
2. The collection and characterization of ceramic
materials from sources that would have been
available to local potters.
3. Examination of archaeological evidence and
patterns of local pottery production, and comparison of material resources from archaeological contexts and local sources.
4. Comparison of materials from local sources and
archaeological contexts, with those occurring in
the ceramics recovered to identify locally produced pottery.
5. Utilization of ceramic distributions from dated
contexts to examine patterns of resource procurement and exchange.
Examinations of geological distributions and associated properties of local paste clays and temper
provide the basis for the recognition of local pottery. Ethnographic data compiled by Arnold (1985)
indicate that potters not relying on modern transportation seldom go more than 3 km to collect temper and 5 km for clay. Thus, a detailed characteri-
zation of temper and clay sources occurring within
these distances from a site forms the basis for the
determination of locally available materials. The
collection area for slip and paint resources is much
greater, and pottery vessels may commonly be
traded great distances.
Properties noted in local clay and temper
sources were compared to those found in the local
pottery. Examinations with a binocular microscope
and petrographic analysis provided the basis for
temper comparisons. The main technique for clay
comparisons involved the firing of clays and
sherds to similar conditions as previously
described for refiring analysis. These allowed for
the comparison of clays based on the influence of
mineral content on color.
GEOLOGY AND CERAMIC RESOURCES IN THE
NAMBÉ AREA
The distinct geology of the Española Basin, whose
boundaries largely overlap those described for
archaeological-based definitions of the Tewa
Basin, provides a good foundation for the distinction of local and nonlocal pottery. The Española
Basin is one of several north-south aligned
Cenozoic basins (Kelley 1979). These are linked in
a chain of six or seven similar basins extending
from central Colorado to southern New Mexico.
The basin is surrounded by alternating ranges and
plateaus. The Española Basin comprises the Rio
Grande rift or depression, which follows the Rio
Grande Valley from southern Colorado to southern
New Mexico (Kelley 1979). The Rio Grande flows
through a plateau gorge on the north and goes out
through a gorge on the south. On the west, the
Española Basin boundary is bordered by the Jemez
Mountains. On the northwest, it is bounded irregularly by the northwest-trending Brazos and Tusas
ranges. The northern boundary is the irregularly
eroded edge of the Taos Plateau. On the east, the
boundary is the Sangre de Cristo Mountain Range
trending southward from the Picuris Mountains
and terminating 12 miles south of Santa Fe. The
southern end of the basin is marked irregularly by
the cluster of porphyry and volcanic Cerrillos Hills
and the northern rim of Galisteo River valley. The
southwestern margins are the Bajada fault escarpment and the Cerros volcanic hills. Both the valley
and the basin are centered around the confluence of
the Rio Grande and its principal tributary, the Rio
Chama, which drains into the basin from sources
along northeastern areas of the Colorado Plateau.
Theses rims are fed in the basin area by numerous
tributaries from the surrounding mountains. These
include the El Rito and Ojo Calinete on the northwest, Embudo, Truchas, Santa Cruz, PojoaqueTesuque, and Santa Fe on the east; and Santa Clara
and Frijoles on the west.
Prior to basin development, this area formed
the eastern margin of the Colorado Plateau.
Regional uplifts during the late Eocene and
Oligocene caused widespread erosion of the
region. On the east, the margin of a subdued version of the Sangre de Cristo uplift lay 5 to 10 miles
west of its present position. It was from these
sources that much of the Neocene period Santa Fe
Group sediments of the subsiding Española Basin
were derived.
During the Miocene and early Pliocene, older
sedimentary and crystalline sources were augmented by volcanic eruptions in the Jemez, Brazos, and
Sangre de Cristo area. Sedimentation continued as
the basin subsided and the Sangre de Cristo source
area slowly tilted. Although the basin had depositional axes along the Rio Grande and Rio Chama
courses, the major subsidence and uplifting borders
did not come about until after most of the presently preserved Santa Fe sediments were deposited.
This period of late Pliocene tilting and faulting is
widely represented along the rift in the adjoining
Eastern Rockies. A period of widespread tectonic
stability followed the Santa Fe disturbances.
Erosion of upturned beds and elevated scarps were
relatively rapid, and pedimentation spread widely
about the basin.
The Santa Fe Group refers to the middle and
upper Pliocene deposits resulting from the previously described episodes. The Santa Fe Group is
divided into two formations including a lower
Tesuque Formation and upper Chamita Formation
(Galusha and Blick 1971). In some areas the total
thickness of the Santa Fe Group is at least 4,500 ft.
The sediments of the Santa Fe Group include alluvial fan and eolian deposits including conglomerate, gravels, loosely consolidated sandstones, siltstones, volcanic ash, bentonite, tuffaceous
deposits, conglomerate sandstones, intraformation
breccias, concretions of various kinds, and clay.
Interbedded volcanic flows are few and small in
extent.
Deposits of the Tesuque Formation can be
divided into five members including (1) the Nambé
member, (2) the Skull Ridge member, (3) the
Pojoaque member, (4) the Chama-El Rito member,
and (5) the Ojo Caliente member. All of these
members are lithologically distinct, but may have
been deposited about the same time. Type sections
of the Nambé and Skull Ridge members are located in the thick belt of alluvial-fan deposits exposed
between the Nambé and the Santa Cruz River. The
type section of the Pojoaque member lies northwest of Pojoaque. Most of the sediments were
derived from the granitic rocks of the Sangre de
Cristo Range, and were part of a system of coalescing alluvial fans arranged along the mountain
front. At the same time that the Pojoaque member
was being deposited, the Chama-El Rito members
were being formed to the north from volcanic rocks
in the northeast. The Ojo Caliente Sandstone member consists of light gray to pinkish eolian sandstone and interfingers with the Chama-El Rito
member. The Chamita Formation is the uppermost
formation of the Santa Fe Groups and represents
deposits from a remarkably different sedimentary
environment.
Inner valleys of Quaternary age have eroded
into the Rio Grande depression. Nowhere, however, is this dissection as great as in the Española
Basin. Many of the canyons in the bordering
uplifts, which were eroded principally during basin
subsidence, were deepened by several hundred feet
during the period of basin pedimentation. A dry climate coupled with the weakness of the Santa Fe
beds resulted in the formation of badlands and
numerous arroyos composed of sand and gravel.
The large valley bottoms of the Rio Grande and
Rio Chama, and several of the major tributaries
such as the Santa Cruz, Pojoaque, and Tesuque
have local floodplains.
Representative samples of potential ceramic
materials were collected from various sources in
the Nambé area and are listed in Table 30. Clay
samples recovered during excavations of LA
103919 are listed in Table 31. All clay sources
located appeared to be associated with the Santa Fe
Formation. While I was not able to consistently
Ceramic Artifacts
121
Table 30. Ceramic Clay Sources Collected in
the Nambé Area
Clay Sources
Form
(1) Lower clay strata
Soft and chunky,
below Pojoaque
plastic
ancestral site, typical
alluvial deposit in area
(2) Slightly higher clay
Slightly harder,
strata below Pojoaque
chunky, plastic
ancestral site
(3) Clays in a blocky
Hard, and breaks in
reddish alluvial formation small chunks
near Nambé
(4) Typical alluvial
Fairly hard, chunky
stratum in Nambé area
(5) Clay from upper
Soft powdery, not of
pinkish layer in Santa
paste quality,
Cruz Valley
possible slip clay
(6) Volcanic clay ash
Soft powdery
deposit near Bandelier
turnoff
(7) Surface ash near
Sapawe
Table 31. Ceramic Clay Sources, LA 103919
Provenience
(1) FS 528, Feature 7
(2) FS 524, Feature 24,
West wall fall area
(3) FS 541, 102/97,
Stratum 3
(4) FS 594, Feature 13,
clay pit
(5) Pottery clay sample
(6) FS 594, Feature 13,
clay pit
(7) FS 594, Feature 13,
l
it
Form
Soft and silty, good
plasticity
Small flakes, good
plasticity
Small flakes, good
plasticity
Clay pit, Stratum B
Pottery clay
Clay from lower
part of pit
Clay from top of pit
distinguish members of this formation, two basic
types of clay sources may be identified.
Most of the clay sources collected were silty
and derived from alluvial fans or floodplain
deposits associated with members of the Santa Fe
Group. Various members are represented by
numerous brownish, tan, pink, or reddish brown
bands. Examples of clays collected from such
sources include samples 1, 2, and 3. Clays collect122 A Developmental Period Site near Nambé Pueblo
ed from local alluvial sources contained numerous
flecks of mica as well as small silt-size white angular fragments that may have largely weathered
from granitic sources. All these clays were high in
iron content and fired to red colors when oxidized.
Local gray wares fired to identical colors when
exposed to similar oxidizing firing atmospheres
and reflect the utilization of local alluvial sources.
Local gray wares usually had dark gray, black, or
dark brown pastes, while pottery from other areas
where low-iron clay was employed exhibit lighter
colored pastes or exteriors. Microscopic and petrographic analysis of alluvial clays collected near LA
103919 indicate the presence of quartz, orthoclase,
and plagioclase, probably derived from local granites. Fired clays tend to exhibit coarse silty textures
similar to those noted in local gray wares.
The source for pottery clay associated with
Santa Fe Formation deposits consisted of thinner
white, light gray to green layers of volcanic ash
interspersed with the thicker alluvial clays. While
such deposits are often not suitable for pottery clay,
occasional ash deposits weather to form a very fine
bentonitic clay that is extremely plastic. Unlike
alluvial clays, these sources tend not to have mica
or granite fragments but contain fine ash and tuff
inclusions. These inclusions are identical to particles noted in Tewa tradition white ware types,
including Kwahe'e Black-on-white. These similarities indicate the use of self-tempered ash-derived
clays. These ash-derived clays often fire to similar
reddish colors when exposed to an oxidation
atmosphere and fire to very dark colors when fired
in a neutral or reduction atmosphere. The dark
pastes and fine textures noted in local clays are
very similar to characteristics noted in early Tewa
tradition pottery.
In summary, characterization of local clays
allow for the recognition of local (Tewa or northern Rio Grande series) pottery (Tables 32–33). The
distinctive characteristics of both gray utility and
decorated white ware types reflect the distinctive
resources found in this area rather than cultural or
linguistic boundaries as sometimes postulated. The
local mica-containing gray wares reflect the use of
alluvial clays belonging to the Santa Fe Formation
and cobbles scattered along the local terraces.
These cobbles are derived from granitic sources in
the Sangre de Cristos. Tewa series white wares,
Table 32. Refired Color of Selected Sherds Associated with Different Ceramic Traditions for All
LA 103919 Components
Tradition
Red
Yellow-Red
Pink
Buff
Total
Rio Grande Micaceous Gray 75
Nonlocal Gray
3
Tewa White
11
Indeterminate White
0
San Juan White
0
Cibola White
0
Chuska
0
Tusayan White
0
San Juan Red
1
0
Other Red
1
Mogollon Brown
1
Total
92
76.5%
11.5%
61.1%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
23
8
4
0
0
5
0
0
0
0
0
0
40
23.5%
30.8%
22.2%
0.0%
0.0%
9.8%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0
6
2
0
4
15
0
0
0
0
0
0
27
0.0%
23.1%
11.1%
0.0%
44.4%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0
9
1
0
5
31
1
1
0
0
0
0
48
0.0%
34.6%
5.6%
0.0%
55.6%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
108
26
18
0
9
51
1
1
1
0
1
1
207
Table 33. Natural Color of Selected Sherds Associated with Different Ceramic Traditions for Both LA 103919
Components
Tradition
Rio Grande Micaceous Gray
Nonlocal Gray
Tewa White
Indeterminate White
San Juan White
Cibola White
Chuska
Tusayan White
San Juan Red
White Mountain Red
Other Red
Mogollon Brown
Total
Dark Gray to
Black
6940 86.3%
95 77.2%
117 52.9%
2
9.5%
8 23.5%
64 20.7%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
Light Gray to
White
46
0.6%
15
12.2%
72
32.6%
15
71.4%
15
44.1%
144
46.6%
2
100.0%
2
100.0%
0
0.0%
1
50.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
such as Kwahe'e Black-on-white, reflect the use of
self-tempered clays derived from ash deposits usually representing thin lenses in the Santa Fe
Formation. Similar combinations of resources
began during the initial occupation of this area, and
continued into the Coalition, Classic, and historic
periods.
EXCHANGE AND INTERACTION
Distribution of various ceramic traits, noted over
wide areas, may relate to both the movement of
ceramic vessels as well as the flow of information
Distinct
Core
720
9.0%
11
8.9%
14
6.3%
4 19.0%
11 32.3%
99 32.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
1
7.6%
Reddish or
Oxidized
333
4.1%
2
0.2%
18
8.1%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
309
0.6%
2
2
5 100.0%
1
50.0%
1
12
92.3%
Total
8039
123
221
21
34
309
2
2
5
2
1
13
8771
concerning appropriate manufacturing and decorative techniques between widely separated groups.
Examination of both phenomena is important in
determining the participation of groups in the Tewa
Basin in larger regional networks that may have
encompassed much of the northern Anasazi area
during the Pueblo II period. A better understanding
of the nature and timing of migration and influence
from the Colorado Plateau to the northern Rio
Grande is critical to understanding interaction networks between these regions. Also of importance is
determining the nature and intensity of subsequent
interactions and exchange between northern Rio
Ceramic Artifacts
123
Grande immigrant populations and groups from
their area of origin. This would include participation in larger regional networks, such as the
Chacoan system, postulated by some to have influenced or dominated the northern Anasazi area
(Judge 1991; Lekson 1991).
Because of the widespread utilization of certain ceramic styles over much of the Anasazi country (Toll et al. 1992), vessels produced in other
areas are identified by the presence of distinct local
temper or paste resources. Archaeological inferences of exchange and interaction are based on
contrasts in materials between the postulated origin
of items and the archaeological contexts from
which they were recovered. The presence of sherds
from vessels not produced in their area of archaeological recovery may have stemmed from several
causes, including seasonal movements and longdistance migration, informal reciprocal exchange
between kin-related groups, and formalized trade
between distinct groups. Obviously, ceramic vessels represent one of many classes of items moving
within Anasazi exchange networks, so it is important that evidence of ceramic exchange is integrated with other exchange data.
Examination of paste and temper associations
provide for the identification of ceramics associated with local and nonlocal traditions. Table 34
details the distribution of ceramics belonging to
different regional traditions at LA 103919; Table
35 shows the distribution of wares; Table 36 shows
the distribution of surface texture for local and
nonlocal ceramics; and Table 37 shows the distribution of style for various white ware regional traditions. While the majority of this pottery exhibits
pastes and tempers characteristic of local gray
wares, ceramics displaying pastes and tempers
indicative of other regional traditions were also
identified. The presence of sherds belonging to
several distinct regional traditions is supported by
a strong association between paste clay color and
temper type in both utility and decorated ceramic
types assigned to different traditions (see Table
34). These combinations of attributes indicate that
ceramic groups produced in a number of distinct
areas with different combinations of clay and temper were utilized.
Utility gray wares with locally available granite and mica temper consistently fire to red and yellow-red colors when exposed to similar oxidizing
atmospheres. These red colors are represented in
similarly fired clay samples from local sources and
archaeological contexts at LA 103919. In contrast,
gray ware sherds lacking mica and tempered with
rounded sand grains fire to a wider range of colors,
particularly pink and buff. This group includes colors not represented in locally available sources
from the Española Basin, but are similar to paste
colors noted for sand-tempered gray wares common at sites in the San Juan region (Franklin 1980,
1982; Wilson et al. 1988; Windes 1977). These
temper-paste associations indicate that gray wares
Table 34. Distributions of Ceramic Traditions for LA 103919
Tradition
West Component
Rio Grande Micaceous Gray 1717
85.3%
Nonlocal Gray
108
5.4%
Tewa White
49
2.4%
Indeterminate White
7
0.3%
San Juan White
23
1.1%
Cibola White
93
4.6%
Chuska White
1
trace
Tusayan White
2
0.1%
San Juan Red
4
0.2%
White Mountain Red
0
0.0%
Other Red
1
trace
Mogollon Brown
9
0.4%
Total
2013
East Component
6322
93.5%
15
0.2%
172
2.5%
14
0.2%
11
0.2%
216
3.2%
1
trace
0
0.0%
1
trace
2
trace
0
0.0%
4
0.1%
6758
Total
8039 91.6%
123
1.4%
221
2.5%
21
0.2%
34
0.4%
309
3.5%
2
trace
2
trace
5
0.1%
2
trace
1
trace
13
0.1%
8771
Table 35. Ceramic Ware Distributions, LA 103919
Type
Gray Ware
White Ware
Red Ware
Brown Ware
Total
West Component
1824
90.6%
175
8.6%
5
0.2%
9
0.4%
2013
East Component
6337
93.8%
414
6.1%
3
trace
4
trace
6758
Total
8161 93.0%
589
6.7%
8
0.1%
13
0.1%
8771
Table 36. Surface Treatment Distribution of Gray Ware Tradition Ceramics
Type
Local Mica Dominated
Other
Plain rim
302
3.8%
3
2.4%
Unknown rim
3
trace
1
0.8%
Plain body
4879
60.7%
78
63.4%
Wide neckbanded
159
2.0%
4
3.3%
Wide neckbanded wiped
1013
12.6%
11
8.9%
Incised neckbanded
47
0.6%
0
0.0%
Coiled incised neck
55
0.7%
1
0.8%
Clapboarded neck
12
0.1%
0
0.0%
Wiped striated
54
0.7%
0
0.0%
Basket impressed
7
0.1%
0
0.0%
Indented corrugated
1294
16.1%
13
10.6%
Plain corrugated
32
0.4%
0
0.0%
84
1.1%
1
0.8%
2
Trace
0
0.0%
Sapawe micaceous
6
0.1%
0
0.0%
12
0.2%
0
0.0%
Indeterminate smudged utility
1
Trace
0
0.0%
Striated gray
13
0.2%
0
0.0%
Rio Grande polished gray
46
0.6%
11
9.0%
Plain incised
9
0.1%
0
0.0%
Fingernail incised
2
Trace
0
0.0%
Basket impressed and striated
1
Trace
0
0.0%
Smudged interior
2
Trace
0
0.0%
Zoned corrugated
1
Trace
0
0.0%
Incised corrugated
2
Trace
0
0.0%
Total
8038
123
from LA 103919 represent two spatially distinct
groups. While the great majority of the gray wares
displaying mica and granite inclusions could have
been locally produced, the sand-tempered gray
wares appear to have originated elsewhere—in
areas to the west including the Cibola region of the
San Juan Basin or in other areas of the Rio Grande
Valley.
There is also a strong association between clay
pastes and temper types used to place white wares
Total
305
3.7%
4
0.1%
4957 60.1%
163
2.0%
1024 12.5%
47
0.6%
56
0.7%
12
0.1%
54
0.7%
7
0.1%
1307 16.0%
32
0.4%
85
1.0%
2
Trace
6
0.1%
12
0.1%
1
Trace
13
0.2%
57
1.0%
9
0.1%
2
Trace
1
Trace
2
Trace
1
Trace
2
Trace
8161
into local and nonlocal traditions (see Tables
39–42). This is not surprising, because white wares
from Developmental phase sites in the Rio Grande
have been previously divided into local and
Western groups based on differences in paste texture and characteristics (Wiseman and Olinger
1991). Sherds exhibiting volcanic tuff or ash temper and darker pastes were assigned to early Tewa
tradition types, such as Kwahe'e Black-on-white.
Most of the sherds assigned to this type fired to red
Ceramic Artifacts
125
Table 37. Ceramic Distributions of Developmental Phase White Ware Styles
Tewa
White
86
41.0%
15
7.1%
3
1.4%
Red Mesa style Black-on3
white
1.4%
Squiggle hatchure Black-on0
white
0.0%
PII Black-on-white solid
97
designs
45.8%
PII Black-on-white thin parallel
3
lines
1.4%
PII Black-on-white thick
4
parallel lines
1.8%
Doghoszhi-style Black-on1
white
0.5%
Total
212
Type
Unpainted white
Indeterminate
White
9
42.9%
7
33.3%
0
0.0%
1
4.7%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
4
19.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
21
and yellow-red colors similar to those noted for
locally available clays. As previously indicated,
paste texture and associated temper inclusions
found in Tewa tradition types were similar to characteristics noted for clays derived from local ash
lenses. These characteristics are very different
from those noted for white ware types assigned to
various regional traditions of the Colorado Plateau.
Unlike the local Tewa series types, sherds
assigned to regional types of the Little Colorado
Plateau tend to have blocky pastes and fire to
lighter buff and pink colors in oxidizing atmospheres (see Table 33). The buff and pink colors
dominating these assemblages are very similar to
those noted for similar ceramics from contemporaneous sites in regions of the Little Colorado
Plateau. Such differences are also partially reflected in the original sherd paste indicative of a neutral
Anasazi firing atmosphere on various clay pastes.
These clays reflect the use of low-iron shale clays
available and exploited in these regions. Ceramics
with these pastes and sand temper may have been
produced in the Cibola region, while those with
crushed igneous porphyries may have originated in
the northern San Juan region. Petrographic analy126 A Developmental Period Site near Nambé Pueblo
San
Juan
White
11
32.4%
3
8.8%
7
20.6%
1
2.9%
2
5.8%
0
0.0%
6
17.6%
0
0.0%
4
11.8%
34
Cibola Tusayan
White
White
81
0
26.0%
0.0%
79
0
25.4%
0.0%
15
0
4.8%
0.0%
54
0
17.4%
0.0%
2
0
0.6%
0.0%
4
0
1.2%
0.0%
46
2
14.8% 100.0%
7
0
2.2%
0.0%
23
0
7.4%
0.0%
311
2
Total
187
32.2%
104
17.9%
25
4.3%
59
10.2%
4
0.7%
191
17.4%
61
10.5%
11
0.2%
28
4.8%
580
sis indicates that some, but not all of sherds with
this paste, originated in regions of the Colorado
Plateau. Petrographic analysis, however, also indicates the presence of tuff temper in sherds exhibiting light paste, which were originally described as
containing sherd temper. This presents a dilemma
concerning the classification of some of the white
wares examined based on paste characterizations
and microscopic temper identification because it
indicates that some of the sherds placed into types
defined for the Colorado Plateau may have actually originated in regions of the northern Rio Grande.
Given the characteristics noted for local pastes, it is
unlikely that any of these sherds were produced
locally or near LA 103919. It is possible that these
sherds originated in the Jemez and Zia areas where
light clays and tuff resources may have overlapped.
Thus, it is likely that while sherds assigned to
nonlocal categories mostly represent ceramics produced in regions within the Colorado Plateau, a
few may have originated in regions of the northern
Rio Grande. The presence of combinations of nonlocal ceramics from these areas reflect exchange or
other types of interaction with Pueblo II groups in
areas to the west. This supports previous conjec-
Ceramic Artifacts
127
Rio Grande
Micaceous Gray
Nonlocal Gray
Tewa White
Indeterminate white
San Juan White
Cibola White
Chuska White
Tusayan White
San Juan Red
White Mountain Red
Other Red
Mogollon Brown
Total
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
14.3%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0
0
0
1
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
1
Indeterminate
0.6%
96 88.9%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
22 23.4%
0
0.0%
2 100.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
120
0
Sand
0
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1663
0.0%
6.1%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
1660 96.0%
Granite with
Mica
0.0%
3 2.8%
1 2.0%
6 85.7%
0 0.0%
5 4.3%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
15
0
Sherd
0.0%
2
1.9%
3
6.1%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
65 68.1%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
70
0
Sherd and
Sand
1
11
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
14
0.9%
22.4%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
2 0.1%
Fine Tuff
or Ash
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0 0.0%
Tuff or
Ash and
Table 38. Temper Distributions Associated with Different Ceramic Traditions for West Component of LA 103919
Rio Grande Mica Gray
Other Gray
Tewa White
Indeterminate white
San Juan White
Cibola White
Chuska White
Tusayan White
San Juan Red
White Mountain Red
Other Red
Mogollon Brown
Total
Fine Volanic
Granite
Sandstone without Mica
Other
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
20
1.2%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0
0.0%
5 9.2%
0 0.0%
4
8.1%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0
0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0
0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0
0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0
0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0
0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0
0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0
0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0
0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0
24
Sand, Fine
Tuff or Ash
1 trace
1 1.0%
22 10.1%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
24
Large Tuff
Fragments
4
0.2%
0
9.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
9 100.0%
13
Crushed
Crushed
Andesite or
Andesite/Diorite
Diorite
with Sherd
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
2
8.7%
6 26.0%
0
0.0%
0
1.1%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
3
75.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
5
6
Andesite/
Diorite with
Sand and
Sherd
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
8
34.8%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
8
Ceramic Artifacts
129
Nonlocal Gray
Tewa White
Indeterminate white
San Juan White
Cibola White
Chuska White
Tusayan White
San Juan Red
White Mountain Red
Other Red
Mogollon Brown
Total
Andesite/
Diorite and
Sherd
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
7
30.4%
1
1.1%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
1
25.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
9
Granite with
Olivine
28
1.6%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
28
Basalt
1
trace
4
3.7%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
1 100.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
1 100.0%
0
0.0%
7
Highly
Micaceous
1
trace
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
1
Sherd,
Sediment.,
Igneous
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0
Sherd and
Tuff or Ash
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0
Ash
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0
Total
1717
107
49
7
23
93
1
2
4
0
1
1
2013
Indeterminate
0
0.0%
Nonlocal Gray
0
0.0%
Tewa White
0
0.0%
Indeterminate White
0
0.0%
San Juan White
0
0.0%
Cibola White
0
0.0%
Chuska White
0
0.0%
Tusayan White
0
0.0%
San Juan Red
0
0.0%
White Mountain Red
0
0.0%
Other Red
0
0.0%
Mogollon Brown
0
0.0%
Total
0
Sand
0
0.0%
13 86.7%
1
0.6%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
31 14.3%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
45
Granite with
Mica
6284
99.4%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
6284
Sherd
1
trace
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
14 100.0%
0
0.0%
2
0.9%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
1
50.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
18
Sherd and
Sand
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
155 71.5%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
1 50.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
156
Fine Tuff or Ash
27
0.4%
0
0.0%
153 88.9%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
2 50.0%
182
Tuff, Ash, or
Sherd
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
1 0.6%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
1
Table 39. Temper Distributions Associated with Different Ceramic Traditions for East Component of LA 103919 Components
Ceramic Artifacts
131
Fine Volcanic
Other
0
0.0%
Other Gray
1
6.6%
Tewa White
5
2.9%
Indeterminate white
0
0.0%
San Juan White
0
0.0%
Cibola White
0
0.0%
Chuska White
0
0.0%
Tusayan White
0
0.0%
San Juan Red
0
0.0%
White Mountain Red
0
0.0%
Other Red
0
0.0%
Mogollon Brown
0
0.0%
Total
6
Sandstone
0 0.0%
1 6.6%
1 0.6%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
25 11.5%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
27
Granite
without Mica
10
0.1%
0
0.0%
2
1.2%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
12
Sand, Fine
Tuff or Ash
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
7
4.1%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
7
Large Tuff
Fragments
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
2 50.0%
2
Crushed
Andesite/
Diorite
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
1
9.1%
1
0.5%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
1 100.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
3
Crushed
Andesite/
Diorite with
Sherd
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
7 63.6%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
7
Andesite/
Diorite with
Sand and
Sherd
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0
Nonlocal Gray
Tewa White
Indeterminate white
San Juan White
Cibola White
Chuska White
Tusayan White
San Juan Red
White Mountain Red
Other Red
Mogollon Brown
Total
Andesite and
Sherd
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
3
27.2%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
3
Granite
with Olivine
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0
Basalt
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
1
0.5%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
1
Highly
Micaceous
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0
Sherd,
Sediment.,
Igneous
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
2 0.9%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
2
Sherd and
Tuff, Ash
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
1 0.6%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
1
Tuff, Ash and
Sandstone
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
1
0.6%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
1
Total
6322
15
172
14
11
216
1
0
1
2
0
4
6758
Ceramic Artifacts
133
Gray Ware
White Ware
Red Ware
Brown Ware
Total
Gray Ware
White Ware
Red Ware
Brown Ware
Total
Indeterminate
0 0.0%
1 0.5%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
1
Granite with
Mica
1660 90.0%
3 1.7%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
1663
Sand, Fine
Tuff or Ash
2
0.2%
22 12.6%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
24
Sand
96 5.2%
24 13.7%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
120
Granite
without Mica
20 1.1%
4 2.3%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
24
Large Tuff
Fragments
4
0.2%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
9 100.0%
13
Sandstone
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0
Andesite/
Diorite and
Sherd
0 0.0%
8 4.6%
1 20.0%
0 0.0%
9
Fine
Igneous
Other
0 0.0%
5 2.9%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
5
Andesite/
Diorite with
Sand and
Sherd
0 0.0%
8 4.6%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
8
Tuff or
Ash and
Sherd
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0
Crushed
Andesite/
Diorite with
Sherd
0 0.0%
6 3.5%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
6
Fine Tuff or
Ash
3 0.2%
11 6.3%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
14
Crushed
Andesite/
Diorite
0 0.0%
2 1.1%
3 60.0%
0 0.0%
5
Sherd
3 0.2%
12 6.2%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
15
Sherd and
Sand
2
0.1%
68 38.3%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
70
Table 40. Temper Distributions Associated with Different Ware Groups for West Component of LA 103919
Gray Ware
White Ware
Red Ware
Brown Ware
Total
Basalt
5 0.3%
1 0.6%
1 20.0%
0 0.0%
7
Highly
Micaceous
1
0.1%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
1
Sherd,
Sediment.,
Igneous
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0
Sherd, Tuff
or Ash
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0
0
0
0
0
0
Ash
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
Indeterminate
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0
Sand
13 0.2%
32 7.8%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
45
Granite with
Mica
6284 99.2%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
6284
Sherd
1 trace
16 3.9%
1 0.0%
0 0.0%
18
Sherd and
Sand
0 0.0%
155 37.4%
1 33.3%
0 0.0%
156
Fine Tuff or
Ash
27 0.4%
153 37.0%
0 0.0%
2 50.0%
182
Tuff of Ash
and Sherd
0 0.0%
1 0.2%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
2
Sandstone
1 trace
26 6.3%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
27
Total
1824
175
5
9
2013
Fine
Igneous
Other
1 trace
5 1.2%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
6
Table 41. Temper Distributions Associated with Different Ware Groups for East Component of LA 103919
Gray Ware
White Ware
Red Ware
Brown Ware
Total
Granite with
Olivine
28
1.4%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
28
Ceramic Artifacts
135
Gray Ware
White Ware
Red Ware
Brown Ware
Total
Gray Ware
White Ware
Red Ware
Brown Ware
Total
Sand, Fine
Tuff or Ash
0
0.0%
7
1.6%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
7
Basalt
0 0.0%
1 0.2%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
1
Granite
without Mica
10 0.2%
2 0.5%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
12
Granite
with Olivine
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0
Sherd,
Highly
Sediment.,
Micaceous
Igneous
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0
0
Large Tuff
Fragments
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
2 50.0%
2
Total
6337
414
3
4
6758
Andesite/
Diorite with
Sand and
Sherd
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0
Ash
0 0.0%
1 0.2%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
1
Crushed
Andesite/
Diorite with
Sherd
0 0.0%
7 1.7%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
7
Sherd, Tuff
or Ash
0 0.0%
1 0.2%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
1
Crushed
Andesite/
Diorite
0
0.0%
2
0.5%
1 33.3%
0
0.0%
3
Andesite/
Diorite and
Sherd
0 0.0%
3 0.7%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
3
Indeterminate
40 2.3%
1 0.9%
1 2.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
1 1.1%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
43
Jar Body
Rio Grande Micaceous Gray 1115 65.0%
Nonlocal Gray
74 68.5%
Tewa White
22 44.0%
Indeterminate white
2 28.6%
San Juan White
9 39.1%
Cibola White
34 37.2%
Chuska White
1 100.0%
Tusayan White
0
0.0%
San Juan Red
0
0.0%
White Mountain Red
0
0.0%
Other Red
0
0.0%
Mogollon
6 66.7%
Total
1263
Nonlocal Gray
Tewa White
Indeterminate White
San Juan White
Cibola White
Chuska White
Tusayan White
San Juan Red
White Mountain Red
Other Red
Mogollon
Total
Bowl Body
15
0.9%
3
2.8%
19 38.8%
4 57.1%
9 39.1%
33 35.1%
0
0.0%
2 100.0%
4 100.0%
0
0.0%
1 100.0%
3 33.3%
93
Jar Body
with Strap
Handle
1
0.1%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
1
Jar Body
with Lug
Handle
6 0.3%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
6
Gourd
Dipper
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
1 2.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
1
Seed Jar
4 0.2%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
4
Dipper
with
Handle
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0
Bowl Rim
4
0.2%
1
0.9%
3
6.1%
1 14.3%
4 17.4%
16 17.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
29
Jar Body
with
Handle
2 0.2%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
2
Olla rim
7 0.4%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
1 1.1%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
8
Indeterminate Coil
Handle
5 0.3%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
5
Jar Neck
440 25.6%
25 23.3%
2 40.8%
0 0.0%
1 4.3%
6 6.4%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
474
Canteen
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
1 2.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
1
Cooking/
Storage Jar
Rim
74
4.3%
3
2.8%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
1
1.1%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
78
Table 42. Vessel Form Distributions Associated with Different Ceramic Traditions for the West Component of LA 103919
Ceramic Artifacts
137
Rim Handle
3
0.2%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
3
Pipe
1 0.1%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
1
Single Coil
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0
Figurine
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0
Jar with Lug
Handle
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0
Total
1717
107
49
7
11
93
1
2
4
0
1
9
2013
Nonlocal Gray
Tewa White
Indeterminate White
San Juan White
Cibola White
Chuska White
Tusayan White
San Juan Red
White Mountain Red
Other Red
Mogollon
Total
Indeterminate
670
10.6%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
1
0.5%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
671
Bowl
16
0
18
1
0
30
0
0
0
0
0
0
65
Rim
0.3%
0.0%
10.5%
7.1%
0.0%
13.8%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
Bowl Body
5
0.1%
2 13.3%
73 42.4%
5 35.7%
6 54.5%
115 53.4%
1 100.0%
0
0.0%
1 100.0%
1 50.0%
0
0.0%
4 100.0%
213
Seed Jar
2
trace
0
0.0%
1
0.6%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0 100.0%
3
Olla Rim
1 trace
0 0.0%
2 1.1%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
2 0.9%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
5
Jar Neck
2090 32.1%
3 20.0%
11
6.4%
0
0.0%
3 27.3%
26 12.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
2133
Cooking/
Storage Jar
Rim
301 4.8%
0 0.0%
1 0.6%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
1 0.5%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
303
Table 43. Vessel Form Distributions Associated with Different Ceramic Traditions for the East Component of LA 103919
Nonlocal Gray
Tewa White
Indeterminate white
San Juan White
Cibola White
Chuska White
Tusayan White
San Juan Red
White Mountain Red
Other Red
Mogollon
Total
Strap Handle
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
1
1.1%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
1
Nonlocal Gray
Tewa White
Indeterminate White
San Juan White
Cibola White
Chuska White
Tusayan White
San Juan Red
White Mountain Red
Other Red
Mogollon
Total
Nonlocal Gray
Tewa White
Indeterminate White
San Juan White
Cibola White
Chuska White
Tusayan White
San Juan Red
White Mountain Red
Other Red
Mogollon
Total
Strap
Handle
8
0.1%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
8
Jar Body
3189 50.4%
10 66.8%
64 37.2%
8 57.1%
2 18.1%
40 18.4%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
3313
Jar Body
with Lug
Handle
1 trace
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
1
Olla Rim
Handle
1 trace
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
1
Pipe
7 1.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
7
Figurine
1 trace
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
1
Indeterminate Coil
Handle
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0
Canteen
2 trace
0 0.0%
1 5.8%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
1 0.4%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
1 50.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
5
Jar Rim with
Lug Handle Total
1
trace 6322
0 0.0%
15
0 0.0%
172
0 0.0%
14
0 0.0%
11
0 0.0%
216
0 0.0%
1
0 0.0%
0
0 0.0%
1
0 0.0%
2
0 0.0%
0
0 0.0%
4
1
6758
Gourd
Jar Body
Dipper
with Handle
0 0.0% 10 0.2%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0
10
Single Coil
11 0.2%
0 0.0%
1 0.6%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
12
Dipper
with
Handle
1 0.1%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
1
Jar Body
with Strap
Handle
5 0.1%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
5
tures concerning the importance of early colonization of the Tewa Basin by groups from the west,
particularly the Chaco or Cibola region. Regional
implications of these interpretations are discussed
in more detail in the synthesis of this report.
Ceramic data from LA 103919 also provide
clues concerning changes in regional exchange
networks in which the inhabitants of this site participated. The earliest occupation of the west component of LA 103919 may reflect patterns associated with the initial colonization of this area of the
northern Rio Grande by Anasazi groups (McNutt
1969). Those associated with the later occupation
may reflect their participation in the extensive
regional systems of the eleventh and early twelfth
centuries.
Ceramic distribution data from LA 103919
indicate exchange and interaction between groups
at this site and those in other Anasazi regions. The
highest frequencies of sherds placed into nonlocal
regional traditions occur in the earlier west component assemblages. Most common are gray and
white ware sherds with sherd and/or sand temper
indicating probable origin in the Cibola region.
The wide range of sherd, sand, and sandstone tempers noted in pottery assigned to the Cibola tradition also indicates the probable presence of pottery
produced in a number of areas of this region. Also
of importance are the low but significant frequency of sherds that may have originated in the northern San Juan region. The presence of sherds with
white paste and tuff temper may also indicate contact and interaction with groups in the western part
of the Rio Grande region. The extensive nature of
interaction during the early occupations of this site
is also indicated by the presence of low frequencies
of ceramics from a number of very distant regions
including the Chuska Valley, Tusayan region, and
southeast Utah. The higher frequency of nonlocal
ceramics at the early component of this site could
either reflect items carried by colonists from their
area of origin or continual exchange with their
homeland and other areas to the west.
Ceramic distributions noted at this site also
indicate a decline in the amount of nonlocal pottery
during the later occupation. For example, the frequencies of most nonlocal traditions are lower in
the west component assemblages. Petrographic
analysis also indicates a significant drop in the
amount of pottery originating from the Colorado
Plateau (Hill, this volume). For example, petrographic analysis indicated that several sherds from
this component originally assigned to Cibola types
actually exhibited tuff temper fragments probably
indicative of production somewhere in the western
Rio Grande region. The lower number of white
ware traditions identified for east component
assemblages also indicates a decline in long-distance exchange. Decline in the exchange of white
ware vessels is also indicated by a much higher frequency of white ware sherds from the later component of the site assigned to the local type, Kwahe'e
Black-on-white. Limited evidence of long-distance
exchange during the later occupation, however,
was reflected by two White Mountain Redware
sherds. Thus, ceramic trends from the later, eastern
component, while reflecting some exchange and
influence with areas to the west in the Colorado
Plateau, indicate a definite decline in the amount of
long-distance exchange.
Thus, evidence of stylistic similarity and the
presence of significant frequencies of nonlocal
ceramics at the western component of LA 103919
indicate considerable initial influence and interaction with regions to the west, and may be indicative
of mass movements of populations. Similar evidence of migration was noted by McNutt (1969)
during investigations at the Tesuque By-Pass site.
This evidence of migration of groups from areas to
the west, such as the Cibola region, may reflect the
role of the Tewa Basin during the tenth and early
eleventh centuries as one of the geographical recipients of this expansion. Many areas in the Little
Colorado Plateau were abandoned or experienced
population decline during the late ninth or early
tenth century. The time of appearance and increase
of Developmental phase sites in the Tewa Basin
roughly corresponds to the postulated initial introduction and expansion of the Chaco system (Judge
et al. 1981). However, it may be jumping to conclusions to directly attribute initial colonization of
the area to this expansion.
While stylistic similarities in ceramics from
the Kwahe'e component of this site indicate continual influence from areas to the west, there
appears to have been a significant decline in longdistance exchange. In addition, there appears to be
a gradual divergence in ceramic traditions associat-
Ceramic Artifacts
139
ed with these separate regions. Such trends continued into the Coalition phase, during which ceramics produced in the Colorado Plateau and the northern Rio Grande region became more distinct, and
there was a significant decline in the number of
nonlocal ceramic types. These trends indicate that
long-distance exchange of vessels with regions to
the west was more strongly influenced by earlier
patterns of colonization than by the large center of
Chaco Canyon during the late eleventh and early
twelfth centuries.
FUNCTIONAL TRENDS
The presence of ceramics in a particular archaeological context ultimately reflects the production
and discard of vessels produced for specific activities. Attributes relating to vessel shape, size, material resources, surface manipulation, technological
attributes, and wear patterns reflect the intended or
actual uses of ceramic vessels in various activities
(Blinman 1988b; Braun 1983; Ericson et al. 1972).
Many aspects of vessel function are strongly
reflected by ceramic ware groups and vessel form
categories. Thus, examinations of ware and vessel
form distributions provide information concerning
activities for which ceramic vessels may have been
used.
Activities for which various identified vessel
forms were used include cooking (gray ware widemouth jars) and serving (bowls and dippers), storing dry or perishable goods (seed jars and gray
ware jars), storing and transporting water (pitchers
and ollas, usually white wares), and ritual activities
(effigies and figurines). Data concerning vessel
form distributions provide clues concerning the
nature and structure of activities occurring at a
given context or site.
Differences in vessel form distribution in the
Tewa Basin from other contemporaneous Anasazi
sites may ultimately reflect selective pressures
relating to mobililty on the decoration, construction, and forms of ceramic vessels. Ceramic trait
distributions may reflect both "historical" processes concerning the transmission of information on
how to make and decorate vessels through time and
across space, as well as processes or pressures
resulting from the selection of some ceramic traits
and rejection of others (Neff 1992, 1993). The lat-
ter step involves the examination of causes for persistence or change in ceramic traits observed in
terms of resulting advantages or failures, and forms
the basis for "evolutionary" or selectionist models
for ceramic change (Neff 1992, 1993).
One strategy that may be used to examine various phenomena influencing characteristics of pottery assemblages at a particular locality is a comparison of ceramic traits and trends found in adjacent areas. This contrasts with the common practice of attributing differences in pottery from different regions solely on the basis of culturally sensitive boundaries associated with different pottery
traditions. Factors resulting in differences in the
pottery produced in adjacent areas include available material resources on the associated pottery
technology, as well as the influence of population
and environmental pressures on increased agricultural intensification and associated changes in the
use of pottery vessels.
Pottery vessel characteristics ultimately reflect
their production for use as ceramic containers. In
Mills (1989), these are described as facilities that
function to even out spatial and temporal heterogeneity in subsistence resources. Preceramic
groups dealt with resource heterogeneity through
mobility. Pottery, however, provides technological
alternatives to full-scale mobility (Mills 1989).
One model for understanding potential change in
ceramic production and manufacture involves the
distinction of maintainable and reliable systems
(Bleed 1986; Mills 1989). Maintainable systems
sacrifice durability for other factors such as modularity and portability, while reliable systems are
designed for increased durability. The expected
characteristics of containers resulting from maintainable systems include ease of manufacture and
repair, involve little time for manufacture and use,
lack backup systems, are portable, are utilized for a
limited number of tasks, and construction and firing techniques are simple and easily transferred.
Containers resulting from reliable productions systems tend to be abundant and sturdy, involve more
specialized forms, resist failure during a specific
task, and may require more specialized manufacturing and firing techniques that may be relatively
time consuming. Mills notes widespread trends
concerning the shift from reliable to maintainable
production systems from Basketmaker III to
Pueblo II periods.
A comparison of functionally related ceramic
distributions noted for the two components at LA
103919 provides the basis for examining change in
vessel use from the Red Mesa to Kwahe'e phases.
A comparison of distributions associated with both
components to those noted at contemporaneous
assemblages from other areas of the Southwest
provides insights concerning differences in ceramic-based activities and economic strategies. Of particular importance is a comparison of ceramic
assemblages from regions of the Little Colorado
Plateau where similar vessel forms and classes
were recorded at components contemporaneous
with LA 103919 (McKenna and Miles 1994; Toll
and McKenna 1987; Wilson and Blinman 1995).
Ceramic distributions from most Anasazi areas
reflect long, gradual sequences of functionally
related change. For areas in the San Juan Basin and
northern San Juan drainages, one of the most
noticeable changes is reflected by the gradual
decrease in the total frequency of gray ware ceramics and an increase in white wares (Wilson and
Blinman 1995). For example, the majority (over 95
percent) of sherds from Basketmaker III sites dating from the seventh and eighth centuries found
throughout the Colorado Plateau belong to
unpainted and unpolished gray ware vessels. By
the eleventh century, at least a third of the total
sherds from a given assemblage are white wares,
and by the Pueblo III period as many as half of the
total sherds may be white wares (Wilson and
Blinman 1995). Corresponding with this trend is a
decrease in the range of forms represented by gray
wares and an increase in the range of white ware
forms. Other functionally related changes include
the increased presence of polished and slipped
white ware forms, and the appearance and
increased frequencies of corrugated textures on
gray wares.
Distributions of ceramic traditions and vessel
form categories at each component from LA
103919 are illustrated in Tables 44, 45, 46, and 47.
Distributions of sherds assigned to different ware
groups are very similar for both components from
this site. Assemblages associated with both components are overwhelmingly dominated by utility
ware sherds. For example, white wares consist of
only 8.6 percent from the west component and 6.1
percent of the sherds from the east component. Red
wares and brown ware types are present in very
low frequencies at both components.
Frequencies and trends in ware distributions
noted at LA 103919 contrast dramatically with
those described for areas of the Colorado Plateau in
both the low frequency of white wares and the lack
of increase in white wares from the tenth to twelfth
centuries. Similar low frequencies of utility wares
were noted in sites in the Taos Valley dating to the
Valdez phase (A.D. 1100 to 1200), where white
wares usually make up less than 15 percent of the
total sherds (Levine 1994).
Examinations of vessels from both components at LA 103919 indicate a low range of forms
associated with gray wares, which are overwhelmingly represented by sherds derived from cooking
and storage vessels. Other gray ware forms were
present but were extremely rare. In contrast, white
wares from both components are represented by
significant numbers of sherds from forms and
shapes not represented by gray wares. Of particular
significance are the high frequencies of sherds
derived from bowls. Thus, while many of the forms
represented in contemporary white ware assemblages from other areas of the Anasazi are represented at LA 103919 and other sites in the northern
Rio Grande, the low frequency of white wares in
this area results in a lower range of diversity in
overall forms. Given the lower range of gray ware
forms at LA 103919 and other early northern Rio
Grande sites as compared to early sites in the Little
Colorado Plateau, the range of vessel forms at LA
103919 is lower than any assemblages noted for
regions to the west.
It is possible then that the low frequencies of
white wares at Developmental phase sites in the
Tewa Basin and Taos Valley of the northern Rio
Grande as compared to distributions noted at sites
in the Colorado Plateau reflect a continuance and
shift to a maintainable production system at a time
when groups in the Little Colorado Plateau shifted
to a reliable production system. Such distinctions
may ultimately indicate a ceramic production system more suitable for the small and dispersed
Developmental phase occupations along the northern Rio Grande. The high frequency of gray ware
jars could reflect emphasis on either storage or
cooking activities. The most likely possibility is
Ceramic Artifacts
141
Gray Ware
White Ware
Red Ware
Brown Ware
Total
Jar Body with
Lug Handle
6
0.3%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
6
Dipper with
Handle
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0
Gourd Dipper
0
0.0%
1
0.6%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
1
IndetermiJar Body
nate Coil
with Handle
Handle
2
0.1%
5
0.3%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
2
5
Canteen
0 0.0%
1 0.6%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
1
Strap
Handle
0 0.0%
1 0.6%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
1
Olla Rim
Handle
3 0.2%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
3
Table 44. Vessel Form Distributions Associated with Different Ware Groups for West Component
Cooking/
Jar Body
IndetermiStorage
with Strap
Bowl Rim
Bowl Body Seed Jar Olla Rim Jar Neck
Jar Body
nate
Jar Rim
Handle
Gray Ware
41 2.2%
5 0.3% 18 100.0% 4 0.2% 7 0.3% 465 25.5% 77 4.2% 1189 65.0% 1 0.1%
White Ware
2 1.1% 24 13.7% 67
38.3% 0 0.0% 1 0.6%
9 5.1% 1 0.5%
68 38.9% 0 0.0%
Red Ware
0 0.0%
0 0.0% 5
0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0%
0 0.0% 0 0.0%
0 0.0% 0 0.0%
Brown Ware
0 0.0%
0 0.0% 3
33.3% 0 0.0% 0 0.0%
0 0.0% 0 0.0%
6 0.0% 0 0.0%
Total
43
29
93
4
8
474
78
1263
1
Pipe
1 0.1%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
1
Ceramic Artifacts
143
Gray Ware
White Ware
Red Ware
Brown Ware
Total
Figurine
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0
Jar Rim with
Lug Handle
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0
Total
1824
175
5
9
2013
Indeterminate
670 10.6%
1
0.2%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
671
Bowl Rim
16 0.2%
49 11.8%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
65
Bowl Body
7
0.1%
200 48.3%
2 66.7%
4 100.0%
213
Seed Jar
2 trace
1 0.2%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
3
Olla Rim
Jar Neck
1 trace 2093 33.0%
4 1.0%
49 11.8%
0 0.0%
0
0.0%
0 0.0%
0
0.0%
5
2133
Cooking/
Storage Jar
Rim
301 4.7%
2 0.5%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
303
Jar Body
3189 50.3%
114 27.5%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
3303
Table 45. Vessel Form Distributions Associated with Different Ware Groups for East Component
Gray Ware
White Ware
Red Ware
Brown Ware
Total
Single Coil
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
Jar Body
with Strap
Handle
5 0.1%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
5
Gray Ware
White Ware
Red Ware
Brown Ware
Total
West Component
East Component
Total
Canteen
2 0.0%
2 0.5%
1 0.2%
0 0.0%
5
Jar Rim
with Lug
Total
Handle
1 trace 6337
0 0.0%
414
0 0.0%
3
0 0.0%
4
1
6758
White Jar
Total
Rim
2 1.6% 122
7 1.9% 377
9
499
Strap
Handle
8 0.1%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
8
Table 46. Form Distributions Associated with Distinct Rim Forms
Gray
Gray Seed
Cooking/
Gray Olla
Gray Bowl
White Bowl
Jar
Storage Jar
77 63.1% 10 8.2%
4 3.3%
5 4.1%
24 19.7%
301 79.8%
2 0.5%
2 0.5% 16 4.2%
49 13.0%
378
12
6
21
73
Jar Body
Dipper with
with Lug
Handle
Handle
1
trace
1 trace
0
0.0%
0 0.0%
0
0.0%
0 0.0%
0
0.0%
0 0.0%
1
1
IndetermiGourd
Jar Body
nate Coil
Dipper
with Handle
Handle
0
0.0%
10 trace
0 0.0%
0
0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0
0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0
0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0
10
0
Ceramic Artifacts
145
West Component
East Component
Total
West Component
East Component
Total
1-4 cm
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0
5 cm
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0
4
2
6
6 cm
44.4%
12.5%
2
2
4
7 cm
22.2%
12.5%
8 cm
0
0.0%
4 25.0%
4
9 cm
1 11.1%
1 6.3%
2
Table 48. Rim Radius Measurements for White Ware Bowls
10 cm
1 11.1%
4 25.0%
5
11-12 cm Total
1 11.1%
9
3 18.8% 16
4
25
Table 47. Rim Radius Measurements for Gray Ware Cooking-Storage Jars
1-4 cm
5 cm
6 cm
7 cm
8 cm
9 cm
10 cm
11-12 cm Total
3 15.8%
1 5.2%
5 26.3%
5 26.3%
2 10.5%
1 5.2%
1 5.2%
1 5.2%
19
3
2.8%
3 2.8% 14 12.8% 24 22.1% 34 31.2%
19 17.4%
9 8.3%
3 2.8% 109
6
4
19
29
36
20
10
4
128
that the frequency of gray ware jars reflects an
emphasis of food storage.
