2) Indian Buddhism - Kagyü Pende Gyamtso

 Buddhism From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Buddha Sakyamuni In the stupa of Bodh Gaya Contents: 1) Doctrines 1_The Four Noble Truths 2_The Noble Eightfold Path 3_Bodhi 4_Karma 5_Middle Way 6_Refuge in the Three Jewels 7_Śīla (Virtuous Behaviour) 8_ Samadhi/Bhāvana (Meditative Cultivation) 9_ Prajñā (Wisdom) 10_Buddhism Symbols 2) Indian Buddhism 1_Early Buddhism 2_Rise of Mahayana Buddhism 3_Emergence of the Vajrayāna 4_Decline of Buddhism in India and Central Asia ∙ 3) Main Traditions 1_Southern Buddhism (Theravāda) 2_Eastern (East Asian) Buddhism 3_Northern (Tibetan) Buddhism 4_Intellectualism and Buddhist worldview 4) Buddhist texts 5) Present state of Buddhism 1
Buddhism is a dharmic, non‐theistic religion, a philosophy, and a system of psychology. Buddhism is also known in Sanskrit or Pali, the main ancient languages of Buddhists, as Buddha Dharma or Dhamma, which means the teachings of ʺthe Awakened Oneʺ. Thus was called Siddhartha Gautama, hereinafter referred to as ʺthe Buddhaʺ. Early sources say that the Buddha was born in Lumbini (now in Nepal), and that he died aged around 80 in Kushinagar (India). He lived in or around the fifth century BCE, according to recent scholarship. Buddhism spread throughout the Indian subcontinent in the five centuries following the Buddhaʹs passing, and thence into Central, Southeast and East Asia and Eastern Europe over the next two millennia. Eventually, Indian Buddhism became virtually extinct, except in parts of Nepal. Most scholars classify present‐day Buddhism into the same three traditions, though describing or naming them differently. _Southern Buddhism, or Theravada (its own usual name for itself), or Southeast Asian Buddhism, or Pali Buddhism ‐ practiced mainly in Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and parts of Malaysia, Vietnam, China and Bangladesh (Southeast Asia) _Eastern Buddhism, or East Asian Buddhism, or Chinese Buddhism, or Sino‐
Japanese Buddhism, or Mahayana ‐ practiced predominantly in China, Vietnam, Korea, Japan, Singapore and parts of Russia _Northern Buddhism, or Tibetan Buddhism, or Tibeto‐Mongolian Buddhism, or Vajrayana, sometimes called Lamaism ‐ practiced mainly in Tibet, Mongolia, Bhutan and parts of Nepal, India, China and Russia. Eastern and Northern Buddhism both call themselves Mahayana. The term Hinayana, referring to Theravada and various extinct Indian schools, is sometimes used, but is often considered derogatory, and the World Federation of Buddhists recommends it be avoided. Buddhism continues to attract followers worldwide and is considered a major world religion. According to one source, ʺWorld estimates for Buddhists vary between 230 and 500 million, with most around 350 million.ʺ However, estimates are uncertain for several countries. According to one analysis, Buddhism is the fifth‐largest religion in the world behind Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, and traditional Chinese religion. The monksʹ order (Sangha), which began during the lifetime of the Buddha in India, is amongst the oldest organizations on earth. In Buddhism, any person who has awakened from the ʺsleep of ignoranceʺ by directly realizing the true nature of reality is called a buddha. Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha, is thus only one among other buddhas before or after him. His teachings are oriented toward the attainment of this kind of awakening, also called enlightenment, Bodhi, liberation, or Nirvana. Part of the Buddha’s teachings regarding the holy life and the goal of liberation is constituted by the ʺThe Four Noble Truthsʺ, which focus on dukkha, a term that refers to suffering or the sorrow of life. The Four Noble Truths regarding suffering state what is its nature, its cause, its cessation, and the way leading to its cessation. This way to the cessation of suffering is called ʺThe Noble Eightfold Pathʺ, which is one of the fundamentals of Buddhist virtuous or moral life. 2
1) Doctrines Gautama Buddha, Gandhara, northern Pakistan. Numerous distinct groups have developed since the passing of the Buddha, with diverse teachings that vary widely in practice, philosophical emphasis, and culture. However, there are certain doctrines which are common to the majority of schools and traditions in Buddhism, though the Mahayana tends not to regard them as central. 1_The Four Noble Truths According to the scriptures, the Buddha taught that in life there exists sorrow / suffering which is caused by desire and it can be cured (ceased) by following the Noble Eightfold Path (Sanskrit: Ārya Mārga, Pāli: Ariyo Maggo). This teaching is called the Catvāry Āryasatyāni (Pali: Cattāri Ariyasaccāni), the ʺFour Noble Truthsʺ. 1° Suffering: Birth is suffering, aging is suffering, illness is suffering, death is suffering; union with what is displeasing is suffering; separation from what is pleasing is suffering; not to get what one wants is suffering; in brief, the five aggregates subject to clinging are suffering. 2° The cause of suffering: The desire which leads to renewed existence (rebirth) (the cycle of samsara) 3° The cessation of suffering: The cessation of desire. 4° The way leading to the cessation of suffering: The Noble Eightfold Path; According to the scriptures, the Four Noble Truths were the topic of the first sermon given by the Buddha after his enlightenment[4], which was given to the five ascetics with whom he had practiced austerities, and were originally spoken by the Buddha, not in the form of a religious or philosophical text, but in the form of a common medical prescription of the time. 3
2_The Noble Eightfold Path The eight‐spoked Dharmachakra. The eight spokes represent the Noble Eightfold Path of Buddhism. According to a saying attributed in some traditions to the Buddha, if a person does not follow the goal of Total Realization, one lives oneʹs life like a preoccupied child playing with toys in a house that is burning to the ground. The Noble Eightfold Path is the way to the cessation of suffering, the fourth part of the Four Noble Truths. This is divided into three sections: Sila (which concerns the physical bodily actions), Samadhi (which concerns the ʹConsciousʹ mind) and Panna (which concerns the ʹUnconsciousʹ mind). Sila is morality—abstaining from unwholesome deeds of body and speech. Within the division of sila are three parts of the Noble Eightfold Path: 1° Right Speech ‐ One speaks in a non hurtful, not exaggerated, truthful way 2° Right Actions ‐ Wholesome action, avoiding action that would do harm 3° Right Livelihood ‐ Oneʹs way of livelihood does not harm in any way oneself or others; directly or indirectly Samadhi is developing mastery over one’s own mind. Within this division are another three parts of the Noble Eightfold Path: 4°Right Effort/Exercise ‐ One makes an effort to improve (samyag‐vyāyāma, sammā‐vāyāma) 5° Right Mindfulness/Awareness ‐ Mental ability to see things for what they are with clear consciousness 6° Right Concentration ‐ Being aware of the present reality within oneself, without any craving or aversion. Panna is the wisdom which purifies the mind. Within this division fall two more parts of the Noble Eightfold Path: 7° Right Thoughts ‐ Change in the pattern of thinking 8° Right Understanding ‐ Understanding reality as it is, not just as it appears to be. 4
The word samyak means ʺperfectʺ. There are a number of ways to interpret the Eightfold Path. On one hand, the Eightfold Path is spoken of as being a progressive series of stages through which the practitioner moves, the culmination of one leading to the beginning of another, whereas others see the states of the ʹPathʹ as requiring simultaneous development. It is also common to categorize the Eightfold Path into prajñā (Pāli paññā, wisdom), śīla (Pāli sīla, virtuous behaviour) and samādhi (concentration). 3_Bodhi Bodhi (lit. awakening) is a title given in Buddhism to the specific awakening experience attained by the Buddha. When used in a generic sense, a buddha is generally considered to be a person who discovers the true nature of reality through lifetimes of spiritual cultivation, investigation of the various religious practices of his time, and meditation. This transformational discovery is called Bodhi (literally, ʺawakeningʺ — more commonly called ʺenlightenmentʺ). In Japanese Buddhism (Zen) this experience is called Satori. After attainment of Bodhi, it is believed one is freed from the cycle of sa sāra: birth, suffering, death and rebirth. Bodhi is attained only by the accomplishment of the pāramitās (perfections), when the Four Noble Truths are fully grasped, and when all karma has reached cessation. At this moment, all greed (lobha), hatred (Pali dosa), delusion (moha), ignorance (Sanskrit avidyā, Pāli avijjā), craving Pāli tanhā) and belief in that which is not the self (anātmān, Pāli anāttā) are extinguished. Bodhi thus implies understanding of anātman (Pāli anatta), the absence of ego‐centeredness. All schools of Buddhism recognise three types of Bodhi. They are Śrāvakabodhi (Pāli: Sāvakabodhi), Pratyekabodhi (Pāli: Paccekabodhi) and Samyaksambodhi (Pāli: Sammāsambodhi), the perfect enlightenment by which a Bodhisattva becomes a fully enlightened Buddha. The aspiration to attain the state of samyaksambodhi, known as the Bodhisattva ideal, is considered as the highest ideal of Buddhism. 4_Karma In a discourse (A.N. VI.63 Nibbedhika Sutta) the Buddha is reported to have said: “Intention, monks, is karma I say. Having willed, one acts through body, speech and mind”. According to the teachings attributed to the Buddha the moral order rests on each individual and not on any divine being: ʺOwners of their own Karma, O young man, are living beings heirs of their Karma, have karma as the wombs from which they spring, having Karma as their refuge. Karma marks of living being, making them become depraved and excellent.ʺ (Culakamma vibhanga sutta.) In Buddhism, Karma has a specific meaning quite different from other teachings. Karma means action derived from mental intent or volition and its result (Vipaka) or its effect upon the doer of that volitional deed (be that deed one of thought, word, or physical action). 5
5_ Middle Way The primary guiding principle of Buddhist practice is the Middle Way which was discovered by the Buddha prior to his enlightenment (bodhi). The Middle Way or Middle Path is often described as the practice of non‐extremism; a path of moderation away from the extremes of self‐indulgence and opposing self‐mortification. 6_ Refuge in the Three Jewels Footprint of the Buddha with Dharmachakra and triratna, 1st century CE, Gandhāra. Acknowledging the Four Noble Truths and making the first step in the Noble Eightfold Path requires taking refuge, as the foundation of oneʹs religious practice, in Buddhismʹs Three Jewels (Sanskrit: Triratna or Ratna‐traya, Pali: Tiratana). Tibetan Buddhism sometimes adds a fourth refuge, in the lama. The person who chooses the bodhisattva path makes a vow/pledge. This is considered the ultimate expression of compassion. The Three Jewels are: 1° The Buddha (i.e., Awakened One). This is a title for those who attained Awakening similar to the Buddha and helped others to attain it. See also the Tathāgata and Śākyamuni Buddha. The Buddha could also be represented as the wisdom that understands Dharma, and in this regard the Buddha represents the perfect wisdom that sees reality in its true form. Other Mahayana visions of the Buddha see him as the Great Self (mahatman), who alone possesses genuine immortality and eternity. 2° The Dharma: The teachings or law as expounded by the Buddha. Dharma also means the law of nature based on behavior of a person and its consequences to be experienced (action and reaction). It can also (especially in the Mahayana) connote the ultimate and sustaining Reality which is inseverable from the Buddha. 3° The Sangha: This term literally means ʺgroupʺ or ʺcongregation,ʺ but when it is used in Buddhist teaching the word refers to one of two very specific kinds of groups: either the community of Buddhist monastics (bhikkhus and bhikkhunis), or the 6
community of people who have attained at least the first stage of Awakening (Sotapanna (pali) ‐ one who has entered the stream to enlightenment). According to some modern Buddhists, it also consists of laymen and laywomen, the caretakers of the monks, those who have accepted parts of the monastic code but who have not been ordained as monks or nuns. According to the scriptures, The Buddha presented himself as a model and besought his followers to have faith (Sanskrit śraddhā, Pāli saddhā) in his example of a human who escaped the pain and danger of existence. In some Mahayana sutras, the Buddha (no longer viewed as human, but as the ʺgod of godsʺ) urges faith in his eternity and indestructibility as the Dharmakaya. The Dharma, i.e. the teaching of the Buddha, offers a refuge by providing guidelines for the alleviation of suffering and the attainment of enlightenment. The Samgha (Buddhist Order of monks) provides a refuge by preserving the authentic teachings of the Buddha and providing further examples that the truth of the Buddhaʹs teachings is attainable. In certain Mahayana sutras, the Buddha, Dharma and Sangha are viewed essentially as One: all three are seen as the eternal Buddha himself. Many Buddhists believe that there is no otherworldly salvation from oneʹs karma. The suffering caused by the karmic effects of previous thoughts, words and deeds can be alleviated by following the Noble Eightfold Path, although the Buddha of some Mahayana sutras, such as the Lotus Sutra, the Angulimaliya Sutra and the Nirvana Sutra, also teaches that powerful sutras such as the above‐named can, through the very act of their being heard or recited, wipe out great swathes of negative karma. 7_ Śīla (Virtuous Behaviour) Śīla (Sanskrit) or sīla (Pāli) is usually rendered into English as ʺbehavioral disciplineʺ, ʺmoralityʺ, or ethics. It is often translated as ʺpreceptʺ. It is an action that is an intentional effort. It is one of the three practices (sila ‐ samadhi ‐ panya) and the second pāramitā. It refers to moral purity of thought, word, and deed. The four conditions of śīla are chastity, calmness, quiet, and extinguishment, i.e. no longer being susceptible to perturbation by the passions. Sīla refers to overall (principles of) ethical behaviour. There are several levels of sila, which correspond to ʹbasic moralityʹ (five precepts), ʹbasic morality with asceticismʹ (eight precepts), ʹnovice monkhoodʹ (ten precepts) and ʹmonkhoodʹ (Vinaya or Patimokkha). Lay people generally undertake to live by the five precepts which are common to all Buddhist schools. If they wish, they can choose to undertake the eight precepts, which have some additional precepts of basic asceticism. The five precepts are not given in the form of commands such as ʺthou shalt not, but are training rules in order to live a better life in which one is happy, without worries, and can meditate well. 1. To refrain from taking life. (i.e. non‐violence towards sentient life forms) 2. To refrain from taking that which is not given (i.e. not committing theft). 3. To refrain from sensual misconduct (abstinence from immoral sexual behaviour). 4. To refrain from lying. (i.e. speaking truth always) 7
5. To refrain from intoxicants which lead to loss of mindfulness (refrain from using drugs or alcohol.) In the eight precepts, the third precept on sexual misconduct is made more strict, and becomes a precept of celibacy. The three additional rules of the eight precepts are: 6. To refrain from eating at the wrong time (only eat from sunrise to noon). 7. To refrain from dancing, using jewellery, going to shows, etc. 8. To refrain from using a high, luxurious bed. Vinaya is the specific moral code for monks. In includes the Patimokkha, a set of 227 rules in the Theravadin recension. The precise content of the vinayapitaka (scriptures on Vinaya) differ slightly according to different schools, and different schools or subschools set different standards for the degree of adherence to Vinaya. Novice‐monks use the ten precepts, which are the basic precepts for monastics. In Eastern Buddhism, there is also a distinctive Vinaya and ethics contained within the Mahayana Brahmajala Sutra (not to be confused with the Pali text of that name) for Bodhisattvas, where, for example, the eating of meat is frowned upon and vegetarianism is actively encouraged. 8_ Samadhi/Bhāvana (Meditative Cultivation) In the language of the Noble Eightfold Path, samyaksamādhi is ʺright concentrationʺ. The primary means of cultivating samādhi is meditation. Almost all Buddhist schools agree that the Buddha taught two types of meditation, viz. samatha meditation (Sanskrit: śamatha) and vipassanā meditation (Sanskrit: vipaśyanā). Upon development of samādhi, oneʹs mind becomes purified of defilement, calm, tranquil, and luminous. Once the meditator achieves a strong and powerful concentration (jhāna, Sanskrit dhyāna), his mind is ready to penetrate and gain insight (vipassanā) into the ultimate nature of reality, eventually obtaining release from all suffering. The cultivation of mindfulness is essential to mental concentration, which is needed to achieve insight. Samatha Meditation starts from being mindful of an object or idea, which is expanded to oneʹs body, mind and entire surroundings, leading to a state of total concentration and tranquillity (jhāna) There are many variations in the style of meditation, from sitting cross‐legged or kneeling to chanting or walking. The most common method of meditation is to concentrate on oneʹs breath, because this practice can lead to both samatha and vipassana. In Buddhist practice, it is said that while samatha meditation can calm the mind, only vipassanā meditation can reveal how the mind was disturbed to start with, which is what leads to jñāna (Pāli knowledge), prajñā (Pāli paññā pure understanding) and thus can lead to nirvāna (Pāli nibbāna). 8
9_Prajñā (Wisdom) Prajñā (Sanskrit) or paññā (Pāli) means wisdom that is based on a realization of dependent origination, The Four Noble Truths and Noble Eightfold Path. Prajñā is the wisdom that is able to extinguish afflictions and bring about bodhi. It is spoken of as the principal means, by its enlightenment, of attaining nirvāna, through its revelation of the true nature of all things. Prajñā is also listed as the sixth of the six pāramitās. Initially, prajñā is attained at a conceptual level by means of listening to sermons (dharma talks), reading and sometimes reciting Buddhist texts and engaging in discourse. The Buddha taught dharma to his disciples mainly through the mean of discourse or sermon,[citation needed] many attaining bodhi upon hearing the Buddhaʹs discourse. Once the conceptual understanding is attained, it is applied to daily life so that each Buddhist can verify the truth of the Buddhaʹs teaching at a practical level. Lastly, one engages in insight (vipassanā, Sanskrit vipaśyanā) meditation (Citation needed) to attain such wisdom at intuitive level. It should be noted that one could theoretically attain bodhi at any point of practice, while listening to a sermon, while conducting business of daily life or while in meditation. 10_ Buddhism Symbols The eight auspicious symbols of Buddhism are: _the Parasol (Umbrella) _the Golden Fish _the Treasure Vase _the Lotus _the Conch Shell _the Endless Knot _the Victory Banner _the Dharma weel 2) Indian Buddhism According to the scriptures, soon after the parinirvāna (Pāli: parinibbāna, ʺcomplete extinguishmentʺ) of the Buddha, the first Buddhist council was held. As with any ancient Indian tradition, transmission of teaching was done orally. The primary purpose of the assembly was to collectively recite the teaching to ensure that no errors occur in oral transmission. In the first council, Ānanda, the Buddhaʹs personal attendant was called upon to recite the discourses (sūtras, Pāli suttas) of the Buddha, and, according to some sources, the abhidhamma. Upāli, another disciple, recited the monastic rules (Vinaya). 1_ Early Buddhism As the Sangha gradually grew over the next century a dispute arose regarding ten points of discipline. A Second Buddhist Council (said in the scriptures to have taken place 100 years after the Buddhaʹs death) was held to resolve the points at dispute. The result was that all the monks agreed that those 10 practices were unallowed according to Vinaya. 9
At some period after the Second Council however, the Sangha began to break into separate factions. The various accounts differ as to when the actual schisms occurred: according to the Dipavamsa of the Pali tradition, they started immediately after the Second Council; the Puggalavada tradition places it in 137 AN; the Sarvastivada tradition of Vasumitra says it was in the time of Asoka; and the Mahasanghika tradition places it much later, nearly 100 BCE. The Asokan edicts, our only contemporary sources, state that ʹthe Sangha has been made unifiedʹ. This apparently refers to a dispute such as that described in the account of the Third Buddhist Council at Pataliputta. This concerns the expulsion of non‐Buddhist heretics from the Sangha, and does not speak of a schism. These schisms occurred within the traditions of Early Buddhism, at a time when the Mahāyāna movement either did not exist at all, or only existed as a current of thought not yet identified with a separate school. The root schism was between the Sthaviras and the Mahāsānghikas. The fortunate survival of accounts from both sides of the dispute reveals disparate traditions. The Sthavira group offers two quite distinct reasons for the schism. The Dipavamsa of the Theravāda says that the losing party in the Second Council dispute broke away in protest and formed the Mahasanghika. This contradicts the Mahasanghikasʹ own vinaya, which shows them as on the same, winning side. On the other hand, the northern lineages, including the Sarvastivada and Puggalavada (both branches of the ancient Sthaviras) attribute the Mahāsānghika schism to the ʹ5 pointsʹ that erode the status of the arahant. For their part, the Mahāsānghikas argued that the Sthaviras were trying to expand the Vinaya; they may also have challenged what they perceived to be excessive claims or inhumanly high criteria for Arhatship. Both parties, therefore, appealed to tradition. The Sthaviras gave rise to several schools, one of which was the Theravāda school. Following (or leading up to) the schisms, each Sangha started to accumulate an Abhidharma, a collection of philosophical texts. Early sources for these probably existed in the time of the Buddha as simple lists. However, as time went on and Buddhism spread further, the (perceived) teachings of the Buddha were formalized in a more systematic manner in a new Pitaka: the Abhidhamma Pitaka. Some modern academics refer to it as Abhidhamma Buddhism. Interestingly, in the opinion of some scholars, the Mahasanghika school did not have an Abhidhamma Pitaka, which agrees with their statement that they did not want to add to the Buddhaʹs teachings. But according to Chinese pilgrims Fa Xian (5th century CE) and Yuan Chwang (7th century CE), they had procured a copy of Abhidhamma which belonged to the Mahasanghika School. 10
Buddhist proselytism at the time of emperor Aśoka the Great (260–218 BCE). Buddhism may have spread only slowly in India until the time of the Mauryan emperor Aśoka the Great, who was a public supporter of the religion. The support of Aśoka and his descendants led to the construction of more Buddhist religious memorials (stūpas) and to efforts to spread Buddhism throughout the enlarged Maurya empire and even into neighboring lands – particularly to the Iranian‐speaking regions of Afghanistan and Central Asia, beyond the Mauryasʹ northwest border, and to the island of Sri Lanka south of India. These two missions, in opposite directions, would ultimately lead, in the first case to the spread of Buddhism into China, and in the second case, to the emergence of Theravāda Buddhism and its spread from Sri Lanka to the coastal lands of Southeast Asia. This period marks the first known spread of Buddhism beyond India. According to the edicts of Aśoka, emissaries were sent to various countries west of India in order to spread ʺDhammaʺ, particularly in eastern provinces of the neighboring Seleucid Empire, and even farther to Hellenistic kingdoms of the Mediterranean. This led, a century later, to the emergence of Greek‐speaking Buddhist monarchs in the Indo‐Greek Kingdom, and to the development of the Greco‐Buddhist art of Gandhāra. During this period Buddhism was exposed to a variety of influences, from Persian and Greek civilization, and from changing trends in non‐Buddhist Indian religions – themselves influenced by Buddhism. 2_ Rise of Mahayana Buddhism
Chinese Buddhism is of the Mahayana tradition, with popular schools today being Pure Land and Zen. The precise geographical origins of Mahayana are unknown. It is likely that various elements of Mahayana developed independently from the 1st century BCE onwards, initially within several small individual communities, in areas to the north‐
west within the Kushan Empire (within present‐day northern Pakistan), and in areas within the Shatavahana Empire, including Amaravati to the south‐east (in present‐day Andhra Pradesh), to the west around the port of Bharukaccha (present‐day Bharuch, a town near Bombay), and around the various cave complexes, such as Ajanta and Karli (in present‐day Gujarat and Maharashtra). The late Professor Hirakawa argued that Mahayana was a movement of lay Buddhists focused around stupa devotion. Pictures within the wall of a stupa representing the story of the Buddha and his previous reincarnation as a bodisattva were used to preach Buddhism to the masses. This theory is still widely held among 11
Japanese scholars, but most western scholars now reject it.[7] The Sangha, at the same time, became increasingly fragmented both in terms of Abhidharma and Vinaya practice. This led to a widening distance between the laity and Sangha. The Mahayana movement, on the other hand, was ecumenical, reflecting a wide range of influence from various sects. Monks representing different philosophical orientations could live in the same Sangha as long as they practiced the same Vinaya. Still, in terms of Abhidharma, the Sarvastivada school (which had been rejected by the 3rd council, according to the Theravada tradition) and the Dharmaguptaka school, both of which were widespread in the Kushan Empire, seem to have had major influence. Moreover, those who believe that Mahayana sutras were composed during this period speculate that the process of reshuffling of sutras according to various Abhidharma eventually led to editing which made the composition of new Mahayana sutras possible. Expansion of Mahayana Buddhism between the 1st – 10th century CE. Around 100 CE, the Kushan emperor Kanishka is said to have convened what many western scholars call the fourth Buddhist council and is usually associated with the formal rise of Mahayana Buddhism. This council is not recognised by Theravada line of Buddhism. according to Mahayana sources, this council did not simply rely on the original Tripitaka in the third council. Instead, a set of new scriptures, mostly notably, the Lotus Sutra, an early version of the Heart Sutra and the Amitabha Sutra were approved, as well as fundamental principles of doctrine based around the concept of salvation for all beings (hence Mahāyāna ʺgreat vehicleʺ) and the concept of Buddhas and bodhisattvas who embody the indwelling yet transcendent Buddha‐nature who strive to achieve such a goal. However, most western scholars believe this council was purely Sarvastivada, while the late Monseigneur Professor Lamotte considered it entirely fictitious. The new scriptures were first written in Sanskrit. From that point on, and in the space of a few centuries, Mahayana would flourish and spread from India to Southeast Asia, and towards the north to Central Asia and then east to China where Mahayana was Sinicized and this Sinicized Mahayana would be passed on to Korea, Vietnam and finally to Japan in 538 CE. The East Asians would go on to write more indigenous sutras and commentaries to the Mahayana Canon. The most complete Mahayana Canon today is in the Chinese language. 12
The Wheel of Life from the country Bhutan. The Wheel of Life is used predominantly today in the Vajrayana tradition of Buddhism. 3_ Emergence of the Vajrayāna Mahāyāna Buddhism received significant theoretical grounding from Nāgārjuna (perhaps c.150 ‐ 250 CE), arguably the most influential scholar within the Mahāyāna tradition. Writings attributed to him made explicit references to Mahāyāna texts, but his philosophy was argued within the parameters set out by the Tripitaka sūtras. Completely repudiating the then‐and‐there‐dominant Sarvāstivāda school, which argued for the existence of dharmas (factors of existence) in past, present, and future, Nāgārjuna asserted that the nature of the dharmas (hence the enlightenment) to be śūnya (void or empty), bringing together other key Buddhist doctrines, particularly anātman (no‐self) and pratītyasamutpāda (dependent origination). His school of thought is known as the Madhyamaka. After the end of the Kusānas, Buddhism flourished in India during the dynasty of the Guptas (4th – 6th century). Mahāyāna centres of learning were established, the most important one being the Nālandā University in north‐eastern India. Sarvāstivāda teaching, which was criticized by Nāgārjuna, was reformulated by scholars such as Vasubandhu and Asanga and were incorporated into the Yogācāra (Sanskrit: yoga practice) school. While the Madhyamaka school asserted that there is no ultimately real thing, the Yogācāra school asserts that only the mind is ultimately existent. These two schools of thought, in opposition or synthesis, form the basis of subsequent Mahāyāna theology in the Indo‐Tibetan tradition. There are differing views as to just when Vajrayāna and its tantric practice started. In the Tibetan tradition, it is claimed that the historical Śākyamuni Buddha taught tantra, but as these are esoteric teachings, they were written down long after the Buddhaʹs other teachings. The earliest texts appeared around the early 4th century. Nālandā University became a center for the development of Vajrayāna theory and 13
continued as the source of leading‐edge Vajrayāna practices up through the 11th century. These practices, scriptures and theory were transmitted to China, Tibet, Indochina and Southeast Asia. China generally received Indian transmission up to the 11th century including tantric practice, while a vast amount of what is considered to be Tibetan Buddhism (Vajrayāna) stems from the late (9th‐12th century) Nālandā tradition. 4_ Decline of Buddhism in India and Central Asia Buddhism was established in the northern regions of India and Central Asia, and kingdoms with Buddhist rulers such as Menander I and Kaniska. Under the rule of tolerant or even sympathetic Greco‐Bactrian and Iranian Achaemenid kings, Buddhism flourished. The rulers of the Kushāna Empire adopted Buddhism, and it continued to thrive in the region under the rule of the Turk‐Shāhīs. Buddhists were briefly persecuted under the Zoroastrian priest‐king Kirder. Syncretism between Zoroastrianism and Buddhism had resulted in the rise of a ʹBuddha‐Mazdaʹ divinity, which Kirder treated as heresy. The Hinayana traditions first spread among the Turkic tribes before combining with the Mahayana forms during the 2nd and 3rd centuries BCE to cover modern‐day Pakistan, Kashmir, Afghanistan, eastern and coastal Iran, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan and Tajikistan. These were the ancient states of Gandhara, Bactria, Parthia and Sogdia from where it spread to China. Among the first of these Turkic tribes to adopt Buddhism was the Turki‐Shahi who adopted Buddhism as early as the 3rd century BCE. It was not, however, the exclusive faith of this region. There were also Zoroastrians, Hindus, Nestorian Christians, Jews, Manichaeans, and followers of shamanism, Tengrism, and other indigenous, nonorganized systems of belief. From the 4th Century CE on, Hindu dynasties had achieved preeminence elsewhere in India. Even in regions of Buddhist predominance, such as the northwest (Pañjāb) and the lower Gangetic plain (Uttar Pradesh and Bengal), the Indian caste system was found. In political contests between Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms, Buddhist rulers were gradually replaced by Hindu ones. By the 4th to 5th century Buddhism was already in decline in northern India, even though it was achieving multiple successes in Central Asia and along the Silk Road as far as China. The Buddhist states of Central Asia were weakened in the 6th century following the invasion of the White Huns and Buddhism suffered as recorded by Xuanzang. Later Buddhist regions in Central Asia came either under the sway of the Persian Sāsānids or Tibet. When the Muslim Arabs overthrew the Sāssānids they encountered Buddhists in the eastern provinces of the Persian Empire. They called them by the Persian name of butparast, literally meaning ʺbuddha‐worshipperʺ, although the term has come to be used generally for any religion in which cult images play a role. Several high officials of the Abbāsid Caliphate, notably the Barmakids, were descended from these East Iranian Buddhists. When Muhammad bin Qāsim led the invasion of Sindh at the mouth of the Indus river, he was aided by some Buddhists in his campaign against their Hindu overlord, Rājā Dahir. Relations with later Iranian rulers such as the Saffarids and Samanids were more difficult; Buddhist monasteries and stūpas were not exempt from looting under Arab rule. 14
After the disintegration of the Abbāsid Caliphate, the Muslim Turks rose to prominence among the Persian emirates that emerged in Central Asia and Afghanistan. In the 10th century CE, one of them, Mahmūd of Ghaznī, defeated the Hindō‐Shāhīs and finally brought the region firmly under Muslim rule through Afghanistan and the Pañjāb. He demolished monasteries alongside temples during his raid across north‐western India but left those within his domains and Afghanistan alone and al‐Biruni recorded the Buddha as a prophet ʺburxanʺ. The originally pagan Turkic tribes who lived in western Central Asia converted to Islām as they came to be increasingly influenced by Persian culture. As the Turkic tribes of Central Asia battled for control of land, similarly an ideological battle waged within them as Sufis, faced with an increasing hostile environment in Arabia, moved to Transoxania and found fertile ground here for converts among the Buddhist and non‐
Buddhist Turkic tribes alike. Buddhism persisted, together with Christianity, Manichaeism, Zoroastrianism, and shamanism in areas to the east (modern Xinjiang) for several centuries, which did not become overwhelmingly Muslim until the 15th century CE; however, under the two‐pronged onslaught Buddhism waned and over time Central Asia gradually became predominantly Muslim. In 1215 Genghis Khan conquered Afghanistan and his horde devastated the local population indiscriminately; in 1227 after his death his conquest was divided and Chagatai established the Chagatai Khanate while Hulegu established the Il Khanate where Buddhism was the state religion across Muslim lands. In the Chagatai Khanate the Buddhist Turkic tribes slowly converted to Islam, including the occasional Khan [8]. When Tarmashirin came to power he made Islam the official religion of the region in 1326. In the Il Khanate, Hulegu and his successors Abaqa and Arghun also established Buddhism as the state religion but were hostile to the Muslims. Many mosques were destroyed and numerous stupas built; however, when Ghazan came to power in 1295 and converted he reverted the state religion to Islam and the climate became hostile towards Buddhism. Today no stupas built by the earlier Mongol Khans survive, and after Ghazanʹs reign little mention of Buddhism can be found in Afghanistan and Central Asia. Buddhists retained power in parts of northern India, in Kaśmīr and especially in Bengal, where the Buddhist Pāla kings ruled from the 8th‐12th centuries CE. These last Buddhist strongholds played an important role in the evolution of the Vajrayāna and the transmission of that form of Buddhism to Tibet before they collapsed under assault from the Hindu Sena dynasty. Elsewhere in India, Buddhism suffered from pressure by Hindu dynasties, such as the increasingly powerful Rajputs, as well as competition from a Hinduism that had gained ideological coherence and emotional vigor from such movements as Vedānta philosophy and Bhakti devotionalism. One symptom of increased Hindu confidence with regard to Buddhism was the identification of the Buddha as an avatāra of the Hindu god Vishnu – an identification which contradicted basic Buddhist understandings about the nature of a Buddha and of nirvāna. In 1193, only a few decades after the fall of the Pāla kingdom, Muhammad Khiljī destroyed Nālandā, the great Buddhist university. Khiljī was one of the generals of Qutbuddīn Aybak, a subject of the Afghan Ghurids but soon to become the monarch of a Muslim sultanate at Delhi. Khiljīʹs march across northern India caused a 15
precipitous decline in the fortunes of Indian Buddhism, as he destroyed Buddhist walled monasteries fortified by the Sena kings (which he thought were cities), killed the monks and burned their libraries. After the Mongol invasions of Islamic lands across Central Asia, many Sufis also found themselves fleeing towards the newly established Islamic lands in India around the environs of Bengal. Here their influence, caste attitudes towards Buddhists, previous familiarity with Buddhism, lack of Buddhist political power or social structure along with Hinduismʹs revival movements such as Advaita and the rise of the syncretic bhakti movement, all contributed to a significant realignment of beliefs relegating Buddhism in India to the peripheries. By the 13th century CE, Buddhism had become a marginal religion in central India; without a monastic infrastructure, Buddhism could not easily maintain its identity, and many Buddhists, especially in Bengal, were converted to Islām, Hinduism or left for the Himalayan foothills. In Kaśmīr Buddhism remained a significant religion down to the early 15th century, when it was displaced by Islām and Hinduism, except among the Tibetan peoples of Ladakh. Elements of Buddhism have remained within India to the current day: the Bauls of Bengal have a syncretic set of practices with strong emphasis on many Buddhist concepts. Other areas of India have never parted from Buddhism, including Ladakh and other Himalayan regions with a primarily Tibetan population. Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim are the other Indian states where Buddhism is practiced in great numbers. The Newars of Nepal also retain a form of Buddhism that differs from the Buddhism of Tibet. Furthermore, much of Buddhist philosophy was eventually absorbed into Hinduism. Chinese Mahayana Buddhist monk lighting incense in Beijing temple. 16
3) Main Traditions The most common way scholars categorize Buddhist schools follows the major languages of the extant Buddhist canons, which exist in Pāli, Tibetan (also found in Mongolian translation) and Chinese collections, along with some texts that still exist in Sanskrit and Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit. This is a useful division for practical purposes, but does not necessarily correspond to philosophical or doctrinal divisions. Despite the differences, there are common threads to almost all Buddhist branches: All accept the Buddha as their teacher. All accept the Middle Way, Dependent origination, the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path, though only the Southern (Theravada, Pali) tradition regards these as central. All accept that both the members of the laity and of the Sangha can pursue the path toward enlightenment (bodhi). All accept three types of Buddha and consider Buddhahood to be the highest attainment. 1_ Southern Buddhism (Theravāda) In addition to the Edicts of Aśoka, Buddhist annals compiled at a later date offer a history of the Aśokan and post‐Aśokan period. Among these annals are the Dīpavamsa, the Mahāvamsa, and the Samantapāsādika of the south Indian Vibhajjavāda (Sanskrit: Vibhajyavāda) samgha, beside the Divyāvadāna and the Avadānaśataka from the northern Sarvāstivāda (Pāli: Sabbatthivāda) sangha. According to the accounts of the Vibhajjavāda, Aśoka convened a third Buddhist council (c. 250 BCE), whose purpose was to produce a definitive text of the Buddhaʹs words. [citation needed] According to the Theravada account, given in the Dipavamsa and elsewhere, Asoka called this council to sort out doctrinal disputes within the sangha, which these sources say were caused by the infiltration of the sangha by non‐
buddhists, apparently not actually ordained. The account goes on to say that the council approved the Kathavatthu, compiled by its president Moggaliputta Tissa, as part of the scriptures. As this text consists of doctrinal debates, apparently with other schools, the account seems to imply the other schools were not proper Buddhists or proper monks. The council also saw the formation of the sangha of the Vibhajjavāda (ʺschool of analytical discourseʺ) out of various schools of the Sthaviravāda lineage.Vibhajjavādins claim that the first step to insight has to be achieved by the aspirantʹs experience, critical investigation, and reasoning instead of by blind faith. This school gradually declined on the Indian subcontinent, but its branch in Sri Lanka and South East Asia continues to survive; this branch of the school is now known as Theravada. The Theravāda school claims that the Sarvāstivada and the Dharmaguptaka schools were rejected by the council, although according to other sources the Dharmaguptaka school is classified as one of the Vibhajyavādin schools. However, these schools became influential in northwestern India and Central Asia and, since their teaching is found among the scriptures preserved by the Mahāyāna schools, they may have had some formative influence on the Mahāyāna. 17
The Sarvāstivadins have not preserved an independent tradition about the Third Council. it has been argued by some scholars that the council was part of a series of debates and/or disputes resulting in the formation of three main doctrinal schools, Vibhajjavada, Sarvastivada, and Puggalavada, which later were subject to further subdivisions. One such subdivision of the Vibhajjavada was established in Ceylon, and in course of time came to resume the name Theravada (given above in its Sanskrit form Sthaviravada). Its scriptures, the Pali Canon, were written down there in the last century BCE, at what the Theravada usually reckons as the fourth copuncil. It was long believed in Theravāda tradition that the Pāli language is equivalent to Māgadhī, the eastern dialect of the kingdom of Magadha spoken by the Buddha. However, linguistic comparisons of the Edicts of Aśoka and the language of the Pāli canon show strong differences between the Māgadhī of the Edicts (characterized by such changes as r l, masculine nominative singular of a‐stems in ‐e, etc.) and Pāli. The greatest similarity to Pāli is found in a dialectal variant of the Edicts written on a rock near Girnar in Gujarat. Theravāda is Pāli for ʺthe Doctrine of the Eldersʺ or ʺthe Ancient Doctrineʺ. Theravāda teaches one to encourage wholesome states of mind, avoid unwholesome states of mind, and to train the mind in meditation. The aim of practice, according to Theravāda Buddhism, is the attainment of freedom from suffering, which is linked with Nirvana, the highest spiritual goal. Theravāda teaches that the experience of suffering is caused by mental defilements like greed, aversion and delusion, while freedom can be attained though putting into practice teachings like the Four Noble Truths and especially the fourth one, the Noble Eightfold Path. The Theravāda school bases its practice and doctrine exclusively on the Pāli Canon and its commentaries. The Sutta collections and Vinaya texts of the Pāli Canon (and the corresponding texts in other versions of the Tripitaka), are generally considered by modern scholars to be the earliest Buddhist literature, and they are accepted as authentic in every branch of Buddhism. Theravāda is the only surviving representative of the historical early Buddhist schools. Theravāda is primarily practiced today in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia as well as small portions of China, Vietnam, Malaysia and Bangladesh. It has a growing presence in Europe and America. 18
Figure of Guanyin, ʺGoddess of Mercy.ʺ Chinese Ming dynasty porcelain 2_ Eastern (East Asian) Buddhism Mahayana (ʺGreat Vehicleʺ) is an inclusive, cosmically‐dimensioned faith characterized by the adoption of additional texts, seen as ultimately transcending the Pali suttas, and a shift in the understanding of Buddhism. It goes beyond the traditional Theravada ideal of the release from suffering (dukkha) and personal enlightenment of the arhats, to elevate the Buddha to the God‐like status of an eternal, omnipresent, all‐knowing being, and to create a pantheon of quasi‐divine Bodhisattvas devoting themselves to personal excellence, ultimate knowledge and the salvation of humanity (and indeed of all living beings, including animals, ghosts and gods). In Mahayana, the Buddha became an idealized man‐god and the Bodhisattva was the universal ideal of excellence. The Mahayana branch emphasizes infinite, universal compassion (maha‐
karuna) or the selfless, ultra‐altruistic quest of the Bodhisattva to attain the ʺAwakened Mindʺ (bodhicitta) of Buddhahood so as to have the fullest possible knowledge of how most effectively to lead all sentient beings into Nirvana. Emphasis is also often placed on the notions of Emptiness (shunyata), perfected spiritual insight (prajnaparamita) and Buddha‐nature (the deathless tathagatagarbha, or Buddhic Essence, inherent in all beings and creatures). The teaching of the tathagatagarbha is said by the Buddha in the tathagatagarbha sutras to constitute the ʺabsolutely final culminationʺ of his Dharma ‐ the highest presentation of Truth. The Mahayana can also on occasion communicate a vision of the Buddha or Dharma which amounts to mysticism and gives expression to a form of mentalist pantheism or panentheism (God in Buddhism). In addition to the Tripitaka scriptures, which (within Mahayana) are viewed as valid but only provisional or basic, Mahayana schools recognize all or part of a genre of Mahayana scriptures. Some of these sutras became for Mahayanists a manifestation of the Buddha himself. Mahayana Buddhism shows a great deal of doctrinal variation and development over time, and even more variation in terms of practice. While there is much agreement on general principles, there is disagreement over which texts are more authoritative. 19
Native Eastern Buddhism is practiced today in China, Japan, Korea, Singapore, parts of Russia and most of Vietnam. The Buddhism practiced in Tibet, the Himalayan regions, and Mongolia is also Mahayana in origin, but will be discussed below under the heading of Northern Buddhism. There are a variety of strands in Eastern Buddhism, which in most of this area are fused into a single unified form of Buddhism. However, in Japan they form separate denominations. The five major ones are the following: 1_Chan/Zen 2_Pure Land 3_Nichiren, peculiar to Japan 4_Shingon, a form of Vajrayana 5_Tendai Young Tibetan Buddhist monks of Drepung 3_ Northern (Tibetan) Buddhism The Vajrayāna or ʺDiamond Vehicleʺ (also referred to as Mantrayāna, Tantrayāna, Tantric Buddhism, or esoteric Buddhism) shares the basic concepts of Mahāyāna, but also includes a vast array of spiritual techniques designed to enhance Buddhist practice. One component of the Vajrayāna is harnessing psycho‐physical energy as a means of developing profoundly powerful states of concentration and awareness. These profound states are in turn to be used as an efficient path to Buddhahood. Using these techniques, it is claimed that a practitioner can achieve Buddhahood in one lifetime, or even as little as three years. In addition to the Theravāda and Mahāyāna scriptures, Vajrayāna Buddhists recognise a large body of Buddhist Tantras, many of which are also included in Chinese and Japanese collections of Buddhist literature. 4_ Intellectualism and Buddhist worldview According to the scriptures, in his lifetime, the Buddha had not answered several philosophical questions. On issues like whether the world is eternal or non‐
eternal, finite or infinite, unity or separation of the body and the self, complete inexistence of a person after nirvana and then death, nature of the Supreme Truth, etc, 20
the Buddha had remained silent. The scriptures explain that such questions distract from practical activity for realizing enlightenment. In numerous Mahayana sutras and Tantras, the Buddha stresses that Dharma (Truth) and the Buddha himself in their ultimate modus cannot truly be understood with the ordinary rational mind or logic: both Buddha and Reality (ultimately One) transcend all worldly concepts. The ʺprajna‐paramitaʺ sutras have this as one of their major themes. What is urged is study, mental and moral self‐cultivation, and veneration of the sutras, which are as fingers pointing to the moon of Truth, but then to let go of ratiocination and to experience direct entry into Liberation itself. The Buddha in the self‐styled ʺUttara‐Tantraʺ, the Mahaparinirvana Sutra, insists that, while pondering upon Dharma is vital, one must then relinquish fixation on words and letters, as these are utterly divorced from Liberation and the Buddha. The Tantra entitled the ʺAll‐Creating Kingʺ (Kunjed Gyalpo Tantra) also emphasises how Buddhic Truth lies beyond the range of thought and is ultimately mysterious. The Supreme Buddha, Samantabhadra, states there: ʺThe mind of perfect purity [i.e. the Awakened Mind of Buddha] ... is beyond thinking and inexplicable ... It dwells in the self‐perfected bliss which is deedless and self‐perfected ... I am the best path of liberation. It is a path, subtle and difficult to understand, which is non‐speculative and beyond thinking ... It cannot be captured in words ... It is firm, difficult to comprehend, and totally inexplicable.ʺ (The Sovereign All‐
Creating Mind tr. by E.K. Neumaier‐Dargyay, pp. 111‐112). Also later, the famous Indian Buddhist yogi and teacher mahasiddha Tilopa discouraged any intellectual activity in his 6 words of advice. Buddhist missionaries, however, often faced philosophical questions from other religions whose answers they themselves did not know. For those, who have attachment to intellectualism, Buddhist scholars produced a prodigious quantity of intellectual theories, philosophies and worldview concepts. 21
Buddhist monk Geshe Konchog Wangdu reads Mahayana sutras from an old woodblock copy of the Tibetan Kanjur. 4) Buddhist texts Buddhist scriptures and other texts exist in great variety. Different schools of Buddhism place varying levels of value on them. Some schools venerate certain texts as religious objects in themselves, while others take a more scholastic approach. The Buddhist canon of scripture is known in Sanskrit as the Tripitaka and in Pāli as the Tipitaka. These terms literally mean ʺthree basketsʺ and refer to the three main divisions of the canon, which are: I) The Vinaya Pitaka, containing disciplinary rules for the Sanghas of Buddhist monks and nuns, as well as a range of other texts including explanations of why and how rules were instituted, supporting material, and doctrinal clarification. II) The Sūtra Pitaka (Pāli: Sutta Pitaka), contains the actual discourses of the Buddha. III) The Abhidharma Pitaka (Pāli: Abhidhamma Pitaka) contains commentaries or systematic expositions of the Buddhaʹs teachings. According to the scriptures, soon after the death of the Buddha, the first Buddhist council was held; a monk named Mahākāśyapa (Pāli: Mahākassapa) presided. The goal of the council was to record the Buddhaʹs sayings – sūtras (Sanskrit) or suttas (Pāli) – and codify monastic rules (Vinaya), and according to some sources the abhidhamma. Ānanda, the Buddhaʹs personal attendant, was called upon to recite the discourses of the Buddha, and according to some sources the abhidhamma, and Upāli, another disciple, recited the rules of the Vinaya. These became the basis of the Tripitaka. However, this record was initially transmitted orally in form of chanting, and was committed to text in a much later period. Both the sūtras and the Vinaya of every Buddhist school contain a wide variety of elements including discourses on the Dharma, commentaries on other teachings, cosmological and cosmogonical texts, stories of the Buddhaʹs previous lives, and lists relating to various subjects. The Theravāda and other Nikāya schools traditionally believe that the texts of their canon contain the actual words of the Buddha. The Theravāda canon, also known as the Pāli Canon after the language it was written in, contains some four million 22
words. Other texts, such as the Mahāyāna sūtras, are also considered to be the word of the Buddha, but were transmitted either in secret, via lineages of mythical beings (such as the nāgas), or came directly from other Buddhas or bodhisattvas. Some six hundred Mahāyāna sutras have survived in Sanskrit or in Chinese or Tibetan translations. The followers of Theravāda Buddhism take the scriptures known as the Pāli Canon as definitive and authoritative, while the followers of Mahāyāna Buddhism base their faith and philosophy primarily on the Mahāyāna sūtras and their own versions of the Vinaya. The Pāli sutras, along with other, closely‐related scriptures, are known to the other schools as the āgamas. Whereas the Theravādins adhere solely to the Pali canon and its commentaries, the adherents of Mahāyāna accept both the agamas and the Mahāyāna sūtras as authentic and valid teachings of the Buddha, designed for different types of persons and different levels of spiritual penetration. For the Theravādins, however, the Mahayana sūtras are works of poetic fiction, not the words of the Buddha himself. The Theravadins are confident that the Pali canon represents the full and final statement by the Buddha of his Dhamma ‐ and nothing more is truly needed beyond that. Anything added which claims to be the word of the Buddha and yet is not found in the Nikayas or their scholastic commentaries is treated with extreme caution if not outright rejection by Theravada. For the Mahāyānists, in contrast, the āgamas do indeed contain basic, foundational, and, therefore, relatively weighty pronouncements of the Buddha, but in their view, the Mahāyāna sutras articulate the Buddhaʹs higher, more advanced and deeper doctrines, reserved for those who follow the exalted bodhisattva path. That path is built upon the motivation to achieve not only personal liberation, but Buddhahood itself in order to know how best to liberate all living beings from unhappiness. Hence the name Mahāyāna (lit., the Great Vehicle), which has room for both the general masses of sentient beings and those who are more developed. The ʺGreatʺ of ʺMaha‐yanaʺ is indeed typical of much of this version of Buddhism ‐ from the physical bigness (lengthiness) of some of the Mahayana sutras and the vastness of the Bodhisattva vow (to strive for all future time to help free other persons and creatures from pain), to the numbers of beings who are sought to be saved (infinitudes), to the (in some sutras and Tantras) final attainment of the Buddhaʹs ʺGreat Selfʺ (mahatman) in the sphere of ʺGreat Nirvanaʺ (mahanirvana). For the Theravadins, however, this alleged ʺgreatnessʺ proclaimed by some Mahayana sutras does not necessarily equate to ʺtrueʺ. Unlike many religions, Buddhism has no single central text that is universally referred to by all traditions. The size and complexity of the Buddhist canons have been seen by some (including Buddhist social reformer Babasaheb Ambedkar) as presenting barriers to the wider understanding of Buddhist philosophy. Over the years, various attempts have been made at synthesizing a single Buddhist text that will encompass all of the major principles of Buddhism. In the Theravada tradition, condensed ʹstudy textsʹ were created that combined popular or influential scriptures into single volumes that could be studied by novice monks. Later in Sri Lanka, the Dhammapada was championed as a unifying scripture. Dwight Goddard collected what he felt was a representative sample of Buddhist scriptures‐ along with other classics of Eastern philosophy, such as the Tao 23
Te Ching‐ into his Buddhist Bible in the 1920ʹs. More recently, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar attempted to create a single, combined document of Buddhist principles with his “The Buddha and His Dhamma”. Other such efforts have persisted to the present day, but currently there is no single text widely accepted as being central to all Buddhist traditions. 5) Present state of Buddhism Typical interior of a temple in Korea Estimates of the number of Buddhists vary, but the most common figure today is between 350 and 400 million. _Theravāda Buddhism, using Pāli as its scriptural language, is the dominant form of Buddhism in Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, Sri Lanka, and Myanmar. _East Asian forms of Buddhism that use scriptures in Chinese are dominant in most of China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Singapore and Vietnam as well as the Chinese communities around the world, especially within Indochina and Southeast Asia as well as in the West. _Northern Buddhism, using the Tibetan language, is found in Tibet and the surrounding area of India, Bhutan, Mongolia, Nepal, China, and the Russian Federation. Poland, Denmark, Greece and the Russian Federation are the first European countries to recognize Buddhism as an official religion. _Dalit Buddhist movement in India was largely inspired by B. R. Ambedkar in 1956 with a mass conversion ceremony of Hindu untouchables now known as Dalits. Their practice is general and they do not follow any particular Buddhist school of thought. _Most Buddhist groups in the West are at least nominally affiliated to some eastern tradition listed above. An exception is the Friends of the Western Buddhist Order, though they can be considered Mahayanist in a broad sense. At the present time, the teachings of all three branches of Buddhism have spread throughout the world, and Buddhist texts are increasingly translated into local languages. While in the West, Buddhism is often seen as exotic and progressive, in the East, Buddhism is regarded as familiar and part of the establishment. Buddhists in Asia are frequently well organised and well funded. In a number of countries, it is recognised as an official religion and receives state support. In the West, Buddhism is recognised as one of the growing spiritual influences. 24
History of Buddhism From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia The History of Buddhism spans from the 6th century BCE to the present, starting with the birth of the Buddha Siddhartha Gautama. This makes it one of the oldest religions practiced today. Throughout this period, the religion evolved as it encountered various countries and cultures, adding to its original Indian foundation Hellenistic as well as Central Asian, East Asian, and Southeast Asian cultural elements. In the process, its geographical extent became considerable so as to affect at one time or another most of the Asian continent. The history of Buddhism is also characterized by the development of numerous movements and schisms, foremost among them the Theravada, Mahāyāna and Vajrayana traditions, punctuated by contrasting periods of expansion and retreat. Contents: 1) Life of the Buddha 2) Early Buddhism 1_1st Buddhist council (5th c. BCE) 2_2nd Buddhist council (383 BCE) 3) Ashokan proselytism (c. 261 BCE) 1_3rd Buddhist council (c.250 BCE) 2_Hellenistic world 3_The Two Fourth Councils 4_Asian expansion 4) Rise of the Sunga ( 2nd – 1st c.BCE) 5) Greco‐Buddhist interaction (2nd c. BCE– 1st c. CE) 6) Rise of Mahayana (1st c.BCE–2nd c.CE) 7) Mahayana expansion (1st c.CE–10th c.CE) 1_India 2 _Central and Northern Asia a) Central Asia b) Parthia c) Tarim Basin d) China e) Korea f) Japan 3_ South‐East Asia a) Vietnam b) Srivijayan empire (5th–15th century) c) Khmer Empire (9th–13th century) 8) Emergence of the Vajrayana (5th century) 9) Theravada Renaissance (11th century CE— ) 10) Expansion of Buddhism to the West 25
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1) Life of the Buddha According to the Buddhist tradition, the historical Buddha Siddharta Gautama was born to the Shakya clan, at the beginning of the Magadha period (546–324 BCE), in the plains of Lumbini, Southern Nepal. He is also known as the Shakyamuni (literally ʺThe sage of the Shakya clanʺ). After an early life of luxury under the protection of his father, Śuddhodana, the ruler of Kapilavastu (later to be incorporated into the state of Magadha), Siddharta entered into contact with the realities of the world and concluded that real life was about inescapable suffering and sorrow. Siddharta renounced his meaningless life of luxury to become an ascetic. He ultimately decided that asceticism was also meaningless, and instead chose a middle way, a path of moderation away from the extremes of self‐indulgence and self‐mortification. Under a fig tree, now known as the Bodhi tree, he vowed never to leave the position until he found Truth. At the age of 35, he attained Enlightenment. He was then known as Gautama Buddha, or simply ʺThe Buddhaʺ, which means ʺthe enlightened oneʺ. For the remaining 45 years of his life, he travelled the Gangetic Plain of central India (region of the Ganges/Ganga river and its tributaries), teaching his doctrine and discipline to an extremely diverse range of people. The Buddhaʹs reluctance to name a successor or to formalise his doctrine led to the emergence of many movements during the next 400 years: first the schools of Nikaya Buddhism, of which only Theravada remains today, and then the formation of Mahayana, a pan‐Buddhist movement based on the acceptance of new scriptures. 2) Early Buddhism Before the royal sponsorship of Ashoka the Great in the 3rd century BCE, Buddhism seems to have remained a relatively minor phenomenon, and the historicity of its formative events is poorly established. Two formative councils are supposed to have taken place, although our knowledge of them is based on much later accounts. The councils tend to explain the formalization of the Buddhist doctrine, and the various subsequent schisms inside the Buddhist movement. 1_1st Buddhist council (5th c. BCE) The first Buddhist council was held soon after the death of the Buddha under the patronage of king Ajatasatru of the Magadha empire, and presided by a monk named Mahakasyapa, at Rajagriha (todayʹs Rajgir). The objective of the council was to record the Buddhaʹs sayings (sutra) and codify monastic rules (vinaya): Ananda, one of the Buddhaʹs main disciples and his cousin, was called upon to recite the discourses of the Buddha, and Upali, another disciple, recited the rules of the vinaya. These became the basis of the Pali Canon, which has been the orthodox text of reference throughout the history of Buddhism. 27
2_ 2nd Buddhist council (383 BCE) The second Buddhist council was convened by King Kalasoka and held at Vaisali, following conflicts between the traditional schools of Buddhism and a more liberal interpretational movement called the Mahasanghikas. The traditional schools considered the Buddha as a human being who reached enlightenment, which could be most easily attained by monks following the monastic rules and practicing the teaching for the sake of overcoming suffering and attaining Arahantship. The secessionist Mahasangikas, however, tended to consider this approach too individualistic and selfish. They considered the objective of becoming an arhat insufficient, and instead proposed that the only true goal was to reach full buddhahood, in a sense opening the way to future Mahāyāna thought. They became proponents of more relaxed monastic rules, which could appeal to a large majority of monastic and lay people (hence their name the ʺgreatʺ or ʺmajorityʺ assembly). The council ended with the rejection of the Mahasanghikas. They left the council and maintained themselves for several centuries in northwestern India and Central Asia according to Kharoshti inscriptions found near the Oxus and dated c. 1st century CE. 3) Ashokan proselytism (c. 261 BCE) Fragment of the 6th Pillar Edict of Ashoka (238 BCE), in Brahmi, sandstone. British Museum. The Mauryan emperor Ashoka the Great (273–232 BCE) converted to Buddhism after his bloody conquest of the territory of Kalinga (todayʹs Orissa) in eastern India. Regretful of the horrors brought by the conflict, the king decided to renounce violence, and propagate the faith by building stupas and pillars urging for the respect of all animal life, and enjoining people to follow the Dharma. Perhaps the finest example of these is the Great Stupa in Sanchi, India (near Bhopal). It was constructed in the third century BCE and later enlarged. Its carved gates, called Tohans, are considered among the finest examples of Buddhist art in India. He also built roads, hospitals, resthouses, universities and irrigation systems around the country. He treated his subjects as equals regardless of their religion, politics or caste. This period marks the first spread of Buddhism beyond India. According to the plates and pillars left by Ashoka (the Edicts of Ashoka), emissaries were sent to various countries in order to spread Buddhism, as far as the Greek kingdoms in the West, in particular the neighboring Greco‐Bactrian Kingdom, and possibly even farther to the Mediterranean. 28
1_3rd Buddhist council (c.250 BCE) King Ashoka convened the third Buddhist council around 250 BCE at Pataliputra (todayʹs Patna). It was held by the monk Moggaliputta. The objective of the council was to reconcile the different schools of Buddhism, to purify the Buddhist movement, particularly from opportunistic factions which had been attracted by the royal patronage, and to organize the dispatch of Buddhist missionaries throughout the known world. The Pali canon (Tipitaka, or Tripitaka in Sanskrit, literally the ʺThree Basketsʺ), which comprises the texts of reference of traditional Buddhism and is considered to be directly transmitted from the Buddha, was formalized at that time. It consists of the doctrine (the Sutra Pitaka), the monastic discipline (Vinaya Pitaka) and an additional new body of subtle philosophy (the Abhidharma Pitaka). The efforts of Ashoka to purify the Buddhist faith also had the effect of segregating against other emerging movements. In particular, after 250 BCE, the Sarvastivadin (who had been rejected by the 3rd council, according to the Theravada tradition) and the Dharmaguptaka schools became quite influential in northwestern India and Central Asia, up to the time of the Kushan Empire in the first centuries of the common era. The Dharmaguptakas were characterized by a belief that Buddha was separate, and above, the rest of the Buddhist community. The Sarvastivadin believed that past, present, and future are all simultaneous. 2_Hellenistic world Some of the Edicts of Ashoka inscriptions describe the efforts made by Ashoka to propagate the Buddhist faith throughout the Hellenistic world, which at that time formed an uninterrupted continuum from the borders of India to Greece. The Edicts indicate a clear understanding of the political organization in Hellenistic territories: the names and location of the main Greek monarchs of the time are identified, and they are claimed as recipients of Buddhist proselytism: Antiochus II Theos of the Seleucid Kingdom (261–246 BCE), Ptolemy II Philadelphos of Egypt (285–247 BCE), Antigonus Gonatas of Macedonia (276–239 BCE), Magas of Cyrene (288–258 BCE), and Alexander II of Epirus (272–255 BCE). ʺThe conquest by Dharma has been won here, on the borders, and even six hundred yojanas (5,400‐9,600 km) away, where the Greek king Antiochos rules, beyond there where the four kings named Ptolemy, Antigonos, Magas and Alexander rule, likewise in the south among the Cholas, the Pandyas, and as far as Tamraparni (Sri Lanka).ʺ (Edicts of Ashoka, 13th Rock Edict, S. Dhammika). Furthermore, according to Pali sources, some of Ashokaʹs emissaries were Greek Buddhist monks, indicating close religious exchanges between the two cultures: ʺWhen the thera (elder) Moggaliputta, the illuminator of the religion of the Conqueror (Ashoka), had brought the (third) council to an end (...) he sent forth theras, one here and one there: (...) and to Aparantaka (the ʺWestern countriesʺ corresponding to Gujarat and Sindh) he sent the Greek (Yona) named Dhammarakkhitaʺ. (Mahavamsa XII). 29
Bilingual inscription (Greek and Aramaic) by king Ashoka, from Kandahar. Kabul Museum . Ashoka also issued Edicts in the Greek language as well as in Aramaic. One of them, found in Kandahar, advocates the adoption of ʺPietyʺ (using the Greek term Eusebeia for Dharma) to the Greek community: ʺTen years (of reign) having been completed, King Piodasses (Ashoka) made known (the doctrine of) Piety (Greek:εὐσέβεια, Eusebeia) to men; and from this moment he has made men more pious, and everything thrives throughout the whole world.ʺ (Trans. from the Greek original by G.P. Carratelli[1]) It is not clear how much these interactions may have been influential, but some authors have commented that some level of syncretism between Hellenist thought and Buddhism may have started in Hellenic lands at that time. They have pointed to the presence of Buddhist communities in the Hellenistic world around that period, in particular in Alexandria (mentioned by Clement of Alexandria), and to the pre‐
Christian monastic order of the Therapeutae (possibly a deformation of the Pali word ʺTheravadaʺ), who may have ʺalmost entirely drawn (its) inspiration from the teaching and practices of Buddhist asceticismʺ (Robert Lissen). Buddhist gravestones from the Ptolemaic period have also been found in Alexandria, decorated with depictions of the Dharma wheel (Tarn, ʺThe Greeks in Bactria and Indiaʺ). Commenting on the presence of Buddhists in Alexandria, some scholars have even pointed out that “It was later in this very place that some of the most active centers of Christianity were established” (Robert Linssen ʺZen livingʺ). In the 2nd century CE, the Christian dogmatist Clement of Alexandria recognized Bactrian Buddhists (Sramanas) and Indian Gymnosophists for their influence on Greek thought: ʺThus philosophy, a thing of the highest utility, flourished in antiquity among the barbarians, shedding its light over the nations. And afterwards it came to Greece. First in its ranks were the prophets of the Egyptians; and the Chaldeans among the Assyrians; and the Druids among the Gauls; and the Sramanas among the Bactrians (ʺΣαρμαναίοι Βάκτρωνʺ); and the philosophers of the Celts; and the Magi of the Persians, who foretold the Saviourʹs birth, and came 30
into the land of Judaea guided by a star. The Indian gymnosophists are also in the number, and the other barbarian philosophers. And of these there are two classes, some of them called Sramanas (ʺΣαρμάναιʺ), and others Brahmins (ʺΒραφμαναιʺ).ʺ Clement of Alexandria ʺThe Stromata, or Miscellaniesʺ Book I, Chapter XV 3_The Two Fourth Councils A Fourth Council is said to have been convened in the reign of the Kushan emperor Kanishka, around 100 CE at Jalandhar or in Kashmir. Because Therevada believes the The Fourth Council of Kashmir introduced unauthentic sutras as authentic, and it was itself not present at this Fourth Council to prevent this, Theravāda Buddhism does not recognize the authenticity of this council, and sometimes they call it the “council of heretical monks”. Theravada Buddhism had its own Fourth Council in Sri Lanka. Therefore there are two Fourth Councils: one in Sri Lanka (Theravada), and one in Kashmir (Sarvastivadin). It is said that for the Fourth Council of Kashmir, Kanishka gathered 500 monks headed by Vasumitra, partly, it seems, to compile extensive commentaries on the Abhidharma, although it is possible that some editorial work was carried out upon the existing canon itself. The main fruit of this Council was the redaction of Agamas and complilation of the vast commentary known as the Mahā‐Vibhāshā (ʺGreat Exegesisʺ), an extensive compendium and reference work on a portion of the Sarvāstivādin Abhidharma. Scholars believe that it was also around this time that a significant change was made in the language of the Sarvāstivādin canon, by converting an earlier Prakrit version into Sanskrit. Although this change was probably effected without significant loss of integrity to the canon, this event was of particular significance since Sanskrit was the official holy language of Brahmanism in India, and was also being used by other thinkers (regardless of their specific religious or philosophical allegiance), thus enabling a far wider audience to gain access to Buddhist ideas and practices. For this reason, all major (Mahayana) Buddhist scholars in India thereafter wrote their commentaries and treatises in Sanskrit. Therevada however never switched to Sanskrit, partly because Buddha explicitly forbade translation of his discourses into Sanskrit because it was an elitist religious language (like Latin was in Europe before). He wanted his monks to use a local language instead; a language which could be understood by all. Over time however, the language of the Theravadin scriptures (Pali) became a scholarly or elitist language as well. 4_ Asian expansion In the areas east of the Indian subcontinent (todayʹs Burma), Indian culture strongly influenced the Mons. The Mons are said to have been converted to Buddhism around 200 BCE under the proselytizing of the Indian king Ashoka, before the fission between Mahayana and Hinayana Buddhism. Early Mon Buddhist temples, such as Peikthano in central Burma, have been dated between the 1st and the 5th century CE. 31
Wheel of the Law (Dharmachakra), art of Dvaravati, c.8th century. The Buddhist art of the Mons was especially influenced by the Indian art of the Gupta and post‐Gupta periods, and their mannerist style spread widely in South‐East Asia following the expansion of the Mon kingdom between the 5th and 8th centuries. The Theravada faith expanded in the northern parts of Southeast Asia under Mon influence, until it was progressively displaced by Mahayana Buddhism from around the 6th century CE. Sri Lanka was allegedly proselytized by Ashokaʹs son Mahinda and six companions during the 2nd century BCE. They converted the king Devanampiya Tissa and many of the nobility. This is when the Mahavihara monastery, a center of Sinhalese orthodoxy, was built. The Pali Canon was put in writing in Sri Lanka during the reign of king Vittagamani (r. 29–17 BCE), and the Theravada tradition flourished there, harbouring some great commentators such as Buddhaghosa (4th–5th century). Although Mahayana Buddhism gained some influence at that time, Theravada ultimately prevailed, and Sri Lanka turned out to be the last stronghold of Theravada Buddhism, from where it would expand again to South‐East Asia from the 11th century. There is also a legend, not directly validated by the edicts, that Ashoka sent a missionary to the north, through the Himalayas, to Khotan in the Tarim Basin, then the land of the Tocharians, speakers of an Indo‐European language. 4) Rise of the Sunga (2nd– 1st c. BCE) The Sunga dynasty (185–73 BCE) was established in 185 BCE, about 50 years after Ashokaʹs death. After assassinating King Brhadrata (last of the Mauryan rulers), military commander‐in‐chief Pusyamitra Sunga took the throne. Buddhist religious scriptures such as the Ashokavadana allege that Pusyamitra (an orthodox Brahmin) was hostile towards Buddhists and persecuted the Buddhist faith. Buddhists wrote that he ʺdestroyed monasteries and killed Monksʺ (Divyavadana, pp. 429–434): 84,000 Buddhist stupas which had been built by Ashoka were ʺdestroyedʺ (R. Thaper), and 100 gold coins were offered for the head of each Buddhist monk (Indian Historical Quarterly Vol. XXII, p. 81 ff cited in Hars.407). 32
In addition, Buddhist sources allege that a large number of Buddhist monasteries (viharas) were converted to Hindu temples, in such places as Nalanda, Bodhgaya, Sarnath, or Mathura. Following Ashoka’s sponsorship of Buddhism, it is possible that Buddhist institutions fell on harder times under the Sungas but no evidence of active persecution has been noted. Etienne Lamotte observes: “To judge from the documents, Pushyamitra must be acquitted through lack of proof.”. Another eminent historian, Romila Thapar, points to archaeological evidence that ʺsuggests the contrary [to the claim that Pusyamitra was a fanatical anti‐
Buddhist]ʺ and never actually destroyed 84000 stupas as claimed by Buddhist works. Thapar stresses that Buddhist accounts are probably hyperbolic renditions of Pusyamitraʹs attack of the Mauryas, and merely reflect the frustration of the Buddhist religious figures to the decline in the importance of their religion by the Sungas. During the period, Buddhist monks deserted the Ganges valley, following either the Northern road (Uttarapatha) or the Southern road (Daksinapatha). Conversely, Buddhist artistic creation stopped in the old Magadha area, to reposition itself either in Northwest area of Gandhara and Mathura, or in the Southeast around Amaravati. Some artistic activity also occurred in central India, as in Bharhut, to which the Sungas may or may not have contributed. 33
A Greco‐Buddhist statue, one of the first representations of the Buddha, 1st‐2nd century CE, Gandhara. 5) Greco‐Buddhist interaction ( 2nd c. BCE– 1st c. CE) Silver drachm of Menander I (reigned c. 160–135
BCE).Obv: Greek legend, BASILEOS SOTEROS
MENANDROY lit. ʺOf the Saviour King Menanderʺ. In the areas west of the Indian subcontinent, neighboring Greek kingdoms had been in place in Bactria (todayʹs northern Afghanistan) since the time of the conquests of Alexander the Great around 326 BCE: first the Seleucids from around 323 BCE, then the Greco‐Bactrian kingdom from around 250 BCE. 34
The spread of buddhisme till the 5 century AD th
The Greco‐Bactrian king Demetrius I invaded India in 180 BCE as far as Pataliputra, establishing an Indo‐Greek kingdom that was to last in various part of northern India until the end of the 1st century BCE. Buddhism flourished under the Indo‐Greek kings, and it has been suggested that their invasion of India was intended to show their support for the Mauryan empire, and to protect the Buddhist faith from the alleged religious persecutions of the Sungas (185–73 BCE). A coin of Menander I with an eight‐spoked wheel and a palm of victory on the reverse (British Museum). One of the most famous Indo‐Greek kings is Menander (reigned c. 160–135 BCE). He apparently converted to Buddhism and is presented in the Mahayana tradition as one of the great benefactors of the faith, on a par with king Ashoka or the later Kushan king Kanishka. Menanderʹs coins bear the mention ʺSaviour kingʺ in Greek, and sometimes designs of the eight‐spoked wheel. Direct cultural exchange is also suggested by the dialogue of the Milinda Panha between Menander and the monk Nagasena around 160 BCE. Upon his death, the honour of sharing his remains was claimed by the cities under his rule, and they were enshrined in stupas, in a parallel with the historic Buddha (Plutarch, Praec. reip. ger. 28, 6). Several of Menanderʹs Indo‐
Greek successors inscribed the mention ʺFollower of the Dharmaʺ in the Kharoshthi script on their coins, and depicted themselves or their divinities forming the vitarka mudra. 35
The interaction between Greek and Buddhist cultures may have had some influence on the evolution of Mahayana, as the faith developed its sophisticated philosophical approach and a man‐god treatment of the Buddha somewhat reminiscent of Hellenic gods. It is also around that time that the first anthropomorphic representations of the Buddha are found, often in realistic Greco‐Buddhist style: ʺOne might regard the classical influence as including the general idea of representing a man‐god in this purely human form, which was of course well familiar in the West, and it is very likely that the example of westernerʹs treatment of their gods was indeed an important factor in the innovationʺ (Boardman, ʺThe Diffusion of Classical Art in Antiquityʺ ). 6) Rise of Mahayana ( 1st c.BCE– 2nd c.CE ) The rise of Mahayana Buddhism from the 1st century BCE was accompanied by complex political changes in northwestern India. The Indo‐Greek kingdoms were gradually overwhelmed, and their culture assimilated by the Indo‐Scythians, and then the Yuezhi, who founded the Kushan Empire from around 12 BCE. Coin of the Kushan emperor Kanishka, with the Buddha on the reverse, and his name ʺBODDOʺ in Greek script, minted circa 120 CE. The Kushans were supportive of Buddhism, and a fourth Buddhist council was convened by the Kushan emperor Kanishka, around 100 CE at Jalandhar or in Kashmir, and is usually associated with the formal rise of Mahayana Buddhism and its secession from Theravada Buddhism. Theravada Buddhism does not recognize the authenticity of this council, and it is sometimes called the ʺcouncil of heretical monksʺ. It is said that Kanishka gathered 500 bhikkhus in Kashmir, headed by Vasumitra, to edit the Tripitaka and make references and remarks. Allegedly, during the council there were all together three hundred thousand verses and over nine million statements compiled, and it took twelve years to complete. This council did not rely on the original Pali canon (the Tipitaka). Instead, a set of new scriptures was approved, as well as fundamental principles of Mahayana doctrine. The new scriptures, usually in the Gandhari vernacular and the Kharosthi script, were rewritten in the classical language of Sanskrit, to many scholars a turning point in the propagation of Buddhist thought. The new form of Buddhism was characterized by an almost God‐like treatment of the Buddha, by the idea that all beings have a Buddha‐nature and should aspire to Buddhahood, and by a syncretism due to the various cultural influences within northwestern India and the Kushan Empire. 36
7) Mahayana expansion ( 1st c.CE– 10th c.CE ) From that point on, and in the space of a few centuries, Mahayana was to flourish and spread in the East from India to South‐East Asia, and towards the north to Central Asia, China, Korea, and finally to Japan in 538 CE. Buddha and Bodhisattvas, 11th century, Pala Empire. 1_India After the end of the Kushans, Buddhism flourished in India during the dynasty of the Guptas (4th‐6th century). Mahayana centers of learning were established, especially at Nalanda in north‐eastern India, which was to become the largest and most influential Buddhist university for many centuries, with famous teachers such as Nagarjuna. The Gupta style of Buddhist art became very influential from South‐East Asia to China as the faith was spreading there. Indian Buddhism had weakened in the 6th century following the White Hun invasions and Mihirkulas persecution. Xuanzang reports in his travels across India during the 7th century of Buddhism being popular in Andhra, Dhanyakataka, and Dravida which today rougly correspond to the modern day Indian states of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. While reporting many deserted stupas in the area around modern day Nepal and the persecution of buddhists by Ssanka in the Kingdom of Gouda. (In modern day West Bengal.) Xuanzang compliments the patronage of Harshavardana during the same period. After Harshavardanas kingdom, the rise of many small kingdoms that lead to the rise of the Rajputs across the gangetic plains and marked the end of Buddhist ruling clans along with a sharp decline in royal patronage until a revival under the Pala Empire in the Bengal region. 37
Here Mahayana Buddhism flourished and spread to Bhutan and Sikkim between the 8th and the 12th century before the Palas collapsed under the assault of the Hindu Sena dynasty. The Palas created many temples and a distinctive school of Buddhist art. Xuanzang noted in his travels that in various regions Buddhism was giving way to Jainism and Hinduism. By the 10th century Buddhism had experienced a sharp decline beyond the Pala realms in Bengal under a resurgent Hinduism and the incorporation in Vaishnavite Hinduism of Buddha as the 9th incarnation of Vishnu. A milestone in the decline of Indian Buddhism in the North occurred in 1193 when Turkic Islamic raiders under Muhammad Khilji burnt Nalanda. By the end of the 12th century, following the Islamic conquest of the Buddhist strongholds in Bihar, and the loss of political support coupled with social and caste pressures, the practice of Buddhism retreated to the Himalayan foothills in the North and Sri Lanka in the south. Additionally, the influence of Buddhism also waned due to Hinduismʹs revival movements such as Advaita, the rise of the bhakti movement and the missionary work of Sufis. 2_ Central and Northern Asia a) Central Asia Central Asia had been influenced by Buddhism probably almost since the time of the Buddha. According to a legend preserved in Pali, the language of the Theravada canon, two merchant brothers from Bactria, named Tapassu and Bhallika, visited the Buddha and became his disciples. They then returned to Bactria and built temples to the Buddha (Foltz). Central Asia long played the role of a meeting place between China, India and Persia. During the 2nd century BCE, the expansion of the Former Han to the west brought them into contact with the Hellenistic civilizations of Asia, especially the Greco‐Bactrian Kingdoms. Thereafter, the expansion of Buddhism to the north led to the formation of Buddhist communities and even Buddhist kingdoms in the oases of Central Asia. Some Silk Road cities consisted almost entirely of Buddhist stupas and monasteries, and it seems that one of their main objectives was to welcome and service travelers between east and west. The Hinayana traditions first spread among the Turkic tribes before combining with the Mahayana forms during the 2nd and 3rd centuries BCE to cover modern‐day Pakistan, Kashmir, Afghanistan, eastern and coastal Iran, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan and Tajikistan. These were the ancient states of Gandhara, Bactria, Parthia and Sogdia from where it spread to China. Among the first of these Turkic tribes to adopt Buddhism was the Turki‐Shahi who adopted Buddhism as early as the 3rd century BCE. It was not, however, the exclusive faith of this region. There were also Zoroastrians, Hindus, Nestorian Christians, Jews, Manichaeans, and followers of shamanism, Tengrism, and other indigenous, nonorganized systems of belief. Various Nikaya schools persisted in Central Asia and China until around the 7th century CE. Mahayana started to become dominant during the period, but since the 38
faith had not developed a Nikaya approach, Sarvastivadin and Dharmaguptakas remained the Vinayas of choice in Central Asian monasteries. Various Buddhism kingdoms rose and prospered in both the Central Asian region and downwards into the Indian sub‐continent such as Kushan Empire prior to the White Hun invasion in the 5th century where under the King Mihirkula they were heavily persecuted. Buddhism in Central Asia started to decline with the expansion of Islam and the destruction of many stupas in war from the 7th century. The Muslims accorded them the status of dhimmis as ʺpeople of the Bookʺ, such as Christianity or Judaism and Al‐Biruni wrote of Buddha as prophet ʺburxanʺ. Buddhism saw a surge during the reign of Mongols following the invasion of Genghis Khan and the establishment of the Il Khanate and the Chagatai Khanate who brought their Buddhist influence with them during the 13th century, however within a 100 years the Mongols would convert to Islam and spread Islam across all the regions across central Asia. b) Parthia Buddhism expanded westward into Arsacid Parthia, at least to the area of Merv, in ancient Margiana, todayʹs territory of Turkmenistan. Soviet archeological teams have excavated in Giaur Kala, near Merv, a Buddhist chapel, a gigantic Buddha statue, as well as a monastery. Parthians were directly involved in the propagation of Buddhism: An Shigao (c. 148 CE), a Parthian prince, went to China, and is the first known translator of Buddhist scriptures into Chinese. Blue‐eyed Central Asian and East‐Asian Buddhist monks, Bezaklik, Eastern Tarim Basin, 9th‐10th century. c) Tarim Basin The eastern part of central Asia (Chinese Turkestan, Tarim Basin, Xinjiang) has revealed extremely rich Buddhist works of art (wall paintings and reliefs in numerous caves, portable paintings on canvas, sculpture, ritual objects), displaying multiple influences from Indian and Hellenistic cultures. 39
Serindian art is highly reminiscent of the Gandharan style, and scriptures in the Gandhari script Kharosthi have been found. Central Asians seem to have played a key role in the transmission of Buddhism to the East. The first translators of Buddhists scriptures into Chinese were either Parthian (Ch: Anxi) like An Shigao (c. 148 CE) or An Hsuan, Kushan of Yuezhi ethnicity like Lokaksema (c. 178 CE), Zhi Qian and Zhi Yao, or Sogdians (Ch: SuTe) like Kang Sengkai. Thirty‐seven early translators of Buddhist texts are known, and the majority of them have been identified as Central Asians. Central Asian and East Asian Buddhist monks appear to have maintained strong exchanges until around the 10th century, as shown by frescoes from the Tarim Basin. These influences were rapidly absorbed however by the vigorous Chinese culture, and a strongly Chinese particularism develops from that point. d) China Buddhism probably arrived in China around the 1st century CE from Central Asia (although there are some traditions about a monk visiting China during Asokaʹs reign), and through to the 8th century it became an extremely active center of Buddhism. First known Chinese Buddha statue, found in a late Han dynasty burial in
Sichuan province. Circa 200 CE. The hair, the moustache and the clothing are
strongly indicative of Gandharan influences (ʺCrossroads of Asiaʺ p208) First known Chinese Buddha statue, found in a late Han dynasty burial in Sichuan province. Circa 200 CE. The hair, the moustache and the clothing are strongly indicative of Gandharan influences (ʺCrossroads of Asiaʺ, p.208) The year 67 CE saw Buddhismʹs official introduction to China with the coming of the two monks Moton and Chufarlan. In 68 CE, under imperial patronage, they established the White Horse Temple, which still exists today, close to the imperial capital at Luoyang. By the end of the second century, a prosperous community had been settled at Pengcheng (modern Xuzhou, Jiangsu). 40
The first known Mahayana scriptural texts are translations made into Chinese by the Kushan monk Lokaksema in Luoyang, between 178 and 189 CE. Some of the earliest known Buddhist artifacts found in China are small statues on ʺmoney treesʺ, dated circa 200 CE, in typical Gandharan style (drawing): ʺThat the imported images accompanying the newly arrived doctrine came from Gandhara is strongly suggested by such early Gandhara characteristics on this ʺmoney treeʺ Buddha as the high ushnisha, vertical arrangement of the hair, moustache, symmetrically looped robe and parallel incisions for the folds of the arms.ʺ (ʺCrossroads of Asiaʺ p209) Buddhism flourished during the beginning of the Tang Dynasty (618–907). The dynasty was initially characterized by a strong openness to foreign influences, and renewed exchanges with Indian culture due to the numerous travels of Chinese Buddhist monks to India from the 4th to the 11th century. The Tang capital of Changʹan (todayʹs Xiʹan) became an important center for Buddhist thought. From there Buddhism spread to Korea, and Japanese embassies of Kentoshi helped gain footholds in Japan. However foreign influences came to be negatively perceived towards the end of the Tang Dynasty. In the year 845, the Tang emperor Wu‐Tsung outlawed all ʺforeignʺ religions (including Christian Nestorianism, Zoroastrianism, and Buddhism) in order to support the indigenous Taoism. Throughout his territory, he confiscated Buddhist possessions, destroyed monasteries and temples, and executed Buddhist monks, ending Buddhismʹs cultural and intellectual dominance. Pure Land and Chan Buddhism, however, continued to prosper for some centuries, the latter giving rise to Japanese Zen. In China, Chan flourished particularly under the Song dynasty (1127–1279), when its monasteries were great centers of culture and learning. Today, China boasts one of the richest collections of Buddhist arts and heritages in the world. UNESCO World Heritage Sites such as the Mogao Caves near Dunhuang in Gansu province, the Longmen Grottoes near Luoyang in Henan province, the Yungang Grottoes near Datong in Shanxi province, and the Dazu Rock Carvings near Chongqing are among the most important and renowned Buddhist sculptural sites. The Leshan Giant Buddha, carved out of a hillside in the 8th century during Tang Dynasty and looking down on the confluence of three rivers, is still the largest stone Buddha statue in the world. e) Korea Buddhism was introduced around 372 CE, when Chinese ambassadors visited the Korean kingdom of Goguryeo, bringing scriptures and images. Buddhism prospered in Korea, and in particular Seon (Zen) Buddhism from the 7th century onward. However, with the beginning of the Confucean Yi Dynasty of the Joseon period in 1392, Buddhism was strongly discriminated against until it was almost completely eradicated, except for a remaining Seon movement. 41
f) Japan Tile with seated Buddha, Nara Prefecture, Asuka period, 7th century. Tokyo National Museum. Japan discovered Buddhism in the 6th century when Korean monks traveled to the islands together with numerous scriptures and works of art. The Buddhist religion was adopted by the state in the following century. Being geographically at the end of the Silk Road, Japan was able to preserve many aspects of Buddhism at the very time it was disappearing in India, and being suppressed in Central Asia and China. From 710 CE numerous temples and monasteries were built in the capital city of Nara, such as the five‐story pagoda and Golden Hall of the Horyuji, or the Kofuku‐ji temple. Countless paintings and sculptures were made, often under governmental sponsorship. The creation of Japanese Buddhist art was especially rich between the 8th and 13th century during the periods of Nara, Heian, and Kamakura. From the 12th and 13th, a further development was Zen art, following the introduction of the faith by Dogen and Eisai upon their return from China. Zen art is mainly characterized by original paintings (such as sumi‐e and the Enso) and poetry (especially haikus), striving to express the true essence of the world through impressionistic and unadorned ʺnon‐dualisticʺ representations. The search for enlightenment ʺin the momentʺ also led to the development of other important derivative arts such as the Chanoyu tea ceremony or the Ikebana art of flower arrangement. This evolution went as far as considering almost any human activity as an art with a strong spiritual and aesthetic content, first and foremost in those activities related to combat techniques (martial arts). Buddhism remains very active in Japan to this day. Around 80,000 Buddhist temples are preserved and regularly restored. 42
3_South‐East Asia Statue of the Bodhisattva Lokesvara, Cambodia, 12th century. During the 1st century CE, the trade on the overland Silk Road tended to be restricted by the rise in the Middle‐East of the Parthian empire, an unvanquished enemy of Rome, just as Romans were becoming extremely wealthy and their demand for Asian luxury was rising. This demand revived the sea connections between the Mediterranean and China, with India as the intermediary of choice. From that time, through trade connection, commercial settlements, and even political interventions, India started to strongly influence Southeast Asian countries. Trade routes linked India with southern Burma, central and southern Siam, lower Cambodia and southern Vietnam, and numerous urbanized coastal settlements were established there. For more than a thousand years, Indian influence was therefore the major factor that brought a certain level of cultural unity to the various countries of the region. The Pali and Sanskrit languages and the Indian script, together with Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism, Brahmanism, and Hinduism, were transmitted from direct contact and through sacred texts and Indian literature such as the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. From the 5th to the 13th century, South‐East Asia had very powerful empires and became extremely active in Buddhist architectural and artistic creation. The main Buddhist influence now came directly by sea from the Indian subcontinent, so that these empires essentially followed the Mahayana faith. The Sri Vijaya Empire to the south and the Khmer Empire to the north competed for influence, and their art expressed the rich Mahayana pantheon of the Bodhisattvas. 43
Cambodian Buddha, 14th century. b) Vietnam Buddhism in Vietnam is Buddhism that had been localized to Vietnam from India and later replaced with Buddhism from China. Vietnamese Buddhism has many characteristics different from Buddhism practiced in other countries. Buddhism is the most influential religion in Vietnam, with about 80 percent of Vietnamese being Buddhists. The number of practicing Buddhists numbers about three million, those who frequently visit Buddhist temples and participate in Buddhist ceremonies number about thirty million, and those living under the influence of Buddhism number in the tens of millions Formation and spread Buddhism was imported into Vietnam fairly early, at around the beginning of the Common Era with the legend of Chử Ðồng Tử studying Buddhism from an Indian monk. Luy Lâu (in Bắc Ninh Province), the capital of Giao Chỉ soon became an important center of Buddhism. Legends about Thạch Quang Phật and Man Nương Phật Mẫu appeared with the teachings of Ksudra in around 168‐189. Because Buddhism was imported directly from India, the word Buddha was directly imported into Vietnamese as Bụt, still in use in many folk tales. At that time, Vietnamese Buddhism was influenced by Theravada Buddhism, and Bụt was seen as a deity who helps good people and punishes bad people. In the 4‐5th centuries, because of influence of Mahayana Buddhism from China, the word bụt gradually lost its Buddhist meaning and was replaced by Phật from the Chinese pronunciation of Buddha. Buddhism took roots in Vietnam very early. Lý Nam Đế (who became king in 544) was also known by the name Lý Phật Tử (Lý the Buddhist). In the Ly and Tran dynasties, Buddhism developed rapidly, was seen as the state religion, and influenced 44
all aspects of life. In the Le Dynasty, Confucianism replaced Buddhism as state religion and Buddhism entered a period of decadence. At the beginning of the 18th century, King Quang Trung took efforts to revive Buddhism by building and renovating temples, but died before accomplishing his goals. In the 20th century, although strongly influenced by the process of Westernization, Buddhism experienced a resurgence, beginning in the southern cities with important contributions from the monks Khánh Hoà and Thiện Chiếu. c) Srivijayan empire (5th–15th century) Srivijaya, a maritime empire centered at Palembang on the island of Sumatra in Indonesia, adopted Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism under a line of rulers named the Sailendras. Yijing described Palembang as a great centre of Buddhist learning where the emperor supported over a thousand monks at his court. Atisha studied there before travelling to Tibet as a missionary. Sriviijaya spread Buddhist art during its expansion in Southeast Asia. Numerous statues of Bodhisattvas from this period are characterized by a very strong refinement and technical sophistication, and are found throughout the region. Extremely rich architectural remains are visible at the temple of Borobudur (the largest Buddhist structure in the world, built from around 780 CE), in Java, which has 505 images of the seated Buddha. Srivijaya declined due to conflicts with the Chola rulers of India, before being destabilized by the Islamic expansion from the 13th century. c) Khmer Empire (9th – 13th century) Later, from the 9th to the 13th century, the Mahayana Buddhist and Hindu Khmer Empire dominated much of the South‐East Asian peninsula. Under the Khmer, more than 900 temples were built in Cambodia and in neighboring Thailand. Angkor was at the center of this development, with a temple complex and urban organization able to support around one million urban dwellers. One of the greatest Khmer kings, Jayavarman VII (1181–1219), built large Mahayana Buddhist structures at Bayon and Angkor Thom. Following the destruction of Buddhism in mainland India during the 11th century, Mahayana Buddhism declined in Southeast Asia, to be replaced by the introduction of Theravada Buddhism from Sri Lanka. 45
8) Emergence of the Vajrayana ( 5th century) Vajrayāna Buddhism, also called Tantric Buddhism, first emerged in eastern India between the 5th and 7th centuries CE. It is sometimes considered a sub‐school of Mahayana and sometimes a third major ʺvehicleʺ (Yana) of Buddhism in its own right. The Vajrayana is an extension of Mahayana Buddhism in that it does not offer new philosophical perspectives, but rather introduces additional techniques (upaya, or ʹskilful meansʹ), including the use of visualizations and other yogic practices. Many of the practices of Tantric Buddhism are also derived from Hinduism (the usage of mantras, yoga, or the burning of sacrificial offerings). This school of thought was founded by the Brahmin Padmasambhava. Early Vajrayana practitioners were forest‐dwelling mahasiddas who lived on the margins of society, but by the 9th century Vajrayana had won acceptance at major Mahayana monastic universities such as Nalanda and Vikramshila. Along with much of the rest of Indian Buddhism, the Vajrayana was eclipsed in the wake of the late 12th century Muslim invasions. It has persisted in Tibet, where it was wholly transplanted from the 7th to 12th centuries and became the dominant form of Buddhism to the present day, and on a limited basis in Japan as well where it evolved into Shingon Buddhism. 9) Theravada Renaissance (11th century CE— ) Expansion of Theravada Buddhism from the 11th century CE. From the 11th century, the destruction of Buddhism in the Indian mainland by Islamic invasions led to the decline of the Mahayana faith in South‐East Asia. Continental routes through the Indian subcontinent being compromised, direct sea routes between the Middle‐East through Sri Lanka and to China developed, leading to the adoption of the Theravada Buddhism of the Pali canon, introduced to the region around the 11th century CE from Sri Lanka. King Anawrahta (1044–1077); the historical founder of the Burmese empire, unified the country and adopted the Theravada Buddhist faith. This initiated the creation of thousands of Buddhist temples at Pagan, the capital, between the 11th and 13th century. Around 2,000 of them are still standing. 46
The spread of buddhism from the 5 till the 12 century th
th
The power of the Burmese waned with the rise of the Thai, and with the seizure of the capital Pagan by the Mongols in 1287, but Theravada Buddhism remained the main Burmese faith to this day. The Theravada faith was also adopted by the newly founded ethnic Thai kingdom of Sukhothai around 1260. Theravada Buddhism was further reinforced during the Ayutthaya period (14th–18th century), becoming an integral part of the Thai society. In the continental areas, Theravada Buddhism continued to expand into Laos and Cambodia in the 13th century. However, from the 14th century, on the coastal fringes and in the islands of South‐East Asia, the influence of Islam proved stronger, expanding into Malaysia, Indonesia, and most of the islands as far as the southern Philippines. However, since 1966 with Soehartoʹs rise of power in the aftermath of the bloody events after the so called ʺSeptember 30th, 1965 murdersʺ, allegedly executed by the Communists Party, there has been a remarkable renaissance of Buddhism in Indonesia. This is partly due to the Soehartoʹs New Orderʹs requirements for the people of Indonesia to adopt one of the five official religions: Islam, Protestantism, Catholicism, Hinduism or Buddhism. Today it is estimated there are some 10 millions Buddhists in Indonesia. A large part of them are people of Chinese ancestry. 47
10) Expansion of Buddhism to the West Saint Josaphat preaching Christianity. 12th century Greek manuscript. After the Classical encounters between Buddhism and the West recorded in Greco‐Buddhist art, information and legends about Buddhism seem to have reached the West sporadically. During the 8th century, Buddhist Jataka stories were translated into Syriac and Arabic as Kalilag and Damnag. An account of Buddhaʹs life was translated in to Greek by John of Damascus, and widely circulated to Christians as the story of Barlaam and Josaphat. By the 1300s this story of Josaphat had become so popular that he was made a Catholic saint. The next direct encounter between Europeans and Buddhism happened in Medieval times when the Franciscan friar William of Rubruck was sent on an embassy to the Mongol court of Mongke by the French king Saint Louis in 1253. The contact happened in Cailac (todayʹs Qayaliq in Kazakhstan), and William originally thought they were wayward Christians (Foltz, ʺReligions of the Silk Roadʺ). Major interest for Buddhism emerged during colonial times, when Western powers were in a position to witness the faith and its artistic manifestations in detail. European philosophy was strongly influenced by the study of oriental religions during that period. The opening of Japan in 1853 also created a considerable interest for the arts and culture of Japan, and provided access to one of the most thriving Buddhist cultures in the world. Buddhism started to enjoy a strong interest from the general population in the West during the 20th century, following the perceived failure of social utopias, from Fascism to Marxism. After the Second World War, the focus of progress tended to shift to personal self‐realization, on the material as well as spiritual plane. In this context, Buddhism has been displaying a strong power of attraction, due to its tolerance, its lack of deist authority and determinism, and its focus on understanding reality through self inquiry. According to the latest census it is now the fastest growing religion in Britain. 48
Ashoka the Great From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Allegiance: Ashoka Magadhan Empire Rank: Emperor Succeeded by: Dasaratha Maurya Reign: 273 BC‐232 BC Place of birth: Pataliputra, India Battles/Wars: Kalinga War Emperor Ashoka the Great transliteration: Aśoka, (Imperial title: Devanampiya Piyadassi, Sanskrit for ʺHe who is the beloved of the Gods who, in turn is their loving servantʺ) (304 BC–232 BC) was an Indian emperor, who ruled the Maurya Empire in present‐day eastern India from 273 BC to 232 BC. After a number of military conquests, Ashoka reigned over most of India, South Asia and beyond, from present‐day Afghanistan and parts of Persia in the west, to Bengal and Assam in the east, and as far south as Mysore. A later convert to Buddhism, Ashoka established monuments marking several significant sites in the life of Shakyamuni Buddha, and according to Buddhist tradition was closely involved in the preservation and transmission of Buddhism. The name ʺAshokaʺ means ʺwithout sorrowʺ in Sanskrit. In his edicts he is referred to as ʺDevaanaampriyaʺ or ʺThe Beloved Of The Gods of heavenʺ. Science fiction novelist H.G. Wells wrote of Ashoka: ʺIn the history of the world there have been thousands of kings and emperors who called themselves ʹtheir highnesses,ʹ ʹtheir majesties,ʹ and ʹtheir exalted majestiesʹ and so on. They shone for a brief moment, and as quickly disappeared. But Ashoka shines and shines brightly like a bright star, even unto this day.ʺ His legend is related in the 2nd century CE Ashokavadana (ʺNarrative of Ashokaʺ) and Divyavadana (ʺDivine narrativeʺ). 49
Maurya Empire The Maurya Empire at its largest extent under Ashoka. Imperial Symbol: The Lion Capital of Ashoka Founder Chandragupta Maurya Preceding State(s) Mahajanapadas, mainly Magadha Languages Sanskrit Pali Prakrit Greek (northwest) Aramaic (northwest) Religions Hinduism Jainism Buddhism Capital Pataliputra Head of State Samraat (Emperor) First Emperor Chandragupta Maurya Last Emperor Brhadrata Government Centralized Absolute Monarchy with Divine Right of Kings as described in the Arthashastra Divisions 4 provinces: Tosali Ujjain Suvarnagiri Takshashila Semi‐independent tribes Administration Inner Council of Ministers (Mantriparishad) under a Mahamantri with a larger assembly of ministers Mantrinomantriparisadamca. Extensive network of officials from treasurers (Sannidhatas) to collectors (Samahartas) and clerks (Karmikas).Provincial administration under regional viceroys (Kumara or Aryaputra) with their own Mantriparishads and supervisory officials (Mahamattas).Provinces divided into districts run by lower officials and similar stratification down to individual villages run by headmen and supervised by Imperial officials (Gopas). Area 5 million km² (Southern Asia and parts of Central Asia) Population 50 million [10] (one third of the world population [11]) Currency Silver Ingots (Panas) Existed 322–185 BCE Dissolution Military coup by Pusyamitra Sunga Succeeding state Sunga Empire 50
Contents: 1) Early life 2) Rise to power 1_ Conquest of Kalinga 3) Embrace of Buddhism 1_Policy 2_The Edicts of Ashoka 3_Missions to spread the Dharma/Dhammaʹʹ 4) Relations with the Hellenistic world 1_Greek populations in India 2_Exchange of Ambassadors 3_Buddhist proselytism 4_Marital alliance 5) Historical sources 6) Death and legacy 1_Ashoka and Buddhist Kingship 1) Early life Scene of ʺThe Gift of Dirtʺ, 2nd century Gandhara. The child Jaya, said to be reborn later as Ashoka, offers a gift
of dirt (which, in his game he imagines as food) to the
Buddha, hereby acquiring merit, by which the Buddha
foresees he will rule India and spread the Buddhist faith.
