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i
PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION OF BREAKFAST CEREALS
FROM BLENDS OF AFRICAN YAM BEAN (Sphenostylis stenocarpa),
MAIZE (Zea mays) AND DEFATTED COCONUT (Cocos nucifera).
BY
USMAN, GRACE OJALI
PG/M.Sc./09/50997
DEPARTMENT OF FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY,
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA.
NOVEMBER, 2012
i
TITLE PAGE
PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION OF BREAKFAST CEREALS
FROM BLENDS OF AFRICAN YAM BEAN (Sphenostylis stenocarpa),
MAIZE (Zea mays) AND DEFATTED COCONUT (Cocos nucifera).
A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF FOOD
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE,
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA, IN
PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE
AWARD OF M.Sc. IN FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY.
BY
USMAN, GRACE OJALI
PG/M.Sc./09/50997
DEPARTMENT OF FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY,
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA.
NOVEMBER, 2012
ii
CERTIFICATION
USMAN, GRACE OJALI, a Post-graduate student in the Department of Food Science and
Technology, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, with Registration
Number: PG/M.Sc./09/50997 has satisfactorily completed the requirements for award of the
degree of Master of Science in Food Science and Technology. The work embodied in this
dissertation is original and has not been submitted in part or full for any other diploma or
degree of this or other university.
-----------------------------------DR G.I OKAFOR
(SUPERVISOR)
----------------------Date
------------------------------------MR C.S. BHANDARY
(HEAD OF DEPARTMENT)
---------------------Date
iii
DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to the Holy Spirit, my source of inspiration and my family, for helping
me in ways I can never quantify.
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The successful completion of this research was made possible through the efforts and
commitment of so many to whom I owe my appreciation. My foremost thanks go to the
Almighty God, who makes all things possible to them that believe in Him.
My sincere thanks goes to my Supervisor, Dr G.I. Okafor, whose advice, patience, dedication
and relentless efforts led to the successful completion of this work. I am also grateful to, Mr.
C.S. Bhandary and the entire staff of the Department: Prof P. O. Ngoddy, Prof. T. M.
Okonkwo, Prof. (Mrs.) N. J. Enwere, Dr (Mrs.) J.C. Ani, Dr. P.O. Uvere, Dr. J. I. Eze, Dr.
(Mrs.) I. Nwaoha and Mrs. Omah, for imparting the knowledge and skills that equipped me
throughout the period of this study and made this work a reality.
I owe my parents, Prof. and Mrs. S.S. Usman a lot of appreciation for their patience,
encouragement, love and support, which motivated me at every stage of this work. I fondly
appreciate my siblings, Adaji, Chide, Ugbede and Baby Praise for always being there for me.
I also extend my sincere appreciation to my brethren of the Graduate Students' Fellowship,
University of Nigeria, Nsukka for always making me feel at home.
Lastly, my profound gratitude goes to all my friends; Mary, Lucy, Toyin, Barrister, fellow
professional colleagues and all those whose names are not mentioned. I love you all.
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ABSTRACT
Six samples were generated by mixing the flours (AYB+ maize composite) with graded
levels of defatted coconut flour (100:0, 90:10, 80:20, 70:30, 60:40, 50:50), sugar, salt,
sorghum malt extract and water. Breakfast cereals were produced by roasting (280°C) -a dry
heat treatment process to gelatinize and semi-dextrinize the starch in order to generate dry
ready to eat products from blends of African yam bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa), maize
(Zea mays) and defatted coconut (Cocos nucifera) cake. They were subjected to proximate,
functional, sensory, minerals, vitamins, anti-nutrients, amino acids and microbial analyses.
The products obtained were also served dry (without added water), with cold water, cold milk
and warm milk to 15 panelists along with Weetabix (commercial control) to evaluate for
appearance, consistency, flavour, taste, aftertaste, mouth feel, and overall acceptability using
a 9 point Hedonic scale (1=dislike extremely, 9=like extremely). The results revealed the
following ranges: proximate parameters (%): moisture (3.38-4.20), protein (15.68-18.26), fat
(1.84-2.02), crude fiber (6.70-9.08), ash (5.29-7.36), carbohydrates (60.96-64.53), and energy
(327.54-347.72Kcal). Functional properties were: pH (4.70- 6.56), bulk density (0.290.71g/ml), water absorption capacity (68.31- 76.39%), oil absorption capacity (0.87- 1.32%),
foam capacity (2.48- 3.49%), viscosity (19.73-31.08%), invitro-protein digestibility (66.3082.2%), and gelation capacity (75.32- 89.66%). Mineral analysis showed the following
ranges (mg/100g): calcium (169-213), magnesium (290-430), potassium (88-191),
manganese (5.92-7.99), iron (9.81-14.1), copper (0.58- 0.86), sodium (7.62- 9.97), zinc (2.113.35). Vitamins analysis also revealed the following ranges (mg/100g): B1 (0.09-0.31), B2,
(0.32-0.43), B6 (0.13- 0.26), B12 (0.74-1.01) and C (1.70- 2.65). Results for the anti-nutrients
showed the following ranges (mg/100g): phytates, (0.38-1.25), oxalate (0.076-0.302),
hemagluttinins, (0.10- 0.29) and tannins (0.00064-0.0016). Amino acids detected ranged as
follows (mg/100g): phenylalanine (190-320), valine (160-240), threonine (560-810),
tryptophan (380-520), isoleucine (110-220), methionine (10-100), histidine (160-240),
arginine (180-510), lysine(90-250), leucine (590-810), cysteine (210-340), alanine (110-220),
glycine (460-750), serine(80-120), aspartic acid (10-40), glutamic acid (10-40), asparagine
(190-520), glutamine (100-300) and proline (30-50). Microbial analysis revealed the
following ranges: bacteria count, 0.5x10 -1.51x102 Cfu/g, mold count, 0.0x10- 0.6x10 Cfu/g,
while coliform was not detected. The sensory results revealed that the samples obtained were
acceptable to the panelists, and there were no significant differences (p>0.05) between the
control (Weetabix) and the samples in terms of overall acceptability when served with cold
water, while significant (p<0.05) differences existed when served dry, with cold milk and hot
milk.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Title page
Certification
Dedication
Acknowledgments
Abstract
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Figures
Appendices
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1
3
4
4
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Statement of Research Problem
Significance of the study
Objective of the Study
-
2.0
2.1
2.1.1
2.1.2
2.1.3
2.2
2.2.1
2.2.2
2.2.3
2.3
2.3.1
2.3.2
2.3.3
2.4
2.5
2.5.1
2.5.2
2.5.3
2.6
2.6.1
2.6.2
2.6.3
2.6.4
2.6.5
2.7
2.7.1
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
Breakfast and its importance
Constituents of a Healthy Breakfast History of Breakfast Cereals Classification of Breakfast Cereals Cereals
Maize Production and Utilization
Varieties of Maize
Nutritional Value of Maize Legumes
World Production of Legumes
Nutritional Relevance of Legumes Anti-nutritional Factors in Legumes Underutilized Legumes
African Yam Beans (AYB) Nutrient Composition of African Yam Beans
Potentials of African Yam Beans
Factors Limiting the Use of African Yam Beans
Coconut
Origin and Morphology of Coconut Natural habitat of Coconut Nutritional Value of Coconut
Coconut in Traditional and Modern Medicine
Coconut as a Source of Dietary Fiber in Foods
Production and Utilization of Sorghum
The use of Sorghum for the production of malt extract
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10
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12
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3.0
3.1
3.1.1
3.1.2
CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS AND METHODS
Material Procurement
Sample Preparation Production of Maize Flour -
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3.1.3 Production of African Yam Beans Flour
3.1.4 Production of defatted Coconut flour
3.1.5 Production of Sorghum Malt Extract
3.2
Products Formulation
3.3
Analysis of Samples
3.3.1 Proximate Composition
3.3.1.1 Determination of Moisture Content 3.3.1.2 Determination of Crude Fat Content 3.3.1.3 Determination of Protein Content
3.3.1.4 Determination of total Ash Content 3.3.1.5 Determination of Crude Fiber Content
3.3.1.6 Determination of Carbohydrate
3.3.1.7 Determination of Energy Value
3.4
Functional Properties Determination
3.4.1 Determination of pH 3.4.2 Determination of Bulk Density
3.4.3 Determination of Water/ Fat Absorption Capacity 3.4.4 Determination of Foam Capacity
3.4.5 Determination of Viscosity 3.4.6 Determination of In-vitro Protein Digestibility
3.4.7 Determination of Gelation Capacity 3.5
Sensory Evaluation 3.6
Determination of Anti-nutritional Factors 3.6.1 Determination of Phytate or Phytic Acid
3.6.2 Determination of Tannin
3.6.3 Determination of Oxalate
3.6.4 Determination of Hemagluttinin
3.7
Determination of Mineral content 3.8
Determination of Vitamin content 3.8.1 Determination of Vitamin B1
3.8.2 Determination of Vitamin B2
3.8.5 Determination of Vitamin C
3.9
Determination of Essential and Non-essential Amino Acids
3.10 Microbiological Examination
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30
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35
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4.0
4.1
4.1.1
4.1.2
4.1.3
4.1.4
4.1.5
4.1.6
4.1.7
4.2
4.2.1
4.2.2
4.2.3
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CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Proximate Composition
Moisture
Protein
Fat
Ash
Crude Fiber Carbohydrate Energy Functional Properties
pH
Bulk Density Water Absorption Capacity -
-
viii
4.2.4
4.2.5
4.2.6
4.2.7
4.2.8
4.3
4.3.1
4.3.2
4.3.3
4.3.4
4.3.5
4.4
4.4.1
4.4.2
4.4.3
4.4.4
4.4.5
4.4.6
4.4.7
4.4.8
4.5
4.5.1
4.5.2
4.5.3
4.5.4
4.5.5
4.6
4.6.1
4.6.2
4.6.3
4.6.3
4.7
4.8
Oil Absorption Capacity
Foam Capacity
Viscosity
In-Vitro Protein Digestibility Gelatin Capacity
Sensory Evaluation Attribute Perception of Samples Served Dry Attribute Perception of Samples Served With Cold Water Attribute Perception of Samples Served With Cold Milk Attribute Perception of Samples Served With Hot Milk
Effect of Serving Style on Sensory Attributes of the Samples
Mineral Composition of the Breakfast cereals
Calcium
Magnesium Potassium
Manganese Iron Copper
Sodium
Zinc Vitamin Composition o f the Breakfast cereals Vitamin B1 Vitamin B2 Vitamin B6 Vitamin B12 Vitamin C
Anti-Nutritional Factors
Phytate/Phytic Acid Oxalate
Hemagluttinin
Tannin
Amino Acid Profile Microbial Examination
-
5.0
5.1
5.2
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Conclusion Recommendations
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84
REFERENCES
86
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LIST OF TABLES
Page
1
Average Contribution of Cereals and Cereal products to nutrient intake
in the U.K.
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-
6
2
Proximate Composition of the Cereals grown in Nigeria
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11
3
Gross Chemical composition of different types of Maize
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13
4
Proximate composition of lesser known Legumes
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5
Coconut Dietary value per 100g edible portion
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21
6
Composite flour formulations for Breakfast cereals made from blends of
AYB + Maize: defatted coconut flour
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33
Ingredients combination of Breakfast cereals made from blends of
-
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33
Proximate composition of Breakfast cereals made from blends of
-
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48
Functional properties of Breakfast cereals made from blends of
-
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10
Mean sensory scores for samples served dry
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11
Mean sensory scores for samples served with cold water
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12
Mean sensory scores for samples served with cold milk
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13
Mean sensory scores for samples served with hot milk
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14
Mineral content of Breakfast cereals made from blends of
-
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73
Vitamin content of Breakfast cereals made from blends of
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Anti-nutritional content of Breakfast cereals made from blends of
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15
16
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x
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
1
Taxonomy of the Graminae family
2
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10
Modified flow diagram for the production of Maize flour
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3
Flow diagram for the production of African Yam Bean flour
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4
Modified flow diagram for the production of defatted coconut flour
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5
Modified flow diagram for the production of malt extract
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31
6
Flow diagram for the production of breakfast cereals from blends of
AYB+Maize: Defatted coconut flour
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34
Energy values of breakfast cereals from blends of AYB + Maize:
defatted Coconut Flour
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51
In-Vitro Protein Digestibility of breakfast cereals from blends of
AYB+Maize: defatted Coconut flour
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56
-
66
Effect of the serving style on the consistency perception of breakfast cereals
from blends of AYB + Maize: defatted Coconut flour
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66
Effect of the serving style on the flavour perception of breakfast cereals
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67
Effect of the serving style on the taste perception of breakfast cereals
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67
Effect of the serving style on the aftertaste perception of breakfast cereals
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68
Effect of the serving style on the mouthfeel perception of breakfast cereals
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68
Effect of the serving style on the overall acceptability perception of breakfast
cereals from blends of AYB + Maize: defatted Coconut flour
-
69
Amino acid profile of breakfast cereals from blends of AYB + Maize:
defatted Coconut flour
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81
Microbial content of freshly prepared breakfast cereals from blends of
AYB + Maize: defatted Coconut flour
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83
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
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Effect of the serving style on the colour perception of breakfast cereals
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xi
APPENDICES
Page
I
Sensory Evaluation score sheet
II
Amino acid profile for formulated breakfast cereals
III
Raw values for the Microbial profile of Breakfast Cereals made from
blends of AYB+Maize: Defatted Coconut flour
-
96
IV
ANOVA Table for Anti-Nutrients of formulated Breakfast Cereals
97
V
ANOVA Table for Sensory Data of formulated Breakfast Cereals
served Raw -
98
served with cold water
-
99
served with cold milk
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100
Served with Hot Milk
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101
IX
ANOVA Table for Functional Properties Analysis
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102
X
ANOVA Table For Proximate Composition Analysis
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103
XI
ANOVA Table for Vitamin Analysis
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104
XII
RDA of Vitamins for Children and Adults (mg/kg of body weight)
XIII
RDA for Mineral requirements for Children and Adults
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106
XIV
RDA of Essential Amino Acids for Children and Adults
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107
VI
VII
VIII
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105
1
CHAPTER ONE
1.0
INTRODUCTION
The word “breakfast” is a compound of "break" and "fast" which literally means “breaking
the fast” from the last meal or snack from the previous day. Breakfast is the nutritional
foundation or the first meal of the day (Kowtaluk, 2001). Nutritional experts have referred to
breakfast as the most important meal of the day, citing studies that found people who skip
breakfast to be disproportionately likely to have problems with concentration, metabolism,
and weight (Mayo Clinic, 2009). Breakfast meals vary widely in different cultures around the
world. It often includes a carbohydrate source such as cereals, fruit and or vegetable, protein,
sometimes dairy, and beverage.
In developing countries, particularly sub-Saharan Africa, breakfast meals for both adults and
infants are based on local staple diet made from cereals, legumes, and cassava and potatoes
tubers. However, the most widely eaten breakfast foods are cereals (Kent, 1983).
Breakfast cereals are legally defined as foods obtained by swelling, grinding, rolling or
flaking of any cereal (Sharma and Caralli, 2004). They can be categorized into traditional
(hot) cereals that require further cooking or heating before consumption and ready-to-eat
(cold) cereals that can be consumed from the box or with the addition of milk (Fast 1990;
Tribelhorn, 1991). Ready to eat breakfast cereals are increasingly gaining acceptance in most
developing countries, and gradually displacing most traditional diets that serve as breakfast
due to convenience, nutritional values, improved income, and status symbol and job demands
especially among urban dwellers. According to Jones (2003), instantized and ready-to-eat
(RTE) cereals facilitate independence because of their ease of preparation which means that
children and adolescents can be responsible for their own breakfast or snacks. Such foods
may need to be reconstituted, pre-heated in a vessel or allowed to thaw if frozen before
consumption, or they may be eaten directly without further treatment (Okaka, 2005). The
common cereal products in Nigeria include NASCO Cornflakes, Good morning corn flakes,
Kellogg‟s cornflakes, NABISCO flakes, Weetabix, Quaker Oats, Rice crisps, among others.
A study has clearly shown that 42% of 10-year-olds and 35% of young adults consumed
cereal at non-breakfast occasions (Haines et al., 1996). This may be consumed dry as snack
food, with or without cold or hot milk, based on their location, availability of resources and
habits.
2
In recent times food product developers have incorporated legumes into traditional cereal
formulations as nutrient diversification strategy as well as efforts to reduce the incidence of
malnutrition among vulnerable groups. Results from previous studies (Onweluzo and
Nnamuchi, 2009), indicated that most cereals are limited in some essential amino acids
especially threonine and tryptophan. Though cereals are rich in lysine (especially the yellow
maize), they cannot effectively provide the nutrients required by the body, especially in the
morning when the supply of nutrients from the previous day is exhausted. Cereals can
however, be supplemented with most oil seeds and legumes which are rich in essential amino
acids particularly the sulphur-containing ones (Kanu et al., 2007). Thus a combination of
such food stuffs will improve the nutritional value of the resulting blend compared to the
individual components alone. Animal products such as meat, eggs, milk, and cheese are
known to contain the essential amino acids that could complement this deficiency in cereal
foods. However, consumption of proteins from plant sources (Legumes) is encouraged
(Ofuya and Akhidue, 2005), since combination of legumes and grains provide biologically
high quality and cheaper protein that contains all essential amino acids in proper proportion
and their amino acids complement each other (Okaka, 2005).
Legumes or pulses are edible fruits or seeds of pod bearing plants (Sivasanka, 2005). Their
seeds are put to a myriad of uses, both nutritional and industrial, and in some parts of the
developing world they are the principal source of protein for humans (Trevor et al., 2005).
Legumes have high protein content, in the range of 20-40%; about twice that of cereals and
several times that in root tubers (Sivasanka, 2005). The common legumes in Nigeria include,
Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), Soybeans (Glycine max), Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan),
Groundnuts (Arachis hypogea), African yam bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa), etc. (Okaka,
2005).
A variety of legumes, including African yam bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa) are under
exploited or underutilized (Ebiokpo et al., 1998). African yam bean is the most economically
important among the seven species of Sphenostylis (Potter, 1992). It is a lesser- known
legume of the tropical and sub-tropical areas of the world which has attracted research
attention in recent times (Azeke et al., 2005). It is a climbing legume with exceptional ability
for adaptation to low lands and takes about five to seven months to grow and produce mature
seeds (Apata and Ologhoba, 1990). AYB seeds can be brown, white, speckled or marbled
with a hilum having a dark-brown border. The seeds form a valuable and prominent source of
3
plant proteins in the diet of Nigerians and are cultivated as a pulse for human consumption.
The Ibo people of the south eastern Nigeria call it “Okpodudu, Ijiriji, Azama” and the seeds
may be boiled and eaten with local seasoning, starchy roots, tubers and fruit or converted to
paste for the production of a type of “moi-moi”. The seeds can also be roasted and eaten with
palm kernels (Enwere, 1998). AYB, a non-conventional pulse has been brought into focus by
some previous workers as it is known to have a nutritive and culinary value (Agunbiade and
Ojezele, 2010).
Nutritionists recommend 20-35 grams of dietary fiber a day which could be obtained from
sources of dietary fiber such as whole grains, legumes, and nuts. Coconut is an excellent
source of dietary fiber, which has been made available as a dietary supplement (Bruce Fife,
2010). Coconut dietary fiber is made from finely ground, dried, and defatted coconut and has
higher fiber content than many other fiber supplements.