Other comparisons limited to rim sherds may
provide information regarding the nature and
changes in vessel use during the Late
Developmental occupation of LA 103919. Table 48
illustrates vessel form distributions for rim sherds
that could be assigned to a specific form. These
distributions also indicate a dominance of gray
ware cooking-storage forms at both components of
this site. The second most common category at
both sites are white ware bowl forms. Gray ware
forms, other than jars, and white ware forms, other
than bowls, were present but rare. These distributions indicate similar distributions as noted for the
entire assemblage, although white ware bowl
forms are more common in the rim-based assemblages. This difference is because bowls tend to be
smaller, and thus result in fewer sherds than the
larger gray ware vessels.
These rim-based distributions indicate slight,
but potentially significant changes in vessel forms
through time. Of particular importance is the slight
increase in the frequency of gray ware cookingstorage jars, and an increase in white ware bowls.
Similar changes are indicated by a comparison in
the total sum of rim arcs between gray ware cooking-storage jars and white ware bowls. Another
trend is the decrease in the range of gray ware
forms through time. This is similar to trends noted
in other Anasazi areas.
Changes in the overall size of gray ware jars
and white ware bowls were also compared through
the examination of rim radius, recorded on rim
sherds large enough to make these measurements
(see Tables 48 and 49). Given the small number of
sherds for which measurements were made, trends
should be interpreted cautiously. Still, comparisons
of distributions associated with these two components indicate a general increase in gray ware
cooking-storage jars with a rim radius greater than
6 cm and bowls with a rim radius greater than 7
cm. Such trends may reflect changes in the use of
these vessel forms and a possible increase in
household size.
Also of potential functional significance are
the low frequency of utility wares with corrugated
and other textured treatments at sites in the northern Rio Grande. A total of 2.5 percent of the sherds
from the west component of LA 103919 represent
local corrugated gray wares, while 20.7 percent of
the sherds from the east component represent corrugated types. A comparison of utility ware texture
distributions from the two components at this site
indicate a much lower total frequency of corrugated sherds than contemporary sites in the Colorado
Plateau where sites dating to the Pueblo II period
are dominated by corrugated gray wares. The total
frequency of corrugated and textured wares is even
lower at contemporaneous sites in the Taos Valley,
where Valdez sites are overwhelmingly dominated
by gray wares with incised or plain surface textures.
The general lack of corrugations or other exterior coiled treatments at Developmental sites in the
northern Rio Grande supports the model of a maintainable system. Low frequencies of corrugation on
northern Rio Grande ceramics may indicate they
were more commonly used for storage rather than
cooking. Vessels with smoothed surfaces may be
more appropriate for storage than cooking.
Experimental studies indicate that the presence of
unobliterated coils on the exterior reduces the
overall strength and durability of the vessel. These
coils, however, create fractures, increasing the survival of the vessel during cooking cycles (Schiffer
and Skibbo 1987; Schiffer et al. 1994). Thus, utility ware vessels with obliterated surfaces may have
been better suited for activities relating to mobility,
increasing the importance of storage, but with less
emphasis on boiling corn. Thus, in situations
involving the emphasis of utility ware vessels in
storage and the movement of groups, plain obliterated vessels may have been more effective. It is
interesting to note that regardless of the temporal
or cultural association, plain gray wares appear to
consistently dominate components associated with
small dispersed patterns rather than large nucleated
villages, which are more commonly associated
with corrugated ware and higher frequencies of
decorated wares. Examples of occupations in
which ceramic assemblages are overwhelmingly
dominated by plain utility wares are early Anasazi
occupations (Basketmaker III and Pueblo I) from
all regions, later Pueblo II and Pueblo III components along the peripheries of the northern Anasazi
(such as the Gallina and Taos regions) area, as well
as Fremont, Mogollon, and Navajo assemblages.
Many of the periods or areas in which plain utility
wares dominate are characterized by scattered
Table 49. Complete Vessels from LA 103919
Vessel
No.
1
Provenience
Type
Temper
Form
Wear
Sooting
None
Sooted
interior,
exterior
Sooted
interior
and
exterior
None
Rio Grande
Corrugated
Indented
Rio Grande
Indented
Corrugated
Granite
with mica
Pitcher
2
FS 100, Strat
1, backhoe
trench
FS 580, Burial
Granite
with mica
3
FS 34, Burial
4
FS 100
Rio Grande
Plain Gray
Rio Grande
coiled rim
Granite
with mica
Granite
with mica
Cooking/ Interior
storage jar exhibits
exfoliation
from use
Olla
Slight rim
chipping
Small
None
cooking/
storage jar
5
FS 580, Burial Unpainted
white
Fine
volcanic
Miniature
Jar
6
FS 168, 58N
44E Strat 2
FS 524
Plain gray
Sand
Plain gray
Granite
with mica
Granite
with mica
Granite
with mica
7
8
9
FS 532,
10N/93E
FS 581
Plain
polished
Rio Grande
Indented
Corrugated
Rim
Diameter
Height
10 cm
16 cm
25 cm
20 cm
4 cm
Much of
exterior
sooted
11 cm
None
4 cm
Pipe
Exterior
base, well
worn
None
None
2 cm
Pipe
None
None
2.5 cm
2.5 cm
Pipe
None
None
Pitcher
None
Lower
vessel
12 cm
12 cm
hamlets reflecting relatively small, scattered, and
mobile populations. Thus, the mixture of forms and
manipulations at Rio Grande Developmental phase
sites could partially reflect the influence of a
mobile subsistence base. Low frequencies of decorated forms associated with most of these assemblages may also reflect constraints in the time spent
decorating the vessel, imposed by mobility. Even
though the majority of the sherds do not display
surface texture, the wide range of surface textures,
which include a variety of plain, neckbanded, and
corrugated treatments, is somewhat puzzling.
RECONSTRUCTIBLE VESSELS
Nine reconstructible or partially reconstructible
vessels were identified at LA 103919 (Table 49).
Vessel types and forms identified include three
indented corrugated jars, one small coil neckbanded jar, the lower portion of a jar, an unpainted
white ware jar, and three plain gray pipes (Fig.
6 cm
45a–e). No context yielded more than two reconstructible vessels, and reconstructible items were
scattered through a variety of contexts.
CONCLUSIONS
Ceramic data from LA 103919 provide information
concerning the time and nature of occupation at
this site. The initial occupation occurred at the west
component during the Red Mesa phase, dating to
the tenth century or early eleventh century. The
later occupation is associated with the east component, and dates to the Kwahe'e period (middle
eleventh to the beginning of the thirteenth century).
The wide diversity of pastes associated with the
pottery from this site reflect combinations of the
distinct resources available to potters in the Tewa
Basin, as well as intrusive pottery from the
Colorado Plateau to the west. Unfired, tempered
local clays that were recovered during excavation
indicate resources that could have been used in
Ceramic Artifacts
147
a
b
c
d
Figure 45. Reconstructed vessels; (a) corrugated pitcher, Vessel 1; (b) corrugated cooking/storage jar,
Vessel 2; (c) Plain Gray olla; (d) Neck coiled cooking/storage jar, Vessel 4.
e
Figure 45. Continued: (e) corrugated pitcher.
local pottery production. The frequency of nonlocal pottery is highest at the Red Mesa (west) component and may reflect group movement that may
have continued to have contact with their homelands to the west, including the Cibola region.
Ceramic distributions associated with the Kwahe'e
(east) component indicate diminishing contacts
with areas to the west. The higher frequency of
gray utility wares represented at both components
of LA 103919 and other areas of the northern Rio
Grande as compared to other Anasazi regions may
indicate more of an emphasis on cooking and storage activities.
Characterization of ceramic distributions from
LA 103919 resulted in the differentiation of two
distinct components dating to the Late
Developmental phase. The ceramic sequence at
this site is very similar to that noted by McNutt
(1969) for the initial occupation of the nearby
Tesuque By-Pass site. Ceramic distributions at the
Tesuque By-Pass site were used to divide the Late
Developmental phase of the Tewa Basin into two
distinct components (McNutt 1969). The Red
Mesa component was identified by the presence of
Red Mesa Black-on-white as the dominant white
ware type along with neckbanded or plain gray
utility wares (McNutt 1969). The Kwahe'e component was defined by similar ceramics with the addition of Kwahe'e Black-on-white and intrusive
white wares exhibiting hatchured and solid design
styles characteristic of late Pueblo II sites, and
higher frequencies of corrugated gray wares
(McNutt 1969). Examinations from LA 103919
indicate a similar sequence of ceramic change,
although the dating period assigned during the
present study is slightly earlier than that postulated
by McNutt (1969).
Ceramic distributions noted at other sites in
the Tewa Basin indicate that the Developmental
period dating to both the Red Mesa and Kwahe'e
phases are fairly common in this area (McNutt
1969; Mera 1935; Wendorf 1953; Wiseman 1989).
In addition, an examination of sherds from
Developmental phase sites stored in the Mera
Collection further indicates the existence of a large
number of Developmental phase sites dating both
to the Red Mesa and Kwahe'e phases. For the collections examined, Kwahe'e components outnumbered Red Mesa components two to one. In contrast, only one collection examined could have represented an occupation dating to the Red Mesa
phase. Thus, ceramic data from the Tewa Basin
indicate the probable arrival of ceramic-producing
Anasazi groups at about A.D. 900, and was followed by a period of significant population
increase during the eleventh century.
Distributions of ceramic styles and pastes at
LA 103919 indicate both the presence and influence of pottery produced in areas in the Little
Colorado Plateau, particularly the Cibola region.
This may reflect the role of the Tewa Basin during
the Developmental phase as part of a demographic
expansion. This could have involved the increasing
movement of populations from the Cibola, northern San Juan, or western Rio Grande regions into
the Tewa Basin. The Chaco regional system is
thought to have developed during the tenth century
as a response to climatic and population stress
(Judge et al. 1981), and expanded dramatically
during the next century. The widespread distribution of assemblages containing Red Mesa Blackon-white in many areas occupied by the Anasazi
reflect a geographic expansion during the early
Pueblo II period. Potential causes of the tenth-century expansion into the northern Rio Grande region
Ceramic Artifacts
149
may have been improvements in local maize
strains, climatic warming, and increased population stress in western groups (Lang 1982).
Both the presence of intrusive types and stylistic similarities noted for ceramics from LA 103919
probably indicate the immigration of small groups
from the Chaco-San Juan area (San Juan Basin) to
the Rio Grande Valley (Lang 1982; McNutt 1969;
Riley 1995). The potential importance of early colonization into the northern Rio Grande Valley from
the west has been emphasized by McNutt (1969).
He believes that the general lack of ceramic occupations in areas north of Santa Fe date prior to the
Pueblo II period. McNutt (1969) believes that
Developmental phase populations in the northern
Rio Grande did not develop locally but were probably introduced from longer and more heavily settled areas, such as the Four Corners area.
In many large, late Pueblo I sites in the northern
San Juan Basin there is a gap or hiatus in occupation
during the tenth century. This hiatus may partially
reflect long-distance movement of populations into
other areas, including the northern Rio Grande. The
tenth-century occupation represented at the west
component of LA 103919, with its high frequency of
intrusive pottery, seems to support such an expansion of small groups from western areas.
The later occupation, represented by the east
component of this site, may reflect both continual
contact with the "homeland" as well as participation in a larger pan-regional system centered in the
northern Rio Grande, such as that described for the
Chacoan system or network during the eleventh
and early twelfth centuries (Riley 1995). The
height of the Chaco system is contemporaneous
with the Kwahe'e phase as defined here, and represents a time of increased populations within the
Rio Grande. Evidence of a large settlement at the
Pojoaque Grant site may, but does not necessarily
indicate continuing contact between groups in the
Tewa Basin and Chaco Canyon (Lang 1982).
Evidence of interregional cooperation is alluded to
by Riley (1995) as the Chacoan co-prosperity
sphere, although there is no evidence that this area
was directly linked into the Chacoan system as
usually described. Interestingly, while ceramic distributions from the east component indicate some
continuing influence from the west, such influence
is less than in previous periods. Thus, the initial
migration of small groups from the west may have
had a stronger influence on population movement
and interaction than an expanding Chacoan system.
Ceramic data from Developmental phase sites
indicate that the influence and interaction between
groups in the Colorado Plateau and northern Rio
Grande was earlier than is often thought, and may
necessitate a revision of many current views.
Previous models of migration from the Four
Corners area into the Rio Grande region often
emphasize movements associated with the abandonment of the Four Corners of the Colorado
Plateau in the late thirteenth century (Cordell 1979,
1995; Cameron 1995). Data from LA 103919 and
adjacent sites, with strong stylistic similarities
between local ceramics and contemporaneous
ceramics from the Four Corners area, as well as a
high frequency of nonlocal ceramics apparently
produced in the Four Corners at LA 103919, indicate that the interaction and movement of peoples
between groups in these regions began earlier than
is sometimes assumed. It is also interesting that
similarities between ceramics from separated areas
and the presence of nonlocal ceramics from areas to
the west appear to be greater at Developmental sites
in the Tewa Basin than nearby Coalition phase sites,
dating to the alleged time of migration of Four
Corners populations in this area. Ceramic data from
Coalition phase sites in the Tewa Basin indicate that
Santa Fe Black-on-white developed directly out of
Kwahe'e Black-on-white. There is little ceramic
evidence for migration of or interaction with groups
from the Four Corners at Coalition phase sites in
the Tewa Basin, although there is evidence of
exchange between groups in the various districts of
the northern Rio Grande including the Tewa Basin
(Habicht-Mauche 1993, 1995).
GROUND STONE ARTIFACTS
Sonya O. Urban
A total of 97 ground stone items were recovered
from LA 103919. All of the artifacts were analyzed
using the standardized methodology from the
Office of Archaeological Studies (OAS 1994).
Variables monitored included material type, material texture and quality, preform morphology,
weight, mano cross-section form, plan-view outline, heat treatment, portion, and function. The artifacts were studied on an assemblage basis, separated according to the two defined components, and
then compared on an intra-assemblage basis.
Research problems discussed in the data recovery
plan for the site (Lentz 1994) were considered during the analysis.
DESCRIPTION
Frequencies and Weight
Across the entire site, 46 manos (47 percent), 23
metates (24 percent), 22 indeterminate fragments
(23 percent), 2 shaped slabs, 1 pottery polishing
stone, 1 metate rest, and 2 grooved mauls were
recovered (Table 50). The east component contained 59 ground stone items; the west component
had a total of 38.
Two of the metates were double sided; a single
sandstone slab metate had a use surface on either
side, while the second metate (quartzite) had a
basin metate on one side, and a trough metate with
a single open end on the other. The total count of
ground stone artifacts, including the metates with
two use surfaces, was 97, with a total weight of
167.4 kg (369.1 lbs).
Material Type
Sixteen different material types were utilized for
the manufacture of ground stone items on the entire
site. The predominant material types from LA
103919 were quartzite (n=31), sandstone (n=26),
and a metamorphic micaceous conglomerate
(n=5). Other types contained less than four artifacts
each.
On the eastern component, 13 material types
were used. The majority consisted of sandstone (39
percent) and quartzite (19 percent). Various materials make up the remaining 42 percent (Table 51).
The west component contained 10 different material types employed for ground stone artifacts. The
predominant materials were quartzite (53 percent)
and granite (13 percent). The remaining eight
material types accounted for 34 percent of the total
western assemblage (Table 52).
Material Texture
On the eastern component, the material types used
for grinding were generally fine grained (59 percent). Medium-grained items accounted for 24 percent, and large-grained materials 17 percent. Most
of the ground stone consisted of fine-grained sandstone (n=23) and large-grained quartzite (n=7)
(Table 53).
Material types most often utilized for grinding
implements on the western component were medium grained (42 percent) and large grained (37 percent). The remaining 21 percent consisted of finegrained materials. A majority of the ground stone
artifacts were medium (n=10) and large-grained
(n=9) quartzites (Table 54).
Preform Morphology
The selection of preforms for the manufacture of
ground stone tools consisted of various thicknesses
of slabs, flattened cobbles, chunky or angular
shapes, indeterminate fragments, and rounded cobbles.
On the east side, the majority of the preforms
were slabs of indeterminate thickness (29 percent)
and flattened cobbles (22 percent). Angular preforms and very thin (< 5 cm) slab preforms each
represent 18 percent of the artifacts. Other preform
shapes made up the remaining 13 percent of the
assemblage (Table 55).
Raw material preform selection on the western
component consisted primarily of flattened cobbles
Ground Stone Artifacts
151
Table 50. Ground Stone Artifacts from LA 103919
FS No.
15
32
50
51
60
62
65
69
71
78
90
91
94
100
105
140
156
165
168
170
172
173
505
506
507
512
513
516
518
520
521
524
554
555
558
562
564
571
579
580
582
152
Description
Context
Basin metate
Mano
One-hand mano
Indeterminate
Mano
Metate
Two-hand trough mano
Mano
Indeterminate
One-hand mano
Indeterminate
Feature 1
Burial 2
54N/50E, Strat 2
53N/49E, Strat 2
51N/52E, Strat 2
50N/53E, Strat 1
Feature 4 association
Feature 4, Burial 2
51N/54E
Feature 4, Burial 2
53N/46E, Strat 1
Indeterminate
Metate
1 Indeterminate, 1 onehand mano, 1 pottery
polishing stone, 2 manos,
1 basin metate, 1 trough
metate
2 two-hand manos, 1 twohand trough mano, 3
manos, 2 one-hand
manos, 1 metate
Indeterminate
Indeterminate
2 one-hand mano
2 one-hand mano
Mano
Indeterminate
Metate
Mano
Metate
Indeterminate, 1 mano
Mano
Metate
2 metates, 2 manos
Mano
Indeterminate
1 mano, 1 one-hand mano
1 mano, 1 indeterminate
1 metate, 1
indeterminate, 1 mano
Metate
1 one-hand mano,
grooved maul
Indeterminate
1 indeterminate, 1 metate
Indeterminate
4 manos, 1 indeterminate
1 indeterminate, 1
grooved maul, 1 two-hand
trough mano, 2 basin
metates, 1 trough metateone end open, 1 slab
metate, 1 metate rest, 1
shaped slab
1 indeterminate, 1
shaped slab
52N/47E, Strat 1
53N/45E, Strat 1
General site
Feature 11
55N/43E, Strat 1
59N/48E, Strat 2
Feature 20
58N/44E, Strat 2
Feature 19
56N/42E, Strat 1
58N/43E, Strat 2
100N/103E, Level 3
101N/102E, Level 3
100N/102E, Level 2
99N/103E, Strat 2
99N/102E, Strat 2
100N/105E, Strat 2
99N/104E, Strat 2
Feature 1
100N/106E, Strat 2
West wall fill
102N/93E, Strat 2
Comments
Possible metate fragment
Possible one-hand mano
Sherd temper?
Possible plaster polishing
stone
Many are burned
Possible mano fragment
Burned
Burned
Burned
Burned
Probably one-hand
Probably slab metates
Burned
Probably 1 one-hand mano
Possibly one-hand mano
102N/94E, Strat 2
102N/94E, Strat 2
101N/93E, Strat 2
104N/95E, Strat 2
103N/91E, Strat 2
Feature 6, Burials
Feature 6, Burials 4-5
West of Feature 6
Probably slab metate
Possible metate fragment
Probably one-hand manos
FS No.
586
598
604
608
610
Description
Context
2 metates, 1
Strat 3, General fill
indeterminate, 1 two-hand
trough mano
2 manos
103N/101E, Strat 3
One-hand mano
103N/104E, Strat 3
1 indeterminate, 1 metate
104N/104E, Strat 3
2 indeterminate, 3 manos,
Backhoe, west of
1 two-hand trough mano
driveway
Table 51. Ground Stone Material
Types, East Component
Material
Igneous
Vesicular basalt
Andesite
Sedimentary
Sandstone
Micaceous sandstone
Metamorphic
Quartzite
Metamorphc micaceous
conglomerate
Glaucophane schist
Gneiss
Amphibolite
Total
1
3
5
1
23
2
1
11
1
4
1
3
3
Table 52. Ground Stone Material
Types, West Component
Material
Igneous
Vesicular basalt
Granite
Alkaline feldspar rhyolite
Granodiorite
Sandstone
Metamorphic
Quartzite
Metamorphc micaceous
conglomerate
Total
2
1
5
1
1
3
1
20
3
1
Comments
Burned
Burned
Probably one-hand manos
Table 53. Ground Stone Material Types and Textures,
East Component
Material
Texture
Total
Igneous
Vesicular basalt
Andesite
Andesite
Sedimentary
Sandstone
Micaceous sandstone
Metamorphic
Quartzite
Quartzite
Quartzite
Metamorphic micaceous
conglomerate
Glaucophane schist
Gneiss
Amphibolite
Amphibolite
Fine grained
Fine grained
Fine grained
Medium grained
Medium grained
Fine grained
Fine grained
Medium grained
Fine grained
Medium grained
Large grained
Medium grained
Large grained
1
3
3
2
1
23
2
1
1
3
7
1
3
Fine grained
Medium grained
Fine grained
Medium grained
1
3
1
2
Table 54. Ground Stone Material Types and Textures,
West Component
Material
Texture
Igneous
Vesicular basalt
Granite
Granite
Alkaline feldspar rhyolite
Granodiorite
Sandstone
Metamorphic
Quartzite
Quartzite
Quartzite
Metamorphic micaceous
conglomerate
Total
Fine grained
Fine grained
Medium grained
Large grained
Large grained
Medium grained
Fine grained
Large grained
Fine grained
Medium grained
Large grained
Fine grained
Large grained
Medium grained
2
1
4
1
1
1
3
1
1
10
9
1
2
1
153
Table 55. Preform Morphology, East
Component
Preform morphology
Total
Indeterminate
Rounded cobble
Chunky or angular
Flattened cobble
Slab, not further specified
Slab, thin (5-10 cm)
Slab, very thin (< 5 cm)
5
2
10
13
17
2
10
Table 56. Preform Morphology, West
Component
Preform morphology
Total
Indeterminate
Rounded cobble
Chunky or angular
Flattened cobble
Slab, not further specified
Slab, thin (5-10 cm)
5
2
6
17
7
1
Table 57. Mano Cross Section,
Eastern Component
Mano Cross Section
Total
Indeterminate
Biconvex
Subrectangular
Irregular, one flat side
Irregular, one convex side
5
9
1
5
4
Table 58. Mano Cross Section,
Western Component
Mano Cross Section
Indeterminate
Biconvex
Dome, one flat side
Subrectangular
Irregular, one convex side
Total
3
11
1
2
5
(45 percent) and slabs of indeterminate thickness
(18 percent). Various other preform shapes made
up the remaining 37 percent (Table 56).
The cross sections of 37 percent of the manos
on the east side were biconvex (Table 57). The next
largest categories were irregular manos with one
flat side (21 percent) and indeterminately ground
manos (21 percent). On the western component, a
biconvex cross section (50 percent) was also the
clear majority (Table 58), with several (22 percent)
irregular manos with one convex side, and a number of indeterminate mano fragments (14 percent)
in the assemblage.
Plan View
Due to the number of broken artifacts in the assemblage, a large number of ground stone items on the
east component had indeterminate outlines (52 percent). Oval (19 percent) and subrectangular (15
percent) plan-view outlines were also noted. On
the western component, 39 percent of the outlines
were oval, while 34 percent were indeterminate.
Several other plan view outlines were present on
both components in very small quantities (Tables
59 and 60).
Table 59. Artifact Plan View,
East Component
Plan View
Total
Indeterminate
32
Circular
2
Oval
11
Subrectangular
9
Irregular
3
Square
1
Subtriangular
1
Table 60. Artifact Plan View,
West Component
Plan View
Total
Indeterminate
13
Circular
4
Oval
15
Subrectangular
4
Irregular
2
Mano Cross Section
Heat Alteration
The assemblage contained a high number of indeterminate and irregular mano cross-section shapes.
This was due to the high frequency of incomplete
artifacts.
The majority of the ground stone items from LA
103919 showed no evidence of heat alteration.
Heat alteration was visible on 29 percent of
the materials from the eastern component of the
154
Table 63. Ground Stone
Portion Remaining, East
Component
Portion
Total
Table 61. Heat Alteration and Function, Eastern
Component
Heat Alteration
Reddened
Reddened
Fractured
Fractured
Reddened and fractured
Blackened/burned
Blackened/burned
Blackened/burned
Blackened/burned
Function
Indeterminate
One-hand mano
Indeterminate
Metate
Indeterminate
Metate
Indeterminate
One-hand mano
Two-hand mano, trough
Maul, grooved
Total
1
1
1
1
2
5
3
1
1
1
Table 62. Heat Alteration and Function, West Component
Heat Alteration
Function
Total
Fractured
Fractured
Fractured
Fractured
Blackened/burned
Blackened/burned
Blackened/burned
Blackened/burned
Blackened/burned
Indeterminate
Mano
Mano, one-hand
Metate
Mano
Mano, one-hand
Mano
One-hand mano
Metate
Metate, trough
1
1
2
1
2
1
1
3
1
1
1
site. Of the items that showed some modification
from heat, the majority were reddened and fractured (12 percent), or fire-blackened and burned
(11 percent). On the west component, 45 percent of
the ground stone artifacts were heated. Of the
remaining materials, the greater number were fireblackened/burned (24 percent), while 13 percent
were fractured (Tables 61 and 62).
The heat-altered items on the east component
generally consisted of indeterminate ground stone
fragments (n=7), metates (n=6), and manos (n=3).
The west side had various types of manos (n=13),
in addition to three metates.
Many of the ground stone items that displayed
some heat alteration resembled fire-cracked rock.
It is likely that these artifacts were recycled for use
in stone boiling, or were simply discarded in or
near the fire once their use-life was exhausted.
Portion
On the eastern component, whole ground stone
items accounted for 19 percent of the assemblage.
The majority of the remaining fragments were
edge (31 percent) and internal (31 percent) fragments. End, medial, and corner fragments made up
Whole
End fragment
Medial fragment
Edge fragment
Internal fragment
Corner
11
2
4
18
18
6
Table 64. Ground Stone Portion
Remaining, West Component
Portion
Total
Indeterminate
Whole
End fragment
Medial fragment
Edge fragment
Internal fragment
Corner
Corner(s) only missing
2
6
2
4
10
4
7
3
the remaining 19 percent (Table 63).
On the western component, 16 percent of the
artifacts were whole, 26 percent were edge fragments, and 18 percent were corner fragments.
Several other portion fragments were present in the
remaining 40 percent (Table 64) of the assemblage.
Function
On the western component, manos (58 percent),
indeterminate fragments (21 percent), and metates
(18 percent) made up the majority of the assemblage. Of the 22 manos represented, 41 percent
were fragmentary, 41 percent were one-handed,
and 18 percent were two-handed manos (Table 65).
The 24 manos on the eastern component made
Table 65. Ground Stone Functions, West
Component
Function
Total
Indeterminate (fragment)
Polishing stone, pottery
Mano, not further specified
mano, one-hand
Two-hand mano, not further specified
Metate, not further specified
Metate, basin
Metate, trough; not further specified
8
1
9
9
2
2
4
2
1
155
Table 66. Ground Stone Functions,
East Component
Function
Total
Indeterminate (fragment)
Shaped slab
Mano, not further specified
mano, one-hand
Metate, not further specified
Metate, basin
Metate, trough; one end open
Metate, slab
Metate rest
Maul, grooved
14
2
18
3
3
10
3
1
2
1
2
up 41 percent of the assemblage; 75 percent were
fragmented, 12.5 percent were one-handed, and the
remaining 12.5 percent were two-handed. Metates
made up 27 percent of the artifacts, and this component also contained both the shaped slabs and
grooved mauls (Table 66).
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
A variety of ground stone artifacts were recovered
from LA 103919. Manos, metates, a polishing
stone, shaped slabs, and two grooved mauls were
Figure 46. Trough metate, Feature 1, LA 103919W.
represented. The assemblage is relatively small and
rather fragmentary, therefore only limited inferences can be made about the ground stone at LA
103919. From the western component, 17 out of 38
artifacts were found in features. A little more than
half of these (n=9) were associated with Feature 11
(Burial 6), while 4 were in association with Feature
4 (Burial 2). The remainder were recovered from
Features 1, 19, and 20. From the eastern component, 17 out of 59 ground stone items were recovered from features. Sixteen were in the cobble layers of the fill above Burials 4/5, and the last was
located in a circular hearth (Feature 27).
The ground stone items from the earlier, western component were manufactured primarily from
locally available river cobbles of both medium and
large-grained quartzite. Medium-grained basalt
was commonly represented. Tabular preforms,
composed of fine-grained sandstone, were also utilized. In addition, a small percentage of both fine
and large-grained quartzitic sandstones and other
materials were utilized. Eighty-four percent of the
recovered artifacts were incomplete, the majority
of which were edge and internal fragments. Over
half of the western assemblage consisted of manos,
and indeterminate fragments and metates were
other prominent functional categories.
Although most were too fragmented to ascertain the original shape, the definable manos were
generally one-handed, biconvex in cross section,
and either oval or circular in plan view. Four twohanded manos were recovered that were biconvex
or subrectangular in cross section and generally
subrectangular in shape. Out of the seven metates,
only three forms could be identified. Both basin
and trough metates were utilized, and were either
oval or subrectangular in plan view (Fig. 46). A
single pottery polishing stone with light striations
was also present in the collection.
Slightly more than half of the western assemblage showed no evidence of heat alteration.
However, 13 out of 22 manos, 3 of 7 metates, and
one indeterminate fragment all showed some evidence of association with thermal activity. Much of
the alteration consisted of surface blackening, fracturing, and discoloration or reddening of the item.
Of the burned artifacts, 11 were found in features (8
of these were in the fill associated with Burial 6).
The eastern component contained ground
stone items that were manufactured primarily from
locally available slab preforms of fine-grained
sandstone, and river cobbles of both large and
medium-grained quartzite. The angular or chunky
preforms consisted of fine-grained basalts and
large-grained metamorphic micaceous conglomerates. In addition, a small percentage of several
other preforms of a variety of material types and
textures were encountered. Eighty-one percent of
the artifacts from this component were fragments,
represented by a majority of edges and corners of
larger pieces. Manos constituted 41 percent of the
assemblage; less than one-third of the assemblage
was composed of metates. This component also
contained the only shaped slabs and grooved mauls
on the site (Fig. 47).
Of the definable manos, most were biconvex
in cross section, and indeterminate or oval in plan
view. The majority of manos were indeterminate
due to their fragmented state, however, several one
and two-hand manos were distinguishable. The
metates present were also fragmentary, with basin
and slab forms being the most identifiable. In addition, a single trough metate and a metate rest were
present. The majority of the metates had single use
surfaces. However, two showed multiple use surfaces (Fig. 48). Basin and slab metates appear to be
the most common, though many metates were frag-
Figure 47. Mano converted to maul, LA 103919.
Figure 48. Metate with multiple use surfaces.
mentary. In plan view, the indeterminate category
was the most common for metates, while oval, subrectangular, irregular, and square shapes were also
present.
Ground stone artifacts were most commonly
found in the southern and western areas of the eastern component, and the effects of thermal alteration were present on 29 percent of these artifacts.
The visible alterations included a discoloration or
reddening of the material, fracturing, or a
burned/blackened surface. Of the burned items,
only three were recovered from features, two of
157
which were from the fill of Burials 4 and 5. The
majority of burned artifacts were in the general site
fill.
Most of the ground stone preforms from LA
103919 were probably obtained from nearby alluvial gravel terraces, from within site boundaries, or
from the nearby Pojoaque River. Sources for tabular sandstone are found locally and in outcroppings
throughout the upper Rio Grande area.
It is likely that the ground stone from this project was used for food processing, probably corn
and other plant species. Several items were evidently reused in cooking activities, and appeared as
fire-cracked and burned ground stone on the site.
Several of the ground stone items were also recycled for use in the fill of Burial 2, Burial 4/5, Burial
6, and in several features (Features 1, 19, 20, 27).
The ground stone artifacts on the site appeared
to change in both material and functional categories throughout the time the site was occupied.
On the earlier site, one-hand manos and basin
metates predominate. Several trough metates and
two-hand manos were also present. On the later
site, the specialization of trough metates was more
158
apparent, with the addition of slab metates in the
assemblage. Several of the ground stone items on
both components showed evidence of pecking to
maintain the grinding surface. The increased frequencies of sandstone used for grinding implements on the later component may be indicative of
the use of a material that needed no additional
pecking to maintain a good grinding surface. In
addition, the groups who occupied both components evidently recycled their ground stone items
in cooking activities and in the fill of burials and
features.
The change in grinding implements was common during the time period represented on the site
(A.D. 900–1100). As the culture became less
migratory, their tools appear to have become more
functionally efficient and specialized for grinding
plant material. There may have also been an
increased dependence on consumption of both cultivated and wild plants as a food resource, especially in the later component. The increase in
ground stone artifacts, and variation of material
types and functions, may be the result of a more
sedentary people inhabiting the eastern component.
ORNAMENTS AND MORE: THE MISCELLANEOUS
ARTIFACT ASSEMBLAGE
Sonya O. Urban
LA 103919 produced a wide variety of objects that
were classified under the miscellaneous category.
This group included such artifacts as pendants,
effigies, manuports, ornaments, and minerals. The
site comprised two separate components. On the
basis of ceramic analysis, the east side was determined to be a mixture of Red Mesa and Kwahe'e
pottery, with the west side consisting primarily of
Red Mesa ceramics. The time period represented
by the two components is approximately A.D.
900–A.D. 1200. The analysis should provide some
insight into certain economic aspects of the community, such as prehistoric trade routes, trade
goods, personal adornment, and ceremonial items.
The artifacts will be discussed first according
to specific use categories. Second, a comparison of
the two components and some general trends
across the site will be made. Third, a discussion of
specific trends across the site according to materials used and their sources, morphology, and various aspects of manufacture (including final shapes
of ornaments, drilling technologies, etc.), and
finally, a discussion of trade and trading patterns
and material sources will be presented.
METHODS
The analysis of the miscellaneous artifacts was
based on criteria developed for the Luna Project
(Urban 1999). Artifacts were analyzed on an
assemblage basis rather than by provenience
because of the size of the collection. The monitored variables included: material type, morphology, shape, condition, drill hole type, drill hole
measurements, manufacturing stage, surface treatment, count, weight, length (and portion), width
(and portion), thickness (and portion), and source
of materials used.
All miscellaneous items were recorded and
measured. Notable artifacts were either photographed or drawn. Measurements were made in
millimeters with a sliding caliper and artifact
weights were recorded in grams. Each miscellaneous artifact was examined with a binocular
microscope to assist in identification of material
types and morphologies. The magnification varied
from 10x to 80x, with the higher magnifications
being used to closely examine drill holes, manufacturing stages, and wear patterns.
Material sources were identified by gross category unless specific sources were recognized.
Figure 49 identifies terms used in reference to shell
morphology when discussing the manufacturing
process. The term "wear" pertains to the identification of characteristics present from the use of the
item, as opposed to manufacture. "Condition"
refers to whether the whole artifact is represented,
or only a portion of the original piece.
All artifacts were recorded as being either
whole or fragmentary. Material types, morphology
and sources were monitored to assist in the determination of possible trade routes, in addition to the use
of local versus imported materials. Drill hole forms
and measurements, manufacturing stages, and surface treatments were recorded to determine if the
ornaments were locally produced or imported as finished goods. The shape of the artifact is used as a
general indicator of the forms most often selected.
MISCELLANEOUS ARTIFACT ANALYSIS RESULTS
The artifact collection from LA 103919 is a
diverse assemblage, and represents both locally
available and imported goods. There were 87
miscellaneous items collected from the site (41
from the east and 46 from the west component).
These items were recovered from various contexts. The artifacts are represented by both
whole and fragmentary objects, a broad variety
of materials, and a number of proveniences.
The following is an analysis of the materials
according to gross morphology.
Ornaments and More
159
Figure 49. Shell morphology.
Indeterminate
A total of 24 fragments of freshwater mussel shell
of indeterminate function were found throughout
the site. Some of these pieces were found in association with Burials 2, 4, 5, and 6, and may have
been in the soil at the time of interment. A few of
the fragments are burned and very friable, and may
represent evidence of the burning of the burial
mounds. The average dimensions of the shell fragments are 8-by-10-by-1 mm, and the total weight is
1.26 g.
Inlay/Mosaic
Two pieces of mosaic inlay were found on the site
(Fig. 50). Both are formed from a freshwater
bivalve, and are highly modified. The shell tessera
found on the eastern component was ground on
four edges to form a square (Fig. 50a). This item is
fully shaped, with no modifications made to the
surface, and measures 8-by-8-by-1 mm. The iridescent side was probably used as the face of the
mosaic piece. The other tessera was found on the
west side in association with Feature 19. The top
surface of the shell is ground, and the edges abrad-
ed and beveled to produce a flat, round disc (Fig.
50b). The piece is fully shaped and measures 12
mm in diameter and 2 mm thick.
Broken Ornaments
A total of four broken ornaments were recovered,
with average dimensions of 7-by-6-by-2 mm. One
partial turquoise ornament was found in association with Burial 3. Both faces are polished, but the
original shape is indeterminate since only an interior fragment was recovered. The upper section of
a San Andrés ("Fingerprint") chert pendant was
found in Feature 19 (Fig. 51a). The original overall
shape appears to be subrectangular, and it was fully
Figure 50. Modified shell used in mosaic inlay.
Figure 51. (a) San Andrés chert pendant, Feature 19,
(b) partial shell pendant.
Figure 52. Clay bear effigy, LA103919E.
shaped and polished at the time of breakage. The
pendant fractured during the drilling process, and
the remaining fragment contains a partially biconically drilled hole measuring 1–2 mm in diameter. A
partial shell pendant found on the west side is subrectangular, has two ground edges, and no surface
treatment (Fig. 51b). This item is made out of
freshwater mussel, and broke during shaping. A
fragment of an olivella shell was found in floor
contact on the west side of the site. This fragment
is the upper edge where the spire of the shell had
been ground off to form a tubular bead. The piece
probably fractured at a fragile point while it was
being worn.
by-4 mm. Most of the minerals were found in the
general site fill. Two of the turquoise fragments
were found in association with Feature 11 (Burial
6). A single turquoise fragment was found in the
upper fill of Burial Pit 4/5. The hematite sample
was ground flat on one side, possibly for use as a
paint stone. Three pieces of soft limonite (yellow
ochre) were recovered from Feature 1, and were
not modified. They measure 9-by-9-by-6 mm on
average.
Ornament Debris
Nine fragments of ornament-manufacturing debris
were found throughout the site. All are turquoise
and were ground, abraded, or chipped from larger
pieces in the process of ornament fabrication. Two
were found in association with Burial 2, one in
Feature 19, another in Burial 5, and a single one in
the fill of the west wall on the eastern half of the
site. The remainder were found in the general fill of
the site. The mean dimensions are 6-by-4-by-2
mm, with a total weight of 0.98 g.
Mineral Samples
Fifteen mineral samples were collected across the
site. These consisted of nine turquoise fragments,
four pieces of limonite, and one piece each of
hematite and gypsum. All of the fragments are fairly small, with an average measurement of 9-by-6-
Effigy/Fetish
A single effigy made of locally available micadominated northern Rio Grande clay was found on
the eastern component of the site. The figurine was
made from a single piece of clay and fully shaped
to represent a bear (Fig. 52). It has a smoothed surface and measures 31-by-17-by-18 mm.
Manuports
Six manuports were recovered from the site (Fig.
53). Five are sandstone ball concretions, two of
which were found in the fill of Burials 4 and 5. One
of those found in the burial shows evidence of
burning. The other manuport is a waterworn nodule ("Apache Tear") of Cerro del Medio obsidian
found associated with a sandstone ball in Feature
19. Both types of concretions are commonly found
in the area. The diameters of the sandstone balls
range from 11 mm to 69 mm, with an average of 28
mm. The total weight of the sandstone concretions
is 450.5 g. The piece of obsidian measures 19-by13-by-11 mm.
Ornaments and More
161
Figure 53. Sandstone concretion and Apache tear associated with Burials 4 and 5, LA 103919E.
Pendants
Three complete pendants were found on the site
(Figs. 54, 55). Two of these were found in the cobble layers covering Burials 4 and 5, while the other
pendant was found during testing on the western
Figure 54. Turquoise pendants.
Figure 55. Pendant associated with Burials 4 and 5, LA
103919E, freshwater mussel.
component of the site. The two pendants found in
association with the burials are turquoise, oval in
plan view, and fully shaped, polished, and drilled
(Fig. 54). Both are biconically drilled at one end of
the length of the artifact, with one pendant having
an off-center drill hole. The drill holes measure 2
mm, and 2–3 mm in diameter. Both pendants
exhibit some wear polish, and average 14-by-11by-3 mm in size. The single pendant of freshwater
mussel found during testing has both chipped and
ground edges, is subrectangular in overall shape,
and has a biconical drill hole measuring 2–3 mm in
diameter. The entire piece measures 25-by-15-by-2
mm, and is fully shaped and drilled, with no evident wear polish (Fig. 55).
Discoidal Beads
Fifteen discoidal beads were found on LA 103919
(Fig. 56), thirteen of which came from the eastern
component. Four of the beads were from the fill of
Burials 4/5, two were from the top of Feature 28.
Two beads were found in Feature 19 on the west
component. The remainder of the beads were located in the general fill of the site. The materials used
to manufacture these beads varied and consisted of
shale, jet, travertine, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks. The metamorphic beads have a distinct
waxy polish, and were probably made from the
same piece of parent rock. There are 10 whole and
5 partial beads. All of the beads are fully shaped,
drilled, and polished. Four of the beads are wedgeshaped, unlike the typical flat profile. A few beads
also show evidence of wear polish, and wear pat-
Figure 56. Discoidal beads, LA 103919.
Figure 57. Olivella shell beads (a-d), bone bead (e), and unidentified shell bead (f).
terns from the beads strung adjacent to them. Two
of the three shale beads had split across their thicknesses due to the foliated nature of the material
used. The drill holes varied among biconical, conical, and cylindrical, with the size of the drill holes
between 1 and 2 mm. The average measurement of
the discoidal beads was 5-by-4-by-2 mm.
Other Beads
Six beads of nondiscoidal morphology were found
throughout the site (Fig. 57). Four were olivella
shell beads, one was bone, and another was a
bilobed bead made from an unidentified shell. The
olivella beads had their spires ground off to form a
cylindrical bead, designed to be strung through the
hollow cavity. One olivella bead was found in
Burial 2, the bone bead was from Feature 19, and
the bilobed bead came from the cobble layers
above Burials 4 and 5. The remainder of the olivella beads were found in the general fill of the site.
Of the shell beads, one has minimal wear, while
another was originally beach weathered. The burial-associated bead has both the spire and canal
ground down, wear polish from stringing, and such
heavy use on the aperture side that a hole was worn
through. The olivella beads have an average measurement of 15-by-7-by-6 mm.
The bone bead from Feature 19 was formed by
cutting a small mammal bone to create a tube. The
cutting marks are still visible on one face and on all
the edges of the bead. The edges of the bone bead
were abraded, not polished, and it measures 8-by4-by-3 mm overall. The bead is darkened, possibly
from human skin oil.
The other bead found on the site is a bilobed
shell bead, which was probably made from a piece
of Glycymeris shell. The bead is perforated biconically on the smaller lobe, the hole measuring 2 mm
in diameter. The shell is fully shaped, drilled, polished, has little wear polish present, and measures
9-by-6-by-4 mm.
Cordage
A fragment of fiber cordage was found in the general fill of the eastern component of LA 103919. It
is made from an unidentified plant fiber, and measures 4.6 cm in length. The cordage has a total
diameter of 3 mm, and the diameter of each ply
Ornaments and More
163
measures 1.5 mm (Fig. 58). The cord is a 2-ply Sspin Z-twist, which is a classic right-handed pattern, formed by rolling the cordage on the thigh.
Textile Fragment
Figure 58. Cordage, LA 103919E.
Figure 59. Textile, LA 103919W.
A small textile sample was recovered near Burials
1 and 3 at LA 103919, western component. Burials
1 and 3, which were contemporaneous, were located under large sandstone slabs, and were discovered adjacent to a low bedrock outcrop. Burial 3
was associated with Red Mesa and Kana'a
Neckbanded pottery, tentatively dating the burials
and associated items to ca. A.D. 900. The textile
fragment, measuring 2 by 3 cm, was identified as a
piece of plain white weave cotton cloth and patterned with a supplemental weft or embroidery of
dark brown cotton yarn. The yarns are all 2-ply, Stwist (2z-S), and the cloth is well preserved but
fragmentary (Fig. 59). A full analysis and subse-
quent radiocarbon dating of the textile are discussed in Appendix 4. After analysis, the cloth was
returned to Pojoaque Pueblo for repatriation.
DISCUSSION OF ANALYSIS
Despite the small number of artifacts found in reliable contexts at LA 103919, there is enough evidence to allow for some limited inferences concerning materials and sources, morphology, manufacturing practices, and the trading of raw materials and finished products throughout the
Southwest. On the basis of ceramic analysis, two
components were present: the western component
dates approximately A.D. 900–1000, and the eastern component A.D. 1000–1200.
For the discussion of the miscellaneous artifacts from LA 103919, site trends will be discussed
in general and then according to separate components in several categories. Several changes
became apparent in the assemblages during the
occupation of the two components when the artifacts were grouped into varying categories according to use, material sources, morphologies, drilling
processes, artifact proveniences, etc. The disparities between the east and west components may
represent a change in procurement (and possibly
manufacturing) practices, or the difference
between separate populations occupying each
component. The occupation of the western component preceded that of the eastern side. Based on the
assemblages, the components appear to have separate but similar ornamental traditions, which may
indicate a hiatus between the occupations.
A total of 85 miscellaneous artifacts were
identified (Table 67). A large number of the artifacts were fragments of local mussel shells. A relatively large number (n=21) of the artifacts were
identified as turquoise, some of which had been
modified. Almost half of the artifacts (47 percent)
were found in features; two of these were in floor
contact. Overall, about one-quarter of all miscellaneous items were associated with burials. The rest
were recovered from the general fill. Thirty ornaments (both whole and broken) were found on the
site, the majority of which were recovered from the
east component. Half of the ornaments were in features; nine were burial goods. There were five pendants (two were broken); two were made from
mussel shell, two were turquoise, and one unfinished pendant was made of San Andrés chert. A
single ceramic effigy was also recovered. The variability of the materials and morphologies was most
noticeable between the two components.
The western component of the site appears to
have been occupied from about A.D. 900–A.D.
1000, which may represent several generations of
occupation. An assortment of artifacts was recovered from this component, including a single whole
shell pendant, several olivella shell beads, a bone
bead, several manuports, an inlay piece, a cotton
textile, two disc beads, and several broken ornaments (shell, turquoise, and chert). On this component, more of the materials were recovered from
features (55.5 percent) than from the general fill.
About a third of the artifacts found in features (8 of
the 25) were associated with the burials. The burial-associated material consisted mainly of both
modified and unmodified turquoise fragments and
a small amount of freshwater shell.
Although few ornaments were found on the
western component, 38 percent of the artifacts
were ornament related (this number includes manufacturing debris, and both broken and whole ornaments). A total of 12 ornaments (both whole and
broken) were recovered (Table 68). The majority of
ornaments were imported olivella shell beads. Four
out of five of the shell beads were found on this
component, including a fragment found in floor
contact. A small amount of turquoise was present,
but there were no manufactured ornaments. Only
two ornaments were associated with the burials.
In addition to the ornaments, a segment of
loomed cotton cloth was found between Burials 1
and 3. The fragment was directly radiocarbon
dated. The cotton weaving has a 2-sigma calibrated range of 510 ± 50 B.P. (or A.D. 1325 to 1340
and A.D. 1390 to 1460). Due to the appearance and
proximity of the burials, it was assumed during
excavation that both juveniles had died and were
interred at the same time. However, if the cloth
fragment was associated with either burial, they
might not be contemporaneous. An additional
problem is the location of the textile itself; since it
was found between the burials, it may be an intrusive element from a later period. Burial 3 was associated with Pueblo II ceramics, and Burial 1 was
located at the same depth just centimeters away.