According to Buddhist tradition, described in the 2nd century CE ʺLegend of Ashokaʺ, the birth of Ashoka was foretold by the Buddha, in the story of ʺThe Gift of Dustʺ: ʺA hundred years after my death there will be an emperor named Ashoka in Pataliputra. He will rule one of the four continents and adorn Jambudvipa with my relics building eighty four thousand stupas for the welfare of people. He will have them honored by gods and men. His 51
fame will be widespread. His meritorious gift was just this: Jaya threw a handful of dust into the Tathāgataʹs bowl.ʺ Ashokavadana Following this prophecy, the ʺLegend of Ashokaʺ further states that Ashoka was finally born as the son of the Mauryan Emperor Bindusara by a relatively lower ranked queen named Dharma. Dharma was said to be the daughter of a poor Brahmin who introduced her into the harem of the Emperor as it was predicted that her son would be a great ruler. Although Dharma was of priestly lineage, the fact that she was not royal by birth made her a very low‐status consort in the harem. Ashoka had several elder half‐brothers and just one younger sibling, Vitthashoka, another son of Dharma. The princes were extremely competitive, but young Ashoka excelled in the military and academic disciplines in which the boys were tutored. There was a great deal of sibling rivalry, especially between Ashoka and his brother Susima, both as warriors and as administrators. 2) Rise to power Developing into an impeccable warrior general and a shrewd statesman, Ashoka went on to command several regiments of the Mauryan army. His growing popularity across the empire made his elder brothers wary of his chances of being favoured by Bindusara to become the next emperor. The eldest of them, Prince Susima, the traditional heir to the throne, persuaded Bindusara to send Ashoka to quell an uprising in the city of Takshashila in the north‐west province of Sindh, of which Prince Susima was the governor. Takshashila was a highly volatile place because of the war‐like Indo‐Greek population and mismanagement by Susima himself. This had led to the formation of different militias causing unrest. Ashoka complied and left for the troubled area. As news of Ashokaʹs visit with his army trickled in, he was welcomed by the revolting militias and the uprising ended without a fight. (The province revolted once more during the rule of Ashoka, but this time the uprising was crushed with an iron fist). Ashokaʹs success made his half‐brothers more wary of his intentions of becoming the emperor, and more incitements from Susima led Bindusara to send Ashoka into exile. He went into Kalinga and stayed incognito there. There he met a fisherwoman named Kaurwaki, with whom he fell in love; recently found inscriptions indicate that she went on to become his second or third queen. Meanwhile, there again was a violent uprising in Ujjain. Emperor Bindusara summoned Ashoka back after an exile of two years. Ashoka went into Ujjain and in the ensuing battle was injured, but his generals quelled the uprising. Ashoka was treated in hiding so that loyalists in Susimaʹs camp could not harm him. He was treated by Buddhist monks and nuns. This is where he first learned the teachings of the Buddha, and it is also where he met the beautiful Devi, who was his personal nurse and the daughter of a merchant from adjacent Vidisha. After recovering, he married her. Ashoka, at this time, was already married to Asandhimitra who was to be his much‐loved chief queen for many years till her death. She seems to have stayed on in Pataliputra all her life. 52
The following year passed quite peacefully for him and Devi was about to deliver his first child. In the meantime, Emperor Bindusara took ill and was on his death‐bed. A clique of ministers lead by Radhagupta, who hated Susima, summoned Ashoka to take the crown, though Bindusara preferred Susima. As the Buddhist lore goes, in a fit of rage Prince Ashoka attacked Pataliputra (modern day Patna), and killed all his brothers, including Susima, and threw their bodies into a well in Pataliputra. It is not known if Bindusara was already dead at this time. At that stage of his life, many called him Chanda Ashoka meaning murderer and heartless Ashoka. The Buddhist legends paint a gory picture of his sadistic activities at this time. Most are unbelievable, and must be read as supporting background to highlight the transformation in Ashoka which Buddhism brought about later. Ascending the throne, Ashoka expanded his empire over the next eight years: it grew to encompass an area extending from the present‐day boundaries of Bangladesh and the Indian state of Assam, in the east, to the territory of present‐day Iran and Afghanistan, in the west, and from the Pamir Knots in the north almost to the peninsular tip of southern India. At that stage of his life, he was called Chakravarti which literally translates to ʺhe for whom the wheel of law turnsʺ (broadly meaning the emperor). Around this time, his Buddhist queen Devi gave birth to two children, Prince Mahindra and Princess Sanghamitra. 1_Conquest of Kalinga Fragment of the 6th Pillar Edicts of Ashoka (238 BCE), In Brahmi, sandstones. British Museum. The early part of Ashokaʹs reign was apparently quite bloodthirsty. Ashoka was constantly on the war campaign, conquering territory after territory and significantly expanding the already large Mauryan empire and adding to his wealth. His last conquest was the state of Kalinga on the east coast of India in the present‐day state of Orissa. Kalinga prided itself on its sovereignty and democracy; with its monarchical‐
parliamentary democracy, it was quite an exception in ancient Bharata, as there existed the concept of Rajdharma, meaning the duty of the rulers, which was intrinsically entwined with the concept of bravery and Kshatriya dharma. The pretext for the start of the Kalinga War (265 BC or 263 BC) is uncertain. One of Ashokaʹs brothers ‐ and probably a supporter of Susima ‐ might have fled to Kalinga and found official refuge there. This enraged Ashoka immensely. He was advised by his ministers to attack Kalinga for this act of treachery. Ashoka then asked Kalingaʹs royalty to submit before his supremacy. When they defied this diktat, Ashoka sent one of his generals to Kalinga to make them submit. 53
The general and his forces were, however, completely routed through the skilled tactics of Kalingaʹs commander‐in‐chief. Ashoka, baffled by this defeat, attacked with the greatest invasion ever recorded in Indian history until then. Kalinga put up a stiff resistance, but they were no match for Ashokaʹs powerful armies, superior weapons and experienced generals and soldiers. The whole of Kalinga was plundered and destroyed: Ashokaʹs later edicts say that about 100,000 people were killed on the Kalinga side and 10,000 from Ashokaʹs army; thousands of men and women were deported. 3) Embrace of Buddhism The Ashoka Chakra, featured on the flag of the Republic of India As the legend goes, one day after the war was over Ashoka ventured out to roam the eastern city and all he could see were burnt houses and scattered corpses. This sight made him sick and he cried the famous quotation, ʺWhat have I done?ʺ Upon his return to Paliputra, he could, acccording to legends, get no sleep and was constantly haunted by his deeds in Kalinga. The brutality of the conquest led him to adopt Buddhism under the guidance of the Brahmin Buddhist sages Radhaswami and Manjushri and he used his position to propagate the relatively new philosophy to new heights, as far as ancient Rome and Egypt. When the war against Kalinga ended, Asokaʹs warriors had killed over 100,000 people. He was filled with sorrow. He gave up war and violence being almost the exact opposite of his grandfather, Chandragupta. He freed his prisoners and gave them back their land. As legend goes, there was also another factor that lead Ashoka to Buddhism. A Mauryan princess who had been married to one of Ashokaʹs brothers (who Ashoka executed) fled her palace with a maid, fearing for her unborn child. After much travel, the pregnant princess collapsed under a tree in the forest, and the maid ran to a nearby ashram to fetch a priest or physician to help. Meanwhile, under the tree, the princess gave birth to a son. The young prince was brought up by the Brahmins of the ashram and educated by them. Later, when he was around thirteen years old, he caught the eye of Ashoka, who was surprised to see such a young boy dressed as a sage. When the boy calmly revealed who he was, it seemed that Ashoka was moved by guilt and compassion, and moved the boy and his mother into the palace. 54
The Sanchi stupa in Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh built by emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BC Meanwhile Queen Devi, who was a Buddhist, had brought up her children in that faith, and apparently left Ashoka after she saw the horrors of Kalinga. Ashoka was grieved by this, and was counselled by his nephew (who had been raised in the ashram and was more priest than prince) to embrace his dharma and draw away from war. Prince Mahindra and Princess Sanghamitra, the children of Queen Devi, abhorred violence and bloodshed, but knew that as royals war would be a part of their lives. They therefore asked Ashoka for permission to join the Buddhist monks, which Ashoka reluctantly granted. The two siblings established Buddhism in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka). From that point Ashoka, who had been described as ʺthe cruel Ashokaʺ (Chandashoka), started to be described as ʺthe pious Ashokaʺ (Dharmashoka). He propagated the Vibhajjavada school of Buddhism and preached it within his domain and worldwide from about 250 BC. Emperor Ashoka undoubtedly has to be credited with the first serious attempt to develop a Buddhist policy. 1_Policy Emperor Ashoka built thousands of Stupas and Viharas for Buddhist followers (the Ashokavadana says 84,000 such monuments were built). The Stupas of Sanchi are world famous and the stupa named Sanchi Stupa 1 was built by Emperor Ashoka. During the remaining portion of Ashokaʹs reign, he pursued an official policy of nonviolence or ahimsa. Even the unnecessary slaughter or mutilation of animals was immediately abolished. Wildlife became protected by the kingʹs law against sport hunting and branding. Limited hunting was permitted for consumption reasons but Ashoka also promoted the concept of vegetarianism. Enormous resthouses were built through the empire to house travellers and pilgrims free of charge. Ashoka also showed mercy to those imprisoned, allowing them outside one day each year. He attempted to raise the professional ambition of the common man by building universities for study and water transit and irrigation systems for trade and 55
agriculture. He treated his subjects as equals regardless of their religion, politics and caste. The weaker kingdoms surrounding his, which could so easily be overthrown, were instead made to be well‐respected allies. In all these respects, Ashoka far exceeded even modern‐day world leaders. He is acclaimed for constructing hospitals for animals and people alike, and renovating major roads throughout India. Dharmashoka defined the main principles of dharma (dhamma in Pāli) as nonviolence, tolerance of all sects and opinions, obedience to parents, respect for the Brahmins and other religious teachers and priests, liberal towards friends, humane treatment of servants, and generosity towards all. These principles suggest a general ethic of behavior to which no religious or social group could object. 2_The Edicts of Ashoka The Ashoka Pillar at Sarnath is the most popular of the relics left by Ashoka. Made of sandstone, this pillar records the visit of the emperor to Sarnath, in the 3rd century BC. It has a four‐lion capital (four lions standing back to back) which was adopted as the emblem of the modern Indian republic. The lion symbolises both Ashokaʹs imperial rule and the kingship of the Buddha. In translating these monuments, historians learn the bulk of what is assumed to have been true fact of the Maurya Empire. It is difficult to determine whether certain events ever happened, but the stone etchings depict clearly of how Ashoka wanted to be thought and how he wanted to be remembered. Ashokaʹs own words as known from his Edicts are: ʺAll men are my children. I am like a father to them. As every father desires the good and the happiness of his children, I wish that all men should be happy always. ʺ Edward DʹCruz interprets the Ashokan dharma as a ʺreligion to be used as a symbol of a new imperial unity and a cementing force to weld the diverse and heterogeneous elements of the empireʺ. 56
3_Missions to spread the Dharma/Dhammaʹʹ Ashoka was the sponsor of the third buddhist council of Vibhajjavada (current Theravada) buddhism. After this council he sent buddhist monks to spread this religion to other countries, which were known to him at the time. The following table is a list of the countries he sent missionaries to, as described in the Mahavamsa, XII : Country name (1) Kashmir‐Gandhara Name of leader of mission Majjhantika (2) Mahisamandala (Mysore) Mahadeva (3) Vanavasi Rakkhita (4) Aparantaka (Gujarat and Sindh) The Yona Dhammarakkhita (5) Maharattha Mahadhammarakkhita (Bactria/ Seleucid Empire) Maharakkhita (7) Himavanta (Nepal) Majjhima Sona and Uttara Mahamahinda (Asokaʹs son) (6) ʺCountry of the Yonaʺ (8) Suvannabhumi (Thailand/ Myanmar) (9) Lankadipa (Sri Lanka) Regarding the ʺCountry of the Yonaʺ, Ashoka further specifies in his Edict No 13 (quoted hereafter), that most Hellenistic rulers of the period (Antiochus II Theos, Ptolemy II Philadelphus, Antigonus Gonatas, Magas of Cyrene and Alexander II of Epirus) received the teaching of the ʺDharmaʺ. In the same Edict, Ashoka also adds the Cholas and the Pandyas as recipient of the faith. 4) Relations with the Hellenistic world Greek Late Archaic style capital from Patna
(Pataliputra), thought to correspond to the reign of
Ashoka, 3rd century BCE, Patna Museum. Some critics say that Ashoka was afraid of more wars, but among his neighbors, including the Seleucid Empire and the Greco‐Bactrian kingdom established by Diodotus I, none seem to have ever come into conflict with him ‐ though the latter eventually conquered at various times western territories in India, but only after the 57
empireʹs actual collapse. He was a contemporary of both Antiochus I Soter and his successor Antiochus II Theos of the Seleucid Dynasty as well as Diodotus I and his son Diodotus II of the Greco‐Bactrian kingdom. If his inscriptions and edicts are well studied, one finds that he was familiar with the Hellenistic world but never in awe of it. The Edicts of Ashoka, which talk of friendly relations, give the names of both Antiochus of the Seleucid empire and Ptolemy III of Egypt. But the fame of the Mauryan empire was widespread from the time that Ashokaʹs grandfather Chandragupta Maurya met Seleucus Nicator, the founder of the Seleucid Dynasty, and engineered their celebrated peace. Chandragupta even supplied 500 elephants to Seleucus, which were critical to his success in his conflict with the Western dynast Antigonus, in exchange for peace (a state that would endure for as long as the Mauryan Empire existed, and was even renewed during the Eastern campaigns of Antiochus III the Great) and the latterʹs territories in India. 1_Greek populations in India Greek populations apparently remained in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent under Ashokaʹs rule. In his Edicts of Ashoka, set in stone, some of them written in Greek, Ashoka describes that Greek populations within his realm converted to Buddhism: ʺHere in the kingʹs domain among the Greeks, the Kambojas, the Nabhakas, the Nabhapamkits, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, the Andhras and the Palidas, everywhere people are following Beloved‐of‐the‐Godsʹ instructions in Dharma.ʺ Rock Edict Nb13 (S. Dhammika). Bilingual edict (Greek and Aramaic) by king Ashoka,
from Kandahar ‐ Afghan National Museum. Fragments of Edict 13 have been found in Greek, and a full Edict, written in both Greek and Aramaic has been discovered in Kandahar. It is said to be written in excellent Classical Greek, using sophisticated philosophical terms. In this Edict, Ashoka uses the word Eusebeia (ʺPietyʺ) as the Greek translation for the ubiquitous ʺDharmaʺ of his other Edicts written in Prakrit: ʺTen years (of reign) having been completed, King Piodasses (Ashoka) made known (the doctrine of) Piety (εὐσέβεια, Eusebeia) to men; and from this moment he has made men more pious, and everything thrives throughout the whole world. And the king abstains from (killing) living beings, and other men and those who 58
(are) huntsmen and fishermen of the king have desisted from hunting. And if some (were) intemperate, they have ceased from their intemperance as was in their power; and obedient to their father and mother and to the elders, in opposition to the past also in the future, by so acting on every occasion, they will live better and more happily.ʺ (Trans. by G.P. Carratelli ) 2_Exchange of Ambassadors Ptolemy II Philadelphus, the ruler of Ptolemaic Egypt and contemporary of Ashoka, is recorded by Pliny the Elder as having sent an ambassador named Dionysius to the Mauryan court at Pataliputra in India: ʺBut [India] has been treated of by several other Greek writers who resided at the courts of Indian kings, such, for instance, as Megasthenes, and by Dionysius, who was sent thither by Philadelphus, expressly for the purpose: all of whom have enlarged upon the power and vast resources of these nations.ʺ Pliny the Elder, ʺThe Natural Historyʺ, Chap. 21 3_Buddhist proselytism Buddhist proselytism at the time of king Ashoka (260‐218 BCE), according to his Edicts. Also, in the Edicts of Ashoka, Ashoka mentions the Hellenistic kings of the period as a recipient of his Buddhist proselytism, although no Western historical record of this event remain: ʺThe conquest by Dharma has been won here, on the borders, and even six hundred yojanas (5,400‐9,600 km) away, where the Greek king Antiochos rules, beyond there where the four kings named Ptolemy, Antigonos, Magas and Alexander rule, likewise in the south among the Cholas, the Pandyas, and as far as Tamraparni (Sri Lanka).ʺ (Edicts of Ashoka, 13th Rock Edict, S. Dhammika). Ashoka also claims that he encouraged the development of herbal medicine, for men and animals, in their territories: ʺEverywhere within Beloved‐of‐the‐Gods, King Piyadasiʹs [Ashokaʹs] domain, and among the people beyond the borders, the Cholas, the Pandyas, the Satiyaputras, the Keralaputras, as far as Tamraparni and where the Greek king Antiochos rules, and among the kings who are neighbors of Antiochos, everywhere has Beloved‐of‐the‐Gods, King Piyadasi, made provision for two types of medical treatment: medical treatment for humans and medical treatment for animals. Wherever medical herbs suitable for humans or animals are not available, I have had them imported and grown. Wherever medical roots or fruits are not available I have had them imported and grown. Along 59
roads I have had wells dug and trees planted for the benefit of humans and animals.ʺ 2nd Rock Edict The Greeks in India even seem to have played an active role in the propagation of Buddhism, as some of the emissaries of Ashoka, such as Dharmaraksita, are described in Pali sources as leading Greek (ʺYonaʺ) Buddhist monks, active in Buddhist proselytism (the Mahavamsa, XII ). 4_Marital alliance A ʺmarital allianceʺ had been concluded between Seleucus and Ashokaʹs grandfather Chandragupta in 303 BCE: ʺHe (Seleucus) crossed the Indus and waged war with Sandrocottus [Maurya], king of the Indians, who dwelt on the banks of that stream, until they came to an understanding with each other and contracted a marriage relationship.ʺ Appian, History of Rome, The Syrian Wars 55 The term used in ancient sources (Epigamia) could refer either to a dynastic alliance between the Seleucids and the Mauryas, or more generally to a recognition of marriage between Indian and Greeks. Since there are no records of an Indian princess in the abundant Classical litterature on the Seleucid, it is generally thought that the alliance went the other way around, and that a Seleucid princess may have been bethrothed to the Mauryan Dynasty. This practice in itself was quite common in the Hellenistic world to formalize alliances. There is thus a possibility that Ashoka was partly of Hellenic descent, either from his grandmother if Chandragupta married the Seleucid princess, of from his mother if Chandraguptaʹs son, Bindusura, was the object of the marriage. This remains a hypothesis as there are no known more detailed descriptions of the exact nature of the marital alliance, although this is quite symptomatic of the generally good relationship between the Hellenistic world and Ashoka. Silver punch‐mark coins of the Mauryan empire, bear Buddhist
symbols such as the Dharmacakra, the elephant (previous form of the
Buddha), the tree under which enlightenment happened, and the
burial mound where the Buddha died (obverse). 3rd century BC.
60
Buddhism in India till the 8th century 61
Ashokaʹs first rock inscription at Girnar 5) Historical sources ʺThe legend of King Asoka, A study and translation of the Asokavadanaʺ, John Strong, Princeton Library of Asian translations. Information about the life and reign of Ashoka primarily comes from a relatively small number of Buddhist sources. In particular, the Sanskrit Ashokavadana (ʹStory of Ashokaʹ), written in the 2nd century, and the two Pāli chronicles of Sri Lanka (the Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa) provide most of the currently known information about Asoka. Additional information is contributed by the Edicts of Asoka, whose authorship was finally attributed to the Ashoka of Buddhist legend after the discovery of dynastic lists that gave the name used in the edicts (Priyadarsi – meaning ʹfavored by the Godsʹ) as a title or additional name of Ashoka Mauriya. The use of Buddhist sources in reconstructing the life of Ashoka has had a strong influence on perceptions of Ashoka, and the interpretations of his edicts. Building on traditional accounts, early scholars regarded Ashoka as a primarily Buddhist monarch who underwent a conversion to Buddhism and was actively engaged in sponsoring and supporting the Buddhist monastic institution. Later scholars have tended to question this assessment. The only source of information not attributable to Buddhist sources – the Ashokan edicts – make only a few references to Buddhism directly, despite many references to the concept of dhamma (Sanskrit: dharma). Some interpreters have seen this as an indication that Ashoka was attempting to craft an inclusive, poly‐religious civil religion for his empire that was centered on the concept of dharma as a positive moral force, but which did not embrace or advocate any particular philosophy attributable to the religious movements of Ashokaʹs age (such as the Hindus, Jains, Buddhists, and Ajivikas). Most likely, the complex religious environment of the age would have required careful diplomatic management in order to avoid provoking religious unrest. Modern scholars and adherents of the traditional Buddhist perspective both tend to agree that Ashokaʹs rule was marked by tolerance towards a number of religious faiths. 62
The Emblem of India is a replica of Ashoka Pillar 6) Death and legacy Ashoka ruled for an estimated forty years, and after his death, the Maurya dynasty lasted just fifty more years. Ashoka had many wives and children, but their names are lost to time. Mahindra and Sanghamitra were twins born by his fourth wife, Devi, in the city of Ujjain. He had entrusted to them the job of making his state religion, Buddhism, more popular across the known and the unknown world. Mahindra and Sanghamitra went into Sri Lanka and converted the King, the Queen and their people to Buddhism. So they were naturally not the ones handling state affairs after him. In his old age, he seems to have come under the spell of his youngest wife Tishyaraksha. It is said that she had got his son Kunala, the regent in Takshashila, blinded by a wily stratagem. But the official executioners spared Kunala and he became a wandering singer accompanied by his favourite wife Kanchanmala. In Pataliputra, Ashoka hears Kunalaʹs song, and realizes that Kunalʹs misfortune may have been a punishment for some past sin of the emperor himself and condemns Tishyaraksha to death, restoring Kunal to the court. Kunala was succeeded by his son, Samprati. But his rule did not last long after Ashokaʹs death. The reign of Ashoka Maurya could easily have disappeared into history as the ages passed by, and would have, if he had not left behind a record of his trials. The testimony of this wise king was discovered in the form of magnificently sculpted pillars and boulders with a variety of actions and teachings he wished to be published etched into the stone. What Ashoka left behind was the first written language in India since the ancient city of Harappa. Rather than Sanskrit, the language used for inscription was the current spoken form called Prakrit. In the year 185 BC, about fifty years after Ashokaʹs death, the last Maurya ruler, Brhadrata, was brutally murdered by the commander‐in‐chief of the Mauryan armed forces, Pusyamitra Sunga, while he was taking the Guard of Honor of his forces. Pusyamitra Sunga founded the Sunga dynasty (185 BC‐78 BC) and ruled just a fragmented part of the Mauryan Empire. Much of the northwestern territories of the 63
Mauryan Empire (modern‐day Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan) became the Indo‐Greek Kingdom. Not until some 2,000 years later under Akbar the Great and his great‐grandson Aurangzeb would as large a portion of the subcontinent as that ruled by Ashoka again be united under a single ruler. When India gained independence from the British Empire it adopted Ashokaʹs emblem for its own, placing the Dharmachakra(The Wheel of Righteous Duty) that crowned his many columns on the flag of the newly independent state. 1_Ashoka and Buddhist Kingship One of the more enduring legacies of Ashoka Maurya was the model that he provided for the relationship between Buddhism and the state. Throughout Theravada Southeastern Asia, the model of rulership embodied by Ashoka replaced the notion of divine kingship that had previously dominated (in the Angkor kingdom, for instance). Under this model of ʹBuddhist kingshipʹ, the king sought to legitimize his rule not through descent from a divine source, but by supporting and earning the approval of the Buddhist sangha. Following Ashokaʹs example, kings established monasteries, funded the construction of stupas, and supported the ordination of monks in their kingdom. Many rulers also took an active role in resolving disputes over the status and regulation of the sangha, as Ashoka had in calling a conclave to settle a number of contentious issues during his reign. This development ultimately lead to a close association in many Southeast Asian countries between the monarchy and the religious hierarchy, an association that can still be seen today in the state‐supported Buddhism of Thailand and the traditional role of the Thai king as both a religious and secular leader. Ashoka also said that all his courtiers were true to their self and governed the people in a moral manner 64
Kanishka From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Gold coin of Kanishka I (c.120 AD). Kanishka standing, clad in heavy Kushan coat and long boots, flames emanating from shoulders, holding standard in his left hand, and making a sacrifice over an altar. Kushan‐language legend in Greek script (with the addition of the Kushanʺshʺ letter): ŚΑΟΝΑΝΟŚΑΟ ΚΑΝΗŚΚΙ ΚΟŚΑΝΟ (ʺShaonanoshao Kanishki Koshanoʺ): ʺKing of Kings, Kanishka the Kushanʺ. Kanishka was a king of the Kushan Empire in South Asia, in the 2nd century of the common era, famous for his military, political, and spiritual achievements. His capital was at the location of the modern city of Peshawar in Pakistan. Contents: 1) A great Kushan king 2) Conquests in India and Central Asia 3) Kanishkaʹs coinage 1_Hellenistic phase 2_Iranian/Indian phase 4) Kanishka and Buddhism 1_Buddhist coinage a) The Buddha b) The ʺShakyamuni Buddhaʺ c) The ʺMaitreya Buddhaʺ 2_Kanishka casket 3_Kanishka in Buddhist tradition 4_Transmission of Buddhism to China 65
Copper coin of the Tarim Basin, area of Khotan, 1st‐2nd century CE. Obv: Chinese characters: LUH TCHU TSIEN ʺSix tchu (of) moneyʺ Rev: Depiction of a horse. Prakrit legend in Kharoshthi script: GUGRAMAYA. 1) A great Kushan king Kanishka was a Kushan of Yuezhi ethnicity. He probably spoke an Indo‐
European language related to Tocharian, and he used the Greek script in his inscriptions. Kanishka was the successor of Vima Kadphises, as demonstrated by an impressive geneaology of the Kushan kings, known as the Rabatak inscription.[1] [2] A number of legends about Kanishka were preserved in Buddhist religious traditions. Along with the Indian king Ashoka, the Indo‐Greek king Menander I (Milinda), and Harshavardhana, he is considered by Buddhists to have been one of the greatest Buddhist kings. Kanishkaʹs era is now generally accepted to have begun in 127 CE on the basis of Harry Falkʹs ground‐breaking research.[3] [4] Kanishkaʹs era was used as a calendar reference by the Kushans for about a century, until the decline of the Kushan realm. 2) Conquests in India and Central Asia Kanishkaʹs empire was certainly vast. It extended from the Oxus in the west to Varanasi and Mathura in the east (the Rabatak inscription even claims he held Pataliputra), and from Kashmir in the North to the coast of Gujarat in the south, including Malwa. Knowledge of his hold over Central Asia is less well established. Chinese records indicate that general Ban Chao fought battles with a Kushan army of 70,000 men led by an otherwise unknown Kushan Viceroy named Xie (Chinese: ) near Khotan in 90 CE. Though Ban Chao claimed to be victorious, forcing the Kushans to retreat by use of a scorched‐earth policy the region fell to Kushan forces in the early 2nd century. As a result, for a period (until the Chinese regained control c. 127 CE) [6] the territory of the Kushans extended to Kashgar, Khotan and Yarkand, which were Chinese dependencies in the Tarim Basin, modern Xinjiang. Several coins of Kanishka have been found in the Tarim Basin. Controlling both the land and sea trade routes between South Asia and Rome seems to have been one of Kanishkaʹs chief imperial goals. 66
3) Kanishkaʹs coinage Gold coin of Kanishka I with the Hellenistic divinity Helios. (c.120 AD). Obv: Kanishka standing, clad in heavy Kushan coat and long boots, flames emanating from shoulders, holding standard in his left hand, and making a sacrifice over an altar. Greek legend ΒΑSΙΛΕΥS ΒΑSΙΛΕΩΝ ΚΑΝΗSΚΟΥ ʺKing of Kings Kanishkaʺ. Rev: Standing Helios in Hellenistic style, forming a benediction gesture with the right hand. Legend in Greek script: ΗΛΙΟSʺHeliosʺ. Kanishka monogram (tamgha) to the left. Kanishkaʹs coins show Hindu, Buddhist, Greek, Persian and even Sumerian‐
Elamite images of gods. They are demonstrative of religious syncretism in his beliefs. Kanishkaʹs coins at the beginning of his reign were written in the Greek language, with the Greek script, and depicted Greek divinities. Later in his reign, Kanishka ordered that the Bactrian language be used (the Iranian language the Kushans apparently spoke), and Greek divinities were replaced by corresponding Iranian ones. All of Kanishkaʹs coins (even the Bactrian language) were written in corrupted Greek script, with the addition of the Kushan letter Ś, pronounced ʺShʺ, as in the word ʺKushanʺ. Kanishka is shown as a profusely bearded man in a long coat and trousers, with flames emanating from his shoulders. He wears large rounded boots, and is armed with a long sword similar to a scimitar as well as a lance. He is often shown making a sacrifice on a small altar. 1_Hellenistic phase A few coins at the beginning of his reign have a legend in the Greek language and Greek script: ΒΑSΙΛΕΥS ΒΑSΙΛΕΩΝ ΚΑΝΗSΚΟΥ (ʺBasileus Basileon Kanishkouʺ): ʺKing of Kings Kanishkaʺ. This is a heretoforth unknown form in Greek, which is nevertheless proper grammatically (nominative form), indicating that Greek was still a ʺlivingʺ language among the Kushans at that time. Greek deities, with Greek names are represented on these early coins: ΗΛΙΟS (Sun god Helios), ΗΦΑΗSΤΟS (Fire god Hephaistos), SΑΛΗΝΗ (Moon god Selene), ΑΝΗΜΟS (Wind god Anemos) 67
2_Iranian/Indian phase Kushan Carnelian seal representing the Iranian divinity Adsho (ʺΑΘ Οʺ legend in Greek letters), with triratana symbol left, and Kanishkaʹs dynastic mark right. The divinity uses stirrups. Following the transition to the Bactrian language on coins, numerous Iranian divinities were adopted in replacement (and extension) of Greek ones: ∙ ΜΑΟ (Moon god Mao), ΟΑΔΟ (Wind god Oado) ∙ ΜΙΘΡΟ (ʺMitroʺ, Mithra), ΜΙΙΡΟ, ΜΙΟΡΟ, ΜΙΥΡΟ ∙ ΝΑΝΑ, ΝΑΝΑΙΑ, ΜΑΝΑΟΒΑΓΟ, ΝΑΝΑŚΑΟ ∙ ΛΡΟΟΑŚΠΟ, ΦΑΡΡΟ, ΟΡΑΛΑΓΝΟ, ΑΘŚΟ, ΑΡΔΟΧŚΟ, ΜΟΖΔΟΟΑΝΟ, ΦΑΡΡΟ Only a few Indian divinities were used as well: ∙ ΒΟΔΔΟ (ʺBoddoʺ, the name of the Buddha in its Greek form), ŚΑΚΑΜΑΝΟ ΒΟΔΔΟ (ʺShakamano Boddhoʺ, the historical Shakyamuni Buddha), ΜΕΤΡΑΓΟ ΒΟΔΔΟ (ʺMetrago Boddoʺ, the bodhisattava Maitreya). ∙ ΟΗŚΟ (ʺOeshoʺ, long considered as the Hindu god Shiva, although recent studies tend to indicate that Oisho is an Iranian god, derived from Herakles, with admittedly many of the attributes of Shiva ) 4) Kanishka and Buddhism Gold coin of Kanishka I with a representation of the Buddha (c.120 AD). Obv: Kanishka standing, clad in heavy Kushan coat and long boots, flames emanating from shoulders, holding standard in his left hand, and making a sacrifice over an altar. Kushan‐
language legend in Greek script (with the addition of the Kushan Ś ʺshʺ letter): ŚΑΟΝΑΝΟŚΑΟ 68
ΚΑΝΗŚΚΙ ΚΟŚΑΝΟ (ʺShaonanoshao Kanishki Koshanoʺ): ʺKing of Kings, Kanishka the Kushanʺ. Rev: Standing Buddha in Hellenistic style, forming the gesture of ʺno fearʺ (abhaya mudra) with his right hand, and holding a pleat of his robe in his left hand. Legend in Greek script: ΒΟΔΔΟ ʺBoddoʺ, for the Buddha. Kanishka monogram (tamgha) to the right. Kanishkaʹs reputation in Buddhist tradition is based mainly on the Buddhist tradition that he convened the 4th Buddhist Council in Kashmir. He provided encouragement to both the Gandhara school of Greco‐Buddhist Art and the Mathura school of Hindu art (An inescapable religious syncretism pervades Kushana rule). Kanishka personally seems to have embraced both Buddhism and the Persian cult of Mithra. His greatest contribution to Buddhist architecture was the Kanishka stupa at Peshawar. Archaeologists rediscovered the base of it in 1908‐1909 ascertained that this stupa had a diameter of 286 feet. Reports of Chinese pilgrims such as Xuan Zang indicate that its height was 600 to 700 (Chinese) ʺfeetʺ (= roughly 180‐210 metres or 591‐
689 ft.) and was covered with jewels. Certainly this immense multi‐storied building ranks among the wonders of the ancient world. Kanishka is said to have been particularly close to the Buddhist scholar Ashvaghosha, who became his religious advisor. 1_Buddhist coinage The Buddhist coins of Kanishka are comparatively very few (well under one percent of all known coins of Kanishka). Several of them display Kanishka himself on the obverse, and the Buddha standing on the reverse, in Hellenistic style. A few also show the Shakyamuni Buddha and Maitreya. Like all coins of Kanishka, their design is rather rough and proportions tend to be imprecise, and the image of the Buddha is slightly corrupted, as seen in the huge oversize ears, and the feet spread apart in the same fashion as the Kushan king, indicating a rather rough imitation of pre‐existing Hellenistic images. Three types of Kanishkaʹs Buddhist coins are known: Known depictions of the ʺBuddhaʺ (with coin legend ΒΟΔΔΟ ʺBoddoʺ) in Kanishkaʹs coinage. 69
a) The Buddha The standing Buddha in Hellenistic style, bearing the mention ʺBoddoʺ in Greek script, holding the left corner of his cloack in his hand, and forming the abhaya mudra. Only six Kushan coins of the Buddha are known (the sixth one is the centerpiece of an ancient piece of jewelry, consisting in a Kanishka Buddha coin decorated with a ring of heart‐shaped ruby stones). All these coins were minted in gold under Kanishka I, but are quite small (about the size of an obol) compared to the other gold coins of Kanishka. Bronze standing Buddha with features similar to those of Kanishkaʹs coins. Gandhara, usually dated 3rd‐4th century. The Buddha is represented wearing the monastic robe, the antaravasaka, the uttarasanga, and the overcoat sanghati. The ears are extremely large and long, a symbolic exageration possibly rendered necessary by the small size of the coins, but otherwise visible in some later Gandharan statues of the Buddha typically dated to the 3rd‐4th century CE. He has an abundant topknot covering the usnisha, often highly stylicized in a curly or often globular manner, also visible on later Buddha statues of Gandhara. In general, the representation of the Buddha on these coins is already highly symbolic, and quite distant from the more naturalistic and Hellenistic images seen in early Gandhara sculptures. On several design, a mustache is apparent. The palm of his right hand bears the Chakra mark, and his brow bear the urna. An aureola, formed by one, two or three lines, surrounds him. 70
b) The ʺShakyamuni Buddhaʺ Depictions of the ʺShakyamuni Buddhaʺ (with legend ŚΑΚΑΜΑΝΟ ΒΟΔΔΟ ʺShakamano Boddoʺ) in Kanishkaʹs coinage. Depictions of ʺMaitreyaʺ (with legend ΜΕΤΡΑΓΟ ΒΟΔΔΟ ʺMetrago Boddoʺ) in Kanishkaʹs coinage. The Shakyamuni Buddha (with the legend ʺSakamano Boudoʺ, ie Shakamuni Buddha, another name for the historic Buddha Siddharta Gautama), standing to front, with left hand on hip and forming the abhaya mudra with the right hand. All these coins are in copper only, and usually rather worn. The gown of the Shakyamuni Buddha is quite light compared to that on the coins in the name of Buddha, clearly showing the outline of the body, in a nearly transparent way. These are probably the first two layers of monastic clothing the antaravasaka and the uttarasanga. Also, his gown is folded over the left arm (rather than being held in the left hand as above), a feature only otherwise known in the Bimaran casket and suggestive of a scarf‐like uttariya. He has an abundant topknot covering the ushnisha, and a simple or double halo, sometimes radiating, surrounds his head. 71
c) The ʺMaitreya Buddhaʺ The Bodhisattva Maitreya (with the legend ʺMetrago Boudoʺ) cross‐legged on a throne, holding a water pot, and also forming the Abhaya mudra. These coins are only known in copper and are badly worn. On the clearest coins, Maitreya seems to be wearing the armbands of an Indian prince, a feature often seen on the staruary of Maitreya. The throne is decorated with small columns, suggesting that the coin representation of Maitreya was directly copied from pre‐existing statuary with such well‐known features. The qualification of ʺBuddhaʺ for Maitreya is innacurate, as he is instead a Bodhisattva (he is the Buddha of the future). This may indicate a limited knowledge of Buddhist cosmology on the part of the Kushans. The iconography of these three types is very different from that of the other deities depicted in Kanishkaʹs coinage. Whether Kanishkaʹs deities are all shown from the side, the Buddhas only are shown frontally, indicating that they were copied from contemporary frontal representations of the standing and seated Buddhas in statuary. Both representations of the Buddha and Shakyamuni have both shoulders covered by their monastic gown, indicating that the statues used as models were from the Gandhara school of art, rather than Mathura. 2_Kanishka casket The ʺKanishka casketʺ, dated to 127 CE, With the Buddha surrounded by Brahma and Indra, and Kanishka standing at the center of the lower part, British Museum. 72
Remnants of the Kanishka Stupa in Shah‐Ji‐Ki‐Dheri. The ʺKanishka casketʺ or ʺKanishka reliquaryʺ, dated to the first year of Kanishkaʹs reign in 127 CE, was discovered in a deposit chamber under Kanishkaʹs stupa, during the archeological excavations in 1908‐1909 in Shah‐ji‐Dheri on the outskirts of Peshawar. It is today at the Peshawar Museum, and a copy is in the British Museum. It is said to have contained three bone fragments of the Buddha, which are now housed in Mandalay, Burma. The casket is dedicated in Kharoshthi. The inscription reads: ʺ(*mahara)jasa kanishkasa kanishka‐pure nagare aya gadha‐karae deya‐dharme sarva‐satvana hita‐suhartha bhavatu mahasenasa sagharaki dasa agisala nava‐
karmi ana*kanishkasa vihare mahasenasa sangharameʺ Detail of Kanishka, surrounded by the Iranian Sun‐God and Moon‐God, on the Kanishka casket. British Museum. Buddha relics from Kanishkaʹs stupa in Peshawar, Pakistan, sent by the British to Mandalay, Burma in 1910. Teresa Merrigan, 2005 73
The text is signed by the maker, a Greek artist named Agesilas, who oversaw work at Kanishkaʹs stupas (caitya), confirming the direct involvement of Greeks with Buddhist realizations at such a late date: ʺThe servant Agisalaos, the superintendent of works at the vihara of Kanishka in the monastery of Mahasenaʺ (ʺdasa agisala nava‐
karmi ana*kaniskasa vihara mahasenasa sangharameʺ). The lid of the casket shows the Buddha on a lotus pedestal, and worshipped by Brahma and Indra. The edge of the lid is decorated by a frieze of flying geese. The body of the casket represents a Kushan monarch, probably Kanishka in person, with the Iranian sun and moon gods on his side. On the sides are two images of a seated Buddha, worshiped by royal figures. A garland, supported by cherubs goes around the scene in typical Hellenistic style. Coin of Kanishka with the Bodhisattva Maitreya ʺMetrago Boudoʺ. 3) Kanishka in Buddhist tradition In Buddhist tradition, Kanishka is often described as a violent, faithless ruler before his conversion to Buddhism, as in the Sri‐dharma‐pitaka‐nidana sutra: ʺAt this time the King of Ngan‐si (Pahlava) was very stupid and of a violent nature….There was a bhikshu (monk) arhat who seeing the evil deeds done by the king wished to make him repent. So by his supernatural force he caused the king to see the torments of hell. The king was terrified and repented.ʺ Śri‐dharma‐pi aka‐nidāna sūtra Additionally, the arrival of Kanishka was reportedly foretold by the Buddha, as well as the construction of his stupa: ʺ. . . the Buddha, pointing to a small boy making a mud tope….[said] that on that spot Kaniska would erect a tope by his name.ʺ Vinaya sutra The same story is repeated in a Khotanese scroll found at Dunhuang, which first described how Kanishka would arrive 400 years after the death of the Buddha. The account also describes how Kanishka came to raise his stupa: ʺA desire thus arose in [Kanishka to build a vast stupa]….at that time the four world‐regents learnt the mind of the king. So for his sake they took the form of young boys….[and] began a stūpa of mud....the boys said to [Kanishka] ‘We are making the Kaniska‐stūpa.’….At that time the boys changed their form....[and] said to him, ‘Great king, by you according to the Buddha’s prophecy is a Sanghārāma to be built wholly with a large stūpa and hither relics must be invited which the meritorious good beings...will bring.ʺ 74
Chinese pilgrims to India, such as Xuanzang, who travelled there around 630 CE also relays the story: ʺKaniska became sovereign of all Jambudvīpa (Indian subcontinent) but he did not believe in Karma, and he treated Buddhism with contumely. When he was hunting in the wild country a white hare appeared; the king gave a chase and the hare suddenly disappeared at [the site of the future stupa]….[when the construction of the stūpa was not going as planned] the king now lost patience and threw the [project] up….[but] the king became alarmed, as he [realized] he was evidently contending with supernatural powers, so he confessed his errors and made submission. These two topes are still in existence and were resorted to for cures by people afflicted with diseases.ʺ 4) Transmission of Buddhism to China Kanishkaʹs expansion into the Tarim Basin probably initiated the transmission of Buddhism to China. Buddhist monks from the region of Gandhara played a key role in the development and the transmission of Buddhist ideas in the direction of northern Asia from the middle of the second century CE. The Kushan monk, Lokaksema (c. 178 CE), became the first translators of Mahayana Buddhist scriptures into Chinese and established a translation bureau at the Chinese capital Loyang. Central Asian and East Asian Buddhist monks appear to have maintained strong exchanges for the following centuries. Kanishka was probably succeeded by Huvishka. How and when this came about is still uncertain. The fact that there were other Kushana kings called Kanishka is just another complicating factor. Coin of Kanishka. 75
76
Theravada From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Buddhists praying at the Wat Phrathat Doi Suthep, near Chiang Mai, Thailand. Theravada (Pāli: theravāda, Sanskrit: sthaviravāda English: The Way of the Elders) is the oldest surviving Buddhist school, and for many centuries has been the predominant religion of Sri Lanka (about 70% of the population and continental Southeast Asia (Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, and parts of southwest China and of Vietnam and Bangladesh). It is also found in Malaysia and Indonesia. It is also gaining popularity in Singapore and Australia. Today Theravada Buddhists number over 100 million worldwide, and in recent decades Theravada has begun to take root in the West. Contents: 1) History 1_Origin of the School 2_History of the Tradition∙ 2) Philosophy 3) Scriptures 4) Praxis 1_Lay and Monastic Life 2_Meditation 3_Levels of Attainment 5) Festivals and customs 1_Ordination 2_Practices 3_Lay Devotee 4_Buddhist orders within Theravada 77
Wat Phra Buddha Baat, a Theravada Buddhist temple in Thailand. 78
1) History 1_Origin of the School The Theravāda school is ultimately derived from the Vibhajjavāda grouping[2] which emerged amongst the older Sthavira group at the time of the Third Buddhist Council (circa 250 BCE), during the reign of Emperor Asoka in India. After the Third Council, the Vibhajjavādins gradually evolve into four groups: the Mahīśāsaka, Kāśyapīya, Dharmaguptaka and the Tāmraparnīya. Theravada is descended from the Tāmraparnīya, which means ʹthe Sri Lankan lineageʹ. On the other hand, some sources claimed that Mahīśāsaka, Kāśyapīya and Dharmaguptaka did not evolve directly from Vibhajjavādins. The name of Tamraparniya was given to the Sri Lankan lineage in India, and there is no indication that this referred to any change in doctrine or scripture, since the name points only to geographical location. The Theravadin accounts of its origins mention that it received the teachings that were agreed upon during the Third Buddhist Council, and these teachings were known as the Vibhajjavada. Vibhajjavadins see themselves as the continuation of orthodox Sthaviras and after the Third Council continued to refer to their school as the Sthaviras/Theras (ʹThe Eldersʹ), although their doctrines is probably similar with the older Sthaviras but it is likely not identical. In the 7th century, Chinese pilgrims Xuanzang and Yi Jing refer to the Buddhist school in Sri Lanka as ‘Sthaviravada’. As the usage of Pali re‐emerge to prominences, around the 11th century the Pali name ‘Theravada’ is use instead of their Sanskrit name. 2_History of the Tradition According to Sinhalese tradition, Buddhism was first brought to Sri Lanka in 246 BCE by Mahinda, who is believed to have been the son of the Mauryan emperor Asoka, as a part of the missionary activities of the Asokan era. In Sri Lanka, Mahinda established the Mahavihara Monastery of Anuradhapura. Later it became divided into three subgroups, known after their monastic centers as the Mahavihara, the Abhayagirivihara, and the Jetavanavihara. In 1164, with the guidance of two monks from a forest branch of the Mahavihara, Sri Lanka King reunited all bhikkhus in Sri Lanka into the Mahavihara school. A few years after the arrival of Mahinda, Sanghamitta, who is also believed to be the daughter of Emperor Asoka, came to Sri Lanka. She started the first nun order in Sri Lanka, but the nun order died out around the middle of first millennium CE. In 429 CE, on the request of China Han Dynasty emperor the nun from Anuradhapura was sent to China to establish the Nun Order. The order was then spread to Korea. In 1996, 11 selected Sri Lanka nuns were ordained fully as Bhikkhunis by a team of Theravada monks in concert with a team of Korean Nuns in India. During the Asoka reign period, a missionary was also sent to Suvannabhumi where two monks Sona and Uttara, are said to have proceeded. Scholar opinions differ as to where exactly this land of Suvannabhumi is located, but Suvannabhumi is believed to be located somewhere in the area which now includes lower Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and Malay peninsula. 79
The Mon were one of the earliest people to inhabit lower Myanmar and are believed to have been Theravadin since 3rd century BCE. Archaeological findings have shown that the Mon had close contact with South India and Sri Lanka. The Burmese adopted the Mon religion and writing script (which is Pali) when they conquered Thaton the Mon Kingdom in 1057. According to the local traditions, this was the area of Suvarnabhumi that was visited by missionaries from the Asokan court. The Mon were also one of the earliest people to inhabit Thailand. The Thai adopted the Mon religion when they conquered Haripunjaya, the Mon Kingdom in 1292. 2) Philosophy Theravada promotes the concept of Vibhajjavada (Pali), literally ʺTeaching of Analysis.ʺ This doctrine says that insight must come from the aspirantʹs experience, critical investigation, and reasoning instead of by blind faith; however, the scriptures of the Theravadin tradition also emphasize heeding the advice of the wise, considering such advice and evaluation of oneʹs own experiences to be the two tests by which practices should be judged. The Theravadin goal is liberation (or freedom) from suffering, according to the Four Noble Truths. This is attained in the achievement of Nibbana, or Unbinding,[4] which also ends the repeated cycle of birth, old age, sickness and death. Theravada teaches that Nibbana is most quickly attained as an enlightened noble disciple of Buddha: an Arhat (lit. ʺworthy oneʺ, ʺwinner of Nibbanaʺ). In the Theravadin view, the Nibbana attained by Arahats is the same as that attained by the Buddha himself. The difference was that the Buddha was superior to Arahats because the Buddha had discovered the path and was able to teach the path he had discovered to others which required omniscience and supreme compassion. Theravadins revere the Buddha as a single supremely gifted yet mortal teacher. In Theravadin belief, someone who practices with earnestness and zeal can achieve Enlightenment (Nibbana) within a single lifetime, as did many of the first few generations of Lord Buddha disciples. 3) Scriptures The Theravada school upholds the Pali Canon or Tipitaka as the most authoritative collection of texts on the teachings of Gautama Buddha. The Tipitaka is the oldest historical collection of texts on Buddhism, having its roots in the First Buddhist Council of the 5th century BCE. The Sutta and Vinaya portion of the Tipitaka shows considerable overlap in content to the Agamas, the parallel collections used by non‐Theravada schools in India which are preserved in Sanskrit, Prakrit, Chinese and Tibetan, and the various non‐
Theravada Vinayas. On this basis, both these sets of texts are generally believed to be the oldest and most authoritative texts on Buddhism by scholars. It is also believed that the Pali Canon, which is still used by Theravāda communities, was transmitted to Sri Lanka during the reign of Asoka. After being 80
orally transmitted (as was the custom in those days for religious texts) for about 4 centuries, it was written down in about 30 BCE, in Sri Lanka. The Pali Tipitaka consists of three parts: the Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka. Of these, the Abhidhamma Pitaka is believed to be a later addition to the first two pitakas, which, in the opinion of many scholars, were the only two pitakas at the time of the First Buddhist Council. The Pali Abhidhamma was not recognized outside the Theravada school. In the 4th or 5th century CE Buddhaghosa Thera wrote the first Pali commentaries to much of the Tipitaka (which were based on much older manuscripts), and after him many other monks wrote various commentaries, which have become part of the Theravada heritage. These texts, however, do not enjoy the same authority as the Tipitaka does. The Tipitaka is composed of 45 volumes in the Thai edition, 40 in the Burmese and 58 in the Sinhalese, and a full set of the Tipitaka is usually kept in its own (medium‐sized) cupboard. The commentaries, together with the Abhidhamma, define the specific Theravada heritage. Related versions of the Sutta Pitaka and Vinaya Pitaka were common to all the early Buddhist schools, and therefore do not define only Theravada, but also the other early Buddhist schools, and the teaching of Gautama Buddha himself. 4) Praxis 1_Lay and Monastic Life Traditionally, Theravada Buddhism has observed a distinction between the practices suitable for a lay person and the practices undertaken by ordained monks (and, in ancient times, nuns). While the possibility of significant attainment by laymen is not entirely disregarded by the Theravada, it occupies a position of significantly less prominence than in the Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions. This distinction ‐ as well as the distinction between those practices advocated by the Pali Canon, and the folk religious elements embraced by many monks ‐ have motivated some scholars to consider Theravada Buddhism to be composed of multiple separate traditions, overlapping though still distinct. Most prominently, the anthropologist Melford Spiro in his work Buddhism and Society separated Burmese Theravada into three groups: apotropaic Buddhism (concerned with providing protection from evil spirits), kammatic Buddhism (concerned with making merit for a future birth), and Nibbanic Buddhism (concerned with attaining the liberation of nibbana, as described in the Tipitaka). These categories are not accepted by all scholars, and are usually considered non‐exclusive by those who employ them. The role of lay people has traditionally been primarily occupied with activities that are commonly termed ʹmerit makingʹ (falling under Spiroʹs category of kammatic Buddhism). Merit making activities include offering food and other basic necessities to monks, making donations to temples and monasteries, burning incense or lighting candles before images of the Buddha, and chanting protective or merit‐making verses from the Pali Canon. Some lay practitioners have always chosen to take a more active role in religious affairs, while still maintaining their lay status. 81
Dedicated lay men and women sometimes act as trustees or custodians for their temples, taking part in the financial planning and management of the temple. Others may volunteer significant time in tending to the mundane needs of local monks (by cooking, cleaning, maintaining temple facilities, etc.). Lay activities have traditionally not extended to study of the Pali scriptures, nor the practice of meditation, though in the 20th Century these areas have become more accessible to the lay community, especially in Thailand. A number of senior monastics in the Thai Forest Tradition, including Ajahn Buddhadasa, Luang Ta Maha Bua, Ajahn Pasanno, and Ajahn Jayasaro, have begun teaching meditation retreats outside of the monastery for lay disciples. Amongst westerners it is very common for the focus to be more to the actual practice and theory of Theravada Buddhism, and this attitude is spreading amongst Asians as well. Nibbana, the highest goal of Theravada Buddhism, is attained through study and the practice of morality, meditation and wisdom (sila, samadhi, panna). The goal of Nibbana (and its associated techniques) have traditionally been seen as the domain of the fully ordained monastic, whereas many of the same techniques can be used by laypeople to generate happiness in their lives, without focusing on Nibbana. Monastic roles in the Theravada can be broadly described as being split between the role of the (often urban) scholar monk and the (often rural or forest) meditation monk. Both types of monks serve their communities as religious teachers and officiants by presiding over religious ceremonies and providing instruction in basic Buddhist morality and teachings. Scholar monks undertake the path of studying and preserving the Pali literature of the Theravada. They may devote little time to the practice of meditation, but may attain great respect and renown by becoming masters of a particular section of the Pali Canon or its commentaries. Masters of the Abhidhamma, called Abhidhammika, are particularly respected in the scholastic tradition. Meditation monks, often called forest monks because of their association with certain wilderness‐dwelling traditions, are considered to be specialists in meditation. While some forest monks may undertake significant study of the Pali Canon, in general meditation monks are expected to learn primarily from their meditation experiences and personal teachers, and may not know more of the Tipitaka than is necessary to participate in liturgical life and to provide a foundation for fundamental Buddhist teachings. More so than the scholastic tradition, the meditation tradition is associated with the attainment of certain supernatural powers described in both Pali sources and folk tradition. These powers include the attainment of Nibbana, mind‐reading, supernatural power over material objects and their own material bodies, seeing and conversing with gods and beings living in hell, and remembering their past lives. These powers are called the abhinyanas. 82
Monk in meditation in Angkor, Cambodia 2_ Meditation By meditating, a practitioner can gain valuable insight on himself/herself as well as understanding the concepts of Dhamma better. Meditation techniques include: _Jhana _Anapana _Vipassana _Metta 3_Levels of Attainment Through practice, (Theravadin) practitioners can achieve four degrees of spiritual attainment, which reflect on the state of mind: 1. Stream‐Enterers ‐ Those who have destroyed the first three fetters (self‐belief, doubt, and faith in the efficacy of rituals and observances), will be safe from falling into the states of misery (they will not be born as an animal, peta (hungry ghost), or hell being). At most they will have to be reborn only seven more times before attaining Nibbana. 2. Once‐Returners ‐ Those who have destroyed the three fetters (self‐belief, doubt, and faith in the efficacy of rituals and observances), and the lessening of lust and hatred. They will attain Nibbana after being born once more in the world. 3. Non‐Returners ‐ Those who have destroyed the five lower fetters (that bind beings to the world of the senses). They will never again return to the human world and after they die, they will be born in the high heavenly worlds, there to attain Nibbana. 4. Arahants ‐ Those who have reached Enlightenment, attained Nibbana, and have reached the quality of deathlessness, free from all the fermentations of defilement; whose ignorance, craving and attachments have ended. 83
5) Festivals and customs Theravada Religious festivals: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Magha Puja Vesakha Puja Asalha Puja Uposatha Vassa (Rain Retreat) 1_ Ordination The minimum age for ordaining as a Buddhist monk is 20 years, reckoned from conception. However, boys under that age are allowed to ordain as novices (samanera). Novices shave their heads, wear the yellow robes, and observe ten basic precepts. Although no specific minimum age for novices is mentioned in the scriptures, traditionally boys as young as seven are accepted. This tradition follows the story of the Lord Buddha’s son, Rahula, who was allowed to become a novice at the age of seven. Monks follow 227 rules of discipline, while nuns follow 311 rules. In most Theravada countries, it is a common practice for young men to ordain as monks for a fixed period of time. In Thailand and Myanmar, young men typically ordain for the 3 month Rain Retreat (vassa), though shorter or longer periods of ordination are not rare. Traditionally, temporary ordination was even more flexible among Laotians. Once they had undergone their initial ordination as young men, Laotian men were permitted to temporarily ordain again at any time, though married men were expected to seek their wifeʹs permission. Throughout Southeast Asia, there is little stigma attached to leaving the monastic life. Monks regularly leave the robes after acquiring an education, or when compelled by family obligations or ill‐health. Ordaining as a monk, even for a short period, is seen as having many virtues. In many Southeast Asian cultures, it is seen as a means for a young man to ʹrepayʹ his parents for their work and effort in raising him, because the merit from his ordination accrues to them as well. Thai men who have ordained as a monk may be seen as more fit husbands by Thai women, who refer to men who have served as monks with a colloquial term meaning ʹcookedʹ to indicate that they are more mature and ready for marriage. Particularly in rural areas, temporary ordination of boys and young men traditionally gave peasant boys an opportunity to gain an education in temple schools without committing to a permanent monastic life. In Sri Lanka, temporary ordination is not practiced, and a monk leaving the order is frowned upon. The continuing influence of the caste system in Sri Lanka may play a role in the taboo against temporary ordination and leaving the monkhood. Though Sri Lankan monastic nikayas are often organized along caste lines, men who ordain as monks temporarily pass outside of the conventional caste system, and as such during their time as monks may act (or be treated) in a way that would not be in line with the expected duties and privileges of their caste. Some well‐known Theravadin monks are: Ajahn Mun Bhuridatta, Ajahn Chah, Ajahn Sumedho, Ajahn Khemadhammo, Ajahn Brahm, Bhikkhu Bodhi, Buddhadasa, Mahasi Sayadaw, Nyanaponika Thera, Preah Maha Ghosananda, Sayadaw U Pandita. 84
2_Practices The practices usually vary in different sub‐schools and monasteries within Theravada. But in the most orthodox forest monastery, the monk usually models its practice and lifestyle on that of the Buddha and his first generation of disciples by living close to nature in forest, mountains and caves. Forest monasteries still keep alive the ancient traditions through following the Buddhist monastic code of discipline in all its detail and developing meditation in secluded forests. In a typical daily routine at the monastery during the 3 month vassa period, the monk will wake‐up before dawn and will begin the day with group chanting and meditation. At dawn the monks will go out to surrounding villages bare‐footed on alms‐round and will have the only meal of the day before noon by eating from the bowl by hand. Most of the time is spent on Dharma study and meditation. Sometimes the abbot or a senior monk will give a Dharma talk to the visitors. Laity who stay at the monastery will have to abide by the traditional eight Buddhist precepts. After the end of the Vassa period, many of the monks will go out far away from the monastery to find a remote place (usually in the forest) where they can hang their umbrella tents and where it is suitable for the work of self‐development. When they go wandering, they walk barefoot, and go wherever they feel inclined, and those requisites which are necessary will be carried along. These generally consist of the bowl, the three robes, a bathing cloth, an umbrella tent, a mosquito net, a kettle of water, a water filter, razor, sandals, some small candles, and a candle lantern. The monks do not fix their times for walking and sitting meditation, for as soon as they are free they just start doing it; nor do they determine for how long they will go on to meditate. Some of them sometimes walk from dusk to dawn whereas at other times they may walk from between two to seven hours. Some may decide to fast for days or stay at dangerous places where ferocious animal live, to help their meditation effort. Those monks who have been able to attain a high level of attainment will be able to guide the junior monks and lay Buddhists toward the four degrees of spiritual attainment. 3_Lay Devotee In Pali the word for a male lay devotee is Upasaka. Upasika is its female equivalent. One of the duties of the lay followers, as taught by the Buddha, is to look after the needs of the monk/nuns. They are to see that the monk/nuns do not suffer from lack of the four requisites: food, clothing, shelter and medicine. As neither monks nor nuns are allowed to have an occupation, they depend entirely on the laity for their sustenance. In return for this charity, they are expected to lead exemplary lives. In Myanmar and Thailand, the monastery was and is still regarded as a seat of learning. In fact today about half of the primary schools in Thailand are located in monasteries. Religious rituals and ceremonies held in monastery are always accompanied by social activities. In times of crisis, it is to the monks that people bring their problems for counsel. 85
Traditionally, a ranking monk will deliver a sermon four times a month: when the moon waxes and wanes and the day before the new and full moons. The laity also have a chance to learn meditation from the monks during these times. 4_ Buddhist orders within Theravada Different orders, which are referred to as nikayas, has not resulted in the development of separate doctrines. Historically, the Supreme Patriarch of the Sangha, the highest ranking monk in a country, may come from any of these Nikayas, and is appointed by the king. The demise of monarchies has resulted in the suspension of these posts in some countries, but there is still a supreme Patriarch in the Kingdom of Thailand. Bangladesh: _Sangharaj Nikaya _Mahasthabir Nikaya Myanmar (Burma): _Thudhamma Nikaya Vipassana tradition of Mahasi Sayadaw and disciples _Shwekyin Nikaya Sri Lanka: _Siam Nikaya Waturawila (or Mahavihara Vamshika Shyamopali Vanavasa Nikaya) _Amarapura Nikaya Kanduboda (or Swejin Nikaya) Tapovana (or Kalyanavamsa) _Ramañña Nikaya Galduwa (or Kalyana Yogashramaya Samsthava) Delduwa Thailand _Maha Nikaya Tradition of Ajahn Chah (Forest Tradition) Vijja Dhammakaya _Thammayut Nikaya Forest Tradition of Ajahn Mun Bhuridatta, Luang Ta Maha Bua 86
Mahayana From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Relief image of the bodhisattva Kuan Yin from Mt. Jiuhua in Chinaʹs Anhui province. The imageʹs many arms represent the bodhisattvaʹs limitless capacity and commitment to helping other beings. Contents: 1) Doctrine 1_Universalism 2_Enlightened wisdom 3_Compassion 4_Salvation 2) Mahayana Scriptures 3) Origins 1_Epigraphical evidence 2_Scriptures 3_The 4th Buddhist Council 4_Expansion (1st c.CE–10th c.CE) 87
Mahayana (Sanskrit: mahāyāna English: Great Vehicle, Chinese: Dàchéng; Japanese: Daijō; Korean:Dae‐seung; Vietnamese: Đại Thừa) is one of two major branches of Buddhism existing today, the other being Theravada andMahayana originated in the Indian subcontinent of what is today northern Pakistan and spread to China during the first century CE where it was Sinicized and then spread throughout East Asia in its Sinicized form. The main countries in which it is practiced today are China, Japan, Korea and Vietnam. From Mahayana developed the esoteric Vajrayana found mainly in Tibet and Mongolia, but also in adjacent areas of China, and even India and Russia. The Vajarana school claims to encompass all previous schools. The most complete Mahayana Canon today exists in the Chinese language, mostly in translation from Sanskrit originals. In East Asia, Mahayana scriptures and terminology are traditionally written in Chinese characters and based upon classical Chinese. Two mainstream subsets of Mahayana Buddhism today are Amidism or Pure Land and Zen . Mahayana is an inclusive faith characterized by the adoption of new texts, in addition to the traditional Pali canon, and a shift in the understanding of Buddhism. It goes beyond the traditional nontheist Theravada ideal of the release of suffering and personal enlightenment, to instead elevate the Buddha to a God‐like and to create a pantheon of quasi‐divine Bodhisattvas that devote themselves to personal excellence, ultimate knowledge and the salvation of humanity and all other sentient beings (animals, ghosts, etc.). In Mahayana, the Buddha became an idealized man‐god and the Bodhisattva came to represent the universal ideal of excellence. The fundamental principles of Mahayana doctrine were based around the possibility of universal salvation for all beings (hence ʺgreat vehicleʺ) and the existence of Buddhas and Bodhisattva embodying transcendent Buddha‐nature ‐ the eternal Buddha Essence present but hidden in all beings ‐ who strive to achieve such a goal. Mahayana also simplified the expression of faith for the common lay people by allowing salvation to be alternatively obtained through the grace of the Buddha Amitabha by having faith and devoting oneself in prayer to Amitabha. This devotional lifestyle of Buddhism is most strongly emphasized by the Pure Land schools and has greatly contributed to the success of Mahayana in East Asia, where spiritual elements traditionally relied upon chanting of a buddhaʹs name and mysticism. 88
1) Doctrine Mahayana, in contrast to the Theravada school of Buddhism, can be characterized by: 1_Universalism, in that everyone will become a buddha; 2_Enlightened wisdom as the main focus of realization; 3_Compassion through the transferral of merit; 4_Salvation ‐ as opposed to liberation ‐ supported by a rich cosmography, ), both including celestial realms and powers, with a spectrum of bodhisattvas (
human and seemingly godlike, who can assist followers. _Transcendental immanence, in that the immortal Buddha Principle is present within all beings. “Philosophical” Mahayana tends to focus on the first three characteristics (universalism, enlightened wisdom, compassion) and, in some schools, the Buddha‐
nature, without showing much interest in supernatural constructions, while “devotional” Mahayana focuses mainly on salvation towards other‐worldly realms. 1_Universalism Mahayana traditions generally consider that buddhahood is not final. This is based on a subtle doctrinal distinction between the Mahayana and the early Buddhist schools concerning the issues of nirvana‐with‐remainder and nirvana‐without‐
remainder. The early schools considered that nirvana‐without‐remainder always follows nirvana‐with‐remainder (buddhas first achieve enlightenment and then, at ʹdeathʹ, mahaparinirvana) and that nirvana‐without‐remainder is final; whereas the Mahayana traditions consider that nirvana‐without‐remainder is always followed by nirvana‐
with‐remainder – the state of śrāvakabuddhahood is not final, and is eventually succeeded by the state of buddhahood, or total enlightenment. This distinction is most evident regarding doctrinal concerns about the capability of a buddha after nirvana (which is identified by the early schools as being nirvana‐without‐remainder). Most importantly, amongst the early schools, a samyaksambuddha is not able to directly point the way to nirvana after death. This is a major distinction between the early schools and the Mahayana, who conversely state that once a samyaksambuddha arises, he or she continues to directly and actively point the way to nirvana until there are no beings left in samsara (
). Because the views of early schools and Mahayana differ in this respect, this is exactly why the Mahayana do not talk about a bodhisattva postponing nirvana, and exactly why the early schools do. For example, the early schools held that Maitreya (
) will not attain nirvana while Gautama Buddhaʹs teachings still exist. While the Mahayana schools hold that Maitreya will be the next buddha manifest in this world and will introduce the dharma when it no longer exists, he is not postponing his nirvana to do so, and when he dies (or enters mahaparinirvana), he will likewise continue to teach the dharma for all time. Moreover, Mahayana argues that although it is true that for this world‐system, Maitreya will be the next buddha to manifest, there are an infinite number of world‐systems, many of which have currently active buddhas or buddhas‐
to‐be manifesting. 89
So, based on the doctrinal distinctions between the early schools and the Mahayana concerning the meaning of nirvana‐without‐remainder, we see two distinct views concerning the path of the bodhisattva, with the early schools stating that bodhisattvas postpone their own nirvana, whereas the Mahayana schools state that bodhisattvas attempt to reach nirvana as soon as possible, just as sravakas do, but with the motive to continue to effortlessly benefit all beings for all time due to the distinction of views regarding the ability of a buddha after mahaparinirvana. Because the Mahayana traditions assert that eventually everyone will achieve samyaksambuddhahood or total enlightenment, the Mahayana is labelled universalist, whereas because the Nikaya traditions assert that there are three routes to nirvana, which are distinct, they are considered not to be universalist. 2_Enlightened wisdom According to Mahayana, traditional Buddhism tends to focus on an ascetic, individual approach to the attainment of nirvana: suppression of desire, removal from the world, solitude. Its followers are śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas. The primary focus of Mahayana is bodhicitta, the vow to strive for buddhahood or awakened mind (bodhicitta) both for oneself and for the benefit of all other sentient beings. Being a high‐level bodhisattva involves possessing a mind of great compassion conjoined with insight into reality (prajna,) realizing emptiness (shunyata,), and/or the tathagatagarbha (buddhic essence of all things,) With this mind the practitioner will realize the final goal of full enlightenment, or buddhahood: an omniscient, blissful mind completely free from suffering and its causes, that is able to work tirelessly for the benefit of all living beings. Six virtues or perfections (paramitas) are listed for the bodhisattva: generosity, patience, meditation, morality, energy and wisdom. Many “philosophical” schools and sutras of Mahayana Buddhism have focused on the nature of enlightenment and nirvana itself, from the Madhyamika and its rival, Yogacara, to the Tathagatagarbha teachings and Zen. 3_Compassion Compassion, or Karuna, is the other key concept of Mahayana, and is considered the indispensable complement to enlightened wisdom. Compassion is important in all schools of Buddhism, but is particularly emphasized in Mahayana. It relies on the idea that excess acquired merit can be transmitted to others. The bodhisattvas are the main actors of compassion, Avalokitesvara (known in East Asia as Kuan Yin,) being foremost among them. Although having reached enlightenment, bodhisattvas usually make a vow to postpone entering into nirvana until all other beings have also been saved. They devote themselves to helping others reach enlightenment. The Mahayana idea also that salvation is universal (see below) allowed for one to focus less on the release of personal sufferring and more on humanityʹs salvation, and is consequently described to be more compassionate and caring for the welfare of others than other traditions of Buddhism. 90
A comparison between Hinayana (earlier Buddhist traditions) and Mahayana made by the 10th century Tibetan author Jé Gampopa in The Jewel Ornament of Liberation follows: ‘Clinging to the well‐being of mere peaceʹ signifies the lower capacity [Hinayana] attitude wherein the longing to transcend suffering is focused on oneself alone. This precludes the cherishing of others and hence there is little development of altruism. [...] When loving kindness and compassion become part of one, there is so much care for other conscious beings that one could not bear to liberate oneself alone. [...] Master Manjushriikiirti has said: ‘A Mahayana follower should not be without loving kindness and compassion for even a single momentʹ, and ‘It is not anger and hatred but loving kindness and compassion that vouchsafe the welfare of othersʹ. 4_Salvation “Devotional” Mahayana developed a rich cosmography, with various supernatural buddhas and bodhisattvas residing in paradisiacal realms. The concept of trinity, or trikaya, supports these constructions, making the Buddha himself into a transcendental god‐like figure. Under various conditions, these realms could be attained by devotees after their death so that when reborn they could strive towards buddhahood in the best possible conditions. Depending on the sect, this salvation to “paradise” can be obtained by faith, imaging, or sometimes even by the simple invocation of the Buddha’s name. This approach to salvation is at the origin of the mass appeal of devotional Buddhism, especially represented by the Pure Land . This rich cosmography also allowed Mahayana to be quite syncretic and accommodating of other faiths or deities. Various origins have been suggested to explain its emergence, such as “popular Hindu devotional cults (bhakti), and Persian and Greco‐Roman theologies, which filtered into India from the northwest” (Tom Lowenstein, “The vision of the Buddha”). 2) Mahayana Scriptures The Mahayana scriptures were written probably around the 1st century BCE. Some of them, such as the Perfection of Wisdom sutras, are presented as actual sermons of the Buddha that had been hidden. By some accounts, these sermons were passed on by oral tradition, as with other sutras; other accounts state that they were hidden and then revealed several centuries later by some mythological route. In addition to sutras, some Mahayana texts are essentially commentaries. Among the earliest major Mahayana scriptures attested to historically are the Perfection of Wisdom (Prajna‐Paramita) sutras, the Avatamsaka Sutra, the Lotus Sutra, the Vimalakīrti Sutra, and the Nirvana Sutra. The Mahayana sometimes divide Shakyamuni Buddhaʹs teachings into three general categories, known as ʺturnings of the wheel of dharma (truth)ʺ: the Hinayana , the Prajna Paramita, and the Tathagatagarbha teachings. 91
The Mahayana canon further expanded after Buddhism was transmitted to other countries such as China and Tibet, where the existing texts were translated. New texts, such as the Platform Sutra and the Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment were explicitly not of Indian origin, but were widely accepted as valid scriptures on their own merits. Other later writings included the Linji Lu, a commentary by Chan master Linji Yixuan . In the course of the development of Korean Buddhism and Japanese Buddhism, further important commentaries were composed. These included, for example, in Korea, some of the writings of Jinul, and in Japan, works such as Dogenʹs Shobogenzo. 3) Origins Mahayana as a distinct movement began around the 1st century BCE in the area around the Kushan Empire (now part of Pakistan) before it was transmitted in a highly evolved form to China in the second century CE. Mahayanaʹs exact origin is unknown, however, a number of common elements and background are suggested by various scholars and theologians. The Abhidharma in the modern Theravada Pali canon and a Sarvastivada Abhidharma composed in Sanskrit that survives in both the Chinese and Tibetan traditions, has no common order of composition. This indicates that overall, Buddhism became increasingly fragmented and that this might have led to a widening distance between laity and sangha, who were increasingly preoccupied with theological speculation. The Mahayana movement, on the other hand, was ecumenical, reflecting a wide range of theology from both the Sthaviravada and Mahasanghika sects. (Paul Williams, ʺMahayana Buddhismʺ, 1989). Moreover, those who believe that Mahayana sutras were invented during this period speculate that the process of reshuffling sutras in terms of relevance to various Abbhidharma eventually led to editing itself. This process slowly eroded the taboo regarding the composition of new sutras. Another important element is the lay practice of stupa devotion, which was actively encouraged by Ashoka. According to Akira Hirakawa (A History of Indian Buddhism: From Sakyamuni to Early Mahayana), stupas — which were initially mere monuments to Gautama Buddha — increasingly became the place of devotion and of spreading Buddhism to the masses, the majority of whom were illiterate Hindus. On the inside wall of the stupa, pictures were drawn or sculpted depicting the life of Buddha and his previous lives as a bodhisattva. This has given rise to devotion to the transcendent omnipresent and always‐present Buddha and the bodhisattvas, distinct from the purely monastic sangha. 92
1_Epigraphical evidence An early Mahayana Buddhist triad. From left to right, a Kushan devotee, the Bodhisattva
Maitreya, the Buddha, the Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara, and a Buddhist monk. 2nd‐3rd
century CE, Gandhara. One of the first known mentions of the Buddha using the word Bhagavat or Bhagavan (ʺSupreme Lordʺ) is a dedication on a relic vase inserted in a stupa in Gandhara, written in Kharoshthi by an Indo‐Greek meridarch (civil governor of a province) named Theodorus in the 1st century BCE: ʺTheudorena meridarkhena pratithavida ime sarira sakamunisa bhagavato bahu‐jana‐stitiyeʺ: ʺThe meridarch Theodorus has enshrined relics of Lord Shakyamuni, for the welfare of the mass of the peopleʺ (Swāt relic vase inscription of the Meridarkh Theodoros) The earliest stone inscriptions containing recognizably Mahayana formulations and a mention of the Buddha Amitabha were found in the Indian subcontinent in Mathura and dated to around 180 CE. Remains of a statue of a Buddha bear the Brahmi inscription: ʺMade in the year 28 of the reign of king Huvishka, ... for the Buddha Amitabhaʺ (Mathura Museum). Such inscriptions in Indian proper (Mathura) are rather late and few (the next known one is dated to the end of the 3rd century), in comparison to the multiplicity of Mahayana writings transiting from Central Asia to China at that time, and the involvement of Central Asian Buddhist monks, suggesting the focus of Mahayana development was probably in the northwest. 2_Scriptures The first known Mahayana texts are translations made into Chinese by the Kushan monk Lokaksema in the Chinese capital of Luoyang, between 178 and 189 CE. Lokaksemaʹs work includes the translation of the Pratyutpanna Sutra, containing the first known mentions of the Buddha Amitabha and his Pure Land, said to be at the origin of Pure Land practice in China, and the first known translations of the Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra, a founding text of Mahayana Buddhism. 93
3_The 4th Buddhist Council The formal rise of Mahayana Buddhism has been dated to around the middle of the 2 century CE, when the Kushan emperor Kanishka convened the 4th Buddhist Council in Gandhara, which confirmed the formal scission of Mahayana Buddhism from the traditional Nikaya schools of Buddhism. nd
This was also the time and place of a rich cultural interaction between Buddhism and Hellenistic culture, which influenced the early representations of buddhas, in what is known as Greco‐Buddhist art. 4_Expansion ( 1st c.CE– 10th c.CE) From the 1st century CE and within the space of a few centuries, Mahayana was to flourish and spread in from India to South‐East Asia, and towards the north to Central Asia, China, Korea and Japan. Mahayana disappeared from India during the 11th century, and consequently lost its influence in South‐East Asia where it was replaced by Theravada Buddhism from Sri Lanka. Mahayana remains, however, the most followed of the Buddhist doctrines to this day in Eastern Asia and the world. 94
Schools of Buddhism From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia An extensive list of historical schools is given below according to lineage. Surviving schools can be roughly grouped under the categories of Theravāda, Mahāyāna, and Vajrayāna. Theravāda and Mahāyāna share common methods as sutric schools, while Vajrayāna can be seen as a tantric school. Most of the sects encourage followers to adhere to certain practices and philosophies, some shared, some unique to the particular school. Contents: 1) Nikaya schools a) Twenty sects b) Influences on East Asian schools 2) Theravada subschools 3) Mahāyāna schools 4) Tantric schools * * * 1) Nikaya schools A] Sthaviravāda a) Pudgalavāda (ʹPersonalistʹ) (c. 280 BCE) b) Sarvāstivāda _Vibhajjavāda (prior to 240 BCE; during Aśoka) ‐Theravāda (c. 240 BCE) Theravada subschools (see below) ‐Mahīśāsaka (after 232 BCE) Dharmaguptaka (after 232 BCE) ‐Kāśyapīya (after 232 BCE) ‐Vatsīputrīya (under Aśoka) later name: Sammitīya Dharmottarīya Bhadrayānīya Sannāgarika _Mūlasarvāstivāda (third and fourth centuries) _Sautrāntika (between 50 BCE and c. 100 CE) B] Mahāsamghika (ʹMajorityʹ, c. 380 BCE) a) Ekavyahārikas (under Aśoka) _Lokottaravāda b) Golulika (during Aśoka) _Bahuśrutīya (late third century BCE) _Prajñaptivāda (late third century BCE) ‐Cetiyavāda c) Caitika (mid‐first century BCE) _Apara Śaila _Uttara Śaila 95
a) Twenty sects The following lists the twenty sects described as Hinayana in some Mahayana texts: Sthaviravada was split into 11 sects. These were: Mahasanghika was split into 9 sects. There were: b) Influences on East Asian schools The following later schools used the Vinaya of the Dharmaguptaka: _Chinese Vinaya School _Korean Gyeyul _Japanese Ritsu _The Japanese Jojitsu is considered an offshoot of Sautrantika _The Chinese/Japanese Kusha school is considered an offshoot of Sarvastivada, influenced by Vasubandhu. 96
2) Theravada subschools The different schools in Theravada often emphasize different aspects (or parts) of the Pali Canon and the later commentaries, or differ in the focus on (and recommended way of) practice. There are also significant differences in strictness or interpretation of the Vinaya. Bangladesh: Sangharaj Nikaya Mahasthabir Nikaya Burma: Thudhamma Nikaya Vipassana tradition of Mahasi Sayadaw and disciples Shwekyin Nikaya Sri Lanka: Siam Nikaya Waturawila or Mahavihara Vamshika Shyamopali Vanavasa Nikaya) Amarapura Nikaya Kanduboda (or Swejin Nikaya) Tapovana (or Kalyanavamsa) Ramañña Nikaya Galduwa (or Kalyana Yogashramaya Samsthava) Delduwa Thailand Maha Nikaya Vijja Dhammakaya Thammayut Nikaya Thai Forest Tradition Tradition of Ajahn Chah 97
3) Mahāyāna schools Madhyamaka Prāsangaka Svatantrika Yogācāra Tathagatagarbha Wei‐Shi (Consciousness‐only school) or Faxiang (Dharma‐character school) Beopsang Hossō Sanlun (Three Treatise school) Sanron Daśabhūmikā (absorbed in to Huayan) Huayan (Avatamsaka) Hwaeom Kegon Chan / Zen / Seon /Thien Caodong Soto Linji Rinzai Ōbaku Fuke Won Buddhism: Korean Reformed Buddhism Pure Land (Amidism) Jodo Jodo Shin Amida‐shu Tiantai (Lotus Sutra School) Cheontae Tendai (also contained Vajrayana elements) Nichiren Nichiren Shū Nichiren Shōshū Nipponzan Myōhōji Soka Gakkai Vijñānavāda 98
4) Tantric schools see also: Vajrayāna Subcategorised according to predecessors A] Tibetan Buddhism Nyingmapa New Bön (synthesis of Yungdrung Bön and Nyingmapa) Kadampa Sakyapa Jonangpa Gelukpa Kagyupa Shangpa Kagyu Rechung Kagyu Dagpo Kagyu 1_Karma Kagyu (or Kamtshang Kagyu) 2_Tsalpa Kagyu 3_Baram Kagyu 4_Pagtru Kagyu (or Phagmo Drugpa Kagyu) 1) Taglung Kagyu 2) Trophu Kagyu 3) Drukpa Kagyu 4) Martsang Kagyu 5) Yerpa Kagyu 6) Yazang Kagyu 7) Shugseb Kagyu 8) Drikung Kagyu Rime movement (ecumenical movement) B] Japanese Mikkyo Shingon Tendai (derived from Tiantai but added tantric practices) 99
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Vajrayana From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Vajrayāna Buddhism (Also known as Tantric Buddhism, Mantrayana, Tantrayana, Esoteric Buddhism, Diamond Vehicle, True Words Sect, or Jingangsheng in Chinese) is an extension of Mahayana Buddhism consisting of differences in the adoption of additional techniques (upaya, or ʹskillful meansʹ) rather than in philosophy. The Vajrayana is often viewed as the third major ʹvehicleʹ (Yana) of Buddhism, alongside the Theravada and Mahayana. Contents: 1] Subschools 2] Etymology 3] Distinguishing features of Vajrayana 1) Tantra techniques 2) Levels of tantra 3) Esoteric transmission (initiation) and samaya (vow) 4] Relationship with Mahayana 5] History of Vajrayana 1) India 2) China 3) Tibet and other Himalayan kingdoms 4) Japan 5) Indonesia and Malaysia 6) Mongolia 101
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1] Subschools Vajrayana exists today in the form of two major sub‐schools: Tibetan Buddhism, found in Tibet, Bhutan, northern India, Nepal Buddhism of Nepal, southwestern and northern China, Mongolia and various constituent republics of Russia that are adjacent to the area, such as: Amur Oblast, Buryatia, Chita Oblast, Tuva Republic, and Khabarovsk Krai. There is also Kalmykia, another constituent republic of Russia that is the only Buddhist region in Europe, located in the north Caucasus. While Vajrayana Buddhism is a part of Tibetan Buddhism (in that it forms a core part of every major Tibetan Buddhist school), it is not identical with it, as the Vajrayana is seen as additional part to the general Mahayana teachings for somewhat advanced students. Vajrayana in Tibetan Buddhism, properly speaking, refers to tantra, Dzogchen (mahasandhi), and Chagchen (mahamudra). Shingon Buddhism, found in Japan, includes many esoteric practices which are similar to those used in Tibetan Vajrayana Buddhism. 2] Etymology Vajrayana literally means ʺthe vajra vehicleʺ. The term ʺvajraʺ refers to the thunderbolt of Indra, a weapon that was supposedly made from an indestructible substance, and which could therefore pierce any obstacle. As a secondary meaning, ʺvajraʺ therefore also refers to this indestructible substance, and so is sometimes translated as ʺadamantineʺ or ʺdiamondʺ. So the vajrayana is sometimes called ʺThe Adamantine Vehicleʺ or ʺThe Diamond Vehicleʺ. A vajra is also a ritual object that represents the thunderbolt of Indra. It usually takes the form of a yellow‐metal rod, like a mace; it has a sphere at its centre, and some number of flame‐like protuberances at either end, enfolding either end of the rod. The object can be seen as a representation of a scepter, and is usually made in various sizes that would fit in a human hand. The vajra is used in tantric rituals in combination with the traditional bell; symbolically, the vajra represents method and the bell stands for wisdom. 3] Distinguishing features of Vajrayana Vajrayana Buddhism claims to provide an accelerated path to enlightenment. This is achieved through use of tantra techniques, which are practical aids to spiritual development, and esoteric transmission (explained below). Whereas earlier schools might provide ways to achieve nirvana over the course of many lifetimes, Vajrayana techniques are said to make full enlightenment or buddhahood possible in a shorter time, perhaps in a single lifetime. Vajrayana Buddhists do not claim that Theravada or Mahayana practices are invalid; in fact, the teachings from those traditions are said to lay an essential foundational practice on which the Vajrayana practices may be built. While the Mahayana and Theravada paths are said to be paths to enlightenment in their own right, the teachings from each of those vehicles must be heeded for the Vajrayana to work. It should also be noted that the goal of the Mahayana and Vajrayana sects is to become a bodhisattva, whereas the goal for Theravada practice is liberation from the cycle of rebirth (samsara) by achieving nirvana. 103
1) Tantra techniques Vajrayana relies partially on various tantric techniques rooted in scriptures known as tantras, written in India. The most important aspect of the tantric path is to ʹuse the result as the Pathʹ, which means that, rather than placing full enlightenment as a goal far away in the future, one tries to identify with the enlightened body, speech and mind of a buddha. The buddha‐form which one can best relate to is called the yidam (Tibetan) or ishtadevata (Sanskrit) or ʹpersonal buddha‐formʹ. In order to achieve this self‐identification with a buddha‐form, much symbolism and visualization is used in Buddhist tantric techniques. This is a Garbhadhatu mandala, representing Vairocana Buddha surrounded by eight Buddhas and bodhisattvas (clockwise from top: Ratnaketu, Samantabhadra, Samkusumitaraja, Manjusri, Amitabha, Avalokitesvara, Dundubhinirghosa, Maitreya). Secrecy is a cornerstone of tantric Buddhism, simply to avoid harming oneself and others through practising without proper guidance. It is not even allowed to explain the full symbolism and psychology of the practice to the uninitiated, which leads to misunderstanding and dismissal. Tantric techniques may appear initially to consist of ritualistic nonsense, but all parts of the ritual have extensive symbolic meanings. As all the symbolism is not allowed to be explained to the uninitiated, confusion can easily arise about the rituals. Tradition teaches that tantra should only be practiced on the basis of a thorough understanding of Buddhist philosophy, and strict adherence to the advice of a teacher and the traditional commentaries. Tantric techniques include: _the repetition of special ritual phrases (mantras), _the use of various yoga techniques, including breath control (Pranayama), yantra and the use of special hand positions (mudras) _the use of an extensive vocabulary of visual aids, such as cosmic mandala diagrams which teach and map pathways to spiritual enlightenment _the use of ritual objects such as the vajra and bell (ghanta), hand drum (damaru), and many other symbolic tools and musical instruments _the use of specialized rituals rooted in Vajrayana cosmology and beliefs 104
_a guru‐disciple relationship, which provides, for example, ritual ʹempowermentsʹ or ʹinitiationsʹ whereby the student obtains permission to practice a particular tantra. _the oral transmissions given by a tantric master. These are the most important tantric techniques and are only given personally from teacher to student and are secret, because they demand a certain level of maturity of the student. Otherwise, they might have a negative effect. Such teachings describe certain aspects of the mind and how to attain them, realize them by certain practices that can be dangerous to oneʹs health without thorough preparation, as such states of mind are normally experienced at the time of death. A mature yogi ʹdiesʹ in the meditation and comes back again, experiencing all the levels of mind. _the possible use of psychedelics, although this is controversial. There is an aspect of sex in Highest Yoga Tantra practice that is both symbolic as well as descriptive of the practice of using sexual intercourse to transform oneʹs sexual energy into a blissful consciousness directed towards achieving enlightenment. This controlling and directing of oneʹs sexual energies towards the greater goal of enlightenment is one of the central features of Vajrayana. Sexual symbolism is common in Vajrayana iconography, where it basically represents the marriage of wisdom and compassion or method. It is from the tantra that Vajrayana Buddhism gets the alternative names of Mantrayana and Tantrayana. The word ʺVajrayanaʺ itself comes from vajra, a Sanskrit word which can mean ʺdiamondʺ, ʺindestructibleʺ or ʺthunderboltʺ and which also has the connotation of ʺrealityʺ. This gives rise to two more names for Vajrayana Buddhism: Diamond Vehicle, and Adamantine Vehicle (adamantine means ʺdiamond‐
likeʺ). The vajra (or dorje in Tibetan) is an important ritual object which symbolizes compassion/method, while the bell symbolizes wisdom. The vajra is also believed to be the weapon of the ancient Hindu god Indra and was made out of the sacrificial offering of the bones of Rishi Dadhichi. 2) Levels of tantra The Sarma or New Translation schools of Tibetan Buddhism (Gelug, Sakya, and Kagyu) divide the Tantras into four hierarchical categories, namely, 1_Kriyayoga 2_Charyayoga 3_Yogatantra 4_Anuttarayogatantra further divided into ʺmotherʺ, ʺfatherʺ and ʺnon‐dualʺ tantras. A different division is used by the Nyingma or Ancient school: Three Outer Tantras: 1) Kriyayoga 2) Charyayoga 3) Yogatantra 105
Three Inner Tantras, which correspond to the Anuttarayogatantra: 4) Mahayoga 5) Anuyoga 6) Atiyoga (Tib. Dzogchen) The practice of Atiyoga is further divided into three classes: 7) Mental SemDe, 8) Spatial LongDe, and 9) Esoteric Instructional MenNgagDe. 3) Esoteric transmission (initiation) and samaya (vow) The other conspicuous aspect of Vajrayana Buddhism is that it is esoteric. In this context esoteric means that the transmission of certain accelerating factors only occurs directly from teacher to student during an initiation and cannot be simply learned from a book. Many techniques are also commonly said to be secret, but some Vajrayana teachers have responded that secrecy itself is not important and only a side‐
effect of the reality that the techniques have no validity outside the teacher‐student lineage. If these techniques are not practiced properly, practitioners may harm themselves physically and mentally. In order to avoid these dangers, the practice is kept ʺsecretʺ outside the teacher/student relationship. Secrecy and the commitment of the student to the vajra guru are aspects of the samaya (Tib. damtsig), or ʺsacred bondʺ, that protects both the practitioner and the integrity of the teachings. The esoteric transmission framework can take varying forms. The Nyingma and Bön school of Tibetan Buddhism uses a method called Dzogchen. Other Tibetan schools use an alternative method called Mahamudra. 4) Relationship with Mahayana While tantra and esoterism distinguish Vajrayana Buddhism, it is, from the Tibetan Buddhist point of view, nonetheless primarily a form of Mahayana Buddhism. Sutras important to Mahayana are generally important to Vajrayana, although Vajrayana adds some of its own (see Buddhist texts, List of sutras, Tibetan Buddhist canon). The importance of bodhisattvas and a pantheon of deities in Mahayana carries over to Vajrayana, as well as the perspective that Buddhism and Buddhist spiritual practice are not intended just for ordained monks, but for the laity too. The Japanese Vajrayana teacher Kūkai expressed a view contrary to this by making a clear distinction between Mahayana and Vajrayana. Kūkai characterises the Mahayana in its entirety as exoteric, and therefore provisional. From this point of view the esoteric Vajrayana is the only Buddhist teaching which is not a compromise with the limited nature of the audience to which it is directed, since the teachings are said to be the Dharmakaya (the principle of enlightenment) in the form of Mahavairocana, engaging in a monologue with himself. From this view the Hinayana and Mahayana are provisional and compromised aspects of the Vajrayana ‐ rather than seeing the Vajrayana as primarily a form of Mahayana Buddhism. 106
Some aspects of Vajrayana have also filtered back into Mahayana. In particular, the Vajrayana fondness for powerful symbols may be found in weakened form in Mahayana temples where protector deities may be found glaring down at visitors. The Vajrayana has a rich array of vows of conduct and behaviour which is based on the rules of the Pratimoksha and the Bodhisattva code of discipline. The Ornament for the Essence of Manjushrikirti states: Distance yourself from Vajra Masters who are not keeping the three vows who keep on with a root downfall, who are miserly with the Dharma, and who engage in actions that should be forsaken. Those who worship them go to hell and so on as a result. This expresses as well as other sources the need to build the Vajrayana on the foundation of the Pratimoksha and Bodhisattva vows. Lay persons can follow the lay ordination. The Ngagpa Yogis from the Nyingma school keep a special lay ordination. 5] History of Vajrayana 1) India There are differing views as to where Vajrayana started, some claiming that it began in Udyana ‐ the modern day Swat valley in Pakistan, while others say that it began in southern India. In the Tibetan tradition, it is claimed that the historical Shakyamuni Buddha taught tantra, but as these are ʹsecretʹ teachings outside the teacher/disciple relationship, they were written down generally long after the Buddhaʹs other teachings, known as sutras. The earliest texts appeared around the early 4th century. Nalanda University in northern India became a center for the development of Vajrayana theory, although it is likely that the university followed, rather than led, the early Tantric movement. India would continue as the source of leading‐edge Vajrayana practices up through the 11th century. (Vajrayana) Buddhism had mostly died out in India by the 13th century, its practices merging with Hinduism, and both tantric religions were experiencing pressure from invading Islamic armies. By that time, the vast majority of the practices were also made available in Tibet, where they were preserved until recently, although the Tibetan version of tantra differs from the original Indian form in many respects. In the second half of the 20th century a sizeable number of Tibetan exiles fled the oppressive, anti‐religious rule of the Communist Chinese to establish Tibetan Buddhist communities in northern India, particularly around Dharamsala. They remain the primary practitioners of Tantric Buddhism in India and the entire world. 2) China Vajrayana followed the same route into northern China as Buddhism itself, arriving from India via the Silk Road some time during the first half of the 7th century. It arrived just as Buddhism was reaching its zenith in China, receiving sanction from the emperors of the Tang Dynasty. The Tang capital at Changʹan (modern‐day Xiʹan) became an important center for Buddhist studies, and Vajrayana ideas no doubt 107
received great attention as pilgrim monks returned from India with the latest texts and methods (see Buddhism in China, Journey to the West). 3) Tibet and other Himalayan kingdoms In 747 the Indian master Padmasambhava traveled from Afghanistan to bring Vajrayana Buddhism to Tibet and Bhutan, at the request of the king of Tibet. This was the original transmission which anchors the lineage of the Nyingma school. During the 11th century and early 12th century a second important transmission occurred with the lineages of Atisa, Marpa and Brogmi, giving rise to the other schools of Tibetan Buddhism, namely Kadampa, Kagyupa, Sakyapa, and Gelukpa (the school of the Dalai Lama). 4) Japan In 804, Emperor Kammu sent the intrepid monk Kūkai to the Tang Dynasty capital at Changʹan (present‐day Xiʹan) to retrieve the latest Buddhist knowledge. Kūkai absorbed the Vajrayana thinking and synthesized a version which he took back with him to Japan, where he founded the important Shingon school of Buddhism, a school which continues to this day. 5) Indonesia and Malaysia In the late 8th century, Indian models of Vajrayana traveled directly to the Indonesian island of Java where a huge temple complex at Borobudur was soon built. The empire of Srivijaya was a centre of Vajrayana learning and Atisha studied there under Serlingpa, an eminent Buddhist scholar and a prince of the Srivijayan ruling house. Vajrayana Buddhism survived in Indonesia and Malaysia until eclipsed by Islam in the 13th century. 6) Mongolia In the 13th century, long after the original wave of Vajrayana Buddhism had died out in China itself, two eminent Tibetan Sakyapa teachers, Sakya Pandita Kunga Gyaltsen and Chogyal Phagpa, visited the Mongolian royal court. Marco Polo was serving the royal court at about the same time. In a competition between Christians, Muslims, and Buddhists held before the royal court, Prince Godan found Tibetan Buddhism to be the most satisfactory and adopted it as his personal religion, although not requiring it of his subjects. As Kublai Khan had just conquered China (establishing the Yuan Dynasty), his adoption of Vajrayana led to the renewal of Tantric practices in China as the ruling class found it useful to emulate their leader. Vajrayana would decline in China and Mongolia with the fall of the Yuan Dynasty, to be replaced by resurgent Daoism, Confucianism, and Pure Land Buddhism. However, Mongolia would see yet another revival of Vajrayana in the 17th century, with the establishment of ties between the Dalai Lama in Tibet and the remnants of the Mongol Empire. This revived the historic pattern of the spiritual leaders of Tibet acting as priests to the rulers of the Mongol empire. Tibetan Buddhism is still practiced as a folk religion in Mongolia today despite more than 80 years of state‐sponsored communism. 108