Formulating a breakfast cereal with blends of these raw materials highlighted above could
bring about diversification in the utilization of indigenous underutilized food crops for
national sustenance.
1.1
STATEMENT OF RESEARCH PROBLEM
African yam bean has been recognized to have vast genetic and economic potentials,
especially in reducing malnutrition among Africans; however the crop has not received
adequate research attention, thereby limiting its contribution to food security and preventing
potential food crisis. Increasing the use of underutilized crops is one of the better ways to
reduce nutritional, environmental and financial vulnerability in times of change (Jaenicke and
Pasiecznik, 2009).
Over time, some conditions have negatively influenced the productivity and acceptability of
African yam bean among cultivators, consumers, and research scientists. These include,
characteristic hardness of the seed coat (Oshodi et al., 1995) which increases the cost and
time of cooking, presence of anti-nutritional factors (ANF) or secondary metabolites
(Machuka and Okeola, 2000) and the tendency to cause flatulence in humans (Rockland and
Nishi, 1979). Therefore, it is of interest to process African yam bean seeds into acceptable,
ready-to-eat and safe products together with other locally available materials including maize
and defatted coconut flour.
4
1.2
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
African yam bean has been reported to have equal or higher lysine content than that of
Soybean while most of other essential amino acids correspond to the WHO/FAO
recommendation (Yetunde et al., 2009). In addition to this, it is reported to be important in
the management of chronic diabetes, hypertension and cardiovascular diseases because of its
low glycemic index and high dietary fiber content (Enwere, 1998). This research, therefore,
has the potential to address the twin problems of energy malnutrition as well as food security.
It will stimulate establishment of food industries for the production of breakfast cereals and
create other marketing and employment opportunities.
1.3
OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
The general objective of this study is to produce and evaluate breakfast cereals from blends
of African yam bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa), maize (Zea mays) and defatted coconut
(Cocos nucifera).
Specific objectives:
1.
To produce flours from African yam bean, maize and defatted coconut.
2.
To produce breakfast cereals from blends of African yam bean, maize and
defatted coconut.
3.
To evaluate the chemical, functional, sensory, and microbial as well as the antinutrients, minerals, vitamins and amino acid profile of the products obtained.
5
CHAPTER TWO
2.0.
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1.0 BREAKFAST AND ITS IMPORTANCE
Breakfast is the most important meal of the day and breakfast cereals are the most nutrientdense, tasty, convenient and typically lowest calorie breakfast options (Hochberg-Garrett,
2008). The importance of breakfast in assuring adequate nutrient intakes has been
documented in numerous studies both in the United States and elsewhere (Yan Want, et al.,
1992). Should breakfast be omitted, food consumption during the rest of the day may not
provide sufficient nutrients to meet the recommended dietary allowances (RDAs) for
vitamins and minerals (Preziosi et al., 1999).
Previous studies define a time range for breakfast consumption, such as 5 AM to 9 AM. For
example, a study with children in developed countries used 5 AM to 10 AM on weekdays and
5 AM to 11 AM on weekends. Although the choices for breakfast foods are endless, a few
foods remain the most popular items for this meal. It was found that in some developed and
developing countries three most popular breakfast items for adults were coffee, milk, and
breads and the three most popular breakfast items for children were milk, cereal, and juice. At
this time, 75% of participants reported eating breakfast at home, 22% ate away from home,
and 3% ate at both places (Hochberg-Garrett, 2008).
Eating breakfast has been shown to be beneficial for both body and mind in several ways.
Those who eat a cereal-based breakfast (including pre-sweetened cereals), have a lower body
mass index (BMI) than those who skip breakfast or choose an alternative breakfast option
(Hunty and Ashwell, 2006). The average contribution of cereals and cereal products to
nutrient intake is shown in Table 1. It has been proven in many studies that those who eat
breakfast have a lower BMI than those who skip breakfast. Below are some interesting facts
relating to breakfast cereals which were cited by Nicklas (2004) and Hunty and Ashwell
(2006).
i.
Eating breakfast contributes to cognitive performance and improves concentration
ii.
Breakfast cereals supply one quarter of essential micronutrients to children‟s diets.
iii.
Breakfast cereals are an essential source of iron for teenagers
iv.
Breakfast cereals provide an important source of folic acid as well as increasing levels
of Vitamin D, B-vitamins and minerals including zinc and iron.
6
Breakfast cereals are also an important source of calcium both through the product
v.
itself and the addition of milk to the cereal.
vi.
Recent studies by the Irish Universities nutrition Alliance has also shown that
breakfast cereals provide teenagers with up to 11% of their daily fiber requirements.
Breakfast is the most commonly skipped meal among children. Many reasons were given for
adults and children to skip breakfast, such as poverty and parental influences (HochbergGarrett, 2008). It has been observed that children who do not have their breakfast before
leaving for school have problems, like headache, sleepiness, stomach pain, muscle fatigue,
etc. (Kartha, 2010). Indecisiveness, anger, anxiety, irritability, unhappiness, nervousness,
lethargy, hostility, etc. are some other problems that can be seen in students who skip their
breakfast. Such physical and psychological problems have the ability to hinder the learning
process; students who have their breakfast regularly score better in their tests than those who
avoid eating breakfast (Jegtvig, 2008).
A small study in adults also found that a high-fiber carbohydrate-rich breakfast was
associated with the highest post-breakfast alertness rating and the greatest alertness between
breakfast and lunch. A larger study found an association between breakfast cereal
consumption and subjective reports of health, with those adults who ate breakfast cereal
every day reporting better mental and physical health, compared to those who consumed it
less frequently (McKevith, 2004).
Table 1. Average Contribution of Cereals and Cereal Products to Nutrient
Intake in the (UK %).
Nutrient
Boys
35
Energy
Protein
27
Carbohydrate
45
Fat
22
NSP
40
Thiamin
43
Riboflavin
34
Niacin
38
Folate
44
30
Vitamin B6
Vitamin D
37
Iron
55
Calcium
27
Sodium
40
Potassium
15
Source: McKevith, 200
Girls
33
26
42
21
37
38
31
34
37
26
35
51
27
38
14
Adults
31
23
45
19
42
34
24
27
33
21
21
44
30
35
12
7
2.1.1
CONSTITUENTS OF A HEALTHY BREAKFAST
Though carbohydrates which provide energy to the body is one of the most important parts of
breakfast, it is necessary to make sure that the breakfast is not wholly a carbohydrate meal. A
complete breakfast should include all the necessary nutrients, including proteins, calcium,
vitamin B6, vitamin A, zinc and iron (Jegtvig, 2008). Also, it would contain low level of
sodium, salt and sugar. A basic breakfast should be nothing less than cereal, milk and fruits.
2.1.2 HISTORY OF BREAKFAST CEREALS
The history of breakfast cereals has been summarized by Carson (1957) and Wikipedia
(2009). Breakfast cereals have their beginnings in the vegetarian movement in the last quarter
of the nineteenth century, which influenced members of the Seventh-day Adventist Church in
the United States. The main Western breakfast at that time was a cooked breakfast of eggs,
bacon, sausage, and beef. The first packaged breakfast cereal, granular (named after granules)
was invented in the United States in 1863 by James Caleb Jackson, operator of the Jackson
Sanitarium in Dansville, New York and a staunch vegetarian. The cereal never became
popular; it was far too inconvenient, as the heavy bran nuggets needed soaking overnight
before they were tender enough to eat. Ferdinand Schumacher, president of the American
Cereal Company, created the first commercially successful cereal made from oats;
manufacturing took place in Akron, Ohio.
In 1877, John Harvey Kellogg, invented a biscuit made of ground-up wheat, oat, and
cornmeal for his patients suffering from bowel problems. The product was initially also
named "Granula", but changed to "Granola" after a lawsuit. His most famous contribution,
however, was an accident. After leaving a batch of boiled wheat soaking overnight and
rolling it out, Kellogg had created wheat flakes. His brother Will Keith Kellogg later invented
corn flakes from a similar method, bought out his brother's share in their business, and went
on to found the Kellogg Company in 1906. In the 1930s, the first puffed cereal, Kix, went
into the market. Beginning after World War II, the big breakfast cereal companies – now
including General Mills, who entered the market in 1924 with Wheaties – increasingly started
to target children. The flour was refined to remove fiber, which at the time was considered to
make digestion and absorption of nutrients difficult, and sugar was added to improve the
flavor for children. The new breakfast cereals began to look starkly different from their
ancestors. Today, breakfast has gained much ground in the food industry.
8
2.1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF BREAKFAST CEREALS
Breakfast cereals fall into the class of convenient foods. These can be regarded as foods
which have been fully or partially prepared, in which significant preparatory input, culinary
skills and energy have been transferred from the home maker‟s kitchen to the food
processor‟s factory. Such foods may need to be reconstituted, pre-heated in a vessel or
allowed to thaw if frozen before consumption, or they may be eaten directly without further
treatment (Okaka, 2005).
The classification of the breakfast cereals are based on the amount of heat required for its
preparation. According to Kent (1975), breakfast cereals can be classified according to:
a. The amount of domestic cooking required
b. The form of product or dish
c. The cereal used as raw material.
Those breakfast cereals that require cooking are of four types. The endosperm of the grains
may, sometimes, simply be broken or pressed, with or without toasting, to yield such
uncooked cereals. They include,
i. Entire grain such as rice
ii. Flaked such as rolled oats
iii. Coarsely ground such as hominy grits
iv. Finely ground such as cream of wheat
The breakfast cereals which need no cooking are called ready-to-eat cereals. For these the
endosperm of the cereal grain may be broken or ground into a mash, and then converted into
flakes by squeezing shapes; or the endosperm may be kept intact as kernels to be puffed as in
the case of puffed rice. In all cases, the flaked, formed or puffed cereals are oven cooked and
dried to obtain a toasted flavour and to obtain the crisp, brittle textures desired (Potter and
Hotchkiss, 2006). These cereals are sold in many forms e.g.:
a. Flaked cereals from corn, wheat and rice
b. Puffed cereals from rice and wheat
c. Shredded cereals from wheat
d. Granular cereals from most cereals.
9
The grains can be puffed, flaked, extruded, pelleted, shredded or produced in a granular form
and have sugar, honey or vitamin added. The ready-to-eat bran is combined with raisins or
prunes. Also, classification could be according to the manner in which the meals are served
whether they are in the ready-to-serve form (for example cornflakes) or whether they require
some cooking before being served (e.g. porridge). The ready-to-serve breakfast cereals may
be classified into hot cereal, whole-grain cereals, bran cereals, sugary cereals and organic
cereals
based on the manufacturing methods (Wikipedia, 2009).
In the market today whether cereal is hot or cold, conventional or organic, the possibilities for
good nutrition are seemingly endless. Cereals are presented in various types which appeal to
the eye as well as the appetite of the consumer. Below are the different types of cereals found
in both national and international market as compiled by Kinsey (2009).
Hot Cereal: Options such as oatmeal, Cream of Wheat and Malt-O-Meal are healthy hot
breakfast that fall into this category. They come in wholesome, unsweetened versions as well
as in sugary, processed versions. By buying unsweetened, whole-grain hot breakfast cereals,
one can add healthier natural sweeteners such as honey and fruit.
Whole-Grain Cereal: Whole-grain cereals, such as Cheerios, Kashi and Shredded Wheat
fall into this category. The whole grains have very little or no added sugars. Researchers at
Columbia University Medical Center have found that oat-based whole grain cereals can help
reduce cholesterol and aid in heart health. Other whole grains, such as whole wheat, can help
an individual feel full and satisfied as the day begins.
Bran Cereal: cereals, such as Raisin Bran, Fiber One and Bran Flakes are in this category
and are high-fiber breakfast cereals. Fiber can give the feeling of fullness and aid in digestion
and regularity.
Sugary Cereal: Sugary cereals are often placed at a child's eye level in the grocery store.
These cereals are often highly processed and have loads of added sugar and preservatives.
Cereals such as Reese's Puffs, Fruit Loops and Lucky Charms can be eaten as an occasional
fun treat, but if an adult or child eats them on a daily basis, they might notice that the huge
sugar rush affects their mood and energy level.
Organic Cereal: Nature's Path, EnviroKidz and Cascadian Farm are popular organic cereal
brands. These brands produce cereals similar to most popular conventional cereals, and they
do it using ingredients free of pesticides and fertilizers. Organic foods also cannot be
10
genetically engineered. Most cereals use natural sweeteners that are not overly-processed as
well as lots of whole grains.
2.2.0 CEREALS
Cereals are fruits of cultivated grasses belonging to the monocotyledonous family Graminae.
The principal cereal crops of the world are wheat, barley, oats, rice, rye, maize, sorghum and
millets but the chief cereals in the developing countries in West Africa are maize, rice,
sorghum and millets. The taxonomy of the Graminae family is shown in Figure 1. Wheat is
the principal protein source of the world, followed by maize, rice, oats, soybeans, etc.
(National Research Council, 1988). The most commonly grown ones in Nigeria are sorghum,
millet, maize, rice and wheat. These five crops occupy an estimated measure of over 16
million hectares of farmland (Okoh, 1998). The anatomical structure of all cereals grains is
basically similar differing from one another in details only. Of the important grain cereals,
maize, sorghum, naked grain millets and rice (tropical cereals) and wheat (temperate cereal),
have a fruit coat (pericarp) and seed. The seed comprise the seed coat, germ and endoplasm
(Okaka, 2005).
Figure 1: Taxonomy of the Graminae Family
Source: Shewry et al., (1992)
11
In the tropics, cereals are the staple foods of the people providing about 75% of their total
caloric intake and 67% of their total protein intake (Adedeye and Adewoke, 1992). Table 2
shows the proximate composition of the main cereals grown in Nigeria. In the Northern part
of Nigeria, cereals are the main sources of protein and energy. These grains are consumed in
many forms as pastes, roasts, porridges, gruels and pottages or other preparation of the seed
which when milled flour, bran oil, starch, breakfast or dinner cakes as well as breakfast
cereals are obtained. Cereals therefore offer a better source of protein other than the root
crops in the diet of Nigerians; whole protein intake from animal source is low (Ihekoronye
and Ngoddy, 1985).
Table 2: Proximate Composition of the main Cereals grown in Nigeria
(% dry matter basis)
Cereal
Protein
Fat
Maize
Sorghum
Millet
Rice
Wheat
Acha
10.50
9.28
13.69
7.07
11.63
6.96
5.40
2.27
5.39
2.25
2.33
2.10
Carbohydrate
68.00
85.20
77.26
89.89
81.91
87.48
Crude Fiber
2.40
2.01
1.80
0.23
2.97
1.02
Mineral Salt
1.60
1.24
1.96
0.56
1.16
2.44
Source: Mbaeyi, 2005
2.2.1 MAIZE PRODUCTION AND UTILIZATION
The origin of maize is considered to be America, particularly southern Mexico. USA is one
of the major corn producing countries in the world with a production of more than 50% of the
world crop. This share however has decreased from about 40% to about 25% because of the
development of high yielding strains of hybrid maize. Maize is extensively cultivated in
India, both in the plains and in the hill regions (Shakuntala and Shadaksharswamy, 2001).
Maize (Zea mays L.) is the most important cereal in the world after wheat and rice with
regard to cultivation (Osagie and Eka, 1998). In sub-Saharan Africa maize is a staple food for
an estimated 50% population. It is an important source of carbohydrate, protein, iron, vitamin
B, and minerals. More than 40 different ways of consuming maize had been recorded in
many countries in Africa (Nago et al., 1990). Africans consume maize as a starchy base in a
wide variety of porridges, pastes, grits, and beer. Green maize (fresh on the cob) is eaten
parched, baked, roasted or boiled with or without salt and plays an important role in filling
the hunger gap after the dry season (Nicklin, 2004). Every part of the maize plant has
12
economic value: the grain, leaves, stalk, tassel, and cob can all be used to produce a large
variety of food and non-food products (Wikipedia, 2009).
2.2.2 VARIETIES OF MAIZE
The principal maize varieties are flint corn, dent corn, sweet corn, pop corn, flour corn and
waxy corn (Shakuntala and Shadaksharswamy, 2001). This classification is based on the
nature and distribution of starch in the endosperm. Flint corn has very hard kernels. The
texture is due to a rather thick layer of starch and proteins just under the bran layer. Flints
mature early and are grown mostly in India. Dent corn has hard starch at the sides, while the
major part of the endosperm contains soft starch. At maturity, a typical dent-lie depression
appears at the crown. They are grown mostly in the USA. Sweet corn has a large proportion
of carbohydrates of the kernel as dextrin and sugar in the unripe kernels are tender. When
matured and dried, the kernels are hard and have a wrinkled surface. The major part of the
endosperm of the pop corn comprises of starch on all sides, with a very small core of soft
starch. The flour corn grains are large and soft and the endosperm is very friable. These
characteristics permit easy grinding of the corn into flour (Wikipedia, 2009). Also, the waxy
corn contains a high proportion of amylopectin and is of industrial importance.
2.2.3 NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF MAIZE
Maize or corn grains consist of the outer hull or bran which contains a lot of fiber, embryo
(germ) rich in oil and the endosperm rich in starch. Whole maize contains about 11% protein,
4% fat, 3% fibre, 65% of starch and other carbohydrates and 1.5% of minerals (Sivasankar,
2005; Ihekoronye and Ngoddy, 1985). Maize is deficient in the mineral niacin. Maize is
milled to separate the outer layer and the germ from the endosperm. The germ is recovered to
obtain germ oil, a valuable product used as salad oil. Maize bran and the oil cakes are used as
animal feed. The starchy endosperm separated during milling is used to make flour and other
traditional products. Larger grits obtained by screening are used for making corn flakes and
porridge. Corn starch is hydrolyzed to give glucose and high fructose corn syrup. The
chemical composition of different varieties of maize is illustrated in Table 3.
13
Table 3: Gross Chemical Composition of Different types of Maize (%)
Maize type
Moisture
Ash
Protein
Crude
fibre
Ether
extract
Carbohydrate
Salpor
12.2
1.2
5.8
0.8
4.1
75.9
Crystalline
10.5
1.7
10.3
2.2
5.0
70.3
Floury
9.6
1.7
10.7
2.2
5.4
70.4
Starchy
11.2
2.9
9.1
1.8
2.2
72 8
Sweet
95
15
12.9
2.9
3.9
69.3
Pop
10.4
1.7
13.7
2.5
5.7
66.0
Black
12.3
1.2
5.2
1.0
4.4
75.9
Source: Cortez and Wild-Altamirano, 1972
2.3.
LEGUMES
The term legume, is derived from the Latin word legumen (with the same meaning as the
English term), which is in turn believed to come from the verb legere "to gather." English
borrowed the term from the French "legume," which, however, has a wider meaning in the
modern language and refers to any kind of vegetable; the English word legume being
translated in French by the word legumineuse (Wikipedia, 2009).