Ornaments and More
165
Table 67. Miscellaneous Artifacts from LA 103919
FS No.
Description
Context
15
3 pieces limonite
Feature 1
17
32
34
3 pieces river clam
1 river clam
Broken ornament
52N/53E, Strat 1
Burial 2 association
Cerrillos turquoise?
78
Olivella bead, 2 pieces of
turquoise ornament
debris
1 river clam, 2 pieces
unused turquoise
1 river clam
1 piece unused turquoise
54N/46E Strat 1
52N/46E Strat 1
105
107
119
127
Olivella bead, 1 piece
unused turquoise, 1
piece turquoise ornament
debris
53N/45E Strat 1
130
131
135
1 river clam
3 river clams
1 river clam, 1 broken
Olivella bead
Olivella bead
Turquoise ornamental
debris
Broken ornament
3 river clams
4 river clams, 1 river
clam inlay, 1 turquoise
ornamental debris, 2
manuports, 1 broken
pendant, 2 discoidal
beads, 1 bone bead
55N/44E Strat 2
55N/44E Strat 2
55N/44E Floor 2 contact
54N/43E Strat 1
58N/44E Strat 2
Feature 19
River clam
176
210
Mineral sample
Shell pendant
57N/42E Strat 2
Testing
Gypsum
River clam
505
513
514
2 discoidal beads
Bear effigy
River clam, 2 discoidal
beads
Manuport, discoidal bead,
turquoise ornamental
debris
1 manuport, 1 piece
unused turquoise
Discoidal bead
Turquoise ornamental
debris
River clam
River clam, turquoise
ornamental debris
100N/103E Level 3
99N/102E Strat 2
101N/105E Strat 2
Ceramic
Olivella bead
1 piece of inlay
1 piece of limonite
1 piece of unused
2 discoidal beads
104N/91E Strat 3
102N/97E Strat 3
102N/91E Strat 2
103N/94E Strat 2
Feature 2
138
140
147
168
170
515
516
521
523
524
525
534
536
541
554
559
568
166
Comments
51N/45E Strat 1
55N/43E Strat 1
Fingerprint chert,
98N/103E Strat 2
100N/105E Strat 2
100N/106E Strat 2
101N/104E Strat 2
West w all fill
East of w est w all
102N/95E Strat 3
Heavily w orn
River clam
FS No.
571
579
580
598
603
609
Description
Context
Comments
River clam
2 manuports, 1 piece
unused turquoise
4 discoidal beads, 2
pieces turquoise
pendants, 1 bilobed shell
bead, 2 pieces river
clam, 1 piece turquoise
ornamental debris
103N/91E Strat 2
Feature 6, Burials 4-5
Burial 5
Hematite
Discoidal bead
103N/101E Strat 3
103N/103E Strat 3
General fill
Ground
Table 68. Artifact Types
According to Gross Morphology,
West Component
Morphology
Totals
Indeterminate
Inlay/mosaic
Broken ornament
Ornamental debris
Mineral
Ochre
Manuport
Pendant
Discoidal bead
Other bead
Textile fragment
18
1
4
5
5
3
2
1
2
4
1
Table 69. Artifact Types
According to Gross Morphology,
East Component
Morphology
Totals
Indeterminate
Inlay/mosaic
Ornamental debris
Mineral
Effigy
Manuport
Pendant
Discoidal bead
Other bead
Cordage
6
1
4
7
1
4
2
13
2
1
While technologically this textile could have been
made during the Developmental period, the radiocarbon date does not support an A.D. 900 to 1000
date. However, the artifact assemblage was domi-
nated by Red Mesa Black-on-White, corrugated,
Kana'a Neckbanded, and plain ware ceramic artifacts; there were no other later artifacts present on
the site indicating either a later occupation or even
transient use of the site. We are simply left with a
mystery as to how a textile dating to the 1400s
could have been associated with two juvenile burials on a site dated to the 900s. The presence of various imported items suggests that the residents
either had trading affiliations with various cultural
groups, or transported their possessions from their
original homeland.
Based on the ceramic artifacts, the eastern
component was occupied between approximately
A.D. 1100 and A.D. 1200. A broad variety of materials were recovered from this component, and
have been described earlier in this section. The
eastern component contained fewer artifacts in the
features than in the fill (62.5 percent were in the
general fill). Out of the 15 artifacts found in features, 13 were from the burials. There were also 18
ornaments recovered (Table 69), seven of which
were in features (all seven came from Burials 4 and
5). The burial goods consisted of a number of finished ornaments, a few pieces of turquoise debris,
one mineral turquoise fragment, and two manuports. Two fragments of mussel shell were also
recovered from the burials.
Ornamentally related artifacts (including whole
ornaments and debris) accounted for 56 percent of
the eastern assemblage (Table 70). The majority of
the ornaments were disc beads, four of which were
recovered from the burials. Based on these differences, the residents of the eastern component appear
to have had different ornamental preferences than
the group occupying the western side (Table 71).
Ornaments and More
167
Table 70. Ornament Material, Morphlogy and Final Shape, West
Component
Material
Morphology
Shape
Totals
Indeterminate
San Andres chert
Metamorphic
Turquoise
Small mammal bone
Freshwater shell
Freshwater shell
Freshwater shell
Olivella
Olivella
Discoid bead
Broken ornament
Discoid bead
Broken ornament
Other bead
Inlay/mosaic
Broken ornament
Pendant
Broken ornament
Other bead
Table 71. Ornament Material, Morphology, and Final Shape,
East Component
Material
Morphology
Shape
Totals
Sedimentary
Travertine
Shale, brown
Shale, gray
Shale, black
Metamorphic
Turquoise
Jet
Freshwater shell
Shell
Olivella
Discoid bead
Discoid bead
Discoid bead
Discoid bead
Discoid bead
Discoid bead
Pendant
Discoid bead
Inlay/mosaic
Other bead
Other bead
Round
Round
Round
Round
Round
Round
Oval
Round
Square
Bilobed
Cylinder
4
1
1
1
1
1
2
4
1
1
1
While it appears that similar items were collected by the residents of both components, some
variability was apparent between the assemblages. The greatest disparity was detected in the
use and sources of ornaments. A greater number
of artifacts were found in the two eastern burials
than in the seven burials in the west component,
as well as an increase in the presence of ornaments and the assortment of material types. While
an equal number of imported goods were present
on both components, the exotic materials differed
slightly. The utilized resources appeared to have
increased during the occupation of the later component. These later residents also used fewer
exotics from great distances (such as shell from
coastal sources), and focused more on regionally
available materials for their ornamentation. They
appear to have switched to a more regional trading system, which may have included some trade
with the inhabitants of Chaco Canyon. Earlier
exotic goods could have been obtained through
trade with Chaco Canyon, the Hohokam, or northern Mexico.
Oval
Subrectangular
Round
Indeterminate
Cylinder
Round
Subrectangular
Subrectangular
Indeterminate
Cylinder
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
Table 72. Material Sources for LA 103919, Western Component
Material
Source
Totals
Indeterminate
San Andreas chert
Obsidian, Cerro del Medio
Metamorphic
Turquoise
Gypsum
Limonite
Concretion, sandstone
Small mammal bone
Freshwater shell
Olivella shell
Cotton textile
Indeterminate
Imported, Grants
Local
Local
Imported, Cerrillos?
Local
Local
Local
Local
Local
Imported, Gulf of California
Imported, unknown
1
1
1
1
10
1
3
1
1
21
4
1
Materials and Sources
Although the total assemblage was rather small,
the variety of materials utilized was broad. Raw
materials from LA 103919 originated from both
local and distant sources. The imported materials
include San Andrés chert ("fingerprint" chert),
olivella shell, jet, a possible Glycymeris shell bead,
turquoise, and cotton cloth, for which the sources
of many can be traced.
Several disparities were apparent when the
material frequencies from the two components
were compared. From the western component
(Table 72), the majority of materials were freshwater mussel (47 percent), turquoise (22 percent), and
olivella shell (10 percent). The other materials represented accounted for less than 10 percent each.
On the eastern component (Table 73), freshwater
mussel shell accounted for 20 percent of the materials, turquoise was more common at 27 percent,
and jet, sedimentary rocks, and sandstone concretions accounted for 10 percent. The frequency of
other materials was less than 10 percent each of the
Table 73. Material Sources for LA 103919, East
Component
Material
Sedimentary
Travertine
Shale, all colors
Metamorphic
Turquoise
Hematite
Limonite
Jet
Concretion, sandstone
Northern Rio Grande Gray
Freshwater shell
Shell
Olivella shell
Cordage, plant fiber
Source
Local
Local
Local
Local
Imported, Cerrillos?
Local
Local
Imported, Four Corners
Local
Local
Local
Indeterminate
Totals
4
1
3
1
11
1
1
4
4
1
7
1
1
1
total. An extensive variety of materials were utilized on the east side, which was accompanied by
the declining occurrence of olivella and freshwater
mussel.
Most of the materials recovered from the site
can be found throughout the region. From the east
component (Table 73), the imported materials
made up 42.5 percent of the total as compared to
the west side, of which 35 percent of the materials
are imported (Table 72). Turquoise, which comprises 24 percent of the materials in the entire
assemblage, is found in the area around Cerrillos,
which is a well-known prehistoric and historic
source of the mineral. None of the turquoise artifacts was chemically sourced, since the actual
sourcing of Cerrillos turquoise is difficult due to
compositional variability characterizing different
samples from the same mines in the area. The
turquoise appeared to be clustered solely on the
western component, and with the exception of
Burial 2, the vast majority of the mineral in all of
its forms was located on the southern portion of the
site. Turquoise on the eastern component was
widely distributed.
San Andrés chert is also found outside the
region; the closest source for this material is an
area south of Grants (LA 9075). A major source for
jet is the Four Corners region, in the Dakota sandstone formations. Although jet-like substances are
to be found in the Jemez area (Dakota sandstones)
and also in the coal seams near Madrid, it is more
likely that the source material for the jet is in the
vicinity of Chaco Canyon. This idea is supported
by the abundance of imported ceramic artifacts,
and the similarity of ornaments made at Chaco
Canyon during the same time period (Mathien
1992). Only 6 of the 34 shells recovered were foreign to the area. The imported shell is almost
entirely olivella, with the exception of the bilobed
bead, which is probably Glycymeris. The shell
bilobed bead lacked distinguishing characteristics
that would aid in an exact identification. The
marine shells and (possibly) the cotton cloth were
all imported, and most likely came from trade
routes associated with Chaco Canyon, Meso-america, or the Hohokam areas.
The locally available materials can be sourced
with some certainty. Obsidian nodules are occasionally found in the gravel terraces that make up
much of the surrounding landscape, and in the
nearby Jemez Mountains. Sandstone concretions
are also found locally, and often assume odd
shapes. The freshwater mussels were a local
resource at the time. Similar bivalve shells have
been found at Arroyo Hondo Pueblo (Venn 1984)
and at Chaco Canyon (Mathien 1984, 1992). The
exact genus and species of shell is unidentified,
and their natural distribution has not yet been
determined. The bivalve would probably need a
year-round water source; at the time, the closest
source would have been the Pojoaque River, which
runs less than a quarter-mile from the site. The
mussel shell was used to make ornaments (the pendant and the tesserae), and if there was another use
for the shells (for example as tools or a food
resource), there was no obvious evidence for it.
The extreme brittleness of this type of shell makes
it somewhat difficult to work with, which may
have been a deciding factor for its decline as an
ornament.
The variety of materials collected across the
site is inferred to be evidence of a nonlocal group
settling into the region and establishing a permanent residence. Presumably when the inhabitants of
the site first moved to the region and settled down,
they were restricted in the materials that they used,
since their knowledge of the region was limited. As
they stayed in the area and began to explore the
local resources, the use of a wider range of materials was reflected in the archaeological record. This
pattern of material use was evident when the later
part of the site, represented by the east component,
was compared to the earlier occupation of the west
side. The increasing utilization of local materials
Ornaments and More
169
Table 74. Average Measurements by Gross Morphology,
East Component
Morphology
Indeterminate
Inlay/ mosaic
Ornament debris
Mineral
Manuport
Pendant
Discoid bead
Other bead
Total
Length
Average
Width
Average
6
1
4
7
4
2
13
2
9.8
8
6
9.1
32
14
4.7
10.5
6.2
8
4.3
6.9
30.3
10.5
4.2
5.5
Thickness
Average
1
1
1.8
3.9
28
2.5
1.8
4
may be attributed to people exploring and eventually exploiting their surroundings. The disparity in
material use between the two components may also
be attributed to the differences between two separate populations utilizing both local and exotic
resources. The trade route connection to the Four
Corners area and the ties to prehistoric turquoise
mining at Cerrillos have been extensively documented (Levine and Goodman 1991; Wiseman and
Darling 1986; Mathien 1984). Both the jet and the
San Andrés chert could also have come to the site
through trade with groups from that area.
Morphology
There were several use categories into which the
material from LA103919 fell. A number of ornamental forms and related paraphernalia were present, as were a variety of minerals, manuports, and
other assorted items. The overall morphologies
were similar for both components of LA103919,
although some of the frequencies were different.
There was a variety of ornaments present that were
utilized in the embellishment of the human body.
For the time period considered, bilobed shell beads
and olivella were common ornaments in the region,
as were subrectangular pendants made of turquoise
(other materials used for pendants are more rare at
this time). Jet disc beads are distinctive Chacoan
ornaments, and shale beads are also common in the
Chaco region. In Pueblo I and Pueblo II times,
stone disc beads are uncommon with the exception
of the Chaco Canyon region (Jernigan 1978).
There was some diversity in the morphological frequencies of the analyzed material (Tables 74,
75). On the west side of the site, 40 percent of the
materials were of indeterminate morphology (all
mussel shell), whereas on the east side, only 15
170
Table 75. Average Measurement by Gross
Morphology, West Component
Morphology
Indeterminate
Inlay/ mosaic
Ornament debris
Mineral
Manuport
Pendant
Discoid Bead
Other Bead
Total
Length
Average
Width
Average
12
1
5
5
2
1
2
4
8.6
12
5.4
8.8
20
25
4.5
13.5
6.7
12
3.8
5.8
16
15
4
6.3
Thickness
Average
1
2
2
3.6
14
2
1.5
6
percent were indeterminate (all but one were freshwater bivalve). On the western component, 37 percent of the material was related to ornament usage
(ornaments, broken ornaments, and the manufacturing debris), while on the east side, 54 percent of
the material was ornamental. The frequency of
ornament manufacturing debris and minerals
recovered from both components were similar. The
eastern component had the only effigy found on the
site, and twice as many manuports. The western
component had 18 mussel shell fragments, whereas the eastern side only had 6.
On the western component, two mussel shell
pendants (one was broken) and a broken chert pendant were recovered; all were subrectangular in
shape. Two stone disc beads were recovered, as
were four shell beads and a bone bead. On the east
component no broken ornaments were found; there
were two complete ovoid turquoise pendants,
many disc beads (one-third in the burials), and two
shell beads (one bilobed).
Beads were more common on the site than
pendants, especially on the eastern component.
Mineral use and manufacturing debris appear to
have remained constant, and the collection of
manuports increased slightly. The people who
lived in the western component had few ornaments
made of locally available freshwater shell, bone,
or marine shell. They also wore pendants, although
two were broken. From the evidence found on the
eastern component, it appears that they gave up
using brittle materials for ornaments (for example,
bivalve shells) for more durable ones (like
turquoise and other stone). There was also an
increase in the use of small disc beads. The eastern
occupants' use of freshwater bivalves as a natural
resource appeared to decline, while ornamentrelated material increased.
Manufactured Artifacts
Across the site a number of modified artifacts were
recovered. While most of these were either broken
or whole ornaments, several were classified as
ornamental manufacturing debris. Seventeen of the
artifacts on the west side of the site were culturally
modified; four of these were broken ornaments,
and five were debris from the manufacture of ornaments. On the east side, 24 of the objects were
modified, there were no broken ornaments, and
four were debris. Out of a total of nine fragments
of ornament debris, three were found in the burials,
and two more were recovered from features. Most
of the recovered ornaments are whole and fully
shaped. The majority of the ornaments were small
disc beads (mostly from the east side). There was
also a number of cylindrical beads, pendants, and
two mosaic tessera. All of the finished ornaments
had a polished surface.
Many of the ornaments were perforated for
suspension. There are three types of drill holes that
can be found on ornaments: conical, biconical, and
cylindrical. All are formed in a similar manner,
with a drill and abrasive to create an opening.
Biconical drilling has a greater advantage on fragile materials since the pressure can be minimized
by drilling on both sides, instead of on a single
side, as with conical drilling. To form a cylindrical
hole through a material that has no inner cavity, a
biconically drilled hole is formed, then either
evened out with abrasive, or smoothed through
wear (which would tend to produce an uneven interior hole). Another way to form a cylindrical hole
may be to use a drill with a uniform thickness.
However, this seems unlikely, as it would tend to
Table 76. Ornament Material, Morphology and Drill Hole Types for the West Component
Material Type
Morphology
Drill Hole Type Drill Hole Top
Drill Hole
Bottom
Total
Indeterminate
Discoid bead
Biconical
2
1
1
San Andres chert
Broken ornament
Biconical
2
1
1
Metamorphic
Discoid bead
Biconical
2
2
1
Small mammal bone
Other bead
Cylindrical
2
2
1
Freshw ater shell
Pendant
Biconical
3
2
1
Olivella
Other bead
Cylindrical
3
2
2
Olivella
Other bead
Cylindrical
3
2
2
Olivella
Other bead
Cylindrical
5
2
1
Table 77. Ornament Material, Morphology, and Drill Hole Types for the East
Component
Morphology
Drill Hole Type
Drill Hole
Top
Sedimentary
Discoid bead
Biconical
2
2
2
Sedimentary
Discoid bead
Conical
2
2
1
Sedimentary
Discoid bead
Cylindrical
2
2
1
Travertine
Discoid bead
Biconical
2
1
1
Shale, brow n
Discoid bead
Cylindrical
1
1
1
Shale, grey
Discoid bead
Conical
1
1
1
Shale, black
Discoid bead
Biconical
2
2
1
Metamorphic
Discoid bead
Biconical
2
2
1
Turquoise
Pendant
Biconical
2
2
1
Turquoise
Pendant
Biconical
3
2
1
Jet
Discoid bead
Biconical
2
2
1
Jet
Discoid bead
Cylindrical
2
2
3
Shell, nfs
Other bead
Biconical
2
2
1
Material
Drill Hole
Bottom
Totals
Ornaments and More
171
fracture fragile materials and is an inefficient
drilling technique.
The drilling technology on the western component was evenly divided between biconical and
cylindrical holes (Table 76). The cylindrical designation for this component is artificial, since the
materials defined (olivella shell and bone) have
natural cylindrical cavities and need little modification to form a bead. The inhabitants favored natural forms for beads and pendants, and could have
easily accomplished the manufacturing on-site.
The stone ornaments with biconically drilled holes
would have taken more time and effort to manufacture than the bone and freshwater and marine
shell ornaments.
The eastern component had seventeen drilled
ornaments (Table 77): biconically drilled, cylindrically drilled, and conically drilled. One cylindrically drilled artifact is an olivella shell bead, and
the remainder are stone. A variety of drilling techniques were used, with biconical drilling as the
most prevalent. Naturally hollow materials were
taken advantage of only once. A greater amount of
locally available stone was used for ornaments.
The importance of drilling methods is interconnected with the type of material used. Some
materials are more friable than others when drilled
(jet and shale, for example), and may tolerate less
pressure from drilling than sturdier materials (such
as travertine, sedimentary, and metamorphic
rocks). The vast majority of the ornaments had a 2mm drill hole diameter. The sedimentary and shale
beads were drilled using all three methods, and all
had very small holes (2 mm and 1 mm). The jet
was mostly cylindrically drilled, with the same
inner hole dimension (2 mm). The remainder of the
ornaments were biconically drilled.
While most of the beads had the typical flat
profile, four of the thirteen disc beads on the east
side were wedge shaped. The materials used for
these beads were jet (n = 2), sedimentary rock (n =
1), and shale (n = 1). This profile may be unintentional from the grinding process, but on the other
hand, it may be to make a necklace curve better
(Merrin 1995).
All of the manufacturing debris consisted of
turquoise that was ground on at least one side.
There was little evidence of ornament manufacture
on the site, with the exception of the manipulated
turquoise and the freshwater shell. The small size
of the turquoise fragments does suggest manufacturing debris, but since there were only nine debris
fragments, the sample size is too small to suggest a
substantial amount of ornament manufacturing.
Also lacking were large pieces of turquoise with
the matrix attached, raw material caches, and ornament blanks, which would all indicate a manufacturing site. Instead, the pieces may have been
Table 78. Ornament Material, Morphology, Manufacturing Stages, and Surface Treatments for
the West Component
Material
Morphology
Manufacturing Stage Surface Treatment Totals
Indeterminate
San Andres chert
Metamorphic
Turquoise
Turquoise
Turquoise
Turquoise
Turquoise
Turquoise
Small mammal bone
Freshwater shell
Freshwater shell
Freshwater shell
Olivella
Olivella
172
Discoid bead
Broken ornament
Discoid bead
Broken ornament
Ornament debris
Ornament debris
Ornament debris
Ornament debris
Ornament debris
Other bead
Inlay/Mosaic
Broken ornament
Pendant
Broken ornament
Other bead
Shaped and drilled
Broken in drilling
Shaped and drilled
Indeterminate
Indeterminate
Broken in shaping
Manufacturing debris
Drilled, partly shaped
Shaped
Partially shaped
Shaped and drilled
Indeterminate
One end ground
Polished
Polished
Polished
Polished
ground
ground
unmodified
ground
Polished
Incised/polished
Ground
Unmodified
Unmodified
Unmodified
Unmodified
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
Table 79. Ornament Material, Morphology, Manufacturing Stage, and Surface
Treatment for the East Component
Surface
Material
Morphology
Manufacturing Stage
Total
Treatment
Sedimentary
Travertine
Shale, brown
Shale, gray
Shale, black
Metamorphic
Turquoise
Turquoise
Turquoise
Turquoise
Turquoise
Jet
Freshwater shell
Shell
Olivella
Discoid bead
Discoid bead
Discoid bead
Discoid bead
Discoid bead
Discoid bead
Orn. debris
Orn. debris
Orn. debris
Orn. debris
Pendant
Discoid bead
Inlay/Mosaic
Other bead
Other bead
Shaped and drilled
Shaped and drilled
Shaped and drilled
Shaped and drilled
Shaped and drilled
Shaped and drilled
Partially shaped
Broken in shaping
Broken in shaping
Broken in surface treatment
Shaped and drilled
Shaped and drilled
Shaped
Shaped and drilled
Two ends ground
acquired from a mining or production site (which
would explain the grinding), or else the mineral
was brought to the site for final processing after
most of the parent rock was removed. If manufacturing of ornaments occurred on-site (other than
the mussel shell), no specific ornament-making
tools were identified (files, drills, lapidary stones,
or ground stone). Most ornaments appear to have
been made off-site and brought in as finished ornaments.
While it appears that similar items were collected by the residents of both components, several differences were apparent between the assemblages. The greatest variability appeared in the use
and sources of ornaments. On the earlier, western
component, materials were modified as little as
possible to form ornaments (i.e., the bone and
olivella beads, and the chipped shell pendants)
(Table 78), while during the later phase, the
emphasis was on heavily manufactured items
(turquoise pendants and stone disc beads) (Table
79). Beads were the predominant ornament, and
there was an increase in disc beads on the later site
accompanied by a corresponding decrease in the
shell beads. The overall pendant shape changed
from subrectangular to ovoid, and finished ornaments became smaller through time on the site.
Although the manufacturing debris may represent on-site ornament manufacture, there is not
Polished
Polished
Polished
Smoothed
Polished
Polished
Ground
Ground
Smoothed
Ground
Polished
Polished
Unmodified
Polished
Polished
4
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
4
1
1
1
enough material to draw any definitive conclusions. As the utilization of local resources grew,
proficiency in manufacturing techniques seemed to
expand. This was evident through the craftsmanship of the worked ornaments (for example,
turquoise pendants and disc beads) found in the
later phase. While both ornament use and the
assortment of material types increased through
time, the resources used seem to change on the
later component. These differences may be a result
of two separate populations, and their varying
knowledge of local resources and trade routes.
TRADE AT LA 103919
The subject of trade in the Southwest is extensive,
and will only be discussed as it relates to the economy of LA 103919. The residents of the site utilized a variety of local materials, along with a number of imported items (shell, jet, and a cotton textile, for example) that were either traded for or
brought onto the site. The assemblage is too small
to support any hypothesis regarding frequency or
intensity of trading between groups, but some limited conclusions can be drawn from the available
data. The numerous imported items, their sources
and trading routes, will be discussed in the following section.
In general, a great deal of exchange occurred
Ornaments and More
173
in Southwestern prehistory, and the trade routes
have been extensively researched (Brand 1935,
1938; Tower 1945; Colton 1941; Warren and
Mathien 1985). Often these trade routes are reconstructed based on the locations of river valleys,
mountain passes, water sources, easily traveled
landscapes, and routes used by ethnohistoric populations. The conjectured routes are also based on
the distribution of archaeological materials of
obviously exotic origin (Venn 1984). Some
exchanges may not be evident if two groups are
trading similar items. When cultures interact
(exchange material goods) over a lengthy period of
time, similar stylistic forms and design elements
will develop as one group adopts an idea from
another. This can be seen among the Hohokam,
Mogollon, and Anasazi, especially in their ornaments (McNeil 1986; Jernigan 1978).
Trade is often a necessary activity in a society.
A community may be self-sufficient in certain raw
materials and crafts, yet lacking in other areas.
Exchanges with other groups can provide critical
items (ritual items, clothes, and possibly food) to
replenish exhausted supplies, or provide resources
that are not locally available. Regional trade is a
form of foreign policy that is necessary for intertribal relations, and for maintaining boundaries and
relations with others (Ford et al. 1972). This transfer of materials could have been accomplished by
mutual assistance, gambling and gaming, ceremonial redistributions, and trading or raiding parties;
several modern and ethnographic equivalents of
these conjectured prehistoric exchange methods
have been suggested (Ford et al. 1972, 1983;
Seymour 1988). Prehistoric procurement, production, and manufacture may have been practiced
within a single family, or accomplished by kin
groups who then traded with other family/kin
groups with possible Hohokam or Mexican connections as "family" (Seymour 1988).
The imported items from the western component suggest that the residents had potential trading
affiliations with the Hohokam, Mexican groups,
and possibly the Mogollon. Mexico was interconnected with the Chaco system and the turquoise
trade, and by A.D. 1000, was also producing highquality loomed and embroidered cloth and importing quantities of Cerrillos turquoise (Haury 1976;
Harbottle and Weigand 1992; Weigand et al. 1977).
On the eastern component, the residents of the
174
site appear to have switched to a more regional
trading system, which may have included trade
with the inhabitants of the San Juan Basin. The
later residents exploited fewer long-distance exotic
materials like shell, and focused on locally available materials for their ornamentation. Although
cotton fiber and textiles were probably major items
of prehistoric trade, the exact extent cannot be documented because of generally poor preservation of
perishable material culture on sites of this period.
Shell Trade
The majority of the shell artifacts found on LA
103919 were from a species of freshwater bivalve.
While the source for most of the shell was local,
the majority of the shell ornaments were made
from imported olivella. Olivella shell beads have
been found on many other sites from the same time
period in the region, including Chaco Canyon
(Mathien 1992).
Olivella and Glycymeris shell were prehistorically available from several sources. Olivella sp.
may come from the Gulf of Mexico, the Gulf of
California or the west coast of California. Olivella
dama comes from the gulfs, and Olivella biplicata
from the west coast. Olivella dama exhibits a narrower profile than the robust Olivella biplicata.
The shell collected from LA 103919 appears to be
closer to the Olivella dama species, which might
suggest trade, interaction, or contact with groups
from the Gulf of Mexico. The Hohokam were the
predominant group involved in the shell trade
routes, seemingly as importers or middlemen, from
sources primarily along the Gulf of California
(Hayden 1972; McGuire 1992). Hohokam shell
manufacturing was at its height during the
Sedentary period (approximately A.D. 900–1100)
(Haury 1976), which was also when LA 103919
was occupied. Since there was no evidence for
imported shell bead manufacture on the site, it is
presumed that the ornaments were obtained in a
finished state, probably through trade with the
Hohokam.
Cotton Trade
A folded fragment of 1/1 balanced plain weave
white cotton cloth, patterned with dark brown
extra-weft floats, or possibly embroidered (Fig.
59), was recovered between two juvenile burials on
the western component of the site. It was tentatively associated with Burial 1. The textile was directly radiocarbon dated approximately A.D. 1425 (2sigma, calibrated A.D. 1325 to 1340 and A.D. 1390
to 1460).
Some of the earliest domesticated cotton originated in Mexico around 3400–2300 B.C. (Haury
1976), which was introduced into the Hohokam
area possibly as early as A.D. 300 (Kent 1983a;
Haury 1976). Cotton and woven cloth appear in the
Mogollon archaeological record between A.D. 300
(Kent 1983a) and A.D. 700 (Martin 1954; McGuire
1992). Cotton appears in a few BMIII Anasazi sites
as both finished textiles and woven with other
fibers (Kent 1983a, 1983b), and it occurred more
frequently in PI Anasazi sites (Kent 1983a, 1983b).
From A.D. 700 to 1000, loom-woven cotton fabrics
became more prevalent in the Anasazi area. By
A.D. 700 the Anasazi were weaving their own
cloth and by A.D. 1000, growing cotton (Kent
1983a, 1983b). Within the next 200 years, cotton
embroidery that originated in northern Mexico
(Mera 1975) became a known technique in the
Anasazi region (Kent 1983a). It is commonly
accepted that textiles fabricated in the Rio Grande
did not occur until Pueblo II–III times. There is
evidence for Gossypium sp. from virtually every
agricultural feature in the upper Rio Grande, but
when it was grown and whether it was the right
species for weaving is problematic. Until the
Anasazi learned to grow and weave their own cotton, they probably traded for raw materials and finished cotton textiles with Mexico or the Hohokam.
At the time LA 103919 was occupied, there
was increased interaction between the Anasazi and
Mogollon (Reid 1989; Bluhm 1957) that may have
included trading cotton fibers and finished textiles.
It is conceivable that the Mogollon acted as intermediaries in the trade between Mexico, the
Hohokam, and the Anasazi (Jernigan 1978). If the
trade of cotton fibers and textiles is considered in
addition to the greater trading complex, the notion
of cotton cloth as an import to the project area at
that time is not surprising. Whether the cotton
found in the Anasazi area originally came from the
Hohokam (McGuire 1992; Doyel 1991) or through
Mogollon trade with Mexico (Martin 1954) cannot
be determined with the available information.
It is difficult to establish when and to what
extent cotton occurred in the study area because the
material is extremely perishable outside of caves
and very arid environments. However, there is
prior archaeological evidence of trade (especially
for cotton) taking place before and during this time
that would allow for the cotton cloth to have been
present in the Nambé area during the occupation of
the western component. The recovery of such an
early textile, whether it was locally produced or
introduced as a trade item should add to the knowledge of trade and technology of this time period
(Appendix 4).
Turquoise Trade
Turquoise comprised almost one-quarter of the
miscellaneous materials recovered from LA
103919. As previously mentioned, the closest
source of turquoise is in the Cerrillos hills to the
south. It is likely that the raw material came from
the vicinity of Cerrillos since the area was mined
prehistorically, and saw an increase in use during
the Developmental period.
Prehistoric mining of Cerrillos turquoise has
been well documented (Levine and Goodman
1991; Sigleo 1970; Warren 1976; Warren and
Mathien 1985; Wiseman and Darling 1986), and
the material is suspected to have been traded a fair
distance between A.D. 900 and 1200. Cerrillos
turquoise has been found in an extraordinary burial
at Ridge Ruin near Flagstaff, Arizona (McGregor
1943), Chaco Canyon (McNeil 1986; Warren and
Mathien 1985), Snaketown (Haury 1976), and Alta
Vista in Northwest Mexico (Weigand 1982;
Harbottle and Weigand 1992). The distribution of
sites yielding turquoise artifacts seems to indicate
a widespread use of the material, no matter what
the original source. This suggests turquoise was
selected as a desirable commodity.
Although an initial date for the prehistoric
mining of turquoise at Cerrillos has not been established, various dates have been suggested.
Harbottle and Weigand (1992) believe that
Cerrillos turquoise was exported to Northwest
Mexico (Alta Vista) by A.D. 700. Yet large numbers of turquoise artifacts have not been recovered
from sites dating before A.D. 900 (Weigand et al.
1977), and do not appear to be found on typical
Late Developmental sites (Wiseman and Darling
1986). Turquoise ornament manufacturing work-
Ornaments and More
175
shops show up in Chaco Canyon around A.D.
920–1020 (Mathien 1984), with Cerrillos as the
likely source for the raw materials. Red Mesa and
Kwahe'e pottery found at various Cerrillos mining
and workshop sites appear to date the mining to
approximately A.D. 900–1100 (Warren 1976;
Weigand et al. 1977; Wiseman and Darling 1986;
Warren and Mathien 1985; Cameron 1995).
There are several hypotheses as to who did the
actual mining and subsequent distribution of
Cerrillos turquoise. Chaco Canyon has often been
portrayed as a major production and distribution
center of turquoise (Weigand 1982; Harbottle and
Weigand 1992; Neitzel 1989; Jernigan 1978).
There were obviously some connections between
the miners, Cerrillos turquoise, and Chaco Canyon,
whether it was local Rio Grande residents
(Wiseman and Darling 1986; Warren and Mathien
1985; Weigand et al. 1977; Cameron 1995),
Anasazi who moved into the area (Wiseman and
Darling 1986), or Mesoamericans (Weigand 1982)
who did the actual mining. Based on present
ceramic evidence, turquoise traffic may have
occurred between the source in Cerrillos and the
Rio Grande residents (Warren and Mathien 1985;
Wiseman and Darling 1986; Cameron 1995),
through the Mt. Taylor region (Wiseman and
Darling 1986), possibly through LA 835 (Frisbie
1983) (which is located between LA 103919 and
the Cerrillos hills), to end up at Chaco (Jernigan
1978; Weigand 1982; Neitzel 1989; Harbottle and
Weigand 1992).
Turquoise was exported to Mesoamerica
through Chaco Canyon (Neitzel 1989; McNeil
1986; Warren and Mathien 1985; Weigand 1982;
Harbottle and Weigand 1992), and some have suggested that the rise in turquoise production at this
time may have been due to a Mesoamerican stimulus (Snow 1973; Weigand et al. 1977; Weigand
1982; Neitzel 1989; Harbottle and Weigand 1992).
Because of the numerous trade items found on the
site, there was at least some connection between
the Chaco area, LA 103919, and Mexico.
Other Materials Traded
Along with the trade of shell, cotton, and turquoise,
a few other nonlocal items were brought onto the
site. Several jet beads and a San Andrés chert pendant were recovered. The jet is available in coal
176
seams in the Chaco Canyon area (Mathien 1984),
and the closest source for San Andrés chert is in the
Grants (Four Corners) area. These materials may
have been obtained through trade routes associated
with Chaco Canyon.
CONCLUSIONS OF ANALYSIS
Miscellaneous items are often found in burials,
caches, and midden areas. These items are generally not found in large enough quantities or over a
long enough period of time to allow for conclusions about the extent of contact between different
cultures. Often, the only conclusions that can be
drawn are that people traded with other people.
The various imported items suggest that the residents had potential trading relations with several
cultural groups. The time period reflected by the
components (A.D. 900–A.D.1200) represents a
time when the cultures throughout the Southwest
and Mexico were in flux. This is primarily reflected in the distribution of material goods. Contact
with other cultures appears in the form of goods
and raw materials that are not native to the area.
Based on a comparison of component assemblages, the data analyzed from LA 103919 suggest
that two separate groups of people inhabited the
site. Although similar items were collected from
each component, differences appear in both the frequency and sources of the ornamental assemblages. The inhabitants of LA 103919 apparently
first settled the western component. They appear to
have had some trading affiliations with southern
groups, but whether they traded with Chaco or with
the Hohokam or Mexican people directly is
unclear. Based on the miscellaneous artifact analysis and the ceramic evidence, these people were
recent immigrants with ties to the Chaco area.
Whatever groups they traded with provided access
to a number of nonlocal resources. Adornments
consisted primarily of naturally formed beads (like
olivella and bone) and modified freshwater shells.
This part of the site may have been abandoned after
a generation or two.
It is unclear whether the later population on
the eastern component occupied the site at the
same time as those from the western side. The temporal interval suggested by diagnostic artifacts
from both components suggest that the two occupations did not overlap. The eastern residents had
ornaments that were stylistically and materially
more typical of Chaco than elsewhere. Yet, the
ceramics show a decline in possible contact (Dean
Wilson, pers. comm.). Thus, while their ties to the
Chaco area may have been through emigrating from
that area, it is possible the relationship was merely
trade. At that time, there was substantial contact
between the Rio Grande pueblos and the San Juan
Basin, and the movement of goods and people
might have been a precursor to movement into the
Rio Grande area from Chaco later on (Cameron
1995). The eastern residents had greater quantities
of ornaments, used fewer exotics from great distances (such as shell from coastal sources), and
focused more on regionally available materials for
their ornamentation. While both ornament use and
the assortment of material types increased through
time, the resources that were being used appear to
have changed on the later, eastern component.
The differences between the east and west
components represent a change in procurement,
and possibly manufacturing practices. The changes
may also represent the difference between two separate populations, and their knowledge of local
resources and trade routes. The exotic goods may
simply represent the immigration of people to the
area, bringing nonlocal goods with them. The foreign materials in the assemblage probably represent trade with several of the major Southwestern
cultures that were involved in exchanging goods.
These items provide a dynamic picture of the economic practices of the Developmental period in the
Rio Grande Valley.
Ornaments and More
177
178
HISTORIC ANALYSIS
Natasha Williamson
During excavations in the Nambé area, an aspect of
the project was directed toward recovery of artifacts from the historic period. This effort had two
foci: testing the homestead and excavating a single
small trash pit located some distance from the
structural remains of a homestead. This feature was
still partly within the project area. A total of 545
artifacts were recovered from the two proveniences. Although the two proveniences were some
distance apart, one artifact allows them to be associated with some confidence.
ANALYTICAL METHODS
A conservative approach was used in the identification of artifacts. Most can, bottle, and jar fragments are assigned to the unidentified category,
although many are almost certainly related to foodstuffs. Even whole artifacts may be assigned to the
unidentified category without further identifying
marks. For instance, around the turn of the century,
spices and talcum powder were both marketed in
cans that today we would associate with baking
powder. Flavoring extracts were sold in what are
now called medicine bottles, as were toiletries.
Lard pail fragments may be indistinguishable from
peanut butter or axle grease containers.
Bone was processed through the usual
Museum of New Mexico faunal remains analysis,
but the bone counts are added to the foodstuffs category of the historical analysis.
HOMESTEAD TESTING RESULTS
A total of 149 artifacts were recovered during the
testing phase. This number includes a few ceramic
sherds from the present owners' collection. The
majority were in the unidentified category (n =
111). Artifacts relating to economy and production
were missing from the inventory, as were furnishings. The construction and maintenance category is
also very low, a pattern usually associated with
adobe construction rather than frame housing. In
the unidentified category, 60.6 percent were various metal categories and 35.8 percent were glass.
Only two small fragments of bone were recovered during testing. They were unidentifiable
beyond being of mammalian origin, as the larger
was only 11-by-3-by-1 mm.
Table 80 gives number of artifacts and percentages, expressed in decimals, for the categories
of analysis.
Table 80. Artifact Number and Percentages by
Analysis Category for the Homestead Testing
Analytical Category
Frequency/Pct.
Economy and Production
Foodstuffs
Indulgences
Domestic Routine
Furnishings
Construction and Maintenance
Personal Effects
Entertainment and Leisure
Transportation
Unidentified
Total
0/0
3/2.01%
1/0.67%
20/13.42%
0/0
10/6.7%
2/1.34%
2/1.34%
0/0
111/74.5%
149/99.98%
Dating the Homestead Assemblage
Ceramic artifacts were most useful in dating the
assemblage from the homestead. Glass artifacts
gave contradictory results.
Only four pieces (7.41 percent) of sun-altered
purple glass, which is generally dated between
1880 and 1920, were recovered from the homestead provenience, which seems low if the major
occupation was in that period. None was highly
colored.
Window glass has lately been used as a dating
technique with some success (Chance and Chance
1976; Roenke 1978; White 1990). Generally, window glass thinner than 0.1inch is attributed to the
nineteenth century, although most prior research
has used primary, secondary, and even tertiary
modes of thickness from high numbers of speci-
Historic Analysis
179
mens to arrive at temporal indices. The eight pieces
from this assemblage are 0.045 inches in thickness,
generally held to be very early, ca. 1840, but recycling of glass probably played a large role in frontier New Mexico, which may account for the very
early date ascribable to this thickness. However,
one other explanation must be considered–that
there was an earlier structure on the site, not associated with the homestead.
There is also the nature of glass itself to consider. Glass, essentially a liquid, continues to flow
as long it is held vertically; therefore, the top of a
window pane that has been in place for some years
will always be thinner than the bottom. This attribute makes it dangerous to presume too much on
such a small sample. However, it is noteworthy
that all these pieces were of the same thickness.
A brown beer bottle base recovered during
testing bore the numbers 27 and 61 along with the
maker's mark of a square enclosing an N. This artifact is probably road trash. The bottle was made in
1961 by the Obear-Nestor Glass Co. of East St.
Louis, Illinois. During that year Obear-Nestor
made bottles for Budweiser, Coors, Pabst, and
Schlitz (Toulouse 1971). The number 27 refers to
the mold number. In the middle 1960s, ObearNestor merged with Indian Head Glass and in 1979
ceased using its own name. The last use of the N in
a square mark was in 1970 (Joe Nestor Millard,
pers. comm., March 1995). Without this artifact,
the indulgences category would also be void, and
for purposes of reconstructing the inhabitants' lifeways, should be considered as such.
One of the most important artifacts found during testing is the base of a white ware serving dish,
bearing a phoenix and the words TRADEMARK
above and IRONSTONE CHINA below. Under
that is the sigil W.B.S.& Co (Fig. 60). William
Brunt Son & Co manufactured ceramics between
1878 and 1892 (Kovel 1986:79).
Other ceramic artifacts, from the landowners'
collection, include pieces of a porcelain teapot,
with a beginning date of about 1880. It is white
with a blue paint under clear glaze decoration.
A marble was recovered at the homestead as
well. This marble is made of clay, with a simple
black glaze. Such marbles were made up until
about 1919 (Randall 1977).
With the exception of the problematical window glass, the datable artifacts give a beginning
180
Figure 60. White ware with maker’s mark.
date for the assemblage of not before 1880. Nor
were any artifacts found that were later than circa
1920. The homestead, or most of it, was probably
occupied during this span. How much time on
either side of that date is a question for the archival
research to answer.
RESULTS FROM EXCAVATION OF THE PIT
A total of 396 artifacts were analyzed from the pit
(Feature 14); 247 were unidentifiable (Table 81).
These were given the field sample number (FS)
137. The majority of identifiable artifacts were
related to foodstuffs and domestic routine.
Construction and maintenance items were only
minimally represented and ammunition remains
were absent, which is an unusual feature of this
assemblage. The overall impression is that of
domestic refuse disposal.
Categorized by material type, 63 percent of
the assemblage were metal artifacts; 21 percent
were glass; bone, 6 percent; clay, 5 percent; leather
Table 81. Artifact Numbers and Percentages by
Analysis Category from Feature 14, Pit
Analysis Category
Foodstuffs
Indulgences
Domestic Routine
Furnishings
Personal Effects
Transportation
Unidentified
Total
Frequency/Pct.
4/.25%
63/15.91%
1/.25%
42/10.61%
0/0
17/4.29%
17/4.29%
4/1.01%
1/.25%
247/62.37%
396/99.99%
classes, 3 percent, and all other material types 2
percent. In the unidentified category, 54.8 percent
were metal artifacts and 5.3 percent were glass.
With one exception (furnishings), all analysis
categories were represented. A few pieces of grating, assigned to the unidentifiable category, were
reminiscent of the interlocking gratings found on
pre-1930 gas heaters, but were of a different material type. Nevertheless, they may be some sort of
furnishing. Table 81 presents frequencies and percentages of artifacts in each category.
The refuse in the pit was not formed by the
same processes. Thirty-three percent of the bone
had been burned, as had 25.3 percent of the other
artifacts, prior to their deposition here. While the
rest of the artifacts were occasionally ashy, most did
not have any signs of active burning. Any artifacts
in the fire should certainly display that fact, as the
fire was hot enough to fuse steel nails to other artifacts. Thus the deposit represents trash that had previously been disposed of by burning and trash that
had not; the pit itself was a secondary deposition.
ARTIFACTS WITH MAKER'S MARKS
Only one artifact was recovered bearing identifiable maker's marks. One bottle bearing the legend
"SSMFGCo" was unidentifiable.
The most crucial artifact from the pit is the
base and body portion of a glass bottle bearing the
imprint of the Pacific Coast Glass Co., a concern
that was only in business from 1925 to 1930,
according to Toulouse (1971:414). Pacific Coast
Glass Co. was the successor to Pacific Coast Glass
Works, a firm that began business in 1904 in San
Francisco. It was founded by descendants of the
Newman family, glass makers from Pittsburgh who
had started in the glass business in San Francisco in
1865. At one point Carleton Newman had a monopoly on Western glass making. His sons actually ran
the PCGCo, changing the name to PCG Company
from PCG Works, after the elder Carleton retired
and modernization of the facilities was completed
with installation of fully automated bottle-making
machinery. New marks were used from 1925 until
the company merged with Illinois Pacific Glass
Co., becoming the Illinois Pacific Coast Co., with
another maker's mark change. In 1932 the firm
became part of Owens-Illinois Glass Co.
DATING THE DEPOSIT
Diagnostic artifacts indicate that the pit could not
have been formed before 1925 and potentially as
late as 1945 or 1950. The most confidently dated
artifact is the bottle base from Pacific Coast Glass
Co. which was only in business between 1925 and
1930 (Toulouse 1971).
Artifacts with beginning dates of 1895 (i.e., full
rubber heels attached with screws) are present in a
worn-out condition. This technique was generally
dropped in favor of gluing by 1930 (Anderson 1968).
A full rubber sole from a child's shoe was also present.
It was probably glued, which dates it to post-1930.
A gray-on-gray granite ware pot was present
in an intact but worn-out state. This color pattern
matches the description of a new style offered in
the Sears and Roebuck 1892 catalogue.
Contemporary observation has shown that granite
ware pots can have a use life of 20 years or more.
Only one piece of sun-altered purple glass
(circa 1880–1920), was recovered. Again, the piece
was not highly colored and generally matched the
color range of sun-altered glass at the homestead,
in spite of having been buried, which would be
expected to reduce the amount of ultra-violet light
absorbed by the artifact.
Nine pieces of window glass were found, and
as previously stated, window glass has some value
as a dating technique. However, since the pit is a
secondary deposit, there is no way of knowing
what cultural phenomenon would be dated with
these artifacts. Two pieces of window glass were
measured at 0.065 inch, usually dated ca.
Historic Analysis
181
1840–1850. Three pieces are 0.08 inch,
1850–1860, with two pieces at .009 and .0095,
which are generally dated 1855–1885 and
1870–1900. In keeping with prior research, it may
be safe to conclude that the window glass is nineteenth century in origin. How long the glass was in
its original location, how many times it was recycled, and how long it had been broken before deposition in the pit are unanswerable questions.
Metal artifacts were of little help in dating the
deposit. The most common recognizable artifact
was the impact-extruded sardine can, which was in
use long before 1925. The impact-extrusion technique grew out of the development of brass ammunition cartridges, and found many uses after the
Civil War. Containers made with this technique
completely replaced the three-piece sardine can by
about 1880.
Most metal artifacts were in such fragmentary
condition they were assigned to the unidentified category, although most are almost certainly portions
of food cans and the rusted remains of enamelware.
For instance, 20 artifacts were recorded as enameled
metal and 56 as indeterminate coating on ferrous
metal, most of which are probably enamelware.
At least two enamelware artifacts were present
in recognizable form. One was the gray-on-gray
graniteware pot discussed above, and the other was
fragments of a container, such as a pitcher or coffee
pot. It had a yellow, blue, white, and green floral pattern. Very bright, the original artifact was not graniteware and may even have been of Mexican origin.
Shoe fragments were a large part of the personal effects assemblage (n = 10), including three
pieces of a patent leather pump. Goodyear welting,
MacKay stitching, and simple stitched and nailed
techniques were used. The Goodyear technique
was patented in 1875, the MacKay process in 1862
(Anderson 1968). However, the rubber sole and
heel allow the beginning date for this category of
artifact to be advanced to at least 1895. Since the
sole in question was probably glued, that could
place the "not before" date even later, about 1930.
One other interesting artifact in this category was
an eyelet row of fabric and metal. Unfortunately,
no gender can be assigned to the owner of the
shoes represented by this artifact, as men's work
boots of the time occasionally had fabric tops
(1892 Sears and Roebuck catalogue), much like
modern "jungle boots." A pair of leather straps was
identified as spur straps on the basis of size, length,
and manner of attachment (stud holes) to the conjectured spur.
One other artifact illustrates a cultural trait of
that bygone era. It is a pencil that has been sharpened down to within 0.85 inch of the ferrule. While
it could be argued that the shortness of the artifact
is indicative of economic class, in actuality, virtually everyone who was born prior to the turn of the
century would have used it the same way. "Use it
up, make it do, or do without" was the motto of
most people in that era. Such frugality was also a
function of rural living. If the nearest replacement
was no closer than a half day journey by wagon,
one tended to "use it up."