Buddhist texts From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Contents: 1) Canonical texts 2) Non‐canonical texts 3) Texts of the Early schools 1_Vinaya 2_Sutta a) Long discourses b) Medium‐length discourses c) Connected discourses d)Numbered discourses e) Miscellaneous texts 3_Abhidharma 4_Non‐canonical texts 4) Mahayana texts 1_Perfection of Wisdom Texts 2_Saddharma‐pundarika 3_Pure Land Sutras 4_ The Vimalakirti Nirdesha Sutra 5_ Samadhi Sutras 6_Confession Sutras 7_The Avatamsaka Sutra 8_Third Turning Sutras 9_Tathagatagarbha Class Sutras 10_ Collected Sutras 11_Transmigration Sutras 12_Discipline Sutras 13_Sutras devoted to individual figures 14_Proto‐Mahayana Sutras 15_Non‐canonical texts 5) Vajrayana texts 1_Buddhist tantras 2_Other products of the Vajrayana literature 109
Texto ilustrado do cânone páli. Manuscrito tailandês do século IXX. Manuscrito chinês. Texto traduzido do sânscrito no século IV. There are a great variety of Buddhist texts. Buddhists place varying value on them; attitudes range from worship of the text itself, to dismissal of some texts as falsification of the ineffable truth. The texts can be categorized in a number of ways, but the most fundamental division is that between canonical and non‐canonical texts. The former, including the Sutras (Sanskrit) or Suttas (Pali), are held to be, literally or metaphorically, the actual words of the Buddha. The latter are the various commentaries on canonical texts and other treatises on the Dharma, as well as collections of quotations, histories, grammars, etc. However, it should be borne in mind that many divisions are arbitrary, and some texts fall between categories, or can be associated with more than one category. Many later Chinese scriptures were explicitly not of Indian origin, but were widely accepted as valid sutras on their own merits by Chinese and East Asian Buddhists of the Mahayana tradition. Recently an important archaeological discovery was made, consisting of the earliest known Buddhist manuscripts, recovered from somewhere near ancient Gandhara in northwest Pakistan. These fragments, written on birch bark, are dated to the 1st century and have been compared to the Dead Sea scrolls in importance. Donated to the British Library in 1994, they are now being studied in a joint project at the University of Washington. 110
1) Canonical texts These are, in some way or other, texts associated with Gautama, the historical Buddha. Different schools, however, are not always in agreement about which texts are canonical, and the various recensions of the Buddhist Canon contain widely varying numbers and types of texts. Broadly speaking, the texts come in three types: _Sutras (i.e. discourses) _Vinaya (relating to the rules of monastic discipline) _Abhidharma (analytical texts) Together these three make up what is known in Sanskrit as the Tripitaka and in Pali as the Tipitaka. Both the sutras and the vinaya of every Buddhist school contain a huge variety of documents including discourses on the Dharma, commentaries on other teachings, cosmological and cosmogonical texts, stories of the Buddhaʹs previous lives, and various lists. The Theravada and other Nikaya schools believe, more or less literally, that these texts contain the actual words of the Buddha. The Theravada canon, also known as the Pali Canon after the language it was written in, contains some four million words. Later texts, such as the Mahayana Sutras, are also considered by Mahayanists to be the word of the Buddha, but transmitted either in secret, via lineages of mythical beings (such as the nagas), or revealed directly from other Buddhas or bodhisattvas. Some 600 Mahayana Sutras have survived in Sanskrit, or in Chinese and/or Tibetan translation. The most complete Mahayana Canon is in Chinese, though it was originally in Sanskrit. It contains texts from many strands of earlier tradition. The earliest Mahayana texts were composed in a ʹMiddle Indo‐Āryanʹ language which was Sanskritised during the Gupta era when Sanskrit became the official language of the Indian court. Most of the Mahayana sutra texts are composed in what is called Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit, a Middle Indo‐Āryan Prakrit with ornaments and flourishes designed to imitate Sanskrit. Some later Buddhist texts, particularly those originating at the university at Nalanda, were composed in true Sanskrit. The Tibetan canon, which belongs to the various schools of Tibetan Vajrayana Buddhism, in addition to containing the earlier three classes of texts, also contains the tantric texts and commentaries on them. The division of texts into the traditional three yanas may obscure the process of development that went on. For instance, there are so‐called proto‐Mahayana texts, such as the Ajitasena Sutra, which are missing key features that are associated with Mahayana texts. Some Pali texts also contain ideas that later became synonymous with the Mahayana. Some Mahayana texts are also thought to display a distinctly tantric character, particularly some of the shorter Perfection of Wisdom Sutras. An early tantra, the Mahavairocana Abhisambodhi Tantra, is also known as the Mahavairocana Sutra. Some Buddhist texts evolved to become a virtual canon in themselves, and are referred to as vaipulya or extensive sutras. Scholars think, for instance, that the Golden Light Sutra constellated around the celebrated third chapter. 111
The Avatamsaka Sutra is another example of a single Sutra made up of many other sutras, many of which, particularly the Gandhavyuha Sutra still circulate as separate texts. The Avatamsaka Sutra and the White Lotus Sutra are associated with the idea of the Ekayana or One Vehicle.. The texts claim to unify all the teachings that have come before into a greater whole. Shingon Buddhism developed a system which assigned authorship of the early sutras to Gautama Buddha in his physical manifestation, of the Ekayana sutras to the Buddhas as Sambhoghakaya, and the Vajrayana texts to the Buddha as Dharmakaya. 2) Non‐canonical texts Non‐canonical or semi‐canonical texts have been important from very early in Buddhism. Extensive commentaries exist in Pali for the Pali Canon and in Tibetan, Chinese and other East Asian languages. Important examples of non‐canonical texts are the Visuddhimagga, or Path of Purification, by Buddhaghosa, which is a compendium of Theravada teachings that include quotes from the Pali Canon. The Milinda Pañha (Pali: Milinda), or Questions of Milinda, sometimes included in the Pali Canon is a popular condensation of the Dharma in the form of a dialogue between the Buddhist sage Nāgasena and the Indo‐
Greek King Menander. The treatise Awakening of Faith in the Mahayana (attributed by the faithful to Ashvaghosa) strongly influenced Mahayana doctrine and inspired numerous commentaries authored by early Chinese and Korean Buddhist teachers. Shantidevaʹs Bodhicaryavatara has been influential in both Mahayana and Vajrayana, and his Shikshasamucaya contains references to texts which are no longer extant in any other form. The Platform Sutra of Huineng might be considered a semi‐canonical text; it is one of a very few texts not thought to be spoken by the Buddha that has the label ʺsutra.ʺ One should note, however, that this distinction may be an artifact of translation; in the original Chinese, the Platform Sutra is a jīng, a term that may be translated as ʺsutraʺ, but is also applied to a variety of other classic texts, such as the Daodejing and the Shi Jing. In the Platform Sutra, Hui Neng gives an autobiographical account of his succession as Zen Patriarch, as well as teachings about Zen theory and practice. The Zen and Chʹan school in particular rely on non‐canonical accounts of Zen masters lives and teachings, for example the Blue Cliff Record. Tibetan Buddhism has a unique and special class of texts called terma (Tibetan gTer‐ma). These are texts which were supposedly composed but hidden to be rediscovered at some later date. Termas are discovered by a tertön (Tibetan gTer‐
stons), whose special function it is to discover these texts. Some termas are hidden in caves or similar places, but a few are said to be ʹmind termasʹ which are ʹdiscoveredʹ in the mind of the tertön. The Nyingma school has a large terma literature. Many of the terma texts are said to have been written by Padmasambhava, who is particularly important to the Nyingmas. Probably the best known terma text is the so‐called ʺTibetan book of the deadʺ, the Bardo thodol. Other types of non‐canonical texts which have been important are the histories of Buddhism in Sri Lanka, the Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa. 112
3) Texts of the Early schools Although many versions of the texts of the early Buddhist schools exist, the only complete canon to survive is the Pali Canon of the Theravadin school, which preserved the texts in the Pali language. Also large parts of the Sarvastivada and Dharmaguptaka texts are extant. The Pali literature divides into roughly three periods. The early, or classical, period begins with the Pali Canon itself and ends with the Milindha‐pañha about the turn of the Christian era. After a period of being in comparative disuse or decline, Pali underwent a renaissance in the 4th or 5th century with the help of Buddhaghosa, and this period lasted until the 12th Century. The third period coincides with major political changes in Burma and lasted for some time in Sri Lanka, and much longer in Burma. See also Pali literature. The other (parts of) extant versions of the Tipitakas of early schools include the agamas, which includes texts of the Sarvastivada and the Mahasanghika. Parts of the canon of the Dharmaguptaka can be found amongst the Gandharan Buddhist Texts. Several early Vinaya Pitakas (from various schools) are also kept in the Chinese (Mahayana) Canon. 1_Vinaya The vinaya literature is primarily concerned with aspects of the monastic discipline. However, vinaya as a term is also contrasted with Dharma, where the pair (Dhamma‐Vinaya) mean something like ʹdoctrine and disciplineʹ. The vinaya literature in fact contains a considerable range of texts. There are, of course, those which discuss the monastic rules, how they came about, how they developed, and how they were applied. But the vinaya also contains some doctrinal expositions, ritual and liturgical texts, biographical stories, and some elements of the ʺJatakasʺ, or birth stories. Paradoxically, the text most closely associated with the vinaya, and the most frequently used portion of it, the Pratimoksha, is in itself not a canonical text in Theravada, even though almost all of it can be found in the canon. Six complete vinayas survive: _Theravada, written in Pali _Mula‐Sarvāstivāda, written in Sanskrit, but surviving complete only in Tibetan translation _Mahāsānghika, _Sarvāstivāda, _Mahīshāsika, and _Dharmagupta, originally in Sanskrit, but only surviving in Chinese translation. In addition, portions survive of a number of vinayas in various languages. The Mahāvastu compiled by the Lokottaravadin sub‐school of the Mahāsānghika was perhaps originally the preamble to their vinaya that became detached; hence, rather than dealing with the rules themselves, it takes the form of an extended biography of the Buddha, which it describes in terms of his progression through ten bhumis, or stages. This doctrine was later taken up by the Mahayana in a modified form as Vasubandhuʹs Ten Stages Sutra. 113
2_Sutta The Suttas (in Sanskrit, Sutra) are mostly discourses delivered by the Buddha or one of his close disciples. They are all, even those not actually spoken by him, considered to be ʹBuddhavacanaʹ or the word of the Buddha, just as in the case of all canonical literature. The Buddhaʹs discourses were perhaps originally organised according to the style in which they were delivered; there were originally nine, but later twelve, of these: 1° Sūtra: prose discourse 2° Geya: mixed prose and verse discourse 3° Vyākarana: explanation, analysis 4° Gāthā: verse 5° Udāna: inspired speech 6° Ityukta: beginning with ʹthus has the Bhagavan saidʹ 7° Jātaka: story of previous life 8° Abhutadharma: concerning wonders and miraculous events 9° Vaipulya either ʹextended discoursesʹ or ʹthose giving joyʹ (cf Mahayana Texts) 10° Nidāna: in which the teachings are set within their circumstances of origin 11° Avadāna: tales of exploits 12° Upadesha: defined and considered instructions The first nine are listed in all surviving agamas, with the other three added in some later sources. In Theravada, at least, they are regarded as a classification of the whole of the scriptures, not just suttas. The scheme is also found in Mahayana canons. However, some time later a new scheme of organisation was imposed on the canon, and it is this scheme which most people are familiar with. The scheme organises the suttas into: a) Long discourses These range in length up to 95 pages. The Pali Digha Nikaya contains 34 texts, including the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta and the Brahmajāla Sutta. The Dīrghāgama of the Dharmagupta also survives in Chinese translation and contains 30 sutras. b) Medium‐length discourses
These are the rest of the suttas of any length, and the Pali Majjhima Nikaya has 152 suttas. The Madhyamāgama of the Sarvāstivada containing 222 sutras survives in Chinese translation. 114
c) Connected discourses
This grouping consists of many short texts connected by theme, setting, or interlocutor. The Pali Samyutta Nikaya contains more than 2,800 suttas. The Samyuktāgama of the Sarvāstivada containing only 1,300 sutras survives in Chinese translation. d) Numbered discourses
Suttas which have the same number of doctrinal items containing over 2,300 suttas in the Pali Anguttara Nikaya. The Chinese canon contains an Ekottarāgana which is thought to belong to the Mahāsanghika school originally. e) Miscellaneous texts
Not all schools had this category, but the Pali Khuddaka Nikaya has several well‐known and loved texts, including: _The Dhammapada: a collection of sayings and aphorisms. _The Udana : a collection of inspired sayings in verse usually with a prose introduction that sets a context of sorts for the saying. _The Sutta nipatta: along with the Dhammapada and the Udana, the Suttanipatta is thought to represent the earliest strata of the written canon. Many of the features of later texts, such as numbered lists of teachings, or complex doctrinal categories, are not present. _Theragāthā and Therīgāthā two collections of biographical verse related to the disciples of the Buddha (male and female respectively.) _Jataka: the so‐called ʹbirth storiesʹ which recount former lives of the Buddha. These remain popular in many forms of Buddhism. Many of these texts are available in translation as well as in the original language. The Dhammapada, for instance, has a Pali version, three Chinese versions, a Tibetan version, and a Khotanese version. 3_Abhidharma
Abhidharma (in Pali, Abhidhamma) means ʹfurther Dharmaʹ and is concerned with the analysis of phenomena. It grew initially out of various lists of teachings such as the 37 Bodhipaksika‐dharmas or the 37 Factors leading to Awakening. The Abhidharma literature is chiefly concerned with the analysis of phenomena and the relationships between them. The Theravāda Abhidhamma survives in the Pali Canon. Though it is regarded as the word of the Buddha, modern scholarship has shown that it developed much later, and most of the literature is the product of the two centuries after Ashoka (1st Century CE). Outside of the Theravada monasteries the Pali Abhidharma texts are not well‐known. A Sarvastivada Abhidharma composed in Sanskrit, survives in Chinese and Tibetan traditions. Though the Theravādin Abhidhamma is well preserved and best 115
known, it should be noted that a number of the early Eighteen Schools each had their own distinct Abhidharma collection with not very much common textual material. Not all schools accepted the Abhidharma as canonical. The Sautrāntika, for instance, held that the canon stopped with the vinaya and sutras. The rejection by some schools that dharmas (i.e. phenomena) are ultimately real, which the Theravada Abhidhamma, for instance, insists, is thought to be an important factor in the origin of the Mahayana. 4_Non‐canonical texts
The first important, non‐canonical text is probably the Milinda pañha (literally The Questions of Milinda). This text is in the form of a dialogue between Nagasena, and the Indo‐Greek King Menander (Pali: Milinda). It is a compendium of doctrine, and covers a range of subjects. It is included in some editions of the Pali Canon. The Pali texts have an extensive commentarial literature that remains largely untranslated. These are largely attributed to Buddhaghosa. There are also sub‐
commentaries or commentaries on the commentaries. Buddhaghosa was also the author of the Visuddhimagga, or Path of Purification, which is a manual of doctrine and practice according to the Theravada school. 4) Mahayana texts 1_Perfection of Wisdom Texts These deal with prajñā (wisdom or insight). Wisdom in this context means the ability to see reality as it truly is. They do not contain an elaborate philosophical argument, but simply try to point to the true nature of reality, especially through the use of paradox. The basic premise is a radical non‐dualism, in which every and any dichotomist way of seeing things is denied: so phenomena are neither existent, nor non‐existent, but are marked by sunyata, emptiness, an absence of any essential unchanging nature. The Perfection of Wisdom in One Letter illustrates this approach by choosing to represent the perfection of prajñā with the Sanskrit/Pali short a vowel which, as a prefix, negates a wordʹs meaning (e.g., changing svabhava to asvabhava, ʺwith essenceʺ to ʺwithout essenceʺ; cf. mu); which is the first letter of Indic alphabets; and which, as a sound on its own, can be seen as the most neutral/basic of speech sounds (cf Aum and bija). Many sutras are known by the number of lines, or slokas, that they contained. Edward Conze, who translated all of the Perfection of Wisdom sutras into English, identified four periods of development in this literature: 1. 100BCE‐100CE: Ratnagunasamcayagatha and the Astasaharika (8,000 lines) 2. 100‐300CE: a period of elaboration in which versions in 18,000, 25,000, and 100,000 lines are produced. Possibly also the Diamond Sutra 3. 300‐500CE : a period of condensation, producing the well known Heart Sutra, and the Perfection of Wisdom in one letter 4. 500‐1000CE : texts from this period begin to show a tantric influence The Perfection of Wisdom texts have influenced every Mahayana school of Buddhism. 116
2_Saddharma‐pundarika
Also called the Lotus Sutra, White Lotus Sutra, Sutra of the White Lotus, or Sutra on the White Lotus of the Sublime Dharma; Sanskrit: Saddharmapundarīka‐sūtra; ch. Liánhuā Jīng; Jp: Myōhō Renge Kyō. Probably composed in the period 100 BCE–100 CE, the White Lotus proposes that the three yanas (Shravakayana, Pratyekabuddhayana, and Bodhisattvayana) are not in fact three different paths leading to three goals, but one path, with one goal. The earlier teachings are said to be ʹskilful meansʹ in order to help beings of limited capacities. Notable for the (re)appearance of the Buddha Prabhutaratna, who had died several aeons earlier, because it suggests that a Buddha is not inaccessible after his parinirvana, and also that his life‐span is said to be inconceivably long because of the accumulation of merit in past lives. This idea, though not necessarily from this source, forms the basis of the later Trikaya doctrine. Later associated particularly with the Tien Tai in China (Tendai in Japan) school and the Nichiren schools in Japan. 3_Pure Land Sutras
There are three major sutras that fall into this category: the Infinite Life Sutra, also known as the Larger Pure Land Sutra; the Amitabha Sutra, also known as the Smaller Pure Land Sutra; and the Contemplation Sutra, or Visualization, Sutra. These texts describe the origins and nature of the Western Pure Land in which the Buddha Amitabha resides. They list the forty‐eight vows made by Amitabha as a bodhisattva by which he undertook to build a Pure Land where beings are able to practise the Dharma without difficulty or distraction. The sutras state that beings can be reborn there by pure conduct and by practices such as thinking continuously of Amitabha, praising him, recounting his virtues, and chanting his name. These Pure Land sutras and the practices they recommend became the foundations of Pure Land Buddhism, which focus on the salvific power of faith in the vows of Amitabha. 4_The Vimalakirti Nirdesha Sutra
Composed some time before 150CE., the Bodhisattva Vimalakirti appears in the guise of a layman in order to teach the Dharma. Seen by some as a strong assertion of the value of lay practice. Doctrinally similar to the Perfection of Wisdom texts, another major theme is the Buddhafield (Buddha‐kshetra), which was influential on Pure Land schools. Very popular in China and Japan where it was seen as being compatible with Confucian values. 5_Samadhi Sutras
Amongst the very earliest Mahayana texts, the Samadhi Sutras are a collection of sutras which focus on the attainment of profound states of consciousness reached in meditation, perhaps suggesting that meditation played an important role in early Mahayana. Includes the Pratyutpanna Sutra and the Shurangama‐samadhi Sutra. 117
6_Confession Sutras
The Triskandha Sutra, and the Suvarnaprabhasa Sutra (or Golden Light Sutra), which focus on the practice of confession of faults. The Golden Light Sutra became especially influential in Japan, where one of its chapters (on the Universal Sovereign) was used by the Japanese emperors to legitimise their rule, and it provided a model for a well‐run state. 7_The Avatamsaka Sutra
A large composite text consisting of several parts, most notably the Dasabhumika Sutra and the Gandhavyuha Sutra. Probably reached its current form by about the 4th Century CE, although parts of it such as those mentioned above, are thought to date from the 1st or 2nd century CE. The Gandhavyuha sutra is thought to be the source of a cult of Vairocana that later gave rise to the Mahavairocana‐adhisambodhi tantra, which became one of two central texts in Shingon Buddhism, and is included in the Tibetan canon as a carya class tantra. The Avatamsaka Sutra became the central text for the Hua‐yen (Jp. Kegon) school of Buddhism, the most important doctrine of which is the interpenetration of all phenomena. 8_Third Turning Sutras
Sutras which primarily teach the doctrine of vijnapti‐matra or ʹrepresentation‐
onlyʹ, associated with the Yogacara school. The Sandhinirmocana Sutra (c 2nd Century CE) is the earliest surviving sutra in this class. This sutra divides the teachings of the Buddha into three classes, which it calls the ʺThree Turnings of the Wheel of the Dharma.ʺ To the first turning, it ascribes the Agamas of the Shravakas, to the second turning the lower Mahayana sutras including the Prajna‐paramita Sutras, and finally sutras like itself are deemed to comprise the third turning. Moreover, the first two turnings are considered, in this system of classification, to be provisional while the third group is said to present the final truth without a need for further explication (nitartha). The well‐known Lankavatara Sutra, composed sometime around the 4th Century CE, is sometimes included in this group, although it should be noted that it is somewhat syncretic in nature, combining pure Yogacara doctrines with those of the tathagata‐garbha system, and was unknown or ignored by the progenitors of the Yogacara system. The Lankavatara Sutra was influential in the Chan or Zen schools. 9_Tathagatagarbha Class Sutras
Especially the Tathagatagarbha Sutra, the Shrīmālādevi‐simhanāda Sūtra (Srimala Sutra) and the Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra (which is very different in character from the Pali Mahaparinibbana Sutta). These texts teach that every being has a Tathagatagarbha: variously translated as Buddha nature, Buddha seed, Buddha matrix. It is this Buddha nature, Buddha Essence or Buddha Principle, this aspect of every being which is itself already enlightened, that enables beings to be liberated. One of the most important responses 118
of Buddhism to the problem of immanence and transcendence. The Tathagatagarbha doctrine was very influential in East Asian Buddhism, and the idea in one form or another can be found in most of its schools. 10_Collected Sutras
Two very large sutras which are again actually collections of other sutras. The Mahāratnakūta Sūtra contains 49 individual works, and the Mahāsamnipāta Sūtra is a collection of 17 shorter works. Both seem to have been finalised by about the 5th century, although some parts of them are considerably older. 11_Transmigration Sutras
A number of sutras which focus on the actions that lead to existence in the various spheres of existence, or which expound the doctrine of the twelve links of pratitya‐samutpada or dependent‐origination. 12_Discipline Sutras
Sutras which focus on the principles which guide the behaviour of Bodhisattvas. Including the Kāshyapa‐parivarta, the Bodhisattva‐prātimoksa Sūtra, and the Brahmajāla Sūtra. 13_Sutras devoted to individual figures
A large number of sutras which describe the nature and virtues of a particular Buddha or Bodhisattva and/or their Pure Land, including Mañjusri, Ksitigarbha, the Buddha Akshobhya, and Bhaishajyaguru also known as the Medicine Buddha. 14_Proto‐Mahayana Sutras
Early in the 20th Century, a cache of texts was found in a mound near Gilgit, Afghanistan. Amongst them was the Ajitasena Sutra. The Ajitasena Sutra appears to be a mixture of Mahayana and pre‐Mahayana ideas. It occurs in a world where monasticism is the norm, which is typical of the Pali Suttas; there is none of the usual antagonism towards the Shravakas (also called the Hinayana) or the notion of Arahantship, which is typical of Mahayana Sutras such as the White Lotus, or Vimalakirti Nirdesha. However, the sutra also has an Arahant seeing all the Buddha fields, it is said that reciting the name of the sutra will save beings from suffering and the hell realms, and a meditative practice is described which allows the practitioner to see with the eyes of a Buddha, and to receive teachings from them that are very much typical of Mahayana Sutras. 15_Non‐canonical texts
The Mahayana commentarial and exegetical literature is vast, and in many cases the texts have an importance which outweighs canonical texts. The Mūlamadhyamika‐karikā, or Root Verses on the Middle Way, by Nagarjuna is a seminal text on the Madhyamika philosophy, shares much of the same 119
subject matter as the Perfection of Wisdom Sutras, although it is not strict a commentary on them. The 9th Century Indian Buddhist Shantideva produced two texts: the Bodhicaryāvatāra has been a strong influence in many schools of the Mahayana. It is notably a favourite text of the fourteenth Dalai Lama. The text begins with an elaborate ritual worship section, but goes on to expound the six perfections. The 9th chapter is a critique of various views on perfect wisdom from the madhyamika point of view. Shantideva also produced the Shikshasamuccaya, which is a compendium of doctrines from a huge range of Mahayana Sutras ‐ some of which are no longer extant and therefore known only through Shantidevaʹs quotes. Asanga, associated with the Yogacara school of Mahayana thought, is said to have received many texts directly from the Bodhisattva Maitreya in the Tushita god realm, including Madhyāntavibhāga, the Mahāyāna‐sūtrālamāra, and the Abhisamayālamkara. He is also said to have personally written the Mahāyāna‐
samgraha, the Abhidharma‐samuccaya (a compendium of Abhidharma thought which became the standard text for many Mahayana schools especially in Tibet), and the Yogācāra‐bhūmi (although the latter text appears to have had several authors.) Asangaʹs brother Vasubandhu wrote a large number of texts associated with the Yogacara including: Trivabhāva‐nirdesha, Vimshatika, Trimshika, and the Abhidharmakośa‐bhāsya although this work predates his conversion to the Mahayana and a minority of scholars speculate that there may have been two different Vasubandhus who composed these works. Most influential in the East Asian Buddhist tradition was probably his Thirty Verses on Consciousness‐only. Dignāga is associated with a school of Buddhist logic which tried to establish what were valid sources of knowledge (see also Epistemology). He produced the Pramāna‐samuccaya, and later Dharmakirti wrote the Pramāna‐vārttikā which was a commentary and reworking of the Dignaga text. The Awakening of Faith in the Mahayana attributed to Ashvaghosha was influential in East Asian Buddhism, especially the Hua‐yen school of China, and its Japanese equivalent, Kegon. Ashvaghosha is also celebrated for his plays. 5) Vajrayana texts 1_Buddhist tantras The canon of the Vajrayana schools includes a number of Nikaya‐related texts from a number of the schools, as well as Mahayana sutras. However, it is the specifically Vajrayana texts that most strongly characterise it. They are considered to be the word of the Buddha, and the Tibetan Canon contains translations of almost 500 tantras and over 2000 commentaries to them. The texts are typically concerned with elaborate rituals and meditations. A late Tibetan tradition has made a four‐fold classification into: _Kriyā tantras. These form a large subgroup which appeared between the 2nd and 6th centuries CE. The Kriya tantras focus on actions (ritual etc.). Each centres around a particular Buddha or Bodhisattva, and many are based around dharanis. 120
Examples include the Mahāmegha Sutra, the Ārya‐mañjushrī‐mūla‐kalpa, the Subhāhu‐pariprcchā Sutra, and the Aparimitāyur‐jñāna‐hrdaya‐dhāranī. _Carya tantras. This is a small class of texts that probably emerged after the 6th century and are entirely centred on the worship of the Buddha Vairocana. The best known example is the Mahā‐vairocanābhisambodhi Tantra (aka Mahavairocana Sutra), which became a foundational text for the Shingon School of Japan. _Yoga tantras likewise focus on Vairocana, and include the Sarva‐tathāgata‐
tattva‐samgraha Tantra and the Sarva‐durgati‐parishodhana Tantra. _Anuttara tantras. This most advanced class of tantra focuses on mental transformation and less on ritual actions. They are sometimes further divided into the so‐called Father Tantras and Mother Tantras. _First there are the yogottara (or higher union) tantras, also known as father tantras, or upāya (skilful means) tantras. They focus on the Buddha Akshobhya and his consort Māmaki. The Guhya‐samāja Tantra comes from this class of tantras, dating probably from the 8th century. _Secondly prajña or mother tantras, (also known as yogini tantras) dating from the late 8th century. Akshobhya is still the central figure, but he now appears in his wrathful form as Heruka. Female figures take on a much greater significance, becoming as important as male figures, if not more so. The Samvara Tantra was translated into Tibetan in the 8th century. Other members of this class, such as the Hevajra Tantra, appeared in the 10th century. _The Kalachakra tantra is sometimes said to be an advaya or non‐dual tantra. It appeared very late in the development of tantric Buddhism ‐ in the mid 11th century ‐ and is written in classical Sanskrit, rather than the usual mixture of Prakrit and the characteristic ʺallusive speechʺ (samdhyābhāshā). For the first time the teachings refer to the ādhibuddha, or primordial Buddha. Textual evidence suggests that some of these texts are in fact Shaivite Tantras adopted and adapted to Buddhist purposes, and many similarities in iconography and ritual can be seen in them. 2_Other products of the Vajrayana literature
The Sādhanamālā is a collection of Sādhanas or spiritual practices. Vajrayana adepts, known as siddhas, often expounded their teachings in the form of songs. Collections of these songs such as the Caryāgīti which is a collection of songs by various ʹsiddhasʹ are popular; the Dohakosha is a collection of songs by the siddha Saraha from the 9th century. A collection known in English as The Hundred Thousand Songs of Milarepa is also popular. Terma texts are hidden to be rediscovered at a later date. Padmasambhava wrote, and hid, many termas. The best known terma text is probably the Bardo thodol, Awakening in the Bardo State, also known as the Tibetan Book of the Dead. The person who finds a terma text is known as a terton. Kūkai wrote a number of treatises on Vajrayana Buddhism which are distinctive to his Shingon Buddhism. 121
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Tibetan Buddhist canon From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Texto em tibetano com as letras em ouro. Classificação dos textos do cânone tibetano Contents: 1) Exoteric or Sutra tradition 1_Important Indian scholars a)Two Supremes b) Six Scholarly Ornaments c) Seventeen Great Panditas 2_ Five traditional topics of study 3_Five treatises of Maitreya 2) Esoteric or Tantra tradition 1_Organisation of Tantric texts 123
The Tibetan Buddhist canon is a loosely defined list of sacred texts recognized by various sects of Tibetan Buddhism. In addition to earlier foundational Buddhist texts from early Buddhist schools, mostly the Sarvastivada, and mahayana texts, the Tibetan canon includes Tantric texts. The Tibetan Canon underwent a final compilation in 14th Century by Bu‐ston (1290‐1364). The Tibetans did not have a formally arranged Mahayana canon and so devised their own scheme which divided texts into two broad categories: 1] Kangyur (Wylie: Bkaʹ‐ʹgyur) or ʺTranslated Wordsʺ, consists of works supposed to have been said by the Buddha himself. All texts presumably have a sanskrit original, although in many cases the Tibetan text was translated from Chinese or other languags. 2] Tengyur (Wylie: Bstan‐ʹgyur) or ʺTranslated Treatisesʺ is the section to which were assigned commentaries, treatises and abhidharma works (both Mahayana and non‐Mahayana). The Tengyur contains 3626 texts in 224 Volumes. The Kangyur is divided into sections on Vinaya, Perfection of Wisdom Sutras, other sutras (75% Mahayana, 25% Nikayan or Hinayana), and tantras. When exactly the term Kangyur was first used is not known. Collections of canonical Buddhist texts existed already in the time of Trisong Detsen, the sixth king of Tubo. The exact number of texts in the Kangyir is not fixed, each editor takes responsibility for removing texts he considers spurious, and adding new translations. Currently there are about 12 available Kangyur. These include the Derge, Lhasa, Narthang, Cone, Peking, Ugra, Phudrak, and Stog Palace versions, each named after the physical location of its printing. In addition some canonical texts have been found in Tabo and Dunhuang which provide earlier exemplars to texts found in the Kangyur. All extant Kangyur appear to stem from the Old Narthang Kangyur. The stemma of the Kangyur have been well researched in particular by Helmut Eimer. 124
1) Exoteric or Sutra tradition In the Tibetan tradition, some collections of teachings and practices are held in greater secrecy than others. The sutra tradition is comprised of works said to be derived from the public teachings of the Buddha, and is taught widely and publicly. The esoteric tradition of tantra (below) is generally only shared in more intimate settings with those students who the teacher feels have the capacity to utilize it well. 1_Important Indian scholars a) Two Supremes Two Indian Buddhist scholars are widely considered to be of paramount importance by Tibetan Buddhists. As such, they are referred to as the Two Supremes. 1°_Asanga founder of the Yogachara school 2°_Nagarjuna founder of the Madhyamika school b) Six Scholarly Ornaments These scholarsʹs works are of secondary importance to the Tibetan Buddhist canon. As the ranking of their importance is not as universally recognized, there are occasionally substitutions made in this list. 1° Aryadeva foremost disciple of Nagarjuna, continued the philosophical school of Madhyamika 2° Dharmakirti famed logician, author of the Seven Treatises; student of Dignanaʹs student Ishvarasena; said to have debated famed Hindu scholar Shankara 3° Dignana famed logician 4° Gunaprabha foremost student of Vasubandhu, known for his work the Vinayasutra 5° Sakyaprabha prominent expositor of the Vinaya 6° Vasubandhu author of the Abhidharmakosha c) Seventeen Great Panditas References are sometimes made to the Seventeen Great Panditas. This formulation groups the eight listed above with the following nine scholars. 9° Atiśa holder of the “mind training” (Tib. lojong) teachings 10° Bhavaviveka early expositor of the Svatantrika Madhyamikha 11° Buddhapalita early expositor of the Prasangika Madhyamikha 12° Chandrakirti considered the greatest exponent of Prasangika Madhyamika 13° Haribhadra commentator on Asangaʹs Ornament of Clear Realization 14° Kamalashila 8th‐century author of important texts on meditation 15° Shantarakshita abbot of Nalanda, founder of the Yogachara‐Madhyamika who helped Padmasambhava establish Buddhism in Tibet 16° Shantideva (8th century Indian) author of the Bodhisattvacaryavatra 17° Vimuktisena commentator on Asangaʹs Ornament of Clear Realization 125
2_Five traditional topics of study All four schools of Tibetan Buddhism generally follow a similar curriculum, using the same Indian root texts and commentaries. The further Tibetan commentaries they use differ by school, although since the 19th century appearance of the widely renowned scholars Jamgon Kongtrul and Ju Mipham, Kagyupas and Nyingmapas use many of the same Tibetan commentaries as well. Different schools, however, place emphasis and concentrate attention on different areas. The exoteric study of Buddhism is generally organized into ʺFive Topics,ʺ listed as follows with the primary Indian source texts for each: 1° Abhidharma (Higher Knowledge, Tib. wylie: mdzod) _Compendium of Higher Knowledge (Abhidharma Samuccaya) by Asanga _Treasury of Higher Knowledge (Abhidharma Kosha) by Vasubandhu 2° Prajna Paramita (Perfection of Wisdom, Tib. wylie: par‐phyin) _Ornament of Clear Realization (Abhisamaya Alankara) by Maitreya as related to Asanga _The Way of the Bodhisattva (Bodhicharyavatara) by Shantideva 3° Madhyamika (Middle Way, Tib. wylie: dbuma) _Fundamental Wisdom of the Middle Way (Mulamadhyamakakarika) by Nagarjuna _Four Hundred Verses on the Yogic Deeds of Bodhisattvas (Catuhsataka) by Aryadeva _Introduction to the Middle Way (Madhyamakavatara) by Chandrakirti _Ornament of the Middle Way (Madhyamakalamkara) by Shantarakshita _The Way of the Bodhisattva (Bodhicharyavatara) by Shantideva 4° Pramana (Logic, Means of Knowing, Tib. wylie: tshadma) _Treatise on Valid Cognition (Pramanavarttika) by Dharmakirti _Pramanasamuccaya by Dignaga 5° Vinaya (Vowed Morality, Tib. wylie: ʹdul‐ba) _The Root of the Vinaya (Dülwa Do Tsawa) by the Pandita Yonten 126
3_Five treatises of Maitreya Also of great importance are the ʺFive Treatises of Maitreya.ʺ These texts are said to have been related to Asanga by the Buddha Maitreya, and comprise the heart of the Yogachara (or Cittamatra, Mind‐Only) school of philosophy in which all Tibetan Buddhists are well‐versed. They are as follows: 1° Ornament for Clear Realization (Abhisamayalankara, Tib. mngon par rtogs paʹi rgyan) 2° Ornament for the Mahayana Sutras (Mahayanasutralankara, Tib. theg pa chen poʹi mdo sdeʹi rgyan) 3° Sublime Continuum of the Mahayana (Mahayanottaratantrashastra, Ratnagotravibhaga, Tib. theg pa chen po rgyud bla maʹi bstan) 4° Distinguishing Phenomena and Pure Being (Dharmadharmatavibhanga, Tib. chos dang chos nyid rnam par ʹbyed pa) 5° Distinguishing the Middle and the Extremes (Madhyantavibhanga, Tib. dbus dang mthaʹ rnam par ʹbyed pa) A commentary on the Ornament for Clear Realization called Clarifying the Meaning by the Indian scholar Haribhadra is often used, as is one by Vimuktisena. 2) Esoteric or Tantra tradition 1_Organisation of Tantric texts The Sarma or New Translation schools of Tibetan Buddhism (Gelug, Sakya, and Kagyu) divide the Tantras into four hierarchical categories, namely, 1° Kriyayoga 2° Charyayoga 3° Yogatantra 4° Anuttarayogatantra further divided into ʺmotherʺ, ʺfatherʺ and ʺnon‐dualʺ tantras. A different division is used by the Nyingma or Ancient school: Three Outer Tantras: 1° Kriyayoga 2° Charyayoga 3° Yogatantra Three Inner Tantras, which correspond to the Anuttarayogatantra: 4° Mahayoga 5° Anuyoga 6° Atiyoga (Tib. Dzogchen) The practice of Atiyoga is further divided into three classes: 7° Mental SemDe, 8° Spatial LongDe, and 9° Esoteric Instructional MenNgagDe. 127
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Chinese Buddhism From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Seated Buddha, from the Chinese Tang dynasty, Hebei province, ca. 650 CE. Chinese Buddhism, as a branch of Buddhism, is an important religion in China and one of the three major schools of thought along with Confucianism and Taoism. It has affected and been affected by Chinese culture, politics, literature and philosophy for almost two millennia. Contents: 1) History of Buddhism in China 1_Arrival along the Silk Road o 2_Relation to Confucianism and Taoism 3_Local interpretation of Indian texts 4_Buddhism gains political traction in the north 5_Monks and rulers join forces 2) Modern Chinese Buddhism (Branches and Sects) 129
130
Han Wudi (156‐87 BCE)
Fresco describing Emperor worshipping two statues of the Buddha, Mogao Caves,
Dunhuang, c.8th century CE. 1) History of Buddhism in China 1_ Arrival along the Silk Road The arrival of Buddhism in China was a consequence of the first contacts between China and Central Asia which occurred with the opening of the Silk Road in the 2nd century BCE, following the travels of Zhang Qian between 138 and 126 BCE. Chinese murals in the Tarim Basin city of Dunhuang describe the Emperor Han Wudi (156‐87 BCE) worshipping Buddhist statues, ʺgolden men brought in 120 BCE by a great Han general in his campaigns against the nomadsʺ. However, there is no such mention of Han Wudi worshipping the Buddha in Chinese historical literature. The Hou Hanshu then records the visit of Yuezhi envoys to the Chinese capital in 2 BCE, who gave oral teachings on Buddhist sutras to a student, suggesting that some Yuezhi had already started to disseminate the Buddhist faith in eastern Asia during the 1st century BCE (Baldev Kumar (1973), exact source needed). The Hou Hanshu describes the enquiry about Buddhism made around 70 CE by the emperor Emperor Ming (58‐75 CE): ʺThere is a current tradition that Emperor Ming dreamed that he saw a tall golden man the top of whose head was glowing. He questioned his group of advisors and one of them said: “In the West there is a god called Buddha. His body is sixteen chi high (3.7 metres or 12 feet), and is the colour of true gold.” The Emperor, to discover the true doctrine, sent an envoy to Tianzhu (Northwestern India) to inquire about the Buddha’s doctrine, after which paintings and statues [of the Buddha] appeared in the Middle Kingdom.ʺ (Hou Hanshu, trans. John Hill) 131
This encounter is further described in a 6th century CE account by Yang Xuanzhi: ʺThe establishment of the Báim ‐Sì (White Horse Temple by Emperor Ming (58‐75 CE) of the Han marked the introduction of Buddhism into China. The temple was located on the south side of the Imperial Drive, three leagues (li) outside the Xiyang Gate. The Emperor dreamt of the golden man sixteen Chinese feet tall, with the aureole of sun and moon radiating from his head and his neck. A ʺgolden godʺ, he was known as Buddha. The emperor dispatched envoys to the Western Regions in search of the god, and, as a result, acquired Buddhist scriptures and images. At the time, because the scriptures were carried into China on the backs of white horses, White Horse was adopted as the name of the temple.ʺ (Translation: Ulrich Theobald). One of the first known Chinese Buddha statue, found in a late Han dynasty
burial in Sichuan province. Dated circa 200 CE. The hair, the moustache,
the robe indicate heavy influence by Gandharan styles.
These Chinese emissaries are said to have visited the country of the Yuezhi , and to have brought back with them two missionnaries named Dharmaraksa, Zhu Falan) and Kasyapa Matanga, Jiashe Moteng, sometimes shortened to Moteng), together with sutras written with 600,000 Sanskrit words. The two missionnaries wrote “The Sutra of forty‐two sections spoken by the Buddhaʺ , to provide guidance on the ideas of Buddhism and the conduct of monks. It is the first Buddhist text in the Chinese language, although its authenticity is a matter of debate. Their arrival in 67 CE marks Buddhismʹs official introduction in China. Historians generally agree that by the middle of the 1st century, the religion had penetrated to areas north of the Huai River. Emperor Mingʹs brother Liu Ying the Prince of Chu was the first high‐profile believer of Buddhism, although there is some evidence that Emperor Ming himself might have been as well. The first documented translation of Buddhist scriptures into Chinese occurs in 148 CE, with the arrival of the Parthian missionary An Shih Kao in China, probably on the heels of the Kushan expansion into the Tarim Basin. 132
An Shi Kao established Buddhist temples in Loyang and organized the translation of Buddhist scriptures into Chinese, testifying to the beginning of a wave of Central Asian Buddhist proselitism that was to last several centuries. Traces of Buddhist iconography can also be seen in works of art from this period. By the end of the second century, a prosperous community had been settled at Pengcheng (modern Xuzhou, Jiangsu). Jingʹan Temple in downtown Shanghai. Three Kingdoms era (Wu Kingdom) temple. 2_Relation to Confucianism and Taoism Most of the Chinese gentry were indifferent to the Central Asian travelers and their religion. Not only was their religion unknown, but much of it seemed alien and amoral to Chinese sensibilities. Concepts such as monasticism and individual spiritual enlightenment directly contradicted the core Confucian principles of family and emperor. Confucianism promoted social stability, order, strong families, and practical living. Chinese officials questioned how a monkʹs personal attainment of nirvana benefited the empire. Buddhism was less antithetical to Daoism, the other major religion of China. Indeed, upon first encountering Buddhism, many Chinese scholars regarded it as merely a foreign equivalent of Daoism. 3_ Local interpretation of Indian texts To thrive in China, Buddhism had to transform itself into a system that could exist within the Chinese way of life. Thus highly regarded Indian sutras that advocated filial piety became core texts in China. Buddhism was made compatible with ancestor worship and participation in Chinaʹs hierarchical system. Works were written arguing that the salvation of an individual was a benefit to that individualʹs society and family and monks thus contributed to the greater good. 133
It is conjectured that the shocking collapse of the Han Dynasty in 220 and the resulting period of social upheaval and political unrest known as the Three Kingdoms period may have helped the spread of Buddhism. Buddhism was a minor force, however, compared with Daoism which was directly associated with efforts to defy the emperor (cf. Yellow Turban Rebellion). The Daoist Zhang family self‐governed the Hanzhong Commandry for nearly 20 years until invasion by the renowned Chinese warlord Cao Cao. A reason for the lack of interest mostly stemmed from the ruling entity and gentry. All the rulers were Han Chinese and had simply never heard of or knew too little of the religion. The Nine‐grade controller system, by which prominent individuals in each local administrative area were given the authority to rank local families and individuals in nine grades according to their potential for government service, further consolidated the importance of Confucianism. Daoism too remained a strong force among the population and philosophers. 4_Buddhism gains political traction in the north Subsequent chaotic periods of Sixteen Kingdoms and Southern and Northern Dynasties changed the situation, resulting in state support of Buddhism. Most rulers and population of the Wu, Hu, and the Northern dynasties originated from more than ten distinct ethnic groups including either non‐Han Chinese ʺbarbariansʺ, or Han Chinese after generations of ʺbarbarianʺ influence. They did not propagate nor trust the combined philosophical concept of Confucianism and Daoism as zealously as their rivals in the south. Official support of Buddhism would eventually mould a new Chinese populace with a common ideology out of the diversely ethnic population, which would in turn consolidate these dynasties. It is instructive that Buddhism propagated faster in northern China than in the south. Social upheaval in northern China worked to break down cultural barriers between the elite ruling families and the general populace, in contrast to the south where elite clans and royal families firmly monopolized politics. Daoist and Confucian political ideology had long consolidated the political status of elite clans in the south. Support of another religion would have unknown and possibly adverse effects, for which these clans would not risk their privileges. Furthermore pro‐Buddhist policy would not be backed by the bureaucracy, which had been staffed by members of the clans. Southern rulers were in weaker positions to strive for their legitimacy ‐ some were even installed by the clans. It was not until the reign of Emperor Wu of the Liang Dynasty that saw the official support of Buddhism. Rebellion of Hou Jing near the end of Emperor Wuʹs reign wreaked havoc on the political and social privileges of the elite clans, which indirectly assisted the spread of Buddhism. But Buddhism spread pretty well in the peasant populace, both in the north and the south. 134
5_ Monks and rulers join forces Sui Dynasty Bodhisattva, sandstone, Tianlongshan Grottoes, Shanxi, 6th century. Arrivals of several prestigious monks in the early 5th century also contributed to the propagation of the religion and were welcomed by rulers of the Sixteen Kingdoms and Northern Dynasties. Fo Tu Cheng was entrusted by the tyrant Shi Hu of Later Chao. Kumarajiva was invited by Lü Guang, the founder of Later Liang, and later by Yao Xing, second ruler of Later Qin. Biographies of these monks, among others, were the subject of the Memoirs of Eminent Monks. The direct experiential impact of contact with practicing monks should not be underestimated. Confucianism had no equivalent to holy men — the archetypical best and brightest was a wise government minister, not a saint. Daoist priests were more immediate, but given to relativism. It is notable that when another ʺforeign ʺ religion, Nestorianism, sought to extol the virtues of one of its main benefactors they claimed he was so moral that ʺ...even among the most pure and self‐denying of the Buddhists, such excellence was never heard of;ʺ (cf. Nestorian Stele). Through the actions and example of monks, Buddhists successfully laid claim to the high moral ground in society. In this way Buddhism grew to become a major religion in China. By the start of the 6th century, Buddhism had grown in popularity to rival Daoism. We know they were successful because the monks were soon accused of falling into extravagance and their lands and properties confiscated by Emperor Wu of the Northern Zhou dynasty and Wuzong of the Tang Dynasty. During the early Tang dynasty the monk Xuanzang journeyed to Nalanda in India and other important sites to bring back scriptures. He sought to expand influence of Mahayana over Theravada, though the Yogacara school he preferred differs significantly from the later Chinese Mahayana schools that developed such as Pure Land (see Journey to the West). The Tang capital of Changʹan (todayʹs Xiʹan) became an important center for Buddhist thought. From there Buddhism spread to Korea, and Japanese embassies of 135
Kentoshi helped gain footholds in Japan. Buddhist ideology began to merge with Confucianism and Daoism, due in part to the use of existing Chinese philosophical terms in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. Various Confucian scholars of the Song dynasty, including Zhu Xi (wg: Chu Hsi), sought to redefine Confucianism as Neo‐Confucianism. A Tang Dynasty Amitabha sculpture in the Hidden Stream Temple Cave, Longmen Grottoes, China. The popularization of Buddhism in this period is evident in the many scripture‐
filled caves and structures surviving today. The Mogao Caves near Dunhuang in Gansu province, the Longmen Grottoes near Luoyang in Henan and the Yungang Grottoes near Datong in Shanxi are the most renowned of the Northern, Sui and Tang Dynasties. The Leshan Giant Buddha, carved out of a hillside in the 8th century during Tang Dynasty and looking down on the confluence of three rivers, is still the largest stone Buddha statue in the world. As a side note, duplications of Buddhist texts were considered to bring meritorious karma. Printing from individually carved wooden blocks, from movable clay type and from movable metal type, proved much more efficient and eventually eclipsed hand copying. The Diamond Sutra of AD 868, a Buddhist scripture discovered in AD 1907 inside the Mogao Caves, was the first dated example of block printing. 3) Modern Chinese Buddhism (Branches and Sects) Today the most popular form of Buddhism in both mainland China and Taiwan is a mix of the Pure Land and Chan school. Its central scripture, the Amitabha Sutra was first brought to China by An Shigao, circa 147, however the school did not become popular until later. 136
Korean Buddhism From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia The grounds of Koreaʹs Buryeongsa Temple. Contents: 1) Historical overview of the development of Korean Buddhism 2) Buddhism in the Three Kingdoms 1_Goguryeo 2_Baekje 3_Gaya 4_Silla 3) Buddhism in the Unified Silla period (668‐918) 4) Buddhism as state religion in the Goryeo period (918‐1392) 5) Suppression under the Joseon dynasty (1392‐1910) 6) Buddhism during the Japanese occupation (1910‐1945) 7) Buddhism and Westernization (1945‐present) 8) Looking Ahead 137
Korean Buddhism Korean Buddhism is distinguished from other forms of Buddhism by its attempt to resolve what it sees as inconsistencies in Chinese Mahayana Buddhism. Early Korean monks believed that the traditions they received from China were internally inconsistent. To address this, they developed a new holistic approach to Buddhism. This approach is characteristic of virtually all major Korean thinkers, and has resulted in a distinct variation of Buddhism, which Wonhyo (617–686) called the Tongbulgyo (ʺinterpenetrated Buddhismʺ). Korean Buddhist thinkers refined their Chinese predecessorsʹ ideas into a distinct form. Korean Buddhism then went on to have strong effects on Buddhism in the West. As it now stands, Korean Buddhism consists mostly of the Seon lineage. Seon has a strong relationship with other Mahayana traditions that bear the imprint of Chinese Chʹan teachings, as well as the closely related Japanese Zen. Other sects, such as the Taego, and the newly formed Won, have also attracted sizable followings. 138
1) Historical overview of the development of Korean Buddhism When Buddhism was originally introduced to Korea from China in 372, or about 800 years after the death of the historical Buddha, Shamanism was the indigenous religion. As it was not seen to conflict with the rites of nature worship, it was allowed to blend in with Shamanism. Thus, the mountains that were believed to be the residence of spirits in pre‐Buddhist times became the sites of Buddhist temples. Korean Shamanism held three spirits in especially high regard: Sanshin (the Mountain Spirit), Toksong (the Recluse) and Chilsong (the Spirit of the Seven Stars, the Big Dipper). Korean Buddhism accepted and absorbed these three spirits and, even today, special shrines are set aside for them in many temples. The Mountain Spirit receives particular recognition in an attempt to appease the local mountain spirits, on whose land the temple stands. This blend of Buddhism and Shamanism became known as Korean Buddhism, although the fundamental teachings of the Buddha remained. Though it initially enjoyed wide acceptance, even being supported as the state ideology during the Goryeo period, Buddhism in Korea suffered extreme repression during the Joseon dynasty, which lasted for several hundred years. During this period, Neo‐Confucian ideology overcame the prior dominance of Buddhism. Only after Buddhist monks helped repel a Japanese invasion at the end of the 16th century (see Seven‐Year War) did the persecution of Buddhism and Buddhist practitioners stop. Buddhism in Korea remained subdued until the end of the Joseon period, when its position was strengthened somewhat by the Japanese occupation, which lasted from 1910 to 1945. After World War II, the Seon school of Korean Buddhism once again gained acceptance. As Christianity has become increasingly influential in Korea, it is estimated that the declining proportion of the religious population among self‐professed Buddhist community in South Korea now accounts for about 23% of the countryʹs population. In officially atheist North Korea, Buddhists make up 2% of the population. 2) Buddhism in the Three Kingdoms When Buddhism was introduced to Korea in the 4th century CE, the Korean peninsula was politically subdivided into three kingdoms: Goguryeo in the north, Baekje in the southwest, and Silla in the southeast. 1_Goguryeo In 372 the Chinese monk Sundo (
, or Shundao in Chinese) was sent by the Former Qin ruler Fujian (
) to the court of the King Sosurim (
) of Goguryeo. He brought Chinese texts and statues with him and the Goguryeo royalty and their subjects quickly accepted his teachings. The Buddhism in China was in a rudimentary form, consisting of the law of cause and effect and the search for happiness. This had much in common with the predominant Shamanism, which likely led to the quick assimilation of Buddhism by the people of Goguryeo. 139
2_Baekje In 384, the Serindian monk Maranantʹa arrived in Baekje and the royal family received the similar strain of Buddhism he brought. King Asin proclaimed, ʺpeople should believe in Buddhism and seek happiness.ʺ 3_ Gaya A small, separate federation called Gaya emerged for a short time on the southern coast between Baekje and the fast growing Shilla. It fell to an invasion in the mid sixth century before reaching maturity, however, and was annexed by Silla. 4_ Silla Buddhism did not enter the kingdom of Silla until the 5th century. The common people were first attracted to Buddhism here, but there was resistance among the aristocrats. In 527, however, a prominent court official named Ichadon presented himself to King Pophung and announced he had become Buddhist. The king had him beheaded, but when the executioner cut off his head, it is said that milk poured out instead of blood. Paintings of this are in the temple at Haein‐sa and a stone monument honoring his martyrdom is in the National Museum of Kyongju. During the reign of the next king, King Chinhung, the growth of Buddhism was encouraged ‐ eventually being recognized as the national religion of Silla. Additionally, selected young men were physically and spiritually trained at Hwarangdo according to Buddhist principles to be able to defend the kingdom. King Chinhung later became a monk himself. Many Korean Buddhist monks traveled to China in order to study the buddhadharma in the late Three Kingdoms Period, especially in the late 6th century. The monk Banya (562‐613?) is said to have studied under the Tiantai master Zhiyi, and Gyeomik of Baekje (
;) and travelled to India to learn Sanskrit and study Vinaya. Monks of the period brought back numerous scriptures from abroad and conducted missionary activity throughout Korea and Japan. The date of the first mission to Japan is unclear, but it is reported that a second detachment of scholars was sent to Japan upon invitation by the Japanese rulers in 577. The strong Korean influence on the development of Buddhism in Japan continued through the Unified Silla period; only in the 8th or 9th century did independent study by Japanese monks begin in significant numbers. Several schools of thought developed in Korea during these early times: _The Samnon (or Sanlun in Chinese) school focused on the Indian Mādhyamika (Middle Path) doctrine, _The Gyeyul (or Vinaya in Sanskrit) school was mainly concerned with the study and implementation of moral discipline (śīla), and _The Yeolban (or Nirvāna in Sanskrit) school, which was based in the themes of the Mahāparinirvāna‐sūtra Toward the end of the Three Kingdoms Period, the Wonyung (or Yuanrong in Chinese) school was formed. It would lead the actualization of the metaphysics of interpenetration as found in the Huayan jing(
) and soon was considered the 140
premier school, especially among the educated aristocracy. This school was later known as Hwaeom (
, or Huayan in Chinese) and was the longest lasting of these ʺimportedʺ schools. It had strong ties with the Beopseong (
), the indigenous Korean school of thought. The monk Jajang is credited with having been a major force in the adoption of Buddhism as a national religion. Jajang is also known for his participation in the founding of the Korean sangha, a type of monastic community. Another great scholar to emerge from the Silla Period was Won‐hyo. He renounced his religious life to better serve the people and even married a princess for a short time and had a son. He wrote many treatises and his philosophy centered on the unity and interrelatedness of all things. He set off to China to study Buddhism with a close friend, Ui‐sang, but only made it part of the way there. The legend is that Won‐hyo awoke one night very thirsty, found a container with cool water, drank, and returned to sleep. The next morning he saw the container from which he had drunk was a human skull and he realized all enlightenment depended on the mind. He saw no reason to continue to China, so he returned home. His companion, Ui‐sang, continued to China and after studying ten years, offered a poem to his master in the shape of a seal that geometrically represents infinity. The poem contained the essence of the Avatamsaka Sutra. Buddhism was so successful during this period that many kings converted and cities/places were even renamed after famous places during the time of Buddha. 3) Buddhism in the Unified Silla period (668‐918) A stone image of a Buddha, near Gyeongju, South Korea. 7th century Silla. In 668, the kingdom of Silla succeeded in unifying the whole Korean peninsula, giving rise to a period of political stability that lasted for about one hundred years. This led to a high point in the scholarly studies of Buddhism in Korea. In general, the most popular areas of study were Wonyung, Yusik (Ch.Weishi; ʺconsciousness‐onlyʺ; the East Asian form of Yogācāra), Jeongto (Pure Land), and the indigenous Korean Beopseong (ʺdharma‐nature schoolʺ). The monk Wonhyo taught the ʺPure Landʺ‐
141
practice of yeombul, which would become very popular amongst both scholars and laypeople, and has had a lasting influence on Buddhist thought in Korea. His work, which attempts a synthesis of the seemingly divergent strands of Indian and Chinese Buddhist doctrine, makes use of the essence‐function (or che‐yong) framework, which was popular in native East Asian philosophical schools. His work was instrumental in the development of the dominant school of Korean Buddhist thought, known variously as Beopseong, Haedong (ʺKoreanʺ) and later as Jungdo (ʺMiddle wayʺ) Wonhyoʹs friend Uisang went to Changan, where he studied under Huayan patriarchs Zhiyan (600‐668) and Fazang (643‐712). When he returned after twenty years, his work contributed to Hwaeom and became the predominant doctrinal influence on Korean Buddhism, together with Wonhyoʹs tong bulgyo thought. Hwaeom principles were deeply assimilated into the Korean meditational school, the Seon school, where they made a profound effect on its basic attitudes. Influences from Silla Buddhism in general, and from these two philosophers in particular, even crept ʺbackwardsʺ into Chinese Buddhism. Wonhyoʹs commentaries were very important in shaping the thought of the preeminent Chinese Buddhist philosopher Fazang, and Woncheukʹs commentary on the Sa dhinirmocana‐sūtra‐
sūtra had a strong influence in Tibetan Buddhism. As was the case in Tang China, as well as the Nara and early Heian period in Japan, which are roughly contemporary to the Silla period, the intellectual developments of Silla Buddhism also brought with them significant cultural achievements in many areas, including painting, literature, sculpture, and architecture. During this period, many large and beautiful temples were built. Two crowning achievements were the temple Bulguksa and the cave‐retreat of Seokguram Bulguksa was especially famous for its jeweled pagodas, while Seokguram was known for the beauty of its stone sculpture. A new epoch in Korean Buddhism began during the latter Silla period with the birth of schools of Seon in Korea. In China, the movement toward a meditation‐based view of practice, which came to be known as chan, had begun during the sixth and seventh centuries, and it was not long before the influence of the new meditational school reached Korea, where it was known as Seon. Meaning ʺmeditation,ʺ the term is more widely known in the West in its Japanese variant zen. Tension developed between the new meditational schools and the previously existing academically oriented schools, which were described by the term gyo, meaning ʺlearningʺ or ʺstudy.ʺ Beomnang (632‐646), said to be a student of the Chinese master Daoxin ( 580‐
651), is generally credited with the initial transmission of Seon into Korea. Seon was popularized by Sinhaeng (704‐779) in the latter part of the eighth century and by Doui (d. 825) at the beginning of the ninth century. From then on, many Koreans studied Chan in China, and upon their return established their own schools at various mountain monasteries with their leading disciples. Initially, the number of these schools was fixed at nine, and Korean Seon was termed the ʺnine mountainsʺ (or gusan) school at the time. Eight of these were of the lineage of Mazu Daoyi; 709‐788), as they were established through connection with either him or one of his eminent disciples. The one exception was the Sumi‐san school founded by Ieom (869‐936), which had developed from the Caotong lineage. 142
Amitabha and Eight Great Bodhisattvas (Amita Gujon), 1300s 4) Buddhism as state religion in the Goryeo period (918‐1392) Initially, the new Seon schools were regarded by the established doctrinal schools as radical and dangerous upstarts. Thus, the early founders of the various ʺnine mountainʺ monasteries met with considerable resistance, repressed by the long influence in court of the Gyo schools. The struggles which ensued continued for most of the Goryeo period, but gradually the Seon argument for the possession of the true transmission of enlightenment would gain the upper hand. The position that was generally adopted in the later Seon schools, due in large part to the efforts of Jinul, did not claim clear superiority of Seon meditational methods, but rather declared the intrinsic unity and similarities of the Seon and Gyo viewpoints. Although all these schools are mentioned in historical records, toward the end of the dynasty, Seon became dominant in its effect on the government and society, and the production of noteworthy scholars and adepts. During the Goryeo period, Seon thoroughly became a ʺreligion of the state,ʺ receiving extensive support and privileges through connections with the ruling family and powerful members of the court. Although most of the scholastic schools waned in activity and influence during this period of the growth of Seon, the Hwaeom school continued to be a lively source of scholarship well into the Goryeo, much of it continuing the legacy of Uisang and Wonhyo. In particular the work of Gyunyeo (923‐973) prepared for the reconciliation of Hwaeom and Seon, with Hwaeomʹs accommodating attitude toward the latter. Gyunyeoʹs works are an important source for modern scholarship in identifying the distinctive nature of Korean Hwaeom. Another important advocate of Seon/Gyo unity was Uicheon. Like most other early Goryeo monks, he began his studies in Buddhism with Hwaeom. He later traveled to China, and upon his return, actively promulgated the Cheontae (or Tiantai 143
in Chinese) teaching, which became recognized as another Seon school. This period thus came to be described as ʺfive doctrinal and two meditational schoolsʺ (ogyo yangjong). Uicheon himself, however, alienated too many Seon adherents, and he died at a relatively young age without seeing a Seon‐Gyo unity accomplished. The most important figure of Seon in the Goryeo was Jinul (1158‐1210). In his time, the sangha was in a crisis of external appearance and internal issues of doctrine. Buddhism had gradually become infected by secular tendencies and involvements, such as fortune‐telling and the offering of prayers and rituals for success in secular endeavors. This kind of corruption resulted in the profusion of increasingly larger numbers of monks and nuns with questionable motivations. Therefore, the correction, revival, and improvement of the quality of Buddhism were prominent issues for Buddhist leaders of the period. Jinul sought to establish a new movement within Korean Seon, which he called the ʺsamādhi and prajñā societyʺ, whose goal was to establish a new community of disciplined, pure‐minded practitioners deep in the mountains. He eventually accomplished this mission with the founding of the Seonggwangsa monastery at Mt. Jogye. Jinulʹs works are characterized by a thorough analysis and reformulation of the methodologies of Seon study and practice. One major issue that had long fermented in Chinese Chan, and which received special focus from Jinul, was the relationship between ʺgradualʺ and ʺsuddenʺ methods in practice and enlightenment. Drawing upon various Chinese treatments of this topic, most importantly those by Zongmi (780‐841) and Dahui (1089‐1163), Jinul created a ʺsudden enlightenment followed by gradual practiceʺ dictum, which he outlined in a few relatively concise and accessible texts. From Dahui, Jinul also incorporated the gwanhwa method into his practice. This form of meditation is the main method taught in Korean Seon today. Jinulʹs philosophical resolution of the Seon‐Gyo conflict brought a deep and lasting effect on Korean Buddhism. The general trend of Buddhism in the latter half of the Goryeo was a decline due to corruption, and the rise of strong anti‐Buddhist political and philosophical sentiment. However, this period of relative decadence would nevertheless produce some of Koreaʹs most renowned Seon masters. Three important monks of this period who figured prominently in charting the future course of Korean Seon were contemporaries and friends: Gyeonghan Baegʹun (1298‐1374), Taego Bou (1301‐1382) and Naong Hyegeun (1320‐1376). All three went to Yuan China to learn the Linji (or Imje in Korean) gwanhwa teaching that had been popularized by Jinul. All three returned, and established the sharp, confrontational methods of the Imje school in their own teaching. Each of the three was also said to have had hundreds of disciples, such that this new infusion into Korean Seon brought about considerable effect. Despite the Imje influence, which was generally considered to be anti‐scholarly in nature, Gyeonghan and Naong, under the influence of Jinul and the traditional tong bulgyo tendency, showed an unusual interest in scriptural study, as well as a strong understanding of Confucianism and Taoism, due to the increasing influence of Chinese philosophy as the foundation of official education. From this time, a marked tendency for Korean Buddhist monks to be ʺthree teachingsʺ exponents appeared. 144
A significant historical event of the Goryeo period is the production of the first woodblock edition of the Tripitaka, called the Tripitaka Koreana. Two editions were made, the first one completed from 1210 to 1231, and the second one from 1214 to 1259. The first edition was destroyed in a fire, during an attack by Mongol invaders in 1232, but the second edition is still in existence at Haeinsa in Gyeongsang province. This edition of the Tripitaka was of high quality, and served as the standard version of the Tripitaka in East Asia for almost 700 years. 5) Suppression under the Joseon dynasty (1392‐1910) Dalmado by Kim Myeong‐guk, 17th century The Buddhist establishment at the end of the Goryeo period had become ridden with excesses. There were too many monks and nuns, a large percentage of whom were only in the sangha as a means of escaping taxation and/or government service. There were also far too many temples being supported, and too many elaborate rituals being carried out.The support of Buddhism had become a serious drain on the national economy. The government itself was suffering from rampant corruption, while also struggling with wars on its northern and eastern borders. Moreover, a new and rapidly growing Neo‐Confucian ideological movement of stridently anti‐Buddhist inclination gained political power. In 1388, an influential general named Yi Seonggye (1380‐1400) carried out a coup dʹetat, and established himself as the first ruler of the Joseon dynasty under the reign title of Taejo in 1392 with the support of this Neo‐Confucian movement. Subsequently, Buddhism was gradually suppressed for the next 500 years. The number of temples was reduced, restrictions on membership in the sangha were installed, and Buddhist monks and nuns were literally chased into the mountains, forbidden to mix with society. Joseon Buddhism, which had started off under the so‐called ʺfive doctrinal and two meditationalʺ schools system of the Goryeo, was first condensed to two schools:Seon and Gyo. Eventually, these were further reduced to the single school of Seon. 145
Despite this strong suppression from the government, and vehement ideological opposition from Korean Neo‐Confucianism, Seon Buddhism continued to thrive intellectually. An outstanding thinker was Giwha (Hamheo Deuktong) 1376‐
1433), who had first studied at a Confucian academy, but then changed his focus to Buddhism, where he was initiated to the gwanhwa tradition by Muhak Jacho (1327‐
1405). He wrote many scholarly commentaries, as well as essays and a large body of poetry. Being well‐versed in Confucian and Daoist philosophies, Giwha also wrote an important treatise in defense of Buddhism, from the standpoint of the intrinsic unity of the three teachings, entitled the Hyeon jeong non. In the tradition of earlier philosophers, he applied che‐yong (ʺessence‐functionʺ) and Hwaeom (sa‐sa mu‐ae, ʺmutual interpenetration of phenomenaʺ). Common in the works of Joseon scholar‐monks are writings on Hwaeom‐
related texts, as well as the Awakening of Faith, Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment, Śūrangama‐sūtra, Diamond Sutra and the Heart Sutra. The Jogye order instituted a set curriculum of scriptural study, including the above‐mentioned works, along with other shorter selections from eminent Korean monks, such as Jinul. During the Joseon period, the number of Buddhist monasteries dropped from several hundred to a mere thirty‐six. Limits were placed on the number of clergy, land area, and ages for entering the sangha. When the final restrictions were in place, monks and nuns were prohibited from entering the cities. Buddhist funerals, and even begging, were outlawed. However, some rulers occasionally appeared who looked favorably upon Buddhism and did away with some of the more suppressive regulations. The most noteworthy of these was the queen dowager Munjeong, who, as a devout Buddhist, took control of the government in the stead of her young son Myeongjong (1545‐67), and immediately repealed many anti‐Buddhist measures. The queen had deep respect for the brilliant monk Bou (1515‐1565), and installed him as the head of the Seon school. One of the most important reasons for the restoration of Buddhism to a position of minimal acceptance was the role of Buddhist monks in repelling the Japanese invasion of general Toyotomi Hideyoshi, which occurred between 1592 and 1598. At that time, the government was weak from internal squabbles, and was not initially able to muster strong resistance to the incursion. The plight of the country encouraged some leaders of the sangha to organize monks into guerrilla units, which enjoyed some instrumental successes. The ʺrighteous monkʺ (uisa) movement spread during this eight‐year war, finally including several thousand monks, led by the aging Seosan Hyujeong (1520‐1604), a first‐rate Seon master and the author of a number of important religious texts. The presence of the monksʹ army was a critical factor in the eventual expulsion of the Japanese invaders. Seosan is also known for continuing efforts toward the unification of Buddhist doctrinal study and practice. His efforts were strongly influenced by Wonhyo, Jinul, and Giwha. He is considered the central figure in the revival of Joseon Buddhism, and most major streams of modern Korean Seon trace their lineages back to him through one of his four main disciples: Yujeong (1544‐1610); Eongi (1581‐1644), Taeneung (1562‐
1649) and Ilseon (1533‐1608), all four of whom were lieutenants to Seosan during the war with Japan. 146
Statue of one of the Four Heavenly Kings The biographies of Seosan and his four major disciples are similar in many respects, and these similarities are emblematic of the typical lifestyle of Seon monks of the late Goryeo and Joseon periods. Most of them began by engaging in Confucian and Daoist studies. Turning to Seon, they pursued a markedly itinerant lifestyle, wandering through the mountain monasteries. At this stage, they were initiated to the central component of Seon practice, the gongʹan, or gwanhwa meditation. This gwanhwa meditation, unlike some Japanese Zen traditions, did not consist of contemplation on a lengthy, graduated series of deeper kōans. By contrast, the typical Korean approach was that ʺall gongʹan are contained in oneʺ and therefore it was, and still is, quite common for the practitioner to remain with one hwadu during his whole meditational career, most often Zhaozhouʹs ʺmu.ʺ Buddhism during the three centuries, from the time of Seosan down to the next Japanese incursion into Korea in the late nineteenth century, remained fairly consistent with the above‐
described model. A number of eminent teachers appeared during the centuries after Seosan, but the Buddhism of the late Joseon, while keeping most of the common earlier characteristics, was especially marked by a revival of Hwaeom studies, and occasionally by new interpretations of methodology in Seon study. There was also a revival, during the final two centuries, of the Pure Land (Amitābha) faith. Although the government maintained fairly tight control of the sangha, there was never again the extreme suppression of the early Joseon. 6) Buddhism during the Japanese occupation (1910‐1945) The Japanese occupation from 1910 to 1945 brought great suffering on the Korean people as a whole, and to the Korean sangha in particular, as it had to comply with an extensive set of Japanese regulations. However, there were some aspects of the occupation which were beneficial to Korean Buddhists. The fact that Japanese Buddhists demanded the right to proselytize in the cities brought about a lifting of the five‐hundred year ban on monks and nuns entering cities. However, the formation of new Buddhist sects, such as Won Buddhism, and the presence of Christian missionaries during this period led to further turbulence in traditional Korean Buddhism. 147
The Japanese Buddhist custom of allowing Buddhist priests to marry contradicted the lifestyle of Korean Buddhist monks and nuns, who traditionally lived in celibacy. The Japanese occupational authorities encouraged this practice, appointed their own heads of temples, and had many works of art shipped to Japan. Negotiations for the repatriation of Korean Buddhist artworks are still ongoing. 7) Buddhism and Westernization (1945‐present) Typical interior of a Buddhist temple When Korea was liberated from Japanese occupation in 1945, the celibate ordained members of the main sect of Korean Buddhism, Chogye, to take over for the married monks who ran the temples during the occupation. The new occupiers, however, brought with them their own religions, Christianity in the south and Marxism in the north. Although today there are large Buddhist organizations in Korea, the influences of Marxism, Western secularism, and Christianity continue to grow, which some see as a natural result of Christian proselytizing and the power of the state against religious groups. Starting in the 1950s, Syngman Rhee and others worked to further divide and weaken the Buddhist Sangha in the country. Rhee campaigned in 1954 against the so‐
called ʺJapanized Buddhistsʺ. Western education and scholarships, and the empowerment of women and the poor, caused divisions among Koreans. Specifically, a deep rift opened between married and celibate monks. The differences were so great that fistfights over the control of temples became frequent. Monks, mostly belonging to the Jogye order, threatened to kill themselves. Many of them were against the Japanized Buddhists. As the Buddhist riots continued, the influence of Buddhism lessened. Buddhism continued to lose followers to Christian missionaries, who were able to capitalize on these weaknesses with offers of rice, and give hope for the future. President Park Chung Hee, attempted during his rule (1961‐1979) to settle the dispute by building a unified pan‐national Buddhist organization, but failed. However, he did succeed in allying himself with the celibate faction of the sangha. In the 1980ʹs, President Chun Doo‐hwan also used politics and intrigue to attack Buddhism. He sent troops to raid temples, and had hundreds of monks arrested and tortured. 148
Lotus Lantern Festival During the 1990ʹs, conflicts between the South Korean government, Buddhist leaders and Christian denominations continued. The government accused Buddhist monks of immorality and some Christians used this to forward their missionary work. Some religious gatherings have even been claimed to turn to violence, with statues of Buddha and Dangun, the mythical founder of Korea, being burned. 8) Looking Ahead The Seon school, which is led by the dominant Jogye order, practices disciplined traditional Seon practice at a number of major mountain monasteries in Korea, often under the direction of highly regarded masters. Modern Seon practice is not far removed in content from the original practice of Jinul, who introduced the integrated combination of the practice of Gwanhwa meditation with the study of selected Buddhist texts. The Korean sangha life is markedly itinerant: while each monk has a ʺhomeʺ monastery, he will regularly travel throughout the mountains, staying as long as he wishes, studying and teaching in the style of whatever monastery is housing him. The Korean monastic training system has seen a steadily increasing influx of Western practitioner‐aspirants in the second half of the twentieth century. However, there are relatively few Koreans who have converted to Buddhism from Christianity. Especially in Seoul, where Buddhism faces a growing pressure from Christianity, tension and suspicion between the Buddhist community, and Christians and the South Korean government, can be expected to increase. An exception to this has been the relations between Catholics and Buddhists, which have been much friendlier, with many Catholics approaching Buddhist temples or Catholic/Buddhist retreat centres to practice Seon meditation. Especially in regard to weddings, Christian customs have largely replaced their Buddhist counterparts. 149
150
Buddhism in Japan From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia The Buddha in Kamakura (1252). Contents: 1) Arrival along the Silk Road 1_Early Chinese accounts 2) Nara Period 1_Ritsu 2_Jojitsu 3_Kusha 4_Sanron 5_Hosso 6_Kegon 3) Heian Period 1_Tendai 2_Shingon 4) Kamakura to Modern Period 1_Amidist Schools a) Jodo b) Jodo Shin 2_Zen Schools a) Soto b) Rinzai c) Obaku d) Fuke 3_Nichiren Buddhism 5) Silk Road artistic influences 1_Deities 2_Artistic motifs ∙ 6) Timeline 7) Notes 151
The Buddha in Kamakura (1252). The history of Buddhism in Japan can be roughly divided into three periods, namely the Nara period (up to 784), the Heian period (794–1185) and the post‐
Kamakura period (1185 onwards). Each period saw the introduction of new doctrines and upheavals in existing schools. In modern times, there are three main paths of Buddhism, to which all schools of Japanese Buddhism belong: the Amidist (Pure Land) schools, Nichiren Buddhism, and Zen Buddhism. 152
1) Arrival along the Silk Road The arrival of Buddhism in Japan is ultimately a consequence the first contacts between China and Central Asia which occurred with the opening of the Silk Road in the 2nd century BCE, following the travels of Zhang Qian between 138 and 126 BCE, which culminated with the official introduction of Buddhism in China in 67 CE. Historians generally agree that by the middle of the 1st century, the religion had penetrated to areas north of the Huai River. Buddhism then made its way to Korea, and finally to Japan around the 5th century CE. 1_Early Chinese accounts In 467 CE, according to the Chinese historic treatise Liang Shu, five monks from Gandhara traveled to the country of Fusang (Jp: Fusō: ʺThe country of the extreme Eastʺ beyond the sea, probably eastern Japan), where they introduced Buddhism: Fusang is located to the east of China, 20,000 li (1,500 kilometers) east of the state of Da Han (itself east of the state of Wa in modern Kyūshū, Japan). In former times, the people of Fusang knew nothing of the Buddhist religion, but in the second year of Da Ming of the Song dynasty (467 CE), five monks from Kipin (Kabul region of Gandhara) travelled by ship to Fusang. They propagated Buddhist doctrine, circulated scriptures and drawings, and advised the people to relinquish worldly attachments. As a results the customs of Fusang changed, Liang Shu, 7th century CE). 2) Nara Period Tile with seated Buddha, Nara Prefecture, Asuka period, 7th century. Tokyo National Museum. The introduction of Buddhism to Japan is securely dated to 552 in Nihon Shoki, when Seong of Baekje sent monks from the Korean peninsula to Nara to introduce the eight doctrinal schools. Initial uptake of the new faith was slow, and Buddhism only started to spread some years later when Empress Suiko openly encouraged the acceptance of Buddhism among all Japanese people. In 607, in order to obtain copies of Sutras, an imperial envoy was dispatched to Sui dynasty China. 153
As time progressed and the number of Buddhist clergy increased, the offices of Sojo (archbishop) and Sozu (bishop) were created. By 627 there were 46 Buddhist temples, 816 Buddhist priests, and 569 Buddhist nuns in Japan. There were traditionally six schools of Buddhism in Nara Japan: Ritsu (Vinaya), Jojitsu (Satyasiddhi), Kusha (Abhidharma) Sanron (Madhyamika), Hosso (Yogacara), and Kegon (Hua‐yen). However they were not exclusive schools, and temples were apt to have scholars versed in several of the schools. It has been suggested that they can best be thought of as ʺstudy groupsʺ. 1_Ritsu Founded by Daoxuan ( Jp. Dosen), China, c. 650 AD.First Introduction to Japan: Ganjin, 753 AD. The Ritsu school specialized in the Vinaya (the monastic rules in the Tripitaka). They used the Dharmagupta version of the vinaya which is known in Japanese as Shibunritsu ) 2_ Jojitsu The Satyasiddhi school is considered to be an offshoot of the Sautrantika school, one of the Nikaya schools of Indian Buddhism (see early Buddhist schools). They were distinguished by a rejection of the Abhidharma as not being the ʺword of the Buddhaʺ. The name means literally, ʺEnds with the Sutrasʺ, which refers to the traditional order of texts in the Tripitaka—vinaya, sutra, abhidharma. Temple tiles from Nara, 7th century, Tokyo National Museum. 3_Kusha Introduced into Japan from China during the Nara period (710–784). The school takes its name from its authoritative text, the Abidatsuma‐kusha‐ron (Sanskrit:Abhidharma‐kosa), by the 4th‐ or 5th‐century Indian philosopher Vasubandhu. The Kusha school is considered to be an offshoot of the Indian Sarvastivada school. 4_Sanron Literally: Three‐Discourse School; a Madhyamika school which developed in China based on two discourses by Nagarjuna and one by Aryadeva; this school was transmitted to Japan in the 7th century. (Madhyamika is one of the two most important Mahayana philosophies, and reemphasizes the original Buddhist teachings that 154
phenomena are neither truly existent or absolutely non‐existent, but are characterized by impermanence and insubstantially. 5_Hosso The Yogacara (Yugagyouha) schools are based on early Indian Buddhist thought by masters such as Vasubandhu, and are also known as ʺconsciousness onlyʺ since they teach a form of idealism which posits that all phenomena are phenomena of the mind. The Hosso school was founded by Xuanzang (Jp. Genjo), China, c. 630 AD, and introduced to Japan in 654 AD. The Discourse on the Theory of Consciousness‐Only (Jo yuishikiron) is an important text for the Hosso school. 6_Kegon Also known by its Chinese name Huayen , the Kegon school was founded by Dushun (Jp. Dojun), China, c. 600 AD, and introduced to Japan by Bodhisena in 736 AD. The Avatamsaka Sutra (Kegonkyo) is the central text for the Kegon school. 3) Heian Period The Late Nara period saw the introduction of Esoteric Buddhism (
, Jp. mikkyo) to Japan from China, by Kūkai and Saicho, who founded the Shingon and Tendai schools. The later Heian period saw the formation of the first truly Japanese school of Buddhism, that of Nichiren. 1_Tendai Known as Tiantai in China, the Tendai school was founded by Zhiyi ( Jp Chigi) in China, c. 550 AD. In 804 Saicho traveled to China to study at the Tiantai teachings, at Mount Tiantai. However before his return he also studied, and was initiated into the practice of the Vajrayana ‐ with emphasis on the Mahavairocana Sutra. The primary text of Tiantai is Lotus Sutra (Hokkekyo), but when Saicho established his school in Japan he incorporated the study and practice of Vajrayana as well. 2_Shingon Kūkai traveled to China in 804 as part of the same expedition as Saicho. In the Tʹang capital he studied esoteric Buddhism, Sanskrit and received initiation from Huikuo. On returning to Japan Kūkai eventually managed to establish Shingon (
) as a school in its own right. Kūkai received two lineages of teaching—one based on the Mahavairochana Sutra (Dainichikyo), and the other based on the Vajrashekhara. 155
Kinkakuji, the Temple of the Golden Pavilion, located in Kyoto. 4) Kamakura to Modern Period The Kamakura period saw the introduction of the two schools that had perhaps the greatest impact on the country: the Amidist Pure Land schools, promulgated by evangelists such as Genshin and articulated by monks such as Hōnen, which emphasize salvation through faith in Amitabha and remain the largest Buddhist sect in Japan (and throughout Asia); and the more philosophical Zen schools, which were equally rapidly adopted by the upper classes and had a profound impact on Japanese culture. 1_ Amidist Schools a) Jodo Founder: Chinese name: Huiyuan (Jp. Eon), China, c. 400 AD Jingtu ʺPure Land First Introduction to Japan: Honen , 1175 AD Doctrine: nembutsu ( ʺprayer to Buddhaʺ) Primary Text: Infinite Life Sutra (Muryojukyo) b) Jodo Shin Founder: Shinran (
), 1224 AD Japanese name: ʺTrue Pure Landʺ Major Influences: Jodo Doctrine: shintai zokutai (ʺReal Truth, Common Truthʺ) Primary Text: Infinite Life Sutra (Muryojukyo 156
) 2_Zen Schools Several variants of Zen (
) were separately brought to Japan. Note that Zen influences are identifiable earlier in Japanese Buddhism, esp. cross‐fertilization with Hosso and Kegon, but the independent schools were formed quite late. a) Soto Founders: Caoshan (Jp. Sosan) and Dongshan ( Jp. Tosan), China, c. 850 Chinese name: Caodong, named after its founders First Introduction to Japan: Dogen, 1227 AD Major Influences: Hosso, Kegon Doctrine: Zazen (ʺsitting meditationʺ), especially shikantaza Primary Texts: Transcendental Wisdom Sutras Prajnaparamita Sutras, incl. Heart Sutra aka Japanese Buddhist priest c.1897 b) Rinzai Founder: Chinese name: Linji, China, c. 850 Linji, named after founder First Introduction to Japan: Eisai , 1191 AD Major Influences: Hosso, Kegon Doctrine: zazen (ʺsitting meditationʺ), especially koan ( ʺpublic matterʺ) practice Primary Texts: Transcendental Wisdom Sutras Prajnaparamita Sutras, incl. Heart Sutra 157
aka c) Obaku Founder: Ingen (
), Japan, 1654 AD Japanese name: named the mountain where the founder had lived in China Major Influences: Rinzai Doctrine: kyozen itchi (ʺUnity of Sutras and Zenʺ) Primary Texts: Transcendental Wisdom Sutras Prajnaparamita Sutras, incl. Heart Sutra aka d) Fuke Founder: Puhua Chanshi First introduction to Japan: Shinchin Kakushin, 1254 AD Major Influences: Rinzai Abolished: 1871 3_ Nichiren Buddhism The schools of Nichiren Buddhism trace themselves to the monk Nichiren (ʺSun‐Lotusʺ) and the proclamation of his teachings in AD 1253. Doctrinally the schools focus on the Lotus Sutra ( Myoho Renge Kyō; abbrev.: Hokkekyō), but practice centers on the mantra Nam(u) Myōhō Renge Kyō. Nichiren Buddhism split into several denominations after the death of Nichiren, typically represented by tradition‐oriented schools such as Nichiren Shu and Nichiren Shoshu and ʺnew religionsʺ such as Soka Gakkai, Rissho Kosei Kai, and Reiyukai. 5) Silk Road artistic influences In Japan, Buddhist art started to develop as the country converted to Buddhism in 548 CE. Some tiles from the Asuka period (shown above), the first period following the conversion of the country to Buddhism, display a strikingly classical style, with ample Hellenistic dress and realistically‐rendered body shape characteristic of Greco‐
Buddhist art. Other works of art incorporated a variety of Chinese and Korean influences, so that Japanese Buddhist became extremely varied in its expression. Many elements of Greco‐Buddhist art remain to this day however, such as the Hercules inspiration behind the Nio guardian deities in front of Japanese Buddhist temples, or representations of the Buddha reminiscent of Greek art such as the Buddha in Kamakura. 158
1_Deities Iconographical evolution of the Wind God. Left: Greek wind god from Hadda, 2nd century. Middle: wind god from Kizil, Tarim Basin, 7th century. Right: Japanese wind god Fujin, 17th century. Iconographical evolution from the Greek god Herakles to the Japanese god Shukongōshin. From left to right: 1) Herakles (Louvre Museum). 2) Herakles on coin of Greco‐Bactrian king Demetrius I. 3) Vajrapani, the protector of the Buddha, depicted as Herakles in the Greco‐Buddhist art of Gandhara. 4) Shukongōshin, manifestation of Vajrapani, as protector deity of Buddhist temples in Japan. Various other Greco‐Buddhist artistic influences can be found in the Japanese Buddhist pantheon, the most striking of which being that of the Japanese wind god Fujin. In consistency with Greek iconography for the wind god Boreas, the Japanese wind god holds above his head with his two hands a draping or ʺwind bagʺ in the same general attitude. The abundance of hair have been kept in the Japanese rendering, as well as exaggerated facial features. Another Buddhist deity, named Shukongoshin, one of the wrath‐filled protector deities of Buddhist temples in Japan, is also an interesting case of transmission of the image of the famous Greek god Herakles to the Far‐East along the Silk Road. Herakles was used in Greco‐Buddhist art to represent Vajrapani, the protector of the Buddha, and his representation was then used in China and Japan to depict the protector gods of Buddhist temples. 159
2_ Artistic motifs Vine and grape scrolls from Nara, 7th century. Finally, the artistic inspiration from Greek floral scrolls is found quite literally in the decoration of Japanese roof tiles, one of the only remaining element of wooden architecture throughout centuries. The clearest one are from 7th century Nara temple building tiles, some of them exactly depicting vines and grapes. These motifs have evolved towards more symbolic representations, but essentially remain to this day in many Japanese traditional buildings. 6) Timeline 654: Dosho introduces the Hosso (Faxiang) school to Japan. 736: Bodhisena introduces the Kegon (Huayan) school to Japan. 753: Ganjin introduces the Ritsu (Lü, Vinaya) school to Japan. 807: Saicho introduces the Tendai (Tientai) school to Japan. 816: Kūkai founds the Shingon school. 1175: Honen introduces the Jodo (Pure Land) school to Japan. 1191: Eisai introduces the Rinzai (Linji) school to Japan. 1227: Dogen introduces the Soto (Caodung) school to Japan. 1253: Nichiren founds the Nichiren school. 1282: Nichiren school begins to split into several schools. 1654: Ingen introduces the Obaku (Huangbo) school to Japan. 160
Sri Lankan Buddhism From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia The Buddha statue of Aukana in Sri Lanka Sri Lankan Buddhism belongs to the Theravada tradition. About 71% of the country adheres to Buddhism. Sri Lanka is the country with longest continuous history of Buddhism. Theravada has been the major religion in the island since soon after its introduction in the 2nd century BC by Venerable Mahinda, the son of the Emperor Ashoka of India during the reign of Sri Lankaʹs King Devanampiyatissa. During this time, a sapling of the Bodhi Tree was also brought Sri Lanka and became known as Sri Maha Bodhi. The Pali Canon was put into writing in Sri Lanka around 30 BC. The different orders of the Therevada are referred to as nikayas, and in Sri Lanka there are three: _Siam Nikaya, founded in the 18th century by a Thai monk who perceived corruption in the sangha and wished to purify its practices _Amarapura Nikaya, founded in 1800 after ordination within Burma by lower‐
caste Buddhists who objected to the previously dominant practice of selective ordination from the higher‐castes _Ramanna Nikaya, founded in 1864 by Ambagahawatte Saranankara. 161
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Buddhism in Thailand From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Lying Buddha in a temple in Phuket, Thailand Contents: 1) Influences 2_ Ordination and clergy 1_Position of women Buddhism in Thailand is largely of the Theravada school. As much as 94% of Thailandʹs population is Buddhist of the Theravada school, though Buddhism in this country has become integrated with folk beliefs such as ancestor worship as well as Chinese religions from the large Thai‐Chinese population. Buddhist temples in Thailand are characterized by tall golden stupas, and the Buddhist architecture of Thailand is similar to that in other Southeast Asian countries, particularly Cambodia and Laos, with which Thailand shares cultural and historical heritage. 163
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1) Influences Three major forces have influenced the development of Buddhism in Thailand. The most visible influence is that of the Theravada school of Buddhism, imported from Sri Lanka. While there are significant local and regional variations, the Theravada school provides most of the major themes of Thai Buddhism. By tradition, Pāli is the language of religion in Thailand. Scriptures are recorded in Pāli, using either the modern Thai script or the older Khom and Tham scripts. Pāli is also used in religious liturgy, despite the fact that most Thais understand very little of this ancient language. The Pāli Tipitaka is the primary religious text of Thailand, though many local texts have been composed in order to summarise the vast number of teachings found in the Tipitaka. The monastic code (Patimokkha) followed by Thai monks is taken from the Pāli Theravada‐ something that has provided a point of controversy during recent attempts to resurrect the bhikkhuni lineage in Thailand. The second major influence on Thai Buddhism were Hindu beliefs received from Cambodia, particularly during the Sukhothai period. Vedic Hinduism played a strong rule in the early Thai institution of kingship, just as it did in Cambodia, and exerted influence in the creation of laws and order for Thai society as well as Thai religion. Certain rituals practiced in modern Thailand, either by monks or by Hindu ritual specialists, are either explicitly identified as Hindu in origin, or are easily seen to be derived from Hindu practices. While the visibility of Hinduism in Thai society has been diminished substantially during the Chakri dynasty, Hindu influences‐ particularly shrines to the god Brahma‐ continue to be seen in and around Buddhist institutions and ceremonies. Folk religion‐ attempts to propitiate and attract the favor of local spirits known as phi forms the third major influence on Thai Buddhism. While Western observers (as well as urbane and Western educated Thais) have often drawn a clear line between Thai Buddhism and folk religious practices, this distinction is rarely observed in more rural locales. Spiritual power derived from the observance of Buddhist precepts and rituals is employed in attempting to appease local nature spirits. Many restrictions observed by rural Buddhist monks are derived not from the orthodox Vinaya, but from taboos derived from the practice of folk magic. Astrology, numerology, and the creation of talismans and charms also play a prominent role in Buddhism as practiced by the average Thai‐ topics that are, if not proscribed, at least marginalized in Buddhist texts. Additional, more minor influences can be observed stemming from contact with Mahayana Buddhism. Early Buddhism in Thailand is thought to have been derived from an unknown Mahayana tradition. While Mahayana Buddhism was gradually eclipsed in Thailand, certain features of Thai Buddhism such as the appearance of the bodhisattva Lokesvara in some Thai religious architecture, and the belief that the king of Thailand is a bodhisattva himself reveal the influence of Mahayna concepts. 165
The only other bodhisattva prominent in Thai religion is Maitreya; Thais sometimes pray to be reborn during the time of Maitreya, or dedicate merit from worship activities to that end. In modern times, additional Mahayana influence has stemmed from the presence of Chinese immigrants in Thai society. While some Chinese have ʹconvertedʹ to Thai‐style Theravada Buddhism, many others maintain their own separate temples in the East Asian Mahayana tradition. The growing popularity of the goddess Kuan Yin in Thailand (a form of Avalokitesvara) may be attributed to the Chinese Mahayanist presence in Thailand. Child monks in Thailand 2) Ordination and clergy Like in most other Theravada nations, Buddhism in Thailand is represented primarily by the presence of Buddhist monks, who serve as officiants on ceremonial occasions, as well as being responsible for preserving and conveying the teachings of the Buddha. Up until the latter half of the 20th century, most monks in Thailand began their careers by serving as dek wat (literally ʹtemple kidʹ). Dek wat are traditionally no younger than eight, and do minor housework around the temple. The primary reason for becoming a dek wat is to gain a basic education, particularly in basic reading and writing and the memorization of the scriptures chanted on ritual occasions. Prior to the creation of state‐run primary schools in Thailand, village temples served as the primary form of education for most Thai boys. Service in a temple as a dek wat was a necessary prerequisite for attaining any higher education, and was the only learning available to most Thai peasants. Since the creation of a government‐run educational apparatus in Thailand, the number of children living as dek wat has declined significantly. However, many government‐run schools continue to operate on the premise of the local village temple. 166