2.3.1 WORLD PRODUCTION OF LEGUMES
There are over 13,000 species of plants belonging to this family. Some are cultivated as crop
plant whose seed are edible (Shakuntala and Shadaksharaswamy, 2001). Over the years wide
varieties of legumes have been domesticated. In this process, ancient Indian and Chinese
civilization seem to have played an important role in some legume species (Soybean, Bengal
gram, etc.). The world‟s second largest producers of pulses is India coming next only to
China, with the production of 14.2 million tones cultivated in an area of 24.4 million hectares
with an average yield of 6.02 quintals per hectare (Sivasanka, 2005).
The legumes used for food are divided into two groups; pulses and oil seeds. Pulses are dried
edible seeds of cultivated legumes such as peas, beans and lentils. The second group, the oil
seeds, consists of those legumes used primarily for their oil content which may be extracted
14
by pressing or by solvent extraction, the residue being high oil cake. These include the
groundnuts and the soybeans (Ihekoronye and Ngoddy, 1985).
2.3.2 NUTRITIONAL RELEVANCE OF LEGUMES
Legumes are critical to the balance of nature; for many are able to fix atmospheric Nitrogen
to ammonia with the aid of nodular bacteria. A leguminous crop can add up to 500g of
Nitrogen to the soil per hectare annually (Okaka, 2005). The potentials of legumes as a
protein source, especially in regions where meat production is inadequate or is inexistent
have long been recognized (Aykroyd and Doughty, 1982). The nutritional value of legumes is
related to their high protein content (12-25%). Legumes contain relatively low quantities of
the essential amino acid methionine. To compensate, some vegetarian cultures serve legumes
along with grains, which are low in the essential amino acid lysine, which legumes contain.
Thus a combination of legumes with grains can provide all necessary amino acids for
vegetarians. Common examples of such combinations are „dal with rice‟ by Indians, and
beans with corn tortillas, tofu with rice, and peanut butter with wheat bread (as sandwiches)
in several other cultures, including Americans (Vogel, 2003).
The enrichment of cereal based foods with legumes and oilseeds has received considerable
attention. In Nigeria, the high cost of commercial industrially produced high protein energy
rich breakfast products make them out of reach to low income earners, consequently people
in this wage category who constitute an appreciable percentage of the population depend for
their breakfast on left over super or at best on sole cereal porridge that is of low nutritional
value. There is therefore the need to develop affordable low cost high protein energy
breakfast product whose production would not require high technology (Onweluzo and
Nnamuchi, 2009).
2.3.3 ANTI-NUTRITIONAL FACTORS IN LEGUMES
Notwithstanding the agronomic and nutritional advantages of legumes as cheap protein
sources for many, especially low income persons, legumes have been reported to contain
several anti-nutritional factors which include hemaglutinins, neurotoxic factors such as βaminopropionitril which cause lethrism. Other anti-nutrients in legumes are hemolytic-fibrile
factor, as contained in faba beans, which causes favism, goitrogenic factors and trypsin
inhibitors (Okaka, 2005; Liener, 1983 and Osho, 1989). The anti-nutritional factors are
segregated into two major groups based on their responses to heat treatment. One group,
15
which includes protease inhibitors, lectins (hemagglutinins), goitrogens and anti-vitamin
factors are heat labile, while the other group which include saponins, eastrogens, lysinoalanines, allergens, flatulence inducing factors and phytates are heat stable and need
treatments other than heat or other treatments in combination with heat to reduce their
negative effects on man and animals (Liener, 1980 ; Okaka, 2005). Some of these antinutrients are explained below:
PHYTATES: Phytic acid phosphorus constitutes the major portion of total phosphorus in
several seeds and grains. It accounts for 50–80% of the total phosphorus in different cereals.
It was reported by some authors (Schwenke et al., 1989) that phytic acid level has no or very
little effect on binding to proteins. The investigation of the possibility of formation of ternary
complexes raises difficulties. At alkaline pH values the Ca-phytate is insoluble and forms
precipitate. At very high pH values the phytate is insoluble. From a nutrition point of view,
many studies have concentrated on the metal ion chelating property of phytic acid, its binding
of zinc and formation of less soluble complexes that reduce zinc availability (Carnovale et
al., 1988).
PROTEASE INHIBITORS: All legumes have been found to contain trypsin inhibitors to
varying degrees, in addition to chymotrypsin inhibitors. Inhibition of trypsin and
chymotrypsin leads to the hypertrophy of pancreas (Enwere, 1998). Conditions of heatingtime and temperature, moisture content, and particle size- influence the rate and extent of
trypsin inhibitor inactivation (Enwere, 1998).
HEMAGGLUTININS: These are also referred to as lectins. Their occurrence is not limited
to legumes alone as they are found in slime molds, fungi, lichens, other flowering plants and
animals such as crustaceans, snails, fish, amphibian eggs and mammalian tissues (Enwere,
1998). Crude raw extract of hemagglutinin agglutinates the red blood cells of human beings
and other animals if injected directly to the blood stream. Thus, it impairs the utilization of
legumes such as beans, groundnuts, among others (Enwere, 1998).
The other set back that has limited the use of legumes in non-traditional food formulations is
the objectionable flavour associated with the crops. This set back has been a primary focus of
research in a bid to extend the use of some legumes. The most common off-flavour producing
factors are the presence of glucosides-isoflavones, saponins, and sapogenols (Okaka, 2005).
16
2.4.0 UNDERUTILIZED LEGUMES
Lesser known and utilized legunes in Nigeria can be loosely divided into two classes - those
which are prepared and eaten as other legumes (pigeon pea, bambara groundnuts, and African
yam beans) and those which are not eaten as other legumes but may be used as thickeners,
stabilizers or processed into condiments (akparata, achi, ofor, Ukpo) or fermented food
products (African locust bean, castor oil seeds) (Enwere, 1998). The proximate composition
of lesser known legumes is shown in Table 4.
Table 4: Proximate Composition of Some Lesser known Legumes (%)
Legume
Moisture
content
Crude
protein
Crude
fat
Ash
Crude
fiber
Total
carbohydrates
Pigeon pea
67.40
7.0
0.60
1.3
3.50
20.20
(Unripe dried
10.10
19.2
1.50
3.8
8.10
65.40
African yam bean seed)
6.40
21.8
1.30
2.2
4.70
63.60
Bambara
groundnut
9.70
16.0
5.90
2.9
ND
64.90
Afzelia africana
5.28
27.04
31.71
3.22
ND
33.09
Deuterium
microcarpiurn
6.14
13.52
13.81
2.20
ND
64.26
Mucuna
flagellipes
5.84
20.41
-9.64
3.12
ND
61.10
Brachystegia
eurycoma
6.49
10.47
8.48
2.68
ND
71.94
Source: Mbaeyi, (2005)
Under-explored legumes are important in terms of food security, nutrition, and agricultural
development, enhancement of economy and also as rotation crops. Thus, little known
legumes can play an important role in agriculture as they are potent plants, which contribute
to the world food production due to their adaptation to adverse environmental conditions and
high resistance to diseases and pests (Sridhar and Seena, 2006).
17
2.5
AFRICAN YAM BEANS (AYB)
AYB belongs to the family Fabaceae, sub-family Papilionoideae, tribe Phaseoleae, sub-tribe
Phaseolinae, and genus Sphenostylis (Allen and Allen, 1981). The crop has twining vigorous
vines, which could be green or pigmented red. The vines twine clockwise around the stakes
or climb other supports to a height of about 3m or more. The leaves are compound trifoliate.
The large pink and purple flowers are admirable and attractive ornamentals, while the pods
are usually linear, housing about 20 seeds. These vary in size, shape, colour, colour pattern,
etc. The origins of AYB as indicated by GRIN (2009) includes the following countries within
the tropical regions of Africa: Chad and Ethiopia (Northeast tropical Africa); Kenya,
Tanzania and Uganda (East tropical Africa); Burundi, Central African Republic and
Democratic Republic of Congo (West-Central tropical Africa); Côte d‟Ivoire, Ghana, Guinea,
Mali, Niger, Nigeria, and Togo (West tropical Africa); Angola, Malawi, Zambia, and
Zimbabwe (South tropical Africa). The centre of diversity of AYB is only within Africa.
Nigeria is very significant for AYB production where extensive cultivation had been reported
in the eastern, western, and southern areas of Nigeria. In different yield trials in Nigeria
(IITA, Ibadan and Nsukka), the most productive accession in each case gave 1860 kg and
2000 kg of seeds/hectare (Adewale and Dominique, 2009).
2.4.1 NUTRIENT COMPOSITION OF AFRICAN YAM BEAN
The African yam bean is grown for both its edible seeds and its tubers. It is a vigorous vine,
which twines and climbs to heights of about 3 m and requires staking. It flowers profusely in
100 to 150 days, producing brightly-coloured flowers, which may be pink, purple or greenish
white. The slightly woody pods contain 20 to 30 seeds, are up to 30 cm long and mature
within 170 days. The plant produces underground tubers that are used as food in some parts
of Africa and serve as organs of perennation in the wild (Porter 1992). The chemical
composition shows that it contains 21 - 29% protein, 5 - 6% crude fiber, 74.1% carbohydrate,
1.2% fat, 3.2% ash. (NAS, 1979). The proximate composition of the bean's hull shows a
reasonably high crude protein (11.4%) but very low contents of crude fat (2.6%), phytic acid
(82 mg/100 g) and phytin-phosphorus (23 mg/100 g). K and Ca are the major minerals
present in yam bean hull. The hull, rich in cell wall polysaccharides, is composed of cellulose
(35.4%); non-cellulose fractions made of pectin and hemicellulose put together (41.9%) and
lignin(3.6%) (Agunbiade and Longe, 1998). Researchers (Uguru and Madukaife 2001) who
did a nutritional evaluation of 44 genotypes of AYB reported that the crop is well balanced in
essential amino acids and has higher amino acid content than pigeon pea, cowpea, and
18
Bambara groundnut.
2.4.2. POTENTIALS OF AFRICAN YAM BEANS
Food and Nutrition: The economic potentials of AYB are immense. Apart from the
production of two major food substances, the value of the protein in both tubers and seeds is
comparatively higher than what could be obtained from most tuberous and leguminous crops.
The protein in the tuber of AYB is more than twice the protein in sweet potato (Ipomea
batatas) or Irish potato (Solanum tuberosum) and higher than those in yam and cassava
(Amoatey et al., 2000). Moreover, the amino acid values in AYB seeds are higher than those
in pigeon pea, cowpea, and Bambara groundnut (Uguru and Madukaife, 2001). Protein
content is up to 19% in the tuber and 29% in seed grain The content of crude protein in AYB
seeds is lower than that in soybean, but the amino acid spectrum indicated that the level of
most of the essential amino acids especially lysine, methionine, histidine, and iso-leucine in
AYB compares favorably with whole hens‟ eggs and most of them meet the daily
requirement of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and World Health Organization
(WHO) (Ekpo, 2006). AYB is rich in minerals such as K, P, Mg, Ca, Fe, and Zn but low in
Na and Cu (Nwokolo, 1987).
Insecticidal and Medicinal Usefulness: AYB as a crop is less susceptible to pests and
diseases compared with most legumes; this quality may undoubtedly be due to the inherent
lectin in the seed of the crop (Adewale and Domonique, 2009). Omitogu et al. (1999)
advanced the prospect that the lectin in the seed of the crop is a promising source of a
biologically potent insecticide against field and storage pests of legumes. Therefore, the
inclusion of the lectin extract from AYB in the meal for three cowpea insect pests, namely,
Maruca vitrata, Callosobruchus maculatus, and Clavigralla tomentosicollis gave a mortality
rate greater than 80% after 10 days.
2.4.3. FACTORS LIMITING THE USE OF AFRICAN YAM BEANS
Over time, some conditions have negatively influenced the productivity and acceptability of
this crop among cultivators, consumers, and research scientists. Notable among the list are,
i)
The characteristic hardness of the seed coat (Oshodi et al., 1995) which makes a high
demand on the cost and time of cooking,
ii)
The agronomic demand for stakes, the long maturation period, and
19
iii)
The presence of anti-nutritional factors (ANF) or secondary metabolites (Machuka
and Okeola, 2000).
2.5
COCONUT
2.5.1 ORIGIN AND MORPHOLOGY
The English name coconut, first mentioned in English print in 1555, comes from the Spanish
and Portuguese word coco, which means "monkey face." Spanish and Portuguese explorers
found a resemblance to a monkey's face in the three round indented markings or "eyes" found
at the base of the coconut (Filippone, 2007). The Coconut (Cocos nucifera), is an important
member of the family Arecaceae (palm family). It is the only accepted species in the genius
Cocos (Wikipedia, 2009) and is a large palm growing up to 30m tall, with pinnate leaves 46m long and pinnae 60-90 cm long.
2.5.2 NATURAL HABITAT OF COCONUT
The Coconut palms are grown throughout the tropics (Ihekoronye and Ngoddy, 1985). They
thrive on sandy soils and are highly tolerant of salinity. They prefer areas with abundant
sunlight and regular rainfall (150 cm to 250 cm annually), which makes colonizing shorelines
of the tropics relatively straightforward (Wikipedia, 2009). Coconuts also need high humidity
(70–80%) for optimum growth, which is why they are rarely seen in areas with low humidity,
like the Mediterranean, even where temperatures are high enough (regularly above 24°C or
75.2°F). Coconut trees are very hard to establish in dry climates, and cannot grow there
without frequent irrigation; in drought conditions, the new leaves do not open well, and older
leaves may become desiccated; fruit also tends to be shed (Wikipedia, 2009). Coconut palms
are grown in more than 80 countries of the world, with a total production of 61 million tons
per year (FAO, 2009).
2.5.3 NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF COCONUT
The coconut provides a nutritious source of meat, juice, milk, and oil that has fed and
nourished populations around the world for generations. On many islands coconut is a staple
in the diet and provides the majority of the food eaten. Nearly one third of the world's
population depends on coconut to some degree for their food and their economy. Among
these cultures the coconut has a long and respected history. Coconut is highly nutritious and
rich in fiber, vitamins, and minerals. It is classified as a "functional food" because it provides
many health benefits beyond its nutritional content. The coconut palm is so highly valued by
them as both a source of food and medicine that it is called "The Tree of Life." Several food
20
uses or products exist for coconut. The primary product is copra, the white "meat" found
adhering to the inner wall of the shell. It is dried to 2.5% moisture content, shredded, and
used in cakes, candies, and other confections. Alternatively, coconut oil is expressed from
copra, which is used in a wide variety of cooked foods and margarine. The raw copra can be
grated and squeezed to obtain coconut "milk". Coconut water is obtained from immature
coconuts, providing a welcome source of fresh, sterile water in hot, tropical environments.
The sap from the cut end of an inflorescence produces up to a gallon per day of brown liquid,
rich in sugars and vitamin C. It can be boiled down into a brown sugar called "jaggery", used
as a sugar substitute in many areas. Left to ferment, the sap makes an alcoholic toddy, and
later vinegar; "arrack" is made by distilling the toddy. Per capita consumption of coconut is
0.6 lbs/year. Coconut oil is probably consumed in greater quantities than confectionary
coconut products, but coconut oil would be only a small percentage of the 47 pounds of
vegetable oils consumed annually. Table 5 shows the dietary value of the edible portion of
coconut.
21
Table 5: Coconut Dietary Value, per 100g edible portion
Dry coconut
Coconut
(copra)
water
Water (%)
3.3
95
Calories
556
19
Protein (%)
3.6
0.7
Fat (%)
39.1
0.2
Carbohydrates (%)
53.2
3.7
Crude Fiber (%)
4.1
1.1
% of US RDA*
Vitamin A
0.8
0
Thiamin, B1
<1
0
Riboflavin, B2
<1
0
Niacin
<1
0
Vitamin C
0-7
5.3
Calcium
5.4
3.0
Phosphorus
23.9
2.5
Iron
36
3.0
Sodium
0.4
2.4
Potassium
16.4
5.3
* Percent of recommended daily allowance set by FDA,
assuming a 154 lb male adult, 2700 calories per day.
2.5.4 COCONUT IN TRADITIONAL AND MODERN MEDICINE
In traditional medicine around the world coconut is used to treat a wide variety of health
problems including the following: abscesses, asthma, baldness, bronchitis, bruises, burns,
colds, constipation, cough, dropsy, dysentery, earache, fever, flu, gingivitis, gonorrhea,
irregular or painful menstruation, jaundice, kidney stones, lice, malnutrition, nausea, rash,
scabies, scurvy, skin infections, sore throat, swelling, syphilis, toothache, tuberculosis,
tumors, typhoid, ulcers, upset stomach, weakness, and wounds (Bruce-Fife, 2010).
Modern medical science is now confirming the use of coconut in treating many of the
above conditions. Published studies in medical journals show that coconut, in one form or
another may provide a wide range of health benefits. Some of these are summarized below:
It kills viruses that cause influenza, herpes, measles, hepatitis C, SARS, AIDS, and other
illnesses. It also kills bacteria that cause ulcers, throat infections, urinary tract infections,
gum disease and cavities, pneumonia, and gonorrhea, and other diseases. It kills fungi and
yeasts that cause candidiasis, ringworm, athlete's foot, thrush, diaper rash, and other
infections and expels or kills tapeworms, lice, giardia, and other parasites. It provides a
22
nutritional source of quick energy. It also boosts energy and endurance, enhancing physical
and athletic performance (Bruce-Fife, 2010).
2.5.5. COCONUT AS A SOURCE OF DIETARY FIBER IN FOODS
Coconut dietary fiber is made from finely ground, dried, and defatted coconut meat. It has a
mild great-tasting coconut flavor. Gunathilake et al. (2009) reported that coconut flour can
provide not only value added income to the industry, but also a nutritious and healthy source
of dietary fiber. Coconut flour may play a role in controlling cholesterol and sugar levels in
blood and prevention of colon cancer. Studies revealed that consumption of high fiber
coconut flour increases fecal bulk (Arancon, 1999).
Unlike many fiber sources, coconut dietary fiber does not contain phytic acid and, therefore,
does not remove minerals from the body. Not only does coconut fiber not remove minerals,
but it also increases mineral absorption. Coconut fiber slows down the rate of emptying food
from the stomach. This allows food more time in the stomach to release minerals, leading to
higher levels of minerals available for the body to absorb (Wasserman, 2010).
A tablespoon or two of coconut dietary fiber can be added to beverages, smoothies, baked
goods, casseroles, soups, and hot cereal. This is a simple and easy way to add fiber into daily
diet without making drastic changes in the way food is eaten. Another way to add coconut
fiber into a diet is during baking. Up to 20% of the wheat in a recipe can be replaced with
coconut fiber (Gunathilake et al., 2009). Coconut dietary fiber has all the benefits of other
dietary fibers, it lowers risk of heart disease, helps prevent cancer, improves digestive
function, helps regulate blood sugar, etc. (Bruce-Fife, 2010). It also has several advantages
over most other forms of fiber including relieving symptoms associated with Crohn's disease,
expel intestinal parasites, and improve mineral absorption (Guarner, 2005).
2.6.0 PRODUCTION AND UTILIZATION OF SORGHUM
Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) is a warm season crop, intolerant of low
temperatures but fairly resistant to serious pests and diseases. It is known by a variety of
names (such as great millet and guinea corn in West Africa, kafir corn in South Africa, jowar
in India and kaoliang in China) and is a staple food in many parts of Africa, Asia, and parts of
the Middle East. Most of the sorghum produced in North and Central America, South
23
America and Oceania is used for animal feed (FAO, 1995). Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.