The one item in the transportation category is a
wagon piece, called a screw pin clevis in the 1892
Sears, Roebuck catalogue (Fig. 61). This is the first
such artifact identified in the 17 years the Museum
has been doing formal historic analysis. Three rubber
and fabric pieces may be portions of hose, but
whether from garden hose or some other origin, such
as automotive equipment, is uncertain, since it would
be pure conjecture to state that they are hose fragments. Drive belts for machinery were also made
from rubber and fabric laminations, for instance.
Results from both testing the homestead and
excavation of the pit revealed the presence of children through toy fragments (Fig. 62). The most
important artifacts here are portions of an unusual
doll's head that was recovered from both proveniences, and thus allows some confidence to be
Figure 61. Screw pin clevis.
Figure 62. Doll’s face.
Figure 64. Unidentifiable copper item.
from the pit were recovered as well. No gender can
be assigned to the user of these artifacts. The wheel
is most likely from a toy vehicle (Fig. 63) and
might be considered to be a boy's toy, but marbles
were played with by both sexes.
BONE ASSEMBLAGE
Figure 63. Toy vehicle wheel.
placed in the speculation that the homestead inhabitants, or later owners, may also have been responsible for the trash pit. The doll head is exaggerated,
almost cartoonish and may have been part of a
marionette or carnival prize piece. It is definitely
not a "baby doll." Made from an unknown chalky
substance, crudely painted, it was probably a very
inexpensive item.
A marble from the homestead and a toy wheel
Thirty pieces of bone were recovered from FS 137,
the historic refuse pit which dates post-1925.
Eighty percent of the total (n=24) were identifiable
portions of bovids, probably cattle. Another two
are unidentifiable large mammal, probably cow.
Three are medium mammal, probably goat or
sheep, but possibly antelope, and one fragment of
chicken eggshell is also represented.
At least two individuals are represented in the
bovid remains, one a juvenile, the other a mature animal. One other aging code, mature young, was recorded for a single specimen only. This code was recorded
for a vertebra portion that had been butchered with a
saw and may represent "store-bought" meat.
The most common elements were from the
lower legs: nine phalanges, three metatarsals, three
metacarpals, one carpal, and one tarsal. Three
pieces of humerus were recorded, all from a mature
individual. Two vertebrae, both bovid; three scapula fragments, two from a medium mammal and one
from the immature beef animal; two rib fragments,
one each from a bovid and a medium mammal; and
Historic Analysis
183
three large mammal long bone fragments complete
the bone inventory from the refuse pit, FS 137.
Some degree of burning was exhibited by 33
percent of the specimens (n = 10). At least one
specimen, a large mammal long bone fragment,
exhibits canid gnawing, suggestive that the occupants kept a domestic dog.
Eleven different codes were recorded for
butchering marks. Fifteen specimens had at least
one cut and eleven had two cuts; one specimen
from a medium mammal had three. Only three
bone specimens showed saw marks, the rest were
presumably axe cut. The most common type of
butchering evidence was splitting: eight bones had
primary cuts and seven had secondary cuts in this
category. Two spiral fractures were recorded, as
were two impact fractures, although one of these
specimens had impact fractures on both ends.
The bovid humerus fragments are an interesting case. Of the three fragments, the first showed
one longitudinal cut and one indeterminate cut; the
second had one spiral fracture of the midshaft, with
impact fractures on both ends, while the third was
sawn transversely. These specimens show a mixed
butchering technique and suggest that more than
one individual bovid in the "mature" category is
represented.
The assemblage reveals a strong preference
for beef by the occupants. There was a major
dietary shift in the Southwest from sheep to cattle
that occurred around the turn of the century (MickO'Hara, pers. comm., April 1995). This evidence
fits well with the post-1925 date derived from the
glass artifacts. The mixed butchering techniques
are also characteristic of this era.
COMPARISON OF THE TWO PROVENIENCES
One of the questions that naturally occurred was,
"did the occupants of the homestead have anything
to do with the pit?" Several lines of evidence seem
to indicate that the pit was formed with refuse from
the homestead, but it cannot be proven that it was
by the same occupants. Later owners, in cleaning
up the premises, may be responsible.
A comparison of the two proveniences shows
some similar patterns, as shown in Table 82. The
indulgences category remains very low in both
assemblages. In neither locale was there evidence
of alcohol consumption, which must be considered
184
Table 82. Artifacts Percentages by Analysis Category
for Two Proveniences
Analysis Category
Foodstuffs
Indulgences
Domestic Routine
Furnishings
Personal Effects
Transportation
Unidentified
Total
Testing
Number/Pct.
FS 137
Number/Pct.
0/0
3/.0201
1/.0067
20/.1342
0/0
10/.067
2/.0134
2/.0134
0/0
111/.745
149/.9998
4/.25%
63/15.91%
1/.25%
42/10.61%
0/0
17/4.29%
17/4.29%
4/1.01%
1/.25%
247/62.37%
396/99.99%
unusual in New Mexico historic analyses. The one
beer bottle, a piece of modern road trash, is definitely later than the occupation. The only indulgence attributable to the inhabitants is a taste for
tobacco, represented by one hard rubber pipe stem
found in the pit. No cans that could be associated
with tobacco were found, which may imply a very
moderate use.
Transportation is absent at the homestead and
only one artifact from that category was found in
the pit. Construction and maintenance is also low
for both sites. It might have been slightly higher for
the pit because several articles had nail fragments
fused to them, which would have made the percentages even closer, but there is no way to code
for that in the present system. However, if the nail
fragment was large enough, it was recorded as a
separate artifact.
UNIDENTIFIABLE ARTIFACTS
Every historical analysis seems to yield certain
artifacts which are unidentifiable. Figure 64 shows
one of these. It is copper with a maximum diameter of 2.9 inches. It was probably associated with
an electrical artifact. The only other electrical item
in the assemblage was a piece of a battery core.
Although automotive use seems likely, early telephones also had a fairly sizable electric motor powered by batteries.
HISTORIC COMPONENT CONCLUSIONS
The present analysis seems to indicate that the pit
(Feature 14) and the homestead were associated.
The presence of the same doll's head fragments, as
well as other roughly analogous artifact categories,
suggests that the trash pit may have been excavated and used by the occupants of the homestead.
The research design (Maxwell 1994:55–56 in
Lentz et al.) called for inferences to be made on
the ethnicity of the population represented. The
artifact assemblage associated with the historic
component lacked the diagnostic artifacts suggestive of a Hispanic occupation, i.e, lithic artifacts,
Spanish wares, and local pottery. Also, our ethnographic research suggests the occupants were
“local.” However, “local” does not necessarily
mean Hispanic. Based on the market accessed, the
terminus post quem date of the deposit and its
association to the chain of title, we suggest that the
occupants of the historic component of LA 103919
represent a Euroamerican population.
Historic Analysis
185
186
FAUNA
Nancy J. Akins
Testing and data recovery at LA 103919 resulted in
the collection of 1,865 pieces of animal bone and
egg shell. Much of the sample was fragmentary
and most was severely pitted and rounded from
strongly acidic soils, hampering the identification
of individual elements. Overall, 73.8 percent of the
bone could not be identified beyond the size of the
animal. Unidentifiable elements made up 51.0 percent of the testing sample, 65.9 percent of those
from the west side and 80.7 percent of those from
the east side of the site. Such a large proportion of
unidentifiable bone inhibits our ability to reach
conclusions about species utilization.
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
The primary objective of the faunal analysis is to
add to the general body of data pertaining to subsistence practices in the northern Rio Grande
Valley during the Developmental period. Some
researchers maintain that movement onto the piedmont overlooking the river drainage resulted in the
utilization of a wide variety of foods and a diversification in subsistence economy between A.D. 650
and 1225. Explanations for this diversification vary
and include environmental or social stress, change
in cultural preference, decreases in agricultural
productivity, and human destruction of the environment. Other researchers question whether there
was diversification and see the existing data as
reflecting increasing specialization in food production with an emphasis on agricultural production
(Maxwell 1994:45–46).
Evaluating whether diversification or specialization occurred requires looking at the faunal data
from a temporal perspective. Since the site has two
temporal components (Red Mesa at A.D. 900 to
1000–1050 and Kwahe'e at A.D. 1000–1050 to
1200), changes in the faunal record should provide
information on how local resources were utilized
and whether subsistence practices changed
between the two periods. Such an examination
requires looking at the taxa utilized and how these
were processed, while considering the effect of
environmental conditions on the sample.
METHODS
Identification and recording of the faunal remains
from LA 103919 was accomplished using a modified version of the OAS faunal recording format.
Variables include provenience, number of items, an
indication that an identification was uncertain, the
taxon, whether the element was part of an articulation, the body part represented, element side, element completeness, portion of the element represented, the age of the animal, criteria for aging,
environmental alteration and degree, animal alteration and location, burning degree and location,
rounding, processing type and location, and
whether the element is a tool, ornament, or manufacturing debris.
Taxonomic identifications were made as specific as possible using the OAS comparative collection. When an element could not be identified to
species or even family, a range of indeterminate
categories identified the size of the animal
involved and whether it was mammal, bird, other,
or could not be determined. Each element (piece of
bone) was counted only once even if it was broken
into a number of pieces by the archaeologists. If
the break occurred prehistorically, the pieces were
counted separately with a notation in the articulation variable. Each element in two partial skeletons
(a badger and a prairie dog) was counted separately because both were fragmentary and parts could
have drifted into adjacent proveniences.
TAXA REPRESENTED
This section reviews each taxonomic category
examining relative abundance, habitat and range,
and processing and environmental variables when
appropriate. Table 83 gives a complete list of the
Fauna
187
Table 83. Taxa Recovered from LA 103919
Minimum
No. of
Individuals
Percent
Elements
Taxon
Unknown small animal
Unknown animal
Small mammal/ medium to
large bird
Mammal
Small mammal
Small to medium mammal
Medium mammal
Medium to large mammal
Large mammal
Small sciurid
Large sciurid
Spermophilus spilosoma
Spermophilus latralis
Cynomes gunnisoni
Thomomys b ottae
Pappogeomys castanops
Dipodomys ordii
Dipodomys spectab ilis
Cricetidae
Peromyscus sp.
Onychomys leucogaster
Neotoma sp.
Small rodent
Medium to large rodent
Sylvilagus sp.
Lepus sp.
Small canid
Large carnivore
Taxidea taxus
Medium artiodactyl
Large artiodactyl
Small to medium artiodactyl
Odocoileus hemionus
Antilocapra americana
Bovidae
Bos taurus
Ovis/Capra
Large bird
Egg shell
Ophidia
Toad or frog
Common Name or Body Size
No.
Rodent or smaller
Unknown
Rabbit or smaller/ crow to turkey
10
6
44
0.5
0.3
2.4
.
.
.
Mammal
Rabbit or smaller/ crow to turkey
Coyote or smaller
Coyote to sheep
Coyote to deer
Wolf or larger
Small squirrel
Large squirrel
Spotted ground squirrel
Golden-mantled ground squirrel
Gunnison's prairie dog
Botta's pocket gopher
Yellow-faced pocket gopher
Ord's kangaroo rat
Banner-tailed kangaroo rat
Mice
Various mice
Northern grasshopper mouse
Woodrats
Mouse
Woodrat or larger
Cottontail rabbit
Jack rabbit
Fox or small dog
Wolf or larger
Badger
Pronghorn or deer
Elk, bison, cow, horse
Sheep to deer
Mule deer
Pronghorn
Bovids
Cow
Sheep or goat
Large hawk or turkey
1
241
87
2
791
195
2
2
12
1
20
25
19
7
5
1
2
5
1
3
43
78
12
1
1
61
37
3
3
18
4
2
9
5
1
97
3
5
0.1
12.9
4.7
0.1
42.4
10.5
0.1
0.1
0.6
0.1
1.1
1.3
1
0.4
0.3
0.1
0.1
0.3
0.1
0.2
2.3
4.2
0.6
0.1
0.1
3.3
2
0.2
0.2
1
1
0.1
0.5
0.3
0.1
5.2
0.2
0.3
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
3
1
2
2
1
2
1
.
2
2
1
.
1
5
7
2
1
2
1
.
.
3
2
.
2
1
1
.
1
1
1865
100
43
Snakes
TOTAL
MNI = Minumum number of individuals
188
Taxon
Table 84. Counts by Major Provenience
Testing
West
No.
Percent
No.
Percent
Small animal
Unknown
Small mammal/ medium-large bird
Mammal
Small mammal
Small-medium mammal
Medium mammal
Large mammal
Small squirrel
Large squirrel
Ord's kangaroo rat
Cricetidae
Peromyscus
Woodrats
Small rodent
Medium-large rodent
Cottontail rabbit
Jack rabbit
Small canid
Large carnivore
Badger
Medium artiodactyl
Large artiodactyl
Mule deer
Pronghorn
Bovids
Cow
Sheep or goat
Large bird
Egg shell
Snake
Toad or frog
Totals
East
No.
Percent
.
3
.
.
5
.
2
12
2
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1
.
.
.
.
.
3
3
.
.
2
9
5
.
.
.
.
.
6.4
.
.
10.6
.
4.3
25.5
4.3
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
2.1
.
.
.
.
.
6.4
6.4
.
.
4.3
19.1
10.6
.
.
.
.
9
3
22
.
132
56
.
163
125
2
2
8
.
20
17
.
6
5
1
1
4
1
2
27
58
11
1
.
60
13
.
.
11
2
.
.
.
.
4
3
5
1.2
0.4
2.8
.
17.1
8.5
.
21.1
16.1
0.3
0.3
1.0
.
2.6
2.2
.
0.8
0.6
0.1
0.1
0.5
0.1
0.3
3.5
7.5
1.4
0.1
.
7.8
1.7
.
.
1.4
0.3
.
.
.
.
0.5
0.4
0.6
1
.
22
1
104
31
.
616
68
.
.
4
1
.
8
19
1
.
.
.
1
.
1
16
19
1
.
1
1
24
.
.
7
2
.
.
.
1
93
.
.
0.1
.
2.1
0.1
10
3
.
59
6.5
.
.
0.4
0.1
.
0.8
1.8
0.1
.
.
.
0.1
.
0.1
1.5
1.8
0.1
.
0.1
0.1
2.3
.
.
0.7
0.2
.
.
.
0.1
8.9
.
.
47
100
774
100
1044
100
Fauna
189
taxa, the common name or body size represented,
element counts and percentages, and the minimum
number of individuals (MNI) based on three major
provenience divisions.
The site sample is divided into three provenience units (Table 84). Testing produced a sample
of 47 bones, most (n=33) are from Test Pit 4 placed
near an historic adobe structure dating between
about 1880 and 1910. The others are from Test Pit
1 (n=9) on the west side of the site (south of NM
503) and Test Pits 6 and 7 (n=5) on the east side of
the site (north of NM 503). All testing material is
treated as a single unit, which primarily represents
historic use of the site area as only a single cottontail bone from the other test pits was identifiable
beyond size. Fauna recovered from the west side
represents the earlier or Red Mesa component of
the site (n=774) and that from the east side, the
Kwahe'e component (n=1044). Tables containing
precise information on many of the variables mentioned in this section are found in later sections of
this report.
in the west and east samples, most bone in this category is highly fragmented, often acid-pitted, occasionally burned, and a few are immature.
Unknown Small Animal
Relatively large numbers of bones could represent
either small or medium-sized mammals (4.7 percent). These were generally fragmentary, often
acid-pitted or checked, occasionally immature, and
sometimes burned.
Because so much of the bone is badly eroded, some
elements are identified only as small animal. These
could be small mammal, small bird, reptile,
amphibian, or even fish. Elements assigned to this
group were from the west and east divisions, are
often pitted by acidic soils, are fragmentary (less
than 25 percent of a body part), and some were
from immature animals (30 percent).
Unknown Animal
Unknown animal, again could be mammal, bird,
reptile, amphibian, or fish, but the body size could
not be determined. The unknown elements from
the west side resemble fish in texture but could not
be identified as such. All of the unknown elements
are fragmentary, half are acid-pitted, and half represent immature animals.
Small Mammal/Medium to Large Bird
Again, the condition of the bone made it difficult to
determine if an element was from a small mammal
or medium to large bird. Found in equal numbers
190
Mammal
A single element identified only as mammal (by
texture) was fragmentary, acid-pitted, and mature.
It was not possible to determine the size of the
mammal represented.
Small Mammal
Small mammal bones are relatively abundant representing 12.9 percent of the site assemblage (10.6
percent of the testing, 17.1 percent of the west, and
10.0 percent of the east sample). These are almost
always fragmentary, often acid-pitted, occasionally
immature, and the prehistoric samples exhibit a fair
amount of burning.
Small to Medium Mammal
Medium Mammal
The medium mammal was all recovered during
testing and represent an animal in the large dog to
sheep size range. These are fragmentary, half are
checked, and none is burned.
Medium to Large Mammal
Medium to large mammal is the largest taxon
encompassing 42.4 percent of the site sample, 25.5
percent of the testing sample, 21.1 percent of the
west sample, and 59.0 percent of the east sample.
This group probably includes a good deal of artiodactyl bone but acid etching has thinned the bone
table making it difficult to distinguish even medium from large mammal, especially when nearly all
of this taxon is fragmentary. The amount and
degree of burning is comparable to that found in
the large mammal and artiodactyl taxa as are the
kinds of processing observed. Acid pitting and
checking are fairly common, and neonate and
immature animals are represented.
Large Mammal
Large mammal bones represent 10.5 percent of site
sample, 4.3 percent of the testing sample, 16.1 percent of the west sample, and 6.5 percent of the east
sample. These numbers, combined with the amount
of acid pitting, suggest that size identification was
better in the west sample so that fewer bones were
placed in the medium to large taxon. Almost all of
the large mammal bone is fragmentary and
between half and three-quarters of the bone is acid
pitted, checked, or root etched. Few are immature
and this group has more burning than any taxon
except deer.
Small Squirrel
Two small squirrels are represented in the site
assemblage and those elements that could not be
identified to the species level most likely represent
these same species. The small squirrel elements are
moderately fragmented and are from immature animals. None are burned or even pitted suggesting
these are relatively recent additions to the prehistoric deposits, probably post-occupational burrowers.
Large Squirrel
Prairie dog is the only large squirrel identified from
this collection. It is possible that the two elements
identified as large squirrel represent a species other
than prairie dog. Rock squirrels also inhabit the
area (Findley et al. 1975:125–126) and are the best
possible alternative. The elements are both fragmentary and are acid-pitted.
Spermophilus spilosoma
The spotted ground squirrel inhabits arid grasslands and deserts throughout the state (Findley et
al. 1975:121). This small squirrel burrows and
hibernates during the cold season (Bailey
1931:111). It is the most numerous of the small
squirrels and may well represent post-occupational
burrowers rather than a resource utilized by the
prehistoric population. Found in both the west and
east proveniences, most are complete or large fragments, acid-pitted, and a fair number are from
immature individuals. None is burned.
cf. Spermophilus lateralis
The golden-mantled ground squirrel prefers meadows in montane forests but descends into piñonjuniper woodlands (Findley et al. 1975:128). As
burrowers and hibernators, these, too, may be postoccupational burrowers. The single element, most
of an ulna, is acid-pitted.
Cynomes gunnisoni
Gunnison's prairie dog can be found from low valleys
to parks and meadows in montane forests. They live in
loosely organized towns where as few as two or three
animals can form a colony (Findley et al.
1975:133–134). Prairie dog remains were found only
in the west sample and all but one were found with
Burial 2. Since the burial was disturbed, scattered prehistorically, and impacted by the backhoe, it is difficult
to assess this partial skeleton consisting of a portion of
the pelvis, much of a lower right leg, and a portion of
the left foot. It could represent an offering left with the
burial but is more likely a post-occupational burrower.
The elements are almost complete or nearly complete,
are from an almost full-size immature individual, and
are acid-pitted.
Thomomys bottae
Botta's pocket gopher occupies almost everywhere
that burrowing is possible (Findley et al.
1975:144–145). Archaeological sites seem to be a
favored habitat. Those from LA 103919 are found in
the west and east samples with a greater number and
proportion found in the west sample. The portion represented varies from complete to fragmentary, a fair
number are acid pitted, especially those from the west
side, and both mature and immature individuals are
present. None are burned or exhibit evidence of processing. It is quite likely that some, if not all, of the
pocket gopher remains from this site are from postoccupational burrowers rather than subsistence discards.
Fauna
191
Pappogeomys castanops
Peromyscus sp.
The yellow-faced pocket gopher was formerly
common in the Rio Grande Valley but is rarely
found there today. It occurs in sympatry with
Thomomys (Findley et al. 1975:154). The elements
from this species include central incisors that have
a distinctive longitudinal groove (Findley et al.
1975:143). All 19 pieces of bone from this pocket
gopher were from a single provenience and probably represent the same post-occupational burrower.
Bones vary in the amount of fragmentation, are all
acid-pitted, and are from a mature individual.
Several species of Peromyscus inhabit this portion of the Rio Grande Valley (Findley et al.
1975:204–224) and the two elements recovered
could represent any of these. As small rodents
that live underground or among rocks (Bailey
1931:144), these are an unlikely food source
and probably represent post-occupational additions to the archaeological record. The elements
are complete or nearly complete, one is acidpitted, and both are from mature individuals.
Onychomys leucogaster
Dipodomys ordii
Ord's kangaroo rat is a common and widespread
rodent occurring almost everywhere below midwoodlands, especially where soils are sandy
(Findley et al. 1975:174). Few were recovered
from the site, mostly from the west side. Elements
are complete or mostly complete, represent mature
individuals, and none is acid-pitted or root-etched.
The lack of burning and acid pitting, and the completeness of the bones, all suggest that this small
rodent was a post-occupational burrower rather
than a dietary item.
Dipodomys spectabilis
The larger banner-tailed kangaroo rat is a more
likely food source. These are not as widespread as
Ord's kangaroo rat and favor well-developed grasslands with heavier soil that can support their complex and deep burrow systems (Findley et al.
1975:180). All five elements were recovered from
the west side. These range from complete or nearly complete elements to fragments, one is acid-pitted and another root-etched, and all are from
mature animals. None are burned but one has a spiral break—a possible indication of processing.
Cricetidae
The family Cricetidae includes a large number of
rodent species including Peromyscus and
Onychomys. The element assigned to this group was
a portion of a maxilla that was not acid-pitted and
could easily represent a post-occupational burrower.
192
The northern grasshopper mouse largely occupies sandy grasslands (Findley et al. 1975:227).
Elements, found on the east and west sides of
the site, are fairly large pieces, are occasionally acid-pitted (one of five), and represent
mature and immature animals. As a burrowing
rodent, this species probably is another postoccupational addition to the archaeological
record.
Neotoma sp.
A partial innominate was identified only as
woodrat. A number of species of woodrat are possible in this area. The element here is acid-pitted
and from a mature individual. While large enough
to have served as a food item, the general lack of
woodrats in this assemblage suggests it was not
regularly sought after.
Small Rodent
Three pieces of bone, all from immature individuals and with no acid pitting, were assigned to this
group. These are probably from the small rodents
represented in the taxa list but because of the body
parts involved and the immaturity, could not be
identified further.
Medium to Large Rodent
A fair number of larger rodent bones were recovered, many are elements, such as vertebra, cranial
fragments, and phalanges, that are difficult to
assign to a species. Fragmentation varies from
complete or nearly complete to fragmentary. More
from the west are highly fragmented. All of those
from the west are acid-pitted, and none from the
east are. Immature elements are found in the west
sample and mature in both the west and east samples. None is burned. The acid pitting and fragmentation found in the west sample suggests these
are older and some could represent food animals.
Sylvilagus sp.
Cottontail rabbit, probably Sylvilagus auduboni,
is the most abundant of the small mammals.
This taxon was found in all three major proveniences but contributes more to the west sample
(58 elements, 7.5 percent) than the east sample
(19 elements, 1.8 percent) or from testing where
the single element recorded is actually from the
west side of the site.
Cottontail rabbits are common in open valleys and piñon-juniper woodlands as well as
agricultural regions where they are injurious to
fields and gardens and must be kept in check by
hunting or fencing (Bailey 1931:59–60). This
tendency to invade field areas and multiply
caused the Hopi to hold frequent hunts "most
frequently in early summer and autumn when
fields must be protected from the depredations
of the rabbit" (Beaglehole 1936:11). Prehistoric
agriculturalists undoubtedly faced similar problems and may well have employed what is
referred to as a "garden hunting strategy." By
concentrating on the fauna that invaded gardens
and agricultural fields, not only were the pests
kept in check but seasonality and scheduling
problems are avoided (Linares 1976:331).
While some of the cottontail from LA
103919 may represent accidental additions to
the archaeological records most probably are
food remains. Elements tend to be fragments,
often small fragments, are often acid-pitted,
checked, or root-etched, and represent neonate,
immature, and mature animals. Scorched and
smoked bone account for 15.5 percent of the
west sample and smoked or calcine bone for
26.4 percent of the east sample. One element
has a spiral fracture, perhaps an indication of
processing.
Lepus sp.
Lepus californicus is found throughout New
Mexico and tends to concentrate in areas where
rain results in lush vegetation (Findley et al.
1975:93). Jack rabbit remains are sparse in the faunal collection, but are more common in the west
sample (11 elements, 1.4 percent) than the east (1
element, 0.1 percent). Bones tend to be fragmentary and over half are acid-pitted or root-etched.
All those recovered are from mature animals. A
good portion (27.3 percent) of those from the west
side are smoked, suggesting these were food items.
Small Canid
The small canid from LA 103919 is part of an ulna
from a mature fox-sized canid or small dog. It is
unburned and acid-pitted.
Large Carnivore
This element is the distal end of a phalanx from a
large carnivore—wolf, mountain lion, or bear. It is
burned.
Taxidea taxus
Badgers are most common in grasslands, especially in areas with burrowing rodents (Findley et al.
1975:308). All but one of the badger bones from
this site were interred in a small pit just below a
plastered floor in Room 1 on the west side. Body
parts include the crania, vertebra fragments, rib
fragments, and part of the left front leg of an immature badger. All of the bone was heavily pitted and
the missing parts could have disintegrated.
The other badger bone is a tibia fragment from
the east side. It is burned black or smoked and
acid-pitted.
Medium Artiodactyl
The medium artiodactyl from LA 103919 represents animals the size of deer or pronghorn. Most
of the parts are small long bone fragments but also
included are cranial fragments and an incisor from
a neonate or very young artiodactyl. Medium artiodactyl bones are more common in the eastern
Fauna
193
assemblage (24, 2.3 percent) than the western one
(12, 1.7 percent). Most are fragmentary portions
that are generally acid-pitted, checked, or etched.
The majority are from mature animals but neonate
and immature individuals are also found. Burning
is relatively common, 15.4 percent of the west
sample and 16.7 percent of the east sample. Cuts,
impact breaks, spiral breaks, and bone flakes all
indicate that animals in this size range were
processed.
Large Artiodactyl
All of the large artiodactyl was from the historic
component represented by Test Pit 4 and is probably domestic cow or horse. Elements are either
largely complete (n=1) or fragmentary (n=2), do
not exhibit weathering, are from mature animals,
and are unburned. None has evidence of processing.
Small to Medium Artiodactyl
Elements in this taxon are from artiodactyls that
range from sheep to deer in size and are most likely sheep. All are from the historic component in
Test Pit 4. Elements tend to be fragmentary, have
some checking, and are from mature animals.
None is burned or has evidence of processing.
Odocoileus hemionus
Mule deer live throughout the state at all elevations
and in all habitats. As browsers, their most important foods, oak, juniper, mahogany, piñon, fir, and
ponderosa, occur primarily in woodlands (Findley
et al. 1975:328–329). Deer remains were found in
both portions of the site, 11 (1.7 percent) in the
west sample and 7 (0.7 percent) in the east sample.
A good portion of elements from the west and east
samples are complete or nearly complete. These
include a tibia, a tarsal, and a phalanx from the
west side and a carpal, a tarsal, and a vestigial phalanx from the east side. Small compact foot bones
are quite often found complete; tibias are not and
this find, along with about half of a tibia from a
slightly larger and more muscular deer, were found
in Feature 1, a large bell-shaped pit containing
ashy soil and fire-cracked rock.
194
Most of the deer bone is acid-pitted and a good
portion is burned (9.1 percent of the west sample
and 57.2 percent of the east sample). Impact fractures and a spiral break indicate processing of this
species. All of the elements from the east are
mature animals while the west is mostly mature
with some immature animals. The deer parts are
largely foot and limb bones but also include cranial
and mandible pieces. Ribs, scapulae, and other
axial parts are found in the medium artiodactyl
taxon suggesting that all portions of the animals
were returned to the site.
Antilocapra americana
Pronghorn inhabits grasslands and were abundant
throughout the state before hunting severely
reduced their numbers around the turn of the twentieth century (Findley et al. 1975:333–334).
Elements (all limb bones) are equally divided
between the west and east sides (n=2 each). All are
mature, range from nearly complete to fragmentary, and are mostly acid-pitted (75 percent). One
was burned.
Bovidae
The two elements placed in this taxa are a phalanx
and a phalanx fragment. Theoretically, these could
be cow or bison, but since both were recovered
from historic deposits in Test Pit 4, they are probably cow. The fragment is from an immature bovid,
the complete phalanx from a mature one. Neither
piece is pitted or eroded, burned, or exhibits evidence of processing.
Bos taurus
Domestic cow was recovered from Test Pit 4,
located near a historic structure dating between
about 1880 and 1930. The elements were mainly
complete phalanges but also include a complete
metatarsal and tarsals. None are eroded or burned
but the metatarsal has both cut and chop marks.
Ovis/Capra
Domestic sheep or goat remains were found in Test
Pit 4 and represent the historic component of the
site. The parts here contrast with those of cows and
bovids which are feet, probably waste material.
Sheep/goat parts are cranial (n=4) and innominate
(n=1), less obviously waste parts. These parts are
fragmentary, are not pitted or eroded, and are from
a mature animal or animals. The innominate fragment has scrape marks from processing and is
scorched.
Large Bird
The only element identifiable as bird is a small
fragment of a tarsometatarsus from a bird the size
of a small domestic turkey or species that is slightly smaller than a domestic turkey. The piece is
burned black or smoked.
Egg Shell
Quite a few pieces of egg shell were recovered
(n=97), mainly from the east side of the site (93,
8.9 percent). The preponderance of egg shell on the
east side is also demonstrated in the spatial distribution. Only four of the 80 (5.0 percent) provenience units from the west side contain egg shell
compared to 32 of the 79 (40.5 percent) proveniences from the east side. Two pieces of shell are
burned.
The apparent absence of turkey bone in this
assemblage is problematic given the amount of egg
shell. The shell is consistent in thickness and color
with turkey and there is no reason to assume it is
other than turkey. It is possible that bird bone at
this site was so altered by acidic soil conditions
that it disappeared or is so fragmentary and pitted
that it was placed in the small mammal/bird taxon.
It is also possible that turkeys were not raised or
utilized at the site proper and only the eggs found
their way into general site debris. Then again,
turkeys could have been kept at the site, not eaten
or discarded at the site, or were buried outside the
site area. We can only assume that turkeys and their
by-products were more important in the late time
period.
Ophidia
Three snake vertebrae were recorded as the same
field specimen. These are complete and pitted,
probably representing a post-occupational addition
to the site.
Toad or Frog
The few elements are from a small toad or frog.
These were from the same provenience and are
probably the same animal. All are fragmentary and
from an immature individual. None of the bone is
pitted suggesting these are relatively recent additions to the archaeological record.
ENVIRONMENTAL ALTERATION
Four kinds of environmental alteration were
observed in the faunal assemblage (Table 85). By
far the most common is pitting, presumably from
soils that are described as strongly to very strongly acid (Maker et al. 1971:29). The pitting ranges
from slight modification of the outer table to
destruction of the outer surface and fairly
extreme rounding of ridges and projections.
More of the bone from the east side is pitted
(61.2 percent) and slightly more of the pitted
bone is described as heavily pitted (53.1 percent)
or moderately pitted (34.6 percent) than for the
west side (48.6 percent; 50.0 percent is heavily
pitted and 35.6 percent is moderately pitted).
Only a quarter of the testing bone is pitted,
including all that from Test Pit 1, none from Test
Pit 4, and 60.0 percent of that from Test Pits 5
and 6. Pitting appears to be more common in the
larger body forms but is also found in the smallest body sizes. Rounded edges were noted for
10.2 percent of the west sample, 35.5 percent of
the east sample, and none of the testing sample.
Checking or exfoliation from exposure is
more common in the testing sample where only
one piece of the checked bone is from the prehistoric components. Most checking is found in
medium to large-sized animals, presumably
because smaller elements are more rapidly
buried.
Root etching is relatively rare and may be
obscured or overwhelmed by pitting. All body
sizes exhibit etching from root action. Sun
bleaching was also observed. Three pieces of
bone from medium to large mammals from the
east side are sun bleached.
Fauna
195
Table 85. Environmental Alteration by Major Provenience
Testing
West
Pitting Checked Pitting Checked Etched
Taxon
Small animal
Unknown
Small mammal/ medium-large bird
Mammal
Small mammal
Etched
.
22.2
.
.
100.0
.
.
.
27.3
.
4.5
.
.
100.0
.
37.1
0.8
1.5
63.6
100.0
69.2
4.8
1.0
.
.
25.0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
50.0
33.3
50.0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
46.4
.
48.5
48.8
100.0
87.5
.
95.0
41.2
.
20.0
.
100.0
.
100.0
.
8.9
.
12.3
13.6
.
.
.
.
5.9
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
20.0
.
.
.
.
.
58.1
.
66.4
70.6
.
50.0
100.0
.
25.0
100.0
.
.
.
100.0
.
.
3.2
.
6.0
2.9
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0.8
1.5
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
100.0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
7.4
46.6
54.5
100.0
.
.
1.7
.
.
.
.
6.9
9.1
.
.
81.3
57.9
100.0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
6.3
5.3
.
.
.
Badger
Medium artiodactyl
.
.
.
.
100.0
53.8
.
7.7
.
15.4
100.0
75.0
.
8.3
.
4.2
Large artiodactyl
Mule deer
Pronghorn
.
.
.
.
.
66.7
.
.
.
.
72.7
50.0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
71.4
100.0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Bovids
Cow
Sheep or goat
Large bird
Snake
Toad or frog
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
100.0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
25.5
17.0
48.6
5.9
1.4
61.2
4.5
1.0
Small-medium mammal
Medium mammal
Large mammal
Large squirrel
Cricetidae
Peromyscus
Woodrats
Small rodent
Medium-large rodent
Cottontail rabbit
Jack rabbit
Small canid
Large carnivore
Total of provenience
196
.
100.0
.
East
Pitting Checked
ANIMAL ALTERATION
PROCESSING
Incidences of animal alteration are rare, in part
because pitting of the bone surface may have
obscured some evidence. Chewing or gnawing
by carnivores was observed on one element from
the west side (0.1 percent) and three from the
testing sample (6.4 percent), and rodent gnawing
on three pieces of bone from the west sample
(0.4 percent).
Three variables look at processing: fragmentation
(Table 87), burning (Table 88), and butchering or
breakage (Table 89). Fragmentation can reflect the
degree to which a species is processed but is also
caused by carnivores feeding, weathering, and sediment overburden weight, as well as day-to-day
traffic and activities in the prehistoric setting.
Looking only at those taxa most likely to represent
food items and with relatively large sample sizes,
cottontail rabbit bones are broken into smaller
pieces in the west sample while very fragmentary
artiodactyl bones are more common on the east
side.
Burned bone is much more common in the
east (34.0 percent) than the west (18.1 percent)
sample. When only those forms most likely to represent food items are considered, and small (small
mammal/bird, small mammal, cottontail, and jack
rabbit) and large forms (medium to large mammal,
large mammal, medium artiodactyl, deer, and
pronghorn) are contrasted by area, there are differences. Small forms from the west side are slightly
more likely to be burned (26.5 percent) than those
from the east side (22.1 percent). The disparity is
not so great as to suggest great differences in processing and discard. Larger forms, on the other
hand, are much more likely to be burned if they are
from the east side (43.2 percent) than from the west
(23.6 percent), possibly an indication of more processing in the later period.
Cuts, breaks, and other possible indications of
processing are fairly rare. Only spiral breaks,
which can be produced by any number of taphonomic processes rather than human intervention
(Lyman 1994:324), occur with any frequency. Cuts
are confined to larger forms and many are from the
testing sample. Impact breaks and the bone flakes
that result from impacts are also fairly common,
again in the larger body sizes.
SEASONALITY
Few taxa have the very young individuals that
can provide information on spring and early
summer animal procurement (Table 86).
Cottontail rabbits in Arizona breed between
January and September (Chapman 1982:94) and
the period should be shorter in the cooler climates of New Mexico. Thus, we would expect to
find very young cottontail rabbits from early
spring through fall and immature rabbits essentially year round. This means that cottontails do
not provide very precise information on seasonality.
Nor does the medium artiodactyl from LA
103919 provide much information on the season
of procurement. Very young or neonatal deer and
pronghorn should be found only during spring
and summer (Kitchen and O'Gara 1982:963;
Mackie et al. 1982:863, 867). The single tooth
from a very young artiodactyl in this assemblage
is not strong evidence for artiodactyl exploitation during that time of year.
Most hibernating species are also burrowers
and dubious as dietary items. Overall, percentages for all taxa combined indicate that less than
full-grown animals are better represented in the
west sample; however, many of these are probably post-occupational burrowers and it also
includes the large number of pieces from the
badger. Within the cottontail rabbits, the west
sample has more immatures but no neonates,
while the east sample has a few of both.
Immature medium artiodactyl and deer are found
only in the west sample, but samples of both taxa
are small. Thus, and unfortunately, little information on seasonality can be gleaned from this
assemblage.
MODIFIED BONE
Thirteen pieces of modified bone were recovered,
12 from the west side and 1 from the east side
(Table 90). Half of those from the west side were
found together in Feature 19 where they are part of
cache that also included chipped stone tools, orna-
Fauna
197
Table 86. Taxon Age by Major Provenience
Testing
West
Immature Mature
Neonate Immature
Mature
Taxon
Small animal
Unknown
Small mammal/
medium-large bird
Mammal
Small mammal
Small-medium
mammal
Medium mammal
Medium to large
mammal
Large mammal
Small squirrel
Large squirrel
Spotted ground
squirrel
Golden-mantled
ground squirrel
Gunnison's prairie
dog
Yellow-faced pocket
gopher
Ord's kangaroo rat
Banner-tailed
kangaroo rat
Cricetidae
Peromyscus
Northern
grasshopper mouse
Woodrats
Small rodent
Medium-large rodent
Cottontail rabbit
Jack rabbit
Small canid
Large carnivore
Badger
Medium artiodactyl
Large artiodactyl
Small to medium
artiodactyl
Mule deer
Pronghorn
Bovids
Cow
Sheep or goat
Large bird
Snake
Toad or frog
Provenience totals
198
East
Immature
Neonate
Mature
.
100.0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
33.3
.
4.5
66.7
100.0
95.5
.
.
.
.
.
.
100.0
.
100.0
.
.
.
.
100.0
.
.
.
.
.
2.3
3.6
.
97.7
96.4
.
.
.
.
6.7
9.7
100.0
93.3
90.3
.
.
100.0
100.0
.
0.6
.
6.1
.
93.3
.
.
.
0.8
.
99.2
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
100.0
.
.
.
0.8
100.0
.
75.0
99.2
.
100.0
25.0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
100.0
.
.
100.0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
100.0
.
.
.
95.0
5.0
.
.
.
.
.
.
23.5
76.5
.
12.5
87.5
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
100.0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
100.0
100.0
.
.
.
.
100.0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
100.0
100.0
100.0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
100.0
100.0
.
.
.
100.0
.
.
100.0
.
.
.
.
.
100.0
100.0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
74.1
84.5
100.0
100.0
.
.
92.3
.
.
.
5.3
.
.
.
.
4.2
.
.
.
100.0
.
5.3
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
100.0
25.9
15.5
.
.
.
100.0
7.7
.
.
.
.
50.0
44.4
.
.
.
.
17.0
.
.
50.0
55.6
100.0
.
.
.
83.0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0.1
9.1
.
.
.
.
.
.
100.0
18.1
90.9
100.0
.
.
.
.
100.0
.
81.3
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0.2
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1.7
100.0
89.5
100.0
.
100.0
100.0
95.8
.
.
100.0
100.0
.
.
.
100.0
.
89.2
Taxon
Small animal
Unknown
Small mammal/ mediumlarge bird
Mammal
Small mammal
Small-medium mammal
Medium mammal
Medium to large
mammal
Large mammal
Small squirrel
Large squirrel
Golden-mantled ground
squirrel
Yellow-faced pocket
gopher
Ord's kangaroo rat
Banner-tailed kangaroo
rat
Cricetidae
Peromyscus
Northern grasshopper
mouse
Woodrats
Small rodent
Medium-large rodent
Cottontail rabbit
Jack rabbit
Small canid
Large carnivore
Badger
Medium artiodactyl
Large artiodactyl
Small to medium
artiodactyl
Mule deer
Pronghorn
Bovids
Cow
Sheep or goat
Large bird
Egg shell
Snake
Toad or frog
Provenience totals
Table 87. Fragmentation by Major Provenience
Testing
West
>75% 25-75% <25%
>75% 25-75%
<25%
>75%
East
25-75%
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
100.0
.
11.1
.
.
22.2
.
4.5
66.7
100.0
95.5
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
100.0
.
100.0
100.0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
100.0
98.2
.
100.0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
100.0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1.8
.
.
100.0
.
100.0
1.0
3.3
<25%
.
.
2.9
.
.
.
100.0
.
.
100.0
.
.
.
100.0
.
100.0
.
.
.
.
.
50.0
.
.
.
.
90.0
33.1
.
.
25.0
.
10.0
43.8
.
25.0
36.8
.
.
.
.
.
100.0
20.0
.
40.0
.
.
.
100.0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
100.0
100.0
.
.
.
100.0
.
.
.
100.0
.
.
.
100.0
.
.
.
.
.
.
100.0
31.3
15.8
.
.
.
.
8.3
.
.
.
.
.
.
12.5
47.4
.
.
.
.
83.3
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
33.3
.
.
.
.
100.0
.
.
.
.
.
.
33.3
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
66.7
66.7
.
100.0
18.5
20.7
9.1
.
.
6.7
.
.
.
100.0
.
7.4
17.2
45.5
100.0
.
16.7
23.1
.
.
.
.
50.0
88.9
.
.
.
.
.
21.3
.
.
.
.
20.0
.
.
.
.
6.4
.
.
50.0
11.1
80.0
.
.
.
.
72.3
36.4
50.0
.
.
.
.
.
100.0
.
9.8
18.2
50.0
.
.
.
.
.
.
40.0
6.6
.
40.0
74.1
62.1
45.5
.
.
76.7
76.9
.
.
45.5
.
.
.
.
.
100.0
.
60.0
83.6
42.9
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
2.6
2.9
100.0
99.0
96.7
.
97.1
.
.
50.0
100.0
37.5
15.8
56.3
36.8
100.0
.
100.0
100.0
8.3
.
.
.
50.0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
5.2
Fauna
97.1
.
.
.
.
.
37.5
47.4
57.1
50.0
.
.
.
100.0
100.0
.
92.2
199
Table 88. Burning by Taxon and Provenience
Taxon
Testing
Slight/
Scorch
West
Smoked/
Black
Calcined/
White
Slight/
Brown
East
Smoked/
Black
.
.
36.4
9.1
.
9.1
27.3
.
.
3.0
.
18.9
12.5
6.1
.
1.0
.
12.5
16.1
4.8
12.9
.
1.2
11.0
8.6
2.8
34.1
7.1
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1.6
3.4
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1.3
20.8
12.1
27.3
.
.
15.4
9.1
.
.
12.5
6.4
.
.
.
.
.
.
50.0
.
4.3
1.5
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
34.8
21.1
.
100.0
100.0
12.5
42.9
.
3.2
9.1
5.3
.
.
.
4.2
14.3
.
.
Slight
Small mammal/
medium-large bird
Mammal
Small mammal
Small-medium
mammal
Medium to large
mammal
Large mammal
Cottontail rabbit
Jack rabbit
Large carnivore
Badger
Medium artiodactyl
Mule deer
Pronghorn
Egg shell
Provenience totals
2.1
ments, and ground stone. Another awl (FS 120)
was found with Burial 2 and could have been an
offering.
Fine-point awls are by far the most common
tool form (n = 6) with two coarser point awls.
Many are complete, including all of those in the
cache. Medium artiodactyl and large mammals
were the source of most raw materials. Only the
two beads were from smaller forms.
Wear and whether the item was complete were
often difficult to determine given the acid-pitting.
Most of the awls have a polish wear on the tip and
three have striations that could have resulted from
use in a rotary motion.
DISCUSSION
Fauna found in the historic portion of the site is
consistent with a homesite. Domestic sheep or goat
and cow were the primary food items in the sample, which consists of waste or debris from processing deposited in the area tested. Sawing, cutting, chopping, and smashing were all used to render the animals into usable portions.
In the prehistoric components, the west and
east samples provide an interesting contrast applicable to the research design. Since both samples
200
Calcined/
White
are relatively small and the number of identified
specimens very small, some caution is necessary in
interpreting the results.
The samples show no evidence of diversification, although utilization of diverse resources may
be characteristic of both time periods so that contrasting the samples would not demonstrate any
differences. Essentially equal numbers of rodent
and small mammal species are found in both samples. The same is true for the carnivores, artiodactyls, and even birds. While the number of
species exploited appears to be generally the same,
there are changes in emphasis between the two
time periods. Looking at only taxa with significant
amounts of breakage and burning that are generally assumed to represent food animals (Table 91),
the early or west sample has a larger proportion of
bones from smaller bodied animals. The later sample has considerably more from large bodied
forms, enough to suggest increased specialization
in artiodactyl procurement.
This pattern, where the initial occupation of an
area shows a greater reliance on small-bodied animals followed by a trend towards specialization in
artiodactyl procurement, is repeated throughout the
Southwest (Akins 1985:369–381; Neusius and
Gould 1988:1121; Speth and Scott 1984:244–245)
Table 89. Processing by Taxa and Major Provenienc e
Provenience/Taxon
Testing
Medium mammal
Medium-large
mammal
Large mammal
Large artiodactyl
Medium artiodactyl
Cow
Sheep/goat
West
Small mammal/bird
Small mammal
Small-medium
mammal
Medium-large
mammal
Large mammal
Banner-tailed
kangaroo rat
Cottontail
Deer
East
Small mammal/bird
Small mammal
Small-medium
mammal
Medium-large
mammal
Large mammal
Medium artiodactyl
Deer
Total
Cut
Scoop
Impact
Break
Spiral
Break
Saw
Diagonal
Break
Portion
Removed
Chop
.
1/8.3
.
1/8.3
.
2/16.7
1/33.3
1/8.3
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1/33.3
1/11.1
.
.
.
.
.
.
1/50.0
1/33.3
1/33.3
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1/33.3
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1/50.0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1/11.1
.
.
.
.
.
1/20.0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1/11.1
6/4.5
1/1.8
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
2/1.2
.
.
1/.6
.
.
.
.
.
7/4.3
.
.
.
.
7/5.6
.
1/.8
1/20.0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1/.8
.
.
.
.
.
.
1/9.1
1/1.7
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1/4.5
5/4.8
2/6.4
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
2/.3
11/1.8
.
.
.
.
.
2/.3
.
.
.
.
.
.
2/2.9
1/4.2
1/14.3
7/10.3
2/8.3
1/14.3
.
.
.
1/1.5
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
5
1
19
43
1
1
1
1
1
10
and probably reflects a change from garden
hunting to a strategy of scheduled hunts.
Garden hunting is particularly advantageous
when the initial investment in clearing and
maintaining agricultural fields precludes
extended hunting expeditions. Furthermore,
when fields are cleared and established, the
habitats of resident small mammals are disturbed and new ones created, providing an
abundance of small mammals available for
food (Speth and Scott 1984:250). As agriculture
becomes increasingly important, this commitment requires efficient exploitation of other
resources. The commitment, along with
Bone
Scrape Flake
increased human densities and depletion of
local animal resources, tends to force groups to
schedule hunting activities during certain times
of the year and to travel greater distances for
animal resources (Speth and Scott 1984:257).
At least one other type of information supports the interpretation of specialization in
artiodactyl hunting at LA 103919. The amount
of Jemez obsidian also increases suggesting
high-quality raw material was either sought
after for use in hunting and processing implements, or was collected as part of an embedded
strategy that included hunting artiodactyls, particularly deer, in the Jemez Mountains.
Fauna
201
Table 90. Modified Bone from LA 103919
Taxon
Element
FS
Object
West Side
105
Bead or tube fragment
120
Fine point awl
168
Fine point awl
170
170
170
170
170
173
184
Fine point awl
Bead
Fine point awl
Coarse point awl
Fine point awl
Scraper?
Coarse point awl?
187
East Side
563
Tool fragment
Comments
Small mammal/bird
Large mammal
Large mammal
Long bone shaft
Long bone
Rib shaft
Medium artiodactyl
Small mammal
Medium artiodactyl
Medium artiodactyl
Medium artiodactyl
Medium artiodactyl
Large mammal
Metatarsal shaft
Metapodial shaft
Metapodial shaft
Metatarsal shaft
Long bone shaft
Phalanx
Long bone shaft
Medium artiodactyl
Metatarsal shaft
End fragment; burned
Distal portion
Distal portion? Rotary
wear
Complete; polish wear
Complete; burned
Complete; polish wear
Complete? Rotary wear
Complete? Rotary wear
Mostly complete
Partially burned; polish
wear; Heavy striations-probably manufacturing
marks
Split
Large mammal
Long bone shaft
Burned; edge fragment
Table 91. Comparison of Large and Small Body Forms by Time Period
Taxon
Early (West Sample) Late (East Sample)
Count
Percent
Count
Percent
Small mammal/medium-large
22
4.1
22
2.5
Small mammal
132
24.6
104
12.1
Cottontail
58
10.8
19
2.2
Jack rabbit
11
2
1
0.1
Total Small
223
41.5
146
16.9
163
39.4
616
71.4
Large mammal
125
23.3
68
7.9
Medium artiodactyl
13
2.4
24
2.8
Deer
11
2
7
0.8
Pronghorn
2
0.4
7
0.8
Total Large
314
58.5
717
83.1
Sample Total
537
100
863
100
Egg shell
4
93
202
HUMAN REMAINS
Nancy J. Akins
Excavations at LA 103919 recovered six human
burials and parts of at least three additional individuals. Two of the burials were found east of NM
503 and date between A.D. 1000 and 1200 (Burials
4 and 5). The rest and most of the isolated pieces of
human bone came from west of the highway and
date somewhat earlier, between A.D. 900 and
1000. Although small, this population is significant
because it represents a little-known period of occupation in the northern Rio Grande. Generalized
indicators of health suggest the population was relatively healthy and had many of the more common
ailments typically found in Southwestern populations.