After serving (typically for four years or more) as a dek wat, a future monk typically ordains as a novice (samana in Pāli, or nain in Thai). Novices live according to the Ten Precepts, as do monks, but are not formally required to follow the full range of monastic rules found in the Pattimokha (Buddhist monastic code). There are a few other significant differences between novices and monks. Novices often are in closer contact with their families, spending more time in the homes of their parents than monks. Novices do not participate in the recitation of the monastic code (and the confessions of violations) that take place on the uposatha days. Novices technically do not eat with the monks in their temple, but this typically only amounts to a gap in seating, rather than the separation observed between monks and the laity. Young men typically do not live as a novice for longer than one or two years. At the age of 20, they become eligible to receive upasampada, the higher ordination that establishes them as a full bhikkhu. A novice is technically sponsored by his parents in his ordination, but in practice in rural villages the entire village participates by providing the robes, begging bowl, and other requisites that will be required by the monk in his monastic life. Temporary ordination is the norm among Thai Buddhists. Most young men traditionally ordain for the term of a single rainy season (known in Pāli as vassa, and in Thai as phansa). Those who remain monks beyond their first vassa typically remain monks for between one and three years, officiating at religious ceremonies in surrounding villages and possibly receiving further education in reading and writing (possibly including the Kham or Tham scripts traditionally used in recording religious texts). After this period of one to three years, most young monks return to lay life, going on to marry and begin a family. Young men in Thailand who have undergone ordination are seen as being more suitable partners for marriage; unordained men are euphemistically called ʹrawʹ, while those who have been ordained are said to be ʹcookedʹ. A period as a monk is a prerequisite for many positions of leadership within the village hierarchy. Most village elders or headmen were once monks, as were most traditional doctors, spirit priests, and some astrologists and fortune tellers. Monks who do not return to lay life typically specialize in either scholarship or meditation. Those who specialize in scholarship typically travel to regional education centers to begin further instruction in the Pāli language and the scriptures, and may then continue on to the major monastic universities located in Bangkok. The route of scholarship is also taken by monks who desire to rise in the ecclesiastic hierarchy, as promotions within the government‐run system is contingent on passing examinations in Pāli and Buddhist philosophy. Monks who specialize in meditation typically seek out a known master in the meditation tradition, under whom they will study for a period of years. ʹMeditation monksʹ are particularly revered in Thai society as possessing great virtue and as potential sources of supernatural powers. Ironically, monks of the Thai Forest Tradition often find themselves struggling to find time and privacy to meditate in the face of enthusiastic supporters seeking their blessings and attention. 167
1_Position of women Unlike in Myanmar (Burma) and Sri Lanka, the female Theravada bhikkhuni lineage was never established in Thailand. As a result, there is a wide‐spread perception among Thais that women are not meant to play an active role in monastic life; instead, they are expected to live as lay followers, making merit in the hopes of being born in a different role in their next life. As a result, lay women primarily participate in religious life either as lay participants in collective merit‐making rituals, or by doing domestic work around temples. A small number of women choose to become Mae Ji, non‐ordained religious specialists who permanently observe either the eight or ten precepts. Mae Ji do not generally receive the level of support given to ordained monks, and their position in Thai society is the subject of some discussion. Recently, there have been efforts to attempt to introduce a bhikkhuni lineage in Sri Lanka as a step towards improving the position of women in Thai Buddhism. Unlike similar efforts in Sri Lanka, these efforts have been extremely controversial in Thailand. Women attempting to ordain have been accused of attempting to impersonate monks (a civil offense in Thailand), and their actions have been denounced by many members of the ecclesiastic hierarchy. Most objections to the reintroduction of a female monastic role hinge on the fact that the monastic rules require that both five ordained monks and five ordained bhikkhunis be present for any new bhikkhuni ordination. Without such a quorum, critics say that it is not possible to ordain any new Theravada bhikkhuni. The Thai hierarchy refuses to recognize ordinations in the Taiwanese tradition (the only currently existing bhikkhuni ordination lineage) as valid Theravada ordinations, citing differences in philosophical teachings, and (more critically) monastic discipline. 168
Buddhism in Myanmar From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Shwedagon Pagoda in Yangon, Myanmar Buddhism in Myanmar is predominantly of the Theravada tradition or the southern school. About 90% of Myanmar practises Buddhism. Adherents are most likely found among the dominant ethnic Bamar (or Burmans), Shan, Rakhine (Arakanese), Mon, Karen, and Chinese who are well integrated into Burmese society. Among ethnic Bamar, Theravada Buddhism is practised often in conjunction with nat worship. Monks, collectively known as the Sangha are venerated members of Burmese society. Myanmarʹs history of Buddhism is portrayed by a landscape filled with pagodas which is why the country is often called ʺthe land of pagodas.ʺ The Shwedagon Pagoda in Yangon is surrounded by myths, and represents the peopleʹs faith who have worshipped there for generations. Every village in Myanmar has a pagoda, which is the place for worship and education. The culture of Myanmar is deemed synonymous with its Buddhism. There are many Burmese festivals all through the year, with most of them related to Buddhism. The Burmese New Year, Thingyan, also known as the water festival, has its origins in Hindu tradition but it is also a time when many Burmese boys celebrate shinbyu, a time when a Buddhist boy enters the monastery for a short time as a novice monk. It is the most important duty of all Burmese parents to make sure their sons are admitted to the Buddhist Sangha by shinbyu. Contents: 1) History 2) Traditions 3) Politics 169
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1) History The history of Buddhism in Myanmar extends nearly a millennia. The Sasana Vamsa, written by Pinyasami in the 1800s, summarises much of the history of Buddhism in Myanmar. During the reign of King Anawrahta Theravada Buddhism became prevalent among the Burmese. Prior to his rule existed a form of Mahayana Buddhism, known as Ari Buddhism. It included the worship of Bodhisatta and nagas, and corrupt monks. Anawrahta was converted by Shin Arahan, a monk from Thaton to Theravada Buddhism. In 1057, Anawrahta sent an army to conquer the Mon city of Thaton in order to obtain theTipitaka Buddhist canon. Mon culture, from that point, came to be largely assimilated into Bamar culture in Bagan. Despite attempts at reform, certain features of Ari Buddhism and traditional nat worship continued. Following kings of Bagan built such a large large number of monuments, temples, and pagodas in order to honour Buddhist beliefs and tenets that Bagan soon became major archaeological site. Burmese rule at Bagan continued until the invasion of the Mongols in 1287. The Shan, in the meanwhile, established themselves as rulers throughout the region now known as Myanmar. Thihathu, a Shan king, established rule in Bagan, by patronising and building many monasteries and pagodas. Bhikkus continued to be influential, particularly in Burmese literature and politics. The Mon kingdoms, often ruled by Shan chieftains, fostered Theravada Buddhism in the 1300s. Wareru, who became king of Mottama (a Mon city kingdom), patronised Buddhism, and established a code of law (Dhammathat) compiled by Buddhist monks. King Dhammazedi, formerly a Mon monk, established rule in the late 1400s at Innwa and unified the Sangha in Mon territories. He also standardised ordination of monks set out in the Kalyani Inscriptions. Dhammazedi moved the capital back to Hanthawaddy (Bago). His mother‐in‐law Queen Shin Sawbu of Pegu was also a great patron of Buddhism. She is credited for expanding and gilding the Shwedagon Pagoda giving her own weight in gold. The Bamar, who had fled to Taungoo before the invading Shan, established a kingdom there under the reigns of Tabinshwehti and Bayinnaung who conquered and unified most of modern Myanmar. These monarchs also embraced Mon culture and patronised Theravada Buddhism. In the reigns of succeeding kings, the Taungoo kingdom became increasingly volatile. In the mid‐ 1700s, King Alaungpaya expanded the Bamar kingdoms and established the Konbaung dynasty. Under the rule of King Bodawpaya, a son of Alaungpaya, a unified sect of monks (Thudamma) was created within the kingdom. Bodawpaya restored ties with Sri Lanka started by Anawrahta, allowing for mutual influence in religious affairs. In the reigns of the Konbaung kings that followed, both secular and religious literary works were created. King Mindon Min moved his capital to Mandalay. After Lower Burma had been conquered by the British, Christianity began to gain acceptance. Many monks from Lower Burma had resettled in Mandalay, but by decree of Mindon Min, they returned to serve the Buddhist laypeople. However, schisms arose among the Sangha, which were resolved during the Fifth Buddhist Synod, held in Mandalay. From 1868 ‐ 1871 in 171
the Kuthodaw Pagoda, the Tipitaka was engraved on 729 marble slabs. A new hti (the gold umbrella that crowns a stupa) encrusted with jewels from the crown was also donated by Mindon Min for the Shwedagon now in British Burma. During the British administration of Lower and Upper Burma also known as Burma Proper, government policies were secular. Hence, monks were not protected by law. Likewise, Buddhism was not patronised by the colonial government. This resulted in tensions between the colonised Buddhists and their European rulers. There was much opposition to efforts by Christian missionaries to convert Burmese people (Bamar, Shan, and hill tribes). Today, Christianity is most commonly practised by the Chin, Kachin, and the Kayin. Notwithstanding traditional avoidance of political activity, monks often participated in politics and the independence struggle. Since 1948 when the country received independence from Great Britain, both civil and military governments have supported Theravada Buddhism. The 1947 Constitution states, ʺThe State recognizes the special position of Buddhism as the faith professed by the great majority of the citizens of the Union.ʺ The Ministry of Religious Affairs, created in 1948, was responsible for continuing Buddhism in Myanmar. In 1954, the prime minister, U Nu, convened the Sixth Buddhist Synod in Rangoon (Yangon), which was attended by 2,500 monks. It was during this time that the World Buddhist University was established. During the military rule of Ne Win (1962‐1988), he attempted to reform Burma under the Burmese Way to Socialism which contained elements of Buddhism. In the 8888 Uprising, many monks participated and were killed by Tatmadaw soldiers. The current military regime, the State Peace and Development Council (SPDC) patronises Buddhism, although persecution of persons of other religions, namely Islam and Christianity, continues. 2) Traditions After the child pass 7‐year age, the parents have to send him to the monastery to follow some Buddhist teachings and practice. Myanmar people are devoted to the religion and they believe in Buddhism. According to the Buddhism, the Buddhist, when he was a prince, left his palace on the horse‐back with the follower man, ʺMaung Sanʺ to practise the meditation and to dig up what the real life and how the cycle of life is rotating and how to attain Nirvana, and that life is made up of suffering and there is no self after He saw the old, the sick, the dead, the monk in the royal garden. Myanmar people also send their children to the monastery to conduct Buddhist education.But before they are sent to the monastery, they celebrate the ceremony called ʺShinbyuʺ. In this ceremony, the male children wear the costumes like the princes. Then they ride the horse as the Buddhist did when he left for meditation. In Burmese ceremony, they also have a follower man to this child, a monk‐to‐
be. Then a lot of people will follow going around the city or village carrying the things , what they called, the ʺParaitkayashikbaʺ, the things needed to be a monk including the robe. After the going around, he will be sent to the monastery. The head monk of the monastery will give some teachings. 172
Then he was balded and let in the robe and he also cites some Buddhist teachings and becomes a young monk. On the following day is the preaching of Buddhist teaching by the head of monastery at the parentsʹ house with a lot of people. The head monks, the monks from the monastery, as well as the young monks are on the traditional stage cite the teachings first. Then the head monk will give some teachings which takes at least 2 hours. All the laymen and women offer the offerings to the monk and share some traditional food with the guests, and all of them are in great interest in the teachings of Buddhist monks. Then the ceremony is closed and the young monks are sent to the monastery to study Buddhist teachings,where they have to keep the Eight Precepts. They have to study in the monastery at least 2 weeks. But all the parents in Myanmar want their children learn Buddhist teachings as long as possible during the new year festival, called Thingyan. 3) Politics Buddhism made major contributions in the development of Burmese politics. Burmese nationalism first began with the the formation of the Young Menʹs Buddhist Associations (YMBA) ‐ modelled after the YMCA ‐ which started to appear all over the country. Civilian governments, after the country gained independence, patronised Buddhism donating large sums to fund the upkeeping and building of Buddhist monuments. IN addition, leaders of political parties and parliamentarians, in particular U Nu, passed Buddhist influenced legislations. He declared Buddhism the state religion which isolated minority groups, especially Kachin. This added yet another group to the growing number of ethnic insurgencies. The present military government are such patrons of Buddhism that it has become a joke‐ ʺBurmese TV has only two colours, green and yellowʺ ‐ describing the military green uniforms and monkʹs yellow robes or golden pagodas which cover the screen. Shwedagon Pagoda has been a local venue for large meetings where both Aung San and his daughter Aung San Suu Kyi had made their famous speeches. The second university strike in history of 1936 was also held at that location. Aung San Suu Kyi returned from London to lead the National League for Democracy but was placed under house arrest in 1989; since she is a devoted Buddhist and politicial, she is considered a socially engaged Buddhist. 173
Bagan, Myanmar Bagan became a central powerbase of the mid 11th century King Anawrahta who unified Burma under Theravada Buddhism. At one time, it was estimated that more than 13,000 temples and stupas once stood on this 42 sq km plain in central Myanmar (Burma). Today, approximately 2,200 remain standing. Situated on the east bank of the Ayeyarwady River, it is home to the largest area of Buddhist temples, pagodas, stupas and ruins in the world – most dating to the 11th and 12th centuries. The shape and construction of each building is highly significant in Buddhism with each component part taking on spiritual meaning. 174
Buddhism in Nepal From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Swayambhunath Stupa, Nepal. About 11% of Nepalʹs population practices Buddhism, consisting mainly of groups of Tibeto‐Burman origin. Contents: 1) Overview 2) History 1_Buddhism during the Kirata period (?‐300) 2_Buddhism during the Mauryan period (300‐400) 3_Buddhism during the Licchavi period (400‐750) 4_Buddhism during the Thakuri period (600‐1200) 5_Buddhism during the Malla dynasty (1200‐1769) 6_Buddhism during the Shah dynasty (1769‐1846) 7_Buddhism during the Rana dynasty (1846‐1951) 3) Shah Dyansty (1951‐present) 175
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1) Overview Buddhist influences are evident in the culture of Nepal, including that of many Hindu and Animist castes. Due to Nepalʹs close proximity to Tibet, Tibetan Buddhism is the most widely practised form. the Newar practice Vajrayana Buddhism, which is another name for Tibetan Buddhism. Many Buddhist groups are also influenced by Hinduism. Buddhism is the dominant religion of the thinly‐populated northern areas, which are inhabited by Tibetan‐related peoples, namely the Sherpa, Lopa, Manangi, Thakali, Lhomi, Dolpa and Nyimba. They constitute a small minority of the countryʹs population. Ethnic groups that live in central Nepal, such as Gurung, Lepcha, Tamang, Magar, Newar, Yakkha, Thami and Chepang, are also followers of Buddhism. These ethnic groups have larger populations compared to their northern neighbours. They came under the influence of Hinduism due to their close contacts with the Hindu castes. In turn, many of them eventually adopted Hinduism and have been largely integrated into the caste system. The Kirant tribes, especially the Limbu and the Rai, have also adopted Tibetan Buddhist practises from their Buddhist neighbours. The Jirel, which is considered a Kirata tribe, have also adopted Tibetan Buddhism. 2) History Tibetan refugees in Bhodnath, Nepal. 1_ Buddhism during the Kirata period (?‐300) The Tibetan refugees were devout Buddhists who felt they were persecuted for their religious beliefs by the Chinese after the ʹLiberationʹ of Tibet in 1959. According to archaeological and historical records, Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, was born in Lumbini, Nepal in 563 BCE. After enlightenment at 177
the age of 35 he return back to the place. His and his disciplesʹ preaching soon spread Buddhism in the surrounding areas. It was believed that Gautama Buddha visited Nepal several times. According to Mulasarvastivadin Vinaya says that his disciple, Ananda, came to the Kathmandu Valley during the rule of the seventh of the 28 Kirati rulers and stayed for a while in Patan, Nepal. 2_Buddhism during the Mauryan period (300‐400) Emperor Ashoka from India put up a pillar at Lumbini, the birthplace of the Buddha in the 2nd century BC. It is also believed that Ashoka went to Patan and had four stupas built there. It is believed that his daughter Charumati established the village of Chabahil, which is located between Kathmandu and Bodhnath. There is a stupa and monastery in Chabahil that are said to date back to her time. It is said that upon the expansion of the Mauryan dynasty into the Terai plains in Nepal, Buddhism was adopted by the ancestors of the Tharu and flourished until the resurgent Licchavi repelled its adherents in AD 200. But, in fact, the Tharu are the remainants of ancient Sakya, Koliya, Mourya and many other ancient tribes. Thus, obviously, Buddhism in Nepal has been flourishing since Buddhaʹs time if we consider ancient Kapilvastu and Devdah in Nepal. 3_Buddhism during the Licchavi period (400‐750) The Licchavi period saw the flourishing of both Hinduism and Buddhism in Nepal. Excellent examples of Buddhist art of the period are the half‐sunken Buddha in Pashupatinath, the sleeping Vishnu in Budhanilkantha, and the statue of Buddha and the various representations of Vishnu in Changu Narayan. Ancient Buddhist texts claim that Mulasarvasti Vadavinaya (better known as the Shakyas of Kapilvastu, Bhikshu Ananda, and the Baniyas of Sravasti) came to Nepal, then known as Newal, from Tibet. Another Buddhist text, the Manjushrimula Kalpa, mentioned Manadeva as the King of Nepal Mandala. Researchers believe the Mulasarvastivadavinaya was written in the 2nd century CE, and that the Manjushriulakalpa was written during Manadevaʹs reign. The Swayambhu Purana, the ancient Buddhist Purana text, and a Licchavi inscription all mentioned Nepal Mandala. Buddhist inscriptions and chronicles and Tibetan sources also record a few tantric Buddhist deities, namely Aksyobhya, Amitabha, Vajrayogini, Vajrabhairava, Usnisavijaya and Samantabhadra. Strong influence from Animist cults resulted in belief in Buddhist deities such as the Pancaraksas. Religious tolerance and syncretism were stressed during the Licchavi period. King Manadeva paid homage at both Hindu and Buddhist sites. His family subsequently found expression for their beliefs in various different religions. The worship of the Caitya and the Rath Jatra cart festival of Avalokitesvara were introduced around this period. Many ancient sites in the Kathmandu Valley were identified with major Buddhist Caityas, such as Swayambhunath, Bodnath, Kathmandu and the four ʺAshokaʺ stupas of Patan, and another two hundred stone 178
caityas dating from the Licchavi Period, were testified to the widespread antiquity of caitya worship. Religious tolerance and syncretism were stressed during the Licchavi period. King Manadeva paid homage at both Hindu and Buddhist sites. His family subsequently found expression for their beliefs in various different religions. It is possible that this practice, in its earliest incarnation, was related to the worship of stones, which may have originated in the early, rival Kirata inhabitants of the Valley, prior to the Licchavis. According to one of the earliest Licchavi inscriptions, Caitya worship ordinarily consisted of ritual circumambulation of the caitya and offering standard items such as incense, colored powder, oil lamps and ablutions. At times, the inscriptions indicate, it could even involve resurfacing an existing Caitya and covering the new surface with many elaborate paintings. Caitya worship was an important factor in bringing more of the proto‐Newar tribal inhabitants into the Buddhist fold, as it was a devotional practice designed for the general public. Thus, the masses probably began practicing the cart festival of Avalokitesvara/ Matsyendranath (Bungakya) during the latter half of the seventh century A.D. This festival was celebrated by hundreds or even thousands of people, who helped to construct and transport a huge, wheeled cart that bore the image of Avalokitesvara for several days or weeks along a specific route. The introduction of this festival must have been an instant success among the majority of the Kathmandu Valley population. This strengthened Buddhismʹs standing in relation to the other Hindu and Animist faiths of the Valley at the time. Forty stone inscriptions made some mention of Buddhism throughout the Licchavi period. Most of the references are concerned with monasticism. However, almost nothing is known about the day‐to‐day life in the Vihara monasteries or how they functioned administratively. The names of the fifteen Buddhist monasteries are known, and it is clear from the context in which some of these are named that they are among the most important religious sites of that time. It is not known for certain what schools of Buddhism were most prominent at the time. But the strongest early influences (aside from an even earlier probable substratum of Pali Buddhism) probably came from the Mahasanghika, Sammitiya and the Sarvastivada schools. The Makhyamaka and Yogacara schools were thought to be more influential in the later period with the emergence and growth of the Vajrayana school. Inscriptional evidence also proves that there was a string of traditional methods of making religious gifts. These offerings were used for earning blessing and making merit, and the women of the Buddhist seem to have taken the lead in offering these gifts. Strikingly, parallel points within the Buddhist cave contain inscriptions of Maharastra, which predated the Licchvi Nepal. The references in the Licchavi inscriptions to the Mahayana and Vajrayana will be mentioned below in connection with Buddhist art and notable Buddhist figures of the Licchavi period. 179
4_Buddhism during the Thakuri period (600‐1200) The first Thaukri king, Amsuvarma, married his daughter Bhrikuti to the ruler of Tibet, King Songtsen Gampo. According to legend, she received the begging bowl of the Buddha as part of her wedding dowry. It is believed that she introduced Buddhism into Tibet. she is also believed as a reincarnation of the Green Tara of Tibetan Buddhism, who is seen in many Buddhist Thangkas. Thakuri period is known as the golden time for Buddhism. 5_Buddhism during the Malla dynasty (1200‐1769) The Malla dynasty saw to the golden period of the syncretism of Hindu and Buddhist art forms by the Newar. The Paubha, the Newari counterpart of the Tibetan Buddhist Thangka, flourished in this period. 6_Buddhism during the Shah dynasty (1769‐1846) The Shah dynasty saw the decline of Buddhism in Nepal where it eventually merged with Hinduism as the Hindu Gurkha rose to prominence. In the north, the Mustang kingdom ruled by the Buddhist Lopa and the Thakali saw to the flourishing of Vajrayana (Tibetan Buddhism) in the North. 7_Buddhism during the Rana dynasty (1846‐1951) Modern Newar Buddhist practises in Nepal have largely been absorbed into mainstream Hinduism, although certain distinct practises, artforms and castes do remain. In the north, people of Tibetan origin continued to be the much‐unchanged practises of Tibetan Buddhism, especially in the case of the Nyimba of Northwest Nepal. On the other hand, the Thakali, who had traditionally played an important role in the Nepali society but yet retained Tibetan Buddhism, have begun to embrace Hinduism as well in the recent years. 3) Shah Dyansty (1951‐present) After the overthrown of Rana dynasty, Buddhism gradually developed in the country. Theravadins played a great role for the revival campaign. Presently, there are three main Buddhist schools; Tibetan Buddhism, Newar Buddhism and Theravada Buddhism. Tourism is another important factor for promoting Nepali Buddhism to the world. Every year, Kathmandu can receive more than 10,000 travellers from all over the world just to visit the Boudha Chetiya and the Swayambhunath stupas. 180
Tibetan Buddhism From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Contents: 1) Distinguishing characteristics 2) Rituals and ritual objects 3) Schools of Tibetan Buddhism 1_Red Hat & Yellow Hat Sects, Kaʹma and Sarma traditions 2_Bön, Minor Schools, and Movements ∙ 4) Streams of Tibetan Buddhism 5) Monasticism 6) History of Tibetan Buddhism 7) Tibetan Buddhism in the contemporary world 181
Tibetan Buddhism is the body of religious Buddhist doctrine and institutions characteristic of Tibet, the Himalayan region (including northern Nepal, Bhutan, and Sikkim and Ladakh), Mongolia, Buryatia, Tuva and Kalmykia (Russia), and northeastern China (Manchuria: Heilongjiang, Jilin). It is a multifaceted and integrated teaching, naturally implementing methods for all human‐condition levels: Hinayana, Mahayana, Vajrayana (Tantric Path) and Ati Yoga (Dzogchen). In the past, Tibetan Buddhism was referred to by some as ʺLamaismʺ (Teaching of spiritual teachers) but by many this is now considered inappropriate. 182
Tibetan Buddhist monks at a monastery in Sikkim 1) Distinguishing characteristics Tibetan Buddhism may be distinguished from other schools of Tantric Buddhism by a number of unique traits including: _Understanding that a continuity of conciousness (identity) and potential to display beneficial qualities can be recognised so that high lamas are returned to their previous status (known as tulkus). Returning to be trained in the teachings through rebirth such as the Dalai Lama. _a practice wherein lost or hidden ancient scriptures (termas) are recovered by individuals who are usually spiritual masters (cf. tertons). _belief that a Buddha can manifest in human form, such as in the person of Padmasambhava, the saint who brought Tibetan Buddhism to the Himalayas. In common with other Tantric schools (primarily Shingon Buddhism in Japan), Tibetan Buddhism is esoteric and tantric. It is esoteric because it requires an empowerment (dbang) for practice. It is tantric because it emphasizes the tantric methods of transformation as the path. It is mainly in Tibetan Buddhism that Buddhist Tantra (Tibetan: rgyud) has been transmitted to our time. In common with Mahayana schools, Tibetan Buddhism teaches a belief in a Pantheon of Buddhas, bodhisattvas, and Dharmapala, also known as Dharma protectors. Bodhisattvas are enlightened beings who themselves are able to escape the cycle of death and rebirth but compassionately choose to remain here in this world to assist others in reaching nirvana or Buddhahood. Dharma protectors are mythic and often fearsome figures incorporated into Tibetan Buddhism from various sources including Hinduism and the Bön religion. They are pledged to protecting and upholding the Dharma. A town or district may have its own Dharma protector with its own local mythology. This pantheon is variously interpreted as representations of functions of the psyche, reminiscent of Jungian dream theory, or taken literally by, for instance, Tibetan peasants. 183
2) Rituals and ritual objects Tantric practitioners make use of special rituals and objects. Meditation is an important function which may be aided by the use of certain hand gestures (mudras) and chanted mantras (such as the famous mantra of Chenrezig: ʺom mani padme humʺ). A number of meditation techniques are employed by different traditions, including mahamudra, dzogchen, and in the Kagyu school the Six yogas of Naropa. Qualified practitioners may also study or construct special cosmic diagrams known as mandalas which assist in inner spiritual development. A lama may make use of a dorje, a small five‐ or nine‐pronged dumbbell‐like object representing a diamond‐strong sceptre which represents method or compassion, along with a handbell known as a drilbu which represents wisdom. A ritual dagger or phurpa is symbolically used to kill demons, representing the destruction of our negativities. Non‐initiates in Tibetan Buddhism may gain merit by performing rituals such as food and flower offerings, water offerings (performed with a set of bowls), religious pilgrimages, or chanting prayers (see also prayer wheel and prayer flag). They may also light butter lamps at the local temple or fund monks to do so on their behalf. Villagers may also gain blessings by observing or participating in cham dances. Energetic dancers wearing masks and richly ornamented costumes perform each sacred dance while accompanied by monks playing traditional Tibetan musical instruments. The dances offer moral instruction such as non‐harm to sentient beings and are said to bring merit to all who observe them. In Bhutan the dances are performed during an annual religious festival known as Tsechu, which is held in each district. At certain festivals a large painting known as a thongdrol is also briefly unfurled — the mere glimpsing of the thongdrol is believed to carry such merit as to free the observer from all present sin (see Culture of Bhutan). Cham dances are prohibited in Tibet by the PRC government. 3) Schools of Tibetan Buddhism Tibetan Buddhism has four main traditions (the suffix pa is comparable to ʺerʺ in English): _Nyingma(pa), The Ancient Ones, the oldest and original order founded by Padmasambhava himself _Kagyu(pa), Oral Lineage, has one major subsect and one minor subsect. The first, the Dagpo Kagyu, encompasses those Kagyu schools that trace back to Gampopa. In turn, the Dagpo Kagyu consists of four major sub‐sects: the Karma Kagyu, headed by the Karmapa, the Tsalpa Kagyu, the Barom Kagyu, and Pagtru Kagyu; as well as eight minor sub‐sects, all of which trace their root to Pagtru Kagyu. Among the eight sub‐sects the most notable of are the Drikung Kagyu and the Drukpa Kagyu. The once‐
obscure Shangpa Kagyu, which was famously represented by the 20th century teacher Kalu Rinpoche, traces it history back to the Indian master Niguma, sister of Kagyu lineage holder Naropa. 184
_Sakya(pa), Grey Earth, headed by the Sakya Trizin, founded by Khon Konchog Gyalpo, a disciple of the great translator Drokmi Lotsawa. Sakya Pandita 1182–1251CE was the great grand‐son of Khon Konchog Gyalpo. _Geluk(pa), Way of Virtue, also known as Yellow Hats, whose spiritual head is the Ganden Tripa and whose temporal head is the Dalai Lama, who was ruler of Tibet from the mid‐17th to mid‐20th centuries. It was founded in the 14th to 15th century by Je Tsongkhapa, based on the foundations of the Kadampa tradition. 1_ Red Hat & Yellow Hat Sects, Kaʹma and Sarma traditions The schools sometimes divided into the ʺOld Translationʺ, or Nyingma, and ʺNew Translationʺ (Sarma) traditions, with the Kagyu, Sakya and Kadam/Geluk among the latter. They are also sometimes classified as ʺRed Hatʺ and ʺYellow Hatʺ schools, with the Nyingma, Kagyu and Sakya among the former and the Geluk comprising the latter. 2_ Bön, Minor Schools, and Movements Besides the above main schools, there are a number of minor ones like Jonang, Zhije, Bodong and Buton. The Jonangpa were suppressed by the rival Gelukpa in the 1600s and were once thought extinct, but are now known to survive in Eastern Tibet. There is also an ecumenical movement known as Rime. The Bön religion, which predated Buddhism in Tibet, is often counted as a school of Tibetan Buddhism because it has assimilated Buddhist doctrine almost entirely over the last thousand years. Bön practitioners claim that their mythical founder, Tönpa Shenrab, simply taught a doctrine nearly identical to that of Shakyamuni Buddha, and that earlier animist practices by Bönpos were aberrations. 4) Streams of Tibetan Buddhism Tibetan Buddhists divide Buddhist philosophy as transmitted from India into four main streams of philosophical tenets: Two belong to the older Hinayana path (Skt. for Lesser Vehicle, Tib. theg dman). (Hinayana is sometimes referred to as Śravakayāna (Skt. Vehicle of Hearers) because ʺlesserʺ may be considered derogatory): _Vaibhasika (Tib. bye‐brag smra‐ba) _Sautrantika (Tib. mdo‐sde‐pa) Primary source for the former is the Abhidharmakosha by Vasubandhu and commentaries. The Abhidharmakosha is also an important source for the Sautrantikas, Dignaga and Dharmakirti are their most prominent exponents. The other two are Mahayana (Skt. Greater Vehicle) (Tib. theg‐chen): _Yogacara, also called Cittamatra (Tib. sems‐tsam‐pa), Mind‐Only _Madhyamaka (Tib. dbu‐ma‐pa) Yogacarin base their views on texts from Maitreya, Asanga and Vasubandhu, Madhyamikas on Nagarjuna and Aryadeva. 185
There is a further classification of Madhyamaka into Svatantrika‐Madhyamaka and Prasangika‐Madhyamaka. The former stems from Bhavaviveka, Santaraksita and Kamalashila and the latter from Buddhapalita and Chandrakirti. It is not clear, if these four streams ever actually existed as distinct traditions in India or if this classification was introduced by Tibetan Scholars only after the transmission to Tibet. The tenet system is used in the monasteries and colleges to teach buddhist philosophy in a systematic way. Therein the four schools can be seen as a gradual path from a rather easy to grasp, ʺrealisticʺ philosophical point of view to more and more complex and more subtle views on the ultimate nature of reality, that is on emptiness and dependent arising, culminating in the philosophy of the Madhyamikas, which is widely believed to present the most sophisticated point of view. 5) Monasticism Lamayuru monastery. Although there were many householder‐yogis in Tibet, monasticism was the foundation of Buddhism in Tibet. Itʹs estimated that as much as 25% of the population of Tibet was monastic from the 16th century through the Chinese invasion. There were thousands of monasteries in Tibet, and nearly all were ransacked and destoyed by the Chinese communists. Most of the major ones have been at least partially reestablished. In Mongolia during the 1920s approximately 1/3 of the male population were monks, though many lived outside monasteries. These monasteries were largely dismantled during Communist rule, but many have been reestablished with the Buddhist revival in Mongolia following the fall of Communism. 6) History of Tibetan Buddhism Certain Buddhist scriptures arrived in southern Tibet from India as early as 173 CE during the reign of Thothori Nyantsen, the 28th king of Tibet. During the third century the scriptures were disseminated to northern Tibet (which was not part of the same kingdom at the time). The influence of Buddhism was not great, however, and the form was certainly not tantric, as the earliest tantric scripture texts (tantras) had only just then begun to be codified in India. 186
The most important event in Tibetan Buddhist history, however, was the arrival of the great tantric mystic Padmasambhava in Tibet in 774 at the invitation of King Trisong Detsen. It was Padmasambhava (more commonly known in the region as Guru Rinpoche) who merged tantric Buddhism with the local Bön religion to form what we now recognize as Tibetan Buddhism. In addition to writing a number of important scriptures (some of which he hid for future tertons to find), Padmasambhava established the Nyingma school from which all schools of Tibetan Buddhism are derived. Tibetan Buddhism exerted a strong influence from the 11th century AD among the peoples of Central Asia, especially in Mongolia and Manchuria. It was adopted as an official state religion by the Mongol Yuan dynasty and the Manchu Qing dynasty of China. 7) Tibetan Buddhism in the contemporary world Today, Tibetan Buddhism is adhered to widely in the Tibetan Plateau, Bhutan, Mongolia, Kalmykia (the Russian north Caucasus), Siberia (central Russia), and the Russian Far East. In the wake of the Tibetan diaspora, Tibetan Buddhism has gained adherents in the West and throughout the world; there are estimated to be thousands of practitioners in Europe and the Americas. Western celebrity Tibetan Buddhism practitioners include Richard Gere, Adam Yauch, Allen Ginsberg; Philip Glass, and Steven Seagal, who has been proclaimed a tulku. Seagalʹs tulku status and martial arts skill positioned him to be chosen as godfather to Yabshi Pan Rinzinwangmo. Rinzinwangmo, or ʺRenji,ʺ is the only child of the 10th Panchen Lama of Tibet. Renji studied in the United States for a brief period, and her family relied on Seagal for her safekeeping. 187
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Gautama Buddha From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Buddha in the Jokang/ Lhassa Siddhārtha Gautama (Pali Gotama Buddha) was a spiritual teacher from ancient India and the historical founder of Buddhism. He is universally recognized by Buddhists as the Supreme Buddha of our age. The time of his birth and death are uncertain; most modern historians date his lifetime from 563 BCE to 483 BCE, though some have suggested a date about a century later than this. Gautama, also known as Sakyamuni or Shakyamuni (“sage of the Shakyas”), is the key figure in Buddhism, and accounts of his life, discourses, and monastic rules were summarized after his death and memorized by the sangha. Passed down by oral tradition, the Tripitaka, the collection of discourses attributed to Gautama, was committed to writing about 400 years later. Contents: 1) Buddhaʹs life 1_Conception and birth 2_Early life and marriage 3_The Great Departure 4_The Great Enlightenment 5_The Great Passing ∙ 2) Physical characteristics ∙ 3) Teachings 4) Language 189
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1) Buddhaʹs life As few of the details of the Buddhaʹs life can be independently verified, it is difficult to gauge the historical accuracy of these accounts. The main sources of information on Siddhārtha Gautamaʹs life are the earliest available Buddhist texts. The following is a summary of those narratives. 1_Conception and birth According to tradition, Siddhārtha was born more than 200 years before the reign of the Maurya king Aśoka (273–232 BCE). The birth of Siddhartha, (2nd‐3rd century). Siddhartha was born in Lumbini in modern day Nepal.[2] His father was Suddhodana, the chief of the Shakya nation, one of several ancient tribes on the growing state of Kosala; Gautama was the family name. His mother was Queen Maya (Māyādevī), King Sudhodhanaʹs wife, who was a Koliyan princess. On the night Siddhartha was conceived, Queen Maya dreamt that a white elephant entered her right side, and ten lunar months later Siddhartha was born from her right side (see image right). As was the Shakya tradition, when his mother Queen Maya fell pregnant, she returned to her fatherʹs kingdom to give birth, but after leaving Kapilavastu, she gave birth along the way at Lumbini in a garden beneath a sala tree. The day of the Buddhaʹs birth is widely celebrated in Buddhist countries as Vesak.[3] Various sources hold that the Buddhaʹs mother died at his birth, a few days or seven days later. The infant was given the name Siddhartha (Pāli: Siddhatta), meaning “he who achieves his aim”. During the birth celebrations, the hermit seer Asita journeyed from his mountain abode and announced that this baby would either become a great king (chakravartin) or a great holy man. This occurred after Siddhartha placed his feet in Asitaʹs hair and Asita examined the birthmarks. Suddhodarna held a naming ceremony on the fifth day, and invited scholars to read the future. All gave a dual prediction that the baby would either become a great king or a great holy man. Kondanna, the youngest, and later to be the first arahant, was the only one who unequivocally predicted that Siddhartha would become a Buddha. 191
While later tradition and legend characterized Śuddhodana as a hereditary monarch, the descendant of the Solar Dynasty of Ikkvāku (Pāli: Okkāka), many scholars believe that Śuddhodana was the elected chief of a tribal confederacy. 2_Early life and marriage Siddhartha, destined to a luxurious life as a prince, had three palaces (one for each season) especially built for him. His father, King Śuddhodana, wishing for Siddhartha to be a great king, shielded his son from religious teachings or knowledge of human suffering. Siddhartha was brought up by his maternal aunt Maha Pajapati, Mayaʹs younger sister. As the boy reached the age of 16, his father arranged his marriage to Yaśodharā (Pāli: Yasodharā), a cousin of the same age. In time, she gave birth to a son, Rahula. Siddhartha spent 29 years as a Prince in Kapilavastu, a place now situated in Nepal. Although his father ensured that Siddhartha was provided with everything he could want or need, Siddhartha felt that material wealth was not the ultimate goal of life. 3_The Great Departure The Four Heavenly Messengers At the age of 29, however, the young prince left his palace for a short excursion. While venturing outside of his palace, and despite his fatherʹs effort to remove the sick, aged and suffering, Siddhartha was said to have seen an old crippled man . Disturbed by this, and the fact that all people would eventually grow old, the prince went on further trips where he encountered, variously, a crippled man, a diseased man, a decaying corpse, and an ascetic. These four scenes are referred to as the four sights, or the four heavenly messengers (Pali: devaduta). Deeply depressed by these sights, he sought to overcome old age, illness, and death by living the life of an ascetic. Siddhartha soon left his palace, his possessions, and his entire family at age 29, to take up the lonely life of a wandering monk. Abandoning his inheritance, he is then said to have dedicated his life to learning how to overcome suffering. He meditated with two hermits, and, although he achieved high levels of meditative consciousness, he was still not satisfied with his path. 192
The Buddha as an ascetic. Siddhartha then chose the robes of a mendicant monk and headed to Magadha in what is today Bihar in India. He began his training in the ascetic life and practicing vigorous techniques of physical and mental austerity. Gautama proved quite adept at these practices, and surpassed even his teachers. However, he found no answer to his questions regarding freedom from sufferings. Leaving behind his caring teachers, he and a small group of close companions set out to take their austerities even further. Gautama tried to find enlightenment through complete deprivation of worldly goods, including food, and became a complete fasting ascetic. After nearly starving himself to death (some sources claim that he nearly drowned), Gautama began to reconsider his path. Then, he remembered a moment in childhood in which he had been watching his father start the seasonʹs plowing, and he had fallen into a naturally concentrated and focused state that was blissful and refreshing. 4_The Great Enlightenment After asceticism and concentrating on meditation or Anapana‐sati (awareness of breathing in and out), Gautama is said to have discovered what Buddhists call the Middle Way—a path of moderation away from the extremes of self‐indulgence and self‐mortification. He accepted a little rice pudding from a village girl named Sujata. Then, sitting under a pipal tree, now known as the Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya, he vowed never to arise until he had found the Truth. At the age of 35, he attained Enlightenment; according to some traditions, this occurred approximately in May, and according to others in December. Gautama, from then on, was known as the Buddha or ʺAwakened Oneʺ. Oftentimes, he is referred to in Buddhism as Shakyamuni Buddha or ʺThe Awakened One of the Skakya Clan.ʺ At this point, he is believed to have stated that he had realized complete awakening and insight into the nature and cause of human suffering which was ignorance, along with steps necessary to eliminate it. These truths were then categorized into the Four Noble Truths; the state of supreme liberation—possible for any being—was called Nirvana. He then came to possess the Nine Characteristics, which are said to belong to every Buddha. 193
Painting of the first sermon depicted at Wat Chedi Liem in Thailand. According to one of the stories in the Āyācana Sutta (Samyutta Nikaya VI.1), a scripture found in the Pāli and other canons, immediately after his Enlightenment, the Buddha was wondering whether or not he should teach the Dharma to human beings. He was concerned that, as human beings were overpowered by greed, hatred and delusion, they would not be able to see the true dharma, which was subtle, deep and hard to understand. However, a divine spirit, Brahmā Sahampati, interceded and asked that he teach the dharma to the world, as ʺthere will be those who will understand the Dharmaʺ. With his great compassion to all beings in the universe, the Buddha agreed to become a teacher. At the Deer Park near Vārānasī (Benares) in northern India, he set in motion the Wheel of Dharma by delivering his first sermon to the group of five companions with whom he had previously sought enlightenment. They, together with the Buddha, formed the first sangha, the company of Buddhist monks, and hence, the first formation of Triple Gem (Buddha, Dharma and Sangha) was completed. According to tradition, the Buddha emphasized ethics and correct understanding. He questioned the average personʹs notions of divinity and salvation. He stated that there is no intermediary between mankind and the divine; distant gods are subjected to karma themselves in decaying heavens; and the Buddha is solely a guide and teacher for the sentient beings who must tread the path of Nirvāna (Pāli: Nibbāna) themselves to attain the spiritual awakening called bodhi and see truth and reality as it is. The Buddhist system of insight, thought, and meditation practice is not believed to have been revealed divinely, but by the understanding of the true nature of the mind, which could be discovered by anybody. For the remaining 45 years of his life, the Buddha is said to have traveled in the Gangetic Plain of Northeastern India and Southern Nepal, teaching his doctrine and discipline to an extremely diverse range of people from nobles to outcaste street sweepers, including many adherents of rival philosophies and religions. 194
The Buddha founded the community of Buddhist monks and nuns (the Sangha) to continue the dispensation after his Parinirvāna (Pāli: Parinibbāna) or ʺcomplete Nirvānaʺ, and made thousands of converts. His religion was open to all races and classes and had no caste structure. On the other hand, Buddhist texts record that he was reluctant to ordain women as nuns: he eventually accepted them on the grounds that their capacity for enlightenment was equal to that of men (and the Lotus Sutra, in Chapter 12, contains a description of the dragon kingʹs daughter attaining enlightenment in her present body), but he gave them certain additional rules (Vinaya) to follow. Buddhaʹs entry into Parinirvana. 5_The Great Passing According to the Mahaparinibbana Sutta of the Pali canon, at the age of 80, the Buddha announced that he would soon enter Parinirvana or the final deathless state abandoning the earthly body. After this, the Buddha ate his last meal, which, according to different translations, was either a mushroom delicacy or soft pork, which he had received as an offering from a blacksmith named Cunda. Falling violently ill, Buddha instructed his attendant Ānanda to convince Cunda that the meal eaten at his place had nothing to do with his passing and that his meal would be a source of the greatest merit as it provided the much‐needed energy for the Buddha. Ananda protested Buddhaʹs decision to enter Parinirvana in the abandoned jungles of Kuśināra (Pāli: Kusināra) of the Mallas. Buddha, however, reminded Ananda how Kushinara was a land once ruled by a righteous king that resounded with joy: 44. Kusavati, Ananda, resounded unceasingly day and night with ten sounds the trumpeting of elephants, the neighing of horses, the rattling of chariots, the beating of drums and tabours, music and song, cheers, the clapping of hands, and cries of ʺEat, drink, and be merry!ʺ 195
The sharing of the relics of the Buddha. Buddha then asked all the attendant Bhikshus to clarify any doubts or questions they had. They had none. He then finally entered Parinirvana. The Buddhaʹs final words were, ʺAll composite things pass away. Strive for your own salvation with diligence.ʺ The Buddhaʹs body was cremated and the relics were placed in monuments or stupas, some of which are believed to have survived until the present. For example, The Temple of the Tooth or ʺDalada Maligawaʺ in Sri Lanka is the place where the right tooth relic of Buddha is kept at present. According to the Pāli historical chronicles of Sri Lanka, the Dīpavamsa and Mahāvamsa, the coronation of Aśoka (Pāli: Asoka) is 218 years after the death of Buddha. According to one Mahayana record in Chinese, the coronation of Aśoka is 116 years after the death of Buddha. Therefore, the time of Buddhaʹs passing is either 486 BCE according to Theravāda record or 383 BCE according to Mahayana record. However, the actual date traditionally accepted as the date of the Buddhaʹs death in Theravāda countries is 544 or 543 BCE, because the reign of Aśoka was traditionally reckoned to be about 60 years earlier than current estimates (based on Aśokaʹs own inscriptions, and therefore among the soundest dates in early Indian history). Gandhara Buddha, 1st‐2nd century CE, Musée Guimet. 196
2) Physical characteristics Buddha is perhaps one of the few sages for whom we have mention of his rather impressive physical characteristics. He was at least six feet tall and had a strong enough body to be noticed by one of the kings and was asked to join his army as a general. He is also believed by Buddhists to have ʺthe 32 Signs of the Great Manʺ. Although the Buddha was not represented in human form until around the 1st century CE (see Buddhist art), his physical characteristics are described in one of the central texts of the traditional Pali canon, the Digha Nikaya. They help define the global aspect of the historical Buddha, his physical appearance is described by Prince Siddharthaʹs wife to his son Rahula upon Buddhaʹs return in the scripture of the ʺLion of Menʺ. 3) Teachings While there is disagreement amongst various Buddhist sects over more esoteric aspects of Buddhaʹs teachings and over disciplinary rules for monks, there is generally agreement over these points: _The Four Noble Truths: that suffering is an inherent part of existence; that the origin of suffering is ignorance and the main symptoms of that ignorance are attachment and craving; that attachment and craving can be ceased; and that following the Noble Eightfold Path will lead to the cessation of attachment and craving and therefore suffering. _The Noble Eightfold Path: right understanding, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration. _The concept of dependent origination: that any phenomenon ʹexistsʹ only because of the ‘existence’ of other phenomena in a complex web of cause and effect covering time past, present and future. Because all things are thus conditioned and transient (anicca), they have no real independent identity (anatta). _Rejection of the infallibility of accepted scripture: Teachings should not be accepted unless they are borne out by our experience and are praised by the wise. See the Kalama Sutta for details. _Anicca (Sanskrit: anitya): That all things are impermanent. _Anatta (Sanskrit: anātman): That the perception of a constant ʺselfʺ is an illusion. _Dukkha (Sanskrit: dukkha): That all beings suffer from all situations due to unclear mind. 4) Language It is unknown what language the Buddha spoke, and no conclusive documentation has been made at this point. However, modern scholars, primarily philologists, believe it is most likely that the Buddha spoke an East‐Indian popular language, Mâgadhî Prakrit. 197
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Disciples of the Buddha From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Noble Disciples of the Buddha (Arya‐Śrāvaka) Chief Disciples (Agraśrāvaka) Sariputta (Pali; Sanskrit: Shariputra) ∙ Mahamoggallana (Pali; Sanskrit: Maudgalyayana) Great Disciples (Mahāśrāvaka) Monks (Bhikkhu) Ananda, Buddhaʹs cousin and personal attendant ∙ Mahākāśyapa, convener of First Buddhist Council ∙ Upali, master of the Vinaya. ∙ Angulimala, mass murderer turned saint. ∙ Suddhipanthaka, the most dim‐witted of the Buddhaʹs disciples. Nuns (Bhikkhuni) Eldest Nuns:∙ Kisa Gotami Maha Pajapati Gotami Two of the most powerful nuns: Khema, first great female disciple in power Uppalavanna, second great female disciple Laymen (Upasaka) Anathapindika Hatthaka of Alavi Citta Laywomen (Upasika) Khujjuttara Velukandakiya ∙ Visakha Rohini 199
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Sariputra From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Śāriputra (Sanskrit) or Sāriputta (Pāli); Chinese: Shelifu was one of two principal disciples of the Buddha. He became an Arhat renowned for his wisdom and is depicted in the Theravada tradition as one of the most important disciples of the Buddha. Śāriputra came from a brahmin family and had already embarked on life as a spiritual ascetic when he encountered the teachings of the Buddha. Śāriputra had a close friend Mahāmaudgalyāyana (Pāli: Mahāmoggallāna), another wandering ascetic. They both renounced the world on the same day and became disciples of the sceptic Sañjaya Belatthiputta before converting to Buddhism. After hearing of the Buddhaʹs teachings from a monk named Assaji (Sanskrit: Aśvajit), Śāriputra sought out the Buddha and became an adherent to his teachings. These two are often depicted together with the Buddha, and several sutras regard interactions between Śāriputra and Mahāmaudgalyāyana (who became renowned among the early Buddhists for his mastery of supernatural powers). In one somewhat comical scene involving the two friends, a mischievous yak a (Pāli: yakkha) decides that it will attempt to irritate Śāriputra by striking him on the head. Mahāmaudgalyāyana sees this occurring with his ʹdivine eyeʹ (a clairvoyant‐like faculty often attributed to powerful Buddhist monks, as well as other South Asian ascetics), and unsuccessful attempts to warn Śāriputra. However, due to his great spiritual mastery, Śāriputra perceives the terrible blow that the yakkha delivers as only a light breeze. Mahāmaudgalyāyana approaches and expresses his amazement that Śāriputra barely noticed the terrible blow; Śāriputra replies in kind, amazed at the fact that Mahāmaudgalyāyana was able to perceive the invisible creature that dealt the blow. Śāriputra was older than the Buddha and died shortly before him, an event that apparently caused great distress to Ānanda, the Buddhaʹs cousin and personal attendant. The Buddha gave a eulogy. He was noted for his compassion, patience and humility. Śāriputra often preached with the Buddhaʹs approval and was awarded the title of ʹGeneral of the Dharmaʹ (Pāli: Dhammasenāpati) for his propagation of the faith and is regarded of the founder of the Abhidharma tradition. Śāriputra was one of the most highest praised disciples and in the Anupada Sutta, the Buddha declared him to be a true spiritual son and His chief assistant in ʺturning the Wheel of the Dhammaʺ: If one could ever say rightly of one that he is the Blessed One’s true son, born of His speech, born of the Dhamma, formed of the :Dhamma, heir to the Dhamma (not heir to worldly benefit), it is of Sariputta that one could thus rightly declare. After me, O monks, Sariputta rightly turns the Supreme Wheel of the Dhamma even as I have turned it.ʺ While depictions of Śāriputra in the Pāli canon are uniformly positive, showing Śāriputra as a wise and powerful arhat, second only to the Buddha, his depiction in Mahāyāna sources has often been much less flattering. In the Vimalakīrtinirdeśa‐sūtra and the Lotus Sutra, Śāriputra is depicted as the voice of the less sophisticated Hīnayāna or śrāvaka tradition. He is unable to readily grasp the Mahāyāna doctrines 201
presented by Vimalakīrti and others, and is rebuked or defeated in debate by a number of interlocutors, including a female deity (deva) who frustrates Śāriputraʹs ʹHīnayānaʹ assumptions regarding gender and form. A dialogue between Śāriputra and Avalokiteśvara is the context of the Heart Sutra, a brief but essential text in the Mahāyāna Buddhist tradition as practiced in Tibet, Mongolia, China, Korea, and Japan. 202
Maudgalyayana From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article incorporates text from the Dictionary of Pali Proper Names by G. P. Malalasekera, a publication now in the public domain. Maudgalyayana (Pali: Moggallana; Jp: Mokuren; Ch: Mohe Mujianlian or Mulian), also known as Mahamaudgalyayana or Mahamoggallana, was one of the Buddha Shakyamuniʹs closest disciples. A contemporary of famous arhats such as Subhuti, Sariputra, and Mahakasyapa, he is considered the second of the two foremost disciples of the Buddha, together with Sariputta. Moggallana was most accomplished of all the Buddhaʹs disciples in the various supernatural powers. These abilities included being able to use mind‐reading for such things as detecting lies from truths, transporting himself from his body into the various realms of existence, speaking with ghosts and gods. He was also able to do things like walking through walls, walking on water, flying through the air, and moving with a speed comparable to the speed of light. Varying accounts in the Pali Canon show Maudgalyayana speaking with the deceased in order to explain to them their horrific conditions and give them an understanding of their own suffering, so that they may be released from it or come to terms with it. Moggallana was able to use his powers of mind‐reading in order to give good and fitting advice to his students, so they could attain results quickly. Death: the arhatʹs karma Parinibbana of Maha‐Moggallana Maudgalyayanaʹs demise came when he was travelling in Magadha. Some accounts put forth that religious cultists stoned him to death, others say it was robbers. The general consensus is that he was killed in a brutal fashion. When asked why Maudgalyayana had not protected himself, and why a great arhat would suffer such a death, the Buddha said that because Maugalyayana had contracted such karma in a previous life (he had murdered his innocent parents in a previous life), he had resigned himself to accept his fate and expedite such a death, that it would be done with as soon as possible. Further, the Buddha stated that even supernatural powers will be of little or no use to oneself in avoiding their karma, especially when it is so heavy. 203
Mahā Moggallāna Thera The second of the Chief Disciples of the Buddha. He was born in Kolitagāma near Rājagaha, on the same day as Sāriputta (they were both older than the Buddha), and was called Kolita after his village. His mother was a brahminee called Moggalī (Moggallāni), and his father was the chief, householder of the village. Moggallānaʹs and Sāriputtaʹs families had maintained an unbroken friendship for seven generations, and so the children were friends from their childhood. Sāriputta had five hundred golden palanquins and Moggallāna five hundred carriages drawn by thoroughbreds. One day the two friends went together to see a mime play (giraggasamajjā), and there, realizing the impermanence of things, decided to renounce the world. They first lived as disciples of Sañjaya, and then wandered all over Jambudīpa, discussing with all learned men, but finding no satisfaction. Then they separated, after agreeing that whoever first succeeded in finding what they sought should inform the other. Sariputta and Mahamoggallana After some time, Sāriputta, wandering about in Rājagaha, met Assaji, was converted by him to the faith of the Buddha, and became a sotāpanna. He found Moggallāna and repeated the stanza he had heard from Assaji (ye dhammā hetuppabhavā, etc.), and Moggallāna also became a sotāpanna. The two then resolved to visit the Buddha at Veluvana, after an unsuccessful attempt to persuade Sañjaya to accompany them. Sañjayaʹs disciples, however, five hundred in number, agreed to go, and they all arrived at Veluvana. The Buddha preached to them, and ordained them by the ʺehi bhikkhu pabbajjā.ʺ All became arahants except Sāriputta and Moggallāna. Moggallāna went to the hamlet of Kallavāla (for details see Pacala Sutta, A.iv.85f, where the village is called Kallavālamutta) in Magadha, and there, on the seventh day after his ordination, drowsiness overcame him as he sat meditating. The Buddha knew this, and appearing before him, exhorted him to be zealous. That very day he attained arahantship. On the day that Sāriputta and Moggallāna were ordained, the Buddha announced in the assembly of monks that he had assigned to them the place of Chief Disciples and then recited the Pātimokkha. The monks were offended that newcomers should be shown such great honour. But the Buddha told them how these two had for a whole asankheyya and one hundred thousand years strenuously exerted themselves to win this great eminence under him. They had made the first resolve in the time of Anomadassī Buddha. Moggallāna had been a householder, named Sirivaddha, and Sāriputta a householder, called Sarada. Sarada gave away his immense wealth and became an ascetic. The Buddha visited him in his hermitage, where Sarada and his seventy four thousand pupils showed him great honour. Anomadassīʹs chief disciple, Nisabha, gave thanks, and Sarada made a vow that he would become the chief disciple of some future Buddha. Anomadassī saw that his wish would be fulfilled and told him so. After the Buddhaʹs departure, Sarada went to Sirivaddka, and, announcing the Buddhaʹs prophecy, advised Sirivaddha to wish for the place of second disciple. Acting on this advice, Sirivaddha made elaborate preparations and entertained the Buddha and his monks for seven days. At the end of that time, he announced his wish to the Buddha, who declared that it would be fulfilled. From that time, the two friends, in 204
that and subsequent births, engaged in good deeds. AA.i.84ff.; Ap.ii.31ff.; DhA.i.73f.; SnA.i.326ff.; the story of the present is given in brief at Vin.i.39ff. Sāriputta and Moggallāna are declared to be the ideal disciples, whose example others should try to follow (E.g., S. ii.235; A.i.88). In the Saccavibhanga Sutta (M.iii.248) the Buddha thus distinguishes these ʺtwin brethrenʺ from the others: ʺSāriputta is as she who brings forth and Moggallāna is as the nurse of what is brought forth; Sāriputta trains in the fruits of conversion, Moggallāna trains in the highest good. Sāriputta is able to teach and make plain the four Noble Truths; Moggallāna, on the other hand, teaches by his iddhi‐pātihāriya.ʺ (BuA.31) Moggallānaʹs pre eminence lay in his possession of iddhi power (A.i.23). He could create a living shape innumerable times and could transfer himself into any shape at will. Thag.vs.1183; he is recorded as saying that he could crush Sineru like a kidney bean (DhA.iii.212), and, rolling the earth like a mat between his fingers, could make it rotate like a potterʹs wheel, or could place the earth on Sineru like an umbrella on its stand. When the Buddha and his monks failed to get alms in Verañjā, Moggallāna offered to turn the earth upside down, so that the essence of the earth, which lay on the under surface, might serve as food. He also offered to open a way from Nalerupu‐cimanda to Uttarakuru, that the monks might easily go there for alms; but this offer was refused by the Buddha (Vin.iii.7; Sp.i.182f.; DhA.ii.153). Several instances are given of this special display of iddhi. Once, at the Buddhaʹs request, with his great toe he shook the Migāramātupāsāda, and made it rattle in order to terrify some monks who sat in the ground floor of the building, talking loosely and frivolously, regardless even of the fact that the Buddha was in the upper storey. See Pasādakampana Sutta, S. v.269ff.; also the Utthāna Sutta, SnA.i.336f. On another occasion, when Moggallāna visited Sakka to find out if he had profited by the Buddhaʹs teaching, he found him far too proud and obsessed by the thought of his own splendour. He thereupon shook Sakkaʹs palace, Vejayanta, till Sakkaʹs hair stood on end with fright and his pride was humbled (See Cūlatanhāsankhaya Sutta, M.i.251ff). Again, Moggallāna is mentioned as visiting the Brahma world in order to help the Buddha in quelling the arrogance of Baka Brahmā. He himself questioned Baka in solemn conclave in the Sudhammā‐Hall in the Brahma world and made him confess his conviction that his earlier views were erroneous. Thag.vs.1198; ThagA.ii.185; S. i.144f. ; other visits of his to the Brahma world are also recorded when he held converse with Tissa Brahmā (A.iii.331ff.; iv.75ff.; cp. Mtu.i.54ff.). In the Māratajjaniya Sutta (M.i.332ff) we are told how Māra worried Moggallāna by entering into his belly, but Moggallāna ordered him out and told him how he himself had once been a Māra named Dūsī whose sister Kālī was the mother of the present Māra. Dūsī incited the householders against Kakusandha Buddha and was, as a result, born in purgatory. But, according to the Commentaries (E.g., ThagA.ii.188ff), Moggallānaʹs greatest exhibition of iddhi power was the subjugation of the Nāga Nandopananda. No other monk could have survived the ordeal because no other was able to enter so rapidly into the fourth jhāna; which was the reason why the Buddha would give permission to no other monk but Moggallāna to quell the Nāgaʹs pride. Similar, in many ways, was his subjection of the Nāga who lived near the hermitage of Aggidatta (DhA.iii.242) 205
(q.v.). Moggallāna could see, without entering into any special state of mind, petas and other spirits invisible to the ordinary mortal eye (See, e.g., DhA.ii.64; iii.60, 410f., 479; S. ii.254ff.; where he saw petas while in the company of Lakkhana; cp. Avadānas i.246ff.). He would visit various worlds and bring back to the Buddha reports of their inhabitants (see also Mtu.i.4ff. regarding his visit to the Nirayas), which the Buddha used in illustration of his sermons. The Vimānavatthu (see also DhA.iii.291, re Nandiya, and iii.314) contains a collection of stories of such visits, and we are told (S.v.366f) that Moggallānaʹs visits to the deva worlds ‐ e.g., that to Tāvatimsa were very welcome to the devas. Though Moggallānaʹs pre eminence was in iddhi power, yet in wisdom, too, he was second only to Sāriputta. These two could answer questions within the range of no other disciple of the Buddha (DhA.iii.227). The Buddha paid a compliment to Moggallānaʹs powers of preaching, when, having preached himself to the Sākyans in their new Mote Hall at Kapilavatthu, he asked Moggallāna, after their departure, to talk to the monks, as he himself was weary. And Moggallāna spoke to them of lusts and of the means of getting rid of them. At the end of the sermon the Buddha praised him warmly (S.iv.183ff). Mention is made elsewhere (S.iv.262‐9) of eloquent sermons preached by him on the jhānas, on qualities which lead to true emancipation (A.v.155ff), and of visits paid to him by Sakka in company with numerous other gods in order to hear him preach. Other devas also went to hear him ‐ e.g., Candana, Suyāma, Santusita, Sunimitta and Vasavatti (S.iv. 269 80). He was also consulted by those, such as Vacchagotta (E.g., S. iv.391ff), and Vappa (A.ii.196ff), eager to learn from him the teachings of the Buddha. When the Buddha went to preach the Abhidhamma in Tāvatimsa, it was to Moggallāna that he entrusted the task of preaching to the people who were waiting for his return. Moggallāna, therefore, provided for these people spiritually, while Anāthapindika looked after their bodily needs (DhA.iii.219). When the time drew near for the Buddhaʹs return, Moggallāna, at the request of the people, went to Tāvatimsa, diving into the earth and climbing Sineru, in full view of them all, in order to find out what the Buddha intended doing, so that the people might be kept informed (DhA.224; J. iv.265; cp. Dvy.375). No task, which he might be told by the Buddha to perform, seemed to Moggallāna too insignificant. Thus we find him employed by the Buddha as messenger to the arahant Uggasena, telling him that the Buddha wished to see him (Ibid., iv.62). He was also sent to Sakkhara, to Macchariya Kosiya, to check his miserliness and bring him to Jetavana (Ibid., i.369f.; J. i.347); and to Sīlavā, whom Ajātasattu was plotting to kill (ThagA.ii.536). When Visakhā was building the Migāramātupāsāda and the Buddha was away on one of his journeys, Moggallāna, because of his iddhi power, and five hundred monks were left to supervise the work, which was carried through without difficulty (DhA.i.414f). The Buddha placed great faith in his two chief disciples and looked to them to keep the Order pure. There is one instance recorded of Moggallāna seizing a wicked monk, thrusting outside and bolting the door (A.iv.204ff.). Once, when a monk charged Sāriputta with having offended him as he was about to start on a journey, Moggallāna and Ananda went from lodging to lodging to summon the monks that they might hear Sāriputta vindicate himself (Vin.ii.236; A.iv.374). Their fame had reached even to the Brahma world, for we find Tudu Brahmā singing their praises, much to the annoyance of the Kokālika monk (Kokalika had a great hatred of them ‐ e.g., A.v.170ff.; Sn., p. 231ff.; SnA.ii.473ff). When Devadatta 206
created a schism among the monks and took five hundred of them to Gayāsīsa, the Buddha sent Sāriputta and Moggallāna to bring them back. They were successful in this mission (DhA.i.143ff.; see also DhA.ii.109f., where they were sent to admonish the Assajipunabbasukā). Kakudha Koliyaputta, once servant of Moggallāna and later born in a huge manomayakāya, had warned Moggallāna of Devadattaʹs intrigues against the Buddha, but the Buddha ignored this information carried to him by Moggallāna (Vin.ii.185; A.iii.122ff). When Rāhula, the Buddhaʹs son, was ordained, Sāriputta was his preceptor and Moggallāna his teacher (J.i.161; see SnA.i.304f., where the account is slightly different. There Moggallāna is spoken of as Rāhulaʹs kammavācāriya.). Moggallāna seems to have carried out diligently the charge laid on him by the Buddha of looking after the monks’ welfare. Among the verses, attributed to him in the Theragāthā, are several containing exhortations to his colleagues (Thag.vss.1146‐9, 1165f ); some of the colleagues are mentioned by name ‐ e.g., Tissa, Vaddhamāna and Potthila (Ibid., 1162, 1163, 1174f). Elsewhere (S.i.194f) mention is made of his living at Kālasilā, with a company of five hundred monks, watching over them and discovering that all were arahants. Vangīsa witnessed this and praised Moggallāna in verse before the Buddha. The love existing between Moggallāna and Sāriputta was mutual, as was the admiration. Sāriputtaʹs verses in praise of Moggallāna (Thag.vss.1178 81) are even more eloquent than those of Moggallāna in praise of Sāriputta (Thag.vss.1176). Their strongest bond was the love of each for the Buddha; when away from him, they would relate to each other how they had been conversing with him by means of the divine ear and the divine eye. E.g., S.ii.275ff.; Moggallāna elsewhere also (S.ii.273f.) tells the monks of a conversation he held with the Buddha by means of these divine powers. For another discussion between Sāriputta and Moggallāna, see A.ii.154f. In the Mahāgosinga Sutta (M.i.212) we find them staying in the Gosingasālavana in the company of Mahā Kassapa, Ananda, Revata and Anuruddha, engaged in friendly discussion, referring their conclusions to the Buddha for his opinion. Sāriputta, Moggallāna, and Anuruddha are again mentioned (S.v.174f., 299) as staying in the Ketakīvana in Sāketa. Among discussions between Anuruddha and Moggallāna is recorded one in which Anuruddha speaks of the value of cultivating the four satipatthānas (S.v.294f). It seems to have been usual for Sāriputta and Moggallāna, in their journeys, to travel together at the head of the monks, and lay disciples, who gave alms to the monks, were anxious to include them in their invitations. Velukandaki in Dakkhinagiri (A.iii.336; iv.63); and Cittagahapati in Macchikāsanda (DhA.ii.74f.). Moggallāna died before the Buddha, Sāriputta dying before either. The Theragāthā contains several verses attributed to Moggallāna regarding Sāriputtaʹs death (vs.1158 61). Sāriputta died on the full moon day of Kattika and Moggallāna two weeks later, on the new moon day (SA.iii.181). According to the Commentaries (J.v.125ff) his death resulted from a plot of the Niganthas. Moggallāna used to visit various worlds and return with his report that he had discovered that those who followed the Buddhaʹs teaching reached happy worlds, while the followers of the heretics were reborn in woeful conditions. These statements diminished the number of the heretics and they bribed brigands to kill Moggallāna. They surrounded the Elderʹs cell in Kālasilā, but he, aware of their intentions, escaped through the keyhole. On six successive days this happened; on the seventh, they caught him and beat him, crushing his bones and leaving him for dead. Having 207
recovered consciousness, with a great effort of will, he dragged himself to the Buddha in order to take his leave, and there he died, to the sorrow of the deva worlds. This sad death is said to have been the result of a sin committed by him in a previous birth. Acting on the instigation of his wife, he had taken his blind parents into a forest, where, pretending that they were attacked by thieves, he had beaten them to death. For this deed he suffered in hell for innumerable years, and in his last birth lost his life by violence. Moggallana in the Mahayana sutras The Ullambana Sutra is the main Mahayana Sutra in which Maudgalyayana is mentioned. The sutra covers the topic of filial piety, and was a discourse given to Maudgalyayana by the Sakyamuni Buddha. Of particular popularity in Japan, Ullambana is the foundation for Obon, which has striking similarities to Confucian and Neo‐Confucian ideals in that it deals with ancestor worship. It is for this reason that Ullambana is often subject to criticism, and has often been called inauthentic because its Confucian leanings are often at odds with other Buddhist teachings. 208
Ananda From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Ananda reciting the Suttapitaka at the First Buddhist Council Ananda (Chinese: A Nan) was one of many principal disciples and a devout attendant of the Buddha. He was renowned as the Guardian of the Dharma. The word ʹAnandaʹ means ʹblissʹ in Sanskrit and is quite often part of Hindu monastic names. Ananda was the first cousin of the Buddha, and was devoted to him. In the twentieth year of the Buddhaʹs ministry, he became his personal attendant, accompanying him on most of his wanderings and taking the part of interlocutor in many of the recorded dialogues. He is the subject of a special panegyric delivered by the Buddha just before his death (the Mahaparinibbana Sutta (Digha Nikaya 16)); it is a panegyric for a man who is kindly, unselfish, popular, and thoughtful toward others. In view of the abundance of praise, recognition and privileges Ananda received, mutterings of envy and resentment might have been expected, but this was not the case at all. Ananda was so occupied subordinating his entire life to the Dhamma that fame had no influence over him. He knew that all that was good in him was due to the influence of the Teaching, and so avoided pride. One who is never proud has no enemies and is not the subject of envy. If someone turns inward completely and keeps away from any social contact, as Anandaʹs brother Anuruddha did, then it is also easy to be without enemies. But Ananda had daily contact with a large number of people with regard to diverse matters, yet he had no enemies or rivals, and his relationships with others were without conflict or tension. In the long list of the disciples given in the Anguttara (i. xiv.) where each of them is declared to be the chief in some quality, Ananda is mentioned five times (more often than any other). He was named chief in conduct, in service to others, and in power of memory. The Buddha sometimes asked him to substitute for him as teacher and then later stated that he himself would not have presented the teachings in any other way. Because he attended the Buddha personally and often traveled with him, Ananda overheard and memorized many of the discourses the Buddha delivered to various audiences. Therefore, he is often called the disciple of the Buddha who ʺheard muchʺ. At the First Buddhist Council, convened shortly after the Buddha died, Ananda 209
was called upon to recite many of the discourses that later became the Sutta Pitaka of the Pāli Canon. Despite his long association with and close proximity to the Buddha, Ananda was only a stream‐winner prior to the Buddha’s death. During the period he was the Buddhaʹs attendant, though he was still a ʺlearnerʺ and ʺone in the higher trainingʺ, no thoughts of lust or hate arose in him; this is seen as implying that his close connection with the Buddha and his devotion to him gave no room for these. Prior to the First Buddhist Council, it was proposed that Ananda not be permitted to attend on the grounds that he was not yet an arahant. According to legend, this prompted Ananda to focus his efforts on the attainment of nibbana and he was able to reach the specified level of attainment before the calling of the conclave. In contrast to most of the figures depicted in the Pāli Canon, Ananda is presented as an imperfect, if sympathetic, figure. He mourns the deaths of both Sariputta, with whom he enjoyed a close friendship, and the Buddha. A verse of the Theragatha reveals his loneliness and isolation following the parinirvana of the Buddha. In the Zen tradition, Ananda is considered to be the second Indian patriarch. He is often depicted with the Buddha alongside Mahakashyapa, the first Indian patriarch. 210
Mahakasyapa From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Mahākāśyapa (Mohe Jiashe) or Kāśyapa was a brahman of Magadha, who became one of the principal disciples of Śākyamuni Buddha and who convened and directed the first council. Mahākāśyapa is one of the most revered of the Buddhaʹs early disciples. He is often depicted in statuary together with Ananda, each standing to one side of the Buddha. According to the legendary history of the Chan and Zen schools, Mahākāśyapa received the Dharma directly from Buddha at the flower sermon on Vulture Peak, where Buddha silently held a flower before his students. A monk named Kāśyapa smiled. The Buddha remarked that Kāśyapa alone of all his students had received his teaching for that day, and should thereafter be known as Mahākāśyapa. According to Chinese legend, the lecherous monk and Taoist god Ji Gong is a reincarnation of Mahākāśyapa (known as the Taming Dragon arhat). 211
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Upali From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Upali (Sanskrit upāli) was a monk in the order of Buddha. Before joining the order, its interesting to note he worked as a barber. He asked if a person of ʺlow birthʺ such as he could join the order, Buddha on purpose ordained him before the princes and asked the princes to pay homage to Upali, who by then had become an Arhant with Buddhaʹs sermons while Buddha was getting a hair cut. He became the Chief disciple in knowing the rules of the order and the foremost disciple in keeping precepts. Upāli Thera One of the most eminent of the Buddhaʹs immediate disciples. He belonged to a barberʹs family in Kapilavatthu and entered the service of the Sākiyan princes. When Anuruddha and his cousins left the world and sought ordination from the Buddha at Anupiyā Grove, Upāli accompanied them. They gave him all their valuable ornaments, but, on further consideration, he refused to accept them and wished to become a monk with them. The reason given for his refusal is that he knew the Sākyans were hot‐headed, and feared that the kinsmen of the princes might suspect him of having murdered the young men for the sake of their belongings. At the request of the Sākiyan youths, the Buddha ordained Upāli before them all, so that their pride might be humbled. (Vin.ii.182; DhA.i.116f; see also Bu.i.61; but see BuA.44; the Tibetan sources give a slightly different version, see Rockhill, op. cit., pp. 55‐6; according to the Mahāvastu iii.179, Upāli was the Buddhaʹs barber, too). Upāliʹs upajjhāya was Kappitaka (Vin.iv.308). When Upāli went to the Buddha for an exercise for meditation, he asked that he might be allowed to dwell in the forest. But the Buddha would not agree, for if Upāli went into the forest he would learn only meditation, while, if he remained amongst men, he would have knowledge both of meditation and of the word of the Dhamma. Upāli accepted the Buddhaʹs advice and, practising insight, in due course won arahantship. The Buddha himself taught Upāli the whole of the Vinaya Pitaka (ThagA.ii.360f, 370; AA.i.172). In the assembly of the Sangha, the Buddha declared him to be the most proficient of those who were learned in the Vinaya (vinayadharānam) (A.i.24; see also Vin.iv.142, where the Buddha is mentioned as speaking Upāliʹs praises). He is often spoken of as having reached the pinnacle of the Vinaya, or as being its chief repository (Vinaye agganikkhitto), (E.g., Dpv. iv.3, 5; v.7, 9) and three particular cases ‐ those of Ajjuka (Vin.iii.66f), the Bhārukacchaka monk (Vin.iii.39) and Kumāra‐Kassapa (AA.i.158; MA.i.336; J. i.148; DhA.iii.145) ‐ are frequently mentioned in this connection as instances where Upāliʹs decisions on Vinaya rules earned the special commendation of the Buddha. In the Rājagaha Council, Upāli took a leading part, deciding all the questions relative to the Vinaya, in the same way as Ananda decided questions regarding the Dhamma (Vin.ii.286f; DA.i.11f; Mhv.iii.30). In accordance with this tradition, ascribing to Upāli especial authority regarding the rules of the Order, various instances are given of Upāli questioning the Buddha about the Vinaya regulations. Thus we find him consulting the Buddha as to the legality or otherwise of a complete congregation performing, in the absence of an accused monk, an act at which his presence is required (Vin.i.325f). Again, he wishes to know if, in a matter which has caused altercations and schisms among members of the 213
Order, the Sangha declares re‐establishment of concord without thorough investigation, could such a declaration be lawful? (Vin.i.358f). When a monk intends to take upon himself the conduct of any matter that has to be decided, under what conditions should he do so? What qualities should a monk possess in himself before he takes upon himself to warn others? (Vin.ii.248f). In what case can there be an interruption of the probationary period of a monk who has been placed on probation? (Vin.ii.33f). A whole list of questions asked by Upāli and answers given by the Buddha on matters pertaining to the Vinaya rules is found in the chapter called Upāli‐Pañcaka in the Parivāra (Vin.v.180‐206; see also the Upālivagga of the Anguttara Nikāya v.70ff). It is not possible to determine which of these and other questions were actually asked by Upāli, and which were ascribed to him on account of his traditional reputation. It is said (E.g., Vin.iv.142; Sp.iv.876) that even in the Buddhaʹs lifetime monks considered it a great privilege to learn the Vinaya under Upāli. The monks seem to have regarded Upāli as their particular friend, to whom they could go in their difficulties. Thus, when certain monks had been deprived by thieves of their clothes, it is Upāliʹs protection that they seek (Vin.iii.212; see also the story of Ramanīyavihārī, ThagA.i.116). The canon contains but few records of any discourses connected with Upāli, apart from his questions on the Vinaya. In the Anguttara Nikāya (A.iv.143f) he is mentioned as asking the Buddha for a brief sermon, the Buddha telling him that if there were anything that did not conduce to revulsion and detachment, Upāli could be sure that such things did not form part of the Buddhaʹs teaching. There is a record of another sermon (A.v.201ff) which the Buddha is stated to have preached when Upāli expressed the desire to retire into the solitude of the forest. The Buddha tells him that forest‐life is not for the man who has not mastered his mind or attained to tranquillity. For other sermons see Upāli Sutta and Ubbāhika Sutta. Three verses are ascribed to Upāli in the Theragāthā (vv. 249‐51; but see Gotama the Man, p.215; another verse ascribed to Upāli, but so far not traced elsewhere, is found in the Milinda p.108) where he admonishes the brethren to seek noble friends of unfaltering character, to learn the monksʹ code of discipline and to dwell in solitude. In the time of Padumuttara, Upāli was a very rich brahmin named Sujāta. When the Buddha came to his fatherʹs city in order to preach to him the Dhamma, Sujāta saw him, and in the assembly be noticed an ascetic named Sunanda, holding over the Buddha for seven days a canopy of flowers. The Buddha declared that Sunanda would, in the time of Gotama Buddha, become famous as the Elder Punna Mantānī‐putta. Sujāta, too, wished to seethe future Buddha Gotama, and having heard Padumuttara praise the monk Pātika as chief of the Vinayadharas, he wished to hear, regarding himself, a similar declaration from Gotama. With this end in view he did many deeds of merit, chief of which was the erection of a monastery named Sobhana, for the Buddha and his monks, at an expense of one hundred thousand. As a result he was born in heaven for thirty thousand kappas and was one thousand times king of the devas. One thousand times, too, he was cakkavatti. 214
Two kappas ago there was a Khattiya named Añjasa, and Upāli was born as his son Sunanda. One day he went to the park riding an elephant named Sirika, and met, on the way, the Pacceka Buddha Devala, whom he insulted in various ways. Sunanda was, thereupon, seized with a sensation of great heat in his body, and it was not till he went with a large following to the Pacceka Buddha and asked his pardon that the sensation left him. It is said that if the Buddha had not forgiven him, the whole country would have been destroyed. This insult paid to the Pacceka Buddha was the cause of Upāli having been born as a barber in his last birth (Ap.i.37ff). Buddhaghosa says (Sp.i.272, 283) that while the Buddha was yet alive Upāli drew up certain instructions according to which future Vinayadharas should interpret Vinaya rules, and that, in conjunction with others, he compiled explanatory notes on matters connected with the Vinaya. In direct pupillary succession to Upāli as head of the Vinayadharas was Dāsaka, whom Upāli had first met at the Valikārāma, where Upāli was staying (Mhv.v.10). Upāli taught him the whole of the Vinaya. Upāliʹs death was in the sixth year of Udāyibhaddaʹs reign. Dpv. v.7ff. Source: Dictionary of Pãli Proper Names. G.P. Malalasekera. 1937. 215
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Angulimala From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Angulimala chases Gautama Buddha Angulimala (Pāli: ʺThe wearer of Garland of fingersʺ) is an important early figure in Buddhism, particularly within the Theravada school. Depicted in the suttas as a ruthless killer who is redeemed by conversion to Buddhism, his story is seen as an example of the redemptive power of the Buddhaʹs teaching and the universal human potential for spiritual progress. Contents: 1) Textual Sources 2) The story 1_Early life 2_Life as a highway murderer 3_Meeting the Buddha 4_Angulimala the monk ∙ 1) Textual Sources Two texts in the Pali canon concern themselves with Angulimalaʹs initial encounter with the Buddha and his conversion. The first is the Theragatha, verses 866‐
91, and the second is the Angulimala Sutta in the Majjhima Nikaya. Both offer a fairly short description of Angulimalaʹs encounter with the Buddha, and omit much of the background information later incorporated into the story (such as Angulimala being placed under an oath by a jealous teacher). 217
These later additions‐ which appear in the sutta commentaries attributed to Buddhaghosa and Dhammapala (the Majjhima Nikaya commentary known as the Papancasudani (Ps) and the Therigatha commentary Paramattha‐dipani (Pad), respectively)‐ may represent attempts by later commentators to ʺrehabilitateʺ the character of Angulimala‐ making him appear as a fundamentally good human being entrapped by circumstance, rather than as a vicious killer. The sutta texts themselves do not provide for any motive for Angulimalaʹs actions, other than pure sadism. 2) The story 1_Early life A robber who was converted by the Buddha in the twentieth year of his ministry, and who, later, became an arahant. His story appears both in the Majjhima Cy., 743ff., and in the Thag. Cy., ii.57ff. The two accounts differ in certain details; I have summarised the two versions. He was the son of the brahmin Bhaggava, chaplain to the king of Kosala, his mother being Mantānī. He was born under the thievesʹ constellation, and on the night of his birth all the armour in the town shone, including that belonging to the king. Because this omen did no harm to anyone the babe was named Ahimsaka. The Thag. Cy. says he was first called Himsaka and then Ahimsaka. See also Ps. of the Brethren, 323, n.3. At Takkasilā (Taxila) he became a favourite at the teacherʹs house, but his jealous fellow‐students poisoned his teacherʹs mind, and the latter, bent on his destruction, asked as his Guru‐Dakshina (honorarium) a thousand human right‐hand fingers. Thereupon Ahimsaka waylaid travellers in the Jālinī forest in Kosala and killed them, taking a finger from each. The finger‐bones thus obtained he made into a garland to hang round his neck, hence the name Angulimāla (Anguli ‐ Finger, Mala ‐ Garland). According to the sutta and commentarial texts, omens seen at the time of Angulimalaʹs birth (the flashing of weapons in the city, and the appearance of the ʹconstellation of thievesʹ in the sky) indicated that Angulimala would become a robber. Angulimalaʹs father, the Brahmin chaplain to the king of Kosala, named him Ahimsaka (ʺharmlessʺ ‐ derived from the Sanskrit and Pali word Ahimsa), as an attempt to deter the dark fate predicted at his birth (Pad indicates that he was initially named Himsaka (ʺharmfulʺ), but that the name was later changed). Angulimala was sent to Taxila to study under a well‐known Brahmin guru. There heexcelled in his studies and became the teachersʹ favourite student, enjoying special privileges in his teachersʹ house. However, the other students grew jealous of Ahimsakaʹs speedy progress and sought to turn his master against him. To that end, they made it seem as though Ahimsaka had seduced the masterʹs wife and boasted that he was wiser than the guru. Unwilling or unable to attack Ahimsaka directly (Pad states that Ahimsaka was as ʺstrong as seven elephantsʺ, while Ps states that the teacher worried that his business would suffer if he was found to have murdered a student (!)), the teacher said that Ahimsakaʹs training was complete, but that he must provide the traditional final gift offered to a guru before the teacher would grant his approval. As his payment, the teacher demanded 1,000 fingers, each taken from a different victim, thinking that Angulimala would be killed in the course of seeking this grisly prize (Pad states that Angulimala was required to fetch 1,000 fingers from right 218
hands, seemingly unaware that this could be achieved by killing 200 people. Ps states, even more strangely, that he was told to ʺkill a thousand legsʺ, and gathered fingers only as an aid to keeping an accurate count). Sources indicate that one of his motivations may have been the unquestioning obedience to the guru ‐ an echo of the higher principles governing his earlier life. But tradition reports that it was probably his innate disposition to violence. In his previous life, he was a Yakkha ‐ a man‐eating spirit with superhuman strength. The guruʹs instructions may have also aroused a strange attraction for killing, or could be seen as a challenge to his manly prowess. It was reported that in all his past lives, two traits were prominent: his physical strength and his lack of compassion. It is also suggested that he was in fact cast out of his Guruʹs house, branding him an outcast among Brahmins. Being unable to find acceptance anywhere, he turned to brigandry, murdering pilgrims and traders passing through the wilderness, and collecting a finger each from their right hands. 2_Life as a highway murderer Ahimsaka became a highwayman, killing travelers who passed through the forest. When the people of the kingdom began to avoid the roads, he entered the villages and dragged people from their homes. He never took clothes or jewels from his victims, only fingers. To keep count of the number of victims that he had taken, he strung them on a thread and hung them on a tree. However because birds began to eat the flesh from the fingers, he started to wear them around his neck as a garland. Thus he came to be known as Angulimala (ʺgarland (or necklace) of fingersʺ). As a result of his deeds whole villages were deserted, and the king ordered a detachment of men to seize the bandit, whose name nobody knew. But Angulimālaʹs mother, guessing the truth, started off to warn him. By now he lacked but one finger to complete his thousand, and seeing his mother coming he determined to kill her. But the Buddha, seeing his upanissaya, went himself to the wood, travelling thirty yojanas, (DA.i.240; J. iv.180) and intercepted Angulimāla on his way to slay his mother. Angulimāla was converted by the Buddhaʹs power and received the ʺehi bhikkhu pabbajjāʺ (Thag.868‐70) while the populace were yelling at the kingʹs palace for the robberʹs life. Later, the Buddha presented him before King Pasenadi when the latter came to Jetavana, and Pasenadi, filled with wonder, offered to provide the monk with all requisites. Angulimāla, however, had taken on the dhutangas and refused the kingʹs offer. 3_Meeting the Buddha Villagers petitioned the king of Kosala, who vowed to hunt down Angulimala. Fearing for her sonʹs life, Angulimalaʹs mother set out to find him and warn him of the kingʹs intent. The Buddha perceived with his ʺdivine eyeʺ (faculty of clairvoyance) that Angulimala had slain 999 victims, and was desperately seeking a thousandth. If the Buddha encountered Angulimala that day, he would become a monk and subsequently attain Nirvana. If Angulimala encountered his mother instead, he would slay her as his thousandth victim and fall into hell for millennia as a matricide. The Buddha set off to intercept Angulimala, despite being warned by the people of the village in which he was staying. On the road through the forest of Kosala, Angulimala first saw his mother who came to warn him of the impending arrival of the 219
kingsʹ army. Angulimala, after some deliberation, decided to make her his 1000th victim. But then when Buddha also arrived, he chose to kill him instead. He drew his sword, and started running towards the Buddha. But although Angulimala was running as fast as he could, he couldnʹt catch up with the Buddha who was walking calmly, but who also was using his psychic powers to stay ahead of Angulimala. This bewildered Angulimala so much that he stopped in his tracks, and told the Buddha to stop. The Buddha said that he himself had already stopped, and that Angulimala should stop also. Angulimala asked for further explanation, after which the Buddha said that he had stopped harming living beings a long time ago, and that Angulimala was still harming and hurting living beings. After hearing this, Angulimala changed his ways, vowed to cease his life as a brigand and joined the Buddhist order. 4_Angulimala the monk Later, King Pasenadi (the king of Kosala) set out to find and kill Angulimala. He stopped first to pay a visit to the Buddha and his followers at the monastery where they dwelled. He explained to the Buddha his purpose, and the Buddha asked how the king would respond if he were to discover that Angulimala had given up the life of a highwayman and become a monk. The king said that he would salute him and offer to provide for him in his monastic vocation. The Buddha then revealed that Angulimala sat only a few feet away, his hair and beard shaven off, a member of the Buddhist order. The king, astounded, offered to donate robe materials to Angulimala, and then returned to his palace. Later, Angulimala came across a young woman undergoing a difficult labor. He went to the Buddha and asked him what he could do to ease her pain. The Buddha told Angulimala to go to the woman and say: ʹSister, since I was born I do not recall intentionally killing a living being. Through this truth may there be wellbeing for you, wellbeing for your fetus.ʹ Angulimala pointed out that it would be untrue for him to say this. The Buddha offered a revised stanza to recite to the woman: ʹSister, since I was born with the noble birth (became a monk), I do not recall intentionally killing a living being. Through this truth may there be wellbeing for you, wellbeing for your fetus.ʹ After Angulimala delivered this benediction, the woman safely gave birth to her child. This verse, commonly called the Angulimala paritta, continues to be recited at the blessings of houses or pregnant women in Theravada countries. This helped Angulimala focus his mind on his basic meditation subject. Before, there would always appear in his mindʹs eye, the place in the jungle where he had slain so many people. After performing the Act of Truth, he was seen to bring safety to people and people started to approach him and provide him with almsfood. At last, his earlier name Ahimsaka fully befitted him. Most of the people had gained full confidence in his inner transformation and there was no lack of support for him. 220
However a resentful few could not forget that he was responsible for the deaths of their loved ones. Unable to win revenge through the law, they took matters into their own hands. With sticks and stones, they attacked him as he walked for alms. With a bleeding head, torn outer robe and a broken alms bowl, Angulimala managed to return to the monastery. The Buddha encouraged Angulimala to bear his torment with equanimity; he indicated that Angulimala was experiencing the fruits of the karma that would otherwise have condemned him to hell. This illustrates the Buddhist belief that while the effects of karma are inescapable, the form that they take and the schedule on which they occur can be modified by later actions ‐‐ in this case, Angulimala experienced physical suffering during the course of his last life, rather than experiencing torment in another birth for a much longer period of time. Being an arahant, Angulimala remained firm and invulnerable in mind and heart. But his body, the symbol and fruit of previous kamma was still exposed to the effects of his former evil deeds. As an arahant, he needed no words of consolation, but a reminder of the kammic concatenation of cause and effect, which still has to be endured until the end. When he entered Sāvatthi for alms, he was attacked by the mob, but on the admonition of the Buddha, endured their wrath as penance for his former misdeeds. According to the Dhammapadatthakatha (iii.169) he appears to have died soon after he joined the Order. There is a story of how he eased a womanʹs labour pains by an act of truth. The words he used in this saccakiriyā (yato aham sabbaññutabuddhassa ariyassa ariyāya jātiyā jāto) have come to be regarded as a paritta to ward off all dangers and constitute the Angulimāla Paritta. The water that washed the stone on which he sat in the womanʹs house came to be regarded as a panacea (M.ii.103‐4; MA.747f). In the Angulimāla Sutta he is addressed by Pasenādi as Gagga Mantānīputta, his father being a Gagga. The story is evidently a popular one and occurs also in the Avadāna Sataka (No.27). At the Kosala kingʹs Asadisadāna, an untamed elephant, none other being available, was used to bear the parasol over Angulimāla. The elephant remained perfectly still ‐ such was Angulimālaʹs power (DhA.iii.185; also DA.ii.654). The conversion of Angulimāla is often referred to as a most compassionate and wonderful act of the Buddhaʹs, e.g. in the Sutasoma Jātaka, (J.v.456f.; see also J. iv.180; SnA.ii.440; DhA.i.124) which was preached concerning him. The story of Angulimāla is quoted as that of a man in whose case a beneficent kamma arose and destroyed former evil kamma (AA.i.369). It was on his account that the rule not to ordain a captured robber was enacted (Vin.i.74). For his identification with Kalmāsapāda see J.P.T.S., 1909, pp. 240ff. 221
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Kisa Gotami From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Kisa Gotami was the wife of a wealthy man of Savatthi. Her story is one of the more famous ones in Buddhism. After losing her only child, Kisa Gotami became desperate and asked if anyone can help her. Her sorrow was so great that many thought she had already lost her mind. Someone told her to meet Buddha. Buddha told her that he would bring the child back to life if she could get white mustard seeds from a family where no‐one has died. She desperately went from house to house, but to her disappointment, every house had someone who had died. Finally the realization struck her that there is no house free from death. She returned to the Buddha, who comforted her and preached to her the truth. She was awakened and entered the first stage of Arhatship. Eventually, she became an Arhat. The following Dhammapada verse (in Pali and English) is associated with her story: Yo ca vassasatam jeeve apassam amatam padam Ekaaham jeevitam seyyo passato amatam padam Though one should live a hundred years without seeing the Deathless State, yet better indeed, is a single dayʹs life of one who sees the Deathless State. In the ʺGotami Suttaʺ (SN 5.3), Bhikkhuni Kisa Gotami declares: Iʹve gotten past the killing of [my] sons, have made that the end to [my search for] men. I donʹt grieve, I donʹt weep.... Itʹs everywhere destroyed — delight. The mass of darkness is shattered. Having defeated the army of death, free of fermentations I dwell. 223