(Moench) is a cultivated tropical cereal grass. It is generally, although not universally,
considered to have first been domesticated in North Africa, possibly in the Nile or Ethiopian
regions as recently as 1000 BC (Kimber, 2000). The cultivation of sorghum played a crucial
role in the spread of the Bantu (black) group of people across sub-Saharan Africa (Taylor,
2004).
2.6.1 USE OF SORGHUM FOR THE PRODUCTION OF MALT EXTRACT
The potential of sorghum as an important source of industrial brewing material has been long
recognized. Indeed, during the World War II, sorghum was offered as a brewing adjunct
because the conventional brewing material (barley) was scarce (Odibo et al., 2007). An
important advantage of sorghum is that it can yield crop under harsh environmental
conditions such as drought, where temperate cereals like barley fail to grow. An attempt to
malt barley at a temperature higher than 18 °C showed that endosperm modification of barley
was sub-optimal because enzyme development was inadequate (Odibo et al., 2007).
In southern Africa, malting sorghum for opaque beer brewing has developed into a large
scale commercial industry with some 150,000 tonnes of sorghum being commercially malted
annually. This figure includes a small amount of sorghum malted for the production of a
sorghum malt breakfast cereal “Maltabela”. Sorghum is also malted commercially on a large
scale in Nigeria for the production of lager beer and stout and for non-alcoholic malt-based
beverages (Taylor, 2004).
24
CHAPTER THREE
3.0
3.1
MATERIALS AND METHODS
MATERIAL PROCUREMENT
Sound Maize grains (Zea mays L), African yam bean seeds (Sphenostylis stenocarpa), mature
Coconut (Cocos nucifera L), salt, white Sorghum and sugar were purchased from Ogige
market, Nsukka in Enugu state, Nigeria.
3.1.1. SAMPLE PREPARATION
Maize grains and African yam bean seeds was properly cleaned and sorted to remove stones,
dirt, chaff, weeviled seeds and other extraneous matters, before they were used for further
processing.
3.1.2. PROCESSING OF MAIZE GRAINS INTO FLOUR
The method used was a modification of the method described by Iheoronye and Ngoddy
(1985) and Okaka (2005). 5kg of maize was cleaned and sorted after which it was milled into
flour. The flow diagram for the production of whole maize flour is shown in Figure 2.
25
Maize Grains
Cleaning
Dry milling
WHOLE MAIZE FLOUR
Figure 2: Modified Flow diagram for the production whole maize flour
(Source: Ihekoronye and Ngodddy, 1985).
26
3.1.3. PRODUCTION AFRICAN YAM BEAN FLOUR
The procedure as described by Enwere (1998) was used. 5kg of cleaned/sorted brown African
yam bean seeds were weighed and washed thoroughly with clean tap water after which they
were soaked for 12 hours and boiled for 30 minutes. The beans were dried in a hot air oven
(60oC for 10hours), dehulled and milled using an attrition mill. The flour obtained was sieved
using 0.5mm mesh sieve and packaged in polyethylene bags for further analysis. The flow
diagram for the production of raw fine African yam bean flour is shown in Figure 3.
27
African yam beans
Cleaning
Washing
Boiling
Drying
Dehulling
Milling
Sieving
Fine African yam bean flour
Figure 3: Flow diagram for the production of African yam bean flour
(Source: Enwere, 1998)
28
3.1.4. PRODUCTION OF DEFATTED COCONUT FLOUR
The procedure used was a modification of a method described by Sanful (2009). 3kg freshly
dehusked Coconut was properly cleaned and cracked to expel the liquid content. The coconut
flesh (meat) was removed from the shell with the aid of a sharp pointed knife. The brown
colour of the skin was scraped off with a knife. The coconut flesh was grated using a manual
grater, homogenized in boiling water (100oC) and poured into a muslin cloth and squeezed to
obtain the defatted coconut paste that was further rinsed with hot water (>70oC) till the
filtrate became colourless. The defatted coconut was then dried (60oC for 10hours) in the hot
air oven, packaged in a polythene bag and sealed for further analysis. The flow diagram for
the production of defatted coconut is shown in Figure 4.
29
Dehusked Coconut
Cracking
De-shelling
Grating
Homogenization
Sieving/pressing
Drying
Milling
Defatted Coconut flour
Figure 4: Modified Flow Diagram for the Production of Defatted Coconut Flour.
(Source: Sanful, 2009)
30
3.1.5 PRODUCTION OF SORGHUM MALT EXTRACT
The modification of the procedure described by Okafor and Aniche (1980) was used.
Malting
5kg of white Sorghum grains were steeped in tap water for 18 h and germinated on floor for
o
three days at room temperature (28+ 20C). The green malt was then kilned at 55 C for 8 hours
o
and further at 65 C for 16 hours until the shoots and roots were friable and were separated
from the grains.
Mashing: Three step decoction method was used to mash the sorghum malt during which
70% of the mash was maintained at 55oC for 30 minutes and at 65oC for 1 h and lastly at
70oC for 1 hour in a hot water bath. The conditioned mash was strained through a clean
muslin cloth and the filtrate (malt extract) stored for use. The flow chart for the production of
Sorghum malt is shown in Figure 5.
31
White Sorghum grains
Cleaning
Steeping
Malting
Drying
De-rooting
Milling
Mashing/heating
Cooling
Straining
Sorghum malt extract
Figure 5: Modified Flow Diagram for the production of Sorghum malt extract
(Source: Okafor and Aniche 1980).
32
3.2
PRODUCTS FORMULATION
Composite flour was formulated by mixing AYB and maize flour (60:40). Six samples of
breakfast cereals were generated by mixing the composite flour (made of AYB: Maize flours)
with graded levels of defatted coconut flour (100:0, 90:10, 80:20, 70:30, 60:40, 50:50), sugar,
salt, sorghum malt extract and water, and roasted at 280°C with continuous stirring till dried
products were obtained. A control sample was produced from 100% maize and African yam
bean composite flour as shown in Table 6.
The ingredient combination of the breakfast cereals formulation is shown in Table 7 and
Figure 6 shows the flow chart for the production of a roasted breakfast cereal.
33
Table 6: Composite Flour Formulations for Breakfast Cereals made from Blends of
AYB+Maize: Defatted Coconut Flour.
Sample
Sample code
Code Ratio
Percentage (%)
A
AYB+M: DF
100:0
40% M, 60%AYB
B
AYB+M: DF
90:10
90%AYB+M, 10%DC
C
AYB+ M: DC
80:20
80% AYB+M, 20%DC
D
AYB+ M: DC
70:30
70% AYB+M, 30%DC
E
AYB+ M: DC
60:40
60%AYB+M, 40%DC
50:50
50%AYB+M, 50%DC
F
AYB+M: DC
M: Maize, AYB: African yam bean, DC: Defatted coconut flour
Table 7: Ingredients Combination for Breakfast Cereals
made from Blends Of AYB+Maize: Defatted Coconut
Flour per 100g
SAMPLES
Ingredient A
B
C
D
E
F
M+AYB
DC
84
74
64
54
44
-
10
20
30
40
50
10
10
10
10
10
Malt extract 10
34
Sugar
5
5
5
5
5
5
Salt
1
1
1
1
1
1
Legend:
A= 100:0, B=90:10, C=80:20, D=70:30, E=60:40, F=50:50
AYB = African yam bean, M = Maize, DC = Defatted Coconut
34
Composite flour
Mixing with other
ingredients
Addition of water
Roasting (285oC, 5mins)
Cooling
Packaging
Breakfast Cereal
Figure 6: Flow diagram for the Production of Breakfast Cereal from Blends of African
Yam Bean + Maize: Defatted Coconut flour.
35
3.3 ANALYSES OF SAMPLES
The following analyses were carried out on the six samples obtained.
i.
Proximate analyses.
ii.
Determination of the functional properties
iii.
Sensory Evaluation.
iv.
Determination of Anti-nutritional factors.
v.
Minerals determination.
vi.
Vitamins determination
vii.
Essential and non-essential amino acids determination
viii.
Microbiological examination
3.3.1
PROXIMATE COMPOSITION
3.3.1.1 DETERMINATION OF MOISTURE CONTENT
The standard method of AOAC (2006) was used. Cleaned crucibles were dried in a hot air
oven at 100oC for 1 hour to obtain a constant weight and then cooled in a dessicator. Two
grams of each of the samples was then weighed into the different crucibles and dried at 100oC
until a constant weight is obtained.
%moisture content = W2-W3 X 100
W2-W1
Where, W1 = Initial weight of the empty crucible
W2 = weight of dish + sample before drying
W3 = weight of dish + sample after drying.
3.3.1.2 DETERMINATION OF CRUDE FAT CONTENT
Fat content was determined by the Soxhlet extraction method of AOAC (2006). A Soxhlet
extractor with a reflux condenser and a 500ml round bottom flask was fixed. Two grams of
the sample was then weighed into a labeled thimble. Petroleum ether (300ml) was filled into
the round bottom flask and the extractor thimble was sealed with cotton wool. The Soxhlet
apparatus was the allowed to reflux for about 6 hours after which the thimble was removed.
Petroleum ether was collected from the flask after which it was dried at 105oC for 1hour in
and oven cooled in a dessicator and weighed. This procedure was carried out for all the
samples.
36
%fat = weight of fat X 100%
weight of sample
Where, F = Percent fat content
x1 = Initial weight of flask and sample
x2 = Final weight of flask
3.3.1.3 DETERMINATION OF CRUDE PROTEIN
This was determined using the micro-Kjeldahl method (AOAC, 2006). One gram weight of
each flour sample was weighed into an l00ml Kjeldahl flask. 2.5 grams of anhydrous Na2S04,
0.5 gram of CUSO4 and 5ml of concentrated H2S04 was added and allowed to stand for 2-3
hours. The flask was then heated in a flame chamber, gently boiling initially for fumes to
appear and heated more intensely until the solution is clear. After cooling, the content was
transferred into an l00ml volumetric flask and made up to the mark with repeated washing
using distilled water.
Distillation: A 5ml volume of each sample digest was mixed with 5ml of Boric acid
indicator and 3 drops of methyl red in an l00ml conical flask and then steam distilled into
conical flask using l00ml of 60% NaOH. Distillation was done for 5 minutes until colour
changed from purple to green. 5ml distillate was collected and titrated against 0.01N HC1 to
a purple colored endpoint. The percentage protein was calculated with this expression:
% Nitrogen = T x 14.01 x 0.01 x 20 x 100
1.0 x 100
Where T = Titre value
1 .0g = Weight of the sample
20 = Dilution factor (i.e. from 10015)
0.01 = Normality of HCl
14.01 = Atomic mass of nitrogen
% Protein = %Nitrogen x 6.25 (where: 6.25 => Conversion factor of protein).
3.3.1.4 DETERMINATION OF TOTAL ASH
Ash content was determined by AOAC (2006) procedure. Two grams of well blended
samples was weighed into a shallow ashing dish (a crucible) that had been ignited, cooled in
a dessicator and weighed soon after reaching room temperature. Both the crucibles and their
content were transferred into a muffle furnace ignited at 550°C. Ashing was done for 8 hours;
37
crucible and the ashed sample were removed from the muffle furnace, moistened with a few
drops of water to expose the un-ashed carbon, dried in the oven at 100°C for 4 hours and reashed at 550°C for another hour. These were removed from muffle furnace, cooled in a
dessicator and weighed soon after reaching room temperature. Percentage ash was calculated
using this expression:
% Ash = Weight of ash X 100%
Weight of sample used
3.3.1.5 DETERMINATION OF CRUDE FIBER
Crude fiber was determined by AOAC (2006) method. Two grams of the sample was
weighed and put in a boiling 200ml of 1.25% H2SO4 and allowed to boil for 30minutes. The
solution was then filtered through linen or muslin cloth fixed to a funnel. It was washed with
boiling water until it is completely free from acid. The residue was returned into 200ml
boiling NaOH and allowed to boil for 30 minutes. It was further washed with 1% HCl boiling
water to free it from acid. The final residue was drained and transferred to a silica ash
crucible dried in the oven to a constant weight and cooled. Percent crude fiber was calculated
using the expression:
% Crude fiber = Loss in weight on ignition X 100
Weight of food sample
3.3.1.6 DETERMINATION OF CARBOHYDRATE CONTENT (BY DIFFERENCE)
The total carbohydrate content was estimated as the difference between 100 and the total sum
of moisture, fat, protein, crude fiber and ash as described by AOAC (2006).
3.3.1.7 DETERMINATION OF TOTAL ENERGY
The total energy was determined by the method described by Kanu et al. (2009). The total
energy or the caloric values was estimated by calculation using the water quantification
factors of 4, 9 and 4kcaV100g respectively for protein, fat and carbohydrate.
3.4.
FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES DETERMINATION
3.4.1 pH DETERMINATION
The pH of the food samples was measured with a Mettler Delta 350 pH meter using the
method described by Onwuka (2005). The sample homogenates was prepared by blending
38
l0g sample in l00ml of deionized water. The mixture was filtered and the pH of the filtrate
was measured. Triplicate readings were taken for each sample.
3.4.2 BULK DENSITY DETERMINATION
Bulk density was determined for each of the formulated samples using the method described
by Onwuka, (2005). Each sample was slowly filled into l0ml measuring cylinder. The bottom
of the cylinder was gently tapped on a laboratory bench until there is no further diminution of
the sample after filling to l0ml mark. Bulk density was estimated as mass per unit volume of
the sample (g/ml). Triplicate measurements were taken.
3.4.3 DETERMINATION OF WATER AND OIL ABSORPTION CAPACITY
(WAC/FAC)
The Water and Fat absorption capacities of the formulated samples were determined using
the method described by Onwuka (2005). 1g of each of the samples was weighed into a
conical graduated centrifuge tube, and then a warring whirl mixer was used to thoroughly
mix the sample with 10ml of distilled water or oil for 30minutes. The mixture was allowed to
stand for 30minutes at room temperature and then centrifuged at 5000xg for 30minutes. The
volume of free water or oil (supernatant) was read directly from the graduated centrifuge
tube. The absorption capacity was expressed as gram of oil or water absorbed (or retained)
per gram of sample.
3.4.4 DETERMINATION OF FOAM CAPACITY
The Foam capacity was determined using the method described by Onwuka (2005). Two
grams of each of the formulated samples were blended with 100ml distilled water in a
warring blender (the suspension was whipped at 1600rpm for 5minutes). The mixture was
then poured into a 250ml cylinder and the volume after 30 seconds was recorded. The foam
capacity was calculated using the formula;
FC = Volume after whipping – Volume before whipping x 100
Volume before whipping
3.4.5 DETERMINATION OF VISCOSITY
The viscosity of the samples was determined using the method described by Onwuka (2005)
method. 10% of each formulated sample was suspended in distilled water and mechanically
stirred for 2hours at room temperature. Oswald type viscometer was used to measure the
viscosity of the mixture.
39
3.4.6 DETERMINATION OF IN-VITRO PROTEIN DIGESTIBILITY
The invitro-protein digestibility of each sample was determined using the method described
by Kanu et al. (2009). Five grams of each of the formulated samples was weighed into a 5ml
centrifuge tube and to which 15ml of 0.1N HCl containing 1.5mg pepsin-pancreatin was
added. The tube was incubated at 37oC for 3hours. The suspension was then neutralized with
a phosphate buffer (pH 8.0) containing 0.005M sodium azide. 1ml of toluene was added to
prevent microbial growth and the mixture was gently shaken and incubated for an additional
24hours at 37oC. After incubation, samples were treated with 10ml of 10% trichloroacetic
acid (TCA) and centrifuged at 5000rpm for 20minutes at room temperature. The protein in
the supernatant liquid was estimated using Kjedahl method. The percentage of protein
digestibility was calculated using the formula;
Protein digestibility (%) = Protein in the supernatant x 100
Protein in the sample
3.4.7 DETERMINATION OF GELATION CAPACITY
The gelation capacity was determined using the method described by Onwuka (2005). 2-20%
W/V suspension of each of the samples was prepared in 5ml distilled water in test tubes. The
sample test tubes were heated for 1hour in a boiling water bath which was followed by rapid
cooling under running cold tap water. The test tubes were further cooled for 2hours at 4oC.
The least gelation concentration was determined as that concentration at which the sample
from the inverted test tube did not fall down or slip visually.
3.5.0 SENSORY EVALUATION
The six formulated samples were served to 15 untrained panelists consisting of students of
the University of Nigeria, about 10.00 am along with Weetabix (commercial control) using a
9 point Hedonic scale (1=dislike extremely, 9=like extremely). The samples were served
raw/dry, with cold water, cold milk and warm milk and assessed for appearance, consistency,
flavour, taste, aftertaste, mouth feel, and overall acceptability. The sensory scores obtained
were further subjected to a one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). The Least Significant
Difference (LSD) test and Duncan Multiple Range Tests were used to determine significant
differences between means and separate means respectively at p<0.05 levels using SPSS
package version 17.0.
40
3.6.0 DETERMINATION OF ANTI-NUTRITIONAL FACTORS
3.6.1 DETERMINATION OF PHYTATE OR PHYTIC ACID
The phytate determination was as described by Thompson and Erdman (1982). Two grams of
each of the formulated samples was placed in a flask into which 100.0ml of 1.2 HCl and 10%
Na2S04 were added. The flask was stoppered and shaken for 2-hours on a mechanical shaker.
The extract was vacuum filtered through No4 Whatman paper. 10.0ml of the filtrate was
pipetted into a 50ml centrifuge tube. l0ml deionized water was added, followed by 12ml of
FeCl3 solution (2.0g FeCl3.6H2O) + 16.3ml conc. HCl per litre). The contents were stirred,
heated for 75 minutes in boiling water and cooled, covered for one hour at room temperature.
The tube was centrifuged at 1000Xg for 15 minutes. The supernatant was decanted and
discarded and the pellet was thoroughly washed thrice with a solution of 0.6% HC1 and 2.5%
Na2S04. After each wash, the contents were centrifuged at 1000Xg for 10 minutes and the
supernatant discarded. l0 ml concentrated HNO3 was added to the resulting pellet and the
content transferred quantitatively to a 400ml beaker with several small portions of deionized
water. 4 drops of concentrated H2SO4 was added and contents heated approximately 30
minutes in a hot plate until only the H2SO4 is left. Approximately 4 - 5ml of 30% H2O2 was
added and the mixture returned to the hot plate at a low heat until bubbling ceases. The
residue was dissolved in 15ml 3N HCl and heated for 10-15 mixtures. The resulting solution
was made up of 100.0ml volume diluted 15 and then analyzed for iron using Franson et al.,
(1975) procedure.
3.6.2 DETERMINATION OF TANNIN
The Folin-Denis colorimetric method as described by Kirk and Sawyer (1998) was used for
the determination of tannin content in the samples as follows: 5g of the samples was
dispersed in 50ml of distilled water and agitated. The mixture was allowed to stand for 30
minutes at room temperature and shaken every 5 minutes. After 30 minutes it was centrifuged
and the extract obtained. The extract (2ml) was taken into a 50ml volumetric flask. Similarly,
2ml standard tannin solution (tannic acid) and 2ml of distilled water was put in separate 50ml
volumetric flask to serve as standard and reagent (1.0ml of Folin-Denis) added to each of the
flasks, followed by addition of 2.5ml of saturated sodium carbonate solution. The content of
each flask was made up to 50ml with distilled water and allowed to incubate for 90 minutes
at room temperature. Their respective absorbance was measured in a spectrophotometer at
260nm using reagent blank to calibrate the instrument at zero. The tannin content was
calculated using the formula,
41
% Tannin = An/W x C/Va x Vf x 100/1
Where:
An = absorbance of test sample, AS = absorbance of standard solution, C = concentration of
standard solution, W = weight of sample used, Vf = total volume of extract, Va =volume
of extract analyzed.