The six individuals recovered as burials (Table
92) include two children (about 6 and 9 years of
age), three adult females (approximate ages 20-25,
40, and 48 years), and an adult male (about 48
years of age). Isolated human bone (Table 93) indicates that, at minimum, a preterm fetus, an additional female (based on size), and an additional
male, again suggested by size, are represented.
This age and sex distribution is similar to that of
larger populations from throughout the Southwest
and suggests it is fairly representative of the population as a whole. Compared to 14 of the better represented populations throughout the Southwest
(Table 94), LA 103919 differs mainly in having no
individuals in the 10 to 18 year age group and
fewer males of all ages.
BURIAL DESCRIPTIONS
The burials and other human bones were recorded
using the Standards for Data Collection from
Human Skeletal Remains (Buikstra and Ubelaker
1994; hereafter referred to as Standards) designed
for collecting data for a computerized database or
SOD (Standardized Osteological Database).
Standards provides an exhaustive and thorough
data collection protocol for human remains that are
likely to be repatriated or will be unavailable for
future research. Procedures for inventory, aging
and sexing, study of dentition, measurement, scoring nonmetric traits, and for recording postmortem
changes, paleopathology, and cultural modifica-
Table 92. Human Burials Recovered
Burial
Provenience
Sex and Age
Comments
1
FS 33, 51N 47-48E
Child, 9 years
Portion removed by the
backhoe; fair to poor condition
2
FS 32, 47-48N 5354E, below feature
Female, 48 years
3
FS 34, 51N 46-47E
Child, 6 years
Much of this burial was
removed by the backhoe and
the remains collected
represent at least two
individuals; fair to good
condition
Portion removed by backhoe;
fair to good condition
4
5
FS 581, Feature 6
FS 580, Feature 6,
below Burial 4
Male, 48 years
Female, 20 to 25
years
Good to excellent condition
Fair condition, soft and fragile
with some disintegration
6
FS 105, Feature
11, 54-55N 45E
Female, 40 years
Good Condition, carnivore
disturbance of lower arms
Human Remains
203
Table 93. Isolated Human Bone from LA 103919
Provenience
Fetal
FS 15, 53N 50E
FS 99, 50N 50E
FS 143, 55N 43E
FS 170, 58N 46E
Infant or Child
FS 568,
Child, 8-9 Years
FS 100, general site
FS 105, 55N 45E
Comments
Thoracic vertebra, left arch
Incisor? Tooth bud tip
Lateral occipital, left; cervical
vertebra, left arch; cervical
verteba, right arch
Thoracic vertebra, left arch
Cancellous tissue, possible
tarsal
Fibula, left distal half
Metatarsal 5, right
Could be from Burial 1 or 3
With Burial 6, could be from
Burial 1 or 3
20 cranial case fragments
Probably parts of Burials 1and 3
FS , Burials 1 and 3,
backhoe backdirt
Maxilla fragment; 50 long bone
shaft fragments; 10 flat bone
fragments; 15 pieces of
cancellous bone; right temporal
15 pieces of cancellous bone
not from Burial 1 or 3
FS 100, general site
Mature Female
FS 32, 47-48N 5354E, with Burial 2
Orbit, right, superior fragment
Mild and completely remolded
Right lower leg: tibia, fibula,
calcaneus, talus, navicular,
cuboid proximal fragment from
a femur or humerus; 2 lumbar
vertebrae arches
Removed by backhoe
Femur, left, distal shaft
fragment
Large individual
Child
FS , Burials 1 and 3,
backhoe backdirt
Large Child or Adult
Mature Male
FS 586,
Mature
FS 13, 53N 51E
FS 172, 56N 42E
Unk nown
FS
204
Elements
Rib, small shaft fragment
Hand, terminal phalanx
Cancellous tissue, very eroded
and probably a carpal or tarsal
Slight lipping indicative of
arthritis
Table 94. LA 103919 Age and Sex Distribution Compared to other Southwestern
Populations
Southwest Populations
Age (Years)
Range
Mean
LA 103919
Less than 1
1 to 9
10 to 18
Over 18
Males < 35
Males > 35
Total males
Females < 35
Females > 35
Total Females
1.0 to 26.8
9.0 (3-7 years) to 30.3
2.2 to 23.5
37.4 to 71.7
6.0 to 34.0
9.0 to 33.0
38.0 to 55.0
9.0 to 49.0
8.0 to 38.0
45.0 to 62.0
11.68
18.74
11.85
53.7
20.9
21.9
44.8
33
19.4
55.1
11.1
22.2
0
66.6
0
11.1
22.2
11.1
22.2
44.4
Summarized from Akins 1995, Tables 2 and 3. Populations include: Early Mesa Verde, Late Mesa Verde,
Dolores, Black Mesa, La Plata, Chaco small sites, Galisteo, Paa'ko, Arroyo Hondo, San Antonio, Tijeras
Pueblo, Haw iku, San Cristobal, and Gran Quivira.
tions are all considered through a series of 29 data
recording forms. Standardization and systematic
collection of the recommended human osteological
data will provide researchers with the information
needed to study demography, health, diet, and
genetic relationships.
This section describes the individual burials.
Pathology and other observations will be discussed
at the end of this descriptive review and compared
with other Southwestern populations.
Burial 1
Burials 1 and 3 were adjacent burials of two children. These were uncovered by the backhoe, disturbing and mixing some of the elements. Both
were on bedrock, a pit was not discernable for
Burial 1. This child was oriented east to west with
the head to the east and on the left side. The femora were north-south suggesting a flexed or semiflexed position. A fragment of cotton cloth was
found near one arm and two slabs covered the burial. Bright red pigment is present on the interiors of
two left and one unsided rib fragments and the
right radius.
Burial 1 is in fair to poor condition with much
surface erosion and deterioration. Rodent gnawing
on one rib may indicate some disturbance prior to
discovery. Many parts are missing, some due to the
backhoe. None of the long bones has ends, and
centra are absent for all but the axis vertebra.
Single metatarsal and phalanx fragments are all
Figure 65. Burial 1, porotic hyperostosis.
that remain of the hands and feet. For the cranium,
scattered parts of the case are present, as is much of
the mandible. Permanent and deciduous dentition
are complete.
Stages of permanent tooth formation indicate
the child was around 9 years of age. Extensive
caries are present in 4 of the 10 deciduous teeth
(both maxillary first molars and both canines).
None of the permanent teeth has caries but shallow
hypoplasia lines are present on three maxillary
(premolars and a molar) and one mandibular (premolar) tooth. A single pit was observed on the left
maxillary canine and a nonlinear array of pits was
Human Remains
205
on the left mandibular canine.
Porotic hyperostosis is present in both orbits
and parts of the right parietal and occipital (Fig.
65). That in the orbits is barely discernable and
healed. The case has porosities in the area of the
lambdoid suture which are also healed. Other more
subtle pathological conditions may have been
obscured by the condition of the bone.
Burial 2
Burial 2 was discovered with a backhoe. Few elements remained in place (both lower legs, the left
shoulder, radius, cranium, and mandible) and
except for the lower legs were not articulated or in
anatomical position. Bones found in the backdirt
were assumed to belong to this individual and were
collected with the burial. Duplicate elements
(another lower leg and two vertebra) indicate that
at least two individuals are represented. Since both
are similar in size and condition it was not possible
to separate out the individuals and all but the duplicate parts are treated as one, largely complete individual in this analysis. Thus, Burial 2 probably represents an amalgam of two females. Two reconstructible ceramic vessels may have been associated with either burial.
Condition of the bone ranges from poor to
good with considerable surface erosion, pitting,
and edge damage. Most parts are present except for
the clavicles. Vertebral bodies and foot bones are
poorly represented. Cranial and pelvic characteristics indicate a female between 45 and 50 years of
age.
Several (nine) mandibular teeth are missing
postmortem and two maxillary teeth (a central incisor and a second molar) were lost premortem, as
indicated by extensive remodeling. Occlusal wear
was considerable on the molars and some of the
anterior dentition. A single occlusal cavity was
found on a lower molar. Slight hypoplasia lines are
present on a maxillary central incisor and second
molar and linear horizontal pits on a mandibular
premolar.
Several pathological conditions were noted. A
large compression fracture (48-by-26 mm and 1.5mm deep) is centered on the area of the sagittal
suture just above the lambda (Fig. 66). It is entirely remodeled and occurred many years before her
206
death. Sutures around the injury are completely
obliterated. Large pores in the depression indicate
some infection was associated with the injury.
Possibly related to the cranial injury is a distinct
asymmetry of the atlas vertebra arch. The left side
is much thinner than the right. Also noted was a
small smooth walled lesion (2.7 mm diameter and
1.3 mm deep) on the posterior aspect of the transverse process of a thoracic vertebra. No indications
of porotic hyperostosis was present in the orbits or
on the cranial case.
Although many of the ends and edges of the
bones are eroded, lipping indicative of degenerative joint disease is present on the facets and some
bodies of the vertebra. Severity ranges from slight
lipping to the presence of osteophytes including
curved spicules on the inferior surface of the fourth
lumbar. The last lumbar and first sacral articular
facet on the right have osteophytes and extensive
porosity, possibly traumatic arthritis. The right side
of the first sacral segment is also smaller, possibly
atrophy related to an injury. No lipping is apparent
on the proximal femur or humerus, however,
noticeable lipping is present on the proximal articular surfaces of the ribs, the glenoid of the scapula,
the proximal ulna, the acetabulum, the sacroiliac
joint of the innominates, and the metatarsals. Only
the metatarsals and ribs have discernable surface
porosity, but preservation of the bone may have
obscured this condition on other bones.
Figure 66. Burial 2, healed trauma.
Burial 3
Burial 3, the second child, was placed in an ovoid
pit excavated to bedrock. The body was flexed;
some crushing and movement was caused by the
backhoe and drifting. Two ceramic vessels and a
piece of turquoise appear to have been associated
with the burial. The head was to the east and face
up, apparently on its back with the arms along the
sides and the hips and knees flexed. The backhoe
caused some disturbance of the skull and legs.
Several pieces of cranium were retrieved from elements removed by the backhoe and many of the
deciduous teeth had been placed with Burial 1.
While the cranium is poorly represented,
much of the rest is present and in relatively good
condition. Both fibulae and many of the hand and
foot bones are missing. Few epiphyses survived.
Seven permanent and eight deciduous teeth
are present. The stage of development suggests the
child was about 6 years of age. This is consistent
with estimates based on epiphyseal fusion of other
parts which represent a range from 4 to 8 years.
Long bone measurements are mainly in the range
of Arikara 5.5 to 6.5-year-olds (Ubelaker
1978:48–49). No caries are present and hypoplasia
lines are found on the maxillary first molars and
canine (three lines).
Figure 67. Burial 3, enthesophyte on distal humerus
shaft.
The only pathology noted was a spicule of
bone or enthesophyte on the distal shaft of the left
humerus. The spicule measures 5.84 mm at the
base and is 3.28 mm long projecting to the medial
side of the anterior shaft (Fig. 67). Crests for muscle attachment on the humerus and ulna are quite
sharp and rugose for a child of this age. No porotic hyperostosis is indicated on the orbit or cranial
fragments present.
Burial 4
Burial 4 was placed in the top of a pit that also contained Burial 5. He was covered by five layers of
large rocks that included two metates, a small vessel, a large corrugated vessel, chunks of obsidian,
beads, turquoise, ground stone, and a maul. A mug
was placed near his hand. He was on his back oriented east to west with the head to the east but
looking west. The arms were bent up and on the
chest. The knees were flexed up.
Preservation is good to excellent. The bone is
solid but has considerable surface etching and pitting from the soil. Essentially all parts are present
and intact including the hyoid and an ossified larynx. The overall size, rugosity, and both cranial
and pelvic features indicate a male. Extensive tooth
wear and the pubic symphysis and auricular surface all place this individual between 45 and 50
years of age.
Five of the upper molars and one central incisor had been lost premortem and are completely
remodeled. Wear on the remaining molars and
many of the anterior teeth is extensive. Large
caries are found on five teeth and smaller ones on
eight. The right crown from the upper second premolar has been completely destroyed by a cavity
and it has an abscess at the root. A possible abscess
is found at the base of the right mandibular first
molar. No hypoplasia lines are present but one
maxillary lateral incisor has a small pit.
Pathologies include a small osteoma on the
right frontal, spina bifida of the third to fifth sacral
segments, and barely discernable well-healed
porotic hyperostosis on the occipital adjacent to the
lambdoid suture. Slight to moderate degenerative
joint disease in the form of lipping and some surface porosity is characteristic of most joints.
Osteophytes are present on most of the thoracic
Human Remains
207
Figure 68. Burial 4, Schmorl’s node.
Figure 69. Burial 5, right maxillary teeth.
vertebrae and extensive on the lumbars. The seventh thoracic vertebra is wedge-shaped or partially
collapsed. Schmorl's nodes from disc herniations
(Fig. 68) occur on the seventh through ninth thoracic vertebra.
fibula, and humerus. These fuse between the ages
of about 14 and 24 (Buikstra and Ubelaker
1994:43). Cumulatively these suggest she could
have been anywhere from 20 to 45 years of age but
most likely was in her early to middle twenties.
All teeth are present and there are a number of
anomalies. The lateral incisors are congenitally
absent in the mandible and the upper left canine is
in front of and between the two premolars.(Fig.
69). Both lower third molars have calcification
defects that result in large caries-like pits covering
most of the occlusal surface. The upper third
molars have intact occlusal surfaces but the lingual
and buccal enamel is irregular and crenulated. The
lack of enamel on portions of a tooth crown records
an incidence of metabolic disturbance at the age
when the enamel was forming on that portion of
the crown (Stodder 1984:63). An almost identical
anomaly was is a young female from LA 3333 in
the Galisteo Basin (Akins, in prep.). The left maxillary canine is outside and between the premolars
and the first premolar is rotated. Stodder found one
female with a rotated tooth in the San Cristobal
population but the tooth is not identified or
described. She also found a supernumerary tooth in
a male (Stodder 1990:194). Reed (1966:3–4) notes
an unerupted supernumerary maxillary incisor in
Burial 6. He lists other instances of supernumerary
incisors from Pecos Pueblo (n = 4), Pindi, and
Te'ewi (n = 2). A recently excavated burial from
San Antonio de Padua also has one (Akins 1996b).
The anomalies found indicate a good deal of
homogeneity within the LA 3333 burial popula-
Burial 5
Buried 40 cm below Burial 4 in a separate pit was
this young female. She was face down with the
legs bent about 90 degrees at the hips and knees
tightly flexed to the left. The right arm was
between the legs and left beneath the body.
Orientation was east to west with the head to the
east. Six layers of stone were placed over the
grave. In the stone pile were four metates, two
shaped slabs, pendants, turquoise, hammerstones,
lightning stones, and two ceramic vessels. A half
vessel was next to the body below the stones.
The bones are mostly complete but are soft
and break or disintegrate easily. Much end and
edge damage results from the softness. The individual was small and female in all characteristics.
Aging is more problematic. The pubic symphysis
is too eroded for aging and other indicators of age
give mixed results. The auricular surface suggests
an age of 30 to 34 years, closure of the external cranial vault sutures an age of 27 to 45, and those of
the anterior vault one of 20 to 40 years. On the
other hand, there is little tooth wear and the roots
of the lower third molars are not yet completely
developed suggesting an age less than 21 years.
Epiphyseal fusion lines are visible on the femur,
208
tion. High frequencies of these anomalies are rare
and provide good evidence of intrapopulation
affinity. On the other hand, reported instances are
so widespread they are of little utility for suggesting extrapopulation relations. When more population data are available, patterns may become evident.
Linear horizontal grooves are found on eight
maxillary (right M3, M2, I1, left I1, I2, C, PM2,
M2) and six mandibular (left M3, PM2, right C,
PM1, PM2, M2) teeth. Linear horizontal pits were
observed on the left maxillary second premolar and
single pits on both maxillary first premolars, the
right central incisor; the left mandibular first premolar, canine, and right first molar. Diffuse,
cream-colored opacities were found on all teeth.
None of the teeth has caries.
The first sacral vertebra is lumbarized. The
body is not fused and the shape is typical of caudal
shifting at the lumbosacral border (Barnes
1994:110). She also has a well-healed compression
fracture on the left parietal slightly intersecting the
sagittal suture (Fig. 70). It measures 22.4 cm in
diameter and has sclerotic bone indicative of past
infection. Porotic hyperostosis is present as small
porosities in the right orbit and porosities with
some coalescence in the left. Both are healed.
Figure 70. Burial 5, healed compression fracture.
Burial 6
Burial 6 was found in a pit with a plastered floor
and was covered with approximately 100 firecracked river cobbles and adobe mortar. On top of
the rock cairn were sherds and a scraper. No offerings were placed with the burial. This individual
was resting on her left side with the top of the head
to the northwest and facing north. The legs were
flexed about 90 degrees at the hips and tightly
flexed at the knees. The left upper arm is under the
torso and the right is straight forward at the shoulder. Missing lower arms were probably removed
by a carnivore. The right distal humerus has what
appears to be carnivore gnawing and pits.
Burial 6 was in good condition with a great
deal of surface etching and some end and edge erosion. Most parts are complete with both lower arms
and the right hand missing. Although large and
muscular, characteristics of the pelvis are definitely female. Three large "paturation pits" are present
on the dorsal surface of the right pubis. Dorsal pitting is correlated with the number of pregnancies
and age. Pitting is far more frequently found in
females over the age of 30 (Suchey et al.
1979:517). Aging criteria for the pubic symphysis
and auricular surface indicate she was between 35
and 45 years of age. Cranial suture closure suggest
a younger individual while the amount of dental
attrition is consistent with an older individual.
Tooth wear was extreme, especially the anterior teeth which are worn to near the base of the
enamel. Large caries have destroyed all or much of
the crowns on the right upper second and third
molars and the left canine. Smaller interproximal
caries are found on the left upper second and third
molars and the mandibular left third molar. A small
cervical cavity is located on the lingual surface of
the left mandibular second molar. The maxillary
canine has a large abscess that extends from the
anterior of the maxilla through the palate (Fig. 71).
Edges are well remodeled but the pit remains.
Other abscesses are present on the buccal surface
above the left maxillary third molar, at the bases of
the right lateral incisor and the left central incisor,
and adjacent to the buccal surface of the left third
molar. Dental abscessing, indicative of underlying
infection, can lead to difficulty in obtaining sufficient dietary intake. Even simple abscesses can
Human Remains
209
Figure 71. Burial 6, abcess of maxillary canine.
ties on less than a third of the surface. This could
be either congenital or the result of a well-healed
fracture of the arch. Also unusual is a small wedgeshaped bone that seems to fit between the medial
and intermediate cuniforms and was probably
bilateral. Both naviculars are compressed on the
medial edge which may have resulted from the
presence of the additional bone and precipitated
some of the arthritis in the feet. The left lunate has
a small (4-by-5-by-2 mm) pit on the surface that
articulates with the radius. Boundaries are well circumscribed.
The cranium has a small osteoma on the left
frontal just above the temporal line. She also has a
rather large (31-by-25 mm) but well-healed compression fracture on the superior portion of the
right parietal (Fig. 73). Well-healed partial or
greenstick fractures are present on the right second
rib and left third rib shafts. No evidence of porotic
hyperostosis was found on the vault, however, both
orbits have porosities with coalescence of foramina that are healed.
Degenerative joint disease ranges from barely
discernible lipping to sharp ridges and some coalesced surface porosity. Essentially all joints are
affected. The elbow shows more involvement than
the shoulder and the right knee more than the left.
Schmorl's nodes from vertebral disc herniations are
present on the inferior surface of thoracic 10, the
superior surface of thoracic 11, and the inferior surface of the third lumbar. Thoracic 11 is slightly
wedged anterior-posterior.
Figure 72. Burial 6, second and third cervical vertebra
articular sufaces.
drain into cranial nerves and cause much pain and
even death (Martin et al. 1994:5.7–5.8).
Dental attrition for this individual is extreme,
leaving little enamel for observing defects.
Hypoplasia lines are present on the right maxillary
first molar and the left mandibular canine and single pits on the right maxillary central incisor and
left mandibular lateral incisor.
Bone around the foramen magnum is somewhat irregular, possibly related to the unusual articulation between the axis and third cervical vertebra
(Fig. 72). The right articular surfaces are extended
laterally and medially and the surfaces are cupped
rather than mostly flat and have coalesced porosi-
210
Figure 73. Burial 6, healed compression fracture.
DISCUSSION
In terms of health, the burials from LA 103919
indicate a generally fit population. Porotic hyperostosis refers to lesions on the cranium and roof of
the orbits produced by marrow proliferation that is
diagnostic of anemia (Martin et al. 1994:2.11).
Most instances of porotic hyperostosis are caused
by nutritional deficiencies, infectious disease, or
parasitism (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994:120). In
the Southwest, these lesions result from a combination of factors that include the lack iron in the
diet, prolonged breast feeding, diarrheal and
helminth infections, and living conditions (Walker
1985:153). Rates of porotic hyperostosis are relatively high, 50 percent for children and 71 percent
for the combined population (including the disarticulated orbit), but are lower than most reported
rates for children under 10 (Canyon de Chelly,
Chaco Canyon small sites, La Plata, Galisteo, San
Cristobal, and Hawikuh) and some of these when
ages are combined (Dolores, Black Mesa, and
Chaco Canyon small sites) (El Najjar et al.
1976:481; Ferguson 1980:133; Martin et al.
1991:153; Stodder 1987:125–126, 1989:179,
1990:224). Most of the incidences from LA
103919 are best described as barely discernable,
indicating very mild expressions. All are inactive.
No periosteal reactions were observed in this
population. Slight, remodeled expressions could
have been obscured by surface erosion of the bone,
however, even moderate expressions would have
been evident indicating an absence or near absence
of nonspecific infection. Rates for other
Southwestern populations are often quite low ranging from 2 to 6 percent for the Navajo Reservoir,
Mesa Verde, Dolores, Salmon Ruin, Pecos Pueblo,
Paa'ko, Arroyo Hondo, Tijeras Pueblo, and Pottery
Mound (Martin et al. 1991:130, 1994, table 4.5;
Stodder 1987:385, 1989:184). Rather than representing an exceptionally infection-free group, the
small sample size for LA 103919 is probably
responsible for the absence.
Periosteal reactions result from chronic and
usually nonlethal conditions including nutritional
inadequacy, diet, transmissible disease, waste disposal, and hygiene. The most common causes are
infections caused by staphylococcus and streptococcus (Martin et al. 1994:2.14–15).
Enamel hypoplasias or defects in tooth enamel thickness record periods of stress during crown
development. Stressors such as malnutrition and
infectious disease can produce abnormal enamel so
that hypoplasias and dental opacities reflect health
status and diet quality. Other causes such as hereditary anomalies and localized trauma can cause disturbances but are relatively rare. Systemic metabolic stress commonly produces defects in more
than one tooth (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994:56).
Except for Burial 4, all of the individuals had
one or more teeth with up to three lines per tooth
(Table 95). When the age at which these lines were
formed is calculated using regression formulas
(Martin et al. 1994, table 2.3), it is clear that some
individuals were more "stressed" than others
(Table 96). Burial 4 has no lines, but extreme tooth
wear would have eliminated lines developed early
in life. Relatively few hypoplasias are present on
teeth from Burials 2 and 6. Burial 3 has an early
cluster of lines and one at a later stage. Burial 5,
who also had the calcification defects in the third
molars and opacities on all teeth, appears to have
been repeatedly stressed from age 2 on.
Peak stress or line formation on incisors and
canines generally occurs from 2.5 to 4.0 years and
is often interpreted as resulting from stress due to
weaning (Stodder 1984:78). The same is generally
true of this population with all occurrences under
Table 95. Estimated Age of Formation of Hypoplasia Line
Tooth
Maxilla
Right: M2
M1
PM2
I1
Left: I1
I2
C
PM1
PM2
M1
M2
Mandible
Left: PM2
C
Right: C
PM1
M1
M2
Burial 1
Burial 2
Burial 3
Burial 5
Burial 6
6.2
-4.7
---
----3.9
-0.9
----
-2.4
----
---
---
5.1
----
---5.7
-4.3
2.2
0.1
--1.3
--
6.2
--2.8
3.5
2.4
3.6
1.9
-5.2
---
-----
----
----
----
-4.7
--
4.6
---
----
----
5.7
-5.0
4.3
4.5
6.0
6.1
Human Remains
---
----
211
Table 96. Summary of Hypoplasia Lines by Half-Year Increment
Age Interval
0 - 0.5
0.6 - 1.0
1.1 - 1.5
1.6 - 2.0
2.1 - 2.5
2.6 - 3.0
3.1 - 3.5
3.6 - 4.0
4.1 - 4.5
4.6 - 5.0
5.1 - 5.5
5.6 - 6.0
6.1 - 6.5
6.6 - 7.0
Measurement
Burial 1
Burial 2
Burial 3
Burial 5
Burial 6
Total
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
2
1
1
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1
.
.
.
1
.
.
1
1
1
.
1
.
.
.
1
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
3
2
1
.
.
.
.
1
.
.
.
1
.
.
.
.
.
1
1
1
1
3
1
1
2
3
4
2
5
2
1
Table 97. Selected Postcranial Metrics (mm)
B2 _
B3 9 yrs
B4 _
B5 _
Clavicle: max. length
Humerus: max. length
: epicondylar breadth
: vertical head diameter
: max. diameter midshaft
: min. diameter midshaft
Radius: max. length
Ulna: max. length
Femur: max. length
: bicondylar length
: epicondylar breadth
: max. diameter of head
: ant.-post. diameter
Subtrocanter
: med.-lat. diameter
Subtrocanter
: ant.-post. diameter
Midshaft
: med.-lat. diameter
Midshaft
Tibia: length
: max. prox. epiphyseal
Breadth
: max. dia. at nutrient
Foramen
: med-lat dia. at nutrient
Foramen
Fibula: max. length
Calcaneus: max. length
FS 32
37.9
161
357
65.4
48.8
19.4
17.5
270
280
458
457
87.8
48.8
234+
396
392
66.2
38.4
42.5
19.7
24.6
20.2
23.6
27
38.4
29.4
30.8
22.9
22.3
22.9
28.7
22
33.1
383
22.9
332
26.7
356
308+
78.9
61.9
67.7
61.4
34.4
39.4
29.8
33.2
29.6
20.1
22.2
378
80.1
18.3
322
63.2
20.6
344
72.6
20.4
308+
268
49.3
36.5
18.7
12.4
216
232
375
374
73.9
87.7
177
B6 _
134.5
150.8
244
279
50.5
36.6
20.8
12.9
143
306
54.7
40.3
22
13.3
420
415
the age of 5 years. Over half the lines were developed after that age of 3, suggesting that either
weaning was prolonged in this group or other factors, like low resistance to infection, affected some
individuals.
Considered together, these three indicators of
general health (porotic hyperostosis, periosteal
reactions, and hypoplasia lines) suggest the LA
103919 population was neither exceptionally
healthy nor more stressed than other Southwestern
populations. Female mean stature (147, 152, and
158 cm, mean 152 cm), computed using Genoves's
formula (Bass 1987:29), is comparable to other
Southwestern populations which range from 147.7
cm at Carter Ranch to 157.5 cm at Pueblo Bonito.
Burial 4 (170 cm, about 5 ft 6 inches) is larger than
any of the male means reported, which range from
159.4 cm for Point of Pines to 166.9 cm for Pueblo
Bonito. Means for the nearby sites include 160 cm
for males and 149.5 cm for females from Puye and
162 cm for males and 148.5 cm for females from
Arroyo Hondo (Martin et al. 1994, table 4:12).
Some of these may have used different formulas in
the calculations and may not be directly comparable. Regardless, the stature data again indicate that
the residents of LA 103919 were not experiencing
problems attaining adult stature.
The distribution of traumatic lesions is somewhat unusual. That all three females have significant
healed cranial traumas seems an unlikely random
occurrence. Yet with such a small sample size, it is
difficult to speculate whether it has any significance.
Degenerative joint disease can result from the
wear and tear of habitual activities or from accidental traumatic overextension. Age, occupation,
body build, and trauma all contribute to joint disease (Bridges 1989:387–388). The correlation
between the appearance of a joint disease and the
severity of the symptoms is poor (Rodgers and
Waldron 1995:102) so that attempts to judge the
amount of discomfort are speculative.
The three oldest individuals from LA 103919
(Burials 2, 4, and 6) all exhibit slight to moderate
amounts of degenerative joint disease in most
joints. Two have considerable development of
osteophytes in the lower spine and Schmorl's
nodes in the lower thoracic vertebra. Schmorl's
nodes are indentations in the surfaces of vertebral
bodies caused by herniation of disc material and
are most common in the lower thoracic and lumbar regions (Rodgers and Waldron 1995:27).
While hard to generalize from such a small sample, these suggest that degenerative joint disease
was shared by males and females in this population. A larger sample and more refined methods
are needed to address any differences caused by a
division of labor.
Selected postcranial metrics (Table 97) show
a great deal of variability among the females. One
of the more interesting measures is the maximum
diameter of the humerus at midshaft. Two of the
females (Burials 5 and 6) have greater maximum
diameters than Burial 4, a very large male.
Females from some Southwestern groups are significantly larger than males in this dimension.
Low or moderate intensity use of a muscle group
stimulates remodeling and thus size and strength
(Bridges 1989:387). For the humerus, the larger
size at midshaft probably results from the routine
and repetitive chore of grinding corn, which
places stress on the attachment of the deltoid muscle. That two of the three females had large "grinding muscles" suggests that corn processing occupied much of their time and represents a significant division of labor. Considerable sexual dimorphism is present in all other measures.
Regardless of the amount of healed cranial
trauma, the burials recovered from LA 103919
were robust and a generally healthy group. While
the cause of death could not be determined for any
of the burials, the near absence of other significant
or life-threatening conditions suggests they represent a well-adapted population. Only one burial
(Burial 5) evidenced chronic or repeated stress.
The rest appear to have been active and relatively
free of the stress typical of prehistoric agricultural
populations. Although the metric data from the
burials might have had direct relevance to the various migration theories presented, the sample size
from the Nambé human population was too small
to make any substantive comparisons with similar
studies from elsewhere.
Human Remains
213
THE NAMBÉ SITE AND THE SETTLEMENT OF THE
TEWA BASIN
Stephen Lentz
In the following section, we address questions from
the proposed data recovery plan (Maxwell
1994:42–58). In addressing the baseline data first,
we pose the question: who were the inhabitants of
LA 103919 and where did they come from? To
answer this question, it is necessary to provide
background information and to address such topics
as population movement, environment, and pottery
types.
Researchers in the Rio Grande Valley have perceived the developments in that area as departing
from those described in the traditional Pecos
Classification as proposed by Kidder (1927;
Wendorf and Reed 1955). However, the differences
between the Pecos Classification and the chronology proposed for the northern Rio Grande may not be
so great as supposed, particularly as it occurs in the
Tewa Basin during the Rio Grande Developmental
period. The hypothesis that the initial colonization
and population of the Tewa Basin was derived from
the Four Corners region is, in our opinion, an oversimplification—as is the proposition that the influence of the Four Corners area formed the basis for
subsequent developments in the Tewa Basin.
In the following section, models of settlement
and social organization are discussed. These include:
at the time of the migrations, but that this settlement pattern was dispersed and not aggregated.
• subsequent growth during the Developmental
period can largely be accounted for by internal
variables such as in situ population growth,
• different ceramic trends in the Tewa Basin compared to the Four Corners area may reflect
selective pressures resulting from increased
mobility.
This study is not intended to examine the numerous
models of occupation and abandonment of the San
Juan/Four Corners area. Rather, because of the geographical and temporal limitations of the data, its
purpose is to focus Rio Grande Developmental period only as it occurred in the Tewa Basin, and its
relationship to Chaco Canyon and the Four Corners
area.
As defined in this report, the geographical
boundaries of the Tewa Basin are: Tesuque to the
south, the northern edge of San Juan Pueblo to the
north, along the eastern piedmont of the southern
Rocky Mountains to the east, and the west bank of
the Rio Grande drainage to the west, not including
the foothills of the Pajarito Plateau (see Fig. 2).
•
Based on the work of early Southwestern archaeologists such as Frank H. H. Roberts and Earl Morris,
their extensive excavations in the San Juan region
led them to conclude that this area was the origin of
all Anasazi culture. For years, their convictions
stood as canonical. However, as early as the 1930s,
Kidder (Kidder and Amsden 1931) questioned this
hypothesis, noting that the Rio Grande villages with
black-on-white pottery may not have developed
specifically from the population centers at Chaco
Canyon or Mesa Verde.
Typically, archaeologists have characterized
cultural developments in the Rio Grande as having
been strongly influenced—even created—by the
Anasazi populations from the Four Corners/San
Juan Basin area. These are characterized by large
•
•
•
a comparison of the early chronology and cultural patterns in the Tewa Basin with that of the
Anasazi "heartland,"
a reexamination of the idea that the Tewa Basin
was a "last resort" recipient area for donor populations from elsewhere,
data indicating that the movements of populations into the Tewa Basin occurred principally
before the collapse of Chaco Canyon and other
large aggregations in the San Juan Basin. This
occurred during the Red Mesa and Kwahe'e
ceramic phases (A.D. 900–1000), and not during the Coalition period (A.D. 1200–1325) as
often indicated.
substantial Developmental phase populations
were probably already extant in the Tewa Basin
BACKGROUND
The Nambé Site and the Settlement of the Tewa
215
epicenters like Chaco Canyon, Mesa Verde, and the
Totah. To the present, this hypothesis has been
widely accepted. For example, a recent synthesis of
migration (Lekson and Cameron 1995:185) states:
. . . Chaco Canyon had dominated, in some illdefined way, the ancestral Pueblo (also called
the "Anasazi") region of the Southwest. The
Chacoan region, as presently defined, extended
from the Rockies on the north to the Mogollon
Rim on the south and from the Rio Grande on
the east to the Hopi Mesas to the west.
The potential importance of early colonization
into the northern Rio Grande Valley from the west
has been emphasized by McNutt (1969), who cited
that the general lack of ceramic occupations in areas
north of Santa Fe dating prior to the Pueblo II period suggests that the "Developmental phase populations in the northern Rio Grande did not develop
locally but were probably introduced from longer
and more heavily settled areas of the Four Corners
region." So deeply did ths conviction run that
McNutt (1969) felt that the term "Developmental
period" is inappropriate and should be substituted
for the "Colonization period."
The assumption that the Rio Grande was part of
the Chaco interaction sphere is based, in part, on the
presence of material culture showing up in both
regions, in particular pottery styles, but also easily
recognizable materials like Jemez obsidian and
Cerrillos turquoise (Wiseman and Darling 1986).
At the Pojoaque Grant site (LA 835), it was implied
that this site was culturally affiliated with the
Chacoan system and closely linked to the developments in the San Juan Basin (Ellis 1975:41; Judge
1977:7–8; Marshall et al. 1979). These data are presented as a fait accompli. Thus, the "widening geographic extent of Chaco's late 11th and early 12th
century exchange sphere indicates exactly that: an
astonishingly expanding sphere" (Lekson and
Cameron 1995:189). The consensus at this time
appears to be that Rio Grande settlements were
founded by immigrants from the San Juan Basin/
Four Corners region only, primarily after A.D.
1150–1200 (the putative dates for the abandonment
of Chaco Canyon) and A.D. 1220–1280 (the abandonment of the San Juan/Mesa Verde area). While
this may be true for many parts of the Rio Grande
216
Valley, it does not appear to be true for the Tewa
Basin where evidence from the late eleventh and
twelfth centuries suggests that cultural changes in
this area did not lag significantly behind those in the
Four Corners region.
Developmental period sites have typically suffered from low visibility, although the Tewa Basin
may be unique in that many sites of this period have
been documented (see Cultural History Overview).
However, analogous Pueblo II sites are also represented outside of the Tewa Basin. The perception
that Developmental period sites are numerous within the Tewa Basin may be partly due to a bias
towards excavating larger, more highly visible
structures. These larger sites tend to be later in time,
and starting at around A.D. 1200, many early sites
both inside and outside of the basin were effectively obscured by overlying components. Frequently,
earlier nonarchitectural or pit structure sites were
probably ignored until it became evident that the
data from sites of this period were of theoretical and
practical importance.
THE CERAMIC DATA
The data recovery plan (Maxwell 1994:47–49) calls
for viewing the patterns of interaction, production,
and exchange at LA 103919 through the perspective
of ceramic types and production modes. Dean
Wilson (this volume) discusses the ceramic data in
light of regional distribution of early white wares.
These data indicate both the presence and influence
of pottery produced in the Little Colorado Plateau,
particularly the Cibola region, which may reflect the
role of the Tewa Basin during the Developmental
phase as part of a demographic expansion. Further,
the ceramic data suggest that the interaction between
groups in the Colorado Plateau and the northern Rio
Grande was earlier than is often assumed. These data
may require a revision of current thought on the
original peopling of the upper Rio Grande.
Characterization of ceramic distributions from
the Nambé site resulted in the differentiation of two
distinct components dating to the Late Developmental phase and provide clues to the source and
nature of the early occupation (Wilson, this volume). The ceramic sequence at this site is very similar to that noted by McNutt (1969) for the initial
occupation of the nearby Tesuque By-Pass site (LA
3294). Here, ceramic distributions were used to
divide the Late Developmental phase of the Tewa
Basin into two distinct components (McNutt 1969).
The Red Mesa component was identified by the
presence of Red Mesa Black-on-white as the dominant white ware type along with neck banded or
plain gray utility wares (McNutt 1969). The
Kwahe'e component was defined by similar ceramics with the addition of Kwahe'e Black-on-white
and intrusive white wares exhibiting hatchured and
solid design styles characteristic of late Pueblo II
sites, and higher frequencies of corrugated gray
wares. McNutt (1969:103-109) also emphasized the
potential importance of early colonization into the
northern Rio Grande Valley from the west, when he
notes the general lack of ceramic occupations north
of Santa Fe dating prior to the Pueblo II period.
Data from the Nambé site indicate a similar
sequence of ceramic change, although the dating
period assigned to this site is slightly earlier than
those postulated by McNutt (1969:111).
Based on his excavations at the Pojoaque Grant
site (LA 835), Stubbs (1953:45) stated that he was
prepared to “possibly radically alter some of our
preconceived ideas and theories of Northern Rio
Grande archaeology.” The pottery types included
"Chaco I–II locally made" (now Kwahe'e Black-onwhite), culinary wares with pointed bases, neckbanded (Kana'a?), Wingate and Tusayan Black-onred, Classic Chaco Black-on-white, Gallina Blackon-white, brown wares, and Three Rivers Red-onterracotta. However, based on revised dates for the
Pojoaque Grant site, Wiseman (1992) suggests that
the production of this pottery took place potentially
as early as the late A.D. 800s. Believing he had
encountered architectural features (e.g., a Great
Kiva) contradictory to those typically found in the
Rio Grande, he tentatively dated the major occupation of the site in the A.D. 1000s, possibly extending to A.D. 1150. He then declared: “at this point I
wish to state that I am now going to start over and
rearrange my concepts of development in the northern Rio Grande region.” (Presumably, to include the
presence of immigrants or influences from the San
Juan Basin.) He also felt that the Developmental
period was poorly known, and that few sites of the
period are recorded compared to those of later periods (Stubbs 1954:45 in Wiseman 1989). In the case
of LA 835, and primarily because of the supposed
Great Kiva and other architectural and ceramic data,
it was assumed that the occupants of LA 835 participated in the Chaco system and had direct access to
the ideas and material culture of the Four Corners
area. Subsequent reexamination suggests that the
site, despite the presence of white wares that may
have come from the Cibola region, is primarily a
local development, especially during Kwahe'e
times. Wilson (this volume) agrees that LA 835 may
have constituted an economic or cultural hub. The
assumption is based largely on intrusive ceramics.
However, Wilson feels that the ceramic assemblage
at LA 835 is no less different than that at the Nambé
site, and represents an accurate depiction of a site of
that period. LA 835 is probably not, as was suggested, a Chacoan outlier. The "Great Kiva," despite its
size, is conspicuously lacking the architectural characteristics of its Cibolan counterparts. It appears to
be one of several large subterranean structures that
occur in the Rio Grande, somewhat along the lines
of the later kiva at Tyuonyi (Bandelier National
Monument), i.e., vernacular Rio Grande architecture. This includes a tendency to organize pueblo
architecture around plazas instead of kivas, as seen
in the Four Corners. Furthermore, the frequency of
white wares in Developmental period sites is much
lower than contemporaneous sites in the Four
Corners. It is probable that local pottery production
was underway in the Tewa Basin in a significant
way by at least A.D. 850. As Wilson suggests (this
volume), the presence of intrusive types and stylistic similarities noted for ceramics from the Nambé
site may indicate immigration of small groups from
the San Juan Basin to the northern Rio Grande
Valley (see also Lang 1982; McNutt 1969; Riley
1995).
Ceramic distributions documented at other sites
in the Tewa Basin indicate that Developmental period sites dating to both the Red Mesa and Kwahe'e
phases are fairly common in this area (McNutt
1969; Mera 1935; Wendorf 1953; Wiseman 1989).
In addition, an examination of sherds from
Developmental phase sites stored in the Mera
Collection further indicates the existence of a large
number of Developmental phase sites dating both to
the Red Mesa and Kwahe'e phases. For the examined collections, Kwahe'e components outnumbered
Red Mesa components two to one. In contrast, only
one collection examined could have represented an
217
occupation dating before, to the Red Mesa phase.
Thus, ceramic data from the Tewa Basin indicate
the probable arrival of ceramic-producing Anasazi
groups from somewhere in the Four Corners at
about A.D. 900. These groups are rapidly absorbed
into the local population, their pottery is used, it is
copied, and eventually “knock-offs” are made from
local mateials, which develop into a distinctive
style.
POPULATION
Estimating prehistoric population and its implications on culture sequences is often problematic.
Distributions of ceramic styles and pastes at the
Nambé site indicate both the presence and influence
of pottery produced in areas in the Little Colorado
Plateau, particularly the Cibola region. This may
help define the role of the Tewa Basin during the
Developmental period when population margins
were expanding. This could have involved the
movement of increasing populations from the
Cibola, northern San Juan, or western Rio Grande
regions into the Tewa Basin. The numerous extralocal artifacts in the various assemblages give ample
evidence of trade, exchange, importation, or contact
with nonlocal or indigenous groups (see Zackman,
Urban, and Wilson, this volume). It is important to
note that the time of appearance and increase of
Developmental phase sites in the Tewa Basin corresponds fairly closely to the diaspora of the Chaco
system (Judge et al. 1981). The Chaco regional system is thought to have developed during the tenth
century as a response to climatic and population
stress (Judge et al. 1981), and expanded dramatically during the next century. The sudden widespread
distribution of assemblages containing Red Mesa
Black-on-white in many Anasazi areas reflect a
widespread expansion during the early Pueblo II
period. Potential causes of the tenth-century expansion into the northern Rio Grande region may have
been improvements in local maize strains, climatic
warming (see below), and increased population
stress of groups to the west (Lang 1982).
Population growth has been cited as a causal
factor (Kohler 1989; Kohler and Powers 1993) in
the appearance of aggregated communities.
Leonard and Reed (1993) believe that population
growth is the result of successful adaptation and not
a cause for new adaptation. Arguing from a selec218
tionist perspective, the authors argue that aggregation is the product of changes in the organization of
corporate labor. This, in turn, is related to the stabilization of specialized strategies of resource production in response to changes in environmental conditions. To paraphrase their argument: two main tactics occurred in conjunction with the spread of
domesticates: aggregation (intensive) and colonization (extensive). Other tactics were certainly
devised locally (e.g., cobble-mulched fields in the
northern Rio Grande and elsewhere in the
Southwest). The success of the introduction of
domesticates directly influenced the reproductive
success of the individuals and the groups to which
they belonged (for example, calories yielded by certain domesticated plants, such as corn, can contribute to increased population growth [Binford
1983:212]). Reproductive success of individuals
worked to increase the replicative success of the
domesticates themselves. Successful maintenance
activities led to growth resulting in population levels that could not be maintained by other available
strategies. Thus, according to this hypothesis, the
use of specialized stratagems increases the relative
fitness of the practitioners.
For many areas in the San Juan Basin with large
late Pueblo I occupations, there appears to be a gap
in occupation during the tenth century. This hiatus
may partly reflect both the aggregation of population into villages and the long-distance movement
of populations into other areas, including the northern Rio Grande and the Tewa Basin. The tenth-century occupation represented at the west component
of the Nambé site, with its high frequency of
Cibolan-tradition Red Mesa pottery, seems to support such an expansion of small groups from areas
to the west. Further, as Wilson argued earlier, high
frequencies of maintainable ceramics (utility wares
with obliterated surfaces), combined with low frequencies of painted ceramics, reflects the influence
of a mobile subsistence base. Thus, mobility as a
subsistence strategy during the Developmental period (rather than as an outcome of isolation or a
regressive system) could be considered a sophisticated response to environmental conditions. This
strategy is imbedded in a dispersed settlement system, one which appears characteristic of the Tewa
Basin during the 900-1100s. Another type of intraand intergional cooperation is alluded to by Riley
(1995) as the Chacoan co-prosperity sphere.
Certainly the sharing and buffering of resources
between groups in areas of the San Juan Basin and
the Tewa Basin may have had advantages during
periods of environmental or demographic stress. At
the Nambé site, the ceramic distributions from the
late component indicate some continuing influence
from the west, but this influence appears to be a
lesser degree than the previous period (represented
by the west component). This suggests that the initial migration of small groups from the west at A.D.
900 may have had a stronger influence on population movement and interaction than the expanding
Chacoan system. After this initial expansion, there
appears to be a pronounced decline in the influence
of western-based ceramic traditions.
Models of migration from the San Juan/Four
Corners area into the Rio Grande region often
emphasize movements associated with the abandonment of the Colorado Plateau in the late thirteenth
century (Cordell 1979, 1995; Cameron 1995).
Perhaps the idea of the thirteenth-century population migration is presently more embraced by Four
Corners’ archaeologists wishing to find a source for
their disappearing populations rather than Rio
Grande archaeologists (cf. Cameron 1995). Data
from the Nambé site and adjacent Developmental
sites indicate strong stylistic corollaries between
local ceramics and contemporaneous ceramics from
the San Juan/Four Corners area. This, combined
with the high frequency of nonlocal ceramics apparently produced on-site, suggests that the interaction
and movement of groups in these regions began earlier than has been assumed. Of note are similarities
between ceramic artifacts from geographically distinct areas and the presence of nonlocal ceramics
from areas to the west that appear to be greatest at
Developmental sites in the Tewa Basin than at nearby Coalition phase sites. Coalition period sites on
the Pajarito Plateau allegedly date to the time of
migration of San Juan/Four Corner populations into
this area, which would suggest a larger migration at
a later date.
Ceramic data from Coalition phase sites in the
Tewa Basin indicate that Santa Fe Black-on-white
probably developed directly out of Kwahe'e Blackon-white with some pan-P III influences. There is
little ceramic evidence for migration of, or interaction with, groups from the San Juan/Four Corners
region at Coalition phase sites in the Tewa Basin,
although, as mentioned above, e.g., the Pajarito
Plateau, there is evidence of exchange between
groups in the northern Rio Grande (HabichtMauche 1993, 1995). She questions the ceramic
basis for the Four Corners/Rio Grande migration.
While supporting Cordell's (1979, 1989) suggestion
that small groups of individuals could have immigrated and become integrated into Rio Grande communities without leaving visible archaeological
traces, she offers as an alternative that the increase
in the number and size of sites in the Rio Grande
during the early 1200s may have been caused by a
“ripple effect,” as population moved off the plateau
and put pressure on groups living on the periphery
of the northern Rio Grande. Like Dutton (1964), she
suggests that populations may also have derived
from the upper little Colorado region (1993:87).
Habicht-Mauche acknowledges that the appearance
of Mesa Verde-style ceramics in the Rio Grande at
about 1300 suggests the arrival of Mesa Verde
immigrants. Nevertheless, the presence of this
admittedly nonlocal style does not suggest to her a
large in-migration from the Mesa Verde area. She
believes that the development of variants of the
Mesa Verde style, especially Galisteo Black-onwhite, are more the result of attempts by existing
groups to define social boundaries than the presence
of foreigners among these groups (Habicht-Mauche
1993:92). Kohler and Powers (1993) also agree that
migration out of the Four Corners area was accomplished by small groups because families were
loosely linked into aggregated villages and easily
dissolved into smaller units.
It is increasingly apparent that Red Mesa
Black-on-white in the Tewa Basin dates essentially
the same as it does in the Four Corners region, i.e.,
between approximately A.D. 800 and A.D. 1100
(Wiseman 1995). Furthermore, there appears to be
the beginning of a locally produced Red Mesa
ceramic style and an abundance of plain wares and
corrugated wares stylistically similar to those from
the Four Corners area, beginning somewhere
between the ninth and tenth centuries (Wilson, this
volume). It is probable that some painted pottery at
the Tewa Basin sites dating to this time was being
imported from outside of the Rio Grande:
Painted pottery in the Rio Grande evidently
started on a small scale in early Red Mesa
Black-on-white times. Based on revised dates
for LA 835 (the Pojoaque Grant site), the
219
production of this pottery took place potentially
as early as the late A.D. 800s (Wiseman 1991).