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Mahapajapati Gotami From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Mahapajapati Gotami (in Pali; Mahaprajapati Gautami in Sanskrit) was the first woman to request ordination from the Buddha and to join the Sangha. She was both the Buddhaʹs aunt and adoptive mother, raising him after her sister, Queen Maya (Mahāmāyā), the Buddhaʹs birth mother, died. Contents: 1) Early life 2) Ordination of the first woman 3) Mahapajapatiʹs monastic life 4) Other Lives 5) References 1) Early life An eminent Therī, Mahaprajapati (Pajāpatī) was born at Devadaha, in the family of Suppabuddha, as the younger sister of Mahāmāyā. Mahāpajāpatī was so called because, at her birth, augerers prophesied that she would have a large following; Gotamī was her gotta name (MA.i.1001; cp. AA.ii.774). She was predicted by sages to be the one who causes Buddha to allow women to join his holy order. Ap.ii.538 says her father was Añjana Sakka and her mother Sulakkhanā. Mhv.ii.18 says her father was Añjana and her mother Yasodharā. Dandapāni and Suppabuddha were her brothers; cp. Dpv. xviii.7f. At the birth of each sister, interpreters of bodily marks prophesied that the children would be cakkavattins. Both sisters married King Śuddhodana, leader of the Śākya. When Mahāmāyā died, seven days after the birth of the Buddha, Pajāpati looked after the Buddha and nursed him. She was the mother of Nanda, but it is said that she gave her own son to nurses and herself nursed the Buddha. She raised Buddha and had her own children, Siddharthaʹs step brother Nanda and step sister Sundari Nanda. 2) Ordination of the first woman When her husband, Suddhodana, died, Pajāpatī decided to renounce the world. The Buddha was at Vesāli and she waited for an opportunity to ask permission of him. Pajāpatī was already a sotāpanna. She attained this eminence when the Buddha first visited his fatherʹs palace and preached the Mahādhammapāla Jātaka (DhA.i.97). She was predicted by sages to be the one who causes Buddha to allow women to join his holy order. Her opportunity came when the Buddha visited Kapilavatthu to settle the dispute between the Sākiyans and the Koliyans as to the right to take water from the river Rohinī. When the dispute had been settled, the Buddha preached the Kalahavivāda Sutta, and five hundred young Sākiyan men joined the Order. 225
The Sakiyan wives, led by Pajāpatī, went to the Buddha and asked leave to also be ordained. The Buddha refused and went on to Vesāli. But Pajāpatī and her companions, nothing daunted, had barbers cut off their hair, and donning yellow robes, followed the Buddha to Vesāli on foot. They arrived with wounded feet at the Buddhaʹs monastery and repeated their request to ordain as monastics. The Buddha again refused, But, Ananda interceded on their behalf and Buddha granted their request, subject to eight strict conditions. For details see Vin.ii.253ff.; also A.iv.274ff. There was some question, which arose later, as to the procedure of Pajāpatīʹs ordination, which was not formal. When the nuns discovered this some of them refused to hold the uposatha with her. But the Buddha declared that he himself had ordained her and that all was in order (DhA.iv.149). Her upasampada consisted in acquiescing in the eight conditions laid down for nuns (Sp.i.242). 3) Mahapajapatiʹs monastic life After her ordination, Pajāpatī came to the Buddha and worshipped him. The Buddha preached to her and gave her a subject for meditation. With this topic she developed insight and soon after won arahantship, while her five hundred companions attained the same after listening to the Nandakovāda Sutta. Later, at an assembly of monks and nuns in Jetavana, the Buddha declared Pajāpatī ʺChief of Those Who had Experience (rattaññūnam)ʺ (A.i.25). Not long after, while at Vesāli, she realized that her life had come to an end. She was one hundred and twenty years old; she took leave of the Buddha, performed various miracles, and then died, her five hundred companions dying with her. It is said that the marvels which attended her cremation rites were second only to those of the Buddha. 4) Other Lives In the time of Padumuttara Buddha Pajāpatī resolved to gain eminence. In that rebirth, she belonged to a clansmanʹs family in Hamsavatī, and, hearing the Buddha assign the foremost place in experience to a certain nun, wished for similar recognition herself, doing many good deeds to that end. After many births she was born once more at Benares, forewoman among five hundred slave girls. When the rains drew near, five Pacceka Buddhas came from to Isipatana seeking lodgings. Pajāpatī saw them after the Treasurer had refused them any assistance, and, after consultation with her fellow slaves, they persuaded their several husbands to erect five huts for the Pacceka Buddhas during the rainy season and they provided them with all requisites. At the end of the rains they gave three robes to each Pacceka Buddha. After that she was born in a weaverʹs village near Benares, and again ministered, this time to five hundred Pacceka Buddhas, sons of Padumavatī (ThigA.140ff.; AA.i.185f.; Ap.ii.529 43). It is said that once Pajāpatī made a robe for the Buddha of wonderful material and marvellously elaborate. But when it came to be offered to the Buddha he refused it, and suggested it should be given to the Order as a whole. Pajāpatī was greatly disappointed, and Ananda intervened. But the Buddha explained that his suggestion was for the greater good of Pajāpatī, and also as an example to those who might wish 226
to make similar gifts in the future. This was the occasion for the preaching of the Dakkhināvibhanga Sutta (M.iii.253ff.; MA.ii.1001ff.; this incident is referred to in the Milinda p.240). The Buddha had a great love for Pajāpatī, and when she lay ill, as there were no monks to visit her and preach to her ‐ that being against the rule ‐ the Buddha amended the rule and went himself to preach to her (Vin.iv.56). Pajāpatīʹs name appears several times in the Jātakas. She was the mother monkey in the Cūla Nandiya Jātaka (J.ii.202), Candā in the Culla Dhammapāla (J.iii.182), and Bhikkhudāyikā (or Bhikkhudāsikā) daughter of Kiki, king of Benares (J.vi.481). There is a story related of a nurse employed by Pajāpatī and born in Devadaha. She renounced the world with Pajāpatī, but for twenty five years was harassed by thoughts of lust till, at last, she heard Dhammadinnā preach. She then practiced meditation and became an arahant. ThigA.75f. 227
Khema From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Khema was one of the two chief female disciples of Buddha (the other being Uppalavanna). The name Khema means well‐composed and she was quite beautiful. The nun belonged to the royal family of Magadha and was one of the chief queens of King Bimbisara. She didnʹt want to meet the Buddha as she knew he didnʹt care much about beauty, and she was very self conscious about hers. She heard about the Buddha from her husband who encouraged her to hear his sermons and told her how beautiful Buddhaʹs monastery was. Very interested in seeing beautiful things, decked out in royal splendor, she went to the monastery of Lord Buddha. There Buddha saw her approaching and created with his psychic powers an exceptionally beautiful maiden by his side, whose beauty surpassed her own. Khema was captivated, seeing this, Buddha slowly aged the maiden : Khema saw the maiden’s beautiful skin wrinkle, her hair change to gray and her body age. She then saw the body collapse with age and pass away, leaving behind just a corpse, which in turn changed to a heap of bones. Understanding that all conditioned phenomena were impermanent, Khema realized that the same would happen to her. How could she retain her beauty when this exquisite vision aged and decomposed before her very eyes? Khema was finally willing to listen to Buddha, after his sermons, she attained full enlightenment, she became an arahant. With her husbandʹs permission, she joined the order of nuns. 228
Uppalavanna From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Uppalavanna was considered to be amongst the two chief female disciples of the Buddha, the other being Khema. She was the daughter of a wealthy merchant and was known for her great beauty. Her name means ʺone with the hue of the blue lotusʺ. She suffered from a horrible family life, she was kicked out of her house, and eventually she met with great poverty and had multiple marriages to try to get out of her poverty. Eventually she found her own daughter (whom she thought was dead in her second marriage) married to her final husband, and the thought that she shared a man with her own daughter sickened her so much that she sought refuge in the Buddha and became a nun. Buddha declared her to be the foremost in supernormal powers among the nuns. Samyutta Nikaya V.5, the Uppalavanna Sutta, is attributed to her: Then the bhikkhuni Uppalavanna, having understood, ʺThis is Mara the Evil One,ʺ replied to him in verses: ʺThough a hundred thousand rogues Just like you might come here, I stir not a hair, I feel no terror; Even alone, Mara, I donʹt fear you. I can make myself disappear Or I can enter inside your belly. I can stand between your eyebrows Yet you wonʹt catch a glimpse of me. I am the master of my own mind, The bases of power are well developed; I am freed from every kind of bondage, Therefore I donʹt fear you, friend.ʺ Then Mara the Evil One, realizing, ʺThe bhikkhuni Uppalavanna knows me,ʺ sad and disappointed, disappeared right there. 229
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Vimalakirti From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Vimalakirti This fresco in cave No. 103 at Dunhuang, shows Vimalakirti sitting on a raised platform under a canopy. In the foreground is a grouping of ʺlarge nosesʺ foreign travelers, probably merchants, on the Silk Road. These men would have helped pay for the cave decoration. Vimalakīrti is by some considered to be the first Zen Buddhist Master aside from the Buddha himself. He is a historical figure living around the time of Gautama Buddha (sixth to fifth century BC). There is no mention of him in texts until after Nāgārjuna (first century BC to first century AD) revived the Mahāyāna teachings in India. He is the subject of the Vimalakirti sutra. This text was translated into Chinese seven times starting in the third century. Two of which are the Kumārajīva version (A.D. 406) being the most widely used, and the Hsüan Tsang version (A.D. 650 being the most accurate to the original. Chos Nid Tshul Khrims also translated it into Tibetan in the ninth century. Most Japanese versions are based on the Chinese Kumarajiva version. The original Sanksrit text is sadly lost, only fragments still remain in certain Mahayana texts. 231
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Le Sûtra de Vimalakîrti : Présentation générale www.zen‐occidental.net/sutras/vimalakirti1.html. Vimalakirti Versions L’original sanskrit du Sûtra de Vimalakîrti semblait avoir été perdu, seuls des passages étaient jusqu’alors connus par des citations éparses dans divers ouvrages tardifs sanskrits datant des septième et huitième siècles. Récemment cependant une équipe de chercheurs japonais ont découvert un Vimalakîrti en sanskrit au Tibet. L’étude de cette version permettra peut‐être d’apporter de nouveaux élements sur la genèse du texte. Plusieurs traductions chinoises, tibétaines mais aussi sogdiennes et khotanaises ont été conservées. Les traductions chinoises sont les plus nombreuses, huit traductions ont été recensées, la première, perdue, aurait été composée en l’an 188. Nous en possédons encore trois dont les traductions s’étalent entre le début du 3e et le milieu du 7e siècle. Elles permettent de suivre le développement d’un texte qui est resté remarquablement homogène au fil du temps, les ajouts tardifs n’ayant guère modifié sa structure interne. Le livre est divisé en quatorze chapitres (douze dans la tradition tibétaine). Ces trois traductions se trouvent dans le canon sino‐japonais (canon dit de l’ère Taishô communément utilisé aujourdʹhui) sous les références et les titres suivants : ‐ Taishô 474, Le sûtra de Vimalakîrti. Il s’agit de la traduction de Zhiquian (j. Shiken) composée entre les années 222 et 229. Quelques passages que l’on retrouvera dans les deux versions ultérieures, notamment le fameux silence de Vimalakîrti sur la non‐
dualité (chapitre 9) sont inexistants, d’autres restent embryonnaires. La traduction des termes bouddhiques est encore malhabile. Cette version sera éclipsée par celle de Kumârajîva. ‐ Taishô 475, Le sûtra de l’enseignement de Vimalakîrti. La traduction de Kumârajîva est datée de l’an 406. Il sʹagit de la version qui fut lue et commentée par toute la tradition extrême‐orientale. ‐ Taishô 476, Le sûtra de Renommé‐l’immaculé. La traduction de Xuanzang (j. Genjô) de l’an 650. Xuanzang travaillait apparemment à partir d’un original indien 233
plus développé que ses prédécesseurs et malgré la précision de sa traduction, celle‐ci ne put supplanter aux yeux des Chinois celle de Kumârajîva. Les versions tibétaines reposent sur la traduction du Kandjour tibétain et celle du début du 9e siècle par Dharmatasila ainsi que sur quatre manuscrits fragmentaires retrouvés dans les grottes de l’oasis de Touen‐Houang au début du vingtième siècle. Dates La datation de ce texte relève, comme pour tous les textes indiens, dʹune gageure. On date généralement lʹécriture des sûtras du Grand Véhicule du début de l’ère chrétienne. La premiere version chinoise aurait été traduit en l’an 188, ce qui marquerait une date butoir, malheureusement cette datation est bien tardive (la première mention nʹapparaît quʹà la fin du 6e siècle) et l’existence même de cette traduction reste sujette à caution. Celle de Zhiquian, qui est conservée, a, elle, été traduite dans le premier quart du 3e siècle. Le sûtra se trouve à plusieurs reprises cité dans Le Commentaire de la Grande Vertu de Sagesse (j. Daichidoron) dont lʹécriture remonterait au plus tard au 2e siècle de notre ère. Une analyse du texte lui‐même révèle son antiquité qui doit le rendre contemporain des tous premiers textes du Grand Véhicule. Il ignore par exemple la notion des dix terres (bhûmi) qui grade l’évolution du bodhisattva jusqu’au suprême éveil que l’on trouvera communément citées dans les sûtras ultérieurs. Le Vimalakîrti cite le titre d’une ʺrubrique de la loiʺ (j. hômon), un texte qu’il recommande d’étudier aux filles de Mâra. Elle est intitulée ʺLa lampe inépuisableʺ (j. mujintô) ou ʺLa rubrique de la Loi inépuisable et constamment ouverteʺ (j. mujinjôkai hômon) dans la traduction de Zhiquian. Vimalakîrti lui‐même glose le titre : Comme une seule flamme allume cent mille lampes, l’esprit d’éveil du bodhisattva illumine la multitude des êtres. La métaphore se retrouve presque à l’identique dans les traductions tardives de l’Avatamsaka sûtra (cf. Taishô, X. 293, 828b) sans qu’on puisse cependant trouver un texte portant spécifiquement ce titre. Traductions françaises Le Sûtra de Vimalakîrti est accessible en français par la traduction érudite dʹEtienne Lamotte (L’enseignement de Vimalakîrti (Vimalakîrtinirdesa), Université Catholique de Louvain, Louvain‐la‐neuve, 1962, réédition 1987) d’après le tibétain et la traduction de Xuanzang et celle, plus récente, de Patrick Carré, d’après la version de Kumârajîva (Soûtra de la liberté inconcevable : les enseignements de Vimalakîrti, Paris, Fayard, 2000, collection ʺTrésors du bouddhismeʺ). Avec son appareil imposant de notes, la traduction de Lamotte est d’un abord difficile. Elle demeure cependant indispensable pour comprendre certains termes et notions du bouddhisme classique ou du Grand Véhicule que l’on retrouve presque à chaque ligne du sûtra. Patrick Carré a lui, en revanche, pris le parti de présenter sa traduction totalement dénuée de notes, si ce n’est un court glossaire en fin de volume. Sa traduction, littéraire, est à la hauteur de l’inspiration du texte. Il prend souvent des libertés de traduction au profit du style, dans le droit fil de Kumârajîva lui‐même (une filiation revendiquée par Patrick Carré), plus enclin à faire résonner un texte dans la langue chinoise qu’à le traduire scrupuleusement. 234
Le titre Le qualificatif de sûtra n’apparaît que dans les versions chinoises. Même si le texte débute par la célèbre formule ʺAinsi ai‐je entenduʺ, il a pu paraître difficile de le considérer comme un sûtra, c’est‐à‐dire un enseignement délivré par le Bouddha lui‐
même. Le titre sanskrit reconstitué serait donc Vimalakîrti nirdesa, ʺL’enseignement [du bodhisattva nommé] Gloire‐immaculéeʺ. Comme dans de nombreux sûtras du Grand Véhicule, plusieurs titres sont inclus dans le corps du texte même. Le chapitre final l’intitule ʺLes enseignements de Vimalakîrtiʺ, Yuimakitsu shosetsu, mais également ʺLa doctrine des libérations inconcevablesʺ, Fukashigi gedatsu hômon, que Patrick Carré traduit par ʺL’accés au réel dans la liberté inconcevableʺ (Carré, p. 192). Le sens du second titre se comprend mot à mot : _fukashigi : inconcevable ‐_gedatsu : le terme traduit ici le s. vimoksa, libération, délivrance. Une liste en huit libérations est courante. ‐_hômon, litt. ʺla porte de la loi (du dharma)ʺ, l’expression typiquement bouddhique a le sens d’enseignement, de doctrine, de méthode, de rubrique au sens d’une subdivision de l’enseignement du Bouddha. Ce titre renvoie en fait au sixième chapitre qui a justement pour titre ʺL’inconcevableʺ et où Vimalakîrti enseigne les libérations inconcevables (fukashigi gedatsu), non pas à proprement parler les libérations auxquelles accèdent les bouddhas et les bodhisattvas, mais les pouvoirs qui leur sont attachés. Philosophie Selon l’expression d’Etienne Lamotte, le Vimalakîrti serait du Mâdhyamika ʺà l’état purʺ (Lamotte, p. 61). Ainsi tous les dharmas sont sans nature propre non‐nés et non‐détruits, ils sont calmes et nirvanés, ils sont inexprimables et impensables, ils sont égaux et non‐duels. La double vacuité du soi et des phénomènes y est abondamment citée. L’hypostase de la vacuité y est dénoncée. L’identité du samsâra et du nirvâna est également un thème central de l’ouvrage. Ces thèmes sont effectivement ceux qui se trouveront développés dans le système philosophique dit de la Voie Médiane (Mâdhyamika) de Nâgârjuna. A l’inverse on ne trouvera rien qui puisse préfigurer les spéculations des Vijñânavâdin (le concept essentiel dans le développement du Grand Véhicule de bouddhéité, buddhatâ, j. busshô, est inconnu de Vimalakîrti). Pourtant ce texte est loin d’être spéculatif ou philosophique. C’est avant tout un panégérique du Grand Véhicule, un éloge de la voie du bodhisattva où Vimalakîrti édifie sans cesse ses interlocuteurs (et nous ses lecteurs). Cʹest un véritable traité de vie. Il s’appuie sur les nouvelles conceptions proprement inouïes, le texte revient sans cesse là‐dessus, du Grand Véhicule (il est vrai qu’elles devaient apparaître comme telles aux yeux de la plupart des bouddhistes de l’époque) non pas tant pour les expliquer que pour en faire le fondement d’un chemin spirituel. Car c’est bien là où Vimalakîrti veut en venir : Comment vivre en bodhisattva ? Le message de Vimalakîrti vient du coeur et touche le coeur. 235
Que Vimalakîrti apparaisse sous les traits d’un notable de Vaishâlî, que dès le premier chapitre cinq cents fils de maîtres de maison viennent rendre hommage au Bouddha, que l’avant‐dernier bodhisattva sollicité par le Bouddha pour s’enquérir de la santé de Vimalakîrti soit un banquier, n’est évidemment pas sans importance. La génèse du Grand Véhicule est complexe et demeure encore obscure. A l’évidence, il semble avoir surgi dans un contexte de sécularisation où les laïcs se réappropriaient l’antique voie spirituelle du bouddhisme. Alors que le bouddhisme ancien est marqué par un retrait, une séparation du monde, ce nouveau bouddhisme y fait, lui, retour. Le renoncement ne peut‐être que celui de l’esprit. Et dans ce retournement il demande jusqu’à un engagement ʺpassionnéʺ dans ce monde : le Grand Véhicule n’est pas à ce paradoxe près. Il s’agit d’un traité sur l’engagement. Ce texte est extrait de la préface de Entrer dans lʹinconcevable : Lire Vimalakîrti dʹEric Rommeluère, un livre de commentaires sur le Sûtra de Vimalakîrti (à paraître). Photograhie : Vimalakîrti, une oeuvre du sculpteur japonais Kôkei (mort en 1196) conservée au temple de Kôfukuji à Nara. DR. 236
Asvaghosa From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Asvaghosa Aśvaghosa (?80‐?150 CE) was an Indian philosopher‐poet, born in Saketa in Central India. He is believed to have been the first Sanskrit dramatist, and is considered the greatest Indian poet after Kalidasa. He was first a student of non‐Buddhist teaching, but upon losing an argument with Parshva converted to Buddhism. He became a religious adviser to the Kushan king Kanishka. He is said to be the author of the influential Buddhist text Awakening of Faith in the Mahayana. He also wrote an epic life of the Buddha called Buddhacarita (Acts of the Buddha) in Sanskrit and the Mahalankara (Book of Glory). He also wrote Saundarananakavya, a kavya poem with the theme of conversion of Nanda, Buddha’s half‐brother, so that he might reach salvation. The first half of the work describes Nanda’s life, and the second half of the work describes Buddhist doctrines and ascetic practices. 237
Asvaghosha http://www.blia.org Asvaghosa Around the 2nd century CE, Asvaghosa Bodhisattva established the path in India for promoting the Dharma through Buddhist Music. His incomparable wisdom, eloquence and proficiency in creating music, poetry and drama opened up a new chapter for Buddhist music. Playing on his stringed instrument, and singing with great feelings, one day in front of the royal city, Asvaghosa attracted a big crowd. The following day, a great number of youth gathered at the Kusumapura1 Buddhist temple asking to be ordained. Once, while Asvaghosa was teaching the Dharma, King Kaniska2 deliberately fed seven horses that had not eaten for the past six days with his best food to test their reaction to Asvaghosaʹs teaching. The horses understood Asvaghosaʹs recitation that life was suffering, empty and impermanent. They did not even touch the food but nevertheless became emotionally distressed. This was how Asvaghosa Bodhisattva was given his name ‐ the horse‐who‐listens bodhisattva. Asvaghosa Bodhisattva had a natural ability for blending Buddha‐dharma with music which could be understood and appreciated by people from all walks of life. He had written about the Buddha in the Praise to the Buddhaʹs Deeds, as a way of using music to explain the Buddhaʹs life. This music became very popular and was heard in the palace as well as on the street. What causes and conditions lead us to Buddhahood? If birth were eliminated, then ageing, suffering and death would be eliminated. Thus, there is no birth, ageing, sickness, suffering, Greed, anger, love, or hatred. The Noble Eightfold Path teaches about our own enlightenment. Gently through the medium of fan‐bei, the Buddha walks out from Kusinara3 into our modern world. The Dharma has turned into a crystal clear fountain nourishing the human soul. Notes: 1 Also known as Pataliputra, modern Patna , capital of Bihar State, India. The Indo‐Scythians, rulers of Gandhara in northern Punjab, who conquered northern India as far as Bactria. He became a patron of Buddhism, the greatest king, after Emperor Asoka to do so. 3 The two‐sala tree where the Buddha entered into parinibba. 238
Nagarjuna From RangjungYesheWiki Nagarjuna Acharya Nagarjuna (slob dpon klu sgrub). A great Indian master of philosophy. He was named ʺNaga Masterʺ because he taught the beings in the naga world and returned with the extensive version of Prajnaparamita left in their safe keeping. [RY] klu grub ‐ Nagarjuna, a great Indian Buddhist master and the chief expounder of Madhyamaka philosophy [RY] klu grub ‐ Nagarjuna. An Indian master of philosophy and a tantric sid dha. One of the Eight Vidyadharas; receiver of the tantras of Lotus Speech such as Supreme Steed Display. He is said to have taken birth in the southern part of India around four hundred years after the Buddhaʹs nirvana. Having received ordination at Nalanda Monastery, he later acted as preceptor for the monks. He knew alchemy, stayed alive for six hundred years and transformed ordinary materials into gold in order to sustain the sangha. At Bodhgaya he erected pillars and stone walls to protect the Bodhi Tree and constructed 108 stupas. From the realm of the nagas he brought back the extensive Prajnaparamita scriptures (for example the ʹThe Perfection of Wisdom in 25,000 Lines {or, Verses}). He was the life pillar for the Mahayana, but specifically he was a major exponent of the Unexcelled Vehicle of Vajrayana. Having attained realization of Hayagriva, he transmitted the lineage to Padmasambhava [RY] Works _Mulamadhyamakakarika _Ratnavali 239
Nagarjuna, biographical notes www.rangjung.com Nagarjuna (klu grub). An Indian master of philosophy and a tantric siddha. One of the Eight Vidyadharas; receiver of the tantras of Lotus Speech such as Supreme Steed Display. He is said to have taken birth in the southern part of India around four hundred years after the Buddha’s nirvana. Having received ordination at Nalanda Monastery, he later acted as preceptor for the monks. He knew alchemy, stayed alive for six hundred years and transformed ordinary materials into gold in order to sustain the sangha. At Bodhgaya he erected pillars and stone walls to protect the Bodhi Tree and constructed 108 stupas. From the realm of the nagas he brought back the extensive Prajnaparamita scriptures. He was the life pillar for the Mahayana, but specifically he was a major exponent of the Unexcelled Vehicle of Vajrayana. Having attained realization of Hayagriva, he transmitted the lineage to Padmasambhava. ‐‐from the Rangjung Yeshe Glossary 240
Nagarjuna Nagarjuna (klu sgrub) In accordance with many prophecies found in both sutras and tantras, Nagarjuna; (klu sgrub) was born in a Brahmin family in the south Indian land of Beda. An astrologer predicted that in the best case (if he practiced the dharma), the child would live for no more than seven years. When seven years were almost gone, the parents sent their son away on pilgrimage with a servant, because they could not bear the thought of seeing his corpse. However Nagarjuna reached Nalanda and meet Saraha who told him that he could escape death if he were ordained as a monk. Nagarjuna also receive the initiation into the mandala of Amitayus and practicing the mantra recitation through the last night of his seventh year, he could free himself from the fear of death. The following year Nagarjuna received the initial monk ordination and became proficient in all the branches of knowledge in both the Hinayana and Mahayana sutras. Saraha also gave him many teachings upon the secret Mantrayana. Having mastered all these teachings Nagarjuna returned to see his parents again. He then took the full monastic vows. Once, a terrible famine broke out in Magadha and continued for twelve years. Saraha asked Nagarjuna to provide for the monks of Nalanda who lacked all necessities. Nagarjuna decided to find out how to make gold. He took two sandalwood leaves and, with the appropriate mantras, gave them the power to instantly transport a person to wherever he wished to go. Holding one leaf in his hand and concealing the other in the sole of his sandal, he traveled across the ocean to an island where a famous alchemist lived. Nagarjuna requested instructions in the making of gold. Now the alchemist realized that Nagarjuna must have come across the water by a secret technique, so hoping to acquire this secret he said, ʺLet us exchange either our crafts or our wealth.ʺ ʺWe should exchange our crafts,ʺ answered Nagarjuna, and gave him the leaf he held in his hand. The alchemist, thinking that Nagarjuna was no longer able to leave the island taught him how to make gold. Then Nagarjuna, by means of the sandalwood leaf he 241
had hidden in his sandal, returned to India. There he turned a lot of iron into gold and provided the whole Sangha with all their needs. Later Nagarjuna became abbot of Nalanda. He repeatedly defeated all his opponents, both the heretics, such as Shankara, who ridiculed the Madhyamika view and the shravaka who asserted the invalidity of the Mahayana. Some Nagas came to attend to Nagarjunaʹs teachings and requested him to visit the Land the Nagas. Having taught the Naga King and his subjects, Nagarjuna returned with the text of the Prajnaparamita in One Hundred Thousand Verses and its abbreviated form. With these scriptures he revived the Mahayana tradition. He himself composed many treatises elucidating the view of the Madhyamika and setting a reference point to the whole Mahayana philosophy on relative and absolute truths. In accordance with the prediction of Arya Tara, Nagarjuna went to leave and teach in South India. There, too, he composed many treatises. His teachings on Vinaya were equaled to Lord Buddhaʹs First Turning of the Wheel of Dharma, his teachings on emptiness to the Second Turning, and his Collection of Praises (such as the Praise to the Absolute Expanse) to the Third Turning. Once a young prince, who coveted his fatherʹs kingdom, was told by his mother, ʺYour fatherʹs life is linked to that of Master Nagarjuna who himself attained eternal life. Therefore, you will never rule the kingdom.ʺ Later not bearing her sonʹs unhappiness, the queen added, ʺNagarjuna is a Bodhisattva, if you ask him for his head, he will give to you.ʺ The prince did accordingly, and Nagarjuna consented to give his head. But although the prince struck with his sword again and again, the masterʹs neck could not be severed. Nagarjuna said, ʺOnce when I was cutting kusha grass I cut off the head of an insect. The karmic consequence of this act can still affect me and you can easily kill me with a blade of kusha grass.ʺ The prince tried and at the first stroke the mastersʹ head fell on the ground. Milk, not blood, poured out and the severed head spoke: ʺI shall now go to Tushita heaven, but later I shall return in this very same body.ʺ Afraid, the prince, threw the head far away. However both the head and body of Nagarjuna turned into stone and it is said that the head, slowly but surely, moves closer to its trunk and that eventually, when the two reunite, Nagarjuna will revive and perform vast deeds for the benefit of the Doctrine and beings. Nagarjuna had four principal spiritual sons, Shakyamitra, Nagabodhi, Aryadeva, and Matanga, as well as three close sons, Buddhapalita, Bhavaviveka, and Ashvagosha. —from Mathieu Ricard 242
Nagarjuna From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia A statue depicting Nagarjuna at the Samye Ling Monastery, Dumfriesshire, Scotland Nāgārjuna (c. 150 ‐ 250 AD) was an Indian philosopher, the founder of the Madhyamaka (Middle Path) school of Mahāyāna Buddhism, and arguably the most influential Buddhist thinker after the Gautama Buddha himself. His writings were the basis for the formation of the Madhyamaka (Middle Way) school, which was transmitted to China under the name of the Three Treatise (Sanlun) School. He is credited with developing the philosophy of the Prajnaparamita sutras, and was closely associated with the Buddhist university of Nalanda. Contents: 1) History 2) Writings 3) Philosophy 4) English translations: 1_Mulamadhyamakakarika 2_Other works∙ 243
1) History Very few details on the life of Nāgārjuna are known, although many legends exist. He may have been born in South India, probably near the town of Nagarjunakonda in present day Guntur District of Andhra Pradesh[citation needed]. According to traditional biographers and historians such as Kumarajiva (
), he was born into a Brahmin family, but later converted to Buddhism. This may be the reason he was one of the earliest significant Buddhist thinkers to write in classical Sanskrit rather than Pāli or Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit. From studying his writings, it is clear that Nāgārjuna was conversant with the Nikaya school philosophies and with the emerging Mahāyāna tradition. If the most commonly accepted attribution of texts (that of Christian Lindtner) holds, then he was clearly a Māhayānist, but his philosophy holds assiduously to the canon, and while he does make explicit references to Mahāyāna texts, he is always careful to stay within the parameters set out by the canon. 2) Writings There exist a number of influential texts attributed to Nāgārjuna, although most were probably written by later authors. The only work that all scholars agree is Nagarjunaʹs is the Mūlamadhyamakakārikā (Fundamental Verses on the Middle Way), which contains the essentials of his thought in twenty‐seven short chapters. According to Lindtner the works definitely written by Nagarjuna are: •
Mūlamadhyamakakārikā (Fundamental Verses of the Middle Way) •
śūnyatāsaptati (Seventy Verses on Emptiness) •
Vigrahavyāvartanī (The End of Disputes) •
Vaidalyaprakarana (Pulverizing the Categories) •
Vyavahārasiddhi (Proof of Convention) •
Yukti ā
•
Catu stava (Hymn to the Absolute Reality) •
Ratnāvalī (Precious Garland) •
Pratītyasamutpādah dayakārika (Constituents of Dependent Arising) •
Sūtrasamuccaya •
Bodhicittavivara a (Exposition of the Enlightened Mind) •
Suh llekha (To a Good Friend) •
ika (Sixty Verses on Reasoning) Bodhisa bhāra (Requisites of Enlightenment) There are other works attributed to Nāgārjuna, some of which may be genuine and some not. In particular, several important works of esoteric Buddhism (most notably the Pañcakrama or ʺFive Stagesʺ) are attributed to Nāgārjuna and his disciples. Contemporary research suggests that these works are datable to a significantly later period in Buddhist history (late eighth or early ninth century), but the tradition of which they are a part maintains that they are the work of the Madhyamaka Nāgārjuna and his school. Traditional historians (for example, the 17th century Tibetan Tāranātha), aware of the chronological difficulties involved, account for the anachronism via a variety of theories, such as the propagation of later writings via 244
mystical revelation. A useful summary of this tradition, its literature, and historiography may be found in Wedemeyer 2006. Lindtner considers that the Māhaprajñāparamitopadeśa, a huge commentary on the Large Prajñāparamita not to be a genuine work of Nāgārjuna. This is only extant in a Chinese translation by Kumarajiva. There is much discussion as to whether this is a work of Nāgārjuna, with some original comments by Kumarajiva, or an original work by Kumarajiva based on the philosophy of Nāgārjuna. A statue of Nagarjuna, Kullu, India. 2005 3) Philosophy Nāgārjunaʹs primary contribution to Buddhist philosophy is in the development of the concept of śūnyatā, or ʺemptiness,ʺ which brings together other key Buddhist doctrines, particularly anatta (no‐self) and pratītyasamutpāda (dependent origination). For Nāgārjuna, it is not merely sentient beings that are empty of ātman; all phenomena are without any svabhāva, literally ʺown‐natureʺ or ʺself‐
natureʺ, and thus without any underlying essence; they are empty of being independent. This is so because they are arisen dependently: not by their own power, but by depending on conditions leading to their coming into existence, as opposed to being. Nāgārjuna was also instrumental in the development of the two‐truths doctrine, which claims that there are two levels of truth in Buddhist teaching, one which is directly (ultimately) true, and one which is only conventionally or instrumentally true, commonly called upāya in later Mahāyāna writings. Nāgārjuna drew on an early version of this doctrine found in the Kaccāyanagotta Sutta, which distinguishes nītārtha (clear) and neyārtha (obscure) terms By and large, Kaccayana, this world is supported by a polarity, that of existence and non‐existence. But when one sees the origination of the world as it actually is with right discernment, ʹnon‐existenceʹ with reference to the world does not occur to one. When one sees the cessation of the world as it actually is with right discernment, ʹexistenceʹ with reference to the world does not occur to one. 245
Nāgārjuna differentiates between sa v ti (conventional) and paramārtha (ultimately true) teachings, but he seldom declares any to fall in this latter category; for him, even śūnyatā is śūnya‐‐even emptiness is empty. For him, ultimately, niv ttam abhidhātavya niv tte cittagocare| anutpannāniruddhā hi nirvā am iva dharmatā||7 The designable is ceased when the range of thought is ceased, For phenomenality is like nirvana, unarisen and unstopped. This was famously rendered in his tetralemma with the logical propositions: X, not X, X and not X, neither X nor not X. 246
Madhyamaka From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Madhyamaka (Also known as Sunyavada) is a Buddhist Mahayana tradition popularized by Nāgārjuna and Aśvaghosa. The school of thought and its subsidiaries are called ʺMadhyamakaʺ; those who follow it are called ʺMādhyamikas.ʺ According to the Mādhyamikas, all phenomena are empty of ʺself natureʺ or ʺessenceʺ (Sanskrit: Svabhāva), meaning that they have no intrinsic, independent reality apart from the causes and conditions from which they arise. Madhyamaka is the rejection of two extreme philosophies, and therefore represents the ʺmiddle wayʺ between eternalism (the view that something is eternal and unchanging) and nihilism (the assertion that all things are intrinsically already destroyed or rendered nonexistent. This is nihilism in the sense of Indian philosophy, and may differ somewhat from Western philosophical nihilism). According to Tibetan sources, Indian Madhyamaka schools were eventually divided into: The Svātantrika Madhyamaka, who differed from the Prāsangika in that they believed conventional phenomena could exist for themselves without existing ultimately. Thus they felt that positive assertions in logical debate served a useful purpose, and did not restrict themselves to using only prasanga methods. The Prāsangika Madhyamaka, whose sole avowed technique is to show by prasanga (or Reductio Ad Absurdum) that any positive assertion (such as ʺastiʺ or ʺnāstiʺ, ʺit isʺ, or ʺit is notʺ) made about, or view proclaimed of, phenomena must be regarded as merely conventional ( lokavyavahāra). Therefore there is no position that constitutes the ultimate truth (paramārtha), including the views and statements made by the Prāsangikas themselves, which are held to be solely for the purpose of defeating all views. The Prāsangikas also identify this to be the message of the Buddha who, as Nāgārjuna put it, taught the Dharma for the purpose of refuting all views. The Yogācāra Madhyamaka, which asserts that all phenomena are nothing but the ʹplay of mindʹ, and that mind, thus, is the basis of everything. Svatantrika From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia The Svatantrika Madhyamaka school of Buddhism is a form of Madhyamaka in which reasoning is used to establish that phenomena (dharmas) have no self‐nature, and further arguments to establish that the true nature of all phenomena is emptiness. This school differs from the predominant prasangika tradition in that the latter refrain from making any assertions whatsoever about the true nature of phenomena. Bhavaviveka was the founder of the Svatantrika tradition. 247
Prasangika From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Prasangika is a sub‐school of Madhyamaka Buddhism that holds the method of logical consequence (prasanga) to be the only valid method of demonstrating the nature of the Two Truths to opponents in debate. History The Prasangika school has dominated Buddhism in Tibet since the Second Dissemination, and most surviving works of the principal exponents exist only in Tibetan translation. Buddhapalita, a student of Shantarakshita, was one of the first Madhyamaka masters to fully adopt syllogistic methods in his teachings, although of a particularly limited form. While Candrakirti is generally credited with the founding of the Prasangika school, it was in fact Buddhapalita who first introduced the method of using logical consequence to refute the arguments of an opponent. It is this use of prasanga, also described as a proof reductio ad absurdum, that characterizes the Prasangika school of Madhyamaka Buddhism. Svatantrika Debate The Prasangika point of view originally developed in opposition to the Svatantrika school, founded by Bhavaviveka with his commentary and criticism of Buddhapalitaʹs earlier work. It was Candrakirtiʹs response to this criticism that became the foundation for Prasangika doctrine. The Prasangika‐Svatantrika debate included both a technical component and a set of metaphysical implications. On one level, the disagreement centered around the role of prasanga in formal debate. While the Prasangika held it to be the only valid method of demonstrating the Two Truths to the unenlightened, the Svatantrika felt that the Buddhist logician must not only use prasanga to show how an opponentʹs position leads to false conclusions, but that the Buddhist must also put forward a concrete thesis of his own. The Prasangika rejection of the Svatantrika position was based on the belief that any Buddhist making positive assertions about the conventional world was committed to the existence of an illusion. The Svatantrika countered by arguing that there were different levels of existence, and that a conventional thing could self‐exist, exist from its own side, and have inherent existence, but that it still would not exist absolutely, ultimately, or really. 248
Nagarjunakonda From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia State: Andhra Pradesh District(s): Guntur Coordinates: 16.18° N 80.27° E Time zone IST (UTC+5:30) Nagarjunakonda (meaning Nagarjuna Hill in Telugu) is a historical Buddhist town, now an island located near Nagarjuna Sagar in Guntur district in the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. It is 150km south east of the capital, Hyderabad. It was formed when a hill was submerged in the waters of the Nagarjuna Sagar Dam, constructed in the 1960s. It is named after Nagarjuna, a southern Indian master of Mahayana Buddhism who lived in the 2nd century AD, who is believed to have been responsible for the Buddhist activity in the area. The site was once the location of many Buddhist universities and monasteries, attracting students from afar as China, Gandhara, Bengal and Ceylon. The Buddhist archaeological sites there were submerged, and had to later be dug up and transferred to higher land on the hill, which had become an island. Contents: 1 History 2 Nagarjunasagar dam 249
History The settlement of Nagarjunakonda was the capital of the Ikshvaku dynasty (225 AD ‐ 325 AD), the successors of the Satavahanas in the eastern Deccan. It is believed that Sadvaha authorised the first monastic construction there during his reign. During the early centuries AD, the site housed more than 30 Buddhist viharas; excavations have yielded art works and inscriptions of great significance for the scholarly study of the history of this early period. Nagarjuna was the exponent of the philosophy of sunyata (void). At the time, Buddhism often spread to Sri Lanka and Burma after using the area and the bustling Bay of Bengal ports of the Andhra to re‐stock for the impending journey. Archaeological inscriptions at the site show that Sri Virapurusadatta, the second ruler of the dynasty was a Buddhist, as were his son Ehuvula and their descendants. The inscriptions also show state‐sponsorship of construction of temples and monasteries, through the funding of the queen of Ikshvaku. Camtisiri inparticular, is recorded as having funded the building of the main stupa for ten consecutive years. The support also spread beyond the noble classes, many non‐royal names being enscribed in the relics. At its peak, there were more than thirty monasteries and it was the largest Buddhist centre in South India. Inscriptions showed that there were monasteries belonging to the Bahusrutiya and Aparamahavinaseliya schools of Mahayana Buddhism, the Mahisasaka, and the Mahaviharavasin, from Sri Lanka. The architecture of the area reflects that of these traditions. There were other monasteries for Buddhist scholars originating from the Tamil kingdoms, Orissa, Kalinga, Gandhara, Bengal, Ceylon (the Culadhammagiri) and China. There is also a footprint at the site of the Mahaviharavasin monastery, which is believed to be a reproduction of that of Gautama Buddha. The region declined after the death of Rudrapurusa, the last Ikshvaku king. Excavations began in 1927, and the first finds were made by English archaeologists in 1928. The excavations were continuous until 1931. They unearthed the ruins of stupas and chaityas in 1926 at what was once an immense centre for Buddhist learning in ancient India. This was expanded in 1954 to include the whole valley, unearthing more than 100 further relics dating from the stone age to the 16th century AD. The great stupa at Nagarjunakonda belongs to the class of uncased stupas, its brickwork being plastered over and the stupa decorated by a large garland‐ornament. The original stupa was renovated by the Ikshvaku princess Chamtisiri in the 3rd century AD, when ayaka‐pillars of stone were erected. The outer railing, if any, was of wood, its uprights erected over a brick plinth. The stupa, 32.3 m in diameter, rose to a height of 18 m with a 4 m wide circumambulatory. The medhi stood 1.5 m and the ayaka‐platforms were rectangular offsets measuring 6.7 by 1.5 m.[3] An archaeological catastrophe struck in 1960, when an irrigation dam was constructed across the nearby Krishna River, submerging the original site under the waters of a reservoir. In advance of the flooding, several monuments were dug up and relocated to the top of Nagarjunaʹs Hill, where a museum was built in 1966. Other monuments were relocated to the mainland, east of the flooded area. Dedicated archaeologists managed to recover almost all of the relics. 250
Nagarjunasagar dam The Nagarjunasagar dam is the tallest masonry dam in the World. The excavated remains of the Buddhist civilisation were reconstructed and preserved at a museum on the island situated in the midst of the man‐made Nagarjunasagar lake. The site has a 14th‐century fort, medieval temples and a museum constructed like a Buddhist vihara. The museum houses a collection of relics of Buddhist culture and art. These include a small tooth and an ear‐ring believed to be that of Gautama Buddha. The main stupa of Nagarjunakonda named Mahachaitya is believed to contain the sacred relics of the Buddha. A partly ruined monolithic statue of the Buddha is the main attraction at the museum. It also houses historic finds in the form of tools from Paleolithic and Neolithic times, as well as friezes, coins and jewellery. Nagarjuna Konda www.hyderabad‐india.net/.../nagarjunakonda.html Location Nagarjuna Konda lies in the Guntur district of Adhra Pradesh state. The state lies a little towards the south in the Indian sub continent. The distance from Hyderabad city, which is also the state capital, to Nagarjuna Konda is about 156 kms. Overview Nagarjuna Konda is essentially a small island and a pilgrimage place for Buddhists. The region got its name from a Buddhist monk, Nagarjuna, who used to preach here somewhat near the end of second century A.D. The excavations carried out here reveal a civilization that used to prevail here. Nagarjuna Konda is a beautiful place and worth visiting. There are some fascinating sights found here which include waterfall, a massive dam and a museum with rare antiquities in its possession. Attractions Nagarjuna Konda is the site from where some great pieces of architecture have been excavated. The excavations have led to the discovery of an ancient civilization who were followers of Buddhism. Many relics and objects bearing religious and historical importance have been excavated. The sculptures that are preserved in the museum are marvellous, fantastic. The museum is located in the center of man made dam Nagarjuna Sagar. The museum features some of the relics of Buddha, stone images and encrypted panels. The massive dam is in itself a great attraction. Ethiopothala waterfalls situated here is quite a price for an eye. The sheer drop of 70 metres fills the air with real thrill and chill. The spot landscape is more like a bright painting with the color green and white dominating in the back ground. Accessibility There are bus services available for Nagarjuna Konda from nearby cities including Hyderabad. By bus it takes less than 4 hrs from Hyderabad to reach the place. The nearest rail head to the place is the one at Macherla. It is about 20 kms from Nagarjuna Konda. 251
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The Eight Vidyadharas From RangjungYesheWiki The Eight Vidyadharas (rig ʹdzin brgyad): 1) Manjushrimitra, 2) Nagarjuna, 3) Hungkara, 4) Vimalamitra, 5) Prabhahasti, 6) Dhana Sanskrita, 7) Shintam Garbha, and 8) Guhyachandra. 1) Manjushrimitra From RangjungYesheWiki Manjushrimitra (ʹjam dpal bshes gnyen), pron. Jampal Shenyen. An Indian master in the Dzogchen lineage and the chief disciple of Garab Dorje. In his role as a master in the lineage of the Sadhana Section of Mahayoga, he received the transmission of Yamantaka in the form of the Secret Wrathful Manjushri Tantra and other texts. Manjushrimitra was born in the Magadha district of India and was soon an adept in the general sciences and the conventional topics of Buddhism. After having become the most eminent among five hundred panditas, he received many teachings and empowerments from Garab Dorje, Lalitavajra, and other masters and reached the unified level of enlightenment, indivisible from Manjushri. Yamantaka appeared to him in person, conferred empowerment and transmitted the tantras and oral instructions. Among his chief recipients of this teaching were Hungkara, Padmasambhava, and Hanatela. There seem to have been several masters with this name, but Guru Tashi Tobgyal in his Ocean of Wondrous Sayings to Delight the Learned Ones views them as being magical emanations of the same master. [RY] (From the glossary to The Lotus‐Born, the biography of Padmasambhava.) 253
3) Hungkara From RangjungYesheWiki Hungkara (hung mdzad), (hung chen ka ra). One of the Eight Vidyadharas; receiver of the tantras of Vishuddha Mind including Heruka Galpo. Having taken birth in either India or Nepal, at first he was erudite in a non‐Buddhist religion and gained some attainments but later awakened to faith in the Buddhist teachings, took ordination from Buddhajnana at Nalanda and studied both the outer and inner aspects of Secret Mantra. His name derives from the chief deity of the mandala into which he was first initiated. At some point he took an outcaste girl as consort and practiced for six months the four aspects of approach and accomplishment. Through that practice he had a vision of the entire mandala of Vajra Heruka and reached the attainment of the supreme accomplishment of mahamudra. He wrote the Golden Garland of Rulu, the Vishuddha Accomplishment as well as other treatises and benefited beings with tremendous activity. Finally, he departed to the realm of Buddha Akshobhya in his very body. He was associated with Rolang Sukhasiddhi, Kukuraja and Buddhaguhya, while his lineage was transmitted to Padmasambhava and Namkhai Nyingpo the latter of whom spread his teachings in India. Also known as Hungchen, Hungchenkara. 254
4) Vimalamitra From RangjungYesheWiki Vimalamitra From RangjungYesheWiki VimalamitraVimalamitra (dri med bshes gnyen). A master in the Dzogchen lineage and the crown ornament of five hundred panditas, who had attained the indestructible form of the rainbow body. He received the transmission of Dzogchen from Shri Singha and Jnanasutra. Vimalamitra is regarded as one of the three main forefathers for establishing the Dzogchen teachings, especially the Instruction Section, in Tibet, which he chiefly transmitted to five people: King Trisong Deutsen, Prince Muney Tsenpo, Tingdzin Sangpo of Nyang, Kawa Paltsek and Chokro Lui Gyaltsen. Having translated these extremely profound instructions, he concealed the texts at Samye Chimphu for the sake of future generations. On his departure to the Five‐
peaked Mountain in China, Vimalamitra made the promise to return once every century in order to clarify and propagate the teachings of the secret, innermost essence, Sangwa Nyingtig. The oral lineage of his teachings on the Instruction Section was continued by Tingdzin Sangpo of Nyang who also concealed one set of the scriptures. One hundred and fifty five years after Vimalamitra departed from Tibet, an emanation of him named Dangma Lhüngyal took out the hidden texts. They are now included in the collection known as Vima Nyingtig, the Heart Essence of Vimalamitra. In his role as lineage holder of Nectar Quality among the Eight Sadhana Teachings, he is counted among the Eight Vidyadharas of India, the receiver of the Eightfold Volume of Nectar Quality. According to this lineage he was born in Elephant Grove, an area in the western part of India. He was learned in both the common and extraordinary topics of knowledge and received teachings on the tantras from Buddhaguhya and many other illustrious masters. Having practiced, he reached the accomplishment of the vidyadhara level of mahamudra and wrote numerous treatises, mainly on the teachings connected to the Magical Net. 255
5) Prabhahasti From RangjungYesheWiki Prabhāhasti (glang poʹi ʹod), ʹRadiant Elephant.ʹ Among the Eight Vidyadharas the receiver of the transmission of the tantras of Kilaya Activity. Born to a royal family in the western part of India and named Shakyaprabha when ordained as monk, Prahasti became extremely well‐versed in the Tripitaka and studied Secret Mantra with Vajrahasya (rdo rje bzhad pa) and numerous other masters. He achieved supreme accomplishment and had, together with his disciple Shakyamitra, a tremendous impact on the Dharma in Kashmir. A teacher of Padmasambhava, with whom he took monastic ordination. 6) Dhana Sanskrita From RangjungYesheWiki Dhana Sanskrita (nor gyi legs sbyar). One of the Eight Vidyadharas, the receiver of the transmissions of Liberating Sorcery of Mother Deities, Mamo Bötong. Jamgon Kongtrul mentions that not much is available about his life besides him being born in the Thogar area of Uddiyana. 7) Shintam Garbha From RangjungYesheWiki Shantigarbha, Shintam Garbha (zhi baʹi snying po). One of the Eight Vidyadharas, receiver of the transmission of Maledictory Fierce Mantra. Born in Uddiyana and reputed to have visited Tibet and participated in the consecration of the Samye Temple. 8) Guhyachandra From RangjungYesheWiki Alias Rombuguhya Devachandra (lhaʹi zla ba). One of the Eight Vidyadharas, receiver of the transmission of Mundane Worship born in Uddiyana. 256
Aryadeva Un article de Wikipédia, lʹencyclopédie libre. Philosophe indien madhyamika des IIIe/IVe siècles. Disciple de Nagarjuna. Quinzième patriarche de la lignée indienne du Chan. Il aurait été assassiné par des ennemis du bouddhisme. Œuvres principales _Chatuh Shataka, les 400 stances _Shata Shastra, traité des 100 stances. Ouvrage de base de lʹécole San Lun (Madhyamaka chinois). Sʹappuyant sur la dialectique négative pour réfuter les doctrines non‐bouddhistes, ce cours traité préfigure lʹécole prasangika. 257
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Asanga From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Asanga Asanga (also called Aryasanga), born around 300 CE, was an exponent of the yogācāra school of Buddhist philosophy. Traditionally, he and his brother Vasubandhu are regarded as the founders of this school. Born the son of a Brahmin in Gandhara in northern India, Asanga was perhaps originally a member of the Mahīśāsaka or the Mūlasarvāstivāda school but later converted to Mahāyāna; after many years of intense meditation, during which time some traditions say that he often visited Tushita Heaven to receive teachings from Maitreya‐nātha. He went on to write many of the key Yogācāra treatises such as the Yogācārabhūmi‐śāstra, the Mahāyāna‐samgraha and the Abhidharma‐samuccaya as well as other works, although there are discrepancies between the Chinese and Tibetan traditions concerning which works are attributed to him and which to Maitreya‐nātha. 259
Asanga Gaden Samten Ling Asanga Together with his teacher the Bodhisattva Maitreya, Asanga (ʺwithout attachmentʺ) was the founder of the Yogacara, or Consciousness‐Only, School of Mahayana Buddhism. Asanga was a man who was endowed with the innate character of a Bodhisattva. From early youth until mid‐life Asanga lived and studied in a monastery, then he withdrew to a cave retreat with the determination to actually see the bodhisattva Maitreya. After many years without results and discouraged, Asana left his cave retreat. He came across a mangy dog, and with thoughts of compassion he cut a piece of flesh from his own body and began to remove the maggots with his tongue to place on the substitute meat. Suddenly the dog vanished and the bodhisattva Maitreya appeared in front of him. Maitreya and Asanga flew into the air and up to the Tushita heaven where the bodhisattva taught Buddhist principles to Asanga for 50 years. When Asanga finally returned to earth he brought back with him the famous Five Texts of Maitreya. 260
Maitreya‐nātha From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Asanga ‐ Maitreya Maitreya‐nātha (ca. 270‐350 CE) was one of the three founders of the Yogācāra school of Buddhist philosophy, along with Asanga and Vasubandhu. Scholars are divided in opinion whether the name denotes a historical human teacher or the bodhisattva Maitreya, used pseudepigraphically. The number of works attributed to him vary in the traditions of Tibetan Buddhism and Chinese Buddhism, but variously include: the Yogācara‐bhūmi‐śāstra the Mahāyāna‐sūtrālamkāra‐kārikā the Dharma‐dharmatā‐vibhāga the Madhyānta‐vibhāga‐kārikā the Abhisamaya‐alamkāra the Ratna‐gotra‐vibhāga, also known as the Uttaratantrashastra The last five works are often referred to, collectively as the Five Dharmas of Maitreya, and their authorship is given variously to Maitreyanatha, Asanga or a combination thereof. 261
Asanga From RangjungYesheWiki Asanga and Vasubandhu Asanga was born as the son of an exceedingly learned brahmin woman who was herself the rebirth of a monk blessed by Avalokiteshvara. Having mastered most of the scriptures of the Tripitaka, before undertaking the study of the Transcendence of Wisdom he decided to take up on actual spiritual practice. Yet, after twelve years of meditation upon Maitreya he still had no signs of realization. Utterly dismayed, he walked away from his cave. Soon, he came across a half‐dead bitch whose lower half was infested with worms. Great compassion arose in Asanga. To save the bitch without killing the worms, Asanga cut a strip of his own flesh to feed the worms and closing his eyes set on removing them from the bitchʹs wounds with his tongue, so as to not harm them. When, doing so, he could not reach them he opened his eyes he beheld not the bitch but Maitreya, radiant, displaying the marks and signs of a perfect Buddha. Asanga exclaimed, ʺO my sole father, all those years I have been constantly meditating upon you and calling you, yet you did not come!ʺ Maitreya spoke: ʺI was in your presence continually, yet because of your karmic veils you were unable to see me. Now, through your cutting off your own flesh out of great compassion, your obscurations have been purified.ʺ Then Maitreya took Asanga for fifty years in Tushita heaven and gave to Asanga the Mahayana teachings, following which Asanga wrote down the Five Teachings of Maitreya. Later, having come back on earth he wrote many more treatises, performed countless miracles and converted to the Mahayana his younger brother, Vasubandhu, himself one of the greatest sages and erudite of all times. 262
Bodhisattva Maitreya TibetanʺByams paʺ www2.bremen.de/info/nepal/Icono/EMaitrey.htm Maitreya [The future and fifth human‐Buddha], The Compassionate One Posture of hands [Mudra]: dharmacakra [turning the wheel of law] Symbol: kalasa [vase], cakra [wheel], and body color: yellow or white Emblem: naga pushpa [white flower with yellow center] Buddhist tradition divides the period between the death of Buddha and the manifestation of Maitreya in the actual universe into three divisions of time: I Period of 500 years, ʹthe turning of the Wheel of the first Lawʹ. II Period of 1,000 years, period of deterioration of ʹthe law of imagesʹ [Sadharma pratirupaka]. III Period of 3000 years, ʹthe turning of the Wheel of the second Lawʹ, after which Maitreya will leave the Tushita heaven andcome upon earth to ʹestablish the lost truths in all their purity.ʹ Maitreya is the only Boddhisattva, who is popular among all the sects Buddhism, i.e., the Hinayana, Mahayana, and the Vajrayana, and often his statues and paintings are found in all Buddhist shrines of northern and southern Buddhist. Sakya‐muni is supposed to have visited Maitreya in the Tushita heaven when he appointed him his successor, and many Buddhist sages [arhats] are believed to have had communion with him, transporting themselves by supernatural means to the Tushita heaven to seek enlightenment on various religious points. The great Asanga, one thousand years after the birth of Buddha Sakya‐muni, ascended to the Tushita heaven, where Maitreya, initiated him, into the mystic doctrine of Tantra, which he grafted on to the Mahayana school in the beginning of the sixth century. Certain sects therefore look upon, Maitreya, as the founder of the Tantra school. 263
Although the cult of Maitreya was evolved before Indian King Asokaʹs time, his worship was not at its height until the fifth century AD, and there are many statues of him in the famous Gandhara sculptures of that period. He is represented either as Buddha or Boddhisattva. As Buddha he often with long hair drawn up in a knot on his head forming the ushnisha, his hands in dharmacakra mudra [turning the Wheel of the Law]; and as Boddhisattva he may be standing with his long hair hanging over his shoulders and his hands form ʹargumentʹ and ʹcharityʹ mudra [posture] Tibetan Schools of Buddhism also worship Maitreya both as Buddha and Boddhisattva. As Buddha, he has short curly hairs, the ushnisha, urna, and long lobed ears. He wears monastic garment with crown and ornaments, and his hands are in dharmacakra mudra both holding lotuses stems with cakra [Wheel] in right and kalasa vase in left. He is seated with legs locked or sometime the legs, instead of locked, are pendent, and the feet may be unsupported. We may find some minor difference in his iconographic representation among the various sects of Buddhism. The early Mongolian images of Maitreya are also generally standing, and hold in their hands forming ʹargumentʹ and ʹcharityʹ mudra, the stems of flowers called ʹcampaʹ, which, however, in the bronzes often resembles the lotus flower. In the bas‐reliefs of the temple of Boro Boedoer, there are many representations of Maitreya, which date from the ninth century. In Java Indonesia, he is also found in statuary form, as for instance in the temple of Tjandi Mendut, where he is figured seated the leg pendent and the hands in the dharmacakra mudra. In the ancient Gandhara sculptures, Maitreya was represented much larger than his assistants were. According to the Chinese traveler Hsuan Tsang, there is a statue of Maitreya at Dardu, north of the Punjab, in wood, which is one hundred feet high. It is said to have been created by artist whom Lohan Madhyantika caused, by magic, to mount three times to the Tushita heaven to contemplate the form of Maitreya before carving the statue. The group of five Manushi Buddha, corresponding with Panca‐Dhyani‐Buddha and five meditative Bodhisattvas are mentioned as below. KRAKUCHANDRA is a first Manushi Buddha, who is emanated from the first Dhyani Buddha Vairocana. KANAKMUNI is considered as second Manushi Buddha, emanated from second Dhyani Buddha Akshobhya. KASYAPA is considered as the third Manushi Buddha being emanated from third Dhyani Buddha Ratnasambhava. SAKYA‐MUNI is a forth Manushi Buddha, who is emanated from fourth Dhyani Buddha Amitabha. MAITREYA is the fifth Manushi Buddha, emanated from fifth Dhyani Buddha Amogasiddhi. 264
Maitreya From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia The Bodhisattva Maitreya, 2nd century, Greco‐Buddhist art of Gandhara. Names Sanskrit: (Maitreya) Pāli: (Metteyya) Chinese Name: (Mílè Púsa) Japanese Name: (Miroku Bosatsu) Vietnamese Name: Di‐lặc Bồ Tát Tibetan Name: byams pa Korean Name: (Mirug Bosal) Thai Name: (Sriaraya Mettrai) 265
Maitreya Bodhisattva (Sanskrit), Metteyya Bodhisatta (Pāli), or Miroku Bosatsu (Japanese, kanji) is the future Buddha in Buddhist eschatology. Maitreya is a Bodhisattva whom some Buddhists believe will eventually appear on earth, achieve complete enlightenment, and teach the pure dharma. Maitreya Bodhisattva will be the successor of the historic Śākyamuni Buddha. He is predicted to be a “world‐ruler,” uniting those over whom he rules. The prophecy of the arrival of Maitreya is found in the canonical literature of all Buddhist sects (Theravāda, Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna) and is accepted by most Buddhists as a statement about an actual event that will take place in the distant future. Characteristics One of the earliest mention of Maitreya is a Sanskrit text, the Maitreyavyākarana (The Prophecy of Maitreya), stating that gods, men and other beings will worship Maitreya and: ʺwill lose their doubts, and the torrents of their cravings will be cut off: free from all misery they will manage to cross the ocean of becoming; and, as a result of Maitreyaʹs teachings, they will lead a holy life. No longer will they regard anything as their own, they will have no possession, no gold or silver, no home, no relatives! But they will lead the holy life of chastity under Maitreyaʹs guidance. They will have torn the net of the passions, they will manage to enter into trances, and theirs will be an abundance of joy and happiness, for they will lead a holy life under Maitreyaʹs guidance.ʺ (Trans. in Conze 1959:241) General description Maitreya is typically pictured seated, with both feet on the ground, indicating that he has not yet completed ascending his throne, which is believed to be a style of western throne, not Indian as previously believed. He is dressed in the clothes of either a Bhiksu or Indian royalty. As a Bodhisattva, he would usually be standing, and dressed in jewels. Usually he wears a small stupa in his headdress, and could be holding a chakra wheel resting a lotus. A scarf is always tied around his waist. In the Greco‐Buddhist art of Gandhara, in the first centuries AD in northern India, Maitreya is represented as a Central Asian or northern Indian nobleman, holding a water phial in his left hand. He is flanked by his two acolytes, Asanga and his brother, Vasubandhu. Maitreyaʹs Tushita Heaven Maitreya resides in the Tushita Heaven (Pāli: Tusita), said to be reachable through meditation. Śākyamuni Buddha also lived here before he was born into the world. Some Bodhisattvas live in the Tushita Heaven before they descend to the human realm to become Buddhas. A bodhisattva may be thought of as an individual near to becoming Buddha. 266
The arrival of Maitreya The Bodhisattva Maitreya (water bottle on left thigh), art of Mathura, 2nd century AD. Maitreya’s coming will occur after the teachings of the current Buddha Gautama, the Dharma, are no longer taught and are completely forgotten. Maitreya is predicted to attain Bodhi in seven days (which is the minimum period), by virtue of his many lives of preparation for Buddha‐hood (similar to those reported in the Jataka stories of Shakyamuni Buddha). Maitreya’s coming is characterized by a number of physical events. The oceans are predicted to decrease in size, allowing Maitreya to traverse them freely. The event will also allow the unveiling of the “true” dharma to the people, in turn allowing the construction of a new world. The coming also signifies the end of the middle time in which humans currently reside (characterized as a low point of human existence between the Gautama Buddha and Maitreya). Some of the events foretold at the coming of the 5th Buddha (29th Buddha according to Theravada) include an end to death, warfare, famine, and disease, as well as the ushering in of a new society of tolerance and love. Origins The name Maitreya or Metteyya is derived from the word maitrī (Sanskrit) or mettā (Pāli) meaning ʺloving‐kindnessʺ, which is in turn derived from the noun mitra (Pāli: mitta) in the sense of ʺfriendʺ. Maitreya, who is sometimes represented seated on a throne Western‐style, and venerated both in Mahāyāna and non‐Mahāyāna Buddhism, is sometimes considered to have been influenced by the Zoroastrian Mithra, a god of contracts, associated with the Sun. The primary resemblance between the two characters appears to be the chance similarity of their names. Paul Williams claims that some Zoroastrian ideas influenced the cult of Maitreya, such as ʺexpectations of a heavenly helper, the need to opt for positive righteousness, the future millennium, and universal salvationʺ. Possible objections are that these characteristics are not unique to Zoroastrianism, nor are they necessarily characteristic of the belief in Maitreya. It is also possible that Maitreya Buddha originated with the Hindu Kalki, and that its similarities with the Iranian Mithra have to do with their common Indo‐Iranian origin. In the Greco‐Buddhist art of Gandhara, in the first centuries CE in northern India, Maitreya was the most popular figure to be represented, together with the Buddha Śākyamuni. In China, the cult of Maitreya seems to have developed around the same time of that of Amitābha, as early as the 3rd century AD. 267
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Vasubandhu The internet encyclopedia of philosophy http://www.iep.utm.edu/ Vasubandhu Vasubandhu was a prominent Buddhist teacher and one of the most important figures in the development of Mahāyāna Buddhism in India. Though he is particularly admired by later Buddhists as cofounder of the Yogācāra school along with his half brother Asanga, his pre Yogācāra works, such as the Abhidharmakosha and his auto‐commentary (Abhidharmakoshabhāshya) on it, are considered masterpieces. He wrote commentaries on many sūtras, works on logic, devotional poetry, works on Abhidharma classifications, as well as original and innovative philosophical treatises. Some of his writings have survived in their original Sanskrit form, but many others, particularly his commentaries, are extant only in their Chinese or Tibetan translations. Vasubandhu was a many‐sided thinker, and his personality as it emerges from his works and his biographies shows him as a man who was not only a great genius and a philosopher, but also a human being who was filled with great compassion. Table of Contents : 1) Sources on the Biography of Vasubandhu 2) Early Life of Vasubandhu 3) Conversion to Mahayana 4) Intellectual Debates 5) Date of Vasubandhu 6) Writings of Vasubandhu 269
1) Sources on the Biography of Vasubandhu The most important and the only complete account of the life of Vasubandhu entitled Posou pandoufa shijuan (Biography of Master Vasubandhu) was compiled into Chinese by Paramartha (499‐569 CE), one of the chief exponents of Yogacara doctrine in China. It is preserved in the Chinese Tripitaka and its English translation was published by J. Takakusu in Tʹoung Pao (1904: 269‐296). Apart from this account, the Xiyuji of Xuanzang (600‐664 CE) also provides important information about the life of Vasubandhu. Though Paramartha and Xuanzang are the two most credible authorities for Vasubandhuʹs life, yet serious discrepancies exist between their accounts. Paramarthaʹs account not only contains legendary or even mythical elements, but the time sequence of events is also ambiguous and differs greatly in places from the account of Xuanzangʹs the Xiyuji. The Tibetan historians, Taranatha and Bu‐ston, also give some important information on Vasubandhuʹs life, but their account further disagrees with Paramartha and Xuanzang in terms of certain names and events associated with the life of Vasubandhu. Scholars once suspected that more than one person bore the name Vasubandhu in the history of Indian Buddhism, although recent studies have eliminated this hypothesis. 2) Early Life of Vasubandhu He was born at Purusapura (identified with modern Peshawar, capital of North‐West Frontier Province of Pakistan) in the state of Gandhara. Gandhara is best known today as one of the earliest regions to develop a distinctive form of Buddhist art noted for its Hellenistic influence. According to Taranatha, Vasubandhu was born one year after his older brother Asanga became a Buddhist monk. His father was a brahmanaof the Kaushika gotra. According to Posou pandou fashi zhuan his motherʹs name was Virinci. But Bu‐ston and Taranatha mention the name of the mother of Asanga and Vasubandhu as Prasannashila. According to these two Tibetan historians, Asanga and Vasubandhu were half‐brothers; Asangaʹs father being a kshatriya, and Vasubandhuʹs a brahmana. Vasubandhu also had a younger brother called Virincivatsa. Vasubandhuʹs father was a court priest, and according to Taranatha was an authority on the Vedas. In all probability, he officiated at the court of the Shaka princes of the Shilada clan, who at that time ruled from Purusapura. During the formative years of his life, Vasubandhu may have been introduced by his father not only to the Brahmanical tradition but also to the postulates of classical Nyaya and Vaisheshika, both of which had influence on his logical thought. As a young student, he amazed his teachers with his brilliance and ready wit. According to Paramartha, Vasubandhuʹs teacher was called Buddhamitra. The Xiyuji, however, never mentions Buddhamitra and names Manoratha as the teacher of Vasubandhu. At Vasubandhuʹs time the dominant Buddhist school in Gandhara was the Vaibhashika (also called Sarvastivada). Vasubandhu entered the Sarvastivada order, and studied primarily the scholastic system of the Vaibhashikas. Initially, he was quite impressed with the Mahavibhasha. In time, however, Vasubandhu began to have grave doubts about the validity and relevance of Vaibhashika metaphysics. At this time, perhaps through the brilliant teacher Manoratha, he came into contact with the theories of the Sautrantikas, the group of Buddhists who wished to reject everything that was not the express word of the Buddha, and who held the elaborate constructions 270
of the Vibhasha up to ridicule. That there was a strong Sautrantika tradition in Purusapura is likely in view of the fact that it was the birthplace of that maverick philosopher of the second century, Dharmatrata. In fact, the most orthodox Vaibhashika seat of learning was not in Gandhara, but in Kashmir, whose masters looked down upon the Gandharans as quasi‐heretics. Therefore, according to Xuanzangʹs pupil Pu Kuang, Vasubandhu decided to go to Kashmir disguised as a lunatic to investigate the Vaibhashika teachings more deeply. Vasubandhu studied in Kashmir with different teachers for four years and then came back to Purusapura. After having returned to his native place, Vasubandhu began to prepare for an enormous project that had been in his mind for some time. At this time he was unattached to any particular order, and lived in a small private house in the center of Purusapura. Vasubandhu supported himself by lecturing on Buddhism before the general public, which presumably remunerated him with gifts. According to tradition, during the day he would lecture on Vaibhashika doctrine and in the evening distill the dayʹs lectures into a verse. When collected together the six hundred plus verses (karikas) gave a thorough summary of the entire system. He entitled this work the Abhidharmakosha (Treasury of Abhidharma). According to Paramartha, Vasubandhu composed the Abhidharmakosha at Ayodhya, but according to Xuanzang, it was composed in the suburbs of Purusapura. In the Abhidharmakosha Vasubandhu analyzed and catalogued seventy‐five dharmas, the basic factors of experience, for the purposes of attaining Bodhi. He divided them into various categories consisting of eleven types of rupani i.e., ‘material formsʹ (the five sense organs, their corresponding objects, and avijnapti‐rupa i.e., ‘gesture unrevealing of intentʹ); citta (mind); ten types of mahaabhumika i.e., ‘major groundingsʹ (volition, desire, mindfulness, attention etc.); ten types of kushala‐mahabhumika i.e., ‘advantageous major groundingsʹ (faith, vigor, equanimity, ahimsa, serenity etc.); six types of klesha‐mahabhumika i.e., ‘mental disturbance major groundingsʹ (confusion, carelessness, restlessness etc.); two types of akushala mahabhumika i.e., ‘nonadvantageous major groundings (shamelessness and non‐embarrassment); ten types of paritta‐klesha‐mahabhumika i.e., ‘secondary mental disturbance major groundingsʹ (anger, enmity, envy, conceit etc.); eight types of aniyata‐mahabhumika i.e., ‘indeterminate major groundingsʹ (remorse, arrigance, aversion, doubt, torpor etc.); fourteen types of citta‐viprayukta‐samskara‐dharmah i.e. ‘embodied‐conditioning disassociated from mindʹ (life‐force, birth, decay, impermanence etc.); and three types of asamskrita‐dharmah i.e., ‘unconditioned dharmas (spatiality, cessation through understanding, and cessation without understanding). Not only were the definitions and interrelations of these seventy‐five dharmas analyzed in the Abhidharmakosha, but their karmic qualities also examined. Besides, Vasubandhu also elaborated upon causal theories, cosmology, practices of meditation, theories of perception, karma, rebirth, and the characteristics of an Enlightened Being in this text. As the Abhidharmakosha was an eloquent summary of the purport of the Mahavibhasha, the Kashmiri Sarvastivadins are reported to have rejoiced to see in it all their doctrines so well propounded. Accordingly, they requested Vasubandhu to write a prose commentary (bhashya) on it. However, it seems that after having written the Abhidharmakosha, Vasubandhu began to have second thoughts about the Vaibhashika teachings. As a consequence, it is said, Vasubandhu prepared the 271
Abhidharmakoshabhashya. But as it contained a thoroughgoing critique of Vaibhashika dogmatics from a Sautrantika viewpoint, the Kashmiri Sarvastivadins soon realized, to their great disappointment, that the Abhidharmakoshabhashya in fact refuted many Sarvastivada theories and upheld the doctrines of the Sautrantika school. One major point that created bad blood between the Vaibhashikas and the Sautrantikas was concerning the status and nature of the dharmas. The Vaibhashikas held that the dharmas exist in the past and future as well as the present. On the other hand, the Sautrantikas held the view that they are discrete, particular moments only existing at the present moment in which they discharge causal efficacy. The Vaibhashikas wrote several treatises attempting to refute Vasubandhuʹs critiques. 3) Conversion to Mahayana In the years directly following the composition of the bhidharmakoshabhashya, Vasubandhu seems to have spent much time in travelling from place to place. Finally, after having spent some time at Shakala/ Shagala (modern Sialkot in Pakistan), he shifted along with his teachers Buddhamitra and Manoratha to Ayodhya (now located in Uttar Pradesh, northern India), a city far removed from Kashmir. According to Posou pandou fashi zhuan, Vasubandhu, now proud of the fame he had acquired, clung faithfully to the Hinayana doctrine in which he was well‐versed and, having no faith in the Mahayana, denied that it was the teaching of the Buddha. Vasubandhu had up to this time but little regard for the Yogacara treatises of his elder brother. He had perhaps seen the voluminous Yogacarabhumi compiled by Asanga, which may have simply repelled him by its bulk. According to Bu‐ston, he is reported to have said, ʺAlas, Asanga, residing in the forest, has practised meditation for twelve years. Without having attained anything by this meditation, he has founded a system, so difficult and burdensome, that it can be carried only by an elephant.ʺ Asanga heard about this attitude of his brother and feared that Vasubandhu would use his great intellectual gifts to undermine the Mahayana. By feigning illness he was able to summon his younger brother to Purusapura, where he lived. However, Xuanzang differs with some of these details and the place provided by Paramartha regarding Vasubandhuʹs conversion. According to the Xiyuji the conversion of Vasubandhu took place at Ayodhya. At the rendezvous, Vasubandhu asked Asanga to explain the Mahayana teaching to him, whereupon he immediately realized the supremacy of Mahayana thought. After further study, we are told, the depth of his realization came to equal that of his brother. Deeply ashamed of his former abuse of the Mahayana, Vasubandhu wanted to cut out his tongue, but refrained from doing so when Asanga told him to use it for the cause of Mahayana. Vasubandhu regarded the study of the enormous Shatasahasrikaprajna‐paramita‐sutra as of utmost importance. In view of the fact that they were the texts that converted him to Mahayana, Vasubandhuʹs commentaries on the Akshayamatinirdesha‐sutra and the Dasha‐bhumika may have been his earliest Mahayana works. These were followed by a series of commentaries on other Mahayana sutras and treatises, including the Avatamsakasutra, Nirvanasutra, Vimalakirtinirdeshasutra, and Shrimaladevisutra. He himself composed a treatise on vijnaptimatra (cognition only) theory and commented on the Mahayanasamgraha, Triratna‐gotra, Amrita‐mukha, and other Mahayana treatises. According to the Tibetan biographers, his favorite sutra was either the Shatasahasrikaprajna‐paramita‐sutra or the Ashtasahasrika. Considering that these texts reveal the most profound insights into 272
Mahayana thinking, it is not surprising that Vasubandhu liked them. Since the output of Vasubandhuʹs Mahayana works is huge, he was in all probability writing new treatises every year. According to Posou pandou fashi zhuan Vasubandhu engaged in his literary activity on behalf of the Mahayana after Asangaʹs death. Xuanzang, however, tells a strange story that suggests that Vasubandhu died before Asanga. 4) Intellectual Debates With the composition of the Abhidharmakosha, Vasubandhu came to enjoy the patronage and favor of two Gupta rulers, Vikramaditya and his heir Baladitya, who can be identified respectively, as Skandagupta (ruled circa 455‐467 CE) and Narasimhagupta (ruled circa 467‐473 CE). The first important intellectual debate which Vasubandhu had was with Vasurata. Vasurata was a grammarian and the husband of the younger sister of Baladitya. It was Baladitya who had challenged Vasubandhu to a debate. Vasubandhu was able to defeat him successfully. Another well‐known intellectual encounter which Vasubandhu had was with Samkhyas. While Vasubandhu was away, his old master Buddhamitra was defeated in a debate at Ayodhya by Vindhyavasin. When Vasubandhu came to know of it, he was enraged and subsequently trounced the Samkhyas both in debate and in a treatise the Paramarthasaptatika. Candragupta II rewarded him with 300,000 gold coins for his victory over the Samkhyas. Vasubandhu made use of this money to build three monasteries, one for the Mahayanists, another one for his old colleagues the Sarvastivadins, and a third for nuns. Refutation of Vaisheshika and Samkhya theories had been presented by Vasubandhu already in the Abhidharmakosha, but it was perhaps from this point onward that Vasubandhu was regarded as a philosopher whose views could not be lightly challenged. Samghabhadra, a Sarvastivada scholar from Kashmir, also once challenged Vasubandhu regarding the Abhidharmakosha. He composed two treatises, one consisting of 10,000 verses and another of 120,000 verses. According to Xuanzang, it took twelve years for Samghabhadra to finish the two works. He challenged Vasubandhu to a debate, but Vasubandhu refused, saying, ʺI am already old, so I will let you say what you wish. Long ago, this work of mine destroyed the Vaibhashika (i.e., the Sarvastivada) doctrines. There is no need now of confronting you... Wise men will know which of us is right and which one is wrong.ʺ 5) Date of Vasubandhu The date of Vasubandhu has posed a problem for historians. According to Paramartha, Vasubandhu lived 900 years after the Mahaparinirvana of the Buddha. At another place, Paramartha also mentions the figure of 1100. Xuanzang and his disciples respectively mention that Vasubandhu lived 1000 and 900 years after the Mahaparinirvana of the Buddha. Now though it is generally believed that the Mahaparinirvana of the Buddha took place within few years of 400 BCE, some scholars are still hesitant to accept this date. This has led to different scholars proposing different dates for Vasubandhu. Noul Pari and Shio Benkyoo give as Vasubandhuʹs dates the years 270 to 350 CE. Steven Anacker proposes his date as 316‐396 CE, Ui Hakuju places him in the fourth century (320‐400 CE). Takakusu Junjiroo and Kimura Taiken gave 420 to 500, Wogihara Unrai gives 390 to 470 CE, and Hikata Ryushoo gives 400 to 480 CE. Erich Frauwallner suggests that there were two Vasubandhus and hence two different dates. According to him Vasubandhu the elder lived between about 320 273
and 380 CE and Vasubandhu the younger between around 400 and 480 CE. However, this hypothesis of two Vasubandhus is no longer tenable in current scholarship as many of the early Chinese documents used by Frauwallner are of spurious nature and thus, their testimony cannot be accepted. 6) Writings of Vasubandhu Vasubandhu is said to have been the author of one thousand works, 500 in the Hinayana tradition and 500 Mahayana treatises. But only forty‐seven works of Vasubandhu are extant, nine of which survive in the Sanskrit original, twenty‐seven in Chinese translation, and thirty‐three in Tibetan translation. The Abhidharmakosha is the most voluminous among Vasubandhuʹs independent expositions. It attained the status of a primary textbook to be studied by all students of the tradition in the Northern Buddhist countries, including Tibet. As pointed out above, the Abhidharmakosha pictures the Buddhist Path to Enlightenment through the categorization and analysis of the seventy‐five dharmas. Vasubandhuʹs Karmasiddhi (Establishing Karma) is a short, quasi‐Hinayana treatise coloured, as is the Abhidharmakosha, by Sautrantika leanings. His Pancaskandhaprakarana (Exposition on the Five Aggregates) discusses most of the subjects taken up in the Abhidharmakosha. In cataloguing and categorization of dharmas in the Pancaskandhaprakarana the dharmas is a bit different than the Abhidharmakosha. Moreover, whereas the Abhidharmakosha talks about seventy five dharmas, not only have several dharmas been added, but many of the original seventy five have been dropped in the Pancaskandhaprakarana. In his Karmasiddhiprakarana (Exposition on Establishing Karma), Vasubandhu challenged the views of those who held that dharmas are anything other than being momentary. The doctrine of momentariness (kshanikavada) perceived consciousness as a causal sequence of moments in which each moment is caused by its immediate predecessor. However, he felt that this theory could not explain certain categories of continuity. For instance, kshanikavada did not offer any satisfactory explanation for the re‐emergence of a consciousness stream after having been interrupted in deep sleep. Similarly, continuity from one life to the next could not be explained satisfactorily by this theory. To solve such inconsistencies, Vasubandhu introduced the Yogacara notion of the alaya vijnana (storehouse consciousness). Through this concept he explained that the seed (bija) of a previous experience is stored subliminally and released into a new experience. In this way, Vasubandhu not only explained continuity between two separate moments of consciousness, but he also provided a quasi causal explanation for the functioning of karmic retribution. In other words, Vasubandhuʹs alaya vijnana provided an explanation as to how an action performed at one time could produce its result at another time. This concept also did away with the necessity of a permanent atman as the doer and recipient of karma since, like a stream, it is continuously changing with new conditions from moment to moment. From the Yogacara point of view the most important of Vasubandhuʹs works are the Vimshatika (Twenty Verses), Trimshika (Thirty Verses), and Trisvabhavanirdesha (Exposition on the Three Natures). According to tradition, the Trisvabhavanirdesha was reputedly his last treatise, and his Vimshatika and Trimshika 274
were written near the end of his life, though we have no actual evidence to support this order. Despite the fact that all these three texts are very concise and the Trisvabhavanirdesha was not even known in China (and is never read in Tibet despite being part of Tibetan canon), they form a kind of troika and represent Vasubandhuʹs final accomplishment as a Yogacara‐Vijnanavada teacher. The Vimshatika is perhaps the most original and philosophically interesting treatise of Vasubandhu. Vasubandhu devotes a major portion of this text in dealing with the Realist objections against Yogacara. To the Realist position that external things must exist because they are consistently located in space as well as time, Vasubandhu responds by saying that objects also appear to have spatial and temporal qualities in dreams, whereas nothing ‘externalʹ is present in the dreams. This means that the appearance of cognitive objects does not require an actual object external to the consciousness cognizing it. Vasubandhu, however, points out that without the consciousness nothing whatsoever can be apprehended. Therefore, it is consciousness that is the necessary condition and not an external object. Vasubandhu does not deny that cognitive objects exist. However, what he denies is that such cognitive objects have external reference points. From the Yogacara point of view, what we believe to be external objects are actually nothing more than mental projections. Thus, whatever we think about, know, experience, or conceptualize, occurs to us only in our consciousness and nowhere else. In other words, according to Vasubandhu, cognition takes place only in consciousness and nowhere else. Thus, everything that we know is acquired through sensory experience. We are fooled by consciousness into believing that those things which we perceive and appropriate within consciousness are actually outside our cognitive sphere. To the Realist objection that subjective wishes do not determine objective realities, Vasubandhu replies that due to collective‐karma groups give rise to common misperceptions. He pointed out that it is the result of a personʹs own karma that determines the type of situation in which that person would be born. Thus, Vasubandhu points out that how we see things is shaped by previous experience, and since experience is inter‐subjective, we gather in groups that see things the way we do. To another Realist objection that the objective world functions by determinate causal principles, Vasubandhu points out that the appearance of causal efficacy also occurs in dreams. Thus our conscious ‘dreamsʹ can have causal efficacy. The Trimshika, which became the basic text of the Faxiang (Japanese Hossoo) school, is one of Vasubandhuʹs most mature works. Through concise verses he sums up his doctrine of vijnapti matra (cognition only) by explaining Yogacara theories of eight‐consciousnesses, three‐natures and the five‐step path to Enlightenment. The eight types of consciousness are the five sense consciousnesses, the empirical consciousness (mano‐vijnana), a self‐aggrandizing mentality (manas), and the alaya‐vijnana. Vasubandhu describes and explains how each of these can be extinguished through ashraya‐paravritti i.e., through the overturning of the very basis of these eight types of consciousness. This over‐turning i.e., achievement of the Bodhi gradually takes place through the five‐step path in a way that consciousness (vijnana) is transformed into unmediated cognition (jnana). According to the theory of three natures, there are three cognitive realms at play: the delusional cognitively constructed realm, which is intrinsically unreal; the realm of causal dependency; and the perfectional realm which is intrinsically ‘empty.ʹ To Vasubandhu, Buddhism is a method of cleansing the stream of consciousness from ‘contaminationsʹ and ‘defilements.’ 275
The Foxinglun (Treatise on Buddha Nature) exerted great influence on Sino‐
Japanese Buddhism by propounding the concept of tathagata‐garbha (Buddha Nature). The Vadavidhi (A Method for Argumentation) is another important text attributed to Vasubandhu. Though this text is not strictly speaking a ‘logicʹ text and does not make any distinction between techniques of debate and logic as such, still its importance in the field of logic cannot be overlooked. It not only provides information on the state of Buddhist logic prior to Dignaga, but also paved the way for the revolutionary contribution of Dignaga and Dharmakirti in the field of logic. Though not many details on the meditative career of Vasubandhu are available, his Madhyantavibhagabhashya (Commentary on the Separation of the Middle from Extremes) points to his keen interest in the techniques of meditation. Vasubandhuʹs commentaries on sutras and shastras are by no means less important than the above‐mentioned independent treatises. He wrote commentaries on three treatises: the Madhyantavibhaga (Discrimination between the Middle and the Extremes), Mahayanasutralamkara (Ornament of the Mahayana Sutras), and Dharmadharmatavibhaga/ Dharmadharmtavibhanga (Discrimination between Existence and Essence). All these three treatises are important texts of the Yogacara school and are ascribed to Asangaʹs teacher Maitreya. Vasubandhu also composed a commentary on Asangaʹs Mahayanasamgraha (Compendium of Mahayana). It is the first methodical presentation of the doctrines of Yogacara‐Vijnanavada. Vasubandhuʹs Sukhavativyuhasutranirdesha (Commentary on the Sukhavativyuha Sutra) is another important text. This text became a fundamental treatise of the Pure Land faith in China and Japan. The Indian Yogacara‐Vijnanavada is represented in China by three schools, and the development of all these schools is credited to the works of Vasubandhu. The first of these schools, called the Dilun school (which was established in the first half of the sixth century CE), took his Dashabhumikasutranirdesha (Commentary on the Dashabhumika Sutra) as its basic text. The second, the Shelun school which originated in the second half of the sixth century CE, developed around a translation of the Mahayanasamgraha done by Paramartha. The third school, known as the Faxiang school (founded by Xuanzang and his disciple Kuiji in the seventh century), adopted the Trimshika as its basic text. Later in life, Vasubandhu went so far ahead with his contemplative exercises that he even refused to engage in a debate with his worthy opponent Samghabhadra. He died at the age of eighty. Paramartha says that he died at Ayodhya, whereas Bu‐
ston says that his death took place in the northern frontier countries, which he calls ‘Nepal.ʹ In recognition of his contribution and achievements as a Mahayana teacher, he came to be reverently called a bodhisattva in various traditions from India to China. In fact, some go to the extent of even calling him the ‘second Buddha.ʹ As rightly pointed out in Bu‐ston, he ʺwas possessed of the wealth (vasu of the Highest wisdom and, having propagated the Doctrine out of mercy, had become the friend (bandhu) of the living beings.ʺ 276
Basic teachings of The Consciousness‐Only school of buddhism http://online.sfsu.edu/~rone/Buddhism/Yogacara Compiled by Ron Epstein Asanga (Bodhisattva) Together with his teacher the Bodhisattva Maitreya, Asanga was the founder of the Yogacara, or Consciousness‐Only, School of Mahayana Buddhism. The oldest of three sons, all called Vasubandhu, born in Purusapura (Peshwar) who were members of the Kausika family of Indian brahmins. All three became Buddhist Bhikshus. Asangaʹs youngest brother was known as Virincivatsa, while the middle brother was known merely as Vasubandhu (see below). Asanga was a man who was endowed with the innate character of a Bodhisattva. He became a Bhikshu of the Sarvastivada School, but afterwards he practiced meditation and became free from desire. Though he investigated the doctrine of emptiness, he could not understand it. He was about to commit suicide. Pindola, an Arhat, who was then in Eastern Purvavideha, having perceived this, came to him from that region and expounded the doctrine of emptiness peculiar to the Hinayana. He arranged his thoughts according to what he was taught and at once comprehended it. Though he had attained the doctrine of emptiness peculiar to the Hinayana, he, nevertheless, did not find comfort in it. Thinking that it would not be right to drop the matter altogether, he went up to the Tusita Heaven using the supernatural power peculiar to the Hinayana and inquired of Maitreya, the Bodhisattva, who expounded for him the doctrine of emptiness belonging to the Mahayana. When he returned to Jambudvipa, he investi‐
gated according to the methods explained to him and soon became enlightened. While he was engaged in investigation, the earth began to quake (of its own accord) in six ways. Since he understood the doctrine of emptiness, he called himself ʺAsangaʺ, which means ʺwithout attachmentʺ. He afterwards often went up to the Tusita Heaven in order to ask Maitreya about the doctrines of the Mahayana sutras. The Bodhisattva explained them extensively for him. Whenever he acquired any new understanding, he would come back to Jambudvipa and teach it to others. Most of those hearing him did not believe him. Asanga, Teacher of the Dharma, then prayed, saying, ʺI now intend to bring all beings to believe fully in the doctrine of the Mahayana. I only pray that you, O Great Master, come down to Jambudvipa to expound the Mahayana so that all beings may become fully convinced of its truth.ʺ Maitreya, thereupon, in accordance with his prayer, came down to Jambudvipa at night, flooding it with great rays of light, had a large assembly of those connected with the Dharma called in a lecture hall, and began to recite the Saptadasabhumi‐sutra. After having recited a passage, he would explain its purport. The seventeen bhumis were finished during the nights of four months. Although all were together in one and the same hall listening to the discourse, it was, neverthe‐less, only Asanga, Teacher of the Dharma,, who had access to the Bodhisattva Maitreya, while the others could merely hear him from afar. At night, all together heard the religious discourse by 277
Maitreya, while in the daytime Asanga, Teacher of the Dharma, commented once again, for the sake of others, upon what had been taught by the Bodhisattva. In this way all the people could hear and believe in the doctrine of the Mahayana. Maitreya, the Bodhisattva, taught Asanga, Teacher of the Dharma, to learn the ʺsunlightʺ samadhi. As he learned according to what he had been taught, he subsequently attained entry into that samadhi. After he attained entry into that samadhi, what he formerly could not understand all became intelligible. Whatever he heard or saw was never forgotten, his memory having become retentive, whereas he formerly could not fully understand the sutras of the Mahayana, such as the Avatamsaka, previously taught by the Buddha. Maitreya explained for him all these in the Tusita heaven; thus the Teacher of the Dharma became well‐versed in them and remembered them all. Afterwards in Jambudvipa he composed several upadesa on the sutras of the Mahayana, in which he expounded all the teachings of the Mahayana taught by the Buddha. (Paramartha, ʺThe Life of Vasubandhuʺ, J. Takakusu, tr. [with some editing], pp. 273‐275) Vasubandhu (Bodhisattva) (fl. 4th cent. AD) The second of three sons, born in Purusapura (Peshwar), India, into the Kausika family of Indian Brahmins. All three sons were called Vasubandhu and all three became Buddhist Bhikshus. His older brother was known as Asanga and his younger brother as Virincivatsa. He is known simply as Vasubandhu. In his youth he adhered to the Hinayana teachings of the Sautrantika School and wrote the Abhidharmakosa, perhaps the most well‐known of all treatises on the Abhidharma. He was converted to the Mahayana by his older brother the Bodhisattva Asanga. After his conversion, he wrote many celebrated works on the Consciousness‐Only School of the Mahayana, including the Twenty Verses on Consciousness‐Only and the Thirty Verses on Consciousness‐Only. Vasubandhu´s conversion ʺAsanga, teacher of the Law [Dharma], saw that his younger brother was endowed with an intelligence surpassing that of others, his knowledge being deep and wide, and himself well‐versed in esoteric and exoteric doctrines. He was afraid that the latter might compose a sastra and crush the Mahayana. He was living then in the land of the Hero (Purusa‐pura) and sent a messenger to Vasubandhu in Ayodhya with the following message: ʺI am seriously ill at present. You had better attend to me quickly.ʺ Vasubandhu followed the messenger to his native land, saw his brother and inquired what was the cause of his illness. He answered: ʺI have now a serious disease of the heart, which arose on account of you.ʺ Vasubandhu again asked: ʺWhy do you say on account of me?ʺ He answered: ʺYou dot no believe in the Mahayana and are always attacking and discrediting it. For this wickedness you will be sure to sink forever in a miserable Life. I am now grieved and troubled for your sake to such an extent that my life will no long survive. On hearing this Vasubandhu was surprised and alarmed and asked his brother to expound the Mahayana for him. He then gave him a concise explanation of the essential principles of the Mahayana. Thereupon the Teacher of the Law (Vasubandhu), who was possessed of clear intelligence and 278
especially of deep insight, became at once convinced that the truth of the Mahayana excelled even that of the Hinayana. ʺHe then fully investigated, under his brother, the principles of the Mahayana. Soon after he became as thoroughly acquainted with the whole as his brother was. When its meaning was already clear to him, he would meditate on it. From the beginning to the end everything was perfectly in accordance with the truth, there being nothing contradictory to it. For the first time he realized that the Hinayana was wrong and the Mahayana right. If there were no Mahayana, then (he thought) there would be no path (marga) and no fruition (phala) of the Tri‐yana [Three Vehicles]. Since he formerly did harm by speaking ill of the Mahayana, in which he then had no faith, he was now afraid that he might fall into a miserable life on account of that wickedness. He deeply reproached himself and earnestly repented of his previous fault. He approached his brother and confessed his error, saying: ʹI now desire to make a confession. I do not know by what means I can be pardoned for my former slander.ʹ He said (further): ʹI formerly did harm speaking ill (of the truth) by means of my tongue. I will now cut out my tongue in order to atone for my crime.ʹ His brother answered: ʹEven if you cut out your tongue a thousand times, you cannot wipe out your crime. If you really want to wipe out your crime, you must find some other means.ʹ Thereupon he asked his brother to explain the means of wiping out the offence. The latter said: ʹYour tongue was able to speak very skillfully and effectively against the Mahayana, and thus discredit it. If you want to wipe out your offence, you must now propound the Mahayana equally skillfully and effectively.ʹʺ (The Life of Vasubandhu, J. Takakusu, tr., pp. 290‐292) A eulogy says: It is difficult to practice two teachings at once. He brought forth the secret meanings of the Compassion‐ ate Sage. In awesome Shastras like piled up clouds, Explaining the untransmitted doctrine, Revealing the Consciousness‐Only, complete in both the Nature and Appearance Schools. An eternal Dharma lamp, He lights a million generations. (Vajra Bodhi Sea #20, p. 2) 279