3.6.3 DETERMINATION OF OXALATE
The titration method (AOAC, 2006) was used. Two grams of sample was suspended in a
mixture of 190ml of distilled water in a 250ml volumetric flask. 10ml of 6M HCl and the
suspension heated for 1 hour at 100oC in a water bath. The mixture was cooled and made up
to 250ml mark with distilled water before filtration. Duplicate portion of 125ml of the filtrate
was measured into 250ml beakers. Each extract was made alkaline with concentrated sodium
then made acid by drop wise addition (4 drops) of acetic acid until the test solution is
changed from salmon pink to faint yellow (pH 4-4.5) (methyl red indicator used). Each
portion was heated at 90oC to remove precipitate containing ferrous ions. The filtrate was
heated again to 90oC on a hot water bath and 10ml and 5% calcium chloride solution added
while being stirred constantly. After heating, it was centrifuged at full speed (2500 rpm) for
5minutes. The supernatant was decanted and the precipitate completely dissolved in 10ml of
20% (v/v) H2SO4 solution and the total filtrate resulting from 2g of the sample was made up
to 300ml.
Permaganate titration: Aliqout 125ml of the filtrate was heated until near boiling and then
titrated against 0.05M KMNO4 solution to a faint pink colour which persisted for 30 seconds.
Oxalic acid content was calculated using the formula,
%Oxalic acid =
T x (Vme) (Df) x 105
ME x Mf
where, T = Titre of KMNO4 (ml), Vme = volume - mass equivalent (1ml of 0.05M MNO4
solution is equivalent to 0.0022g anhydrous oxalic acid), Df = the dilution factor (i.e 300ml)
125ml, ME = the molar equivalent of KMNO4 in oxalic acid (KMNO4 redox reaction is 5),
Mf = the mass of the sample used.
3.6.4 DETERMINATION OF HEMAGGLUTININ
Hemagglutinin determination was by spectrophotometric method as described by Onwuka
(2005). Furthermore, 0.5g of the sample was weighed and dispersed in 10ml normal saline
42
solution buffered at pH 6.4 with a 0.01M phosphate buffer solution. This was allowed to
stand at room temperature for 30minutes and then centrifuged to obtain the extract. To 0.1ml
of the extract diluents in the test tube 1ml of trypsinized albino rat blood was added. The
control was mounted with the test tube containing only the red blood cells. Both tubes were
allowed to stand for 4hours at room temperature. 1ml of normal saline was added to all the
test tubes and allowed to stand for 10minutes after which the absorbance was read at 620nm.
The test tube containing only the red blood cells and normal saline served as the blank. The
result was expressed as Hemagglutinin units per milligram of the sample.
Hemagglutinin unit/mg = (b-a) x F
Where b= absorbance of test sample solution, a = absorbance of the blank control,
F= experimental factor given by
F= (1/w x Vf / Va) D
Where w= weight of sample, Vf = total volume of the extract, Va = volume of the extract
used in the assay, D = dilution factor (1ml to 10ml and 0.1ml out of 10ml) i.e 100.
3.7.0 DETERMINATION OF MINERAL CONTENT
The mineral content of the formulated samples were evaluated using the method described by
Adedeye and Adewoke (1992). One gram of dried samples was digested with 2.5ml of 0.03N
hydrochloric acid (HCl). The digest was boiled for 5 minutes, allowed to cool to room
temperature and transferred to 50ml volumetric flask and made up to the mark with diluted
water. The resulting digest was filtered with ashless Whatman No. 1 filter paper. Filtrate from
each sample was analyzed for mineral (calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, Iron, sodium,
manganese, copper and zinc) contents using an Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (Buck
Scientific Atomic Absorption Emission Spectrophotometer model 205, manufactured by
Nowalk, Connecticut, USA) using standard wavelengths. The real values were extrapolated
from the respective standard curves. Values obtained were adjusted for HCl-extractability for
the respective ions. All determinations were performed in triplicates.
3.8.0 DETERMINATION OF VITAMIN CONTENT
3.8.1 DETERMINATION OF VITAMIN B1 (THIAMINE)
Thiamin was determined using AOAC (2006) procedure. A 75 ml of 0.2 N HCl was added to
2g of sample and the mixture boiled over a water bath. After cooling, 5ml of phosphatase
43
enzyme solution was then added and the mixture incubated at 37oC overnight. The solution
was placed in 100ml volumetric flask and the volume made up with distilled H2O. The
solution was then filtered and the filtrate purified by passing through silicate column. To
25ml of the filtrate in a concical flask was added 5ml acidic KCl eluate, 3 ml of alkaline
ferricyanide solution, and 15 ml isobutanol, and shaken for 2min. The solution was allowed
to separate and the alcohol layer taken. About 3g of anhydrous sodium sulphate was added to
the alcohol layer. A 5 ml of thiamine solution was accurately measured into another 50 ml
stoppered flask. The oxidation and extraction of thiochrome as already carried out with the
sample was repeated using the thiamin solution. A 3ml of 15% NaOH was added to the blank
instead of alkaline ferricyanide. The blank sample solution was poured into fluorescence
reading tube and reading taken at the expression:
% thiamin = X/Y x 1/5 x 25/V x 100/W
Where W = weight of sample, X = reading of sample – reading of blank, Y = reading of
thiamin standard –reading of blank standard, V = volume of solution used for test on the
column.
3.8.2 DETERMINATION OF VITAMIN B2 (RIBOFLAVIN)
AOAC (2006) standard method was used. A 2 g portion of each of the formulated samples
was placed in a conical flask and 50 ml of 0.2 N HCl added .The solution was boiled for 1
hour, and cooled. The pH was adjusted to 6.0 using sodium hydroxide. A 1 N HCl was added
to the sample solution to lower the pH to 4.5. The solution was then filtered into 100 ml
volumetric flask and made up to volume with distilled water. In order to remove interference,
two tubes were taken and labeled 1 and 2. About 10 ml of water was added to tube 1. Another
10 ml of filtrate and 1 ml riboflavin standard was added to test tube 2. A 1 ml of glacial acetic
acid was added to each tube and mixed. Then, 0.5 ml 3% KMnO4 solution was added to each
tube. The test tube was allowed to stand for 2 min, after which 0.5 ml 3% H2SO4 was added
and solution mixed well. The flourimeter was adjusted to excitation wavelength of 470nm
and emission wavelength of 525nm. The flourimeter was also adjusted to zero deflection
against 0.1 N H2SO4 and 100 against tube 2 (standard).The fluorescence of tube 1 was added
to both tubes and the fluorescence measured within 10 sec. Riboflavin was then calculated as
Riboflavin mg/g = Y/Y-X x 1/W
Where W = weight of sample, X = reading of sample – blank reading,
44
Y = reading of sample + standard (tube 2)- reading of sample - standard blank.
3.8.3 DETERMINATION OF VITAMIN B6 (PYRIDOXINE)
AOAC (2006) method was used in determining vitamin B6. A 2 g portion of each of the
formulated samples was weighed into 500 ml Erlenmeyer flask and 200 ml 0.4 M HCl added.
The solution was autoclaved for 2 h at 1210C, cooled to room temperature and pH adjusted to
4.5 with 6M KOH. The solution was diluted to 250 ml with water in volumetric flask and
filtered through Whatman No. 40 paper. A 40–200 ml filtered aliquot was taken for
chromatography. Desired amount of the filtered extract was placed on ion exchange column
in 50 ml portions and allowed to pass completely through with no flow regulation. Beaker
and column were washed 3 times with 5 ml portions hot 0.02 CH3COOK (pH 5.5). Pyridoxal
was eluted with two 50 ml portion boiling 0.04 M CH3COOK (pH 6.0) using 100 ml
volumetric flask as receiver. Pyridoxine was eluted with two, 50ml portions boiling 0.1 M
CH3COOK (pH 7.0), using 100 ml volumetric flask as receiver. Pyridoxamine was eluted
with two 50 ml boiling KClK2HPO4 (pH 8.0) solution, using 250 ml beaker as receiver and
the pH adjusted to 4.5. Pyridoxine and pyridoxal eluates were diluted to 100 ml and
pyridoxamine to 200 ml with water. A 10 ml each of the standard pyridoxine, pyridoxal and
pyridoxamine solution was then neutralized with KOH and adjusted pH 4.5 with CH3COOH.
The resulting solutions were each put on column, washed and eluted as above. Eluted
pyridoxine and pyridoxal standards were diluted to 100 ml and pyridoxamine to 200 ml with
water. Each standard was diluted to 1.0 mg/ml with water.
Assay: Clean tubes and glass beads were heated at 2600C for 2 hours. Two 4 mm glass beads
were placed in each 16 x 150mm screw-cap glass culture tube. For standard curve, freshly
prepared standard working solutions was pippetted into triplicate tubes to give 0.0, 0.1, 2.0,
3.0, 4.0, and 5.0ng pyridoxine, pyridoxal, or pyridoxamine/tube respectively. Similarly test
tubes for eluted standards were prepared, omitting blanks. Test eluates from chromatographic
column were diluted to contain 1ng vitamin B6 component/ml 1,2,3,4 and 5 ml diluted eluates
were pipepetted into triplicate tubes. Tubes were capped with plastic caps with 3 mm (1/8
inch) hole through top. Entire set were autoclaved for 10 min at 1210C and cooled to room
temperature. Using automatic pipette with sterilized attachments, 5ml steamed medium
(previously prepared) was pipetted through hole in the cap. Tubes were covered with sterile
cheese cloth and placed in refrigerator for 1 hour followed by inoculation. Aseptically, 1 drop
assay inoculum of S. uvarum suspended cells was inoculated through cap of each tube, except
for first set of 0.0 level standard curves. Tubes were then inoculated on constant rotary shaker
45
22 hours in a temperature-regulated room (30 h).Tubes were steamed in an autoclave for 5
minutes, cooled, and the caps removed. % T at 550nm was read on spectrophotometer. 100%
T was set with water to read inoculated blank. 100% T was set with un- inoculated blank to
read inoculated blank. Nine inoculated blank tubes were mixed, and with this mixture set at
100% T on instrument, all other tubes were read. Readings in triplicate tubes were averaged
and % T plotted against ng eluted standard pyridoxine, pyridoxal, or pyridoxamine/tube was
determined by interpolation and µg pyridoxine, pyridoxal and pyridoxamine /g sample
reported.
3.8.4 DETERMINATION OF VITAMIN B12
AOAC (2006) method was used in determining vitamin B12. 1g of each sample was
weighted into a 250ml volumetric flask. 100ml of distilled water was added and spanned or
shaken for 45min and made up to mark with distilled water. The sample mixture was filtered
into another 250ml beaker, rejecting the first 20mls that had been filtered. Another 20ml
filtrate was collected. To the filtrate, 5ml of 1% sodium dithionite solution were added to
decolourized the yellow colour. Standard cyanocobalamin of range 0 -10 ug/ml were
prepared from stock cyanocobalamin. A sample blank made up to distilled water was also
prepared. The absorbance of samples as well as standard were read at a wavelength of 445nm
on a spectronic 21D spectrophotometer.
Vitamin B12 (cyanocobalamin) = Absorbance of sample x Gradient Factor x Dil. Factor
Wt. of sample
3.8.5 DETERMINATION OF VITAMIN C (ASCORBIC ACID)
Ascorbic acid was determined according to the 2, 6 – dichlorophenol titermetric method of
AOAC (2006). A 2g of the sample was homogenized with acetic acid solution and extracted.
Vitamin C standard solution was prepared by dissolving 50 mg standard ascorbic acid tablet
in 100ml volumetric flask with distilled water. The solution was filtered out and 10 ml of the
clear filtrate added into a conical flask in which 2.5 ml acetone had been added. This was
titrated with indophenol dye solution (2,6 - dichlorophenol indophenol) for 15 seconds. The
procedure was followed for the standard as well. Ascorbic acid was calculated as:
Ascorbic acid (m/g) sample = C x V x (DF/WT)
Where C = mg ascorbic acid/ml dye, V = volume of dye used for titration of diluted sample
DF = Dilution factor, WT = weight of sample (g)
46
3.9.0 DETERMINATION OF ESSENTIAL AND NON-ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS
The method used for the essential and non-essential amino acids was as described by AOAC
(2006). 20μg of each of the formulation was dried in conventional hydrolysis tubes. To each
tube 100μL of 6mol L-1 HCl containing 30ml phenol and 10ml 2-mercaptoethanol (6mol L-1
HPME) were added and the tubes were evacuated, sealed and hydrolyzed at 110oC for
22hours. After hydrolysis, HCl was evaporated in a vacuum bottle heated to about 60oC. The
residue was dissolved in a sample buffer and analyzed for amino acids using RP-HPLC with
an Agilent 1100 assembly system (Agilent Technologies, Palo Alto, CA 94306, USA) and
Zorbax 80A C18 column (4.6 id x 180 mm). The Excitation Wavelength (Ex) of 348 nm and
Emission Wavelength (Em) of 450 nm were chosen. The column oven was maintained at
60oC. Amounts of amino acids were determined by calculations using the recorded
chromatogram. For cystine determination, 50μg of the formulations were first oxidized with
10μl performic acid in an ice-water bath for 4 hours. The mixtures were evaporated with a
vacuum pump to remove performic acid before hydrolysis. Determination of tryptophan was
done by the ninhydrin method. One gram of each formulation was put into a 25ml polypylene
test tube with caps, 10ml of 0.075 N NaOH was added and thoroughly mixed until clear
solution was obtained. The dispersion was shaken for 30 min and centrifuged at 5000rpm for
10 min and the supernatant liquid transferred into a clean test tube. 0.5mL of the
supernatants, 5ml of ninhydrin reagent (1.0g of ninhydrin in 100 ml mixture of 37% HCl and
96% HCOOH) in a ratio of 2:3 for all the samples were added and incubated at 35oC for
2hours. After incubation, the solution was cooled to room temperature (23-25oC) and the
volumes were made up to 10ml using diethyl ether, thoroughly mixed using a vortex mixer,
filtered and the clear filtrates were analyzed with the same equipments as described above for
the other amino acids.
3.10. MICROBIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION
Microbiological analysis was carried out using the pour plate method as described by
Onwuka (2005). Total viable bacteria, molds and coliform counts were estimated by
multiplying the means of the total colonies by the dilution factor.
DATA ANALYSIS: The experiment was conducted in a completely randomized design
(CRD). Data obtained were subjected to one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and mean
separation was done by Duncan multiple range test (p=0.05), using Statistical Package for
Social Sciences (SPSS) version 17.0.
47
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0
4.1
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
PROXIMATE COMPOSITION
The mean values of the proximate composition of the formulated samples are as shown in
Table 7. The results revealed some significant changes at p<0.05.
4.1.1 MOISTURE
The moisture content ranged from 3.38+0.01 to 4.2+0.01%, with the highest value observed
in the breakfast cereal containing 50:50 formulations. This is probably due to the high content
of coconut fiber that has the ability to imbibe moisture from the environment and swell.
Coconut has been shown to have hygroscopic or water-absorbing properties (Wasserman,
2010). The low moisture content generally observed in the samples may add the advantage of
prolonging the shelf life of the products, if properly packaged.
4.1.2 PROTEIN
The protein content of the samples ranged from 15.68+0.07% to 18.26+0.13%. These values
are higher than other related previous studies; lower values were recorded for the commercial
control sample, Weetabix Original (11.50%), a breakfast meal containing AYB, maize,
sorghum and soybean (13.53+1.83-15.02+2.30%) (Agunbiade and Ojezele, 2010) as well as
breakfast cereal made from treated pigeon pea and sorghum (Mbaeyi, 2005) respectively. The
high protein content of the products may be attributed to the presence of African yam bean
(AYB) flour used in the formulations. Raw AYB has been reported to contain about 20-23%
protein (Obatolu et al., 2001). The progressive solubilization and leaching out of the
nitrogenous substances during soaking and boiling of the legume may be responsible for the
slight protein reduction in the samples (Ukachukwu and Obioha, 2000) other than these. The
generally high level of protein, however demonstrates the effect of supplementing legumes in
breakfast cereals.
48
Table 8: Proximate Composition of Breakfast Cereals from Blends of AYB +Maize:
Defatted Coconut flour
Sample
Moisture
(%)
Protein
(%)
Fat
(%)
Ash
(%)
Crude Fiber Carbohydrate
(%)
(%)
3.38+0.02e
18.26+0.13a
1.84+0.02d
5.29+0.02f
6.70+1.80b
64.53+0.05a
90:10 3.54+0.02d
17.98+0.09b
1.91+0.02c
5.59+0.01e
8.57+0.01a
62.41+0.41a
80:20 3.81+0.01c
17.69+0.06c
1.98+0.01b
5.87+0.01d
8.68+0.02a
61.97+0.09a
70:30 4.04+0.01b
17.62+0.06c
1.99+0.03b
5.96+0.01c
8.81+0.01a
61.58+0.16a
60:40 3.99+0.08b
17.19+0.06d
1.99+0.12a
6.86+0.05b
9.01+0.01a
60.96+1.42b
50:50 4.20+0.01a
15.68+0.07f
2.02+0.02a
7.36+0.02a
9.08+0.07a
61.66+1.15a
100:0
Values are means +SD of triplicate determinations
Means differently superscripted along the vertical columns are significantly different (p<0.05)
Sample ratio - AYB+ Maize flour: defatted coconut flour.
49
4.1.3 FAT
The results of the analysis show that the fat content of the formulated breakfast cereals were
generally low, ranging from 1.84+0.02% to 2.02+0.02%. This range of values agrees with
that recorded for the control sample- Weetabix (2.00%). Significant differences (p<0.05)
were observed among the samples. The presence of graded levels of defatted coconut fiber in
the formulations may be responsible for the generally low fat content of the resulting
products, although most of the legumes, with the exception of groundnuts and soybeans
contain less than 3% fat (Ihekoronye and Ngoddy, 1985). Higher fat values were recorded for
fortified breakfast cereals made from AYB, maize, sorghum and soybean as 3.7+0.36%
(Agunbiade and Ojezele, 2010) and breakfast cereals made from Sorghum and Pigeon pea
composite flour as 8.70- 14.2% (Mbaeyi, 2005). The low fat content of the developed
products would be suitable for weight watchers.
4.1.4 ASH
The results of the ash content analysis of the formulated samples showed significant
differences (p<0.05) with values ranging from 5.29+0.02 to 7.36+0.02%. Lower values,
1.36+0.05% (Agunbiade and Ojezele, 2010) and 1.50-2.50% (Mbaeyi, 2005) were recorded
by other researchers. The high ash values recorded in this work may be attributed to the
presence of defatted coconut fiber and whole maize grains used as part of the ingredients in
this study. Coconut fiber belongs to the class of compounds known as flammable solids. It
easily catches fire upon ignition, thus producing more ash on combustion (Wasserman,
2010).