This dating agrees with the dates for Red Mesa
Black-on-white in the Four Corners region
(Breternitz 1966). Second, significant local
production of painted pottery evidently did not
begin until about A.D. 1100, the starting date for
the manufacture of Kwahe'e Black-on-white.
(Wiseman and Olinger 1991:213–214)
The presence of intrusive types and stylistic
similarities noted for ceramic artifacts from the
Nambé site probably indicate the immigration of
small groups ultimately derived from the ChacoSan Juan area (San Juan Basin) to the Tewa Basin
(Lang 1982; McNutt 1969; Riley 1995). Thus,
ceramic data from our investigation of a multicomponent Developmental phase site, and ceramic data
from other Pueblo II sites (Wilson 2000) suggest
that the association between the Colorado Plateau
and the Tewa Basin was earlier than is often
thought. Should more corroborative data from this
area become available, a revision of current views
concerning the origin and nature of interaction and
influence between these regions may become necessary. At present, the material evidence suggests that
the Tewa Basin was already populated at the time of
the collapse of the San Juan/Four Corners communities and may have been only partly populated by
immigrants fleeing the collapse of Chaco or other
areas of the Colorado Plateau.
MIGRATION
Despite renewed interest in migration theory
(Anthony 1990, 1993; Otte and Keeley 1990; Rouse
1986), many archaeologists still consider it an
unsatisfactory means of explaining cultural variability and change. Most archaeologists would agree
that although migrations may well affect cultural
evolution, they are unpredictable and difficult to
identify. This combines to make migration an
explanatory construct of limited utility (Anthony
1990:895). By placing migration in a causal framework, we may be able to achieve a better understanding of the process. This presumes that migration is a process, not an event, and as the process
unfolds, it generates its own dynamics. These studies suggest that migrations are patterned processes
220
that can be approached through general principles.
The causes of migration can be complex and probably vary on a case-by-case basis. In many instances
in prehistory it is likely that proximate causes can
no longer be identified. For example, the large-scale
mass-migration model typically used to explain the
presence of early Coalition populations in the Rio
Grande Valley and the Pajarito Plateau appears, at
first view, simplistic. However, it is important not to
reject the occurrence and importance of long-distance movement or migration of populations. Such
movement may be better considered in terms of the
long-distance movement of small households that
began during the tenth century and probably continued well into the thirteenth century. Further, later
movements appear to have had little impact on the
distinct material culture and adaptive patterns that
had developed in areas such as the Tewa Basin, and
may reflect a strategy of immediate absorption of
small groups of new immigrants. Migrations can be
a source of local population expansion and even
serve as an explanation for Coalition phase village
formation—however, we suggest that it was probably on a much smaller scale, perhaps limited to
households or other smaller cohesive groups.
Demographers and geographers have classically
approached causality through the analysis of negative "push" and positive "pull" factors at both the
place of origin and the destination, mediated
through the effects of intervening obstacles.
Generally, migration is most likely to occur when
there are negative (push) stresses in the home region
and positive (pull) attractions in the destination
region, and the transportation costs between the two
are acceptable. This is the basic formulation of the
push-pull model of migrations. Thus, the decision to
migrate can be modeled through analyses of
resource supply and demand curves. However, the
data required to perform such analyses are seldom
available to the archaeologist, and even if they
were, the results would still be open to argument, as
a glance at the modern demographic literature will
demonstrate (Anthony 1990:898). Migration is
most likely to occur in a context in which interaction between the donor and receptor groups, and
migrants are not likely to move to areas about which
they have no information.
Cultures do not migrate. It is often a very narrowly defined, goal-oriented subgroup that
migrates. The phenomenon of return migration
focuses attention on the processual nature of migrations, and on the archaeological necessity of examining the proposed place of origin as closely as the
proposed destination. Migration is a two-way street.
For archaeologists, migration has been and remains
largely a convenience for the explanation of anomalous trait distributions, but has been weakened by
the inroads of alternative models of explanation.
Recognizing regional population changes on the
basis of artifact distribution, style, and morphology
is a substantial problem in Southwestern archaeology (Cordell and Gumerman 1989; Cordell 1995;
Schlanger 1985). Changes in settlement patterns
and increases in the number and size of sites, and
architectural and ceramic distributions (e.g., the
shift to organically painted pottery) were identified
by Wendorf and Reed (1955) as a generalized pattern for the northern Rio Grande drainage. This was
subsequently identified as the Coalition period and
dated between A.D. 1200 and 1325. Undeniably,
there are numerous Santa Fe Black-on-white sites
outside of the Tewa Basin (in particular, the Pajarito
Plateau [Steen 1977]). Collins (1975) determined
that these new patterns indicated a population influx
of groups from the Mesa Verde area. However, this
observation may be premature. While it is true that
Mesa Verde-style ceramics are found over an
extremely wide area of the northern Southwest during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries (Davis 1964;
Roney 1995), this may simply reflect a pan-P III
style that includes Mesa Verde Black-on-white
types. The designs bear only superficial resemblance to Mesa Verde styles, and were rapidly
replaced by Santa Fe Black-on-white. Wilson (pers.
comm., 1998) has observed that at Burnt Corn Ruin
in the Galisteo Basin, the pottery previously identified as Mesa Verde Black-on-white was in actuality
Santa Fe Black-on-white with a light paste. Wilson
speculates that the reason this pottery resembles
Mesa Verde Black-on-white is that the same shell
formation (originating from the Morrison
Formation, which is also found in the Mesa Verde
District) exists in the Galisteo Basin but not in Santa
Fe because of the overburden of the sediments from
the floodplain and volcanism, hence the paste difference. Dating the period of arrivals in the northern
Rio Grande region is complicated by the fact that
migrants would have been added to an existing pop-
ulation that appears to be growing on its own. There
is also a lack of consensus that migrants from the
Mesa Verde region contributed significantly to population levels in the northern Rio Grande (Cameron
1995). Dutton (1964) all but denies the Four
Corners migration based on her excavations at the
site of Las Madres in the Galisteo Basin. Although
Las Madres contained abundant Galisteo Black-onwhite pottery, which she admitted resembled Mesa
Verde types, she, like McNutt (1969) and Stubbs
(1953), was troubled that architectural traits, especially ceremonial architecture, did not resemble
Four Corners architecture. Furthermore, if the settlement of the Galisteo Basin was in fact prompted
by Mesa Verde groups, these groups suddenly and
inexplicably dropped their abundant ceramic jar
forms, mugs, and kiva jars in favor of bowls, and
rapidly started producing Rio Grande-style ceramics. It remains to be determined, however, whether
the distribution of P III-style ceramics over so wide
an area signifies population mobility, ceramic
exchange, emulation of ceramic styles, or different
combinations of these factors. It is possible, as John
Ware (pers. comm., 1999) has suggested, the collapse of human systems on the Colorado Plateau
and elsewhere created so much disillusionment with
the former system that all of its traits were abandoned. Ethnographic evidence is used to support
this hypothesis. Still, the relationship between the
two areas remains unclear:
Were the occupants of the Rio Grande people
which (sic) whom Four-Corners people had kin
ties? Were they trading partners? Or was the Rio
Grande simply a resource area with which the
Four-Corners people were familiar and local
Rio Grande inhabitants considered ephemeral
and unimportant to the larger goals of immigration? (Cameron 1995:115)
Scholars who prefer migration models in order
to explain the origin of Coalition phase occupations
have difficulty accepting the presence of Red Mesa
Black-on-white from the west with pithouse complexes that lack typical San Juan features such as
pilasters and benches. If in fact the collapse of the
systems on the Colorado Plateau forced immigrants
into the Rio Grande to abandon their social, ceremonial, and material culture in favor of locals’ styles
221
and lifeways, it is difficult to believe that there
would be so little evidence of a large group assimilating into the Rio Grande populations. That these
same groups would be able to adopt the complex
system unique to this area in such a relatively short
time also seems unlikely. However, if small groups
of people from the Four Corners area moved into
existing communities on the Rio Grande in which
they had established previous ties through trade or
alliance, they might lose many attributes distinctive
of their place of origin. A group that has abandoned
its identity markers would naturally be difficult to
detect archaeologically.
The dating of the various Rio Grande Black-onwhite wares, and the belief that they were either
introduced from the San Juan or developed in the
Rio Grande as copies of the San Juan types is problematic when it is assumed that the appearance of
Red Mesa Black-on-white, Kwahe'e Black-onwhite, and Santa Fe Black-on-white is part of a
gradually changing sequence. The evidence seems
to indicate a troublesome lack of a constellation of
Mesa Verde traits (see "site unit intrusion" below) at
northern Rio Grande sites. Both McNutt (1969) and
Allen (1973) have noted the absence of San Juan
architectural features, such as room partitions in pithouse or benches, slab-lined hearths, or pilasters in
kivas. This, along with the complete lack of intrusive pottery from the San Juan region at Coalition
phase sites casts doubts on late P III migration models. Cordell (1984:333–334) has found that site unit
intrusion is ethnographically rare and not necessary
for documentation of migration. If, as Ware suggests, there was a complete breakdown of the social
infrastructure on the Colorado Plateau at around
A.D. 1200, and given little evidence of site unit
intrusion, then it is possible that Four Corners architectural traits would not appear, and the population
would be rapidly absorbed, both culturally and stylistically. However, we believe this could only happen at the small group or household level. If small
groups of people from the San Juan/Four Corners
area moved into existing communities on the Rio
Grande where they had established previous ties
through trade or alliance networks, it is quite possible that they would lose many attributes distinctive
of their place of origin and be very difficult to detect
archaeologically.
Ethnographic data collected by Rio Grande
222
archaeologists, suggests that the Keres may have
originated in the Four Corners area, but that both the
Tiwa and Tewa were native to the Rio Grande (Ford
et al. 1972). In this view, the Tewa-speaking
Pueblos are descendants of the original inhabitants
of the Rio Grande Valley, developing in situ out of
small local groups. Peckham (1984:275–281) is
firm in his conviction that the Tewa originated in the
Rio Grande. When true Keres populations moved in
en masse it was not until the post-1100s. According
to this argument, the local northern Rio Grande population is Tewa, and it originates in the Tewa Basin,
home to the occupants of Nambé, past and present.
Interaction between the northern Tewa Basin
and the Four Corners area during later times may
have been similar to the earlier patterns, i.e., small
groups entering the area and mixing with the gene
pool, a process which, over a 150-year span, would
increase the population. At this time, the twelfth and
thirteenth centuries may no longer have included
episodic migrations, but taken the form of
exchange and information sharing between small
groups, at a higher rate of frequency. Although there
is evidence of population increase during the
Coalition period elsewhere in the Rio Grande Valley
(probably post-dating A.D. 1150 or 1200), this is
not necessarily true for the Tewa Basin, where the
population appears to have remained relatively static. Data from the New Mexico Cultural Resource
Information System (NMCRIS), Archeological
Records Management Section, Historic Preservation
Division, show that 79 sites were recorded during
the A.D. 900–1200 Pueblo II/Late Developmental
interval, while 74 sites were documented during the
A.D. 1200–1325 Coalition period in the area defined
as the Tewa Basin and that the majority of the pottery was locally produced. Mindful that these data
apply only to a limited geographical range, and that
site size is not calculated and new Developmental
and Coalition sites are constantly being documented, the preliminary indication is that there was a
slight decline in site numbers at a time when there
was supposedly a dramatic increase in site ratios
(cf. Mera 1940; Wendorf and Reed 1955; Stuart and
Gauthier 1981:51–52; Collins 1975; Warren 1979,
among others). It is too early to draw any conclusions from these figures, but they are at variance
with current thinking on the Coalition period, and
may be of use in future interpretations.
Why then, does P III mass migration persist as
an explanation for the appearance of Rio Grande
populations? Given the complexities of population
expansion and movement between the tenth and
thirteenth centuries, this would seem to be a reductionist argument. A multicausal or general model of
local adaptation, embedded in a regional system,
seems a more plausible explanation. Three hundred
years of sedentary agriculture allows for exponential in situ population growth, with or without the
aid of migration.
Our proposed model for the settlement in the
Tewa Basin during the Developmental period is
simple, and can be summarized in this manner:
•
•
•
•
During the tenth century, Keres-speaking
ceramic-producing groups from areas to the
northwest moved into the Tewa Basin in small
household or residential bands.
There was already a well established Tewaspeaking indigenous population in the northern
Rio Grande.
Immigrants became absorbed into the local population. Surviving traits included pottery styles.
A gradual population increase followed, which
spanned the Kwahe'e and early Coalition phases.
Thus, population increase during the twelfth century was probably preceded by an equally important
one during Pueblo II-Developmental times. Further,
later movements appear to have had little impact on
the distinctive material culture and adaptive patterns
that had developed in areas such as the Tewa Basin,
and may reflect a strategy of immediate absorption
of small groups of new immigrants. Migrations can
be a source of local population and even serve as an
explanation for Coalition phase village formation,
but the "intrusive unit" and the internal changes it
may have caused may have been limited to the
household level. If the hypothesis that groups came
into an area that was already populated is accurate,
then future researchers might want to concentrate
their investigations on the local level of development.
Lipe (1995:164) suggests that movement, at
scales ranging from household to regional populations, was a long-established element in Anasazi
social and economic organization. This would have
required establishing and maintaining social net-
works for obtaining information about other areas,
and fostering reciprocity. Simply because a group
has knowledge of another group's technology, and
may even choose to copy it, does not necessarily
imply that it is going to affiliate itself with that
group. Cordell (1979:1370) notes that ceramic distributions are probably more indicative of social
interaction, which might include trade, rather than
as a result of migrations. Sharing information can be
a vital component of a subsistence strategy. Binford
(1983:271–272) describes the importance of information-sharing among the Nunamuit Eskimo.
There, information, transmitted through generations
and across populations, was essential to survival.
Once consigned to relative obscurity, the Tewa
Basin can be viewed in much the same light as the
Totah or the Kayenta districts, separate from a
monolithic polity, but with individuals and small
households moving in and out on a regular basis. An
important point of migratory behavior is that migrations almost always move in two directions: the initial migration is followed by a counterstream moving back to the migrant's place of origin (Anthony
1990). This type of area is sensitive to external
influences, home to small immigrant groups, but
retains a certain degree of autonomy and a distinctive settlement system. Again, the bias that aggregated areas, such as the Four Corners, are somehow
more "advanced" while other areas are backwaters
to be populated only under unfavorable circumstances is a stereotype that is well worth reevaluating. Hodder (1990:37) has argued that the advantages of living in a larger, sedentary unit involves
the "flexible and immediate response of the small
unit to the needs and demands of the larger whole,"
to which we might add the advantages of shared
economic safety nets, tasks done cooperatively, and
communal defense. However, community living
may not always be a particularly advantageous
scheme, as Kent (1986) and others have pointed out.
The advantages of balanced reciprocity might be
offset by a greater parasite load, anemia, genetic
inbreeding, increased distances to fields and hunting areas, and depletion of resources in the immediate vicinity. Intensification can cause internal strife
because of lack of privacy, enforced nucleation,
increased value placed on personal property, and
internecine disputes. This model is by no means
new, but it serves to reemphasize the disadvantages
223
of settled village life and to offset the notion that the
Anasazi communities in the San Juan/Four Corners
area are more advantaged than those in the Rio Grande,
and that the Chacoan influence may have been exaggerated. Perhaps Chaco Canyon and the other large settlements of that period may actually have been relatively short-lived and not have exerted the social or economic clout typically attributed to them.
ENVIRONMENT
The regional relationship between settlement and
subsistence in the Tewa Basin and the Four Corners
area has been characterized by Riley (1995) as a "coprosperity sphere washed by the expanding margins
of a regional settlement system." The view of the
relationship between the valley to the heartland is
reminiscent of the "country mouse–city mouse"
fables, a limited view of a more complex interrelationship. Settlement, social organization, and economy in the northern Rio Grande appears to be a much
more extensive, sophisticated system when compared to the intensification and aggregation seen in
the Four Corners. We suggest that the two areas simply employed different subsistence strategies in different settings. Based on tree-ring data, Dean and
Robinson (1977) show that periods climatically
favorable to agriculture in the northern Rio Grande
during the P II-Developmental period occurred
between A.D. 800 and 850, A.D. 860 and 900, A.D.
910 and 940, A.D. 1010 and 1090, and A.D. 1140 and
1190. Over the span of 398 years, 250 years were
favorable for agriculture compared to 140 years that
were unfavorable for agriculture. These favorable
intervals were characterized by dry-warm conditions
alternating evenly with cool temperatures and periods of moisture without any extremes of dryness,
heat, or cold. The marginal periods were characterized by fluctuations between hot and cold periods, or
extreme dryness. During the Coalition period
(approximately A.D. 1200–1350, during the time of
the postulated population increase), 90 years were
favorable for agriculture, while 30 years were unfavorable. However, many of the favorable times came
in 10-year cycles (Dean and Robinson 1977;
Wiseman 1989). However, there are obviously a multitude of reasons, from practical to ideological, why
people chose to relocate elsewhere. These data are
merely presented in order to raise the possibility that
224
climatic conditions appear slightly more encouraging
for newly arrived agriculturists during P II times than
later. We do not mean to ascribe causality to an environmental change that happens to coincide with
behavioral transformations. However, it was not until
the late thirteenth century that similar conditions in
the Tewa Basin would have made it more promising
for agriculture and consequent aggregation.
In the La Plata model for attraction (McKenna
and Toll 1992) in which the population of the Totah
is seen in terms of favorable environment (certainly
permanent water), the authors do not commit to
whether the area was colonized by Chacoan or San
Juan populations, or developed independently. Toll
(pers. comm.) says that it is not possible to tell
numerically who settled where and that "people
were probably moving all over the place at that
time." Given the proximity of larger adjacent populations seeking to recolonize elsewhere, it would
seem that the Totah would be a logical choice for
some groups during the unstable early A.D. 1000s.
Other areas were certainly colonized as well during
this period. The Rio Grande Valley may have exerted many of the same "pull" factors. Abundant game
and wild plants are certainly an attraction. Lekson
(1996) suggests that the depletion of animal
resources in the Four Corners resulted in movement
toward the Rio Grande to be closer to buffalo, riverine resources, such as water fowl, and ample populations of other hunted species such as deer.
Likewise, Ahlstrom et al. (1995:127) rate the Rio
Grande Valley as having a high "pull" factor.
However, its appeal may have been limited to
indigenous groups and occasional visitors. When
adjacent organizations began to collapse, its popularity greatly increased to those people desperate for
new resources. As the locals already knew, the Tewa
Basin was a great environment, and others knew
about it, too. It became doubly attractive to nonlocal
groups after the failure of their own systems. This
pattern is seen even today, as urban America flees
its overcrowded cities to enjoy the agreeable surroundings of Santa Fe.
CHRONOLOGY
Shifts in pottery types, such as the one from mineral to organic paint, are viewed as part of a regional
system, in which similar shifts in pigment and
Table 98. Chronology and Associated Pottery Types for the Tewa Basin Compared to the Pecos Classification
Tewa Basin
Dates A.D.
Principal Ceramic Types
Pecos
Classification
Dates A.D.
Pricinpal Ceramic Types
Early Developmental
600-900
Plain wares, Lino Gray
San Marcial
Pueblo I-II
600-900
Late Developmental
900-1200
Pueblo II
900-1100
Coalition
1200-1325
Pueblo II-III
1100-1300
Classic
1325-1600
Red Mesa Black-on-white,
Kwahe'e Black-on-white,
Kana'a Neckbanded,
Micaceous plain gray,
corrugated
Santa Fe Black-on-white,
Galisteo Black-on-white,
Micaceous plain gray and
corrugated
Wiyo Black-on-white, Rio
Grande Glazewares A-D,
Biscuitwares A-B
Pueblo IV
1300-1600
Plain Gray, Lino Gray, la
Plata Black-on-white,
White Mound Black-onwhite
Red Mesa Black-onwhite, Chaco Black-onwhite, Gallup Black-onwhite, plain gray wares,
corrugated gray wares
Chaco/McElmo Black-onwhite, Mesa Verde Blackon-white, White Mountain
Redwares
Dinetah Gray,
Gobernador polychrome,
Pueblo trade wares
design style were occurring in many parts of the
Southwest at approximately the same time. In
recognition of the lack of true "lag" between events
in the Four Corners/San Juan area, particularly during the Developmental (Pueblo II) and Coalition
(Pueblo II-Pueblo III) times, the chronology of the
Tewa Basin may have followed the sequence presented in Table 98.
Although there were already Archaic and
Basketmaker peoples occupying the Tewa Basin,
there was almost certainly an influx of Pueblo II
groups who introduced Red Mesa pottery to the Rio
Grande Valley. Red Mesa pottery was occurring in the
Rio Grande and in the Tewa Basin at approximately
the same time as it was in other Anasazi areas, i.e.,
A.D. 900–1000. This contrasts with Cordell's
(1979:142) statement that
The northern Rio Grande valley showed virtually
little or no use by the Anasazi prior to A.D. 1100
(when it was) occupied for the first time by
Anasazi horticulturists.
Pecos Classification. However, an overlap occurs
between the end of Pueblo II in the Rio Grande (A.D.
1200) and the beginning of Pueblo III according to the
Pecos Classification (A.D. 1100–1300). Nevertheless,
the pottery types suggest that perhaps the changes in
the Rio Grande Valley are best seen as a regional variation of the Pecos sequence.
CONCLUSIONS
Because of the geographical and temporal limitations of the data, the focus of the observations are
limited to the Pueblo II or Rio Grande
Developmental period of the Tewa Basin, although
some inferences were made concerning the northern
Rio Grande Valley as a whole. The current hegemony of large sites in the Four Corners area is also
questioned. We suggest that, from the perspective of
the Tewa Basin:
•
We suggest that Red Mesa groups were well represented during the tenth century, had rapidly been
absorbed into the local population, and adapted
sucessfully to its dispersed settlement pattern. An
indigenous pottery tradition developed almost immediately (Kwahe'e Black-on-white, ca. A.D.
1000–1200). The shift to organic paint, represented by
Santa Fe Black-on-white occurs at around A.D. 1200.
To this point, the Rio Grande sequence parallels the
•
•
•
Migration episodes from the Four Corners
and elsewhere occurred earlier than previously thought, and diverges around A.D. 1100.
Population and consequent material changes
seen in the Tewa Basin were multicausal.
Immigration into the Rio Grande Valley was
more of a trickle than a flow and most probably went both ways.
Pattern differences between contemporaneous occupations in the Four Corners and Rio
Grande areas are best explained in terms of
different strategies for different conditions
225
•
•
rather than in terms of cultural centers, frontiers, peripheries, or backwaters.
Material culture associated with Late
Developmental phase sites in the Tewa Basin
essentially represent a variation of the
Eastern Anasazi Pueblo II culture, reflecting
a common origin and continual interaction.
The separate terminology used for northern
Rio Grande occupations has sometimes
obscured important similarities, therefore,
No great differences exist between the Pecos
Classification and Wendorf and Reed’s 1955
chronology for the northern Rio Grande.
Archaeologists and ethnologists have begun to
develop new techniques for examining the relationship between social boundaries and material culture
in the archaeological record. Stylistic variation in
ceramics has been the commonly used tool for identifying cultural boundaries in the Southwest, but the
nature and extent of social information conveyed by
ceramic vessels has not been clearly defined and
may be limited (Cordell and Yannie 1991; Kramer
1985; Stark 1994). There is also a recognition that
technical choices evident in ceramic technology, the
cultural landscape, environment, and even behavioral aspects of material cultures may be more
amenable to distinguishing between groups than is
stylistic behavior. Such studies may deserve far
more examination as tools for understanding the
demographic relationship between the Four Corners
and the northern Rio Grande.
What may have been viewed as tangible evidence of migrational movement and settling (e.g.,
pottery styles) may in fact be the outcome of intergroup information sharing by small groups or
households. Further, the basis for later nucleated
Rio Grande villages and the shift from multiple
kivas to plaza-oriented village plans may have
evolved from a dispersed developmental pattern
beginning in the A.D. 900s. The paucity of Cibolan
cultural materials and architectural traits may never
be accounted for, especially if they are caused by
social or ceremonial variables. However, we pro-
226
pose that immigration and emigration from the
Tewa Basin only occurred on a limited scale, and
that, in many ways, a local regional culture evolved
independently from the Four Corners area.
However, similar pottery styles were produced as an
expression of a pan-regional pottery tradition.
The proposed model argues that during the
tenth century, ceramic-producing groups from
areas to the west moved into the Tewa Basin in
small household or residential groups. Material
evidence collected during this project and others
suggests that the Tewa Basin was already populated at the time of the collapse of the San Juan/Four
Corners area, and may have been only partly populated by immigrants fleeing the collapse of Chaco
or other areas of the Colorado Plateau. This was
followed by a period of gradual population
increase which spanned the Late Developmental
(Kwahe'e Black-on-white) and early Coalition
phases. A divergence from the Four Corners area
occurred at approximately A.D. 1100, and an
indigenous population was well established in the
Tewa Basin by A.D. 1300, independent of the
Pueblo III migration which appears to have consisted of insular cycles of village formation and
collapse, of aggregation and splintering, and of
dead-ends. While these settlement systems centered mainly around kivas, the village structure of
the Tewa Basin was composed of roomblocks surrounding plazas. The population increase during
the Coalition was probably preceded by an equally
important one during the Rio Grande Developmental period. What appears not to be represented
in the Tewa Basin are episodes of mass migrations
of large populations prior to the 1100s. It is
intriguing to think that the current indigenous population of the northern Rio Grande developed sui
generis from a single point of origin dating back to
the 900s, and probably as far back as early Archaic
times. Developmental sites such as Nambé and
other research projects within the Rio Grande
Valley can provide substantial insight into the
dynamics of early Tewa demography, economy,
and settlement systems.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
This section provides a synthesis of the questions
outlined in the data recovery plan (Maxwell
1994:42–58) and the findings from the site. To summarize, the data recovery program conducted by the
Office of Archaeological Studies at the Nambé site
(LA 103919) revealed a multicomponent site of the
Rio Grande Middle and Late Developmental periods, and a historic component. LA 103919 existed
on both sides of NM 503. To facilitate excavation,
the site was arbitrarily divided into two halves (east
and west). Coincidentally, it was discovered that
each half represented distinct temporal components.
Integrative materials may exist under NM 503,
which bisects the site. The long-time presence of
old State Road 4 (now NM 503) divides the site, and
may have obscured any connecting materials. The
picture that emerges is that of two sites located close
to each other, but not necessarily associated. One
component (LA 103919W) is dated to the Rio
Grande Middle Developmental period (approximately A.D. 900-1000), and the other site segment
(LA 103919E) is dated to the Middle to Late Rio
Grande Developmental period (approximately A.D.
1100 to 1200).
A major goal of this report as described in the
data recovery plan is to document and evaluate the
changes in the human use of the Nambé site during
its occupational history. Analysis focused on the
chronological relationship between the two components and local and regional economic pursuits
practiced by the site occupants. Many questions
were raised during the investigation of this site.
These included mortuary practices, material
remains, architecture, and site location.
ARCHITECTURE AND SITE LOCATION
The nature and function of the living spaces exposed
during testing was one of the principal questions in
the research design (Maxwell 1994:45). Not only
was the function of the structures problematic, but so
was their exposure and location. For example, the
architecture and exposure of the west component
raised many questions. For example, of what practical value is the north-facing orientation, particularly
in view of its presumed year-round occupation?
Why were the rooms on the west side so ephemeral–literally carved out of the sand of a semistabilized
dune? Why were they located on such a steep slope?
A semicircular grouping of nine posthole features
were defined on the western component. Did these
represent the roof of a large jacal structure or a palisade? If so, the architecture of the western segment
is markedly different than the east. What was the
function of the two small pit structures on the eastern component? If numerous architectural differences exist between the two site segments, what conditions created these differences? Are they actual
differences, or perceived differences based on fragmentary remains, attrition through time, or sample
size? The most obvious cause may be poor preservation on the western side. However, this may be less
than a satisfactory explanation. Local informants
recall rock alignments on the top of the knoll. These
may have been removed during the construction of a
powerline. Also, NM 503 bisects the site, and it is
impossible to determine what may have existed
under the road. Since only a partial sample may be
present, it may not be useful to compare the architecture of the two components. It is worth noting that
some features located on the north slope on the east
side of LA 103919 may be the remnants of extra
rooms appended to the larger roomblock. If their
highly informal construction (unplastered walls
capped with a thin layer of adobe) is any indication,
these may have been used for storage or activities
other than occupation. The large pit, Feature 1, certainly would argue in favor of that interpretation. As
for the small pithouses on the eastern side (Rooms 3
and 4; Fig. 16), it would seem that many
Developmental sites contain such shallow structures
(e.g., the architecture of Peña Blanca; Ware, in prep).
Their function is unknown, although it has been
assumed that they serve as habitations. The nature of
the fill of Room 4 suggests that this feature may
have been used to process clay for pottery-making or
Summary and Conclusions
227
mixing plaster. However, the fill just may be postoccupational clay deposits. A large pit structure and
central hearth was visible in the profile paralleling
the right-of-way. This was not excavated, but suggests that the architecture on the east side may have
been more extensive. The smaller structure may
have served some auxiliary function to the larger
unit. Given the orientation, it could conceivably
have served as an antechamber, although antechambers are not common in the northern Rio Grande.
bones as would be expected in an embedded
strategy in which both the procurement of large
fauna and quarrying are combined. In the later
component, a broad spectrum of lithic materials
are used, with obsidian dominating the assemblage, but augmented by other Jemez material
types, such as Pedernal chert. The lithic assemblage for the later component appears to reflect
an emphasis on the production of bifacial tools.
SUBSISTENCE: BOTANICAL REMAINS AND FAUNA
SITE LOCATION
Despite its problematic orientation, the Nambé
site is optimally situated to exploit the riparian
resources existing along the Nambé River a
short distance to the south. Proximity to water is
an important variable. As Greaves (1997)
observes, most groups avoid hauling water and
the closer they can locate to a water source, the
better. It is possible that early water control features may have been present, and that water may
have been diverted from the river for crop irrigation. There is anecdotal evidence that several of
the large acequias in the area (Caño, Ortiz) may
have had their origin during Pueblo times.
The immediate site vicinity provides opportunities to obtain game, aquatic resources (fish, mussels, turtles, water fowl), and to farm the floodplain. Quarrying the local gravel terraces for suitable lithic materials was obviously done as well, as
local material types in the lithic assemblage attest.
The production of bifacial tools is indicated
in the lithic artifact analysis. Traveling to quarry
sources during the occupation of this site may
have been restricted by field maintenance,
although a specialized task force could have
been retained to maintain fields and safeguard
the site. There was a fair amount of long-distance
trade suggested, particularly of pottery and lithic
materials during Red Mesa times–Jemez obsidian was a conspicuous material type in the inventory. Apparently, this influx of Jemez obsidian
during the earlier occupation was collected or
traded in from sources in the Jemez Mountains.
However, quarrying apparently did not coincide
with hunting, as seen in the later component.
On the later eastern component exotic materials covary with the presence of artiodactyl
228
Subsistence, or the food resources prehistoric populations consumed to survive, is one of the major
research goals proposed in the data recovery plan
(Maxwell 1994:45–47), and a central question in
archaeological inquiry in general. What were the
subsistence activities at LA 103919? What
resources were exploited and what does this information tell us about the potential of the local environment for farming, hunting and gathering, or a
mixture of both? While data from a single site can
only provide a limited amount of information on
this important subject, some useful insights can still
be gained from the botanical data. Faunal and lithic
data indicate a major focus on hunting, but there is
little doubt, given the results of the macrobotanical
analysis and other fossils majeurs, that the site occupants were agriculturalists. This presumed that there
was irrigable land within a short distance of the site,
and that it was farmed. Practically any meander, or
alluvial terrace along Pojoaque Creek could serve
this purpose. Hence, the diet of the population,
according to M. Toll (Appendix 2, this volume) was
largely Zea mays. The distribution of the corn largely parallels the extramural activity areas and features on both components. The chenopodia and
Amaranthus (goosefoot and pigweed) and ricegrass
were also widely distributed and apparently consumed. Cheno-am pollen and clumped corn pollen
was present in the pelvic cavity of Burial 6. This
may have represented the intestinal contents of that
individual at death. A broad spectrum of plant
species was associated with Feature 1, Room 1.
This feature contained economic taxa indicating
year-round occupation.
In the prehistoric components, the western and
eastern fauna samples provide an interesting contrast applicable to the research design (Lentz 1994).
The samples show no evidence of diversification;
equal numbers of rodent and small mammal species
are found in both samples. The same is true for the
carnivores, artiodactyls, and birds. While the number of species exploited appears to be generally the
same, there are changes in emphasis between the
two time periods. The early or west sample has a
larger proportion of bones from smaller bodied animals. The later sample has considerably more from
large bodied forms, enough to suggest increased
specialization in artiodactyl procurement.
Rabbits and other rodents tend to invade field
areas and multiply, causing prehistoric agriculturalists to employ a garden hunting strategy, e.g., the
intrusive lagomorphs are kept in check by hunting,
trapping, or fencing. By concentrating on the fauna
that invaded gardens and agricultural fields, not
only were the rabbits kept in check but scheduling
subsistence pursuits was facilitated.
Conversely, it is not inconceivable that bone
preservation varied from component to component,
and that the actual subsistence record is not adequately represented in the database.
There was little turkey bone by comparison to
the amount of eggshell. Again, bad preservation
may be to blame, or (less likely) turkeys were not
present on the site, raised and/or buried elsewhere
with only the eggs finding their way into the material debris. Seemingly, turkeys and their by-products were more important in the later time period at
LA 103919E.
Although year-round occupation is inferred from
the macrobotanical data, palynological data, and storage features, the lithic and faunal assemblages suggest
that the occupants of both components spent at least
part of their time engaged in varied domestic activities
in proximity to their structures, and the remainder in
mobile pursuits. These may have involved an embedded strategy, in which provisioning expeditions
opportunistically collected whatever available
resource was handy. At least two procurement strategies were identified: the quarrying of lithic raw materials and the hunting of medium to large game. Larger
fauna occurred on the eastern, or later component.
The fragmentary nature of the faunal assemblage suggests that disarticulated portions of game species were
introduced onto the site. In other words, given the
energy requirements, only select portions were transported.
CERAMIC ASSEMBLAGE AND TEMPORAL AFFILIATION
The data recovery plan (Maxwell 1994:47–49) calls
for viewing the patterns of interaction, production
and exchange at LA 103919 through the perspective
of ceramic types and production modes. The two
components at Nambé are primarily defined on the
basis of diagnostic pottery types. The western, or
earlier component, is represented almost exclusively by Red Mesa Black-on-white, and Kana'a
Neckbanded, while the later component (LA
103919E) is dominated by Kwahe'e Black-onwhite. Stylistic influence from the Four Corners
area is evident in the ceramic artifacts from the
western component. To the east, a significant decline
in long-distance exchange is marked by the development of locally made ceramics. This suggests that the
Nambé site may have characteristics or influences
from groups from the San Juan Basin or groups that
merged with existing populations. Subsequent pottery manufacture rapidly developed distinctive stylistic and morphological characteristics.
BURIALS
Critical to the questions of the group’s adaptation to
the area is the status of the population. What was
their state of health? Was economic stress reflected
in the human remains, i.e., what environmental
information or social condition can be derived from
the burial data?
Peculiarities associated with the burials encountered on this site include head trauma to several
females and a male. This suggests that these individuals may have played distinctive roles within
their society–not all of them pleasant. For example,
what role did the large male, dubbed Burial 4, play
within early Puebloan society? Being physically
larger than the majority of documented male burials
from this period and wounded in the head during his
lifetime, he lived to a relatively old age.
Ethnographic evidence (Bailey and Bailey 1986;
Walker 1991, among others) suggests that events of
this type can confer high status on an individual.
Speculatively, the head wound may have created
some behavioral disorder, making him an object of
fear, superstition, or reverence. Perhaps his role
within his group was that of a shaman, warrior,
clown, or Big Man (cf. Pospisil 1963). The females,
229
however, may have not been so fortunate. Akins
(this volume) states that the distribution of traumatic lesions on the burials is somewhat unusual. That
all three females have significant healed cranial traumas seems an unlikely random occurrence. Martin et
al. (2001), citing evidence from the La Plata River
valley, argues that the paleopathology reflects the
formation of a targeted subgroup of women who
may have been indentured servants, captive slaves,
or members of an underclass. These data from the La
Plata Valley, Barker Arroyo (occupied roughly
between A.D. 1000 and 1300), indicate a high proportion of adult females with cranial trauma (42.8
percent, N=14) compared to males (14.2 percent,
N=14)(Martin et al. 2001). However, with such a
small sample size from LA 103919, it is difficult to
speculate whether it has any significance in comparison with these data. The possibility of a Big Man
and female slaves in the Nambé population suggests
the beginnings of social organization not typically
associated with Developmental period societies.
A female burial at Nambé showed evidence of
distinctive dental anomalies. Identical anomalies
were encountered at LA 3333 in the Galisteo Basin.
In the Kwahe'e component at LA 103919, Burial 5 is
a woman in her early to middle twenties. All teeth
were present but there were a number of dental irregularities. The lateral incisors are congenitally absent
in the mandible and the upper left canine is in front
of and between the two premolars. This is too specific a characteristic to be coincidental, and suggests
some sort of biological connection between the two
individuals. Also, Burial 5 and the burial from LA
3333 are both from Kwahe'e phase components.
This suggests a possible demographic link between
these two areas, which may have important implications for strategies involving mobility, and the
exploitation of diverse ecosystems. It is possible that
the Galisteo burial may have been a Tewa descendant from an the earlier Nambé group.
The relatively high proportion of burials at
Nambé raises some questions. The population
seemed to enjoy reasonably good health, and there
is no tangible evidence of cause of death. Pueblo
people expired for reasons that are often not readily
evident from a present-day perspective. Mortuary
practices at LA 103919 were also somewhat unique.
In most cases, individuals were buried on site under
large rock piles. For example, at Burial 4, a high-
230
status burial, the substantial overburden of rocks
may have been placed in the grave to ensure that its
contents were well secured and not likely to either
rise again or be disturbed. Burial 2, which may represent the disturbed portion of two females buried
under a burned cairn, was present near the upper
southern portion of the site. Although not conclusive, the presence of these cairns may be easier to
infer. The most obvious explanation is that they
served a functional role, although there may have
been some ceremonial aspect to the mortuary
practices at this site as well. Another explanation
may be the cairn may have served to protect the
body from predators. At LA 3333, in the Galisteo
Basin, considerable burials were encountered,
and the shallow graves were protected by rubble
and slabs. This may have been construction to
prevent desecration from predators (in fact, one
woman had been pulled partly out the burial pit,
probably by a scavenging animal). At Swartz ruin
in southwestern New Mexico "to prevent disturbance of graves, rocks and slabs of tuff were laid
over bodies"(Cosgrove 1932).
TEXTILE
A folded fragment of embroidered white cotton
cloth was tentatively associated with Burial 1.
The textile was directly radiocarbon dated (A.D.
1325 to 1340 and A.D. 1390 to 1460), approximately A.D. 1425. Diagnostic artifacts suggest
that the burial was from the Red Mesa component
of the site, with a date of between A.D. 900 and
A.D. 1000. Juvenile burials 1 and 3 were located
underneath two large sandstone slabs and were
not apt to be subject to a great deal of post-occupational disturbance. Presumably both of these
children perished at the same time and were
interred together. However, if the textile was
associated with either of these burials, this would
suggest that they were not contemporaneous. The
location of the textile is not unambiguously associated with either of these burials; rather, it is
located approximately midway between the two.
This may suggest it is an intrusive element from
a later period. Two Pueblo II (Kana'a
Neckbanded) vessels and a small fragment of
turquoise were associated with Burial 3, probably
as offerings. The grave was protected by a large
slab and was undisturbed. How a fourteenth or
fifteenth-century textile came to rest in a burial
dated to the tenth century is a matter of some
speculation. Whether the textile was post-occupational, or Burials 1 and 3 were post-occupational,
or the textile was independent of the burials, cannot be determined from the context.
ON-SITE ACTIVITIES AND LITHIC ARTIFACTS
What were the on-site activities as reflected in the lithic assemblage? On-site activities included the reduction of raw lithic materials, the production of stone
tools, the processing and consumption of game, cultigens, wild plant foods, storage of commodities, possible pottery manufacture, and routine maintenance
activities. The presence of several bone awls and needles suggest activities such as punching or perforating
hides and basketry-making.
Based on the material type frequencies, a number
of lithic sources were used. Apart from terrace gravels, the bulk of the lithic assemblage originated in the
Jemez Mountains. The material types from both components were approximately proportionate. However,
biface manufacture was more prevalent on the eastern
component. Since more large bodied mammals were
encountered on the eastern component, it might legitimately be surmised that hunting and subsequent
butchering was occurring at that locale.
CHRONOMETRIC DATA AND CERAMIC ARTIFACTS
Temporal information, as derived from chronometric data such as radiocarbon assays, and their relation to cross-dated ceramic types, is a critical objective of archaeological research. Two distinct temporal components were defined both through the seriation of the ceramic assemblage and chronometric
data. Both radiocarbon dates and tree-ring dates
were obtained from a variety of features. The average radiocarbon date for the west component (ca.
A.D. 700–1000 ± 70) is consistent with the temporal interval typically assigned to Red Mesa Blackon-white pottery. As discussed above, the radiocarbon date for the textile was much later (A.D. 1425)
than the rest of the component and incompatible
with the radiocarbon date obtained from nearby
Burial 2 (A.D. 695–1030).
Feature 1 was contaminated by "old wood,"
yielding a date that was at variance with the diagnostic artifacts associated with this feature. No dendrochronological dates were recovered from the
earlier component. The average radiocarbon date
for the eastern component was between A.D. 985
and 1155, which corresponds with the typical dates
given for Kwahe'e Black-on-white pottery. Only
three tree-ring dates were obtained. These ranged
from A.D. 831 to 1061 and were from Stratum 2.
ETHNOLOGICAL RESEARCH AND THE HISTORIC
PERIOD AT NAMBÉ
The research design (Maxwell 1994:55–56 in Lentz
et al.) called for inferences to be made on the subsistence base, ethnicity, and activities conducted by
the historic occupants, and information on historic
features, such as irrigation ditches, and a cross
which is mentioned by local interviewees.
103919 and were investigated. They are an adobe
historic structure, acequias or irrigation ditches, and
a hill that is known as La Loma de la Cruz to some
local residents. The ethnohistoric study of the historic component of LA 103919 collected data to
determine ownership history of the land, site functions, economic activities of owners, identification
of features not archaeologically visible, past land
use strategies, and the placement of this site in a
larger sociocultural context. Research methods
included site visits; a study of land title records, historical documents and archival records; a review of
pertinent published sources relating to the general
pre-history and history of the local area; and interviews with knowledgeable individuals.
Prior to conducting ethnological interviews,
archival research showed that before 1937, LA
103919 was a part of the Pojoaque Pueblo Grant
and had been settled by several individuals who
made private claims to the Pueblo Land Board for
land patents around 1930. The Office of the State
Engineer and the Pojoaque Irrigation District provided information concerning the El Caño ditch and
irrigation history. The canal is still in use.
Information possibly relating to the La Loma de la
Cruz was found in written documentation, and in
anecdotal testimony from local residents. The cross
may date as early as 1739. The earliest mention of
the Caño Ditch was 1859.
231
Fauna found in the historic portion (a trash pit)
of the site is consistent with a homesite. Domestic
sheep or goat and cow were the primary food items
in the sample, which consists of deposited waste or
debris from processing in the area tested. Sawing,
cutting, chopping, and smashing were all used to
render the animals into usable portions. Matching
artifacts from the pit and the homestead suggest that
these two features were contemporaneous and date
between 1925 and 1945. The homestead, however,
was dated through ethnographic sources to the
1880s and appeared to reflect a Euroamerican occupation. The structure was dated between 1880 and
1920, and was probably occupied by a reclusive
hunter. To everyone's dismay, it was inadvertently
destroyed during highway construction.
CONCLUDING COMMENTS
At the onset of any research project, it is expected
that only a portion of the questions posed in the data
recovery plan will be fully answered. There are
inherent limitations to what can be inferred from a
single site, or what essentially amounts to a sample
of a site. Foremost among these is preservation—
disturbance to the site from past or present activities. This includes the road, agricultural activities,
and house construction. There is also the very
nature of the assemblage itself, which is only a fraction of the materials the occupants choose to leave
behind. These factors inhibit generating broadbased conclusions concerning regional adaptations
because information can ony be adduced from the
narrow cognitive window of a single cluster of
structures and scattered artifactual deposits. As for
the historic component, we decided to forego the
elaborate frontier model outlined in the research
design because we could only collect very specific
information about a single component. This severely curtailed our ability to draw far-reaching conclusions concerning the nature of Euroamerican adaptation to the area. Therefore, it is not always the predictable, but the unexpected that yields the most
compelling information. This was the case at
Nambé, where we were able to draw some useful
conclusions concerning the nature of prehistoric and
historic adatpations to the project area.
In conclusion, archaeological research in the
232
Tewa Basin suggests a prolonged pattern of use by
hunter and gatherer groups, intensive use by
Puebloan and protohistoric groups, aggregation into
villages, and eventual European settlement. The
excavation of site LA 103919 revealed pit structures, residential facilities, human and animal burials, and numerous interior and extramural features.
The extramural facilities include thermal features
(primarily roasting pits and hearths), pits (some for
burials), historic features, postholes, stain features
of unknown function, and a human footprint.
Chronometric and ceramic data suggest that LA
103919 West may date to A.D. 900– 1000 and that
LA 103919 East may date somewhat later, possibly
between A.D. 1000–1200. A hiatus in the data set
prevents us from determining whether the western
and eastern portions were sequential. Some portions
of both components suffered substantial bioturbation and erosion, particularly LA 103919 West. In
general, artifact preservation varied from good to
poor. The lack of architectural integrity was more
pronounced on the western component, probably
because of its location on a steep north-facing slope.
It is likely that the Nambé site served as a residential base camp. From this semipermanent location,
logistical pursuits were launched. Features on the
site contained economic taxa indicating year-round
occupation of the site, as well as resources procured
seasonally, probably during a foraging round, or
through trade or exchange. Some of these resources
may have existed at appreciable distances, suggested by the presence of extra-local materials. As the
analysis of the material remains shows, on-site horticulture, supplanted by logistical mobility, formed
an important part of the subsistence strategy at
Nambé.
Continued research into the prehistoric occupation of the northern Rio Grande sees the
Developmental period emerging as a dynamic time
in Southwestern prehistory. The composite record
from the Nambé excavations reveals a glimpse of a
highly opportunistic population settling, adapting to
the local ecology, and skillfully interacting with the
physical and social environment. However, information from a single site can be limited. No matter how
useful site-specific observations are, they eventually
need to be integrated into the broader perspective of
communities, landscapes, and regional studies.
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APPENDIX I. PETROGRAPHIC ANALYSIS OF CERAMICS
FROM LA 103919
David V. Hill
A total of 43 ceramic samples from LA 103919
were examined by petrographic analysis. Four clay
samples from the Nambé area and three samples of
granitic rock were also examined for comparison to
the paste and tempering agents of the sherds. The
comparison of the sherd samples with the clays and
rocks could provide evidence regarding the potential for local production of some of the ceramics.
METHODOLOGY
The ceramics, rock, and clay samples were analyzed
by the author using a Nikon Optiphot-2 petrographic microscope. The sizes of natural inclusions and
tempering agents were described in terms of the
Wentworth Scale, a standard method of characterizing particle sizes. These sizes were derived from
measuring a series of grains using a graduated renticle built into one of the optics of the microscope.
The percentages of inclusions in the ceramics and
clay samples were estimated using comparative
charts (Matthew et al. 1991; Terry and Chilingar
1955). Prior to thin-sectioning, the clay samples
were fired to 9000 C to stabilize them.
Analysis was conducted by first going through
the total ceramic collection and generating a brief
description of each of the sherds. A second phase
created group classifications based on the similarity
of the paste and temper between sherds. This
process also allowed for the examination of the
variability within each grouping. Additional comments about the composition of individual sherds
were made at this time. A third phase compared the
clay and temper samples to the sherds.
ANALYSIS OF MATERIALS
rounded quartz and feldspar sands and books of
brown biotite. These inclusions most likely represent natural inclusions in the ceramic paste.
The paste is tempered with crushed biotite granite. This material makes up approximately 10 percent of the paste. The fragments of granite are very
coarse in size. Isolated coarse grains of quartz,
orthoclase, and plagioclase observed in the paste
may represent fragments of this granite or larger
sand particles. The texture of the granite is subhedral-granular. The quartz grains display some undulose extinction. The feldspars appear fresh with
some slight alteration through seritization. Minor
amounts of brown biotite, microcline, and brown
hornblende are also present in the paste. One of the
granite fragments contains some secondary chalcedony.
Sample 2. Red Mesa Black-on-white
The paste of this sherd is a light gray color mottled
with a darker gray and contains approximately 5
percent fine rounded silt-sized quartz grains. A few
fine black opaque inclusions were also observed in
the paste. A dark gray rounded clay pellet is present
in the paste as well.
The paste of the sherd contains crushed sandstone with a distinctive chalcedonic cement. The
sandstone accounts for about 10 percent of the
sherds matrix. The sandstone is well sorted and contains quartz, with minor amounts of orthoclase, plagioclase, and microcline. A single granitic rock
fragment was observed. The quartz grains display
an undulose extinction. The feldspars appear fresh
to slightly kaolinized. The chalcedonic cement is
yellowish in color with a distinctive chatoyant texture.