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Dharmakirti From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Dharmakirti Dharmakirti (circa 7th century), was an Indian scholar and one of the Buddhist founders of Indian philosophical logic. He was one of the primary theorists of Buddhist atomism, according to which, the only items considered to exist are momentary Buddhist atoms, and states of consciousness. Contents: 1) History 2) Writings 3) Philosophy 281
1) History Born around the turn of the 7th century, Dharmakirti was a South Indian Brahman and became a teacher at the famed Nalanda University, as well as a poet. He built on and re‐interpreted the work of the pioneer in Buddhist Logic, Dignaga, and was very influential among Brahman logicians as well as Buddhists. His theories became normative in Tibet and are studied to this day as a part of the basic monastic curriculum. 2) Writings _The ʺSeven Treatises on Valid Cognitionʺ 1_Sanbandhaparik hāvrtti (Analysis of Relations) 2_Pramānavinishchaya (Ascertainment of Valid Cognition) 3_Pramānavarttikakārika (Commentary on Dignagaʹs ʹCompendium of Valid Cognitionʹ) 4_Nyāyabinduprakarana (Drop of Reasoning) 5_Hetubindunāmaprakarana (Drop of Reasons) 6_Santānātarasiddhināmaprakarana (Proof of Othersʹ Continuums) 7_Vādanyāyanāmaprakarana (Reasoning for Debate) 3) Philosophy Dharmakirti presents most of his ideas in the guise of commentary on Dignagaʹs works, even if his theories go beyond what was presented by his predecessor. Some of his ideas, like his proof for the authority of the Buddhaʹs words, are innovations, for Dignaga considered language just as fallible as inference. 282
The Yogacara School of the Mahayana Buddhist Philosophy (trends and subdivisions) Evgueni A. Tortchinov (St. Petersburg State University, Russia) www.kheper.net/topics/Buddhism/Yogacara.html. The Buddhist philosophical school of Yogacara established in the frames of Mahayanistic Buddhism is one of the most complex and interesting phenomena of the philosophical trends of traditional India. It exerted notable influence not only on the formation of the Buddhist philosophical thinking in different regions of the Buddhist world (China, Tibet) but also on the native cultural tradition of those regions as well (it is rather enough to mention here the Neoconfucian branch of ʺxin xueʺ in its historical development from Wang Yangming up to such contemporary post‐Confucians as Liang Shuming and especially Xiong Shili). But the researches into this trend of thought have not been completed yet. Thus, in the Russian Buddhist studies (with exception of the classical works of Th. Stcherbatsky dedicated to the logico ‐ epistemological branch existing in the frames of Yogacara, practically there are no serious studies of this school and the scholarly translations of the principal texts of Yogacara are also lacking). Here I would like to discuss the question of the existence of different trends (subschools) within the frames of this philosophical school. It is usually conceived that the synonymous name for the title ʺYogacaraʺ (ʺschool of the practice of yogaʺ) is ʺVijnanavadaʺ (ʺthe doctrine of consciousnessʺ). Really, the maxim ʺAll three worlds are mind onlyʺ (its locus classicus is ʺDasa bhumika sutraʺ) expresses the principal doctrinal essence of this school as a teaching which examines mainly just the problems of mind and consciousness. But not all the representatives of this school used the term ʺVijnanavadaʺ for its self denomination (it is also true regarding another denominations of Yogacara which also are conceived to be synonymous – ʺVijnaptimatraʺ, ʺCittamatraʺ, etc.). It must be said that every outstanding representative of this school who established the subschool of his own preferred to use his own denomination of his new branch. This difference in self denominations reflected rather subtle distinctions between the trends developing in the frames of general paradigm of the Yogacara thinking. On this foundations it seams to be possible to define the following subtraditions of this school of the Buddhist philosophy: 1. Subtradition of Asanga the exact name of which is Cittamatra (ʺpsychical onlyʺ, or ʺmind onlyʺ); it can be qualified as psychological idealism. 2. Subtradition of Vasubandhu, developed by his disciples Sthiramati and especially, Dharmapala. The exact name of this trend is Vijnaptimatra (ʺConscious onlyʺ), or Vijnanavada (ʺThe doctrine of consciousnessʺ). It can be qualified as the Buddhist phenomenology of consciousness. 3. Subtradition of Dignaga – Dharmakirti originated from Vasubandhuʹs subtradition (as it is well known, Dignaga was a disciple of Vasubandhu, and Dharmakirti – that of Dharmapalaʹs) and its proper name is Sautrantika ‐ Yogacara. It can be qualified as the logico ‐ epistemological branch of the Yogacara school. 283
Cittamatra. For the brief definition of these subtraditions it can be said that Asangaʹs teaching contains in itself the tendency to onthological and metaphysical examination of the problem of Mind. It confirms the existence not only the ʺstore consciousnessʺ of Alaya‐vijnana which is the source of all empirical forms of consciousness and its contents as well but also supports the idea of the One and Only absolute Mind which is the same as the Dharma Body (Dharmakaya) of the Buddha itself. This Absolute Consciousness sometimes was even called ʺGreat Selfʺ, ʺHighest Selfʺ, or ʺPure Selfʺ (mahatman; paramatman; suddhatman). This tendency lead Asanga to the positions of the Tathagatagarbha theory represented first of all by the treatise ʺRatnagotravibhagaʺ (or ʺUttaratantraʺ). This work was included by the Tibetans to the texts of ʺMaitreya – Asangaʺ (but the Chinese tradition attributed it to a certain Saramati). It must be added that this tendency appeared in its purity first of all in the texts included by the Indo ‐ Tibetan tradition to the group of the so‐called Maitreya – Asanga works (the most clear example here is ʺMahayana sutralamkara sastraʺ). It is possible that the position of these works of Asanga had played an important role in the process of integration of the Yogacara ideas into the theory of the Tathagatagarbha. This integration has found its most perfect expression in the famous work of pseudo ‐ Asvaghosa ʺMahayana sraddhotpada sastraʺ (it is existed only in Chinese). This position of Asanga supplied the reality of only psychical and was quite in accordance with the teaching of such important doctrinal text as ʺLankavatara sutraʺ. It is rather important to note that in another works of Asanga (ʺYogacara bhumi sastraʺ, ʺMahayana samgraha sastraʺ, ʺAbhidharma samuccayaʺ) Asangaʹs position is looks like the position of his stepbrother Vasubandhu (but some differences still continue to exist). Vijnaptimatra. Subschool of Yogacara presented by Vasubandhu himself could be considered to be ʺclassicalʺ Yogacara; it was just in Vasubandhuʹs and his disciplesʹ works this school attained its perfect maturity. Unlike Asanga, Vasubandhu carefully reserves from the arguments of the onthological character having strong intention to keep himself exclusively in the frames of phenomenolology. Developing the concept of ʺalaya ‐ vijnanaʺ and the teaching about three levels of reality (trisvabhava), Vasubandhu tells nothing about any Absolute, or the Only Mind, he reserves himself from discussion about the essence, or nature of consciousness examining only its phenomena (laksana). Nevertheless, his disciples Sthiramati and Dharmapala transcended the limitations of the pure empiricism and phenomenologism of Vasubandhu distinctively proclaiming the idea of the non‐existence of the world outside consciousness (this position was accepted by the Chinese Yogacarins Xuan‐
zang and Kuai‐ji; Xuan‐zang was a pupil of Dharmapalaʹs disciples). It can be added here that in India such words as Vijnaptimatra and Cittamatra were pure synonyms but the Chinese tradition absolutely correctly distinguishes them. In the Chinese Buddhist parlance Cittamatra (wei xin) is the name for the Tathagatagarbha theory based schools whose intention was to investigate the very nature of Mind (cittatva; xin xing), and Vijnaptimatra (wei shi) is a designation of the school of classical Yogacara with a phenomenological approach to Mind; their intention was to investigate only phenomena (laksana; xiang) of consciousness and not its transcendental nature (that is 284
paratantra and not parinispanna level). Xuan‐zangʹs School of the Dharmic Phenomena (fa xiang zong) just was a representative of this philosophical attitude. Sautrantika ‐ yogacara of Dignaga ‐ Dharmakirti branch was called by this name because of some special features of this subschool. The philosophers of this trend together with the Sautrantikas of the Hinayana tradition taught that sensations contained an element of the real knowledge. But this position did not prevent some later representatives of this subschool (Prajnakaragupta, Ratnakirti) to be proponents of the extreme illusionism and solipsism (as well as of solipsism of this moment). The best example of such extreme idealistic ideas was the treatise of Ratnakirti (XI century) ʺRefutation of the existence of other mindsʺ (Santanantara dusana). The logico‐
epistemological trend of Yogacara rejected the doctrine of alaya‐vijnana but preserved the concept of vasanas, or ʺhabitual forceʺ (the notion designated the energy of habit which conditioned the intentions of mind to project its contents outward). The thinkers of this subschool were extreme nominalists and empiricists who underlined the theory of the momentary character of all existence and considered the contents of the present single perception (svalaksana) to be the only reality. In the same time they were extremely interested in the problems of the formal logic which was used by them in their rather successful and very active polemics with the Brahmanists. Master Dharmakirti ‐ 600‐660 AD, Exponent of the Madhyamika Prasangika. (Tibetan block print) It is important to note that all mentioned Yogacara trends are not purely philosophical but religious—philosophical. All Yogacara discourse takes place within the religious and doctrinal dimension of Buddhism. It is also determined by the fundamental Buddhist problem, that is living being and its liberation from the bondage of Samsara. Just the thinkers of this school worked out the detailed version of the Mahayanistic doctrine of Buddhaʹs Three Bodies (trikaya, fo san shen) and the teaching about ten stages of the bodhisattva path: the chapters on these themes not only constitute important structural units of such important Yogacara texts as Asangaʹs ʺMahayana samgrahaʺ or Vasubandhu—Xuan‐
zangʹs ʺVijnaptimatra siddhi sastraʺ but determine as well the contents and structure of such longest Buddhist philosophical treatise as Asangaʹs ʺStages of the Yogic Pathʺ (Yogacara bhumi sastra). Historically different subschools of the Yogacara tradition played unequal roles in the history of the Mahayanistic Buddhist thought. 285
Thus, the branch of Asanga (or Maitreya‐Asanga) which represented by itself a kind of synthesis between Yogacara and the theory of Tathagatagarbha was very fruitful for the Chinese tradition. And in Tibet it had only very limited popularity. Vasubandhuʹs Vijnaptimatra determined the character of the Chinese school of Faxiang zong founded by Xuan‐zang; it was known very well in Tibet as well. Logico‐
epistemological trend had no followers in China or in the Far East as such but it exerted a powerful influence on the formating of the logico‐theoretical tradition in Tibet. But in any case the school of Yogacara Buddhist philosophy is one of the most profound and subtle Indian philosophical system spreading with the Buddhist religion all along Eastern and Central Asia. And Xuan‐zang was the greatest exponent of this philosophical trend in China. This text was presented as a paper on the Second International Academic Conference on Xuanzang Studies (China, Shaanxi Province, town of Tongchuan ‐‐ March 22‐23, 1999). 286
Dignāga From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Dignāga Dignāga (5th century AD), was an Indian scholar and one
of the Buddhist founders of Indian philosophical logic. He was born into a Brahmin family in Simhavakta near Kanchi (Kanchipuram), and very little is known of his early years, except that he took as his spiritual preceptor Nagadatta of the Vatsiputriya school. This branch of Buddhist thought defended the view that there exists a kind of real personality independent of the elements or aggregates composing it. Among Dignagaʹs works there is Hetucakra (The wheel of reason), considered his first work on formal logic, advancing a new form of deductive reasoning. It may be regarded as a bridge between the older doctrine of trairūpya and Dignagaʹs own later theory of vyāpti which is a concept related to the Western notion of implication. Other works include The Treatise on the Objects of Cognition (Ālambana‐
parīk ā), The Treatise on Systems of Cognition (Pramāna‐samuccaya), and The Treatise on the Correct Principles of Logic (Nyāya‐mukha), produced in an effort to establish what were the valid sources of knowledge. 287
Dignaga From RangjungYesheWiki Dignaga (phyogs glang). Disciple of Vasubandhu, famed for his contributions to pramana, logic and epistemology. Counted among the Six Ornaments which Beautify Jambudvipa, he is the holder of the transmission of valid cognition, which brings an end to confusion about meaning. 288
Candrakīrti Candrakīrti Candrakīrti (600–c.650), (Tib. Dawa Drakpa) was abbot of Nalanda University and a disciple of Nāgārjuna and a commentator on his works. Candrakīrti was the most famous member of what the Tibetans came to call the Prasangika school of Madhyamaka. Chandrakirti [zla ba gragspa] transliterized) Candrakirti (Sanskrit) This 7th century Indian scholar of the Madhyamaka school of thought, defended Buddhapalita against Bhavaviveka and the consequent strong criticism of the latter’s acceptance of autonomous syllogism. As a result of Bhavavivekaʹs interpretation of Nagarjunaʹs view, a new school of Madhyamaka known as Prasangika (‘Consequentialist’). Chandrakirti’s works include the Prasannapada ‐ a Sanskrit term, meaning Clear Wordsʹ ‐ the highly acclaimed commentary on Nagarjuna’s Mulamadhyamakakarika) and the Madhyamakavatara (his supplement to Nagarjuna’s text) and its auto‐commentary. The Madhyamakavatara is used as the main sourcebook by most of the Tibetan monastic colleges in their studies of emptiness and the philosophy of the Madhyamaka school. Major Works Prasannapada (Clear Words) : A commentary on Nagarjunaʹs Mulamadhyamakakarika Madhyamakavatara (Entering the Middle Way) 289
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Shantideva From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Shantideva Shantideva (sometimes Śantideva) was an 8th‐century Indian Buddhist scholar at Nalanda University and an adherent of the Prasangika Madhyamaka philosophy. The Avaivartika Order of Chinese Madhyamika lineage maintains that there were two individuals from the same family who were given the name ʺShantidevaʺ: the founder of the Avaivartika Sangha in the 6th century and a later Shantideva who studied at Nalanda in the 8th century. Citations of archaeological discoveries supporting this thesis may be accessed through Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh, a respected online resource maintained by the Asiatic Society of Bangladesh, or through the Shantideva Society, which was founded by the Chan Ssu Lun regent of Avaivartika Order. Shantideva is particularly renowned as the author of the Bodhicaryavatara (sometimes also called the Bodhisattvacaryavatara). An English translation of the Sanskrit version of the Bodhicaryavatara is available online, as well as in print in a variety of translations, sometimes glossed as A Guide to the Bodhisattvaʹs Way Of Life or Entering the Path of Enlightenment. It is a long poem describing the process of enlightenment from the first thought to full buddhahood and is still studied by Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhists today. A commentary by Pema Chodron was published in 2005 as ʺNo Time To Loseʺ. An introduction to and commentary on the Bodhicaryavatara by The Dalai Lama called ʺA Flash of Lightning in the Dark of Nightʺ was printed in 1994. A commentary on the Patience chapter was provided by the Dalai Lama in ʺHealing Angerʺ 1997, and his commentaries on the Wisdom chapter can be found in ʺPracticing Wisdomʺ 2004. 291
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Padmasambhava From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Guru Rinpoche ‐ Padmasambhava statue ‐ near Kullu Padmasambhava (also Padmakara or Padma Raja) (Ch,Pinyin: Lian Hua Sheng Shang Shi; Tib: Pema Jungne, Wylie: padma ʹbyung gnas), in Sanskrit meaning ʺlotus‐
bornʺ, is said to have brought Tantric Buddhism to Tibet in the 8th century. In Bhutan and Tibet he is better known as Guru Rinpoche (ʺPrecious Masterʺ) where followers of the Nyingma school regard him as the second Buddha. 1) Life and Teachings According to tradition, Padmasambhava was incarnated as an 8 year old child appearing in a lotus blossom floating in Lake Dhanakosha, in the kingdom of Uddiyana, traditionally identified with the Swat Valley of present‐day Pakistan.[1] His special nature was recognized by the local king who married him to one of his daughters, Mandarava. Mandarava and Padmasambhavaʹs other main consort, Yeshe Tsogyal, developed into realised practitioners. Many thangkas and paintings show Padmasambhava in the middle between them. Padmasambhavaʹs ability to memorize and comprehend esoteric texts in a single hearing established his reputation as a master above all others. Accused of the mystical killing of an evil minister, he was banished from the court and freely chose to live in a cemetery district. Transiting various heavens and hells, he developed the power to transcend the cycle of birth and death, accomplishing the so‐called great transference. His fame became known to Trisong Deutson, the 38th king of Tibet (742‐
797), whose kingdom was beset by evil mountain deities. The king invited Padmasambhava to Tibet where he used his tantric powers to subdue the evil deities he encountered along the way, eventually receiving the Emperorʹs wife, identified with the dakini Yeshey Tsogyel, as a consort. This was in 293
accordance with the tantric principle of not eliminating negative forces but instead redirecting them to fuel the journey toward spiritual awakening. In Tibet he founded the first monastery in the country Samye Gompa, initiated the first monks, and introduced the people to the practice of Tantric Buddhism. Guru Rinpoche, the patron saint of Sikkim. The 118 foot statue in Namchi, South Sikkim; is the tallest statue of the saint in the world. In Bhutan he is associated with the famous Taktshang or ʺTigerʹs Nestʺ monastery built on a sheer cliff wall about 500m above the floor of Paro valley. He flew there from Tibet on the back of his favorite consort, Yeshe Tsogyal, who he transformed into a flying tigress for the purpose of the trip. Later he traveled to Bumthang district to subdue a powerful deity offended by a local king. Padmasambhavaʹs body imprint can be found in the wall of a cave at nearby Kurje Lhakhang temple. Padmasambhava also hid a number of religious treasures (termas) in lakes, caves, fields and forests of the Himalayan region to be found and interpreted by future tertöns or spiritual treasure finders. According to Tibetan tradition, the Bardo Thodol, (commonly referred to as the Tibetan Book of the Dead) was among these hidden treasures, subsequently discovered by a Tibetan terton, Karma Lingpa. 294
Yeshe Tsogyal This painting of Yeshe Tsogyal as an Awareness Holding (Rigdzin) Lama is part of a series of portraits of Rigdzins by an artist who lived between 1174 and 1293 AD. From Tibetart.com Yeshe Tsogyal lived more than 1200 years ago in Tibet. A Miraculous‐
Emanation‐Form, she arose in the form of a beautiful girl. She always wanted to do nothing but attain enlightenment. While still a pre‐teen girl, men from all over Tibet came and asked her to marry them. There was great rivalry among powerful men over who would get to marry her, so her parents sent her away who they wouldnʹt be harmed for promising her to one of the men instead of another. She was captured and raped and fought over until the kind ruler of Tibet took her to be one of his wives so she could be safe and the fighting would end. Soon thereafter, this king, Trisong Detsen, gave his entire kingdom to his lama Guru Rinpoche as an offering, and Yeshe Tsogyal was allowed to go become Guru Rinpocheʹs disciple. As a leading student and consort of Guru Rinpoche, she can be seen as the mother of Tibetan Buddhism. She was a perfect student with a infallible memory, and mysteriously hid his teachings in rocks, caves, lakes, and minds as treasures for the practitioners in the time they would be mostly useful. These spiritual treasures are still being found today. There are three translations of her wonderful biography available in English. references In the words of Tartang Tulku ʺher intelligence, perseverance, devotion, and pure motivation all were exceptional, even in the company of the many accomplished masters who were Padmasambhavaʹs disciples.ʺ At the end of her life she merged with all the Buddhas and went to Guru Rinpocheʹs pure land. Having accomplished great realization, as she left Tibet she said to her disciples: My compassion will never change or fade‐‐ to see me as gone is an eternalist viewpoint. I have not died, I have not gone anywhere. Pray to me even if I do not appear in person, I will give the desired siddhis to those with one‐pointed devotion. 295
Yeshe Tsogyal From RangjungYesheWiki The different versions of her biography give varying details about her place of birth, the names of her parents and so forth. In his Ocean of Wondrous Sayings to Delight the Learned Ones, Guru Tashi Tobgyal states that her fatherʹs name was Namkha Yeshe of the Kharchen clan and that she was born in Drongmochey of Drak. At first she was one of King Trisong Deutsenʹs queens but later was given to Padmasambhava to be his spiritual consort. During the empowerment of Assemblage of Sugatas, her initiation flower fell on the mandala of Kilaya. Through this practice she became able to tame evil spirits and revive the dead. She was the chief compiler of all the inconceivable teachings given by the great master Padmasambhava. Having remained in Tibet for two hundred years, she departed for the celestial realm of the Glorious Copper Colored Mountain, without leaving a corpse behind. In The Precious Garland of Lapis Lazuli, Jamgön Kongtrül says, ʺYeshe Tsogyal was a direct incarnation of Dhatvishvari Vajra Yogini in the form of a woman. She served Padmasambhava perfectly in that life, engaged in sadhana practice with incredible perseverance and attained a level equal to Padmasambhava himself, the ʹcontinuity adorned with inexhaustible body, speech, mind, qualities, and activities.ʹ Her kindness to the land of Tibet surpasses the imagination and her compassionate activity that is no different from Padmasambhavaʹs continues unceasingly.ʺ Yeshe Tsogyal means ʹVictorious Ocean of Wisdom.ʹ RY The dakini, Yeshe Tsogyal, wrote down and hid many of Padmasambhava’s teachings, including the Lamrim Yeshe Nyingpo. In his Ocean of Blessings, Jamgön Kongtrül says, ʺYeshe Tsogyal appeared as an emanation of Dhatvishvari Vajra Yogini and was in essence not different from the consorts of the five buddhas. In the dharmakaya aspect she is known as Samantabhadri or Prajnaparamita; in the sambhogakaya level she manifests in the form of the great consort Dhatvishvari; and therefrom she displays an inconceivable number of nirmanakayas, appearing in whichever way is necessary to influence whoever needs. In the pure lands she appears in the form of Sarasvati, the noble Goddess of Eloquence, and shows the skillful means for generating the light of wisdom in all aspects of knowledge, both the outer and inner levels of philosophy. In the presence of Buddha Shakyamuni, she emanated in the form of Ganga Devi and acted as the custodian of the treasury of the Mahayana teachings. In this snowy land (of Tibet) she took rebirth as a qualified dakini into the family line of the Kharchen clan and became a consort accepted by Guru Rinpoche. By the power of her immense training, she accomplished perfect recall. Traversing the secret path of Vajrayana, right to the letter, she achieved the supreme vajra abode of the twelfth bhumi. Perfecting the great power of realization of the natural Great Perfection, she arrived at the stage at the end of the four visions. Acting as the compiler of all Guru Rinpoche’s words, she visited everywhere in the central and surrounding lands of Tibet and concealed innumerable major and minor termas. At present she resides in the indestructible form of the rainbow body in the Palace of Lotus Light on (the continent of) Chamara where she is indivisible from the ‘never‐ending adornment wheels’ of Guru Rinpoche’s body, speech, mind, qualities, and activities, pervading as far as the reaches of space to benefit beings for as long as samsara exists.ʺ RY 296
Saraha From RangjungYesheWiki Saraha Saraha, Indian Mahasiddha and lineage master in the Mahamudra transmission. Also known as ʺThe Great Brahminʺ. Historically he is certainly one of the most elusive figures in the transmission of the Mahamudra lineage. No definite dates are known for him. Saraha is counted among the Eighty‐four Mahasiddhas of India and a brief biography of him can be found in the work of Abhayadatta. The ʺDohakosa‐Nama‐Caryagitiʺ or doha mdzod spyod paʹi glu is attributed to him. Several of these songs are translated into English. According to the famous historian, the 2nd Pawo Rinpoche Tsuglag Threngwa (1504‐1566) in his history of the Dharma chos byung mkhas paʹi dgaʹ ston, Saraha was born 360 years after the Buddhasʹs passing into Nirvana. He was born in a country called Vidharbha in the south, and was the youngest of five brothers. They all were very well versed in brahmanic lore. Saraha, having had great faith in the teachings of the Buddha, took ordination from the master Rahula and proceeded to become an exceptional scholar. One day, as he was walking in a forest, he came upon four brahmin girls who were celebrating a feast. Each of them offered him a skull cup full of alcohol after which he experienced the four kinds of joy. The girls then revealed themselves to be dakinis and granted him the four empowerments. One of them then said, ʺThis is your master!ʺ and as he looked up into the sky, the Bodhisattva Ratnamati appeared, along with Hayagriva. From them he then received the transmission of the Mahamudra teachings. He then proceeded to a market place where he came upon a woman making arrows. As soon as he saw her, all appearances took on a symbolic meaning. She also taught him Mahamudra and together they performed tantric practices. Once, as he was practicing with a consort in a forest, he asked her to boil him some radishes. Then he 297
entered a deep meditative absorption from which he did not emerge for 12 years. When he emerged from this samadhi, he said, ʺNow we should go to a solitary place!ʺ and then asked, ʺWhere is my boiled radish?ʺ His consort answered, ʺIf your mental desires are not yet cut off, taking your body to solitude will not help. What sort of meditation is that, that cannot even cut off the desire for radishes?ʺ Then she told him how he had been meditating for the last 12 years. ʺRight!ʺ he thought and proceeded to practice in various places with various consorts. He converted many critics of his lifestyle and non‐buddhists with miracles and sang many songs of realisation. The most famous ones are the ʺDoha for the Kingʺ, the ʺDoha for the Queensʺ and the ʺDoha for the Peopleʺ. Upon passing away, he did not leave a physical body behind but left for the realms of the dakinis. ʺDohaʺ is the name for a certain type of songs and their specific meter that were in frequent use in ancient India. Employing these, Saraha thus founded a tradition of expressing spiritual realisation and instruction in this particular form of song, that was to be adopted by many masters and was to continue for many centuries. A very well researched and superbly written work on Saraha has recently been published by Kurtis R. Schaeffer, ʺDreaming the Great Brahmin: Tibetan Traditions of the Buddhist Poet‐Saint Sarahaʺ, Oxford University Press Inc, USA, ISBN 0195173732. Also look at ʺA Song for the King: Saraha on Mahamudra Meditationʺ by Khenchen Thrangu Rinpoche and Michele Martin, Wisdom Publications, USA, ISBN 0861715039. 298
Saraha ‐ King of Mahasiddhas There is no certainty as to either the time or place of Sarahaʹs birth and life. Various accounts place him in periods centuries apart. This is not surprising but typical of much Indian hagiography, which was transmitted as legend rather than written down. What is certain is the profound influence that Saraha had upon Indian Buddhism. He was undoubtedly on the greatest mindʹs India has known. The emanation of a great bodhisattva, he was born a Brahmin and grew up very erudite. He quickly became a highly‐accomplished Buddhist master. He received many tantras from King Visukalpa, who had himself learnt them from thedakinis of Uddiyana. According to the scriptures, the historical Buddha Sakyamuni, just before his passing from this world, was requested to impart the most profound core of his instruction. He travelled to Vidarbha, in the South of India, and transmitted it to an assembly of bodhisattvas. He prophesied that these teachings would later be spread properly in India by five great beings: Manjughosa, Avalokitesvara, Saraha, Nagarjuna and Savari. Some centuries later, the first two emanated as masters Ratnamati and Sukhanatha, respectively. Saraha received these mahamudra teachings from them and in turn transmitted them to his great disciples Nagarjuna and Savari. Much of Sarahaʹs teaching was given as spiritual song (doha), in verse. Teaching through doha was thereafter preserved as a sacred method of instruction through subsequent generations of the Kagyu lineage. Of particular note were Sarahaʹs King Doha, Queen Doha and People Doha. Altea Publishing 12‐2006 299
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Mahasiddha Savari was guided to liberation by Nagarjuna, from whom he received the complete teachings of mahamudra. According to certain traditions, Savari later received this same quintessential dharma directly from the bodhisattvas Ratnamati and Sukhanatha, and also from Saraha, at the mountain retreat of Sriparvata (i.e. Nagarjunakonda in South India). Savari means ʺhill‐personʺ and the few biographical fragments we have of Savariʹs life describe him sometimes as a hunter and sometimes as a dancer. The hunter Savari is said to have met bodhisattva Avalokitesvara, who wagered his boast of being able to kill 100 animals with one arrow against a promise from Savari to abstain from hunting for one month. Avalokitesvara killed the 100 animals (which were in fact his emanations) with a single shot. After the month of not killing, Savari and his wife were shown their terrible future rebirth, created by all they had killed. Shocked to see their own future suffering in hell‐realms, they became devoted tantric Buddhists and each eventually reached liberation. They are often shown in consort form. His main disciple was Maitripa. Theirs seems to have been an extraordinary relationship, as the famous scholarly Maitripa received from this former hunter detailed clarifications on the profound meaning of the mahamudra scriptures (such as the Druppa Dedjin of mahamudra, the Nyingpo Kordruk, the twenty‐four sections of Amanasi, and the extensive and concise texts of the Doha). It shows the metamorphic power of these teachings. Altea Publishing ‐ 12‐2006 301
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Bodhisattva Ratnamati is seen, in some scriptures, as being a direct emanation of the Buddha. His companion, Sukhanatha, is thought of as an emanation of bodhisattva Vajrapani, guardian of tantric Buddhism. Other scriptures consider the former more as an emanation of Manjughosa and the latter as an emanation of Avalokitesvara. Whichever the case, Ratnamati and Sukhanatha were instrumental in bringing the teachings of mahamudra to our world. They are most famous as the sourceʹs of Sarahaʹs enlightened understanding. Ratnamati os considered more as a celestial being who inspired Saraha than as a flesh‐
and‐ blood human. This is why the bodhisattva is depicted born from a lotus.As his nature was only really known within the pure sphere of Sarahaʹs meditation, we have little historical or textual information concerning Ratnamati. This does not belittle the enormous respect felt for him as the link between the primordial Buddha Vajradhara and Saraha, making him first in the lineage of mahamudra teachings as they were handed down though the Kagyu transmission. Altea Publishing 12‐2006 303
Ratnamati From RangjungYesheWiki Ratnamati or Lodro Rinchen (blo gros rin chen), as he is called in Tibetan. A Bodhisattva who is considered to be an emanation of the Dharmakaya Buddha Vajradhara. Together with the Bodhisattva Sukhanatha, considered an emanation of Vajrapani, he is responsible for bringing the Mahamudra teachings into our human world. They transmitted the teachings of Mahamudra to the Indian Mahasiddha Saraha who passed them on to his human disciples. It passed from him to Nagarjuna, Shavaripa and then to Maitripa. This is one of the two Mahamudra lineages which Marpa the translator received in India. 304
Maitripa, ʺSeer of the Esssenceʺ is an important figure both in mahayana and vajra‐yana Buddhism. It is through him that Maitreya and Asangaʹs crucial work on Buddha nature, the Uttara Tantra Sastra, became widely followed in Tibet. He also transmitted the esoteric aspect of Buddha nature, embodied in the mahamudra teachings, which treat the topic of mind in great detail and provide a wide range of progressive, highly‐refined meditations. He was brought to his own enlightenment through mahamudra under Savari and, most importantly, became the guru of Marpa, the Tibetan forefather of the Kagyu lineage. It is said that he had been a student of Naropa, when the latter was head of Nalanda monastic university. Later he had spent time at Vikramasila, which was enjoying its zenith of fame. The great Atisa was its head of discipline. Despite knowing Maitripaʹs pre‐eminence as a scholar and yogin, he was obliged to expel him when his yogic activities (involving alcohol and a woman) caused gossip. The monastic community only realized their loss when Maitripa showed his realization by the miracle of using a small leather cushion as a boat to cross the nearby Ganges. Thereafter he lived the life of a mahasiddha and it was during that time that he took Savari as his guru. Such anecdotal stories are interesting but in many ways detract from the spiritual immensity of someone such as Maitripa, whose purity of mind and breadth of dharma were to leave an impact for thousands of years. We feel something of his immensity in the biography of his student, Marpa, who is overwhelmed with bliss at the mere thought of him. We do not find him in the famous ʹ84 Mahasiddhasʹ hagiographies of Abhayadatta under the name of Maitripa, but some people consider Avadhutipa (who is among the 84) to be another of his names. Altea Publishing 12‐2006 305
Maitripa From RangjungYesheWiki Maitripa Was a great indian scolar and yogi. He was important in the transmission of the Maha Mudra to the tibetan teachers Marpa and Kyungpo Neljor. Maitripa http://www.maitripa.org Maitripa, whose name means “He Whose Protection Is Lovingkindness,” lived in the 11th century. He was the guru of the famed saint Marpa the Translator, and counted the eminent Naropa among his contemporaries and teachers. Maitripa spent time at Nalanda during the time of the great Atisha, and at Vikramashila University at the height of its fame in India. He was renowned as a great scholar and yogin, but was eventually expelled from the monastic community of Vikrasmashila when his yogic practice began to cause confusion among the monks. He continued his practice as a mahasiddha, and is particularly famed for his transmission of the mahamudra teachings and his teaching of the Uttaratantra Shastra. Maitripa was also well known for his spontaneous songs of spiritual realization, one of which appears below. 306
Maitripa´s esential Mahamudra verses Translated into English by Nicole Riggs To innermost bliss, I pay homage! Were I to explain Mahamudra, I would say— All phenomena? Your own mind! If you look outside for meaning, youʹll get confused. Phenomena are like a dream, empty of true nature, And mind is merely the flux of awareness, No self nature: just energy flow. No true nature: just like the sky. All phenomena are alike, sky‐like. Thatʹs Mahamudra, as we call it. It doesnʹt have an identity to show; For that reason, the nature of mind Is itself the very state of Mahamudra (Which is not made up, and does not change). If you realize this basic reality You recognize all that comes up, all that goes on, as Mahamudra, The all‐pervading dharma‐body. Rest in the true nature, free of fabrication. Meditate without searching for dharma‐body— It is devoid of thought. If your mind searches, your meditation will be confused. Because itʹs like space, or like a magical show, There is neither meditation or non‐meditation, How could you be separate or inseparable? Thatʹs how a yogi sees it! Then, aware of all good and bad stuff as the basic reality You become liberated. Neurotic emotions are great awareness, Theyʹre to a yogi as trees are to a fire—FUEL! What are notions of going or staying? Or, for that matter, ʺmeditatingʺ in solitude? If you donʹt get this, You free yourself only on the surface. But if you do get it, what can ever fetter you? Abide in an undistracted state. Trying to adjust body and mind wonʹt produce meditation. Trying to apply techniques wonʹt produce meditation either. See, nothing is ultimately established. Know what appears to have no intrinsic nature. Appearances perceived: realityʹs realm, self‐liberated. Thought that perceives: spacious awareness, self‐liberated. 307
Non‐duality, sameness [of perceiver and perceived]: the dharma‐body. Like a wide stream flowing non‐stop, Whatever the phase, it has meaning And is forever the awakened state— Great bliss without samsaric reference. All phenomena are empty of intrinsic nature And the mind that clings to emptiness dissolves in its own ground. Freedom from conceptual activity Is the path of all the Buddhas. Iʹve put together these lines That they may last for aeons to come. By this virtue, may all beings without exception Abide in the great state of Mahamudra. Colophon: This was Maitripaʹs Essential Mahamudra Instruction (in Tibetan: Phyag rgya chen po tshig bsdus pa), received from Maitripa himself and translated by the Tibetan translator Marpa Chökyi Lodrö. 308
Mahasiddha Tilopa was one of the mightiest figures ever of vajrayana Buddhism. He is the Indian forefather of the Kagyu lineage and, in effect, Buddha Vajradhara in person. His life falls into four main periods: _Becoming heir to over 100 of the greatest gurus of his day, _Receiving teachings from the dakini, _Becoming Vajradhara and then _Teaching through enlightened miracles. There is an interesting parallel between the conception of Tilopa and that of the present Karmapa. In both cases, the parents turned to a holy man in their attempts to secure the child they wanted, had their wishes fulfilled by the birth of a son, born amid unusual signs, and then turned out to be the parents of a wonder child, whose life, even from an early age, was to be guided by the greatest spiritual teachers of his time. In Tilopaʹs case, the guidance came from the commanding appearance of a dakini (ʺsky‐flyerʺ ‐ female spiritual being), who manifested at important moments in his life to set him in the right direction. From the very outset, she made it clear to him that his real parents were not his worldly ones, but primordial wisdom and universal voidness: ʺ...your father is Cakrasamvara and your mother is Vajravarahi ..ʺ On her advice, he frequented monasteries and gradually took up a monkʹs life, eventually becoming an erudite scholar and an exemplary monk, known as Prajñabhadra. Following a vision, he discovered a text hidden in the base of a statue in the monastery. Not understanding its meaning he prayed to his dakini mentor, who sent him to the illustrious gurus Matangi and Saryapa to study tantra. Returning some time later to the monastery, he furthered his classical studies. Another critical encouter with his celestial dakini teacher initiated him further and definitively closed the gaps that existed between his theoretical knowledge and his experiential insight. Following this, he traveled widely in India, going from guru to guru until he had assimilated the very quintessence of each major strand of vajrayana teaching of the day. In particular, he received from Saryapa the teachings on purification of chakra 309
and subtle body, best known these days through their Tibetan name of tummo. From Nagarjuna he received the illusory body and radiant light teachings; from Lawapa the dream yoga; from Sukhasiddhi the teachings on life, death and between‐life states (bardo) and consciousness transference; from Indrabhuti teachings on insight (prajna) as the balancing of energies and from Matangi the teachings on resurrection of the dead body. Understanding the many parallels he found in the various traditions, and realizing that they each responded to the needs of different people at different stages of awakening, he eventually condensed their essence into four principal streams of teaching. It is from these, and in these, that we have the true meaning of the word Kagyu. In Tai Situpaʹs words: ʺTaking advantage of his new‐found freedom, Prajñabhadra practised meditation very intensively, traveling when necessary to receive the special techniques and guidance of most of the great teachers of his day: Guhya, Darika, Dingi and so on. The best of students, he mastered all their vital teachings and was able to appreciate their common points and their particularities. The lineages which he inherited all condense into four streams of transmitted wisdom. It is from these that the Kagyu tradition derives its name, for ʹKagyuʹ is a short form of the Tibetan theg pa gsum gy snying don bka bab kyi chos bzhiʹi gdams ngag bar ma ckad paʹi brgyud pa, which roughly means the unbroken lineage of profound and intimate guidance in the four sorts of transmitted mastery, the heart meaning of the three yanas. During the first period of his life, he acquired the name Tilopa, which means sesame‐grinder, as this was the identity in which he lived externally by day. His nights were spent working in the brothel of a wisdom dakini who had assumed the guise of a prostitute. Every instant of his life, in these mundane worlds, was devoted to the perfection of his inner spirituality. No fraction of awareness was without the awakened freshness of meditation. Thus, a marvellous phrase is to be found in this part of his biography: ʺFrom this moment on, not one moment of his life, day or night, was ever wasted.ʺ The Dakini of Uddiyana Having inherited the Buddhist lineages of his time, Tilopa was then advised by his guiding dakini to go to the impenetrable valleys of Uddiyana (Orgyen), where he would receive extraordinary transmissions of teaching. Uddiyana is believed by many to be the region of the Swat valley, near ancient Gilgit. Many valleys there are believed to have been impenetrable for ordinary humans and the havens of secret teachings, held in the wrathful custodianship of the dakini. In a veritable epopee, Tilopa worked and fought his way through earthquakes, hallucinations, demon army attacks and other phenomena and was rewarded by becoming heir to some very special teachings; the heart teachings of the dakinis. These included the nine secret dakini teachings and the four wish‐fulfilling‐gem teachings. 310
The 6 Yogas Annex: different ways of listing the four transmissions 1. According to Marpaʹs biography of Tilopa topic Sanskrit name Indian guru Illusory body / (Guhyasamaja tantra) / mind essence Mayakaya Nagarjuna & Matangipa Dream yoga svapna Caryapa Clear light prabhasvara Lavapa Heat yoga / (Chakrasamvara) / (Hevajra) candali Dakini Subhagini 2. According to Gyaltangpa topic Sanskrit name Indian guru Mahamudra, yuganaddha (& Chakrasamvara tantra) Mahamudra, yuganaddha & Nagarjuna, Ratnamati & Chakrasamvara tantra Matangipa Illusory body, Dream yoga (& Mahamaya tantra) Mayakaya, mahamaya Clear light, (Hevajratantra) & Heat yoga prabhasvara, hevajra & candali Vajrapani, Dombi Heruka & Lavapa ʺ4 Seatsʺ and Transference Catuhpitha & samkranti Vajapani, Saraha, Luipa, Darikapa, Dengipa svapna and Caryapa 3. According to Wangchuk Gyaltsenʹs biography of Tilopa a. general topic Sanskrit name Indian guru Mahamudra Mahamudra Vajapani, Saraha, Luipa, Darikapa, Dengipa Father tantra pitr‐tantra Nagarjuna, Ratnamati & Matangipa Clear light prabhasvara Virupa, Dombi Heruka, Bhinasa, Indrabhuti & Lavapa Mother tantra matr‐tantra Sumati, Shinglopa, Thaglopa & Karnaripa b. special (6 yogas) topic Sanskrit name Indian guru llusory body yoga & Mayakaya & pitr‐tantra father tantra Nagarjuna Heat yoga & Dream yoga candali & svapna Krsnacaryapa Clear light & non‐dual tantra prabhasvara & advaita‐tantra Lavapa Transference, samkranti, antarabhava & intermediate state and matr‐tantra mother tantra 311
Sumati Samantabhadri (dakini) 312
Mahamudra Mahamudra means ʹGreat Sealʹ or ʹGreat Mudraʹ. It is a term predominantly used in the Kagyu tradition of Tibetan Buddhism to denote its deepest teachings. These draw upon instructions from all levels of Buddhism, from sutra through to tantra, to provide a range of approaches to enlightenment suited to various peopleʹs needs. Mahamudra enables one to realise mindʹs innate purity, clarity and perfection, summed up by the term buddha nature, the topic of the third and final phase of the Enlightened Oneʹs teaching. Buddha nature theory is excellently presented in the masterly work of Maitreya and Asanga ‐ the mahayana uttara tantra shastra ‐ and mahamudra is effectively the practical implementation of the theory found in this text. Once the pristine nature of mind is known, it is found to be omnipresent. Ther is no one or no thing not stamped with its seal. Hence the name Great Seal. Alternatively, all things are an expression of mindʹs primordial nature, just as all mudra are expressions of the body. In the secret teachings of tantra ‐which it would be inappropriate to discuss here ‐ there are four types of mudra, of which mahamudra is the greatest. It is hard to talk about mahaumudra: the topic is deep and primarily experiential. The experiences are beyond words and need to be cultivated under the guidance of a truly qualified lineage master. A few areas will be discussed in these pages: A two part essay on Mahamudra and Dzogchen, from Ken Holmesʹ forthcoming book (copyright 1999 Konemann pubs. Germany, no title yet) a reminder of the various tantras and yogic practices used at times in the Kagyu tradition to help the disciple attain realization of mahamudra. These are presented as the four great transmissions that are Tilopaʹs legacy to the Kagyu lineage Mahamudra ‐ Part 1 The summit of the Buddhaʹs teaching is known as the Great Perfection in the Nyingma school of Tibetan Buddhism and as the Great Seal (mahamudra) in the Kagyu school. These are one and the same goal, under different names, and each tradition follows a similar path to attain it. Their paths represent the practical application of the zenith of Buddhist philosophy — a third ‘greatʹ — the Great Middle Way (madhyamaka). The latter makes it clear that voidness and the apparent world are one and the same thing. Voidness is neither a spiritual state of blankness nor a mere rejection of reality but wisdom: the clarity of the awakened mind which is aware that no thing is real in its own right but only as an illusion created by the coming together of many temporary, inter‐dependent factors. How can one make this wisdom‐voidness a reality in practice? Both traditions point to two ways, the first progressive and the second more or less instantaneous. Despite the obvious attraction of the second, it is the fortunate lot of one disciple among hundreds of thousands, as the great Tibetan yogin Milarepa found to his chagrin. Having met a master of the Great Perfection tradition, who boasted of the ease with which its teachings could carry Milarepa to enlightenment, in just a matter of days, he was left by the master to meditate. Delighted to encounter such an easy 313
practice, he took the masterʹs statement at face vale and meditated — but a little too relaxedly — for some days with little result. The master returned, to realise that Milarepa would need to take a slightly longer road to enlightenment and so sent him away to the Great Seal guru Marpa. But there are also other stories, of the fortunate few who, upon hearing a few profound, carefully‐chosen words from their teacher or simply by being in their presence, awaken in great simplicity to buddhahood. This either happens early on in life, upon a first encounter with a guru, due to all the purification work done in former lives, or else it is the crowning moment of whatever time is needed to finish off the purification accomplished in this life. In the case of Naropa, the final awakening came with the blow of his guruʹs shoe, after twelve years of intense training at his feet. The situation is also summed up in an apocryphal story from Atisaʹs life. Most days he would see a woman, crying some days, laughing on others. He asked her why and if she was mentally distressed. No, I am not, but you all are and so I cry. Why? Oneʹs own mind has been Buddha since time immemorial. Beings do not recognize it. Such a small mistake ! — but through it hundreds of thousands of beings enter into incredible muddle and complications. Although their own mind is Buddha, they suffer needlessly. I cry not being able to bear this. But then sometimes I laugh because, by simply recognizing this small, basic error, and recognizing the Buddha within, any one could be easily freed. Both traditions try to help people reach the state of faith and openness required for this ‘simpleʹ recognition to take place. In the meantime, they stress the absolute need, for most people, of properly completing a thorough preparation before entering into the very powerful teachings which reveal the truth about reality and the human mind. There are two main stages to this preparation. The first involves reflecting about life until a newer and franker vision of existence is in place. This training in the four ways of transforming the mind focuses on the rare potential of a human mind, on our fragile transience through mortality, on the power of oneʹs actions to condition the way one experiences reality and, finally, upon the presence of suffering throughout worldliness. The disciple then proceeds to the four extraordinary foundation practices. The first involves cementing Buddhist faith and altruistic motivation. Using precise visualizations, one takes the six fold Refuge of vajrayana as one makes prostrations. This is usually repeated at least 100,000 times. At the beginning and end of each practice session, the disciple takes the bodhisattva vows. The second foundation consists of a profound method for freeing the mind of the most part of its unhealthy conditioning, due to the imprints of past negative karma. This is achieved through the Vajrasattva meditation, and 100,000 repetitions of the corresponding mantra, the deep meaning of which is one of always remaining within the sphere of ultimate purity. Purification is followed by a discovery of the joy of freeing the mind of its clinging and entering totally into a state of dedication to enlightenment and working for the welfare of others. This is achieved through 100,000 practices of mandala practice: making both real and highly‐symbolic offerings. The fourth foundation practice is that of guru yoga. This is, in many ways, much more internalized, drawing the mind into a state of openness and receptivity towards its own true, enlightened nature. The revelation of this true nature must, of 314
necessity, come at first through an external source which can point out and confirm that the recognition of the Buddha within has been accurate and not just one of many other beautiful meditation experiences. The presence of a guru of an authentic Great Seal or Great Perfection lineage ensures this and this stage of preparation involves making a pure and sacred bond between the disciple, guru and lineage. Mahamudra ‐ Part 2 Having thoroughly prepared the ground of their minds, through the various preliminary practices, the only way to discover the vast wisdom, voidness, compassion and power to help others which is within the mind is through skilful meditation. Whatever form this meditation takes, it is always done with the total conviction that all is already pure and perfect within. All that remains is to remove the psychological blockages preventing one from access to the innate perfection. The path of practice has two main areas of activity. One, called the ultimate stage, is a journey into the depths of mind itself. Having established total stillness and control, one illuminates the spotlight of inner wisdom, as mind examines mind in great subtlety. This eternal voyage of discovery needs expert guidance from a guru. From it will emerge a recognition of dharmakaya, i.e. the fusion of voidness and wisdom which lies at the very core of mind. The other area of activity — the creative stage — works not with the noumenon of mind but with its phenomenal manifestations. One needs to discover, in the everyday world of events, people, feelings, thoughts and reactions the same purity that has been discovered when alone on the meditation cushion. This process is usually aided by learning, through visualisation, to identify with one or another of the many yidams or buddhas. These yidam and guru‐yoga practices each unblock specific areas of the relative mind. Each contains its own section of ultimate stage meditation. This creative stage of practice will, at enlightenment, give rise to all the relative Buddha‐activity expressed through sambhogakaya and nirmanakaya, during which one manifests beneficially in the lives of all those with whom there has been a past connection. Having worked sufficiently on both creative and ultimate areas of meditation, the time will come when the meditator is stable and clear enough to be aided into a recognition of the Buddha within. But even then, having recognized primordial purity, he or she will need to continue with both stages of practice for many years. Unlike an intellectual realization, which can lead to wide and sweeping changes immediately (such as Newtonʹs sudden understanding of gravity as the apple fell), realizing oneʹs Buddha nature is a direct experience which, after the first glimpse, is soon lost and needs to be constantly rediscovered as it is stifled again and again by the habitual activities of mind. The glimpses become more frequent, longer lasting and generally more stable. The journey to their total stabilization has four main stages, known as the four yogas. The first yoga is called one‐pointedness. One realises that to remain calm, relaxed and aware of mindʹs true, void nature is the one medicine which cures all mental ills. While cultivating experiences of bliss, non‐thought and crystal clarity, one continuously lengthens the time that can be spent in deep meditation. The effects of the latter become more and more widespread, changing the quality of waking life and dreams. 315
The second yoga, called lack of complication, involves establishing the rootless, baseless nature of all things the mind experiences. This resolves clinging to any thing or to any intellectual reference point and reveals the true value of the Buddhaʹs teaching. The third yoga, called one taste, destroys the habit of feeling oneʹs mind as something other than the external universe it experiences. The subjective and objective feelings both dissolve into the one ocean in which everything manifests through interdependence and hence no thing has own nature. The fourth yoga is called non‐meditation. This is the final stage of the journey to total enlightenment, in which all effort to meditate and become a Buddha has to cease, in the total acceptance of a Buddhahood which already exists, spontaneously. It is the final transcendence of the conceptual mind, with its mania for interpreting events and defining the person and the personʹs world. Mahamudra can also be described through its stages of basis, path and fruition. Altea Publishing ‐ 12‐2006 316
Tilopa (988‐1069) Tilopa was born the king of a province in India. Although as a king he had always possessed wealth and title, his mind was not completely satisfied, and he left his kingdom to find a teacher of the Dharma. He searched India in all directions for such a master. Nagarjuna, knowing that Tilopa was searching for a teacher and would soon be approaching, pretended that he was stuck in the middle of a very wide river. When Tilopa came to that place, he asked Nagarjuna what he was doing. Nagarjuna answered that he wanted to cross the river but was stuck in the middle, unable to cross and unable to return. Tilopa promised that he would carry him to the other side. Nagarjuna replied that since he was very big and Tilopa was very small, how could he possibly be able to carry him to the other side of such a huge river? Tilopa, however, was intent upon keeping his word, and because of his determination was able to carry Nagarjuna to the other side. After Tilopa helped Nagarjuna cross the river, Nagarjuna said, ʺOh courageous son of a noble family, it is your courage and determination that enabled us to cross the wide river!ʺ Nagarjuna predicted that because Tilopaʹs courage and willpower were so effective, he would be able to work to benefit living beings, and told him to return to his kingdom and become a king once again. When Tilopa returned to his kingdom to look after his people he found his country in a state of crisis and engaged in a war with another powerful state in India. Because Tilopa was king, his subjects feared that they would be unable to defeat their enemy as Tilopa seemed so small, weak, and powerless. Tilopa made a public pronouncement in which he told his people that they need not fear; he knew of a way the enemy could be defeated without bloodshed. 317
Tilopa went out to defend his country. The army marching against his kingdom was great in number and intent upon victory. Alone, Tilopa approached the forest where the army was encamped. When the soldiers saw him approach, they prepared to charge; Tilopa instantly transformed all the trees in the forest into soldiers ready to follow his command. When Tilopa ordered, ʺLook at the enemy!ʺ all the trees that were transformed into soldiers gazed at the enemy. When Tilopa ordered, ʺCharge!ʺ they all ran toward the enemy. Since there were uncountable trees, the trees were transformed into uncountable soldiers whose numbers were so frightening that the enemy fled the country without a battle. In this way, Tilopaʹs prediction to his people, that he could defeat the enemy without bloodshed, came to pass. Next, Tilopa went to the northern part of the country to practice the Dharma. There he obtained teachings from the dakinis and went to meditate in a cave. After making a commitment to meditate there for twelve years, he chained both his legs together so he would not be able to come out of the cave. In this way he meditated for twelve years. After twelve years passed, the chains that were tied around Tilopaʹs legs broke of themselves; he had achieved some realization as a result of his diligent meditation but had not yet accomplished the ultimate realization of Vajradhara. He wished to go out and wander and lead the simple life of a siddha. However, the dakinis were hesitant to let Tilopa leave his cave and his practice. As it was not proper for him to disobey, he thought he would try to influence them by demonstrating his realization. He picked up a fish in his hand and transferred its consciousness out of its body. The dakinis witnessing this saw that he was a highly realized being and gave him permission to wander as a simple siddha, just as he wished. His goal was to travel to the eastern part of Bengal and find Nagarjuna. When Tilopa was abiding in a certain cave, Nagarjuna sent the dakini Matongha to give him teachings. When Matongha appeared, Tilopa inquired about Nagarjuna and was told that Nagarjuna was not in the human realm at that time but was giving teachings in the god realm. Matongha also told Tilopa that Nagarjuna knew Tilopa would be in this particular cave and had sent her to give him teachings. As Nagarjuna requested, Tilopa received teachings from Matongha. During this time, Matongha noticed that because Tilopa had been king and of royal caste, his mind possessed a strong pride that hindered his progress, and she told him that his arrogance must be removed. Tilopa was given instructions to go to a certain village to seek out a woman there who was a prostitute and to work for her. The woman worked during the day making oil out of sesame seed and worked at night as a prostitute. As he was instructed, he worked for the woman during the day by pounding sesame seed, and during the night by soliciting her customers. In this way Tilopa lived as the prostituteʹs helper. One day as Tilopa was pounding sesame seeds in the village, he realized ultimate buddhahood, the Vajradhara aspect of enlightenment. As a sign of his achieving complete realization, Tilopa levitated to the height of seven royal palm trees while still holding a mortar and pestle in his hands and continuing to grind sesame seeds. The news that Tilopa hovered in the air at the height of seven royal palm trees quickly spread through the village. 318
When the prostitute who employed Tilopa heard that someone was levitating very high in the sky, she hastened to see who it was. To her surprise she discovered that it was her employee in the sky, and that he was still working for her, even as he hovered, by continuing to grind sesame seeds with a mortar and pestle. She felt ashamed to have given such work to a highly realized being, and with great regret, she confessed this to Tilopa and requested him to accept her as his student. As she mentally made this request, Tilopa threw a flower down to her from the sky. The flower hit her on the head, instantaneously causing her to reach complete realization. She then levitated to the same height as Tilopa. So once again, the news went out and quickly spread among a great number of people. When the news reached the king, he went out himself to witness the blessed event along with all his people. With everyone assembled below, Tilopa sang a song of the Dharma, using the example of the sesame seed in his teaching. In his song, Tilopa explained that although a sesame seed contains oil, it cannot produce oil by itself; without the hard work of grinding the seed, the oil cannot be extracted. So although buddha nature is within every living being, without the hard work of practicing the Dharma, there is no way to realize our inherent buddha nature. As Tilopa sang this song, the king and all his people immediately understood his teaching and came to complete realization. At the instant of their enlightenment, the village appeared to be momentarily empty of all its inhabitants. After that day, Tilopa became very famous. His great renown came about not only because of his profound realization, but also because, as he sang in many of his songs, he had no human guru. This was to show that he had received his transmission directly from the Vajradhara aspect of enlightenment. This teaching on the Life of Tilopa was given by Khenpo Karthar Rinpoche at KTD, Woodstock, NY, March 25‐30, 1986. It was translated by Chojor Radha, and edited by Tina Armond. 319
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Tilopa (989‐1069) Tilopa received the the transmission of enlightened wisdom directly from the source of enlightenment itself, Vajradhara Tilopa is one of the most authoritative and renowned Indian mahasiddhas and masters of mahamudra and tantra. He received various tantric teachings and unified them and transmitted to his disciple, Naropa. Tilopa, known as Prajnabhadra, was born in the town of Chativavo (Chittagong, which is now in Banladesh), into the Brahmin caste. His birthplace is also recorded to be Jagora (in eastern Bengal, India?). His father was Pranyasha and mother, Kashi. When he grew up he learned all the doctrinal treatises of Brahminism. While he was wandering in various places asking for alms, he finally came to a temple and, seeing that the monks lived a life of renunciation, he entered the monastic life and became a learned in the Tripitaka, the three collections of the teachings of the Buddha. He was empowered into the tantric mandalas by his master, and learned acharyas, and engaged very diligently in meditation practices on those instructions at different places, such as Somapuri. After a short time, he had a unique experience and great wisdom was born within him from this realization. He received further teachings from different persons and had many sacred visions and made great accomplishments over the years. Tilopa received teachings and transmissions especially the ʺFour Special Transmission Lineagesʺ from great tantric masters of India. Among his many masters, the Great Brahmin Saraha, Acharya Nagarjuna, and Matangi played very important roles in his development. For 12 years, Tilopa devoted himself totally to his practices and attained realization. It is also said that from ultimate point of view, Tilopa had no human teachers and he received the full mahamudra and vajrayana transmissions directly from Buddha Vajradhara. According to Taranatha, Tilopa practised with a ksetra yogini, the daughter of a sesame seed pounder, and the monks expelled him from the monastery. Because he was a former Brahmin Pandita and Buddhist monk, he had lost all his opportunities for 321
wealth and fame. He pursued the work of a sesame seed pounder in the town. He then came to be known as ʺTillipa,ʺ the sesame pounder. He received various teachings from dakinis in the land of Oddiyana. He then continued to pound sesame seeds in Oddiyana until the sesame became like a butter broth. Through the methods that he received from his Guruʹs instructions, his body and mind was also pounded and synchronized through this process, until he realized the co‐emergent wisdom. He also worked at a brothel for Dharima, a prostitute, in Bengal, as instructed by his guru Matangi. He attained great mahamudra realization through practicing in this situation. Through such diligence and skilful practice of mahamudra and tantra, he finally attained the complete siddhi or accomplishment. Tilopa then started to teach and benefit sentient beings for many years. He started to pass on what he had realized, in the form of a song to the gatherings in towns. At first, everyone was usually full of doubt. Hundreds of thousands of people came to see the acharya in a town in Bengal on one occassion. Tilopa appeared with his consort in the sky pounding sesame seeds. When each person in the audience asked questions, Tilopa putting his experiences into song, answered each question in this way. It is said that many of those who realized the meaning of the songs attained siddhis. Thus he became renowned as the Siddha Tillipa, and is one of the eighty‐four mahasiddhas of India. After many years of benefiting beings and guiding his disciples for a long time, he departed for the enlightened realms without leaving his physical body. His two most well known students were Naropa and Lalitavajra. His Golden Rosary lineage heir was Naropa. Four Special Transmission Lineages The indirect lineage of the Kagyu are the Four Special Transmission Lineages that were combined and transmitted by Tilopa Tilopa received, condensed into one and transmitted four important transmission lineages in addition to his direct revelation from Vajradhara. Called the ʺfour special transmission lineages,ʺ this transmission is known as the indirect lineage. There are slightly different ways of looking at the details of the four special transmission lineages, including the two main sources reviewed here: the Third Karmapa Rangjung Dorje and Jamgon Kongtrul The Great. The four special transmission lineages, according to the view of Third Karmapa, Rangjung Dorje, are: 1) Nagarjuna, Àryadeva, Chandrakirti, and Matangi are the southern special transmission; 2) Dombipa, Vinapa, Lvabapa (Kambala), and Indrabhâti are the western lineage; 3) Luyipa, Dengipa, Darikapa, and Sukhadhari are the northern lineage; 4) Sukhamahasiddhi, Thanglopa, Shinglopa, and Karnaripa are the eastern lineage. Jamgon Kongtrul explains that these four directions refer to the places from where these teachers came or where they manifested their activities. According to Jamgon Kongtrul the Great, the four special transmission lineages, are: 1) the inner heat (San. candali; Tib. gtum mo) yoga lineage from Caryapada; 2) the illusory body (San. mayadeha; Tib. sgyu lus) and the luminosity (San. prabhasvara; 322
Tib. ʹod gsal) yoga lineage from Nagarjuna; 3) the dream (San. svapna; Tib. rmi lam) yoga lineage from Lvabapa (Kambala); and 4) the bardo (San. antarabhava; Tib. bar do) and the ejection of consciousness (San. samkranti; Tib. ʹpho ba) yoga lineage from Sukhasiddhi. Tilopa also inherited other transmission lineages, such as the practice of the prajña consort (Tib. shes rab ma) from Indrabhuti; and the transference of consciousness (Tib. ʹpho ba grong ʹjug) from Matangi. In addition to these sources, the view of Pawo Tsuklak Trengwa, second in the line of eminent Pawo incarnations and the ʺmoon‐like heart sonʺ of the Eighth Gyalwang Karmapa, Mikyo Dorje, is primarily in accord with the Third Karmapaʹs, though there are some differences. See his Religious History: Banquet For The Scholars 740‐744 (Beijing 1985). Kagyu Office 12‐2006 323
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Tilopa Teachings of Tilopa Song of Mahamudra Sesame Vajra Doha Perceiving Six Words of Advice from Tilopa Tilopaʹs Mahamudra Instruction to Naropa 325
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Tilopaʹs Mahamudra Instruction to Naropa in Twenty Eight Verses (translation by Keith Dowman ‐ reproduced with kind permission) Homage to the Eighty Four Mahasiddhas! Homage to Mahamudra! Homage to the Vajra Dakini! Mahamudra cannot be taught. But most intelligent Naropa, Since you have undergone rigorous austerity, With forbearance in suffering and with devotion to your Guru, Blessed One, take this secret instruction to heart. Is space anywhere supported? Upon what does it rest? Like space, Mahamudra is dependant upon nothing; Relax and settle in the continuum of unalloyed purity, And, your bonds loosening, release is certain. Gazing intently into the empty sky, vision ceases; Likewise, when mind gazes into mind itself, The train of discursive and conceptual thought ends And supreme enlightenment is gained. Like the morning mist that dissolves into thin air, Going nowhere but ceasing to be, Waves of conceptualization, all the mindʹs creation, dissolve, When you behold your mindʹs true nature. Pure space has neither color nor shape And it cannot be stained either black or white; So also, mindʹs essence is beyond both color and shape And it cannot be sullied by black or white deeds. The darkness of a thousand eons is powerless To dim the crystal clarity of the sunʹs heart; And likewise, eons of samsara have no power To veil the clear light of the mindʹs essence. Although space has been designated ʺemptyʺ, In reality it is inexpressible; Although the nature of mind is called ʺclear lightʺ, Its every ascription is baseless verbal fiction. The mindʹs original nature is like space; It pervades and embraces all things under the sun. Be still and stay relaxed in genuine ease, Be quiet and let sound reverberate as an echo, Keep your mind silent and watch the ending of all worlds. The body is essentially empty like the stem of a reed, And the mind, like pure space, utterly transcends the world of thought: Relax into your intrinsic nature with neither abandon nor control ‐ 327
Mind with no objective is Mahamudra ‐ And, with practice perfected, supreme enlightenment is gained. The clear light of Mahamudra cannot be revealed By the canonical scriptures or metaphysical treatises Of the Mantravada, the Paramitas or the Tripitaka; The clear light is veiled by concepts and ideals. By harboring rigid precepts the true samaya is impaired, But with cessation of mental activity all fixed notions subside; When the swell of the ocean is at one with its peaceful depths, When mind never strays from indeterminate, non‐conceptual truth, The unbroken samaya is a lamp lit in spiritual darkness. Free of intellectual conceits, disavowing dogmatic principles, The truth of every school and scripture is revealed. Absorbed in Mahamudra, you are free from the prison of samsara; Poised in Mahamudra, guilt and negativity are consumed; And as master of Mahamudra you are the light of the Doctrine. The fool in his ignorance, disdaining Mahamudra, Knows nothing but struggle in the flood of samsara. Have compassion for those who suffer constant anxiety! Sick of unrelenting pain and desiring release, adhere to a master, For when his blessing touches your heart, the mind is liberated. KYE HO! Listen with joy! Investment in samsara is futile; it is the cause of every anxiety. Since worldly involvement is pointless, seek the heart of reality! In the transcending of mindʹs dualities is Supreme vision; In a still and silent mind is Supreme Meditation; In spontaneity is Supreme Activity; And when all hopes and fears have died, the Goal is reached. Beyond all mental images the mind is naturally clear: Follow no path to follow the path of the Buddhas; Employ no technique to gain supreme enlightenment. KYE MA! Listen with sympathy! With insight into your sorry worldly predicament, Realizing that nothing can last, that all is as dreamlike illusion, Meaningless illusion provoking frustration and boredom, Turn around and abandon your mundane pursuits. Cut away involvement with your homeland and friends And meditate alone in a forest or mountain retreat; Exist there in a state of non‐meditation And attaining no‐attainment, you attain Mahamudra. A tree spreads its branches and puts forth leaves, But when its root is cut its foliage withers; 328
So too, when the root of the mind is severed, The branches of the tree of samsara die. A single lamp dispels the darkness of a thousand eons; Likewise, a single flash of the mindʹs clear light Erases eons of karmic conditioning and spiritual blindness. KYE HO! Listen with joy! The truth beyond mind cannot be grasped by any faculty of mind; The meaning of non‐action cannot be understood in compulsive activity; To realize the meaning of non‐action and beyond mind, Cut the mind at its root and rest in naked awareness. Allow the muddy waters of mental activity to clear; Refrain from both positive and negative projection ‐ leave appearances alone: The phenomenal world, without addition or subtraction, is Mahamudra. The unborn omnipresent base dissolves your impulsions and delusions: Do not be conceited or calculating but rest in the unborn essence And let all conceptions of yourself and the universe melt away. The highest vision opens every gate; The highest meditation plumbs the infinite depths; The highest activity is ungoverned yet decisive; And the highest goal is ordinary being devoid of hope and fear. At first your karma is like a river falling through a gorge; In mid‐course it flows like a gently meandering River Ganga; And finally, as a river becomes one with the ocean, It ends in consummation like the meeting of mother and son. If the mind is dull and you are unable to practice these instructions, Retaining essential breath and expelling the sap of awareness, Practicing fixed gazes ‐ methods of focusing the mind, Discipline yourself until the state of total awareness abides. When serving a karmamudra, the pure awareness of bliss and emptiness will arise: Composed in a blessed union of insight and means, Slowly send down, retain and draw back up the bodhichitta, And conducting it to the source, saturate the entire body. But only if lust and attachment are absent will that awareness arise. Then gaining long‐life and eternal youth, waxing like the moon, Radiant and clear, with the strength of a lion, You will quickly gain mundane power and supreme enlightenment. May this pith instruction in Mahamudra Remain in the hearts of fortunate beings. 329
Colophon Tilopaʹs Mahamudra Instruction to Naropa in twenty Eight Verses was transmitted by the Great Guru and Mahasiddha Tilopa to the Kashmiri Pandit, Sage and Siddha, Naropa, near the banks of the River Ganga upon the completion of his Twelve Austerities. Naropa transmitted the teaching in Sanskrit in the form of twenty eight verses to the great Tibetan translator Mar pa Chos kyi blos gros, who made a free translation of it at his village of Pulahari on the Tibet ‐ Bhutan border. This text is contained in the collection of Mahamudra instruction called the Do ha mdzod brgyad ces bya ba Phyag rgya chen poʹi man ngag gsal bar ston paʹi gzhung, which is printed at the Gyalwa Karmapaʹs monastery at Rumtek, Sikkim. The Tibetan title is Phyag rgya chen poʹi man ngag, or Phyag rgya chen po rdo rjeʹi tsig rkang nyi shu rtsa brgyad pa. This translation into English has been done by Kunzang Tenzin in 1977, after transmission of the oral teaching by Khamtrul Rinpoche in Tashi Jong, Kangra Valley, India. 330
Tilopa Sesame Vajra Doha Sesame oil is the essence. Although the ignorant know that is is in the sesame seed, They do not understand the way of cause, effect and becoming, And therefore are not able to extract the essence, the sesame oil. Although innate coemergent wisdom Abides in the heart of all beings, If it is not shown by the guru, it cannot be realized. Just like sesame oil that remains in the seed, it does not appear. One removes the husk by beating the sesame, And the sesame oil, the essence appears. In the same way, the guru shows the truth of tathata, And all phenomena become indivisible in one essence. Kye ho! The far‐reaching, unfathomable meaning Is apparent at this very moment. O how wondrous! Thus, in absolute truth, there is no path to be practiced, no difference between what is to be abandoned and the antidote, and nothing abandoned or realized in fruition. However, in relative truth, all dharmas depend on cause and effect. This is illustrated by the example of sesame seed and sesame oil. If by the combination of mortar, pestle, and a manʹs hands the beating and extracting are not done, one cannot obtain the oil. If you ask why, it is because everything is produced not by one cause and not by one condition, but rather through the collective force of coincidence. 331
In the same way, although the dharmakaya pervades all sentient beings, if the guru does not show it and the path realization is not practiced, the fruition is not actualized. Therefore, since in relative truth all dharmas depend on the coincidence of cause and effect, the realization that actualizes the wisdom of suchness has been expressed in terms of beating sesame seeds. 332
Tilopa Tilopaʹs Mahamudra Instruction to Naropa The fool in his ignorance, disdaining Mahamudra, Knows nothing but struggle in the flood of samsara. Have compassion for those who suffer constant anxiety! Sick of unrelenting pain and desiring release, adhere to a master, For when his blessing touches your heart, the mind is liberated. Tilopa Perceiving You are not bound by perceiving, but by clinging; So cut your clinging, Naropa! Six Words of Advice from Tilopa Let go of what has passed. Let go of what may come. Let go of what is happening now. Donʹt try to figure anything out. Donʹt try to make anything happen. Relax, right now, and rest. 333
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Naropa (1016‐1100) Naropa was born a prince in India. From the day of his birth, he was a very exceptional being endowed with special qualities. As an infant, Naropa was so pleasant to behold that simply to gaze at him was to experience joy and a sense of happiness. Even in childhood, he possessed profound wisdom and a sense of loving‐
kindness and compassion for others. The king, queen, and all the attendants agreed that the most appropriate place for such an extraordinary son of a noble family would be a monastery. Just as precious jewels should not be kept in filthy water but placed upon an immaculate shrine, it did not seem befitting for Naropa to dwell in the midst of worldly people. His rightful place was to be among practitioners of the Dharma. When he came of age, Naropa was most happy with the decision for him to go to a monastery, and he went off to study with many scholars and become properly educated. Naropaʹs wisdom became so profound that he surpassed all of his teachers all of the time. He became one of the most famous and world‐renowned scholars of his day and went to Nalanda University in India. It was the custom at that time in India for different traditions to debate with each other, with the beliefs of the winner declared supreme. Hundreds of scholars of different traditions would come to Nalanda University to debate with Buddhist scholars. At that time, Nalanda had four gates at each of the cardinal directions. At each gate there were five hundred world‐renowned scholars known as ʺgate keepers.ʺ Naropa became one of the scholars at the northern gate. In that capacity he debated daily with many scholars of various schools, and each day he further proved himself to be one of the most learned among them all. In this way he became very famous. One day as Naropa was sitting quietly in his room reading a Buddhist sutra text, a very fearful shadow fell upon the floor. He immediately looked up to see what it 335
was. To his great surprise he saw a very ugly, wrinkled, old woman without a single tooth in her mouth standing in front of him. She was so old that she was not able to stand without the aid of a cane. She asked Naropa, ʺWhat are you reading?ʺ Naropa replied, ʺI am studying the teachings of the Buddha.ʺ The old woman then asked, ʺDo you understand the teachings?ʺ Without any hesitation Naropa replied, ʺI understand every single word of the teachings of the Buddha.ʺ This response elicited great joy and happiness in the old woman, and she laughed and giggled, and danced in an ecstatic manner. She said, ʺIt is very fortunate for this earth that such a scholar as yourself exists!ʺ The ugly woman next asked Naropa, ʺYou might understand the literal meaning of the teachings of the Buddha, but do you understand the inner and ultimate meaning of the teachings?ʺ Since the old woman had displayed such great joy and happiness at his merely saying that he understood the literal meaning of the sutras, Naropa thought that she would be even more joyful if he said that yes, he understood the inner, essential meaning of the Dharma. So Naropa replied, ʺYes.ʺ As he replied yes, the expression of the face of the ugly old woman turned from one of joy to one of sadness, and she fell to the floor and beat it with both her hands and cried, ʺTo think that such a great scholar as you knows how to tell lies!ʺ This embarrassed Naropa, who inquired,ʺ Is there anyone who really understands the inner meaning of the Dharma?ʺ The old woman replied, ʺYes, my brother, Tilopa.ʺ The instant that she uttered the name ʺTilopa,ʺ devotion arose in the mind and heart of Naropa and tears came to his eyes. Naropa asked the old woman,ʺWhere can I find this master? In which direction does he reside?ʺ The old woman replied, ʺThere is no particular direction for Tilopa or his residence. He could be anywhere. If your mind is filled with devotion and confidence, and you yearn to meet him, this is the right direction.ʺ Having spoken thus, the old woman, who was actually Vajrayogini, disappeared like a rainbow fading in the sky. Because his negative karma was not completely purified, Naropa was only able to see her as a very ugly, old woman. His mental stains prevented him from seeing her true form. Part 2: Finding the Guru Naropa requested leave from the Abbot of Nalanda University. He was a great favorite of the Abbot and scholars, and although they wanted very much for him to stay, he had made up his mind to leave and search for Tilopa. With an intolerable yearning, Naropa went out in search of his master. He experienced extreme hunger and thirst and overexposure to the elements, but he did not allow any of these unbearable conditions to deter him in his search for Tilopa. The many unfavorable circumstances that he encountered have become known as the ʺTwelve Fearful Experiences of Naropa.ʺ Twelve times he encountered ferocious dogs, wild animals, poisonous snakes, terrifying women, and other adverse situations that hindered him on his path to meet his teacher and frightened him almost to death. Nevertheless, he would not turn back in his search for Tilopa. After each terrifying encounter he went forward, and each time he did this, he would hear an affirmation resounding from the sky that what he had just experienced was the manifestation of his guru. 336
After suffering the pain and hardships of passing through the ʺTwelve Fearful Experiences,ʺ Naropa found himself in a village. From out of the sky sounded the words, ʺNot far from this village is the master whom you seek. You must have faith and confidence in him.ʺ Filled with excitement, Naropa went to the outskirts of the village and asked everyone he saw if they knew a master called Tilopa. They all replied that they did not know a master called Tilopa, but there was a fisherman down by the river drying fish who was called by that name. Naropa was surprised to hear that Tilopa was a fisherman but he immediately remembered that all his recent experiences had actually been manifestations of his guru, and he realized that if he had to meet his teacher in the form of a fisherman, it must be because of his impure mind. So without any doubt or hesitation, and with devotion and trust, he went down to the river to meet Tilopa. As he got closer, he could see Tilopa was transferring the consciousness of each fish to a pure realm with a snap of his fingers. Afterwards he would pick up each fish and bite off its head, discarding the head to one side, and placing the body to dry on the sand in preparation for taking it to market. Naropa prostrated to Tilopa as a gesture of respect and asked to be accepted as his student. Tilopa scrutinized Naropa from head to toe three times and said, ʺNo matter from what angle I look at you, you seem to be of a royal family. You look like royalty and speak like royalty, and yet you come here to be a student of a fisherman, one of a lowly caste. This is not at all proper.ʺ Part 3: Mastery Naropa tried to follow Tilopa, but although Tilopa appeared to be walking normally, and although Naropa was running, he was unable to catch up, no matter how fast he ran. Naropa could see the form of Tilopa in front of him, but he was unable to get closer. As this area in India was particularly hot and arid, it became very difficult for Naropa to keep running after Tilopa, and although he subjected himself to thirst, hunger, and fatigue, he was not able to catch up. Eventually, Naropa saw Tilopa sitting on a very high cliff. He went over to him and prostrated, again requesting Tilopa to be his teacher. Tilopa responded by saying, ʺIf you were really desperate and determined to learn about the teachings, you would obey my order to jump off this cliff without any hesitation because you would be able to understand how important it is to follow the commands of your master.ʺ Naropa jumped off the high cliff and fell to the ground. All his bones and joints were broken into many, many pieces. Tilopa went down to Naropa and inquired, ʺAre you experiencing any pain?ʺ Naropa replied, ʺThe pain is killing me!ʺ This is how Naropa got his name. (ʺNaʺ in Tibetan means ʺpain,ʺ ʺroʺ means ʺkillingʺ and ʺpaʺ makes the word a noun.) Tilopa gently touched Naropaʹs body and all his broken bones joined together and were healed. After undergoing so much suffering, Naropa once again asked Tilopa to give him the profound teachings. Tilopa said, ʺYou are not yet pure enough to be introduced to the nature of mind!ʺ With a wrathful expression, Tilopa removed his slipper and slapped the face of Naropa so hard that Naropa fainted. When he regained consciousness, Naropaʹs mental state of realization was equal to that of his teacher. 337
Becoming very peaceful, Tilopa lovingly explained to Naropa why he had to be so very wrathful and subject him to so much suffering. He explained, ʺThe fact that I led you into so many painful circumstances does not mean that I am a cruel person. Your negative karma could not be purified by your own effort alone. Only by your actually experiencing hardship could you purify the negative karma that prevented you from realizing the ultimate nature of buddhahood. Throughout all your experiences of hardship, you did not develop any doubts, hesitation, or wrong views, and you diligently obeyed all commands. In this way you were able finally to overcome the conflicting emotions and experience realization.ʺ If we compare the life stories of Milarepa and Naropa, both experienced extreme hardships. However, Naropa experienced more intense pain than Milarepa, but the duration of Milarepaʹs experiences was longer. In case any of us might still be wondering if such harshness is really necessary to reach enlightenment, let us take the example of a vessel that is encrusted with rust. The rust on the metal container is so rough that trying to remove it with a soft cloth and gentle hand, we would not be able to remove any rust at all. The more effective way to remove the rust would be to find another very rough substance even rougher than the rust. If we rub the container with this, then the rust can be removed. Similarly, the negative karma obscuring the true nature of mind cannot be removed by softness or gentleness, nor can the achievement of realization occur if a teacher is overly kind. Harshness is needed. If a teacher allows his students to be lazy and is too soft‐hearted, the students will be unable to uncover and purify their mental stains. Harshness and roughness on the part of the teacher are essential. After Naropa reached the stage of realization equal to his teacher, Tilopa assured him that they were inseparable. They had never been separate in the past, were not separate in the present, and would never be separate in the future. Tilopa and Naropa became so famous throughout India that in the eyes of the people they were as familiar as the sun and the moon. Renowned for their realization, wisdom, and profound learning, Tilopa and Naropa turned the wheel of Dharma uncountable times in all directions. This teaching on The Life of Naropa was given by Ven. Khenpo Karthar Rinpoche at KTD, Woodstock, NY, on March 25‐30, 1986. It was translated by Chojor Radha and edited by Tina Armond. Part I appeared in Densal Vol. 8, No. 1, Winter 1986/87; Part II appeared in Densal Vol. 8, No. 2, Spring 1987. 338
Naropa From RangjungYesheWiki Naropa (956‐1050) or (1012‐1100) According to various sources like the lineage histories of the Karma Kagyu, Drukpa Kagyu or Drikung Kagyu, Naropa was born around the year 956 and passed away around 1050. Other sources record him as having lived between the years 1012 and 1100. (Bearing in mind that his main Tibetan student Marpa was born either in 1002 or 1012, 956 is rather more likely as Naropaʹs year of birth.) Naropa was born in one of the many small kingdoms of Bengal. His father was a royal chieftain by name of Shantivarman and his mother was called Srimati. His yearning for a religious life was so strong that, when he was eight years old, he travelled to Kashmir, one of the main seats for Buddhist studies in ancient times, in order to study with the master Gaganakirti. It was from Gaganakirti that he received his lay ordination. Naropa stayed in Kashmir for three years, studying Buddhist teachings and philosophies from many great masters. By the end of his stay there he was a highly learned scholar and, upon his return to his home country, already a number of students followed him as their master. Some years after Naropaʹs return from Kashmir, his parents insisted that he marry a Brahmin girl, Vimaladipi, who later on became reknowned far and wide as the female Mahasiddha Niguma. Although they were happily married, both Naropa and Niguma longed strongly for a spiritual life of studies and practice. After eight years of marriage, they decided to both take ordination. Later, Niguma became one of Naropaʹs most advanced disciples and a devoted spiritual companion; she served Naropa while he lived in his monastery of Pullahari. After having thus ended their marriage, Naropa went to the hermitage of Anandarama, where he took novice ordination from the abbot Buddhasarana and the guru Jnanaprabha. He stayed with Jnanaprabha for three years, studying and mastering various philosophical treatises. He then went to Pullahari and stayed there 339
for six years. While there, he composed several commentaries on the Guhyasamaja‐
tantra, Abhidharma‐uttaratantra, Samvara‐udbhava and Hevajra‐tantra and commmented upon many other buddhist works. It was in Pullahari where later on Naropaʹs Tibetan disciple Marpa received many empowerments and instructions from him. After his prolonged stay in Pullahari, Naropa went to Nalanda University, where his wisdom, skills in debate and teaching, as well as his deep spiritual understanding earned him the chancellorship of the university. He also became the ʺKeeper of the Northern Gateʺ. Throughout his eight year tenure at Nalanda he was constantly engaged in difficult debates with the Tirthikas, but remained victorious each and every time. At this time, he was known as Mahapandita Abhaya Kirti. Naropa was mostly engaged in intellectual activities until an old and ugly woman, who in fact was an emanation of Vajra Yogini, appeared before him and made him realize that all his intellectual knowledge had not brought him a single step closer to spiritual realisation. She told him to look for ʺher brotherʺ, his destined guru Tilopa, if he wished to attain true realisation and ultimate liberation. After this encounter, Naropa left Nalanda, searching far and wide for Tilopa, the master who would eventually lead him to the full realisation of Mahamudra. Travelling towards the east, Naropa finally met his root guru Tilopa, who initially ignored him completely. Naropa was then put through twelve major and twelve lesser trials in order to purify his negative karma and emotional defilements and obscurations. Through the blessings from Tilopa and bringing about his own purification, Naropa realised the clarity and emptiness of mind‐nature, and achieved the unified state of Vajradhara. After attaining this magnificent realisation, Naropa taught in many places and had numerous disciples, particularly in Kashmir and Zanskar where he established many monasteries. Altogether, Naropa spent twelve years serving his guru Tilopa until the latter passed away. Naropa himself is believed to have lived until 1050 or 1100 (according to the different sources) and then attained the so‐called rainbow body of great transformation, leaving no physical remains behind. Tilopa and Naropa are both counted among the Eighty‐four Mahasiddhas of India. Amongst Naropaʹs accomplished disciples was Marpa the translator, who became one of his lineage‐holders. He brought Naropaʹs teachings to Tibet, translated and spread them ther, and became thus the founder of the Kagyu lineages. 340
Naropa (1016‐1100) Naropa is one of the most prominent and authoritative Indian mahasiddhas and masters of mahahudra and tantra. He received the mahamudra and tantra lineage teachings from his guru Tilopa and transmitted them to his disciple, Marpa, the Great Translator of Tibet. Brahmin upbringing Naropa, known as Abhayakirti (ʹjig med grags pa) Jnanasiddhi, was born in Kashmir into the Brahmin caste, according to Taranatha and other sources, who say that he was born in a place called Jambu (Shrinagar, according to Guenther) in eastern part of India. His father was Shantivarman and mother, Shrimati. According to Taranatha, from an early age, he began to receive a complete education and became a tirthika pandit (scholar of non‐buddhist teachings), also practicing the tantras of Hindusim. During this time, Naropa went to the house of a woman who sold beer and encountered a junior Buddhist pandita. After the Buddhist pandita departed, Naropa found a volume of Sutras left behind by him and began to read them. He became very inspired by the teachings and his heart filled with devotion for the dharma. Naropa then went to Madhyadesha where he became an ordained monk in the Buddhist order, becoming educated in the Buddhist teachings. Naropa, who had been a tirthika pandita became instead the most learned pandita in the Buddha‐dharma. He was honored for this accomplishment by being made the ʺNorthern Gatekeeperʺ of Nalanda and Vikramashila universities. He taught at theuniversities and became one of the most well‐known abbots of the time. During this time, he practiced the vajrayana tantric meditation of Cakrasamvara every evening and had many sacred visions of the dakinis. At some point, some dakinis encouraged him to leave by saying, ʺIn the east is Tilopa. Go before him and you will attain great siddhi!ʺ 341
Searching for Tilopa He traveled to the eastern regions and searched for Tilopa everywhere, but Tilopa was nowhere to be found. One day, Naropa was at a monastery in the eastern region. While in the monastery kitchen, a vile and filthy old man came in and roasted many live fish in the glowing fire. Naropa was unable to persuade him not to roast the fish alive, and the other monks jumped up and began to run towards the old man to stop him from killing. The old man responded: ʺIf you donʹt like it, just throw these roasted fish leftovers into the water!ʺ Upon putting the roasted fish remains into water, they came to life and swam away in all directions. Naropa then knew that the old man was a realized siddha. Following after him, he prostrated at his feet and begged him to teach. The old man became angry and struck Naropa without saying anything. When Naropa thought to himself, ʺIs this yogi Tilopa?ʺ the old man answered: ʺYes! Yes!ʺ When Naropa thought ʺIs this yogi someone other than Tilopa?ʺ the old man replied: ʺNo! No!ʺ At that point, he realized that this old man was Tilopa. Tilopa sometimes manifested as a yogi by performing yogic deeds and sometimes just seemed to be a simple madman. During all these times Naropa had no conceptual thoughts or doubts about Tilopaʹs realization. Developing Naropaʹs Devotion Once Naropa received a lot of vegetables from a wedding celebration and he offered them to Tilopa. Tilopa asked for more and so Naropa went again to the wedding reception, thinking that it would please his Guru. In India, it is not the accepted custom to go to a banquet twice in one day, so Naropa stole the whole pot of vegetables and carried it off. The people at the wedding caught him stealing and beat him with sticks and rocks, but Naropa managed to hang onto the pot and bring the vegetables to his guru. At another time, Tilopa and Naropa encountered a princess sitting in a palyanka (palanquin) on the road. Tilopa said, ʺGrab the princess and bring her here!ʺ Naropa transformed himself into a Brahmin and, uttering auspicious words, he put flowers on the girlʹs head. He then grabbed her and fled with her; the servants of the princess however caught up with him, and beat Naropa to the ground until he was like a corpse. Naropa subsequently recovered through the blessings and skillful means of his guru. Once again, Tilopa and Naropa met someoneʹs wife, this time married to a minister. Tilopa wanted her as his wife and told Naropa to do as he had done previously. Naropa paid her parents the price for a high caste girl and took her off with him. He thought he would offer her to his guru in the morning, but Naropa became very ill and was sick for many days. During this time, his guru recited mantras and Naropa soon recovered fully. At that time, Naropa offered the girl to Tilopa. However, the girl was so attacted to Naropa that she made love‐glances at Naropa. Seeing this, Tilopa got very mad and said to the girl: ʺYou donʹt like me but instead, you like him.ʺ He then beat both Naropa and the girl. Those and many similar deeds were done in order to develop Naropaʹs faith. During all of these events that Naropa went through, his devotion and faith remained firm and was not shaken even slightly. Not only did it not diminish; in fact his faith 342
and devotion expanded. In this way, Naropa served his guru Tilopa for twelve years and although he went through numerous hardships, Tilopa never even spoke a single good word to him. Sandal Transmission Finally, when they were at an empty plain Tilopa said, ʺNow make a mandala offering so I can give you the upadesha (key instructions).ʺ Naropa looked around and said: ʺThere are no flowers nor any water here to make mandala offering.ʺ Tilopa answered: ʺDoes your body not have blood and fingers?ʺ so Naropa cut himself and sprinkled the ground with his own blood; he then cut off his fingers and arrayed them as if they were flowers. Tilopa then struck him with a muddy sandal and knocked him unconscious. When he woke up he was able to see the reality of things as they are. Naropa was completely healed and was given all the upadeshas and further instructions. Naropa became one of the greatest yogins and Tilopa instructed him: ʺNow, donʹt debate, donʹt teach any students ‐ if you act thus you will swiftly attain the highest state.ʺ When Naropa was abiding at Phullahari monastery, he engaged in non‐
conceptual meditation. However, events forced him into a debate with a Tirthika, at which time Tilopa appeared and helped Naropa. Thus he did not fully comply with the instructions, which caused him some obstacles in the path. Naropa stayed mostly in Phullahari, near Nalanda and also he wandered around various places conducting abhishekas, teaching tantras, giving upadeshas, and also engaging in great activities for the benefit of many sentient beings. Naropa attained the realization of the Reality and became one of the most renowned mahasiddas of India. Naropa had many students including, Shantipa, Atisha, and many other masters who where door‐keeper panditas. Among his students, there were eight extraordinary disciples, four who were learned in the Father Tantras and four who where learned in Mother Tantras and held the Oral Instructions lineage. Foremost among his disciples was the Tibetan Marpa, the great translator, who brought the lineage of Naropa to Tibet and continued it through his great disciple, Milarepa. The principal student and lineage heir of Naropa was Marpa. Kagyu Office 12‐2006 343
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Naropa ‐ His Life and Teachings Naropa Life of Naropa 1 ‐ Naropaʹs search for Tilopa 2 ‐ Naropaʹs time with Tilopa ‐ The Twelve Hardships Homage to Naropa Teachings of Naropa Just This Advice to Marpa Lotsawa Verses of Mahamudra 345