4.1.5 CRUDE FIBER
The values obtained from the determination of crude fiber content of the formulated breakfast
cereals ranged from 6.70+1.80% to 9.08+0.07%. Lower values, 3.1- 3.8% (Agunbiade and
Ojezele, 2010) and 1.54- 4.0% (Mbaeyi, 2005) were previously recorded for other breakfast
cereals formulation. The control sample- Weetabix however contained a fiber value of 10%.
Fiber is needed to assist in digestion and keep the gastrointestinal tract healthy and can also
help to keep the blood sugar stable. It slows down the release of glucose during digestion, so
cells require less insulin to absorb that glucose. The American Diabetes Association
recommends that people with diabetes should consume 25-50g of fiber per day (Trinidad et
al., 2006). The fecal bulking action of insoluble fiber makes it useful in the treatment of
constipation and diverticular disease (McKevith, 2004).
50
4.1.6 CARBOHYDRATE
The values from the carbohydrate content analysis of the formulated samples ranged from
60.96+1.42 to 64.53+0.05%. Apart from the sample containing 60:40 formulation, all other
samples were not significantly different (p<0.05). Higher carbohydrate values were reported
for breakfast cereals formulated from sorghum and pigeon pea (Mbaeyi, 2005) as well as the
control- Weetabix (68.4%). The higher carbohydrate values recorded by other researchers
may be attributed to the high content of the cereals and legumes used as the principal
ingredients in the formulations (Kanu et al., 2009).
4.1.7 ENERGY
The values obtained for the total energy content of the formulated samples shown in Figure 7,
ranged from 327.54 to 347.72Kcal and were found to be within the range of values recorded
for breakfast cereals made from treated and untreated sorghum and pigeon pea (316.46420kcal) as well as treated ready-to-eat breakfast cereals (314 - 420kcal) (Mbaeyi, 2005;
Kent, 1983). Similar value was also recorded for the control sample- Weetabix as 338kcal.
These values represent the amount of energy in food that can be supplied to the body for
maintenance of basic body functions such as breathing, circulation of blood, physical
activities and thermic effect of food. Increasing addition of coconut fiber was inversely
proportional to the energy value of the products.
51
Figure 7: Energy value of Breakfast Cereals made from blends of AYB + Maize: Defatted
Coconut flour
LEGEND:
A= 100:0
B=90:10
C=80:20
D=70:30
Sample - AYB+ Maize flour: defatted coconut flour.
E=60:40
F=50:50
52
4.2.0 FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES
The result of evaluation of the functional properties of the developed breakfast cereals is
shown in Table 8.
4.2.1 pH
The pH values of the products which ranged from 4.70+0.01 to 6.56+0.01 showed that there
were no significant differences (p>0.05) between samples containing 70:30, 60:40 and 50:50
formulations, as well as between samples 90:10 and 80:20 formulations, while there was
significant difference (p<0.05) in the pH of 100:0 formulation and the other samples.
Agunbiade and Ojezele (2010) recorded slightly lower values (4.88) for fortified breakfast
cereal made from maize, sorghum, AYB and soybeans. The pH range observed in this study
may be due to partial hydrolysis which might have occurred during soaking of the legume.
The higher pH values recorded for the samples with high level of defatted coconut fiber (2050%) may be as a result of its composition.
4.2.2 BULK DENSITY
The results of bulk density of the breakfast cereals ranged from 0.29+0.01g/ml to
0.71+0.01g/ml with the highest value found in the sample with 100:0 formulation. There was
a gradual reduction of the bulk density with increase in the addition of defatted coconut flour
content although the samples with 90:10, 80:20, 70:30 formulations did not have significant
differences (p>0.05). Higher values of bulk density (2.45+0.10 and 2.60+0.05) were recorded
by Agunbiade and Ojezele (2010) for fortified breakfast cereals made from maize, sorghum,
AYB and soybeans. However, Mbaeyi (2005) recorded values that were similar to those
obtained in this study (0.5341- 0.7267g/ml). The bulk densities of the product may require
identical packaging space. The less the bulk density, the more packaging space is required
(Agunbiade and Ojezele, 2010).
4.2.3 WATER ABSORPTION CAPACITY (WAC)
The results obtained for water absorption capacity of the formulated breakfast cereals ranged
from 68.31+0.01 to 76.39+0.01%. It was found to increase with increase in defatted coconut
flour inclusion. This may be connected to the fact that coconut fiber has hygroscopic
properties, thus, swelling on exposure to moisture (Wasserman, 2010). Similar values were
obtained from treated and untreated sorghum and pigeon pea breakfast cereals (Mbaeyi,
2005).
53
4.2.4 OIL ABSORPTION CAPACITY
The oil absorption capacity (FAC) of the breakfast cereals varied in trend from those obtained
for water absorption capacity. The values ranged from 0.87+0.01to 1.32+0.01% with the
highest value recorded for the sample with 100:0 formulation. The hydrophobicity of proteins
is known to play a major role in fat absorption. This acts to resist physical entrapment of oil
by the capillary of non-polar side chains of the amino acids of the protein molecules (Chau
and Cheung, 1998). There were significant differences (p<0.05) among all the samples. The
FAC decreased with increasing addition of defatted coconut flour.
4.2.5 FOAM CAPACITY
The foam capacity of the samples ranged from 2.48+0.01 to 3.49+0.01% with the highest
value observed in the sample with 100:0 formulation. There was a gradual decrease in foam
capacity with increasing addition of defatted coconut flour. This value is higher than those
recorded for flour obtained from boiled AYB (1.98%). Padmashree et al. (1987) also reported
the decreasing effect of processing conditions on foam capacity with processed cowpea flour.
The more pronounced reduction in foam capacity in heat-treated (boiling and roasting)
sample has been attributed to protein denaturation (Lin et al., 1974). It is also an indication of
precipitation of proteins due to temperature and some heat treatment.
4.2.6 VISCOSITY
The viscosity of the products ranged from 19.73+0.01 to 31.08+0.01cps, and it was the
sample with 50:50 formulation that had the least value. The generally low viscosity observed
may be due to less disruption of intermolecular hydrogen bonds that brought about noticeable
swelling of the granules and gelation (Iheoronye and Ngoddy, 1985). Swelling of the
granules was observed to be slight in cold water. According to Wasserman (2010), coconut
fiber has a high water absorption capacity and easily dissolves in liquids, but does not thicken
or gel.
4.2.7 IN-VITRO PROTEIN DIGESTIBILITY
The results obtained for the invitro-protein digestibility shown in Figure 8, ranged from
66.30+0.01 to 82.2+0.01%. The sample with 50:50 formulation had the highest digestibility
value. This shows that more protein was digested with the presence of more coconut fiber.
This may be connected to the fact that fiber is known to aid digestion, and this might have led
to the increase in digestibility of the proteins. The in-vitro protein digestibility has been
54
reported to be affected by many factors such as genotype and tannin content (Elsheikh et al.,
1999).
4.2.8 GELATION CAPACITY
The gelation capacity of the formulated samples varied from 75.32+0.01 to 89.66+0.01%
with the highest value found in the sample with 100:0 formulation. A gel can represents a
transitional phase between solid and liquid states. In food systems, the molecular net consists
of proteins, polysaccharides or a mixture of both, while the liquid is usually water. Ionic
strength, pH and the presence of non-protein components can influence the gelation
properties (Sridaran and Karim, 2011). The gradual reduction in the gelation capacity with
increasing defatted coconut ratio may be as a result of high fiber content which is known to
have a high water absorption capacity and thus does not thicken or gel on heating
(Wasserman, 2010).
55
Table 9: Functional Properties of Breakfast Cereals from Blends of AYB+Maize: Defatted Coconut Flour
Sample
pH
100:0 4.70±0.01c
BD
WAC
FAC
FC
(g/ml)
(%)
(%)
(%)
0.30±0.01a
68.32±0.01f
1.32±0.01a
Viscosity
(cps)
GC
(%)
3.49±0.01a
31.08±0.01a
89.66±0.01a
90:10 5.27±0.01b
0.26±0.01b
70.29±0.01e
1.13±0.01b
3.43±0.01a
30.56±0.01a
84.29±0.01b
80:20 5.30±0.01b
0.24±0.01b
71.24±0.01d
1.07±0.01c
3.25±0.01ab
26.41±0.01b
81.4±30.01c
70:30 6.23±0.01a
0.24±0.02b
74.81±0.05c
0.96±0.01d
2.80±0.01b
24.22±0.01c
78.56±0.01d
60:40 6.55±0.01a
0.19±0.01c
75.43±0.01b
0.93±0.01e
2.63±0.01e
21.98±0.01d
77.34±0.01e
50:50 6.56+0.01a
0.17+0.01d
76.39+0.06a
0.87+0.01f
2.48+0.01f
19.73+0.01e
75.32+0.01f
Sample ratio: AYB+ Maize: Defatted coconut fiber
56
Figure 8: In-vitro protein digestibility of breakfast cereals made from blends of
AYB+Maize: coconut fiber
LEGEND:
A= 100:0
B=90:80
C=80:20
D=70:30
Sample ratio: AYB+Maize: Defatted coconut flour
E=60:40
F=50:50
57
4.3.0 SENSORY EVALUATION
The mean sensory scores obtained from the formulated samples are shown in Tables 10-13. The
results were recorded in four groups according to the way they were served to the panelists. The
groups included:
i. Samples served dry (as it is).
ii. Sample served with cold water (added to a bowl of cold water).
iii. Sample served with cold water and milk (Peak instant full cream powder).
iv. Sample served with hot water and milk (Peak instant full cream powder).
4.3.1 ATTRIBUTE PERCEPTION OF THE SAMPLES SERVED DRY
The result obtained from serving the samples obtained as they were (dry) to the assessors is
presented in Table 10. It shows that there were no significant (p>0.05) differences between the
samples in all the attributes evaluated, except the control that was significantly different
(p<0.05) in terms of appearance, flavor, taste, consistency and overall acceptability. In terms of
consistency, the sample with 70:30 formulation ranked next to the control sample (Weetabix),
while samples with 90:10 and 50:50 formulations showed closest similarities to the control
sample in terms of flavour. The reason for this may be attributed to the strong AYB and coconut
flavours which were observed to be outstanding in these samples, thus comparing well with the
control sample. In terms of taste, the sample with 70:30 formulation ranked next to the control
sample, although it showed no significant (p>0.05) difference with other samples. In terms of
aftertaste, the judges preferred the samples containing 90:10 and 50:50 formulations along with
the control. This also may be due to the strong taste and flavor in the AYB and defatted coconut
prominent in these samples, which lingered in the mouth after swallowing. It is also an
indication that the processing technique employed in the production of the formulated samples
was able to significantly reduce the beany flavor inherent in AYB, thus making the products
desirable.
In terms of mouthfeel, sample ratios 100:0 and 60:40 were significantly different (p<0.05) from
the control and the rest. In terms of overall acceptability, none of the samples was rejected by the
assessors; however the commercial control was the most acceptable probably because the
assessors were accustomed to the product, then followed by sample ratios 70:30, 50:50, 100:0,
90:10, 80:20 and finally 60:40.
58
Table 10: Mean Sensory Scores for Formulated Breakfast Cereals Served Dry
Sample
Appearance
Consistency
Flavour
Taste
Aftertaste
Mouthfeel
Overall
Acceptability
100:0
5.73+ 1.79a
6.00+1.36b
5.27+1.27b
5.60+1.76b
5.00+1.65b
5.60+1.24b
5.93+1.16b
90:10
6.73+0.79a
6.07+0.59b
6.00+1.00b
5.87+0.99b
5.93+1.22ab
6.00+1.07ab
5.87+1.25b
80:20
6.13+1.13a
5.93+0.88b
5.60+1.12b
5.67+1.04b
5.47+1.19b
5.80+0.94ab
5.67+1.23b
70:30
6.53+1.30a
6.07+1.33b
5.67+1.17b
6.07+1.28b
5.53+1.25b
5.80+1.01ab
6.13+1.36b
60:40
6.13+1.01a
5.80+1.42b
5.40+1.35b
5.33+1.49b
4.93+1.33b
5.40+1.35b
5.47+1.36b
50:50
6.27+1.49a
5.53+1.81b
5.93+1.16ab
5.87+1.12b
6.00+1.13ab
5.53+1.13ab
6.00+0.85b
Weetabix
5.67+2.06a
7.20+0.94a
6.87+1.41a
7.07+1.22a
6.67+1.50a
6.53+1.55a
7.13+1.19a
59
4.3.2 ATTRIBUTE PERCEPTIONS OF THE SAMPLES SERVED WITH WATER
The results of the sensory scores of the samples served by placing the samples in a bowl of water
at room temperature (t = 28±2°C) is shown in Table 11. Addition of water altered the assessors‟
perception of the samples‟ attributes. The samples and the control were not significantly
different (p>0.05) from each other in terms of flavor, taste, aftertaste, mouthfeel and overall
acceptability. This may be attributed to dissolution of the samples, which neutralized some of the
attributes by the water used to serve the samples. In terms of appearance the samples with 70:30,
60:40 and 50:50 formulations were most preferable. Their scores were significantly higher
(p<0.05) than other samples including the control. In terms of consistency, all the samples,
except that with 100:0 showed no significant difference (p>0.05) from the control. Consuming
the samples in water reduced the differences in the ratings between the samples and the control.
The fact that the samples had closer attributes shows that the formulated samples have the
potential of being acceptable when introduced to consumers.
60
Table 11: Mean Sensory Scores for Samples Served with Cold Water
Sample
Appearance
Consistency
Flavour
Taste
Aftertaste
Mouth feel
Overall
Acceptability
100:0
5.25+2.08ab
5.13+2.42b
6.79+2.12a
6.06+2.17ab 5.12+2.21a
5.25+2.49ab
5.44+2.42a
90:10
5.80+2.21ab
6.07+1.94ab
5.27+2.34a
5.07+2.22b
6.33+2.09a
4.80+2.14ab
5.60+2.26a
80:20
5.67+2.06ab
5.80+2.24ab
6.00+2.07a
5.27+1.94ab
5.20+2.08a
4.60+1.99b
5.53+2.20a
70:30
6.53+1.60a
5.60+2.10ab
6.60+1.45a
6.20+1.97ab 5.60+2.50a
6.00+1.77ab
5.53+1.99a
60:40
6.47+2.03a
6.13+1.92ab
6.13+1.92a
5.27+1.88ab 5.67+1.80a
5.67+1.84ab
6.00+1.51a
50:50
5.81+2.16a
5.57+2.79ab
6.18+2.09a
6.86+1.87a
6.36+1.95ab
6.07+2.89a
Weetabix 4.40+1.99b
7.13+2.26a
6.47+2.89ab
6.47+2.77a
6.47+2.26a
6.33+2.69ab
6.36+2.09a
6.40+2.82a
61
4.3.3. ATTRIBUTE PERCEPTION OF THE SAMPLES SERVED WITH COLD MILK
The mean sensory scores of serving the samples with cold milk shown in Table 12, revealed that
there were significant differences (p<0.05) between the samples and the control in all the
attributes except appearance, probably because of the masking effect of the colour of the
samples by milk.
In terms of consistency, the samples with 100:0 and 90:10 formulations ranked next to the
control. This may be as a result of the low content of defatted coconut fiber that visibly
improved uniformity of these samples, and enhanced dissolution of the samples into tiny
particles, which made them more desirable. The sample with 50:50 formulation scored the least
mark, which may be related to the high fiber in the sample making it less homogenous. In terms
of flavour, significant changes (p<0.05) were observed in all the samples; however the control
shared some similarities with the samples containing 100:0 and 90:10 formulations. These
however had some similarities with samples containing 80:20 and 70:30 formulations. The
samples with 60:40 and 50:50 formulations attracted least scores, which may be due to the high
level of defatted coconut fiber present in them, thus masking all other ingredients. In terms of
taste and aftertaste, significant differences (p<0.05) were observed between the samples and the
control which had the highest score, while samples with 60:40 and 50:50 formulations were
scored least. This again may be due to the higher percentage of the defatted coconut fiber present
in these samples that may have masked all other ingredients, thereby altering their taste. In terms
of mouthfeel and overall acceptability, all the samples were preferred next to the control, except
50:50 formulation that was least acceptable.
62
Table 12: Mean Sensory Scores for Formulated Breakfast Cereals served with cold
Milk
Sample
Appearance
Consistency
Mouthfeel
Overall
Acceptability
100:0
6.40+1.30a
6.00+1.31b
6.40+0.99ab
6.77+1.36b
6.07+1.22b
6.00+1.13b
6.00+1.31bc
90:10
6.60+0.83a
5.93+0.96b
6.27+0.70ab
6.20+0.94bc
5.80+1.08b
6.00+1.13b
6.13+0.74b
80:20
6.13+1.19a
5.73+0.96bc
5.53+1.13bc
5.73+1.22bcd
5.47+1.13b
5.40+0.99bc 5.80+0.94bc
70:30
6.33+0.98a
5.80+1.21bc
5.80+1.42bc
5.60+1.55bcd
5.40+1.35b
5.20+1.37bc
5.53+1.46bc
60:40
6.20+1.01a
5.47+0.99bc
5.13+1.06c
5.20+1.15d
5.13+1.30b
5.07+1.22bc
5.13+1.25b
50:50
5.87+1.13a
5.07+0.96c
5.33+1.45c
5.27+1.09cd
5.20+1.26b
4.67+1.23c
5.13+0.92c
7.40+0.83a
7.00+1.07a
7.33+0.89a
7.07+1.09a
7.33+0.98a
7.47+0.83a
Weetabix 5.93+1.98a
Flavour
Taste
Aftertaste
63
4.3.4. ATTRIBUTES PERCEPTION OF THE SAMPLES SERVED WITH HOT MILK
The mean sensory scores presented in Table 13 shows the influence of serving the samples with
warm milk (50°C), which altered the attributes perception of the samples compared to the
samples served with cold milk. The commercial control sample was the most preferred in all the
attributes except appearance that the sample with 90:10 formulation was most preferred, and
significantly different (p<0.05) from the control sample, which was least preferred, probably
because of its darker colour compared to the formulated samples. In terms of consistency, all the
formulated samples however showed no significant difference (p>0.05) among them. In terms of
flavor, samples with 100:0 and 90:10 formulations were not significantly (p>0.05) different from
the control. These two samples shared similarities with the sample containing 70:30 formulation
and then with the other samples. In terms of taste, the samples with 100:0, 90:10, 70:30
formulations were preferred alongside the control which were significantly different (p<0.05)
from other formulated samples that shared similar characteristics. In terms of aftertaste the
samples with 100:0, 90:10 and 70:30 formulations showed no significant (p>0.05) difference
with the control. The samples with 80:20, 60:40 formulations were scored below average but
shared similarities with the samples containing 100:0 and 50:50 formulations respectively. In
terms of mouth feel, only the sample with 90:10 formulation shared some similarities with the
control. This sample also shared some similarities with samples containing 100:0 and 70:30
formulations, but was significantly different (p<0.05) from samples with 80:20, 60:40, 50:50
formulations. All the samples except those containing 60:40, 50:50 formulations scored above
average. In terms or overall acceptability, it was observed that the samples with 90:10
formulation shared some similarities with the control as well as other samples except that with
60:40 formulation.