Ceramics
Sample 3. Plain Gray
Sample 1. Plain Gray
The paste of this sherd is a light grayish brown. The
paste contains about 25 percent very fine to fine
The paste of this sherd is light brownish gray and
contains sparse silt-sized rounded quartz grains and
fine black opaque pellets that appear to be natural
Appendix 1. Petrographic Analysis
251
inclusions in the ceramic paste.
The sherd is tempered with medium to coarsesized sands making up about 15 percent of the paste.
These grains are subrounded to rounded, medium to
coarse in size, and consists primarily of quartz.
Orthoclase and plagioclase are also present, but in
much smaller amounts that the quartz. The feldspars
are highly weathered. A few fragments of highly
altered rhyolitic tuff are present. These tuff grains are
coarse in size and are about the same color as the paste.
The paste of this sherd is a dark gray. It contains
about 10 percent silt-sized to very fine quartz grains
and occasional black opaque inclusions.
The paste of this sherd contains about 15 percent
crushed dark potsherd. The paste of the sherd temper
is opaque but does contain the silt-sized quartz
observed in the paste of the current sample. Also
present were fragments of chalcedonic sandstone.
These sandstone fragments constituted less than 5
percent of the sherd's matrix. The lack of this material in the sherd temper suggests that the chalcedonic
sandstone was either present in the source clay or that
it was added to the ceramic paste in addition to the
crushed potsherds. The sand grains associated with
this sandstone are well rounded and medium in size.
The feldspars are highly weathered. The quartz displays undulose extinction.
Sample 5. Wiped Neckbanded
The paste of this sherd is a dark brown. The paste contains almost 50 percent very fine to fine rounded quartz
and brown biotite books. This material is likely to represent natural inclusions in the ceramic source clay.
The paste also contains medium to coarse grains of
quartz and very coarse fragments of equigranular biotite
granite. The feldspars present in the isolated mineral
grains and in the granite fragments range in appearance
from fresh to highly altered to sassurite and clay minerals. Some patch-type microperthritic intergrowths of
albite were observed in some of the feldspars.
The brown sandy micaceous paste and use of
equigranular biotite granite as temper in this sherd
252
is quite similar to that observed in Samples 1 and 5.
Sample 7. Neckbanded Gray
The paste of this sherd is a golden brown and contains less than 5 percent silt-sized quartz grains.
The paste of this sherd was tempered using
about 20 percent rounded sand grain. These sands
were derived from a granitic source. A few fragments of granite and multimineralic grains were
observed. The sands were rounded. The feldspars
including orthoclase, plagioclase, and microcline
were present and ranged in appearance from highly altered to fresh. The quartz grains display an
undulose extinction.
Sample 8. Indented Corrugated
The paste is a gray color and contains about 15 percent silt-sized to very fine quartz grains. This sample was also tempered using sands that were derived
from a granitic source. The quartz and orthoclase
grains are subrounded to rounded and medium to
coarse in size. A single schistose grain was observed
in this sample. The temper constitutes about 10 percent of the paste.
The paste of this sherd is a dark brown color and
contains silt-sized to fine quartz sand grains constitutes about 20 percent of the paste. The paste of this
sherd was not tempered. A few black opaque inclusions are also present. Several very coarse silty clay
fragments are present in the paste. These clay inclusions display bedding. Also present are two fragments of a moderately well sorted fine-grained
sandstone. The feldspars present in the sandstone
are kaolinized.
The paste of this sample is gray. Otherwise the limited amount of silt-sized to very fine sand and the
use of medium to coarse sand as temper strongly
resembles that of Sample 7. The sand grains make
up about 15 percent of the matrix of the ceramic
paste.
Sample 11. PII Black-on-white
The paste of this sherd is a dark brownish gray. A
few very coarse books of dark brown sandy shale
were present.
This sherd contains a combination of extrusive
igneous and plutonic rock fragments. Isolated mineral grains that could have originated with either
material are also present. The most common material present in the ceramic paste is a weathered rhyolitic tuff. Fragments of rhyolitic tuff constitute
around 25 percent of the paste. Sizes of the particles
range from medium to coarse in size. The groundmass of the tuff is weathered to an opaque grayish
white. Sanidine and occasional volcanic quartz are
contained porphyritically within the tuff fragments.
A few black opaque spots or laths, probably altered
biotite, were observed in the groundmass of the tuff.
A little glass is present as vesicles in some of the
tuff fragments.
Also present in the paste of this sherd is schist.
The schist is fine to medium grained and weakly
bedded. Schist fragments range in size from coarse
to very coarse. Some biotite is present, but has been
altered to hematite and clay minerals. Fragments of
schist account for less than 1 percent of the paste of
this sherd. Many of the medium-sized grains of
quartz in the paste may have been derived from
weathered schist as suggested by the presence of
grains with an undulose extinction. It is possible
that the schist may have been present naturally
within the source clay and that the rhyolitic tuff was
used as an additive.
Sample 12. Wide Neckbanded Gray
The paste color and use of crushed granite as a tempering agent is quite similar to those attributes
observed in Sample 1. The major difference in paste
between the two sherds is that the granite, which
ranges from coarse to very coarse, accounts for
about 20 percent of the paste.
Sample 13. Plain Gray Rim
In general, the golden brown paste color and the use
of very coarse sands derived from a granitic source
and somewhat resembles the paste and temper
observed in Sample 8. Angular inclusions of dark
brown silty clay were also observed in the paste.
These latter inclusions are natural constituents of
the source clay. In addition, this specimen also contains a few fragments of highly altered mica gneiss
and two fragments of sandy siltstone.
The most outstanding feature of this sherd is the
abundance of fragments of black clay/shale containing some silt-sided sand grains. These fragments are
slightly rounded. Silt-sized to fine quartz sand
makes up about 10 percent of the ceramic paste.
The paste was tempered using a crushed subarkosic sandstone. Several of the quartz grains display undulose extinction. The feldspars range from
fresh to slightly altered. Some of the sandstone had
fragments of brown chalcedonic cement attached.
The paste of this sherd is gray, containing about 20
percent silt-sized rounded quartz grains. This paste
was tempered using a crushed biotite granite which
constitutes approximately 20 percent of the paste.
The mineral size variation between the isolated
mineral grains and the mineral grains observed in
rock fragments suggests that the granite may have
been porphyritic. The temper particles range in size
from coarse to very coarse. Orthoclase, plagioclase,
and microcline were observed. Plagioclase was
slightly more common than microcline. The
feldspars in the granite range in appearance from
fresh to altered to sassurite and clay minerals. The
biotite, present as both isolated books and in the
granite fragments is usually altered to hematite and
clay minerals to the point of opacity.
Sample 16. Gallup Black-on-white
The paste of this sherd is a yellowish brown. A few
medium-sized grains of quartz, orthoclase, plagioclase, and microcline are present as natural inclusions. The quartz displays undulose extinction. The
feldspars are slightly clouded. Silt-sized to very fine
rounded quartz and opaque black spots make up less
than 1 percent of the paste.
The paste of the sherd was tempered using a
highly altered rhyolitic tuff. The matrix of most of
253
the tuff has almost completely kaolinized leaving
grayish to brownish opaque masses. Some of these
tuff grains display welding. Sanidine was contained
porphyitically within the tuff fragments, although
most of the crystals were clouded through alteration
to clay minerals. One fragment of glassy pumice
was also observed.
The paste of this sherd is a dark brownish gray. The
gritty paste and tuff temper of this sherd strongly
resemble that observed in Sample 11.
Sample 18. Kwahe'e Black-on-white
The paste of this sherd is a light gray color. The
paste of the parent vessel was not tempered in the
usual sense, but was made using a sandy clay. The
sand fraction makes up in excess of 30 percent of
the clay body. Particle sizes of the sand fraction
range from silt-sized to fine. The sand is subarkosic.
A few laths of biotite were also present. A few
coarse grains containing quartz, plagioclase, and
orthoclase were also observed, indicating, along
with the subarkosic sand, a granitic source for the
sediment. However, a few of the grains are attached
to one another by a calcium cement.
Sample 19. Dogoszhi Style Black-on-white
The paste of this sherd is a light gray and contains
about 30 percent silt-sized to fine subarkosic sands.
The paste was tempered using crushed highly
altered rhyolitic tuff and glassy pumice. These tuff
and pumice fragments range from gray to grayish
brown and are usually very similar in color to the
ceramic paste. A few darker gray fragments were
also observed. Some of the tuff grains display welding. These tuff fragments range from coarse to very
coarse in size.
distinguish from the paste. They range in size from
medium to very coarse. A single basalt grain was
also observed.
Sample 21. Neckbanded
The paste of this sherd is a yellowish brown; otherwise the presence of abundant sand grains and the
use of biotite granite as a tempering agent is quite
similar to those observed in Sample 1. The differences in paste color between Sample 21 and Sample
1 are more likely to represent differences in firing
conditions rather than in paste composition. Also,
one of the very coarse granite fragments displays
micrographic intergrowths of quartz and alkali
feldspar. Quartz is also contained poikilitically
within some of the alkali feldspar grains.
The paste and temper of this sherd are virtually the
same as those of Sample 18. However, in this sample, more of the quartz and feldspar grains are contained within masses of brown calcium cement.
These aggregate masses are cement-supported
rather than grain-supported.
The paste of this sherd is a reddish brown color. The
paste of the parent vessel was not tempered but
formed using a sandy clay. These particles make up
about 30 percent of the paste. The sand ranges in
size from silt to fine-grained. Abundant brown
biotite, that is usually altered to hematite, is also
present in the paste of this sherd.
The paste of this sherd is a light yellowish gray and is similar in terms of paste texture and temper to Sample 20.
Sample 25. Neckbanded
The paste of this sherd is a light yellowish brown
color and contains about 5 percent subangular fine
to medium-sized sand grains. The paste itself was
tempered using crushed gray rhyolitic tuff. These
tuff fragments are highly kaolinized and difficult to
The paste of this sherd is dark brownish gray. The
sandy paste and use of coarse to very coarse crushed
granite as a tempering agent is quite similar to that
observed in Sample 1. A few of the granite fragments display micrographic intergrowths of alkali
254
feldspar and quartz. Some of the quartz in the granite fragments display undulose extinction.
completely altered to clay minerals. All of these
materials could represent natural inclusions in the
ceramic clay.
The paste of this sherd is a dark yellowish gray and
contains about 35 percent silt-sized quartz and black
opaque inclusions. The opaque inclusions appear to
be biotite that has been altered to hematite and clay
minerals. A few rounded lumps of darker unmixed
clay are also present. Subangular to subrounded
subarkosic sand grains in the medium to coarse size
are also present and constitute between 5 and 10
percent of the paste. Like the silt-sized grains, these
larger sand grains may be natural inclusions in the
paste. The feldspars, including orthoclase, plagioclase, and microcline, range in appearance from
fresh to completely altered to sassurite and clay
minerals. Quartz is present as well and displays
undulose extinction. A few fragments of brown
hornblende are also present.
The paste of this sherd is a light gray color. This
paste contains silt to medium-sized rounded grains
of quartz and orthoclase. A few grains of plagioclase
and microcline are also present. Sands make up
about 10 percent of the matrix of the paste. Also
present are coarse to very coarse light to dark gray
fragments of welded tuff. A few tuff fragments contain porphyritic sanidine.
Sample 31. Pueblo II Black-on-white
The paste and temper of this sherd strongly resemble that observed in Sample 1.
The paste of this sherd is a light gray color. The
paste contains a wide range of extrusive igneous
rocks and isolated mineral grains. Rock types present include light to dark gray welded tuff, hornblende latite, and basalt. Quartz, orthoclase, plagioclase, and green-brown hornblende are present as
isolated mineral grains. All of the inclusions range
in size from very fine to medium and constitute
about 15 percent of the paste.
The paste of this sample is a gray color. This paste
contains at least 40 percent subangular to subrounded subarkosic sand grains that range from silt to
very fine grained. A few laths of biotite are also
present. A few fragments of gray sandy clay and
subarkosic sandstone were also observed. The
feldspars in the sandstone have been almost completely altered to clay minerals. It is likely that the
inclusions observed in this sherd are natural occurrences and not the result of adding temper.
The paste of this sherd is quite similar to that
observed in Samples 18 and 21.
Sample 27. Incised Neckbanded
The paste of this sample is a gray color. This paste
contains at least 30 percent subangular to subrounded sand grains that range from silt-sized to medium
grained. A few laths of biotite are also present. A
few rounded gray silty inclusions are also present. A
few subarkosic sandstone fragments were also
observed. The feldspars in the sandstone are almost
The paste of this sample is a gray color. The paste
contains about 10 percent subangular to subrounded
sand grains that range from silt sized to medium
grained. A few laths of biotite are also present. Also
present in the paste are highly weathered whitish to
light gray fragments of welded tuff. A few laths of
green-brown hornblende were also observed.
Sample 34. Pueblo II Black-on-white
The paste of this sherd is a light yellowish brown
color and contains abundant silt-sized quartz.
Medium- to coarse-sized grains of quartz and
untwinned feldspar are also present and constitute
about 5 percent of the paste. Also present in the
255
paste are fragments of highly weathered welded
tuff. It is likely that all of these materials are natural
constituents of the source clay and that the paste
was not tempered.
The paste and temper of this sherd strongly resemble those observed in Sample 1.
The paste of this sherd is a yellowish gray and contains abundant silt-sized quartz. Also present are
abundant silt-sized black opaque inclusions, probably altered biotite. A few rounded silty clay inclusions are present. Larger subrounded medium- to
coarse-sized grains of quartz, orthoclase, plagioclase, and microcline are also present and constitute
about 5 percent or less of the paste. A few fragments
of a micaceous sandstone were observed. This sandstone is arkosic and the feldspars present in it have
altered to clay minerals making these rock fragments difficult to discriminate from the background
matrix of the sherd. Also present was a fragment of
altered rhyolitic tuff. This tuff grain contained sanidine porphyritically. It is likely that none of the
materials observed in the paste of this sherd were
added, but constitute natural inclusions.
The paste color and temper, or use of a sandy clay,
in this sherd is similar to those observed in Sample
29. This sample differs from Sample 29 as it contains one coarse-sized grain of trachytic basalt.
Sample 38. Local Corrugated
The brown paste and sandy paste of this sherd
strongly resembles that observed in Sample 1.
The paste of this sherd is a light yellowish gray,
mottled with dark gray. The paste contains about 10
percent rounded coarse to very coarse-sized pellets
of silty clay. Some of these grains contain fine to
medium-sized quartz and occasional untwinned
feldspar. A few grains of an equigranular sandstone
are also present. Quartz and untwinned feldspar
grains also constitute about 20 percent of the ceramic paste and thus may be natural inclusions in the
ceramic clay as are the sandstone fragments and
gray silty pellets.
Sample 41. Neckbanded Gray
The paste of this sherd is a light yellowish brown.
Some biotite is present in the paste. The paste is
tempered using about 20 percent subangular to subrounded medium to coarse grains of quartz, orthoclase, plagioclase, and microcline, and a few angular grains of granite. Many of the feldspar grains are
altered to clay minerals to the point of opacity. A
single grain of trachytic basalt is also present in the
paste of this sherd.
The paste of this sherd is a yellowish gray color.
The paste contains medium to very coarse fragments of highly altered welded tuff and make up
about 30 percent of the paste. These tuff fragments
are difficult to discriminate from the ceramic clay
indicating that these tuff grains are most likely a
natural constituent of the source clay. A few of the
tuff grains contain brown biotite and sanidine. In
addition, fine to medium-sized quartz, brown
biotite, and altered untwinned feldspars make up
about 5 percent or less of the paste. It is likely that
all of the rock fragments and mineral grains
observed in this sherd represent natural inclusions
in the source clay.
The brownish gray paste and sandy inclusions,
including fragments of brown calcium cement
adhering to the sand grain, are similar to the cement
observed in Sample 18.
256
The paste of this sherd is a light yellowish brown. A
few fine black opaque spots, most likely biotite
altered to hematite and clay minerals, were present
in the paste. A little biotite is also present as well.
Coarse to very coarse lumps of silty clay, often containing subangular quartz and untwinned feldspar
grains, were present in some of these clay pellets. A
few highly altered rhyolitic tuff fragments were
observed. Some of the tuff grains contained sanidine porphyritically. Also present in the paste are
angular to subrounded fine to medium-sized grains
of quartz, orthoclase, plagioclase, and microcline. A
single coarse fragment of granite was also present.
All of these materials are probably natural constituents of the ceramic clay.
Raw Material Samples
Sample 44. From typical alluvial deposits in the
Española Basin
This clay is light yellowish brown. Few inclusions
are present within the clay. A few fine rounded
quartz grains are present. Also observed within the
clay were highly altered fragments of pumice and
very fine brown biotite that had been altered to
hematite.
Sample 45. Alluvial clay
The clay has fired to a bright red color. The clay
contains between 20 and 25 percent silt-sized to fine
subangular with a few medium-sized grains of
quartz, orthoclase, and plagioclase. Most of the
feldspars appear to be altered to clay mineral,
although other feldspars appear fresh. Brown biotite
is common and makes up about 5 percent of the clay
body. A single very coarse fragment of granite is
present in this clay sample. The feldspars in the
granite appear to be slightly altered to clay minerals.
Also present in the clay are very coarse-sized
rounded silty clay pellets.
Sample 46. Alluvial clay
The color and composition of the natural inclusions
of this clay sample are the same as observed in
Sample 45.
Sample 47. Clay derived from an ash deposit
This clay is a light yellowish color mottled with a
light grayish yellow. The gray mottling appears to
result from the complete alteration of volcanic tuffs.
A few grains of feldspar that have been completely
altered to clay minerals are present in these gray
areas.
Sample 48. Granite cobble
This sample consists of a medium-grained subhedral
granular microcline granite. Microcline constitutes
about 15 percent of the rock matrix. The feldspars
appear fresh, although some orthoclase has been
slightly altered to sassurite, especially in the centers
of the grains. These feldspars include orthoclase,
plagioclase, and microcline. The quartz present displays undulose extinction. Some micrographic intergrowths of quartz and alkali feldspar are present.
Quartz is occasionally contained poikilitically within orthoclase. Brown biotite is also present.
This sample consists of a medium-grained subhedral granular biotite granite. Brown biotite constitutes about 15 percent of the rock mass. The
feldspars display a greater degree of alteration to
sassurite than those in Sample 48. Micrographic
intergrowths of quartz and alkali feldspar are present as is mymektic texture at the margins of several
plagioclase grains.
This sample consists of a medium- to fine-grained
subhedral granular biotite granite. The feldspar
grains in this specimen are slightly more altered
than in the other granite samples. The overall particle size of the mineral grains are also smaller.
Micrographic texture was observed in this specimen, but was less common than in the other samples
of granite.
DISCUSSION
Analysis of the ceramic samples has allowed for the
creation of several paste groups. The similarity in
paste and temper could indicate that one or more
geologically related sources could have been used
to produce those groups of vessels. Several sherds
also were observed that contained nonlocal materi-
257
als. These ceramics could represent items of exchange.
Group 1 consists of Samples 1, 5, 6, 12, 21, 25,
27, 35, and 38 that have a similar dark brown or
grayish brown paste that contains abundant fine- to
medium-sized quartz and feldspar grains and brown
biotite. Coarse to very coarse fragments of granite
or minerals such as quartz, orthoclase, plagioclase,
and microcline occur that are derived from granites.
The paste of these ten sherds, with the exception
of the color of the fired clay body, resembles that of
Clay Samples 45 and 46. The coarse to very coarse
granite rock fragments are, however, an added tempering material. This granite could easily have been
derived from either Samples 48 or 49. While the
nearest outcrop of granite is in the southern Sangre
de Cristo Mountains, granite is locally available as
stream cobbles and on pediment surfaces (Galusha
and Blick 1971; Miller et al. 1963).
The 10 granite-tempered samples are all from
utility ware sherds. This group of sherds has some
of the largest temper particles observed during this
analysis. It is probable that larger temper was used
in the utility wares in order to reduce thermal shock
when the vessels are used for cooking.
Group 2 consists of Samples 7, 8, 10, 13, and 15
that have a gray paste lacking the abundant inclusions observed in the previous group, but were tempered using sands derived from a granitic source.
The differences in ceramic paste suggest a different
source from that observed in the previous sample.
With the exception of Sample 10, all of these sherds
are from utility wares.
Sample 41, which has a different paste from the
previous two groups, constitutes Group 3. This sherd
was tempered using sands derived from a granitic
source, but also contains a basalt fragment. This
sherd is from a Neckbanded Gray utility ware vessel.
Samples 3, 9, 11, 16, 17, 19, 20, 23, 24, 28, 30,
33, 34, 42, and 43 make up Group 4. This group
consists of a highly variable collection of decorated
sherds that contain altered rhyolitic tuff in sandy
pastes. In most cases, it is likely that the rhyolitic
tuff and sands observed in the paste of these sherds
represent natural inclusions in the ceramic paste.
The variability in the paste could indicate either
compositional variation within clay sources or multiple loci of ceramic production, or more likely both
options. While none of these sherds specifically
resemble Clay Samples 44 or 47, clays containing
258
volcanic tuff are reported within the Santa Fe
Formation and would have been available within
the vicinity of LA 103919 and the immediate
Nambé area (Galusha and Blick 1971). Future petrographic study of decorated ceramics from the
Nambé area should include further comparative
study of local clays that contain volcanic materials.
Samples 18, 22, 32, and 39, making up Group 5,
have a sandy untempered paste that contains sparse
fragments of a subarkosic calcium cement-supported sandstone. Like the clays containing rhyolitic
tuff, it is likely that the Santa Fe Formation also produced the clays that were used in these sherds
(Galusha and Blick 1971).
Sample 23 has a brown paste containing abundant fine sands and brown biotite and is unique
among the ceramic collection. Sample 26 also was
made using a clay with abundant brown biotite and
very fine sand. However, the biotite in the latter
specimen is much more highly altered than in
Sample 23. No source of clay has been assigned to
these sherds, although they could have also been
produced using materials from the Santa Fe
Formation.
Sample 2 (Red Mesa Black-on-white) was tempered using crushed sandstone with a chalcedonic
cement. Ceramics containing crushed chalcedoniccemented sandstone have been reported previously
from the Red Mesa Valley (Garrett 1985; Warren
1976, 1977). The chalcedonic sandstone used as
temper is thought to have been derived from the
Morrison Formation. The mottled gray paste, presence of feldspar grains, and quartz with an undulose
extinction are also attributes that have been previously observed in ceramics from the southern San
Juan Basin.
Sample 4 (Red Mesa Black-on-white) was also
tempered using crushed chalcedonic cement. This
sherd also contains crushed potsherds. The potsherd
temper also contains fragments of sandstone with chalcedonic cement. Sherd-tempered ceramics containing
chalcedonic cement have also been reported from the
southern San Juan Basin (Warren 1976, 1977).
Sample 14 was tempered using a subarkosic
sandstone with a chalcedonic cement. The paste
contained abundant large rounded black clay/shale pellets. Subarkosic sandstone temper, some with chalcedonic cement, and an abundance of rounded black
shale pellets are found in Anasazi and Navajo ceramics
from the eastern side of the San Juan River. Such black
shaley inclusions have also been reported in sherds
from the southern San Juan Basin (Garrett 1985;
Warren 1976, 1977). The lack of granitic rock fragments so common in sandstones from the San Jose
Formation of northwestern New Mexico suggests that
the Morrison formation in the southern San Juan Basin
may have been the source of the parent vessel represented by Sample 14.
Analysis of the ceramic sample from LA 103919
indicates that different trajectories were followed for
the production of utility wares and decorated ceramics.
Utility wares were produced using a sandy micaceous
clay to which was added crushed granite or using
coarse sands derived from a granitic source such as
streams that drain from the Sangre de Cristo Mountains
to the east of LA 103919.
Decorated ceramics from LA 103919 were much
more variable in terms of their composition than the
utility wares. The majority of the decorated ceramics
(Group 4) were produced using a sandy clay containing
rhyolitic tuff, usually without the inclusion of additional temper. The sherds from this group were highly variable in terms of paste color and other types of inclusions present. This variability suggests that either the
source of the ceramic clay was highly variable or that
many of the decorated sherds analyzed from LA
103919 were produced elsewhere using geologically
similar resources and traded into the settlement.
The three sherds of Red Mesa Black-on-white containing sandstone with a chalcedonic cement most likely represent items of exchange or were brought by the
inhabitants of LA 103919 from their original settlement. The paste and temper of these three samples most
resembles sherds that have been examined petrographically from the southern San Juan Basin, specifically
the Red Mesa Valley. Clearly, these three sherds provide evidence that the inhabitants of LA 103919 were
integrated at some level into the larger Chaco system.
REFERENCES CITED
Galusha, Ted, and John C. Blick
1971 Stratigraphy of the Santa Fe Group, New
Mexico. Bulletin of the American Museum of
Natural History, vol. 144, no. 1, New York.
Pipeline Project Ceramics, Appendix VI of
The Excavation of the Cortez CO2 Pipeline
Project Sites, 1982–1983 by Michael P.
Marshall with sections by Nancy Akins et
al., pp. 259–261. Office of Contract
Archeology, University of New Mexico,
Albuquerque.
Matthew, A. J., A. J. Woods, and C. Oliver
1991 Spots Before the Eyes: New Comparison
Charts for Visual Percentage Estimation in
Archaeological Material. In Recent
Developments in Ceramic Petrology, edited
by Andrew Middleton and Ian Freestone,
pp. 211–264. British Museum Occasional
Paper no. 81. British Museum Research
Laboratory, London.
Miller, John P., Arthur Montgomery, and Patrick
Sutherland
1963 Geology of the Southern Part of the
Southern Sangre de Cristo Mountains, New
Mexico. State Bureau of Mines and Mineral
Resources, Memoir 11. Socorro, New
Mexico.
Terry, R. D., and V. G. Chilingar
1955 Summary of “Concerning Some Additional
Aids in Studying Sedimentary Formations,”
by M. S. Shvetsov. Journal of Sedimentary
Petrology 25:229–234.
Warren, A. H.
1976 The Pottery of Pueblo del Encierro. In
Archaeological Excavations at Pueblo del
Encierro, LA 70 Cochiti Dam Salvage
Project, Cochiti, New Mexico. Final Report
1964–1965 Field Seasons. Museum of New
Mexico Laboratory of Anthropology Notes
No. 78. Santa Fe, New Mexico.
1977 Prehistoric Pottery of Tijeras Canyon. In
Tijeras Canyon: Analyses of the Past, edited by L. S. Corderll, p. 149–168. Maxwell
Museum and University of New Mexico
Press, Albuquerque.
Garrett, Elizabeth M.
1985 Petrographic Analysis of Cortez CO2
259
260
APPENDIX 2. MACROBOTANICAL MATERIALS FROM
MIDDLE AND LATE DEVELOPMENTAL PHASE AND
HISTORIC COMPONENTS OF LA 103919, NEAR NAMBÉ,
NEW MEXICO
Mollie S. Toll
Flotation, macrobotanical, and wood samples from
LA 103919 provide information to evaluate human
subsistence behavior in the northern Rio Grande
Valley during eras where little direct plant utilization
data exist. Two spatially separate segments of LA
103919, on the west and east sides of NM 503, were
occupied at different times. The Middle
Developmental phase (A.D. 900–1000) is represented by 18 flotation samples, charcoal, carbonized
corn, and other macrobotanical materials from LA
103919W. This segment of the site is perched on a
steep slope, with disturbance and preservation problems arising from poor architectural integrity. The
Late Developmental phase (A.D. 1000–1200) is represented by 19 flotation samples, charcoal, corn, and
other macrobotanical materials from LA 103919E.
Archaeobotanical studies in the Santa Fe area
are complicated by a tiny available database. Early
sites tend to be shallow and deflated and lack structures (all traits mitigating against preservation of
perishables, or even carbonized perishables). In
addition to being rare, early Santa Fe area sites (and
smaller, limited activity sites of all periods) suffer
from a lack of botanical analyses (Gossett and
Gossett 1991; Schmader 1987) or very low recovery
of cultural botanical remains in the sampled proveniences (Dean 1993a, 1993b; Toll 1994; Toll and
McBride 1995). Schmader's work at Tierra
Contenta documents the existence of structures
from the Archaic period, with floral evidence of
broadly based subsistence activities (Schmader
1994:12–14; McBride 1994a, 1994b).
The Developmental period in the Santa Fe area
is documented by few excavated sites, and even
fewer with botanical analyses. Dos Griegos, near
the Eldorado subdivision southeast of Santa Fe,
contained Developmental as well as Classic ele-
ments. The site is documented by a handful of flotation samples (Cummings and Puseman 1992), and
corn and pine bark are the only charred plant materials recovered. Most useful to the present study are
three sites at Nambé Falls (Carter 1980) and the KP
site within the city of Santa Fe (Cummings 1989b).
Two sites at Cochiti (Ford 1968) provide a more
distant but contemporary comparison of plant utilization in the Rio Grande corridor.
In the Coalition and Classic periods, occupation
includes a variety of small site types (some apparently geared to specific short-term activities and
some occupied repeatedly but for short periods) and
fewer very large pueblos. The economic and social
ties between these very different contemporary site
types are of particular interest. The substantial, protective masonry structures of the large pueblos hold
the possibility of far better preservation conditions
for plant materials. Pindi (LA 1) was excavated in
the 1930s, when flotation wasn't considered a part
of the archaeological research tool kit; a small collection of macrobotanical remains were collected
during excavation, and happily reported in print by
Volney Jones (1953:140–142). Excavation of
Arroyo Hondo by the School of American Research
was a model of thoroughness for archaeology of the
early 1970s. Botanical studies gave attention to
some vital interpretive and comparative issues, such
as nutritional adequacy and productive capacity
with respect to changing environmental and demographic traits (Wetterstrom 1986). The down side to
this focus on interpretive objectives are difficulties
in reconstructing the data used to support conclusions. Agua Fria Schoolhouse (LA 2) was excavated recently, but only partially; the data here are clear
and dependable, but meager (five flotation samples;
Cummings 1989a). Thus, data available from large,
Office of Archaeological Studies Ethnobotany Lab Technical Series #48
Appendix 2. Macrobotanical Analysis
261
complex, and potentially well-preserved pueblos
are very uneven, and the contemporary small limited-activity sites have very little floral data at all
(Cummings and Puseman 1992; Toll 1989). We are
left with a common interpretive conundrum: does
this lack of floral remains at small sites represent a
genuine difference between site types in handling of
subsistence resources, or is it an artifact of systematically different preservation conditions (see
Donaldson 1981; Dean 1993a)?
LA 103919 is located in the Great Basin Conifer
Woodland biotic community which includes the
piñon-juniper, ponderosa pine-piñon-juniper, rabbit
brush, and riparian vegetational zones (Brown
1982). Plant taxa that occur in these zones include
piñon, juniper, gray oak, rabbit brush, snakeweed,
wolfberry, big sagebrush, currant, four-wing saltbush, curly dock, prickly pear and cholla cacti, and
a variety of forb and grass species. Horsetail, cattail, and bulrush would have been available in the
nearest true riparian setting, in the Nambé River or
Rio Grande corridors (Martin and Hutchins 1981).
This wide range of exploitable plant species encompasses early spring to fall harvests, available prehistorically within a 40 km radius of the site.
A variable and relatively short frost-free season
likely mitigated against an economy heavily
dependent on farming. Dendroclimatic analyses at
the Arroyo Hondo site (about 35 km to the southsoutheast of LA 103919) indicated varying precipitation dependability may also have affected the success of agricultural pursuits in the Santa Fe area
during the Coalition/Early Classic period (Rose et
al. 1981). Spring and early summer rainfall patterns were most variable, with critical effects on
seed germination and early crop growth. Late summer rainfall was relatively dependable, insuring a
decent crop yield in those years with adequate early
soil moisture without an early frost. LA 103919's
valley-bottom location maximized moisture, protection, and appropriate soils for agriculture. Local
biological resources also included hunting, perennial fruit, nut, fiber crops, and fuel wood.
METHODS
The 37 soil samples collected during excavation
were processed at the Museum of New Mexico's
Office of Archaeological Studies by the simplified
262
"bucket" version of flotation (see Bohrer and
Adams 1977). Flotation samples were measured in
liters, ranging in size from 0.3 to 3 liters, and averaging 1.3 liters in volume. Each sample was
immersed in a bucket of water, and a 30–40-second
interval allowed for settling out of heavy particles.
The solution was then poured through a fine screen
(about 0.35 mm mesh) lined with a square of "chiffon" fabric, catching organic materials floating or in
suspension. The fabric was lifted out and laid flat
on coarse mesh screen trays until the recovered
material had dried. Each sample was sorted using a
series of nested geological screens (4.0, 2.0, 1.0, 0.5
mm mesh), and then reviewed under a binocular
microscope at 7–45x.
Flotation data are reported as a standardized
count of seeds per liter of soil, rather than an actual
number of seeds recovered. Samples completely
empty of floral remains are not listed in the tables of
flotation results. To aid the reader in sorting out
botanical occurrences of cultural significance from
the considerable noise of post-occupational intrusion, data in tables are sorted into categories of
"Probably Cultural" (carbonized remains of plant
taxa with a record of economic utility), "Possibly
Cultural" (indeterminate cases, usually of unburned,
economically useful taxa either found together with
burned specimens of the same taxon, or found in
relatively good preservation conditions), and
"Noncultural" (pristine or unburned materials, especially when of taxa not economically useful, and
when found in disturbed contexts together with
modern roots, insect parts, scat, or other signs of
recent biological activity).
From each flotation sample with at least 20
pieces of wood charcoal present, a sample of 20
pieces of charcoal was identified (10 from the 4 mm
screen and 10 from the 2 mm screen). Each piece
was snapped to expose a fresh transverse section,
and identified at 45x to 90x. Charcoal specimens
examined prior to submission for radiocarbon dating were examined in the same fashion, but selection was adapted to securing a minimal sufficient
sample (the objective was 5 g) with the fewest
pieces, rather than aiming to examine both large and
small pieces. Low-power, incident-light identification of wood specimens does not often allow
species- or even genus-level precision, but can provide reliable information useful in distinguishing
broad patterns of utilization of a major resource
class.
RESULTS
Middle Developmental Phase (A.D. 900–1000):
LA 103919W
Sampled interior proveniences include two heating
features in Room 1 (Table A2.1). In ash pits, cultural perishables are often reduced to ash; Feature 3
fits this pattern, with just a few corn cob fragments
remaining recognizable. The roasting pit, however,
contained pricklypear, goosefoot, and ricegrass.
These economic taxa are harvestable at very different segments of the growing cycle (early fall, midsummer, and late spring, respectively), signifying
repeated use of the heating feature and/or storage of
food goods for later use. Extramural heating features, postholes, and pits contained a variety of
weedy annuals (goosefoot, pigweed, tansymustard,
and purslane), as well as pine bark, piñon nutshell,
and dropseed grass (Tables A2.1 and A2.3).
Carbonized floral materials in burials attest
largely to trash fill, or trash layers that burial pits
were dug into, or post-occupational disturbance.
Corn cob fragments, a common sign of hearth
debris, were found in all burial samples (Table A2.4,
and see also Tables A2.5 and A2.7). Low concentration of corn pollen in Burial 3, on the other hand,
has been interpreted as potentially relating to ritual
use, and cheno-ams and clumped corn pollen
occurred in the pelvic area of Burial 6 as possible
intestinal contents (Holloway 1995:7). Flotation
and macroremains of carbonized corn are present in
the same (FS 105; Table A2.4) or related (FS 32, 78;
Tables A2.4, A2.7) proveniences, but these recoveries neither corroborate nor refute ritual or food use
in connection with the burials. Apricot, peach,
plum, and wheat remains attest to contamination
from post-sixteenth-century deposits, especially in
Burial 2, but also in Stratum 2 and an amorphous
stain (Tables A2.6 and A2.7).
The distribution of relatively durable corn
remains reveals some patterning of food processing
activities and post-occupational taphonomy (Table
A2.5). The bulk of corn remains were found in
extramural hearths and pits, and not in interior
proveniences. The highly disturbed burials, distin-
guished by known historic period intrusives, were
another concentrated source of corn remains.
Kernels were much less common than cob parts,
and occurred only in disturbed upper Layer 1 and
extramural features (Tables A2.3, A2.4, and A2.5).
Wood is all coniferous in the single provenience, Feature 18, with contents directly related to
fuel use (Table A2.2). For proveniences where context is more ambiguous, such as structural and pit
fill, wood is 95 percent coniferous, which is not significantly different. Overall, wood use is from the
local juniper-piñon woodland, with juniper predominating and a small element from local shrubs (saltbush/greasewood). Ponderosa pine, a minor component of the archaeological wood assemblage, is
found at slightly higher elevations and on north-facing slopes in protected canyons.
Late Developmental Phase (A.D. 1000–1200):
LA 103919E
Floral remains at LA 103919E were fewer and less
varied, but followed some patterns seen at the earlier LA 103919W. For instance, the few sampled
interior proveniences contained scant signs of food
processing or storage debris (Table A2.8).
Extramural hearths and ashpits held denser and
more varied signs of plant utilization, including pigweed, goosefoot, and corn remains (Table A2.10).
Here again, the distribution of corn remains mirrors
potential use-areas (extramural hearths and ashpits)
as well as likely trash concentrations (room fill and
an upper trash layer; Table A2.12).
Burials at this site segment did not show signs
of contemporary (heavy trash) or post-occupational
contamination. Floral remains within burials were a
sparse image of plant materials elsewhere in the
site, reflecting their ultimate derivation, and not
revealing any special aspects of burial contexts. To
learn about plant-related aspects of burial activities,
pollen analysis is a more appropriate tool, as offerings, pit linings, or floral decorations would all likely be included in burials in a fresh (uncarbonized)
state.
Wood use at LA 103919E is again largely coniferous (juniper and piñon) in both interior (Feature
34) and extramural heating features (Features 27,
37, and 39), as well as various other features with
charcoal inclusions (Table A2.9). The interior
263
hearth was the only provenience to have more than
a smattering of nonconiferous fuel (in this case, a
rosaceous shrub, which could include taxa such as
cliffrose, Apache plume, mountain mahogany, serviceberry, or chokecherry).
DEVELOPMENTAL PHASE PLANT USE IN THE
NORTHERN RIO GRANDE VALLEY
In the Santa Fe area, recovery of evidence of wild
plant utilization is sparse indeed. Short-term
occupation and poor preservation have conspired
to leave a record of few economic annuals (largely goosefoot and pigweed), grasses, and perennials (chiefly debris from the local juniper-piñon
woodland, but also the occasional cactus or
yucca). LA 103919 falls in this pattern, with a
short list of only the most common floral foodstuffs found during the farming era in the northern
Southwest. The KP site is the only local contemporaneous small site with a more detailed record
of plant utilization; here the chronicle extends to
several perennials (juniper berries, piñon nuts,
sedge, hedgehog cactus, yucca, and buffaloberry),
annuals (sunflower, mallow, and nightshade family), and cultivated squash. Plants used at Arroyo
Hondo, a substantial pueblo occupied in the later
Coalition to Early Classic periods, are similar in
scope and diversity to what we see at the KP site.
This comparison is fascinating, considering the
entirely different scale and intensity of occupation
at these two sites.
Corn was the most widespread food plant
taxon at the Nambé site, found in 89 percent of
Middle Developmental samples (103919W) and
74 percent of Late Developmental samples
(103919E). And throughout the northern Rio
Grande Valley, in sites of all sizes, no plant food
taxon surpasses corn in frequency and consistency
of appearance (Table A2.14). While corn may
indeed have functioned as the core of the
Developmental period diet, its archaeological
ubiquity also is a direct reflection of its durable
by-product, and frequent re-use of the spent cobs
as fuel. Tiny fragments of corn cobs, kernels, and
shank were positively identified from proveniences throughout both segments of LA 103919,
but only two cob specimens contained the full circumference needed for reliable analysis of cob
264
morphometrics. These two specimens fall well
within described populations for the northern Rio
Grande Valley (Table A2.16). Generally 10- and
12-rowed cobs predominate, with fewer 8-rowed
cobs and cobs with 14 or more rows are rare. Note
that overall cob size, measured loosely by cob
diameter and rachis segment length, is larger in
fields from the river corridor at Cochiti than at
Developmental and Coalition sites at higher, drier
elevations (Nambé and Nambé Falls). Ford noted
a relatively homogeneous corn population at
Cochiti, with straight-sided or cigar-shaped cobs
(Ford 1968). Some tripsacoid features, such as
hard upcurving glumes, suggest chapalote influence, but the short, stout shanks, pyramidal cobs,
and higher percentages of 8-rowed cobs found
with Harinoso de Ocho are all lacking at Cochiti
and also at the KP site (Wiseman 1989:85).
Wood use from sites in the Santa Fe area, as
evidenced by charcoal remains, appears to be distinguished more by continuity and general similarity than by any distinctive differences between
time periods (Table A2.15). From all time periods
and site types, wood recovered is predominantly
coniferous, lacking a significant presence of
shrubby or riparian species. This general continuity of fuelwood taxa through time in the Santa Fe
area indicates that a consistent source of these
coniferous wood taxa was present. Previous studies in southern Colorado (Kohler and Matthews
1988) and northeast Arizona (McBride 1994b)
have suggested that over-harvesting of preferred
(coniferous) wood species led to pockets of deforestation as evidenced by a marked drop in the percent presence of preferred wood species over
time. With the exception of and a tiny fraction of
riparian (cottonwood-willow) wood at Dos
Griegos (Cummings and Puseman 1992), coniferous wood reigns supreme as fuel in all time periods. The significant element of riparian wood at
Cochiti (Ford 1968), comes from nonhearth contexts and probably represents construction timbers. Even at Airport Road, where present-day
junipers and especially piñons are considerably
sparser, there is no sign of saltbush use (Toll
1994), suggesting density and duration of population pressure was not sufficient to impact availability of preferred fuel types.
SUMMARY
Corn remains are ubiquitous in both areas of the
site. Other food taxa are neither numerous nor widespread, and include pricklypear, several common
economic annuals, and two grasses. Despite considerable disturbance from slope wash, the Middle
Developmental component shows significantly
more concentration and diversity of plant-related
economic activity.
Wood use is heavily coniferous in both Middle
and Late Developmental areas of LA 103919, and in
heating features as well as all other proveniences.
Juniper is the most heavily-used wood taxon. Only
in Late Developmental heating features does the
level of piñon utilization approach that of juniper.
Other minor wood components are ponderosa pine,
saltbush/greasewood, and an undetermined rosaceous shrub. Throughout the Santa Fe area we see a
similar heavy concentration of coniferous wood
use. Notable use of riparian cottonwood and willow,
concentrated in nonfuel contexts, turns up in
Developmental phase sites in the Rio Grande corridor about 40 km to the west (Ford 1968).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Analysis was performed by Deborah Johnson (flotation, corn), Pamela McBride (macrobotanical materials), and Mollie Toll (wood).
Carter, M. Cliff, and C. Heathington.
Research Reports 121. Archaeology
Research Program, Southern Methodist
University, Dallas.
Cummings, Linda Scott
1989a Pollen and Macrofloral Analysis at LA 2,
Agua Fria Schoolhouse Site, Northern New
Mexico. In Limited Excavations at LA 2,
the Agua Fria Schoolhouse Site, Agua Fria
Village, Santa Fe County, New Mexico, by
Richard W. Lang and Cherie L. Schieck.
Southwest Report 216. Southwest
Archaeological Consultants, Santa Fe.
1989b Pollen and Flotation Analyses. In The KP
Site and Late Developmental Period
Archaeology in the Santa Fe District, by
Regge N. Wiseman, pp. 77–83.
Laboratory of Anthropology Note 494.
Museum of New Mexico, Research
Section, Santa Fe.
Cummings, Linda Scott, and Kathryn Puseman
1992 Pollen and Macrofloral Analysis at Site
283-3, near Santa Fe, New Mexico. In
Archaeological Excavations at Dos
Griegos, Upper Cañada de los Alamos,
Santa Fe County, New Mexico: Archaic
through Pueblo V, by Richard W. Lang.
Southwest Report 283. Southwest
REFERENCES CITED
Bohrer, Vorsila L., and Karen R. Adams
1977 Ethnobotanical Techniques and Approach-es
at the Salmon Ruin, New Mexico. San Juan
Valley Archeological Project, Tech-nical
Series 2; Eastern New Mexico University
Contributions in Anthropology 8(1).
Brown, David E., editor
1982 Biotic Communities of the American
Southwest—United States and Mexico.
Desert Plants 4(1–4).
Carter, Carol
1980 Flotation Analysis. Appendix I in
Archaeological Investigations at Nambe
Falls, by S. Alan Skinner, C. Shaw, C.
Dean, Glenna
1993a Pollen and Flotation Analyses of Archaeologi-cal
Samples from Estates I, Estates II, and the West
Golf Course at Las Campanas de Santa Fe, Santa
Fe County, New Mexico. Ms. on file, Southwest
Archeobotanical Services Technical Series 933.
1993b Flotation Analyses of Two Archeological
Samples from LA 101101 and I.O. 59, Frijoles
Survey, Santa Fe County, New Mexico.
Archeobotanical Services Techni-cal Series 934.
Donaldson, Marcia L.
1981 Factors Affecting Decomposition and Contamination of Paleobotanical Remains: A
Review of Flotation Results from NIIP
Blocks III–IX. Ms. on file, Cultural
265
Resources Management Program, Navajo
Nation, Window Rock, Arizona.
Ford, Richard I.
1968 Floral Remains. In The Cochiti Dam
Archaeology Salvage Project, Part 1:
Report on the 1963 Season, by Charles H.
Lange. Research Records 6. Museum of
Gossett, Cye W., and William J. Gossett
1991 Data Recovery at Five Sites (LA 72101, LA
72103, LA 72104, LA 72106, and LA
72108), Sangre de Cristo Estates, Santa Fe,
New Mexico. Rio Abajo Archaeological
Services, Albuquerque.
Holloway, Richard H.
1995 Pollen Analysis from LA 103919, Santa Fe
County, NM. Ms. on file, Museum of New
Mexico, Office of Archaeological Studies,
Santa Fe. Castetter Laboratory for
Ethnobotanical Studies Technical Series 413.
University of New Mexico, Albuquerque.
Jones, Volney H.
1953 Dessicated or Charred Material from Pindi.
In The Excavation of Pindi Pueblo, New
Mexico, by Stanley A. Stubbs and W. S.
Stallings, pp. 140–142. Report no. 86A,
Ethnobotanical Laboratory, University of
Michigan and Monographs of the School of
American Research and the Laboratory of
Anthropology No. 18, Santa Fe, New Mexico.
Kohler, Timothy, and Meredith Matthews
1988 Long-Term Anasazi Land Use and Forest
Reduction: A Case Study from Southwest
Colorado. American Antiquity 53(3):537– 564.
McBride, Pamela
1994a Macrobotanical Analysis. Appendix B in
Archaic Occupations of the Santa Fe Area:
Results of the Tierra Contenta
Archaeology Project, by Matthew F.
Schmader. Final report to Archaeological
Review Committee, City of Santa Fe
Planning Department.
1994b Sanders High School Macrobotanical Analysis
266
Results. Ms. in possession of the author.
Martin, William C., and Robert Hutchins
1981 Flora of New Mexico. Braunschweig, W.
Germany.
Rose, Martin R., Jeffrey S. Dean, and William J.
Robinson
1981 The Past Climate of Arroyo Hondo New
Mexico Reconstructed from Tree Rings.
Arroyo Hondo Archaeological Series 4.
School of American Research Press, Santa Fe.
Schmader, Matthew F.
1987 Excavation of the Santo Niño Site (LA
64677): An Early Coalition Period Pithouse in Northern Santa Fe. Rio Grande
Consultants, Albuquerque, New Mexico.
1994 Archaic Occupations of the Santa Fe Area:
Results of the Tierra Contenta
Archaeology Project. Final Report to
Archaeological Review Committee, City
of Santa Fe Planning Department.
Skinner, S. Alan, C. Shaw, C. Carter, M. Cliff, and
C. Heathington
1980 Archaeological Investigations at Nambé
Falls. Research Reports 121.
Archaeology Research Program, Southern
Methodist University, Dallas.
Toll, Mollie S.
1989 Flotation from Six Small Sites along the
Santa Fe Relief Route, North-Central New
Mexico. Ms. on file, Museum of New
Mexico, Office of Archeological Studies,
Santa Fe. Castetter Laboratory for
Ethnobotanical Studies, Technical Series
257. University of New Mexico,
Albuquerque.
1994 Botanical Materials from the Airport Road
Site (LA 61282), an Archaic Campsite in
Santa Fe County, NM. Museum of New
Mexico, Office of Archeological Studies,
Technical Series 21. Santa Fe.
Toll, Mollie, and Pamela J. McBride
1995 Botanical Analyses at Las Campanas:
Archaic to Early Classic Small Sites (LA
847580, 84787, 86139, 16159, 86150,
84793, 98690, 84759). Ms. on file,
Archeological Studies, Santa Fe.
Technical Series 31.
Wetterstrom, Wilma
1986 Food, Diet, and Population at Prehistoric
Arroyo Hondo Pueblo, New Mexico. Arroyo
Hondo Archaeological Series 6. School of
Wiseman, Regge N.
1989 The KP Site and Late Developmental
Period Archaeology in the Santa Fe
District. Laboratory of Anthropology
Notes No. 494. Museum of New Mexico,
Research Section, Santa Fe.