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Naropa ‐ His Life Naropa First Chapter: Naropaʹs Search For Tilopa By Khenpo Chodrak Rinpoche Naropa was a scholar in the tenth century. There are different opinions on where he was born. Some biographers say he was born in Bangladesh, but according to Marpa, one of his main students, he was born in Lahore, India. His family was very powerful and rich. At that time, it was common for people who worked for such families, to refer to the master as king. Therefore, some biographers claim that Naropa was a prince. Naropaʹs childhood and marriage In the first part of his life, young Naropa studied everything according to a Brahmin tradition. His father was probably a Buddhist because Naropa received Buddhist training at home. One day he requested permission of his father to take ordination to become a monk. His father refused. To make his father give him permission, he said, ʺIf I cannot become a monk, I want to marry a girl who comes from a Brahmin family, who is a Hindu, who has love and compassion. Her name is Sangmo and she is blond.ʺ He added also that the girl must be 16 years old. His father thought that he could never find such a girl, so he consulted a friend. The friend told him not to worry, that India is a big country, and it should be possible to find this girl somewhere. The friend started to search everywhere. One day he saw a group of girls who were picking flowers. At that time picking flowers normally meant that one was preparing them as offerings to the gods or deities. This indicated they were Hindus. It started to rain and all the girls left. They had to cross a river so they lifted up their skirts. One of them did not lift her skirt; she just walked through the water. In that way the friend noticed that she was different from the others. On the other side of the river 347
was a beggar sitting on the road to whom this girl gave some food. The friend also noticed that she had blond hair. He went to her and asked from what family she came. She told him she was from a Brahmin family, her name was Sangmo, and she was sixteen years old. The friend was very happy. He returned and reported that he had seen the girl. Naropaʹs father, full of joy, told Naropa the girl was found and soon he would invite her to come. A delegation was sent to the girl`s parents to ask them for the girl as a wife to Naropa. They brought with them a hundred elephants carrying all kinds of gifts: silver, gold, everything precious. In that way she married Naropa. Naropa was a house‐holder until he was 25 years old. Then he and his wife agreed that they both would be ordained and he went to Nalanda University. Nalanda University At Nalanda, he studied Buddhist philosophy, both Sutra and Tantra. He became the greatest scholar of Nalanda. At that time it was a tradition that scholars from other religions (e.g., the Hindu religion) would challenge Buddhist scholars in debate. Whoever won the debate would become the teacher of the loser and his students. Therefore it was essential that the debaters knew the topics very well. In the whole of India it was like that. If the scholar was not qualified, it was a risky affair. For that reason the four best scholars at Nalanda University would be selected to debate. Each scholar was responsible for each of the universityʹs gates in the four directions. Naropa became a great scholar for the North gate and engaged in many debates. He also taught and acquired disciples. He himself was convinced that he was a great scholar. One day when he was sitting and reading his texts, a shadow suddenly fell on the book. He turned and saw an extremely old and ugly woman. She asked him, ʺWhat are you studying? What are you reading?ʺ He replied, ʺI am studying Guhya‐samaja tantra.ʺ She asked, ʺCan you read the words?ʺ ʺYes,ʺ he answered and started to recite the text. On hearing that she became so happy that she jumped around and started to dance. Naropa thought: ʺShe became so happy when I told her I can read, I will also tell her I can understand it.ʺ He said: ʺI also understand the meaning.ʺ She then became very sad and started to cry. Naropa said, ʺYou were so happy that I can read, but now you are so sad because I said I understand the meaning. Why?ʺ She answered, ʺIʹm sad because a great scholar like you is lying. This is very sad. Today in the whole world, there is nobody but my brother who understands the meaning of the words.ʺ Naropa then asked who her brother was and where he lived. She answered, ʺMy brother is Tilo Sherab Sangpo. It is uncertain where he lives, but if you want to meet him, I will help you.ʺ On hearing the name of Tilopa, Naropa felt a strong devotion that he had never experienced before. The only thought he had in his mind was to find Tilopa. He wanted immediately to go and see him. He went back to the University and asked for permission to leave. He said he was going to meet Tilopa. All the scholars of Nalanda University pleaded with him to 348
stay and for three months he could not leave. In his dreams he got many signs that he should go. Finally, he told them he was sorry but that he had made up his mind, and that he would leave no matter who asked him to stay. He agreed to stay until he had completed the teachings he had already started, but he would not initiate any new teachings. The search for Tilopa, and the 12 minor hardships Naropa left Nalanda University to look for Tilopa. He received a prophecy that he should meditate on Chakrasamvara and complete that meditation. He then would get indications where to find Tilopa. He went to a cemetery in southern India where he meditated for six months on Chakrasamvara. Finally he received a prophecy by dakinis telling him that to meet Tilopa he should go east. Enduring many hardships he travelled east, but he did not find Tilopa. He was about to give up because it was too difficult and he did not have any strength left. Then he heard a voice that told him that laziness is the work of demons. Only if he gave up laziness, would he meet Tilopa and get enlightened. From this point on, every event and everything told in connection with Naropaʹs life story are actually teachings on the path to enlightenment. They describe exactly what Tilopa taught Naropa and what is necessary for someone to reach enlightenment. The first thing one has to give up is laziness, because otherwise one has no chance of reaching enlightenment; there is no enlightenment combined with laziness. Naropa gave up laziness and became very diligent. As he continued his path he prayed to Tilopa day and night. 1) Not long after that, he arrived at a narrow path with a rock on one side and a river on the other. He met a sick woman lying on the path. She had leprosy so bad that her feet and hands had nearly disappeared. She had infected wounds all over with blood and pus coming out everywhere. She was blocking the narrow path. She said to him, ʺIʹm sorry, but I canʹt move, so you should move me, walk over me, or go another wayʺ. There was nothing he could do, so he held his nose, looked away because it was so disgusting to look at her, and jumped over her. Immediately she disappeared, and a voice came from the sky telling him, ʺIf one practices the Mahayana path, one has to have love and compassion. If one does not have love and compassion, one does not practices the Mahayana path and will not be able to get the result of that path. One will also never be able to find oneʹs teacher. All sentient beings are like oneʹs parents, that is why in order to practice the Mahayana one may not exclude even one single sentient being.ʺ He thereafter continued developing his Bodhicitta and tried to increase his love and compassion. 2) Again he went towards the east in order to find Tilopa. He came to a river where he met a ferocious dog with wounds full of worms. The dog was aggressive and barked angrily at him. He tried to send the dog away but it would not move. At last he 349
jumped over it, because he wanted to continue his search for Tilopa. Immediately a voice told him, ʺIf one does not understand that all beings in the world, from all six existences have been oneʹs parents at one time or another, then one will never be able to meet a good teacher, not even a bad teacher.ʺ These events were Tilopaʹs teachings. 3) The next person he met was carrying a heavy load. Naropa asked him if he knew Tilopa and his whereabouts. The man told him to go to the other side of the mountain where he would meet somebody able to answer his question. That person would be cutting and smashing the heads of his parents on rocks. He went there and met the man who was busy smashing the heads and asked him about Tilopa. The man said that he knew where Tilopa was but that he could only tell him if Naropa would smash some heads himself. Naropa thought, ʺI am a monk, a pandit. I come from a very high cast. How can I smash heads?ʺ At the moment he thought this, everything disappeared. Again a voice from the sky told him that to get any kind of realization he had to give up his ego‐clinging and his pride. Without understanding that there is no real self, no real individual, he could never get any realization. At this point Naropa realized that every time he met someone, there was a lesson to learn. He promised himself that from then on he would try to learn the lesson. 4) He continued and met two people who had captured a third person and tied him up. They were cutting open his stomach, his intestines were pouring out, and he was screaming. Naropa went over to them and asked if they knew about Tilopa. The men said that they knew, but that Naropa had to cut the intestines first. Naropa could not bare the pain of the person and refused to cut the intestines. The people vanished and this time the voice told him that the whole root of Samsara is attachment, conceptual clinging, clinging to the notion of a real I, which he should get rid of. Tilopa was confronting Naropa with some very extreme situations. In order to give him very direct teachings. To get rid of smaller attachment and disturbing emotions is not so difficult, but in very extreme situations one should be able to keep oneʹs mind clear without falling into any kind of reactions. This is very difficult. 5) Naropa reached a place where he saw a terrifying scene of one person pouring hot water into the open stomach of another person. The latter was screaming and blood was flowing. Naropa asked if they knew where Tilopa was. To get an answer he first had to pour more water into the stomach. Again he could not do it. This time after the people had vanished, he was told by the voice in the sky that the teachings of the lamas are like the flow of water and that they have to be used to purify the impurity of oneʹs own mind. It cannot be done through purifying anything outside. The impurity of his mind that he should have purified at this time was his clinging to the concept of himself as a monk. 6) Naropa continued and came to a beautiful town with a king who knew about Tilopa, but wanted him to stay in his palace for a while before giving him an answer. 350
Naropa accepted and stayed there for a long time, making prayers for the family, and living in very comfortable conditions. One day the king asked him to marry his daughter. As a monk, Naropa refused. The king insisted and finally got very upset at his refusal and had him beaten. Naropa got very angry and started to do his Chakrasamvara recitation in order to make black magic against the king. Just as he started, the whole town disappeared and there was only sand left. The teaching from this was that one must abandon desire and anger. Otherwise it will not be possible to meet a teacher and without a teacher, no liberation is possible. Naropa had just demonstrated his desire by staying for so long and his anger by getting upset when he was beaten. Once more he did not understand that it was not real, and he was taught that he should understand the dreamlike nature of everything. Whatever one experiences is created through oneʹs own emotions of desire and anger. These create the world we experience which has no true essence. Since beginning less time it has never existed. 7) Naropa was now convinced that it was Tilopa he met everytime. Praying to Tilopa, he continued travelling East. Finally he came to a big forest. A deer rushed by, followed by barking dogs and a hunter. Naropa asked him if he knew Tilopa and where he could find him. The man replied, ʺYes I do, but first you have to kill one antelope.ʺ Naropa still had some doubts in his mind because he was a monk and not supposed to kill any living being. At the same moment, the antelopes and dogs disappeared and the hunter told him that he had to overcome the clinging to his self. Like the arrow that kills the deer, his understanding should make an end to his clinging to an I. He should free himself from doubts. As long as he still had doubts in his mind he would not be able to meet his teacher. 8) Naropa came to a lake where he met an old couple. He asked them if they knew Tilopa and where he could find him. They said they knew him, but first they wanted to invite Naropa into their house for a meal. The wife was preparing the meal, putting live frogs and fish into boiling water. Naropa was offered the soup. Seeing the animals being boiled, he had doubts if he as a monk could eat it. Furthermore as he was a monk he was not supposed to eat in the evening time. When he looked at the soup the husband said to his wife, ʺThis man is following the lower school of Buddhism, Theravada, so he is not allowed to eat in the evening.ʺ Then he took the frogs and the fish and threw them up in the air where they dissolved into rainbows. The old man told Naropa that as long as he had the smallest concepts of the lower path left in his mind he would not find his lama. Before he disappeared he said that he would kill his parents the next day. This teaching meant to show the necessity for Naropa to let go of his clinging to ideas and concepts of the lower vehicle (Hinayana or Theravada). 351
Naropa expected to meet somebody killing his parents who might know where Tilopa was. This time he was prepared and determined to do whatever he was asked and find out where Tilopa was. 9) The next day he did meet a person killing his father with a trident and digging a hole in the ground to bury his mother alive. The parents were screaming to Naropa, ʺPlease, help us. We have been so kind to our son and now he wants to kill us. Please, help!ʺ Again Naropa asked for Tilopa. The man knew about him, but wanted Naropa to help him bury his mother first. The screaming and the pleading of the parents where too much for Naropa; he still had some small doubts in his mind. Immediately the parents disappeared. The man then taught him that he had to completely dissolve any kind of dualistic concept, any kind of clinging to object and subject. This man told Naropa that the next day he should go begging for alms. 10) Naropa thought that it meant that he would meet a begging monk who could help him to find Tilopa. Therefore he went to a monastery. When he reached there, he met a few monks. One of the monks living in the monastery had met Naropa before and the others had heard about him since he was a famous scholar from Nalanda. So they invited him inside. Again he asked if they had heard about Tilopa and where he could find him. They never heard about this great teacher but they knew about a poor beggar called Tilopa. Naropa was sure he would meet his teacher. With some monks from the monastery he went to a place where a man was sitting on the ground. Sometimes he would take a frog, throw it into the fire, and eat it. As Naropa was convinced that this was his teacher Tilopa he started prostrating in front of him and asked if he could be his disciple. The man agreed, took a handful of lice from his body, gave them to Naropa, and told him that he had to give up all concepts. He then asked him to throw the lice into the fire. The monks from the monastery were all looking at him, so Naropa hesitated. The beggar then told him that if he did not burn all 51 mental events arising in a mind functioning on itʹs ordinary level he could not meet the right lama. 11) Naropa continued his journey and the next day he arrived at a very strange place with lots of people who did not look like ordinary people. One person was speaking without a tongue; another was deaf, but listening to a sound; a blind man was watching; some were walking without legs, and some corpses were dancing. There were all kinds of weird appearances. He got quite distracted looking at these phenomena. Suddenly he realized that he was distracted and that he should instead pull himself together and concentrate on finding Tilopa. The moment he realized that everything disappeared. He was told that how he was looking for his lama was not the right way. 352
ʺThe lama you want to find is a realized being. In order to find him you have to concentrate your mind on him. Whenever you do so he will be there. Now you were just looking at these strange appearances and you got distracted.ʺ ʺThese strange beings you saw symbolized that there is no real subject and object. The blind man watching symbolized that if you want to understand the nature of mind, the Mahamudra, you must realize that there is nobody looking at anything, you must go beyond the idea of somebody looking at something. The person speaking without a tongue and the deaf listening to a sound symbolized that realization as such can never be expressed by words. The man walking without legs symbolized that the nature of mind is beyond coming and going. It is not coming from anywhere and also not going anywhere. The dancing corpses symbolized that you must free yourself from the idea of a perceiving object and a perceiving mind.ʺ 12) Naropa realized that it had all been a creation of his lama and that he had not really understood what was going on. He felt sad and he regretted that he had not been able to understand it. He decided that from now on he had to stay at this place and meditate. So he did, but since he still did not meet with Tilopa, he lost all his courage. Naropa thought he might not be able to meet his teacher in this life, so he decided to make very strong wishes that he would be able to meet him in his next life, and he was planning to kill himself. He took a knife, put it to his throat but in this moment a bluish man with red eyes appeared in front of him. Naropa realized that this was Tilopa himself. Full of devotion he opened himself to Tilopa and asked why he had not appeared before and why he had not been able to see him. Tilopa told Naropa that since the time he started looking for him, he had always been with him. Whomever he had met had always been Tilopa himself. Only the obscurations in Naropaʹs mind had prevented him from seeing his teacher. Now he was free of obscurations and was able to see Tilopa. Second Chapter: Naropaʹs Time with Tilopa. The Twelve Major Hardships By Khenpo Chodrak Rinpoche In the first part it was told how Naropa endured twelve minor hardships to meet Tilopa. Here, Khenpo Chodrak continues the explanations about the twelve major hardships Naropa had to undergo before he reached complete enlightenment. Tilopa gave Naropa the four complete transmission lineages. Then Naropa started practicing the teachings. The next twelve hardships which he had to undergo happened during the time he stayed with Tilopa, who was guiding and helping him overcome all the obstacles he would encounter while practicing. 353
As explained in the first part of the article, through these 24 hardships, Naropa is taken through the path of junction. In relation to Vajrayana practice, this corresponds to receiving the 4 empowerments: the body‐vase empowerment, the speech‐secret empowerment, the wisdom‐awareness empowerment, and the word‐empowerment. Each empowerment was given to Naropa through different signs or symbols, indicating their respective meaning. The first Empowerment given through eleven different signs Finally having met Tilopa, Naropa offered a mandala to him, requesting him to give empowerment. From then on, whenever Naropa offered a mandala, Tilopa showed him a sign. All together he showed him eleven different signs by means of which he transmited the vase‐empowerment to Naropa. 1) The first time Naropa offered a mandala, Tilopa asked him to get one meter of cotton cloth and some sesame oil. The oil was poured on the cotton, then they each held one side and set it on fire. Tilopa then asked Naropa what he understood. Naropa replied that he had understood that the fire is like the instructions of the lama, and the cotton cloth is like the concepts of his mind. The burning of the cotton shows that concepts are to be abandoned. The ashes of the cotton cloth, which is still in the shape of the cloth, shows that things appear but at the same moment they do not exist. Likewise, in terms of the generation process of yidam‐meditation, one should understand the union of appearance and emptiness of the yidam‐deity. 2) Tilopa held a crystal in his hand and showed it to Naropa, then asked what he understood. Naropa explained that he understood that the mind of the disciple should be completely pure; there should be no broken commitments in the relationship between teacher and disciple. The disciple should also be free from any kind of cunning. 3) Tilopa then handed a string full of knots to Naropa and asked him to untie them. Naropa did it and gave the string back. Tilopa threw it aside and asked Naropa what he understood. Naropa replied, ʺAll beings are tied by the eight worldly dharmas, and we need to untie them.ʺ (The eight worldly dharmas are: praise / criticism; fame / disgrace; gain / loss; happiness / misery) ʺOnce we have done so we have to remain natural and rest the mind in itself without being artificial. We have to get rid of all our expectations, hopes and fear.ʺ ʺWe always hope to be praised and we are afraid of being criticized.ʺ ʺWe are looking for fame and we are afraid of being disgraced.ʺ ʺWe want to gain something and we are afraid of losing it.ʺ ʺWe are striving for happiness and we are afraid of misery.ʺ 4) Then Tilopa took a precious jewel and put it on his head. He then put it in front of him and focused his mind on it for a long time without moving. Afterwards, he asked Naropa what he understood. 354
Naropa said that he understood it to mean that the lama is like a wish fulfilling gem, since through him it is possible to develop all ordinary and extraordinary siddhis and accomplishments. Putting the jewel on his head meant that one should never be separated from the lama; one should always think that he is there. Looking at the gem for a long time without movement signified that oneʹs devotion and faith to the lama should be unchanging, and that this is necessary until one has reached full enlightenment. 5) Naropa offered another mandala to Tilopa and requested an empowerment. Tilopa filled up a clay cup with water, handed it to Naropa and asked him to drink all of the contents. Tilopa again asked Naropa what he understood. Naropa said that he understood it to mean that the studentʹs mind is disturbed by all the disturbing emotions, whereas the instructions from the lama are to cool down the disturbed mind. The mind needs to be washed using the instructions. 6) When Naropa requested the vase‐empowerment, Tilopa took water from a container and put it into many smaller containers. He then took the water and poured it back into the single container again. He asked Naropa what he understood. Naropa answered that he understood it to mean that to ordinary eyes there is a variety of appearances, but the empty essence of whatever appears is the same ‐ there is only one essence. 7) At another instant Tilopa demonstrated the mudra (hand gesture) of triangle (this mudra represents the source of all dharmas) and asked Tilopa what he understood. Naropa said that he understood it to mean that all phenomena, both inner and outer, do not involve defining characteristics. The second quality is that this nature of phenomena is emptiness. Thirdly there should be no hope, fear, or aspirations. 8) Then Tilopa showed the mudra of a ring and asked Naropa what he understood. Naropa said that he understood it to mean that everything is included in the Dharmakaya, and that there is nothing different from this Truth‐body. 9) Tilopa pointed with his fingers to his heart and then let his head fall down. He asked Naropa what he understood. Naropa said he understood it to mean that the quality of the Dharmakaya is nothing different from the nature of oneʹs own mind. 10) Then Tilopa brought a snake and he tied a knot in the snake and put in on the ground. On its own the snake untied the knot. He asked Naropa, what he understood. Naropa answered he understood it to mean that, even though our mind is the Dharmakaya, the Truth body itself, it is tied up through the illusion of the perceiving mind and the perceived object as being different. By the mind untying itself, it is possible to be liberated from this impure concept. In fact, that is the only way to do it. It cannot be done from the outside. It has to be done by the mind itself. 355
11) Tilopa then pretended to be unable to speak. Naropa interpreted it to mean that once the mind untied itself from these nodes of dualistic views, many experiences will come. However, these experiences and realizations are something which cannot be expressed in words. After having shown these eleven signs, Tilopa took a branch with fruit, held it up and showed it to Naropa, asking what he understood. Naropa said he understood it to mean that when he experienced the fruits of meditation, he should not just keep them for himself. This fruit is something which should be available for all beings; it should be shared with others like the fruits of a tree which everybody can eat. All these different signs or symbols were given over a period of several years, and every time Naropa requested the empowerment, Tilopa would give some kind of signs. For each of the eleven signs he showed Naropa, he never either confirmed or rejected his answer. He never said whether Naropa had understood it in the right way or not. He just left it the way it was. Later, when Tilopa was sitting, he began to smile and laugh. Then he said to Naropa, ʺYou know, it is exactly as prophesied by the dakinis, you understood everything in the right way. Whatever I showed you, you had the right understanding.ʺ Then he told him, ʺYou should understand that everything which appears is not different from your own mind. Even when whichever yidam or Buddha‐
aspect you meditate on appears, the essence of that yidam or Buddha‐aspect is not different from your own mind.ʺ In this way he gave him the first of the empowerments, which is the vase empowerment. The meaning of the vase empowerment is to understand that appearances and emptiness are inseparable. The second and third empowerments, the speech‐secret and wisdom‐awareness empowerments, were also each given through eleven different signs. Tilopa gave Naropa the second empowerment, the speech‐secret empowerment, which is that sound and emptiness are inseparable. He explained to him that all sounds and all mantras are in essence empty. He gave him permission to practice the methods of working with the energies in the inner channels and told him to do that practice. Then he gave him the third empowerment, the knowledge‐wisdom empowerment. He introduced him to the meaning of the original highest wisdom, which means the understanding that clarity and emptiness are inseparable. These twenty two signs are explained in detail in the extensive version of Naropaʹs biography. The fourth Empowerment, given by means of the Twelve Major Hardships Naropa then meditated on the meaning of the empowerments. After one year, Naropa came to Tilopa again and told him, ʺNow I have accomplished the meaning of the three empowerments, which are called the empowerments that ripen the immature mind.ʺ 356
1) He then asked him for the fourth empowerment which liberates the mind, the introduction into Mahamudra. Tilopa looked at him in a special way and left. Naropa followed him. They went to a temple that had many stories. Tilopa went up and Naropa followed right after him. When they got to the top Tilopa just sat down resting against the wall. He said, ʺWell, if I had a devoted student, he would jump from here.ʺ Immediately Naropa jumped. When he landed he broke all his bones and was lying in pain, really suffering. So he thought, ʺOK, I will not become enlightened in this life.ʺ He started to make prayers that he would be able to meet Tilopa in his next life. While he was praying, Tilopa appeared next to him and asked, ʺWhat happened to you?ʺ Naropa said to him, ʺI jumped, because my lama told me to do so and now I am lying here in so much pain with all my bones broken. It is terrible. I feel like I am half dead.ʺ Tilopa then told him, ʺWell, you know the body is actually a result of your actions and your disturbing emotions. That is what creates your physical body. In a way, it is not so important if you have it or not. However, I have some methods which I learned from the dakinis.ʺ He ran his hand over Naropaʹs skin and completely healed him. After that, Tilopa gave him all the teachings of the Demchog‐Tantra. Tilopa then told Naropa, ʺWhat you should meditate on now is to free yourself from the clinging of the mind.ʺ Naropa answered him, ʺI know that what I need is to free myself from this clinging but I am tied up by my ignorance. Either I fall into believing that things are there or that they are not there. I cannot really get above that. So what shall I do? I know the goal but not the way.ʺ Tilopa said, ʺYou have to understand that the idea that things exist is false, and that the idea that things do not exist is also false. Whatever appears is illusory. What you should focus your mind on is the understanding of this illusion, and this understanding is in the continuity of your mind.ʺ Naropa meditated on that for one year. During that time Tilopa sometimes behaved like a child and sometimes like a crazy person. He did all kinds of weird things during that year. It was never certain what he would do. He showed this behavior in order to emphasize that everything is illusion‐like and unreal, whatever happens, whether one is sane or insane. 2) After one year Tilopa came over to Naropa and said, ʺWhy donʹt you ask me for more instructions?ʺ Immediately, Naropa started to offer a mandala and asked for instructions. Again Tilopa walked away and Naropa followed him. They came to a big empty field. In the middle of this field there was a big fire. Tilopa went over to this fire and said, ʺIf I had a student who was really devoted, he would jump into the fire.ʺ Naropa went into the fire and was burned. He was suffering terribly. Tilopa came to him and asked him, ʺWhat happened to you now?ʺ Naropa answered, ʺWell, my body has been burnt and my mind is suffering.ʺ Tilopa replied, ʺWell, to burn your ego‐clinging is OK and I do have the practice and the instructions 357
on the equality of the elements.ʺ He then touched his skin and healed him completely and the fire disappeared. After that, Tilopa instructed him to realize that everything is of one taste, that there is no difference regarding pleasure or misery, health or sickness. All in all he taught six kinds of equalities, in the sense, that the essence of all phenomena is the same. After that, Naropa was staying in the forest with Tilopa, who was behaving in many different ways. Sometimes he behaved like an animal, sometimes like a big yogi, sometimes like a crazy person. During that time Naropa was doing his practice. Sometimes he went into the nearest village to beg for food, and brought it back to Tilopa. In this way he also was serving Tilopa. They were living like that for some time. 3) One day when Naropa went to beg for food, there was a big party going on in town. He got some very good food which he brought back to Tilopa. Tilopa was really enjoying the food and said, ʺOh, this is delicious; the food is so niceʺ. He was talking a lot and enjoying the meal. Naropa thought, ʺI have been with Tilopa for such a long time, and this is the first time that he is behaving in a normal way. He really seems to enjoy what I gave him; he is talking to me; he seems to be very happy. Maybe I should go and get more food for him.ʺ He asked Tilopa, who then told him, ʺOne can only go to beg for food one time. That is the tradition here. If you go, you probably will get some problems. But you can go. Why not? Take this water. If you have problems you should sprinkle the water. If they are still after you then take this wooden sword and make circles in the air. Then you will be OK. So go and get the food!ʺ Naropa went into town, and since he could not beg again, he had to steal the food. When he tried to leave, the people realized that he was stealing, so they came after him. He then threw the water, and it became an entire lake that appeared between him and the people who were chasing him. Now he used the wooden sword, but, by using it, he got himself caught in an iron fence, so it was very easy for the people to catch him. First they put fire to him, and as he escaped they ran after him, caught him again, and beat him terribly. He finally came back to Tilopa completely beaten and wounded, again as if half dead. Tilopa said, ʺIt is no problem.ʺ He told him that he had instructions on the different kinds of commitments. He healed him first, and then gave him the instructions called Mind Mirror of Commitments. 4) Naropa stayed with Tilopa and continued to practice. One day Tilopa suddenly walked away from him. He walked to a place where there was a very deep pond full of leeches. Naropa followed him. When he reached the pond, Tilopa was sitting at the edge meditating. He went to him, offered a mandala, bowed down to him and requested instructions. T ilopa said, ʺIf I had a good student, he would make a bridge so I can cross over the pond.ʺ 358
Naropa immediately made himself into a bridge so that Tilopa could cross. As he crossed, he stepped hard on Naropaʹs back and then jumped over. Naropa fell into the water. It was a terrible experience. The water was ice‐cold and he nearly drowned. He was covered with leeches which started to suck his blood. Tilopa asked him, ʺWhat is the matter now? Does it hurt? What is wrong?ʺ Naropa replied, ʺYes, it is very painful. The leeches are eating me and it is very, very cold. It is awful.ʺ Tilopa said, ʺThis is no problem. I can give you instructions that will help you warm up and not feel any pain. I have the instructions on the Inner Fire, based on emptiness.ʺ Tilopa healed Naropa and then gave him the complete transmission of the Tummo practice. 5) Another year went by while Naropa practiced the Tummo teaching. Tilopa was, as usual, acting in a strange way. Then Naropa offered a mandala to Tilopa and requested more instructions from him. Tilopa told him to get ten pieces of bamboo, put molten butter on them, to heat them up in order to make them very hard, and then to sharpen them. Next, Tilopa took the sharpened sticks and inserted them all into Naropa, piercing holes into him. Then he left him. Naropa was suffering terribly. Tilopa came back and asked him, ʺWhat happened to you?ʺ Naropa answered, ʺIʹm pierced by this bamboo and it is extremely painful. I think I am going to die.ʺ Tilopa then touched him with his hand and the wounds and the pain disappeared. Tilopa then transmitted to Naropa the teachings on the Illusory Body. Naropa practiced this teachings for one year. During that time Tilopa was behaving as usual. 6) The following year, Tilopa came to Naropa, looked at him and asked, ʺArenʹt you going to ask me for more instructions?ʺ Naropa quickly got up, started to prostrate in front of Tilopa and requested instructions from him. Immediately Tilopa left. Naropa followed him and they came to a big plain with sand. Not far from them they saw a man walking on the sand. Tilopa said, ʺWell, if I had a good disciple then he would go immediately and catch that man, otherwise he is going to harm me.ʺ Naropa went to catch the man but he couldnʹt. He run and run, but could never reach the man. Finally Naropa fell totally exhausted on the ground. Tilopa came up to him and asked ʺWhat happened?ʺ Naropa told him that he was trying to catch the man but that he could not reach him. It was just like a phantom or a mirage. Tilopa then said, ʺWell, thatʹs how it is in samsara. Everybody is running after illusonary things and always trying to attain something which is not really there. Thatʹs the problem of samsara. Now I will give you instructions on Dream‐Yoga ‐ that everything is like a dream.ʺ Tilopa then transmitted the instructions of Dream Yoga. 7) Naropa meditated for one year on the Dream Yoga. During that time, Tilopa went into meditation. He didnʹt eat, he didnʹt speak. After one year Tilopa left. Naropa 359
followed him, offered mandalas and asked for instructions. But Tilopa still didnʹt speak. They proceeded and met a wedding procession of a ministerʹs son. Tilopa saw that and told Naropa, ʺWell, if I had a good disciple he would go and pull down the groom from his horse. He would pull the hair of his wife and try to get her.ʺ Naropa had no doubts and did what Tilopa said. Of course people jumped on him and beat him up. Tilopa came back to Naropa when he was half dead. He touched him and again healed his wounds. This time he transmitted the teachings of the Clear Light. The next year they spent together, and Naropa practiced the Clear Light yoga. Tilopa behaved in his funny ways, sometimes as a child, sometimes as a crazy person. 8) The time came when Naropa again asked Tilopa for instructions. This time, Tilopa just told him that whoever wants more instructions from him has to follow right after him. Then he left, and Naropa went after him. They were walking for a long time, and this time they met a procession with a king and queen. Tilopa said, ʺIf I had a good disciple, he would go and pull down the king from his horse.ʺ Naropa did it, and this time he nearly died. Tilopa came over to him, healed his wounds and said, ʺThe reason that it is still painful is because you have not dissolved your ego‐clinging. You still have some habits of clinging to the ʺI.ʺ Now I will give you the Phowa instructions.ʺ So the next year Naropa practiced the Phowa. 9) After that time, Tilopa left, and Naropa, who wanted more instructions, was told that he had to follow him. When they arrived at a big plane, they met a prince with a few servants, who were out for fun. Tilopa said to Naropa, ʺWell, this time there are not so many people. You should go to hit the prince, take his ornaments, and then come back to me. In case there are any problems, call me.ʺ Naropa beat the prince, took his ornaments and then ran back. But the princeʹs servants called for assistance and many soldiers, who were nearby, began to run after Naropa. Naropa shouted, ʺTilopa help me, protect me!ʺ He had just reached Tilopa when all the soldiers came. Tilopa asked the soldiers, ʺWhat did he do?ʺ They replied, ʺHe beat the prince and stole his ornaments.ʺ Tilopa answered, ʺThatʹs very bad; we should beat him up.ʺ Together they beat Naropa and he nearly died. Tilopa then asked him what had happened. Naropa said, ʺWell, I was beaten up, and though you said you would help me, you did not help me. I think I will die this time.ʺ Tilopa touched him and healed him and then he gave him the Phowa Donjug, a kind of Phowa where you transmit your consciousness into another being who has just died. Naropa meditated for one year on this special practice and then asked again for more instructions. 10) Tilopa told Naropa to marry a nice girl who was also a Dharma practitioner. Following this advice, he married. At first they liked each other but after sometime, 360
problems arose and they had many arguments. Naropa become extremely worried about this situation. During this time Tilopa came to visit him and asked Naropa what was wrong with him. Naropa explained that he and his wife were having a very difficult time. Tilopa replied, ʺThese problems are caused by your dualistic clinging. You have to abandon dualistic clinging and passion and then rely on a tantric consort.ʺ Tilopa then transmitted to Naropa the instructions on the Karma‐Mudra practice. Next, Tilopa told Naropa that he had broken his monastic vows because he had sexual intercourse with his wife. Therefore, he had to punish himself. Consequently, Naropa took a stone and hit his penis many times until he fainted. Then Tilopa touched him and healed him completely. Tilopa asked Naropa to give him his wife as an offering. Naropa did so, and his wife stayed for some time together with Tilopa. However, she was still in love with Naropa and Tilopa became very annoyed and beat both of them. Nevertheless, Naropa did not lose his confidence in Tilopa. As a result, Tilopa then gave him the Illuminating Wisdom Mahamudra Instructions. 11) Tilopa left and Naropa followed him. After a long time, when Naropa was already very tired, Tilopa sat down. Naropa offered a mandala, but there was a lot of dust. There was no water, so it was not possible to bring the dust down by sprinkling the ground with water. So Tilopa said, ʺUse your blood for that.ʺ Naropa cut himself, and with his own blood he sprinkled the ground so that the dust disappeared. In this way he offered a body mandala. Tilopa gave him the Bardo instructions. 12) Naropa practised this teaching for one year. One day, they went together to the river and Naropa asked Tilopa for more instructions. He had come to the final instruction. Tilopa took his shoe and slapped Naropa on his head. Then he said that there is nothing more to teach. ʺThe final realization is in your own mind.ʺ At that moment the last veils dissolved from Naropaʹs mind. Whatever Tilopa had realized of the nature of mind Naropa had also realized. He had accomplished the Mahamudra. Altogether Naropa spent twelve years with Tilopa, receiving and practising his instructions. During that time he underwent these twelve major hardships, which were methods to help him conquer obstacles so that he would not fall back into samsara. Actually it was because of Naropaʹs ability to follow Tilopa without any doubt, that he managed within one life to attain full realization. This is the example of the Vajrayana path. If the lama is a qualified teacher, and if the disciple is a qualified disciple, then the conditions are there with the Vajrayana methods to attain enlightenment within one lifetime. Naropa spent the next three years with Tilopa. Tilopa instructed him in the conduct of a yogi, while training his realization in all kinds of different situations. 361
After that, Naropa stayed in Pulahari for 21 years. That was the time when he taught disciples. When he was 85 years old, he passed away and went to the pure land of the dakinis. There are different descriptions of how Naropa left this world. Some say that his body stayed back, some say that it dissolved. Very close disciples of him said, ʺBefore he died, he manifested himself in the form of Hevajra (one of the most important Yidams in the Buddhist tantra). In this form he bestowed the empowerment of Hevajra to all his disciples. After that, the whole Hevajra‐mandala dissolved into him and then his Hevajra‐form dissolved into the Tibetan letter ʺAʺ and finally the ʺAʺ dissolved. Then he was gone. The ʹSix doctrines of Naropaʹ are named so, because Naropa was the one who spread the teachings. In actuality, they should be called neither Naropaʹs doctrines nor Tilopaʹs doctrines but rather Buddhaʹs doctrines. They belong to the completion stage of the Tantrayana, which involves visualization techniques. The Tantra teachings of the Buddha are very wide, but the conditions for beings in our time are getting worse. People are busy more and more. So the essence of Tantra teachings is very important. Naropa was able to get the essence of those teachings and to spread them to other beings. Article originally appeared in : Kagyu Life International, No.3, 1995 362
Kagyu Asia Naropa Homage to Naropa Praise to the Guru, the Deva, and the Dakinis! In the vast expanse of space, (note 1) the boundless path divine, The Dharmakaya embodied as the lordly ruler rDo‐rje‐ʹchan (Vajradhara) (note 2) Appears as (the sun, that) bright jewel in the sky, which represents The five Sambhogakayas, each an integral unity of the noetic and communicative, Whose myriad rays, the Nirmanakayas of Ses‐rab bzan‐po (Prajnabhadra), Have opened the lotus of Naropaʹs mind to these Kayas Three. Praise then to him who throughout the world has spread The honeyed spirituality transmitted by word of mouth, The Essence of all Sutras and all Tantras. Praise to Naropa on his seat of lotus, sun, and moon, On the lion throne of fearlessness, the embodiment of Buddhahood, Who interprets the fundamental doctrine, the flawless gem Nam‐ mkhaʹi snin‐
po (Gaganagarbha), Who has realized the transcending awareness of those who are exalted in renown supreme (the Buddhas), Who is Kun‐tu bzan‐po (Samantabhadra), Chos‐kyi rgyal‐mtshan (Dharmadhvaja), and bsTan‐pa ʹdzin‐pa (Sasanadhara). (note 3) Devoutly worshipped by (the sun,) the friend of lotus flowers, brilliant in his ornaments of rays and lord over the three worlds, By Asuras, Gandharvas, Nagas, By Siva, Isvara, Visnu, by men and those that are not men; Obedient to his Guruʹs word; refuge sublime for all that lives, the Lord himself, Belonging to the family of the Awakened May he shine as the godsʹ crown‐jewel . . . Translated from the original Tibetan with a Philosophical Commentary Based on the Oral Transmission by Herbert V. Guenther 363
Translators Notes: Note 1: This is a rather free translation of the original term klon‐yans. klon corresponds to Sanskrit urmi and signifies undulating movement. It is used exclusively with reference to Reality which is not a frozen absolute, but vibrating in all our experiences of it. back to homage Note 2: rDo‐rje‐ʹchan (Vajradhara) is for the bKaʹ‐brgyud‐pa and dGe‐lugs‐pa followers the symbol representation of the Dharmakaya which is pure noeticness (ye‐ses chos‐sku, jnanadharmakaya). back to homage Note 3: These are names which Naropa had at different stages of his spiritual development. 364
Naropa ‐ His Teachings Naropa Just This This mind that knows emptiness Is itself the awakened mind, bodhichitta. The buddha potential is just this. The sugata essence is just this. Because of tasting what is, It is also the great bliss. The understanding of Secret Mantra is just this. Means and knowledge are just this. The vast and profound is just this. Samantabhadra and consort are just this. This space and wisdom, perceiving while being empty, Are what is called ʹknowing original enlightenment.ʹ This self‐knowing, though one is still deluded, Does not depend on other things, So self‐existing wakefulness is just this. Being aware, it is cognizance, A natural knowing that is free of thought. This self‐knowing cannot possibly form thoughts. Without conceptualizing a ʹmind,ʹ Since it is not something to be conceived, This original wakefulness, cognizant yet thought‐free, Is like the wisdom of the Buddha. Therefore, it is taught, ʹRealize that luminous mind Is the mind of original wakefulness, 365
And donʹt seek an enlightenment separate from it.ʹ Nevertheless, this mind does become disturbed By the defilement of momentary thoughts. Like water, gold, or the sky, It may be either pure or impure. Advice to Marpa Lotsawa You Marpa, the translator from Tibet! Do not make the eight worldly dharmas the goal of your life. Do not create the bias of self and other, grasping and fixation. Do not slander friends or enemies. Do not distort the ways of others. Learning and contemplation are the torch that illumines the darkness. Do not be ambushed on the supreme path of liberation. Previously, we have been guru and disciple; Keep this with you in the future; do not give this up. This precious jewel of your mind, Do not throw it in the river like an idiot. Guard it carefully with undistracted attention, And you will accomplish all needs, desires, and intentions. Verses of Mahamudra I prostrate to the great bliss! To explain mahamudra: All phenomena are oneʹs own mind. To see an external world is a mental error. Itʹs essence is empty like a dream. Mind itself is only the movement of thought. Natureless, its energy is wind. Its essence is empty like the sky. All dharmas rest in eveness like space. That which is termed mahamudra, Canʹt be pointed out by its essence. So the real nature of mind is the mahamudra nature. In this there is no contrivance or change. When this reality is experienced All appearances of the phenomenal world become mahamudra, The great all‐encompassing dharmakaya. Relax in natural ease. 366
Meditate without seeking The unconceivable dharmakaya. Effort in meditation is mental error. Just like space and apparitions Meditation and non‐meditation are not two. From what is it free or not free? Through such realization by the yogin All virtues and sins are liberated. The defilements are great wisdom, Friends to the yogin like the forest to fire. Where is there to go or stay? Why meditate in solitude? Whoever doesnʹt understand this, Is only liberated temporarily. When someone dwells in the unwavering state, No ʹpracticeʹ or ʹnon‐practiceʹ, No contrivance by antidote, no meditation. Here nothing is truly existent. Appearances are naturally liberated in the dharmadhatu. Thoughts are naturally liberated in great wisdom, The non‐dual self‐same dharmakaya. Like the current of a great river, Whatever is done is beneficial. This is everlasting buddhahood, The unobjectifiable great bliss beyond samsara. All phenomena are naturally empty. Clinging to emptiness itself is naturally purified. No concepts of mental activity, This is the path of all buddhas. By the good fortune of these verses of essential instructions, may all beings attain mahamudra. Thus Naropaʹs Verses of Mahamudra are completed. These are the words of the master himself. They were translated into Tibetan by Marpa Chokyi Lodro at Pullahari, and into English by the layman Jampa Thaye). 367
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Atisha From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Atisha Atiśa Dipamkara Shrijnana: (982 ‐ 1054 CE) was a Buddhist teacher from Bengal region of old Indian terriroty who, along with Konchog Gyalpo and Marpa, was one of the major figures in the establishment of the Sarma lineages in Tibet after the repression of Buddhism by King Langdharma (Glang Darma). Contents: 1) Early life 2) Preaching in Sumatra and Tibet 3) Legacy 4) Writings 5) Death 369
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1) Early life The great Buddhist monk and scholar Atisha is most commonly said to have taken birth in the year 980 (A.D.) in the northeastern region of Bengal (in modern day Bangladesh) in South Asia. Alternative accounts place his birth at such various locations as Vikramapura in Dacca (present‐day capital of Bangladesh), and Bhagalpur in the Jahor land of eastern India along the Ganges River. Although the multiple possible places of Atisha’s birth are found in the same historically potent region bridging the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia, distinctions regarding the precise location of his birth are dependent on the political, social, as well as historical forces acting as inevitable influences upon the source. The exact year of his birth and death is, like his birthplace, widely disputed. Some sources indicate that Atisha was born in 982 and died in 1054, while more recent studies contend that his life began in 980 and ended in 1052 . In any case, it is unanimously recognized that Atisha lived to the age of seventy‐two, indicating that the lifespan of significant figures within the Buddhist historical tradition is given more emphasis than the actual years during which a life was fulfilled. It is noteworthy that, while no direct connections can be made to the birth of Atisha, the year 980 also saw a major power shift in Bengali politics as the resurgent Pala dynasty seized control of the region, disposing of the incumbent Kamboja rulers . Atisha was allegedly born into royalty, and it would be intriguing to know if his royal status stemmed from one of these two contemporaneous contending powers. The city of Vikramapura, the most probable candidate for Atisha’s birthplace, was the capital of the ancient kingdoms of Southeast Bengal. Though the city’s exact location is not certain, it presently lies in the Munshiganj District of Bangladesh, and continues to be celebrated as an early center of Buddhist cultural, academic and political life . Similar to Shakyamuni Buddha, Atisha was born into royalty; the palace in which he was raised, aptly named the Golden Banner Palace, “had a golden victory banner encircled by countless houses and there were great numbers of bathing‐pools encircled by 720 magnificent gardens, forests of Tala trees, seven concentric walls, 363 connecting bridges, innumerable golden victory banners, thirteen roofs to the central palace and thousands of noblemen” . His father was the king of Bengal known as Kalyana Shri, and his mother was Shri Prabhavati. One of three royal brothers, Atisha went by the name of Chandragarbha during the first part of his life . In fact, it was not until he traveled to Tibet and encountered the king Jangchub Oe that he was given the name of Atisha, a Tibetan reference to peace. The prince’s birth is often described in traditional accounts as an auspicious or promising episode. For example, it is said that as Atisha was born “flowers rained down upon the city [of Vikramapura], a rainbow canopy appeared, and the gods sang hymns which brought gladness and joy to all the people”. This particular description is loaded with several themes distinctly typical of Buddhist literature. The image of flowers falling from the sky appears in the episode of Shakyamuni Buddha’s attainment of perfect enlightenment, and the emergence of a rainbow canopy symbolizes the reincarnation of a Bodhisattva . Most importantly, however, is that the arrival of Atisha brought certain happiness to sentient beings. This effect of Atisha’s birth corresponds directly with the Buddhist concept of dedicating one’s life to the uplifting and enlightenment of all conscious beings. 371
For the first eighteen months of his life, Atisha was sheltered and attended to by eight nurses in the royal palace of the capital city, Vikramapura. At eighteen months old, it is said that his parents then brought him into public for the first time, on a visit to a local temple in Kamalapuri. It was here that Atisha’s potential as an extraordinary religious and spiritual leader initially emerged. People from all over the region gathered to witness his appearance. When Atisha learned from his parents of the crowd’s status as his own subjects, he prayed that they may “be possessed of merit like that of [his] parents, rule kingdoms that reach the summit of prosperity, be reborn as sons of kings [and] be sustained by holy and virtuous deeds.” Atisha then proceeded independently to worship the holy objects both inside and surrounding the temple, renouncing his ties to the world and his family and committing himself to religious pursuit. Such an interpretation of Atisha’s first public appearance, found in Buddhist texts and historical accounts, strongly reinforces a couple critical components of Buddhist philosophy. The story clearly gives an impression of Atisha as a spiritually advanced and relatively enlightened individual at only eighteen months old. As such, the prince is seen to have acquired enough merit through virtuous actions in previous lives such that it carried over to dictate both his favorable experience as a venerated prince and enlightened personality as a compassionate individual. Moreover, Atisha’s spiritual proficiency at this point is demonstrated through both kindness towards his subjects and non‐attachment towards his familial, social, and overall life situation. Mirroring the life of Shakyamuni Buddha, the young prince is depicted as having a natural capacity for swift learning in multiple fields and the practice of Dharma at a young age. He had become “well‐versed in astrology, writing and Sanskrit” by the age of three, “able to distinguish between the Buddhist and non‐
Buddhist doctrines” by the age of ten , and would eventually become a master of the teachings of Mahayana, Hinayana and Vajrayana Buddhism under the guidance of over 100 different instructors . As time elapsed Atisha’s wish to enter the religious life strengthened, but his parents identified him as the brightest of their sons and natural successor to power. Therefore, as he turned the customary age of eleven years old, surrounding him with the luxuries and extravagance of royalty, Atisha’s parents commenced the decorative courtship and matrimonial preparations so that the prince may find a bride among the kingdom’s beautiful young women of nobility . Atisha’s response to his parents’ proposal as documented in Buddhist biographical texts evidences the level of commitment the young prince had for religious pursuit and enlightenment. On his wedding eve, Atisha experienced a momentous encounter with the Vajrayana goddess Tara, who would continue with him as a guiding spirit until the end of his life . Tara explained to the prince that in his past lives he had been a devout monk. Accordingly, he should not be overwhelmed by the lure of ephemeral pleasures in the world. If he should acquiesce, Tara continued, then “as an elephant sinks deeply into the swamp, [he], a hero, [would] sink in the mire of lust.” Essentially, Tara’s manifestation is symbolic for the prince’s meaningful realization of his own karmic potential. The deity’s metaphor is illuminating: As an elephant’s enormous weight prevents it from escaping the mud, so the prince’s wealth and extravagance would prevent him from spiritual awakening. With this revelation at the forefront of his conscious, Atisha renounced his kingdom, family, and social status in order to find a spiritual teacher—or as he told his parents—to go on a hunting trip. 372
Buddhist sources assert that, while feigning a hunting trip, an adolescent Atisha made the acquaintance of the brahmin Jetari, a Buddhist recluse and renowned teacher. Jetari taught the young man three things: 1) taking refuge in the Three Jewels of Buddha , 2) Dharma and Sangha and 3) bodhichitta, described as the mind‐oriented aspiration towards enlightenment with the intent of benefiting all sentient beings . Upon educating the young Atisha in the basic principles of Mahayana Buddhism, Jetari advised that he go to Nalanda, a Buddhist center for learning in northeastern India. In Nalanda, Atashi received once again brief instruction regarding the Bodhisattva vows under the spiritual guide Bodhibhadra, who in turn advised him to seek out a teacher renowned for his perfect meditation of perceiving emptiness, Vidyakokila. Atisha’s acquisition of the wisdom to perceive emptiness is particularly significant. It is during this stage of study that Atisha became aware of pure human nature and the fundamental freedom inherent to every sentient being’s existence; a freedom exclusive of physical attachments and mental bondage. Buddhist narratives recount one story in which Atisha comes across a women alternately crying and laughing. Confused with her behavior, he inquires about her condition, and she responds: “[O]ne’s own mind has been a Buddha from beginningless time. By not knowing this, great complications follow from such a small base of error for hundreds of thousands of sentient beings…. Not being able to bear the suffering for so many beings, I cry. And then, I laugh because when this small basis of error is known—when one knows one’s own mind—one is freed.” Coming from a background of nobility and material wealth, Atisha’s realization of value as a freely determined product of perception represents a relative challenge and an alteration of life principles with substantial ontological ramifications. Upon completing his training for meditations on nothingness and emptiness, Atisha was advised to go study with Avadhutipa, a Vajrayana master . Though Avadhutipa consented to instruct the still young Atisha, he required that the prince first consult the Black Mountain Yogi. The Black Mountain Yogi tested Atisha in numerous ways. First, he cast a lightening bolt in Atishs’s direction as he first approached. He then granted the prince thirteen days of instruction, teaching him the Hevajra lineage and bestowing him with the code name Indestructible Wisdom. Finally, the Black Mountain Yogi insisted that before Atisha continue in his studies that he gain permission from his parents to be formally acquitted of royal responsibility, summoning eight naked yogis and yoginis to escort the prince back to Vikramapura. Returning to the royal palace, Atisha’s parents and subjects believed he had gone mad during his jungle refuge. He explained to his parents, however, that his pursuit of Dharma was for the greater benefit of all sentient beings and that “if [he] had become a king [he] would be with [them] only for this life. In future lives [they] would never meet, and this life, for all its luxury and wealth would have been for nothing” . Essentially, Atisha’s motivation in renouncing the wealth and luxury in his life was to repay his parents and fellow beings. In understanding his reasons and remembering the religious signs that accompanied the prince’s birth, Atisha’s mother willingly gave her consent and approved her son’s decision to pursue the Dharma. Atisha’s father, on the other hand, was much harder to convince and, like the Shakyamuni Buddha’s own father, only conceded after multiple requests. Driven forth by his parent’s approval, Atisha went back to Avadhutipa to continue his studies, learning the Madhayamka middle way and various tantra 373
practices. At one point, he assumed a slight amount of pride in his accomplishments. Such an assumption was immediately met with a reminder that he knew relatively little through the visit from a dakini in a vision. Consequently, Atisha’s unnecessary pride was reduced to humbleness overnight and he continued towards the path of enlightenment. One day, as Atisha considered practicing his tantra with all the energy he could summon until he achieved his full potential he was confronted by a contending voice. The Black Mountain Yogi appeared to him in a dream, and advised him to take his time through steady practice in order to achieve the enlightenment he was seeking. Rather than extend all his powers at once, the Black Mountain Yogi warned, he should endeavor to become a “spiritual seeker who has renounced family life”, a monk . Therefore, in his twenty‐ninth year, Atisha was formally declared a monk under an ordination of the great Silarakshita, and given the new name of Dipamkara Srijnana, meaning “He Whose Deep Awareness Acts as a Lamp.” Even as a monk, Dipamkara Srijnana yearned for the fastest and most direct means of attaining perfect enlightenment. He made a pilgrimage to Bodhigaya and, as he was circumambulating the great stupa there, had a vision consisting of two materializations of Tara. One asked the other what the most important practice for attaining enlightenment was, and the other duly replied that “the practice of bodhichitta, supported by loving kindness and great compassion is most important.” Atisha thenceforth dedicated himself to refining his understanding and practice of bodhichitta. Thus, at the age of thirty‐one, the monk arranged for a perilous journey, traveling for thirteen months to Sumatra in order to study under the reputable Suvarnadvipi Dharmarakshita, known in Tibetan as Serlingpa (Wylie:Gser‐gling‐pa), a supposed master of bodhichitta. Under the guidance of Dharmarakshita, Atisha remained on the island of Sumatra for twelve years studying bodhichitta and exclusive mind training techniques of oral origination. Finally, after over a decade of intensive training, Dharmarakshita advised Atisha to “Go to the north. In the north is the Land of Snows.” Dharmarakshita was referring to Tibet, a region with a Buddhist tradition forever changed after the arrival of Atisha Dipamkara Srijnana. 2) Preaching in Sumatra and Tibet Before journeying to Tibet, however, Atisha first returned to India. Once back, the increasingly knowledgeable monk received much attention for his teachings and skills in debate and philosophy. On three separate occasions, the monk Atisha was acclaimed for defeating non‐Buddhist extremists in debate. When he came into contact with what he perceived to be a misled or deteriorating form of Buddhism he would quickly and effectively implement reforms. Soon enough he was appointed to the position of steward, or abbot, at the venerable Buddhist college Vikramasila, established by the King Dharampal of Bengal. Atisha’s return from Sumatra and rise to prominence in India coincided with a flourishing of Buddhist culture and the practice of Dharma in the region, and in many ways Atisha’s influence contributed to these developments. As Dharmarakshita had predicted, however, Buddhism in Tibet was in desperate need of resuscitation. Some Tibetans, for example, believed that “ethical self‐discipline and tantra were mutually exclusive and that enlightenment could be achieved through intoxication and various 374
forms of sexual misconduct.” The politically instable rule of King Langdarma had suppressed Tibetan Buddhism’s teachings and persecuted its followers for over seventy years. A new king by the name of Lha Lama Yeshe Yod, however, was a strict believer in Dharma and so sent his academic followers to learn and translate some of the Sanskrit Buddhist texts. Among these academics was Nagtso, who was eventually sent to Vikramasila college to study Sanskrit and plead with Atisha to come teach the Dharma in his homeland. At first, Atisha declined the offer to come reintroduce the Buddha’s teachings in Tibet. He believed that he was getting too old for travel and had much unfinished work at the monastic college. On the evening following his declination, however, he received a vision in which his tutelary guide Tara informed him that his trip to Tibet would be very successful: Not only would he greatly honor and assist the Tibetans, but he would also find a dedicated disciple and further contribute to the spread of Dharma. In exchange for these benefits, however, he would only live to seventy‐two years . In truth, Atisha’s undertaking in Tibet was never in doubt. Prophecies of the impending departure begin with Dharmarakshita in Sumatra and follow Atisha’s story up until his vision of Tara. During his travels across the perilous Himalayas, the Tibetan scholar Nagtso “vaguely realized that […] miraculous manifestations assisted me in an uninterrupted flow.” Nagtso was referring, whether he knew it or not, to the numerous assistances provided by Avalokitesvara throughout his trip to Vikramasila. As such, it seems as though Atisha’s two‐year journey to Tibet is interpreted within the Buddhist tradition as a fulfillment of destiny. Once he arrived, Atisha grasped very quickly the Tibetan peoples’ enthusiasm for the Dharma, but relative lack of comprehension. At Ngari, he was very impressed with the king’s request for “a teaching of the people […] had [Atisha] been asked for advanced empowerments into tantric deity systems […] he would have been far less pleased” . It was during the three years Atisha spent in this town that he compiled his teachings into his most influential scholarly work, A Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment, and encountered the disciple forecasted by Tara, Dromtonpa. The young Tibetan would continue on to establish the Tantric School Kadampa and facilitate the spread of Buddhism in Tibet and around the entire world . As he grew old, Atisha moved on from Ngari and accepted an invitation from Dromtonpa to explore Central Tibet. In Nyetang, a town near Lhasa, Atisha spent nine years during which he discovered Tibetan libraries with impressive collections written in both Sanskrit and Tibetan. The venerable monk moved around the region for another five years before passing away in 1052 at the prophesized age of seventy‐two. He was enshrined near his last permanent home in the town of Nyetang . 3) Legacy Atisha remains an important figure in the Tibetan Buddhist tradition for several reasons. First, he refined, systematized, and compiled an innovative and thorough approach to bodhichitta known as ʺmind trainingʺ (Tib. lojong), in such texts as A Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment, and established the primacy of bodhichitta to the 375
Mahayana tradition in Tibet. In this sense, Atisha not only dictated a scholarly model for bodhichitta but acted as a living human example. Second, After King Langdarma’s intolerant reign, the monastic Buddhist tradition of Tibet had been nearly wiped out. Atisha’s closest diciple, Dromtönpa, is considered the founder of the Kadampa school, which later evolved into the Geluk, one of the four main school of Tibetan Buddhism. Athough monasticism and the lojong teachings were of greatest centrality to the Kadam/Geluk, they were incorporated into the other three schools the Nyingma, Kagyu, Sakya as well. Finally, Atisha mobilized his influence in India towards the goal of reforming the impurities and redirecting the development of Buddhism there, in the native country of the Shakayumi Buddha. For these reasons and more, Atisha remains a central figure in the history and religious study of Buddhism. 4) Writings Atiśa wrote, translated and edited more than two hundred books, which helped spread Buddhism in Tibet. He discovered several Sanskrit manuscripts in Tibet and copied them himself. He translated many books from Sanskrit to Tibetan. He also wrote several books on Buddhist scriptures, medical science and technical science in Tibetan. Dipankara wrote several books in Sanskrit, but only their Tibetan translations are extant now. 79 of his compositions have been preserved in Tibetan translation in the Tengyur (bstan‐sgyur). Following are his most notable books‐ _Bodhi‐patha‐pradipa, _Charya‐sanggraha‐pradipa _Satya‐dvayavatara _Bodhi‐sattva‐manyavali _Madhyamaka‐ratna‐pradipa _Mahayana‐patha‐sadhana‐sanggraha _Shiksa‐samuchchaya Abhisamya _Prajna‐paramita‐pindartha‐pradipa _Ekavira‐sadhana _Vimala‐ratna‐lekha Vimalaratnalekha is a Sanskrit letter to Nayapala, king of Magadha. Charyasamgrahapradipa contains some kirtan verses composed by Atiśa. 5) Death After staying for thirteen years in Tibet, Atiśa died in 1054 CE in a village called Lethan, near Lhasa. The site of his last rites at Lethan has turned into a shrine. His ashes were brought to Dhaka, Bangladesh on 28 June 1978 and placed in Dharmarajika Bauddha Vihara. 376
Tibet | O Dharma na Terra das Neves www.dharmanet.com.br Potala/Tibet Desde o tempo do primeiro rei tibetano, Nyatri Tsenpo, a religião predominante no Tibet era o Bön. Durante o reinado de Lha Totori Nyentsen, ocorreram os primeiros contatos com o buddhismo. Seu quinto sucessor foi o rei Songtsen Gampo (tib. Srong btsan sGam po, 617‐698), que colaborou com o estabelecimento do buddhismo no seu império e introduziu costumes do Dharma, principalmente a conduta moral. Seu quinto sucessor, o rei Trisong Detsen (tib. Khri srong lDe brtsan, 790‐858) convidou vários os mestres Danashila de Singala, Kamalashila da China, Shantarakshita (Khenpo Bodhisattva) de Zahor, Vimalamitra de Kashmir e o Padmasambhava de Uddiyana. O rei patrocinou a tradução de textos buddhistas para o tibetano e, em 779, fundou o primeiro monastério tibetano, Samye (tib. bSam yas), com base na linhagem de ordenação indiana dos Mula‐sarvastivadins. Segundo a história tradicional, Padmasambhava (também conhecido como Guru Rinpoche, Mestre Precioso) subjugou as ʺdivindades e demôniosʺ do Tibet, que se 377
opunham à introdução do buddhismo. Ao invés de abolir as práticas e crenças da religião Bön tibetana, Padmasambhava utilizou‐as para difundir o buddhismo. A diversidade das influências é bem simbolizada pelas duas esposas de Songtsen Gampo, ambas buddhistas e cada uma acompanhada por missionários da China e do Nepal. Na época de Trisong Detsen (século VII), as relações entre os representantes das duas tradições eram ásperas, e os argumentos seriam resolvidos por um debate, ou por uma série de debates, no monastério Samye [entre 792 e 794]. O grupo indiano, com uma abordagem gradualista para a iluminação, foi representado por Kamalashila. A tradição chinesa foi representada por um monge chamado Ho Shang Mahayana, que parece ter apresentado uma forma de ensinamento Chʹan [Zen] que conduziria à iluminação súbita através do corte de todas as diferenciações mentais. Eventualmente, o rei declarou Kamalashila como vitorioso, e a partir de então todos os buddhistas tibetanos deveriam ser praticantes da tradição indiana. Ho Shang foi banido. É provável que a decisão do rei tenha sido, em parte, pragmática, já que o grupo indiano argumentou que a visão de uma iluminação súbita minava a moralidade. Se a iluminação ocorresse repentinamente, sem a preparação do caminho gradual, então a prática da moralidade e das perfeições não teriam sentido. Parece ter havido uma má representação da verdadeira posição de Ho Shang, pois outras fontes indicam que ele advogava a prática das perfeições e da ordenação monástica completa. Porém, é possível que o rei estivesse interessado que a religião tivesse uma influência moralizadora sobre seu povo e, portanto, escolheu a tradição que dava mais ênfase sobre a moralidade. (Andrew Skilton, A Concise History of Buddhism) Chamar o buddhismo tibetano de lamaísmo é errado porque ele não foi inventado pelos lamas tibetanos. Quando nos deparamos com um ponto importante, sempre citamos um confiável mestre indiano. Este método de autenticação de um ponto ou questão em particular pela citação de textos indianos como autoridade final foi tão amplamente aceito que, em alguns casos, algumas visões são recusadas por não se basearem em nenhum texto indiano autêntico. (Dalai Lama, Amor, verdade, felicidade) No século IX, o rei Langdarma (tib. gLang dar ma), adepto da religião Bön, perseguiu vigorosamente o buddhismo até ser assassinado por um monge, em 842; isto encerra a primeira fase do buddhismo no Tibet. A segunda fase começa depois da estabilização política no século X e do renascimento gradual do buddhismo a partir do oeste do Tibet. Em 1042, o monge indiano Atisha (980‐1055), do monastério Vikramashila, foi convidado a visitar o país. Atisha introduziu grandes mudanças no buddhismo tibetano, tomando como base as fontes monásticas indianas. Seus discípulos fundaram a primeira escola buddhista tibetana, chamada Kadam (tib. bKaʹ gdams). Após o debate de Samye de 792‐794 ter selado a vitória do buddhismo indiano no Tibet, a apostasia de Langdarma, o último rei da dinastia tibetana, deixou o buddhismo institucional destruído com seus monastérios destruídos ou abandonados, e seus monges dispersados ou forçados a se casar. Após a morte de Langdarma até o 378
final do século IX, o reino quebrou‐se em uma multitude de principados que se gastavam em confrontos incessantes, enquanto os sacerdotes bönpos reobtiveram o poder que aparentemente tinha escorregado de suas mãos. Cerca de um século depois, os conflitos terminaram e o Tibet naturalmente voltou‐se para a Índia como uma fonte da qual tirou elementos culturais e religiosos para a sua própria renovação. Os senhores de guerra, que falharam em impor qualquer vitória definitiva através de meios militares, agora tentaram basear seu poder temporal sobre uma associação com o poder reemergente das autoridades religiosas, enquanto também davam suporte ativamente às artes, à medicina e à tradução de textos. Esta renascença cultural e religiosa, muitas vezes referida como a segunda propagação do buddhismo no Tibet, constitui um dos períodos mais férteis em sua história. Muito estranhamente, esta renascença apareceu primeiro nos reinos afastados de Guge e Purang no oeste. Os governantes destes reinos distantes, todos buddhistas fervorosos, convidaram mestres indianos das grandes universidades monásticas da Índia a visitar suas cortes. Atinha, o mais famoso de todos, chegou no Tibet em 1042, e tendo viajado e ensinado extensivamente, faleceu lá em 1054. [...] Em um desenvolvimento paralelo, numerosos tibetanos também cruzaram os Himalaias em sua busca por ensinamentos e textos raros, nas mesmas universidades e aos pés dos mahasiddhas. Deste modo apareceram uma nova geração de grandes tradutores tibetanos, incluindo: Rinchen Zangpo (958‐1055) que foi enviado a Kashmir pelos reinos de Guge [e que teria fundado 108 monastérios ao retornar ao Tibet]; Drogmi (992‐1072), o grande tradutor tibetano e mestre da tradição do Caminho e Fruto (tib. Lamdre / Lam bras); e Marpa Lotsawa (1012‐1096), que pavimentou a base da escola Kagyü. Estes seres excepcionais não hesitaram em se incumbir da longa viagem às baixas planícies da Índia, desbravando perigos, doenças e dificuldades a fim de trazer textos tântricos e ensinamentos anteriormente desconhecidos, que traduziram a partir do sânscrito e transmitiram a discípulos escolhidos. Este corpo de traduções conhecidas como novas (tib. Sarma / gSar ma) eventualmente trouxe a emergência de novas escolas, junto com a escola baseada nas traduções antigas (tib. Nyingma / rNying ma) da era real. [...] Na ausência de qualquer poder político ou religioso centralizado, comunidades informais desenvolveram‐se ao redor destes mestres tibetanos, muitas vezes suportados por ricas famílias. Algumas destas comunidades gradualmente se transformaram em instituições monásticas, por exemplo Radreng (tib. Reting / Rva dreng), fundada em 1056, e o colégio Sakya, estabelecido em 1073. Outros retiveram seu caráter informal, produzindo a conseqüentemente a tradição dos ʺsantos loucosʺ, em descendência direta da tradição indiana dos mahasiddhas. Estes yogis errantes, que permaneciam fora de qualquer estrutura institucional, representam o ideal buddhista tibetano da renúncia e realização, até os dias presentes. Esse era o estilo de vida de Milarepa e seus discípulos e também da pequena comunidade que se reuniu ao redor de Machig Labdrön em Zangri, a Montanha de Cobre. (Jérôme Edou, Machig Labdrön and the Foundations of Chöd) 379
Drogmi (tib. ʹBrog mi, 992‐1072) levou ao Tibet o Hevajra Tantra (tib. Kye rdo rje gyus / Kyedorje Gyü), o principal texto dos ensinamentos sobre o Caminho e Fruto (tib. Lamdre / Lam bras). Seu discípulo Könchog Gyelpo (tib. dKon mchogs rGyal po, 1034‐
1102) fundou, em 1073, o monastério Sakya (tib. Sa skya), que se tornaria a sede da escola homônima. Sakya Pandita (1182‐1251) converteu mongol Godan Khan em 1247 e tornou‐se rei em 1261. Marpa (tib. Mar pa, 1012‐1097), fez três viagens à Índia e recebeu os ensinamentos do mestre tântrico Naropa (1016‐1100). De volta ao Tibet, Marpa traduziu inúmeros textos para o tibetano. Seu principal discípulo foi o poeta Milarepa (tib. Mi la ras pa, 1040‐1123), um dos mais venerados santos tibetanos. O monge Gampopa (tib. sGam po pa), ordenado na escola Kadam, recebeu os ensinamentos tântricos de Milarepa e fundou a escola Kagyü. No século XII, surgiu formalmente a escola Nyingma (tib. rNying ma), derivada das primeiras linhagens buddhistas introduzidas no Tibet por Padmasambhava e Shantarakshita. Ao contrário das outras escolas, a Nyingma não se envolveu nas questões políticas. A escola Sakya, com apoio dos mongóis, conseguiu uma grande influência política, que depois passaria para a escola Kagyü. No século XIII, Yumo (tib. Yu mo) fundou a escola Jonang (tib. Jo nang), sistematizada por Dölpupa (tib. Dol pu pa). Este escola era baseada na doutrina Tathagatagarbha e foi extinta posteriormente. No século XIV, Putön (tib. Bu ston, 1290‐
1364) concluiu a compilação do cânone tibetano, o Kangyur Tengyur (tib. bGaʹ ʹgyur bsTan ʹgyur). A escola Gelug (tib. dGe lugs) foi fundada pelo monge Tsongkhapa (tib. Tsong kha pa, 1357‐1419), reformando a antiga escola Kadam e estabelecendo três novos monastérios (Ganden, Sera e Drepung). O monge Sönam Gyatso (tib. bSod nams rGya mtsho, 1543‐1588) recebeu o título de Dalai Lama (oceano de sabedoria), que continua sendo usado para designar o lama superior da escola Gelug. 380
No século XIX, surgiu o movimento Rime (tib. Ris med), procurando resgatar as fontes buddhistas indianas, superar o sectarismo e estruturar os ensinamentos de forma prática. Entre seus principais representantes, pode‐se citar Jamyang Khyentse (tib. ʹJam dbyang mKhyen brtse, 1820‐1892), Mipʹham (tib. Mi pham, 1841‐1912), Chogyur Dechen Lingpa (tib. mChog gyur bDe chen gLing pa, 1829‐1879) e Jamgön Kongtrül (tib. ʹJam mgon Kong sprul, 1811‐1899). De modo geral, as escolas Nyingma e Kagyü tendem a seguir a abordagem de um kusulu ou simples meditador; enquanto isso, as escolas Sakya e Gelug tendem a seguir a abordagem analítica de um pandita ou erudito. Quatro tradições maiores — Nyingma, Kagyü, Sakya e Gelug — emergiram como resultado da disseminação anterior e posterior dos ensinamentos buddhistas no Tibet e também por causa da ênfase colocada pelos grandes mestres do passado sobre diferentes escrituras, diferentes técnicas de meditação e, em alguns casos, diferentes termos usados para expressar experiências específicas. Muitas vezes as pessoas chamam estas diferentes tradições de ʺchapéus pretosʺ, ʺchapéus vermelhosʺ, ʺchapéus amarelosʺ e coisas assim. Mas se o único critério que tivéssemos para distinguir as tradições fosse a cor do chapéu que elas usam, e já que o Senhor Buddha não costuma usar qualquer chapéu, seríamos obrigados a chamar sua tradição de ʺsem chapéuʺ! O que é comum a todas as quatro tradições maiores do buddhismo tibetano é a sua ênfase sobre a prática de toda a estrutura do caminho buddhista, que compreendem [...] não apenas essência dos ensinamentos do Vajrayana, mas também a das práticas dos bodhisattvas e das práticas básicas do Hinayana. Na Índia, baseadas em diferenças de ponto de vista filosófico, emergiram quatro escolas maiores de pensamento buddhista: Vaibhashika, Sautrantika, Yogachara e Madhyamika. Todas as quatro tradições maiores do buddhismo tibetano, entretanto, mantêm o ponto de vista da escola Madhyamika e, neste ponto, não há diferenças filosóficas fundamentais entre elas. (Dalai Lama, Dzogchen) Não devemos considerar o buddhismo tibetano superior às outras formas de buddhismo. Na Tailândia, em Burma e no Sri Lanka, os monges têm um verdadeiro compromisso com a prática da disciplina monástica e, ao contrário dos monges tibetanos, eles ainda mantêm o costume de mendigar comida, o qual era praticado há 2.500 anos por Buddha e seus discípulos. Na Tailândia, juntei‐me a um grupo de monges em suas rondas. Era um dia quente e ensolarado e, porque a tradição é sair sem sapatos, os meus pés realmente queimavam. Fora isso, foi inspirador ver a prática dos monges tailandeses. (Dalai Lama, O Caminho para a Liberdade) 381
Por muitos séculos, o Tibet permaneceu isolado e desenvolveu uma forma única de buddhismo, incorporando as filosofias e o monasticismo do Mahayana, os métodos tântricos do Vajrayana e as crenças nativas da religião Bön. Sua presença não se restringe ao Tibet, mas está presente em toda a região do Himalaia, no norte da Índia (Ladakh, Zanskar, Sikkhim), no Butão, no Nepal, na Mongólia, na Ásia Central, na China (Xinghai, Gansu, Yunan e Sichuan) e em repúblicas autônomas do sul da Rússia — especificamente no Cáucaso (Kalmykia) e na Sibéria (Buryatia e Tuva). Após seus primeiros contatos com o mundo exterior, o forte simbolismo tântrico do buddhismo tibetano fez com que ele fosse considerado uma forma deturpada dos ensinamentos de Buddha. Nas últimas décadas, porém, com o êxodo de seus lamas para outros países, o conhecimento sobre o buddhismo tibetano tem aumentado e os estudiosos passaram a vê‐lo de outra forma. No Tibet, os eruditos não esqueceram a prática espiritual e os praticantes não negligenciam o estudo; os sábios uniram o conhecimento à realização. E trata‐se, a meu ver, de um excelente procedimento. (Dalai Lama, Como um Relâmpago Rasgando a Noite) O buddhismo tibetano é notável por ter preservado até o século XX a tradição contínua das universidades monásticas do norte da Índia, uma tradição que, deste 1959, tem sido transplantada para a Índia e para muitos países ocidentais. Para entender a natureza desta tradição, deve‐se olhar suas origens no ambiente monástico da dinastia Pala da Índia [760‐1142], que forneceu o modelo definitivo para o sistema monástico tibetano. As universidades indianas e suas contrapartes tibetanas enfatizavam uma abordagem sintetizadora do buddhismo, na qual era feita uma tentativa de categorizar e incorporar todas as doutrinas e práticas, reconciliando todas as diferenças em um sistema universal que cobrisse todos os aspectos do Dharma. (Andrew Skilton, A Concise History of Buddhism) O primeiro pesquisador europeu sobre língua tibetana, o húngaro Csoma de Körös, viajou extensivamente ao Ladakh no início do século XIX antes de produzir seu pioneiro dicionário e resumo de literatura tibetana em 1834. O monge zen‐buddhista japonês Ekai Kawaguchi submeteu‐se a uma privação extraordinária até, disfarçado de chinês, chegar a Lhasa em 1901, onde a profundidade de seus estudos lingüísticos permitiu que entrasse em uma das grandes universidades monásticas. Ele retornou ao Japão com uma extraordinária coleção de textos. Alexandra David‐Neel, a exploradora buddhista francesa, disfarçada como a mãe de seu lama, teve sucesso em chegar a Lhasa no início do século XX, uma época em que outros exploradores frustraram‐se em suas tentativas de chegar à capital. Seus registros de primeira mão sobre as yogas psicofísicas dos monges meditadores fascinaram os pesquisadores sobre o Tibet desde então. Poucos tiveram esses contados próximos com os yogis. E não devemos esquecer Sir Francis Younghunsband, cuja filosofia idiossincrática, prefigurando de modos modos os interesses espirituais contemporâneos, deve muito a experiências pessoais no Tibet.m os pesquisadores sobre o Tibet desde então. Poucos tiveram esses contados próximos com os yogis. E não devemos esquecer Sir Francis Younghunsband, cuja filosofia idiossincrática, prefigurando de modos modos os interesses espirituais contemporâneos, deve muito a experiências pessoais no Tibet. 382
Desde a década de 1930, viajados instruídos nos Himalaias e no Tibet Ocidental fizeram grandes contribuição de modo similar. O erudito alemão Lama Anagarika Govinda, [o italiano] Giuseppi Tucci — o principal intérprete da religião tibetana — e David Snellgrovve — da London School of Oriental and African Studies — escreveram diários de viagem e forneceram registros detalhados e traduções de cerimônias monásticas, textos espirituais e antigas hagiografias. No Ladakh, o pesquisador buddhista britânico Marco Pallis combinou registros de montanhismo com um estudo simpático do buddhismo local. (John Crook, The Yogins of Ladakh) Em 1949, começou a ocupação chinesa no Tibet. Dez anos depois, um levante tibetano não teve sucesso e o governo comunista consolidou sua invasão. Aproximadamente 1,2 milhão de tibetanos morreram e mais de 6.200 monastérios foram destruídos, restando apenas 13. Cerca 100.000 tibetanos, como o Dalai Lama e vários outros mestres, foram obrigados a se exilar. Até a invasão chinesa de 1950, pensava‐se no Tibet basicamente como um Shangri‐Lá, a terra mágica de sabedoria milenar e beleza inacessível, onde os estrangeiros raramente tinham permissão para entrar. Um dos primeiros livros sobre este assunto, que foi campeão de vendagem no mundo inteiro, foi o romance de aventuras de James Hilton, Horizonte Perdido, publicado em 1933, sobre um mosteiro no Tibet. A capital do Tibet, Lhassa, o lar do Dalai Lama, a três mil metros de altitude, envolta em mito e protegida pelos picos nevados do Himalaia, foi muitas vezes chamada de ʺCidade Proibidaʺ. Isolado e fechado, o Tibet não mudava havia séculos, e o progresso tecnológico e a modernização enfrentaram sempre aí forte resistência. O país nunca passou por uma idade da razão ou de desenvolvimento científico. Existe uma tendência compreensível em romantizar aquele Tibet que existiu antes da violenta invasão chinesa. Entretanto, é um erro pensar que o Tibet era um Shangri‐Lá, onde todos eram iluminados, felizes, vegetarianos e não‐violentos. Apesar do Tibet provavelmente dispor da ʺmais sofisticada tecnologia espiritual e da melhor compreensão das ciências interioresʺ, não podemos fingir que era uma sociedade perfeita. Ainda tinha um longo caminho a percorrer. Antes de trazer para o cotidiano aquilo que parecia dominar no mundo espiritual. Na verdade, quando examinamos o Tibet com atenção, através de uma visão racional e humanista, temos que admitir que era uma teocracia medieval, onde a democracia, a alfabetização e os modernos avanços da medicina ainda não haviam chegado. O que importa hoje é extrair o ouro do minério do Himalaia — encontrar a essência dos ensinamentos da sabedoria imutável nas encostas pedregosas da cultura asiática, da teologia e da anacrônica cosmologia. Antes da invasão chinesa, uma vida espiritual de devoção e uma vocação monástica eram consideradas uma profissão viável. Um terço da população masculina 383
do Tibet habitava os milhares de mosteiros espalhados pelo país; os mosteiros femininos, repletos de mulheres, também eram numerosos. Até recentemente, as únicas rodas em uso no Tibet eram as rodas de oração, as quais, juntamente com os rosários de contas chamados malas, estavam sempre nas mãos de todos, transformando qualquer atividade, assim como a vida das pessoas, em uma prece contínua. Por volta de 1920, o predecessor do atual Dalai Lama (o presciente Décimo Terceiro Dalai Lama) fez previsões sinistras sobre os planos chineses para conquistar o Tibet e reprimir a prática do buddhismo. Mas os tibetanos, mais preocupados em manter as coisas como estavam do que em evoluir para os tempos modernos, ignoraram as advertências. Quando as Nações Unidas foram formadas depois da Segunda Guerra Mundial, o Tibet escolheu não fazer parte, e pagou muito caro por esta escolha retrógrada. Em 1950, quando a China entrou no Tibet, alguns lamas, monges e leigos tiveram a boa idéia de fugir do país. Afortunadamente, alguns deles carregaram consigo antigos objetos sagrados e escrituras. A maior parte dos tibetanos, entretanto, ficou lá. Apesar do jovem Dalai Lama temer o pior, por nove longos anos ele ficou em Lhassa, tentando em vão chegar a algum tipo de acordo com o governo chinês. Então, em 1959, a tensão e a insegurança que pairavam sobre a vida dos tibetanos se acumularam, originando uma revolta na província oriental de Kham, que chegou até Lhassa. O Dalai Lama foi alertado quando o governo comunista chinês o convidou para assistir a um espetáculo teatral mas não permitiu que levasse seu guarda‐costas nem os assistentes. Preocupados com a segurança de seu líder, milhares de tibetanos cercaram o palácio. Quando a luta começou, o Dalai Lama, vestido como um camponês, saiu do palácio na escuridão e começou a difícil e perigosa jornada, em lombo de burro e a pé, através das montanhas, para fora do Tibet e para o asilo político na Índia. Sem saber que o Dalai Lama havia partido, o exército chinês disparou seus canhões contra o palácio no dia seguinte à sua partida, e milhares de tibetanos civis e desarmados morreram. Quando os chineses rapidamente tomaram os mosteiros e reprimiram a prática do buddhismo, muitos outros lamas e monges também empreenderam a difícil fuga de sua terra natal. Cerca de cem mil tibetanos conseguiram fugir antes de os chineses fecharem as fronteiras, mas muitos daqueles que iniciaram a jornada desapareceram no Himalaia sem deixar vestígios. Para os que ficaram, a vida tomou‐se dura e cruel. Monjas, monges e lamas, além de leigos, foram torturados e assassinados. A Anistia Internacional calcula que cerca de um mi1hão e duzentos mil tibetanos tenham sido mortos pelo exército chinês, e muitos ainda permanecem em campos de prisioneiros no nordeste do Tíbete. Dos irnimeros mosteiros antigos que no passado adornavam o árido platô himalaio, apenas duas dúzias ainda permanecem, deixados de pé pelos chineses apenas para exibição. Os lamas e monges que escaparam precisavam encontrar novos lares. Muitos, como o Dalai Lama, que agora tem sua casa em Dharamsala, na Índia, se estabeleceram em regiões vizinhas ou nos países próximos, como Índia, Nepal, Sikkim, Ladakh e Butão. Outros viajaram para bem longe, terminando na França, na Suíça, na Inglaterra e nos Estados Unidos. Esses mestres também se lembraram das instruções do Buddha aos primeiros sessenta discípulos iluminados, para continuar a espalhar os 384
ensinamentos: ʺVão para o mundo, oh monges, para o bem de muitos, para a felicidade de muitos, por compaixão do mundo.ʺ Com a invasão chinesa do Tibet, foi como se uma represa houvesse arrebentado: de repente a sabedoria tibetana começou a fluir livremente do teto do mundo em direção ao Ocidente. Monges e monjas, lamas e mestres que nunca haviam deixado seus mosteiros de clausura e suas ermidas isoladas tiveram que enfrentar um novo mundo — cheio de homens e mulheres ansiosos para aprender sobre o Dharma. Os mestres tibetanos dizem que se houve um bem emanado da invasão chinesa, este bem foi a disseminação dos ensinamentos para tantos alunos novos. (Lama Surya Das, O Despertar do Buda Interior) Até hoje, os tibetanos continuam a buscar a liberdade e encontram no Dharma um caminho para superar o sofrimento. Em 1995, 11º Panchen Lama foi seqüestrado pelo governo chinês, e no final de 1999 o 17º Karmapa conseguiu fugir para o exílio na Índia. Apesar de todas restrições impostas pelo governo chinês, cerca de 65% da população tibetana ainda continua a praticar o buddhismo. Felizmente, as quatro principais escolas do buddhismo tibetano (Nyingma, Kagyü, Sakya e Gelug) continuam a existir até os dias de hoje. Naquele ano [1959], os chineses gentilmente nos informaram que era a hora de deixar o Tibet e de nos reunirmos ao mundo exterior. (Lama Thubten Yeshe, citado em Wisdom Energy) Como resultado da diáspora, pesquisadores ocidentais hoje têm acesso à literatura tibetana, o que nunca seria possível se o Tibet permanecesse isolado. Ainda mais do que isso, a invasão chinesa conduziu a maioria dos grandes sábios e religiosos do Tibet ao exílio, fazendo com que as pessoas interessadas em estudar o buddhismo tibetano possam se encontrar com eles e receber suas explicações orais. Por causa disso, a cultura tibetana tem se difundido pelo mundo e lamas eminentes — mais notavelmente o Dalai Lama — têm conseguido viajar e ensinar o Dharma. [...] Assim, a catástrofe do Tibet teve pelo menos alguns resultados positivos, apesar deste fato não diminuir a tragédia da invasão chinesa nem o sofrimento do povo tibetano. (John Powers, Introduction to Tibetan Buddhism) Mesmo hoje — apesar do turismo e das abundantes informações fornecidas pela mídia —, parece existir uma imagem do Tibet como uma misteriosa terra das neves, dotada de mágica e misticismo. Obtemos esta compreensão, por exemplo, quando observamos o modo pelo qual elementos da cultura tibetana são usados em propagandas, isto é, em uma área onde a psicologia tem um papel importante. Então o que podemos dizer sobre esta imagem mítica do Tibet? Apesar de ser composta, em parte, por projeções sonhadoras, fantasiosas, ela contém algum cerne de verdade? Se nos preocuparmos com estas perguntas, encontraremos entre outras coisas, a estranha invenção de uma palavra — ʺlamaísmoʺ — que, infelizmente, ainda pode ser encontrada aqui e ali na literatura. Há alguns que atribuem falsas habilidades sobrenaturais aos lamas, enquanto há outros que riem com pena dessas noções, considerando‐as como produtos das imaginações super‐ativas de excêntricos supersticiosos. Para ambos, prevalece um conceito obscuro e vago do que o lama 385
realmente é; assim, é duramente necessário mencionar que o seu entendimento do buddhismo indo‐tibetano — separado do qual a cultura tibetana seria inimaginável — é semelhantemente obscuro e incompleto. (Dagyab Rinpoche, Buddhist Symbols in Tibetan Culture) Apesar de ser rejeitado por muitos chefes de governo ocidentais, preocupados em não perder futuras possibilidades comerciais na China, na década de 80 [S.S. o Dalai Lama] surgiu como figura mundial de grande talha espiritual e como símbolo para muitos dos que lutam em diferentes frentes para mudar o estabelecido: direitos humanos, ecologia etc. Com o Prêmio Nobel da Paz concedido em 1989, a compaixão de Sua Santidade, assim como a sua paciência e sua amorosa bondade para com os opressores de seus país e para aqueles que, com o silêncio, admitem essa opressão, representam um extraordinário tributo ao caminho buddhista e um grande exemplo dos ensinamentos de Buddha. (Alistair Shearer, Buddha) Podemos distinguir três grandes razões para a expansão do buddhismo [tibetano] no Ocidente: •
Algumas pessoas, tendo ouvido falar do Tibet e dos tibetanos, formularam uma opinião favorável sobre eles e foram para a Índia, onde puderam encontrar mestres tibetanos. Constatando o benefício que seus ensinamentos proporcionavam, convidaram muitos lamas e tülkus para vir ao Ocidente. •
Os valores comuns aos cristianismo e ao buddhismo prepararam um terreno favorável: a devoção (por Deus ou pelas Três Jóias), o amor e a compaixão pelos seres, o respeito a uma ética etc. •
A maioria dos ocidentais estudou muito, o que desenvolveu sua inteligência. Podem compreender, assim, mais facilmente o buddhismo em seus aspectos profundos. (Kalu Rinpoche, Ensinamentos Fundamentais do Budismo Tibetano) 386
King Trisong Deutsen From RangjungYesheWiki Trisong Deutsen (790‐844) The second great Dharma king of Tibet who invited Guru Rinpoche, Shantarakshita, Vimalamitra, and many other Buddhist teachers including Jinamitra and Danashila. In The Precious Garland of Lapis Lazuli, Jamgon Kongtrul dates Trisong Deutsen as being born on the eighth day of the third month of spring in the year of the Male Water Horse (802). Other sources state that year as his enthronement upon the death of his father. Until the age of seventeen he was chiefly engaged in ruling the kingdom. He built Samye, the great monastery and teaching center modeled after Odantapuri, established Buddhism as the state religion of Tibet, and during his reign the first monks were ordained. He arranged for panditas and lotsawas to translate innumerable sacred texts, and he established a large number of centers for teaching and practice. Among his later incarnations are Nyang Ral Nyima Özer (1124‐1192), Guru Chowang (1212‐1270), Jigmey Lingpa (1729‐1798), and Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo (1820‐1892). In the successive occurrence of kings, it is universally known that Tori Nyenshel, an emanation of bodhisattva Samantabhadra, instigated the sacred Dharma. Songtsen Gampo, Avalokiteshvara in person, established its tradition. Finally, the great Dharma ruler, King Trisong Deutsen, the emanation body of noble Manjushri, made it spread and flourish. In order that sacred Dharma flourish, this latter Dharma king invited from the Noble Land of India one hundred and eight great panditas such as the great scholar Shantarakshita, Vimalamitra, who possessed the vajra body, and in particular Padmakara, the great vidyadhara of immortality. He let the subjects with devotion be ordained and learn translation. He erected temples, established the sangha and founded the tradition for translating, expounding and practicing the sacred Dharma. Thus his deeds in initially spreading the Buddha’s teachings will never disappear, not even at the end of existence, and the signature and fame of this demonstrate the exaltedness of the patron of the teachings. By Jamgon Kongtrul the Great, from Light of Wisdom, Volume 1 During the reign of King Trisong Deutsen, Buddhism was spread with great zeal after he had invited the Abbot Shantarakshita and Acharya Padmasambhava to Tibet. The task of translating Buddhaʹs teachings was carried out with great vigour and enthusiasm. It is said that altogether one hundred and eight Indian scholars were engaged with Tibetan translators in the work of translating Buddhist literature into Tibetan. They also took part in establishing monasteries. 387
Princess Pema Sal From RangjungYesheWiki Princess Pema Sal. The daughter of King Trisong Deutsen, to whom Padmasambhava entrusted his own lineage of the Great Perfection known as Khandro Nyingtig. She died at an early age, after which Padmasambhava miraculously called her back to life. When her father asked why someone with the great merit to be both a princess and a disciple of the Lotus‐Born master had to die while still a child, Padmasambhava told the story of how she had been a bee who stung one of the four brothers during the completion of the Great Stupa of Boudhanath. The princess was predicted by Padmasambhava to later reincarnate as Pema Ledrel Tsal (1291‐1315) and Longchenpa. Pema Sal means ʹRadiant Lotus.ʹ The daughter of King Trisong Deutsen, who was entrusted with an important cycle of Dzogchen teachings known as the Khandro Nyingthig. This cycle was later revealed as a terma by her reincarnation, Pema Ledreltsal, and then codified as part of the Nyingthig Yabzhi by Longchenpa, another one of her reincarnations. CJD 388
Padmasambhava From RangjungYesheWiki Padmasambhava Padmasambhava (pad ma ʹbyung gnas). ʹLotus‐born.ʹ Same as Guru Rinpoche. Padmakara and Padmasambhava are interchangeable in Tibetan literature, sometimes the Tibetan translation Pema Jungney is used in Tibetan literature, sometimes the Sanskrit. From Lamrim Yeshe Nyingpo root text, opening verses: ʺThe essence of all the buddhas of the three times, the supreme sovereign of all power‐wielding vidyadharas, the all‐encompassing lord of the ocean of peaceful and wrathful yidams (yi dam), the chief of the gatherings of all the dakas and dakinis, the great being who by his splendor outshines all the vajra protectors of the Dharma and the haughty forces of appearance and existence, is the one renowned throughout the infinite realms of the teachers of the Three Kayas as Mahaguru Padmasambhava.ʺ RY 389
Shantarakshita From RangjungYesheWiki Shantarakshita (zhi ba ʹtsho). ʹGuardian of Peace.ʹ The Indian pandita and abbot of Vikramashila and of Samye who ordained the first Tibetan monks. He was an incarnation of the bodhisattva Vajrapani and is also known as Khenpo Bodhisattva or Bhikshu Bodhisattva Shantarakshita. He is the founder of philosophical school combining Madhyamaka and Yogachara. This tradition was reestablished and clarified by Mipham Rinpoche in his commentary on the Madhyamaka Lamkara. 390
Longchenpa From RangjungYesheWiki Longchenpa (1308‐1363) Longchen Rabjam, whose name means ʺgreat expanse,ʺ was the reincarnation of Princess Pemasal, the daughter of King Trisong Deutsen and direct student of Guru Rinpoche. His birth in the Tra Valley of Southern Tibet was accompanied by miraculous events and auspicious omens. He began his Dharma training at the age of seven, when he received empowerments and teachings from his father, a tantric yogi. At twelve, he took novice monastic vows at Samye monastery. Longchenpa studied and practiced teachings from a variety of lineages and masters. He received and mastered so many teachings, in fact, that he became known as Samye Lungmangwa, the One of Samye with Many Transmissions. Though he is associated primarily with the Nyingma lineage, he also studied many teachings of the Sarma, or New Schools, including the Kalachakratantra, Chöd, and the Path and Result teachings of the Sakya lineage. He shared a particularly close relationship with the third Karmapa, Rangjung Dorje, with whom he studied under the Dzogchen master Rigdzin Kumaraja. Rigdzin Kumaraja was Longchenpaʹs most important master. He lived with him for two years, practicing the Dzogchen teachings of the Heart Essence of Vimalamitra under extremely harsh conditions. Rigdzin Kumaraja eventually empowered Longchenpa as the lineage holder for these teachings. Longchenpa also reawakened a connection with the Heart Essence of the Dakinis, the Dzogchen lineage of Guru Rinpoche, and practiced these teachings for years in isolated mountain retreats. Longchen Rabjamʹs influence upon the Nyingma lineage is unparalleled. He united and compiled teachings concerning the two main Dzogchen Heart Essence lineages in a work entitled Four Volumes of the Heart Essence, adding three 391
commentaries of his own to the teachings of Guru Rinpoche and Vimalamitra. He also wrote the famed Seven Treasuries, texts that present various aspects of the view, meditation, and conduct of the Nyingma schoolʹs nine vehicles. Longchenpa passed away at the age of fifty‐six. He left over two hundred and fifty treatises behind, many of which are still regarded as the most comprehensive and authoritative works yet written concerning the view and practice of the Great Perfection. His most important students include the 3rd Karmapa, Rangjung Dorjé, with whom he exchanged teachings, Özer Kocha, and his son, Tülku Trakpa Özer. 392
The Kagyu Schools From RangjungYesheWiki ʺKagyuʺ Literally means nothing other but ʺOral transmissionʺ. That being the case one could call any lineage that transmits its teachings orally a ʺKagyu lineageʺ, e.g. the ʺJonang Kagyuʺ or ʺGanden Kagyuʺ, etc.