64
Table 13: Mean Sensory Scores for Samples Served with Hot Milk (50°C)
Sample
Appearance
Consistency
Flavour
Taste
Aftertaste
Mouthfeel
Overall
Acceptability
100:0
6.53±1.36ab
5.67±1.40b
5.73±1.51bc
5.47±1.36abc
5.40±1.45ab
5.33±1.35bc
5.80±1.36bc
90:10
6.80±0.68a
6.13±0.92b
6.20±0.86ab
6.33±0.89ab
5.87±0.92ab
6.13±0.83ab
6.20±0.77ab
80:20 6.00±1.07ab
5.53±1.25b
5.00±1.25c
5.33±1.45bc
4.73±1.16c
5.00±1.25c
5.47±1.36bc
70:30 6.53±0.83ab
5.67±1.40b
5.53±1.51bc
5.47±1.36abc
5.40±1.45ab
5.33±1.35bc
5.47±1.36bc
60:40 6.33±0.97ab
5.27±0.80b
4.73±1.33c
4.73±1.16c
4.40±1.30c
4.67±0.98c
5.07±1.10c
50:50 6.27±1.28ab
5.27±1.39b
5.73±1.36abc
5.27±1.62bc
5.00±1.65bc
4.87±1.46c
5.33±1.20bc
7.40±1.01a
6.67±1.45a
6.53±1.68a
6.40±1.76a
6.87±1.88a
6.87±1.81a
Control 5.73±1.94b
65
4.3.5 EFFECT OF SERVING STYLE ON SENSORY ATTRIBUTES OF THE
SAMPLES (AYB+ Maize: Defatted coconut flour)
The serving styles of the formulated samples influenced the general perception and the ratings of
the 15 panelists used for the sensory evaluation. The pictorial representations of the effect of the
various serving styles on each of the attributes are shown in Figures 9-15.
The charts revealed that the sample with 90:10 (AYB+Maize: Defatted coconut fiber)
formulation was rated highest in terms of appearance when served with hot milk. This may be
due to complete homogenization of the sample and milk by hot water, thereby presenting a more
uniform appearance.
The consistency perception revealed that the control was most preferred when served with both
cold and hot milk. This may not be unconnected with the fact that the judges would have been
familiar with the control sample served with milk, since it is a commercially available product.
The judges also gave low scores for flavour, taste, after taste and overall acceptability to the
control sample, especially when served with cold milk. The hot served samples got gelatinized
and became very thick and they eventually got lower ratings for these parameters. It is important
to note however, that almost all the perception ratings for all the serving styles were above
average.
ATTRIBUTE RATINGS
66
SAMPLE FORMULATION
ATTRIBUTE RATINGS
Figure 9: Effect of Serving Style on the Appearance Perception of breakfast cereals
made from blends of AYB + Maize: Defatted coconut flour
SAMPLE FORMULATION
Figure 10: Effect of Serving Style on the Consistency Perception of breakfast cereals
Legend:
A= 100:0 B=90:10 C=80:20 D=70:30
E=60:40 F=50:50 G= control (Weetabix)
ATTRIBUTE RATINGS
67
SAMPLE FORMULATION
ATTRIBUTE RATINGS
Figure 11: Effect of Serving Style on the Flavour Perception of breakfast cereals
SAMPLE FORMULATION
Figure 12: Effect of Serving Style on the Taste Perception of breakfast cereals
Lgend:
A= 100:0 B=90:10 C=80:20 D=70:30 E=60:40 F=50:50 G= control (Weetabix)
ATTRIBUTE RATINGS
68
SAMPLE FPRMULATION
ATTRIBUTE RATINGS
Figure 13: Effect of Serving Style on the Aftertaste Perception of breakfast cereals
SAMPLE FORMULLATION
Figure 14: Effect of Serving Style on the Aftertaste Perception of breakfast cereals
Legend:
A= 100:0 B=90:10 C=80:20 D=70:30 E=60:40 F=50:50 G= control (Weetabix)
ATTRIBUTE RATINGS
69
SAMPLE FORMULATION
Figure 15: Effect of Serving Style on the Overall acceptability Perception of breakfast
Cereals made from Blends of AYB + Maize: Defatted coconut flour
Legend:
A= 100:0 B=90:10 C=80:20 D=70:30
E=60:40 F=50:50 G= control (Weetabix)
70
4.4.0 MINERAL COMPOSITION OF THE BREAKFAST CEREALS
The mineral composition of the formulated breakfast cereals is shown in Table 14. These
values are presented alongside the corresponding values obtained from the control sample
(Weetabix) as well as the United States Recommended Dietary Allowance (USRDA) for each
mineral value. Generally, significant differences (p<0.05) existed between the samples in
almost all the parameters. The minerals decreased with increasing addition of defatted
coconut flour in the formulations.
4.4.1 CALCIUM
The Calcium content obtained from the samples indicated values ranging between
169±0.01mg/100g and 213±0.02mg/100g. The highest value occurred in the sample
containing 100:0 formulation, while the least value occurred in the sample with 50:50
formulation. These values were higher than that recorded for the control sample- Weetabix
(100mg/100g) and less than the US RDA (1000mg). Thus, 100g of the formulated samples
can provide about 16.9- 21.3% of the US RDA. Lower values were also recorded for
breakfast cereals made from maize, sorghum, soybeans and AYB composite flour
(156±13.2mg/kg) (Agunbiade and Ojezele, 2010) and breakfast cereals made from sorghum
and pigeon pea (137.05-156.34mg) (Mbaeyi, 2005).
Calcium is by far the most important mineral that the body requires and its deficiency is more
prevalent than any other mineral (Kanu et al., 2009). Calcium, Phosphorus and vitamin D
combine together to eliminate rickets in children and osteomalacia (the adult rickets) as well
as osteoporosis (bone thinning) among older people (Adeyeye and Agesin, 2007). Since the
products contain significant amounts of the element they can make an ideal meal for children
and adults alike.
4.4.2 MAGNESIUM
The Magnesium content obtained for the sample ranged from 29.0±0.02mg/100g to
43.0±0.01mg/100g. The highest value was recorded for the sample containing 50:50
formulation. These values were lower than the values recorded for the magnesium content of
the control (92.00mg) and the US RDA which was 350mg for men and 280mg for women.
Magnesium is an activator of many enzyme systems and maintains the electrical potential in
the nerves (Adeyeye and Agesin, 2007). It works with calcium to assist in muscle
contraction, blood clotting, and the regulation of blood pressure and lung functions
(Swaminathan, 2003).
71
4.4.3 POTASIUM
The
potassium
content
of
the
breakfast
cereals
ranged
from
88.0±0.02
to
191.0±0.02mg/100g. The highest value occurred in the sample containing 100:0 formulation.
This range was lower than the value recorded for the control (545mg) but higher than the US
RDA for both men and women (3.5mg). Higher values (70.19±6.82mg/kg) were recorded for
fortified breakfast cereals (Agunbiade and Ojezele, 2010), while similar values (107.0238.0mg/100g) were recorded from breakfast cereals made from sorghum and pigeon pea
(Mbaeyi, 2005). Potassium is primarily an intercellular cation, in large part this cation is
bound to protein and with sodium influences osmotic pressure and contributes to normal pH
equilibrium (Adeyeye and Agesin, 2007).
4.4.4 MANGANESE
The manganese content of the samples ranged from 5.92±0.02 to 7.99±0.16 mg/100g. No
value was recorded for the control sample (Weetabix) but the US RDA records 2.5mg/100g.
The higher tolerable upper intake was 11mg/100g. Manganese functions as an essential
constituent for bone structure, for reproduction and for normal functioning of the nervous
system; it is also a part of the enzyme system. Manganese is readily found in nuts, whole
grains, leafy vegetables, and tea (Adeyeye and Agesin, 2007; Ryan, 2009).
4.4.5 IRON
The iron content of the products ranged from 9.81±0.30 to 14.10mg/100g. The values
obtained in this study are higher than the values recorded for the control (5.16mg/100g) but
lies within the range of the US RDA (10-15mg/100g). Similar results have been recorded
(13.46±1.74) for breakfast cereals made from maize, sorghum, soybeans and AYB composite
(Agunbiade and Ojezele, 2010). When foods with iron are eaten, it is absorbed into proteins
and helps these proteins take in, carry, and release oxygen throughout the body. An iron
deficiency called iron-deficiency anemia is very common around the world, especially for
women and children in developing nations. Symptoms of iron deficiency take years to
develop and include fatigue, weakness, and shortness of breath (Ryan, 2009).
4.4.6 COPPER
The copper content of the samples revealed values ranging from 0.58±0.003 to
0.86±0.03mg/100g. These values were more than that of the control (0.23mg/100g), but less
than the US RDA which is 1.5-3.0mg/100g. Copper and iron are present in the enzyme
72
cytochrome oxidase involved in energy metabolism. Copper deficiency is of little concern
since it is widely distributed in other types of food (Adeyeye and Agesin, 2007). Copper
makes up approximately 0.9g of the body. It can be found in some enzymes that are crucial to
oxygen reactions and the way iron is metabolized. It also colors hair and skin, and helps form
the protective shield around nerve fibers (Ryan, 2009).
4.4.7 SODIUM
Results show that the sodium content of the samples ranged from 7.62+0.03 to
28.36+1.33mg/100g. These were far less than the value recorded for the control- Weetabix
(387mg/100g) and the USRDA (500mg/100g). Higher sodium values (97.5-187.3mg/100g)
were also reported for fortified breakfast cereals (Mbaeyi, 2005). Sodium is normally
consumed in the form of salt. It is essential in the regulation of water content and in the
maintenance of osmotic pressure of the body fluid. It also aids in the transport of CO2 in the
blood. However, sodium is one of the minerals whose intake is considered a factor in the
etiology of hypertension, hence its low intake is encouraged (Okaka, 2010).
4.4.8 ZINC
The zinc content of the formulated samples showed a range of 1.97+0.05 to
3.35+0.01mg/100g. These values were higher than that recorded for the control- Weetabix
(1.72mg/100g) but lower than the US RDA (15mg/100g- for men, 12mg/100g- for women).
Agunbiade and Ojezele (2010) recorded lower values for fortified breakfast cereals as
1.54+0.30mg/kg and 1.64+0.4mg/kg. Zinc is a component of every living cell and plays a
role in hundreds of bodily functions, from assisting in enzyme reactions to blood clotting, and
is essential to taste, vision, and wound healing (Ryan, 2009).
The decreased level observed in some of the minerals may be associated with the processing
techniques. Vegetable protein-containing raw materials were lost during soaking, boiling and
frying. In any situation body mineral is threatened, supplementation may be contemplated
(Agunbiade and Ojezele, 2010).
73
Table 14: Mineral Content of Breakfast Cereals made from Blends of AYB+Maize: Defatted Coconut (mg/100g)
Sample
Ca
Mg
100:0
213+0.22a
90:10
204+0.03b
420+0.01a
113+0.03b
80:20
191+0.02c
390+0.02ab
109+0.02c
70:30
184+0.02d
380+0.01ab
60:40
172+0.02e
50:50
169+0.01e
Weetabix
100
430+0.01a
K
191+0.02a
Mn
7.99+0.16a
14.01+0.06a
Cu
Na
0.86+0.01a
9.97+0.04 a
Zn
3.35+0.01a
13.83+0.04a
0.73+1.28b
9.97+0.04a
3.11+0.07a
7.41+0.12b
13.49+0.17b
0.73+0.07b
9.02+0.96b
2.80+0.32b
103+0.02d
6.92+1.05b
12.12+0.26c
0.70+0.02b
8.23+1.30c
2.60+0.12b
310+0.01 c
95.0+0.02e
6.10+0.10c
10.01+0.56d
0.58+0.03c
8.01+0.03c
2.11+0.05c
290+0.06c
88.0+0.06 f
5.92+0.02c
9.81+0.30d
0.58+1.28c
7.62+0.03cd
2.11+0.05c
-
5.16
0.23
387
1.72
1.5-3
500
12-15
92.0
545
7.89+0.95a
Fe
US RDA
1000
280-350
3.5
2-5
10-15
Data represents mean + SD (n=3)
Means differently superscripted along the vertical column are significantly (P<0.05) different
Legend:
USRDA= United States Recommended Dietary Allowance
Sample: AYB+ Maize: defatted coconut fiber
74
4.5.0 VITAMINS COMPOSITION OF THE BREAKFAST CEREALS
The results of the vitamin content of the breakfast cereals are shown in Table 15. The values
are tabulated alongside the corresponding values for the control sample- Weetabix and the
United States Recommended Dietary Allowance (USRDA) values for vitamins intake.
Significant differences (p<0.05) were observed between most of the samples in the vitamins
evaluated. The vitamins decreased with increase in the addition of defatted coconut flour.
4.5.1. VITAMIN B1 (THIAMINE)
The values obtained for the thiamin content of the products ranged from 0.09+0.01 to
0.31+0.01mg/100g. These values are lower than those stated for the control sample
(1.08mg/100g) and the USRDA (1.5mg/100g). Thus 100g of the formulated samples can
provide 6-20% of vitamin B1 of the US RDA for adults and 10-33.3% for children between
the ages 4-10.
4.5.2 VITAMIN B2 (RIBOFLAVIN)
The values for the vitamin B2 content of the products ranged from 0.32+0.10 to
0.43+0.02mg/100g, and were lower than the recorded values for the control (1.08mg/100g)
and the US RDA (1.70mg/100g). Thus, 100g of the formulated samples can provide about
18.82- 25.3% of the US RDA for vitamin B2. Like thiamin, B12 acts as a coenzyme in the
breakdown of fats, proteins, carbohydrate, and other nutrients. It also helps fatty acid
reduction and also necessary for catabolism of nutrients in the liver. Furthermore, it assists
eye and skin maintenance (White and Merrill, 1988)
4.5.3 VITAMIN B6
The results for B6 content of the breakfast cereals showed values ranging from 0.13+0.01 to
0.26+0.01mg/100g. These were lower than the values recorded for both the control sample
(0.46mg/100g) as well as the US RDA (2.00mg/100g). Thus the formulated samples can
provide about 6.5-13% of the US RDA for vitamin B6. B6 acts as a coenzyme for
approximately 100 essential chemical reactions. These include protein and glycogen
metabolism, proper action of steroid hormones, pyruvate production, production of red blood
cells and much more. It assists in many decarboxylation reactions (removal of carboxyl
group) for the production of several compounds such as glutamate (major neurotransmitter of
the central nervous system). It also is of great use to the immune system in that it helps
hemoglobin production and increases the amount of O2 carried by it (Bender, 1992).
75
4.5.4 VITAMIN B12
The results for the vitamin B12 content of the products ranged from 0.74+0.02 to
1.01+1.07mg/100g. These values are higher than the US RDA value (6µg). It was discovered
that the commercial control sample does not contain vitamin B12. Vitamin B12 plays a large
part in the conversion of homocysteine to methionine, which helps protect the heart from
disease and also essential for the function and maintenance of the central nervous system, and
severe deficiency in pernicious anemia produces a neurological disease of posterolateral
spinal cord degeneration (Herbert and Das, 1999). It helps nerve cells, red blood cells, and
the manufacturing/repair of DNA. It is vital for processing carbohydrates, proteins and fats,
which help make all of the blood cells in our bodies (Bender, 1992).
4.5.5 VITAMIN C
The results obtained for vitamin C content of the formulated samples ranged from 1.70+0.02
to 2.65+0.02mg/100g. These values are lower than the US RDA for men, women and
children (30-60mg/100g), but it was discovered that the control sample does not contain
vitamin C. Cordain (1999) reported that cereals contain no vitamin C or vitamin B12, no
vitamin A and, apart from yellow corn, no beta-carotene.
76
Table 15: Vitamins Content of Breakfast Cereals made from Blends of AYB + Maize:
Defatted Coconut Flour (mg/100g)
Sample
B1
B2
B6
B12
C
100:00
0.31+0.01a
0.43+0.02a
0.26+0.02a
1.00+0.07a
2.65+0.02a
90:10
0.30+0.02a
0.41+0.02a
0.21+0.02b
1.00+0.02a
2.49+0.13a
80:20
0.19+0.01b
0.41+0.02a
0.20+0.06b
0.95+0.03ab
2.13+0.01b
70:30
0.13+0.02c
0.39+0.43a
0.20+0.02b
0.90+0.03b
2.10+0.02b
60:40
0.12+0.02d
0.33+0.02b
0.14+0.01c
0.88+0.03b
1.87+0.04bc
50:50
0.09+0.01e
0.32+0.10b
0.13+0.02c
0.74+0.02c
1.70+0.02bc
Weetabix
1.08
1.08
0.46
0.00
0.00
US RDA
1.50
1.70
2.00
6mcg
60.00
Means differently superscripted along the vertical column are significantly (P<0.05) different
Values are mean of triplicate readings +SD
Sample ratio: AYB+ Maize: defatted coconut
77
4.6
ANTI-NUTRITIONAL CONTENT
The anti-nutritional contents of the products are shown in Table 15. There were significant
differences (p<0.05) in the samples as the level of the inclusion of defatted coconut flour
increased.
4.6.1 PHYTATE/PHYTIC ACID
The result obtained for the phytate content of the products ranged from 0.38 to 1.25mg/100g.
A gradual decrease of the phytate was observed with increase in the level of the defatted
coconut flour. Many dietary fibers contain phytic acid which binds minerals in the digestive
tract, which eventually expels the minerals from the body. Some of these minerals are
essential for good health, including zinc, iron and calcium. Although health experts
recommend increasing intake of dietary fiber, eating too much fiber containing phytic acid
can cause mineral deficiencies (Wasserman, 2010). Unlike many fiber sources, coconut
dietary fiber does not contain phytic acid and, therefore, does not remove minerals from the
body. Not only does coconut fiber prevent the removal of minerals, it also increases mineral
absorption. Coconut fiber slows down the rate of emptying food from the stomach. This
allows food more time in the stomach to release minerals, leading to higher levels of minerals
available for the body to absorb (Wasserman, 2010).
The highest value of phytate was found in the sample containing 100:0 formulation. Legume
seeds are known to constitute 1-3% of phytate and are dependent on species, cultivars and
germination (Sridhar and Seena, 2006). The presence of vitamin C however, counteracts the
inhibitory effects of phytate for consumption (Siegenberg et al., 1991).
4.6.2 OXALATE
The results obtained for the oxalate content of the products ranged from 0.076 to
0.302mg/100g. The highest value was observed in the sample with 50:50 formulation. The
oxalate content was directly proportional to the addition of the defatted coconut flour.
4.6.3 HEMAGLUTTININ
The results for the hemagluttinin content of the products ranged from 0.10 to 0.29mg/100g.
The highest value was observed in the sample with 50:50 formulation. The hemagluttinin
content was inversely proportional to the addition of defatted coconut flour. However, there
were no significant differences (p>0.05) between samples containing 70:30, 60:40 and 50:50
formulations as well as between samples containing 90:10 and 80:20 formulations. The
78
sample with 100:0 formulation, however, was significantly different (p<0.05) from other
samples in the hemagluttinin contents.