267
Table A2.1. Flotation Results, Heating Features and Ash Pits (Room 1 and
Extramural): LA 103919W
Room 1
Roasting Pit,
Ashpit,
Feature 1
Feature 3
FS 9
FS 15
FS 31
Cultural:
Annuals:
Amaranthus
pigweed
Chenopodium
goosefoot
Unidentifiable
Perennials:
Opuntia
pricklypear
Pinus
pine
Grasses:
Gramineae
grass family
Oryzopsis
ricegrass
Cultivars:
Zea mays
corn
TOTAL Cultural
Possibly Cultural:
Annuals:
Chenopodium
goosefoot
Portulaca
purslane
Unidentifiable
Perennials:
Scirpus
sedge
Juniperus
juniper
Grasses:
Oryzopsis
ricegrass
Sporob olus
dropseed
TOTAL Possibly Cultural
268
Extramural Features
Hearth,
Clay Pit,
Feature 18 Feature 33
FS 154
FS 594
0.4
2.7
1.0
0.4
1.0
0.5
+
bark
3.0
1.0
+
cupules
10.5
+
cupules
7.7
+
cupules
0.5
+++
cupules
1.0
1.0
0.5
0.5
1.0
+
? cone
0.5
1.0
3.0
0.7
3.7
1.0
15.7
4.3
1.0
17.7
+
cupules
0.8
Table A2.2. Species Composition of Charcoal from Flotation: LA 103919W (pieces, weight, percent weight)
Provenience
Hearth
F18 FS 154
Juniperus juniper)
18
0.67 g
84%
1
0.12 g
15%
Pinus edulis (pi?
non)
All Other Proveniences
F10
Posthole,
FS 59
F4 Fill,
FS 78
Burial 6,
Pelvic Fill,
FS 105
14
0.48 g
13
0.38 g
0.46 g
4
0.19 g
5
0.22 g
0.02 g
18
F24, W½,
FS 169
F19, FS
170
F33, Clay
Pit, FS 594
12
1.67 g
16
0.20 g
7
0.15 g
1
0.04 g
4
0.05 g
2
Pinus ponderosa
(ponderosa pine)
2
0.44 g
Undetermined conifer
1
0.01 g
1%
20
0.80 g
100%
Total conifer
2
0.02 g
20
0.69 g
Atriplex/Sarcob atus
(saltbush/greasewood)
18
0.60 g
20
0.48 g
2
0.08 g
Undetermined nonconifer
5
0.30 g
1
0.14 g
1
0.01 g
4
0.13 g
15
2.25 g
18
0.25 g
20
0.63 g
4
0.07 g
2
0.03 g
1
0.08 g
TOTAL
20
0.80 g
100%
20
0.69 g
20
0.68 g
20
0.48 g
20
2.40 g
20
0.28 g
20
0.63 g
Total
80
3.34 g
65%
16
0.52 g
10%
7
0.74 g
14%
8
0.30 g
6%
131
4.90 g
95%
8
0.18 g
3%
1
0.08 g
120
5.16 g
100%
Table A2.3. Flotation Results, Extramural Features: LA 103919W
Postholes
PH 6
PH 10
FS 48
FS 59
Feature 20
FS 157
Bell-Shaped Storage Pits
Feature 20
Feature 24,
FS 165
W½ FS 169
Cultural
Annuals:
Amaranthus (pigweed)
Chenopodium (goosefoot) 2.7
Descurainia (tansymustard)
Portulaca (purslane)
Unidentifiable seed
0.9
3.0
Feature 24,
E½ FS 169
2.7
12.9
4.2
Oblong Pit
Feature 19
FS 170
1.5
0.5
1.5
Perennials
Pinus edulis (pi?
ñon)
0.4
Grasses
Sporob olus (dropseed)
4.2
Cultivars
Zea mays
corn
12.7
++ c
+c
+c
+c
0.5
++ c
+++ c
+c
Total Cultural Seeds
16.4
0
0
0.4
5.0
24.0
2.0
Possibly Cultural
Annuals:
Chenopodium
(goosefoot)
Cheno-am (goosefootpigweed)
Unidentifiable seed
Grasses:
Oryzopsis (ricegrass)
Sporob olus (dropseed)
Total possible cultural seeds:
Noncultural
Annuals:
Euphorbia (spurge)
c = cupules
0.4
1.3
17.3
5.0
5.0
10.0
17.3
1.7
0.7
1.7
269
Table A2.4. Flotation Results (Frequency of Seeds and Fruits per liter) from Burials: LA 103919W
Burial 2
Burial 6
FS 32
Fill FS 78
Cairn FS 105 Pelvic Fill FS 105
CULTURAL:
Annuals:
Chenopodium (goosefoot)
0.9
1.0
1.0
Perennials:
Pinus (pine)
+b
+++b
Cultigens:
0.9
2.0
Zea mays (corn)
++c
+++c
++c
+++c
1.8
3.0
0.0
1.0
POSSIBLY CULTURAL
Annuals:
Chenopodium
1.0
(goosefoot)
1.0
Grasses:
Oryzopsis (ricegrass)
1.8
Sporobolus (dropseed)
2.7
2.0
Total Possibly Cultural Seeds
4.5
2.0
0.0
2.0
+ 1-10 items; ++ 11-25 items; +++ > 25 items; c = cupules
Provenience
Table A2.5. Corn Distribution: LA 103919W
Cob
1
Fragments 2
Cobs
Kernels
Layer 1
(FS 7, 8, 16, 17, 21, 25, 49, 68,
147, 171)
9/ 0.55 g
12+f/ 1.05 g
150+/ 4.73 g
f/ 0.13 g
150 + f/ 4.86 g
5/ 0.08 g
25/ 0.61 g
f/ 0.01 g
f/ 0.05 g
5 + f/ 0.09 g
25 + f/ 0.66 g
f/ 0.03 g
f/ 0.03 g
f/0.02 g
114 + f/ 3.58 g
14/ 0.42 g
350 +/ 13.71 g
28/ 0.04 g
Room 1
Roasting pit Feature 1 (FS 15)
Floor 1 contact (FS 110)
2/ 0.06 g
Posthole, Feature 13 (FS 139)
Burials:
Burial 2 (FS 32, 78)
Burial 6 (FS 105)
TOTAL:
1
2
270
3+f/ 0.50 g
Layer 2
(FS 26, 43, 57, 60, 71, 120,
152, 153, 176)
Extramural Features
Hearth Feature 18 (FS 154)
Bell-shaped pits
Feature 20 (FS 157, 160, 165)
Feature 24 (FS 169)
2/ 0.98 g
2/ 0.98 g
pieces with a complete circumference
pieces with 2 or more cupules
Total
112/ 2.58 g
14/ 0.42 g
345 +/ 10.07 g
3+f/ 2.66 g
Table A2.6. Apricots, Plums, and Peaches (Drupe Stone Morphometrics): LA 103919W
Taxa/Specimens
Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Weight (g)
Prunus sp. (apricot/plum)
FS 32, Burial 2
Prunus armeniaca (apricot)
FS 39, Burial 2
FS 42, Burial 2
Prunus persica (peach)
FS 143, Strat 2
14.8
11
8.7
0.2
----
15.6
16.1
15
10.1
10.5
9.9
0.4
0.7
0.5
25.8
19.8
15.7
1.9
Table A2.7. Miscellaneous Macrobotanical Remains: LA 103919W
Taxa
Trench
Associated with Burial 2
FS 16,
Stratum 1 FS 32
CULTURAL
Domesticates:
Prunus sp. (apricot/plum)
Prunus armeniaca (apricot)
Prunus persica (peach)
Triticum sp. (wheat)
Zea mays (maize)
FS 42,
Level 3
FS 39
FS 78
Historic Garbage Pit
FS 140,
Stratum 1
Amorphous
Stain
FS 143,
Stratum 2
FS 152
1
2
1
1
1
1 cs*
1
1*
13k*
76c*
11cs*
1cf*
Other:
Unknown
Starchy
material
Notes: * = charred; c = cupule; cf = corn cob fragment; cs = cupule segment; k = kernel
Table A2-8. Flotation Results, Room 3 and Miscellaneous Extramural Features: LA
103919E (frequency per liter of seeds and fruits)
Room 3
Floor
Contact,
FS 585
CULTURAL
Annuals:
Cheno-am (goosefoot-pigweed)
Unidentifiable seed
Perennials:
Pinus sp. (pine bark)
Cultivars:
Zea mays (corn cupules)
POSSIBLY CULTURAL
Annuals:
Unidentifiable seed
Grasses:
NONCULTURAL
Annuals:
Euphorbia (spurge)
Grasses:
Gramineae (grass family)
Extramural Features
Hearth
Posthole, Cobble Cluster, Irregular Pit,
Feature 34, Feature 35,
Feature 31, Feature 38,
FS 587
FS 584
FS 576
FS 589
1.0
1.0
+
+
+
+
+
++
1.3
2.5
1.3
1.4
1.4
271
272
.
Undetermined conifer
20
1.54 g
.
Undetermined
Nonconifer
TOTAL
.
Rosaceae (rose family
20
1.54 g
10
0.48 g
Pinus edulis (piñon)
Total conifer
10
1.06 g
Juniperus (juniper)
F 27,
N1/2, FS
571
20
0.69 g
.
7
0.3 g
13
0.39 g
.
5
0.2 g
8
0.19 g
F 34,
Hearth,
FS 587
20
3.08 g
1
0.02 g
.
19
3.06 g
4
0.35 g
10
2.0 g
5
0.71 g
F 39,
Hearth,
FS 591
20
0.63 g
.
.
20
0.63 g
.
.
20
0.63 g
F 39, Ash
Pit, FS
591
Heating Features
20
0.87 g
.
.
20
0.87 g
.
1
.02 g
19
0.85 g
F 37
S1/2, FS
593
62
3.44 g
50%
26
2.7 g
40%
4
0.35
5%
92
6.49 g
95%
7
0.3 g
5%
1
0.02 g
<1%
100
6.81 g
100%
Total
20
0.75 g
.
.
20
.75g
2
.02g
.
18
.73 g
F 31,
Cobble
Cluster,
FS 576
20
0.36 g
.
.
20
0.36 g
.
8
0.14
12
.22 g
F 39,
Unknown
Pit, Room
1, FS 589
20
0.55 g
.
.
20
0.55 g
.
.
20
.55 g
Burial 5,
Vessel,
FS 580
Other Proveniences
Table A2-9. Species Composition of Charcoal from Flotation: LA 103919E
60
1.66 g
100%
.
50
1.50 g
90%
8
.14 g
9%
2
.02g
1%
60
1.66 g
100%
.
Total
Table A2-10. Flotation Results, Extramural Hearths and Ashpits: LA 103919E
Hearths
Ashpits
Feature 27
Feature 39
Feature 37 Feature 39
Between
Fill FS 571 Rocks, FS 573 Fill, FS 591 Fill, FS 593 Fill, FS 591
CULTURAL
Annuals:
Unidentifiable
Perennials:
Pinus (pine)
Cultivars:
Zea mays (corn)
POSSIBLY CULTURAL
Unidentifiable
Total Possibly Cultural Seeds
NONCULTURAL
Annuals:
Grasses:
Total Noncultural Seeds
0.5
1.3
0.2
2.5
+c
2.5
+c
+++b
++b
++b
0.4, +++c
1.9
1.0, +++c
1.0
+++c
0.5
0.4
0.7
1.1
1.3
1.5
1.3
0.8
2.3
b = bark; c = cupules
273
Table A2-11. Flotation Results, Burials: LA 103919E
Burial 4, FS 581
Body Cavity,
Pit Fill,
Vessel,
PP 250
PP 198
PP 1
Burial 5, FS 580
Pit Lining, Pelvis
Vessel,
Area PP 1
PP 2
CULTURAL
Annuals:
Unidentifiable
Grasses:
Gramineae (grass family)
Cultivars:
Zea mays (corn)
1.1
++ c
+c
TOTAL CULTURAL SEEDS
1.1
1.0
2.8
1.0
1.4
0.6
1.4
POSSIBLY CULTURAL
1.0
2.5
98.6
3.1
1.4
1.0
2.0
1.4
98.6
Table A2.12. Corn Distribution: LA 103919E
Provenience
1/0.77 g
TOTAL
1/0.77 g
f
274
Cobs 1
Strat 2, Fill
FS 514, 516, 529,
534, 553, 554, 562,
566, 590)
Hearths
F 27 (FS 551)
F 39 (FS 591)
Room 4, Fill (FS 594)
Extramural Ashpit
F 39 (FS 597)
Burial 5 (FS 580)
2
3.7
1.4
NONCULTURAL
Annuals:
Kallstroemia (Arizona poppy)
Sphaeralcea (globemallow)
Grasses:
TOTAL NONCULTURAL SEEDS
1
3.1
Cob Fragments 2 Kernels
9/0.41 g
f/0.04 g
Total
17/0.45 g
5/1.00 g
4./0.23 g
3/0.66 g
3/0.66 g
1/0.10 g
2/0.06 g
1/0.10 g
2/0.06 g
19/1.46 g
pieces with a complete circumference
pieces with 2 or more cupules
fragments
f/ 0.04 g
27/2.27 g
5.6
Table A2-13. Miscellaneous Macrobotanical Remains: LA 103919E
101N 102E, Pitstructure Hearth Fill,
Level 3, FS Fill, Stratum 3, Stratum 2,
506
FS 539
FS 568
CULTURAL
Domesticates
Zea mays (corn)
Yucca sp. (yucca)
Other:
Unidentifiable
POSSIBLY CULTURAL
Perennials
Opuntia (prickly pear)
NONCULTURAL
Ulmus sp. (elm)
Unidentifiable
Burial 5,
FS 580
101N 100E,
Stratum 3,
FS 590
Ash Pit Associated
with Hearth 15,
Stratum 3, FS 597
2c*
1cs*
1sh*
1c*
1s*
Unknown plant part
1s
2s
Unknown plant part
Notes: * = charred; c = cupule; cs = cupule segment; s = seed; sh = shank
275
276
No. of Samples
20
Malvaceae 50%
Solanaceae 50%
Amaranthus 50%
Helianthus 17%
Cheno-am 67%
174
Sporobolus 10%
Cheno-am 80%
Gramineae 20%
Chenopodium 40%
Portulaca 20%
Cycloloma 20%
Cleome 20%
Undetermined 40%
Cheno-am 34%
Oryzopsis 7%
Portulaca 16%
Cycloloma 9%
Physalis 5%
Cleome 5%
Helianthus 3%
Amaranthus 5%
Cleome 5%
Gramineae 2%
Gramineae 83%
Chenopodium 16% Gramineae 2%
Amaranthus 11%
Prunus 25%
Opuntia 15%
Echinocereus 10%
Yucca 17%
Shepherdia 17%
Echinocereus 67%
Opuntia 50%
Scirpus/Carex 50%
Opuntia 100%
Juniperus twigs 100%
Echinocactus 20%
Pinus needles 80%
Equisetum stem 20%
Nutshell 40%
Umbos 60%
Pseudotsuga needle 20%
Quercus acorn cap 20%
Juniperus berry 1%
Echinocereus 10%
Pinus nutshell 4%
Mammillaria 25
Umbos also present
Opuntia
Yucca 3%
Prunus 1%
Pinus barkscales 60%
Juniperus leaf scales
and twigs 100%
Berries 17%
Pinus edulis needles
100%
Umbos 83%
Nutshell 33%
Pinus ponderosa bark
2%
Pinus bark 32%
Zea 82%
Cucurbita 5%
Phaseolus 7%
Zea 80%
Cucurbita pollen)
Zea 80%
Zea 40%
Cucurbita 2%
Zea 69%
Cucurbita 100%
Zea 100%
Zea 100%
Zea 74%
Specimens are carbonized seeds unless otherwise specified. In most cases, Zea includes cupules, cob fragments, and kernels.
1
Toll 1995; 2Carter 1980; 3Cummings 1989a; 4Wetterstrom 1986:Table 34; 5Cumings 1989b; 6Ford 1968; 7Cummings and Puseman 1992;
8
macrobotanical samples (not flotation)
Arroyo Hondo7
COALITION-EARLY CLASSIC
Agua Fria6
5
Nambe Falls 1
Cultivars
Zea 89%
Opuntia 6%
Other Perennials
Amaranthus 11%
Oryzopsis 6%
Chenopodium 56% Sporobolus 6%
Portulaca 6%
Descurainia 6%
Pinus bark 17%
Nutshell 13%
Trees
Zea 100%
Grasses
Cleome 50%
Annuals
[LA 6461, 6462]
DEVELOPMENTAL-MIDDLE CLASSIC
Dos Griegos 4
5
COALITION
Las Campanas 5
26
Corispermum 4%
[LA 84759, 84793, 86150, 86159,
98683, 98690]
488
6
KP Site2
Cochiti
2
Nambe Falls 1
[X29SF17, X29SF45]
3
19
LATE DEVELOPMENTAL
LA 103919E
DEVELOPMENTAL
Nambe Falls 1
2
[X29SF19]
MIDDLE DEVELOPMENTAL
LA 103919W
18
Project/Site
Table A2.14. Comparative Carbonized Flotation Remains from Santa Fe Area Sites, Coalition to Classic Periods (percent of
Table A2.15. Comparative Carbonized Wood Remains from Santa Fe Area Sites of the Coalition,
Developmental, and Classic Periods: Percent Composition by Weight or by Number of Pieces
Project/Site
No. of Samples
[Total Weight or
Pieces]
Conifers
Nonconifers
(18%) J
(80%) PN
98% Total
(2%) CW
7
67% J
11% PN
12% PP
5% UC
95% Total
3% SG
1% UNC
4% Total
8
58% J
34% PN
4% UC
96% Total
17% J
17% PN
34% Total
4% R
DEVELOPMENTAL-MIDDLE CLASSIC
Dos Griegos 4
5
[site 283-3]
[108 pieces]
MIDDLE DEVELOPMENTAL
LA 103919W
[5.96g]
LATE DEVELOPMENTAL
LA 103919E
[8.47g]
North Bank
(LA 6462)5
8
[59 pieces]
COALITION-EARLY CLASSIC
Las Campanas
[LA 84759, LA 84793, 861 [6.81g]
Agua Fria Schoolhouse2
Arroyo Hondo3
10
4
[1108 pieces]
Comments
2% S
7% C
52% CW
5% O
66% Total
40% J
4% unknown
55% P
1% UC
96% Total
J: dominant in 2 samples, co-dominant in 1
P: dominant in 1 sample, co-dominant in 1
(21%) J
(6%) "other"
(37%) PN
(33%) PP
(4%) DF
(95%) Total
J juniper, P pine, PN piñon, PP ponderosa pine, DF Douglas fir, UC undetermined conifer, CW
cottonwood/willow, SG saltwood/greasewood, R rose family, C composite family, S sage, O
oak, UNC undetermined nonconifer
1
Toll 1995
Cummings 1989a
3
Creamer 1993, Table 7.1
4
Cummings and Puseman 1992
5
Ford 1968
6
Toll 1989, Table 1
2
277
Table A2.16. Comparative Developmental and Coalition Phase Corn Morphometrics from the Santa Fe Area
Cob
Row
Row Number (percent)
Diameter Cupule
N
8
10
12
14
RSL
Configuration
Width
in mm
DEVELOPMENTAL
103919E FS 551
Feature 27, Hearth
1
spiral
1
straight
100%
KP site1
66
63% straight
37% spiral
17%
34%
47%
2%
Cochiti2
LA 6461
35
63% straight
37% spiral
9%
60%
29%
3%
13.2
cv .204
3.3
LA 6462
50
88% straight
12% spiral
10%
24%
56%
10%
13
cv .193
3.1
COALITION:
Nambe Falls 3
[X29SF10]
36
22%
30%
48%
103919W FS 78
Burial
1
Wiseman 1989:84-5
Ford 1968,Tables 43, 46, 47
3
Carter 1980,Table I-1
2
278
100%
10.8
6.7
2.8
10.4
6.1
2.6
10.2
cv .188
APPENDIX 3. POLLEN ANALYSIS FROM LA 103919,
SANTA FE COUNTY, NEW MEXICO
Richard G. Holloway, Ph.D.
Five samples were sent for pollen analysis to the
Castetter Laboratory for EthnobotanicalStudies
(CLES) at the University of New Mexico (UNM).
Three of the five samples were pollen washes of
artifacts while the other two were soil samples. The
samples were all obtained from site LA 103919, a
multicomponent site located near Nambé Pueblo
along highway NM 503. The three components consist of an early P II component (A.D. 900–1000), a
middle P II component (A.D. 1000–1200), and a
historic component consisting of an 1880s-era
Hispanic homestead. Several features were present
although they were substantially eroded. I have not
personally visited the site area.
METHODS AND MATERIALS
Chemical extraction of pollen samples was conducted at the Palynology Laboratory at the Castetter
Laboratory for Ethnobotanical Studies (CLES) at
the University of New Mexico (UNM) using a procedure designed for semi-arid Southwestern sediments. The method, detailed below, specifically
avoids use of such reagents as nitric acid, bleach,
and potassium hydroxide, which have been demonstrated experimentally to be destructive to pollen
grains (Holloway 1981).
From each soil pollen sample submitted, 25 g of
soil were subsampled. Prior to chemical extraction,
three tablets of concentrated Lycopodium spores
(batch #710961, Department of Quaternary Geology,
Lund, Sweden; 13,911 marker grains per tablet) were
added to each subsample. The addition of marker
grains permits calculation of pollen concentration
values and provides an indicator for accidental
destruction of pollen during the laboratory procedure.
The pollen wash residues were used in total with
three tablets of Lycopodium spores also added.
The samples were treated with 35 percent
hydrochloric acid (HCl) overnight to remove carbonates and to release the Lycopodium spores from
their matrix. After neutralizing the acid with distilled water, the samples were allowed to settle for a
period of at least three hours before the supernatant
liquid was removed. Additional distilled water was
added to the supernatant, and the mixture was
swirled and then allowed to settle for 5 seconds. The
suspended fine fraction was decanted through 250
micron mesh screen into a second beaker. This procedure, repeated at least three times, removed
lighter materials, including pollen grains, from the
heavier fractions. The fine material was concentrated by centrifugation at 2,000 revolutions per minute
(rpm).
The fine fraction was treated overnight in cold
48 percent hydrofluoric acid (HF) to remove silicates. After completely neutralizing the acid with
distilled, water, the samples were treated with a 1
percent solution of trisodium phosphate (Na3PO4)
and repeatedly washed with distilled water and centrifuged (2,000 rpm) until the supernatant liquid
was clear and neutral. This procedure removed fine
charcoal and other associated organic matter and
effectively deflocculated the sample.
Heavy density separation ensued using zinc
chloride (ZnCl2), with a specific gravity of 1.002.00, to remove much of the remaining detritus
from the pollen. The light fraction was diluted with
distilled water (10:1) and concentrated by centrifugation. The samples were washed repeatedly in distilled water until neutral and were treated with glacial acetic acid to remove any remaining water.
Acetolysis solution (acetic anhydride: concentrated sulfuric acid in 8:1 ratio) following Erdtman
(1960), was added to each sample. Centrifuge tubes
containing the solution were heated in a boiling
Castetter Laboratory for Ethnobotanical Studies Technical Report Series Report Number 413
Appendix 3. Pollen Analysis
279
water bath for approximately 8 minutes and then
cooled for an additional 8 minutes before centrifugation and removal of the acetolysis solution with
glacial acetic acid followed by distilled water.
Centriguation at 2,000 rpm for 90 seconds dramatically reduced the size of the sample, yet from periodic examination of the residue, did not remove fossil palynomorphs.
The material was rinsed in methanol stained
with safranin, rinsed twice with methanol, and
transferred to 2-dram vials with tertiary butyl alcohol (TBA). The samples were mixed with a small
quantity of silicone oil (1,000 cks) and allowed to
stand overnight for evaporation of the TBA. The
storage vials were capped and are permanently
stored at CLES.
A drop of the polliniferous residue was mounted on a microscope slide for examination under an
18-by-18-mm cover slip sealed with fingernail polish. The slide was examined using 200x or 100x
magnification under an aus-Jena Laboval 4 compound microscope. Occasionally, pollen grains were
examined using either 400x or 1,000x oil immersion to obtain a positive identification to either the
family or genus level.
Abbreviated microscopy was performed on
each sample in which either 20 percent of the slide
(approxmately four transects at 200x magnification)
or a minimum of 50 marker grains were counted. If
warranted, full counts were conducted by counting
to a minimum of 200 fossil grains. Regardless of
which method was used, the uncounted portion of
each slide was completely scanned at a magnification of 100x for larger grains of cultivated plants
such as Zea mays and Cucurbita, two types of cactus (platyopuntia and cylindropuntia), and other
large pollen types such as members of the
Malvaceae or Nyctagnaceae families. Because corn
pollen was very common in many of these samples,
corn grains were tabulated during the scans only if
an unequal distribution of this taxon on the microscope slide was observed.
For those samples warranting full microscopy, a
mnimum of 200 pollen grains per sample was
counted as suggested by Barkley (1934), which
allows the analyst to inventory the most common
taxa present in the sample. All transects were counted completely, resulting in various numbers of
grains counted beyond 200. Pollen taxa encountered
280
on the uncounted portion of the slide during the low
magnification scan are tabulated separately.
The pollen concentration values of those taxa
identified during the low magnification scans were
adjusted to reflect the true concentration values of
these taxa. If, for example, a single Cucurbita grain
was encountered during the scan of a slide, an estimate of its concentration was made based on the
number of marker grains present on that slide. This
was done by averaging the number of marker grains
per transect counted during the actual count and
multiplying by the number of transects examined.
The resultant number was substituted into the formula for computing pollen concentration values for
all taxa encountered during the scan but these data
are presented in a separate table. Lowered pollen
concentration values for the target taxa are the outcome, but it is believed that a more accurate assessment of the true pollen concentration values are
achieved. However, because of the effect of nonrandom distribution of pollen grains on the slide
(Brookes and Thomas 1967), the result sometimes
is an increase of pollen concentration values for
these target taxa.
Total pollen concentration values were computed for all taxa. In addition, the percentage of indeterminate pollen was also computed. Statistically,
pollen concentration values provide a more reliable
estimate of species composition within the assemblage. Traditionally, results have been presented by
relative frequencies (percentages) where the abundance of each taxon is expressed in relation to the
total pollen sum (200 or more grains) per sample.
With this method, rare pollen types tend to constitute less than 1 percent of the total assemblage.
Pollen concentration values provide a more precise
measurement of the abundance of even these rare
types. The pollen data are reported here as pollen
concentration values using the following formula:
PC =
where:
PC
K
Sp
SL
S
=
=
=
=
=
K *S p
S L *S
pollen concentration
Lycopodium spores added
fossil pollen counted
Lycopodium spores counted
sediment weight
The following example should clarify this
approach. Taxon X may be represented by a total of
10 grains (1 percent) in a sample consisting of 1,000
grains, and by 100 grains (1 percent) in a second
sample consisting of 10,000 grains. Taxon X is 1
percent of each sample, but the difference in actual
occurrence of the taxon is obscured when pollen
frequencies are used. The use of "pollen concentration values" are preferred because it accentuates the
variability between samples in the occurrence of the
taxon. The variability, therefore, is more readily
interpretable when comparing cultural activity to
noncultural distribution of the pollen rain.
The pollen concentration values for pollen wash
samples, when present, were calculated using a
modification of the above formula. This modification involved the removal of the sediment weight
(S) variable from the denominator in the equation
because the sample was in liquid form. The resulting concentration value is thus expressed as estimated grains per artifact. The resulting pollen concentration values from pollen wash samples are treated
independently of those from soil samples in the
results and discussion sections, although the data
are presented with the other samples in the tables.
The use of pollen concentration values from these
particular samples are preferred, as explained
above, in order to accentuate the variability between
pollen wash samples.
Variability in pollen concentration values can
also be attributed to deterioration of the grains
through natural processes. In his study of sediment
samples collected from a rockshelter, Hall (1981)
developed the “1,000 grains/g” rule to assess the
degree of pollen destruction. This approach has
been used by many palynologists working in other
contexts as a guide to determine the degree of
preservation of a pollen assemblage and, ultimately,
to aid in the selection of samples to be examined in
greater detail. According to Hall (1981), a pollen
concentration value below 1,000 grains/g indicates
that forces of degradation may have severely altered
the original assemblage. However, a pollen concentration value of fewer than 1,000 grains/g can indicate the restriction of the natural pollen rain.
Samples from pit structures or floors within
enclosed rooms, for example, often yield pollen
concentration values below 1,000 grains/g.
Pollen degradation also modifies the pollen
assemblage because pollen grains of different taxa
degrade at variable rates (Holloway 1981, 1989).
Some taxa are more resistant to deterioration than
others and remain in assemblages after other types
have deteriorated completely. Many commonly
occurring taxa degrade beyond recognition in only a
short time. For example, most (70 percent)
Angiosperm pollen has either tricolpate (three furrows) or tricolporate (three furrows each with
pores) morphology. Because surfaces erode rather
easily, once deteriorated, these grains tend to resemble each other and are not readily distinguishable.
Other pollen types (e.g., Cheno-am) are so distinctive that they remain identifiable even when almost
completely degraded.
Pollen grains were identified to the lowest taxonomic level whenever possible. The majority of
these identifications conformed to existing levels of
taxonomy with a few exceptions. For example,
Cheno-am is an artificial pollen morphological category that includes pollen of the family
Chenopodiaceae (goosefoot) and the genus
Amaranthus (pigweed) which are indistinguishable
from each other (Martin 1963). All members are
wind-pollinated (anemophilous) and produce very
large quantities of pollen. In many sediment samples from the American Southwest, this taxon often
dominates the assemblage.
Pollen of the Asteraceae (sunflower) family was
divided into four groups. The high spine and low
spine groups were identified on the basis of spine
length. High spine Asteraceae contains those grains
with spine length greater than or equal to 2.5
microns, while the low spine group have spines less
than 2.5 microns in length (Bryan 1969; Martin
1963). Artemisia pollen is identifiable to the genus
level because of its unique morphology of a double
tectum in the mesocopial (between furrows) region
of the pollen grain. Pollen grains of the Liguliflorae
are also distinguished by their fenestrate morphology. Grains of this type are restricted to the tribe
Cichoreae which includes such genera as
Taraxacum (dandelion) and Lactuca (lettuce).
Pollen of the Poaceae (Grass) family are generally indistinguishable below the family level, with
the single exception of Zea mays, identifiable by its
large size (80 microns), relatively large pore annulus, and the internal morphology of the exine. All
members of the family contain a single pore, are
281
spherical, and have simple wall architecture.
Identification of nori1eorn pollen is dependent on
the presence of the single pore. Only complete or
fragmented grains containing this pore were tabulated as members of the Poaceae.
Clumps of four or more pollen grains (anther
fragments) were tabulated as single grains to avoid
skewing the counts. Clumps of pollen grains (anther
fragments) from archaeological contexts are interpreted as evidence for the presence of flowers at the
sampling locale (Bohrer 1981). This enables the
analyst to infer possible human behavior.
Finally, pollen grains in the final stages of disintegration but retaining identifiable features, such as
furrows, pores, complex wall architecture, or a
combination of these attributes, were assigned to
the indeterminate category. The potential exists to
miss counting pollen grains without identifiable
characteristics. For example, a grain that is so
severely deteriorated that no distinguishing features
exist closely resembles many spores. Pollen grains
and spores are similar both in size and are composed of the same material (Sporopollenin). So that
spores are not counted as deteriorated pollen, only
those grains containing identifiable pollen characteristics are assigned to the indeterminate category.
Thus, the indeterminate category contains a minimum estimate of degradation for any assemblage. If
the percentage of indeterminate pollen is between
10 and 20 percent, relatively poor preservation of
the assemblage is indicated, whereas indeterminate
pollen in excess of 20 percent indicates severe deterioration to the assemblage.
RESULTS
All burials sampled for pollen were located in the
eastern portion of the site and were dated to the
middle Pueblo II period (A.D. 900–1000). The
provenience data for each of the samples is presented in Table A3.1. Table A3.2 contains both the raw
counts and the estimated pollen concentration values for samples from this site.
FS 580 (CLES 95132) was a pollen wash from
a small burial vessel associated with Burial 4. Only
313 grains were present in this vessel and only 2
pollen grains were tabulated during counting.
Onagraceae and Poaceae were present. While the
calculated pollen concentration values for this sample are high, it must be remembered that these are
Table A3.1. Provenience Data from LA 103919
FS
580
580
581
334
105
PP
pp2
pp2
Burial No. and Provenience
Burial
Burial
Burial
Burial
Burial
4,
5,
4,
3,
6,
CLES #
fill from small burial vessel
Feature 6
Feature 6
juvenile
fill, pelvic cavity
95132
95133
95134
95135
95136
282
Sum
156
503
0
37
0
Marker
156
0
0
0
0
Zea mays
0
0
720
0
0
Indeterminate
Concentration values
95132
0
0
95133
2514
0
95134
1439 720
95135
591
0
95136
1510
79
Platyopuntia
1
1
-1
--
Artemisia
Poaceae
1
-----
Asteraceae, L.S.
Onagraceae
--1
---
Asteraceae, H.S.
Ulmus
--1
-1
Raw counts
95132
95133
95134
95135
95136
Cheno-am
Juniperus
-5
2
16
19
CLES No.
Pinus
Table A3.2. Raw Pollen Counts and Concentration Values, LA 103919
-9
1
20
39
-4
--2
-1
-2
1
---1
--
--1
---
-1
2
3
--
---1
--
267
83
58
53
21
2
21
8
44
62
0
0
4525 2011
720
0
739
0
3100
159
0
503
0
74
79
0
0
0
37
0
0
0
720
0
0
0
503
1439
111
0
0
0
0
37
0
267
83
58
53
21
313
10559
5756
1627
4928
based upon a single grain each and interpreted with
extreme caution.
FS 581 (CLES 95134) was also associated with
Burial 4. This vessel contained a large amount of
pollen (5,756 grains). Pinus and indeterminate
pollen (1,439 grains each) dominated the assemblage, with smaller amounts of Juniperus, Ulmus,
Cheno-am, and Platyopuntia. However, this is based
on a pollen sum of only 8 grains and is similar to the
pollen wash above.
FS 580, pp2 (CLES 95133), was taken from a
vessel associated with Burial 5 in the same feature.
This assemblage contained an estimated 10,559
grains. The assemblage was clearly dominated by
Cheno-am (4,525 grains) pollen. Pinus (2,514
grains) was high but not dominating. Poaceae (503
grains) was high along with high quantities of high
and low spine Asteraceae (2011 and 503 grains),
and Platyopuntia (503 grains) pollen. A single grain
of Picea and Solanaceae (137 grains each) were
also present in the low magnification scan of the
slide (Table A3.3).
FS 334 was a soil sample taken from Burial 3, a
juvenile. This sample contained 1,627 grains/g
pollen concentration. Pinus (591 grains/g) and
Cheno-am (739 grains/g) were low along with small
amounts of Poaceae (37 grains/g), low spine
Asteraceae (74 grains/g), and Artemisia (37
grains/g). A small amount (37 grains/g) of Zea mays
pollen was also present.
FS 105 was another soil sample from the pelvic
cavity of Burial 6 and contained 4,928 grains/g estimated pollen concentration values. Cheno-am
(3,100 grains/g) clearly dominated the assemblage
with high amounts of Pinus (1,510 grains/g). High
(159 grains/g) and low spine (79 grains/g)
Asteraceae were high along with Juniperus (79
grains/g). Four grains of Zea mays (57 grains/g)
were also encountered during the low magnification
scan of the slide.
DISCUSSION
The pollen wash samples were all taken from the
eastern portion of the site and dated to the later
occupation. The two pollen wash samples from
Burial 4 were quite similar in terms of the extremely low pollen concentration values. Both samples
produced little pollen. Platyopuntia and Onagraceae
pollen were present but both by only a single grain.
While it is known that both of these taxa are economic, Platyopuntia is a food source and
Onagraceae has been used medicinally, I cannot
infer specific uses of these plants based on only a
single occurrence. The presence of single grains
could just as likely have been accidental. Their presence in these assemblages (pollen washes) is suggestive of intentional use but the correlation is still
weak.
Ulmus pollen (again a single grain) was also
found in sample CLES 95134. Ulmus, while present
in the area today, is not known to have been present
in the state prehistorically. This is probably the
result of modern contamination from local elm
sources. Interestingly, Ulmus pollen was also recovered from a number of sites recently examined from
the Navajo Reservation north of Gallup. The occurrence of Ulmus also appeared to be correlated with
burial locales. This appears to be coincidence and is
likely due to the excavation strategies employed
with burials. These features are excavated more
slowly and are exposed for longer periods than are
other types of features. Thus, locally present elm
pollen has more time to accumulate on the samples,
contaminating them.
The juvenile burial contained evidence of Zea
mays pollen. While the pollen concentration values
were not excessive, it suggests that corn pollen may
have been utilized as part of a funerary rite. This is
not uncommon among the Pueblos today.
FS 105 was taken from the pelvic cavity region
of Burial 6. No pollen of obligate economic plants
was present. Cheno-am pollen clearly dominated
the assemblage. If this sample accurately represents
the suspected intestinal contents, then Cheno-ams
may have provided the basis of the diet. However,
this pollen assemblage is very similar to the general
pollen assemblages found in archaeologically sites
throughout the Southwest. It is equally likely that
this sample represents only the burial fill. The presence of four corn grains still clumped together does
argue for the interpretation of this assemblage as
part of the intestinal contents. In order to ascertain
whether this sample is associated with the diet, a
control sample taken from the fill in close proximity to the pelvic cavity would have been necessary.
While we cannot conclusively argue that the sample
reflects intestinal contents, comparison with the
283
flotation and macrobotanical data might provide
additional data concerning this problem.
CONCLUSIONS
Zea mays pollen was present in both soil samples
from Burials 3 and 6 and only from the earlier period. The presence of Zea mays pollen from Burial 3
may indicate ritual use. The assemblage from Burial
6 may reflect intestinal contents but this has not
been conclusively demonstrated.
The pollen wash samples, all from the later
occupation dating to A.D. 1100–1200, did provide
indications of economic type pollens present. Both
Platyopuntia and Onagraceae pollen were present.
However, little pollen was recovered from most of
the pollen washes.
REFERENCES CITED
Barkey, F. A.
1934 The Statistical Theory of Pollen Analysis.
Ecology 15:283–289.
Brookes, D., and K. W. Thomas
1967 The Distribution of Pollen Grains on
Microscope Slides. Part 1. The Non-randomness of the Distribution. Pollen et
Spores 9:621–629.
Bohrer, V. L.
1981 Methods of Recognizing Cultural Activity
from Pollen in Archaeological Sites. The
Kiva 46:135–142.
284
Bryant, V. M.
1969 Pollen Analysis of Late-Glacial and PostGlacial Texas Sediments. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Texas, Austin.
Bryant, V. M., and R. G. Holloway
1983 The Role of Palynology in archaeology. In
Advances in Archaeological Method and
Theory, vol.6., edited by M. Schiffer, pp.
191–224. Academic Press, New York.
Erdtman, G.
1960 The Acetolysis Method: A Revised
Description. Svensk. botanisk Tidskrift Bd.
54:561–564.
Hall, S. A.
1981 Deteriorated Pollen Grains and the
Interpretation of Quaternary Pollen
Diagrams. Review of Paleobotanv and
Palynology 32:193–206.
Holloway, R. G.
1981 Preservation and Experimental Diagenesis
of the Pollen Exine. Ph.D. dissertation,
Texas A & M University, College Station.
1989 Experimental Mechanical Pollen Degradation and its Application to Quaternary Age
Deposits. Texas Journal of Science 41:
131–145.
Martin, P.S.
1963 The Last 10,000 Years. University of
APPENDIX 4. TEXTILE ANALYSIS OF FS-33 (OAS)
Laurie Webster
Catalog No./Institution: FS-33/OAS (MNM)
Date of Analysis: 11/21/94
Analysis by: Laurie Webster. Tucson, AZ
Site Name/No.: LA 103919
Provenience: Found beneath skull of a juvenile
Culture/Period: Anasazi/PI-PII?
Object Type: Cotton cloth patterned with supplemental weft or embroidery
Date: ca. A.D. 900? (see comments below)
Basis for Dating: Burial associated with Red Mesa
and Kana'a neckbanded pottery.
Collection History: Excavated from child's burial
by Steve Lentz, Office of Archaeological Studies, in
1994. Site is located near Nambé, NM. Textile is
due to be repatriated to Pojoaque Pueblo.
Narrative Description: Folded fragment of 1/1 balanced plain weave white cotton cloth, patterned
with dark brown extra-weft floats (or possibly
embroidered).
Technology:
Weave Structure: 1/1 balanced plain weave
patterned with extra-weft floats.
Selvages: both selvages are missing (there
appears to be a selvage along one edge, but
this is a fold).
Comments: dark brown supplemental weft
yarns float over and under from 2 to 6 or more
warps at a time.
Fiber identified microscopically at 100x, 400x by
Laurie Webster and Glenna Dean
Dimensions: length 2.0, width 3.0 cm
Condition: unburned, unconsolidated, generally
well preserved but fragmentary.
Documentation, attributions, comments: The use of
2-ply, S-twist (2z-S) warp and weft cotton yarns in
this fabric is highly unusual, as Anasazi cotton fabrics are normally constructed with singleply z-spun
warp and weft elements. The only Southwestern
plain weave cotton fabrics with plied yarns mentioned by Kent (1983:128) are a few PIII-PIV fragments with two-ply warps from Tonto National
Monument and Te'ewi, and one undated fragment
with two-ply (2z-S) wefts from Antelope House
(see Magers 1986:226). (I have reexamined the
Te'ewi fragment, and would characterize the warp
as z, or possibly 2z-Z, but the final twist is definitely Z, not S.)
Although the ceramic evidence indicates an
A.D. 900 date, comparative textile data suggest a
later date for this fragment. No cotton textiles dating to the PI-PII period are known from the Rio
Grande Valley, so it is not possible to compare FS
33 with any local contemporaneous collections.
Kent (1983:28) believes that cotton was not cultivated to any degree by the Anasazi or Mogollon
prior to A.D. 1100, although some fiber was being
traded in from the Hohokam and possibly the Casas
Grandes regions during PI and PII times. Plain
weave cotton cloth dated to the PI and PII periods
has been recovered from the Tsegi region, Antelope
House, Tularosa Cave, and the Phoenix and
Flagstaff areas (Kent 1983:128). The earliest evidence for locally woven cotton fabrics in northern
New Mexico is probably from Chaco Canyon, from
contexts dating to late PII or early PIII periods
(Kent 1957:468).
Although extra-weft float patterning was commonly employed by pre-Columbian Mesoamerican
weavers, examples of this technique are not known
Function
Fiber
Color Source
Color
Type Make-up Count
Ave. Dia.
Warp
Cotton
Natural
White
HS
2z-S
12/cm 30/in 0.35 mm
140?
Weft
Cotton
Natural
White
HS
2z-S
12/cm 30/in 0.35 mm
140?
Supplemental
Weft
Cotton
Natural or dyed? Dark brown HS
2z-S
Appendix 4. Textile Analysis
Angle
285
from sites in the American Southwest until late PIII
times, and Kent (1983:178) states that it did not
become part of the Anasazi repertoire until late in
the PIV period. A few extra-weft float (or "brocade") fabrics are known from Chihuahua, Mexico,
the majority of which are constructed from bast or
leaf fiber, rather than cotton (King 1974:109–113;
Mera 1943:4, Pls. I and II; O'Neale 1948; Sayles
1936:76, Plate 28). Most of these Chihuahua fragments are undated (O'Neale 1948; Sayles 1936),
although Kent (1957:659, 1983:178) suggests a date
of A.D. 1300–1500 for the brocaded fabrics
described by Mera, and King (1974:109) attributes
the Casas Grandes brocades to the Medio period
(PIII–PIV). FS 33 seems to share certain affinities
with these northern Chihuahua fabrics and with the
few cotton extra-weft patterned plain weaves from
late PIII–PIV sites (Tonto, Verde Valley, Canyon
Creek) in central Arizona (Kent 1983:175–178).
King (1974:109–113) describes six examples of
Medio period "brocades" (extra-weft patterned fabrics) from Casas Grandes, one consisting of a cotton
ground, the remainder composed of noncotton vegetal (yucca or agave?) fiber, each decorated with
noncotton vegetal supplemental yarns. In the Casas
Grandes fragments, the cotton warps and wefts are
single-ply z-spun, whereas the noncotton warps and
wefts are 2z-S. O'Neale (1948) discusses four brocaded fabrics from a cave in the Sierra Madre,
which she describes as predominantly warp-faced,
woven from 2z-S apocynum warps and wefts.
Sayles (1936, Pl. 28) illustrates another example
from a cave near the Rio Chico in the Sierra Madre;
although he describes the fabric as woven from
apocynum yarns and embroidered, O'Neale (1948)
argues that it is probably warp-faced and brocaded.
I have examined this fabric (now at the Arizona
State Museum) and concur with her assessment.
Both warp and weft are noncotton vegetal fiber
yarns with a final S-twist (either s or 2z-S) structure.
(Nonbrocaded plain weave cotton fabrics in the
same Chihuahua collection have single-ply z-spun
warps and wefts.)
It is not clear from Kent's (1983:177–178)
descriptions whether the ground fabrics in the
Arizona examples are made from single or plied
yarns, but I have examined fragments of the two
extra-weft float weaves from northern Chihuahua
illustrated by Mera (1943:4, Pls. I and II), now in
286
the collections of the Laboratory of Anthropology,
and both are woven with 2z-S warps and wefts, similar to FS 33. (9452/11 is woven with white cotton
warps and wefts, and the supplemental weft is blue
2z-S cotton, presumably indigo-dyed; yarn counts
are similar to FS 33, with 25–30 warps and 20–30
wefts per inch. 10/2196 is woven with vegetal fiber
[apocynum? milkweed?] warp and both vegetal and
cotton fiber wefts, with blue cotton 2z-S supplemental weft; yarns counts are 30–35 warps and 15–20
wefts per inch.) These are the only Chihuahua examples I know of made from cotton warp and weft
yarns having a final S-twist. It is not possible to
make any meaningful comparisons between the
designs on FS 33 and the Chihuahua specimens
because so little of the FS 33 design is extant, but
structurally these fabrics are quite similar.
From the evidence at hand, it is not possible to
rule out the possibility that FS 33 was patterned with
running-stitch embroidery rather than extra-weft
floats. As Kent (1957:511) notes, the distinction
between these techniques lies in their methods of
manufacture, not in their finished appearance, the
difference being that extra-weft patterning is a
weave technique (executed while the cloth is still on
the loom), whereas embroidery is normally added
after the cloth is removed from the loom. In extraweft patterning, the decorative yarns always lie parallel to the wefts and never split the warp or weft elements; as long as the embroidery yarns meet these
criteria, the techniques are indistinguishable in the
finished piece. It is sometimes possible to distinguish between the two techniques by looking at the
methods of adding in the decorative yarns or incorporating them into the selvage, but neither feature is
present in FS 33, so this question remains unanswered. Even if FS 33 is embroidered, this does not
bring us any closer to resolving the date of the specimen, since embroidery does not appear at Western
Pueblo sites until PIII times, and in the Rio Grande
region until possibly late PIV (Kent 1983:190).
Finally, an additional remote possibility for FS
33 should be considered. As the number of Pueblo
weavers and supply of cotton declined in the late
nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, commercial cotton cloth was increasingly substituted for
handwoven fabrics in Pueblo ceremonial textiles.
One commercial fabric commonly employed for
this purpose was cotton sacking, which was fash-
ioned into articles such as kilts and breechcloths
and embroidered in the traditional manner.
Commercial cotton sacking is typically woven
from 2z-S cotton warps and wefts, similar to FS
33 (see, for instance, kilt 9073/12, in the collections of the Laboratory of Anthropology, for an
example of this use). All Pueblo embroidery
worked on cotton sacking that I have examined
makes use of woolen embroidery yarns, not cotton
ones, and this would argue against FS 33 as an
example of embroidery on cotton sacking, but the
possibility cannot be ruled out on technical
grounds alone.
In conclusion, a date of A.D. 900 for FS 33
seems suspect based on existing knowledge of
Pueblo embroidery and extra-weft float patterning. If this early date was supported by direct 14C
dating or other means, then the most reasonable
interpretation would be that this fabric had been
traded into the Rio Grande area, most likely from
Chihuahua, Mexico. (Of course, since virtually
nothing is known about weaving in the Rio Grande
during this period, local manufacture cannot be
ruled out.) To my knowledge, this would represent
both the earliest example of cotton cloth recovered
from a Rio Grande site, and the earliest example of
extra-weft float patterned plain weave in the
American Southwest. It seems more likely that FS
33 dates to the PIII or PIV period, and was either
locally made or (more probably) traded in from
northern Chihuahua or south-central Arizona/New
Mexico. Finally, there remains the remote chance
that this may represent the remains of historic
Pueblo embroidery on commercial cotton sacking.
Because FS 33 is such a unique example, poses
such intriguing interpretive possibilities, and is
slated for repatriation, I would urge that this fabric
be direct dated by the 14C accelerator method to
help resolve some of these questions.
REFERENCES CITED
Kent, Kate Peck
1983 Prehistoric Textiles of the Southwest.
School of American Research, Santa Fe.
1957 The Cultivation and Weaving of Cotton in
the Prehistoric Southwestern United
States. Transactions of the American
Philosophical Society 47(3):457–732.
Philadelphia.
King, Mary Elizabeth
1974 Textiles and Basketry, in Chapter 6, Medio
Period Perishable Artifacts. In Casas
Grandes: A Fallen Trading Center of the
Gran Chichimeca, vol. 8, by Charles C. Di
Peso, John B. Rinaldo, and Gloria J.
Fenner, pp. 76–113 Amerind Foundation,
Inc., Northland Press, Flagstaff.
Magers, Pamela C.
1986 Weaving at Antelope House. In Archeological
Investigations at Antelope House, Don P.
Morris, Senior Author, pp. 224–276. National
Park Service, Washington, D.C.
Mera, H. P.
1943 Pueblo Indian Embroidery. Memoirs of the
Laboratory of Anthropology, vol 4. Santa Fe.
O'Neale, Lila
1948 Textiles of Pre-Columbian Chihuahua.
Carnegie Institution of Washington
Publication 574. Washington, D.C.
Sayles, E. B.
1936 An Archaeological Survey of Chihuahua,
Mexico. Medallion Papers 22. Gila Pueblo,
Globe.
Photographic Record: Webster Slide Nos. 1212–1220.
287
288
APPENDIX 5. RADIOCARBON REPORT FOR TEXTILE
Appendix 5. Radiocarbon Report
289

nambe pt 1.qxp - New Mexico Office of Archaeological Studies

Transcription

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