Nowadays the name ʺKagyuʺ refers most often to: A) the Shangpa Kagyu and B) Dakpo Kagyu schools. The Shangpa Kagyu was introduced into Tibet by the master Khyungpo Naljor (990‐1139), while the school that was to develop into the Dakpo Kagyu traditions, was introduced to Tibet by the great Lotsawa Marpa (1012‐1097/9) and his student Milarepa (1040‐1123). Milarepaʹs student Gampopa (1079‐1153) later fused the teachings of Marpa with teachings he had received in the Kadampa lineage of Atisha (982‐1054). The lineages stemming from Gampopa came to be known as the Dakpo Kagyu; a common epithet for Gampopa being Dakpo Lharje,( ʺthe physician from Dakpoʺ). The Dakpo Kagyu developed into the so‐called four greater and eight smaller Kagyu schools. The ʺfour greaterʺ lineages were established by direct disciples of Je Gampopa and his nephew and dharma heir Dakpo Gomtsul Tsultrim (1116‐1169), while the ʺeight smallerʺ ones were founded by students of Phagmo Drupa Dorje (1110‐1170), one of the four main students of Gampopa. 393
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The Four Greater Kagyu lineages : I The Kamtshang or Karma Kagyu founded by the 1st Karmapa Dusum Khyenpa (1110‐1193), II The Barom Kagyu) founded by Darma (1127‐1199), III The Tsalpa Kagyu founded by Zhang Yudragpa Tsöndrü Drakpa (1123‐1193), and IV The Phagdru Kagyu founded by Phagmo Drupa Dorje Gyalpo (1110‐1170). The Eight Smaller Kagyu lineages: 1) The Drikung Kagyu founded by Drikung Kyobpa Jigten Sumgon (1143‐1217), 2) Taklung Kagyu founded by Taklung Thangpa Tashi Pal (1142‐1210), 3) Thropu Kagyu founded by Gyal Tsha Rinchen Gon (1118‐1195) and Kunden Repa (1148‐1217), 4) Drukpa Kagyu founded by Lingje Repa Pema Dorje (1128‐1188) and Tsangpa Gyare Yeshe (1161‐1211), 5) Marpa Kagyu founded by Marpa Drubthob Sherab (no dates available), 6) Yelpa Kagyu founded by Drubthob Yeshe Tsegpa (born 1143), 7) Yabzang Kagyu founded by Sharawa Kalden Yeshe (died 1207) and 8) Shugseb Kagyu founded by Gyergom Chenpo Zhonnu (1090‐1171) 395
Lineages Vajradhara Tilopa Naropa Marpa Milarepa Gampopa and Rechungpa From Gampopa, numerous lineage arose. These are commonly referred to as the Dakpo Kagyu, which includes the Four Great Kagyu Lineages: I Karma Kagyu II Tsalpa Kagyu III Barom Kagyu IV Pagtru Kagyu And the Eight Lesser Kagyu Lineages, which were created by the students of Phagmo Drupa: 1) Taglung Kagyu 2) Trophu Kagyu 3) Drukpa Kagyu 4) Martsang Kagyu 5) Yelpa Kagyu 6) Yazang Kagyu 7) Shugseb Kagyu 8) Drikung Kagyu A separate lineage was introduced by Khyungpo Naljor, known as the Shangpa Kagyu: Teachings: Six Doctrines of Naropa Mahamudra Vajrayogini Chakrasamvara 396
A) Shangpa Kagyu From RangjungYesheWiki Khyungpo Naljor (1002‐1064) with masters of the Shangpa Kagyu lineage Khyungpo Naljor (990‐1139). A Tibetan master who brought teachings back from India that were later known as the Shangpa Kagyu. He travelled to India seven times and studied with 150 masters. His special root gurus were the female siddhas Niguma and Sukhasiddhi and the masters Maitripa and Rahula. The Shangpa Kagyu school developed independently and is not counted among the Four Greater and Eight Lesser Kagyu schools. It was established by the great scholar and accomplished master Khyungpo Naljor (990‐1139), who travelled to India and studied under many masters, predominantly under the two great female Mahasiddhas Niguma and Sukhasiddhi and under Maitripa and Rahula. Khyungpo Naljor hailed from the same family‐clan, the clan of Khyungpo, as Jetsun Milarepa. The teachings and practices special to the Shangpa Kagyu school are the Six Doctrines of Niguma, the Six Doctrines of Sukhasiddi and a special Mahamudra teaching known as the ʺChagchen Gaʹu Maʺ or the ʺMahamudra Reliquaryʺ. The lineage succession, as far as I (TSD) could piece together, is as follows. Since I do not have dates for many of them, I can only assume that the order of masters as they appear is correct (it just reflects the order of a number of short biographies of Shangpa masters in my possession). Also, there seems to be a rather large gap between Taranatha and Lama Karma Norbu, one of the masters from whom Jamgon Kongtrul received the Shangpa transmissions. According to Ven. Tenga Rinpoche, the Shangpa transmissions were then continued through a number of lineages. The various streams of Shangpa transmissions were all received by Kongtrul Lodro Thaye and then passed on by him. One of the lineages that Kongtrul received came through the great Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo. 397
Vajradhara, rdo rje ʹchang Niguma, Sukhasiddhi, Khyungpo Naljor, (990‐1139) Mokchokpa, (1110‐1170) Kyergangpa, (1143‐1216) Rigongpa, (1175‐1247) Choje Sangye Tonpa, (1213‐1285) Shangtonpa, (1234‐1309) Khedrub Choje Zhonnu Drub (d.1319) Khedrub Choje Kudaka, Khetsun Sangye Gyaltsen, Khyungpo Tsultrim Gonpo, Rechen Sangye Senge, Shangkarwa Rinchen Gyaltsen, (1353‐1434) Sangye Palzang, (1398‐1465) My collection of texts then contains a short text with very short sketches of the lives of the following four masters. Apparently the lineage then continued through various streams. One school, among others, that continued the Shangpa teachings was the Jonang tradition (TSD). Khedrub Tsangma Shangton, Müchen Gyaltsen Palzang Khedrub Dorje Zhonnu, Müchen Namkha Naljor, The lineage then continues with: Lochen Gyurme, lo chen ʹgyur med Kunga Drolchog, kun dgaʹ grol mchog (1495‐1566?) Jetsun Taranatha, rje btsun tA ra nA tha (1575‐1634) ‐‐‐ Lama Karma Norbu, bla ma karma nor bu Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo,ʹjam dbyangs mkhyen brtseʹi dbang po (1820‐1892) 1st Jamgon Kongtrul, ʹjam mgon kong sprul (1813‐1899) Lama Tashi Chopel, bla ma bkra shis chos ʹphel Lama Norbu Dondrub, bla ma nor bu don grub Kyabje Kalu Rinpoche, skyabs rje ka lu rin po che (1905‐1989) Kyabje Bokar Rinpoche, skyabs rje bo dkar rin po che (1940‐2004) Benchen Tenga Rinpoche, bstan dgaʹ rin po che (b.1932) 2nd Kalu Rinpoche, (b.1990) 398
Shangpa Kagyu http://www.likeanillusion.com Khyungpo Naljor Tankha and detail below from Eastern Tibet, circa 1900, Courtesy of Buddhist Artefacts / Parkham Place Gallery, Sydney, Australia This tankha depicts Khyungpo Naljor in a typical posture with his left hand placed behind him to show his weariness after seven trips to Nepa / India. To the left of Khyungpo is a small scene with the inscription ʹMokchokpa,ʹ referring to Khyungpoʹs principal disciple, Mokchokpa Rinchen Tsondru. The inscriptions identity the figure to the lower left as Tangtong Gyalpo and the lower central lama as Jamgon Kongtrul. The lower right lama has not yet been identified but according Dzongsar Khyentse Rinpoche, he may be Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo. Khyungpo Naljor launched the Shangpa lineage by receiving transmissions from two accomplished women, Niguma and Sukhasiddhi. In particular, the teachings he received from Niguma came with the command that they be given only in a one‐to‐
one guru‐to‐disciple transmission for the first seven generations. Khyungpo Naljor was probably born in 984 in Nyemo Ramang, West‐Central Tibet. At his birth, the adept Amogha flew down from the sky to offer wondrous prophecies about the new born. Khyungpo Naljor took seven trips to India and Nepal in search of the authentic dharma; he studied and practiced under such adepts as Maitripa, Dorjedenpa, and Rahula. He finally settled to establish his monastic seat in Shang which is how the lineage got its name Shangpa. He passed away in 1139, at the ripe age of 150. 399
Lama Mokchokpa detail from tankha referred above Mokchokpa Rinchen Tsöndru (1110‐1170) was only 16 when he first met Khyungpo in 1126, and Khyungpo advsied him to go study the Prajnaparamita. Years later, the two met again and Mokchokpa received the Shangpa Kagyu transmission from Khyungpo. Mokchokpaʹs determination to practice is unequaled by ordinary practitioners. He spent twelve years meditating in a cave, although not even his aunt brought him any supplies. Mokchokpaʹs songs are evocative and some of the most beautiful in Like An Illusion. Hundreds of disciples gathered around Mokchokpaʹs cave, but the Shangpa Kagyu Master always sought solitude. He met Gampopa, Milarepaʹs disciple. At their meeting, as tears flowed down Gampopaʹs face, he said: In our many past lives We have taught one another. Because of our previous connections, We now meet in this meditation cave. Full of faith and devotion, You have come here as my son. And Gampopa gave Mokchokpa teachings on the Six Yogas. Homage to this holy being, master of Dream Yoga! Kyergangpa Chökyi Senge (1143‐1216), Mokchokpaʹs disciple, had a powerful connection with Avalokiteshvara, the Lord of Great Compassion (Chenrezig in Tibetan). He first meditated in solitude for three years with ʺno accomplishments whatsoeverʺ and was ready to give up when Avalokiteshvara appeared. Kyergangpa burst out an ironic greeting: ʺOh Lord of Little Compassion!ʺ In his autobiography, Kyergangpa is very straighforward about the mistakes he made. For example, he belittled a man who was in fact a realized being: the goddess Nairatmya reproached him and he made amends. Kyergangpa also admits his motivation was not always pure, and he was not always able to balance study and practice. The hardships in his life, this Shangpa Master explained, were the result of negative karma accumulated in past lives. 400
Rigongpa Sangye Nyentön (1175‐1247) was one of the more colorful Shangpa Kagyu Masters. Just as dreams play a paramount part in Mokchokpaʹs autobiography, and Avalokiteshvara plays a central role in Kyergangpaʹs story, in Rigongpaʹs autobiography it is the protectors that are often the focus. Rigongpa had to repeatedly tame protectors who tended to go on rampages against anyone who lacked respect for the dharma in general, and Rigongpa in particular. The advice of this Shangpa Master is: Yogis and yoginis, if you donʹt develop faith and devotion, You will never see the qualities of your Lama. But if you engender complete faith in your heart, You will understand that the Lama is himself a jewel: The body, speech, and mind of all the Buddhas of the three times. Sangye Tönpa (1213‐1285) is the last of the Seven Jewels the seven generations of lineage holders who had to pass the instructions in a one‐to‐one, guru‐to‐disciple transmission. One day, while Sangye Tönpa was practicing, the dakini Sukhasiddhi appeard and said: The sky is empty and non‐conceptual. Cut the root of this conceptual mind! Cut the root and relax! The final words of advice of this Shangpa Kagyu Master: ʺIt is non‐meditation, non‐
mental activity, beyond samsara and nirvana.ʺ Sangye Tönpa passed the transmission to several disciples, and the lineage continued through a succession of realized masters. However, with the advent of the Gelukpas in the 16th century, the Shangpa tradition nearly disappeared. But in the mid‐19th century, the eclectic master Jamgon Kongtrul Lodrö Taye revitalized the lineage as an independent tradition. He compiled the Shangpa teachings to which he devoted an entire volume in his Treasury of Oral Instructions (gdams ngag mdzod). His work was continued by Kyabje Kalu Rinpoche, who made the Shangpa practices part of the three‐year retreats carried out in Tibet and in the west. Kyabje Kalu Rinpoche passed away in 1989. His reincarnation, Yangsi Kalu Rinpoche, was born in September 1990. 401
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Accomplished Women of the Shangpa Lineage Dakini Niguma Details from a tankha of Khyungpo Naljor, Eastern Tibet, circa 1900, courtesy of Buddhist Artefacts / Parkham Place Gallery, Sydney, Australia It is noteworthy that the Shangpa lineage was born of two women in the 10th and 11th centuries, the dakinis Niguma and Sukhasiddhi. Niguma received a transmission of the four complete empowerments of tantra directly from Buddha Vajradhara. Her instructions form the corpus of the Shangpa meditation practices, and today, three‐year retreats offered at Kalu Rinpoche centers around the world include the Six Yogas of Niguma. Niguma was Naropaʹs sister, or perhaps his wife. We donʹt know the exact relationship between them because the Tibetan text employs the term lcam mo which can mean either sister or wife. Dakini Sukhasiddhi Sukhasiddhi, the other dakini in the lineage, is always presented as peaceful, beautiful, and ripe with blessings that she continually bestows on the lineage. She was banished from her home at age fifty‐nine, became a beer merchant, and received teachings from the adept Virupa. 403
The founder of the Shangpa lineage, the yogi Khyungpo Naljor, names both women as two of his four root Lamas. The dakini, female and playful although sometimes wrathful is emblematic of the tantric view of reality. When Khyungpo Naljor meets with the lion‐faced dakini Singhamukha, for example, she tells him, ʺThe supreme instruction is / To recognize the dakini as your own mind.ʺ 404
Niguma Niguma e Khyungpo Naljor A dakini de sabedoria conhecida como Nigupta (ou Niguma), irmã do glorioso Naropa, era por natureza uma ioguine. Soberana da décima terra do despertar, recebeu diretamente os ensinamentos do Vencedor Detentor do Dharma (Dorje Chang). Eis um resumo do primeiro encontro de Niguma com Khyungpo Naljor, como relatado por ele mesmo. “Apenas ouvir o nome da dakini fez‐me chorar. Meus cabelos eriçaram‐
se. Senti‐me invadido de devoção e imediatamente dirigi‐me ao cemitério de Sosa Ling, repetindo o mantra Namo Buddha. De repente, a dakini apareceu no céu à minha frente, numa altura de cerca de sete palmeiras, seu corpo da cor marrom escuro. Ela estava usando ornamentos de osso. Nas mãos, segurava um crânio e uma faca curva. Dançava e manifestava‐se sob muitas formas. Assim que a vi, pensei: “Esta é a dakini Niguma.” Prosternei‐me e fiz várias circundações. Então, ajoelhei‐me e solicitei as puras instruções orais. Mas Niguma bradou: “Hei, você, veja, sou uma dakini canibal, comedora de carne. Ah! Fuja agora. Assim que meu séqüito aparecer, nós o devoraremos!” Em resposta, eu simplesmente fiz mais prosternações e circundações e novamente ajoelhei‐me, solicitando as instruções orais secretas. Niguma disse: “Então você realmente quer as instruções orais mahayana?”Bem, você precisará de algum ouro para isso. Trouxe algum consigo?” Nisso, apresentei minhas quinhentas medidas de ouro. Mas a dakini pegou o ouro e lançou‐o no ar, espalhando‐o por toda a floresta. Vendo isso, pensei: “Oh, ela deve ser mesmo uma dakini comedora de carne, canibal. Ela nem mesmo se importou com o meu ouro!” Os olhos da dakini moveram‐se rapidamente à esquerda e à direita e seu incomensurável séqüito de dakas e dakinis apareceram no céu. Alguns criaram num instante três fileiras de mansões celestiais, outros construíram mandalas de areia colorida e outros ainda juntaram os implementos para um festim tântrico. Na noite da lua cheia, a dakini Niguma conferiu‐me as iniciações do Ioga do Sonho e do Ioga do Corpo Ilusório. Em seguida, disse: “Hei, pequeno monge do Tibete, venha aqui para cima!” Por meio dos poderes mágicos da dakini, elevei‐me no espaço a uma altura de cerca de quinze mil pés. Encontrei‐me no topo de uma montanha de 405
ouro. Acima de minha cabeça, o séqüito de Niguma estava realizando a dança mística do festim tântrico, e dos quatro lados da montanha corriam quatro rios de ouro. Olhei para baixo, para as correntes de ouro e perguntei: “Esta montanha de ouro realmente existe na Índia ou a dakini a fez aparecer?” Niguma, então, cantou: “Girando no oceano do samsara, Estão as miríades de pensamentos de amor e ódio. Uma vez que tu saibas que eles não têm essência, Então, minha criança, tudo se torna uma terra de ouro. Se em todas as coisas, como uma ilusão, Alguém medita, como uma ilusão, A verdadeira budeidade, como uma ilusão, Surgirá, pela devoção.” “Agora, você terá um sonho com minhas bênçãos”, ela disse. Realmente, tive o seguinte sonho lúcido: Dirigi‐me ao reino dos deuses e dos semideuses. Estava sendo devorado por enormes semideuses quando a dakini apareceu no espaço dizendo: “Oh, filho, não acorde.” Neste exato momento, recebi as instruções dos Seis Iogas. Depois que acordei a dakini apareceu e disse: “Ninguém na Índia jamais recebeu os Seis Iogas em uma única sessão.” .... Em seguida ela disse: “Com exceção de Jetsun Lavapa e eu mesma, ninguém na Índia conhece as instruções e as iniciações desses Seis Iogas. Não permita que estes ensinamentos se difundam. Mantenha a transmissão uma a um, guru‐discípulo, por sete gerações. Só então devem ser estes ensinamentos revelados mais amplamente.” .... Tradução Lekshe Drayang 406
Taranatha From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Traditional thangka rendering of Taranatha Taranatha (1575‐1634) was a Lama of the Jonang school of Tibetan Buddhism. He is widely considered its most remarkable scholar and exponent. Contents: 1) Early life ∙ 2) Works ∙ 3) Later Life 1) Early life Taranatha was born in Drong, Tibet, supposedly on the birthday of Padmasambhava. His original name was Kun‐dgaʹ‐snin‐po, which means Anandagarbha. His exceptional qualities are said to have been recognized by others at a young age, as is often the case with great masters. He studied under such masters as Je Draktopa, Yeshe Wangpo, Kunga Tashi and Jampa Lhundrup, although his primary teacher was an Indian, Buddhagupta. Taranatha was recognized by Khenchen Lungrik Gyatso as the rebirth of Krishnacarya and the Khenchenʹs own teacher, Jetsun Kunga Drolchok. 407
2) Works Taranatha was a prolific writer and a renowned scholar. His best known work is the 143‐folio History of Buddhism in India (dpal dus kyi ʹkhor loʹi chos bskor gyi byung khungs nyer mkho) of 1608, which has been published in English. His other major work, The Golden Rosary, Origins of the Tantra of the Bodhisattva Tara of 1604 has also been translated into English. In 1614 Taranatha founded the important Jonangpa center Puntsokling Monastery, in the Tsangpo Valley about 200 miles west of Lhasa. After the take‐over by the Gelug in 1642, it became known as Ganden Puntsokling. 3) Later Life Probably not long after 1614, Taranatha went to Mongolia, where he reportedly founded several monasteries. He passed away probably in Urga, Mongolia. His rebirth became known as Zanabazar, the First Bogd Gegen, or Jetsun Dampa of Mongolia. His current reincarnation is known as Khalkha Jetsun Dampa. 408
Thangtong Gyalpo Tibet c. second half 15th century Copper alloy and pigment h. 13.1 cm The subject of this portrait is the Tibetan mahasiddha Thangtong Gyalpo, renowned engineer and bridge builder. He is reputed to have enjoyed a long life and although his exact dates are uncertain, two sets are generally attributed to him: 1361‐
1485 and 1385‐1481. Thangtong Gyalpo inadvertently began a career in engineering when he was refused a ferry passage on the grounds of his eccentric appearance. This experience served as a catalyst and he consequently embarked on a campaign to build bridges and ferry crossings. His first endeavour was in 1430 at the Chusul River where, with the assistance of two blacksmiths, he forged iron ‐ said to be ʹthe thickness of an eightyear‐
old boyʹs armʹ‐ into chain links, with which he attempted to span the river. The project was beset with problems, and more funding was required. Drawing upon the traditions of the itinerant religious storytellers of his time, Thangtong Gyalpo formed the first operatic troupe in Tibet. The troupe performed and raised the necessary funds to complete the project. Thangtong Gyalpo and his troupe of seven beautiful sisters then toured Tibet, raising money to construct a reputed fifty‐eight iron chain bridges and a hundred and eight ferrycrossing stations. Between 1449 and 1456, he built the Riwoche stupa in a breathtaking setting on the banks of the Tsangpo river, about 400 kilometres west of Lhasa towards the Nepalese border. The eccentric appearance that led to the inception of Thangtong Gyalpoʹs engineering career is evident in this portrait: hair disarranged in a thick pile on top of his head, a wide flat nose, a goatee and a full walrus moustache. His body is said to have been of a dark brown colour, described in some sources as having the hue of ʹwet liverʹ. 409
This observed characteristic of Thangtong Gyalpoʹs appearance may have influenced the choice of metal used to make this image. His exotic robe suggests a sumptuous Chinese embroidered fabric or cut velvet, and consists of lobed cartouches of rabbits and phoenix against a flower‐filled ground. Another portrait of the mahasiddha, in Tibet House in New Delhi, depicts Thangtong Gyalpo much as he appears here, although with different attributes. The Nyingjei Lam portrait holds the tsebum and what appears to be a pill, objects traditionally associated with long‐life ceremonies. Thangtong Gyalpo appears as an old man, and it may be that this work was associated with such a ceremony. An inscription along the back of the lotus base states that Thangtong Gyalpo was himself involved in the making of this image. 410
Jonang From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia The Jonang (Wylie: Jo‐nang) or Jonangpa school of Tibetan Buddhism became widely known at the end of the 13th century. Its origins in Tibet can be traced to early 12th century master Yumo Mikyo Dorje, but became much wider known with the help of Dolpopa Sherab Gyeltsen, a monk originally trained in the Sakyapa school. The Jonangpa school was widely thought to have become extinct in the late 17th century at the hands of the Fifth Dalai Lama who forcibly annexed the Jonangpa monasteries to his Gelugpa school. Recently, however, it was discovered that some remote Jonangpa monasteries escaped this fate and have continued practicing uninterrupted to this day. An estimated 5,000 monks and nuns of the Jonangpa tradition practice today in areas at the edge of historic Gelugpa influence. Contents: 1) History of the Jonangpa 2) Stated reason for Jonangpa suppression: the Shentong heresy 3) Actual reasons: monastery financial reform and Tibetan geopolitics 4) Rediscovery by the outside world and current status 1) History of the Jonangpa In 1294, the monk Kunpang Tukje Tsondru established the Puntsok Choling monastery at ʹJomonangʹ, about 160 km northwest of the Tashilhunpo monastery in Shigatse, and since then, the sprititual tradition became known as Jonang. The Jonang tradition combines two specific teachings; the so‐called zhentong (or shentong) philosophy of emptiness, and the ʹDro‐lineageʹ of the Kalachakra tantra. The origin of this combination in Tibet can be found with the master Yumo Mikyo Dorje ‐ an 11th/12th century pupil of the Kashmiri master Somanatha. The Jonangpa school has generated a number of renowned Buddhist scholars, like Dolpopa Sherab Gyeltsen (1292‐1361), but the most famous was Jetsun Taranatha (1575‐1634). Taranatha placed great emphasis on the Kalachakra system of tantra which became an important part of Gelugpa teaching after the Gelugpa absorbed the Jonangpa monasteries. Taranathaʹs influence on Gelugpa thinking continues even to this day in the teaching of the present 14th Dalai Lama who actively promotes initiation into Kalachakra. After several centuries of independence, however, in the late 17th century the Jonangpa order came under attack by the Fifth Dalai Lama who forcibly converted their monasteries to the Gelugpa order. 411
2) Stated reason for Jonangpa suppression: the Shentong heresy While the Gelugpa embraced the Jonangpa teaching on the Kalachakra, they ultimately opposed the Jonangpa over a difference in philosophical view. Yumo Mikio Dorje (11th/12th century), Dolpopa Sherab Gyeltsen (1292‐1361) and subsequent lamas maintained a teaching known as Shentong, which holds that only the clear‐light, non‐
dual nature of the mind is ʹrealʹ, and everything else is empty. The Gelugpa school held the distinct but related Rangtong view where all phenomena are seen as empty (of inherent existence) and no thing or process (including Mind and its qualities) may be asserted as independent or inherently real (neither may phenomena be asserted as ʺunrealʺ ‐ in short, all assertions are seen to be groundless). An additional motivation in criticizing the Jonangpa sect as Chan‐followers was that it enabled the Gelugpa to lay claim to the high moral ground previously held only by the rival Nyingmapa sect who were proud of their ancient transmission from the Indian saints. 3) Actual reasons: Monastery financial reform and Tibetan geopolitics Modern historians have identified two other reasons which more likely led the Gelugpa to suppress the Jonangpa: First, the Jonangpa taught that large gifts of property to monasteries did not help one achieve enlightenment. This undercut the financial practices of the Gelugpa who were growing rapidly through exactly those means at the time. Second, and more significantly, the Jonangpa had political ties that were very vexing to the Gelugpa. The Jonangpa, along with the Kagyupa, were historical allies with the powerful house of Tsang which was vying with the Dalai Lama and his Gelugpa school for control of central Tibet. This was bad enough, but soon after the death of Taranatha an even more ominous event occurred: Taranathaʹs reincarnation was discovered to be a young boy named Zanabazar the son of Prince Tosiyetu Khan, ruler of the Khan Uula district of Outer Mongolia. Tosiyetu and his son were of Khalkha lineage, meaning they had the birth authority to become Khan. When the young boy was declared the spiritual leader of all of Mongolia, suddenly the Gelugpa were faced with the possibility of war with the former military superpower of Asia. While the Mongol Empire was long past its zenith, this was nonetheless a frightening prospect and the Dalai Lama sought the first possible moment of Mongol distraction to take control of the Jonangpa monasteries. His Holiness the 14th Dalai Lama confirmed this view in Glenn Mullinʹs The Fourteen Dalai Lamas (Clear Light Publishers, p.207): ʺThese monasteries were closed for political reasons, not religious ones, and their closing had nothing to do with sectarianism. They had supported the Tsangpa king in the uprising, thus committing treason. The Great Fifth believed that they should be closed in order to insure the 412
future stability of the nation, and to dissuade other monasteries from engaging in warfare.ʺ His Holiness continued, ʺThe fact is that the Great Fifth passed laws outlawing sectarian skirmishes, and passed laws ensuring the freedom of religion. This freedom was extended to not only the Buddhist schools, but also to the non‐Buddhist ones. For example, he kept a Bonpo lama in his entourage to speak for the interests of the Bon movement. And on a personal level, he himself practiced so many non‐Gelukpa lineages that the Gelukpas criticized him for straying from his roots.ʺ (Then Glenn goes on to offer historical evidence supporting His Holinessʹs statements.) 4) Rediscovery by the outside world and current status In accordance with the observation that ʺvictors write historyʺ the Jonangpa were until recently thought to be an extinct heretical sect. Thus, Tibetologists were astonished when fieldwork turned up several active Jonangpa monasteries, including the main monastery called Tsangwa located in Tibet, Dzamthang County, Sichuan, China. Almost 40 monasteries, comprising about 5,000 monks, have subsequently been found, including some in the Amdo and Gyarong districts of Qinghai and the Tibet Autonomous Region. Presumably these remnants survived because they were far from the Gelugpa capital at Lhasa and closer to sympathetic powers in Qing Dynasty China. Interestingly, one of the primary supporters of the Jonang lineage in exile has been the 14th Dalai Lama of the Gelugpa. The Dalai Lama donated buildings in Himachal Pradesh state in Shimla, India for use as a Jonang monastery (now known as Thakten Puntsok Ling) and has visited during one of His recent teaching tours. The Karmapa of the Karma Kagyu lineage has visited there as well. The Jonang tradition has recently officially registered with the Tibetan Government in exile to be recognized as the fifth living Buddhist tradition of Tibet. The 14th Dalai Lama assigned Khalkha Jetsun Dampa Rinpoche or the ʹBogd Gegeenʹ of Mongolia (who is an incarnation of Taranatha) as the leader of the Jonangpa tradition. 413
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Shentong From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Shentong (also, zhentong; Wylie: gzhen‐stong) view, also sometimes called “Yogacara Madhyamaka,” is a philosophical sub‐school found in Tibetan Buddhism, holding that the nature of mind is ʺempty of otherʺ (i.e., empty of all qualities other than an inherent, ineffable nature), in contrast to the “Rangtong” view of Prasangika Madhyamaka, which holds that all phenomena are unequivocally empty of self‐nature, without positing anything beyond that. According to Shentong, the emptiness of ultimate reality should not be characterized in the same way as the emptiness of apparent phenomena. Contents: 1) History 2) View 3) Criticisms and controversies 1) History Dolpopa, an early Tibetan exponent of the Shentong view. Shentong view derives from the group of treatises variously attributed to Asanga or Maitreya, and especially from the treatise known as the Uttara Tantra Shastra (ʺUnsurpassed Continuumʺ), in conjunction with the body of Madhyamaka treatises originating with Nagarjuna. The first exposition of Shentong is sometimes attributed to Shantarakshita, but most scholars argue that his presentation of Madhyamaka thought is more accurately labeled “Yogachara‐Svatantrika‐Madhyamaka.” It is generally agreed that the Shentong view was first systematized and articulated under that name by Dolpopa Sherab Gyeltsen, an originally Sakya‐trained lama who joined the Jonang school with which Shentong is strongly associated. 415
However, the 11th century Tibetan master Yumo Mikyo Dorje, student of Kashmiri scholar Somanatha was possibly the first Tibetan master who articulated the shentong view after his experiences during a Kalachakra retreat. After the suppression of the Jonang school by the Tibetan government in the 1600s, the Shentong view was propagated mainly by Kagyu and Nyingma lamas. It has experienced a revival in modern times with Jamgon Kongtrul Lodro Thaye, a great 19th century Rime (ecumenical) scholar and forceful exponent of Shentong, and has been further advanced by the eminent Kagyu lamas Kalu Rinpoche and Khenpo Tsultrim Gyamtso Rinpoche. 2) View Shentongpas (those who hold to the Shentong view) consider the Shentong position to be the highest expression of Madhyamaka. They claim that Shentong is only truly accessible through meditative experience and not through conceptual understanding. In light of that, they argue that Rangtong is most useful for individuals who approach dharma practice primarily through philosophical studies, while Shentong is more useful for the meditation‐oriented practitioner. Shentongpas generally consider themselves “Rantongpas” as well, as they see the two approaches as complementary. H.H. Dudjom Rinpoche, one of the most celebrated Nyingma lamas of the 20th century, explains: The Madhyamaka of the Prasangika and the Svatantrika is the coarse, outer Madhyamaka. It should indeed be expressed by those who profess well‐informed intelligence during debates with extremist outsiders, during the composition of great treatises, and while establishing texts which concern supreme reasoning. However, when the subtle, inner Madhyamaka is experientially cultivated, one should meditate on the nature of Yogacara‐Madhyamaka. When speaking of the emptiness of mindʹs ultimate nature, Shentongpas often use terms such as ʺluminous clarity,ʺ ʺluminous awareness,ʺ ʺthe clear light nature of mind,ʺ and so forth to characterize it. Such language is often employed in Dzogchen expositions as well. 3) Criticisms and controversies Arguments concerning fine points of Madhyamaka tend to be complex and difficult to understand, let alone summarize pithily. Often terms are understood differently by different schools, adding to the confusion. It is therefore beyond the scope of any general overview to present the technical dimension of the argument in detail. However, a historical context for the argument may be helpful. The Shentong view has often come under criticism by all four Tibetan Buddhist schools, but particularly by the Gelug. The “Shentong‐Rangtong distinction” is a dichotomy that Gelugpas and Sakyapas generally do not utilize. “Exclusive Rangtongpas,” as the contemporary western Kagyu scholar S.K. Hookham would call them, have claimed that Shentong view is inconsistent even with the basic mahayana teaching of emptiness (shunyata), on the grounds that Shentongpas hypostasize an 416
absolute. They sometimes label Shentong Madhyamaka ʺEternalistic Madhyamaka.ʺ Gyaltsab Je and Khedrub Je, two of Gelug founder Je Tsongkhapa’s primary disciples, were particularly critical of Shentong. The great fourteenth century Sakya master Buton Rinchen (1290‐1364) was also very critical of Shentong. Among Kagyupas and Nyingmapas, the noted 19th century Nyingma lama Ju Mipham wrote works both supportive and critical of the Shentong position, as did the 8th Karmapa, Mikyo Dorje. The contemporary western Kagyu scholar Karl Brunnhölzl argues that there is no such thing as “Yogacara Madhyamaka,” but rather that orthodox Yogacara philosophy (when understood properly) is entirely compatible with Madhyamaka, and therefore no synthesis is needed. He argues that Yogacara has often been mischaracterized and unfairly marginalized in the typical Tibetan Buddhist curriculum. 417
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B ‐ Dakpo Kagyu, From RangjungYesheWiki A collective term for all the Kagyu lineages that passed through Gampopa, i.e. The Four Great Kagyu Lineages and the The Eight Lesser Kagyu Lineages. Marpa From RangjungYesheWiki Marpa Lotsawa Chökyi Lodrö (1012‐1097/9) Marpa Lotsawa was born in Lhodrak, southern Tibet. He was to become the founding father of the Kagyu tradition in Tibet. First he studied Sanskrit and other Indian languages with Drogmi (993‐1050). Then he travelled to India three times and studied under his main gurus Naropa and Maitripa. Other teachers from whom he received transmissions and instructions were, among many others, Jnanagarbha and Kukkuripa. Marpa became the teacher of the famous Jetsun Milarepa. His other main disciples were Ngok Choku, Meton Tsenpo and Tshurton Wangi Dorje. Marpaʹs biography and spiritual songs were compiled and published by Tsang Nyon Heruka (1452‐1507). 419
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Kagyu Samye Ling thangka of Indian Patriarchs, by Master Artist Sherapalden Beru The Indian Patriarchs of the Kagyu Lineage based on the account of Dhagpo Tashi Namgyal Buddha Vajradhara expounded the innumerable, unsurpassed tantras, especially the Mahamudratilaka, the Sri‐anavila‐tantra, the Raptu Minepe Gyu, and others belonging to the quintessential tantra. They were entrusted to Guhyapati who then transmitted them to the celestial ladies[dakinis) in Uddiyana. King Visukalpa travelled to Uddiyana, received the key instructions and elucidations from the dakinis and brought to India the extensive teachings of tantric mysticism. Having examined the potential of all his prospective disciples, he found Saraha to be of vastly superior mind‐a perfect human devotee predestined to attain instantaneous liberation. As a result of his giving the key instructions to him, Saraha achieved liberation. Saraha then sang the essential instructions and brought about the liberation of many fortunate people. Thus, the lineage of inmost realization came into being, a fact well known to this tradition. Another account, from earlier times, is found in the Dohas, the Datsa, the Gyagar Sangchö, etc., which explain that the perfectly enlightened Buddha saw that the time was opportune for transmitting the wonderful quintessence of the dharma. This occurred around the time he was contemplating entering parinirvana and showing signs of his passing away, after having set in motion the wheel of dharma in three phases in response to the needs of the three levels of sentient beings. At the behest of Manjughosa and Avalokitesvara he travelled to the South and transmitted this quintessential dharma to an assembly of innumerable bodhisattvas gathered together at the city of Vidarbha. At that time the Buddha prophesied that some time in the future there would emerge exponents of this quintessential dharma. These were the two bodhisattvas (Manjughosa and Avalokitesvara), Saraha, Nagarjuna, Savari, and others. Some time 421
later the bodhisattvas Manjughosa and Avalokitesvara‐having reincarnated as Devaputra Ratnamati and Devaputra Sukhanatha‐transmitted this teaching to Saraha. It was said that he achieved liberation instantly. Another tradition, while mainly agreeing with this account, states that Ratnamati was the reincarnation of Buddha himself and Sukhanatha that of Guhyapati [bodhisattva Vajrapani). This and other variations are not contradictory because, in the ultimate sense, the five perfectly accomplished ones and others like them were stated to be reincarnations of the Buddha. Buddha Vajradhara transmitted his teaching to the reincarnated bodhisattvas who in turn gave it to Saraha, the father of all the great saints of India and the one who helped them to achieve liberation. Saraha transmitted it to Nagarjuna, who was renowned as the second Buddha. Both of them were the gurus of most of the great Indian saints. Nagarjuna especially guided Sri Savarisvara toward his liberation. He belonged to the caste of dancers and was a perfect devotee, predestined to attain instantaneous liberation. According to certain traditions, Savari later received the quintessential dharma from the two bodhisattvas and also from Saraha. They had achieved enlightenment through illusory form or the spacelike mystical form. It is said that these masters appeared before fortunate devotees at the mountain retreat of Sriparvata (i.e. Nagarjunakonda in South India) until recent times. Having come down through a succession [of teachers], the quintessential instructions such as the Druppa Dedjin of mahamudra, the Nyingpo Kordruk, the twenty‐four sections of Amanasi, and the extensive and concise texts of the Doha became known in India. Most of the wise scholars and saints of subsequent periods were so overcome with a sense of marvel at this quintessential instruction that they sought out the gurus and the instructions of this lineage. Similarly, the learned saint Maitripa who had also heard of the greatness of this quintessential dharma and that of the lineage traveled to Sriparvata in the South, experiencing immeasurable hardship. When his initial search for Savari was in vain, he made an attempt to take his life, whereupon Savari appeared before him. By and by Maitripa received the transmission. The quintessential instructions contained in the Dohas, Datsa, Sangchö, etc. became extensively known, especially as they were passed on to the Indian Vajrapani [Gyagar Chakna] and from him to others. Tilopa was a reincarnation of Cakrasamvara, the illuminated conqueror, while others claimed that of the bodhisattva Cittavajra. He was said to have visited the Akanistha buddha realm in his subtle illusory manifestation and to have listened to Buddha Vajradhara expounding the doctrine in all its profundity and vastness. Consequently he became the preeminent master of tantric mysticism, like its custodian Vajrapani. Tilopa compiled all forms of creative visualizations into four or six segments, all higher meditations of perfect fulfilment belonging to the father tantra into five levels, while those of the mother tantra into four mudras or six segments. Tilopa was then said to have visited the great country of Zahor in East India [Bengal). By expounding the teachings to a gathering of people, hundreds of thousands of people found their way into the realm of dikinis, thus rendering the city deserted. This account refers to Tilopaʹs miraculous subjugation of the eight saints who in turn liberated innumerable sentient beings, and to the tradition that Tilopa continues to 422
live, performing acts of inner purity in his illusory form as long as the teaching of Buddha survives. Tilopaʹs assertion that he had no human teachers caused others to be sceptical. So, in order to satisfy critics, he created the impression of having associated with earthly gurus and achieved liberation. Among the gurus from whom he received the four mystic transmissions were Nagarjuna, Krsnacarya, mahasiddha Lavapa, and dakini Subhagini. Having attended other great male and female gurus such as Tengipa and Darika, who were disciples of Luyipa, and his dharma brothers Indrabodhi and Vajraghanta, he manifested the way of liberation. Then there was the great master Naropa who had achieved the mastery of the sutras, tantras, the sciences, and arts as well as the realization of mysticism. Following the prophetic guidance given by Cakrasamvara and a dakini, Naropa went to Zahor looking for the great master Tilopa. Having found and pleased him with his service and hospitality, such as performing the twelve personal ordeals, Naropa received all the key instructions just as the entire contents of a vase are completely poured into another vase. On his return to Magadha, Naropa brought about fulfilment for innumerable disciples. Among the eminent ones were the seven who were comparable to him, such as Maitripa, the hundred and eight saints like Paindapa, the fifty‐four male yogins, who attained the purest state through transformation of adverse conditions, and the one thousand female mystics. Besides, there were Phamthingpa of Nepal and the great translator Marpa of Tibet. Naropa also attained enlightenment with the rainbow like manifestation. Altea Publishing 12‐2006 423
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Dorje Chang Vajradhara, or Dorje Chang (Tib.) is the primordial Buddha. This teaching on Vajradhara was given by Khenpo Karthar Rinpoche. First we need to cultivate a positive attitude in whatever we are doing, whether it be listening to, contemplating, or meditating upon a teaching, or even participating in a worldly activity. Attitude is a matter of thinking. Right thinking and wrong thinking differentiate spirituality and materialism. In the material world we study and work hard for such selfish aims as becoming famous. Because we have had a selfish point of view throughout beginning less time, we experience the sufferings of the six realms and are unable to liberate ourselves from samsara. Therefore, when we are practicing or listening to the Dharma, we need to develop the pure attitude of wanting to benefit all living beings, not only in a temporary way, but also to ultimately free all beings in the six realms from suffering. This is the positive attitude. The aim of meditation practice is liberation from the sufferings of conditioned existence and the experience of ultimate bliss. Whether or not meditation practice will lead to realization really depends upon the mental attitude of the practitioner. If our mental attitude is impure, then it is like mixing poison with food. We can see that food is beneficial for our health, but if it is mixed with poison, it becomes dangerous. Similarly, Dharma is beneficial, but whether our meditation will be effective or not depends upon our attitude. One specific meditation practice given by a teacher can lead to different results, depending upon the mentality of the students. For example, a student with a positive attitude will have the best result; and a student who is totally unable to develop a positive attitude will have no beneficial result at all, despite his or her practice of meditation. Instead, because of indulging in negative thoughts, this student may 425
experience an increase of conflicting emotions. This serves to prove the importance of attitude. You might wonder what type of pure attitude we really need to develop during the stages of listening to, contemplating, and meditating upon the teachings so as to experience the fullness and fruition of our meditation. We must try to develop the altruistic attitude, which begins with the awareness that sentient beings are not only suffering at the present time, but have been suffering endlessly throughout beginningless time. The reason why they are experiencing such beginningless and endless suffering is that throughout beginningless time until now, they have been consistently motivated by the selfish purpose of gaining selfish benefits. They want to experience selfish happiness, pleasure, and joy. In order to experience that selfish happiness, pleasure, and joy, they use the conflicting emotions of anger, jealousy, pride, and so forth. Because of the negative karma they have accumulated due to conflicting emotions, they actually experience more suffering, instead of a greater sense of happiness. Therefore, we must wish to liberate all beings for all time from the causes of suffering. This altruistic attitude of wanting to ultimately liberate all beings from suffering is known as the enlightened mind, or bodhicitta. Bodhicitta is very profound and can be very effective if one can maintain such an enlightened state of mind. So having first developed an altruistic attitude, please listen attentively. The teaching today is based on the lineage gurus who appeared on this earth. When speaking of them, we need to understand that in the past there have been fully enlightened beings who have appeared on the earth to turn the wheel of the Dharma. It is said that in the future there will be another thousand enlightened beings who will also come for the same purpose. We are presently under the guidance of the teachings of fourth buddha, Shakyamuni Buddha, who took birth in India and lived 81 years, during which time he turned the wheel of the Dharma three times. From Shakyamuni Buddha, a nirmanakaya aspect of enlightenment, an unbroken transmission was passed down to such great masters as Nagarjuna and Asanga, and they in turn brought the teachings to Tibet, where the four great schools of Tibetan Buddhism developed. All these teachings originated from the nirmanakaya aspect of enlightenment. The origin of the nirmanakaya is the sambhogakaya aspect of enlightenment, and the origin of the sambhogakaya is the dharmakaya. An example of the nirmanakaya, sambhogakaya, and dharmakaya aspects is that of the clarity and light in this room originating from the clarity and light outside the house, and the clarity and light outside the house originating from the sun. Therefore, the origin of the teachings and the four schools of Tibetan Buddhism is the dharmakaya aspect or that of Vajradhara or Samantabhadra, the realization of the ultimate state of enlightenment. We are dependent upon the light outside the house to brighten this room. As I have mentioned earlier, the clarity and light outside originates with the sun. To realize the state of Vajradhara or Samantabhadra is to become like the sun itself and no longer dependent upon the light outside for illumination. It is for this reason that in all the schools of the Kagyupas, Gelugpas, and Sakyapas, the transmission of lineage goes back to Vajradhara. Why it goes back to Vajradhara and not to Shakyamuni Buddha is that it refers directly back to the essence of enlightenment, the origin of the light, which is the sun itself and not just the light of the sun. It is the same in the Nyingmapa tradition, where the teachings do not originate 426
with Padmasambhava or Shakyamuni Buddha, but with Samantabhadra. Since the ultimate source is the dharmakaya, all four schools of Tibetan Buddhism originated with Vajradhara or Samantabhadra. The activity of Vajradhara is to benefit all beings without discrimination or judgement. There is sometimes confusion in the minds of new students as to whether either Vajradhara or Samantabhadra is superior to the other. There is nothing that indicates the superiority of one over the other as they are both equal. In a sense, it is a name differentiation. For example, if you are in the East, people think that the sky is the eastern sky; if you are in the West, people think that the sky is the western sky; but the sky is just one. It is not as if the eastern sky is superior to the western sky or that the western sky is superior to the eastern sky, as there is no superiority inherent in the sky being either eastern or western. Both are sky, the only difference being that they are over different parts of the world; it is we who have the idea of ʺourʺ and ʺtheirʺ sky. So there is actually no difference at all between Vajradhara and Samantabhadra. In one sense there is no difference between the two, but we can note that there are two names. The Sanskrit word ʺSamantabhadraʺ in Tibetan is Kuntuzangpo, ʺkuntuʺ meaning ʺultimatelyʺ and ʺzangpoʺ meaning ʺgoodness.ʺ What is known as ʺKuntuzangpoʺ is primordially free from any fault, stain, or mental confusion, and therefore is not only presently pure, but also can never be defiled in the future. The Sanskrit word ʺVajradharaʺ in Tibetan is Dorje Chang, ʺdorjeʺ meaning ʺindestructibilityʺ and ʺchangʺ meaning ʺpermanently possessed.ʺ The quality that enlightened beings have realized is within all sentient beings. What is known as Dorje Chang is the full realization and stabilization of the enlightened quality within all beings. It can be further noted that when Samantabhadra and Vajradhara are depicted in thangka paintings, one is shown without ornaments and garments, and the other is shown with ornaments and garments. Samantabhadra (Kuntuzangpo) is depicted naked, without ornaments and garments, to symbolize that his state of realization is unconditionally free from mental projection and primordially pure, as is the dharmakaya. Vajradhara (Dorje Chang) is depicted with heavenly ornaments and garments to symbolize his capacity to ceaselessly benefit and fulfill the needs of all living beings through the means of sambhogakaya and nirmanakaya emanations. In the Uttaratantra Shastra, Maitreya explains that the actual enlightened being is Samantabhadra or Vajradhara, and the emanation aspect of enlightenment is Shakyamuni Buddha, who appeared on the earth. Shakyamuni Buddha himself explained that he had not spoken any words nor had he ever given teachings, and that it was only through the karmic manifestation and karmic capacity of sentient beings that they had heard him teach. Why Shakyamuni Buddha said that he never taught any teachings is that in the dharmakaya or ultimate aspect of enlightenment, he never gave teachings. Shakyamuni Buddha was an emanation and not an ultimate aspect of enlightenment. It was through the emanation or nirmanakaya aspect of enlightenment that people heard different teachings according to their karmic capacity. The sun and Vajradhara never actually appear on the earth, it is rather the light of the sun and the emanation of Vajradhara that sentient beings experience through their capacity and purity of mind. For example, enlightened beings are beyond mental conception. Like the sun, they have no wish to shine only on this part of the world or to benefit only here or there, they just simply shine. The luminosity of the sun is 427
perceived in its different aspects by many beings according to their capacity. The beings who have physical form experience the warmth of the sun and are benefited, although the sun did not purposely give that warmth to benefit them. The sentient beings who have bodies experience warmth simply because they have physical form. The light of the sun enables beings to see things clearly because they have eyes. Just as the light of the sun enables those with eyes to see clearly, it is the capacity and purity of mind that enable beings to experience the nirmanakaya aspect of enlightenment. Vajradhara does not actually appear on the earth. For that reason, although Shakyamuni Buddha passed into nirvana about 2530 years ago, we are still able to experience his blessing through our devotion, confidence, and practice because the ultimate realization of buddhahood, the dharmakaya or Vajradhara aspect of enlightenment, never dies. As long as the sun is above in the sky, a temporary cloud may obscure its light, but that does not mean the sun has lost its light; the sun is always shining. Likewise, although there is a very long lapse of time between the passing away of Shakyamuni Buddha and our present age, if we practice diligently with faith and confidence, we are still capable of experiencing the blessing of the Buddha because Vajradhara is still there. The Vajradhara aspect is ceaselessly present. The activity of Vajradhara is to benefit all beings without discrimination or judgement, just as it is inherent in the nature of the trees that grow on the earth to burn when set on fire. The nature of any wood, regardless of where it is grown, is to burn; the nature of the activity of Vajradhara is to benefit sentient beings, regardless of what type of living being they may be. It is not only in the buddha nature of the Vajradhara aspect of ultimate enlightenment to benefit sentient beings; buddha nature is also inherent in all living beings like ourselves as well. We can all agree that the nature of wood is that it burns; but it must meet with the cause of burning as it cannot burn itself. Although the buddha nature or Vajradhara aspect of enlightenment is within all living beings like ourselves, without meeting the cause to ripen this quality, we are unable to realize it. That is why all the teachers in all the schools emphasize the importance of the lineage gurus who have obtained the unbroken transmission. By practicing according to their teachings, we are meeting the cause to ripen our buddha nature. Meeting the cause of ripening our mind is necessary to experience the enlightenment of our mind. In the teachings it is said that one butter lamp lights another. It is like having a hundred candles. When one candle is burning, the next candle can also be lit when it meets the flame of the first candle, and then the third candle can be lit when it meets the flame of the second, and the same with the fourth, and so forth. If you leave a candle on a shrine, it cannot light up without meeting a flame; it needs to meet with such a cause. Without knowing the meaning of the actual Vajradhara, many students new to the Dharma ask questions such as who the father or mother of Vajradhara are, and when Vajradhara took birth. There are other students who think that Vajradhara is a superior human being living high above in the sky. These ideas stem from a lack of understanding of the enlightenment aspect. Because of this lack of understanding, Vajradhara is believed to exist actually in physical form, abiding above us in some heavenly place, although he is beyond words and conception. Although the state of Vajradhara is beyond words and conception, it is something within ourselves which 428
through our diligence and practice we are able to experience. Vajradhara is not anything separate or different from ourselves. When we state that there is no physical form to Vajradhara, the argument can still be made that we can see a dark blue human being who wears ornaments and silks and holds a bell and vajra in tangka paintings. These are all really symbolic gestures to enable students to understand the enlightened aspect. The dark blue color, bell, and vajra symbolize the indestructibility of Vajradhara. The dark blue also connotes his ceaseless activity to benefit beings, and his ornaments symbolize the preciousness of benefiting all living beings. Those who are familiar with the mahamudra supplication prayer know we begin it by reciting, ʺGreat Dorje Chang (Tibetan for Vajradhara), Telo, Naro. . .ʺ It is very important to have an understanding of Vajradhara because everything that comes later is based on this ultimate aspect of enlightenment. If we misunderstand anything now, then we might become confused later. We must be sure that we correctly understand the meaning of Vajradhara, so we can correctly relate to future teachings. This teaching was given by Khenpo Karthar Rinpoche at KTD, Woodstock, March 25‐30, 1986. It was translated by Chojor Radha, and edited by Tina Armond. 429
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Four Great Kagyu Lineages From RangjungYesheWiki I) The kam tshang or karma bkaʹ brgyud founded by the 1st Karmapa Düsum Khyenpa (1110‐1193), II) The ʹbaʹ rom bkaʹ brgyud founded by Darma Wangchuk (1127‐1199), III) The tshal pa bkaʹ brgyud founded by Zhang Yudragpa Tsöndrü Drakpa (1123‐1193), and IV) The phag gru bkaʹ brgyud founded by Phagmo Drupa Dorje Gyalpo (1110‐1170). I) Karma Kagyu From RangjungYesheWiki The Kamtshang (kam tshang) or Karma Kagyu lineage was established by the 1st Karmapa Düsum Khyenpa, (1110‐1193). He founded the Tsurphu monastery in the Tölung valley, not far from Lhasa. It was to become the main seat of the Karmapas. Other important centers of the Karma Kagyu lineage are Lho Karma Gon , Palpung, Surmang , Benchen and others, all of them in Eastern Tibet. The present head of the Karma Kagyu lineage is the 17th Karmapa Orgyen Thrinle Dorje (b. 1985). Other important masters of the Karma Kagyu lineage are the Shamar , Tai Situ , Gyaltsab , Pawo and Treho Rinpoches. In the 19th cent., the lineage of the Jamgon Kongtrul Rinpoches was added. There are two further lineages within the Karma Kagyu, the Surmang Kagyu , established by Mase Togden, a disciple of the 5th Karmapa Deshin Shegpa, (1384‐1415); and the Nendo Kagyu , established by Karma Chagme , (1613‐1678), a disciple of the 6th Shamar Rinpoche , (1584‐1630). The Karmapas The Shamar Rinpoches The Situ Rinpoches The Gyaltsab Rinpoches The Pawo Rinpoches The Jamgon Kongtrul Rinpoches The Sangye Nyenpa Rinpoches 431
II) Barom Kagyu From RangjungYesheWiki The Barom Kagyu lineage was established by Barom Darma Wangchuk (1127‐
1199). It was continued mainly as a family lineage. One of its famous early masters was the “Protector of Beings” Tishi Repa. Barom Darma Wangchuk Barom Darma Wangchuk, (1127‐1199), established The Barom Kagyu lineage (ʹbaʹ rom bkaʹ brgyud). It was continued mainly as a family lineage. One of its famous early masters was the “Protector of Beings” Tishi Repa. The Barom Kagyu lineage ‐ begins with Dharma Wangchuk of Barom, a disciple of Gampopa. Darma Wangchuk ‐ Gampopaʹs disciple who founded the Barom monastery in northern Lato and who is regarded as the father of the lineage. The Barom Kagyu was founded by Barom Darma Wangchuk. He built Barom monastery, from which the tradition took its name. RY III) Tsalpa Kagyu From RangjungYesheWiki The Tshalpa Kagyu lineage (tshal pa) was established by Zhang Yudragpa Tsöndrü Drakpa 1123‐1193), also known as Lama Shang, a disciple of Dakpo Gomtshul (1116‐1169). The famous Dungtso was a master of this school. He became known as a Tertön after rediscovering an instruction that had been hidden by Je Gampopa . Zhang Yudragpa Tsöndrü Drakpa Also well known as Lama Shang (1123‐1193), he was a disciple of Dakpo Gomtshul (dwags po sgom tshul tshul khrims snying po, 1116‐1169) and founder of the Tsalpa Kagyu school, one of the Four Greater Kagyu Schools. His works are presently available in nine volumes. 432
IV) Phagdru Kagyu From RangjungYesheWiki Phagmo Drupa Dorje Gyalpo (1110‐70) Phagmo Drupa was one the three foremost disciples of Gampopa, as well as a disciple of Sachen Kunga Nyingpo (1092‐1158). The Phagdru Kagyu lineage (phag gru) was established by Phagmo Drupa Dorje Gyalpo, (1110‐1170). His lineage was to be continued by the Lang family. Eventually they became very influential politically. Phagmo Drupa had eight main students who became the founders of the Eight lesser Kagyu lineages. 433
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Eight Lesser Kagyu Lineages From RangjungYesheWiki 1) The ʹbri gung bkaʹ brgyud founded by Drigung Kyobpa Jigten Sumgön (1143‐1217), 2) stag lung bkaʹ brgyud founded by Taglung Thangpa Tashi Pal (1142‐1210), 3) khro phu bkaʹ brgyud founded by Gyal Tsha Rinchen Gön (1118‐1195) and Kunden Repa (1148‐1217), 4) ʹbrug pa bkaʹ brgyud founded by Lingje Repa Pema Dorje (1128‐1188) and Tsangpa Gyare Yeshe Dorje (1161‐1211), 5) smar pa bkaʹ brgyud founded by Marpa Drubthob Sherab Senge (no dates available), 6) yel pa bkaʹ brgyud founded by Drubthob Yeshe Tsegpa (born 1143), 7) g.yaʹ bzang bkaʹ brgyud founded by Sharawa Kalden Yeshe Senge (died 1207) and 8) shug gseb bkaʹ brgyud founded by Gyergom Chenpo Zhönnu Drakpa (1090‐1171) 435
1) Taglung Kagyu From RangjungYesheWiki Taglung Thangpa Tashi Pal (1142‐1210) Taklung Thangpa Tashi Pal was one the eight foremost disciples of Phagmo Drupa, as well as the founder of the Taglung Kagyu school. Taglung Kagyu The Taglung Kagyu lineage was established by Taklung Thangpa Tashi Pal (1142‐1210). A great and famous master of this lineage was Sangye Ön ( 1251‐1296). He was the founder of the great monastery of Riwoche . The Riwoche branch of the Taglung Kagyu almost became an independent lineage. One of its great masters, the 7th Phakchok Rinpoche, a son of Tsike Chokling Rinpoche, lives in Kathmandu, near the great Boudanath stupa. 436
2) Trophu Kagyu From RangjungYesheWiki Gyal Tsha Rinchen Gon (1118‐1195) Gyal Tsha Rinchen Gon was one the eight foremost disciples of Phagmo Drupa, as well as the founder of the Trophu Kagyu school. Trophu Kagyu The Trophu Kagyu lineage was established by Gyal Tsha Rinchen Gon (1118‐
1195) and Kunden Repa (1148‐1217). One of its famous masters was Trophu Lotsawa Jampa. Another famous one was the great scholar and historian Butön (1290‐1364) who became very influential in the spreading of the Kalacakra system in Tibet. 437
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3) Drukpa Kagyu From RangjungYesheWiki Tsangpa Gyare Yeshe Dorje (1161‐1211) His father was Gyazurpo Tsape and mother Marza. The moment he was conceived his mother had a dream in which she saw the sun rising from her body and meeting with highly realized beings. He was born, the last of seven children, in the Iron‐Female‐Serpent (1161) year at Khule Saral (khu le) in Upper Nyang . Tsangpa Gyare Yeshe Dorje was one the foremost disciples of Lingje Repa Pema Dorje, as well as one of the founders of the Drukpa Kagyu school. He met Lingje Repa when he was grown up and mastered the Six Doctrines of Naropa and Mahamudra under him. He founded the Ralung Monastery , the principal seat of the Drukpa Kagyu lineage, and the monasteries of Longdol and Nam‐Druk , after which the lineage was later named. Tsangpa Gyare became a widely reknowned teacher with thousands of disciples. He discovered the ʺSix‐fold cycle of Equal Tasteʺ (ro snyom skor drug), a cycle of instructions that had been hidden by Rechungpa to be rediscovered at the appropriate time, and became thus known as a treasure revealer (gter ston). 439
Lingje Repa Pema Dorje (1128‐1188) Lingje Repa Pema Dorje was one the eight foremost disciples of Phagmo Drupa, as well as one of the founders of the Drukpa Kagyu school. The Drukpa Kagyu lineage The Drukpa Kagyu lineage (’brug pa) was established by Lingje Repa Pema Dorje (1128‐1188) and Tsangpa Gyare Yeshe Dorje (1161‐1211). Two of its most famous masters were the yogi Drukpa Kunleg (1455‐1529), a disciple of the 2nd Gyalwang Drukpa Kunga (1428‐1476), and the 4th Gyalwang Drukpa, Pema Karpo (1527‐1592), an exceptional scholar, realised master and great historian. As with some of the other Kagyu schools, a number of sub‐sects were established within the Drukpa Kagyu lineage. There are the Tö Druk, established by Götsangpa Gönpo Dorje (1189‐1258); the Bar Druk, established by Dharma Senge Sangye On (1177‐1237); the Mä Drukestablished by Lorepa Wangchuk Tsöndru (1187‐
1250); the Lho‐Druk established by Phajo Drukgom Shigpo (1184‐1251); and several others. Even within these sub‐sects further sub‐sects came into being, like the Barawa Kagyu lineage. One of the two incarnations of the 4th Drugchen Pema Karpo, Shabdrung Ngawang Namgyal, (1594‐1651) went to Bhutan and established his lineage there. He was the first to unify Bhutan and became the founder of the Kingdom of Bhutan as we know it today. 440
Drukpa Kunleg From RangjungYesheWiki Drukpa Kunleg Drukpa Kunleg (1455‐1529) aka The Madman of Bhutan, Kunga Legpa Drukpa Kunleg is renowned as the Divine Madman of Bhutan. Drukpa Kunleg was born into the branch of the noble Gya (rgya) clan of Ralung which descended from Lhabum the second eldest brother of Tsangpa Gyare Yeshe Dorje. His father was nang so rin chen bzang po. He was the nephew of Gyalwang Kunga Paljor. Father of Ngawang Tenzin and Zhingchong Drukdra. Established Chime Lhakhang , near Punakha in 1499. 441
Shabdrung Ngawang Namgyal From RangjungYesheWiki The 1st Shabdrung Ngawang Namgyal (1594‐1651 ) [17th century founder of Bhutan] One of the two incarnations of the fourth Drukchen, contributed to unite Bhutan as a state [RY] 442
4) Marpa Kagyu ( Martsang Kagyu ) From RangjungYesheWiki Marpa Drubthob Sherab Senge (no dates) Marpa Drubthob Sherab Senge was one the eight foremost disciples of Phagmo Drupa, as well as the founder of the Martsang Kagyu school. Marpa Kagyu The Marpa Kagyu lineage was established by Marpa Drubthob Sherab Senge Famous masters of the Marpa Kagyu were Gyalwa Yanggönpa, Nal Rinchen Lingpa , and Mar Khenchen. 443
5) Yelpa Kagyu From RangjungYesheWiki Drubthob Yeshe Tsegpa (b.1134) Yelpa Drubthob Yeshe Tsegpa was one the eight foremost disciples of Phagmo Drupa, as well as the founder of the Yelpa Kagyu school. Yelpa Kagyu The Yelpa Kagyu lineage was established by Drubthob Yeshe Tsegpa (b. 1134). He established two monasteries, Shar Yelphuk and Jang. Little else is known about this lineage nowadays. Many of their instructions are being continued by the Karma Kagyu school. 444
6) Yabzang Kagyu From RangjungYesheWiki Sharawa Kalden Yeshe Senge (d.1207) Sharawa Kalden Yeshe Senge was one the eight foremost disciples of Phagmo Drupa, as well as the founder of the Yazang Kagyu school. Yabzang Kagyu The Yabzang Kagyu lineage was established by Sharawa Kalden Yeshe Senge (d. 1207). His main student was Yabzang Chöje (1169‐1233) who established the monastery of Yabzang. 445
7) Shugseb Kagyu From RangjungYesheWiki Gyergom Chenpo Zhonnu Drakpa (1090‐1171) Gyergom Chenpo Zhonnu Drakpa was one the eight foremost disciples of Phagmo Drupa, as well as the founder of the Shugseb Kagyu school. Shugseb Kagyu The Shugseb Kagyu lineage was established by Gyergom Chenpo Zhonnu Drakpa (1090‐1171). He was the founder of the Shugseb monastery in Nyiphu. Their teachings were based on the various Doha cycles, spiritual songs of realisation by Indian masters such as Saraha, Shavaripa, Tilopa, Naropa, Maitripa etc. 446
8) Drikung Kagyu From RangjungYesheWiki Drikung Kyobpa Jigten Sumgon (1143‐1217) Drikung Kyobpa Jigten Sumgon was one the eight foremost disciples of Phagmo Drupa, as well as the founder of the Drikung Kagyu school. Drikung Kagyu The Drikung Kagyu, a brief The Drikung Kagyu lineage was established by Drikung Kyobpa Jigten Sumgon (1143‐1217). Their main seat is the monastery of Drikung Thil in Central Tibet. Within the Drikung Kagyu lineage, existed a sub‐sect known as the Lhapa Kagyu . This lineage was established by a direct disciple of Jigten Sumgön, by name of Gyalwa Lhanangpa (1164‐1224). Two masters head the Drikung Kagyu school, the Drikung Chetsang and Drikung Chungtsang Rinpoches. Both bear the title Drikung Kyabgön. The present Drikung Chetsang Rinpoche has established his seat in exile in Dehra Dun/India, while the Drikung Chungtsang Rinpoche remains in Tibet. Brief History of the Drikung Kagyu Order of Tibetan Buddhism The Drikung Kayu Order of Tibetan Buddhism is a unique tradition of study and practice transmitted through an unbroken line of enlightened teachers. As the precious teachings of Lord Shakyamuni Buddha were brought into Tibet from the sacred land of India, countless saints and yogis were realized by the perfect understanding and meditation of the precious teachings. 447
From these innumerable saints, there gradually developed eight great lineages: Nyingma, Kadam, Lamdre, Kagyupa, Shenpa Dhege, Jordru, and Choeyul. From these, the Dhagpo Kagyupa lineage arose from the great Indian saint Tilopa (988‐1069 C.E.) who received a direct transmission of the teachings from Vajradhara (Dorje Chang). Tilopa also received the teachings of Mahamudra and the Six Doctrines from Arya Nagarjuna, Charyapa, Lawapa, and Khelwa Sangpo. This particular transmission is known as the Kagyupa Lineage. The chief disciple of Tilopa was Pandita Naropa (1016‐ll00 C.E.) head of the illustrious Nalanda University. Marpa the Translator (1012‐1097 C.E.) was Naropaʹs leading disciple. Maria journeyed extensively, going three times to India and four times to Nepal to bring back the teachings to Tibet. All in all, Marpa received instruction from 108 tantric masters as well as Naropa and Maitreya. Pandita Naropa designated Marpa as his Vajra Regent in Tibet and prophesized that the Mahamudra teachings would greatly flourish there. Marpaʹs foremost disciple was Milarepa (1052‐1135 CUE.) who is considered the greatest yogi of Tibet. Jetsun Milarepa attained enlightenment in one lifetime. His lifeʹs story and 100,000 songs are high points of Tibetan literature and spiritual thought. Milarepaʹs chief disciple was Gampopa (1079‐1153 C.E.). In the Samadhi and Nyinge Pema Karpa Sutras are prophecies concerning Gampopaʹs coming by Lord Shakyamuni himself. Gampopa embodied the three great lineages of Nagarjuna (Profound View Lineage), Asanga (All‐Encompassing Action Lineage) and Tilopa (Blessed Meditation Lineage.) As a result of this phenomenal achievement, the Dhagpo Kagyu Lineage came into being as well as the Phagdru Kagyu, Kamtsang Kagyu, and Barong Kagyu Lineages. From among Gampopaʹs numerous disciples, there came forth Phagdru Dorje Gyalpo. From him came the eight Kagyu lineages: Drikung Kagyu, Talung Kagyu, Trubo, Lingre, Maerpa, Yelpa, Yasang, and Shugsib. Among Phagdru Dorje Gyalpoʹs disciples. the chief disciple was Kyobpa Jigten Sumgon Ratnashri (1143‐1217 C.E.), known also as ʺDrikung Kyobpa.ʺ Kyobpa Jigten Sumgon Ratnashri was the Vajra Regent of the Buddha himself in the Northern Hemisphere. Of him the Buddha once said: ʺIn the Northern Hemisphere, amongst the snowy ranges, a Ratnashri will come forth. This extraordinary being. acquiring world‐wide fame, will greatly further my Teachings.ʺ (Yeshe Yongsukyepa Sutra) ʺThe fountain‐head place of Dharma names Drikung will produce Ratnashri born in the hog year. He will be surrounded by a million‐
strong host of disciples and upon his death he will enter the Ngongai Buddha Fields. There he will be called the ʺPerfect White Buddha.ʺ (Ghongdhu Sutra) In twenty Sutras and Tantras there occur similar prophecies about Kyobpa Jigten Sumgon Ratnashri. Among Lord Buddha Shakyamuniʹs contemporaries was Letsabe who incarnated four hundred years later as Arya Nagarjuna and later still as Kyobpa Jigten Sumgon Ratnashri. The Singalese Arahata Bhikshu and Green Tara told 448
Mahapandita Sakya Shri Bapara that Ratnashri was the reincarnation of Arya Nagarjuna. So it came to pass that in Eastern Tibet in the 12th century (C.E.) Ratnashri was born to Naljor Dorje and Rakshesatsun. At the age of 25 he met Phagmo Drupa and received all the teachings of Sutras and Tantras. At the time of Phagmo Drupaʹs death, a congregation of disciples witnessed a miraculous transference of a golden dorje of light from the heart of Phagmo Drupa to the heart of Ratnashri. After 7 years meditation in the Achung cave in central Tibet, Ratnashri attained enlightenment at the age of 35. He then received the Bhikshu ordination and his fame began to spread throughout Tibet. At the age of 37 he established the main seat of Drikung, which he named Changchubling . Here he emphasized the importance of moral discipline and Bodhicitta as the basis of Buddhaʹs teachings. Since his mind was one with the mind of all Buddhas, he was able to guide all Bodhisattvas and sentient beings according to the degree of their receptivity and understanding. When the first Karmapa, Dusum Khyenpa, visited Drikung, he saw Kyobpa Jigten Sumgon Ratnashri as the Buddha himself and, developing great faith in him, received his teachings. The kings of India, China. and Tibet all recognized him and Maldrozichen, a king of the Nagas, offered to maintain the growing number of disciples at Drikung. Thus Drikung reached to the heights of spiritual and academic excellence. Kyobpa Jigten Sumgon sent many disciples to the sacred places such as Mount Kailas, Lache (near Nepal), and Tsari (near Arunachal Pradesh). Thus the Drikung Kagyu became the keepers of these holy places. It was in his 76th year that he experienced Mahaparinirana. Now over eight hundred years have passed since the establishment of the Drikung Kagyu order. From the great Abbot, Khenchen Gurawa Tsultrim Dorje until the present, there have been 37 successive teachers who comprise the golden chain of the Drikung Kagyu lamas. 449
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Teachings From RangjungYesheWiki Six Doctrines of Naropa (na ro chos drug) A system of advanced practices handed down from Naropa to the translator Marpa, who introduced them into Tibet. He in turn transmitted these practices to his students, particulary to Jetsun Milarepa. The six doctrines are: the practice of inner heat ,the illusory, the dream state , the clear light or luminosity, the ejection of consciousness, and the intermediate states bar do. Combined with the meditations of deities such as Vajrayogini/Vajravarahi or Chakrasamvara, and the system of Mahamudra they are the most important meditational practices of the various Kagyu schools. Mahamudra Lit. ʺThe Great Sealʺ, a meditation system that was propagated in India, mainly by the Mahasiddha Saraha, from whom it was handed down in various lineages. Two of these lineages were introduced into Tibet by the great translator Marpa, the founder of the Kagyu lineage in Tibet. One of these lineages originated with the buddha Vajradhara and continued through Nagarjuna, Charyapa, Lavapa and Sukhasiddhi to Tilopa, and then via Naropa to Marpa. The other lineage also originated with Vajradhara. It then continued via Ratnamati, Saraha, Nagarjuna, Shavaripa and Maitripa to Marpa. Mahamudra is one of the most direct practices for realising oneʹs own buddha nature and forms the basis of the Vajrayana view of the Kagyu schools. Students are introduced to their fundamental nature without any philosophical argumentation and are encouraged to train in that experience. Mahamudra practice begins with the preliminaries and continues with training in Shamata and Vipashyana, progressing into what is called the ʺFour Yogas of Mahamudraʺ (phyag rgya chen poʹi rnal ʹbyor bzhi) which are one‐pointedness (rtse gcig), simplicity (spros bral), one taste (ro gcig), and non‐meditation (sgom med). A definition of Mahamudra as given by the 9th Karmapa Wangchuk Dorje (1556‐1603), translated by Elizabeth Callahan: An Excerpt from Mahamudra: The Ocean of Definitive Meaning (p. 254) by the 9th Karmapa, dbang phyug rdo rje [1556‐1603] Supplementary topics[145.6] THE CLASSIFICATIONS OF MAHAMUDRA Teaching Session 92 [145.6] Although no descriptions can completely cover all the modes of classification, in brief there are three: ground mahamudra, path mahamudra, and fruition mahamudra. 451
Ground Mahamudra [Ground mahamudra] is what is realized and actualized by the nondual mind of the buddhas (which was explained above) [145b] and noble individuals. It is the basic state (gshis kyi babs) of the three realms of samsara and the true nature of all phenomena from the beginning. It is connate wisdom (lhan gcig skyes paʹi ye shes), which pervades the entire ground. It is present within the mind‐stream of all of us sentient beings, from the insects that live inside grass stems up to the buddhas. It is the natural purity (rang bzhin rnam bdag), which is neither positive nor negative, large nor small, and so forth. Samsara and nirvana manifest according to whether the mode of being (bzhugs tshul) of the true nature, the dharmakaya, is realized or not. Even when there is realization, dharmata (present as the ground and free from elaborations) is the creator (byed pa po) of all that exists, samsara and nirvana. Because nothing transcends this, it is [known as] mudra (phyag rgya, seal). Since there is nothing to be sought that is higher than this‐‐no superior ʺdharmakayaʺ‐‐it is fit to be referred to as ʺmahaʺ (chen po, great). [Ground mahamudra] is present within the mind‐stream of all sentient beings. It is the inseparability of appearances and emptiness, awareness and emptiness, and bliss and emptiness. It is spontaneously present as the nature of the three kayas and the five wisdoms. It is free from arising, abiding, and cessation, and from the extremes of the conceptual elaborations of existence and nonexistence. Nevertheless, [146] through the force of oneʹs own connate ignorance (lhan gcig skyes paʹi ma rig pa), one does not recognize this, as when one is shown an object in a dark room. This true nature transcends verbal or mental descriptions and cannot be conceptually identified, just as a drawing cannot be created in fire or space. It is not known, just as the eyes cannot see themselves, because it is beyond involving an objective and subjective aspect (yul yul can), or an object of awareness and one who is aware. It is not recognized because there is no guru who can show it, like a prince wandering [incognito] among the masses. It is not known because it is the single expanse (dbyings gcig), like medicinal camphor become poison. It is not recognized because its nature, which abides as awareness, is immediately and incorrectly aware, and imputes mistakenly, as when a rope is mistaken for a snake. Therefore, because imputational ignorance (kun brtags paʹi ma rig pa) does not recognize reflexive awareness (rang rig), there [develops the idea of] an ʺIʺ where there is no ʺI,ʺ a self where there is no self, and conceptual elaborations where there are no elaborations. One is motivated by desire, aversion, and delusion; karma accumulates and matures; one wanders in samsara. Because [ground mahamudra] is too close (nye drags pa), it is not recognized. Due to this mistake, despite it being present within oneself and always accompanying one, one lacks conviction about this. [Although] it is just like oneʹs own face, [146b] one wanders in samsara through ignorance. Because it is too easy (sla drags pa), it is not trusted. The small‐minded think, given that buddhahood is endowed with the major and minor marks or with the dharmakaya, it cannot be the same as ordinary mind; that this does not make sense. Since they do not trust in this, they do not recognize it. 452
Because it is too profound (zab drags pa), it is not recognized. Beings are distracted by the net of thoughts and lack unwavering mindfulness. Therefore, due to the fault of not identifying it, they do not recognize this. Because it is too excellent (bzang drags pa), it is not recognized. Mind relaxed in its own state‐‐mind that does not identify that state, reflexive awareness that is vivid (sa le ba) yet without any object‐‐is the dharmakaya. But since this dharmakaya seems incomprehensible, it is not recognized. These types of ignorance must be abandoned. The methods for doing so are to exert oneself [following] the oral instructions (gdams ngag) of a guru, path mahamudra, and the stages of practice, which will remove [this ignorance]. This excerpt is from the section on supplementary topics, covering the classification of mahamudra, and the definition of ground mahamudra ([145.6], Teaching Session 92, pp. 255‐56 in Mahamudra: The Ocean of Definitive Certainty). From Nitartha.org 453
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