4.6.4 TANNIN
The tannin contents of the products were significantly (p<0.05) low and ranged from 0.00064
to 0.0016mg/100g. Higher values (0.035 to 0.130mg/100g) were recorded for breakfast
cereals made from Pigeon pea and Sorghum (Mbaeyi. 2005). Tannins are located in the
seed coat of the grains and are known to have deleterious effects due to their strong
interactions with proteins, with the resulting complexes which are not readily digested by
monogastrics. This lowers the protein digestibility, PER and weight (Mbaeyi. 2005; El-Niely,
2007).
Although legumes contain a wide range of toxic components, the term toxic being referred to
„an adverse physiological response produced in man or animals by a particular food or
substance derived there from, the effects of most of these components are small or negligible
in a mixed diet especially when legumes are properly cooked. During the processing of
legumes it is important that toxic components be reduced to levels that pose no threat to
health (Walker and Ochhar, 1982).
79
Table 16: Anti-Nutritional Factors of the Formulated Samples (mg/100g)
Sample
phytate
Oxalate
Hemagluttinin
(unit/mg)
Tannin
100:0
1.25+0.01a
0.08+0.01d
0.29+0.01a
0.0016+0.0001a
90:10
1.13+0.01b
0.15+0.01c
0.18+0.01b
0.0013+0.0001b
80:20
1.00+0.1c
0.15+0.01c
0.17+0.01b
0.0013+0.0001b
70:30
1.00+0.1c
0.23+0.01b
0.11+0.01c
0.00084+0.00001c
60:40
0.50+0.01d
0.23+0.01b
0.10+0.01c
0.00075+0.00001cd
50:50
0.38+0.01e
0.30+0.01a
0.10+0.01c
0.00064+0.00001d
80
4.7
AMINO ACID PROFILE OF THE BREAKFAST CEREALS
Figure 16 shows the amino acid profile of the breakfast cereals. The results reveal that the
products contained varying amounts of both essential and non-essential amino acids. Aspartic
acid, glutamic acid and proline recorded the least values, while higher values were recorded
for threonine, leucine and glycine. Apart from isoleucine which had similar values with the
United States Recommended Dietary Allowance (USRDA) and valine, which had slightly
lower values, the essential amino acids in all the products were higher than the USRDA
values (Weetabix, 2010). It is important to note that the consumption of these products with
milk will make up for all the required amino acids lacking in the products.
Although proteins from plant sources tend to have a relatively low biological value, in
comparison to protein from eggs or milk, they are nevertheless "complete" in that they
contain at least trace amounts of all of the amino acids that are essential in human nutrition.
Eating various plant foods in combination can provide a protein of higher biological value
(McDougall, 2002).
81
Figure 16: Amino Acid Profile of Breakfast Cereals Made From Blends of AYB +
Maize: Defatted Coconut Flour (mg/100g)
Legend:
A=100:0, B= 90:10, C=80:20, D=70:30, E=60:40, F=50:50
Sample ratio: AYB+ Maize: Defatted Coconut Flour
82
4.8
MICROBIAL EXAMINATION
The microbial examination of the products revealed different values for total viable count,
molds and coliform counts, as shown in Figure 17. The total viable count ranged from 0.5 to
1.51x102Cfu/g, while the mold count ranged between 0.00 to 6.0x10Cfu/g. The
contamination could have occurred during cooling and before packaging.
Yeasts are commonly present as contaminants in cereals and can probably be attributed to the
low value of the pH which creates ideal conditions for yeast growth (Serna-Saldivar and
Rooney, 1995). The presence of micro flora may be also due to availability of more nutrients
for microbial proliferation and enhanced metabolic activities (Mbata et al., 2009). However,
the samples had low levels of bacteria and mold growth. No coliform was detected. Thus the
consumption of these products may not be fraught by the danger of contacting any food borne
disease.
83
Figure 17: Microbial Content of Freshly Prepared Breakfast Cereals made from Blends
of AYB + Maize: Defatted Coconut flour
Legend:
A=100:0, B= 90:10, C=80:20, D=70:30, E=60:40, F=50:50
Sample ratio: AYB+ Maize: Defatted Coconut Flour
84
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0
5.1
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
CONCLUSION
The study showed that acceptable ready-to-eat breakfast cereals could be produced from
maize, African yam bean and defatted coconut flour. Evaluation of the products showed
values that compared favourably with the commercial control sample (Weetabix) as they
have been shown to be good sources of protein, energy, vitamins and minerals.
The study has shown that producing breakfast cereals with seed legumes could boost the
protein level (up to 18%) in the final products. It also played a role in providing micronutrients like minerals and vitamins, especially Vitamin B12 and C which are absent in the
commercial control sample. The roasting process employed in the study played a role in
reducing the relatively high level of anti-nutrients associated with leguminous food sources.
The process also influenced low moisture content (3-4%) of the products, which is important
for transportation and extension of the shelf life of properly packaged products. Furthermore,
it limited the micro-flora of the final products to insignificant levels; thereby making the
products safe for consumption. The introduction of defatted coconut fiber increased the fiber
content of the final products, although it gradually reduced the overall nutritional value. It
was however aimed at increasing bulk and aiding digestion. Most of the formulated samples
were scored above average by sensory judges and showed some similarities with Weetabix
(control) (p>0.05), implying its potential acceptability when commercialized.
The seeds of African yam beans are projected by the findings of this work to be promising
cheap source of nutrients that are lacking in most expensive ready-to-eat food products and
could also play a key role in the acceptability and nutritional value of monotonous diets in the
world at large.
5.2
RECOMMENDATIONS
More studies should be carried out on the products to determine their health benefits on
humans such as insulin sensitivity, as AYB has been proposed in previous research findings
as beneficial to diabetics and patient with other relative illnesses.
85
Further research should be carried out to ascertain the shelf life and the best packaging
recommended for the formulated samples. These, along with other factors will influence the
commercialization of the products for national sustenance.
86
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93
94
APPENDIX I
SENSORY EVALUATION SCORE SHEET
Instructions
1)
2)
3)
4)
You are served coded samples of instant breakfast cereals
You are requested to take a sip of water to gaggle your mouth before tasting each sample.
Rate the samples according to your degree of acceptance from 1-9 as shown below.
Enter the appropriate scale in the box provided for each attribute.
Attributes
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
Colour
Consistency
Flavour
Taste
Aftertaste
Mouth feel
Overall acceptability
Extremely like = 9, Very much like = 8, Moderately like = 7, Slightly like = 6, Neither like nor
dislike = 5, Slightly dislike = 4, Moderately dislike = 3, Very much dislike = 2, Extremely
dislike = 1.
Which sample do you like most?
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
Reason(s) for preference:……………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
Any other comments:
95
APPENDIX II
throsine
Tryptophane
Isoleucine
Methionine
Histidine
Argenine
Lysine
Leucine
Crysteine
Alanine
Tyrosine
Glycine
Serine
Aspetic. A
Glutamic. A.
Asparagine
Glutamine
320
240
810
520
220
100
240
510
250
810
340
220
560
750
120
40
40
520
310
90:10
310
210
730
500
190
100
210
470
240
770
310
190
490
720
110
40
30
480
300
80:20
290
180
730
420
180
90
210
390
210
680
280
180
440
550
100
30
30
250
290
50
70:30
250
180
710
410
150
90
190
380
170
650
250
150
390
530
80
20
20
220
280
40
60:40
220
160
660
400
180
80
180
210
130
610
210
130
310
520
70
20
10
210
160
40
50:50
190
200
560
380
150
70
160
180
90
590
109
110
280
460
50
10
10
190
140
30
Sample: AYB+ Maize: defatted coconut fiber
Proline
Valine
100:0
SAMPLE
PhenyLamine
AMINO ACID PROFILE OF FORMULATED BREAKFAST CEREALS (mg/100g)
50
50
96
APPENDIX III
RAW VALUES FOR MICROBIAL PROFILE OF BREAKFAST CEREALS MADE FROM
BLENDS OF AYB+MAIZE: DEFATTED COCONUT FLOUR
Samples
Bacteria Count,
Cfu/g
Mould Count,
Cfu/g
Coliform Count,
Cfu/g
100:0
0.5x10
0.0x10
0.0x10
90:10
0.8x10
0.1x10
0.0x10
80:20
1.1x10
0.2x10
0.0x10
70:30
1.6x10
0.25x10
0.0x10
60:40
2.4x10
0.3x10
0.0x10
50:50
1.51x102
0.6x10
0.0x10
Means of Cfu/g as indices of microbial stability of samples
Sample: AYB+maize : defatted coconut fiber
97
APPENDIX IV
ANOVA TABLE FOR ANTI-NUTRIENTS STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
Sum of Squares
PHYTATE
Between Groups
5
.374
.041
12
.003
1.908
17
Between Groups
.092
5
.018
Within Groups
.001
12
.000
Total
.093
17
Between Groups
.078
5
.016
Within Groups
.001
12
.000
Total
.079
17
Between Groups
.000
5
.000
Within Groups
.000
12
.000
Total
.000
17
Total
HEMAGLUTTINNIN
TANNIN
Mean Square
1.868
Within Groups
OXALATE
df
F
Sig.
109.859
.000
183.600
.000
156.000
.000
86.362
.000
98
APPENDIX V
ANOVA TABLE FOR SENSORY DATA OF FORMULATED BREAKFAST CEREALS
SERVED RAW
Sum of Squares
COLOUR
CONSISTENCY
FLAVOUR
TASTE
AFTER TASTE
MOUTH FEEL
OVERALL ACC.
Between Groups
df
Mean Square
13.581
6
2.263
Within Groups
201.333
98
2.054
Total
214.914
104
24.895
6
4.149
Within Groups
153.333
98
1.565
Total
178.229
104
25.429
6
4.238
Within Groups
162.133
98
1.654
Total
187.562
104
27.790
6
4.632
Within Groups
165.600
98
1.690
Total
193.390
104
33.295
6
5.549
Within Groups
174.667
98
1.782
Total
207.962
104
12.724
6
2.121
Within Groups
141.467
98
1.444
Total
154.190
104
25.714
6
4.286
Within Groups
143.200
98
1.461
Total
168.914
104
Between Groups
Between Groups
Between Groups
Between Groups
Between Groups
Between Groups
F
Sig.
1.102
.367
2.652
.020
2.562
.024
2.741
.017
3.113
.008
1.469
.197
2.933
.011
99
APPENDIX VI
SERVED WITH COLD WATER
Sum of Squares
Colour
Consistency
Flavour
Taste
Aftertaste
Mouthfeel
overall acceptability
Between Groups
df
Mean Square
59.176
6
9.863
Within Groups
427.014
98
4.357
Total
486.190
104
36.650
6
6.108
Within Groups
497.579
98
5.077
Total
534.229
104
22.267
6
3.711
Within Groups
431.295
98
4.401
Total
453.562
104
39.672
6
6.612
Within Groups
441.185
98
4.502
Total
480.857
104
27.569
6
4.595
Within Groups
497.231
98
5.074
Total
524.800
104
48.281
6
8.047
Within Groups
471.281
98
4.809
Total
519.562
104
13.134
6
2.189
Within Groups
531.666
98
5.425
Total
544.800
104
Between Groups
Between Groups
Between Groups
Between Groups
Between Groups
Between Groups
F
Sig.
2.263
.043
1.203
.311
.843
.540
1.469
.197
.906
.494
1.673
.136
.403
.875
100
APPENDIX VII
SERVED WITH COLD MILK
Sum of Squares
Colour
Consistency
Flavour
Taste
Aftertaste
Mouthfeel
Between Groups
df
Mean Square
6.057
6
1.010
Within Groups
153.333
98
1.565
Total
159.390
104
47.695
6
7.949
Within Groups
106.533
98
1.087
Total
154.229
104
39.657
6
6.610
Within Groups
127.733
98
1.303
Total
167.390
104
51.581
6
8.597
Within Groups
139.333
98
1.422
Total
190.914
104
40.800
6
6.800
Within Groups
143.733
98
1.467
Total
184.533
104
69.733
6
11.622
Within Groups
131.600
98
1.343
Total
201.333
104
57.562
6
9.594
Within Groups
117.067
98
1.195
Total
174.629
104
Between Groups
Between Groups
Between Groups
Between Groups
Between Groups
Between Groups
F
Sig.
.645
.694
7.312
.000
5.071
.000
6.047
.000
4.636
.000
8.655
.000
8.031
.000
101
APPENDIX VIII
ANOVA FOR SENSORY DATA OF FORMULATED BREAKFAST CEREALS
SERVED WITH HOT MILK
Sum of
Squares
Colour
Consistency
Flavour
Taste
Aftertaste
Mouthfeel
Between Groups
df
Mean Square
11.562
6
1.927
Within Groups
151.067
98
1.541
Total
162.629
104
49.657
6
8.276
Within Groups
123.200
98
1.257
Total
172.857
104
42.648
6
7.108
Within Groups
159.067
98
1.623
Total
201.714
104
35.657
6
5.943
Within Groups
187.733
98
1.916
Total
223.390
104
41.448
6
6.908
Within Groups
192.800
98
1.967
Total
234.248
104
54.857
6
9.143
Within Groups
163.200
98
1.665
Total
218.057
104
33.790
6
5.632
Within Groups
154.267
98
1.574
Total
188.057
104
Between Groups
Between Groups
Between Groups
Between Groups
Between Groups
Between Groups
F
Sig.
1.250
.288
6.583
.000
4.379
.001
3.102
.008
3.511
.003
5.490
.000
3.578
.003
102
APPENDIX IX
ANOVA TABLE FOR FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES ANALYSIS
Sum of Squares
Ph
Between
Df
Mean Square
9.180
5
1.836
.001
12
.000
9.181
17
.034
5
.007
Within Groups
.001
12
.000
Total
.035
17
158.194
5
31.639
.006
12
.000
158.200
17
.404
5
.081
Within Groups
.001
12
.000
Total
.405
17
2.812
5
.562
.001
12
.000
2.813
17
314.189
5
62.838
.001
12
.000
Total
314.190
17
Between
494.963
5
98.993
.009
12
.001
Total
494.972
17
Between
412.669
5
82.534
.001
12
.000
412.670
17
F
Sig.
18359.300
.000
54.918
.000
66220.709
.000
807.200
.000
6326.763
.000
628378.400
.000
128191.799
.000
825337.200
.000
Groups
Within Groups
Total
Bulk density
Between
Groups
Water abs cap
Between
Groups
Within Groups
Total
Oil abs cap
Between
Groups
Foam cap
Between
Groups
Within Groups
Total
Viscosity
Between
Groups
Within Groups
In-vitro PD
Groups
Within Groups
Gelation cap
Groups
Within Groups
Total
103
APPENDIX X
ANOVA TABLE FOR PROXIMATE COMPOSITION ANALYSIS
Sum of
Squares
N%
PROTEIN%
.323
5
Within Groups
.002
12
Total
.325
17
12.624
5
.079
12
12.703
17
Between Groups
.252
5
Within Groups
.003
12
Total
.255
17
9.386
5
Between Groups
Total
ASH%
Mean Square
Between Groups
Within Groups
FAT%
df
Between Groups
F
Sig.
.065 363.281
.000
.000
2.525 383.196
.000
.007
.050 206.441
.000
.000
1.877 3519.90
.000
0
Within Groups
Total
CRUDEFIBER%
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
MOISTURE%
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
CARBOHYDRATE%
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
.006
12
.001
9.393
17
11.847
5
2.369
6.497
12
.541
18.344
17
1.487
5
.016
12
1.503
17
12.547
5
2.509
7.087
12
.591
19.634
17
4.376
.017
.297 225.898
.000
.001
4.249
.019
104
APPENDIX XI
ANOVA TABLE FOR VITAMIN ANALYSIS
Sum of Squares
vitB1(ppm)
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
vitB2(ppm)
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
vitB12(ppm)
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
vitC(ppm)
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
vitB6(ppm)
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
df
Mean Square
12.332
5
2.466
.003
12
.000
12.334
17
3.083
5
.617
.013
12
.001
3.096
17
14.768
5
2.954
.013
12
.001
14.781
17
194.012
5
38.802
.039
12
.003
194.051
17
3.802
5
.760
.008
12
.001
3.810
17
F
Sig.
11095.654
.000
584.140
.000
2671.582
.000
11918.834
.000
1160.042
.000
105
APPENDIX XII
RDA OF VITAMINS FOR CHILDREN AND ADULTS (mg/kg of body weight)
Age
Children
Males
Females
Ascorbic
Acid
Folacin/
Folate
Niacin
Riboflavin
Thiamine
Vitamin
B6
Vitamin B12
mg
Mcg
Mg
Mg
mg
Mg
Mcg
4-6
40/45
200/75
12
1.1
0.9
0.9/1.1
1.5/1.0
7-10
40/45
300/100
16/13
1.2
1.2/1.0
1.2
2.0/1.4
15-18
45/60
400/200
20
1.8
1.5
2.0
3.0/2.0
19-24
45/60
400/200
20/19
1.8/1.7
1.5
2.0
3.0/2.0
25-50
45/60
400/200
18/19
1.6/1.7
1.4/1.5
2.0
3.0/2.0
50+
45/60
400/200
16/15
1.5/1.4
1.2
2.0
3.0/2.0
15-18
45/60
400/180
14/15
1.4/1.3
1.1
2.0/1.5
3.0/2.0
19-24
45/60
400/180
14/15
1.4/1.3
1.1
2.0/1.6
3.0/2.0
25-50
45/60
400/180
13/15
1.2/1.3
1.0/1.1
2.0/1.6
3.0/2.0
50+
45/60
400/180
12/13
1.1/1.2
1.0
2.0/1.6
3.0/2.0
* First figure refers to the old RDA listing while the second figure refers to the newer DRI listing (www.nap.edu)
106
APPENDIX XIII
DATA FOR MINERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR CHILDREN AND ADULTS
Age
Children
Males
Females
Calcium
Phosphorous
Iodine
Iron
Magnesium
Zinc
Selenium
Fluoride
mg
Mg
ug
mg
mg
mg
*ug
*mg
4-6
800
800/500
80/90
10
200/130
10
-/20
-/1.1
7-10
800
800
110/120
10
250
10
-/30
-/3.2
15-18
1200/1300
1200/1250
150
18/12
400/410
15
-/50
-/3.8
19-24
800/1000
800/700
140/150
10
350/400
15
-/70
-/3.8
25-50
800/1000
800/700
130/150
10
350/420
15
-/70
-/3.8
50+
800/1200
800/700
110/150
10
350/420
15
-/70
-/2.9
15-18
1200/1300
1200/1250
115/150
18/15
300/360
15/12
-/50
-/3.1
19-24
800/1000
800/700
100/150
18/15
300/310
15/12
-/55
-/3.1
25-50
800/1000
800/700
100/150
18/15
300/320
15/12
-/55
-/3.1
50+
800/1200
800/700
80/150
10
300/320
15/12
-/55
-/3.1
* first figure refers to the old RDA listing while the second figure refers to the newer DRI listing -. www.nap.edu
107
APPENDIX XIV
RDA OF ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS FOR CHILDREN AND ADULTS
Requirement - mg. per kg. of body weight
Infant
Amino acid
3 - 6 mo.
Histidine
33
Isoleucine
80
Leucine
128
Lysine
97
S-containing amino
45
acids
Aromatic amino acids
132
Threonine
63
Tryptophan
19
Valine
89
www.nap.edu
Child
10 - 12 yr.
not known
28
42
44
22
Adults
not known
12
16
12
10
22
28
4
25
16
8
3
14

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